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OF THE
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND/
VeOrr UM hehe it EN TH.
PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.
APR 17 1987 SISRARIES
LONDO
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1849.
THESE EXPERIMENTS, IT IS TRUE, ARE NOT EASY; STILL THEY ARE IN THE POWER OF EVERY THINKING HUSBANDMAN. HE WHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT ONE, OF HOWEVER LIMITED APPLICATION, AND TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEKEBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND OF THOSE WHO COME AFTER. TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT BE EXPECTED. THE FIRST CARE OF ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR SCIENCE SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FORMS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE THE EXECUTION OF THESE
ANONG THEIR MEMBERS. Von THAR, Principles of Agriculture.
a Vn ane a en
London: Printed by W1iitL1Am CLowes and Sona, Stamford Street.
CONTENTS OF VOL. X.
ARTICLE PAGE I.—Farming of Lancashire. By William James Garnett. Prize Report : : : : . : iol I1.—On a Dress for Drainers. From the Marquis of Westminster. 51 I1I.—On the Giant Sainfoin. By Thomas Hine . : ; 54 IV.—Observations on the Natural History and Economy of various Insects affecting the Potato-crops, including Plant-lice, Plant- bugs, Frog-flies, Caterpillars, Crane-flies, Wirew orms, Mil- lipedes, Mites, Beetles, Flies, &e. By John Curtis, FL Se Corresponding Member of the Sieseial and Royal Georgo- fili Society of Florence ; of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, &c. Paper XV. d 0 V.—On the Stoppage of Drains by a Stony Deposit. From Lord Portman ° oS VI.—On the Farming of South Wales, ‘By C) are Sewell Read. Prize Report. A . 122 VIi.— Description and Use of an Improved A pridiitenfal Dees Level, with the Process of Levelling, as required for Agri- cultural Purposes. By T. Cooke, Optician and Mathema- tical Instrument Maker, York « 165 VIII.—On Hemp. By Thomas Rowlandson. Pre me erly? IX.—On the Tussac Grass, To Mr. Matheson, M.P., from Mr. Scobie, in the Island of Lewis 182 X.—On Labourers’ Cottages. From his Grace the Duke of Bedford 185 XI.—On the Composition and Money Value of the different Varie- ties of Guano. By J. Thomas Way, Consulting-Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society 196 XIJ.—On the Construction of a Pair of Gottaces for Reriealearel Labourers. By Henry Goddard, Architect and Surveyor, of Lincoln. First Prize Essay 230 XIII.—On the Use of Ss as Food for Stock. By Ph. nee ' M.P. : , . 247
ao:
iV CONTENTS OF VOL. X.
ARTICLE PAGE XIV.-—A Lecture on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals, with the Principles ot Practice applicable to Cases of Difficult and Preter- natural Labour, more especially in the Cow and Ewe. By James Beart Simonds, Lecturer on- Cattle Pathology in the Royal Veterinary College, London ; aaa: Mem-
ber of the Royal Agricultur al Society, ke. 248 XV.—Agricultural Chemistry: Sheep-Feeding and Mannire. Part I. By J. B. Lawes . 3 276 XVI.—On increasing our Supplies of Animal oot By aaien C. Morton. Prize Essay é 341
XVII.—On Lodging and Boarding TAbous rers, as 2 praeeet on the Farm of Mr. Sotheron, M.P. By Thomas Dyke Acland 379 XVIII.—The Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. A Lecture deli- vered in the Shire Hall of the City of Norwich, at the Annual Meeting of the Society, July 18, 1849, By the Rev. Edwin Sidney, A.M. : 382 XIX.—Experiments on the Application of Gaine ind sther Ma- nures, in the Duke of Somerset’s Park at Stover, near
Newton Abbot, Devon. By E.S. Bearne . : ice)
XX.—On the Construction of Labourers’ Cottages. By J. aie Macvicar. Second-Prize Essay . : 400
XXI.—On the Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Tabalitiss By T. Rowlandson. Prize Essay f j . 421
X XII.—On the Management of Barley. mel Hall W. Keay. Prize Essay . . 453
XXIiI.—On the Theory oa Pratice of WatreMenioua! By Ph. Pusey, M.P. . ‘ 462
XXIV.—On the Composition of Linseed Oil- Gave: Bearig dic Beas &e. By J. Thomas W ays Consulting-Chemist to the
Society . : . 479 XXV.—On the Advantage of Dee Dane Bhan on Right Hon. C. Arbuthnot . ‘ . 496
XX VI.—On Suiting the Depth of ee to die Ghaswteses of the Soil. By J. H. Charnock, an Assistant-Commissioner under the Drainage Acts . ° OOF
XXVII.—On the Causes of the general Presence of Phesened in the Strata of the Earth, and in all fertile soils ; with Observa- tions on Pseudo-Copr olites, and on the possibility of con- verting the Contents of Sewers and Cesspools into Manure.
By W. Buckland, D.D., Dean of Westminster. . 520
XXVIII.—Report on the Exhibition and ‘Trial of Implements at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. By H.S. Thompson , p26
XXIX.—A Lecture on the Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the Organs of Respiration and Circulation ; with especial reference to the nature and treatment of Pleuro-pneumonia in the Ox. By James Beart Simonds, Lecturer on Cattle Pathology in the Royal Veterinary College, Honorary Member of the Royal Agricultural Society and its Vete- rinary Inspector, Corresponding Member of the Société Nationale et Centrale de Médecine Vétérinaire, &c. . 570
CONTENTS OF VOL. X. Vv
ARTICLE PAGE XXX.—Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. By J. Thomas Way, Consulting-Chemist to the Society . ; . 610
XX XI.—On the Blocking-up of Drains by the Rootsof Mangold. By
Mr. Moore. ° : : ; 622 APPENDIX.
Council and Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1848-1849 . A . . i Report of the Council to the Gane al Meatines May 22, 1349 : : ili Report of the Chemical Committee, 5 June, 1849 . ‘ : : vill Statement of Half-yearly Account ending December 31, 1848 . : 1X Essays and Reports—Awards for 1849 . : . ; : : X Fe Prizes for 1850. : : E : F x1 _ Rules of Competition for Prize Essays . : : : : eau AW, Dates of General Meetings of 1849-50 . ‘ . 5 : : XV Annual Subscriptions : 4 : : : : : : XV Election, &c., of Members . : A ‘ : : : : Xvi General Meetings in 1850. : : : : : : ie, Xvi Annual Subscriptions . : : : 5 : Si A Prize Lists for Essays and Repos 1850 s : : : ee XV the Exeter Meeting 5 : : : oye rEXAVANT Consulting-Chemist—Charges for Analyses . : : : eae Xvi
PLATES.
Mr. Curtis’s Plates, U and V, of Insects in Potato Crop, to face pages 116, 117 Professor Simonds’s Plate of the Feetus in Utero : to face page 257
DIRECTIONS TO BINDER. The Binder is desired to place all the Appendix matter, with Roman numeral folios, at the end of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Part or Volume.
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ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.
1.—Farming of Lancashire. By Wiittam James GARNETT. Prize Report.
Tue county of Lancaster is a very important and a very influential one; but most assuredly its importance and influence do not arise from the excellence of its farming: whatever may be our character for skill in manufactures or success in commerce, we are sadly behind the rest of the world im agricultural attainments, and any traveller along the North-Western Railway, from the time of his entering, by crossing the Mersey near Warrington, to the time of his quitting Lancashire for Westmoreland, must, I fear, leave it with the impression that he has been passing through an ill-drained, badly cultivated, and neglected district. The northern part is decidedly better than the southern, but he would judge of it as a whole; and if, in the rapidity of his flight, his eye should per- chance have rested for a moment on a good field of turnips or a clean stubble, a straight fence or a neatly-cut hedge, the oasis in the desert is so small, and the vision so fleeting, that it would have little effect in alterimg—or even, from the contrast with its neighbours, might rather tend to confirm—his opinion that the standard of farming in Lancashire is far below that of more southern counties he may have traversed in his journey.
Now, however simple and easy a matter it may be to observe the fact, it is by no means easy at first sight to assign the reasons for this state of things. If he consider the great wealth and intelligence which undoubtedly are found amongst a large portion of the inhabitants of Lancashire, he might reasonably expect something better in the way of farming ; and before I proceed to enter into the subject-matter of this report, I would venture briefly to advert to a few of the causes which may excuse, in some measure, the defects and short-comings of my native county.
And first, let us look at the map of Lancashire. I propose ta
MOL. X. BR
2 Farming of Lancashire.
divide it into three parts; the Southern, Middle, and Northern Divisions, of which the three principal rivers of the county, the Mersey, the Ribble, and the Lune shall be the boundaries. The Mersey forms the natural boundary to the south, between Lan- cashire and Cheshire: the land lying between this river and the Ribble, which runs by Preston, I would call the Southern Division, or No. 1. The traet of country from the Ribble to the Lune, I would call the Middle Division, or No. 2, which includes the whole of that peculiar and interesting district known as the Fylde; and from the river Lune, which flows by Lancaster, to the northern boundary, which separates Lancashire from Westmore- Jand and Cumberland, I would call the Northern Division, or No. 3. Each of these great divisions is essentially different from the others in important points, such as the character of the soil, the climate, and the people, and I therefore would make this new division, rather than adopt either the ancient boundaries of the Hundreds or the Parliamentary Divisions, inasmuch as neither of the latter are marked by any great natural features, nor are they | suggestive of any striking diversity in the soil or the inhabitants, and would not convey to the general reader any distinct idea of the districts as they are successively brought under his considera- tion; whereas, if we take the three great rivers and divide the county by these nearly parallel lines, a moment’s glance at the map will show to any one the part then treated of.
The difference between the Southern Division, and the two others to the north of it, inits geology, in the nature of its soil, and the character and habits of the people, is most striking, and ex- ercises a very important influence on the farming of the whole county. Its wealth, position, and extent deserve the first place in considering the causes of the past and present state of farming in Lancashire.
In the Southern Division he the great coal-fields ; these have led to the extraordinary development of the cotton manufacture and all its consequences, and have created a market for labour and skill far beyond anything the farmer could offer, and the con- sequence has been that all who were anxious to “get on” in the world, to make their fortunes rapidly, to gain large profits arid quick returns on small investments, or who, tempted by high wages and the prospect of regular work, were not content to plod away their lives at the plough’s tail, have been drawn into the great vortex of trade, and now people the large towns of Liver- pool, Manchester, Bolton, &c.; and whether it be from the constant and active intercourse between man and man, or the greater exercise of skill and ingenuity, and the high premiums offered for clever artisans in the towns, or from whatever cause it be, I fear it must be admitted that the inhabitants of the towns
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1. Ambleside. | 11. Quernmoor Park. | 21. Preston. | 31. Rufford, | 41. Newton.
2. Hawkshead. } 12. Lancaster. 22. Longridge. | 32. Southport. | 42. Knowsley.
8. Coniston. - | 13. Scotforth. | 9. Clitheroe. | 83. Ormskirk. 43. Prescot.
4, Broughton. | 14. Glasson 24. Whalley. | 34. Wigan. | 44. Liverpool.
5. Ulverston. | 15. Galgate. 25. Colne. | 35. Bolton. 45. Warrington. 6. Cartmell. | 16. Garstang. ~ | 26. Burnley. 35. Bury. 46. Burton.
7. Kirkby Lonsdale. 17. Fleetwood. 27. Accrington. | 37. Haslingden. 47. Poulton.
8. County Stone, | 18. Poulton. | 28. Blackburn. 38. Rochdale. 48. Todmorden. 9. Hornby. 19. Lytham. | 29. Hoghton. 3. Middleton. 49. Raven Castle, 10. Caton. , 20. Kirkham, _ 30, Chorley. | 40. Manchester. 50. Windermere.
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Farming of Lancashire. 5
greatly exceed in acuteness and intelligence their fellows in the country districts: thus the capital, skill, and enterprise of the county being attracted to the towns, the rural districts have been comparatively deserted and left to those happy men who, content to live and die as their fathers had done before them, did not aspire to anything beyond, even in their own business of farming.
The climate of Lancashire is another counteracting cause ; it varies according to the different districts: in the hilly regions to the north and east, it is of course cold and piercing, but in the lower parts, shelving to the south and west, it is generally mild and genial; but throughout the whole of it the fall of rain is far greater than in the south of England. Mr. White, Secretary to the Liverpool and Manchester Agricultural Society, in his evi- dence last year before the Committee of the House of Commons on Tenant Right, speaking of South Lancashire and the neigh- bourhood of Warrington, says, “ We have 36 inches of rain falling in the twelve months;” but in the more hilly parts of the county to the north, my own observations, taken from one of Crosley’s patent rain-gauges, would place it higher than that. ‘The average quantity per annum in London, and the counties abutting on Middlesex, is about 20 or 21 inches, whereas in Lancashire I should say it was more than 40 inches, just double; and though the air is for the most part naturally pure and salubrious, yet one great humidity is a serious obstacle with which the farmer has to contend; and unless his land be thoroughly drained, is an effectual barrier to success either in growing or harvesting his crops.
The soil again is not naturally good, that is to say, in its undrained state; it varies of course considerably, and large peat- mosses or bogs, such as Chat-moss in the southern, and Pilling, with others adjoining, in the Middle Division, are found through- out. Of these dreary wastes I shall speak more fully in their proper place; but naturally they are perfectly sterile, and require a large outlay to make them produce anything, except, perhaps, fuel, of which great quantities are consumed by the neighbouring farmers and cottiers. With these exceptions, throughout the whole Southern Division, the soil partakes more or less of a clayey loam, very productive, if well drained, but without this necessary preliminary, cold and difficult to work; and that it is not in its natural state favourable to vegetation is clearly evidenced by the miserable fences, together with the stunted and weather-beaten trees, which give a starved and bleak appearance, tend rather to show than hide “ the nakedness of the land,” and scarcely deserve the name of hedge-row timber. In the Middle and Northern Divisions the soil is more friable, and throughout the Fylde par- takes more of the alluvial and peaty character; still, without draining, it is comparatively unprofitable.
6 Farming of Lancashire.
In the mining districts the ground is in many parts completely honeycombed and burrowed like a rabbit-warren: the superin- cumbent weight of earth over these excavations will often sink, and the levels of the surface becoming quite changed, any drains that may have been laid there are at once destroyed, and the owner’s trouble and capital altogether lost; this is very dis- couraging to a farmer, and an evil unknown in a purely agricul- tural district.
To these drawbacks, natural and artificial, may be added the consequence resulting from them, which is this:—That the men who have grown rich in those great marts of industry and com- merce, Liverpool and Manchester, and other manufacturing towns of the county, when they seek a permanent investment for their property in land, frequently leave the county in which they have made all their money, and, unwilling in the autumn of their years to engage in new and untried undertakings, are led to seek in more southern counties a more genial climate, a more fertile soil, a higher class of farmers and farming, and a more tempting investment than Lancashire can offer. Ido not deny that there are some commendable exceptions to this rule, but for the most part it is unhappily true, as our rushes and bogs abundantly testify.
I have thus attempted shortly to describe and account for the general aspect of the county, as 1t would appear to the eyes of a passing stranger, but though as a whole I believe the above description to be a true one, yet if we examine a little more closely, we shall find many cheering instances of progressive improvement, both in the case of large landed proprietors and the more humble occupiers of the lands of their fathers, which give good grounds to hope that there is a spirit at work which will soon change the face of the country and enable us to take our proper place amongst the farmers of England. The Earl of Derby, at Knowsley, Mr. Clifton, at Lytham, the late Mr. Ffar- ington, of Worden, whose untimely and premature end has left a blank at Leyland which can never in this generation be filled up, Mr. Wilson F france, in the Fylde, and the Duke of Hamilton, at Ashton, and others, have each in their several districts set a good example of what may be done by perseverance and skill, com- bined with a liberal and judicious outlay of capital: they have now left us without excuse: let each man, then, in his own sphere, and according to his means and ability, be ‘up and doing” in the great and good work of improving the land, by employing the people, and we shall then soon cease to be famous as the worst farmed county between London and Edinburgh.
The geographical situation of Lancashire is between 53° 20’ and 54° 25’ north latitude, and between 2° 0’ and 3° 17’ west
¥
farming of Lancashire. |
longitude ; it is bounded on the north by Cumberland and West- moreland, on the east by Yorkshire, on the south by Cheshire and Derbyshire, and on the west by the Irish Sea. The extreme length is 74 miles, and its greatest breadth 444 miles: its surface contains 1765 square miles, of which abont 1125 are compre- hended in the Southern Division, and 650 in the two other divisions. ‘The area of the county comprises, according to the Ordnance Survey, 1,117,260 acres of land, of which about 390,000 are in tillage, 450,000 in pasture, and the remainder in woodlands, moors, and mosses.
The population in 1821 amounted to 1,052,200, and according to the last Census in 1841 it had increased to 1,667,054, of which it may fairly be said that three-fourths are engaged in commerce and manufactures, or dependent upon them for their -employment and support; this allows 416,763 for the cultivation of the land.
The great geological features of the county consist in a chain of hills which separate Lancashire from Yorkshire on the east, and which run northwards from Ashton-under-Lyne, near Manchester, to Hornby. This tract of mountainous moorland is chiefly com- posed of millstone-grit and hard freestone formations, the soil for the most part being thin and poor, and in the lower parts a strong clay. Amongst the highest hills of the range are Blackstone Kdge, Pendle Hill, which is 1805 feet above the level of the sea, and the Fells of Bleasdale and Wyresdale. ‘The district north of the river Lune from Lancaster has the metalliferous limestone for its immediate substratum; and as we approach the northern mountains of the county, which form the barrier between it and Westmoreland and Cumberland, the transition limestone and slate prevail. These hills, from their picturesque beauty and height, form some of the most magnificent features of the lake scenery in this part of England; Coniston Fell, the highest point of which is well known by visitors to the lakes as the «‘ Old Man,” being 2580 feet above the level of the sea. The soil on this northern range is better than on the eastern chain, and the natural drainage more rapid and complete than on the grit formations. On the western and southern sides of the county is found the new red- sandstone, which forms an irregular band of some miles in breadth, extending along the vale of the Mersey, east of Manchester, to Liverpool, and thence along the western side by Ormskirk and Preston to Lancaster, and in this stratum is found the red marl, which is so valuable as a manure in reclaiming dry, sandy, and peaty soils; to the westward of this line hie the alluvial districts, and the coal-beds occupy the whole space between the red-sand- stone and the eastern boundary of the county south of the Ribble.
Westward from the eastern chain of hills flow the three great
8 Farming of Lancashire.
rivers of the county, which with their numerous tributaries empty themselves into the Irish Sea. In the lowlands and valleys watered by these streams are found many parts favourable to a high state of farming, and we will now proceed to consider in order the three great divisions formed by these rivers with reference to the subject of this report, commencing with
The Southern Division.—(No. 1.)
The soil throughout the whole tract of country between the Mersey and the Ribble, and between the sea-coast and the first rising of the high hills to the east, is in general of a stiffish loamy kind, always excepting Chat-moss and its kindred wastes. Towards the sea-coast, to the west of the old high road from Liverpool to Preston by Ormskirk, there is a district of great fertility, bemg for the most part of a sandy vegetable loam of considerable depth; and Mr. White, to whose evidence we have already referred in speaking of the general character of the South Lan- cashire land, says, ‘‘ About two-thirds of it is strong clayey loam, upon a subsoil of clay; the clay requires under-draining before it can be properly cultivated.” Throughout the whole of the lower districts of this Division all sorts of grain are occasionally grown, but oats and wheat are the most prevalent, yet barley is frequently met with near the coast; potatoes are cultivated largely in the neighbourhood of Ormskirk and Warrington, whence great quantities are taken to supply the Liverpool and Manchester markets; and it is a fact in husbandry worthy of remark, that the first potatoes raised in England were grown in this county.
Turnips and the artificial green crops have been introduced within the last few years, and continue to be grown with increas- ing success; but as yet a regular and scientific system of cropping is rarely met with. Around the large towns the grass-land is mostly preserved undisturbed, and the produce in milk and butter daily conveyed to supply their never-failing wants.
The only limestone found in this Division les in the extreme north-eastern corner, in the neighbourhood of Clitheroe : it is, in fact, the western side of the Craven bed, which here runs into Lancashire from Yorkshire, and will become most valuable to the whole of the Southern Division on the opening of the Black- burn, Clitheroe, and North- Western Railway, now in course of construction.
On the eastern and hilly side of this Division there is not much to interest a farmer: in the neighbourhood of Clitheroe and Whalley there is some excellent land, and the advantages of the limestone on which this district rests are sufficiently apparent both in the aspect of the country and the general produce of the
Farming of Lancashire. 9
farms: but from Whalley to Manchester, through Accrington, Haslingden, and Bury, and still farther to the east by Colne and Burnley, the land is mostly kept in pasture. This is altogether a coal district, and consequently a thickly peopled one ; the Marners find a ready sale for their milk in the towns and villages, and hence there is little stimulus to exertion. Draining is more or less required throughout the whole; the soil is a cold tenacious clay, and the country has a bare and dreary appearance: the land, being divided into smal! properties and holdings, lets high; 2/., 3l., and 4/. per acre being a common rent. A population such as the whole of this is, employed in hand-loom weaving and mills, is not likely to advance much in agriculture; still there are in- stances of improvement by the owners of the soil. Sir Robert Peel has drained almost all his land, to the amount of 1000 acres, in the neighbourhood of Accrington, under the direction of Mr. Josiah Parkes, at a depth of 4 feet, and at various intervals, with 1$-inch pipe, tiles, and collars, which are made at an old- ee niahed pottery at Oswaldtwistle, close to his property ; other tileries are about to be erected in this district, which will tend to improve the quality and lower the price of this necessary article.
On leaving the hilly districts and descending into the low country to the westward, the first important feature in an agricul- tural point of view is the cultivation of Chat-moss; this is a large bog or morass, situate about 7 miles to the westward of Man- chester; itis 5 miles long from east to west, and about 3 miles broad fein north to Southt: covering an area of about 6000 acres. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway passes through, or rather over it, from east to west. Much variety of opinion pre- vails as to the origin of these mosses; some carry their formation as far back as the general deluge, but the more probable theory is that they have been caused by the natural decay of primeval forests in the valleys or hollows, from which the water had no escape ; a few trees blown down or felled would readily choke up the outlet of a small stream with little or no fall, and when decay had once begun its ravages in a forest so situated, it would pro- ceed with an ever accelerated rapidity until the whole was reduced to a mass of decayed or decaying vegetable matter.
The surface of Chat-moss is a sort of long, coarse, sedgy grass and heath, tough enough to enable a man to walk upon it in most parts; but it was given in evidence by Mr. Giles before the Committee of the House of Commons, preparatory to the making of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, that a boring- rod, when forced through the surface vegetation about the centre of the moss, would sink with its own weight to the depth of 34 feet. At that depth there was a vein of 4 or 6 inches of clay ; below that 2 or 3 feet of quicksand; and at the bottom of all, hard
10 Farming of Lancashire.
clay which kept the water up. ‘The same engineer gave it as his opinion that a railway could not with safety be made over Chat- moss without going to the bottom of it; but the late Mr. George Stephenson, with his usual engineering skill, preserved the surface untouched ; and, by laying some brushwood and hurdles upon it to make a foundation, and opening side-drains, carried the rail- way in safety over the top of this mass of bog, which varies in its depth from 10 to 37 feet. The railway, in fact, floats upon the moss.
Few men would ever have dreamt of cultivating such a waste as Chat-moss; but Mr. Roscoe, of Liverpool, first commenced this great work by trying to drain 2000 acres; after a series of Jaborious and costly experiments, the chief fault of which was his desire to do too much, and to lay the open drains too deep and too far apart, he was compelled to give up the undertaking ; and it was reserved for Mr. Reed, assisted with the capital of a com- pany of gentlemen formed for the purpose, to accomplish the desired object.
This gentleman; in a very valuable Essay, which gained the premium at the Liverpool Agricultural Society’s Meeting, Sep- tember, 1833, and was subsequently published by that Society, has detailed the method he adopted to reclaim the moss, and to this day the abundant produce of the soil bears testimony to his com- plete triumph over its natural sterility.
The drainage was the first step to improvement; this was effected by cutting open parallel ditches 66 yards apart, 4 feet wide at the top, and sloping down to about 14 inches at the bottom, and 3 feet 6 inches deep: in a wet floating mass like this moss it was not possible to sink the ditch to the whole depth at once, and the first two spits being taken out it was then left for time to consolidate the surface; the covered cross-drains, 10 yards apart, laid 3 feet deep, and running into the open ditches, were commenced, but in forming these, as well as the open drains, it was necessary to allow some time to elapse between the different operations, that the water might to some extent run off; the hol- low drain was made by the top sod, dried by exposure to the air, being wedged into the open cut, and the peat thrown in again upon that to fill up.
When the surface was partially dried, the heath and other plants growing upon it were set on fire and burnt off as closely as possible; and by ploughing and cross-ploughing, and cutting up the sods with a roller armed with knives, the ingenious con- trivance of Mr. Reed, he was enabled to destroy the tough and elastic character of the surface: after this process marl, which was found at the southern edge of the moss, was, by means of a moyeable railway, laid on the top, to the amount of 100 cubic
Farming of Lancashire. 11
yards to the statute acre; the average distance which the marl had to be removed being about two-thirds of a mile. Whilst these operations were in progress, I went over the moss with Mr. Reed, and remember that both men and horses were obliged to work with pattens, or flat pieces of wood, attached to the feet.
By means of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, then in full operation, Mr. Reed was enabled to bring from the latter town any quantity of manure; and he found that a mixture of night-soil and ashes was preferable to anything else. By growing a crop of potatoes in the first instance, the different particles of moss-earth and manure became so thoroughly blended together that the soil formed would produce anything, and wheat, clover, and oats followed each other in successful rotation. Since Mr. Reed left, some years ago, the management has been intrusted to Mr. Evans, now of the Haigh Foundry, Wigan, and it has been discovered by experience that it is not advisable to grow wheat or clover on such land: turnips, oats, and potatoes are considered the best crops; and instead of marl, which is both bulky and heavy to move, it is now ascertained that salt mixed with lime is the most effective instrument in destroying the mossy nature of the surface, and preparing it for a first crop of potatoes; these grow exceedingly well on moss-lands unmarled, but if marled, their failure is as general as on other soils. In Professor John- ston’s recent work‘ On the Use of Lime in Agriculture, it is stated, chap. xi., section v., that “The use of lime and salt has been frequently recommended by Mr. Cuthbert Johnson and others; and its virtues, in the proportion of one of salt to two or three of lime, have more lately been experimentally tested and recommended by Mr. Huxtable. It seems to be particularly adapted to deep soils, as they are called; to such as are covered with moss, and to reclaimed and drained ‘peat- bogs.”
There is still much of this moss in its natural state; but it is to be hoped that, lying as it does in the heart of a populous district, and traversed by a railway connecting together the two most important towns in the kingdom, it will not long continue so; and that, with the example of what may be done, Chat-moss will in a few years become a cultivated plain, administering to the wants of an ever increasing population.
To the north-east of Chat-moss, and on the high land over- looking the whole of the lower part of Lancashire and Cheshire, is Worsley, the property of the Earl of Ellesmere; within the last two years his Lordship has established a tilery, ond drained a large portion of the Old Hall Farm with 2- inch pipes and collars, at 4 feet deep, and 10 yards apart. ‘They seem to run well, but the land is stiff and heavy to work ; it produces good crops of wheat, oats, and beans; last year the turnips did not
12 Farming of Lancashire.
succeed, their failure being attributed chiefly to the constant rain in the summer of 1848; but they have been grown 25 tons to the statute acre, whilst the wheat sown by drill averages about 4 quarters, and beans 40 bushels. The milch cows, in number 25, together with the young stock, is decidedly above the average, and the milk is immediately disposed of in supplying the neigh- bouring villages of the district.
Near Newton, half-way between Liverpool and Manchester, on the London and North-Western Railway, there is a farm which deserves a passing notice, the property of Mr. Bankes, of | Winstanley Hall; it lies immediately to the eastward of the Newton Station, and on both sides of the railway, and is now in the occupation of Mr. Wilson. This gentleman was one of the first to set the example of draining in this part of the country, when living some years ago on a farm of Mr. Greenall’s in Winwick. His present farm contains 250 statute acres, with a good house upon it; but the farm-buildings are old, and quite inadequate to the wants of the present day. When he came to it, about two years ago, he found the land in a wretched state; his first object was to get it all drained, and this he has nearly accomplished with horseshoe tiles and soles, which he obtains from a tilery close to Newton. ‘The soil being a strong heavy loam, he has cut the drains 3 feet deep and 5 yards apart, but made no air-drain, and, with the help of some Irish workmen, he was enabled to do this at the cost of 4d. a rood of 8 yards, the tiles being laid by the day at 13s. per week; he has grubbed up the old irregular fences, and filled up the ditches, so as to divide the farm, where practicable, into fields of about 25 acres each, or more. His plan is to plough up the old rushy sward for oats; 2ndly, turnips, with farm-yard manure and guano; 3rdly, wheat or barley, with seeds to remain as pasture for two, three, or more years, according to the price of corn or other circumstances. The land being foul for the turnips, he cleaned them by hand-labour for five or six weeks, and succeeded in getting a crop of swedes, about 30 tons to the acre; in preparing the land for the turnips, he found the Norwegian harrow a most useful implement: he ploughs with a common iron plough and two horses, and sows for wheat 2 bushels to the statute acre. But he unfortunately lives under the shadow of a large chimney, more than 300 feet high, which is continually vomiting forth its pesti- lential breath from some extensive chemical-works in the neigh- bourhood, to the certain damage of all vegetable life within its range, and that this is not confined to a small extent may be judged from the withering effects visible upon the trees for miles round. The nuisance occasioned by these works has been so grievous and intolerable to the whole neighbourhood, that the farmers,
Farming of Lancashire. IN,
with Mr. Wilson at their head, have taken the matter up, and are endeavouring to form aSociety for the protection of their interests, and the removal of such works, which certainly are most objectionable in the inidst of an agricultural district. It is to be hoped that by the united efforts of both the landowners and occupiers this evil will soon be entirely suppressed.
Proceeding westward, towards Liverpool, we come into the neighbourhood of Knowsley; the soil here becomes lighter, and, resting upon a substratum of new red-sandstone, is more forward and more easily worked than the cold clays of East Lancashire. One of the most interesting farms on the Earl of Derby's pro- perty in this part of the country is Halewood, comprising 300 statute acres, and now occupied by Mr. Robert Neilson: this gentleman, since he took the farm about 10 years ago, has spared no pains or expense to render it one of the most complete and perfect establishments in the country, nor is it merely as gratifi- cation of a personal feeling, or the indulgence of a temporary fancy, that the system which he has adopted is to be viewed; he has been trying to work out, as a matter of business and practical inquiry, an experiment in which all the landowners and farmers of Lancashire are more or less interested. Expensive imple- ments have been purchased by him, and used on the farm; a fixed steam-engine of 6-horse power is constantly at work in the different operations of cutting hay and straw, crushing oats, cutting turnips, sawing wood, and steaming all kinds of proven- der for horses, cows, and pigs. A small railway or tramroad has been laid down in the yards for the purpose of carrying the food to the animals and conveying away the manure to the dungheap, whilst a considerable length of light moveable railway, an invention of Mr. Neilson’s, is used in bringing the produce of the fields to the farm-yard—in wet weather and on level ground, a most valuable expedient. If Mr. Neilson has done this as a farmer, it is to be hoped that the farming community may some day or other be put in possession of the results, or at least may be informed whether the balance is on the debit or credit side of the account. All the farm is drained with horseshoe tiles and slate soles, the latter being the refuse of the Welsh quarries. I was informed by the farm bailiff, who kindly took me over the farm in the absence of Mr. Neilson, that pipes had been tried; but they do not answer in that neighbourhood, inasmuch as the crevices become choked up with a kind of weed or the roots of plants—consequently their use has been abandoned. The drains are laid at a depth of 2 ft. 6 in. or 3 ft. 6 in., and the mains, where there is fall, 4 ft., the space between the former being 7 or 9 yards. Wheat, oats, barley, beans, vetches, and turnips are all grown upon the farm; but potatoes have been given up. The course is as fol-
14 Farming of Lancashire.
lows, with certain modifications according to particular .circum- stances :—
Wheat, by a broadcast machine on ribbed furrows, 6 to 8 pecks per acre. if drilled, 2 ft. 6 in. apart, 4 to 5 pecks per acre.
Vetches, till June, and then transplanted with turnips.
Turnips and mangolds i in drills 32 inches wide.
Beans, drilled.
Wheat or Barley.
Seeds for one year.
I was informed on the spot that one field of wheat, manured from the farm-yard, and sown by a broadcast machine on ribbed furrows, with a dressing of guano in the spring, produced last year 48 bushels to the statute acre, whereas that sown in drills 2 ft. 6 in. apart yielded from 32 to 36 bushels; I do not know whether or not this latter had any guano. A twenty-seven acre field of turnips also last year, after wheat, with farm-yard manure ploughed in with the stubble at the rate of 50 tons the acre, and afterwards 14 cwt. of bones dissolved in sulphuric acid per acre, produced 40 tons of turnips to the acre; this was the first trial of bones with sulphuric acid, and the result most satisfactory. Both the drilled wheat and beans are sown by the same implement, which consists of a single box or co- vered barrow, fixed by an iron rod to the handle of a double mould-plough, at such a distance that the seed falls 1 ft. 3 in. from the furrow formed by the plough, which is drawn by two horses; one man of course holds the plough, and another the handles of the box, which runs on a wheel, and has a small spout through which the seed drops ; the two men walk side by side, the box being kept in its place by the iron rod which fixes it to the plough, and this latter covers the seed, not of course as it is dropped, but in returning down the next furrow. I saw this simple machine, which is Mr. Neilson’s own contrivance, at work sowing beans, and calculated that the two men and two horses would sow about 5 acres in a day. Mr. Neilson has standing room for 100 head of cattle, of which from 30 to 40 are milch cows, the milk being sent to Liverpool, about 6 miles distant ; he employs a large number of men and women in gangs of from 60 to 100, in hoeing, cleaning, and reaping, so as to get through the work rapidly, and 14 horses.
The rotation of crops in use by the farmers of the neighbour- hood of Halewood, was potatoes, wheat, turnips, and oats, with seeds or not; but the failure of the potatoes has obliged them to adopt in some cases beans as a substitute: they have no imple- ments of any importance.
Throughout the whole of the Earl of Derby’s estates in this part of the country, most of the farms have been held on life leases, and are in the hands of men who have no capital to lay
Farming of Lancashire. 15
out—and no knowledge or desire to improve. The evil conse- quences of this system are sufficiently apparent on the surface, and as any of the old leases drop, the farms are now generally re-let on terms of years, and for any outlay in draining by the landlord the tenant is charged 5 per cent. From Knowsley to Ormskirk the road passes through a tract of mosses, Rainford and others; a great part of this has been reclaimed by his lord- ship, and is about to be formed into a farm of 500 acres around the site of the old Mossborough Castle; the feudal remains have disappeared to make way for a new and substantial stone farm- house, which, with the buildings proposed to be erected, will soon form an establishment more suited to the habits and wants of the present day; the plough-share and the pruning-hook have here literally taken the place of the sword and spear of ancient days.
At Bickerstaffe Hall, Mr. Smythies, a gentleman from Here- fordshire, occupies a farm of 380 acres, which he farms on a six- course shift—potatoes, wheat, turnips, barley, and seeds for two years ; the potatoes having for the most part proved a failing crop, he now proposes to begin with oats, then turnips, &c.: the old fences have been cleared away, and the fields made of proper form and size; his buildings are large, but not arranged on the best plan,—the old barn being retained, and part of the farm- stead in its original form, they are not so perfect as an entirely new set would be. Most of the farm was drained before he came to it, at a depth of 2 ft. 6 in., and on his first proposing to deepen that to 3 ft. he met with little encouragement; now, however, both here and elsewhere on the Derby estates the three-feet system is adopted.
In walking over his young wheat and seeds with him, I ob- served that some four-footed friends from the adjoining covers had been rather busy at his expense ;—in fact, winter vetches, one of the most valuable crops to a farmer, cannot be grown here.
Proceeding northwards, near Ormskirk, there is a farmer at Fairhurst, who, without a lease, merely a tenant from year to year, and occupying about !60 acres, spares no expense and pains in farming it on the best principles. The Earl of Derby, in ap- proval and return for his exertions, has lately erected for him some new buildings (he carting the materials), which are quite deserving of notice as simple in their arrangement and well adapted to the means and wants of the practical farmer: the steaming and boiling-house is not yet built, but this will shortly be done; and when completed, the whole will form a quadrangle, with a straw- yard for pigs in the centre, paved at the bottom, and about 23 yards square, enclosed by flags set upright and fastened together with iron bolts ; this excellent material for the purpose is got from
16 Farming of Lancashire.
quarries in that part of the country. Between the straw-yard and the buildings there is a space of 95 or 6 yards paved all round ; the shippon and stables are well ventilated at the top. When I visited this farm, four horses were at work thrashing with a ma- chine, which the tenant has put up at his own expense.
The soil throughout the whole of this district is loamy and tolerably easy to work; still farther to the westward it becomes gradually lighter, till in the neighbourhood of Formby and Southport it is almost all sand. In many fields at Formby, near the shore, there is soil two feet below the sand, that lies beneath — the greensward: it would seem that this soil, which is about four inches thick, was originally the surface, and has been buried at some former period by sand-drifts.
Near Rufford we get into the mosses again; which, however, have in a great measure been reclaimed: large fields, intersected with open dykes and watercourses, produce good crops of potatoes and oats, or are now to a large extent laid down in permanent pastures and meadows.
The cart-horses throughout the whole of the western side of this division still preserve the character they bore in Mr. Dick- son's time; the farmers take a pride in their teams, and as they were improving in his days they have continued to do so, till now it would be difficult to surpass them in any district of the kingdom.
Throughout the greater part of this division the manufacturing population predominates very much over the agricultural, and hence the tendency to small farms and holdings. The farmers as a class are inferior in position and education to those of other parts of the kingdom. The habit of taking two white crops in succession still prevails very generally amongst them, and the practice of laying down the land in narrow butts, often after wheat, and in many instances allowing it to grass itself over, cannot be too strongly condemned. The evils of the bad system which has prevailed for the last 50 years or more, are so manifold, and the prejudices of the people so deep-rooted, that it will take many years to eradicate them, and raise the agriculture of this part of the county to its proper position.
Middle Division. (No. 2.)
On crossing the Ribble to the north, and passing through Preston, we at once leave the manufacturing districts ; they belong to the Southern Division, for, excepting Preston with a population _of 50,000 souls, and Lancaster with 15,000, there is no town of importance between the rivers Ribble and Lune. Preston is of course a manufacturing place, and, being situated on the extreme southern verge of the Middle Division, may fairly be allowed to
Farming of Lancashire. 17
belong to the Southern ; and Lancaster, though it has produced a few tall chimneys, cannot find in them much to be proud of, they are evidently exotics, they do not thrive as in the south, nor in- crease in number; coals are brought from a distance, and the old county town, with its ancient castle and quiet sombre-looking streets, cannot in the nineteenth century be classed amongst the busy and bustling scenes of manufacturing industry.
We are therefore now in a purely agricultural district; the whole appearance of the country is changed: the trees, no longer blackened and begrimed with the smoke, wear their natural colour; the air is pure and the sky clear; and the ruddy looks of the inhabitants plainly testify that they do not live in mills, nor pass the best of their days in driving the shuttle. ‘Tall and strong of limb, and intelligent in countenance, there certainly is no physical hindrance to their being as good farmers as any in England.
The soil of this division, on the eastern parts and mountainous slopes of Longridge, Bleasdale, and Wyresdale Fells is thin, and of a black mecnan nature ; the lower portions of the sides of the hills and the valleys formed by them are commonly somewhat of the nature of the holms, with brooks and rivulets running through them. At the foot of the hills and through the townships of Goosnargh, Barton, and Claughton, and for the most part along the line of the Preston and Lancaster Railway, the soil is of a stronger quality, in many parts amounting to a stiff clayey loam, The Fylde is that tract lying to the westward of the above-named railway, and bounded by the Ribble, the.sea, and the Lune; in this low-lying country almost every kind of soil is found, from a stiff clay to sand or bog, but the greater part is clayey loam and alluvium, intersected in many parts with large and deep mosses, such as Pilling, Rawcliffe, Nateby, &c. ‘To understand the nature of the soils of this division, and the geological relations of Clougha (the northern ridge of Wyersdale), Bleasdale Moors, and Longridge with each other and with the Fylde, the annexed sketches, taken from Professor Phillips’ ‘ Report on the Vicinity of Lancashire,’ may be of service; ali the hills are capped by lower millstone grit, resting on the limestone shale; this section is made on a line drawn from north to south :—
Bleasdale Moors. Vale of
Hodder. Longridge.
Limestone Shale.
VOL, X. C
18 Farming of Lancashire.
This other section is made on a line drawn east and west :— BLEASDALE MOORS.
lj Millstone Grit.
a
THE FYLDE.
Limestone.
The only limestone fit for agricultural purposes found through- out the whole of this division is in the neighbourhood of Chipping, a village seven or eight miles north-east of Preston, in the valley which separates Longridge Fell from Bleasdale Moors; it is ex- tensively used in these parts as a top-dressing to the grass-lands and sheep-pastures, and with good effect. The cost at the kiln is 1]d. a windle, and two windles are equal to 3 cwt.
The inhabitants of the hills are a manly and independent, but rather uncultivated, race; shrewd enough as far as their own immediate interest is concerned, but incapable of looking forward ; unwilling to lay out stxpence this year in the chance of receiving a shilling next, and jealous to an extreme of any alteration or innovation on the customs of their fathers. Many families have lived on the same farms for generations; and by frequent inter- marriages they have become connected together almost like one family, and, with a strong attachment to their native hills, care little to receive or visit strangers.
Their farms are not large ; some of the most important amount to 250 or 300 statute acres of enclosed land, with a large nght of sheep-pasture over the moors adjoining, and held for the most part on yearly tenancies. ‘The stock on the farm is generally all the capital they possess, which consists of a herd of milch-cows and their calves of different ages, little or no care being given as to the breeding of them; a flock of black-faced sheep of very inferior quality, ‘and a pig or two, with perhaps a couple of horses when the farm is large, make up the total of their property: they generally keep their land in grass, witha plentiful crop of rushes, which serve, as they say, ‘to keep it warm;” or if they plough it up and take a crop of oats, which is the most they ever aspire to, they leave it to time and nature to grass it over again, and never think of putting any manure on; this is all preserved for the meadows, which are really of importance, inasmuch as they pro- duce the hay which is to keep the stock through the winter. The hay-harvest is therefore the most critical time of the year, and
Farming of Lancashire. 19
they give it all the attention they are capable of. ‘They mow with large scythes, 5 feet or 5 feet 6 inches long, very heavy, and therefore slow in action, and they shake out Hine swathe, not with forks or any implement, but with the hands. The climate being precarious and the population small, the hay-making on a mode- rately-sized farm takes a month or six weeks, part of July and August, and as it is made it is secured in close barns, not in stacks or open sheds: 2 tons to the acre is a good crop. The produce of the cows is made into cheese and butter, mostly the former, and the whey given to the young calves. They have no green- crops nor farmyards for turning the cattle into and preserving the manure during the winter. Simple and hardy in their habits, they have few wants beyond the actual necessaries of life; their houses are built of the rough gritstone of the country, and the turf on the moors adjoiing serves the purpose of fuel. Wheaten bread is a rarity; and the bakestone, or hot hearth, for baking the large oatcakes upon, forms a necessary appendage to the farm- house and the cottage; in fact this is the case throughout the whole of North Lancashire. ‘The oatcake is still the favourite food both of farmers and labourers.
Draining, wherever it has been attempted, has been done some- times with sods, but more commonly with stones, the natural materials of the country: the drain is made in the form of a sough, with rough stones, at a depth in some cases of 28 inches, but for the most part not more ie 18 or 20 inches, and carried across the fall at intervals of 9 or 12 vards, with just sufficient inclination to allow the water to flow, the object being to prevent thereby any scour of the subsoil. Some fill the drains half with the soil taken out and half with broken stones, and carry the latter up to the surface on the higher side of the drain, so that the surface- water may ran into the drains as into a_spout at the eaves of a house—a most effectual means, by the way, of carrying off all the small particles of manure, whether lime or anything else that may be lying there. This mode of draining costs 15d. per rood of 7 yards, but is gradually giving way to a better system; and the introduction of pipe-tiles enables the drains to be carried in safety down the fall at a greater depth and at less expense.
On descending the hills the style of farming begins to improve, and both the soil and climate admit of more attention being paid to arable culture, and with greater success than in the high lands. Sul], with the exception of a few large landed propr eters such as Mr. Brockholes, of Claughton Hall, and Mr. Jacson, of Barton, there is little improvement on the old system, and ane dislike to alteration prevails here as elsewhere.
The fields in many parts for whole districts bear the appearance
of having been ploughed till they could produce nothing, and the ao C za
20 Farming of Lancashire.
miserable herbage with long rows of rushes in the furrows show too plainly the great want of draining and management in the occupiers. Mr. Brockholes has, during the last twenty-eight years, since he came into possession of the property, drained upwards of 2000 acres, chiefly with stones and across the fall: many of the drains were at first laid out by himself so level that they have been choked up by the deposit of ferruginous matter, called canker, and require now to be done over again with tiles and on a better system. His soil is for the most part a stiff clay, and he does not approve of draining in such cases deeper than 3 feet. Being a constant resident, he is able annually to lay out large sums in improving his estate, and spares no pains in making it one of the finest in this part of the county.
On the property of Mr. Jacson, which lies between 4 and 7 miles north of Preston, a series of improvements was effected during the lifetime of his father, who will long be remembered in that district as a real benefactor in his generation, and his son continues to follow in his steps, endeavouring to recover a fine estate from the effects of former bad management. On a pro- perty of 2600 acres nearly thirty sets of farm-buildings have been rebuilt (at a cost of 27,000/.) within the last sixteen years, or so renewed that it amounts to the same thing; and instead of the old houses made of mud walls and thatched roofs, may now be seen throughout the whole of it good substantial tenements built of brick and covered with slate. They are decidedly above the average of farm buildings, and though not adapted to the use of steam-power or any other of the modern scientific improvements, are justly deemed well suited to the means of those who occupy them.
The farms are not large, the most important being from 180 to 200 statute acres, but the average is about 80; they were formerly let on yearly tenancies, but seven years is now the usual term, and some of the farmers are willing to enter into agree- ments for ten, but for the most part they are reluctant to’ bind themselves for so long a period. As a class they are incapable of estimating the responsibilities which the covenants of a lease entail upon them; in their anxiety to get the farm, they are willing to enter into conditions the force of which they do not understand, and which consequently they care not to fulfil; wanting in capital and energy both of body and mind, they are unable to appreciate or carry out an improved course of husbandry, and looking with suspicion on any plan which seems to differ from their own method, are reluctant to abandon the practice of breaking-up the land for successive grain crops; to preserve the greater part of the farm in grass is the aim and object which a good farmer ought to have in view throughout this district, but after such a process of
Farming of Lancashire. 21
exhaustion as the land has suffered during past years, it is impos- sible to restore it to anything like vigour without going through a judicious rotation of crops, and the system of the schedule, tried on this property, which binds the tenant to a fixed and regular course, though at first greatly disliked by him, is the only mode of accomplishing the object sought after. The rental of the land averages 3Qs. per statute acre, or rather more, and the rotation of crops, which is now adopted with success in working and restoring it, is a five-course, as follows :— Out of ley—1. Oats. 2. Oats, a better crop than the first. 3. Green crop manured, turnips or potatoes.
4, Oats or barley, with ‘seeds. 5. Seeds for hay or pasture.
And after that one year or more in pasture, according to cir- cumstances, the object being to get a good permanent pasture for the dairy, and sometimes it is preserved unbroken for three years. The land is strong and retentive of moisture, and produces, after a fallow, a good crop of wheat, 25 or 30 bushels to the acre; but before any of these crops can be grown, it is necessary to drain it thoroughly. The first method of draining on this property, before the invention of pipes, was with horseshoe-tiles and stones, at a rate varying from 15d. to 18d. a rood of 7 yards, total cost, filled and completed, and 60,000 roods of drains were so laid at a depth of not more than 30 inches; but now a drain of 3 feet deep with a 2-inch pipe for the water, is found to answer admirably at intervals of 8, 9, or 10 yards, down the fall, at a cost of ll1d. to 13d. per rood, including the tiles, cutting, laying, and filling. The understratum in which the tiles are laid isa stiff reddish clay, capable of being made into bricks or tiles; and the drains are, for the most part, laid 8 yards apart, ath an air-drain carried along the top of the field, and communicating of course with the heads of all the drains. ‘This admission of a draught of air is most advantageous, and may, in fact, be considered as one of the great secrets of thorough tile-draining: 1. meadow land, or per- manent pasture, it is quite sufficient to bring the pipe up in a slanting direction to the surface; this plan I have tried, and it saves the expense of the additional air-drain.
A large brickyard and tilery has been at work on this property for more than 15 years, and the horseshoe-tiles were made in large quantities, as may be imagined from the length of drains named above, which was generally laid with that kind of tile, the opening turned upwards, and a stone placed as a cover. [or the last three years pipes have been substituted for the horseshoe ; and last year, 1848, upwards of 500,000 tiles were made in that yard, nor was this supply at all equal to the demand. There are
22 Farming of Lancashire.
two machines ait work, Whitehead’s and Clayton’s, but the latter was used first, and I believe continues to be the favourite for large tiles, though the former is preferred for the smaller kinds.
From Barton, proceeding westward, we pass into the Fylde, which is divided into two paris by the Wyre; this river rises at the head of the valley that takes its name from the stream, and flowing by the small town of Garstang, passes thence with a con- siderable detour near the villages of Church Town, St. Michael’s, and Great Eccleston, and finally empties its waters into the sea at the south-west corner of Morecambe Bay, forming there a harbour to the modern town of Fleetwood. The southera of these two divisions is much the larger of the two, but nearly all the mosses of this part of Lancashire lie to the north of the Wyre, and their history and present state must form one of the most interesting subjects in any treatise on the farming of the county. These original wastes may be roughly estimated at 20,000 statute acres, and from a state of perfect sterility producing nothing but moor-fowl and snipes, they are now being gradually converted into the most productive lands in the kingdom; this has been chiefly done by a good system of draining, and it is remarkable that the levels of this country should fall to the north. From within half a mile of the Wyre the water falls to the Lune, and from within two miles of the Ribble it runs into the Wyre, from which it is evident that to drain these districts thoroughly and to keep them in working order, it is absolutely necessary that the beds of these rivers should be kept as low as possible. From the constant washings from the hills and from repeated floods they bring down with them great quantities of sand, which, as the rivers widen towards the sea, and become more sluggish in their course, is deposited in the channel, to the manifest injury of the outfalls above. The natural scour is not sufficient to keep the rivers deep to the sea, and it is very necessary in any general drainage measure that particular attention be paid to this point. It is strange that Ireland should possess the Acts of 1 & 2 Wm. IV., cap. 57, and 5 & 6 Victoria, cap. 105, “To empower landed proprietors in Ireland to sink, embank, and remove obstructions in rivers ;” and that England should be at this day without the benefit and power of any such laws. It is much to be hoped that this defect will soon be remedied.
Each division of the Fylde has its great landowner and im- prover: Mr. Clifton, of Lytham, in the southern, and Mr. Wilson F france, of Rawcliffe Hall, in the northern; and both these gen- tlemen have indeed “deserved well of their country” for their eminent services in the cause of agricultural improvements.
The climate of the whole of this lowland district is much milder than in the higher parts of the Middle Division situated to
, Farming of Lancashire. 93
the eastward ; and the town of Lytham, at the mouth of the Ribble, has become, in consequence of its peculiar situation and warmth, a favourite place of resort durimg the winter months. The soil for the most part south of the Wyre is rich and loamy, lighter than on the eastern side of the Lancaster Railway, and capable of growing any crops, and when drained most productive. To- wards the sea-coast, from Lytham to Blackpool and Fleetwood, the red marl prevails: but to the north of the Wyre it is almost entirely peat and moss resting on a substratum of marl and clay.
The character of the people and size of the farms are very similar to what has been already described of the lower part of this division, in the neighbourhood of Barton, &c.; but the Earl of Derby and Mr. Clifton, who owns a large tract of country in this district of the Fylde, have done much towards their improve- ment. The latter gentleman especially has endeavoured to intro- duce upon his property a higher system of farming, before unknown there, and with the help of his intelligent agent, Mr. Fair, has certainly accomplished great things. He established a private Agricultural Society, which gave a stimulus to improve- ment amongst his own tenantry, that has been attended with much good ; the stock exhibited gradually improved, and the green-crop system has been successfully tried, and the example thus afforded of what might be done with care and skill has not been without its effects beyond the limits of that Society. Large dykes and drains have been made to carry off the water to the Ribble; one especially, which extends from five to six miles, was made at an expense of 3000/. entirely by the proprietor ; and asa proof of the benefit resulting from this work, offers were immediately made of an increased rent, which would bring some return for the outlay, and gave encouragement for further similar undertakings.
Mr. Clifton, in carrying out his views, has also introduced from Scotland men of capital and position as tenant-farmers, such as were unknown before in this county ; and by giving long leases of 19 or 21 years on large farms of 400 acres cr more, has effected a change which promises to be very advantageous; but it yet remains to be seen whether or not, as a whole, the Scotch system is the one which is most calculated to suit this part of England, Mr. Begbie, one of these gentlemen, has kindly furnished me with some particulars relating to his own farm near Lytham, which are worthy of notice. Part of his farm he has drained 2 feet 6 inches deep; but during the last two years no drains have been made less than 3, and some 4 feet; the 3-feet drains being 6 yards apart, and the price paid for cutting and fillmg 53d. to 6d. per rood of 8 yards. The 4-feet drains are generally placed 12 yards apart, and the price for cutting, &c., 8d. per rood; these latter have only been made when the subsoil was open and porous.
24 Farming of Lancashire.
The last year he has used the pipe tiles with collars, 12 inch wide; but up to that time the horseshoe-tiles, with turf for a covering, or even turf alone, which forms an excellent drain when the subsoil is sound and stiff. Mr. Clifton supplies the materials and the tenant does the rest of the work, or Mr. Clifton does the whole, and charges a per centage. Hitherto Mr. Begbie has not been able, from the unformed state of his farm, to carry out any regular course of opp iae? but now he proposes to adopt the seven-course shift, viz.
ist year, one-seventh of turnips.
ide ie wheat or barley. ard 53 i grass and pasture. 4th ,, iz pasture.
Sth ,, 3 oats.
6th ,, $5 beans, drilled. ah; es wheat.
The climate of the Fylde he finds to be wet and uncertain in autumn and winter, but good in spring and summer. He has a steam engine of 6-horse power for threshing and bruising corn, which can also be adapted to crush lmseed without any additional power, at the same time with the threshing. Thick sowing for wheat is not so much in use here as elsewhere; 5 pecks in the autumn, until the middle or end of October, and 6 or 64 as the season advances, are commonly sown, and many persons at the beginning of autumn sow under a bushel per statute acre.
Two tileries have been established on this property: one, the largest, has been at work for some years past; and a second smaller one was erected last year.
From Lytham we must go to Rawcliffe, and examine the mosses to the north of the Wyre: a dreary country it is in its natural state, but the hand of man and the blessing of Providence upon his exertions are fast converting this wilderness into a gar- den; oats and potatoes, turnips, and even wheat, may be seen growing in the greatest luxuriance on the surface of a bog, per- haps thirty feet deep or more, for in some parts the moss is found to exceed even this, and the black peat-stacks of turf reared to dry for fuel. may he een standing in gloomy contrast with the smiling produce of the sickle.
To enter fully into the details of the method by which this extraordinary revolution has been effected would of itself require an Essay; but the limits of this Report will not admit of more than a full statement of the facts: nor is there space to enter upon the very interesting question of the formation and origin of the moss— that belongs more to the geological inquirer—our business is with the surface ; but it is worthy of a passing remark, that large remains of ait trees, sound, and black as ebony, and of a size
to
Farming of Lancashire. 2D equal to the timber of the tropics, are found embedded under these mosses, as well as large horns of the red deer and elk.
The cultivation of moss-lands appears to be the original farm- ing of Lancashire; that is to say, that branch of farming i in which it this a peculiar ghiraite: and position, differing from the other parts of the kingdom: Lincolnshire has iis fens, Yorkshire its wolds, and other counties their distinctive characteristics; but Lancashire has its mosses, and whilst in growing turnips or wheat we are only doing what others can do equally well, or perhaps better than ourselves, to produce these crops upon the surface of a barren moss, varying from 3 to 30 feet in depth, is a triumph im agriculture—such as no other county, I believe, can lay claim to.
The value of moss has long been admitted; as far back as 1819, Mr. Nimmo says—
“T am perfectly convinced, from all that I have seen, that any species of bog is by tillage and manure capable of being converted into soil fit for the support of plants of every description, and with due management
perhaps the most fertile that can be submitted to the operations of the farmer.”
And Sir H. Davy says—
*¢ A soil covered with peat, is a soil covered not only with fuel, but also with manure ; it is the excess of manure only which is detrimental, and it is much more easy to destroy than to create it. To cultivate a bog isa much less difficult task than to improve a sand. If there is a proper level to admit of draining, the larger the scale of operations the less must the comparative expense be, because machinery may for many purposes take the place of manual labour ; and the trials which have been already made by private individuals, and which are stated in the different reports, prove not only the feas ibility of the generai project, but afford strong grounds for believing that capital expended upon it, after mature and well digested plans, would in a very few years afford a great and increasing interest, and would contribute to the wealth, pros perity, and population of Ire- land.” *
Now in converting moss into land the first matter to be con- sidered is the main drains, and these must be determined on with reference to the extent, form, and situation of the moss, to the levels of the lands by which the moss is surrounded, and likewise to the levels of ihe subsoz/ on which the moss rests.
Roads, having open drains on each side, must be made as a general rule 7 yards wide, and must be laid out so that the fields and their divisional drains run at right angles with the lines of the roads. The open drains on each side of the roads are made for the first year 3 feet wide at the top, | foot wide at the bottom, and 4 feet deep; but in the second year, when the moss is _ sufii- ciently consolidated, it is desirable to make these drains 6 feet wide at the top: at 18 inches from the surface this width of 6
* For this testimony see Irish Farmers’ Magazine, No. 29, March, 1836, p. 100.
26 farming of Lancashire.
feet is contracted to 3 feet by a square ledge of 18 inches on each ike Gig hoe ead side, so that a section of the liSein. Is drain is of this form. ‘This ad-
\ ke ditional cutting may increase
(¥ the cost 2d. per rood; but ft it has been found that the ditches so cut stand better than the old drains 3 feet wide, inas- much as the superincumbent weight being removed, the drain is not so likely to spew up at the bottom, for it is not so much the sides falling in from the top as the pressure from the bottom that injures a ditch of this kind. The stuff taken out of the drain is thrown into the centre of the road, and when tolerably dry and ready for sanding, the road is formed, and sand or gravel laid on 12 feet wide, 4 inches thick in the centre, and 7 inches on each side, the object of this additional weight at the sides being to keep them down.
The moss should be laid out in fields of 300 yards long, and 66 broad. ‘This form contains 19,800 square yards, or 440 square yards more than 4 statute acres; a little more than 24 acres customary, of 73 yards to the perch. Each field takes 2 end drains and | side drain; and the covered drains in the field should be 10 yards apart, so that one field of about 4 acres has | side drain, 2 end drains, and 28 covered drains. The expenses of draining are calculated after the rate of 8 yards to the rood, as follows :—
aN me
2 end drains : : . 163 roods of 8 yards 1 side do. ; : . dfs do. do. | 54 roods.
These end and side drains to be—
3 feet wide at the top, 1 foot do. bottom, 4 feet deep,
being the size of the open drains at the sides of the roads, &c., for the first year, and the mode of work and price as follows :—
Inches, £< gaae ae Dees deep ar 5d. per rood, for 54 roods . ee) 24
d do. f : he aS, oe 13} 6d, per 100 yards, for54 roods0 15 2
— Oe eee
48 LMI) Il The 53d. per rood includes the throwing the stuff from the sides of the drains on to the road, or into the field, and chopping it.
Cutting the ledges, 2d. per rood, for 54 roods .0 9 0 second year
ESR i |
Farming of Lancashire. 27
The form of a covered or field drain is— 14 inches wide at the top,
6 do. bottom, 3 feet deep, and to be worked thus— Ist sod, 14 inches deep ; ; : . %d. per drain 2nd do. 10 do. ‘ ; : eae do. ard do. 12 do. : 5 ; Stl do. 36 inches. 24d. per drain.
The first sod makes the wedge-sod, and when dry will be 9 or 10 inches thick ; when taken out it is put on its side on the right of the drainer to dry, and the second or third sods are thrown out to the left, and chopped to fill up the drains when wanted ; pattens are used by the workmen, as on Chat-moss. The breadth of field is already fixed at 66 yards; but it is calculated as 8 roods, or 64 on payment, so that one covered drain cost 2s., or 3d. per rood, and the 1ld., being the third charge, includes the returning and fixing the Wedue: sods, and filling up the drain, &c.
The whole expense of draining a moss-field, rather more than 4 statute acres, will be as follows: —
1 side drain, 373 roods of 8 yards. 2 end drains, 164
ents. ad:
54 roods . : 2S
28 covered drains at 2s., being 10 yards apart 216 0 Total expense for 19,800 square yards . bea end
Per statute acre, 4,840 do. abouty @ lo. 6. 92 Per customary do. 7,840 do. dor aan 2 0
The expenses of the main drains and the roads must be charged to the whole moss drained.
For the above particulars, and any others connected with these mosses, | am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Wilson F france, of Rawcliffe’ Hall.
This gentleman had allotted to him, about 19 years ago, 736 statute acres of moss, which he immediately set to work to im- prove; it is now all under cultivation, producing beautiful crops of oats and potatoes, except 8 acres upon which the drainers are now employed. He has drained it all on the plan given above, made roads, &e., and after draining, marl, which is found under the moss, is laid on the top at the rate of 150 to 160 tons per customary acre, by means of a moveable railway as on Chat-moss.
The marl is calculated by the fall, which is 64 cubic yards ; ] and } fall to the customary acre. The cost of this is thus Sennen —
28 Farming of Lancashire.
Fall of marl. ‘ 64 cubic yards. 1 cubic yard weighs . 32 ewt. 128 192 1 fall = : . 2048 cwt. BTR ls : 1024 ,, i a . : 3072 ,, or 153 tons 12 ewt. to the acre. 1 waggon takes “ ‘ 2 23 ewt. 134 ° 5 S072) ees
One horse will draw 35 Shaccae a day, generally taking 2 wag- gons at a time, in summer; the marlpit being a quarter of a mile from the moss-field.
35 waggons X 4 days = 140 waggons.
£. s. a.
2 men in pit 4 days, at 2s. 6d. LOO 2 men in field, pues &e. 4 4 days at 2s. Gas 15.805..0 1 boy driver : : : 0 4 0 1 horse ‘ . C . : : 012 0 Oil and extras : ‘ 0 4 0 a 0-0
1 fall and 2, or 96 cubic yards of marl, at 7d. per yard 2 16 0
which is about the price; for it does not take quite 4 days, nor 140 waggons; and therefore the cost of draining and marling, with about 153 tons of marl, one customary acre of 74 yards to the perch, is 4. 18s., Bein about 3/. per statute acre.
To carry all the water from the extensive eneamor Rawcliffe- moss, and others adjoining, it has been necessary to open a large dyke 5 or 6 miles long. This little canal is made by a circuitous course to fall into Morecambe Bay, passing through Pilling ; but so flat is the country, that it has not more than 7 or 8 inches of fallin amile. The cost of keeping this dyke clear is paid by the proprietors, through whose lands it successively passes.
The moss-land is found to produce the best potatoes of any known ; and whilst in other soils the failure of this crop has been a total or partial loss to the cultivator, the moss-farmer is reaping an abundant harvest. On the customary Lancashire acre he can
get
60 loads of large potatoes at 10s. 20 sy small 3 Ss
wo a5 ® ror oc
36 0 0. One load being equal to 240 |bs.; and the above price is taken from the average of the first six weeks of this year in Garstang
market. The present price is 13s. 6d.
Farming of Lancashire. 29
As may be imagined, it is not difficult to let such land: an instance of the value in which it is held occurred not long ago on a property adjoining that of Mr. Ffrance. A man of the name of Fawcett took a farm of 36 customary acres (about 60 statute) for 732. per annum, and sublet 12 of the 36 at 6l. per acre, thereby keeping for his own use and occupation 24 custo- mary acres, at a rental of one pound per annum.
Another man, who came as labourer from Chat-moss a few years ago, and is commonly known as “ Chat-moss Joe,”” now holds a farm under Miss Harrison, at 70/. a year, and the value of the whole 736 acres belonging to Mr. Ffrance may, on the lowest calculation, be estimated at the annual rental of I/. per acre, which, on an outlay of 70002, is rather more than 10 per cent. The moss, when reclaimed, is let in lots by ticket, subject to certain conditions, one of the most important of which is, that the tenant shall keep the divisional ditches open on the side and ends of his allotment, to the full width of 6 feet at the top and 4 feet in depth; and in case of failure, the landlord to have the right tore-enter. Not longer ago than the 19th of December last year, an allotment of 2a. 2r. Sp., of customary measure, equal to about 4 statute acres, was let by Mr. Ffrance for 8/. per annum ; and for another, rather less, as much as 12/. was offered ; sea is the competition for this kind of land during the present value of potatoes.
But Mr. Ffrance is not content with draining the moss itself ; he also makes it subservient to the draining of the lands adjacent. In a letter to the editor of the ‘ Mark-Lane Express,’ dated January Ist, 1840, he describes the process of making turves from the moss, which in a clayey subsoil were found to answer almost as well as tiles. He says, “ The turves are cut from the peat where the moss cuts fibrous and tough, which usually may be 6 or 8 spits deep: below that depth lies a blackish-brown turf, the moss being in a more advanced state of decomposition, and such is not considered so well adapted for making draining-turves.”’ The turves are cut with a spade made with sides 12 inches long, the sides 5 inches in depth—7 inches wide at the top, and taper- ing to 6 inches wide at the bottom.
«The expenses of completing the turves ready for use have hitherto been—
S: a Cutting the draining-turf : . 2 O per thousand. Wind-rearing ditto to dry , i 80 3 9 Stacking ditto : : ° 0 6 » Total 5 a ° e ie) ”
In consequence of the moss drying up, and some becoming shapeless, 28 turves upon an average will drain a rood of 7 yards: the cost of the 28 turves being (at 2s. 9d. per thousand) nearly 1d.”
30 Farming of Lancashire.
He then describes the drains made by him as 30 inches deep ;
a aeenes: 1] inches wide at the top, and tapering to 23 inches wide at the bottom, the underside a the turf when wedged in being about 6 inches from the bottom of the drain, and calculates that the cuttmg, laying, and fitting in the turf can be done for 4d. a rood of 7 yards; so that the whole expense of draining a statute acre will amount to
17. 15s., the drains being 10 yards apart:
28 turves for Ll rood of 7 yards, Cutting drains, laying and fitting in the turf . Carting turves to the field and clay from the drains
Oo}; oo00% Coe.
For 1 rood : A statute acre, say 70 x 70 (4900 square yar ds) has 7 7 drains, 70 yards long each = 70 roods = 35s.
These drains have been known to last perfectly sound in clay for 50 or 60 years; and, saving vermin, there is no reason why they should not continue efficient for a much longer period.
Mr. F france has, within the last two years, established a tilery on his property; he now drains his clay lands with tiles 3 feet deep, and instead of using collars places a turf wnder the joints of the tiles where necessary, and turves over the pipe-tiles to cover the crevice, and relieve the tile from all pressure. This mode of using tiles and turves together does, in fact, make a double drain, which, under all ordinary circumsiances, is not likely to get out of order; and the cost of the turves over and above the tiles is not more than 5s. per thousand, including carting, &c.
The custom of paring with a push-plough, and burning the moss for oats after draiming, prevails amongst the tenant- fremons in this district, and they pursue this for two or three years in suc- cession ; then, for a change, take a crop of potatoes or seeds, always burning the surface till the moss is reduced in thickness. On a farm ae the Duke of Hamilton’s, on Nateby-moss, with which I am acquainted, the practice is, after draining, paring, and burning—
1. Oats—if dirty, the burning repeated ; 2. Green crops, turnips, potatoes, &c., with farm-yard manure and uano ; 3: Manled and ploughed for spring wheat or barley ; and 4. Seeds for mowing or pasture to lie one year, and then pared and burnt again for oats as before.
Proceeding northwards towards Garstang, and from thence to
Lancaster, we come into the extensive property of the Duke of
Farming of Lancashire. 31
Hamilton, which, from the woods of Ashton Hall to the moor- lands of Barnacre and Wyersdale, includes a large tract of country. Under the superintendence of Mr. Lamb great improvements have been effected on this property, and in a district containing so great a variety of soils and situations as this does, it requires no ordinary skill to adapt to each the proper treatment.
Eleven years ago the Duke of Hamilton established the Ashton Agricultural Society for the purpose of offering encouragement to exertion amongst his own tenantry: the premiums were confined exclusively to them; whilst by the adoption of open sweepstakes a general competition was also admitted. This Society still flourishes; and the effect has been very beneficial, not only toa great majority of the Duke’s tenantry, but to the whole of this part of the country. To assist in the improvement of the stock, his Grace has purchased, within the last few years, several bulls of first-rate pedigree, at prices varying from 40/. to 602. and 801. ; and calves ai less prices. Three of these bulls have been regu- larly kept on the estate, and are replaced as occasion required.
Both the standard of stock and general management of farms have been greatly improved. Amongst other results Mr. Lamb has informed me that there has been a great increase in the growth of turnips; in fact, one farm now produces as much as the whole estate did eleven years ago.
On the low lands, where a regular system of arable culture is admissible, the following rotation of crops is now adopted :—Ist, oats ; 2nd, turnips; 3rd, barley, and grass seeds, to remain in pas- ture for two or three years. On the higher lands, exposed to the severe winds and storms from the westward, and where the soil is poor, the meadows and pastures are generally preserved unbroken. Mr. Curtis, who occupies the Heald—a high farm in Barnacre, of 109 customary acres, equal to 180 statute, and at an elevation of 500 feet above the sea—has tried a course of oats, turnips with guano, and oats with seeds, with tolerable success. He does not recommend swedes in the high moorish soil, as, from his expe- rience, they do not keep well.
The draining on the whole property is done on a very extensive scale: in 1847, 50 miles of drains were cut; and in 1848, not less than 62 miles, at the following rates, and at depths varying from 3 ft. 6-in. to 5 ft., with 21 in. pipes, and 3-in. ditto for main drains :-—
ft. in. Ss, atl: Cost at a depth of 3 6 ; - © 93 per rood of 7 yards ye dee OI Gut 1G, aPIeESO ri 39 asain | ‘ = aa. 6 ”
the width between the drains being 7 or 8 yards. The prices vary, of course, according to the substratum, ‘but these are gene-
9
32 Farming of Lancashire.
rally paid for the cutting and filling. ‘To this must be added the cost of the tiles, which is 19s. per thousand for 2-inch bore, and 30s. ditto for 3-inch ditto, and the laying them, which is done by the day. To accomplish the draining on this estate it was found necessary to erect a tilery in the spring of 1845, which has been in active work ever since, the supply of pipe-tiles being by no means equal to the wants of the district. During the Jast year, 1848, 598,617 tiles and 33,029 collars were made there by Clayton’s machine.
The farms vary in size, from 20 or 30 acres to 460, which is © the largest on the property, the rent varymg from 10s. to 50s. per statute acre; the majority are held on yearly tenancies or on terms of 7 years, and some have leases for 14 years.
In the township of Nateby the land has been let on an oatmeal- rent since the year 1822, or, in other words, the rent varies ac- cording to the price of oatmeal; and at Cabus half the rent is paid in wheat and half in money: these customs are peculiar to these townships. Inafarm in Nateby, to which I have already alluded, of 151 statute acres, the variation in two years has made a difference of 702. in the rent. In 1848 it amounted to 1902. ; whereas in 1847 it was only 110/., the rental bemg reckoned according to the price of oatmeal the previous year.
Mr. Ford, of Ellel, and Mr. Richard Hinde, of Lancaster, at his farm on Ellel Moor, have both set a good example in their several districts: the latter gentleman deserves especial mention before we leave this division; for in Mr. Dickson’s Report (p. 194) it is said of the improvements attempted there, that they had failed :—< Ellel Moor, near Lancaster, notwithstanding lime has been laid on and the ground treated according to the usual custom of improving wastes; yet, after a few crops taken, seems verging back towards its original state of poverty.” Mr. Hinde has kindly favoured me with the following interesting particulars respecting the present state and cultivation of his farm, Newlands Hall, situated 6 miles south-east of Lancaster ; it lies exposed to the west winds, and is about 300 feet above the sea :—
‘¢ Ellel Moor was inclosed by a special Act in 1756, laid out into farms, and brought under cultivation. Draining and trenching have both been carried on from time to time to a limited extent, but not on a regular or fixed system. The soil is from 2 to 5 inches deep, growing in its natural state—rushes, whins or gorse, alder bushes and heather ; it lies upon a yellow bastard clay, full of stones, and frequently containing large quanti- ties of oxide of iron, making it very hard to cut for drains ; the rock is the millstone grit; the land varies so much, that there are hardly two acres exactly alike. I took possession of the farm, which consists of 77 statute acres, in November, 1843. It has an excellent house and good farm buildings. The tenant had been on it for twenty-two years at a rent of 447.
per annum; but for want of energy, and from bad management, he had brought himself to a stand still. J commenced draining, trenching, and
‘ > ‘ a9 Farming of Lancashire. 33
sub-soiling. Idid not cut any drains the first year on the thorough-draining principle, not feeling sufficiently informed of, or confident in, the system ; -since then I cut them 30 inches, and latterly 3 feet deep, at 7 yards apart, upon Mr. Smith of Deanston’s plan, and find them answer extremely well. I occasionally used 12-inch tiles, and at other times, from the quantity of stones there are, sough-drains, with broken stones on the top. I have been successful in most of my crops: in 1845 I gained the premium for the best crop of swedish turnips at the Lancaster Agricultural Society’s Show, com- peting with the best lands in the neighbourhood of Lancaster—Burton and Milnthorpe; the crop weighed 24 tons, topped and tailed, to the statute acre. In 1846 I had 8a. 3p. statute of turnips, cabbage, mangold, and potatoes; the field was thorough-drained, but neither trenched nor sub- soiled ; it was formerly two fields, and I expended 75/. in draining, levelling fences, picking stones, &c.; and I may here mention that the value of the Jand, as made by two most experienced Jand-valuers at the time I bought it, was 6s. per acre for one field, and 8s. per acre for the other, at twenty- six years’ purchase. The crop was not weighed; but I sold by auction 2A. 3R. 35P. statute of swedes, which realized me 47/. nett towards the outlay of 75/., leaving me above 5 acres for my own; last year I mowed a most excellent crop of rye-grass; so that I think it has nearly redeemed itself, and is in a very different condition to what it was. In the winter of 1847 and spring of 1848 I trenched and drained 6 acres of old ley, and trenched 4A. Ir. 35p. of oat-stubble for green crops, the account of which I give below. The plan I proceed upon is to set my trenching in beds of 7 yards wide, the fall of the land, a drain being cut on each side of the bed. I provide, in the first instance, stones for the first two or three drains, and then commence trenching to the depth of the soil only, breaking up the subsoil to the depth of 10 or 12 inches with a pick, and throw all the stones on the top of the trenched Jand. This year I have used strong forks about 7 lbs. weight, with a projection at the back in this form T, in order to give more leverage. I prefer them to the pick, being, I think, more effectual, and easier forthe men. Whilst the trenching is going on, I have other men cutting the drains in the entrenched Jand, and the stones on the trenched land are wheeled in barrows to the drains, the land abounding so in them that they have seldom to wheel them more than 14 or 20 yards, so that I hardly ever have a horse and cart in the field. I believe this plan to be the cheapest and most effectual for my land, and I have given up the subsoil- plough; the trenching is done by the customary measure of 7 yards square to the rod, or fall, as we call it; the price 8d. to 9d. ; at which price a good man can earn 2s. to 2s. 3d. per day ; the drains are cut by the rood of 7 yards long, 3 feet deep for stone soughs at 7d. and 30 inches deep for pipe-tiles at 53d.; the soughs are made, tiles laid, and stones filled, and drains filled up, by day-work.
“Expense of thorough draining, at 30 and 36 inches deep, and 7 yards apart, trenching, &c., 6 statute acres of old ley on Ellel Moor :—
Lae Says Grubbing whins_. : kaye: : d 2, e0E sO BY alder-bushes . , : ; F FL ae9 Trenching 595 falls of 7 yards square, at 8d. . 1913 8 Cutting 685 roods of drains at 6d., tiles, stone- breaking 258 cubic yards, laying tiles, filling up drains, &e. . : : : : 34.40 18 11 Labour, getting up large stones and alder-bushes, not let by contract, &e. : ‘ : sie LOD (O:..0) 79 10 4
VOL, X. D
34 Farming of Lancashire.
“I removed 920 one-horse cart-loads of stones from the land after it was drained and trenched, which I sold to the Surveyor of Roads, and which paid for the removal, the road being alongside the field, besides 70 loads of good rubble walling-stones from the large stones we had to break up with hammers and wedges. I sowed the field with Scotch lean oats, and gave it 2cwt. of Peruvian guano to the acre; it produced 197 thraves, the band
being made smal! on account of the wet season; the straw was strong and full, but [ have not weighed it for thrave. In corn it gave 441 bushels per statute acre, of 39 lbs. to the bushel ; and having made meal several times, I find it gives me 4 loads of 240 lbs. to the Joad per statute acre. Iam now ploughing it for a second crop of oats with a hand-dressing, probably super- phosphate of lime ; and the condition of the land is most satisfactory.
“From the 4a. Ir. 35p. of oat-stubble which I trenched, I removed nearly 500 one-horse cart-loads of stones, and sold most of them to the roads. I sowed it with swedes, mangold, carrots, and a few potatoes ; and considering the wet summer, 1 had a very fair crop of swedes, about 18 tons to the acre; and with what I have sold and have to sell, I shall more than twice cover the expense of trenching. For mangold-wurzel on poor Jands like mine, independent of the muck put into the stitches, I strongly recommend the practice of dibbling in with a trowel every 10 inches a pre- pared compost, and placing the seed immediately upon it. The compost IJ made last year consisted of bones, horse-feet parmgs from the blacksmiths’ shops, hen-manure, which I carefully save, and ashes, or, still better, refuse charcoal: these were put into a heap under cover, and well wetted with tank-liquid, and left to heat fortwo months. I have a light wooden roller, the same as a garden roller, 30 inches in diameter, with three strips of wood projecting about an inch railed on at every 10 inches longitudinally ; it covers two stitches at once, 30 inches between each, and is drawn by men, and consequently levels to the top of the stitch, and leaves a mark every 10 inches. The compost is put into buckets, and with a garden-trowel the labourer takes out a trowelful of earth and replaces it with a trowelful of manure. The cost of doing this per acre is from 10s. to 12s., if done with men: could women or boys be had, it would be less. I steep my seed in liquid manure twenty-four hours, and put in a bag two or three times larger than required, in order to beable to turn the seed and lay if on the midden in a gentle temperature from four daystoa week. The bag must be turned every day, and great care taken not to place it in too hot a berth. Last year my hind overheated and destroyed the seed, and the consequence was I had at the third weeks’ end to recibble fresh seed ; notwithstanding which I had nearly as fine a crop as any I saw in the better land in the neighbour- hood of Lancaster, owing to the compost and liquid manure. I dibble the seed in with the finger and thumb, placing three seeds at a little distance from each other in the compost at every 10 inches, and cover lightly with the finger. I have thus kad it up ina week from the time of sowing. For carrots I recommend, after they are weeded and about 2 inches high, to give them, if the weather be damp, 1 ewt. of guano and J] ewt. of gypsum per acre, sown on them early in the morning. I did so last year upon my crop, which I thought worthless, and the effect was astonishing.
“ Rotation.—My general rotation is—of old tough ley, two crops of oats, both hand-dressed ; two, turnips, mangold, drilled beans, potatoes, cabbages, and carrots; three, oats, with grass seeds, either mown or left to pasture three or four years—if mown, ploughed up earlier. I do not, however, follow strictly any rotation, but depend entirely upon the condition the land isin. I have two Siquid-manure tanks, and attribute my success in growing green crops mainly to its use upon the first appearance of the plant. My . common turnips were sown very late Jast summer; and in applying the- liquid manure when in seed-leaf several rows were missed. ‘The result was
Farming of Lancashire. 35
that I had not one-third of a crop on that portion, the fly destroying them ; and what remained, for the want ofa stimulant and ready concocted food— liquid manure—made very poor progress, the season being late.
“¢ Manure.—Since 1843-4, my first two years, I have bought no heavy manure, and very little guano—about a ton to 25 cwt. per ann. I find it the most advantageous to make the manure on the premises, by buying linseed and straw for bedding, and laying on as many cattle in the winter as I can accommodate for feeding. I have never bought a single ton of horse or cow manure—only night-soil from the factories, which nobody thought much about, when I first commenced.
‘* Cattle-—The greatest number of cattle kept by the last tenant were in summer never more than five milch cows, and about four or six head of young stock, a pig, and two horses. In 18461 milked fifteen cows, besides having young stock; three horses, and three brood-sows and store- pigs. Last summer I milked twelve cows, having rather more under the plough ; and this winter l have nine milch cows, two two-year-olds, and five fat beasts in my shippon, five yearling calves, one back-end calf, two nine- months-old bulls, three horses, two brood-sows, and eight store-pigs. I have grown Italian rye-grass, and mown three crops; and now that the land is in better condition for it, Ishall sow it again. I grew a very heavy crop of tick-beans in 1847, broadcast, and well mucked with farm-yard manure. The extent of Jand was a customary acre, or 1A. 2R. 20p. statute, and I had sixteen loads of 280 Ibs, to the load and 147 Ibs.
(Signed) “ Rico. HINDE.”’
Northern Division—No. 3.
To the north of the river Lune the county becomes rapidly contracted in its limits, being confined on the one hand by West- moreland, on the other by the sea; over the sands to the north- west there is the rich district of Furness and a hilly tract of some extent, which naturally seems to belong rather to Cumberland and Westmoreland than to this county. Throughout the whole of this northern division the transition limestone, slate, and grey- wacke strata prevail; and the difference in the improved appear- ance of the surface is very perceptible, whilst the cultivation is decidedly superior to many other parts of the county. Furness seems to be the redeeming feature in Lancashire farming. In the soil, the class of farmers, and their general management, this dis- trict would not suffer by comparison with other more favourable and accessible parts of England. It is difficult to conceive two districts more distinct in every respect that can interest a farmer than that on the eastern side of the southern, and this on the western part of the northern division of the same county. The one cold and wet, growing a bad herbage and rushes, and divided into small holdings, with a manufacturimg population, who, occu- pying the land, cannot be said to farm it; the other for the most part natura ily drained by a substratum af, gravel and limestone, in the occupation of men who pay, im some instances, as much as 600/. a year rent, producing beautiful crops of wheat, oats or barley, turnips. and seeds. Soil of every variety, from a strong
Dp 2
36 Farming of Lancashire.
clay to a light sand, may be found within the limits of this division ; but it is generally light and friable. In the neighbourhood of Cartmel and Holker there is a good deal of hard land—stony, but very productive. Over-sands, around Ulverstone and through the whole district of Furness, it becomes stronger, of a red loamy nature, and produces good crops of grain; on the sea-coast it 1s lighter and more sandy. There are two distinct classes of farms in this district—those which belong to large landed proprietors, such as the Earl of Burlington, the Crown, and others; and those which belong to small freeholders. The former are large, and | superior in number and class to other parts of the county; they range from a rental of 150/. to 400/., and some few higher than that, even to 600/. perannum. The latter are freeholds of not more than 40 statute acres, the property of a class of men known in that country as “statesmen,” who, living on their own farms from generation to generation, are content with their small inherit- ance ; and not having wealth nor the means of procuring it, live a primitive and independent life amongst their native hills. These men were formerly the worst farmers in the district, but they are now becoming more alive to their own interest, and willing to profit by the good example of their neighbours. What Mr. Dickson wrote of this district in 1814 is still true with respect to the occupation and size of the farms. ‘To the north of the Lan- caster sands they range from 20 to 100 statute acres ; but farther north, in the vicinity of Ulverstone and in Low Furness, they are as high as 800 or more; and the Furness Abbey farm, Gleaston Castle, and Holbeck, the property of the Earl of Burlington, still hold the first rank, The rental of land in this district ranges from 15s. to 32s. per statute acre. There is not much wheat grown now in the northern district, except on Walney Island, off the west coast of Furness: the prevailing grain crops are oats and barley, the latter being taken by the maltsters at Dalton and Ulverstone. The rotation formerly was, out of ley— Ist, oats; 2nd, barley, manured; 3rd, clover; 4th, oats; and grass seeds, or turnips afier oats; but the course is now improved to—lst, oats; then, where the sward is old and tough, a second year of oats; 2nd, turnips, manured, or potatoes; 3rd, barley; 4th, seeds for two or three years. This land might be made equal to a four-course shift, but it will not do yet; and when wheat is grown, it is not advisable to dispense with a fallow. In Walney Island wheat is grown generally, and the system is—summer fal- low, wheat drilled, beans, barley or oats. Mr. John Patterson, of Holbeck farm, to whom I am indebted for much of my informa- tion respecting this district, came from Northumberland about 19 years ago, and, after his long experience of the country, finds no reason to complain either of the soil or the climate ; the latter,
Farming of Lancashire. BY
though more rainy, he finds not so cold as on the eastern side of England. His farm is about 340 statute acres, and for the most part naturally drained, with a rich loamy soil capable of growing anything. His system of cropping is as follows :—lIst, oats, say 60 acres; 2nd, fallow 30 acres, turnips or mangold-wurzel 30 acres; 3rd, wheat after fallow and seeds, barley and seeds after turnips ; 4th, seeds for two or three years, and so on vice versd, taking care that all the land lies fallow in turn, as he considers it quite indispensable, on account of the scarcity of hand labourers in the district. He grows from four to five quarters of wheat to the acre, and considers 25 to 30 tons of turnips a good crop. Rape has been grown in the district and eaten off, but it is found that the crop of turnips next succeeding it in the course is not so good, and consequently it is becoming unpopular. His farm buildings are commodious, with yards “and sheds for. his young stock attached, and the whole district is well provided in this respect; Lord George Cavendish, of whom Mr. Dickson makes frequent mention, having taken great pains to improve them about 30 or 40 years ago. The farms on this property are mostly held on yearly tenancies; leases are not asked for, and therefore they are not granted ; but his Lordship, under the ad- vice of his able and active agent, Mr. Drew, has lately introduced a new form of agreement, by which the tenant is bound ‘‘ not to take two white-straw crops in succession (except the field has been ten years or upwards in grass, when a second straw crop may be taken), nor in any year to have less arable land in fallow, turnips, or other. green crops, properly cleansed and manured, than is equal to half the land sown with white-straw crops, and shall not grow white straw, corn or grain, on more than 2-5ths of the arable land.”” He has also added compensation clauses for unexhausted improvements, as is customary in Lincolnshire; and this is allowed (on the fulfilment of certain conditions) to the out- going tenant, whether he give or receive the notice to quit. The proportion of the proposed conditional allowances to be regulated as follows :—
“* For bones used on the land; the allowance to extend to three years; half the cost price to be allowed after one crop, one- third after two crops, and one-fourth after three crops. For guano used on the land, the allowance to extend to two years; one-third of the cost price to be allowed after one crop, and one- sixth after two crops. Lor rape-dust used on the land, the allowance to extend to one year; one-third of the cost price to be allowed after one crop. or linseed-cake used for feeding cattle and sheep, one-third of the cost price to be allowed for that which has been used since the Ist of October then last, and one-
38 Farming of Lancashire.
sixth of that used during the preceding twelve months. N.B. Cake given to horses, no allowance for.”
Draining, when necessary in this district, has been done chiefly with horseshoe-tiles, and for soles the refuse slates from the quarries of the couniry. ‘There are four tileries in Fur- ness, two belonging to the Earl of Burlington, and two to other parties. In the former they have made pipe-tiles, during the last year, of 14-inch bore, still using the horseshoe for the main drains. The drains are cut 34 to 4 feet deep, at intervals varying from 10 to 14 yards; and the hole expense of making the drains, carting - the tiles, &c., is paid by the landlord, and the tenant charged 5 per cent. on the outlay.
In the year 1838 the North Lonsdale Agricultural Society was established ; the shows are usually held at Ulverstone, some time in October; and to this Society may be attributed in some measure the great improvement in stock and farming, but especially the former. But to Mr. William Cranke, of Hawk- field, is due the merit of first introducing the short-horns into his native country of Furness. As far back as 1813 this gentleman brought some of this stock from the banks of the Tees. They were not favourably received, and for a long time after their arrival the old long-horns kept their ground; but in 1838 this gentleman received from his friends and neighbours a substantial proof of the high opinion in which they held his services as an agriculturist, in the shape of a silver salver of 25 guineas; and, as a whole, the stock Over-sands is equal. if not superior, to that of any other district in the country.
I have thus endeavoured to describe the soils and important points in the general or particular management of land through- out this county, with the chief improvements and alterations at present going on; and I propose now to consider separately under their respective heads the character of their buildings, stock, implements, &c.; with the improvements still required in the reclamation of waste lands, and conclude with a few remarks on the present prospects of agriculture in Lancashire, and eee condition of the farm-labourers.
Buildings—The materials of the buildings in this county are brick and stone, and vary according to the different situations and circumstances of the districts. These are, however, easily defined: throughout the whole of the eastern or northern parts, the rough stone buildings prevail, with flags or slates for the roofing. On the low country to the south and west, where stone is scarce and clay abundant, bricks are in use, with thatch; but in the better class slate is found, imported either from North Wales or brought from the north of the county. In the low .
Farming of Lancashire. 59
alluvial districts the old houses and cottages were made by a framework of wood, filled up with wattled stud-work, and covered over with a composition of clay and wet straw, locally termed clat and clay; these houses are thatched with straw, and, being whitewashed mside and out, have a tolerably clean and pic- turesque appearance when new; but they are frail tenements at the best, and apt to get out “of order, and are rapidly dis- appearing in fayour of more substantial habitations. The farm- steads are for the most part badly arranged, with little attention paid to veniilation or the economy of space and labour, now considered so necessary in a well- regulated farming establichs ment. The hay and grain crops are generally housed in large barns, which form a prominent feature in the yard, whilst ee humble but more important requisites of steaming-apparatus, Wi chaff and turnip-cutting machines, are seldom met with ; pee boilers are sometimes used by the more intelligent eee who are now beginning to discover their true interests in this respect. Stock- Cattle. 2 Bhe Lancashire long-horned cattle were once famous all over the kingdom, and “prevailed throughout the county; they were remarkable for the great length of “horns and width between the tips, sometimes as St as 4 feet, and even more ; the hide, thick and firm in its texture, was well adapted to east the climate; and, though they did not give very much milk, it was considered to afford more cream in proportion to its quantity than that of other kinds. Mr. Bakewell. of Dishley, is said to have made them the basis of his improvements in stock. As oxen they are quite unprofitable, and not being good feeders they have gradually given way to the short- a which are finer in the bone and hide, and in fatting quality superior to any other breed. At Woodacre Hall, near Garstang, Mr. Daniel, a tenant of the Duke of Hamilton, on a farm of nearly -500 statute acres, has still some of the old and now despised long-horned breed, and prefers them for their hardy constitution and the quality of their milk. He maintains that 7 quarts from one of his cows will give as much butter as 10 quarts from a short-horn. They are longer in coming to maturity, but they also last much longer, and will produce calves up to fourteen or sixteen years of age. I saw the horns of one, measured by him, which were 6 feet 1 inch from tip to tip: the tape being taken down the horns and across the head. Many gentlemen have endeayoured to raise the standard of stock in the county: in the northern districts Mr. Cranke, of Hawkfield, Messrs. Patterson, Holbeck, Mr. Ashburner, Mr. Ormandy, and a few others in Furness, and Mr. Robinson, near Ulverstone, the Earl of Bur- lington, Mr. Rawsthorne, of Heysham, near Lancaster, Mr.
40 Farming of Lancashire. Wm. Garnett, of Quernmore Park, the late Mr. Ford, of Ellel,
Mr. Birchall, near Preston; and in the south Mr. Bannerman, near Chorley, Mr. Eastwood, near Burnley, and Mr. Harvey, near Walton, Liverpool, have each contributed to introduce high-bred animals; but the finest short-horn stock in the county is perhaps © Mr. Townley’s, of Townley, near Burnley. By recent purchases this gentleman has collected together a most valuable herd, which must help to improve the stock, not only in the Southern Divi- sion, but throughout the county generally.
Sheep.—There is no breed of sheep peculiar to this county: nor, except in the hilly districts, are they an important item in the farming stock. Large flocks of the black-faced breed ramble over the eastern moors of the Middle Division, very inferior to what they might be with a little care and attention in the breed- ing. Early i in the spring they are put on the hill pastures, where they remain till November; they are then brought down into the enclosed lands, and paced with a mixture of butter and tar, to prevent their having the scab and losing their wool in the early spring; the young animals, or hogs, in the first winter suffer from the blackwater, a disease brought on by exposure to wet andcold. ‘The best remedy for this would be the erection of sheds, however simple and rude in construction, in which the sheep might be protected from storms both by day and night, a luxury at present unknown to these poor animals. In the hills of the Northern Division there is a considerable improvement; and on the fine lands of Furness a large white-faced sheep, a good deal like the Leicester, prevails, Lord Burlington has lately introduced at Holker the South Downs, which answer exceedingly well, and the successful result of the experiment seems likely to lead to their general introduction into these parts. Mr. Robert Garnett, of Wyreside, has taken some pains to introduce a better class of black-faced sheep, and about four years ago sent down to the Highlands for a flock of the improved Scotch breed. He has met with little encouragement amongst the farmers of his district: some few, however, begin to appre- ciate them, and their value is now much beyond that of the common sheep of the county. Mr. Smithies, of Bickerstaffe Hall, in the Southern Division, has also for the last two years tried some Shropshire Downs on his farm: they are a hardy and productive breed.
FHlorses.— Many horses are bred in Lancashire, and the farmers naturally have a taste for the practice ; but, except in the western parts of the Southern Division already mentioned, they are not of a first-rate class, nor are they as good as they were a few years ago. There is a fair supply of good carriage-horses and hackneys
Farming of Lancashire. 4]
for general work; at Over-sands, in the neighbourhood of Ulver- stone and Furness, more high-bred horses are found than else- where. Mr. Kennedy, of Ulverstone, has by his enterprising exertions contributed greatly to raise the standard there ; for this purpose he has brought down thorough-bred stallions from Col. Peel’s and other racing studs for the season, and horses are sold out of this country at four years old for 802, 902., or 100J. a-piece. The depreciation of value alluded to above, especially in the agricultural horse, is owing to the little care and attention paid by the breeders to the mares, and the miserable par simony which pervades their practice in this respect—“ ex nihilo nihil fit ;’ and they seem to forget that it is impossible to breed a good and valuable foal out of a miserable and broken-down mare.
Pigs—Are generally good throughout the county ; in this re- spect we are above the average of other better-farmed parts of England ; the cottager always finds it an advantage to keep a pig, and it is very seldom that a bad one is seen. At Lathom thier is a good breed of the small kind; Mr. Smithies has got some .of the Berkshire breed, and crossed them with Mr. Hobbs’s, which has produced a good stock and easily fattened. Mr. Billington, at Preston, has also some of Mr. Hobbs’s breed. Mr. Swift, of Lowesbury, carried away two of the prizes given by the Royal North Lancashire Agricultural Society last September at Preston, for a boar and a sow.
Manures.—The most important manures used are lime, marl, sea-sand, bones, guano, ashes, town-dung, farm-yard dung, and compost of various kinds. Lime is used throughout the county almost universally, and is now mixed with salt, for moss cul- tivation ; marl chiefly on peat and moss lands ; sea-sand on the same kind of land near Cartmel. Bones are becoming very general, and are found most beneficial, both as a top-dressing to grass-lands, especially on the high grounds, and as a manure for turnips; but guano takes the precedence in this respect. From one end of the county to the other, from Holbeck to Halewood, this foreign manure seems to be valued most highly, especially mixed with farm-yard manure for turnips. On the Barton pro- -perty, Mr. Logan, agent for Mr. Jacson, informed me that it had been applied largely and successfully : 24 cwt. to the acre on meadow land in the first year, and half the quantity the second, has produced in both years double the quantity of hay that could otherwise be grown. For turnips 3 cwt. or 3% cwt. per acre is necessary, but-a less quantity, mixed with farm- -yard manure, is found to answer better than anything. The guano first stimu- lates, and the manure sustains or feeds the plant. Messrs. Myers and Co. have kindly given me the following return of imports of Peruvian guano into Liverpool, viz. :—
4? Farming of Lancashire.
1841 : : 5 1140 Tons. 1842 isa ahi bathed WSSU TAN 1844 : 2 Bas BSA tics 1845 iiiy. or ale Oh 1846 i - A 16,221 m 1847 ; : <1 (elas 2 tee 1848 ; : oo SOe ee Totals . 81,080 Tons.
Besides this, great quantities from Africa have been imported by different people, and of course it is impossible to say how much has been sold for farming purposes in Lancashire, but there is no doubt that a very large quantity has been, and continues to be, used. Town-manure is by no means collected and made avail- able as it might be; the difficulty of transporting it is the great obstacle to the use of it. If we were as careful in this matter as the Chinese, we should have in the large and numerous towns of this county mines of wealth from which the produce of the soil might be increased to more than double what it is. From Liver- pool it is taken down by the Leeds and Liverpool Canal as far as Rufford, and from Manchester by the Bridgewater Canal to various parts of Cheshire, and to Stretford, Worsley, and Chat- moss in Lancashire, to the amount of 20,000 tons in a year, and the practice is greatly on the increase. The cost from Man- chester, exclusive of cartage to and from the canal, is about two- thirds of a penny, or for short distances 14d. per ton per mule. It has recently been tried in a liquid state and applied to the land adjoining the canal by means of a hose—this experiment gives so far every reasonable prospect of a successful issue. Con- siderable quantities are taken to Chat-moss by the river Irwell, which flows to the south side of the moss, and the cost of trans- port is rather lighter than on the canal.
Irrigation.— This mode of improving grass lands has been little tried in this county, and when attempted, not on any ex- tended or scientific plan. Mr. Dickson, in quoting from the ‘“ original Report’’ on this subject, says, “It is a matter of astonishment that so rich a source of improvement has been hitherto so much neglected ;’’ and the same remark is still ap- plicable.
In a country like this, where rivers and rivulets abound, there would be comparatively little difficulty or expense in throwing the fertilising streams on the land. Mr. Logan pointed out to me some meadow land in Barton which had been irrigated with very satisfactory results, when the land was under-drained pre- viously; it had produced a double crop: and without under- draining, irrigation ought never to be thought of. In this instance,
Farming of Lancashire. 43
however, it is right to state that the irrigation was laid down scientifically, and at a very considerable outlay, by the late Mr. George Jacson.
Fences.—In the hilly districts a dry stone wall, without mortar, is the common fence, built about 6 feet high, to prevent the encroachments of the wild mountain sheep; yet such is their activity and rambling habits, that thisis scarcely sufficient to stop them. Inthe low country the fences are professedly made of quick thorns, but almost invariably they are so badly managed, and so miserable, that they require thorough renovation. Mr. Lamb has within the last few years taken some pains to introduce good fences on the lower part of the Duke of Hamilton’s estates, and these answer exceedingly well, a sufficient proof that it is not the fault of the soil or climate that they are generally so wretched. About three miles of new thorn fences have been made during each of the last two years. ‘The method and form are after the Scotch plan, and as follows :— 7
—
Oo 1S Oo oro OF
Width of ditch at top . ~ Ditto | at bottom Depth of ditto Scaresment width . Soil for thorn bed . Height from scaresment tomtoprot back =... | Inclination of slope one inch in one. Width of top of backing 1 6
Seonowe®
9.
With posts and railing of two bars on the top of the backing, and post, with three bars on the field side of the ditch, the cost of the frame is as follows :—
Three heights of rails and posts, and putting up, pers. d. rood of 7 yards : . ° : : 20 Two ditto ditto : ¢ : 1 63 Thorns and beaches, say 54 per rood : : Chee’ Planting and making ditch according to subsoil, varying from Is. to ls. 4d., say average 5 2 Total per rood of 7 yards . . 3 104
The yearly cost of cleaning thorns is from a half-penny to three farthings per rood for the first five years. Cutting with a Scotch knife attached to a handle three feet long, costs from a farthing to three farthings per rood, if done by a man accustomed to the work; and this plan has produced good fences at five years’ growth. When the posts and rails are removed, by laying a drain in the bottom of the ditch, the plough may go close to the fence. The greater part of the old hedges are very irregular, and occupy a space of four or five yards, with a ditch on both sides of
44 Farming of Lancashire.
the fence; and where land is divided into small fields, as in Lan- cashire, the acres that are lost by this old system must be very considerable.
‘Implements.—The use of good agricultural implements has been rapidly increasing during the last few years; Finlayson’s cultivator, and a turnip-drill for sowing two drills at once, intro- duced from Berwickshire, are in common use in the neighbour- hood of Lancaster; and within the last few years there have been between thirty and forty thrashing-machmes worked by horses set up in the same district. These are also brought from Scotland, and cost about 40/. The Norwegian harrow, Cros- kill’s clod-crusher, Ducies’s drag, with various grubbers and cul- tivators, and drills for seed, I have met with on the farms of gentlemen and large farmers, such as Mr. Patterson of Holbeck, and Mr. Smithies of Bickerstaffe, but many of these are too costly for general use.* The one-horse carts which prevail throughout the county are very good, and the iron ploughs are generally superseding the wooden ones. On the cheese-farms the old stone weights are making way for the iron lever-presses, and there is throughout the county a general improvement in this respect. The small moveable tram-road used by Mr. R. Neilson, Mr. Wilson Ffrance, and the Rev. W. Hornby of St. Michael’s, is on level landa very valuable acquisition to the farmyard, and in our wet climate the greatest convenience in getting turnips off the land. The railway, which consists of a light bar of iron placed longitudinally on wood, in pieces of 16 feet in length, costs complete, about 11s. 6d. per piece, and the waggons about 3/. 10s., but this of course depends upon the price of iron and timber. It is some credit to the mechanical genius, now first applied to agri- culture in this county, that at York the prize tile-machine for mak- ing draining pipes was the production of a Lancashire workshop.t
In the art of Reclaiming and Cultivating Waste Lands, no doubt ‘«“much has been done, but more remains to do.” Besides the mosses and high lands of the county, which, as we have seen, are gradually changing their barren nature into fruitful soils, there exist also large tracts of land by the sea-coast, which at present form part of the shore, that might, by embankments, be recovered from the sea.
In the year 1820 Mr. Edward Dawson of Aldcliffe Hall, near
Lancaster, received from the Society of Arts their large gold
* The former gentleman has used for the first time this season Garrett’s Corn-Drill, which he considers a very excellent implement. In a short note addressed to me on the subject, he says, “‘ We only use two-thirds of the seed which is used in broadcast, and our crops look remarkably promising.” —June 2.
+ See Report of Implements at the York Meeting, 1848. Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society.
Or
Farming of Lancashire. 4
medal for embanking 166 acres of marsh land near the mouth of the river Lune; the particulars of the method adopted are given in the Society’s Transactions, vol. xxxix., No. vii. p. 35. This reclaimed land has produced luxuriant crops, and there is no doubt that land of this description would amply repay the required outlay: after allowing 5 per cent. on the money ex- pended in enclosing Aldcliffe Marsh, each acre pays 25s., the former rental being 2s. 6d. If Cockerham, Pilling, and Thurn- ham sands were enclosed, on the lowest calculation 5000 acres, at present worth little or nothing per acre, would by an outlay of 14s. or 15s. per acre be made worth a yearly rental of 55007.
In the year 1838 an extensive project was formed for the en- closure of 46,000 acres in Morecambe Bay: the intention was to cross the bay by a railway, but the Commissioners of Railways, being directed to compare the line with one by Kendal to Car- lisle, reported in favour of the latter, on account of its being ‘more direct, giving no opinion upon the work of enclosing the Bay, which, however, by engineers, is considered perfectly feasible.
Of late years science has been directed to the great scheme of international communication by railways, which have absorbed the surplus funds of the country; but as these extensive works approach their completion, it is to be hoped that public attention will be turned to such undertakings as the enclosure of the Bay of Morecambe, and for which the coast of Lancashire seems dis- tinguished by peculiar advantages, as it is estimated that more than 80,000 acres might be reclaimed to the north of the river Wyre.
In other parts of the county no great alteration can be effected in the produce without a thorough system of drainage, and that the landowners and farmers are now really becoming aware of the importance of this first step is clearly proved by the many tileries which have sprung up during the last few years. ‘There are now in
The Southern Division.
Tile-kilns belonging to SirT. G. Hesketh, Bart., Mawdesley.
Mir-Slotlands 2! Farrington. Mr. Fazackerly . . Lathom. Mr. Hargreaves . . Broadoak,nearAccrington. The Earl of Ellesmere Worsley. NMirvitorhton:: -... bold, Mre Whalley” 2 .).°.. Chorley. prion Wins Chatter <.:0 74), 4-Burnleye Mr. Doultonand Co. . St. Helens. (Name unknown) . Oswaldtwistle. Col. Rawstorne . . Pennwortham. Mr. Hatton . . . Moss Hawk Hall.
&e. &e.
46 Farming of Lancashire.
In the Middle Division.
Tile-kilns belonging to Mr. Clifton (2) . . Lytham. Mr.,C. R. Jacson,. \\ 4.5 Banton: Mr. W.Garnett . . Bleasdale. Mr. Hull. 2 os Sierra Mr. Wilson Ffrance . Raweliffe. The Duke of Hamilton, Cabas. Mr. Threlfall . . . MHollowforth. Mr. Edmondson . . Caton..
In the Northern Division.
The Earl of Burlington (2) Furness. Other parties (2) . . Furness.
But draming requires great care in the work, and a perfect knowledge of the circumstances of soil, subsoil, springs, &c., and the points suggested by Mr. Bullock Webster on this subject cannot be too well known. ‘The following are a few of the most important, taken froma short letter addressed to the editor of the ‘ Ayrshire Agriculturist :-— ;
‘1. No general rule can be laid down.
“2. Any one system for all soils is an absurdity.
‘¢3. Depth and distance of drains must depend on the nature of the soil and subsoil.
‘<9, That grass land can be over-drained.
“10. The direction the drains should be laid must be governed by the strata to be cut through, the fall, and other local circumstances; the rule of going always with the fall is decidedly wrong.
‘‘]1. There are instances (in the new red sandstone) where drains will act perfectly at 40 yards apart; and there are strong clay subsoils that re- quire drains every 6 or 8 yards.
‘© 15. On the strong clay subsoils (not surcharged with under-water) drains 30 to 36 inches deep, at moderate intervals, are much more effective than deep drains at wide intervals, and on these soils the clay should not be filled in over the tiles or pipes.
‘17. It often happens that drains 4 feet deep and 40 feet apart are placed over a field, when one drain properly put in would cure the whole.” ?
Nothing has been so fatal to the progress of agricultural im- provement as the dogmatical assertion of the absolute necessity of conforming to or adopting one practice, as the only good one, in all cases and under all circumstances. The real thing to be studied is, how best to make those circumstances available which are within reach, and not to abandon the hope of success, or the effort to obtain it, because the same facilities which have enabled our neighbours to be successful are not within the compass of our grasp.
As auxiliaries towards the advance of agriculture and the full development of the resources of the county, the railways must not be forgotten; they are extending gradually like a network over the*face of the county, especially in the Southern Division, affording facilities before unknown in the transport of produce
Farming of Lancashire. a7
and manure, and are effecting a revolution in this respect, which is very important to the farmers. In many parts of Cheshire, where formerly cheese was made, the milk is now taken at once by the railways to Manchester and Liverpool, and the effect of this is, that the cheese-merchants come down into the north to look for that supply which formerly they obtained from the neighbouring county. ‘This has given a new stimulus to the dairy-farmers; and I have been informed by a leading cheese- factor at Lancaster that, during the last few years, the cheeses in the northern districts have in fact improved wonderfully, and that now much more care is paid both to the making and the keeping of them. All this tends to confirm the opinion which prevails amongst many of the most influential practical farmers of the county, that the dairy and the cheese-room must be the chief objects which all our agricultural improvements ought to have in view.
The Agricultural Societies also deserve a special notice. Within the last few years the spirit of inquiry and desire to obtain really useful and practical information on farming matters has extended throughout this county, im common with the rest of the kingdom: we are, in fact, in a transition state, in which every advance in the right direction not only leads to positive improvement, but affords encouragement to further exertions—‘‘ vires acquirit eundo.” The different agricultural societies which have been established in various parts of the county within the last twelve or thirteen years, are a proof of the vitality of this spirit of im- provement, They were, in fact, the waking efforts of a people shaking off their lethargy; and though they may not perhaps have entirely answered the expectations of the founders, they have not been unproductive of good. A few years ago every town, especially in the northern districts, had its pericultural society. Ulverstone, Lancaster, Preston, aa Blackburn vied with each other in their autumnal exhibitions, whilst the private societies of the Duke of Hamilton, Mr. Clifion, and Mr. Ffar- rington occupied the rural districts. Some of these have now disappeared, and others are amalgamated with their more powerful though younger rival, the Royal North Lancashire Agricultural Society. The same change has been taking place in the Southern Division ; and Liverpool and Manchester, instead of having each their separate society, are now united in one. The principle of these large societies is, that they should be perambulatory, like the Royal Agricultural Society of England. It is hoped that by visiting in succession the different districts and important places within their several limits, they will bring within the reach of every farmer, at stated intervals of time, a show of sfock and implements stici”ageno' oval society could possibly present to
48 Farming of Lancashire.
him ; and also, which is very important, afford him the oppor- tunity of meeting with gentlemen famed throughout England for their science and practice, and hearing from them, in the shape of friendly discussions or lectures, their opinions and the results of their experience.
In education we are still very deficient, and also in capital amongst the tenant-farmers: both the means and the knowledge how to apply those means to the best advantage in the cultivation of the land are wanting in Lancashire. This fact has such an intimate relation with the whole subject of leases and agreements between landlords and tenants, that it is impossible to enter fully into all the bearings of this most important question without taking it into account.
Lord Stanley, when presiding at Lancaster, in October, 1847, over the first meeting of the Royal North Lancashire Society, placed the matter in its true ight as regards this county, and I hope I may be excused if I refer to his Lordship’s speech on that occasion. His Lordship is reported to have said—
‘“ With respect to the arrangements between landlords and tenants, if they were not based on the strong ties and feelings of mutual confidence, he should then not hesitate to recommend that the holding should be secured by a lease, rather than by tenancy-at will; because although tenan- cies may be conducted in a manner that shall be satisfactory to both par- ties, leases give advantages which cannot otherwise be bargained or stipu- Jated for. The conditions and durations of leases must necessarily vary under different circumstances, according to the condition in which the farm may be at the time of taking it; but if, as he had before said, the agree- ments between Jandlords and tenants may be considered based on the strong ties and feelings of mutual confidence, he thought there was little advantage in leases over tenancies. If the outlay for improving the farm has to be made by the tenant, then he should by all means be unrestricted, and allowed to receive the full and complete benefit for all his outlay; and at the end of the term, if a tenant had so honourably performed his part, the landlord would be unworthy the name of aman if he did not give such tenant preference over strangers, and on terms more liberal than would be proposed to any other applicant. If it should happen that a great outlay was required, the capital should be advanced by the landlord, and the tenant charged a reasonable interest upon it.”
The establishment of Agricultural Schools and Farmers’ Clubs would tend more directly than anything else to raise the standard of education ; and, when anything of the kind has been attempted, it is gratifying to find that the advantages are soon appreciated.
The Earl of Burlington has founded a farmers’ club at Dalton, which works well; and Mr. Wilson Ffrance, at Rawcliffe, has also tried the same thing on a small scale, which promises to lead to greater things. In both these instances that I have met with, a small circulating library, composed of elementary works on agriculture and agricultural chemistry, and others likely to in- terest a farmer, has been formed, and the books are lent out on
Farming of Lancashire. 49
certain simple conditions ; they are read with great willingness, not to say avidity, and the success of these first steps affords encouragement to further progress in this most desirable direction. The farm-labourers of this county are as well off, and perhaps better than in any other part of the kingdom, except where manufactures are found, asin Yorkshire, &c., and their cottages for the most part comfortable and substantial, Fuel is cheap everywhere, whether it be coals or turf, and an able-bodied man can earn 12s. or 13s. per week in any district. Mr. Patterson, of Holbeck, gives his men 7s. a week and their meat in the house, and Mr. Wilson, of Newton Park, has some in the house alto- gether ; but this is not a good system, nor does it generally pre- vail. As a class, I should say they were better housed, better fed, better warmed, and better paid than in many parts of Eng- land where agricultural occupations are their only employment.
The section of a ‘‘ Corn-Mow.”
February 28, 1849.
To Mr. Garnett.
My vear Sir,—I regret that I was from home when you called here on the subject of your Report of the Farming of Lancashire; but I now send you the particulars of the process of working the field you saw in turnips jast week—a process which several years’ experience induces me to re- commend as the best and quickest mode of bringing heavy, worn-out Jand into good play.
The field consisted of many small fields which I laid together, as my landlord desired.
Having all been for several years overcropped, under-manured, and short
VOL. X. E
50 farming of Lancashire.
weeded, or rather never weeded, I had all to do. I commenced by carting upon the stubble, in autumn, 40 tons by weight of good farm-yard manure to the statute acre, and ploughing it in broadcast about 6 inches deep. J then cross-ploughed it with a four-horse plough 12 inches deep, and sub- soiled 6 inches below that. A portion was sown with winter-vetches ; the remainder was exposed to the action of the winter frost. Early in spring two other portions were sown with spring vetches, at different periods. The portion unsown was then well worked, weeded of twitch, &c., ridged up, bow-harrowed, sown with 1 ewt. of a compost of sulphurized bones, guano, and charcoal, or wood-ashes, ridged up again, so that the compost would form the seed-bed, rolled, and sown with turnips, which you saw growing well. As the vetches are cut off, the Jand will be transplanted with swede turnips, which may be safely done as late as the middle of July. For work of this kind good implements are essentially necessary, and I have derived the greatest benefit from Crosskil]’s cloderusher and Stretton’s Norway harrow, both equally valuable, the one on dry, and the other on damp land. I have also derived much advantage from watering the seed-bed, or the young plants, with weak manure-water, so as to stimulate it through the attacks of the fly; and I have given to Mr. Cross- kill the mode! of a very simple and cheap contrivance, by which two boys _ can water four drills at a time, by means of a spout and four Indian-rubber tubes attached to a common water-cart. If the water is near the field, they may apply it, with one horse and cart, to about six acres per day. During the period of the fly I also used, with much success, a straw brush, which passes over four drills at once—a light pole about 11 feet long, with a small wheel at each end. The pole is lapped with straw, which trails along the tops of the furrows, and disturbs the fly. It does not destroy the fly ; but the chances are hundreds to one that the same leaf is not again attacked during that day; and a boy and light horse or pony can go twice over 10 acres in a day with ease.
Many experiments and close observation of the result have convinced me of the value of this simple contrivance.
As my system of transplanting is different from any other, and has been very successful, I will give you the particulars.
I prepare a bed, and sow it early in rows about 8 inches apart, and thin out to 4 or 5 inches in the row. An acre will thus transplant about 20 or 20 acres.
As the vetches are mowed off, the space cleared is ploughed, well worked, dressed with 2 ewt. of the compost, and ridged up. As this work proceeds the plants are being prepared, and are planted while each drill is damp and fresh. As dispatch is only produced by division of labour, the process is as follows :—One party, No. 1, pulls the best plants, keeping them “ heads and tails,” and carries them to another party, No. 2, who sits at the end of the ground to be planted, and who nips off the slender part of the tap-root and the upper part of the leaves, laying them in a basket, also “heads and tails ;” No. 3 carries them up the field to No. 4, who lays them in the drill, with the leaves towards the planter’s left hand; No. 5, who must be a man or boy, that, striding across the drills, no petticoats may interfere with the plants just put in. I never use the dibbling-stick, which, in heavy Jand, only hardens the inside of the hole, but the planter is furnished with a light, hollow, half-round steel trowel, with which, in his right hand, he lifts up a portion of soil, while with his left he puts the plant in a slanting direction below it; then drawing back the trowel, the soil falls loosely on the plant, and a short stride of one leg takes him to the next. j
The proportion of labour for pulling and topping depends on the size
-
Farming of Lancashire. 5]
and position of the plants; but one layer will do for two ordinarily quick planters, though my bailiff, whom you saw, can transplant a statute acre in the day. I usually transplant from 15 to 30 acres per annum, and have raised, according to the examination of the Inspector of the Liverpool Agricultural Society, 26 tons 4 cwt. per acre; but the land must be *“mucked heavily, ploughed deep, and weeded clean,” which I consider now, more than ever, the farmer’s motto.
You allude in your Report to my invention of a portable railway, which, I assure you, is a most valuable implement. Isent a model the other day to His Grace the Duke of Richmond, for the Entailed Estate Improvement Committee of the House of Lords, and the railway may be got at a very reasonable cost from Mr. Crosskill of Beverly. By it I remove the whole of my green crops without the least injury to the land; and last autumn I put 127 tons of manure on 3 acres of land, lying from 220 to 400 yards trom the manure-heap, at a cost in labour of 23s.
I can only repeat my regret that I did not see you on your visit to my farm, when I would have shown you the modus operandi of these different implements, and which I shall be happy to do on any future occasion.
Yours, &c., Halewood, June 2, 1849. Ropert NEILson.
Il.—On a Dress for Drainers. From the Marquis of WESTMINSTER.
To Mr. Pusey, M.P.
Dear Mr. Pusrey,—I mentioned to you last summer a plan we adopt to protect our drainers, when working in a narrow trench to the depth of 3 or 4 feet, from the moisture with which their clothes are saturated and their skin soaked for the day, while exposed to cold and damp, by which rheumatism and its attendant evils are entailed.
The plan being one which the labourers readily take to, and from which they derive obvious comfort, | wish to recall your attention to the subject, giving you the result of what I have tried for some years with success, and of which others may per- haps approve.
We supply our labourers with a sort of leathern trowsers, which protect the hips and legs from coming in contact with the wet clay. ‘These leggings are used only by the man who digs the last narrow spit and scoops out the lowest soil from the trench before fixing the pipe. In bending forwards, his shoulders also are brought into contact with the upper sides of the wet trench, to guard them from which a pair of leathern armlets are most use- ful. These armlets, as well as the leggings, are put on and taken off with perfect facility, are so far pliable as to create no impediment to the action of the labourer, fit sufficiently close not to rub against the sides of the trench, or make it crumble, and effectually keep out the wet for the entire day. They are easily rolled up and carried to and from the place of work.
E 2
o2 On a Dress for Drainers.
The leggings are formed of ordinary leather, in two pieces detached from each other, about 40 inches in length, and 18 inches wide at the top for the waist; 20 inches a little lower down, allowing a sweep for the haunches; and 15 inches at the ankle, One strap is placed on the front and one on the back of the top belt of the right legging; and corresponding buckles on the left legging, to fasten them up round the waist. ‘Three buckles are placed on the lower part of the straight front of each legging, with three straps behind, just below the sweep, ex-
panding round the haunches; which expansion may be restrained, ~
if thought necessary, from sticking out, by another buckle and strap behind, a little below the belt-strap. The straps and buckles being drawn together round the leg, form the trowser or legging, one being above the knee and two below it.
The armlets are also formed in two pieces of rather lighter leather, 30 inches in length, 13 inches wide round the shoulder, 8 inches at the wrist; a strap and buckle to surround the wrist, the same just above the elbow, and the same to unite the two separate pieces of leather across the back; a piece of webbing on each side to tie loosely across the chest, to keep the armlets in their place. ‘The leather is scooped inwards at the top, not to interfere with the face and neck.
For placing the pipes in their bed we use a pair of nippers made by our own workmen. The handles, which are of oak, play on an iron pivot—and, where this pivot works, are 14 and 1 inch thick, but are gradually reduced both ways for lightness, and slightly bulge at the hand-end for convenience in holding. The additional breadth of the parts that clutch the tile is gained by screwing on another piece of wood with two screws, which is additionally secured by the screws of a roughed iron plate (not one-eighth of an inch thick) with which those parts are faced, and which is turned over the end and screwed again with two screws at the back. ‘The advantage of this tool is, that the drainer can handle the tile readily, in whatever position he may find it, and place it firmly in its bed, without of course having to descend himself into the narrow scooped channel prepared for the reception of the tile only.
The draining leggings cost, the pair, about 20s., the armlets 10s., the tile-nippers 7s. 6d.
I send a pattern pair of trowsers and armlets, and nippers, with a sketch of each, to the Agricultural Society’s office, for any one who may have the curiosity to look at them.
Believe me, my dear Mr. Pusey, Very truly yours, WESTMINSTER. Motcombe House, Shaftesbury, 20th Feb. 1849.
On a Dress for Drainers. 53 ~. 1ginch. A
- 1 ft. 3 inches
4 feet.
FOSEROS SSG SeSce 20 inches’
RIGHT ARM.
RIGHT LEG.
The measurements given are full size.
The left leg should of course have 2 buckles instead of 2 straps at the top, and the left arm a strap, XX isa piece of webbing, fastened to each arm, which cross like braces, and are tied on in front,
54 On the Giant Sainfoin.
IIl.—On the Giant Sainfoin. By Tuomas Hine.
Tue Giant SAINFOIN, as it has been styled by Mr. Hart, of Ashwell, Herts, the fortunate introducer thereof, was totally un- known in this neighbourhood until about twenty years ago. It was then, on Mr. Hart’s inquiring in the market for Sainfoin seed, that he was apprised by the late Mr. Carrington, of Shefford, Beds, that he had twenty bushels of old seed he was at liberty to try ; for which, if it did not grow, he would make no charge. These terms being accepted, the seed was sown, but, owing to its being late in the season and a dry summer following, it did not vegetate until the autumn, but in the spring it became vigor- ous and strong, and turned out to be a distinct species of the plant, possessing such peculiar properties, as will go far ulti- mately to supersede the growth of the common stock, unless it be upon some of the very poorest of our soils, where it is sown for purposes for which the Giant species would be unsuitable, and to which I may hereafter advert.
The crop thus obtained was mown for hay in the usual way: but Mr. Hart was surprised to find, that about six weeks after it presented him with another crop, in full flower. This also was mown for hay; but in September it came again into flower, and again was cut for hay, The same fertility in its growth occurred in the second year, and with the same results, save that it excited the wonder of the neighbourhood, and was the subject of general discussion. ‘This led Mr. H. the third year of its being in plant to suffer the second crop to go to seed, which, with all the stock since produced therefrom, has possessed the same peculiar pro- perties; and a desire being evidenced by many parties to procure the stock, Mr. H. was enabled to dispose of his seed for many years at prices varying from 50s. to 80s. per bushel.
Although residing in the immediate neighbourhood where it was introduced, and a large grower of Sainfoin, I must confess that I was rather sceptical as to its being so decidedly superior to the common stock, as to justify the enormous price demanded for the seed; at length, however, by repeated examinations of the plant in its different stages for two or three years, I became fully alive to its important properties, and determined to possess my- self thereof: I did so, and my success and disappointment I shall proceed to detail.
Having obtained two bushels of seed, I sowed it in July upon land which had been prepared for turnips, and obtained a fair plant; but the fly made such ravages thereon, that I was reluc- tantly compelled to plough it up. My next effort was made in the month of March following, by obtaining from Mr. Hart 4 bushels of seed, for which I paid him 80s. per bushel ; and, being
On the Giant Sainfoin. 5)
anxious to make the seed go as far as I could, I planted it by dibbling between the rows of wheat drilled in the autumn upon a pea stubble, which had been previously well prepared in reference to this object. My reason at this time for selecting a wheat crop upon a pea stubble was, because I thought I could depend upon such crop not injuring the plant; whereas I felt that, with no other crop upon the farm, I should be perfectly safe should a dripping summer ensue. The enormous price I paid for the seed induced me to use this precaution. I have, however, sub- sequently discovered other reasons which have induced me to continue the practice. Wishing to cover as much ground as I could with my seed, I set six droppers to follow one man, that only one seed should be put in each hole, making them as close as possible. In this way I succeeded in making the 4 bushels of seed reach over more than 24 acres of ground. ‘The seed planted well; and although the plant was thin, yet, having left the stubble to protect the plant during the winter months, it rallied early in the spring, and, by the first week in June, I could have cut 35 cwt. of hay per acre; but, thinking I could obtain two crops of seed in one year, J left it for that purpose, cutting it in July; but the plant being thin, it branched out considerably, which retarded the flowering, and, consequently, the maturing of the seed, so that only a scanty crop was realized ; and the second crop, although it went to seed, was late in October before it attained anything like maturity, and a frost causing the seed to fall, the crop was a total failure. By falling into this error I sus- tamed a heavy loss. ‘The 24 acres as a maiden crop produced me only 19 bushels of seed ; whereas had I mowed the first crop for hay, and the second for seed in August, there would have been more uniformity in its ripening, and I have no doubt, from crops I saw treated in that way, but I should have obtained 40 bushels of seed, so that, when the loss of the hay crop was:also taken into account, my loss by this injudicious step amounted to about 90/., as some of my neighbours obtained 80s. per bushel this season for their seed. The next season | was more success- ful, and in June cut about 40 cwt. of hay per acre, and in August obtained about 20 bushels of seed per acre.
Wishing, however, to notice my failure as well as my success, I proceed to state that the next season I procured another 4 bushels of seed, at 70s. per bushel, which I planted by dibbling with Tartarian oats, sown thinly, but very early. ‘The seed was put in precisely the same as with the wheat crop of the preceding year, but it never planted so well, and the oats being heavy, the Sain- foin was only a partial crop ; still, however, I suffered it to remain three years in plant, and the price of the seed ruling high during the whole period, it was, upon the whole, a profitable crop.
56 On the Giant Sainfoin.
[ now feel myself bound in all fairness to notice an unfortunate occurrence which took place in 1844. Havmg determined to sow all the seed of my own growth until [ had obtained the breadth I usually grew entirely of this stock, I sowed all my stock of seed, for which I could have obtained 70/., by drilling between the rows of corn, which proved an entire failure, owing to the excessive drought of that summer. But herein I was not sin- gular, as I know of no party who obtained a plant in that season. The clovers, also, were generally affected in a similar way, only 6 acres out of 70 acres I sowed realizing a plant.
Having by this time, from my own observation, discovered the peculiar properties of this species of the plant, I shall proceed to detail them, and, with a view to make myself more clearly un- derstood, [ shall do so principally by showing in what respects it stands contradistinguished from the common stock. There is very little difference in the appearance of the two varieties, but it is generally a shade darker in its colour, is more rapid in its growth in the spring, and still more so after the first cutting, Sent in this locality, generally takes place very early in June; after this it shoots much earlier and grows much faster than the common stock, and by the end of July will be again in full flower. The bulk of the second crop will mainly depend upon the state of the weather. Upon whatever soil it is planted, it will always be much more bulky in a moist season than in a dry one; still, however, be the season moist or dry, it will go to flower at the same time, and produce as much or more seed in a dry season than in a dripping one. If cut a second time for hay, it will be in flower a third time in September, but if left for seed, it will be ready for cutting in August, after which it will produce an eddish nearly equal to what is generally produced by the common stock after the first mowing. Again, the root of the Giant species is not so large as that of the common stock, roots of which I have sometimes known to penetrate upon a chalky soil to the depth of four or five feet, bemg proportionably large, but the roots of the Giant species are much smaller. The stalk, also, will be larger and taller, especially the first year it is in plant; the reason of this is, its maturing itself much sooner than the common stock, The stalk, it is true, will possess a greater cavity in the middle, and, as a matter of course, will flatten more in the hay stack; but whether this is advantageous or not I really cannot take upon my- self to determine. With regard to its nutritious qualities I have no knowledge; but I have known that when both species have been sown side by side and depastured, the stock have given a decided preference to the Giant species ; this, moreover, is corro- borated by the observations of some highly respectable indivi- duals, whose testimonials will accompany these remarks. I have
On the Giant Sainfoin. ay
also known where a party grew a small quantity, and placed it in the middle of a large stack of the common stock, that the horses gave a decided preference to the few cakes of the Giant species, whenever it was arrived at in cutting down. JI have also clear proof that the fodder arising therefrom, when it is cut for seed, is superior to that produced by the common ‘stock, when each is equally well gotten.
But before I leave the subject of the peculiar properties of this species, | must remark, that it matures itself much quicker than the common stock, which never attains ful] perfection before the second, or, in some cases, the third year after it is in plant; but I have known the Giant species produce, upon a chalky soil, 2 tons of hay per acre the first season it was in plant. Still, however, | have never yet known a crop of this species but what produced a greater bulk in the second than in the first year of its growth, provided the season was equally favourable. I have also known seed sown in April, without the intervention of a crop of corn, produce a most abundant crop of hay the same year; and some sown at the same time produce seed in September. It must be admitted in each case that the land was good and in high condi- tion; a crop of turnips having been previously fed off. “There is ‘hii a crop now growing upon land of a heavy character, well drained, which was sown in February last with oats, which was not only cut with the oats, but has since then produced another crop, which was used for soiling the working horses upon a large farm. I shall now close my remarks upon the merits of the two species (except so far as an observation or two may be necessary in my further remarks) with this important fact, viz. :—I have frequently known the two species tested side by side, but never, within the period I have recommended it should be continued in plant, an instance wherein the decided superiority of the Giant species was not clearly apparent ; and from others, who in different parts have tested them in a similar way, I have received communications giving the most unequivocal testimony of the same results attend- ing their experiments.
Having, as before stated, suffered much from a failure, or par- tial failure, of the plant, I began most assiduously to inquire what would be the best method to “adopt. in order to ensure success in this particular. And here I would acknowledge the obligations I am under to a gentleman from Berkshire, detailing the success which generally attended the cultivation of Sainfoin in a crop of wheat, which practice I was at first induced to adopt from such recommendation, without ever satisfying myself as to the ground or reason of such success. And perhaps it may not be altogether uninteresting to my readers, if I briefly detail the circumstances
58 On the Giant Sainfoin.
which have caused me, step by step, to arrive at my present con- clusions thereupon.
For upwards of twenty years I had invariably adopted the practice generally had recourse to in the neighbourhood, of sow- ing the seed with a crop of barley or oats, sown after turnips, where the land had been previously well cleaned and cultivated as a preparation for the crop, and sowing not more than half, or at most two-thirds, of the quantity of corn, lest it should grow too large and endanger the plant of Sainfoin, which would of course prove a greater loss than a partial defection of the corn crop, as it would extend itself over the number of years the Sainfoin re- mained in plant. But even with this precaution, | have known, in seasons of great drought, that the plant has been so far de- stroyed as to render it unfit for the purpose for which it was sown. ‘lo obtain a greater certainty in procuring a plant without any loss in the preceding crop, is what I have been aiming at for the last ten years ; with what success I shall proceed to detail.
From experience I have proved that land, to ensure success in planting this crop, should possess a friable surface, and solidity in the soil immediately below the surface: without the former you cannot obtain a plant; and without the latter, although a plant may be obtained, in a season of. excessive drought it cannot be retained. It is essential for the reception of the first roots; for however fine the mould may be at the surface, if there be no solidity, the drought, if long continued, will destroy the plant ; but with both these pre-requisites I have never yet known a failure. The question then naturally presents itself, Is this pre- paration generally found in the ordinary course of cultivation upon a farm? If not, you must either abandon the cultivation, or undertake it upon a risk; for I hold it would be altogether unadvisable to cultivate expressly to meet the requirements of a plant which is only intended as an auxiliary to a profitable system. There will, however, be no difficulty as to this ; for upon land in a perfectly clean state, sown with wheat the preceding autumn, whatever may have been its previous course of cropping—except it be a clover layer, which I should not recommend—you will in the spring find all that is necessary to ensure success in obtaining a plant. I have seen most excellent crops of Sainfoin produced in this way : in some cases by drilling the seed between the rows of wheat, in others across them ; and also in a crop of wheat sown broadcast. I should, however, in either case, recommend that the seed should be deposited with a drill, by which means it is better covered at one uniform depth, and a considerable saving of seed is effected: from two and a half to three bushels of seed per acre being amply sufficient, when sown in this way, upon land as
On the Giant Sainfoin. 59
above described. Nor is this all ; it is clear to me that the plant will mature itself sooner in this way than with a spring crop, unless the season should prove more than ordinarily favourable for a crop sown with spring corn. There will also be no loss with the corn crop. JI have repeatedly known excellent crops of the Giant Sainfoim producing, by the first week in June, from 35 to 40 cwt. of hay per acre, upon Jand which had produced 4, 44, and in one instance 5 quarters of wheat the preceding year. I am aware that the introducer of the Giant species recommends that it should be sown upon land in high condition, without a crop in the spring; that some superior crops have been obtained in this way, and that sometimes a crop of hay or seed has been produced in the summer or autumn, upon land sown the preced- ing spring; but this is a practice which will never be generally adopted.
I have been thus particular in detailing the results of my ex- perience as to the cultivation of Sainfoin in a wheat crop, not with a view to condemn a different practice, where such practice has for any length of time been successfully adopted ; on the con- trary, I should advice parties desirous of cultivating this species of the plant, to adopt the same course as they have known to be successful in their various localities in reference to the common sainfoin, the requirements for its cultivation being, in my opinion, (with one exception, to which | may hereafter advert,) precisely similar. Still, when it is evident that a more successful method is practised in another locality, I hold it to be the duty of enter- prising characters to try it in their own, taking care to do so with caution.
I hold that man to be a novice, however valuable and extensive his acquirements may be, who, upon finding himself placed in a new locality, should forthwith fancy he has nothing to learn from his neighbours, who, with their forefathers, have from age to age been located upon that particular spot, and must therefore have had ample means of acquiring the knowledge necessary to suc- cessful cultivation. On the other hand, I should hold those parties to be anything but wise men who should wilfully shut their eyes to any experiment which a stranger but newly located among them might make, merely on account of its novelty.
Having fully explained what [ have found to be the most suc- cessful method of securing a plant of Sainfoin, | proceed to show how the Giant species may be brought into profitable cultivation, in a general way, upon farms where the four-course system of cultivation is adopted, without any maternal disorganization of such system, and with such apparent success as, I flatter myself, will so commend itself to the intelligent cultivator of the soil, by the ample remuneration it must of necessity produce, as to bri ing
60 On the Giant Sainfoin.
it into general use upon all soils adapted to the cultivation of the plant. In doing this, I shall first give a brief outline of the system [ recommend, and then show how far my own experience, and that of my neighbours, is corroborative of the advantages which will attend the system propounded.
I take it for granted that the system of sowing the whole of the barley shift with clover is no longer practised generally, from a conviction that half the shift, sown every eight years, will produce at least three-fourths as much food as can upon an average be produced from the whole of the shift sown every fourth year. When this plan is adopted, it will leave half the shift to be sown with some other crop. Here it is that 1 would commence opera- tions: upon a part of this—say one-sixth of the entire shift— which I will suppose to be cropped with peas, and which, upon a farm of 100 acres, in each season will amount to about 17 acres ; to this quantity, therefore, I should direct my attention so soon as the peas were harvested, and, by a little extra labour then, and during the period that elapsed before Michaelmas, I should take care to render the process of summer fallowing after the ensuing wheat crop perfectly unnecessary. ‘This being done, I should, in the wheat crop, whether sown broadcast or in rows, deposit the seed with a drill in the spring. In that case, the land will present you with a crop of sainfom in place of the turnip-crop. This may be mown early in June for hay, and again in August for seed, and it will then produce a fine eddish in October. This I should continue in planta second year, when it would displace the barley crop, and again in the third year displacing the clover layer. I then propose that it should be taken up for wheat with the rest of the shift, when, in my opinion, it will with the same treatment pro- duce the best crop the shift will afford. J am quite aware that the plant of sainfoin will not be exhausted ; but, upon a sainfoin layer of four or five years’ standing, the wireworm sometimes makes sad ravages in the ensuing wheat crop, and even in the turnips and barley that follow: when the plant has been taken up in full vigour, say at the end of three years, | have never known these disasters occur. My practical readers will perceive, that by pur- suing this system, and planting another 17 acres in a similar way in the ensuing year, and another in the third year, a breadth of 50 acres may be appropriated each year to the growth of this valuable plant, without any sacrifice of corn-growing crops, save the 17 acres of barley in each year. From 50 acres of sainfoin thus produced, I calculate that from 80 to 100 tons of hay would be realized (in proportion to the productive powers of the soil) by the first mowing, which will for the most part be found suffi- cient for the entire consumption upon the whole farm, especially when the fodder arising from the 50 acres of seed in each year is
On the Giant Sainfoin. 61
taken into account, which last will be equal in quantity and value to from 30 to 40 tons of meadow hay, supposing each to be equally well gotten. By adopting this system, it follows that the whole of the clover upon the farm may be fed with sheep, except in such localities where a more successful mode of disposing thereof can be had recourse to. This practice, moreover, will meet one of the peculiar properties of this species, which is this:—I do not think it will remain in plant so long as the common stock ; which, with its maturing itself so much earlier, and the extra mowing it undergoes, is not very surprising. Still I have known it answer well for five years, where most abundant crops of hay were pro- duced in each year ; but the seed crop of the last year wasa failure, the seed dropping from the stem after it was set. In another in- stance, when it was sown upon a weak clay, well drained, in the middle of a 30-acre field of the common stock, and treated the same, by being mown once and then depastured, it remained in plant as long as the other was allowed to remain, being eight years.
I shall now proceed to show how my own experience and ob- servation bear out the utility of the system I have laid down in theory. In 1845 I selected a field of 24 acres, which had been well manured in February, 1844, and sown partly with beans and partly with peas. ‘The soil was a reddish loam, with a fair pro- portion of gravel stones, and the subsoil, at the depth of from 18 o 24 inches, was partly chalk and partly a dry white clay of a chalky character. This wasall planted with wheat in the autumn: the sainfoin drilled between the rows in the spring, and the stubble left during winter to protect the plant. It has received no manure since that period, but has been mown once for hay and once for seed in every subsequent year; part was drilled at the rate of 2 bushels, part at 24, and the remainder at 3 bushels per acre. The crop was all good, but I gave a decided prefer- ence to the thickest sown. ‘The hay is not so coarse, and there are more stems to produce seed on the second mowing. The field having planted well, I am desirous of ascertaining how long it will continue in plant, being mown once for hay and once for seed in each year. The field planted in 1846 was prepared in a similar way, and although the wheat crop was splendid, and partially lodged, the sainfoin is very good, 3 bushels per acre having been sown. In 1847 a piece of exceeding poor chalk land was planted, after being prepared in a similar way; but, like all the sainfoins in this neighbourhood, being its first year in plant, it suffered in the spring from excessive wet weather, and the hay crop was not so productive as I usually grow, but has since been thrifty, and promises well for future years. The piece planted in 1848 was put in with wheat, sown partly after beans and partly after rape.
62 On the Giant Sainfoin.
The wheat was much lodged, but not so long before harvest as to destroy the plant; and since then it has grown Juxuriantly. The plants thus obtained in four consecutive years are looking healthy and strong ; and when the regularity thereof is regarded in con- nection with the weight of the wheat crops in which they were respectively produced, to say the least of them, they go to prove that by planting the sainfoin with wheat, instead of a spring crop, you do away with the necessity of making a sacrifice in the crop, in order to ensure a future crop of sainfoin; as, in my opinion, a crop of wheat will rarely be found lodged to such an extent as to en- danger the plant growing therein.
In further corroboration of my own experience, I may here be allowed to remark, that many of my friends and neighbours have adopted the system herein recommended, and at present I have never known a failure in obtaining a plant, although one party lost it when obtained in this way, through its having been eaten with slugs in the month of May.
The recommendation [ have given for cultivating the Giant species in accordance with the four-course system of cultivation, has not been made without mature consideration ; and perhaps I shall be excused if I proceed to state some two or three of the most important reasons which have led to this conviction. I have been more than forty years engaged in agricultural pursuits, which have been attended with a measure of success, and I have no hesitation in stating it as my opinion that the Giant species will be more remunerative to the cultivator thereof in three years than the common stock will in jive ; this will of course give two years more for the land to be appropriated to other purposes. But, besides this, after three years in full plant, you are certain of your crop of wheat, whereas after five years, to say the least, it is hazardous. Again, by adopting this practice no derange- ment is offered to the four-course system, while the land is ap- propriated without any extra expense to the growth of crops for three years, equal in value, upon an average, to any crops pro- duced upon the farm, while they displace only one corn crop— the barley ; all this is at less expense than would be incurred in the ordinary way. For instance, the crop of wheat will for the most part repay the additional expense in preparing the pea stubble for the reception of the sainfoin. ‘The turnip crop, upon an average, will cost as much producing as it is worth, the barley crop will not equal the value of the sainfoin in the second year, nor will the layer displaced by the third crop be anything like the value of the sainfoin crop. Besides, on many farms pecu- liarly adapted to the growth of sainfoin, the occupiers depend upon the clover for all the hay necessary for general consumption, and mow a considerable proportion thereof for this purpose ; but,
On the Giant Sainfoin. 63
by adopting this system to the extent required for hay, they avoid the necessity of repeating the clover too often.
Under any circumstances, | should not recommend more than half the hay and fodder arising from the sainfoin to be consumed in the yard; believing as I do that it may be more profitably applied by cutting it into chaff, and giving it to the sheep upon land with the turnips. Here the intelligent farmer will be best able to judge for himself in the selection of his stock. I keep breeding ewes, and winter my lambhogs, selling them in the spring, either fat or as stores, or keepimg them during the early part of the summer upon the clover, as circumstances may re- quire; but others, who wish to consume much cake and corn, may prefer keeping sheep wholly for fatting purposes. In either case, | am of opmion that the consuming alive of the hay will generally be obtained, and a greater return to the land realized, than by consuming the whole in the yard. And in either case I am of opinion that the return to the land from the hay thus con- sumed thereupon is greater than would be effected by the value of such hay consumed in corn, in a similar way, in any year, and especially in a very dry summer, when corn consumed upon the land is sometimes injurious to the barley crop. When this prac- tice is followed up year after year, much permanent improvement will be seen upon the farm, especially when such a practice is carried out merely as an auxiliary to a system heretofore working tolerably well.
In various letters respecting the Giant Sainfoin, I have met with such observations as this: “| think the generality of the Jand in this neighbourhood is too poor for it.” Now J have known it answer well within a few miles of this place upon a chalky soil, where the land was only one remove from unprofitable cultivation. The land, indeed, was highly cultivated, but not more so than was profitable. If, in the remark above given, allusion was made to the system I know to be practised upon some exceedingly poor soils, of sowing the land with sainfoin, and when it is no longer remunerative for mowing, using it for a sheep-walk, I must confess, in that case, I ie not think it is so well adapted, seeing as before stated, it will lose plant sooner than the common species, unless it be treated as such species generally is, without regard to taxing its more productive powers. For my own part, eee ee reason to doubt but that upon our weakest soils a crop of seed may be produced proportionate with the stamina such soils may possess. I would, however, adopt every possible method that I could reasonably expect to be remunerative, in order to increase the fertilizing powers of the soil previous to planting the sainfein ; and, although I have recommended a wheat crop upon a pea stubble to plant the crop of sainfoin upon, having found such a
64 On the Giant Sainfoin.
practice beneficial in its results, there is, nevertheless, a far better preparation to be made for both wheat and sainfoin upon weak soils, by large flock-masters, in the following manner :—by sowing Italian rye-grass, rye, or tares, as may be deemed most judicious, upon the barley stubble, so as to produce a sufficiency of green food for a flock of young lambs by the middle of April ; they may then be placed thereon, and allowed to run before their dams in pens, giving them a fresh piece every day. ‘The ewes following them may be kept upon mangold, reserved for that purpose, together with such dry food in the troughs as may be requisite to keep them in condition and enable them to suckle well. In this way they may be kept to the end of May, at some additional expense, it is true, but not more than the extra sheep kept will amply pay for, and the land, by being ploughed as the sheep pass over it, will be sufficiently pulverized, and in good condition to produce rape for early feeding, or, with the assistance of a small quantity of Lawes’ manure (af required), early turnips, for September feeding, may be produced ; these may be fed with corn or hay, as the land may require, when it will be in fine condition for a wheat crop and the sainfoin which follows it. I merely make these suggestions upon a practice which I have known to be successfully adopted upon a weak soil, as a prepara- tion for the cultivation of the Giant Sainfoin.
Newnham, Baldock, Herts, April 19, 1849.
The Testimonials subjoined are from parties who have tested the merits of the plant in different parts of the kingdom.
Ichleton, Cambs.
Sir,—I have only grown the Giant Sainfoin one year, but, from one year’s trial, I shall certainly not think of growing any more of the common stock in future, as the crop of Hay mown from the Giant exceeded in weight that grown from the common stock by at least one-fifth; after which it was seeded, and the after-feed was then equal to that of the common sort after the hay-crop only.
The soil upon which mine is growing is a dry rubbly chalk.
I am, Sir, yours, &e., To Mr. Hine. SAMUEL JONAS.
—
Redbridge, near Southampton, Hants. Sir,—The Giant Sainfoin has far exceeded my expectation, and fully deserves the high character you gave it when you sent the seed. It was sown under very unfavourable circumstances, with a barley-crop, in March, 1847, upon a piece of our poorest land, the plough frequently running upon the hard gravel.
The barley, in parts, was much lodged, but the Sainfoin took no damage,
On the Giant Sainforn. 65
and appeared very strong and vigorous in the autumn and during the winter, the severe frosts making no impression upon it.
Being planted by the side of a piece of clover, the rapidity of growth in comparison was remarkable in the spring of the year, and by the 26th of May it was ready for the scythe, when there was at least 30 ewt. of hay per acre. Ina few weeks afterwards the crop was again knee high, and in good condition for stable-food or second crop of hay; but wishing to procure more seed, I allowed it to remain for that purpose, after which it produced herbage 7 or 8 inches high.
I certainly consider it a most valuable plant for agricultural purposes generally.
I am, Sir, yours, &e., To Mr. Hine. WILLIAM STRIDE.
West Hagbourne, Berks.
Sir,—In reply to your inquiries respecting the Giant Sainfoin, I beg to inform you that I succeeded very well.
The seed was drilled upon a light loam soil, with a crop of wheat, at the rate of 2 bushels per acre.
The first crop I mowed for horses, the second was seeded, and the third fed with sheep.
I certainly consider it far superior to the common stock.
I am, Sir, yours, &c., To Mr. Hine. J. LousLEY.
Moiland, Ash, near Sandwich, Kent.
Srr,—In reply to yours respecting the Giant Sainfoin, I beg to state I sowed the three sacks of seed you sent me, upon 33 acres of poor thin staple with a subsoil of chalk, in a erop of wheat, which in the spring was attacked with wire-worm, and the Sainfoin suffered considerably from the same cause; but though in consequence the plant was thin, it realized the next year a good crop for hay, and afterwards a crop of seed, with an aftermath about equal to that of the old stock after the hay-crop only.
Iam therefore perfectly satisfied with the trial I have given it, and shall certainly recommend it to the notice of the Sainfoin growers in this neighbourhood.
I am, Sir, yours, &c., To Mr. Hine. AUSTEN GARDNER.
Lanark, near Weston, Herts.
Srr,—In reply to your inquiries respecting the Giant Sainfoin, I beg to state that I have grown it about ten years, and have always found its properties the same.
I have been an extensive cultivator of the common stock of Sainfoin, and have also grown Lucern for soiling for stock ; but there is no doubt in my mind as to the superiority of the Giant Sainfoin to either, for any pur- pose, as it produces more weight per acre, and the quality is decidedly superior to Lucern, or any other green food I ever grew.
I have experimented upon it in a variety of ways, and do not hesitate to pronounce it a most valuable plant; and no one who knows its value as well as myself will for long remain without it.
I am, Sir, yours, &c., To Mr. Hine. JosEPH BEAUMONT. VOL. X. F
66 On the Giant Sainfoin.
Clare Hall, Cambridge.
Srir,—In reply to your inquiries respecting my opinion of the Giant Sainfoin, I beg to state it has been cultivated upon my farms about eight years, partly upon chalk and partly upon heavy land, well drained, on both of which it has succeeded well; and I have no hesitation in stating it will produce more weight, whether as soiling for horses or for hay, than any other artificial grass of which I am aware.
I have kept it in plant five years, and others a longer period, where it has been more free from grass, and can speak to its superior qualities to the common stock, in whatever way it may be appropriated.
I am, Sir, yours, &c., To Mr. Hine. Witiiam Wess, D.D.
Royston, Cambridgeshire.
Sir,—The Giant Sainfoin is fast superseding the common variety in this neighbourhood.
Having watched its progress for many years, I think its merits cannot be questioned, when the extraordinary produce is known.
The small supply of seed, and consequent high price, are the only im- pediments in the way of driving the other sort out of cultivation.
I am, Sir, yours, &c., To Mr. Hine. Vatentine BeLpAM.
eee
Boarhunt, near Fareham, Hants.
Sir,—In reply to yours respecting the Giant Sainfoin, I beg to inform you that, having obtained some seed, I dibbled it in with the barley- crop in 1847, beside some of the common stock, both under the same treatment.
The continuation of dry weather during the summer materially affected the artificial grasses in this neighbourhood, but the Giant species mani- fested much more strength and vigour than the common Sainfoin.
This year 1 seeded both. Neither produced much seed, but the Giant the most, and was much stronger and more bulky in crop, producing afterwards considerably more herbage, which was fed off with lambs; and I particularly noticed the decided preference they gave to the Giant— being turned into the field, they invariably went to that part, and ate it bare before they would go upon the other.
From what I have already witnessed, I am convinced this species is far more productive than the old stock, and only requires to be known to be more extensively cultivated.
The soil upon which my seed was sowed is of a strong loamy nature, with a subsoil of chalk,
I am, Sir, yours, &c., To Mr. Hine. GrorGE CREED.
Ashwell, Herts.
S1r,—I have had some Giant Sainfoin in plant, more or less, for fifteen or sixteen years, and have always found it produce more in the first crop than the common sort, as well as a crop of seed afterwards.
I have carefully observed it since it has been grown in this parish, and am so convinced of its value, that I should never again sow the commen stock for any purpose when this can be obtained at any reason- able rate.
I have used it for soiling for my horses, and find it superior to anything
On the Giant Sainfoin. 67
I have used for that purpose, and am satisfied that those who know its value as well as myself will never farm without it.
I am, Sir, yours, &c., To Mr. Hine. : JOHN SALE.
Little Marlow, Buchs.
Sir,—In reply to your inquiries, I beg to state I drilled the Giant Sainfoin seed purchased of you with a crop of barley, beside some of the common variety, upon a light chalky soil, and from the commencement there has been a decided superiority in the growth of the Giant over the old stock.
It produced a good crop of hay, and the aftermath was fed off with cows, when I was amused and astonished to see these animals, so soon as from the yard, walk over the old sort to the Giant species, and not take a mouthful till they arrived at the latter.
My opinion, from present experience, is, that the productive properties and superior quality of the Giant species render it fully one-third more profitable than the common sort, though I have for years been aware of the valuable properties of this plant.
I am, Sir, yours, &c., To Mr. Hine. JosEPH WETHERED.
Shepereth Bury, Cambridgeshire. Sir,—I beg to inform you that I have cultivated the Giant Sainfoin four years, and have sowed it beside the common stock, by planting a piece of the latter between two pieces of the former, when the difference was clearly discernible at a great distance; indeed, it grew from 8 to 10 inches longer in the stalk, and was more rapid and much stronger in its © growth. I should certainly not cultivate the common stock again, nor would any of my neighbours, but for the high price at which the seed is now selling. I am, Sir, yours, &c., To Mr. Hine. Nasu WoopHam.
Lutlington, Cambridgeshire. Sir,—In reply to yours, I beg to state J have grown the Giant Sainfoin ten - years, and have frequently tested its properties beside the common stock, and, in every case, found it much superior, even upon the weaker chalks, formerly heath-land. Tam so satisfied of its superior qualities, that I would not be without it upon any account. I am, Sir, yours, &c., To Mr. Hine. Tuomas KImrron.
Dunton, Beds.
Str,—I have had a piece of the Giant Sainfoin in plant eight years, beside some of the old stock, planted upon heavy land, well drained; the former has always been much more productive than the latter.
Having grazed horses, cows, and sheep upon the piece, I noticed that each had a decided preference to the Giant species, eating it down bare before they would go to the other.
In every respect, and for every purpose, therefore, I consider it far superior to the old stock.
I am, Sir, yours, &e., Lo Mr. Hine. RoBert Brown.
Eee
68 On the Giant Sainfoin.
West Halton, Lincolnshire. Str,—I beg to inform you that the Giant Sainfoin I purchased of you has succeeded very well. It is planted upon a light red loamy soil: the seed was dibbled in, and produced this year a good crop, which I mowed for the horses. It now looks remarkably well, and in my opinion is decidedly superior to the old stock, and will doubtless, after awhile, be generally cultivated I am, Sir, yours, &c., Lo Mr. Hine. Isaac GREEN.
ee
Newnham, Herts.
Sir,—The Giant Sainfoin has been cultivated by me, upon a small scale, from a short period after it had obtained so much notoriety.
1 have invariably taken a crop of hay previous to a seed-crop, and have obtained, in some instances, as much as 80s. per bushel for my seed.
I have planted this species of Sainfoin upon chalk-loam, and also upon heavy land, well drained, but give a decided preference to the latter, where it has always grown the best and strongest.
I have one piece now in plant, upon a clay-loam with a subsoil of clay, which is very thrifty—this was drilled with a wheat-crop after beans,—and another piece, partly upon clay-loam and partly upon chalk ; but that growing upon the former description of soil is decidedly the most thrifty.
I am, Sir, yours, &c., Lo Mr. Hine. Witiiam Doacer.
Litlington, Cambridgeshire.
Sir,—I have proved the qualities of the Giant Sainfoin to be very superior to the common stock, it having produced a crop of hay and a crop of seed each year it has been in plant.
The first piece I sowed was in 1840, which remained in plant till 1847, when I ploughed it up and sowed the land with cats.
The first crop of hay, independent of the seed-crop, is more than equal to what the old stock would have produced.
I am, Sir, yours, &c., Mr. Hine. THomas RussELL. Launceston, Dorset.
Sir,—In reply to your inquiries respecting the result of my experiment with the Giant Sainfoin I purchased of you, I beg to state that I sowed a field of high, thin, chalk land with Sainfoin, in a barley-crop, planting the Giant species in the middle of the field, to give it a fair trial beside the common variety.
During the ensuing winter it appeared more strong and healthy than the old stock, and at the time of mowing for hay would have produced a much greater quantity per acre ; but I allowed it to stand for seed, which was cut. on the 13th July, yielding about 16 bushels per acre.
The field was then laid up till October, when the Giant was too bulky for sheep-feed, producing in weight full three times as much as the common sort, or about 25 ewt. per acre, which I used as soiling for my oxen and colts.
As an alternate crop, where broad clover fails, I consider it one of the most profitable crops that can be grown upon high chalky soils, with which the county of Dorset abounds.
I am, Sir, yours, &c., Mr. Hine. JAMES BuRGEss.
On the Giant Sainfoin. 69
Stotfold, Beds.
Sir,—I have cultivated the Giant Sainfoin more with a view to test its real properties than for any other purpose, and have sowed it upon the richest and poorest description of soil I occupy.
The former is arich, deep, black gravel-loam, where it remained in plant four years, being mowed for hay and seed each year. The plant was thin, but the hay-crop most abundant.
The latter was some land where gravel-stone had been dug and the surface-soil buried, leaving nothing but the siftings to work upon. Here, also, it has answered well, producing both hay and seed the last two seasons ; and it has been remarked by myself and neighbours, that the hay-crop alone in each year was superior to the average of the corn-crops I had heretofore grown upon the land.
I now regret that I did not cultivate the plant more extensively at an earlier period, as no one, in my opinion, who knows its value, will cultivate the common variety when this can be reasonably obtained.
I am, Sir, yours, &c., BRYAN GIBBINS.
Bassingbourne, Cambridgeshire. Dear Sir,—I take the earliest opportunity of replying to your note. I have grown the Giant Sainfoin for some years, and on different soils, but chiefly on thin chalk hills, which I think peculiarly suited for it. I have sown it side by side with the common Sainfoin, and the difference in the growth and produce of the two sorts was astonishing. The Giant comes earlier to maturity, and, I believe, upon all poor, thin-stapled chalk-soils it will supersede the former—growing much earlier, stronger, and of greater produce per acre. You are quite at liberty to make what use you please
of the above remarks. I am, dear Sir, yours truly, James LILLEY.
Littlebury, near Saffron Walden, Essex, Dec. 26th, 1848.
Sir,—In answer to your inquiries, I beg to inform you that I have grown the Giant Sainfoin four years upon a thin rubbly chalk, and have found it considerably more productive than the old sort. Some persons have doubted the distinction, but even the most sceptical have only to see the two varieties growing together to be convinced of the superiority of the Giant. Not only does it mature somewhat earlier for mowing (at the same time producing 20 per cent. more), but the rapidity with which it grows the second, and even the third time, is quite wonderful.
I think, in a few years, when its properties become more generally known, it will be considered by the flock-masters, upon light soils, to be quite indispensable ; for, with a moderate breadth of it in plant, they will never know in the summer months what it is to be short of keeping; indeed, I quite expect, at some future time, it will altogether supersede Lucern, for, with the same attention and manuring, I feel confident as much weight may be produced, and, I think, superior in quality, as all growers of Lucern are aware that the second and third cuttings are not relished so much by their stock as the first ; but this is not the case with the Giant Sainfoin, which is eaten with avidity at every cutting.
I am, Sir, yours, &c., To Mr. Hine. JOHN CLAYDEN,
70 Observations on the various Insects
IV.— Observations on the Natural History and Economy of various Insects affecting the Potato-crops, including Plant-lice, Plant- bugs, Frog-flies, Caterpillars, Crane-flies, Wireworms, Milli- pedes, Mites, Beetles, Flies, §c. By Joun Curtis, F.LS., Corresponding Member of the Imperial and Royal Georgofili Society of Florence; of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, &c.
Paper XY.
Tue disease* which has assailed the potatoes for the last four
years, frequently rendering the crop worthless, and setting human ingenuity at defiance to discover a remedy, appears to result from atmospheric influence, produced probably by a succession of cold, heat, and unusual humidity, which did not agree with the consti- tution of this imported esculent. Amongst the numerous causes that have been assigned for the appearance of this alarming and severe visitation, insects have been frequently taxed as the destruc- tive agents, but I am convinced the calamity is not to be attri- buted to their presence.{ It certainly was remarkable that the Aphides should have swarmed in countless myriads in 1847, but the malady was not then so bad as it was in the previous and suc- ceeding years, which appeared to me to be the most fatal to the potato-crops,t yet, as far as my observations extended, the plant- lice were so scarce during 1846 that it was with difficulty I could find specimens, and I did not see a single Aphis upon my pota- toes in 1848, notwithstanding the crop was worse than it had ever been before in my neighbourhood, more than half of them being rotten. The appearance of the Aphides in such unprecedented swarms may fairly be attributed to the same cause as the potato rot—namely, certain conditions of the atmosphere, for it is gene- rally admitted that the appearance of a species of insects in un- usual abundance, may be the effect either of some exciting influ- ence, as electricity, or of a congenial temperature, creating a climate favourable to the increase of the animal, such as heat and moisture. In other instances it no doubt is owing to the absence
* Murrain, being ‘‘a plague in cattle,” ought never to have been applied to the potato disease, as it frequently has been.
+ M. Guérin holds a similar opinion, as well as Mr. Westwood and different members of the Entomological Society of London. Vide Bulletin of the Royal and Central Society of Agriculture in Paris, vol.v. p. 331, and Gardeners’ Chron., vol. vill. p. 468.
{ The very great breadth of potatoes planted in 1848 has given so much larger an amount of produce, that the loss from disease is not felt as it would have been had the usual quantity only been grown; and this is a very important fact to keep in view as regards our future prospects. Indeed, is it worth while, at present at least, to sacrifice so many acres of valuable land in growing rotten potatoes ?
affecting the Potato-crops. 71
of animals and parasitic insects in the previous year, whose pro- vince it would have been to keep within bounds these troublesome enemies to man.
If, however, the prevailing disease amongst the potatoes cannot be traced to the presence of insects, there is a large number of species which prey upon, and undoubtedly injure to some extent, the most healthy crops, and of these the history will now be given. It will be better to divide them into those which affect the foliage, and others which infest the roots, first in a sound, later in a dis- eased state.
Apruipves, or Plant-lice.
Many varieties of these insects are found upon the leaves of the potatoes during the spring and summer nionths, indeed so long as the foliage remains green and succulent. Their first appearance depends upon the mildness of the weather, for when it becomes cold they do not generate, or at any rate very slowly, so that the species disappear; but if a plant be taken and protected in a greenhouse or sitting-room, their economy is not interrupted even in the winter, as one sees by the Pelargoniums being covered with Aphides when they are neglected. I have at this time (January) two tulips in a pot, the convoluted leaves swarming with Aphides, allied to the one infesting the peach-trees: the apterous females are daily bringing forth young, and the pupz are hatching and producing winged females.* But to return: I very much doubt if there be any species exclusively attached to the potato, for the one named Aphis vastator by Mr. Smee appears to me to be identical with my A. Rape, which inhabits turnip-leaves, and was described and figured in this Journal in 1842.+
In confirmation of my views I may state that, in April, Mr. F. J. Graham has detected the Aphis Persice { upon the potato- leaves in his vinery; the beginning of May, Mr. Denham found A. granarius, or an allied species, in some abundance on the potato-leaves at Broxmouth Park. On the 5th of June, 1847, 1 observed upon my potato-haulm the hop-fly (Aphis Humuli) and the turnip-plant louse (4. Rape); on the 13th also a species without honey-tubes; on the 17th several belonging to a group separated from Aphis, and called Schizoneura ; and in July, Aphis Fabe, the broad-bean louse, was-in some force upon the potatoes, whilst it was swarming upon other vegetables and garden flowers ; for instance, the shoots of dahlias, the underside of the leaves of the convolvuli, French and scarlet beans, beet, and parsnips were
* Mr. F. Walker considers they are the A. vastator of Smee. + Vol. iii. p. 53, pl. C, f. 1, 2, 3, and Gardeners’ Chron., vol. vii. p. 21. } Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1047, where nearly sixty species are arranged.
72, Observations on the various Insects
literally covered and black with the winged females, sticking in closely-packed phalanxes, and in that position they died by the end of July or earlier—without killing any of the plants, to the best of my knowledge.
No one acquainted with cultivation will attempt to deny that the plant-lice have the power to destroy a crop,—for instance, the horse and broad beans were a light crop, and entirely failed from the attacks of Aphis Fabe in many districts in 1847; but in that very year the potatoes in gardens, where the Aphides were abun- dant, proved sound crops; whilst in 1848, where no Aphides could be found, the tubers were worse than at any former period. That Aphides will puncture the potato-leaves there can be no doubt, and so incline them to wither ; but there 1s no proof of their poisoning the sap and causing the rot. Indeed it is only when plants are smothered with them, as we see beans, turnips, hops, and roses occasionally are, that their presence causes any real mischief, and then it simply arises from the local exhaustion pro- duced by the abstraction of the sap from the leaves or young shoots, and of course when the circulation is impaired and the cel- lular tissue is deprived of its nourishment and dried up, the foliage becomes spotted and withers ; but in no instanee have I seen the Aphides on the potatoes in sufficient numbers to destroy the crop, or even to injure the produce.
The economy of the Aphides has been so amply detailed in a former volume,* that I shall now merely identify the species above noticed.
1. Aphis Rape, Curtis, Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. 1 p. 03, pl. C, figs. '1, 2, 3.
Having received so many different species from various corre- spondents with the name of A. vastator, it is difficult to decide which is intended for the authentic one; but some which were stated to be typical examples, and identical with those figured and described by Mr. Smee, leave little doubt on my mind that they are the same as the Aphis Rape.
2. A. Humuli, Curtis, Gardeners’ Chron. for 1846, p. 405.
The winged specimens are exceedingly like A. Rape in size and colour.
3. A. Persicee, Morren, is very like the preceding species, but it is rather larger, with much longer and slenderer ducts. In the autumn of 1834 prodigious swarms of this species were carried by a hurricane over many parts of Belgium.
4, A. Fabz, Scop, Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. vii. p. 418, pl. R, figs. 21 and 22,
* Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. iii. p. 49. * Ann. Acad. Roy. des Sci. de Bruxelles, for Aug. 1836.
affecting the Potato-crops. 73
To render the history of this species more complete, the female and pupa are represented in our plate U; figs. | and 3, magni- fied; figs. 2 and 4, the natural sizes.
5. Schizoneura lanigera, Hausen? belongs to a group which has been separated from the genus Ap/is in consequence of the different neuration of the wings, &c. ‘The winged specimens are only accidental inhabitants of the potato, and may frequently be observed on almost every plant in the garden. As a proof of the great fecundity of these insects, | put three from the potatoes into a quill, and in 6 hours they had produced 43 young ones.
At the same time the natural enemies of the Aphides were not inactive: the lady-birds (Coccinelle 7-punctata and C. dispar*) were laying their eggs, which soon hatched, and the little black larvee made great havoc, as well as their parents, amongst the helpiess communities: the beautiful 2-winged flies (Sceva bal- teatat and Cheilosia teniatat) were also depositing their eggs beneath the potato-leaves, where they soon hatched, and the mag- gots commenced feeding on their Aphis prey. These eggs are white, oval, and beautifully granulated, whilst those of the lady- birds are smooth, and of an orange or buff colour.
There are likewise some minute bugs and their larve, which are exceedingly serviceable in destroying the Aphides ; and there seems to be scarcely a plant or tree where they may not be found ; the perfect insects inhabiting the flowers, and the immature ones running about in search of the Aphzdes, which they transfix with their sharp rostrum.
These bugs are included in the Orper Hemiptera, the Famity Coreip&, and the Genus Hytopuita or ANTHOCORIS. The Ist species is called
6. H. Nemorum, ZLinn.: it is only 14 line long: fig. 5; 6, the natural size. It is black and shining, the head is trigonate, narrowed before, with a 3-jointed rostrum bent under the breast ; the 2 globose eyes are prominent, and the 2 minute ocelli at the base of the crown are remote: the 2 horns are half as long as the body, straight, 4-jointed and black; Ist joint short, 2nd the longest, bright ochreous, the tip black; 3rd and 4th of equal length, the former ochreous at the base, the latter conical at the apex: thorax triangular, truncated before with two transverse channels: scutel triangular, acute, and not small: elytra elliptical, lying flat on the back, and extending beyond the abdomen, pale ochreous, with a spot at the suture, a bar or spot on the disc of each, and the oblique margin all fuscous ; the terminal membrane is white, with a fuscous spot on the disc and a larger one at the
* Jour. of Royal Agric. Soc.,, vol. ii. p. 57, pl. C, figs. 15 and 16. } Ibid., vol. ii, p. 66. ay Curtis's Guide, Genus 1241, No. 3.
74 Observations on the various Insects
tip: beneath are 2 transparent but iridescent wings, with a smoky spot at their tips: the 6 legs are bright ochreous and slender, the base and tips of the shanks, as well as the feet, are pitchy, and there is a ring of the same colour near the apex of the hinder thighs. It varies so much in the markings, that the different varieties have been described under the following five names by Fabricius, viz., sylvestris, fasciatus, nemoralis, austriacus, and pra- tensis.
They hide themselves when disturbed, often running into chinks in the bark of fruit and other trees, where probably the eggs are deposited ; likewise under loose bark as well as in moss, where they hybernate, to come forth again in the spring.
The larva (fig. 7; 8, the natural size) is very minute at first, yet it resembles the parent in having a rostrum, horns, and 6 legs, but it is narrower, of a blood or chestnut colour, more ochreous when fasting, and it has no wings: the head is furnished with a very acute rostrum, longer than the head, the horns and legs are ochreous, the terminal joint of the former being the stoutest and of a blood colour. Fig. 9, the thorax and head nearly in profile. The pupa (fig. 10; 11, the natural size) is as long and broader than the perfect insect, which it greatly resemblesin form, and it is equally active and useful: it is of a deep shining chestnut colour ; it has no little eyes on the head: on each side of the back lies a flat rounded lobe, ochreous at the tip, and they contain the inci- pient elytra and wings: the body is broad, convex and orbicular : the horns and legs are ochreous, the first and last joints of the former of a chestnut colour.
7. H. minuta, Linn., is a smaller species, being little more than | line long: fig. 12; 13, the natural size. It is shining black : the horns are brown, ochreous at the base: hinder part of the thorax punctured: elytra ochreous and punctured, the apex fuscous; membrane smoky on the disc: beneath them are 2 transparent wings: legs ochreous, tips of feet dusky. The larva and pupa are smaller than those of the former species, but they are equally beneficial, I believe, in preying upon the Aphides.
Fuses, or Muscipaz.
Mr. E. Doubleday transmitted to me some flies which were stated to be laying their eggs in the young shoots of the potatoes, and causing the rot. They belong to the OrpER DrpreEra, the Famity Muscip@, and the Genus Sapromyza. The species has been named by Fallen
8. S. obsoleta.* It is bright ochreous, producing a few long black bristles: the eyes have 2 purple lines when alive, but are
* Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol. 605, and Guide, Genus 1295.
affecting the Potato-crops. 75
brown when dead: the apical half of the 3rd joint of the horn is black as well as the pubescent seta: the abdomen is rather smal]: wings ample, yellowish and iridescent, but transparent, nervures ochreous: balancers with a large triangular club: legs whitish- ochre ; at the apex of the hinder shanks, where the spur is in- serted, is a brown spot ; the feet are dusky, the hinder thickened, especially the basal joint: expanse of wings 5; lines.
The larvz of most of the Sapromyzide are said to live in putrid substances, as mushrooms, &c., but Mr. Haliday has bred S. rorida from fiowers.
THRIPS.
In the summer of 1846 Mr. Barnes of Bicton* and many other practical gardeners entertained so strong a conviction that a little Thrips was the author of the potato epidemic, that I care- fully investigated the subject, and was soon satisfied the disease could not be attributed to their agency. On the 30th of July Mr. Barnes sent some diseased potato-leaves with several of the little Thrips upon them, Being in Oxfordshire at the time, I immediately visited several allotments where I had observed the leaves and stalks were spotted. On digging up some of the worst, we found a diseased tuber of good size, and two more the following day. After a diligent search I detected the larva and pupa of the Thrips, as well as the perfect insects, amounting to about twenty specimens, The Thrips was most abundant where the plants were sheltered from the wind, invariably inhabiting perfectly healthy leaves; and on the following morning I could find very few. In another spot, where the leaves were dead and the haulm spotted, we did not find one bad potato amongst those we dug up, nor a single Thrips on the green leaves af a lew healthy- looking plants still remaining.
Various species of Thrips injure different crops of grain and fruit, as well as greenhouse plants, by abstracting the fluids which ought to sustain them, and so far the Potato-Thrips acts upon the leaves, but that has nothing to do with the rot in the tubers. When they congregate in countless myriads, as they often do in melon and cucumber frames, their presence is soon indicated by ochreous spots upon the cuticle, which end in the destruction of the leaf, arising from their puncturing it with their short beaks, and extracting the sap in the same manner as the Aphides;7 but their number upon the potatoes was never sufficient to effect any important change on the constitution of the plants.
These minute creatures run with activity over the surface of
* Gardeners’ Chron., vol. vi. p. 532. j Journal of Royal Agric. Soe., vol. vi. p. 500, Thrips cerealium.
76 Observations on the various Insects
the substances they feed upon, and no doubt the winged indivi- duals can fly, ‘The larva is shuttle-shaped and ochreous; the head is small and oval, with a minute black eye on each side, and a short beak beneath ; the 2 horns are twice as long as the head, slightly pubescent and 4-jointed ; first 2 joints small, 3rd egg- shaped, 4th nearly as long as the others united, ovate at the base and attenuated to the apex: trunk very long and broad, composed of 3 segments, the Ist trigonate with rounded angles, the 2 fol- lowing forming broad bands; the abdomen is as wide as the thorax, composed of 9 segments, conical and hairy at the apex: 6 short legs; thighs very short; shanks dilated; feet indistinct or wanting (fig. 14; 15, the natural size).
The pupz are also ochreous, but before they change to the perfect state they become much darker; and being such atoms they are not easily detected under the leaves when at rest, lying close to the midrib or nervures, but they run about lively enough when disturbed.
They belong to the Orper Hemiptera,* the Faminy Turtiesip#, and the Genus Turips, The species on the po- tato was described by Linnzus a century back, under the name of
9. T. minutissima (fig. 16; 17, natural size). It is scarcely 4 of a line long; pale brown or dirty ochreous: the horns are short and 6-jointed ; the eyes are intensely black: the trunk is concave, and the sides parallel: the abdomen is oval, pointed, piceous, and shining: the 4 wings, lying parallel on the back, are narrow, dirty white, and ciliated: 6 short legs, stoutish and ochre- ous; shanks and feet simple.
SmyntTuurRus and Popura; the Ground-fleas.
In July and August numbers of these curious little creatures accompanied the Thrips, running and skipping about the under- side of the potato-leaves, often falling down upon their backs.
They constitute an OrpeER called Tuysanora, and belong to the Genus Smyntuurus. As I cannot find any description which entirely agrees with the potato species, I have named it
10. S. Solani. It is not bigger than a small grain of sand, and either entirely of a deep ochreous colour with black eyes, or as black as soot with ochreous horns: the head is large, like a great mask, and attached by a slender neck: the eyes are placed on each side of the crown; the horns are more than half the length of the body, slender, elbowed, and 4-jointed? the trunk and body are united, forming a large globose mass, with a forked tail doubled under the latter for leaping: the 6 legs are rather
~)vir: Holiday raised the Thrips to a distinct order, Lhysanoptera ; Ent. Mag,, vol. ili. p. 439, and Curtis’s Brit, Ent., fol. and pl. 748.
affecting the Potato-crops. 77
short, and apparently triarticulate (fig. 18, magnified; 19 is to show the leaping apparatus in another species).
These minute animals are nourished by eating the parenchyma of the green leaves, but some species feed on fungi. In Nova Scotia the crops of turnips and cabbages are principally de- stroyed, whilst in the seed-leaf, by some Smynthurus, the size of a pin’s head, and nearly globular. It hops with great agility by means of its forked tail, and may be found on every square inch of all old cultivated ground, but it is not plentiful on new land. As these “ Ground-fleas” will not remain on damp ground, they may be expelled by sprinkling salt over the land after the seed is sown and well rolled down, or a thin layer of sea-weed spread over the drills is a perfect security against them.*
An allied Genus called Podura has very lately been accused of being the origin of the potato-disease. W. P. says—
*¢ First, in an early stage of its existence, it lives on decayed vege- table matter, which it collects by burrowing into the earth ; secondly, it occurs in numbers sufficient to cover nearly the whole surface of the earth; thirdly, it collects, as a means of existence, a substance which is poisonous to vegetables. It has power to infuse this into living plants by burrowing into the parenchyma. ‘The poison is circulated through the system, vital action becomes suspended, mildew immediately fol- lows, and in less than three days some of the plants attacked are dead vegetable matter, food for the offspring of the newly-discovered Podura.’’+
Dr. Lindley very justly adds, “ Insects are not the cause of the potato-disease.”
Cimicip#, or Plant-bugs.
It is somewhat remarkable that whilst portions of these crea- tures, as we have already shown, are destined to live upon Aphides, and so preserve our vegetables, others have an opposite taste, and, like the Piant-lice, pierce the cuticle to feed upon the juices, causing similar injury by parching up the leaves, or covering them with blotches.
The appearance of various species of Plant-bugs, their larvee and pupz, upon the potato-crops, excited the attention of agri- culturists, some of whom were at once disposed to attribute the prevalent disease to these insects. The truth is, when an un- known malady first visits us, it is natural that every one inte- rested should endeavour to find out the origin, consequently every imaginary influence is taxed as the cause by the speculative mind; and from the little attention that is paid by the farmer and gar- dener to the economy of insects, they are led to believe that cer- tain tribes of animals are the culprits, because they chance to be
* Halifax Times. ‘+ Gardeners’ Chron. vol. vili. p. 702.
78 Observations on the various Insects
abundant upon the plants, and they never observed them before ; but if their attention had been directed to the subject earlier, they would in all probability have detected the same insects upon the same plants every year, in greater or less abundance.
In July and August, 1846, I had numbers of specimens trans- mitted to me from Devon, Winchester, and various counties, the parties expressing a strong conviction that these Potato-bugs were the cause of the disease. The cry was raised again in 1847, in the same months, which led to the subject being noticed in the - Gardeners’ Chronicle.*
That these insects live upon the foliage of the potatoes there can be no question, and therefore it will be advisable to identify the species so that at any future period no unnecessary appre- hensions may be entertained should they appear in unusual numbers.
They all belong to the OrprrR Hemiptera, the FamiLy Corisip#, and the Genus Lyeus or Puytocoris. One species appearing different from any described, I have named it
11. L. Solami (fig. 20; c, the natural length). It is green, shining, punctured, and clothed with soft depressed pale hairs: head small, smooth, transverse-oval, and ochreous; face tri- angular, with a long 4-jointed rostrum bent under the breast in repose: the eyes are small, prominent, lateral, oval, and black ; the two horns are ochreous, brown beyond the middle, long, very slender, angulated, and 4-jointed, basal joint the stoutest, longer than the head, 2nd twice as long, 3rd longer, 4th shorter than the first. Thorax ochreous, convex, triangular, truncated before, twice as broad as the head at the base; scutel triangular: abdo- men entirely green ; the female with a channel beneath, enclosing the horny oviduct: elytra very long, elliptical, as broad as the thorax, resting horizontally on the back; stigma green, like the elytra; membrane transparent, iridescent, the nervures bright green: wings ample, transparent: 6 long slender ochreous legs, hinder very long ; feet ochreous, all pitchy at their tips, and ter- minated by 2 claws; hinder thighs the stoutest, the shanks very long, slender and spiny: length nearly 3 lines. It is possible this species may be a variety only of the Cimex pabulinus of Lin- neeus, or the Phytocoris prasinus of Fallen. +
As soon as these insects leave the egg they can run about, being fnrnished with legs, horns, and a rostrum like the parents, but they are deprived of the organs of flight. As they grow they attain 2 lobes on the back, which enclose the future elytra and wings, and then they are called Pupez (fig. 21; d, the natural length). . In every stage of their existence they feed in the same
* Vol. vii. p. 468. + Curtis's Guide, Genera 1100 and 1103.
affecting the Potato-crops. 79
manner ; but the perfect insects, which emerge from the matured pupe, can fly well, are exceedingly active, leaping by short flights and tumbling about in the sunshine, so that it is difficult to cap- ture these fragile creatures, especially without mutilating them. They were abundant from the middle to the end of August in 1846 and 1847.
12. L. contaminatus, Fallen, is very similar in size and form to the foregoing species (fig. 22; 23, natural size; fig. 24, the head, &c., in profile). It is ochreous, the base of the thorax and the elytra inclining more or less to green, and the membrane is margined with a smoky colour; but it varies considerably, some having a dark spot at the base of the stigma, forming a bar across when the elytra are closed; the suture is also brown, as well as the nervures of the wings, and a patch on the back of the abdo- men. It is 3 lines long: the wings expand 53.
This species was abundant on my potato-crop in August, 1846, and it abounds on lime-trees from the beginning of May to the middle of August, or later.
13. L. bipunctatus, Fallen (fig. 25; 26, natural size), is a more robust insect. It is green, more or less ochreous when dead: the horns are stoutish, ferruginous, dusky at their extremity, with a pitchy spot beneath the first joint towards the base; the ros- trum, in repose, extends to the hinder coxe, and is pitchy at the tip. In some varieties there are 2 black dots on the disc of the trunk, and it is ochreous before: back of abdomen shining black, with the lateral margins pale: elytra with depressed black hairs. and generally with indistinct stripes or splashes of brick-red ; membrane smoky: wings ample, smoky, with darker nervures: legs stoutish, especially the hinder; thighs ochreous, rusty at their extremities, tips of tibiz and feet pitchy. Length 32 lines, expanse 7 lines.
This species was very abundant the end of August, 1846, upon the potato-haulm,* as observed by Mr. Balkwill and other gar- deners. In summer it is often found on nettles in Ireland and England. |
14. L. umbellatarum, Panzer (fig. 27; g, the natural dimen- sions), is a more oval species, with slenderer horns and legs: it is pale green or ochreous, shining, punctured, and pubescent: head smooth, inclining to red ; horns rosy, tip of 2nd joint with the two following brown: thorax rosy behind, and coarsely punctured, smooth before, with a transverse waved channel: scutel white, black at the base, sometimes with 2 longitudinal black or rosy lines next the thorax: body shining black above, margined with ochre: elytra elongate oval, clouded with red, the costa deeply
* Gardeners’ Chron., vol. vi. p. 557.
80 Observations on the various Insects
notched at the base of the stigma, which is tipped with brown, the oblique and oval nervure scarlet; membrane with a smoky border and a dot within the cell; wings ample, iridescent, nervures dusky: legs ochreous, slender, and rather short, excepting the hinder pair; thighs with a reddish or brown ring near the apex, 2 rings in the hinder, the shanks spiny, all tipped with brown ; feet pitchy. Length 2% lines, expanse 6 lines. This pretty spe- cies varies much, and some examples are very rosy.
At the commencement of September, 1846, it was abundant on diseased potato-haulm in many localities. It inhabits grasses in May, and later in the year it is found upon the flowers of umbel- late. It is spread far and wide, for I have caught numbers in Scotland, especially in the isles of Skye and Arran.
Two other species, Phytocoris pabulinus of Linneus, and P. viridulus, Hahn, are recorded as inhabiting and injuring the potato crops.* Itis evident, by the following extract from a letter of a resident in South Australia, communicated to Mr. Thwaites, that the potato disease in that remote country, in 1847, has been ascribed to some insect allied to those infesting our own crops. The writer says—“ The fly which destroyed the potato crop was a small white Tree-bug, with transparent wings, not half the size of the common house-fly. They ate up all the tops of the potatoes, so that there was not a leaf to be seen, and of course the roots were useless where they attacked them in the early state.” f
The following accurate observations of Dr. Harris will show that similar injuries were inflicted upon the potatoes in the United States ten years back, and that insects had been suspected of assisting in the destruction of the crops. He states that it was a species of Plant-bug closely allied to Phytocoris campestris of Linnzus, and described as the P. lineolaris of Palisot de Beau- vois, and the Capsus oblineatus of Say.
‘* During the summer of 1838,” says Dr. Harris, ‘‘ and particularly in the early part of the season, which it will be recollected was very dry, our gardens and fields swarmed with immense numbers of little bugs, that attacked almost all kinds of herbaceous plants. My atten- tion was first drawn to them in consequence of the injury sustained by a few dahlias, marigolds, asters, and balsams, with which I had stocked a little border around my house. In the garden of my friends the Messrs. Hovey, at Cambridgeport, I observed about the same time that these insects were committing sad havoc, and was informed that various means had been tried to destroy or expel them without effect. On visiting my potato-patch shortly afterwards, I found the insects there also in great numbers on the vines; and from information worthy of
* Gardeners’ Chron., vol. vii. p. 468. + Trans. Ent. Soc., vol. v. p. xxxiii,
affecting the Potato-crops. “3
credit am inclined to believe that these insects contributed, quite as much as the dry weather of that season, to diminish the produce of the potato-fields in this vicinity. They principally attacked the buds, terminal shoots, and most succulent growing parts of these and other herbaceous plants, puncturing them with their beaks, drawing off the sap, and, from the effects subsequently visible, apparently poisoning the parts attacked. ‘These shortly after withered, turned black, and in a few days dried up or curled, and remained permanently stunted in their growth. arly in the morning the bugs would be found buried among the little expanding leaves of the growing extremities of the plants, at which time it was not very difficult to catch them; but after they had become warmed a little by the sun they became exceedingly active, and on the approach of the fingers would loose their hold and either drop suddenly or fly away. Sometimes, too, when on the stem ofa plant, they would dodge round to the other side, and thus elude our grasp.
‘¢ J have taken this insect in the spring as early as the 20th of April, and in the autumn as late as the middle of October; from which I infer that it passes the winter in the perfect state in some place of security. It is most abundant during the months of June and July. It seems to be very generally diffused through the Union.”*
Dr. Harris attributes the great increase of noxious insects to the exterminating war which has been wantonly waged upon the insect-eating birds. A hint, to place a hen-turkey or duck under a crate or cage, and let the young ones scour the garden, is worth attending to. 7
Porato FRoG-FLIEs.
Equally or more abundant than the Plant-bugs were these suctorial insects, which were hopping and flying over the potato grounds from the end of August until the crops were lifted the end of September. Every one has observed upon holyhocks and other flowers little patches of frothy matter called “ Cuckoo spittle :”’ they are occasioned by a tender little animal, which by sucking the plant buries itself in this froth, which protects it from heat and other inimical effects, until it is full grown, when it changes to a pupa, and from this emerges the perfect insect, called by Linnzus Cicada spumaria.; ‘The Potato frog-flies are of the same family, only the larvae do not secrete froth, but move about like their parents.
There are two species inhabiting the potato-haulm: they belong to the OrpER Homoptera, the Famity TETT1GONID@, and the Genus Evereryx.t One is closely allied to Fabricius’s 7. Jjlavescens, which is larger, and, as 1 am doubtful of their being identical, I have named the Potato species
* Harris’s Treatise on Insects, pp. 162, 163.
{ Zettigonia spumaria, Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1060, No. 6, and Gardeners’ Chron., vol. 1. p. 509.
= Curtis's Brit. Ent., fol. and plate 640.
VOL. X. G
82 Observations on the various Insects
15. E. Solani * (fig. 28, flying ; h, natural dimensions). Itis of a lively green colour, but fades after death to a yellowish green: the head is broad, short, and crescent-shaped above, with 2 lateral prominent brown eyes: fig. 29, head, &c., in profile: the face is beneath, somewhat oval and very long, the apex producing a ros- trum, and in a cavity on each side, before the eyes, are inserted the antennz, which are short, and like 2 fine bristles, arising from 2 minute subglobose joints: the trunk is smooth, transverse, and semi-orbicular; the scutel is triangular, acuminated at the apex: the abdomen tapers to the apex, and is conical in the female, with a long and stout ovipositor beneath, formed of 2 sheaths, ciliated with hairs and enclosing the oviduct: wings 4, lying over the back in a convex form, when at rest; the superior, called elytra, are twice as long as the body, narrow and elliptical, the nervures scarcely visible; they are very glossy and iridescent, the extre- mity rusty; inferior wings ample, nearly as long as the elytra, beneath which they are folded, being exceedingly delicate and iridescent: the 6 legs are very slender, the first pair are short, the hinder very long; thighs short and slender; the anterior shanks are armed with spines on the inside only and not to the apex ; the hinder are long with a double row of spiny bristles on the outside ; feet moderately long and tri-articulate, basal joint the shortest, 2nd the longest, but in the hinder pair the basal joint is the longest; claws and pulvilli mmute. Length 1 line, ex- panse 23,
The females have been observed by Mr. F. J. Graham, depo- siting their eggs under the potato-leaves: these are white, cylin- drical and somewhat shuttle- shaped, more pointed at one end than at the other, and striated with numerous furrows forming ridges: fig. 30; J, natural size: the little creatures which hatch from them are green with 2 horns and 6 legs, as well as a rostrum to pierce the cuticle of the plant. The pupa (fig. 31) is green, and nearly as large as the parents, but narrower: the body tapers considerably : the head is broad and the 2 black bristles forming the horns are much longer than in the perfect insect: it has 2 large black eyes: the stout rostrum lies under the breast, extend- ing to the hinder hips; it is flexible and 3-jointed, enclosing the 4 mandibles and maxilla, which protrude beyond the apex like the finest bristles: the lateral lobes enclosing the future wings look like the pinions of a bird: it has 6 legs, the hinder pair being the longest. When these pupe are full grown they attach their feet to the stalk or leaf, and by bursting the horny skin on the back, the perfect insect crawls out and is thus liberated. These skins, as well as those cast off by the larvae during their
* Gardeners’ Chron., vol. vi. p. 388.
affecting the Potato-crops. 83
growth, are sometimes seen in multitudes adhering to the foliage or lying on the ground beneath.
The perfect potato frog-fly is often abundant from the middle of August to the end of September, when not unfrequently a dozen may be seen on one leaf. In dull weather they have a curious mode of evading notice by sidling round to the opposite side of the stem or beneath a leaf, but in bright warm days they leap and fly short distances.
The other species, which is equally abundant, has been named by Fabricius
16. E. picta: fig. 32; m, the natural dimensions. It is very similar in form to E. Solani, but it is larger and beautifully spotted: it is of a clear yellow colour, with 2 oval black spots on the crown of the head, and one on each side of the face, 2 larger ones on the trunk with 2 dots before, and 2 black spots at the base of the seutel: the abdomen is black, the margins of the seg- ments yellow, the superior wings are clouded with brown, leaving the base, the tip, 2 large spots on the costa, and 2 on the suture, yellow, with smaller pale spots on the disc; inferior wings irides- cent and transparent, the nervures brown: legs entirely of a sulphur colour. Length 14 line, expanse 3 lines.
The pupa of this speciesis of an uniform buff colour: the eyes and tips of the feet alone being dark.
On the 19th of June, i847, I first observed this species upon my potatoes, and in August they had increased greatly in num- bers, the foliage being still green and healthy: they flew about a foot when disturbed, but did not leave the plants, alighting directly upon the leaves and sidling under them whenalarmed. ‘The pupe were equally numerous under the leaves, with the exuvie by them. This frog-fly also inhabits nettles, the burdock, and mint, and | have found it as late as November in gardens.
ALTICA.
In company with the foregoing insects was one of the Altice, or leaping Chrysomele. They first appeared about the middle of June, and they continued feeding until the leaves withered. Dur- ing the whole of August, 1846, they were in multitudes on the Bitter-sweet (Solanum Dulcamara*), a plant belonging to the same genus as the potato; the leaves of which they completely riddled. They are also abundant on grass till late in the autumn, but nothing is known of the larve or where the eggs are deposited.
This beetle is comprised in the same group as the turnip-flies (Altica Nemorum +), but owing to the different form of the horns
* Curtis’s Brit. Ent., pl. 102. + Journal of Royal Agric, Soc., vol. ii. pp. 195 and 211. G 2
84 Observations on the various Insects
and feet, it has been separated from them. It belongs to the Orper CoLeoprera, the FAmiIny CHRYSOMELIDA®, the GENUS MacrocneEMa,*™ and appears to be the Linnean species }
17. M. exoleta: fig. 33; 34, the natural size. It is oval, con- vex, shining and ochreous: the head is black, with prominent eyes, 2 long clavate 10-jointed horns, 2 basal joints elongated, 3rd a little shorter, the extremity dusky: thorax punctured, deep ochreous, transverse, slightly narrowed before, sides rounded ; scutel minute: elytra pale ochreous, the suture pitchy; there are 8 faintly-punctured strize on each, and a short one on either side of the scutel; wings ample: underside pitchy: legs dark ochre ; hinder thighs very thick and pitchy; the shanks rather short, the internal angle forming a curved lobe at the apex, which is cut off obliquely; feet 4-jointed, Srd joint bilobed ; hinder very long and inserted on the inside of the shank, basal joint as long as the others united: the apex furnished with 2 claws. Length | line.
SpHinx Atropos, the Death’s-head, or Bee Tiger-moth.
Potato-leaves do not seem very palatable to caterpillars, for with the exception of two green-striped ones and those of the Death’s-head Sphinx, I do not know of any which feed upon them. The noble larva of this moth is occasionally abundant in potato-grounds, sufficiently so lately to induce the peasants in Kent to collect and give them to their poultry, yet twenty years back they were far from common, since British specimens of the moth were so much sought after by naturalists, that half-a-guinea was willingly paid for a fine native example. The unusual abundance both of the caterpillars and moths in 1846, was owing, it is presumed, to the high temperature in June and September, and it is nota little surprismg that they should have escaped being included in the Calendar with the other insects accused of destroying the potato-crops; more especially as the moth bears a very bad character: even its name of “ Atropos”’ is intended to imply its awful errand, as well as the familiar ones of Death’s- head, Tete de Mort, and Todtenkopf, which it bears in this country, in France and Germany, appellations derived from the image impressed upon its back; so that when Afropos intrudes itself into a dwelling amongst the rural inhabitants of the Con- tinent, 1t causes no little consternation, since it 1s considered the messenger of pestilence and famine, if not of death. It is un- doubtedly to be dreaded by bees, for it has the audacity to enter their hives and lap up the honey. It is from this propensity it has received the English name of “ Bee tiger-moth,” and it is
* Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol. and pl. 486. ‘+ Fauna Suecica, No, 541, and Curtis’s Guide, Genus 428, No. 10.
affecting the Potato-crops. 85
supposed to gain admission by imitating the note of the Queen bee,* and being so thickly clothed with velvet over a horny case, it may laugh to scorn the stings of the bees.
This handsome moth is certainly a remarkable creature—it is sO conspicuous from its size that no one can overlook it; for it is as big as a bat, the human skull depicted on its back is often very perfect, and it can utter a cry something like the faint squeak of a mouse, but more plaintive. The caterpillar rests like the classic Sphinx of Egypt, hence that distinction has been assigned to it, and it is very remarkable that an Egyptian mummy bears a great resemblance to the brown horny chrysalis.
It is not yet ascertained where the female moth lays her eggs: they must be as large as mustard-seeds and cannot be deposited upon the foliage of the potatoes by the autumn brood; indeed it has been ascertained that the females are then sterile. It is therefore quite possible that the eggs are generally laid by the earlier brood upon or under the potato-leaves.
The caterpillars seem to have fed principally upon the leaves of the jasmine formerly, but I am not aware that they are found now upon any other plants in England than the potato, although they will live upon the bitter-sweet, tomato, thorn-apple, spindle- tree, elder, damason, and hemp. They come out to feed at night, and grow until they are nearly as long and as thick as a lad’s middle finger, when they are of a yellow or greenish tint with 7 oblique bands on each side forming acute angles on the back ; these stripes are blue, lilac, and white: the head is horny and furnished with strong jaws; it has 6 pectoral feet like claws, 8 fleshy abdominal feet and 2 similar anal ones, above which is a rough curled tail, and on each side are 9 breathing pores called spiracles. When full grown the caterpillar buries itself in the earth, where, with a fluid from its mouth and by the action of its head and body, it forms a smooth oval cell: having rested from this labour, it draws off its skin and then is wonderfully trans- fcrmed into a chrysalis or pupa enclosed in a horny shell of a chestnut colour; the head blunt, the tail pointed, the eyes, pro- boscis, and wings being defined, and the body composed of several rings with breathing pores on each side, and if touched or breathed upon it wriggles its body to and fro. The first brood of caterpillars is thus transformed in July, and these produce moths in September and October, whilst those that arrive at per- fection in the autumn do not hatch until the following spring. They were equally abundant in France in 1846 and there they remained in pupe only 3 or 4 weeks.
The moth belongs to the OrnpER LepipoprTera, the FAMILY
* Reaumur, Hist, Nat. des Insectes, vol. ii. p. 289.
86 Observations on the various Insects
SPHINGIDA, and was included in the Genus Spuinx, until it was separated from that immense Family and received the ap- pellation of AcnHERoNTIA. The species was named by Linnzus
18. A. Atropos.* The wings sometimes expand 5 or 6 inches: it is densely clothed with short pile, like fustian: the eyes are large and prominent, and close to them at the back part of the head are inserted the horns, which are stoutest in the males, rather short, robust, and black, narrowed at the base, white and hooked at the tips: in front of the head are 2 erect palpi, and between them a short, stout, horny, black proboscis, which is rolled up spirally in repose: the thorax, as well as the head and superior wings, are black, with an ashy tint; on the former is an orange-coloured figure resembling a human skull, with the neck and collar-bones: the abdomen is black with a greyish stripe down the back and 5 or 6 long orange spots on each side, alter- nating with as many black bands: wings sloping (like the roof of a house) in repose: superior black minutely freckled with white, variegated with rusty patches, and several black transverse broken waved lines ; one near the base, 2 others nearer the apex and a spot on the disc, bright ochreous: inferior wings bright orange with 2 black mdented bars nearly parallel with the margin, which is formed of orange spots; the fringe of the wings is scarcely visible: it has 6 stout black legs, with 2 strong and distinct claws on each foot.
Although the Death’s-head caterpillars either retire into the ground by day or otherwise secrete themselves, coming forth principally at night to feed, they are not secure against the untir- ing diligence of an Ichneumon fly, which lays her eggs in the body of the larvae, where the maggot hatches, grows to a large size, and changes to a pupa within its victim, from which eventually the parasite emerges instead of the ‘moth.
It is the largest of our British Jchneumons, and is included in the Orper Hymenoptera, the Famity ICHNEUMONID2, and the Genus Troeus.} The species I named, after the insect it was bred from,
19. T. Atropos.{ It is bright ochreous: head transverse with a black stripe on the crown, spreading along the base and termi- nating in a point on the face ; eyes lateral, with 3 ocelli in triangle on the crown; antenne black, the basal portion orange, long and setaceous, inserted close together near the middle of the face, composed of about 40 joints, Ist joint the stoutest: thorax robust, oval, and black ; scapulars, a line before them and a spot beneath,
* Curtis's Brit. Ent., fol. and pl., 147, where coloured figures of the moth and caterpillar are given, as well as dissections.
+ Curtis’s Guide, Genus 496.
t Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol. and pl. 234.
affecting the Potato-crops. 87
ochreous; scutel conical and yellow; postscutel rough with a shining knop at the base and 2 elevated, lines down the middle, forked. at their extremities: abdomen long, elliptical, clavate, atiached to the thorax by a clubbed petiole ;_ slender at the base, sometimes with a black line beneath, 7-jointed, the 4 last seg- ments black: wings ample, shining golden yellow, the hinder margins smoky, superior with a pentagonal areolet; stigma and neryures ean. legs stout, Ist pair the smallest, lander the largest; coxe lava hal er thighs the thickest, black at the apex, especially beneath ; anterior ales short, hinder long, brown at the tips; feet longer than the shanks, 5-jointed, terminated by 2 strong claws tipped with black, and dusky pulvilli between them. Length | inch, expanse above 12 inch. The proportion of colour varies in different specimens, some have only a few orange joints at the base, whilst others are only black beyond the middle of the antennz ; a portion, or the whole, of the 4th abdominal segment is ochreous, as well as the under sides of the coxz, with no black at the extremities of the hinder thighs and shanks, in other examples.
My calendar is a proof of the abundance of the Death’s-head caterpillars in Kent, for I see that all my specimens of this Jch- - meumon were bred or taken at Rochester, Darent, and other localities in that county, I believe in July, one towards the end of that month; but it has been bred from other Sphingide, I haye heard.
AcARIL, or Mites.
On the dead haulm of the potato these little creatures con- gregate for the sake of feeding upon the Botrytis or other fungi. One which Mr. Graham found in March, 1846, had been no doubt breeding through the winter, for they often generate in cavities under stones, and a larger and darker species resides in quantities under the tomato leaves in the autumn.
They belong to the Orper ApTrERaA, the Famiry ACARIDES, the Genus OripatTes, formerly called Motaspis, and the potato species is named, apparently by Hermann,
20. O. castaneus. it is as small as a cheese-mite, very glossy, pear-shaped, and of a rusty chestnut colour: the trunk 1s conical and conceals the head; it is distinctly separated from the body by .a transverse channel; the Jatter'is oval and dilated, being very convex with a few long hairs scattered about: the 8 legs are rather long and of a dirty ochreous tint, sparingly clothed with longish hairs, they are 6-jointed ; the hips and trochanters are short, the thighs are short and clavate, as well as the shanks, which have a little joint at the base; the foot is elongated but clubbed at the base, and terminated by a single long curved claw.
58 Observations on the various Insects
I have now to give the history of the second army attacking the potatoes, and which is unquestionably an enemy to the cultivator, for these insects subsist upon the tubers and roots, both injuring and reducing the crop.
The potato-disease in France so greatly alarmed the nation on its first appearance, that Monsieur Guérin-M éneville was charged by the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce to draw up a Report, which was read before the Academy of Sciences in October, 1845, and afterwards published in one of the French Journals.* As M. Guérin has also been appointed by the Government to investigate the origin of the disease in the Silk- worm caterpillar, called Muscardine,t which is a species of fungus attacking living animals, his opinion becomes so important that I may be excused for introducing his observations before I proceed with my disquisitions. In addressing himself to the Entomolo- gical Society of Paris regarding ‘“‘ the malady which has for a long time spread itself over the potato-crops,”’ he says, “many persons attributed this epidemic erroneously to insects, whilst it is now demonstrated that it is produced by a malady of the plant, caused by colds which were felt at the end of the spring, and by the extraordinary humidity of the summer, which favoured the production of a Cryptogame that developed itself in great numbers in every one of the cells of the potato. The insects and larve that Have been found in spoiled tubers have come there when the potato has been partly decomposed by the fungi, and cannot be regarded as having caused the malady.’’}
Although I have discovered a great many insects affecting the tubers which are not recorded in M. Guérin’s Report, there are many no doubt which have not yet fallen in our way. I shall commence with those which live upon and of course injure the healthy and sound tubers. Amongst these are the
SURFACE GRUBS. In July, 1844, I received some caterpillars from H. W. B., of
Bedminster Lodge, near Bristol, stating that they were all taken on the 26th of July from one plant in a field of potatoes: “ They attacked the haulm just beneath the earth and ate through it. Acres of potatoes in this neighbourhood have been attacked by them. Some bore into the potatoes and destroy the small ones. They have also spoiled scores of celery plants and bored into the crowns of the carrots, indeed nothing seems to be free from them.” They were the caterpillars of a moth, the Noctua (Agrotis)
* Bulletin des Séances de la Soc. Royale et Centrale d’Agric., vol. v. . 331.
: + Annales de la Soc. Séricicole. + Ann. Soc. Ent. de France for 1845, vol, ii. p. Ixxxvi.
—
affecting the Potato-crops. 89
exclamationis, which makes such havoc amongst the turnips, as formerly stated in this Journal.*
Tipvvu.2, or Crane-flies.
Any one may readily imagine what an amount of vegetation must be consumed by the maggots or larve of these gnats, seeing that during the summer and autumn it is not possible to step on a field or meadow without disturbing a family of the winged parents. Indeed, turnips, potatoes, beet, carrots, and cabbages often suffer as severely from the attacks of Surface Caterpillars, the larve of Crane-flies, and the Wire-worms, as from any other insects.
From the beaked head and attitude of the body and legs in flight, the Zipule have been termed Crane-flies, but in some counties they are better known by the name of Daddy or Old Father Long-legs. As it is mostly in undisturbed ground that the larve are propagated to any extent, it is most desirable to keep land clean. Of course weedy banks and hedge-rows will na- turally be a harbour for them, as they delight to live amongst the roots under tufts of grass, but their head-quarters are damp meadows and marshes. Wet, consequently, encourages them, and to drown them is impossible, therefore the opposite course, of draining land effectually, would no doubt annoy them more than any other process, and go far towards freeing arable lands, at least, from these universal pests.
The eggs are laid by the females, I apprehend, as they fly, or when they rest amongst the herbage, and are propelled as from a pop-gun. Those of Tipula Oleracea are little oval conical grains, shining and as black as ebony; they form a mass occupy- ing nearly the whole abdomen, and I have taken 300 or more from the body of one female (pl. V. fig. 35, n an egg magnified). The little maggots hatched from these grow until they are as thick as a small goose-quill, cylindrical, and about an inch long (fig. 36); they are then of an earthy colour and incased in such tough skins that they are called “ Leather-jackets.” The intes- tines shining through the back create 2 pale wavy lines, in which a pulse is very evident. When walking or wriggling along, for they have no feet, they protrude their little black horny heads, stretching out the neck, which then tapers, and exposing 2 minute rust-coloured horns and 2 strong black jaws; when in motion their tails are thickest and cut off abruptly, the edges above being furnished with 4 fleshy tubercles more or less pointed, with 2 below, and near the centre are 2 spiracles or breathing-pores (fig. 0, the stern); they are composed of 13 rings, and when
* Vol. iv. p. 106, pl. G, figs. 6 and 7.
90 Observations on the various Insects
drawn up and at rest look like small Bots. From the beginning of May to the first week in August I have observed these larvee at the roots of scarlet beans, lettuces, beet, and potatoes, and during the same period they are most unwelcome visitors in the flower-garden, where they commit dreadful ravages amongst the roots of dahlias, carnations, &c., and even the grass-plots in the metropolis do not escape, for in Golden-square a few years since the grass was laid bare by them. It is said they come out at might in multitudes to feed, and probably to remove from one locality to another when food becomes short, or it may be in search of convenient places to change into pupe; at all events they are then secure from the rooks and smaller birds, which would speedily thin their ranks, and the dews of night suit their purpose in every way better than the light and heat of day. Some of the forwardest change to pupe early in August, perhaps in July, and certainly in September ; this takes place under the turf, and even by the sides of gravel walks, if the weeds be left to grow: they are as long and thick as the larve, of a similar dirty colour, with 2 slender horns, one on each side of the head ; the segments under the belly produce transverse rows of stout spines, and smaller ones on the back, the tail is pointed and spiny; on each side of the trunk are the cases containing the wings, and between them those which enclose the legs (fig. 32). After remaining in this state a short time, the pupa, by means of these spiny rings, works its way through the surface of the earth, the horny covering of the trunk splits down the back, and the gnat crawls forth to dry its wings and harden its limbs, before it takes flight to pair and generate new families. At this time thousands of empty cases may be seen sticking half out of the earth amongst the grass.
The Crane-flies belong to the ORDER DiprerRa, the Fami.y Tiputipm, and the Genus Trputa.* The species before us was named by Linneus
21. 'T, oleracea, from its larva injuring cabbages. It is of a tawny colour, with a bloom over it, giving the fly a dusty appear- ance. ‘The head is small, almost globose, attached by a short slender neck, the nose forming a stoutish rostrum or beak, acu- minated at the apex, and furnished with a short, fleshy, bilobed lip, and 2 longish 5-jointed palpi; the eyes are hemispherical and black ; the 2 slender horns are inserted in the face, they are as long as the entire head, tapering, and 13-jointed, the Ist longish, 2nd globose, the remainder elongated and bristly; + trunk large, oval, raised considerably above the head, divided into 3 lobes on the back, which is brownish with obscure stripes:
*Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1160. + Vide Curtis’s Brit, Ent., fol. and pl. 493, for the dissections.
affecting the Potato-crops. 24
underside hoary, as well as the somewhat orbicular-quadrate scutel: body Jong, slender, and 9-jointed, clubbed at the extremity in the males (fig. 38, the abdomen, in profile), but it is much longer and spindle-shaped in the female, with the back slate- coloured; the apex horny, pointed, and furnished with 2 lateral tapering lobes, and an oviduct between them: 2 wings, longer than the body, spreading when at rest, rather smoky, with an areolet and 7 cells at the apex ; the nervures and a stripe along the costa, including the stigma ochreous-brown; two balancers, long, slender, and inibheds: legs 6, slender, very lone g, especially the hinder pair, bright ochreous; tips of thighs, shanks, and the terminal joints of the tarsi an the claws are curved and acute, with minute pulvilli between them. The male is nearly 2 of an inch long, and the wings expand 13 inch; the female (fig. 39) approaches I| inch in length, and the wings expand nearly Z inches.
There is another species so closely allied to the foregoing, that it is generally confounded with it: their habits and economy are similar, but they seem to be distinct, and it has been named by Meigen * |
22. 'T. paludosa, implying its partiality to marshy ground. It is of the same size and colour as J. Oleracea, but the back of the abdomen is not of a slate-colour, the wings are shorter in the female, as well as her legs, which are also much stouter than those of the male.
The males of the autumnal ee of both species first make their appearance about the commencement of August, and the females are abundant until they are killed by the frosts of au- tumn. Even in the chilly mornings of October they may be seen, half stupified by the cold, hanging by their fore-feet, their wings covered with dew, and lying flat on their backs, until warmed by the cheering rays of the sun the male takes wing, and the female drags her ‘heavy body and long legs after her as she fhes through the grass. The males are attracted by light, as I have seen great numbers come to a Jamp at night in September, and the females have been observed at sea in calm weather many miles from land, standing on their legs, with the wings spread, sailing along unhurt. A few appear to be hatched in the spring, and no doubt there would be more, were it not for the larve furnishing rooks and many other birds with food during the winter and early spring. This is doing essential service, for in all pro- bability these weuld produce the parents of the autumn broods, which, it is evident, are sufficiently numerous, notwithstanding the checks upon their multiplication.
* System. Besch. Europ. Zweif. Insecten, vol. vi. p. 289.
G2 Observations on the various Insects
Their numbers depend very much upon the seasons, and for this reason sometimes these troublesome larve are not seen. | believe they abounded in 1816, 17, and 18, and then were lost sight of till 1829 and the two following years, In June, 1845, they committed great havoc amongst some Swedish turnips in the Isle of Anglesea, upon an estate of A. Elliot Fuller, Esq. Wheat and oats are also laid under contribution by them. Ina recent number of the Gardeners’ Chronicle,” there are some pertinent remarks by Mr. B. Maund, regarding the not growing of wheat after clover-lea, owing to the fly. He says:—
‘¢ My attention was called by an agricultural friend to an instance of this last spring, where it was discovered that the plant of spring-sown wheat was dying away, from its being eaten through just beneath the surface of the earth, and that the enemy was the larva or grub of a species of Tipula, or Daddy-long-legs. In some parts of the field these were so numerous just beneath the surface, that half a dozen or more could be collected within the space of a square foot; and such devastation had they made, that for half an acre together, in some parts of the field, very few plants of wheat were to be found. The field was rolled three times over in different directions, in April, with Crosskill’s clod-crusher, and in a fortnight afterwards, the weather being dry, the land was almost as compact as a macadamised road.”
This operation killed many, and saved the crop. Mr. Maund adds :—
‘Tt is not unknown to farmers in the midland counties, that a crop of potatoes cannot be grown on some farms after clover, on account of the existence of this grub; and the only remedy adopted—a most efficient one—is breast-ploughing the turf and burning it.”
From the immense swarms of a smaller species of Zipula on lighter arable lands, I am inclined to believe that the corn-crops suffer more from these than from the 7. Oleracea on sandy and similar soils, and as I may not have a better opportunity of making this known to agriculturists, I shall not scruple to introduce the species here, especially as it attacks the potato likewise. The pretty gnat alluded to has been named by Hoffmansegg
23. T. maculosa. The male is not 3 aninch long; the female is more, and the wings expand about | inch. They are of a bright yellow colour, spotted with black : the male has a pair of slender blackish horns longer than the thorax; the forehead projects like a cone, on each side is a black dot, and on the crown is a black spot pointed over the forehead: the mouth is at the extremity of a cylindrical beak, the feelers blackish; the eyes are black, as well as 3 long patches on the back of the thorax, and various spots on the sides and beneath: the scutel has a conical mark on the back, with a black hinder margin: the
* Vol. viii. p. 707.
affecting the Potato-crops. 93
abdomen is slender, the apex obtuse (fig. 40), with a broken line of 8 black spots down the back; on the underside is a similar line, as well as several black dots at the base: the wings are smoky-yellow, and iridescent, with brown nervures, a yellow pinion-edge, and stigma; the 2 balancers are ochreous and clubbed: the long and very slender legs are ochreous, the extremities of the thighs, shanks, and the very long feet are black. The horns of the female are shorter : the abdomen is longer, spindle-shaped, with 6 distinct, black, top-shaped spots down the back, a row beneath, and several dots on each side: the horny ovipositor is ochreous and shining (fig. 41).
These gnats are abundant in fields, gardens, meadows, hedges, &c., during May and June. Sometimes they swarm on the sea- coast, and I remember once, in the middle of May, seeing myriads on the sand-banks in the Isle of Portland, also at the back of the Isle of Wight, and at Lowestoft in Suffolk. Many insects are driven apparently by the wind to the edge of the sea, where pos- sibly their course is arrested by a sudden change in the wind, and they perish in the surf; but no doubt multitudes thus collected escape and generate in the surrounding country. There must be 2 or 3 broods of JT. maculosa in a year, or else a constant succession of the flies during the summer, for although the month of May seems to be the period when the greatest numbers are hatched, I have bred them in July, but of course temperature has a great influence upon the pupe.
I have not the least doubt that many species of Tipule are bred in the field and garden, but the destructive maggots so greatly resemble each other, that they can only be distinguished by actual and careful comparison. A very similar larva is most abundant in the gardens of London, which produces an allied gnat, named by Meigen Tipula quadrifaria.
The eggs of TZ. maculosa are oval, spoon-shaped, and black as soot. They must be scattered over the ground as thick as poppy-seeds, for probably not one in a thousand arrives at ma- turity. The larve produced from them are of the same earthy colour as those of the Cabbage Crane-fly, but they are smaller, being only $ of an inch long, and as thick as a large crow’s-quill (fig. 42) ; they differ also from them in the position and form of the spines; they are wrinkled, and when at rest contract them- selves, drawing in the head and thoracic segments, so that this extremity might be taken for the anal end (fig. 43). They are however, able to thrust out their heads and crawl along very well, although they are destitute of feet; the small brown head is furnished with a pair of black jaws, 2 short horns, and I believe minute feelers: 3 pale vessels traverse the sides and back, termi- nating in a truncated tail with 2 spreading hooks, and 2 short
94 Observations on the various Insects
teeth between them, with 2 tubercles below, and 2 fleshy pro- tuberances capable of dilatation and contraction, which materially assist the maggots in locomotion, and in the centre of the stern are 2 large spiracles (fig. p). In the spring they change in the earth to pupz of the like dirty colour, these are about the same length as the larvee, but scarcely so stout. At this period the head and thorax of the future gnat are defined, but from each side of the latter projects a short slender horn, and beneath the horny case the incipient wings are visible, with the legs placed between them: the abdominal segments have each a trans- verse row of minute spines above, and 5 large ones beneath, and on either side is an elevated spiny line; the penultimate segment is surrounded by 6 longer spines and 2 small ones, with a large conical process at the tail and a shorter one beneath it (fig. 44), |
To ascertain the parents of these grubs or maggots, I paid great attention to them for several years, and some idea may be formed of the mischief they occasion in the field, by the ravages they com- mit in the garden. On the 23rd of April I found these grubs at the roots of my peas; on the 29th, some had eaten off trusses of the strawberry flowers close to the crown, retiring afterwards just beneath the surface of the earth, and I think it was the same, or the larve of 7. Oleracea, which used to cut through the runners of the same plants: the first week in May they were not uncommon amongst the roots of the lilacs and under tufts of grass; they were also destroying the strawberry and raspberry plants as well as the carrots: on the 28th of the same month I observed some recently transplanted lettuces drooping, and on examination I found the roots separated from the crown a little below the surface, and close by these grubs, which are difficult to detect; owing to the colour and their remaining quite motionless when disturbed. At the end of July they were eating the roots of dahlias, carnations, and va- rious flowers, and on the 7th of August they were observed infest- ing some potato ground with the larvee of T. Oleracea ; after which I lost sight of them.*
We learn, from the ‘Introduction to Entomology,’ that these larvae abound in some seasons in Holderness to such an extent, that hundreds of acres of pasture were destroyed by them in the spring of 1813. “A square foot of the turf being dug up, 210 grubs were counted in it;’ and wheats there when sown upon clover-lays suffer severely from these grubs.
Lime-water, it is now said, will not kill these tough larva, as it will the thin-skinned earthworm, and the only remedy I have prac-
* Gardeners’ Chron., vol. vi. p. 317. + Kirby and Spence, 6th edit. vol. i. p. 148.
affecting the Potato-crops. 95
tised with success has been to search for them round sickly plants and to dig up all that have been just eaten off by them. This must be done every morning, the earlier the better, otherwise the search may be unsuccessful, for after a short nap the culprit often decamps to feast upon some neighbouring plant. I[ should think water impregnated with brine, or nitrate of soda and perhaps strong liquid manure, would drive them off and keep the gnats from scat- tering their eggs in such an uncongenial locality ; and if the mag- gots come out at night, as [ have reason to believe they do, soot, sea-sand, and salt, sprinkled over the surface, would, I expect, de- stroy them; but it must be repeated to prove effectual.
Dickson advises, «“ When the grub is abundant, to roll the land betimes in the morning in the early spring months, which may crush and destroy them; and when the fly abounds in summer evenings on grass lands or fallows, rolling would destroy them and prevent the deposition of the eggs: they are chiefly deposited in the long grass, on sides of hedges and ditches: such places should therefore be kept free from weeds.”’ He also recommends “ Keep- ing the clover stubbles closely eaten down by sheep or other ani- mals, after the hay has been taken, till the wheat-crop 1s nearly ready to be put in, which has been found in some measure an effectual remedy against the destructive attacks of the insect.”* Children and women might also be employed very advantageously in destroy- ing the parent flies, by hand-picking and sweeping with nets. The farmer must also encourage such birds as render him good and constant service in reducing the insect tribes. Amongst them I shall ever believe that the rooks and starlings, seagulls and lap- wings, are most faithful allies, and labourers worthy of their hire. I believe it was Sir Humphry Davy who first stated that jack snipes are very fond of the larvee of Tipule, and Mr. Yarrell tells us he has repeatedly found them in their crops. Pheasants also must feed largely upon them in the winter, for Mr. Milton, of Great Marlborough Street, found in the crop of a cock pheasant, in De- cember, 1844, 852 of these larve ; they were alive, and nothing else was found in the crop, excepting a few oak spangles.| A corre- spondent also of the ‘ Sporting Magazine,’ writes, “ that no fewer tan 1225 of these destructive larve (wireworms?) were taken from the crop of a hen pheasant in January.”{ No doubt these birds pick out the larve in corn and turnip-fields, and when it is remembered, that the almost incredible numbers contained at one time in the stomach, only made a single meal, the extent of their services may in some measure be estimated.
* Practical Agriculture, vol. i. p. 555. t+ Gardeners’ Chron., vol. iv. p. 814. iesViol? iv. p. 45.
96 Observations on the various Insects
WIREWORMS.
As no crop is perhaps altogether free from these destructive larvee, we need not be surprised at their inroads upon the potatoes ; indeed wireworms seem to be especially fond of them, since there is no better trap than slices of potato stuck in the ground and co- vered with earth, to be examined daily. In this way every wire- worm may be attracted from a flower-bed and destroyed.
{ do not apprehend that a potato-crop is ever entirely destroyed by wireworms, although when young they bore up into the haulm, as observed by Mr. Graham, and the sets also are stated to have been greatly injured by them in May; but they undoubtedly diminish the value of the tubers materially by perforating them, and thus rendering them a suitable nest for other insects. To- wards the end of last September the potato-crops in this parish were greatly infested in some localities by wireworms, millipedes, and centipedes. A gentleman near Tadcaster* has suggested that potato-crops may even attract the wireworm. It appears from our correspondent, that “in 1844, in order to clean and redeem 7 acres of exhausted land, it was planted with potatoes after oats : the potatoes did not suffer from the wireworm, the crop was as good as could be expected, considering that the great dryness of the season had delayed the planting till June. In March, 1845, 6 acres were sowed with oats, 1 acre having been dibbled with wheat in December. The crops were most healthy, but subse- quently patches of decay attracted attention, and it was soon found that the wireworm had been at work to so fearful an extent, that in ten days the whole crop seemed victimised. Soot was then applied to 4 acres (16 bushels per acre), and not being able to obtain more, the remainder was sown broadcast with guano, at the rate of 2 cwt. per acre, all applied in a pouring rain. This arrested the evil, and many of the patches, apparently destroyed, struck up a second growth from about half an inch below the sur- face, where the wireworms had bored through the shoots, and the oats eventually became the best crop in the parish.”
Mr. Duncombe also says—* On seeing the change for the worse in the oats, when averaging about 6 inches growth, I applied my- self to discover the cause: I carefully removed the soil from very many plants and rows, for death seemed to go by rows for several yards together. I collected a paper full of wireworms, and uni- formly found not a rotten but a dry mouldy potato or potatoes: some which were not so advanced were full of wireworms. Hence I conclude that the potatoes left in 1844 either bred or attracted from a distance these pests to my oats in 1845, If L had not
* The Rey, E. Duncombe, of Newton Lyme.
affecting the Potato-crops. 97
planted potatoes in 1844, or if I had collected every one on taking up the crop (which I believe to be out of the question), I am fully persuaded in my own mind that I should have had no wire- worm; and their numbers in the roots of anemones, on ground where J] never can detect wireworms without such roots, induce me to incline to the opinion that gardeners and farmers cause the evil by neglecting preventives.””’
Here we have additional evidence of the taste which wireworms evince for potatoes. The tubers left in the ground attracted them to certain spots where they perforated the potatoes and caused their decay. If therefore these potatoes could have been collected before the oats were sown, the crop would have been saved from theirincursions. When the first crop of oats was grown, they were probably too young to commit much if any apparent mischief, for I cannot think they came from any distance; if such were their habits, they must ere this have been observed when migrating at night. ‘These remarks of Mr. Duncombe also show the value of soot 1n recovering crops from the attacks of the wireworms,
In the department of the Moselle, in France, wireworms are very common, and near Metz great numbers have been found by M. Rayer, the Inspector of Agriculture, both in sound and diseased potatoes.* It is worthy of remark that they are a very different wireworm to our common one,; being more like that of Hlater murinus and L, lineatus of Bouché,t clearly showing that various. wireworms feed upon potatoes, all of them making numerous holes. and burrows in the tubers, both causing and hastening their decay.
An entire Report having been devoted to the wireworms, when the turnip-crops were under consideration, with descriptions and figures of all the species, it is unnecessary here to enter further upon their economy,§ and for the same reasons the false wire- worms will not long detain us.
SNAKE MILLIPEDES
are found in large numbers in potatoes, as soon as symptoms of decay appear, especially in September, and they consequently complete the destruction which the wirewerms began. Julus Lon- dinensis and I. terrestris| are two of the snake millipedes, which are said to be injurious to early crops inthe winter. During frosty and cold weather they lie curled up in the earth, but so slight a degree of warmth is required to awaken them from their tor por, that by merely breathing upon them for a few seconds they awaken from their slumbers, nel move about with their accustomed glid-
* Bulletin des Séances de la Soc. Roy. et Cent. d’Agric., vol. v. p. 331. t+ Journal of Royal Agric. Soc. vol. v. pl. I. f. 2.
~ Ibid., pl. J. f. 40 and 42. § Ibid., vol. v. p. 180.
| Ibid., vol. v.. pp.. 228 and: 229, pl. J. f. 54.
VOL. X. H
98 Observations on the various Insects
ing gait. They seem to congregate in autumn, and as they are very fond of fruit, vast numbers may be collected by putting slices of apples under tiles or in baskets of moss: upwards of forty have been taken from one slice: but these modes of catching them can only be practised in gardens; I expect, however, if cabbage leaves were scattered along the furrows in damp weather, that they would be nearly as attractive. The most abundant and mischievous species both in England and France is the Zulus pulchellus,* called in some ‘French works Blaniulus, from the indistinctness of the eyes or théir entire absence. It was reported to have destroyed the potato-sets at Derby in April, 1845, and I have frequently found multitudes in partially diseased potatoes the beginning of October, when they were generally accompanied by Polydesmus complanatus, which has also been figured and described in a former volume.t
CENTIPEDES OR SCOLOPENDRE.
A large amount of these curious animals inhabit the earth, Lithobius forcipatus and Geophilus electricus (2) being the most usually met with. The former of these is said to be entirely car- nivorous, and the latter will attack allied species as well as each other. Such being the case, they are probably useful in reducing the ranks of the various soft larvee which affect the roots of plants. it is certain that they are very abundant in potato-grounds, and Mr. Hope ‘attributed the potato disease to the attacks of the wireworm, and also to a small Scolopendra, which he had found in myriads infesting diseased potatoes at Southend.”{ I observed them in rotten potatoes in August, 1845, and in September last the Geophilus electricus was running about in every direction when the potatoes were forked out. Vast quantities of the sound tubers had been perforated by the wireworms, some of which were found inside, and the cavities were often enlarged by slugs.
These animals, which, like the millipedes, are not true insecis, belong to an ORDER called Cuitopopa, and to the Famity Sco- LOPENDRID#&. They wereall included by Linneus in the Genus SCOLOPENDRA, but from variations of structure one is now called
24. Lithobius forficatus, the 30-foot. It 1s nearly | inch long and 11 line broad; smooth, shining, horny, of a ferruginous or ochreous colour, sometimes brown: it has 2 longish tapering horns, composed of upwards of 40 minute joints: the head is large and orbicular, armed with powerful jaws like a pair of claws, having a small group of granulated eyes on each side: the body is flat- tened and linear, composed of 16 plates like scales, alternately .
* Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. v. p. 228, pl. J. f. 53. Guérin con- siders this to be the J. guttulatus of Fab.: Supp. to his Ent. Syst.; p. 289. & Ubidsp. 230, plod. f. 55. £ Trans. Ent. Soc., vol. v. p. 136.
affecting the Potato-crops. 99
quadrate and narrow: it has 15 pair of bristly and spiny legs, the hinder pair being the longest, they are 7-jointed, curved, taper- ing, and terminated by a minute conical claw.
The other species may prove to be the true Scolopendra elec- trica of Linnzus; it belongs to the Genus Anthronomalus of Newport,* and is certainly Leach’s
25. Geophilus longicornis. This species is from 2% to 3 inches long, and not more than 2 or 2 of a line broad. It is shining bright ochreous: the head is oval with a strong jaw on each side terminating in a sharp blackish claw: eyes none; horns thrice as long as the head, like 2 hairy threads, composed of 14 joints, decreasing to the apex : body composed of a multitude of trans- verse segments, with from 51 to 55 pair of short legs, the hinder pair not longer than the others; the claws long and slender (fig. 45).
These creatures move with a very waving motion from right to left, doubling when they turn, and this as well as a few other species have the very extraordinary power of secreting a phos- phoric fluid, which the animal leaves behind as it walks, so that... when it is dark one sees a luminous broken line of light, some- times 2 or 5 feet long. This phenomenon is generally noticed in autumn and spring, and is supposed to be most active when the animals are pairing : whether the fluid is secreted by both sexes seems doubtful, and if they be quite blind, the light must be bestowed upon them for reasons which as yet remain hidden from us. ‘Their economy is likewise very interesting, for Mr. Newport has proved that “the female deposits her eggs, from 30 to 50 in number, ina little packet, in a cell which she forms for them in the earth, and never once leaves them until the young are developed, which is at the end of about a fortnight or three weeks. During the whole of this time she remains in the cell, with her body coiled around the eggs, incubating them and constantly turning and attending to them.”;+ They hybernate in the earth during the winter, and subsist partly on succulent roots, ripe fruit, and decaying vegetable matter, only coming out at night, appa- rently in search of food.
We have now arrived at the second section of our subject, relating to the various insects and allied animals which are found amongst the potatoes when decomposition has commenced. They amount to a very considerable number, and yet probably not half of them have been noticed, for whilst those recorded by M. Guérin comprise nine different sorts, the species detected in this country are twice as many.
In February, 1846, a Podura, probably the FP. plumbea of
* Trans, Linn, Soc., vol. xix. p. 430, + Ibid., vol. xix. p. 428. H 2
100 Observations on the various Insects
Linnzus, was abundant, skipping about the rotting potatoes, with its beautiful iridescent scaly coat, and in the cavities were numbers of a milk-white Ricinus, with myltitudes of an ochreous Acarus allied to A. coleoptratus.* _M. Guérin also describes and figures an Acarus called Glyciphagus fecularum,} and another which he names T'yroglyphus fecule, ¥ both of which were found in the changing potatoes or in cavities of the diseased tubers.
The species, however, which I found most abundant upon them, was the Acarus farine, which also swarms in meal and flour, when kept for any length of time, especially in damp places, and it is very remarkable that the same species seems to delight in worm-eaten wine-corks, for they have been sent to me from many cellars. In February, 1846, they were most abundant in decaying potatoes, and in March, 1847, they were observed by the Rev. L. Vernon Harcourt, near Chichester, and by Mr. Graham, of Cran- ford. Being very white, they may swarm, as they often do in flour, before they are discovered, and no doubt they feed upon the starch and farinaceous portions of the potato. The mites vary so greatly in their structure, that the old Genus Acarus has been split into many Genera, and the one to which this species belongs is now called
26. Tyrogiyphus farine (fig. 46, magnified), being synony- mous with the Acarus faring of De Geer.§ It is like a minute globule of fat, being of a pellucid shining white, with a rusty cloud on the back of some specimens, and it is not larger than a very small grain of sand (fig. q): it is oval, the anus slightly con- cave ; it has some longish rusty hairs scattered over the body, and the head and legs are of the same colour: the thorax is small and but shghtly indicated; the head and mouth form a horny cone: the 8 legs are short, stout, and tapering, the Ist and 2nd pair incline forward, the former arise close to the head, the latter are attached to very large white scapes forming the base, the other two pair are inserted at the middle of the belly and incline back- ward ; they are all 6-joimted, the joints subquadrate or oblong, pilose, the penultimate producing a few long bristles and terminated by a strong hooked claw.
They walk with tolerable alacrity and delight to burrow head foremost into the flour. I have eaten pie-crust made of meal in which myriads of these mites were generating, and found no ill effects from the food. The meal was first spread on the top of an oven to dry, by which process | found that a small degree of heat killed them.
* Gardeners’ Chron., vol. iv. p. 316.
¢ Bull.des Séan. de la Soe, Roy. et Cent. d’Agric., pl. 5, f. 7 : [bid., pl-5; £49:
: § Mémoire de l’Hist. des Ins., vol. vil. p..97, pl. 5, f. 13:
affecting the Potato-crops. 101
In the potatoes with the Acari were larve of various little beetles which assist in reducing putrid substances to a simple state, which is indispensable fof supplying the soil again with the proper elements as food for the support of vegetation. One of them was very similar to the larve of a beetle called Dermestes, but only 14 line long; another, a little larger, would undoubtedly produce some beetle of the families Carabide or Staphylinide. A somewhat similar larva was found in France, which Guérin believes may belong to a Genus of little Rove-beetles,* called Calodera.+ Another kind was detected by M. Rayer, which is likewise supposed to belong to one of the Staphylinide.
Nests also of little creatures were found in rotting potatoes, which looked lke black mites, but on close examination they proved to be beetles—members of a Family entirely devoted to the consumption of putrid animal and vegetable substances. [ allude to the Famity HistEriIp#; the species from the tubers belongs to the Genus Apraus,t and was named by Fabricius
27. A.minutus. It is a little oval, convex, shining beetle, like a seed, and not more than 4a line long, often only ;: it is of a dark chestnut colour: the head is bent down, the feelers being visible but not the jaws, and in front are 2 short, curved, 11-jointed horns, terminated by a distinct somewhat oval club: the eyes are small and lateral: the thorax is very broad and punc- tured ; the scutel is invisible: the elytra are broad, semi- oval, not covering the rump, beneath them is folded a pair of wings: the 6 little slender legs lie close to the body in repose; the anterior shanks are flattened, and the 5-jointed feet are short and very slender.
In the early spring these beetles are found under dung, and in September I have observed them in ripe and decayed cucumbers in frames, where sometimes they are generated in thousands, the warmth favouring their increase.
A still more minute beetle was detected amongst the potatoes, called Trichopteryx rugulosa ;§ it is not larger than this dot . being scarcely visible to the naked eye, nevertheless its pair of horns and six legs are complete, and the beautiful wings with a long fringe are most marvellously folded up under the wing-cases when not in use.
I have repeatedly found small Rove-beetles in the rotten potatoes, where I expect they live upon the Acar? and minuter animals, but of this I have no evidence. Guérin likewise thinks it probable that their darve may live upon those found in the rotten
* Vide Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. iv. p. 126, pl. H. f. 28 and =
+ Curtis’s Guide, Genus 219°. ‘. Curtis’s Guide, Genus 142, No. :
§ Bull. des Séances de la Soc. Roy. et Cent. d’Agric., pl. 6, f. 3, a Sturm’s Deutsch Fauna, vol. xvii. pl. 320.
102 Observations on the various Insects
portions of potatoes. One of the species is very widely spread in the autumn, and lives through the winter: it is named by Grayvenhorst Staphylinus nitidulug, and is now called
28. Oxytelus nitidulus.* It is only 14 line long, narrow, fiat, shining black, and coarsely punctured: the head is broad with several depressions, the oral organs are visible and the eyes prominent; before them are inseried the 2 horns, which are not longer than the thorax, thickest at the extremity, the Ist long and clavate, 2nd small, 3rd minute, the remainder like strung beads, increasing in size, the terminal joint ovate-conic; the thorax is broader than the head, somewhat semi-orbicular, with three channels down the back: the elytra are quadrate, chestnut-coloured, black at the base, and appearing striated from short depressed hairs: body nearly as long as the remainder of the insect, intensely black and glossy, elliptical, with 7 distinct segments, the sides margined and pilose, the tail triangular: wings ample, folded beneath the wing-cases : 6 legs short and tawny ; thighs thickened and rather pitchy in the middle; shanks flattened and serrated, excepting the hinder pair, which are slender: anterior notched outside near the apex; feet composed of 3 or 4 short and 1 long joint with a pair of slender claws.
These insects are also found in decaying cucumbers, melons, and various vegetables; they frequent muck-heaps and breed in the dung of animals.
Poratro F tts.
Dead and silent as the earth appears to be, it teems with life, for not only is the soil full of seeds, which merely require light and heat to start them into life, but it must abound with:the eggs of insects, so minute, that even with the assistance of a lens they escape one’s notice. To be convinced of the truth of this, if a flower-pot be filled with mould from a field or garden, and then tied over with the finest muslin, the experimentalist will be astonished to find the multitudes of little flies which are con- stantly making their appearance, bred no doubt from larve nourished on the vegetable matter which such soils contain. Where crops are grown and any portion of them becomes decayed, the number of these minute insects is vastly multiplied, and thus where the diseased potatoes have existed, additional swarms of various little flies have been the consequence. As a proof of the incredible numbers that must be thus generated, I may mention that from one growing and partially rotten potato I bred, in August, 1845, 128 flies, independent of many more which had died in the pupa state, or been destroyed by damp and mites
* Curtis’s Guide, Genus 216, No. 16.
affecting the Potato-crops. 103
before I discovered them in the vessel in which the tuber was placed, as well as Ue of smaller flies, all of which I will now describe. .
The whole belong to ee OrverR DiprerRa: the first I shall notice is included in the Famity Tirutip#, and the GeEnus Psycuopa, and has been named
29. P. nervosa (fig. 47; 1, the natural size*). The males are twice as large as the females: they are ashy-white, clothed with longish wool: the little head is buried under the thorax: the black eyes are large and lunate: the 2 horns are as long as the thorax and composed of 1! (?) small joints, black at the base, giving them an annulated appearance: the abdomen is short and of a dirty colour: the 2 wings when at rest meet over the back slanting : they are iridescent, very large, oval, and lanceolate, with numerous longitudinal hairy nervures: the entire margin is also hairy ; balancers small, clubbed, and white: 6 legs woolly; the feet 5-jointed, the tips black. Length 2, expanse 3 lines.
In February, 1846, the larvze and pupe were abundant in the rotten potatoes, also in decaying leaves and dunghills, and the flies have been bred by Mr. Haliday from putrescent fungi. These flies sometimes swarm in outhouses and about drains in spring and autumn.
The larve are not 3 a line long, yellowish-white, cylindrical, spindle-shaped, with 1] distinct annulations besides the head, which is triangular ; the tail is elongated and tabular. The pupa is about 2 of a line long, ochreous, and ferruginous; it is elongate- ovate in repose (fig. 48. the back; 49, the underside; s, the natural size), but the body can be stretched out and attenuated when disturbed, as in fig. 50: from the forehead project 2 slender appendages, like horns, on either side are laid the short stout antenne, and the wings meet over the breast, with the legs stretched out between them : the abdominal segments are ciliated and the tail is forked.
Several species of a little swarthy two-winged fly were bred from the decaying potatoes in multitudes. They are called Sciara by Meigen, and Molobrus by Latreiile. The larve I received from Mr. Graham: they are slender worms, about a quarter of an inch long, whitish and opake, but when immersed in water they become perfectly transparent, exhibiting the ochreous viscera and the food digesting in the stomach; when in motion they taper towards the head, which is oval, horny, black and shining ; the body is composed of 13 segments with 7 or 8 spi- racles on each side; the tail is broad and rounded, but slightly pointed in the centre (fig. 51; ¢, the natural size). The Reve is
* Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1151, No. 6, and Brit. Ent., fol, and pl. 745.
104 Observations on the various Insects
shorter, cylindrical, elliptical, and of a dull ochreous tint, be- coming darker as the period approaches of the birth of the fly: the antennez, eyes, wings, and legs are visible beneath their horny sheaths (fig. 52; wu, the natural size). At this period they are deprived of locomotion, but the larvae, although perfect maggots and destitute of feet, are able to move along in moisture, at the same time waving about and thrusting out their heads with great energy. ‘There are 30 species of these flies which inhabit Eng- land, and 3 or 4 of them have been bred from putrid potatoes. One is called
30. Sciara fucata, Meg. ;* when alive it is 1 line long. The male is of a pale inky-black, the head is small and spherical, with 2 tri-articulate feelers bent under ; the 2 horns are not longer than the thorax, tapering, pubescent, inserted la in front of the face, and 16-jointed, 2 basal joints the stoutest, the remainder oblong, apex conical; eyes lateral, kidney-shaped, and coarsely eranulated": ocelli 3, but unequal: trunk gibbose, subquadrate, scooped out at the base, with two indistinct lines of short ochreous ‘hairs down the back ; scutel lunate, postscutel oval, of a greyish colour: ab- domen slender, greenish black, brownish after death, 7-jointed, the margins of the segments pale, apex obtuse, and furnished with 2 incurved bi-articulate lobes : 2 wings, incumbent in repose, parallel, longer than the body, iridescent, slightly smoky, but transparent and clear at the base ; nervures brown, excepting the central one, which is scarcely visible, but forked and dark at the margin; the costal nervure does not reach the base of the forked cell: balancers pale dirty yellow or ochreous: 6 legs, long, slen- der, and of a dirty yellow or pale olive tint. emale similar, but larger, being 14 line long, the wings expanding nearly 3 lines: the thorax is not narrowed behind : the abdomen is spindle-shaped, attenuated, and conical, terminating in 2 little parallel sheaths: the 2 balancers are dusky when dry.
This was bred in the winter of 1845-46, and again in 1848, in vast quantities: the flies are also found throughout the summer in fields and gardens, on umbellate flowers, and on grasses. I have likewise bred them from rotten turnips in March.
31. S. quinque-lineata of Macquartt is 1} line long (fig. 53, the female; v, the natural dimensions). “ It is black, with 5 lines on the therax of a deep dull grey: anterior hips testaceous: wings almost hyaline: balancers brown or dirty white.
Specimens agreeing with this description were bred from rotten potatoes in March, 1848, and sent to me with the tubers con-
* Meigen’s Syst. Besch. Europ. zweif. Inseck., vol. i. p. 280, No. 6, and Gardeners’ Chron., vol. v. p. 784. + Hist. Nat. des Ins, Dipteres, vol. i. p. 149, No. 10.
affecting the Potato-crops. 105
taming the larve and pupe also, which resembled figs. 51 and 92. The potatoes were like old rotten cheese, and portions of the outside were covered with slimy threads, which Mr. Graham saw the larve spi. He thinks they cause the ‘scab’ in pota- toes, but I saw not the least vestige of the insect on one variety of my potatoes, which was very scabby.
32. S. pulicaria ? Meigen,* Hoff., is } a line long or upwards, and is distinguished from the two foregoing species by its longer antennze, which are equal in length to the rest of the body. “It is black, with testaceous legs : the wings almost hyaline: balancers brown.”
My specimens being as big again as Meigen’s, with ochreous balancers, I am doubtful if they be the S. pulicaria of that author. I bred them in August, 1845, from a rotten potato.
Another Dipterous insect was bred from the potatoes in less quantities. It also belongs to the Famrity TipuLip&, and the Genus Scatuopst. It appears to be Meigen’s
33. S. punctata.; Itis black and shining: the head is small; the eyes are kidney-shaped, with 3 little ocelli on the crown; the antennz are short, stout, cylindrical, and composed of 11 cup- shaped joints: thorax elongated and somewhat compressed, with a white dot on each side; scutel small and rough: abdomen broad, oval, and depressed: wings ample, resting horizontally, transpa- rent, and iridescent, with a black costal, subcostal, and basal nervure, the Ist and 2nd united beyond the middle, and divided near the base, by an oblique nervure ; there are also 4 other very faint longitudinal nervures, the apical one forked, the anal one - waved: balancers yellowish: legs simple, longish, and rusty ; extremity of thighs and shanks variegated with fuscous; feet brown, 5-jointed, terminated by a pair of minute claws. Length 1+ line, expanse 33 lines. |
The larve from which these flies proceed, live in various putrid substances, and even in dung: they have also been bred from the cocoons of silkworms, in all probability containing de- composing caterpillars or rotten pupe; they are from 2 lines to nearly + inch long, flat, and narrowed at both ends, of a dirty greyish-yellow colour; the head is brown and oval, with 2 short feelers: the body is composed of 12 pubescent segments, the Ist thoracic one with a prominent. spiracle on each side, as well as the penultimate, which with the apex is covered with radiating bristles. The pupa is 14 line long: it is enclosed in the skin of the larva, a little depressed, and yellowish brown: from the tho- rax projects a branched spiracle, like a buck’s horn, and the tail
* Syst. Besch. Europ. zweif. Inseck., vol. i. p. 282, No. 12. + Ibid., vol. i. p. 301, No. 4, and Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1177, 3.
106 Observations on the various Insects
has a stout spine. It remains from a week to a fortnight in this state, and the flies are often exceedingly abundant in the autumn.
Two large flies belonging to the Famity Muscrp@ I also bred from a single potato, as previously stated. ‘There were 48 speci- mens of one which was named by Fallen
34. Musca stabulans.* The male is 33 lines long, and the wings expand § an inch: it is of an ash-colour, and clothed with black bristles; the feelers are ferruginous ; the antenne drooping, 5-jointed and rust-coloured, pitchy at the base, 3rd joint elliptical and hoary, except at the base, the seta black and feathery, the basal joint minute: eyes large, approximating, naked, and chest- nut colour, the margins silvery white, as well as the face, with a black stripe tapering from the antennz to the 3 ocelli on the crown: thorax hoary, with 4 black longitudinal stripes before, the 2 central ones the longest, with a spot on each side beyond the centre ; scutel hoary, with a dark stripe at the base, ferruginous at the tip: abdomen ashy-ochreous, shining, the back variegated with brown patches: wings with the apical cell not angulated, but suddenly rounded, scales at the base with pale tawny mar- gins, and concealing the ochreous clubbed balancers: legs black, apex of thighs and tibiz ferruginous; pulvilli at the extremity of the feet elongated. Female similar, but the eyes do not approxi- mate, the face has a yellow tinge, and the stripe on the crown 1s broad and elliptical: the abdomen is broader, with an oviduct at the tail, and the pulvilli are small (fig. 54; w, the natural size).
The maggots had bred and accumulated amongst the slimy matter of the rotting potato just as meat-maggots are found, toge- ther with the horny pupe. Indeed, the largest maggots were exceedingly like those of the flesh- flies, being fatand whitish, the ochreous food and white lines of viscera chiming through the imapeparent skin: the head was pointed with a black proboscis formed of 2 horny claws, and the two spiracles at the blunt tail were like 2 black horny knobs (fig. 55). The tough and oval pupe were of a bright chestnut colour, the segments slightly marked, the head end rounded and wrinkled to a point, the tail furnished with 2 black spiracular tubes (fig. 56).
Of the other fly I bred 58 specimens from the same potato the middle of August. The larve escaped my notice at first from being so very like the earth in colour, and they are still more difficult to detect from their sluggishness, ‘They must be in the greatest force in July, but I have met with them in rotten potatoes the end of November. The group of flies with these singular spiny larve have been formed by Bouché into a Genus
* Meigen’s Sra Besch. Europ. zweif. Inseck., vol. v. p. 75, and Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1286, No. 23.
affecting the Potato-crops. 107
called Homatomyia,* being a section of Anthomyia. The parent fly of our species is exceedingly like ALusca cunicularis + of Linneus; still there are differences, and as the larve are also dissimilar, I have named this Potato-fly
35. Anthomyia tuberosa.t The male is 24 lines long, and expands 53: it is greyish-black and bristly: the eyes are chestnut colour, naked, approximating on the crown, the inner margin silvery white; antenne drooping, 5 jointed, 3rd joint oblong, 4th a slender elongated basal joint to the longish pubescent seta: thorax with 5 indistinct broad stripes down the back, 2nd and 3rd abdominal segments with bright echreous spots on each side, 3rd rarely with 2 similar minute spots: wings transparent, ner- vures dark, the 2 transverse ones not very remote: balancers pale tawny: legs black, base of shanks indistincily ferruginous (fig. O/; 2, the natural dimensions). emale ashy slate colour: the eyes smaller than those of the male and remote; the face not silvery: thorax with 5 distinct broad blackish lines down the ~back: abdomen ovate-conic, with 2 indistinct ochreous slightly diaphanous spots on the 2nd abdominal segment; in other re- spects this sex is similar to the male.
The larve, although indolent, can crawl well; they are of a dull tawny colour, clothed with long bristly spines, somewhat depressed, elliptical, tapering to the head, which is waved about, and when thrust.out is whitish and fleshy, armed with 2 minute hooks like ebony, and there is a little fleshy horn on each side, on the following segment is a spiracle, on either side, surrounded by several stout short.rays, the 2 next segments have tubercles on the back, the remainder have a double series down the centre producing bristles, with a double row on each side, and 8 of the segments have a pair of short spines on each beneath, which enable it to walk ; the apex is armed with 6 long bristles a little spiny at the base, but most of the others are naked, or with the slightest appearance of pubescence or little spines at the base; on the apical segment are 2 spiracular tubes (fig. 58 ; y, the natu- ral size). ‘The pupa being formed within the indurated skin of the larva, it varies from it only in being more convex above, and the fly escapes by a lateral opening in the thorax.
These larve and pup I find occasionally in my garden where cabbages have long occupied the ground, and Dr. Harris remarks that the hairy maggots of Anthomyia cunicularis, or an allied species, live in rotten turnips;§ they. also abound in privies, and
* Natur. der Inseckten, p. 89.
+ Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1287, No. 104.
~ Gardeners’ Chron, vol. v. p. 817.
§ Treatise on Insects injurious to Vegetation, p. 414.
108 Observations on the various Insects
the pup cases are sometimes found in multitudes under the boards.
From the large quantities of these maggots which have been ejected from the human stomach and intestines, accompanied by the most distressing symptoms,* I am led to conclude from their economy, that the eggs or larve are conveyed into the stomach in badly or half-cooked vegetables, for it is evident they subsist upon decomposing vegetables and excrementitious substances, and I have found similar but very small larve on cabbage-leaves in October. It is therefore very probable that under certain mor- bid conditions of the constitution they are able to live in the human body until they have arrived at their full growth, when they are necessarily ejected to become pupz, and after a short time to be transformed into flies. It is not a little remarkable that the maggots of Musca stabulans should have been also voided from the intestines,t and that fact tends to substantiate the view 1 have taken of the subject, and the cause of their presence in the human system, for that is the other species of large fly which I bred from maggots generated in the same potato.
I also detected the larvee and pupz of a smaller species of fly called Drosophila, which hatched the middle of August with the foregoing insects. They are also inhabitants of cellars, as their specific name implies, where the larve are usually very abundant all the year round. They will breed in stale beer, and probably are generated where there is any leakage from the tap and oozing about the bung, as well as from the fungi which spring up round rotten wood, &c., in cellars. [I have also known them to be bred from vinegar,} and it will be remembered that one species, D. flava, lives on the pulpy substance of the turnip-leaves,§ and another, -D. graminum, 1 have bred from cabbage-leaves. In spring and autumn the flies abound, and are not unfrequently on the inside of our windows. They belong to the Famity Mus- cip#, and the Genus Drosopnita. That bred from the pota- toes appears to be the Linnzan species named |
36. Drosophila cellaris. It is L4 line long, and expands 4 lines: the general colour is ochreous: the head is broad as well as the face, in the centre of which are inserted the 2 little droop- ing pubescent horns, the 3rd joint is oval, and from the back arises a feathery bristle jointed at the base: the orifice forming the mouth is very large; eyes large, hemispherical; ocelli 3 on
* Tiff, in Lancet for July 25th, 1840; Trans. Ent. Soc., vol. ii. pp. 152 and 256, pl. 15, f. 19; Memoirs of Med. Soc. of London for 1789, vol. ii. f. 1—4.
+ British and Foreign Medical Review for April, 1842.
¢ Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol. and p]. 473, and Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1334.
§ Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. iil, p. 69, pl. D. f. 30.
affecting the Potato-crops. 109
the crown: thorax globose-quadrate ;, scutel semi-ovate : abdomen small, depressed, oval, blackish, and 6-jointed, with 4 or 5 ochre- ous bands; the apex pointed in the female : wings incumbent in repose, very long and ample, yellowish and iridescent, with a very short marginal cell, and 4 longitudinal nervures, the 2nd and 3rd united towards the base, the 3rd and 4th towards the margin; balancers small, clavate: 6 legs tapering; feet long, slender, and 5-jointed, terminated by minute claws (fig. 59 ; z, the natural dimensions).
The larve are 24 lines long, of a whitish colour, tapering to- wards the head, composed of 12 joints; on each side of the tho- racic segment is a short branching spiracle, and the tail is fur- nished with 4 divaricating blunt spines, the edges of the segments bemg serrated with hooked ones (fig. 60; a, the natural size). When full grown, this skin becomes horny, changing to a rust- colour, the maggot is transformed to a pupa within an internal horny shell of a chestnut colour, and of course the pupa (fig. 61 ; b, the natural size) greatly resembles the larva.
There is also an extensive group of flies called Borborus,* the larvee of which live upon decomposing vegetable, and probably animal substances also: at all events they are generated in fungi. A portion of these flies is now distinguished by Macquart under the generic name of Limostna;f one of them [ have bred from rotting potatoes, and it seems to be identical with that author’s _ 37. L. geniculata.t It is only 1 line long, and expands a little more than 2 lines. It is black; the head is moderately large, with an ample cavity beneath to receive the mouth: the eyes are hemispheric and rust-coloured, and there are 3 minute ocelli on the crown ; the face is concave, with 2 little horns in the centre, the 3rd joint orbicular, with a tomentose seta: thorax broader, very convex ; scutel semi-orbicular and flat : abdomen very short, the segments equal in]length: wings rather small, smoky, neryures pitchy ; costal the strongest; submarginal cell not extending to the apex, 2nd and 3rd longitudinal nervures united at the middle, ord and 4th forming a loop with 2 minute branches at the ex- tremity; balancers small and ochreous: legs pitchy; hips ochre- ous, as well as the tips of the anterior thighs and the base of the shanks; hinder with a few spines. outside; feet long, 5-jointed, especially the hinder, which are slender, and longer than the shanks; dull ochreous, basal joint very long and »itchy, terminal one very short, and furnished. with short claws.
M. Rayer also observed a species in the infected potatoes which
* Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol and pl. 469. + Curtis’s Guide, Genus 1350. t+ Macquart’s Hist. Nat. des Diptéres, vol. il. p. 572.
110 Observations on the various Insects
has been named by Guérin Limosina Payenii,* and it is not im- probable that it may be the male of Macquart’s species, for it agrees very well with our female, except in the colour of the wings and the structure of the hinder feet.
With the for egoing Diptera I often bred a parasitic insect in considerable numbers, but to which it is attached, or whether to any of them, J am unable to ascertain. It belongs to the OrDER Hymenoprera, the FamMity Procrorrupip4, and the GENUS Crrapsiton, which has been divided by Mr. Westwood into 3 Genera, one of which is called Paramesius,+ and to that section our insect belongs. It is included by Nees ab Esenbeck in the Genus Diapria, and has been named by him
38. P. brachialis.{ The Male is scarcely | Jine long, and ex- pands 12; it is very glossy black; the head is globose ; ;, the face short ovate, and at the bottom are attached the antenne, which are nearly as long as the body, ferruginous, and 14-jointed, basal joint long, 2nd short, obovate, 3rd notched or comma-shaped, remainder short and obovate, apical Joint conical; eyes small, lateral, with 3 ocelli on the crown in a triangle: thorax very globose, scarcely larger than the head: scutel small, semi-oval, deeply hollowed at the base ; metathorax ferruginous and uneven ; petiole forming a ferrugimous knob, woolly behind: abdomen small, ovate-conic, pitchy, base ferruginous, with 4 longitudinal channels on a very large segment, apical segment very short: 4 wings dusky and pubescent, with a few nervures at the base of the superior, forming an elongated ceil: 6 legs short, slender, and ochreous, pitchy at the base; thighs thickened, as well as the anterior shanks, and pitchy at the middle ; feet slender, 5-jointed,. tips dusky. Female above | line long, and expanding 132: this sex is not only distinguished by its larger size, but the horns are shorter, with only 12 joints, the 3rd being simple like the 2nd ; and the extremity of the abdomen is acuminated, and very acute.
This insect belongs to a family which is very serviceable in keeping down wireworms and other subterranean larve, as will be seen by a reference to a former volume § and the ‘ Gardeners’ Chronicle.’|| Nees also says that the Diaprie breed in the sub- terranean larvee of Tipule, or Gnats.
I must not omit to record another fly called Dilophus febrilis, which is exceedingly abundant every year, the larvee causing
* Bull. des Séances de la Soc. Roy. et Cent. d’Agric., vol. v. pl: 6, f. 4.
+ Curtis’s Guide, Genus 571.
~ Hymenop. Ichn. Affin. Mon., vol. il. p. 333.
§ Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. v. p. 225, pl. J. figs. 46 and 47, the pupa, I expect, of a Proctotrupes.
| Vol. vi. p. 36, Proctotrupes Viator.
affecting the Potato-crops. 11]
much mischief in gardens; and at the close of the year 1845 many of them were sent to me as abounding on decayed portions of planted potatoes, and I have met with them likewise about the tubers and in flower-pots, where they burrow in all directions. Some I received in July were about 4 of an inch long,’ of an ochreous brown or snuff-colour, and shagreened: the back is slightly convex, with 12 well-defined wrinkled segments and a horny shining head, much narrower than the body, intensely black or inclining to chestnut-colour, and slightly hairy; there are $ dis- tinct spiracles on each side, the penultimate segment is rounded, with 4 teeth on the margin, and the anal one has 4 smaller teeth, with 2 large spiracles near the base: it has no feet.
They were transformed to pupe in the earth the beginning of August, and were then yellowish-white; the thoracic portion was very thick, with 2 horns in front; the body slender and sub- cylindric, the segments very distinct, with spiracles down the sides, and the tail spiny.
The flies hatched on the 21st of August, but they abound in fields, hedges, especially under trees, and even in the highways around London, the whole of that month; and there must be two broods of them, as they are found likewise in May. They belong to the Famity TipuLip#, and to the Genus Ditorpnus. The species was named febrilis by Linnzus, from the generally received opinion in Sweden of these flies resorting to houses where intermittent fevers existed.
39. D. febrilis is intensely black, shining, and hairy. The head of the Male is hemispheric, and covered with large densely pubescent eyes of a reddish-browy colour; there are 3 minute ocelli forming an elevated triangle near the base: the lip is broad, and the feelers incurved: the trunk is oval and gibbose, with 2 transverse rows of minute teeth before: the scutel is short and broad: abdomen sublinear, 8-jointed, the apex clubbed: the 2 wings are incumbent in repose, perfectly transparent and white but iridescent, the pinion only is slightly tinged with brown, the costal nervures pitchy, the others very faintly marked; a radial nervure uniting with the costa at the middle forms a brown spot at the extremity: 2 balancers, with a large compressed brown club: it has 6 long legs ; anterior thighs the thickest, the shanks very short, the apex surrounded by a coronet of teeth; there are also several short spines outside; feet slender, 5-jointed, termi- nated by claws and suckers: length 24 lines, expanse 5 lines, The Female is larger and very different, the head being much less, with smail oval eyes not meeting on the crown: the abdomen is brownish and elongated, ovate at the extremity but narrowed at the base, and the tip is furnished with 2 minute tubercles: the wings are much longer and very ample, entirely brown, the
1i2 Observations on the various Insects
pinion being the darkest, with a brown stigmatic spot; all the nervures are pitchy; the anterior thighs are incrassated.
These insects fly heavily, their hinder legs hanging down, and in the evening they become sluggish, resting on herbage and bushes. ‘The larvze also inhabit cow-dung and horse-muck : it is therefore very possible they may be introduced into potato-grounds with the manure, or the flies may be attracted to highly manured ground to deposit their eggs; for so. little is known of the economy of many insects, that it is impossible to determine their exact habits : indeed no description or figures were to be found of the larve and pupe of this fly, until I sent them to the ‘ Gardeners’ Chronicle.’ *
Fatse Scorpions,
These singular little creatures have occurred in some numbers amongst decaying potatoes, where probably they live upon the mites, as one species is known to be very serviceable in keeping under those pests in cabinets of natural history; others are found attached to the legs of house-flies so firmly that it is scarcely pos- sible to remove them, but whether they destroy the fly or only avail themselves of their power of flight to be carried from one locality to another is not known. ‘These false Scorpions belong to an OrpDER called by Latreille Tracntartia, to the Famtty CHELIFERIDA, and the Genus Cuetirer. I can find no de- scription which answers to this species correctly : it is undoubtedly closely allied to Hermann’s C. nepoides, but the inequality in the length of the legs seems to distinguish them, and for that reason I shall call the potato species
40. C. inaequalis. It is ? of-a line long, of a hvely rust-colour: the head is pointed; the two little eyes are scarcely visible; the feelers are like the claws of a crab, as long as the body, smooth, with scattered hairs, and 4-jointed; the basal joint is short, hatchet-shaped, 2nd twice as long and oblong, 3rd as large, pear- shaped, 4th the largest, oval, terminated by two long slender claws, forming pincers: thorax oval, with a transverse suture across the middle: body oval, and brown with scattered hairs, furnished with 8 shortish, ochreous, shining legs; 4 first the shortest, 5-jointed, and terminated by a minute double black claw (fig. 62; c, the natural size).
W oRMS.
It may be remembered that in discussing the minute animals which affect the wheat-crops, a very remarkable little worm called Vibrio tritict was described and figured, 7+ and its history was also
* Vol. iv. p. 868, with figures of the male, female, larva, and pupa. + Journal of Royal Agric. Soc., vol. vi. p. 513, pl, O. figs. 27 and 28.
affecting the Potato-crops. 113
detailed. It appears that M. Rayer has discovered a similar species which breeds in multitudes in rotten potatoes; and the same animals were observed by Mr. Graham and myself last March, in myriads in the putrescent tubers. This Vibrio is named by Guérin, Rhabditis tuberculorum, and is shorter and stouter in its young state: the tail of the male is rounded; conical and pointed in the female: the mouth is furnished with 2 rounded nipples, and a 3rd between them connected with the oesophagus, and the body is devoid of articulations (fig. 63, magnified) : itis not thicker than the finest hair, and scarcely visible in repose. As it is well figured, with dissections, in the Bulletin so often re- ferred to in this Report, it is unnecessary to comment further upon this worm at present.
I am not aware that snails injure the potato-crops at any period, but slugs do much mischief to the late crops, enlarging the holes perforated by wireworms, snake miullipedes, and other subter- ranean animals, which is one good reason for lifting the crop as soon as the tubers are ripe, to prevent unnecessary waste. ‘This reminds me of a singular fact recorded in a useful monthly pub- heation called the ‘ Farmers’ Herald.’* A bag was found ina cooked potato, containing 11 white globular pellucid eggs, scarcely so large as mustard-seeds: they were a little pointed at one end, and had every appearance of having been laid in the cavity by a slug, which is exceedingly probable, as I have found them half concealed in potatoes, where they had feasted so long -and increased so greatly in bulk, that it was impossible to with- draw them without enlarging the orifice.
I believe this may close my observations regarding the insects and small animals which direcily or indirectly injure the potato- crops. tee amount to 60 or more, but probably their name would be ‘ Legion’ if we were thoroughly acquainted with all the species, in their different stages of development, preying upon this useful esculent; and although in the foregoing pages no attempt has been adie to give undue importance to their agency, there can be no question that insects often injure the potato- crops to a great amount. Indeed, as we have endeavoured to show in these Essays, their mission is to labour in the destruction of vegetable and animal matter, and consequently there is not a crop in the field and garden that, sooner or later, 1s not subject to their ravages,
A Summary of the present Essay.
Aphis of potato, the same as that on the turnip, named A. Rape, and identical with A. vastator. Various species of Aphides are found upon potato-haulm, as * Vol. iii. p. 139. Pay mi WOU: Ks I
Mea Observations on the various Insects
Aphis Rape, A. Humili, A. Persice, A. Fabe, and Schizoneura lanigera.
It is only when the plant-lice take possession of a plant, breed upon and smother it, that they can affect its life.
It is by suction they exhaust vegetation.
Lady-birds and their larve, the maggots of dipterous flies, and some small bugs, live upon the plant-lice.
A fly called Sapromyza obsoleta supposed to cause the potato- rot, laying its eggs in the young shoots.
Thrips minutissima accused of causing the potato epidemic.
They live by suction, and never are in sufficient numbers upon the potato-leaves to affect the tubers.
A minute ground-flea, Smynthurus Solani, feeds on the pulp of the leaves.
A Smynthurus in Nova Scotia destroys the very young turnips and cabbages.
They generate upon old cultivated ground, and damp drives them away.
Salt or sea-weeds scattered over the ground will expel them.
A Podura feeds on the pulp of the leaves, and is supposed to porson the sap.
Plant-bugs believed to cause the potato-disease.
Lygus Solan. L. contaminatus. L. bipunctatus, L. umbella- tarum, Phytocoris pabulinus, and P. viridis, were the accused species.
Another species appeared 10 years earlier in the United States, where similar opinions were entertained of their poisoning the votatoes.
Frog-flies, called Eupteryx Solani and EF. picta, breeding on the potato-haulm, and accused of destroying the potato-crops.
They live by suction, as well as the plant- bugs, from the time they are hatched to their final state.
Macrocnema exoleta, a leaping beetle, feeds upon and niddles the leaves of the potato and bitter-sweet.
Caterpillars of the death’s-head sphinx feed upon potato- een:
This moth robs bee-hives, and is called also the bee-tiger.
An Ichneumon fly, Zrogus atropos, lives in the caterpillars of the death’s-head moth.
A mite, Oribates castaneus, congregates on the dead potato- haulm to feed on fungi.
M. Guérin attributes the potato-disease to atmospheric changes, and not to insects.
Surface-grubs, the caterpillars of moths, Agrotis exclamationis and A. segetum, destroy potato as well as turnip crops.
Maggots of Tipule, the crane-flies or daddy-longlegs, seriously affect the potato-crops.
affecting the Potato-crops. 115
They revel in damp and undisturbed land: draining is therefore obnoxious to the Tipule maggots.
The eggs are scattered among the grass and weeds.
The larve of Tipula oleracea and T. paludosa are living from April to August, and destroy turnip, potato, beet, carrot, and
cabbage, as well as corn crops, and injure pastures and sarden plants.
These gnats are most abundant from July to November.
Wheat cannot be grown after clover-feas, owing to the maggots of the Zipule and the wireworms.
Repeated rollings with Crosskill’s clod-crusher, or breast- ploughing the turf and burning it, are the best remedies against the maggots.
Larve of Tipula maculosa injurious to corn and potato crops on light lands, and very destructive in gardens in the spring and summer,
These gnats abound in May and June, when the eggs are laid.
Watering with salt or nitrate of soda would free the land, as well as searching round sickly and dying plants early in the morning.
fiepeated dustings of soot, sea-sand, and salt, would probably destroy the maggots.
fiolling grass at the proper season will destroy the gnats, and prevent the deposition of eggs.
Clover-stubbles should be kept close fed by sheep, &c., as it is an excellent remedy.
ftooks, starlings, sea-gulls, lapwings, snipes, and pheasants, con- sume immense quantities of subterranean larve or grubs.
Wireworms drill potatoes in the summer and autumn, if not earlier.
Potatoes when left in the ground attract all the wireworms, as will sliced potatoes when covered with earth.
Oat crop saved by sowing soot and guano.
A different species of wireworm destroys both sound and dis- eased potatoes in France.
Snake millipedes assist in destroying potato-crops on the first appearance of disease.
fulus pulchellus is the most abundant and mischievous.
Centipedes in abundance in potato-grounds, especially Lithobius forcipatus and Greophilus electricus ?
They are said to be carnivorous, and G. electricus leaves a train of light as it walks.
Podura plumbea? in abundance about rotting potatoes in February.
A Tick, and 3 mites, named Acarus coleoptratus 2? Glyciphagus fecularum, and Tyroglyphus fecule, inhabit the decaying tubers.
12
116 Observations on the various Insects
A mite named Acarus farine also swarms in the spring in diseased potatoes.
They love damp, and a small degree of heat will hell them.
Three or 4 different Jarve, the “produce of little Rove-beetles, &ce., which probably feed on the mites, are generated in decom- posing potatoes.
A Rove-beetle, called Oxytelus nitidulus, is a constant inha- bitant of decomposing vegetables. 3
Nests of little beetles, Abreus minutus, in rotting potatoes.
Lrichopteryx rugulosa, one of the minutest of beetles, also resides 7n diseased potatoes.
A little gnat, Psychoda nervosa, bred in multitudes from rotten potatoes in the spring.
The swarthy flies, Sciara fucata, S. quinquelineata, and §. pulicaria? hatched in multitudes from the same tubers which supplied food for their maggots.
Scathopse punctata? another small fly, was bred with them.
48 examples of a large fly, Musca stabulans, were bred from a single potato in August, and |
58 of another fly, Anthomyia tuberosa, from the same rotting tuber.
Thesé and a closely allied species are produced from maggots which are occasionally voided in vast quantities from the stomach and intestines of man.
Are they not introduced into the stomach with badly or partially cooked vegetables ?
Drosophila cellaris, the Cellar-fly, also came forth from the same potato as the last-named flies.
Limosina geniculata is another fly I have hatched from putrid potatoes and £. Payenii also in France.
A parasitic fly, Paramestus brachialis, is often bred where the foregoing fites are generated.
Larve of a fly, Dilophus febrilis, also infests the tubers in the ground.
Chelifer inequalis, a false-scorpion, also resorts to decaying potatoes, probably to feed upon the mites.
A worm, called Vibrio or Rhabditis tuberculorum, is generated in vast numbers j in putrifying potato-heaps.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE U.
Fig. 1.* Aphis Fabe, female. Fig. 2. The natural size.
Fig. 3.* Pupa of Aphis Fabe. Fig.-4. The natural size. . Fig. 5.* Hylophila Nemorum. Fig. 6. The natural size.
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affecting the Potato-crops. 117
ig. 7.* The larva state of Hylophila.
ig. 8, ity b
Oe 5 ditke ie 12. 4 Soe iol. ele. SG." Ie Li. yee TS ese
1 LO ig. 20.*
. 38,
The natural size.
The head and thorax in profile. a. The antenne or horns. 6. The rostrum or beak. Pupa of Hylophila Nemorum. The natural size. Hylophila minuta. The natural size. Larva state of Thrips minutissima. The natural size. Thrips minutissima flying. The natural size. Smynthurus Solan, the potato eround-flea; its natural size is that of a grain of sand. A Smynthurus in profile, to show its leaping apparatus. Lygus Solani; the potato-bug. e. The natural length. Pupa of the same. d. The natural length. Lygus contaminatus. The natural size.
.* The head in profile.
e. Base of the antenne. SJ: The rostrum. Lygus bipunctatus. The natural size. Lygus umbellatarum. g. The natural dimensions. Hupteryx Solani, the potato frog-fly. fh. The natural dimensions. The head in profile. é. The antenna. &. The rostrum. The ege. . The natural size.
.~ 'The pupa state.
Eupteryx picta. am. The natural dimensions.
.* Altica or Macrocnema excleta ; the potato flea-beetle.
The natural size.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE V.
Eges of Tipula Oleracea. m.* One magnified. . The larva or maggot from the same. o.* Tail or stern, viewed in front. The pupa state of the same. Abdomen of the male fly, in profile.
One
Various Insects affecting the Potato Crops.
Female Tipula Oleracea, or crane-fly. Abdomen of the male of Tipula maculosa. Female Tipula maculosa. Larva or maggot of the same. The same contracted. p.* The tail or stern, viewed in front. The pupa state of the same. Geophilus electricus (?), or Anthronomalus longicornis. Acarus or Tyrogl: yphus farine : the flour-mite. g. The natural size. Psychoda nervosa. ry. ‘Che natural dimensions. Pupa, view of the back. Ditto, ditto, the underside. Ditto, ditto, nearly in profile and attenuated. s. The natural size.
.“ Larva or maggot of Sciara quinquelineata.
é. The natural size. Pupa of the same. uw. The natural size. Sciara (or Molobrus) quinquelineata. wv. The natural dimensions. Musca stabulans. w. The natural dimensions. The larva or maggot of the same. The pupa. Anthomyia (or Homalomyia) tuberosa. ax. The natural dimensions. Larva of the same. y. The natural size. Drosophila cellaris, the cellar-fly. z. The natural dimensions. The larva or maggot of the same. a. The natural size.
.“ Pupa of the same.
b. The natural size. Chelifer inequaiis, a false-scorpion. ce. The natural size.
. 63.* Vibrio (or Rhabditis) tuberculorum, greatly magnified.
Obs.—Those numbers with a * attached, refer to the objects which are represented larger than life, and all the figures are drawn from nature, excepting No. 63, which is copied from M. Guerin’s plate.
(The Copyright of this Paper is reserved to the Writer. )
Hayes, near Uxbridge, February, 1849.
© lho)
V.—On the Stoppage of Drains by a Stony Deposit. From Lorp PortMAN.
To Mr. Pusey.
Dear Pusty,—I wish to call the attention of those persons who are engaged in draining land, to the accompanying state- ment of facts tending to show the importance of ascertaining the quality of the water which is to pass through the drains, before selecting the material of which they are to be formed. I have seen many cases where drains built with stones—made with broken stones—filled with boughs of trees or with poles of alder or larch—made with tiles and soles (as each person has thought best), have been stopped, adjacent to turf-wedge drains made from 20 to 40 years before, which were running perfectly. [ have in some cases satisfied myself that a deposit has attached itself to these materials, and has more or less impeded the drainage, and that no deposit has been made in the turf-drains by the same water; but I have not hitherto ascertained with sufficient accuracy the real cause of the stoppage, though I have little doubt, from what I now know, that a chemical analysis of the water would explain it. In tile-pipes I have not yet seen any similar stoppage, but my experience of pipes is not yet suf- ficient to justify me in saying that they would not be liable to similar obstructions. I believe that the aid of the chemist and of the geologist are essential to the permanent success of the drainer. | now give you one case in full detail, sent to me, at my request, by my friend Mr. Goodden of Compton House, near Sherborne, from whom I received the water and the deposit, whereof I send you a copy of the analysis made by Professor Way. Yours truly,
Bryanston, April 28, 1849. PoRTMAN.
« Although I have been doing a great deal of draining of late, I have been a good deal staggered as to its being an improvement of long continuance. ‘Twenty years ago a large pasture field of mine was drained under the old and exploded system of Turf-draining. There is a carrier of stone of large dimensions in the field; this was choked some weeks since, and I had it opened a long dis- tance up, and, to my surprise, I found the whole drain completely closed with the incrustation from the water; the substance is pre- cisely the same as that we find in our boilers. The field in question is 29 acres of old pasture; the soil of which is a loam with a clay subsoil. It was drained in the year 1829, it being then in a wet state. The drainage was effected partly by what is called turf or wedge-draining, and partly by stone. There was a stone drain straight down the field, into which some of the side drains emptied themselves; it was a good sized drain,
120 On the Stoppage of Drains by a Stony Deposit.
capable of carrying a large body of water. The expense of drain- ing this field, being chiefly labour, was 50/. From being quite in a wet state, it soon became dry; the drainage appeared com- pletely successful, and so it remained until the winter of 1848. At this time the field appeared again wet; but in the neighbour- hood of the stone carrier particularly so. In January of this year, 1849, on walking over this piece of land, I found it looking generally bad, the soil was spongy, the herbage looked unhealthy, and some places presented all the appearance of an incipient hog. I have no hesitation in saying that this field was in a much worse condition than it was before it was drained. I therefore determined to open the stone carrier, which was done on the 13th of January. We found the drain completely choked with a deposit from the water. The substance is hard, and in some places the stones of the drain were so bound together with incrustation, that it re- quired the pickaxe to divide them. When the drain was first opened, the water poured down it in large quantities; it has been opened nearly a month, and the stream could now easily be carried byal4 inch pipe. Iam happy to say the land presents a very different appearance, and is nearly dry. With regard to the drainage of this field, there can be no doubt that it was very im- perfect. But still the stoppage of the stone drain with a deposit from the water has caused me to doubt whether draining, in some localities, is a substantial improvement of long duration. Where the water is what is called ‘hard’ and liable to form a deposit, the same thing may happen in pipes as has occurred in my stone drain.
«You ask, How have the turf-drains answered in my field, which was drained 20 years ago?
‘‘[T have had some opened and particularly examined, and I find, with scarcely any exception, that the water in them runs very well. The deteriorated state of the field seems to have arisen from the stoppage of the stone carrier, because, as many of the turf-drains led into this stone carrier, the drainage of some acres was necessarily stopped. ‘The stone drain is still open, and the side turf-drains run freely into this opened carrier. I am rather disposed to think that the deposit in the drain must be formed, in some measure, of earthy matter petrified by the water; the carrier drain had no stone bottom, so that probably uneven sur- faces were formed, and thus from time to time earthy deposits may have formed.
“T send you a bottle of the water and a lump of the deposit, of which I hope you will obtain an analysis. ‘The drainage ques- tion is one of great importance to us. Of this I feel satisfied that a great deal of money is sunk in draining, and unless it is done well, that is, on scientific principles, we might as well not drain our land at all.
“ J, GOODDEN.”
On the Stoppage of Drains by a Stony Deposit. 121 From Mr. Way.
“T send you the analysis of the water and the deposit : you will readily observe that the composition of the water sufficiently accounts for the deposit, which indeed it closely resembles in character, ‘The quantity of carbonate of lime in the water is not however excessive, and it must require some time to form so large an accumulation. From the analysis it is quite clear that the drains are stopped, not mechanically, but by a chemical precipi- tate; this is evident by simple inspection of the substance: the deposit is principally carbonate of lime, and I believe the pheno- mena you mention may be referable to the following causes: the stone drain would probably for the most part be only partly filled with water, and would leave opportunity for the escape of the carbonic acid, by which the carbonate of lime is held in solution; the result being a crystalline deposit of this substance, which in time would choke the drain. I must add that the stone acts like a piece of bread in a glass of champagne, in affording points for the escape of the gas.
“In the turf-drains, on the other hand, there would most likely be a gradual evolution of this gas from decomposition of vegetable matter, and the water, remaining fully charged with carbonic acid, would not afford a deposit, or, if at all, in smaller amount. From the small size of turf or wedge-drains, I can quite under- stand that they would not be filled up, because they must contain less air for the carbonic acid to escape into, and fewer points of escape for it even were other circumstances favourable.
« Analysis of a deposit taken from a stone drain :—
pACENOMOTe OG NMO eT ec ee yee es 86°38 Sulphate oflime . . - ee ae es ys Oe iaemesiacommentsait.. "ss 8 5 09 P08" SS traces:
insoluble mattersand; clay, ces: (iso. 29. sie 252 40°22
99°12
- « N.B.—The sand and clay are deposited mechanically in thin layers, obvious to the eye, between the thicknesses of carbonate of lime,
«‘ Analysis of the water passing through the drains :— “ Solid matter in a pint of the water 3°160 grains, consisting of—
Bee HEOOURLCOMMMMC sos es tee ae ee ee Sulphate of lime 0-270 Ma awesIawOo MINNIE tit) Theo we icr) lins. Shut} eada VOLS Common salt . eee im Ucartien nice Acasa sO STNG: ae Rc ee si ee kk ie iSO Werclabletmathebein 9s. 6 3 4 eee 0°154
3°160”
“<T Tuomas Way.”
VI.— Onthe Farming of South Wales. By Chane SEWELL Reap.
Prize Report.
In attempting a report on the farming of South Wales, the writer is fully sensible of the importance andl difficulty of the task which he has undertaken and his incompetency to do justice to his subject. He trusts, however, that his effort will not be deemed presumptuous, but that he may have credit for the feeling which really actuates him, namely, a desire to give some account of, and to draw attention to, a district in which he lives, and in the cultivation of which he takes the deepest interest, with the hope that art may be brought to bear on that fair country which nature has so lavishly endowed, but which the hand of man has hitherto comparatively neglected.
The requirements of the Royal Agricultural Society are fourfold :—
Ist. The character of the soils.
2nd. The peculiarity of the agricultural management.
3rd. The improvements since the report of Walter Davies in 1814.
Ath. The improvements still required.
It is scarcely possible within reasonable limits to describe the various soils of a country comprising six counties, whose area is 4000 square miles, and above 2,530,000 statute acres; or, to por- tray the peculiarities of its management, where all recognized system of farming is wanting, and the peculiarities are nearly as numerous as the parishes; or to point out the improvements still required where almost everything which science and capital have effected for the sister country is still undone.
But it will not be so difficult to deal with the ‘‘ improvements which have taken place since 1814.” Here, alas! the task is easy.
It is proposed therefore, to enter, but not minutely, upon the character of the various soils, and to give the result of the writer’s experience, observation, and information, in a general outline of the agricultural management of South Wales, after which the improvements that have been made and those still required will be touched upon.
South Wales now comprises the maritime counties of Pem- broke, Cardigan, Carmarthen, and Glamorgan, and the inland counties of Brecknock and Radnor, containing, according to Mr. Cary’s communications to the Board of Agriculture, 2,530,560 statute acres. The population in 1841, the date of the last returns, was 515,067, being an increase of 186,000 since
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® Farming of South Wales. 125
1811. North Wales, during the same period, on an area of 1,801,720, had given an increase of 118,000. Still the agricul- tural population is very low in proportion to any similar extent of area in England; this is doubtless to be attributed to the farming of South Wales being chiefly pastoral. In the purely agricultural county of Radnor the population to the acreage is as 1 to 10, whereas in the mineral county of Glamorgan the propor- tion is as 1 to 22 acres.
Pembroke is divided into 7 hundreds and 145 parishes, and has 6 market towns. It contains about 345,600 statute acres: its population in 1841 was 88,262, exhibiting a regularly proportioned increase during the last thirty years. English is the prevalent language in a great part of this county. In the reign of Henry I. numerous Flemings settled themselves here ; and it is said, by the Welsh historian, that the King placed among them some English settlers to teach them the English language and cus- toms. The posterity of these settlers remain to this day in the southern parts of the county, where they are plainly distinguishable from the ancient British population by their language, manners, and customs. Owing to the geographical position of Pembroke, its extent of seacoast is double that of its land boundary: the surface is alternate hills and dales. The whole of Castle Martin Hundred, forming the southernmost part of the county, is distinguished for its gentle undulating horizontal surface.
Cardigan is divided into 5 hundreds and 64 parishes, and has 5 market towns. Its population in 1841 was 68,380: its area 377,600 statute acres.
Carmarthen is the largest county in South Wales, and is divided into 8 hundreds and 87 parishes, and has 8 market towns. Its population in 1841 was 106,482; its area 623,360 statute acres.
Glamorgan, the great seat of the iron trade, considerably more than doubled its population between the years 1811 and 1841; the numbers being in the former year 81,268, and inthe latter 173,462. Its area is 422,400 statute acres. This county is divided into 10 hundreds and 118 parishes, and has 9 market towns.
Brecknock is divided into 6 hundreds and 61 parishes, and has 4 market towns. Its population in 1841 was 53,295; its area-512,000 statute acres. Considerable attention has for a long period been bestowed on the breed of horses in this county. ;
Radnor is divided into 6 hundreds and 52 parishes, and has 4 market towns. Its population in 1841 was 25,186, being an increase of only 3387 since 1811: its area 249,600 statute acres. The surface of the county is throughout hilly. The original Welsh ponies are still bred in the moun- tains. This county contains a greater number of mineral springs than all the others of South Wales conjointly.
The principal characteristic of the climate of South Wales is its great humidity. As compared with Central England, the cold is not usually so severe, nor the heat so great. The spring is long and backward, and there is an old Welsh adage, ‘‘ Summer till January, and winter till mid-June.” At irregular intervals, but for fully two-thirds of the year, westerly winds prevail. The changes of the atmosphere are extremely sudden and perplexing. The high mountains of the interior convert the invisible vapours from the Atlantic into sensible vapour or clouds, whence misty rains frequently descend, and sometimes unexpected heavy
€ 126 Farming of South Wales.
showers ; still the inhabitants can foretell that rain is close at hand, when there appears every prospect of a fine day. They principally ground their observations on the noise of the sea, the roar of a waterfall, the sound of bells, shape of mists and clouds resting on the mountains. During the summer and early autumn heavy dews are of frequent occurrence, and warm close mists will last for several days: these sometimes considerably impede hay and corn harvests, and consequently the saving of grain in good condition cannot be calculated upon with the same certainty as in England. On the other hand South Wales is, above all others, the country for grass and green crops, as the moisture and dews | of summer, and the gentle variation of heat, must exert most beneficial influence on all such vegetation, especially the young turnips. All along the coast, and indeed far inland, the gales from the west are particularly severe, and frequently do much damage to the growing crops. Of course the temperature varies with the aspect and aliitude of the district. In the alpine tracts, the Rev. Walter Davies observes, “rain in lower places is here sleet; sleet, snow; and storms, tempests.” Meteorological ob- servations prove that the depth of rain is not so much as in some counties of England, therefore the humidity of the climate arises from constant mists rather than heavy rains. The common opinion of the hazy weather prevailing in South Wales has been thus expressed :— «« Winter, mists will fall in snow ; In spring the winds will coldly blow.
Summer fogs foretel much heat ; Autumn mists will rain repeat.”
As might be supposed by merely glancing at the geographical situations of some districts, there are great varieties of climate. Thus the temperature and humidity of the Vales of the Teify and the Towy are quite different from those of the Wye and the Usk. The former open their mouths at the south-west to receive the accumulated mists of the Atlantic, while the lofty mountains arrest the vapours before they reach the latter, which, being open to the east, have a climate similar to, and as cold as, that of the Midland Counties of England. Again, while Pembroke and Cardigan are prominently exposed to the violence of the westerly gales, Glamorgan is partly surrounded by rising ground, and pro- tected in some degree, even to the south, by the counties of Somerset and Devon.
The north-western portion of South Wales rests upon the clay- slate formation, or as they are geologically termed, the upper and lower Silurian deposits. These formations commence at the north portion of St. Bride’s Bay, running nearly in a horizontal line by
Haverfordwest and Narberth to Laugharne. They proceed by a :
® Farming of South Wales. 127
north-east course to the south of Carmarthen and Llandovery ; then, before reaching the borders of Radnor, make a curve in a contrary direction, and again bending upwards pass into Hereford, a little above Hay, ‘This large tract, covering more than 2500 square miles, includes the northern and larger part of Pembroke, the whole of the county of Cardigan, nearly all Radnor, and a very considerable portion of Carmarthen. In the neighbourhood of St. David’s, Fishguard, St. Clare’s, and Radnor, the trappean rocks frequently occur. In some instances the soil of the clay-slate formations is tolerably productive, in others quite the contrary. These formations occupy many elevated and exposed situations in the district, and often will not there pay for arable cultivation. The soil is generally good upon the grey shale, but unproductive when resting on a blue slate. The valleys and sides of the mountains abound with peat, and clay is in many places within a few inches of the surface. The south sides of the hills, when not too steep, often produce better corn than the hollows below. Most of these soils are deficient in calcareous matter, and the great distance from lime renders improvement in many parts expensive and slow. When the soil is ploughed in the upper districts, oats and (till lately) potatoes were the only crops successfully produced: but on the low. lands good corn is grown, and there can be no doubt that nearly all the soil is favourable for the cultivation of turnips. The best land of Radnor is found in the valleys, through which the Wye, the Lug, and the Teme flow. In these tracts turnips are grown toa considerable extent, being drilled on ridges. The meadows about Upper Radnor are wet and barren, but the hills afford good sheep-walk. The northern portion of the Brecknock which rests on these formations is cold and unproductive. In Cardigan several rich loams are to be met with in the valley of Teify and Aeron. The Vale of Towy, in Carmarthen, has a rich fertile soil, and on the level of the Taf from the borders of Pem- broke to Laugharne, the ground produces luxuriant crops. By the sea-coast of Pembroke and Cardigan there is a large extent of table-land, which is of better and lighter quality than the irregular ground of the interior. This tract which has long been celebrated for its barley, generally abounds with large porous grey field- stones. These also cover the pastures, and are not removed, as in seasons of drought they retain considerable quantities of mois- ture. The trap-rocks, in districts where they appear, produce important changes in the nature of the soil. When not too hard or too much elevated they afford land which will readily produce all crops, but especially barley. ‘There are anomalous detached rocks of limestone in the vicinity of Radnor which are very serviceable in that otherwise limeless tract. The chief mineral
* 128 Farming of South Wales.
productions of the Silurian deposits are slates; but lead, and even silver are also found.
The whole of the county of Pembroke, south of a line drawn from Tenby to St. Bride's, is composed of alternate layers of the old red sandstone and carboniferous limestone. The fertile level of Laugharne rests upon the old red sandstone, which latter pro- ceeds in a narrow strip south of the Silurian deposits, till it reaches Brecknock, where it takes a tortuous course towards the east, and runs into Monmouth south of Abergavenny. Its breadth here exceeds twenty miles. It again makes its appear- ance near Cardiff, and is distinctly visible, in conjunction with the limestone, in the promontory below Swansea. It will be thus seen that the old red sandstone occupies a very considerable por- tion of Brecknock, extending over nearly 400 square miles. A narrow belt of limestone and millstone-grit enclose, in an irregular circle, the whole of the extensive coal-measures of Glamorgan. These small veins commence at Kidwilly, pass north of Merthyr Tydvil, and extend nearly to Pontypool. They again enter Wales, about Caerphilly, and lose their distinctive form by mingling with the las shale in the region of Bridgend and Cowbridge. In Pembroke the coal-fields form a strip of about 5 miles wide across the county south of the slate formation, and, with the Glamorgan tract, constitute an area of about 900 square miles. The red soils are variable, but, although there are many shallow and light tracts, generally speaking the land is kind, easily worked, and of superior quality. ‘The principal valleys of the red sandstone extend on the banks of the Usk and the Wye. The former river flows only through this formation, a@d as it brings down with it no tenacious earthy matter, the soil of the valley is decidedly light, though kind and productive. By the good agriculture found there capital crops ef grain and turnips are grown, yet the pastures suffer materially in seasons of drought: the. Wye on the contrary rises in the Silurian deposits, and its clayey sediment improves the weakness of the red soil, which thus becomes able to produce heavy crops of all grain. The hilly tracts are grand and lofty, and contain the Brecknock Beacons, which attain an elevation of 2862 feet, and are con- sequently the highest mountains of South Wales. The pasturage of all this alpine district is much superior to the higher portions of the slate formations. Laugharne Marsh, which was originally enclosed from the sea, is celebrated for its goodness of soil and its Juxuriant crops of wheat and beans. It is a beautiful sandy loam, with a substratum of rich clay. The limestone land is always dry and fertile when a moderate quantity of soil covers the rock ; should there be much clayey earth upon the limestone, the soil 1 is
Farming of South Wales. 129
cold and poor ; and if the rock is too near the surface, it is light and weak, but produces sweet herbage for sheep. A mixture of these last-mentioned formations by the red soil washing over the limestone produces a beautiful, tender, and fertile soil.
To illustrate the great variety of these soils, and to show the im- possibility of describing them all, I will detail more minutely those that appear in the rich and comparatively level hundred of Castle Martin, in the south of Pembroke. First taking the district bounded on the north by Milford Haven, there is a long tract of the old red sandstone, which is for the most part shallow and light, yet quick, dry, and healthy land: this extends to the north of Angle and Pwllchrogan, and to the land in the vicinity of the Dockyard. Next there is a vein of limestone which appears at Pennar, runs from Greenhill, through Lower Hentland to East- ington; crosses Angle Bay, and proceeds through that parish to Pill, north of the Blockhouse, at the extreme point of the Haven. This formation is generally buried too deep to exercise any dis- tinctive or beneficial influence on the soil. The limestone is impregnated with much magnesia, and therefore more prized for building than for agricultural purposes. A wider belt of lime- stone commences a little below Tenby, and runs through the fertile vale of St. Florence to Carew; whereas the country traversed from Pembroke to Tenby, and commonly called “The Ridge- way, rests upon the old red sandstone, and affords soils of various qualities. At Lydstep Haven another belt of limestone presents itself, and proceeds through the rich soils of Manorbier, Hodge- ‘ston, and Lamphey, to Pembroke and the north of Monkton. Again, in the elevated part of Manorbier by the sea, the red soil commences a larger district, running west to St. Dees and forms a great portion of Monkton, Pwllchrogan, Rhoscrowther, and Angle. ‘The soil thus comprised varies exceedingly. In Angle, though pretty good, it is much exposed to the seaand full of springs. Entering Rhoscrowther at Freshwater West, there are large accumulations of sea- sand, which form extensive “burrows.” The soil of the greatly improved farms of Broomhill and Kilpaison from this cause presents a sandy loam of a weak description ; whereas after passing Neath the farms in that portion of Pwllchrogan parish are clayey, wet, and unproductive. On coming to Monkton, Corston is good land and well cultivated, and by the south of Pembroke, passing Portclew, the land is of fair average quality. Altogether the red soil or nalhr og ana retentive and argillaceous than that of Br ecknock, but generally more in- fested with springs. The rab is best for grass, the limestone for corn. A narrow strip of millstone-grit commences at Freshwater Rast, and runs along the entire valley by Orielton to Freshwater West on ue opposite side. This deposit is covered with a deep
VOL.. X. K
130 Farming of South Wales.
bed of strong tenacious clay, which is wet from surface-water and springs that rise above it. Once more the rab appears at Trewent, and, running to the north of Castle Martin, forms the upper boundary of the Stackpole estate. In Cheriton the land is capital, but the higher portions of St. Petrox, St. ‘Twynels, and Warren are poor. ‘To the north of the village of Castle Martin lies «The Corse,” a tract of peaty morass resting on clay, which Mr. Davies mentions as being then recently enclosed by Act of Parliament. Although it paid well for cultivation, grow-
ing capital crops of wheat, oats, and gigantic coleseed, yet, since ~
the death of the first lessee (who was presented with a gold medal by the Society of Arts for reclaiming this waste), it has been allowed to relapse pretty nearly into its primitive state. Nearer the sea are large tracts of sea-sand, growing principally the sea- sand sedge, useful only as sheep-walk or warren. ‘The remain- ing portion of this promontory rests upon the carboniferous limestone and comprises some of the best land in the Principality. The plain, stretching from Stackpole to Brownslade, is fertile in the extreme. Nearer the South Cliffs are extensive downs, which produce short but sweet herbage for sheep, as the soil is very shallow, in many places the rock is hardly covered. ‘The great drawback to this fine district is the scarcity of water. All this limestone when calcined is perfectly white, and is excellent manure, but not very strong cement, Mr. Davies, in his report, says, that the red soil of Pembroke is entirely distinct from that of Brecknock; “its position is reversed, its substratum different ;” and he considers the ‘‘most striking instance of anomaly in the limestone is the intrusion of a red-soil tract upon a substratum of rab.” The old red sandstone occupies quite half Castle Martin Hundred, the finest portions of Roose, with a little of Narberth, and as it is also prominent in Gower, geologists must decide whether it is alto- gether “an anomaly and an intrusion.” The soil of the lime- stone is generally a dark marly loam, lighter, and inclined to be sandy in some districts : it produces well all grain and root crops, and is equally excellent for pasture, as the white clover (Trifolium repens) springs spontaneously. The limestone soil of Gower (the neck of land below Swansea) is identically the same as that to the south of Pembroke.
The soils which rest upon the coal measures and millstone-grit consist chiefly of clay, sand, and peat, which are usually distinguished by their extreme barrenness, and are often not considered worthy of cultivation. Theyoccupy the highest ground of Glamorgan, asecond- rate elevation in Carmarthen, but fall much lower in Pembroke. The land in the vicinity of Swansea, though naturally barren, is rendered still more sterile by the poisonous smoke of the numer-
ous copper furnaces. A more desolate and unpreductive country -
Farming of South Wales. 131
cannot be found than that part of the coal measures through which the road runs from Swansea to Carmarthen. In some favoured spots, by high farming and regular manuring, I have seen good returns of all kinds of grain and green crop. This is parti- cularly the case near’ the iron works, where spirited wealthy men are desirous of improving the soil: it was found highly necessary to raise provender for the numerous horses employed, and also it pays better in tillage than in grass. The soil of the coal fields is often poisoned by acid underground water ; but it is more easily improved than the poor lands of the slate tract, as the clays are less retentive, and lime is hereclose athand. This stratum produces large quantities of iron, and the bituminous and anthracite coal.
The lias shale or las limestone is better known by the com- mon name of Aberthaw limestone. ‘The lime when burnt is a buff colour, and celebrated for setting in water, and as a lasting cement. On the coast of Glamorgan the strata fell down, and the soft useless part being worn away by the action of the tides, the innumerable pebbles which are now used consist only of the nucleus portion of the stone. The blue and grey lias which occupy most of the Vale of Glamorgan, have soils of a strong dark loam resting in many instances on a tenacious clayey subsoil, naturally adapted for wheat, beans, and oats. The lighter por- tion—the bastard has (which is a link between these strata and the limestone) is more kind for the production of barley and turnips. Large cattle are reared in the pastures, and many good sheep are fattened. The fertile tract by the river Ely, in addi- tion to its own good soil is covered with large alluvial deposits of sandy loam, which are supposed to have been washed down from the hills of the coal measures.
On spots of the coasts of the Bristol Channel, but particularly below Laugharne, Kidwelly, and Aberafon, are large masses of sea-sand, which are used as sheep walk, and covered with the sea mat-weed or sedge (Arundo arenaria).
These are the principal geological divisions of the country. Most of the formations belong to very early deposits. Geology, though extremely useful, will not single-handed here faithfully describe the qualities of the soil, as aspect, climate, and elevation exert such decided influence.
The agriculture of South Wales-may be considered as a mixture of “ breeding, dairying, and tillage.” It is curious to see how the latter has increased, and to trace the various motives which have led to the more extensive culture of corn. Formerly when the home markets were very small, the production of grain was limited, and pasture land was never broken up, but with a view to its im- provement. After three crops of corn, with two good manurings, it was again laid down to natural grass. But in the time of ihe
K 2
12 Farming of South Wales.
war, a demand sprang up for corn in the English markets. This was the case when Mr. Davies made his report, and he observes, * Corn culture becoming a source of much greater profit than heretofore, violations of the old approved principles took place, and they were almost entirely abandoned.’ Since then the stupendous copper works and large iron mines, the numerous collieries, and the Dock-yard, have all increased the consumption and improved the demand. Instead of South Wales exporting corn to Bristol and Liverpool, she now receives large quantities from those and other parts. However, the agriculturists of the districts most accessible to good markets discovered that, in order to increase their produce, they must improve their farm- ing and adopt better rotations ; while those more remote exhibit a similar style of tillage to that practised years ago. Thus the south of Pembroke, the neighbourhood of Laugharne, and the great portion of the counties bordering on England, are farmed in a judicious and most superior manner. Indeed, many parts of Glamorgan produce such crops of wheat and turnips as could compete with any county in England. But to attempt to minutely relate the “‘ peculiarities” of the many commendable systems pursued on the borders of South Wales, would only be to describe the various ramifications of Monmouth and Hereford farming. Even the traveller by the Swansea or Carmarthen mails cannot fail to notice how conspicuous and beneficial is the influence of English farming when first he enters Wales, and how gradually that superiority dies away. But it is the general farming of the district which must claim special attention, and I must now proceed to consider the rotation of crops usually found. As few of the leases of South Wales con- tain restrictive clauses, each farmer crops as he thinks best, and probably no two men in one parish pursue a precisely similar plan. Still in the west and central districts, after comparing the numerous variations that occur, the following will be found the common course of the country :—
Goop LAnp. | INFERIOR Solts. 1. Naked Fallow. 6. Clover i. Fallow. 6. Grass. 2. Wheat. 7. Grass 2. Wheat, 7a 1D Yo 3. Barley. 8. Do. | 3. Barley. 8. Do. 4. Oats. 9. Do. 4, Oats. ¥. Do. 5. Barley. 10. Do. | 5. Clover. 10. Do.
It must not be imagined that in the interior of South Wales, there are not frequent beams of better agriculture. Many gentle- men farm largely and well, and perhaps some spirited tenant may follow his example. But their efforts and their improve- ments are confined to small localities, and are the exception, not the rule. The other isolated modes do not alter the principle OL:
Farming of South Wales. 133
the system. Thus in some elevated tracts, oats succeed oats, or may be varied with a crop of potatoes, and at length the land (when it will not double its seed) is, with oats, laid down in grass, till the time arrives for its undergoing similar treatment. Again, in the barley districts, there is, | wheat; Z barley; 3 peas; 4 barley: or 1 wheat; 2 barley; 3 barley; 4 barley: or 1 barley ; 2 barley; 3 peas; 4 barley; and then laid down, generally for the same number of years as it has borne crops. In a wonderful district of Cardigan, barley (without other manure than sea-weed and sea-sand) has been grown for many years in succession. One field is mentioned as having been cropped with barley for 100 years, without a single alteration. In some parts of Carmarthen the campaign of cropping is opened with taking wheat on a limed and manured ley; but still the general practice of the couniry is the one before mentioned, to the further detail of which I now propose to return.
The ley field selected for fallow has furrows opened at the distance of 10 to 15 yards. ‘The furrow slices are then carted into convenient heaps or ‘‘mixens,” and there mixed with lime. Very often this is dispensed with, and the lime either set about the ley, or carted on the fallow during the summer. ‘The land is ploughed during the winter months, and before the autumn it receives two more ploughings, and is well harrowed and rolled. It is generally imperfectly cleaned, as no couch its burned or picked off. Root weeds, too, are merely allowed to wither; but should the summer prove wet, they do not die. At some leisure period the farm-yard manure is carted to the field, and thrown on those mixens already mentioned. All is packed over, and about September it is set abont the land, varying from 15 to 20 loads per acre. Three bushels of wheat are now sown broadcast, and the field drawn out into ridges three feet wide. Six furrows complete the ridge; but before the last is taken up, about half a bushel more seed is applied. Nothing further is done (with the excep- tion sometimes of a little hand or spud weeding) till the time for cutting arrives, Theridges are of course nearly semicircular, and it is stated, that they prevent the water lodging, and the rougher the surface is left the better, as it protects the plant from cutting winds, and the land is not so hable to be washed by the constant rains. Wheat is still often cut with a hook, reaped, swived, or bagged. But all corn is more commonly mown, and neatly laid by Sie cradles which are attached to the scythes. The w heat is expertly and carefully bound, and immediately put into small “haddocks” or ‘‘ mows.” The foundation of the knee-mow is formed by placing four sheaves in a square on the ground, the ears of each sheaf resting on the lower end of the other. A
134 Farming of South Wales.
circle is then formed, the sheaves having the ears inclined up- wards and inwards. Fresh layers are made, each diminishing the circle, till at last at the top, four sheaves are placed nearly in an upright position. ‘These are strongly connected together, and a small sheaf tied very near the ground end is placed with its ears downwards as a capping for the whole. The mow gene- rally contains 100 to 120 sheaves, and when well made, will resist the weather six weeks or two months. In this humid climate the system cannot be too much commended, for in wet harvests, when corn is moderately dry, it can thus be preserved from harm; while, if placed in a large rick directly, it would invariably spoil. The ~ farmer at his convenience drives the mows (perhaps after airing the sheaves) to his hay-guard, where they are placed in small well-made ricks—which are round, or stacks—which have four angles. The hay-guard or stack-yard is situated close to the barn, which is just large enough for two men to work and contain the corn for one day’s thrashing. By the constant removal of the corn from the rick, much is left each day exposed to the weather and depredations of fowls. ‘The thrashing is performed in the following manner:—A single sheaf is laid whole upon “the plank,” which is formed of a number of boards attached together, eleyated above the barn floor, and placed in a sloping position. The sheaf after repeated blows from the flail unties itself; and as the corn is knocked out, the straw is gradually thrashed off the plank, when a girl is always in attendance to shake out the loose grains and take it away. The wheaten straw is carefully made into bundles for thatch. The woman takes a handful of the straw, separates it, and shakes out what is loose, and short, and thus proceeds till she has procured sufficient for a small sheaf, which is then bound up. As soon as a new rick is made at harvest, it is immediately covered with these bundles, which secure it from the rain. The thatching takes place at some convenient time, which is performed in a dry state, with great strength and neat- ness. ‘Till within the last few years winnowing machines were seldom met with; even now corn 1s often cleaned, by taking it to some exposed situation, where by throwing it up the wind blows the chaff away, while the grain falls on a large sheet. Corn is carried to markets, and there sold; but sales by samples are common in some districts. Grain is frequently sold by the weight, the bushel of wheat at 62 lbs., and barley at 521bs.* As this year, the, weight of both grains is 4 or 5 Ibs. under that standard, the averages are made erroneously high, for they are returned at so much per bushel, whereas that is really the price of a bushel and
* By the repealed Act of 31 Geo. III. c. 30, the following weight was deemed equal to a Winchester bushel, viz, :—Wheat, 57]bs.; barley, 49 lbs.; oats, 38 lbs. ,
Farming of South Wales. 135
4or lbs. In the interior of the country the prices of the corn are often much higher than the English markets, though of in- ferior quality; but the whole of the transactions are of a very retail character, and no quantity of any grain can be disposed of at once. For barley, two of the small wheat ridges are ploughed together, which is two yards wide. In the spring the Jand is harrowed, and this is often performed in a very curious manner. First, a large square harrow, to which the horses are attached at the corner,—and at the other extremity is fastened by a rope or chain about a yard long a smaller harrow. The horses always trot, and the animals and boys are better fed when performing this sort of work. It is supposed the loose and rapid action of the small harrow behind, pulverises the ground better, and more effectually shakes out the couch grass. Two bushels of barley are then sown and ploughed in, and two more bushels sown in the top; the sowing all above the furrow is becoming more ge- neral. The season for putting in barley is generally from the first week in April to the middle of May. The harvesting the barley is similar to that of wheat, only the barley is allowed to lie some time before binding, to permit the weeds and clover to wither. With the exception that 5 or 6 bushels of seed are used, the cultivation of oats is the same as barley. Perhaps the land may remain unploughed till the spring, and then be sown on one furrow. About 8 lbs. of red clover (Trifolium pratense) and half a bushel of rye grass is the general quantity of seed sown when laid down for grass. The rye grass-seed is generally grown by the farmer, or by some neighbour, and not unfrequently collected from the hay. It is therefore often impregnated with large quan- tities of couch (Agropyrum repens); and if the land were laid down clean, the seed applied is sufficient to poison it. It is need- less to state that land returned to grass in this impoverished and foul state can grow very little. The clover makes a feeble effort to distinguish itself during the first year, and then naturally dies away. The field for the next four or five years presents a whity brown appearance, and sends forth nothing but sour unprofitable herbage, and is often covered with furzes, brambles, and undis- turbed mole-hills, which tend still more to lessen its produce. It is a curious fact, that land laid down even in this exhausted state, will, after a term of rest, again produce very fair crops when broken up.
A rough Debtor and Creditor Account (without interest of ca- pital, Kc.) of one acre for ten years, may perhaps assist in con- veying a general idea of the amount of produce and profit or loss under the old system. Good land would stand about thus ; and as nothing is charged for straw, the manure is put at a very low rate :—
Farming of South Wales.
| | u Rent, | Cultiva- | Muck | 3 Crops. | Tithes,| tion and | and | Seed. | Outlay. Produce. Receipts. ~ c. |Expenses.| Lime | Gi Soi ds s. So rds aes aan Bons de 1 | Fallow. 26 40 0 Sf bls Bye ee Tey lO Ni ees teed ORION 2 | Wheat . 26 2 5amn0) Ac 22 9]! 313 9 | 24 bush. at 6s. 6d. M6: 70 3 | Barley . 26 30 0 AG 14520) 310 0] 82 do 3s, 6d. by MPP 0) AS Oatsies. 26 25.640 56 12 0O 3) (350 365..do: PSS 10 Sl) 5 | Barley fe 26 30 0 30 14 0 5 10) 10> 9249 do: 3s. 3d. 318 0 6 | Clover . | 26 14 0 4; 10 0| 210 0O| Hay, &c. . wale ce WORO UW LExBSep OS 26 26 56 ais 1 8 6 Grass 0) 680 110 0 8 | Do. 26 B34 in(3) 66 ee Way dey DYER | 56 ° Web) 1) On Dos! 26 2) 16 5G : as} --@ Do. 6 ‘ 1 00 100) Do. tae" 426 2°56 es . 1. SG o! BRAG .OF40 | | Loss 279) | 3011 9 30 11 9 | | | Inferior land might stand as follows for ten years :— <4 Rent, | baborr | Muck | A | Crops. | Tithes, Guitiva: and Seed. | Outlay. | Produce. Receipts. © &c. : Lime. > tion. Se Se Si Se Gana E36 Gs tk 1 | Fallow. 12 40 60 Ac Si TZA OM |) INI eens nates 0 0 0 2 | Wheat . 12 25 oe 21 218 0 | 15 bushels, at 6s. 410 0 3 | Barley 12 30 Bn 13 215 0|24 do. 3s.3d.| 318 0 4} Oats J2 30 se 12 Qak4) Oi) 28a edowy wesa8 fs 216 0 5 | Clover 12 2 a0 10 ly 54: “On Cloverw are a cate Wa oe) 6 | Grass , 12 2 ; c OWA, 105) (Grassivey i atokae 016 O 7 Do. 12 2 ary . 014 O DOS top ire, eouete 014 O 8 Do. 12 2 ate A 014 O IDO 6 012 O 9 Do. 5 12 2 e . 014 #O IDO 656 GS 012 O 10 Do. 12 2 ° e 014 0 DOW ce ie wee 012 O Loss | 2 19 0 18513550 18 13 0
But it will be naturally asked, If this be a fair statement, how do the farmers live? ‘They depend chiefly on the young stock to pay the rent, and rely on the dairy, which continually brings in ready money to meet other current expenses. In addition to this the small farmer and his sons do the principal work and repairs of the farm. They have thus hardly any outgoings for labour or iradesmen’s wages, and they live in a style of patriarchal sim- plicity almost entirely on the produce of their own land.
Turnips are the first of the occasional crops that are met with, and they are generally drilled on 27 inch ridges, though in many instances they are sown broadcast and not hoed. Sometimes dung is used alone, occasionally combined with artificial manure, buat good crops are obtained from 3 ewt, of guano. In more arid climates summer heat is reckoned as one great foe to turnip culture, but here it is swmmer moisture ; for, although it nourishes the turnip, it also encourages the growth of weeds and natural grasses, and renders it difficult, even with repeated hoeings, to keep the land clean. With tolerable culture heavy good crops
Farming of South Wales. 137
of swedes are raised, frequently weighing from 15 to 30 tons per acre. ‘Turnips are not often consumed on the land, and spring wheat, succeeded by barley, generally follows. As the frost is seldom so severe as to injure turnips, the bulbs frequently show a gradual increase throughout the entire winter; early clamping is never practised.
Potatoes were formerly very successfully cultivated ; since the appearance of the disease the extent sown has been reduced, while that of turnips has been proportionably increased. Large quantities of manure are applied, and in some cases paring and burning is used as a preparation for the crop. Formerly the planting of this root did not take place till after the barley was sown, but since the appearance of the disease early planting has become universal, and March is generally the month for setting the potato. Last year the disease attacked the crop with greater virulence than has been known, with the exception of the season when it first made its appearance.
Beans are seldom grown but in certain localities, as Laug- harne and the stiff lias clays of Glamorgan. Peas and rye are not so much cultivated as formerly. Flax has been more noticed within the last few years. It generally flourishes well, and in some parts it springs spontaneously. The seed would be of great value in this stock-rearing country, as linseed gruel is particu- larly nourishing to calves.
In returning land to permanent grass, it was common in old times to sow no seeds, and this was practised in many parts when Mr. Davies wrote his report in 1814, and it is probable that our finest old pastures were thus laid down. The farmer of the Eastern and Midland counties of England would be surprised to see how rapidly the good and even middling soils of South Wales return to their natural grass. Mr. Hassell, in his original report, says, “ that, in Laugharne, barley stubble, without seeds, will recover its sward and produce good crops of hay and grass;” and that throughout Carmarthen “ land not run out of condition will naturally become good pasture.” And he says of Pembroke, ‘‘'The mildness of the climate and the perpetual vegetation that is going on, even in the winter months, seem in so peculiar a manner fayourable to grass, that we cannot but lament to see so much under the plough.” In Radnorshire “ the arable land, if left unploughed, is soon covered with natural grass; and on the limestone near Merthyr Tydvil, “ if barley is sown one year and the land left to rest till next year, the white clover abounds so much that it may be profitably mown.” So much for the spon- taneous production of grasses at the conclusion of the last century ; it points out most forcibly that South Wales is naturally a rich pastoral district. Still the proportion of good grazing
138 Farming of South Wales.
land to that of pasture is verysmall. The present management of the meadows and pastures does not present any particular feature. The land is principally stocked with cows and young cattle; comparatively few sheep are kept. Not a great quantity is cut for hay, and then, to have the most, it is frequently left till it is too old. Mowing the meadow generally begins in the middle of July. All hay (clover as well) is scattered about as soon as cut, and allowed to dry in the sun: not being cocked up at night, but exposed to the heavy dews, &c., it soon loses the fresh green appearance so much prized in England. When sufh- ciently withered on one side, it is turned, afterwards raked into rows, and put into small lumps, which, not being compactly made, are easily wetted through. On a fine day these heaps are thrown out and carted to the rick. The hay is not pitched from the cart, but the load is tripped up, and the pitcher takes 7 off the ground! When it becomes too high for this, a ladder is placed by the rick and a labourer stationed on it: the pitcher from below hands him a forkfull of hay, the same fork and the hay pass up to the man above, who receives the burden and returns the fork. It is not often that hay is well saved in South Wales: the humidity of the atmosphere and the frequent rains of July baffle and confound the most skilful management. Fogging 1s, 1 believe, peculiar to South Wales, and is still practised extensively in some counties. Cattle are taken out of the pastures in May or June, and the year’s crop of grass remains untouched till the following spring. It is asserted that an acre of fog will keep more stock and in better condition than an acre of hay, besides avoiding the risk and expense of hay- making. Mr. Hassell, in his original Report of Pembroke, says—‘ By this practice, the farmer provides a good stock of keep for that season of the year when he stands most in need of it, puts his cows into good plight for calving, saves a great deal of hay, and improves his grass-land by the quantity of seeds shed upon the surface by the fogged grass; and his stock, being on the fog by day and in his straw-yard by night, augments his dung.” The old grass shelters and draws up the tender shoot sooner than if it were exposed to the bleak winds and frosty air of an early cold spring. ‘The old herbage combines beneficially with the succulent young grass, and cows produce an immense increase of milk when fed on it. Such are the grounds advanced by the defenders of the system ; the arguments that are brought to bear against it are too well known to be here repeated. However, in the present state of farming, with no turnips, early vetches, rye, &c., and a generally late spring, I am not aware how in this district a more plentiful supply of early keep can be produced. Top-dressings are not often resorted to: sometimes lime is
Farming of South Wales. 139
used alone, but more commonly it is mixed with mud or other mould, and spread over the surface during winter. Irrigation is not practised further than turning the water from the yards or a road-side ditch across a meadow. This is done simply by running a furrow out with a plough, and when that portion of the land has received its share another is drawn in a different direction and the former one is closed up. A great many in- stances occur in which a Aill-side spring might be made, at a trivial expense, of immense service by irrigating some of the pastures below it.
The cattle of South Wales are principally the Pembrokes and Glamorgans. There are many runts in the upper district com- plete nondescripts, being the result of complicated crosses with all the Welsh breeds. The introduction of the West Highlanders has much improved these cattle in parts of Cardigan and Radnor. By the borders of England many excellent dairies of Herefords are found, some possessing qualities of very considerable merit. These cattle are well treated and carefully fattened, and [ may mention that last year Wales contributed two splendid Hereford oxen to the Smithfield Show.
The Pembrokes are a coal black, with large yellow horns tipped with black and turning upwards, a clean light head and neck, and a bright prominent eye. ‘The forequarters of these cattle are heavy and well made, but they are often deficient in width across the loin and inroundness ofrib. They are excellent workers, active and hardy, but now not much used in the plough. In the neighbourhood of the collieries a great number are yoked in carts with one or two horses before them. The West Wales carters, when driving oxen or horses with heavy burdens, are constantly seated on the load, and it is very difficult to pre- vent this unfeeling practice. Oxen were formerly worked in ploughs behind two horses, but farmers find that two horses tolerably kept are sufficient alone, and have therefore discarded the oxen. ‘These cattle feed best on rich pastures, are sometimes restless and quarrelsome in open yards, but graze well in loose boxes or when stall-fed. An ox when fat at four years’ old will generally weigh 7 or 8 cwt., and they always prove better to the butcher than their outside appearance indicates. The cows are capital milkers if well kept, and even on ordinary pastures give a good quantity; in summer the best will average 6 or 7 lbs. of butter per week. A more useful and hardy race of cattle are not to be found in the kingdom, and with care and attention they are capable of much improvement. Some successful crosses have been made with the North Devons. The best Pembroke cattle are bred in the district of Castle Martin, and they are principally called by the name of that hundred.
140 Farming of South Wales.
The Glamorgans are generally a ruddy brown, with white along the back and belly; they will not graze when young, and have too often flat blacks and high rumps: they are very su- perior cattle to work, and the cows are kind milkers, averaging perhaps from 16 to 18 quarts per day.
The other black runts are extremely hardy, but small and light fleshed, with thick hard hides, and show little disposition to fatten. There were formerly some good red, brindled, and smoky-faced cattle in the hilly parts of Radnor, but they have lost much of their distinctive character by crossing with the Shropshire and Hereford cattle.
In the internal management of the dairy the Welsh are clean, economical, and successful: they make a large quantity of capital butter, but the cheese is hard and poor. There is not much prospect of the cattle in the interior of the Principality improving, as too little attention is generally paid to the selection of the male animal. Cows also are valued only for their milk ; indeed, if one should present any fattening qualities, the first time beef is dear and she is dry, she is sure to be sold; while the good milkers are frequently kept till they are much too old. The calves are dropped in the field, and run with the dam for three days or a week; they are then weaned, and generally fed on skimmed milk, and by degrees are taught to eat hay; during this time they are huddled together in dark close cribs. As soon as there is grass, they are turned out, and it is no unfrequent occurrence to see stock of all ages, from the cow to the yearling, grazing in the same field. In the following winter they are exposed to the violent gales and sudden changes of the atmosphere, being sup- plied with a scanty allowance of lay under the hedge-rows ; the older cattle wander over the grass-land, and have some of the coarser hay or barley-straw. At three years old they are gene- rally brought to the fairs and sold to the drovers, who dispose of them for grazing on the rich pastures of the Midland counties of England. The district is at present fortunately free from the ravages of the small-pox in sheep, and also from the pleuro- pneumonia and epizootic epidemic which has caused such fright- ful havoc among the cattle of England.
The native or mountain sheep of Wales are very small, with white faces, short coarse wool, and numbers of them are horned. They are extremely hardy, and very active. This class is found in the open elevated lands and high mountains of the interior of the country. They are under no particular system of management, but follow the dictates of their sagacious instinct. They are not so much kept as formerly, being a great hindrance to improved tillage. Hardly any fence will stop them, and they constantly commit nocturnal depredations on the corn-fields, and are suffi-
Farming of South Wales. 14]
ciently subtle to retire to their rugged domain before the return of day. Flocks of the neighbouring farmers constantly mingle together, and are distinguished only by marks. ‘They drop the lambs at any period of the early summer, and the ewes supply large quantities of milk: in some districts it is still common to milk the ewes for two months after the lambs are weaned; the milk is principally manufactured into cheese. The mountain sheep will graze well when removed to better pasture, but it is very difficult to restrain their rambling propensities. Some of these little creatures are constantly to be met with in Smithfield, where they are much prized as Welsh mutton. As we de- scend to the more level country, a larger style of sheep is met with, which is produced by crosses with English breeds—all retaining marked traces of the Welsh blood. The Glamorgan Vale sheep have long been naturalized to that tract of country, and are heavy, good ‘animals. Occasionally flocks of Leicesters and Downs are to be seen, but not often in their purity, as the cross-bred sheep are more in favour than the pure-bred animal. Almost every farmer keeps a few ewes, from 10 to 60, according to the extent of his land. The produce is either sold off as fat lamb or disposed of to the butcher before they are twelve months’ old, as the ewes are good milkers, and they are well kept through the summer and autumn, but there is no winter provender. This is the cause that the markets are so frequently supplied with meat which is neither lamb nor mutton, and not the sheep « killed at 18 months old,” as mentioned by Mr. Davies. ‘The sheep are kept in the pastures all the year round; should there be a heavy fall of snow, they are provided with a little hay. In districts where turnips are grown they are not often folded on the land, but the turnips are thrown on the pastures for them. The Welsh hog is distinguished by his large size, long pendant ears, coarse bristles, and thickness of bone. ‘They are generally reared where there is a dairy, and those kept for bacon are killed at about eighteen months or two years old, and will weigh from 16 to 22 score. They are great consumers, and now that potatoes are so scarce it 1s found very unprofitable to feed them, as the price of the fresh meat seldom exceeds 4d. or 5d. per lb. Swedes chopped fine and boiled with meal will be found a good substitute for the potatoes. A large pig of this description requires quantity as well as quality of food, and if fed entirely on barley- meal they will soon cease to be fatted at all. Crossed with the Berkshire, these pigs retain the great size of the original stock and the early maturity of the English breed; still for bacon the old sort is preferred on account of the great ‘quantity of lean in proportion to the fat. Every labourer, strives to have his pig, which is reared with great care. ‘They are not confined to styes,
142 Farming of South Wales.
but are fed from a bucket near the cottage door seven or eight times in a day. They roam all about the roads and lanes, and retire to their hovel at night. In the summer it is customary to boil the refuse of the garden and even wild herbs with the bran that is sifted from the barley and oatmeal. In this way a pig is brought to a large size, with great solicitude and little expense. Barley-meal is generally used for fattening, and a pig will con- sume 10 or 15 bushels. When killed, the meat is salted and hung up in the roof to dry. The short-eared pigs are common in the flat districts, where they are generally killed at an early age as porkers.
The cart-horses are small, but naturally hardy and active. They are reared, like the cattle, entirely abroad, worked at a very early age, and frequently badly fed. It cannot therefore be wondered that many are sluggish and of a very mean description, not capable of real work for two days together. ‘The tender shoot of the young furze, bruised or cut into chaff, forms with some the principal winter provender ; with others a small supply of poor hay, plenty of barley straw, pea haulm, and corn chaff. There still exists the practice of baiting cart-horses in a close stable till eight o’clock on a cold night, and then turning them out to grass! ‘They feed on the pastures as long as there is anything to be had, and the allowance of oats in the spring (if any) is scanty in the extreme. ‘The old Welsh punch is much degenerated by injudicious crosses with high-bred animals, which makes them too light and delicate. Another evil is common, viz. that of breeding from very old, diseased, and worn-up mares.
The management of the farm-yard manure is truly distressing, and, as if rotten straw and a little dung was not poor enough, all means of retaining the few fertilizers it possesses are totally disre- garded. Cows being the stock kept, the manure is mainly made by them. When brought up to be milked they are driven to a large enclosure, called “a court,” or to a “ milking back,” where - they amuse themselves with picking over various lumps of straw, laid promiscuously about, and treading the remains of the last meal into manure. The cleanings of the hovels in which the calves or tender yearlings are kept,.are thrown in heaps by the door into the same court, where all alike are dried by the sun and washed by the rain. Some streams run through the farm-yard, which carry away much of its richness into the next brook.
The use of sea-sand and sea-weed, or “ ore,’ as manure has been long known, for in the reign of Queen Elizabeth Mr. George Owen thus wrote :—‘ This kind of ore they often gather and lay on great heapes, where it heteth and rotteth, and will have a strong and loathsome smell; when being so rotten they cast on the land, as they do their muck, and thereof springeth good corn, especially
Farming of South Wales. 143
barley.”” And again of sea-weed, “ After spring-tydes, or great rigs of the sea, they fetch it in sacks on horse backes, and carie the same three, four, or five miles, and cast it on the lande, which doth very much better the ground for corn and grass.” These spoils of the ocean are found in great quantities in many maritime positions, but chiefly on the Western Coast. Some lay the sea- weed fresh on the land, and immediately plough it in; others, as of old, put it in heaps to ferment. Alternate layers of farm-yard dung and ore produce an excellent compost, as the saline juices of the seaweed do not escape (as is frequently the case if placed by itself), but mix with the manure, which thus in an eminent degree retains its moisture in hot weather. It was till lately suc- cessfully applied in a fresh state as a dressing for potatoes. ‘The sea-sand is highly calcareous, containing large quantities of pul- verized shells. It is applied at the rate of 10 to 20 loads per acre, and is considered serviceable in destroying many weeds which the overcropped land naturally produces.
Lime is extensively used in South Wales. In districts it is very plentiful: some places can be supphed by water, while in many others none can be obtained but by a long’and hilly land-carriage. In some tracis it is common to send for lime 20 or 30 miles! The numerous heavy tolls, which in long journeys amounted to a serious sum, were the principal causes of the Rebecca riots. When far fetched, the lime is applied with much skill and judgment, but too much at once is frequently used where it can be easily had. The quantity applied per acre is often regulated by the price, and ranges from 60 to 250 bushels per acre. Extraordinary heavy limings are frequently given to the stiff loams in the Vale of Gla- morgan, and Mr. Davies mentions several cases which averaged for sixty years 100 bushels per acre every year! It may be as well to state, that this buff-coloured lime is not so strong a manure by nearly one half as that of the calcined carboniferous limestone. Of course the price, therefore, varies with the locality. In Car- digan it is sometimes 7d. or 8d. per bushel, while in the southern parts of Pembroke it can be produced for 3d.
Marl was anciently much used as a manure. It is said to have been first discovered by one Cole, a Frenchman, in the twelfth century. It is much prized by the historian already quoted, for he says, “It will carry barlie, wheat, and peas continually for twentie yeares without dong.” This clay-marl is described as being of a “ blewe coller, sometimes redd,”’ fat and clammy, more adapted for loose, dry land than moist, where “lyme rather serveth than this.” It was considered much more durable than sand or lime, for the old adage says, “that a man doth sand for himselfe, lyme for his sonne, and marle for his grandchilde.”” Marl abounds chiefly in the north of Pembroke and south of Cardigan, but is hardly ever
144 Farming of South Wales.
applied to land now, being entirely superseded by lime. I have merely noted these ancient records, as it appears strange so lasting a fertilizer on the spot should be universally neglected, while a more active, though transient, stimulant is procured from such a distance.
Peat is sometimes used as a manure, and has been successfully burned with lime, but is more frequently made into a compost.
Coal-ashes, which are obtained in large quantities in the vicinity of the Iron Works, are very useful, especially as a top dressing for grass-land.
The operation of paring and burning is often resorted to, — especially in marshy and peaty grounds, as a preparation for corn-crops. In this manner the cleaning and breaking up land that is under furze, &c., is done in a neat and husbandlike manner. The first crop is generally prime, but land is frequently cropped to sterility, and this occasions the system to be much spoken against. It is condemned so far back as the sixteenth century, for it is the opinion of the Lord of Kemmes that “in the most mountenous partes which grow nothing but heathe and small furse, and shallow with all, this kind of ill husbandrie may be borne, but those who use this kind of betting in land, which otherwise would have been tilled to better advantage, are much to be blamed for doing themselves, the land, and the countrye harm.” Land that has undergone this process is still called bet-land, and there cannot be a doubt that it stimulates the soil by bringing its inert properties into a condition available for the support of crops, while the continued practice of taking corn without manure must ultimately impoverish the ground. Jn reclaiming wastes, espe- cially a morass or bog, paring and burning is, in the first instance, not only very useful but frequently indispensable. Except where much peaty earth abounds, its subsequent applica- tion cannot be commended.
The only artificial manure which has been extensively tried is guano, which (when good) has been found to answer admirably for corns, root-crops, and grass ; indeed, the effects are sometimes double those which are produced by the same manure in the Hast of England. ‘The beneficial influences of all manures exhibit themselves most rapidly. The great activity and increased luxu- riance which is imparted to all crops by the application of good fertilizers, is conspicuous to any one who has seen the small returns produced by the heavy dressings given to the gravels of Norfolk. It is supposed, however, that the effect beimg so im- mediate and extensive will be less lasting.
A better class of zmplements is becoming at last gradually more appreciated. The old Welsh plough, with its mould-board of wood, is being superseded by a light iron swing-plough. In the ©
Farming of South Wales. 145
Upper District still many of the implements are made in the most rustic style possible, and the cumbersome, ill-shaped, old plough (sometimes 13 or 14 feet long) continues much in favour, especially for the small wheat ridges. ‘There are very few waggons ; light carts, drawn by two horses, with moveable frames, &ec., perform all work. In the flat country there are more thrashing-machines than are usually seen in England, and some are propelled by water. Cultivators, drags, &c., are here daily becoming more abundant. In many tracts the uneven nature of the ground will not admit of the use of the drill, but on level land all corn is commonly sown broadcast.
The enclosures are generally small. The banks are from 5 to 8 feet high, and with the ditches sometimes occupy from 29 to 30 feet. The banks aremade nearly perpendicular, with two shallow ditches, and each side faced with sods. The quicksets are small bushes of hawthorn, hazel, blackthorn, alder, and willow grubbed up in copses or ditches, trimmed and planted upright on the top of the bank. By the sea coast, and through the red soil and coal tracts, there are some dry stone walls, but more frequently banks of alternate layers of stones and sods. Where exposed to the fierce winds, these and the common sod fences are left without any quickset, but double rows of furzes sown and kept constantly trimmed have been found to grow well in any situation. The high banks are considered to render much service as shelter to the cattle, and there can be no doubt they are a great protection to the young stock, which are fed with hay and lodge under them during the entire winter; but shelter cannot be required for the ridiculously small, ill-shaped fields that are everywhere met with, having huge banks which occupy nearly one-fourth of the land. Exten- sive fields are not desirable; one from 10 to 15 acres is large enough. <A good hedge-row will break the severe gale that sweeps across the country from the sea, and thus protect the young grasses and winter crops; and, till the farm-buildings afford more accommodation, the cattle must find shelter from the storm some- where in the open fields. The gates are usually narrow; in woodless tracts the gate-posts are formed of stones. Frequently the opening into fields is stopped up with dry stone walling, or furze and stakes ; and often the gates are rudely constructed with four light poles, the uppermost resting in a mortice cut in the post. ;
The wastes of the upland tracts are stocked with small black cattle, mountain sheep, and ponies. ‘They feed to the summit of the highest hills during the summer, but retire to the warm and sheltered spots as the severe weather approaches. Much of the Jand of South Wales was recently undivided, but in the early part of the present century most extensive enclosures were made, and
VOL. X. L
*V
146 Farming of South Wales.
since Mr. Davies made his report much more has been taken in. The principal wastes which still remain unenclosed are too ele- vated and rugged to be successfully cultivated, and, taking the whole district, there is not now so much open improvable land as in many parts of England. Butthere are nearly 5000 acres of fen and marsh land near ‘Tregoran, and about 6000 more by the mouth of the Dovey, both in Cardigan, ‘These moors remain in- the same state as mentioned in 1814, though, if drained, they could be made some of the best land in that country. 'The ine- qualities of the surface of the country render it in a peculiar manner adapted to the growth of timber, and, if the mountain — sheep and cattle are fenced out, the rough declivities will soon be crowded with oak, ash, or alder. The beautiful slopes and dingles of the Wye afford continual instances of these natural plantations. Even Pembroke, whose exposure to the westerly winds is now considered unfavourable for timber, was once covered with woods, but they have gradually become less and less. Thus, in the time of Elizabeth, the Lord of Kemmes, in his M. N.S. History, says, “ This country groneth with the general complainte of the decreasing of woods;”’ and a Mr. Lewis, in the reign of Queen Anne, observes onthis, “ If there was such cause of complaint then, how is that cause increased in the course of another century!’’ Mr. Hassell, in 1793, says, “ The stock of timber is so much reduced, that in a few years more the farmer must import wood for the purposes of husbandry,’ which he must certainly do now, did not the monthly sale of refuse timber at the Dockyard furnish a regular supply. Many of the woods mentioned in the last report have since been felled. If there was such a quantity of timber in Wales in old time, why cannot it be grown now? Let the plantations of Stackpole and Brownslade, flourishing on the edge of the Atlantic, furnish a reply. Oak is the principal timber grown, and this is raised from the old stump, or stools, which are cut every fifteen or twenty years; and when the poles are peeled, they are easily disposed of for Cay purposes.
No part of the kingdom requires draining more than South Wales. ‘The whole of the coal measures, and many soils on the red sandstone, are wet from innumerable springs which arise from the fissures of the rocks. ‘The clay-slate formation and millstone- grit are also wet from this cause and surface-water ; and, in fact, no large district of the country, except the limestone soils, can boast of being sufficiently dry. The West of England and South Wales Draining Company have commenced a move in the right direction in the eastern part of the Principality, but the effect of that progress is not felt in the interior or western portions ; indeed, very rare instances of regular draiage have been attempted. _
Farming of South Wales. 147
Some springs have been tapped, and a sort of catchwork system with stones may have been here and there tried.
So far back as the year 1794 the farm-buildings of the west counties were described as “ incommodious, comfortless, and wretched ;” and now, midway in the nineteenth century, the same epithets may be most appropriately applied. Glamorgan, which contains some fine specimens of old baronial and monastic barns, has been surpassed by Brecknock in its agricultural premises ; but, taking the district generally, there is an universal lack of farm-buildings. A lease-tenant, when he takes possession of a farm, frequently sees that all his spare capital must be expended on his homestead, instead of being employed in draining and other legitimate improvements of the soil. But it is not only on farms without leases that there are no buildings; where the tenants are from year to year they are equally bad, several pre- mises being without a single enclosed yard! Many farmers, when told to grow turnips, reply, “ What is the use of growing turnips when we have no sheds to eat them in?”’ But, it having been the custom formerly for tenants who had taken cheap leases to build premises, there appears to be an erroneous impression that all tenants can and ought to do the same!
The average rental of farms may be considered as under 40. per annum. The smaller holdings are generally dearer in pro- portion than the larger farm, simply, it is supposed, because there are so many competitors for small parcels of land. There are some few leases granted for 999 years, and others for “as long as the sun rises and water flows;” but generally the leases are for hives. ‘Those that were granted many years ago are frequently uncommonly cheap, but what have been recently made exhibit an increase of rent on the old ones from 50 to 300 per cent., and land is now let at its extreme value. It is a singular fact, that cheap leases frequently made the Welsh tenant indolent and careless, and that an increase of rent has bettered his condition, by making him a more active and industrious farmer! But too high rents are now frequently required, and little attention is paid to the character and pecuniary circumstances of the tenant. The man who gives more than land is really worth is often one who has everything to gain and nothing to lose. From these and other causes the capital of many of the tenantry is utterly inade- quate for the proper cultivation of the land. The common prac- tice of giving six months’ credit at all agricultural sales will show the usual style of money transactions. The lease in the western counties is often granted for three lives, and may include that of the occupier and two of his children. There are no restrictive clauses as to cropping or selling any kind of produce, and nothing is said about covenants to be observed at the expiration of the
Te
148 Farming of South Wales.
term. Certain pastures are not to be broken up, and the land- Jord reserves the game, timber, and the right to dig for minerals, &c. The tenant is bound to keep the house and all buildings in proper repair. It is the custom of the country, when a lease expires, to remove all produce, even hay and straw. The entry is commonly at Old Michaelmas. Should a landlord distrain for rent, the tenant does not necessarily quit the holding, but strives to struggle on and patch up his broken fortune. ‘These leases are liked by the tenantry as giving ample security for all outlay, and the landlords are relieved from all burdens but the taxes, and it is impossible, from the uncertainty of life, to run a farm out of condition with the exactness which is often practised where the term is for a specified number of years. “It isthe nature of man to flatter himself and hope for the best, by putting the evil day of dying far off; thus hope comforts the tenant, and uncer- tainty the landlord.’ Leases for the life of the tenant only and for a term of years are more common in the east, and these are more particularly framed, Many landlords have entirely dropped the practice of granting leases, and let all their farms from year to year.
The peasantry of West Wales are contented and thrifty. Their wages are not often more than 6s. in the upper, and 7s. per week in the lower country. It is customary to board the labourers wholly or in part during harvest, giving them the same wages. They are neat and skilful in some of the minor branches of husbandry, but in general field work, where strength and exertion are required, are much inferior to English labourers ; indeed a Lincolnshire workman at half-a-crown a day is not dearer than most Welsh labourers at a shilling. In support of this, I may state that task-work (which is seldom heard of here) cannot be done cheaper in Wales than in the east of England. This is naturally the case; a man who consumes wheaten bread and meat must be in better working trim than the man who eats barley cake and a little butter ; and until the Welsh labourers are better fed they cannot be physically capable of sustaining with equal ease the fatigues of a hard day's work. ‘Their principal diet is oat and barley-meal merely moistened with water and made into cakes. ‘These cakes are pressed very thin, and baked on an iron plank upon the fire. Barley bread is made in large loaves fermented with leaven. Sometimes they eat oatmeal and butier- milk, and a common beverage is extracted from the husk of the oat. The farm cottages are built on the ground floor, and the rent with a good garden is in the upper country from 30s. to 40s., and in the low lands from 40s. tc 50s. per annum, If possible the spot selected for building is close by a spring, but often it is so near that it renders the floor damp and cold. The walls are
farming of South Wales. 149
now made of stones and mortar, the roofs thatched or slated. ‘The cottages built with mud, of which Mr. Davies hopes the descrip- tion he gives “may be the only existing memorials of such dwellings in less than half a century,” are rapidly on the decline. As they fall down one built of stone is generally substituted. Whitewashing the exterior, which is mentioned by a Welsh bard in the sixth century, is still universally practised. In many districts it is common to mix clay with the lime for colouring the walls yellow, and the slate roofs are washed white! ‘The interior is divided into two apartments; one, in which the principal culinary operations are performed, and the other is used for meals, &c., and contains the beds, which are like high boxes with sliding panels. ‘The windows are very small, and the rooms are damp, close, and dark. ‘The fuel consists, in some districts, of peat, with furze and fern, in others culm,* and the anthracite and bituminous coal. ‘lhe women are frugal, cleanly, and industrious. ‘They are well skilled in manufacturing coarse cloth, but are singularly awkward at needle-work. Strangers generally notice the market-women, who knit and carry their baskets on their heads. ‘They do not work much in the fields but in hay and corn harvests. Most of the farmers have some lads, or single men, who board and lodge in the house, and look after the farm-horses. In some instances labourers have smaller wages and the keep of their cow; occasionally the privilege of setting potatoes in the field. F'arm-labourers are generally hired by the year, not by the day, and then mostly have their corn from the farmer at a fixed price, The religious and secular education of the poor throughout this portion of the principality is very much neglected; lately considerable efforts have been made to provide more ample instruction. In thus noticing the education of the poor, it would be well to say a word upon the amount of instruction generally given to the young farmer. Not only is it ‘(as is generally the case) totally deficient in providing a scientific knowledge of his future occupation, but the common rudiments of a sound and plain education are frequently dispensed with. ‘The fact that commercial schools are rarely to be met with, will at once explain the numerous defects that must occur in the Welsh farmer’s early education.
To glance at some of the important improvements which have iaken place in the well-farmed districts, will now be a more pleasing task; but as the description of the agriculture of the
* Culm is the dust of the stone-coal, and is prepared for burning by being mixed with clay or mud from the shore. It is then made into balls, and in a moist state applied to the fire, and it produces no smoke, At might a casing of this wet culm is
placed on the fire, which keeps in well twelve hours, and thus forms a cheap and convenient fuel,
150 Farming of South Wales.
interior of the country has already occupied so much space and time, the limits of a report will not admit of more than a few passing remarks on each locality. When Mr. Davies made his report in 1814, the only three districts that produced any extent of turnips were the vales of the Usk and the Wye, and a portion of the plain of Glamorgan. The root was even here imperfectly cultivated, for we read, “the common farmers sow broadcast, and take chance crops, thick or thin, clean or not,’ The turnips were often harrowed to thin them, and this was supposed to supersede the necessity of hoeing them; and it is further re- marked, «too many are left entirely in the state of nature.”
Beginning at the west, the first tract that claims our attention is that of Castle Martin and the South of Pembroke. ‘The course of cropping mentioned in 1814 was, at St. Florence—< 1. Wheat, on limed fallow; 2. Barley; 3. Peas; 4. Barley or Oats laid down with grass-seed.”” In Castle Martin: “ Wheat, on limed fallow; Barley; Barley; Barley. Produce of first barley crop, 28 bushels; second, 10 to 20 bushels; and third still less.” In the Hundred of Roose: “ Fallow, wheat, clover, wheat; and oats.’ Turnips now form part of almost every rotation, though the courses are very various. The following are among the principal: Fallow (well limed and manured), wheat, turnips, wheat, barley, clover ; fallow, wheat, barley, turnips, wheat, barley, clover; wheat (on ley), barley, turnips, wheat, barley, clover; oats, turnips, wheat, barley, clover; and on some of the land unkind for the production of turnips, the Welsh system moderated is still used. After some of these courses, the land perhaps remains from two to four years in grass, generally mown the first season, and depastured the rest of the tme. The management of corn and hay harvests, and the principal operations of husbandry, are pursued on the same principle as has been related, but of course in a better and more effectual manner. The superiority of the farming diminishes as it proceeds inland; and above Narbeth the Welsh county com- mences. Indeed few good crops of corn, and still fewer turnips, are seen north of the red soil, for the coal-measures are wet, barren, and generally produce inferior grain, and the pastures are crowded with furze and brambles.
When Mr. Davies visited Laugharne Marsh, he found “the soil more to be commended than the management,” and observed only one piece of fallow in the 3000 acres. He relates that forty successive white-straw crops had been taken without manure ; and sums up the rotations as follows :—‘‘ Wheat, beans, barley, oats, barley; oats, then wheat again; and the same course repeated for twenty years, or rather from time out of mind.” ‘The marsh presents a very different appearance now. About 1,000 acres have since that period been reclaimed from the sea, which is now
Farming of South Wales. 151
some of the best land in the level. Several Englishmen have taken large holdings here, and are farming well. ‘They all com- mence their rotation with a white-siraw crop, then barley, then turnips, and afterwards spring wheat or barley; if the former, they generally take a fifth crop before the seeds are sown, but this depends on the state of the land. Beans are sown over a considerable area, and very good cropsare raised. When the land is laid down to grass it produces most superior pasturage, and one of the best oxen ever slaughtered in this part of the country was grazed here last year.
The neighbourhood of Kidwelly ought not to be passed by with- out some notice of its improved agriculture. The cropping of this tract in 1816 was mentioned as—l. Wheat, on limed fallow; 2. Barley; 3. Oats; 4. Barley, or the oat-stubble manured and sown with 4. Wheat; then 5. Barley; or without clover, to rest from labour 5 years. ‘There are several enterprising farmers who now pursue the following and similar rotations:—Ley taken up and sown with oats, then cleaned with turnips, which are mostly eaten off by the sheep, then barley or spring wheat, and the last crop either barley or oats, with seeds, This mode is found to answer exceedingly well. Irrigating the pastures is here common ; indeed all through the coal-fields the numerous springs or smal] streams are made to flow over the saturated clayey ground, which produces coarse inferior grass and, being undrained, plenty of rush. Below Kidwelly are extensive salt-marshes; nearer Swansea may be seen some successful instances of thorough draining the stiff clays of the coal-measures. This is generally performed by the land- lord; but there are a few spirited tenants with twenty-one years’ leases, who have tiie-drained their farms, and the general rotation of crops that they practise is oats on ley, turnips, then barley with grass-seeds. Few sheep are kept in the western parts of Car- marthen ; and the cattleare housed in the winter, as the land is so wet, that the stock could not select a dry spot to lie down on. The yearlings, steers, cows, &c., are all tied up in sheds; some receive a portion of hay, but they often subsist entirely on straw.
An intelligent correspondent having kindly forwarded me an account of the present state. of the agriculture of Gower, I shall insert hisremarks at length :—
“The western portion of the county of Glamorgan, called ‘Gower,’ may be termed a peninsula, being bounded by the Lianelly Channel on the north, and the Irish and Bristol Channels on the south and south-east.
“The surface, without rising into hills or mountains, is rather hilly or undulating, with eccasional slopes and vales capable of being highly cultivated.
** At a rough estimate I should say that one-third of the entire surface is waste, a large portion of which is held in common.
“The most fertile, as well as the best cultivated, portions are those
w->
152 farming of South Wales.
which are naturally dry, being a sort of table-land above the limestone- cliffs adjoining the sea, while the less favoured spots near the commons in the interior, which are under cultivation, are many of them not so dry, but quite capable of being made so, by the now well understood process of therough draining. With these preliminary remarks we shall now proceed briefly to state the system of farming generally pursued in Gower.
‘Truly and correctly speaking the farmers are without system—each and every one having a way of his own—which has possibly been pursued upon the same farm for centuries past; still they have some features in common, especially as regards their treatment of live stock. All whose holdings are large enough keep cattle, generally of the Glamorgan breed. The cows are kept asa sort of dairy; the principal produce sold from which is butter, generally of good quality. The cheese is miserable stuff, ~ scarcely deserving the name. ‘The calves are reared upon sour milk and whey, and when two years old, bear witness to the hard treatment they have received. The steers or oxen, when four years old, are sold to the dealers or drovers to be driven to the eastern counties of England, where they are re-sold to be fattened upon the fine grazing pastures of that district, for the London market. If anything is attempted to be fed off at home, it is generally some old cow which has become from age unfit for the purposes of the dairy.
«The sheep are, for the most part, of the smal] Welsh mountain breed ; but as to their management there is literally none, unless it be that they are shorn of their wool. But ignorance in this important branch of rural economy is not confined to Gower, as it prevails at least over the county of Glamorgan. Ina journey the other day by the mail-road, the writer cannot say that he saw one flock free from scab from Neath to Monmouth.
‘* The pigs are, for the most part, of the old ‘lank and lean’ sort, but of jate some of a better breed have been introduced.
‘“‘ There is now evidently a desire amongst the better class of farmers to introduce better breeds of cattle as wellas sheep. Short-Horns, Herefords, and Devons of the best sort are now to be found; and sheep, although not of the best breed, yet of a larger size and more quiet habits, which is something, as a tolerable fence and a mountain Welsh sheep are seldom to be found in the same parish.
“Then as tothe Corn Crops. There is for the most part some prepara- tion for the wheat crop. A piece of foul and weedy ley is ploughed in May or June, and undergoes what is called a fallowing; that is, being ploughed two or three times, and harrowed, but no weeds are picked or carried from the land. In almost every case lime is applied; and some- times, with good farmers, a little farm-yard dung. After the wheat-crop is removed, the stubble is ploughed in winter, and again a scratching of a seed-furrow in May for barley. Seeds, that is clover, &c., are sometimes put in with the barley crop, but rarely either in quantity or quality to be of any use. More often oats are taken after the barley, but the land by this time is so much exhausted and rampant with weeds, that you have some difficulty, in passing, to tell what the crop upon the ground is. There are instances of fields having been twenty or even thirty years in crop without ever having been seeded for grass,
‘In Gower, as well as other places, much of the best lands are in hay- meadows, but these are often late in being cleared in spring, and late harvested hay is always of inferior quality.
‘‘ Green Crops.—Potatoes have been extensively cultivated, and bear a high character in the Swansea market. The late disease has been severe and destructive, but upon dry sandy soils by the sea the crops have been better than others. The mode of cultivation has nothing peculiar.
Farming of South Wales. 153
*Turnips and mangolds, until very recently, were scarcely known; now, however, the cultivation of these valuable roots is extending rapidly. The soil and climate seem well adapted to the habits of these plants, and as good turnips and mangolds have been grown in Gower as anywhere else in the kingdom.
““The example was first set by the present Lord Lieutenant of the county, who pursues the ‘alternate husbandry, and only takes one crop of corn after grass, then the green crops. Turnips or mangolds, followed by spring wheat or barley, with which last crop the land is again sown down with clover and rye-grass seeds for pasture the following year.
“Good labourers willing to work are sellom unemployed. The money wages paid at present in the western part of Gower may be from 10s. to lls. per week, but nearer Swansea they are higher; but those in the western parts have, for the most part, a few sheep on the adjoining ee and, take it all and all, they would be unwilling to exchange places.
** The women and boys engaged in picking couch, hoeing turnips, and the like, get 10¢. per day. Sometimes the farmers give victuals, and in that case the wages of a man are ls. per day. But in estimating the wages of labour in different districts of the kingdom, cottage-rent and fuel always form an important consideration. Without inquiring into these and other perquisites, no correct comparison can be made. It is believed that, although the cottages are often very inferior upon the whole, the labourers are not over-rated as to rent.
“The farm-buildings are very far from being what they ought to be, and generally ill-caleulated to carry forward an improved system of agri- eulture; but I have little doubt that landlords will be, for the most part, ready and willing to grant every encouragement in that respect to deserving tenants.
*“* Rent of Land.—it -is rather difficult to form a correct estimate of the rents in this district, I believe they are thought to be low; and upon the whole, 14s. or 15s. per acre may be taken as about the average; still I have no hesitation in saying that, under proper culture, very much of the land is capable of paying a much higher rent than is now paid for it.”
Having now arrived at the Vale of Glamorgan, it would be well just to mention some of the distinguishing features between the East and the counties just quitted. The general style of hus- bandry resembles ihat of England. Waggons are common, implements good, fine Hereford cattle and large sheep in abundance, and the young stock are sheltered during the winter. The wheat-sheayes when bound are placed in stocks, while barley and oats are gathered in a loose state, and so taken to the ricks; the humidity of the air being less, this can be successfully prac- tised. The hay is made carefully, being regularly cocked up at night, and kept fresh and green by this judicious treatment. The large waggon-cocks do not appear so common as formerly. The cottages are more comfortable, and those of Glamorgan have Jong been celebrated for their superior architecture and neatness of thatch. The labourers consume wheaten bread and receive capital wages, while the numerous mineral-works increase the competition for labour and open extensive markets for all agri- culture produce. The Vale of Glamorgan is, perhaps, the finest
154 Farming of South Wales.
district and as well farmed as any in South Wales. Although Mr. Davies mentions a few courses connected with turnips, it appears that the wheat, or fallow succeeded by many corn-crops, was the principal; and sometimes, on the strong soils, wheat and beans for six years, and laid down for as many years. The fences, which were described ‘‘as capable of affording harbour for elephants,’ are now for the most part of moderate size, while the ricks still retain their superiority in neatness of construction. The entire absence ef any system of cropping, so often mentioned, is here the same, and therefore renders the description of the improvement of its agriculture so difficult and complicated. After summing up all that I saw and the various information I obtained, it appears that some turnips are now grown by all farmers, that wheat is taken on ley; spring wheat or barley succeeds turnips ; that beans and oats are seldom grown, summer fallows are becom- ing rare, and the grass-seeds lie from one to four years. Those farmers who still cherish the remnants of the old system, take three or four corn-crops in succession, while the more enlightened are satisfied with two at the most. A portion of the turnips is usually consumed on the land by the sheep or young cattle. The Glamorgans are principally kept, and many are stall-fed on hay and turnips at four years old. The yearlings are fed in sheds during the winter ; in the day some turn them out to eat turnips in the fields, and take them in at night, while the two years old stock are treated in the same manner, but lodge in an open straw-yard. [he Hereford cattle are more plentiful nearer Cardiff, and the general farming is of a very superior description in that locality. ‘The labourers receive capital wages—from 10s. to 13s. per week, or from 10/. to 15/. a-year, and board and lodging. The miners at their task-work earn from 18s. to 40s. per week. Few leases are now granted. The land in the Vale is injured by the large quantities of hay and straw sent to the mineral districts, the loss of which, in almost every instance, is inadequately supplied by manure not made on the farm.
From the Brecknock Beacons Mr. Davies observed that the fallows in the Vale of the Usk were extremely numerous; and he expresses a wish that instead of “ such ruddy fields, they were clothed with luxuriant turnips.’’ It certainly does appear strange that such a porous silicious soil, in a comparatively dry climate, should have been so long treated with a summer fallow, which rendered the land insufficiently solid for wheat. Itis supposed that, in the original deposition of soil in this beautiful valley, water washed much of the clayey portion into Monmouth, and thus left the reddish sand to form the principal ingredient of the soil. The following were the principal courses in 1814 :—Wheat on fallow, barley, peas, barley, and clover; wheat on ley, succeeded by
farming of South Wales. 155
numerous corn-crops, and occasionally broad-cast turnips. Some few farmers of superior discernment practised turniping for barley, and took wheat on clover-ley with one furrow, to the total ex- clusion of summer fallow, and this has rapidly gained ground ; and the four-course, or slight deviation from it, is now the com- mon system. It appears that the Vale of the Wye, and some parts of Radnor, were treated with better rotations earlier than most parts of Wales, for we find it mentioned that the Flemish course, adulterated with summer fallows, was common at the time of the last Report. As has been already stated, the soils here are more clayey and stiff than in the Vale of Usk, but the farming is now precisely similar; and the following account of the tillage will explain the general system of this neighbourhood :—When land is intended for turnips it is made quite clean by frequent plough- ings, scarifying, and harrowing, and then drilled with turnips on the ridge, 24inches apart, manured either with farm-yard manure or artificial, such as guano, and bones dissolved with sulphuric acid. If the latter are used, two-thirds, and if the former, one- half of the turnips are consumed on the land by sheep folded, which are principally Leicesters. ‘The remainder of the crop is brought to the farm-yard for the fat cattle, and also for young stock, which receive only the addition of straw.
I now come to the concluding portion of the Report, viz. “‘ The improvements still required, with reference to the character and climate of South Wales.” The advances which have been recently made in the eastern counties of South Wales argue well for a continued progress in agriculture, and those slight im- perfections which still exist there may be easily removed by an enterprising and industrious tenant, with the assistance of a just and liberal landlord. It would therefore be great arrogance to suggest a series of improvements in such a rapidly progressing district, and the few humble remarks that follow will be found chiefly applicable to the interior and western portion of South Wales.
[t would be well therefore to commence at the fountain- head—draining. It is perfectly unnecessary to advance argu- ments to support that which all commend, but draining is par- ticularly wanted in South Wales, and till the land is made dry all other attempts at improvement will be abortive. ‘There being so little sun and so much moisture in the atmosphere, it is highly necessary that the rays of the sun should not be employed in drawing off water from the land, but that they should proceed, without let or hindrance, to warm the soil and make the plant grow. The small amount of capital at the command of the tenantry renders it impossible for them to drain on a large scale. Giving them tiles would in many instances be a perfect waste of money, on account of the imperfect manner in which the draining
156 harming of South Wales.
would be performed. ‘The only way therefore to hope for the accomplishment of such a desirable national object is for the land- lords to perform it, and charge the tenants five per cent. on the outlay ; and should the landlord not have a sufficiency of spare cash, fortunately the Drainage Act supplies money to all who condescend to apply. Still there are many impediments in the way. First, the absence of tiles and pipes. It has been sug- gested that a temporary kiln and a tile-making machine, under the direction of an experienced workman, would produce a great quantity very cheaply. There is plenty of clay in almost every district for the manufacture of pipes, and slates, when cut to the required size, form capital and cheap soles for the tiles. Again, the labourers have not the remotest idea of digging an under- drain; but happily there exists the West of England and South Wales Draining Company, who really perform the work, as they profess, in the most “ scientific, economical, and effectual man- ner.” If therefore one large proprietor, or several smaller ones, would unite and engage the Company to drain their estates, the most beneficial results must accrue. Independently of the in- crease of produce, &c., it would practically show the farmer the best way hereafter to dispose his drains, and the labourer would see how to dig the drain, manage the new-fashioned tools, and judiciously place the pipes. The influence might at first be confined to a small locality, but as the advantages became glaring, others, seeing its profit, would follow the example, and the result would probably be that a large district would be effectually drained. It has been found that in draining the majority of land here, a regular system should be pursued, for the soil is so fre- quently injured by the combined influence of springs and surface- water, that nothing short of thorough drainage on such ground will be found satisfactory. The imperfect manner in which draining has been hitherto executed causes it to be so little appre- ciated. ‘This must have been the case in Mr. Davies’s time, or such an able and learned writer could not have asserted that covered drains in clayey land was an “ ideal improvement,” or recommended stone drains “to be covered with gravel to the very surface.”
There can be no doubt that landlords should raise the farm buildings, and the lease tenants would cheerfully keep them in repair; but the repairs in this country are so heavy, that it is not fair to burden the tenant with them entirely. Some tracts are at a great distance from lime, the winds are continually damaging the roofs, the moisture of the air rots the wood, and iron speedily corrodes * if not covered with annual coats of paint. In selecting
** « Armoure will not indure in this countrye halfe the tyme it will doe in England ; . for let armoure be cleaned ever sve well, in one week it will grow rusti.”—Hist. Pem- broke, 1600,
Farming of South Wales. 157
the site for a new homestead, water, shelter, and centricity should be well considered. Barns require to be larger ; warm and shel- tered yards are wanted for the young cattle; and the numerous well-known conveniences should be built which are requisite for rearing stock, and for successfully carrying on an improved system of agriculture.
The introducers of the new style of farming have frequently pushed their favourite systems too far.‘ making art to super- sede instead of assist nature.’ Thus the east of England and the west of Wales are so totally different in soil cal climate, that the system which would be best in the one is found nearly impracticable in the other. The new rotation, therefore, when introduced in its purity, exhibits such defects, that the farmer of the old school at once totally rejects it; and the introducer, after many years of trial, will find that, to make it profitable, he must relax some of his original exactness. ‘The Welsh farmer, there- fore, should adapt his system of improvements to his own soil and climate, and not to that of Norfolk, or any other totally dif- ferent portion of the kingdom. The foundation of the old system was not, at the time it was practised, radically wrong, for natural good grass, excellent both in quantity and quality, constituted the chief wealth of Wales. The real evil is caused by the extension of the old system, which, as it now exists, cannot be too strongly
condemned, for it is hardly possible to conceive a worse course of
cropping. For five years the land produces feeble crops, and for five years it produces nothing, being provincially and appro- priately termed “resting.” It appears curious that, with a climate particularly adapted for green crops, so few turnips should be grown. <A good rotation is the foundation of all farm economy ;
and till some better course is introduced, the agriculture of
Wales cannot improve. ‘Turnips must be extensively cultivated. Wherever they have been tried, and had a fair trial. in good soils or bad, on elevated or low lands, they have invariably succeeded. Fite wland has been once brought under tillage, summer fallows cannot be necessary. If the land requires rest, let it rest under the shade of the turnip, instead of roasting in the sun; and should it want cleaning, use a little extra force, and prepare it for a green crop, and with ; a less harassing system of cropping it will never be so difficult to clean again. ‘It is always considered abomi- nable farming to take two white-straw crops in succession ; still, with moderately high farming on good soils in this country, that abomination may ‘be successfully practised. Jixperience has proved that on the better lands, barley, after a drawn crop of turnips, will frequently lodge. Even Mr. Morgan, in his Prize Essay on the Cropping of pe eritnalees admits “ “barley on some
soils is not a safe crop after turnips.” Although the following
>
158 Farming of South Wales,
course cannot be defended on the principles upon which the rota- tion of crops are founded, yet it 1s practically found to be one best suited to the good land of this district:—1. Turnips; 2. Wheat ; 3. Clover; 4. Wheat; 5. Barley. Turnips flourish better when supplied with small portions of manure and guano combined, than if dressed only with the same value of each. Hand and horse hoeing cannot be too frequently or too carefully performed, and a portion of the turnips should be consumed on the land by the store sheep. Spring wheat flourishes well in this climate, and has long been cultivated with success. So early as the end of the sixteenth century, the Lord of Kemmes says, “ Somer wheat is sowed in the latter ende of March, or beggining of April. It is a profitable grain, and yieldeth more increase than winter wheat.’” Mr. Davies observes, “ Spring wheat seems well adapted to succeed turnips on soils not below mediocrity.” He also mentions instances of wheat being sown on the Ist of May, and ripening within nine days of barley sown in the same field and at the same time. An intelligent farmer in this neighbour- hood last year did not finish sowing his wheat till May, and even with that drenching sunless summer, it was cut in the early part of September, and produced above 32 bushels per acre. ‘There is thus plenty of time to clear the turnips off the land; but there is an objection urged against growing clover with the spring wheat,
as it invariably runs up so high, that when the wheat is cut in the short days of September, the quantity of clover will never die, and it is often found impossible to save the corn. This results from sowing the seed early ; but suppose the wheat to be sown in February, some time in April it may require to be hoed. After that operation let the clover be sown, and a good bush-harrow on wheels, or a light seed-harrow, be used to cover the seed. If hoeing be not required, the harrow will do just as well. There will then be no trouble with clover at harvest; it will not use- lessly expend itself, and there is sure to be a good plant, as wheat seldom lodges, and so grows that it readily admits air to the young seeds. Should the land be required to be laid down for a term of years, the natural grass seeds can be sown with the spring wheat instead of clover. About one-fourth of the land allotted for clover should be sown with rye for spring feed, and vetches for soiling in yards, to be followed by rape, which grows beauti- fully here. This, fed off by sheep, would be a capital preparation for the wheat-crop, and prevent the too frequent repetition of clover. After wheat and barley, with the natural tendency of the soil to produce couch, and the uncertainty of a sufficiency of dry weather to clean the land for the root-crop, it would be unwise to grow a large quantity of vetches before turnips. Wheat sown on clover-ley is considered liable, in this climate, to be choked with
Farming of South Wales. 159
grasses, but using a good plough with a skim coulter will mate- rially remedy this. It may be found advisable to plough the land in July, immediately after the hay is carted, and make a bastard fallow for wheat. This will be found useful to eradicate root- weeds ; and, with a dressing of lime and manure, will often pro- duce better crops than the ley ground. Barley after wheat often yields more corn, and it is decidedly of better quality; for when barley lodges, as, before observed, it frequently does when fol- lowing turnips, the grain is light and it readily sprouts, and in addition to this it kills the layer. By far the most profitable course of farming weak and shallow land in this moist climate is, a fallow, oats and turnips, barley, grass. Suppose a field of light soul; clean it thoroughly, put it in good heart by lime and dung, and take a crop of turnips. Eat the principal part of these on the land by sheep or cattle; give the field two shallow ploughings, sow the barley thin and seed thick with white clover and good perennial rye-grass. ‘This land will not only keep, but feed, a great.quantity of stock, and will continue to do so for a series of years. The time for breaking up will be denoted by its mossing and fogging; and when ploughed, take but one crop of oats, turnips, barley, and then down again as before. Shallow land, when laid down for a course of grass, is often infested with furze and brambles. The plan of burning them, so often resorted to, only increases and strengthens their growth. When the ground is taken up for a ley crop, a boy with a mattock should follow the plough, and tear up deeply all the roots which have escaped the share. As soon as the shoot of the young furze makes its appear- ance in the grass land, it should be immediately stumped up; and if brambles are cut in a young state, and their branches not allowed to strike root or shed their seed, the increase of the evil will be effectually stopped.
Asa simple profit-and-loss statement of the old system hes been given, it is only fair that a similar account of this rotation should be here rendered. First, the good land, well farmed :-—
Dr. 3 Cr. ) E Rent, | Cultiva- Lime s Crop. | Tithes,| tionand | Seed. and Outlay. Produce. &e. | Expenses. Manure. S: S. s. d S. 235 gh @ aie Sse 1 | Turnips 26 70 5 0 60 - 8 1 0 } 20:tons; at5s. . oe | OiesO 2 | Wheat . 26 30 19 6 a6 3 15 6 | 24 bushels, 6s.6d.{| 716 0 3 | Clover,&e.| 26 16 12 0 Ke 214 0 | Clover, hay, &c. 310 0 4 | Wheat . | 26 35 UG 3} 50 6 7% 3 | 24 bushels, 6s. 6d. 7 16> 0 5 | Barley . 26 35 10 6 we 3 PEt 6:1) 82 4 dest 13s. Ge. 512 0 | Prohtsiespny 4 bo | 29 14 0 29 14 0
This being a calculation for five years only, but half the quan- tity of lime put on for the old ten-years course is supposed to be
160 Farming of South Wales.
used, and that applied to ley wheat. Being drawn out on a pre- cisely similar plan to the other, the straw is not charged, and the manure put at very little, and no interest is calculated for money invested. It would be foolish totally to disregard the peculi- arities of some soils, and to dictate this or the other rotation for all the soils of this variable district. If the land naturally favours barley, let the chief produce be barley; and if the upland tracts will not produce that delicate grain, oats must be sown instead. But turnips will flourish anywhere; only let the principle of green crops be established, and it is very easy to modify rotations to suit the peculiarities of any district.
The moisture of the climate of South Wales will always render the rearing of cattle a principal object. Already it 1s a country celebrated for its fresh springing grass, and it will soon, it is hoped, be distinguished by its root and green crops. Whenever Jey ground is taken up for a course of tillage, let the serious loss that is now sustained by the poor pasturage of over-cropped land suggest the important fact that, in returning land to profitable grass, 1t must be laid down in a dry, clean, and highly manured state.
The Dr. and Cr. account of the shallow land, well managed, 1s (by the experience of a large farmer) thus rendered :—
Dr. Cr. a Rent, | Cultiva- | Muck . Be Crops. | Tithes,| tion and | and Seed. | Outlay. Produce. &c. | Expenses.| Lime. —— eee ee | _ — S. S. S. Seo Geille Soa £. s. d. DOatsie i. 12 25 oe 8 0 2 5 O | 32 bush. at 2s.3d. 312 0 2 | Turnips 12 70 75 5 0} 8 2 07 15tons; 5s. 315 0 3 | Barley . 12 30 8 6| 210 6 | 382 bushels, 3s. Bd | bad 5 0 4 | Grass 12 4 12 0 1 8 O | Grass (pastured) 210 0 5 Do. 12 4 . 016 0 DOr yeah omier tae 2h .oe<0 6 | Do. 12 4 016 0} Do. 220° 0 7 | Do. 12 4 016 0] Do. Vibe 5 310 8 | Do. 12 4 | 016 0] Do. | 140.0 g) Do. 12 4 | 016 0 Do. WS) x0) 10 Do. 12 4 te 6 016 0 Do. LOO Profit 10 yrs. | 5 14 6 | 2416 0 2416 0
It will be found very advantageous, in rearing cattle, to give the calves new milk longer than is now allowed ; and when skimmed milk is substituted, a little linseed porridge should be added. It is necessary to the health of calves to keep them in warm, fresh, roomy cribs, where they can enjoy plenty of exercise. The yearlings in winter do best in a well-shedded strawyard, with a good supply of hay and turnips; and the older cattle in similar yards, with turnips and fresh oat or barley straw. The cows should lodge within during the night, and be supplied with hay, of which they could have more were turnips generally grown and the young:
Farming of South Wales. 161
stock fed on them. But provided there are, unfortunately, no buildings, that only increases the necessity of growing turnips. If cattle cannot be warmly kept they must be well fed, or they will make no progress, as 1s often the case now throughout the winter. Turnips may be thrown on a pasture, and the young stock will thrive well there. Convenient farm-buildings would much im- prove the grass lands of the country. Many meadows are now poached and puddled, to their great detriment, throughout the winter ; and by the cattle continually gnawing every young blade of grass the moment it appears, the spring feed is made so late —backwarder than in England. In the selection of breeding- stock it should be remembered that a bull ought to possess other qualities as well as that ofa sure stock-getter ; and that although it is very desirable for a cow to be a good milker, there are other most important characteristics to be considered. By endeavour- ing to remedy those points where the breed 1s naturally deficient, the Pembroke cattle will, in an eminent degree, display the valuable combination of milking and feeding qualities. Giving the young stock proper exercise, warmth, and nourishing food, will soon show that they are not such slow feeders at an early age as 1s generally supposed.
Sheep when very young may be successfully house-fed on turnips and hay, and of course the addition of oil-cake and corn will greatly assist. All long-woolled lambs are best shorn; and those that are intended for the house should be taken in about October, separated into small lots, and kept clean and well ventilated. From March to May, when good mutton is generally scarce, house-fed sheep will sell with profit. Sheep will not progress so rapidly when exposed to the incessant rains of the winter, neither will they bear in this climate the hard folding that is practised in England. The farmer of the enclosed lands might gradually supplant his present mixed bred ewes with good hardy Downs, and advantageously cross them with a Leices- ter or Cotswoldram. ‘The produce would be admirably adapted for early feeding; and there is ample opportunity to purchase Downs from those gentlemen and farmers who, with much trouble and expense, have imported from England flocks of the very best description. Nothing can exceed the profit of selling all stock reared on the farm, fat. Thus a gentleman and practical farmer, whose occupation rests upon a barren tract of the Pembroke coal measures, stall-feeds all his cattle at two years old; his sheep (which are house-fed) are sold at thirteen or fourteen months, and pigs at six or nine months old. No artificial food is consumed ; the stock is the ordinary produce of the country, yet the amount of meat and dairy produce that is returned on a small invested capital is astonishing. It will be replied to this, that the markets
VOL. X. M
162 Farming of South Wales.
are now so limited that this system can only be practised by a few. This is lamentably true; but when the South Wales Railroad is finished it will open the mining districts to the Western counties, and enable the Welsh farmer to dispose of his stock in the English markets. This gentleman prefers to keep farm-horses by pairs in loose boxes, with a small yard attached. There is a trough for water, and a bin for green food in summer in the yard, while the box is supplied with a rack to contain the bruised gorse, and two separate mangers, that the horses may be tied up when feeding and not devour each other’s corn. Horses when at work on the farm are sometimes exposed to cutting winds, &c., and when thus treated are not so subject to colds and sore-throats as those kept in stables. ‘They also appear to rest with more ease than when tied up ina stall. The horses are kept in the entire year, and thus all the manure is saved. When turned out to grass, horses feed it very unevenly, and spoil much of the grass if long. During the winter the gorse (which will last four months) is cut into chaff, and, with one bushel of oats and a few swedes horses are kept in capital condition. In March, as the busy season advances, hay is substituted and the corn increased. Vetches will come to hand in May, and will, with clover, last till the gorse is ready in the autumn. The tender shoot of the young furze is admitted to be both “palatable and nutritious ;” cheapness is certainly added to these good qualities. The gorse is best when cultivated; but the great quantity of land which pro- duces nothing else, causes the Welsh farmer to prefer gathering it from the natural plants. By this method of feeding little hay is consuined, and it is desirable, especially in the upland tracts, not to place much reliance upon the hay, as it 1s generally badly saved and of inferior quality. For breeding, the best and youngest mares should be selected, and the colts sheltered and well fed during the first two winters.
The lack of accommodation will not allow the Welsh farmer to resort to the improved methods of making manure, therefore some suggestions are thrown out that may be of service in his present condition. After the manure is carted to the fallow in the summer, it would be well to line “the court” with sand, ashes, or some porous material, to the depth of 3 or 4 inches. This would absorb much of the urine, which, from the cow, con- stitutes the most valuable part of the manure. Instead of having the drain from “ the court” run into the horse-pond, it might flow into some mould or peat, which should be collected for the pur- pose, and now and then turned. All the cleaning of the stables and hovels should be carefully spread, and the straw for the cows not placed in heaps, but in bins, which can be roughly constructed at very little expense. These bins should be constantly shifted,
Farming of South Wales. 163
so that all the manure will receive an equal pressure. The droppings of the young catile, often met with in large quantities under the pasture-fences, might be collected and spread about the court, which would increase the amount of animal excrement so much wanted, as most frequently the common manure is not much more than rotten straw. It is not recommended, even for light and porous soils, to turn manure heaps more than once. Every practical farmer knows (and chemistry confirms our expe- rience) “that farm-yard manure begins to lose its most valuable properties as soon as ever fermentation commences.” When manure is carted very early in the season, it should be placed upon a bottom composed of earth not less than six inches deep. Of course the carts should be drawn over the heap, and all care- fully spread. The manure cannot be too well mixed; and that from the fat cattle, the cows, and the horses should be placed in alternate layers. When the heap is completed it should be well covered with ashes, road-scrapings, or any mould, and thus no evaporation or fermentation will take place. For all soils it should not be turned over more than a fortnight before required for use, and then well cased with the mould that was below. When dung late in the season 1s required for immediate use, should the yards not be wanted, it can be packed up there in a heap, covered with the earth’s lining before recommended, and it will be ready to be applied to. the land in about ten days. In both cases fermentation will then have taken place, sufficiently to kill the seeds of weeds and the larve of msects,* without losing any quantity of ammonia. Experiments have proved that plants flourish most luxuriantly when exposed to the influence of matter disengaged by fermentation. Although it may be contended that well rotted dung is more soluble, and therefore more easily taken up by the young turnip, persons of a contrary opinion think that the gases given off by the fermentation of manure in the soil are more easily applied to the wanis of the infant plant. At any rate, by repeated turnings this is all lost, and there can be no doubt that well rotted manure is not so lasting in its effects as the other.
One of the evils of the life leases is the large amount of capital the tenant sets fast on his entry by building, &c.; and another is felt by the landlord, who finds it impossible to rid his estate of a slovenly or bad farmer. But a tenant farming from year to year cannot be expected to improve permanently the property he hires: he neglects to expend his capital, lest good crops should bring increased rent or loss of the occupation. If there is an objection
* In addition to grubs, the egg of the wheat-midge and other insects that prey upon the cereal crops are deposited in the husk and straw of corn, and will therefore, it is supposed, be destroyed by fermentation.
M 2
164 Farming of South Wales.
to grant a lease for lives, one for a limited number of years might be substituted, having a compensation clause for improvements. An unskilful farmer without capital would not be then a clog for so many years, and there would be ample security for the money expended by the enterprising tenant. All leases should contain clauses prohibiting the occupier from taking more than two white- straw crops in succession, and making it compulsory that all manure, hay, and turnips should be left at the expiration of the term; the two last to be taken ata valuation by the in-coming
tenant. ‘The new comer also to pay for the threshing of the crop,
and receive the straw in return.
Provided the land was properly cultivated, there would be a very scanty supply of labourers, and consequently the poor man would receive better wages. This would soon improve his moral and physical condition. He would be enabled to procure more nourishing food, and the common necessaries of life for himself and family; then he could perform his daily labour with more ease to himself and satisfaction to his employer. By better food, it is not meant that the best wheaten bread is essential for the hard-working man. The poor of Scotland, who never see any flour diet, are an industrious and healthy race. As it is now admitted that education should be adopted to suit the probable employment of after-life, surely it would conduce much to the comfort of the labouring community if, in our National Schools, where the peasant girls are educated, some brief outline of the first principles of practical Domestic Economy were taught; for
the wife of a poor man should know how to dispose of and
manage his sma]l weekly wages with the greatest advantage! The best way for an enterprising landlord, in the Welsh parts, to disseminate improved and scientific agriculture among his dependent farmers would be, to encourage the education of the most intelligent of his tenants’ sons—to place them in the Royal Agricultural College—to permit him to view various good farming in England and Scotland, and then take him as his farm-bailiff. His practical and theoretical knowledge could be easily explained to the unlearned and unskilful tenantry, and might convince those who, from real ignorance, are often con- sidered obstinate. The Welsh have, moreover, a dislike to any- thing propounded by strangers; and new practices of husbandry
are rarely popular unless introduced by natives of the country. >
The very remote position of the country and the Welsh language much retard agricultural improvement. It is curious, that where- ever English is spoken the farming is very superior, and has much progressed of late, whereas in the Welsh parts little improve- ment can be traced. On the other hand it may be said, the Saxons and Flemings of old selected the most fertile and easily
Farming of South Wales. 165
cultivated land for their settlements, and therefore all the best and level spots are occupied by their descendants. But few of the Welsh have the chance of witnessing and seeing the effects of good farming, and the language forbids them to wander out of their district in search of practical information, and the English- man, who would introduce improvements, finds that the strange tongue presents an insurmountable obstacle to his laudable effort.
The various defects of the agricultural management of South Wales have been plainly, but, it is hoped, fairly stated; and they are laid bare with a sincere desire to arouse attention and quicken improvement. The principal permanent improvements require a vast outlay of capital, and, with the present low price of all agricul- tural produce, there is little inducement, either for the landlord or tenant, to embark money with so poor a prospect of remunera- tion; still, if good farming is not very profitable. a Lad system is a certain loss ; and all must strive “ to produce the most at the least cost.” But it should be particularly remembered in Wales, that a system of cropping must be adopted which, instead of injuring, will zmprove the soil. Then may the Welsh farmer hope to over- come the natural obstacles which now impede his progress, and place the hitherto neglected agriculture of his country on a level with the improved distriets of England.
P.S.—I have to offer my warmest thanks and best acknowledg- ments for the kind assistance I have received from the following gentlemen, who (among others) have obligingly furnished me with various and important particulars of the farming in their respective localities, viz—Mr. Evan Williams, near Brecon; Mr. E. W. David, Cardiff; Mr. Wm. Edmond, Swansea; Mr. Geo. Goode, Carmarthen; W. H. Lewis, Esq., Cardigan; and Mr. Isaac Williamson, Pembroke.
VII.—Description and Use of an Improved Agricultural Drain- age Level, with the Process of Levelling, as required for Agri- cultural Purposes. By T. Cooke, Optician and Mathematical Instrument Maker, York.
THE process of levelling, even for agricultural purposes, is one that has been generally considered to require a complicated and costly instrument, and difficult to use; in consequence, many draining operations have been attempted without the aid of an instrument for taking levels, and frequently, as might have been expected, much useless labour and expense have been incurred, before the object attempted was satisfactorily attained.
166 Improved Agricultural Drainage Level.
The New Dratnace Levet has been constructed for the use of the’ Farmer, the Land Steward, and persons superintending Drainage operations, on a cheap, simple, and efficient prin- ciple. It may be carried in the pocket, and is not at all lable to get out of order. Its use may be readily acquired by any ordinary workman, and in the hands of a person who has had a little practice with it, it is capable of showing the difference of level between two places, however distant, with great ac- curacy.
The LEVEL is represented in the preceding figure, and con- sists of an achromatic telescope, with cross lines, which gives the instrument a great advantage over all those constructed with plain sights only, as a staff painted white, and divided by black lines into inches, can be read distinctly at the distance of 80 or 100 yards.
The telescope tube is made rather wide, to admit the spirit tube, without interfering with the vision, being placed inside, for greater protection ; the bubble of which is seen through an opening in the upper part of the telescope.
There is a bar placed under the telescope and attached to it by a joint at one end and a screw at the other; with this screw the
telescope and bubble are accurately adjusted to the horizontal -
Improved Agricultural Drainage Level. 167
position. In the centre of this bar is a universal joint that will allow the telescope to be turned in any direction, and at this joint the level is fixed to the tripod stand, which is one of a very simple and firm construction.
The method of adjusting the Instrument, and reading the Staff. —TFirst place the level on the stand and direct a person to hold a graduated staff perpendicularly at a convenient distance, say 50 yards. Direct the telescope to the staff, draw out the eyepiece a little by the edge aa, till the cross lines are seen clearly, then draw out the telescope tube by the edge JJ, till the divisions on the staff are also clearly seen.
Move your eye a little up and down while looking through the telescope, and if the horizontal line seems to flit or move amongst the divisions on the staff, slide the telescope tube a little in and out by the edge 0 8, till the horizontal line, while the eye is being moved up and down, seems fixed upon one part or division of the staff: if, by doing this, the divisions on the staff have become a little indistinct, slide the eyepiece aa a little in or out, till the divi- sions again appear distinct. ‘This latter operation is termed cor- recting the telescope for parallax, is a very easy one, and is very necessary to be carefully done where accuracy is required.
Move the telescope on the universal joint till the staff appears between the two vertical lines and parallel to them; at the same time put the telescope as nearly into the horizontal position as possible, then with the screw d bring the spirit bubble exactly into the middle of the opening.
The instrument is now correctly adjusted, and while in this position the reading of the staff should be taken.
The telescope inverts objects, but any difficulty from this, to a person unac- customed to such a telescope, will be easily removed by considering the divisions must be read in the direction in which they are numbered, or apparently down- wards.
Thus if the horizontal line in the tele- scope appears to cut the staff at a, the reading is 17 inches; if at b, it is 22} inches, &c. i
If the level move too stiffly or too easily on the universal joint, it must be altered with the milled screw, ee.
Levelling, as required for Agricultural Purposes.—Levelling is
the art of finding a line parallel to the horizon at one or more
168 Improved Agricultural Drainage Level.
stations, to determine the height or depth of one place with respect to another.
To find the difference of level between two places, when the distance does not exceed 200 yards.
First place your instrument at A, midway between the two places B and C, and direct your assistant to hold the staff per- pendicular at B; then point the telescope to it, adjust the instru- ment and read off the staff as directed above. Suppose the reading 674 inches; your assistant must now take the staff to station C; turn the level round on the joint, taking care not to remove the stand, direct the telescope to the staff, adjust and read as before. Suppose this 52 inches.
‘The difference of the two readings is 153 inches, which shows that the ground at B is 153 inches lower than at C.
If the line of sight or of collimation of the telescope is known to be correct (see pages 171, 172), it is not of so much importance that the Instrument be placed so exactly midway between the two stations, though it is always better to place it so when prac- ticable.
>t
If there should be buildings or other objects between the two stations, place the Instrument on one side as at A, where ‘you can get a view of both stations, and the difference of the readings will give the difference of level as in the previous ex- ample.
When the distance of the two places, the difference of level of which is required, is considerable, a series of observations will be necessary.
In this case divide the distance into portions of 100 or 150 — yards each, or into unequal portions as circumstances require, and .
Improved Agricultural Drainage Level. 169
drive short stakes into the ground at each station, even with the surface, upon which to place the staff. Then put up your instrument midway between the first and second stations, your assistant holding the staff upon the first, which call the back station ; adjust your instrument and take the reading, then direct your assistant with the staff to the second or front station, turn your instrument round on the joint, adjust and read off as before.
After which remove the instrument to midway between the second and third stations; the second station now becoming the back station, and the third the front; adjust the instrument and read off the staff at both stations as before, and thus go on from station to station until the whole set of observations necessary between the two extreme stations is completed.
The following example shows the form of Levelling Book, and the method of reducing the observations :—
Height | Quan | F of each - Depth | No. of Bees Back Front Rises Fall, | Station Aes | of Deain | No. of Stations. | Gtations, | Stations. | Stations. above for | at each Station. datum Fall, | Station. | line. Back-|Front.| Yds. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. Inch. 40 ANE 1 1 2 90 64 | 52 12 52 Gf 45 | D 2 3 100 Uae: | 45 28 SORT a5 Gora 3 3 4 80 69 - | 51] 18 98 214 7634 | 4 4| 5 DO Gea nea * 14 84 | 282} 553) 5 +) 6 | 95 52 76 24 60 36 24 | 6 | 455 315 | 295 58 | 38 =e29n) | 38 | Rise 20 | 20 |
The first column contains the numbers of the back and front stations.
The second—-The distance between the stations, in paces, yards, or chains.
The third—The readings of the back stations.
The fourth—The readings of the front stations.
The fifth—The rise from the back to the front station obtained by subtracting the front reading from the back reading.
Sixth—The fall from back to front station, obtained by sub- tracting back reading from front reading.
Seventh—Gives the height of ground at each station above datum, or a horizontal line passing through the bottom or the lowest part of the drain at outlet.
This column begins with the number of inches the depth or bottom of outlet of drain is, below surface of ground at first sta-
170 Improved Agricultural Drainage Level.
tion. In the example it is 40 inches. The numbers in column fifth are added to, and those in column sixth subtracted from the number at top of column seventh, as they succeed each other in the two columns. .
Eighth—Contains the inches to be deducted from the inches opposite in column seventh, that the drain may have an even and | uniform fall from its highest part to the outlet. These numbers are obtained thus :—Add together the numbers in column second, the sum is the whole length of the drain. Decide upon the fall the drain should have for that length, or upon as much as circumstances will allow. In this example it is made 36 inches, which is put the bottom number in the column. For the num- ber for each of the other stations multiply the distance of the station from the first station or outlet by the inches of fall in the whole length of the drain, and divide the product by the whole length : the quotient will be the fall for that station.
Thus for the fourth station.
270 yards. distance from outlet. 36 inches. fall in the whole length.
1620 810
Length 455 yards )9720( 214 inches fall from station fourth. 910
————
620 455
165
Ninth—Contains the inches the depth for the drain from sur- face of ground at each station, obtained by subtracting each of the numbers in column eighth from that in the same line in column seventh.
Tenth.—The number of the stations.
In the figure annexed, A is the bottom of drain at outlet. AB the horizontal datum line. Al, 62, d3, f4, h5, BO, are the depths given in inches in column seventh. ab, ed, ef, gh, CB, are the depths given in inches in column eighth. ANG 263; e4, g5, C6, are the depths for the drain at the different eitions given in inches in column ninth.
The line A C represents the bottom of the drain.
As a check to the calculations, the difference of the sums tof columns third and fourth should be the same as that of columns fifth and sixth, as should also the difference of top and bottom number of Salta seventh.
If the difference of level between two pldecsn is merely wanted
Improved Agricultural Drainage Level. i71
for the purpose of ascertaining whether draining be practicable or not, the Level Book need only contain the two columns, third and fourth, the difference of whose sums will be the difference of level of the two places. No distances need be mea- sured. If, after this trial is made, draining is ascertained to be practicable, determine the best position and direction for the projected drain, then begin at the outlet and take a new set of observations, pro- ceeding as in the preceding example.
It is recommended that the levelling staff be divided into inches and numbered as such ; it is more convenient for cal- culation. The final results can readily be reduced to feet if necessary.
To adjust the line of sight, or Collimation of the Telescope-—The line of collimation is a line passing through the centre of the object glass and the middle of the horizontal line near the eye end.
This line of sight should be parallel to the horizon, when the spirit bubble rests in the centre of the opening. To ascertain this, select a piece of ground as nearly level as you can find, drive in two short stakes even with the surface, at the distance of about 60 yards from each other.
Place the level exactly in the middle between the two B. C., adjust it carefully, and read off the staff at both the stations, _as directed in the first example of level- ling. Suppose the reading at B, 60 at C, 5834 inches, the difference is 14 inches which C is higher than B. Remove the level to B, and place it so that the object end is directly over the stake, point the telescope to the staff on C, and adjust the spirit bubble carefully to the centre of the opening, then measure the height of centre of object glass above B, which suppose 58 inches ; read off the staff on C, which, as C is higher than B by 14 inches, if the collimation is correct, will be 563 inches. If the reading is more, the line of sight points too high, if less, too low. If too high, unscrew the lower screw c of the level, and
172 Improved Agricultural Drainage Level.
screw in the upper one c. ‘The contrary when the line of sight points too low; move the screws only a little at a time, and take care not to force them too tight. Repeat this until the horizontal line of the telescope intersects the staff at the proper place; in this example, at 564 inches.
Another method to make this adjustment is by means of a sheet of water, which, when it can be come at sufficiently large, is convenient and accurate. At the distance of about 40 yards, drive two stakes close to the water’s edge, till the upper ends are even with the surface of the water; fix the level over one of the stakes, and the staff perpendicularly upon the other; adjust the instrument for reading the staff, then measure the height of centre of object glass above the stake over which it is placed. If the reading of the staff is not the same, make it so, by moving the horizontal line up or down by the collimation screws, ec.
This is an adjustment, when once well made, that seldom re- quires repeating.
The Levelling Staff—to accompany the level, is made of ma- hogany, well seasoned ; light and portable. Its ene when closed is five feet, when dense out, 94 feet. It is fiva@ed into inches by strong black lines, upon a white ground, which can be easily read through the ‘telescope of the level, at the distance of 100 yards.
Price of the new Drainage Level improved, with book of instruc- tions for using it, 3l. 5s.—Price of Staff, above described, 15s.
VIIIl.—On Hemp. By Tuomas RowLanpDson.
Hemp (Cannabis Sativa of Linneus) belongs to the same order of plants (Diawcia Pentandria) as the well-known plant which grows on dry ditch and hedgerow sides—the common stinging- nettle, which in outward appearance it greatly resembles. The common nettle has repeatedly been used economically in the ma- nufacture of textile fabrics.
The soil best suited to the growth of hemp is a deep, rich, alluvial, and moist, mellow mould; one in which well-decomposed vegetable matter is mixed with allay composed of fine clay and sand, and intimately mixed, I have found the best adapted to its cultivation. Rich old pasture land fresh broken up, if not too stiff, is the soil on which hemp particularly luxuriates. On such pastures being broken up, which may be deemed too rich for flax, and on which the cereals would run too much to straw, hemp can be grown with the greatest advantage. Hemp isa plant of exceed- ingly rapid growth when grown under favourable circumstances,
On Hemp. 173
and frequently obtains a height of 6, sometimes 7 feet. It is said, however, that in Italy, and the warm Oriental climates, to attain sometimes a height equal to 15 or 18 feet, without any diminu- tion of the equal texture and fineness of its fibre. The time for sowing hemp should never be earlier than the 15th of April. This, however, will greatly depend upon the character of the sea- son, and general climate of the place where it is intended to sow hemp. Many persons prefer the first week in May. The latter, according to my own experience, I have always found the best suited ; as hemp is a most unprofitable crop, unless it is grown on such a rich soil as will force it rapidly forward. It is better, therefore, to wait a short time for more genial weather than to run the risk of the crop being destroyed by a spring frost; as hemp, from its eastern origin, is peculiarly obnoxious to the destructive effects of frost while in its earlier stages of growth.
The quantity of seed to be sown per acre must, according to circumstances, be regulated from 2 to 2} bushels per acre. If, however, a very fine fibre is desired, suitable for manufacturing a coarse species of cloth similar to those manufactured from coarse flax, 3 bushels may be sown with advantage. On very rich soils, however, this should never be attempted, and the larger quantity can only be sown profitably on soil of second rate, but at the same time, of good quality. At the time the hemp is coming up, care must be taken to scare away small birds, otherwise they will make tremendous havoc with the cultivator’s future prospects. This care will also have to be borne in mind at the time of harvest, if the female plant is allowed to stand for seed. ‘There are some very rich pasture lands, which on first breaking up will yield an excellent crap of hemp without any manure ; the generality will, however, require a dressing of 10 tons of well-rotten farm-yard dung per acre. If the cultivation of hemp is carried on with land that has been previously broken up, the general practice has been with the cultivators of that article to plough up the stubbles in autumn, and carry on to the land manure, 20 tons at least, during the winter ; a practice, in my opinion, reprehensible, whether for hemp or any other crop. I have made small comparative trials between this method and carting well-rétten manure on to the land, ploughing and harrowing it in early in April, and I have found the advantages greatly preponderate in favour of the latter method, both in economy of manureand amount of crop. It must, however, always be borne in mind that the manure carted on in spring should be well rotted, as hemp, being a quick-growing plant, requires its nourishment (manure) to be well prepared, the time of occupying the land not being sufficient to permit its perfect but slow decomposition. Night-soil exceeds all other manures in pro- moting the luxuriant growth of hemp; and if applied in abundance
174 On Hemp.
will make hemp grow onany porous soil, provided it is sufficiently retentive of moisture during the heats of summer.
In consequence of the peculiar nature of hemp, differing as it does from all our other ordinarily cultivated plants in having the male and female flowers on separate plants, the harvesting of hemp has some peculiarities. In taking the hemp crop, two methods are followed, according as the object in view be either to obtain a fine fibre adapted to the manufacture of cloth, at the sacrifice of the seed; or the fibre and seed conjointly. In the former case, a crop of turnips or rape, to be eaten by sheep, may be obtained after gathering the hemp.
When the crop is grown entirely for the fibre, it is pulled while in flower, and no distinction made between the male and female hemp plants; but it is generally grown on account of both fibre and seed, in which case the usual practice is to pull the male plants as soon as the shedding of their pollen has effected the fecundation of the female. ‘The pulling is effected in the follow- ing manner: the pullers walk in the furrows, between the ridges, and reach across to the crown of the ridge, gathering a stalk or two atatime. At this time the male stalks are easily known by their yellowish colour and faded flowers. In this operation the treading down of the female plants must be carefully avoided. The pulling of the female plants commences when the seed is ripe, which is known by the colour of the capsules turning to a brownish or greyish hue, and also by the fading leaves. I had proceeded thus far on this subject when I received a communication from a person to whom [ had written for additional information on the subject, and from whom JI received the following valuable letter. I may mention that all my experiments were conducted under the direction of the person to whom I now allude, who received a medal for his excellent culture and subsequent management of the fibre, at the period (during the late war) when a considerable quantity of hemp was grown, and consequently considerable com- petition existed. I may mention that he is a native of Lincoln- shire, and that his remarks apply principally as regards culture to the soil and climate of that county. His remarks about the pre- paration of the fibre are of peculiar value, as I would with safety challenge his management and manual dexterity in this respect against all England as regards hemp and flax—lI might perhaps challenge with safety the world. I give his communication entire, as I deem it too valuable to be mutilated, and it would be difficult to select and re-arrange the matter without in some degree destroy- ing a portion of its value. He informs me in a subsequent letter that it was a common practice during the war to give with pupils 1501. to 2007. to a known good hemp farmer as a fee for teaching the mode. His experience—which, as he justly remarks, has cost
On Hemp. 17D
him a considerable sum of money and much hard labour—is as follows :—“ The soil best suited for this plant is a fat, strong mould, from 5 to 6 inches deep, and light clay loam is particu- larly suited. Care must be taken that the land is not over-heavy clay, as in the event of sowing such land with hemp it would not be possible to pull it ; for, when strong clay becomes saturated with rain, the soil runs together, and on drying sets as hard as a pave- ment. All soils suitable for the growth of hemp contain a fair portion of sand, the sand keeping the soil open and light, for the roots of the plant to work for its food. Sandy and bog land were cultivated for hemp, during the long-continued wars, in the neigh- bourhood of Crowland and Spalding; but was gradually discon- tinued before its conclusion, or nearly so, producing avery inferior article, that obtained a low price. The best mode of cultivating hemp, according to my experience, is as follows :—When the farmer has selected the portion of land which he intends sowing with hemp, he should ploughit in November, and lay it up in about six yard ridges, so that it may mellow during the frosts. Care must be taken to plough the land 6 inches deep, if the soil will allow that depth, without interfermg with the subsoil. This must be particularly attended to, as, if the subsoil is clayey or too much sand, and any be turned up, it will make the soil poor. The land must be well and properly drained, and the water-courses particu- Jarly attended to, and the furrows well opened in all parts of the land where water would be likely to remain at any period of the year; as wherever water has remained on the land at any time, there the hemp will be good for nothing. Early in March the land must be cross-ploughed if the weather is dry, and lie in that state until the beginning of April. The drainage must be attended to ;* as in a great number of seasons heavy rains fall in April and May, which if the water is left to lodge on the land, especially at that season of the year, makes the land cold and sad, and the hemp will be of little or no value. The land having been attended to as just mentioned, it must be well harrowed in dry weather (the roller passed over it), and harrowed up again, and cleared of all roots and twitch. ‘Twitch and horse-mint are fatal to the growth of hemp. The roller and harrow must be applied as often as is found necessary to get the top-soil into fine tilth: then the land may be allowed to lie in that state for a few days, to dry up the small pieces of roots that remain ungathered, and the weeds will sprout. When this portion of the management has been effected, the land must be ploughed, the same way of the field itis intended
* At the period ailuded to, 1810 to 1815, superficial drainage was mainly adopted in the low lands of Lincolnshire, which in fact, from their position, will always occupy a farmer’s constant attention, and accounts for the reiterated cautions respecting drainage.
176 On Hemp.
to remain; the sets may be laid out 6 to 8 yards wide. Attention must be paid to any plots where horse-mint or twitch had existed, which should be ploughed rather deeper, to raise the roots from the sole, otherwise the top culture will be of little avail. The last ploughing (unless the land has been very foul) will fimsh the tilth ; the roller and harrow must be applied again, and the roots got off, if such is the case, as often as will be found necessary to get the top-soil into good tilth. The month of April will be now advancing, by which time the farmer, if a man of business, will have his manure prepared; 25 tons of which, well rotted, mixed stable and feeding-shed manure, should be applied per acre. — Care must be taken to lay the manure on heavier where the land has been impoverished by twitch, horse- mint, or other deteriorating weeds. I have applied yard-manure to rather stiff land with good success. By the preceding arrangement | calculate the cultivator will have from the 1st of May to the 12th of May to cart his ma- nure and plough the land for seed. ‘The manure must be care- fully and evenly spread on the ‘side of the field intended to be ploughed first, the plough following close to the spreader. ‘The cultivator of hemp must direct the spreader of the manure to throw out half the heap next to the ploughman first, and then turn down the other half. Long dry days dry the manure up until it is of little value, if allowed to remain exposed to the sun and wind. The hemp-grower must be careful to direct his ploughman to cut a furrow not more than 6 inches, as hemp re- quires as many seams as possible for the seed to fall in along with the manure. I ought to have mentioned prior to this, that the cultivator should have carefully selected his seed, in doing so he must attentively follow the succeeding directions :—The bulk should be of a bright grey colour and bold appearance; he must take care that it has not been heated in the heap in the warehouse. He may discover this by biting it between his teeth: ifthe taste is perfectly sweet, and the external appearance as above-described, he may rely on its goodness; if the taste is bitter, it will be found worthless. An acre of land requires 3 bushels of seed; if the hemp is required to manufacture into linen, 2 pecks more must be added. The thicker it is on the land the finer and more slender it will grow. ‘The most approved practice of sowing is to sow the fresh-ploughed land up every evening, and harrow the seed in well with light harrows. If during this the land rises full of clods through carting the manure, it will be advisable to run a light roller over that portion where the clods rise, and leave the land to be harrowed up again after the roller. The best season for sowing hemp is from the Ist to the 12th of May; a few days later must doif the weather is wet. On sowing later than the 12th of May the fibre grows thin and weak. As the sowing is pro-
On Hemp. 177
ceeded with, what surface drains require to be opened must be done immediately. As the seeds sprout very quick, it is useless and worthless to sow hemp on land other than in very high tilth.”
The pulling of hemp was well understood at the breaking up of the late war; since then it has been very little cultivated ; it has now become a new article of agriculture. When hemp 1s sown previous to the 12th of May, it is fit to pull for « white” (or linen) purposes early after the 12th of August; previous to that time the fibre has not set, nor has the male stem shed its pollen. It was a practice many years ago, when white hemp ruled high, to pull the weak plants, and all the male stems immediately after the pollen was shed, and leave the female stems to stand for seed.
This labour was all performed by women and old men; the price
of pulling 100 gleans (as they were termed) was ls. or ls. 2d. per hundred of six score. After the hemp was thus pulled, and tied round the head with four or five of its own stalks, it was laid down in rows with the root part spread out; a man must go round in the evening with a boy or woman to set it up in stooks of five or six gleans, the boy taking a fork such as farmers generally use to knock and shake out the soil from the roots, and scrape out the undergrowth that lies in the bottom of the stems; in the course of a few days it will be ready to take to the water ; before doing so, it will require tying near the roots, with a band of twisted leaf reed, cut two or three days previously in order to soften, the gleans must then be jumped on the ground to level the roots. When the hemp is carried to the water, care must be taken that the tops of the hemp hang well over the sides in order to cover the stems well; if the sods touch the stems at the sides, it turns the fibre black; the sods with which it is necessary to cover the hemp whilst in the water are generally cut at the side or as near as possible to the water, and are usually replaced when done with. The sods are sometimes cut with a rip-and-sod spade; sometimes with a paring-plough, and then cut into short lengths by the spade. Great attention has to be paid to the pro- cess of watering or retting, as it is a most important one. After laying the sods over the hemp they must be trod upon frequently, to smk them and make the water appear between the sods; care must be taken that the roots of the hemp are put the lowest in the water ; the treading must be repeated every day until the hemp is ready to be taken out of the water, which will be from nine to ten days if the weather is warm, and rather longer if the weather is cold. This requires considerable skill and experience before a person becomes a thorough judge on the point; the following rules will, however, if strictly followed, answer the pur- poses of a novice, and, if strictly adhered to, he cannot go far
WOE; Xx N
178 On Hemp.
wrong. Let him, when he thinks the retting has gone far enough, take out of the water a glean from the middle, from which take out a stem, then hold the stem by the root end, and draw the thumb-nail up the stem to the top; if the fibre slip up the stem, it will be sufficiently retted ; if not, it will require another day, or perhaps more; also spread the glean on its side on the land to dry, it will do so im the course of the day; if the stem then breaks freely, and the fibre leaves it easily, it will have got a good ret, as it is called. When thus far finished, the sods must be taken off, and two men will be required to take out the gleans ; one to lift them partly out of the water with a fork, root first; the other taking them from him with a fork; and thus, with the assistance of the bottom man, the gleans are lifted on to the ground, and form a couch, and so proceed until finished. The next day, as if suffered to remain longer in the couch it heats and rots immediately, it is carted out, care being taken that it is laid straight in the cart and taken to grass-land that has been mown and the hay taken therefrom for some time, so that a considerable quantity of new grass or eddish may have grown, in which case the worms do not take in the fibre so much.* After it is laid out on the eddish it should be spread by women very evenly in rows, at ls. 6d. per day and their diet with beer, The hemp will require to lie on the eddish perhaps three weeks or more to bleach and the fibre to get free; it will require turning over with a light long pole, putting the pole underneath the top part and lift- ing it over ; this must be done very evenly every three or four days: this labour 1s done by women.
To ascertain when it has lain long enough on the grass to bleach, the cultivator must after ten days or less, if there have been heavy dews, examine the stems in different parts of the field; and if he discovers any pink spots on the stems, it will be sufficiently bleached, if not it must he longer; there is no fear of the fibre deteriorating until the pink spots appear: that perhaps by fre- quent turning may be three weeks; the hemp must then be gathered and tied into bundles, and set up in stooks to dry (the stooks consisting of ten or twelve bundles each), and tied from the middle bundle of each side to each end, to keep the wind from blowing it over. When perfectly dry, it must be carried from the field and placed in a barn or ricked in some exposed part with cullis-roof, where it will keep dry. The scutching has next to be
* When hemp is spread on summer-eaten grass-land, the worms will draw a considerable quantity of the fibre into their holes; there requires a good portion of grass after mowing to prevent them (the worms) from so doing ;—the stumps and new grass prevent the worms destroying the fibre, provided proper attention is paid to the turning.
On Hemp. 173
provided for, good breaks and scutching-stocks being obtained. This labour will cost from Is. to ls. 6d. per stone, according to the goodness and perfect ret and bleaching. The cultivator must be careful to instruct his scutcher to make the hemp up in half- stones of four heads each, tied round with its own heads tightly drawn through the hand; it makes it look remarkably neat; the pullings, as they are termed, are tied up in half-stones, with a band round the middle, the ends drawn together bound into a knot.
I will now notice what is to be done with the female or seed- hemp, provided the same is left for seed. In the fore part of September the seed-hemp will be ready for pulling; this may be known by observing and examining the four low seeds on the stem, called by growers elbow-seed ; if they are of a dark grey colour and firm inside, and the husks turning a little yellow, it will be ready to pull. By this season strong winds may have occurred, so heavy as to break some of the seed-hemp: instruc-’ tions must therefore be given to the women that pull the hemp, to gather the fallen stems (as they contain seed) and to be careful not to break the stem or cramp it in the hand, as it is termed. Breaking is very detrimental to hemp (I should have observed the same with regard to pulling white hemp). The same manage- ment has now to be observed with respect to retting, &c., as pre- viously noticed with regard to white hemp. The seed-hemp should be set up in stooks of 40 gleans each; they are convenient for counting, and the under-growth must be raked up and spread evenly over the tops of the stooks to keep off the birds which will infest it, and the heads tied round with a band of the same material to keep the wind from disturbing it. The cultivator may know when the seeds are sufficiently matured to thrash out by the crispness of the capsules and the facility with which the seeds fall out. A cloth will now have to be procured and spread in some convenient part of the field, and a bolster raised on one side of the cloth from the wind to prevent the soil from falling on the cloth amongst the seed; the stooks must be drawn to the cloth without being taken to pieces, by a rope passing round the stook under the heads and passed over the drawer’s shoulder: this requires a strong man;—he must then place the head part carefully on the cloth. ‘To prevent loss of seed, thrashing ought to be proceeded with as soon as ready, as days at this season (September) are getting short, and fogs frequently occur, so that a single hour ought not to be lost. As soon as the hemp is thrashed, the grower may proceed to water it as directed for white hemp, or make it into a rick, and have what is calleda spring-ret; if placed in a rick, care must be taken that it is pro-
N 2
180 On Hemp.
perly thatched, as, if the least wet gets into the rick, it will destroy the fibre. The latter described mode was frequently practised if the season had got too far advanced for the hemp to be taken out of the water before the frost set in. In watering hemp, it must be a dead standing water ; if put into a stream, the hemp will be damaged. The late hemp in the neighbourhood of Crowland was frequently watered and taken out of the water, dried as soon as possible, and peeled by women and children ; it was of a coarse, tender, and ordinary quality, not applicable for shipping; it obtained only a low price, and was usually converted into sacking. To obtain the most valuable white hemp is to dew- ret it, which is done by letting it, after being pulled, stand in the stook two or three days in order to stiffen the stem, then carefully removing from the stook (without tying as before mentioned) and spreading on a good eddish where the grass is plentiful. It will take perhaps six weeks to dew-ret hemp, during which time it must be kept constantly turned over as previously described ; it will be completed when the pink spots appear, as before noticed, which must be carefully looked for, when it will be ready to gather and tie up in bundles to form stooks in order to dry; the fibre will not sustain any damage before the pink spots appear.
The best land for obtaining fibre of the strongest and purest description is a fat loam, not too heavy with clay, and a portion of sand intermixed; on such land succeeding a crop of beans, hemp will grow 6 to 7 feet high. The cultivator will never be in error if he alternately sows beans and hemp. I have known 9 quarters of beans per acre after hemp, weighing 21 stones per sack. Hemp after beans will produce 30 stones more per acre of the strongest and heaviest fibre than by any other mode of culture: the weight of fibre in ordinary culture and circumstances will produce 60 to 70 stones per acre. After beans the produce will rate from 90 to 100 stones of a superior description ; bean-stalks make the best manure for hemp, as they keep the land open and soft for the roots: this particularly applies to strong loams. Fat mould is well adapted for growing beans and hemp alternately : when I allude to fat mould, I do not mean mould that contains bog; that sort of mould produces hemp of a coarse ordinary quality of tender fibre, and obtains only an inferior price. In the hemp-growing districts, when it was much cultivated, it was usual to take two crops of hemp one after the other, and after the second crop a crop of flax, and then hemp, and so on for years. This was a practice amongst small farmers until the land became exhausted, as hemp and flax produce no manure. The most pro- fitable mode of growing hemp is with beans alternately, for as many years as the farmer likes.
On Hemp. 181
A good crop of hemp after beans will produce 28 to 30 bushels of seed per acre; in the ordinary way 20 to 22 bushels per acre. _
Notwithstanding that heavy crops of beans and hemp, which has just been noticed, may, under favourable circumstances as to season, soil, manure and management, be obtained, the average will fall far short of it. The same great drawback exists in the growth of hemp that occurs in the cultivation of flax, viz. its non- production of manure—whilst, on the other hand, the manure- heap is drawn upon largely for this particular crop. It is quite true that means might be contrived to make the steep-water avail- able as a top-dressing for grass land, and by consuming the seed and husks ground together a material can be obtained equal, in feeding value, to linseed. Yet, with all the economical management here pointed out, it is problematical if hemp-growing will ever prove productive ; on particular soils, well adapted to beans and hemp, both of which are admirable preparations for wheat, it is possible that hemp may be profitably grown; but it must be borne in mind that hemp land will grow other crops of equal or superior value at a less cost—for instance, if an old pasture were broken up for hemp, the same soil would yield a crop of potatoes of equal value and at less expense and trouble. The only instance in which the hemp-culture can be profitably carried on is in connexion with a manufactory that will work up all the less valuable material: on a suitable soil, and when labour is cheap, this may be done with advantage, as the hands in the manufactory could be set to pulling, steeping, turning, &c., as they are employments requiring no particular skill. I throw out the hint, not expecting that it will ever be practised. On Chat Moss, a recently-cultivated bog, Mr. Redfern informs me that he grew hemp the last summer with the object of extirpating weeds, a purpose for which, in consequence of its rapid growth, it is well adapted.
The following may be taken as a fair average of the prospects of hemp-cultivation, both as regards cost and returns, viz. :—
EXPENSES. Sex SR. Rent and taxes, per acre. : : A AOWO 20 tons of manure. : ae ‘ 5.1504.0 3 bushels of seed ; . : ‘ 015 O Tillage : vere ene : 1610) 20: Pulling, steeping, &c. : : : : I A020 Taking from steep, spreading, thrashing, &e. . 2 10 Scutching 1s. 6d. per stone for 60 stone - 4510530 Cleaning seed, taking to market, ke. . : iy ea
Oui
182 On Hemp.
PRODUCTs.
60 stones of hemp, at 4s. 6d. i 3 . HESES ORO 20 bushels of seed, at 4s. 6d. ; : A 410 0 18,,40,,0
Add thereto 10s. as value of dressing to grass-
land or eddish, and for value of husks, &ce., as feed for cattle, say 5s. . : : Oeilae@) Sho 0 Deduct expenses , { : j AM Om Tr O Balance per acre in favour of the farmer ; O2 <7 256
When it is taken into consideration that hemp-culture is wholly different from the ordinary crops grown by farmers, and requires at particular seasons a great amount of labour and attention, I do not think it probable that its culture will ever be much practised. The prices for hemp and seed in the above account are certainly less than the present market price of both; good hemp will pro- bably bring 5s. per stone, and good seed 5s. per bushel, or perhaps 5s. 6d. per bushel. I have, however, in the above only drawn an average.
Mr. Way, of Bridport, obtained, in the year 1811, the thanks of the Society for promoting Arts, and for his communication on the culture of hemp; and he mentions that the rotation practised in Somersetshire, Dorsetshire, &c., at that period was, on ground well manured, hemp, wheat, barley or oats; clover with the pre- ceding wheat, barley, or oats; ground well manured, hemp, but sometimes they dress the ground well for hemp every third year. Hemp, like flax, should have a change of seed every second year. Mr. Way mentions that in America, in the neighbourhood of Boston, a favourite practice was to get off an early crop of tares, and follow with hemp pulled for the “ white,” and succeeded by turnips.
IX.—On the Tussac Grass. To Mr. Matueson, M.P., from Mr. Scosig, in the island of Lewis. :
Str,—You wish me to send you a note of the culture of Tussac Grass in the Lewis. The seeds which you. sent me in 1844 were sown in the following spring in various parts of the island, viz., Coll, Holm, Linshader, Galson, &c.; of all these the two former were the only places where this valuable grass appeared, and of these two Holm was the most successful and vigorous, being sown in a square plot of deep brown moss of |
On Tussac Grass. 183
medium dryness, close to the sea. The moss, scarcely yielding anything previous to its being turned over and enclosed, was delved over and cut into small pieces with the spade, and the seeds sprinkled in and roughly covered with a rake, and trampled in at the same time with the feet. The plants appeared during the following summer and harvest, and in September were ex- amined by Mr. Charles Lawson, seedsman, Edinburgh, who pronounced them to be the real Tussac plant; the second year the stools were almost as strong as the third, though it is allowed this grass only attains its maturity the third year; it cast seed the second and third years. Three acres were delved over, of the same deep moss, in spring, 1847, to the depth of 12 inches, and, after it was packed with a hoe, a sprinkling of guano applied, and single plants dibbled in, three feet four inches apart. ‘The whole of this prepared moss is drained three feet deep and 20 feet apart, being moss drains, shoulder or wedge as may be found most convenient, according to the consistency of the moss. The plant is succulent, with broad green leaves, and three feet long the second as well as the third year. Many of the stools, when planted out, were found to have 500 plants. From all I can see of this grass and itsgrowth (inthe latter particularly), it resembles the bent grass which grows on the sandy banks along the sea in the most exposed situations, though differing materially as to their nourish- ing qualities and the soil in which they flourish ; still assimilating, in being so very much improved by culture and cutting, and being capable of being propagated to any extent by planting the tussac in moss, the bent in sand, each thriving best when most exposed to the sea. I think the moss for the tussac should be delved over in January, and a light spading of moss thrown over the surface, out of the bottom of the trench, to keep out the sun from drying up the moss too much: February, March, and April being most advisable for planting, May and June having proved too late and dry for transplanting. Bent grass I have found to succeed when transplanted any time from September to March, and tussac likely the same.
Holm, 2nd January, 1849. To James Matheson, Esq., M.P.
JOHN SCOBIE.
Note—March, 1849. Mr. Scobie found the plants to which he had applied sea-ware greener in the leaf and thriving better than the rest. 2 .
Some failures occurred from wet, rising from below in the moss, and also from imperfection in the drainage, and from drought, the peat being liable to become very hard in summer. Sea-ware, strewed on the surface, recommended.
184 On Tussac Grass.
It appears, from my own experience in Lewis, that the tussac grass there, as in its native region the Falkland Islands, requires to be within the near neighbourhood of the sea; that is, within a quarter of a mile, so as to catch the driving spray of the sea.
James MATHESON.
Agricultural Chemistry Association, 8, Bank Street, Edinburgh. Dear Sir, 15 September, 1847.
I have the pleasure of enclosing the results of a comparative analysis ~ of the three specimens of Tussac Grass, which you have sent here for examination—the one of last year, and the two of this season. You will observe that the proportion of watery extract hitherto considered to repre- sent the nutritive value of grass, is greater in the Tussac Grass of the second than in that of the first year (1846).
This appears most clearly in the third line of No. 1. When the pro- portion of soluble matter in the dried plant is compared, that which you gave us last year was less succulent, or dryer than that we received this year, as the proportion of water in the two will show you. Hence the proportion of matter extracted by water from the grass of last year appears greater; though in reality, when compared in the dry state, water extracts more from the whole plant of this year. You will see also, however, that the under portion contains very much more soluble matter than the upper part. I would draw your attention further to No. 2, in which are embodied results not hitherto obtained from any other grass, and which, therefore, are not comparative.
In this table you see that potash extracts a considerable additional quantity, which water does not take. This I believe is also to be included in the proper nutritive matter of this grass.
In protein, or musile-forming compounds, it is also richer: in fact, as much so in the dry state as dry wheat or oats. I need not say, therefore, that, according to the results, Tussac Grass ought to be very nutritive.
Yours, &c. Chas. Lawson, Esq. (Signed) Jas. T. W. JoHNSTON.
No. 1.—Proportion of Nutritive Matter extracted by Water in two samples of Tussac Grass grown on the Farm of Holm, in the Island of Lewis, from Seed sent by Mr. Matheson, M.P., proprietor, to Mr. Scobie, Chamberlain and Tenant of said Farm.
Analysed by Dr. Valcher,
Analysed ; x by Dr. September, 1847 he Sept. 1846. wer er ole 100 parts of the Grass in the state it"was sent ee Part. Part, Plant. to the Laboratory contain— a BVater cis ors iil. ne ee aenle Pile darren ie 45°50 | 86:09 | 75°27 | 80°68 Watery, Extract;;). fr.ite feriee) ei SoPe 9°4 4:34 3°64 3°99
100 parts dried at 212° contain— Wateryelxtract) is .figt 4) 2) Cate 17°24 | 31°17 | 14°72 | 22-94
On Labourers’ Cottages. 185
No. 2. Composition of Tussac Grass. —_—_———_—_————SS
In the Recent State. Dried at 230°.
Lower | Upper Lower Upper Part. Part. Part, Part.
Protem Compounds . . . . =. . . 2°47 4°79 | 17-81} 19-38
eer re Extracting cae ai 3-32 | 3-64| 23-88 5-93
Other Nutritive Substances, insoluble in = ; : Water, but extracted by Potash . . A ad EL aoa Ea Gs Woody Fibre(Cellalose with alittle Albumen) 5°68) 11:86 40-88 47-94 Si Sey.) ee 1-f4) = 1°37 8°23 5°12 Water . > 2 . . * 2 7 2 2 . 86 y 09 | ris) ~ 27 . sd 100 100 100 100
X.—On Labourers’ Cottages. From his Grace the DuxKe oF BEDFORD.
To the President,
My pear Lorp Cuicuester,—Observing in the last volume of the Royal Agricultural Society’s Journal that the Council is directing its attention to that very important subject, the improve- ment of agricultural labourers’ cottages, feeling (in common, I have no doubt, with many other proprietors of estates) greatly interested in it, and having bestowed uponit much and anxious consideration, I am desirous of giving to others the benefit of my inguiries and experience, to enable them to follow the system | am adopting, so far as they may think it expedient to do so; and I therefore beg leave to offer to the Society copies of the plans and drawings according to which I have lately erected some cot- tages, and intend to erect many more, on my Bedfordshire and Devonshire estates.*
My inquiries into the condition of the cottages on those estates led me to the conclusion, first, that, notwithstanding a very con- siderable annual expenditure upon them, many of them were so deficient in requisite accommodation as to be inadequate to the removal of that acknowledged obstacle to the improvement of the morals and habits-of agricultural labourers, which consists in the
* Tt is due to his Grace to mention that the original sketches and plans have neces- sarily been very greatly reduced in size for publication in this Journal, and also that only a selection from them is here given.—Pu. P.
186 On Labourers’ Cottages.
want of separate bed-rooms for grown-up boys and girls; and, secondly, that the practice of taking in lodgers had led to still further evils. The improved methods of cultivation, extensive draining, and general improvement in husbandry (requiring addi- tional hands) that are going on, more or less, in all parts of the couniry, and the breaking up of inferior grass-lands, and convert- ing woodland into tillage (especially since the passing of the Tithe Commutation Act), by giving work to many more labourers than were formerly employed, have caused a proportionate aug- mentation of their number, and, consequently, an increased want of cottage accommodation. To meet this increased want, and at — the same time to improve the habitations of the labourers, I de- termined to rebuild the worst of my cottages, and to add to their number in those parts of my estate in which it appeared neces- sary to do so. I therefore directed my surveyor to prepare a series of plans of cottages suitable for families of different sizes and descriptions, sufficient to satisfy the reasonable wants of the labourers and their families, and to be so constructed as that (avoiding all needless expense) the cottages should be substantial, and not subject to premature decay, or likely to require costly repair.
The experience obtained in erecting the new cottages already built on my estate has enabled my surveyor to ascertain the quan- tities of each kind of material required for the construction, sepa- rately, of the cottages shown in these plans; and in the hope that this information may be useful to others, I have directed those quantities to be put in detail upon the plans. I have deemed it best not to have the prices added, because prices vary in different localities, and therefore to furnish the prices of one locality would be useless, and might mislead. The quantities being given, it will be easy to add the prices they bear in other places in which the erection of cottages according to those plans may be desired.
As the cottages of many landed proprietors may be, and pro- bably are, in a state similar to my own, it appears to me that the information, founded on actual experience, which | have obtained on the subject of cottage-building, and which is embodied in these plans, may be acceptable and generally useful.
Cottage-building (except to a cottage speculator who exacts immoderate rents for scanty and defective habitations) is, we all know, a bad investment of money; but this is not the light in which such a subject should be viewed by landlords, from whom it is, surely, not too much to expect that, while they are building and improving farm-houses, homesteads, and cattle-sheds, they will, also, build and improve dwellings for their labourers in
sufficient number to meet the improved and improving cultivation of the land. : |
On Labourers’ Cottages. 187
But in adding to the number of cottages on our estates, there should, of course, be a limit, or we may fall into evils of another kind. That limit may easily be drawn, either by the proprietor himself, or by an intelligent steward, and made to agree with the reasonable wants of the districts or parishes in which his employer’s estates are situated.
To improve the dwellings of the labouring class, and afford them the means of greater cleanliness, health, and comfort, in their own homes, to extend education, and thus raise the social and moral habits of those most valuable members of the com- munity, are among the first duties, and ought to be among the truest pleasures, of every landlord. While he thus cares for those whom Providence has committed to his charge, he will teach them that reliance on the exertion of the faculties with which they are endowed is the surest way to their own independ- ence and the well-being of their families.
I shall not dwell, as I might, on the undeniable advantages of making the rural population contented with their condition, and of promoting that mutual good-will between the landed pro- prietor and the tenants and labourers on his estate, which sound policy and the higher motives of humanity alike recommend.
Having lately had the pleasure of visiting with you some of the cottages on your estate in Sussex, knowing the interest you take in the subject, and having witnessed your success in carry- ing into effect the views we alike entertain upon it, it is gratifying to me to be able to address this communication to youas President of the Royal Agricultural Society for the present year.
I remain, my dear Lord Chichester, with sincere regard and esteem, faithfully yours,
: BEDFORD.
Woburn Abbey, March, 1849. :
Plans, &c.
188
PNAC Sie AOARN As
‘ ! 1 1 1 ! ’ D> { 1 1 i i} { | a XIN COREE NE Ree J eA
Oe kis:
5 -B S§---—-—--m----—-—-—
PLAN OF THE GROUND FLOOR.
Ear RRO E ec i EAI EAE RS ARINC
Be ~ BA Sei OD Qe OP a8 eRe -_- 1. Wood and Coals...10.0 K 6.0 5. Copper. 2. Wash-house.......10.0 X 6.0 6. Sink, 3. Kitchen.....00.06c11.0 KX 11.0 7. Dresser. 4, Pump.? 8. Do.
Scale of Feet. a Boe : 0 40 20 30
QUANTITIES.
a re a emma
EPL (a)
22,950 | Building bricks ...... 35 lds. Sand e ° . . . . e . ° . e BW) CHES |Win E696 ao 60 a6 G oC
NOW uss |iCemente omom ce smictey okies
1750 |6 in. paving squares .... 124 |12in. shell drain tiles... .
54/18 in. earthen pipes, 6 ins. OVENS IO /O MOT a’d0 oc
(OP) erg 6 6 6°6 Geo G0 84) Vailey tiles! "oh. <<) cl 6 se
[ea
i
18 in. ridge tiles . . . 2.6. Dilinglathsi temo cliciis |<! (6
Plastering laths .....
seer AO 6 po G oO OO oO
York stones for manholes . .
Small scrapers and stones . .
Do. stone sinks with grates, waste pipes, and traps . .
Cube fir . es 8 s ee BO" 6; 4.9, s | WOsrOalke (cy ep toureielictetl ec) is 12 ft.3 by 9in.deals....
Posts to fences and hand gates, 3 ft. out ofground ....
Drying posts, 7 ft. out of grnd.
Rails and palings, 3 ft. high .
Hand gates, with hinges and latchestmansty . vs 6 5s
2 |Solid door-cases, with ledged doors, hinges, and latches, Completen ye: orc us real ets
Ditto, with stock-locks ...
Small louvre frames to privies
PLAN OF THE BED-ROOM FLOOR.:: 4 | Solid one-light window-frames,
with iron quarry lights to open, glazed, complete . .
BED-ROOM. 11.0 X 11.0
5 | Two light ditto, one to open . 2 | Three light ditto and ditto . 4
24 | Iron cloak pins. . . +...
12 prs. | 14 in. cross garnetts . . « .«
= 12 | Vhumb-latches. . . 2...
: DeeiMower bolts, oss, « «6
¢ 4 |Chimney-pots’. ..... «
» 2 | Bedroom stoves, and fixed. .
BS es es 163 ft. | Iron eaves, gutter, and stack-
pipe, fixed, complete...
1 | Double pump, with suctions to draw from wellandtank .
2 | Commoncloset apparatus, with : supply cistern and service from pumptoeach....
Nails and screws . ..... 35) 0) (Oil-paintamren ei erchee isi seni WADOULM Neate ci hoiramealn cite) vette
ELEVATION OF THE ENDS.
Cartazenarur-i cease loins
190
PLANS AND ELEVATIONS FOR LABOURERS’ COTTAGES.
38,830 56 qrs. 58 lds. 10 bus. 3,190 12,150 374
69
21 bun.
29 do.
2c.2qr. 6
3
2452 ft. 2 do.
654 3
TWO WITH THREE BED-ROOMS, AND ONE WITH TWO BED-ROOMS.
GARDEN
a a s & : YARDS : i=] B
WASH-HOUSE. 15.0 X 11.0
eas
KITCHEN.
H 10.0 X 11.0 pal
ye
EN Ne?
/ uN \ ALLOTMENTS,
\ WELLe
/
REFERENCES,
1. Ashes. 2. Oven. 3. Well. 4. Pump.
f woop, &c. z 5. Pigsty, 5.0 X 4.7
8.0 X8.0 é 6. Copper.
7. Pantry.
= & g. Dresser. ye We > { RAIN \ ; 1 WATER | : \. TANK. / a Wie a ra) = | FOR DRYING | CLOTHES. a a
KITCHEN.
10.0 X 11.0 |
cage ae
Scale of Feet.
PLAN SF THE GROUND FLOOR.
QUANTITIES FOR HOUSES.
Building bricks Mime) ae #3) F Sandit ye jeamere Cement.
6 in. paving squares Plain tiles . ° Valley tiles pitti 18 in. ridge tiles .
eeef e €) 04. 6: (0! fers
Tiling laths. Plastering laths
Hair eres . Small scrapers and stones York sinks, with grates, waste
° ° ° e . . e ° . °
pipes, and traps. a Curbesfiria\e warsymice sirshan oak . saniess
39 12 ft. 3 by 9 in. lei ' Solid door- cases and ledged
doors, with hinges, latches,
and bolts . .
Ditto and ditto, with hinges,
latches, and stock- locks .
&.
asad
6 | Small one-light solid window- frames, with iron quarry
lights to (open, glazed, complete .
4 | One-light w indow-frames, and ditto °
10 | Two light ditto, one each, to open,and ditto . . 2 | Three light ditto, one each, to open, and ditto... Bean Nailsand screws . . 20 prs. | Cross garnett hinges 2 20 |Thumb-latches . a 36 |Iron cloak-pins. _. uy |Chimney-pots . Bedroom stoves, fixed ,complete Kitchen ditto and ditto... Tron gutter and down pipes, fixed,complete . . . le.2qr. Paint. . . ai des | Labour see Cartage a 6
157 ft,
£.
N? 2,
16 leng. 2
2 qrs.
BED-ROOM. =a PRED-ROOM.
one a ieee
BED-ROOM.
1o.0X11.0_§ $ a CLOSET,
PLAN OF THE BED-ROOM FLOOR.
QUANTITIES FOR OUTBUILDINGS, &c.
Building bricks Gan 46 Lime .- . Si ERG Sand . 5 An ie : Cement . .
6 in. paving squares ° 12in. oven do. C Plain tiles. . 5 S 12 in. shell drain files 6 é 18 in. drain pipes, 6 ins. diam. . ISane na sertiles ay. 9 tele ey Milingslathsipijeye sl ce 6 | ls York man-hole stones . 5 Downdooricills:.. < 6 : Do. hook-stones, with iron hooks Do. catch-stones, with iron catches Cubevingaa 7. Samihs . 12 ft. 3 by 9 in. deal 3 sities
. . . . ° s
. .
-Small louvre frames 6 :
Do. piggery feeding doors, with hinges, hasps, and staples 5 Ledged piggery doors, with hook hinges only, and hasps and staples . Do. privy-doors, with hinges, latches, and bolts Git cet vO: tere ene Do. outer-doors, with hook hinges only, latches, and stock-locks. . Fencing posts, 3 ft. out ofground . Drying posts, 7 ft. ditto . Rails and palings, Sft high... | = Hand gates, with hinges and latches . Nailsand screws - . . « « Oven-doorand frame. . : Com. closet apparatus, with supply cis- terns,and service from pump to each Double’ pump, with suctions to draw from wellandtank . .
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Labour uns : eee Wartageyn cl) 1G) fo
|
a S. d. , a é
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t
CI
I
ELEVATION OF THE ENDS.
ja)
192 cas
GARDEN ALLOTMENTS, wn = sews ee eee ew ECE See sesceeseaee | SS Ones a Set eS SS GCS SESS ces Deen EIe SSB Oenpace GuDSpSensocssnss: 5 ° REFERENCES, qd a a R oO a d. - ee Se S 1 Ashes. o 8 (>) S| 2. Oven. . Be 3. Pump. es = 4. Pigsty, fe = 5.0 X 4.7 5 Fe woop, &c. § Se 4 0 X 8.0 5. Copper. - a 6. Sink. io) s ol eS , : i ° 7. Pantry. ~ " ; f=] Qa ‘ 8. Dresser. i=) A i : : 9. Do. fa = a 5 | a B s ' 0 (WELL ‘ : : mM g , : Se ‘ a 10. Pantry. a Sa ie) ! : ' ‘ a | 2. . 5 : A a: YARDS | FOR ‘DRYING ‘CLOTHES. = : ' =) ¥ A " ' i o a | Bisnis * a ah abi =v b 1 r e = [ Orr) ; © : ° qd 2 e | © Le WASH-HOUSE. GZ N & wn =) 15.1%12.0 8 WASH-HOUSE. = — ae Zz - = 12.0 X 8.6 FE — = a i ie 9 2 4 * TS (| 7 5 a Sar ° a KITCHEN. i KITCHEN, 4 ale g a | 110X110 C8 1.0xX11.0 | pees Ey fe ii : S PLAN OF THE GROUND FLOOR. QUANTITIES FOR HOUSES. 46,970 | Building bricks zs. d. 86 |12ft.3 by 9in.deals . . ec
4 | Small solid one-light window- frames, with iron quarry lights to open, glazed, com- plete Soop Mal. UM at seater ee 14 | Two light window-frames, one each to open, and ditto . 4 | Three light ditto and ditto .
Nailsand screws . ©. . 48 | Iron cloak-pins,s 9). 3
66 grss ime ee. wu 68 lds; | Sand es <s)iys 13 bus.|Cement . . 4,560 | 6 in. paving squares 12,890 | Plain tiles . ‘ 420 | Valleydo.. . -» 68 |18in.ridgedo.. .
ee ee
22 bun.| Tiling laths : 38 do. Plastering dozens
ere! Dem Ohigs Vere 6S @ © 9 @; 6 (8 © 0 6.6) 58' 6. ¢ le
2c.3qrs.| Hair . 26 prs. | Cross garnett hinges . 8 | Small scrapers and stones 26 |Thumb-latches. . . 4 | York sinks, with grates, waste | 8 |Chimney-pots . . « pipes, and trapsies Give t a. 4 | Bedroom stoves, fixed, compl. Socata CuUbertine © leurs: eeommmonls 25 4 | Kitchen ditto and ditto. . 2 it. | Do.” oak ~. * 1714 ft. | Iron guttering and down- PE 4 | Solid doorcases, with ledged fixed, complete . .- doors, hinges, latches, and (2c. LgqrlPaint) 5) 7c" = ase bolts, complete . | Labour <p, isl? Prom emery eats 4 | Do. and do., with stock- locks Cartage 0 ak peGee et rae el an | Elam * SNOT |
X23, away awa 193
L777 cx) a nae
“ELEVATION OF THE FRONT-
1. Closet. M Br D-ROOM. BED-ROOM. 2. Stairs. : 9.6X7.6 12.0 X 8.6 3. Do
BED-ROOM. eel BED-R00M. 11.0 K 11.0 11.0 X 11.0
QUANTITIES FOR OUTBUILDINGS, &c.
23,240 | Building bricks Sn i ate) : aed 27 qrs. | Lime Mere es ee) te 5 PUPAS SANG ee ee es 5. Se . Besoss|(Cement, & <i, + - 480 | 6 in. paving squares eagle 10 | 12in. oven do. pote ae 7130 |Plaintiles. . supane
185 |12in.sheildraintiles . . 200 | 18 in. drain pipes, 6 ins. diam. 29 _|U8in.ridge'tiles . . « WORD UMeMebLineslaths! yee sel ec te 3 | York man-hole stones . . SmipWO mc Oor Cilismyeaiiesy arse. re 9 prs. | Hook-stones, with iron hooks 9 | Catch-stones, with iron catches SepieeGubetin iy « . » -« Gari ttyo Oy 9am. deals. . ° . 4 |Small louvre frames Sisigstre Vente slancokis 4 | Do. piggery feeding doors, with hinges, hasps, and staples SPetar tarsal sets 4 | Ledged privy-doors, with hinges,thumb- latehessand bolts . 9... « 4 | Ledged pigsty doors, with hook hinges only, and hasps and staples . . 5 | Do. outer doors, with hook hinges only, latches, and stock-locks . . 16 | Fencing posts, 3 ft. out of ground . 10 | Drying do. 7 ft. do. seit 17 leng.| Rails and palings, 3ft.high. . . 4 .
ELEVATION OF THE ENDS.
‘ey ete) (0) en ele.el ne (e) @.Le. ve 97 (0. e seune
Hand gates, with hinges and latches Nails and screws 4 : 5 C
1 | Oven-door and frame ee : : 1 |Double pump, with suctions to draw from welland tank . 5
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196 Composition and Value of Guano.
XI.—On the Composition and Miney Value of the different Varieties of Guano. By J. Tuomas Way, Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society.
Time, which brings change to every thing, has not been idle with agriculture. Every year ushers in some novelty, if not im- provement, in the shape of new implements, new plants for culti- vation, and new manures. Not the least remarkable of these introductions in modern times is that of guano. ‘The farmer who employs, it may be, a few cwts. of this manure in the year, hardly troubles himself to inquire the amount which is annually imported into England, the distance which it is brought, and the capital which is employed in its transmission. In one year between three and four hundred thousand tons of all varieties are said to have been imported; and at the present time the yearly con- sumption in this country alone of Peruvian guano does not fall short of 80,000 or 100,000 tons. What thenis guano? and to what does it owe that undeniable fertilizing power which can repay the cost of bringing it so many thousand miles across the seas ?
It does not come within the scope of the present article to offer a history of guano, or to recount the wonders which it has effected in the production of all kinds of crops. ‘The reader may refer to Professor Johnstone’s paper on guano in this Journal (vol. ii, pt. ui.) for a very interesting account of this singular substance ; and if he requires any evidence of its value as manure, he will find such distributed through any and every agricultural publication of the last eight years.
It will also occur to him that it has not been left to the present time or to the present writer to place before the public as a novelty the analysis of guano; on the contrary, many very careful and elaborate analyses have been undertaken for the purpose of indicating the true composition of the different varieties, and, as it is of a highly complex nature, analytical skill of no ordinary kind has been brought to bear upon its examination. Baron Liebig has collected in an appendix to his fourth edition of ‘The Chemistry of Agriculture’ very many of the analyses of guano which had been published up to the date of that work, and as they com- prehend pretty nearly all that is known of its composition, the reader may be referred to the book in question for this information.
These analyses however, highly valuable as they undoubtedly are in a scientific point of view, are too much complicated by the minuteness of their details to convey to the mind any definite notion of the precise manurial value of guano, still less are they applicable to calculations Laving in view the comparison of the different varieties, in an agricultural sense, or the determination of their average money yalue in relation to other recognised manures.
Composition and Value of Guano. LOT,
To obviate this defect, and to place in a clear light the differ- ences which exist between the different varieties—to contrast the money value of the specimens—and, having decided upon the constituents to which their manurial efficacy is to be ascribed, to speculate upon the possible substitutes for guano on the score of economy, or in the event of an ultimate failure of its supply—such are the objects of the present paper.
It is taken for granted that no one who will take the trouble of reading papers of a scientific character in reference to agriculture needs to be furnished with arguments to prove that guano acts as a manure because zt contains something or other that is favourable to the growth of plants, that is to say, that there is no talismanic or mysterious principle about it which would elude inquiry or defy imitation, but that it is perfectly practicable to ascertain what the constituent or constituents are which make it a fertilizer; and that, having so ascertained its active ingredients, a fac simile of the substance might be prepared by a combination of them from other sources; and that, whatever these sources might be, the compound so prepared would have all] the properties and efficacy of the guano which it was intended to imitate.*
Guano then owes its efficacy as a fertilizer to some one or more definite ingredients. ‘The question is, Do we know what the active constituents of guano are? and is its composition for the practical purposes of agriculture capable of being regarded in a simple light, and of being made the subject of distinct calculation? It is hoped’ that these queries may very readily be answered in the affirmative.
For an instant let the reader give his attention to the elaborate analyses of guano before alluded to. He will find that mention is made of the urate, oxalate, humate, &c., of ammonia; these are what chemists call “ organic salts: then, again, of the phosphate, carbonate, and muriate of the same alkali. He will also observe that guano contains sulphates, carbonates, phosphates, and mu- riates of lime, magnesia, potash, and soda; and lastly, organic matters containing nitrogen. Now what does all this amount to? Is it meant that every one of these compounds has its distinct and individual share in the action of guano as manure ; that the oxalate of ammonia will have a different effect, and consequently a different value, to the carbonate; that it will be of material importance that the phosphate of lime and the phosphate of magnesia should be separately considered? Surely not. It was before observed, that the analyses in question are of a scientific rather than a practical tendency, and that they were not made with a view to agricultural
* This is not literally true. Uric acid is only to be obtained from one or two sources, such as the solid urine of serpents or the dung of sea-fowl, which latter is in fact guano. Guano is therefore a manure sa? generis, and it is impossible to produce a perfect imitation of it.
198 Composition and Value of Guano.
application. It may well be, indeed, that every difference in the constitution of a salt will give it a distinct influence on the growth of plants; but it is far more consistent with the present position of the chemistry of agriculture to refer the value of different che- mical compounds as manure to the proportion which they respectively contain of the known agents of vegetation, making, at the same time, due allowance for the state of solubility and other accessory circumstances. ‘Thus, if it were a question between the carbonate and oxalate of ammonia, we must, with our present knowledge, value them solely by the relative amount of ammonia they contain, setting aside altogether the difference of the acid with which they are combined.
It often happens that we have to deal with compounds which may be supposed to possess more than one source of importance in an agricultural point of view; thus, for instance, sulphate of potash is capable of supplying two, in fact three, necessary sub- stances to a growing plant—-sulphuric acid, sulphur, and potash. It is plain that in this case we must place a value, not only upon the potash, but upon the sulphuric acid, since it is known that both these constituents form part of the materials with which Nature builds up her vegetable structures. But there is no reason to think that the sulphur or sulphuric acid of sulphate of potash is more easy of acquisition than the sulphuric acid or sul- phur of sulphate of lime. As a source of these substances to plants, the relative value of the two salts is to be decided solely by the quantity they contain. Then, again, we are not prepared by any means to allow that one salt of any given substance, such as ammonia, will be more efficacious as a manure than another compound of the same substance with a different acid; there are, for instance, no good grounds for believing that sulphate of am- monia is different in its action to sal-ammoniac, otherwise than in containing a different proportion of the important ingredient, the ammonia. But, as before said, there can be no equality between the phosphate and muriate of ammonia, because the former sup- plies two highly important elements of vegetation, the latter only one.
If (as a provisional doctrine only) 1t may then be considered safe to value the different chemical substances in reference to vegetation simply by the quantity of the different constituents which they can supply, we shall have made very great advance towards simplifying our views upon these points, and shall much more readily reduce the question to one of practical economy. This doctrine, when applied with the requisite judgment, will, it is conceived, be not very far from the truth, and it is especially useful in estimating the value of guano.
Very many of the analyses which are introduced in this paper were made in my laboratory by Mr. Ogston, Mr. Ward, and Mr.
Eggar, and as the greater number of them were undertaken wiih
Composition and Value of Guano. 199
the express purpose of throwing light upon the agricultural value of guano, and upon the extent of variation in its composition, great pains have been taken to render the results perfectly trust- worthy and unexceptionable.
I am indebted to Mr. Lawes for several of the specimens of which the analysis is given, and for much information and assist- ance in the course of my inquiries. The samples given me by Mr. Lawes were taken from the cargoes in the docks, mostly by himself, and with every care that they should represent truly the bulks from which they were separated; that they are really fair averages of the respective cargoes I shall attempt to show ina subsequent part of this paper.
To Messrs. Gibbs and Sons, the importers of Peruvian guano, I owe the opportunity of selecting specimens of this year’s im- portation. ‘These gentlemen, having become aware of my inten- tion of publishing the results of my earlier analyses, placed them- selves in communication with me, and afforded me every facility in taking samples from the ships in dock.
In addition to the analyses made in my own laboratory, [ am enabled, by the kindness of Mr. Lawes, to enrich this paper by the introduction of many others which have been from time to time made for him by Dr. Ure and Mr. Teschemacher, and which are now published for the first time.
The following analyses of different specimens of guano will present to the reader its ultima‘e composition (more especially as regards the mineral portion), and will enable him to judge to which of its constituents, according to the rules before laid down, he should attribute its principal value in relation to other available manures.
TaB Le 1.—Composition of Eight Specimens of Peruvian Guano.*
phage lB ba lA eee gl | F. G. | H
Water . . . . | 18-33| 17-95] 12°57| 12-58] 12-29, 13-09] 14-54) 13-67 Pre anicy Maker and }) 47-04, 47-46) 33-67) 46-61] 48-76 49-32] 50-81 52-97
Salts of Ammonia . Sand and Silica .. Mrs PeWe sal Pe 72h S279) OLS Mol 42) Vics esd Phosphoric Acid . | 12°41) 13-16} 20°21] 14:37) 13°61) 14-46] 14°08) 14°56 Sulphuric Acid . . 3°83 3:47; 4°00, 4°54, 4°57) 4-00) 3°60, 2°52 JLT area aa 9-70 10°73) 16°49 11-47/ 11°32 10°84 9°68 10°3
Magnesia 2. 70) *52 “80 -62 °78 ye -54 “ol Oxide of Iron . Dilee tol * 22ins 323 °23 °23 *20 9 768: Potash... «. |. 3-07) 2-52; 3°60} 3-22) 4-95) 2-9.| 3-40) 1-42 Soda . Serre 2-13-30) 4°19 9) mite cose -74 none
Chloride of Phiassieiy none | none | none | none none | none | none | 2°02
Chloride of Sodium . 1-21 2-40) 2°57) 2°66) 2°23) 2-1t} 1°29 none
100-00 160°C0 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00|160*C0 160-00 | | | |
* For methods of analysis, &c., see Appendix.
200 Composition and Value of Guano.
In reference to this table, and passing by for the present the proportion of water and organic matter, for the notice of which a better opportunity will presently occur, we may observe that the mineral value of guano would seem to consist solely in the phos- phate and sulphate of lime and potash. Of soda there is very little, except in the form of common salt, whilst the proportion of magnesia is so small as hardly to deserve notice.
It is an interesting and important fact that guano should con- tain so much potash as is shown by this table to be the case: that the proportion of the alkali is frequently as much as or more than 3 per cent. of its weight is proved by the exami- nation of other specimens. The following are the per-centages of potash and soda in eight other samples of Peruvian guano, of whose further composition we shall shortly have occasion to speak :—
Potash in 100 parts | 3°27 Soda ¥3o2 io ete nS 7;
3°19] 3° 75 | 4:60 °63 75 | none
3°43 hives 74 | 6°49 | 3-73 1-038 Gua) = 79
Although the chlorine has not in these latter cases been deter- mined, it is probable that, as in the other eight samples, the soda principally occurs as common salt. I shall shortly point out that potash is not always found to the same extent as in the tables; but my present purpose is to show that in guano the ingredients of any value are few and simple. Jeverting to the table, we find that under the head of “‘ Animal Matters and Salts of Ammonia” is comprehended in most cases nearly one-half of the weight of the guano. These animal matters are of value as manure, solely in proportion to the ammonia which they can supply; sooner or Jater they pass into decomposition, giving rise to the usual pro- ducts. It may be thought by some that as carbonic acid is one of these products, and as it is well known that this gas is an agent in vegetation, a certain allowance should be made for the car- bonaceous elements. ‘here is, indeed, no doubt that the more dilute manures owe much of their efficacy to the compounds of carbon, but these are always supplied in large quantity, whereas the amount of carbonaceous manure furnished by a fair dressing of guano is really too inconsiderable to be taken into account. The “organic matters and ammoniacal salts,’ then, must be valued only so far as they can supply ammonia. But it is to be observed that part of these substances (as the carbonate and other salts of ammonia) is capable of furnishing ammonia immediately ; whilst the other portion (the animal matter—the uric acid, for instance) will require more or less time to become converted into it, although to this point they will all eventually come. Founded upon “this circumstance some chemists have proposed to distinguish the actually existing ammonia from that which will
Composition and Value of Guano. 201
eventually be derived from the guano. Dr. Ure (who has pub- lished an able paper on the analysis of guano in this Journal, vol. v. p. 287) has called the former the actual and the latter the potential ammonia; and in making this distinction he obviously considers it important for the farmer to know how much 7s and how much will be available to the crop for which the guano is applied. If we had any knowledge of the time which these ani- mal compounds require for their decomposition when distributed through any given soil, some advantage might accrue from this refinement, although from the ever-changing circumstances to which a manure is exposed in the soil, the distinction would possess little practecal utility; but it appears to me that in the absence of such knowledge it is far wiser to take the more simple view. It is believed therefore that the value of the organic part of guano is solely dependent upon the proportion oihamonia which it can eventually supply, without reference to the present state of the compounds which will furnish it.
With respect to the particular constituents which constitute the mineral value of guano there can be little doubt: magnesia and oxide of iron, as existing in minute quantity only, are already disposed of ; soda, whether in the state of common salt or in any other form, exists in such small proportion, and, as will be pre- sently shown, could be supplied from independent sources at such a trifling cost, that little or no money value can be attached to it: the same is true of the sulphuric acid, for which gypsum at an almost nameless expense would be an ample substitute. There only now remains the phosphoric acid combined with lime and the potash ; and these with the ammonia are really the important, and the only important, ingredients in guano.
If the arguments which have been brought forward are consi- dered eaiastactory! we shall have arrived at a much simpler notion of the agricultural value of guano than would be derived from an examination of its recondite analysis. ‘The only important consti- tuents will be reduced to these :—
1. Ammonia or its elements. 2. Phosphate of lime. 3. Potash.
It is proposed in a later part of this paper to consider the money value of guano and its constituents, and it will then be more apparent that the view we have now taken of its compo- sition is a just one. In the meanwhile we may properly intro- duce the analysis of a number of specimens which have been examined upon the principles now brought forward.
The following table contains the analysis of eight specimens of
202 Composition and Value of Guano.
guano taken from the docks in 1847 and 1848, and analyzed in
my laboratory :—
TABLE 2.— Peruvian Guano imported in 1847-8,
Number of Specimen 1 2 3 4 OD ceaial oho i 9 ir aM raC wa a me | | eek Bly. cael yeh Es dey Me alee Name of Sh'p sf. eee Tileisor Sa Sane = m S.8 oc a3 cS & | Ss f= mt Nie RCM en ce Glan See Water. . . 16°16) 17:29 8-88 22°68 17°95 16°72} 12°57| 15°85 Organic Matier if 57°13] 50°66 58-82 44-19] 51°39 51-35] 37-781 55-28 Salts of Ammonia Sand 3°’. 1-17) 1°64" 1°36, 222-32 os eco Earthy Phosphates . | 19°46] 23°07 25+27, 28-83) 20°98 29°74) 34°45) 20-30 Alkaline Salts . . 6°08) 7-34 5:67 3°05] 834 *61) 13°48) 7-34 100-60|100-00 100-00 100°0C| 100-00 100-00)100- 00 100:00 Ammonia supplied by | | 100 parts of each $} 18:94] 17°46 17°86 16°83] 18°01] 16-40] 18°50) 16-92 epee men) . |
A few words a4 serve to sealin éhe presen tall as sell as those which follow it. The methods of analysis (described in the Appendix) are so arranged as to exhibit the total quantity of ammonia and the earthy phosphates, together with the propor- tions of sand and water. Under the head of “ Alkaline Salts” are included the sulphates and muriates of potash and soda, together with any deficiency occurring in the analysis. The quantity of potash is not here specified: in sixteen specimens it has, however, been before given.
The specimens whose analysis is given, in the 3rd table have been obtained from various persons during the last twelve or eighteen months. Coming through indirect channels, I am not able to speak of them with the same confidence as of those which have been sampled directly from the ships.
Their composition is, however, for the most part such as to leave no doubt of their being genuine specimens of Peruvian guano. Specimens 12 and 13 in the table will be seen to be rather below the usual mark in respect of ammonia. ‘They are duplicates of the same cargo; and, from the price at which the guano was bought, I have no doubt that it was what by the importers is called ‘<‘demaged guano,” and sold at a reduced price. *
* For an analysis of damaged guano, see Appendix.
Composition and Value of Guano. 203
TABLE 3.—Peruvian Guano.
| Numberof Specimen) 10 11 12 13 | 14 | 16 17 Ig | 19 20
Water ..... .| 14°61] 10°13| 21°87] 23°74] 18°33) 16-88] 13 09| 11°24) 19-79! 9 Organic Matter and | 51°38| 58°07| 48°72| 47°35| 51°24 54 81| 53°32] 55°17 52°53' 48°54 1 1
Salts of Ammonia | |
Sand... : 1°68] (1731) ¥e01 bok ol) Sls la obs4or is46p 62 °83
Earthy Phosphates -| 23°86} 21°16] 21°09 75| 26 29| 27°89 24°08) 28°02
Alkaline Salts... 8°47) 9°33) 7°31 "80| 7°33) 5°44) 5°88 4°24) °99, 11°85
100°00 100-00 100°00 100-00|100-00 100° 00)100°00) 100 00 105*°u0 106°60 | | |
_ -}O re 00 EH nw a =~? wo rm —
Y
Ammonia yielded | | Not by 100 parts of | 16°18} 18°66) 14°04 15°51! 16°60 16°81) 17°06) 18°27 ascer-, 17°55 each Specimen , j | | | tained
| |
The next analyses are those of samples sold to different persons as good Peruvian guanos, but which are so low in ammoniacal composition as to lead to a doubt of their genuineness :—
TABLE 4.—Inferior Guanos.
Number of Specimen . Lae es ye) | 22 23 Water) .:. ~{. : : 19°74 | 11-29 BLe22 Organic Matter ata Salts of are 46°17 46:45 34°68 Sadie heer ba as AAR ort 2°46 2°63 5:44 Earthy Phosphates oan fal tl cha verSids 31°99 26-71 21:69 WikatmeSalfs-°- i... . . i050) 2592 95°71 100'¢O | 100-60 | 100 00 |
Ammonia yielded by 100 parts. . 11°89 | 10°41 Sales
The large proportion of “alkaline salts” in the third speci- -men is due to the presence of a quantity of gypsum and common salt with which the guano has been adulterated, whilst at the same time the proportion of earthy phosphates has been kept up probably by the mixture of a certain quantity of one of the cheaper varieties of guano. The next specimens are from the importaiions of the latter part of 1848 and the beginning of the present year (1849). The first 8 of the following table were taken from the ware- housed cargoes by Mr. Lawes. Nos. 29 and 31 are duplicate specimens of Nos, 28 and 30.
* The result of two analyses closely agreeing.
204
Composition and Value of Guano.
TABLE 5.—Peruvian Guano imported in the latter part of 1848 and the commencement of 1849.
Number of Speci- AIMCW eter tepie lute
Name of Ship. . -
Ammonia plied by 100 parts of each Specimen
Water . . 2-2 o « Organic Matter &
Salts of Ammo-
TMA: Toduetse core Sandys is: em cialesis Earthy Phosphates Alkaline Salts . .
sup-
24
j
13°39
4
52°37 1:35 23°29 9°60
100°00
17°63
25 26
16°84
14°47 51°62} 49°83 OSs liesliy,
23°53) 24°26 9°15} 7-90
100 00}100°00
16°80} 17°48
27
14°87 52°10 1°35
22°83 8°75
100°00
17°81
—_—[—S | ——___
28
|
100°00
11°96 52°84 1°49
22°93 10°78
Mio
29
11°15 54°46 1°40
23°03 9°96
190°00
17°15
30 31 32 33 3 2,6 aoe Jace . SSS ESN) 2) Q, Zee $B po RMECHEINESE ys BeOls BRO 16°52 | 13°27 10°24 10°21 51°92 | 53°07 54°59 55°14 1°16 2°95 1°42 POWef 22°22 | 22°84 21°31 25°30 8°18 7°87 12°44 TEENS 100°00 |100°00 | 100°00 | 100°00 16°65 | 17°24 18°37 15°98
The next and concluding series of analyses of this variety of guano exhibits a very great resemblance in composition to those specimens last described.
The five first samples were brought me by the importers,
Messrs. Gibbs and Son, No. 35 being a duplicate from the ship
Manchester, whose analysis was before given (in Table 2).
The
samples Nos. 39 to 43 were taken from the respective ships by myself, in the presence of Mr. Lawes and of a gentleman of the
firm of the importers.
I can therefcre vouch personally for their
authenticity. The other specimens are, with the exception of specimens 34 and 35, from ships lately arrived in the river.
TaBLeE 6.—Peruvian Guano imported chiefly in 1849.*
Number of Specimen
——
Name of the Ship......-
Water-toie «
Organic Mat-|;
ter and Salts of Ammonia Sand ...
Earthy 7 Phosphates f
Alkaline Salts)... } Ammonia yielded by | 100 parts of | each Spec.
cote
|
** British Em- pire.”
35
iv) for)
** Manches- ter.” | “« Parkfield.” |
— oO oO: _
—
22°96
11°58
100°00
eld
w ~
** Henrietta.” =| “St.George.” | & |
13°12 10°94
51°80 53°88
|
2°13) 2°23
24°39 23°73
8°56 100°00 190-00
—_—
9°22
16°95, 17°25
54°32
22°19
elslicali
100°00
17°18
1°22)
|
| ** Parkfield.”
= | 2
ri a
| | “ Oceana.” | |
24°26
8°5]
100 00
16°95
42 43 44 = | | 3 “10°44] 11°20! 8-97 53°51] 52°91) 57°64
NOBLE ORR IOUS) 21°28] 23°97) 23°58 13°38} 10°59, 8°69
100° 00|100- 00/100 +00
17°27| 16°99 18°56;
1 2 | “J.T. Ford.”
= oO wo a}
nS wr y [or] rs =t
: | | | |
“Prince of Wales.” 2nd Sample.
Ditto,
12°13) 10°46
55°73] 53°22] 55°95
1°20) 1°37) 1°60
25°20) 25°02) 28°98 7°50
100°0)
3°01 100°00
8°26
100°00
¥§°94) 17°63] 17°21
* When this table was arvanged I was ignorant of the names of some of the specimens, and of their being duplicates of others in the table.
Composition and Value of Guano. 205
Having now before us the analyses of nearly 50 specimens of Peruvian guano, we may very safely proceed to draw from them some general conclusion as to its average composition, and
as to the extent of deviation to which that compositionis hable. In doing so, perhaps the fairest plan will be to take first into consi- deration those specimens only which have been obtained directly from the docks.
The Tables 2, 5, and 6, give the composition of 32 specimens, concerning whose history there is no doubt.
The first ingredient to be noticed is the Water.—Although to all appearance guano is frequently quite dry, this is not che- mically the case. A certain quantity of water is natural to it, being absorbed by the compounds which it contains ; and even when taken from the centre of a cargo, and quite dusty in character, guano yet contains about one-tenth part of its weight of water. It has also a strong tendency to absorb moisture from the air, and to this circumstance is due the change of colour which it undergoes when left exposed for a short time.
The drier Peruvian guano is the lighter is its colour; a brown or chocolate tinge is not necessarily a proof of inferiority, inas- much as this colour is often due to its having become accidentally damp. With a knowledge of this disposition to attract moisture from the air, we are not surprised to find the diiferent specimens exhibiting some latitude in the amount of water.
The lowest per centage of water (Spec.3) . is . 8:88 The highest - “6 (Speer 4). 5s. tos 22768 The average of 32 specimens being . . . . . 13°09
It will be observed that those most recently examined (Table 6) are all of them drier than those which were imported at an earlier period. I have no doubt that the excess of moisture in the former is therefore due to exposure since the cargoes. were un- shipped, and that the average of the 5th and 6th Tables (which is 12-14 per cent.), will express about the real proportion of mois- _ ture. The water in guano is of no further interest than as, being of no value itself, it depresses proportionably that of the guano, Thus, for instance, the addition by accident or fraud of 5 or 10 per cent. of water to an originally dry specimen, wi'l be a loss to that amount on the farmer’s purchase. At the same time it is to be observed, that some of the wettest of the specimens of guano in the table (as for instance, No. 5), are in no way inferior in the proportion of ammonia, which, as will be presently shown, consti- tutes its greatest value.
This tendency to absorb moisture is worthy of a passing notice in reference to the action of the manure; for it is often of the greatest consequence in dry seasons.
Organic Matter and Salts of Ammonia.—When dried guano
206 Composition and Value of Guano.
is burned in the open air it loses from one-half to two thirds of its weight; this loss consists of the animal compounds, such as uric acid, &c., and the carbonate and other salts of ammonia. Upon an examination of the tables before referred to, it will be found that under this head—=
The lowest per centage (Spec.7) . is . 37°78 The highest . . (Spec. 3) peas SO Swoe The average of 32 specimens being . . 52°61
Although the extreme differences above given really occur in genuine Peruvian guano, the amount ef variation is not by any means common. In the 32 specimens, only three will be found having a higher per centage of combustible matter than 56, and about the same number falling short of 50 per cent.
At first sight the proportion of organic matter and ammoniacal salts in guano might seem to be a datum of importance, and so it would be if it were a measure of the ammonia which each sample can supply. Such, however, is not the case. Specimens | and 7, which contain very different quantities of organic matter, &c., yield very nearly the same amount of ammonia; and this holds good in many other instances, which will occur to the reader who examines the tables. An analysis of guano therefore, to afford an accurate notion of its value, must state the quantity of ammo- nia—the proportion of “ matiers containing ammonia”’ furnishing no definite information on this point.
Sand, §&c.—The proportion of sand in guano is of no great im- portance. It serves, however, to indicate its purity or otherwise.
In some species of guano a large proportion of sand is found. If the deposit is on the mainland, the sand is introduced into it during its formation by the action of winds; or if on an island of a loose texture, the guano becomes mixed with the surface matter itself.
The genuine Peruvian guano is brought from one or more islands about 6 miles from the coast of Peru, and is deposited on a solid rock. Neither of the before-mentioned agencies there- fore come into play, and the manure is consequently almost free from sand or other insoluble substances. In the 32 specimens—
The lowest per centage of sand (Spec. 1) . is . 1°17 The highest hy (Spee. 31cm. 10) es Rees The average of all the specimens being. a) mc 1genme Ae gees
In the great majority of cases the proportion of sand is found to be within 1 and 1} per cent. This comparative uniformity of quantity, and indeed the presence of any sand at all, ceases to sur- prise us when it is remembered that the digestion of birds cannot
Composition and Value of Guano. 207
be carried on without the introduction with their food of a certain portion of some granular substance.
From the fact that amongst the pure specimens of guano now described, one or two may be selected which contain nearly 3 per cent. of sand, great caution is necessary before a specimen is de- clared to be impure or adulterated, because it contains a larger quantity of insoluble matter than usual ; but there can be no diffi- culty in coming to this conclusion if a high per centage of sand is accompanied with other unusual characters.
Earthy Phosphates.—I\t has been before pointed out, that the precipitate which receives this name consists almost entirely of phosphate of lime. Unlike the ingredient which we have just discussed, the proportion of phosphate of lime in guano is of positive importance.
The lowest proportion (Spec. 1) . is . 19°46 per cent. The highest i (SPEC sf iie on est pay Oe LO As The average of 32 specimens being . . 24°12 55
Here again the exceptional cases are comparatively rare—the majority of specimens affording a proportion of phosphate of lime confined within 20 and 25 per cent.
Alkaline Salts.—It has been explained that under this head are included the sulphates and muriates of potash and soda, to- gether with any loss occurring in the analysis. Of these ingre- dients the potash is the only one of any importance, as will he more clearly shown presently. The quantity has been ascertained in 16 specimens of guano, and in these it averages 3-64 per cent. It is not, however, to be thought that it always reaches this high proportion—for in some samples the total amount of alkaline salts is so small, as to preclude the presence of any considerable amount of the alkali. In the 16 cases before alluded to, the alkaline salts average 8:13 per cent., of which 3-64 per cent. is potash. We shall not therefore perhaps be far wrong in esti- mating the potash at something less than one-half of the average proportion of these salts.
In the 32 specimens the alkaline salts are as follows :—
The lowest proportion (Spec.6) . is . 0°61 per cent.
The highest __,, (Speen ai Cis) eine lS 248) 1, The average of the 32 specimens being . 8°78. ,,
The last number very nearly agrees with that deduced from specimens in which the potash was actually determined, and we shall therefore conclude that the average proportion of this alkali is about 33 per cent.
The Ammonia.— Of all the ingredients of Peruvian guano the ammonia is the one of greatest value, and a knowledge of its
208 Composition and Value of Guano.
proportion in the different specimens is of the highest importance. In the 32 specimens from which the preceding averages have been drawn, we find—
The lowest proportion (Spec. 33) . is . 15°98 per cent. The highest ,, (Specimens 1 and 45) . 18°94 5 The average of 32 specimens being . . 17°41 .
That the above per centage of ammonia is higher than most persons have been in the habit of considering it, [ think will be readily granted. ‘The great number of specimens examined, and the period of time during which they have been collected, are however greatly in favour of an uniformity in the composition of true* Peruvian guano. The character of the guano islands themselves is also an additional argument on the same side. I am informed by a gentleman, who for several years has person- ally superintended the loading of the guano ships, that the island from which the Peruvian guano is brought, and which is one of a group called the Chincha Islands, is one mass of the manure, having a circumference of 5 or 6 miles,
At the point where the guano is now worked, the height of the deposit is upwards of 80 feet, and the removal of some 200,000 tons has scarcely affected it in a perceptible degree. As may be imagined from the immense weight of the mass, and the gradual way in which it has been formed, its solidity is very considerable, and in some cases it has been necessary to blast it as we would a rock of sandstone or limestone. It will be obvious that in such circumstances the guano would be preserved with little loss. Leaving the further consideration of ordinary Peruvian guano, until we are in a position to enter upon the question of money value, I now pass on to the other known varieties.
There is a variety of guano, of which a few cargoes only have reached England, and which is known in Peru as Angamos guano. It is in no way peculiar, except in being above the aver- age richness in ammonia, and somewhat whiter in colour. It is a deposit of recent formation, being collected by hand, and at considerable exyfense, from the rocks which the birds frequent— not more than 400 or 500 are annually obtainable.
The following Table exhibits the composition of 4 specimens of this kind of guano :—
* T say true Peruvian guano, because other varieties, such as the Bolivian and Chilian, are brought from the same part of the world. I have not yet had an oppor- tunity of examining specimens of these kinds of guano, and am not therefore in a po- sition to say whether they are of the same value and exhibit the same aniformity in composition as those above described, The importers are expecting cargoes of Boli- vian guano during the present summer (1849), and have promised to supply specimens for analysis, upon which I shall hope to report in a future Journal.
Composition and Value of Guano. 209
Tasie 7.--Angamos Guano.
Number of Specimen. . . . | 48 49 50 | 51 je mf = Rice ee | . 16829 10°93 7 ua wet oe ae | | g20 | 1-esf | Tegra: 32°00 Organic Matter and Ammonia Salts 58°84 51°45 59-00 62°50 Earthy Phosphates. . . . .j| 14°69 23°04 22-00 18°50 Bikalmensalts;. . . »« + . | 6°89 13°02 4°00 | 4-00 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 Ammonia from 100 parts. . .| 20°07 | 20°79 | 20°89 | 20°40
The Specimens 50 and 51 were analyzed by Dr. Ure. Speci- men 49 was purchased by the person who placed it in my hands for analysisin the ordinary way of business from a country dealer. I have no knowledge of its history; but as it closely corresponds with the other samples of Angamos guano, I have ventured to place it side by side with them.
At the same time it is obvious that the difference between this kind of guano and the best specimens of Peruvian is very trifling, since there are in the Tables several cases in which the proportion of ammonia approaches 19 per cent.
We now proceed to the other and inferior varieties, taking them in the order of ammoniacal value. The Ichaboe guano, therefore, naturally presents itself first on the list.
Under this head I can offer no results of my own. The analyses given below were made by Dr. Ure and Mr. Teschemacher.
TABLE 8.—Ichaboe Guano.
| | - | | | | } Numberof Specimen 48 | 49 | 50 51 | 52 | 53 54 55 | 56 57 58 7S ei Sa a ae bpapbeaess Prien ae | i ft Vian Sine oer ie | ba tbat Agen ie | Ba. fleas a | N f the Shi Peseta al celal h pti el ah emai |) cy «ld pears aile gies 5 ‘B Wwame 0 1e@ Ip. oa S a fe | ra | $ | trey 2 ! = | = > © SCL N io) SS gl Os ee ALN ep Z . ; s S es S eed ae | [es lisse em es s Water... . . | 29°59 | 29°5 | 2675 | 26°5 | 27°0 | 26+5 | 2975 | aero | 24°8 | eo Animal Matter and | L | | er lee ° 2207 . en } De i 5 | 33° | 5e ev to | x } 36° AGH RAEAT Salts | 20°0 | 33°5 41:0 SO oil 4250 [5640 3[e33-00) 39500) 34205) 28 ou as eae PERG! oki COP A oe 20. 0 °3 aan eee BW AGUA eOGNEL IS (08) | se Earthy Phosphates . | 37°0 | 33°0 | 28°7 | 27°5 | 26°0 | 27°5 |.29°5 | 29°5 | 30-0 | 35°5 | 29 5 Kune! | ear | zi | | es | a Ammonia... ...| 4°5 | MOR MeO s SEV ee Vs Sal SF Ohi yet "Ot, AS.) 4 BeOS ea eet
The relation in composition between the Peruvian and Ichaboe guanos is at once seen: with less than half the proportion of am- monia, the latter contains a slightly increased quantity of earthy phosphate. That the last-named advantage can in no way com- pensate for a deficiency in ammonia will be better seen when the re- lative value of these ingredients is ascertained. Of the ammonia—
VOL. X. Pr
210 Composition and Value of Guano.
The lowest per centage inthe tableis . . 4°5
The highest “5 é ‘ 9°5
The average of 11 specimens being . oo) ie a Of the phosphates of lime :—
The lowest: ;S0 oi.) Gy Pgisit 20) ne) es ee
The highest. . vee Noe
The average of the whole number being 2 B08
We may by-and-bye find occasion to return to a consideration of this variety; but for the present we pass on to the nextanalyses, which are those of Patagonian guano.
This variety usually contains more ammonia than the Saldanha Bay guano, although in either case the quantity is very small.
Nos. 66, 67, and 68, are samples taken from the top, middle, and bottom of a cargo respectively, the analyses being by Dr. Ure; 69 and 70 are duplicates of the same cargo; the analysis of 71 and 72 were made in my own laboratory ; the remainder are by Mr. 'Teschemacher.
TaBLeE 9.—-Patagonian Guano.
Number of 7 | | . yy © w ted Suecimean i 50°) 260 | 61) 62 | 68 | 64 | 65’ | 66") Jer" F6s MM eay ire eras 22 pe | | wee le i a | | Pa FS au ar S ori o isl i or o H j ee = lS) Relea eer ey a a=) Ss . bs © ts a Pt) alts) aefii(e) cS} = Nameofthe| 2.8 |S¢|.4 1 2 | 6 | ele sel Sea ees |* & ame ofthe| g agi 8 4 ap Go PS) syle oy Sareea ees ea hae 5 Ships ss) Ho | S$ [28/818 | ¢ | # [Se Go| GO eo yos | e~ | ox S|] 8 iGhi/8 | BE |) = HSS ee Se ieasee es | 85 : = 2 S 3 = ileen|s fan) (=) % =) Z Zz Water . . .| 24:5 | 27°0 | 285 | 26-5 | 25°5 | 24+0 | 32°0 | 21-0 | 20°5 | 23-2 | 27°0 | 18°0 | 29°5 | 24°8 Animal Mat-}} ter and Salts|)16°5 | 16°5 | 175 | 17*5 | 16°0 | 16°5 | 21°0 | 16°5 | 12°0 | 9+5 | 28°5 | 30-0 | 18°6 | 28-0 of Ammonia|} Sand... «| 6°5.|.10°5 | 9°0.| 98*5.|- 7°0 |) 2°52]. | °5) | 1-0)! 85 ameonirecommmr Onimmmes ye 7/9 Earthy . De ° ° ° e e Qe ° e e 296 os ° Phosphates 48°0 | 42:0 | 41°5 | 44°0 | 48°0 | 53°0 | 40°5 | 59°5 | 65°5 | 65°2 | 41°5 | 32°0 | 29°3 | 14°2 Ammonia. .| 2°25} 2°00] 1°60} 1°60 me 2°00} 2°50; 2°00] 2°00] 2-00] 3°25| 4:00/ 3°80} 4°68 The highest per repeee of ammonia is 7 PaaS The lowest : ; - ) LaGO The mean of the 14. specimens A . 2°54
Of the phosy@pate of lime, omitting No. 66, which is so very different from the other specimens, The bighest per centage is 9.5.) yin aes The lowest Bs ror gg: hot al alg ge Ore ae The mean i siti hee a et ae In this variety of guano we have the state of things reversed ; the relative proportion of earthy phosphates and of ammonia is 50 changed, that the former constitutes the chief value of the manure. Patagonian guano, then, is bought for its phosphates, not for its ammonia, though, of course, the latter is not to be despised. The same is true, in a greater degree, of Saldanha Bay guano. Saldanha Bay Guano.—Of this description of guano I shall give first the analyses made under my own direction :—
Composition and Value of Guano. 211
TaBLe 10.—-Saldanha Bay Guano.*
(Names of Ships unknown.)
| | | | | | | | eee of \ Pewee | We | Fe, | Fi 4. 18 fF wee Ro | st pecimen,.:; |
— ——_
Water: 3...7-| 19° 36 15-27, 19°73] 26- ie ly & 92 7°98 18-09) 14°40) 12-22 Orgauic Mat.) ter and Salts} 14: 00 23°28 15°59) 17- 80 13: 28 21°69| 15:51} 13°29) 19-64 of Ammonia
seer 3-07, 1:12 +89 7-92; +68 +99, 2-26 +99 Earthy fale “49. 01, 55°00 49-24 5s- 3-36 56°99 58-76 60-96 54°82 phates...
Ammonia .... 1:16) 2*49 1:48 -94 1-81) 2°20 1-88 +96 2-18 1 We have here arrived at the last step in the series. In this kind of guano the ammonia becomes comparatively insignificant in quantity, andas a natural consequence the proportion of earthy phosphate attains its maximum, In the 9 specimens described— The highest per centage ofammoniais . . 2°49 The lowest + tb te 94 The mean of the specimens «| 4 ie Roe OS
Of the phosphate of lime—
Pie iehes: number is... .. +. »)...- . 60°96 The lowest “A ee oi ae omens aa os. cca Lee The mean a “pial! : . 99°40
The following analyses of Dr. Ure and Mr. Teschemacher bear out my own results :—
TABLE 11.—Saldanha Bay Guano.
NumberofSpecimen| 82 83 | s¢ | 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 89 | 90 | 91 | 92
roa — | as —_— = y were ——_— ——— = =, | x a a =. ES = | >. = on = a | z —_ ZB } = feasted eo) Bish ee Lice | = a oe ee NameoftheShip... & (SE & | £=/ £8 s | 2) 2 | se a} 3 |B |e) wa [et ee| § | SS) me 5) B |] w is = = is ik =) (2S = = : i = Witter acces <- . | 33-0 | 32-0 | 32°0 | 28-0 | 23-0 | 19-0 23°0 | 3270 | 18-0 | 27°0 < ic N 3 : a cme] EE a z, Ae aay Seema | 6*O | 11-3 | 12-5 | 13-0 | 10-5 | 19-0 | 17-5 | 1075 | 10+7 | 19-0 | 1495 Cit ees eae | 1°5 5. lo} 95 3} 25 1°0 5 5} 1-0 Earthy Phosphates,.| 57°0 | 53°5 | 51°0 | 56°0 | 62°5 | 61°0 | 59°5 | 63°5S =54°S =61"0 | 51°5
Ammonia ......... bm. | 1°75) 2-00} 1°50) 1°50) 1°50! 2-10 1°00! 1°25 1°50! 0-2
The highest per centage of ammonia is AB he aig The lowest (omitting 86) ain tas - 2°25 The mean of 9 specimens (also omitting 86) ae E
* For some detailed analyses of this variety of Guano, see Appendix, Pp 2
DIZ Composition and Value of Guano.
A number which does not differ greatly from that deduced from the last series of analyses. The highest per centage of phosphate of lime is . 63°5
The lowest ie 33 3s . O10 The mean of 11 specimens : : : “Oe
Exhibiting also a tolerably close resemblance to that of the other analyses, and furnishing satisfactory proof of the trustworthi- ness of both sets.
As a summary of the preceding analyses it may be interesting to give here the average proportion of ammonia and phosphate of lime contained in the different varieties which have been ex- amined.
The ammonia is as follows :—
In Peruvian Guano (32 specimens) . 17°41 per cent. ITchaboe . » G11 specimens) « 244 7730 M,
Patagonian . (J4specimens) . 2°54 a Saldanha Bay (20specimens) . 1°62 3
The phosphate of lime in the same number of specimens :—
Peruvian Guano ; : : 24°12 per cent. Tchaboe e : f ; 30°30 : Patagonian. : A ‘ 44°60 a Saldanha Bay . . : : 56°40 F
{n these figures are interestingly apparent the changes which have occurred in the varieties which originally (that is to say, as deposited by the birds) were, in all probability, nearly identical. Every ton of Saldanha Bay guano may, indeed, be regarded as having originated from two or more tons of Peruvian, from which fermentation and rain have removed the greater part of its ammo- niacal compounds.
Having now at our disposal the analyses of a great many speci- mens of the different varieties of guano, we are in a condition to apply our knowledge to the question of their money-value. It is, however, to the Peruvian guano that the reader’s attention will be principally directed; for although a certain limited quantity of the other varieties 1s still in the market, it is understood that no great supplies are henceforth to be expected, except in the case of the Peruvian guano. It is highly satisfactory to hear that the mountains of the latter are practically inexhaustible.
A knowledge of the composition of the inferior kinds will, how- ever, prove useful, not only as exhibiting the points of relation between composition and the public appreciation which fixes the selling price, but as furnishing data for the calculations upon which we are about to enter.
Our present object is, by an examination of the different com- mercial sources of the fertilizing ingredients in guano, and of the cost at which they can be supplied in this or that compound—to
Composition and Value of Guano. 213
establish a standard value for each of these—and, having done so, to apply it to the composition of Peruvian guano. It is hoped that, independently of the specific purpose to which it is directed, this inquiry may not in itself be devoid of interest to the agricul- tural reader.
it has been stated more than once in the course of this paper that the ammonia, the earthy phosphates, and the mineral alkali, potash, are the only zmportant ingredients in guano. I say im- portant, because, without denying the use of sulphate of lime and of common salt as agents of vegetation, I am prepared to show that the cost of their separate purchase is so trifling as to prevent us from attaching any considerable pecuniary value to the small quantities of these substances existing in guano.
The present is the proper place to discuss this point; and by eliminating from the question those minor details which will not materially influence the general results, the inquiry will be greatly simplified,
After setting aside the ammonia (present or to come), the earthy phosphates, and the potash, what else is there in guano deserving of our attention? Referring to Table, No. 1, we find mention made of “‘ water and sand,’-—these are ingredients of no value ; again, of “ magnesia and oxide of iron,’’—but in quantity inconsiderable; and also of “sulphuric acid,’—but in no case exceeding 44 per cent., and giving us in § cases a mean of 3°82 per cent.
A ton of guano will, therefore, contain on an average 854 lbs. of sulphuric acid; a quantity which would be supplied by alent 185lbs. of gypsum. Gypsum can be bought in any quantity at 15s. or 20s. a ton.* Assuming the latter as a fair price, and that | ton of Peruvian guano contains on an average sulphuric acid equal to 1? cwt. of gypsum; then the outside allowance which we can make for this ingredient is ls. 8d. or 2s. in a ton of the guano.
It has been before stated upon what grounds we have adopted this principle of calculating the value of each ingredient according to the cheapest form in which it can be supplied.
Upon reference to the Table we find the alkali soda existing partly as common salt and partly in other forms of combination,
| The mean per centage of common salt is : 1°82
And of soda in its other salts : ° : 1°14
If we assume that on an average in Peruvian guano this alkali
occurs to the extent of 4 per cent. of common salt, that is to say,
* The price of native gypsum is, I believe, somewhat higher than that above stated. The calculations above rather refer to sulphate of lime, which, as a refuse product in the manufacture of tartaric acid, stearine candles, &c., may be ‘had in abundance at the price named.
214 Composition and Value of Guano.
that 4 lbs. of common salt would furnish all the soda of 100 lbs. of guano, we shall not be far from the mark,
This quantity in a ton of guano would amount to about 90 lbs., or a little more than # cwt.; since common salt may be in most places bought for 30s. a ton or Jess, the sum of Is, 3d. is quite enough to allow for all the soda compounds in a ton of Peruvian guano.
These two items, of 2s. for gypsum and 1s. 3d. for common salt, constitute the entire addition which requires to be made to the value of the three staple ingredients.
Small though the sums are, it is very fair to take account of them in comparing guano with other manures; but it would be absurd to allow them to complicate the present ‘discussion.
Having disposed of all other claims to our attention, we will now endeavour to ascertain the relative value of the principal ingredients of guano. It will be obvious that we must look beyond guano itself for any help in this undertaking; for al- though eventually it may be very interesting to observe how far its selling price approaches to the united average value of its constituents, it would be manifestly impossible without external evidence to affix to each of these a fair share of pecuniary im- portance. Itis to external evidence that we must first look for a decision of this particular.
It may probably be convenient to begin with phosphate of lime, for it has been shown that the earthy phosphates so frequently mentioned almost entirely consist of this substance.
In addition to Peruvian guano itself, there are three principal sources of phosphate of lime available for agricultural employ- ment—
Bones in their various states ;
The mineral phosphates known as coprolites ;
And the lower priced guanos, such as the Saldanha Bay and Patagonian varieties.
It seems odd to draw any argument from the last source, par- ticularly as the supply of phosphatic guano has well nigh ceased, but some assistance may be derived from such a proceeding, Whilst, however, we are discussing the relative economy of phos- phate of lime obtained from different sources, it must never be forgotten that phosphate of lime, agriculturally considered, is not always, if we may so speak, phosphate of lime; that is to say, it may in one case be very different in its action on vegetation to what it is in another, dependent upon the extent of its solubility and other circumstances. In putting a price upon the earthy phosphates of guano, we must select for our guidance that source of phosphate of lime which exhibits the nearest resemblance in these essenual particulars. For reasons which will presently be
Composition and Value of Guano. 215
apparent, the mineral phosphate will be first considered. Leay- ing out of the question the great bed of Estremadura phosphorite, which at present is not of sufficiently ready access to prove of any practical importance to British agriculture, there are two chief supplies of mineral phosphate of lime in England—the phos- phoric nodules or ‘ coprolites’’ of the “ crag” beds, and the somewhat similar deposits in the “ green-sand”’ formation,
The former has up to a late period stood alone in practical im- portance, and it yet remains to be seen whether the phosphoric strata of the chalk and green-sand will at any future time offer a more available supply of phosphate of lime. We may shortly consider both of these sources.
The coprolites of Suffolk occur in rounded Jumps and masses in a shelly gravelly soil, and in many places very near the sur- face. ‘They are separated from the gravel by an easy process of sifting,
These coprolites are sold 2x London, with a profit to the col- lectors, at about 30s, a ton.
To grind them into a tolerably fine powder (and as they are eeneely hard, this operation requires very power ful machinery ) a further expense of from 15s. to 20s. a ton is incurred. It is probable that the ground coprolites could not be sold at a much lower rate than 3/. a ton. But it is to be remembered that the coprolites are not entirely composed of phosphate of lime; on the contrary, not much above one-half of them consists of this substance.
The average proportion of phosphate of lime in the coprolites is 56 per cent. A tonof them contains therefore 1332 |bs., and by an easy calculation it will be found that a ton of phosphate of lime as supplied by ground coprolites will cost 5. Ss. 1ld.. which is at the rate of 100. Ibs. for 4s. 10d., or rather more than 3d. for each pound of phosphate of hme.
‘Turn we now for a minute to the other deposit of mineral phos-
phate of lime. - At the junction of the green-sand with the gault clay are conglomerated masses or nodules, of various sizes and forms, made up of phosphate of lime and sand. These have been fully de- scribed in the Journal of the Society, vol. 1x., part 1.
Tam not aware that these remains have been collected in any quantity for sale, and at present any conjectures as to their cost must necessarily be open to much error. Mr. Paine, who has dug 50 or 60 tons for his own use, has found them to cost him in labour, when delivered at his farm by his own men and horses, about 15s. a ton.
These are not nearly so hard as those of the crag, and would probably not cost so much to grind. Let us suppose that they
216 Composition and Value of Guano.
could be cotlected and sold, as in the other case, ground at 2. a ton, which at first sight appears a considerably cheaper rate than the Suffolk kind.
They contain on an average only 424 per cent. of phosphate of lime: from this source a ton will consequently cost 4. 14s. 13d. at the rate of 4s. 24d. for 100 Ibs., or as nearly as can be $d. a |b.*
Allowing for all imperfections in these data, we shall perhaps not be far wrong if we fix the cost of phosphate of lime derived from mineral sources at 4d. a |b.
But the argument is by no means complete at this point; it is not to be supposed that the substance in question, as found in the coprolite, or green-sand fossils, is equal in solubility, and therefore to be ranked in value with that contained in guano. From the fact that, in the latter case, it is derived from the pulpy excrements of birds (deposited centuries ago, indeed, but preserved com- paratively unchanged) we should be disposed to give it a high place in the scale of solubility, whilst a glance at the mineral substance would convey the very opposite impression.
My own belief is, that of the two varieties of mineral phos- phates, s¢mply ground, the green-sand variety would prove the most energetic upon vegetation; but I am bound to say that it would be an error, in the present state of our knowledge, to place either of them in competition in this respect with the earthy phos- phate of guano. It will occur to the reader that there are means of rendering phosphate of lime soduble, and thus enabling it to equal and far even to exceed the same substance as supplied by guano. In superphosphate of lime we are familiar with phosphate of lime so prepared and rendered soluble, and it might be in- teresting to inquire at what cost we can purchase it in this soluble and unexceptionable form.
From calculations, which need not be here introduced, I be- lieve that phosphate of lime, as supplied by “ superphosphate,” is bought at a price varying from 14d. to 23d. per Ib., according to the mode in which the so-called superphosphate is manufac- tured. This substance, however, has, from its solubility, a specific action on the turnip crop which would hardly seem to be equalled by any other form of phosphate of lime, and it is therefore of very little use to place it in comparison with that of guano. Of one circumstance, however, we may rest assured, that phosphate of lime in any form cannot be worth more than about
* Since the above was written, Mr. Paine has informed me that he has this year dug a quantity of these phosphoric nodules at a much less expense. If at any parti- cular spot a bed of them should be found within a foot or two of the surface, and running parallel to it, I believe that it would well repay the expense of working, but hitherto the nodules have been found in strata which, although tolerably horizontal themselves, are only accessible at the outcrops on the edges of undulating ground.
Composition and Value of Guano. 217
2d. a |b., since it can be bought at this price in a perfectly soluble condition; that it has less than half this value will pre- sently appear.
Thus far the argument has been extremely simple: it is quite easy to fix a price upon the phosphate of lime derived from mineral substances, because their entire value is referable to it ; but the cost of this substance in bones or in guano is of more difficult decision, because in the latter cases a second element is introduced into the calculation; in bones, for instance, there are two chief sources of agricultural value—the gelatin, or nitrogenous matter capable of yielding ammonia, and the earthy phosphates. We must establish the money value of the one before we can calculate the cost at which we purchase the other.
Not to anticipate the argument which will be adduced when speaking of ammonia, it may be sufficient in the present place to observe that ammonia may be bought, in a fit state for agricultural
use, and inalmost unlimited quantity, at something under 6d. a lb. Raw unboiled bones contain* 6:00 per cent. of nitrogen, which, when converted by decomposition into ammonia, would furnish about 7°3 per cent. of the latter ingredient. Upon this presumption 1 ewt. of bones will eventually furnish 8 lbs. of am- monia. In the following calculations the price of raw and crushed bones is estimated at 5/. 10s. a ton, or 5s. 6d. a cewt. If the whole quantity of ammonia which bones can gradually furnish existed in them, or was capable of being supplied by them as readily as it is by guano, then it would be quite fair to calculate it at the price just now named, that is to say, at6d.alb. But itis not so; there is reason to believe that bones will remain in the ground a great length of time unaltered, and, valuable as is the prolonged action of the animal matter, it seems necessary to make a considerable reduction for the tardiness of its action when compared with that of ammonia. If we are allowed to deduct one-fourth of the whole sum on this ground, then 43d. a lb. will be the price of ammonia as so furnished. It should be clearly understood that this sum is only fixed by way of argument, and to assist in setting a value on phosphate of lime; when the latter point has been satisfactorily determined, the argument may be reversed, and brought to bear again upon the value of ammonia in bones.
At 43d.a lb. the 8 lbs. of ammonia supplied by | cwt. of bones will be worth 3s. To the oil or fat of bones we cannot well ascribe any agricultural value; opinion is divided as to its agency as manure, but there is very little doubt that bones are better rather than worse for its removal—a circumstance, however, which does not set the question at rest; however this may be, the am-
* See Appendix.
218 Composition and Value of Guano.
monia being worth 38s., the remaining 2s. 6d. will here be consi- dered as the cost of the phosphate of lime of 1 cwt. of bones.
100 lbs. of bones contain 50 |bs., and 1 cwt. therefore 56 lbs. of phosphate of lime. 2s, 6d. for 56 lbs. will give us rather more than $d. per |b. as the price of the earthy phosphates of bones. It is obvious that these two ingredients must bear the cost. between them, and that, if we diminish the one, we must increase the other in like proportion; thus, if we take 6d. a |b. as the ammonia value of bones, the price of the earthy phosphates will be reduced to one-third of a penny per lb. The sum of 3d. per lb. seems a very fair price to fix for the earthy phosphates of bones, and as such it will be provisionally adopted. It now remains to calculate by the same rule the cost of phosphate of lime in the cheaper varieties of guano.
In Saldanha Bay guano we buy both ammonia and phosphates ; the former, however, in small proportion only. Taking for our guide the averages given at p. 211, we find that Saldanha Bay
guano contains as a mean—
Earthy phosphates . 55°00 per cent. IAMMOM s,s es T6594
Saldanha Bay guano sells at trom 4/. 10s. to 5/. a ton, more usually the latter sum. The provisional price of 6d. a Ib. for ammonia, as before, will give the sum of 18s. to be deducted, leaving the sum of 4/. 2s. as the price of 1232 lbs. of phosphate of lime, being at the rate of 100 Ibs. for 6s. 73d., or a little more than $d. per lb. In the preceding calculation the value of the guano has been calculated with reference only to ammonia and phosphate of lime, potash or other ingredients being left out as needlessly complicating the question.
Reviewing the subject of the last few pages, we find that the approximative value of phosphate of lime ranges between 3d. and 3d. a \b.
Ammonia.— In endeavouring to fix the money value of ammonia we must expect to meet with still greater difficulties than in the case of the phosphates; for whilst of the jatter there are several sources from whence a liberal and economical supply can be drawn, it is really as a source of ammonia, pre-eminently so, that guano possesses so high a manurial value; and, consequently, any attempt to attach a money value to the ammonia of guano, in reference to that contained in other recognised manures, presup- poses a degree of similarity in the economy of the substances thus placed in competition, which is far from existing. Nevertheless, it will be found that even in the case of guano the selling price is to a certain degree in accordance with what it should be were the substances which it contains to be furnished separately and from
Composition and Value of Guano. 219
various sources. Leaving, however, the further development of this point for the present, we shall proceed to examine the existing sources of a supply of ammonia for agricultural use.
The different salts of ammonia, as the bicarbonate (the common smelling salts), the muriate (known as sal-ammoniac), and the sulphate, are all to a considerable extent articles of commerce, being in one way or another employed in the arts or in medicine, The first of these, however, is not at present sufficiently cheap to be profitably employed in practical agriculture.
Many years ago the sources of ammonia were extremely limited, and its salts were correspondingly dear; but, by the general in- troduction of gas, an abundant quantity of this alkali has been opened out, It is very commonly known that, amongst the other products of the distillation of coal in the ordinary process of pre- paring gas, a large quantity cf an ammoniacal liquor is obtained, and many who neat this paper may have made use of it as a manure under the name of “gas-liquor.” ‘The origin of this liquid is very simple. In all samples of coal which have been examined with a view to detect it, nitrogen has been found in variable pro- portion, derived evidently from the plants from which the coal has been formed. When the coal is heated the nitrogen is converted into ammonia, which collects in the “ condensers” principally as carbonate or hydrosulphate. By the addition of mineral acids and subsequent evaporation any desired salt of ammonia can be produced.
The sulphuric is of all other acids that which is most valuable in the arts, and, as its very numerous applications have led to great perfection in the manufacture of this acid, it is under most circumstances the only compound of its class which is economically applicable. Accordingly, large quantities of sulphuric acid have been used in the preparation of sulphate of ammonia from the ammoniacal liquor of the gas-works. 7
Muriatic acid is a refuse product in the preparation of carbonate of soda, and under some circumstances it is employed in the pre- paration of an ammoniacal salt from gas-liquor with more eco- nomy than the sulphuric.
Sulphate of ammonia costs from 117. to 12/. per ton, and no inconsiderable quantity has been sold as manure at this latter price. The muriate varies in price between 177, and 211. per ton. Whether these salts can, with a profit to the manufacturer, at present be prepared at a lower price, I cannot say; but as, by that mutual dependence of the arts of life which meets us at every turn, the gas-works of England are destined some day, and probably before long, to become auxiliary to the production of fuod by supplying the farmer abundantly and cheaply with am-
220 Composition and Value of Guano.
monia, it may not be out of place here to state the reasons for the obviously high price of the salts in question.
We have just now stated that coal-gas, as it 1s discharged from the mouths of the retorts in which the coal is heated, is unfit for consumption, being contaminated, amongst other things, with hydrosulphate and carbonate of ammonia. To get rid of these compounds, which would render the gas more or less impure, the manufacturer has recourse to some method of purification. For the sulphuretted hydrogen he employs lime, which retains the largest portion of the noxious gas. The ammonia is in great part deposited in the cooling apparatus or condensers. Both of these processes of purification are a source of considerable annoyance and trouble in the preparation of gas, and for the separation of the ammonia in particular the want of some perfect method has long been felt. Many chemical substances have been proposed for the purpose, but as yet no method has been found which should both purify the gas without injury to its quality and at the same time afford an economical supply of ammonia for agricul- tural purposes. The object in view would, at first sight, appear of most ready accomplishment by means of a mineral acid, so arranged that it should. abstract the ammonia from the gas in its passage from the retorts. Wath this view the gas has been passed through sawdust or other porous substances moistened with sul- phuric acid, by which a perfect separation of the ammonia has been obtained. But, unfortunately, it appears that the success of this process, on the one hand, is entirely neutralized by an un- looked-for objection. It is found that the illuminating power of the gas is very greatly impaired by its contact with the sulphuric acid, a result which has of course led to the abandonment of the method.
The sulphate and muriate of ammonia of commerce are for the most part made from the ammoniacal liquids of the gas-works ; and to the evaporation and other manipulations necessary to ob- tain the salts in the dry state is chiefly to be ascribed their high price. ‘That such is the case will be clearly seen by examining the composition of these salts.
Sulphate of ammonia (see note in Appendix) contains, when perfectly pure and dry,
Ammonia. : : : 5 2277 pen Cone: Sulphuric Acid : : : 53°3 ‘ Water : : ; 5 : 24°0
+]
This water is, as the chemical reader would understand, water of composition or crystallization, and its existence is perfectly compatible with the salt bemg dry. But it is not to be expected that a salt prepared on the large scale should be perfectly pure,
Composition and Value of Guano. 221
and it will be necessary to allow 10 per cent, for moisture and accidental impurity.
The sulphate of ammonia of commerce will contain in 100 parts and in a ton respectively—~
In 100 parts, In a ton. Ammonia : ; PAE Sane Ae 457 Ibs Sulphuric Acid. : : ASH Ost be O77 ae, Water . 5 d ile Gitte 7. 708, 100: 2,240 ,,
Here it will be seen that to procure | ton of ordinary sulphate of ammonia about 4 ton (dry) sulphuric acid must be em- ployed. Sulphuric acid which has not undergone the final and expensive evaporation—that is to say, acid of specific gravity 1:70 (see note in Appendix)—can be bought for about 5/. a ton. Ac- cording to the calculation in the Appendix below, the quantity of such acid necessary to form a ton of sulphate of ammonia will be
worth 3/. 14s. 44d.
Ee SiGe Deducting from the value of a ton of sulphate of ammonia . 12 0 O The value of the acid used in its preparation . : ° 314 43
We have ; 8 5 74
as the value of the ammonia in a ton of the salt, leaving out, of course, in this case all calculation of the cost of labour, &c.
From the above facts it would appear that a high value was placed upon the ammonia by the gas-manufacturer ; but, in truth, it is not so. Asa product of very secondary importance in rela- tion to that of the gas itself, it is not usually worth his while to embarrass his operations with its preservation; whilst, on the other hand, he views the difficulty of its removal as an imper- fection of his process, and would liberally encourage any improve- ment which could be suggested. We can only fen conclude, that of the 12/7. a ton paid for sulphate of ammonia, 8/., or two-thirds of the sum, represents the expense of manipulation.
- Again: the sum of 3/. [4s., asthe expense of the acid, suggests the desirableness of discovering some com par atively inexpensive substance for the absorption of the ammonia. There is good reason to hope that the ingenuity and industry of those who apply themselves -to these manufacturing processes will sooner or later be rewarded by the discovery of an economical means of sepa- rating the ammoniacal compounds without injury to the illu- minating power of the gas itself; and then, and not till then, will this source of ammonia assume the importance which it merits.
If we assume that in sulphate of ammonia the only ingredient of value in an agricultural point of view is the ammonia, its price will be 63d. per |b. It may be fairly objected to this mode of
222 Composition and Value of Guano.
calculation, however, that the sulphuric acid is of some value as manure, and that the whole cost should not be thrown upon the ammonia. Ina tonof sulphate of ammonia there are 1075 lbs. of sulphuric acid, which would be supplied by about 202 ewts. of gypsum, at a cost of 16s. lid. If, therefore,
Eso.
From the cost of 1 ton of sulphate of ammonia ole O Is deducted the agricultural value of its sulphuric acid O 16 13
ll 3 103
will be the expense of the ammonia, or rather more than 52d. per lb.
From the preceding calculations it will be evident that we shall not greatly err in fixing 6d. per lb. as the value of ammonia, as supplied by the sulphate at its present price of 12/. a ton.
Muriate of ammonia contains, when quite pure and dry, 31°6 per cent. of ammonia. [I am unable to say what quantity of water and impurity it may usually contain in its crude state, but it may be sufficiently near for the present purpose to estimate this at 10 per cent.: accordingly, crude commercial muriate of ammonia will have about 28 per cent. of ammonia.
Taking its average value to be 19/. a ton, and, without any allowance in this case for the acid, the price of ammonia in the muriate will be 7id. per lb. At (70. a ton the ammonia would cost about 64d. ; qa at 217., rather more than 8d. per lb.
It remains now to inquire what is the cost of ammonia in its other available sources. ‘The importation of ozlcake into a farm must be looked upon as an indirect importation of ammonia. In feeding his stock with oilcake the farmer increases the quantity, and, in a greater proportion, the quality of his manures; and every ton of cake thus consumed is equivalent to the purchase of a certain quantity of ammoniacal manures.
What relation in value the manure so produced (or imported) may bear to the cost of its importation it is not the purpose of this paper to inquire, nor is the question to be very readily setiled. The value of a ton of oilcake regarded as manure is obviously dependent upon the proportion of its original cost, which may be fairly placed to the account of profit in feeding with it.
Leaving the discussion of this subject to a more fttting place, we may simply calculate the value of ammonia as supplied by oilcake, considered only m a manurial point of view. The market price of oilcake is so variable, that no actual sum can be fixed upon as its average cost; we shall therefore make a calculation for the eatreme of fluctuation.
From the analyses of a great many specimens examined in my laboratory, I find that the average proportion of nitrogen in oil-
Composition and Value of Guano. 223
cake is 46 per cent. The proportion of phosphoric acid and of potash furnished by a ton of oilcake, although worthy of consi- deration under other circumstances, is too small to affect to any considerable extent the present calculations (see note in Appen- dix). At 46 per cent. a ton of oilcake will contain 103 lbs. of nitrogen, capable of becoming 125 lbs. of ammonia. Taking oilcake at 67. 10s. a ton as a low price, and 117. as the other ex- treme, the ammonia will cost as follows:—At 61. 10s. a ton the ammonia will cost 1s. O$d. per lb.; at 112. a ton the ammonia will cost 1s. 9d. per lb. Considered, then, in the light of manure only, oileake must at its minimum price be a dear source of ammonia.
Rape-cake is as nearly as possible of the same composition as linseed-cake, its cost being, however, only from 47. to 5/. a ton. At 41. 10s., the mean of these numbers, ammonia as supplied by rape-cake would cost about 83d. per |b.
Of the price of ammonia as derived from bones we have be- fore incidentally spoken. From this source a supply of ammonia will be obtained at a price ranging between 44d. and 6d. per I|b., according as the value of phosphate of lime is jecninated at 3d. or 2d. per lb. As the latter sum has been shown to be a fair price fay the earthy phosphates, it may be assumed that ammonia is bought rather more cheaply in bones than in sulphate of am- monia, but with the essential difference that in the case of bones the ammonia has to be formed—we must wait for it. How great an advantage this is in favour of the ready-made (so to speak) ammoniacal manures in certain soils, those readers who rightly estimate the value of time in relation to practical agriculture will easily perceive.
There are yet other sources of ammonia within the reach of the farmer; and it might be thought that these should be referred to as a guide to its money value. Woollen rags, clippings of skins, parings of horns and hoofs, dried blood, seal-skins, &¢.—all or any of them may under peculiar circumstances with great advan- tage be employed by the farmer. As, however, the supply of such refuse substances is limited, and as, for want of the more uniform demand which an unlimited supply would infallibly create, the price is a matter of perfect caprice, it would be unsafe to draw any yery general conclusions from the imperfect data so obtained: individuals may and do buy these nitrogenous sub- stances for manure with great. advantage to themselves, but the community of agriculturists could not do so,
We shall reserve the question of the cost of ammonia in guano itself until we have fixed the price of potash—the only re- maining datum needed for ascertaining the value of different specimens of the manure in question.
224 Composition and Value of Guano.
Whatever opinion the reader may entertain of the value of potash as a direct application to the soil—whether he may think it highly important, or may deem it unnecessary or productive of no beneficial results, still it becomes any individual who shall attempt to fix a money value on a compound manure like guano to be prepared with a price which shall approximate to the com- mercial value of all the imporiant ingredients, It will be at the option of the reader to allow or disallow the value which is thus attached,
Potash is supphed commercially by four principal salts :— carbonate of potash, known as potashes or pearlashes; nitrate of potash, or zztre ; muriate of potash; and sulphate of potash.*
In the first of these (the carbonate), potash is bought at from od. to 64d. per lb., according to the varying market-price of the salt.
In nitrate of potash we shall buy potash at 63d. per lb.
Sulphate or muriate of potash will, however, furnish us with this alkali at the rate of 24d. per lb.
The wide difference in price between the two former and two latter sources is due to the circumstance that the nitrate of potash is more valuable in commerce for its combination with nitric acid than for the potash itself, and the carbonate for its adapta- tion to the purposes of an alkali. Inthe sulphate and munate we have the real value of the potash, these being both refuse salts.
With a knowledge of the approximative value of its three im- portant ingredients, our attention may now be turned to the money value of guano itself;—this being the only object of all the preceding calculations. It has been seen that the average composition of Peruvian guano is the following :—
Ammonia . ‘ : : 17°41 per cent. Phosphate of lime ; ; : 24°12 . Potash ; sr 9 fenniden 350). See
Taking ammonia at its ne as supplied by the sulphate—that is to say, at 6d. alb.; phosphate of lime as it may be bought in bones or Saldanha Bay guano, at 3d. per 1b. ; and lastly, valuing
* The market value of the different salts of potash is far from constant. For the calculations above, I have made use of the following prices, which perhaps will be sufficiently correct :-—
Carbonate of potash, from 28s, to 42s, a cwt.
Sulphate, 12s. a cwt.
Muriate, 13s. __,,
Nitrate, contaiuing 90 per cent. of real nitre, 28s. per cwt.
The per centage of potash in these different salts, when pare and dry, isas follows :—
Carbonate : 3 NOS42 Sulphate . , » 3d4°0 Muriate’. >. » 63°2 (or potassium equal to this quantity of potash),
Nitrate . ; AG
Composition and Value of Guano. 225
potash, as we find it in the sulphate and muriate, at 24d. per |b. : what will be the value of a ton weight, of an average specimen of Peruvian guano? The calculation is not difficult :—
The ammonia, at 17°41 percent., amounts to 388 Ibs., which £. 8. d.
at6d.alb.is worth . : negn9; 147 0 The phosphate of lime, at 24°12 per cent., amounts to 540 Ibs., which at 3d. is worth 113 9
The potash, at 3% per cent., amounts to 783 Ibs., which at ohd. per lb. is worth . : : : ° ; : 2 O48
Which together give es ee
as the value of all the ingredients of a ton of good Peruvian guano. I think it highly important that the above calculations should not be misunderstood. ‘There may be many persons who would buy Peruvian guano solely for its ammonia ; although not unwilling to enrich their soils with the phosphate of lime which accompanies it, they would object to purchase the latter at the price set against itin the table. There is indeed no absolute proof of the advan- tage of always applying these two manures in the proportion in which they exist in guano: take the instance of a farmer who is in the habit of manuring liberally with bones or superphosphate of lime for his root crop ;—it is quite conceivable (although the case 1s only put here for argument sake) that in any subsequent application of guano he would be using this substance only as a source of ammonia. In thiscase he could only afford to pay for it on its ammoniacal merits. Even in such a case Peruvian guano will compete with advantage with sulphate of ammonia at its present price; for with guano at !Q/. a ton the purchaser will buy ammonia at the same price as in the sulphate, and will get the phosphate of lime and the potash for the extra 6s.
The preceding observations apply even more strongly to potash, for which some readers will be inclined to allow no money value whatever. Jt is impossible for me to meet the different views which may be entertained on these pomts. It is sufficient that those who disallow any items in the above calculation can readily make for themselves any alteration they may think fit.
With its present composition Peruvian guano would seem to bear a fair market price. Whether a reduction in price might not remunerate the importers by a greatly increased sale it is impossible, of course, to say; but there can be no doubt that, if it could be effected, such a measure would confer an inestimable boon on the agricultural interest of this country.
With the view of showing the farmer how great a loser he is by the purchase of an inferior or adulterated guano, I will here place in contrast with the average value of good guano, an esti- mate of that which is to be ascribed to an adulterated specimen. No. 23 in the 4th Table wiil furnish such an example :—
VOL, X. Q
226 Composition and Value of Guano.
Sood. The ammonia 8°12 per cent, amounts to 182 Ibs., which at 6d. per lb. is worth . 5 A lO) The phosphate of lime 21°09 per cent. amounts to 472 Ibs. ', which at 3d. per Ib. is worth é eet Se)
The potash at (say) 33 per cent. amounts ‘to 78 Ibs., ‘which at 24d. per Ib. is worth : ° : : : . O14 8
Giving 615 2
as the value of a ton of this specimen of guano.
Although those who are familiar with the characters of a good guano would, from an inspection of the specimen, be led to a doubt of its possessing the full ammoniacal value, there is nothing striking or peculiar in its appearance, and nine-tenths of the pur- chasers of the manure would receive it without suspicion. It is only by chemical analysis that this point can be decided. The farmer’s only safety in the purchase of guano is in the character of the dealer from whom he obtains it, or in the knowledge of its composition as determined by analysis.
Of the money-value of Saldanha Bay guano I have already incidentally spoken (page 218).
Its selling price closely approximates to what it should be were the phosphate of lime and ammonia calentated in the same way as in Peruvian guano.
It cannot, however, be too often Bee es) that the value of these two varieties of guano is of an essentially distinct character. It will not do to suppose that, because they are sold at a fair price in relation to their composition, they may be employed indifferently, and that 102. spent in one will be employed to the same advantage in the other. If the object of the agriculiurist is to make use of an arnmoniacal manure, he will not attain that object by the purchase of Saldanha Bay guano. On the other hand, if he seeks to add phosphate of Inie to his soil, the use of Peruvian guano would be a most expensive method of doing so. - Without therefore attempting to point out the exact circumstances in which it would be advisable to apply the one or the other, it is right that it should be distinctly understood that they are by no means to be used indifferently.
Appendix
Composition and Value of Guano. 227
APPENDIX AND NOTES.
1. On the Sampling of Guano.—In taking samples for analysis the fol- lowing plan was followed :—When taken from the ship, a complete mix~ ture of the guano from several parts of the cargo, to the extent of perhaps half a ewt., was made in the vessel itself. From this heap a quantity of 2 or 3 Ibs. was removed to the laboratory for analysis. If the cargo was in the warehouses, the mixture was made from the centre of several bags which were cut cpen for that purpose. In the selection of the sample, if a lump of any sort should occur, appearing to bear too large a proportion to the whole mass, it is rejected.
To prepare the guano for analysis, the sample of 2 or 3 lbs. is made to pass, by rubbing in an iron mortar, through a wire sieve of 40 holes to the square inch; it is afterwards thoroughly mixed by continued rubbing in the mortar. From the mixture so made a quantity of about an ounce is separated, and carefully powdered in an agate mortar. This last forms the subject of the analysis.
In the course of the analyses which are given in this paper many cases have occurred tending to prove that a sample of guano taken in this way fairly represents the bulk from which it is separated. One or two in- stances may be mentioned. In Table 3 the specimens 12 and 13 are duplicates. No. 12 was taken from two or three bags; No. 13 was a mix- ture of portions taken from more than 100 bags. By an inspection of the ‘Table it will be seen that the differences between the two samples are by no means large. In Table 6 are two specimens of ‘“ Parkfield” (86 and 40.) These samples were taken at different times, but closely resemble each other.
Then again, in Table 5, specimens 28 and 29, as also 30 and 31, are dupli- cates. A glance at the analyses will show that they are very much alike, although the samples were taken at two different periods during the un- loading of the cargo.
In order to ascertain to what extent the different parts of a sample of guano would possess a difference of composition, I made the following experiment :—A mixture of many different specimens of Peruvian guano which had from time to time reached the laboratory, and in the same state as when taken from the ships, was sifted successively on sieves of 40 and 20 holes to the inch. In this way three separate samples of different de- grees of fineness were obtained :—
No. 1, passing the 40-hole sieve. No. 2, passing the 20, but retained by the 40-hole sieve. No. 3, which was too large to pass either.
In the latter the lumps, which were tolerably hard, were of various sizes, some being as big as pigeons’ eggs. The three siftings were separately powdered and partially analysed, with the following results :—
Water. Organic Matter, &c. Ammonia. No.1. . . 11°19 percent. «. 53°42 percent, «. 17°28 per cent. Niomae 6s Loe 1d o. o4°94 ». not ascertained No.3... ll 00 ss 00°93 eee LOTAD
' This experiment affords very strong evidence in favour of a great amount
of uniformity, even where small specimens only are compared. It shows
that the white Jumps are really only agglomerations of the smaller particles,
and that indeed they are no richer than the latter. This pone only Q 4
228 Composition and Value of Guano.
applies to Peruvian guano. Insome varieties of guano which are naturally very wet, all sorts of collections and erystallizations have been found, and it excites no surprise that such should be the case; but the experiment just described strengthens the opinion which would be formed from a know- ledge of the circumstances under which Peruvian guano has been pro- duced, and which is, that no amount of separation and rearrangement of the particles could have occurred since its deposition. In “ damaged guano,” on the other hand, it is easy to trace a crystallization of its salts brought about by the water.
2. On the Methods of Analysis——First as to drying the specimen, In all our earlier analyses of guano the samples were dried before the com- bustion for nitrogen. It was soon found that this drying could not be effected in the ordinary way. Even at the temperature of the air guano always emits ammonia; and at 212° the quantity of ammonia is so great as to produce a Joss of 2 or 3 per cent. sometimes in the subsequent analysis. To obviate this defect we had recourse to the use of an acid in the drying. A specimen of the guano in a shallow platinum dish was treated with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, which was allowed to soak through the whole. It was then dried at a water-bath heat without loss, and in the subsequent analysis the presence of the acid had no influence.
We have subsequently found that a moderately dry specimen of Peruvian guano—that is to say, containing not more than 15 per cent. of water—can be mixed with the soda-lime for nitrogen analysis with perfect safety, with- out drying, provided the soda-lime itself be perfectly dry. The mixture is made in the tube by the help of a corkscrew wire, and no smell of ammonia can be detected.
In the detailed analyses given in the first Table the substances were separately determined in the same way as the ash of a plant is analysed. One modification of the usual process deserves notice. In burning guano to obtain the mineral part for analysis, a considerable loss of chlorine and sulphuric acid occurs from the escape of these substances in the form of ammoniacal salts. To ascertain the total quantity of the chlorine and sul- phuric acid, it is necessary to saturate the guano with a strong solution of potash or soda, which in the subsequent burning retains the acids in question,
The following comparison of the corrected and uncorrected results will show the extent of loss due to this cause :—
SuLpHuric ACID. INA eee 183 G DF ile F | G | H | | |
Uncorrected result -79 | trace | 1°45 | 2°76 | 1°09 | OCR. 1 We 7 | 2°24 Corrected result . . | 3°83 | 3°47 | 4:00 | 4°54 | 4°57 | 4:00 | 3°60 bp apy
| | | , CHLORINE. {ews B (3) D | E F G | H Uncorrected result . | *09 none | none °12 Soi Ebr! °65 | *20 Corrected result. . °O7 | 1°46 | 1*56 | 1-62 | 1°36 | 1°35 | “79 | “97
|
The determination of the actual quantity of these ingredients necessi- tates also a correction for the quantity of organic matter as ascertained by burning. Inthe analyses which are given, in all the tables but the first, the method of examination was as follows :—
The guano is dried at a water-bath heat and afterwards burnt; the ash is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the solution filtered to separate sand, The earthy phosphates are precipitated by ammonia. This pre-
Composition and Value of Guano. 229
cipitation of the earthy phosphates does not give a perfect determination of the phosphoric acid ; for, besides the phosphates of lime and magnesia, which have the composition of bone-earth, there is in guano more or less of the phosphates of potash and soda. The addition of ammonia does not always cause a very uniform precipitate of phosphate of lime, the phosphoric acid of the potash salt being more or less carried down with the salt of lime. Phosphoric acid is therefore sometimes present in the liquid after this precipitation. For ordinary commercial purposes the result is, however, sufficiently accurate.
The nitrogen analysis is conducted in the usual way, the guano being burnt with soda-lime and the resulting salt of ammonia weighed as the double platinum salt. Of the accuracy of this method there can be no doubt, but it may be satisfactory to mention some cases where the analysis of a specimen has been repeated with confirmatory results. Two nitrogen analyses were made of specimen 14 in the third table :—
lst analysis gave . . + « «+ 16°46 per cent. of ammonia. 2nd 9 ° ® ° ° e 16° 75 ”
Two analyses of specimen 16 :—
Ist analysis gave . » + » eo 16°93, per cent. of ammonia. 2nd ry) ° ° . ° e 16°70 9
Two of specimen 34 :—
Ist analysis gave . . «© © © 17°87 per cent. of ammonia. 2nd 9 BG oto, oc eG 3
Two of specimen 36 :—
ist analysis gave . « . « « 16°79 percent. of ammonia. 2nd BS il ere awe ee OS SO i
Two of specimen 37 :—
Ist analysis gave . . . + «© 16°97 per cent. of ammonia. 2nd e ete et tee elo of
Very many other instances could be adduced to show that the results of two analyses are the same, which in such cases is tantamount to a proof of correctness in both. The duplicate analyses, specimens 34, 36, and 37, were made by different persons, and are therefore more than ever satis- factory.
3. eo Danaaed Guano.”—It is not unusual for a cargo of guano to suffer from the action of the water by leakage in the vessel]. If the quantity of water thus entering is not great, it is absorbed by the outer portions of the guano, that in the centre escaping altogether. The importers set aside this portion, which is sold, according to its degree of wetness, at a reduced
rice. 5 The following are the proportions of water and ammonia in two speci- mens of damaged guano sent to me by the importer :—
Water. Ammonia. Ist Specimen, ship “Commerce” . . 80°68 percent. .. 12°62 per cent. 2nd eS ship unknown . « ~. . 33de13 ete Loa
By a calculation based upon the analysis of a sound specimen of the cargo of the “ Commerce,” given in Table 6, it will be seen that the de- terioration in vaiue of the specimen is only slightly greater than to the extent of the proportion of water thus added toit. There is, however, an absolute Joss, which is due to the escape of ammonia with watery vapour, a fact which is always observable to the smell in guano ships which haye suffered leakage.
230 Cottages for Agricultural Labourers.
4, Saldanha Bay Guano.—The following are more detailed analyses of four specimens of this variety of guano. The specimens are before de- scribed in Table 10 :—
Spec, 78. | Spec. 79. | Spec. 89. | Spec. 81,
ee
WV alten ivey sie audigy Ged eter pions hes wae 7°58 | 18°09 | 14:40 | 12°22 Organic Matter and Salts of Ammonia . 21:6 10°51 13:29 | 19°64 SANG SCH wie) om ee se tetol te. 6 testers °63 °99 2°26 | 99 ' Karthy Phosphates . . % =, = ++}. 56°99 | 58-76 | 60:96 | 54:82 xGessiot Hime wn hie oye a onaes 3°70 2°23 P07 O Carbonte Mert <a. “ep. 5 2°61 °68 206 3°08 Sulphuric Acid’. * 77s SX 1°94 1-3t 4°09 2°57 Chiorine 0 FS ‘ 73 55 “72 ft °57 Magnesia . . : ° *68 * 86 20 *32
Potash and Soda, ame Loss 3 ‘ 3°40 1°02 2°81 5:22
105°00 | 100-00 | 100-60 | 100-00
a aon SEE = a oR a NL ES I NE EN wee RET RRS SSE EES
This table serves to point out that in Saldanha Bay guano, although the potash has not been actually determined, it is, in all probability, in less quantity than in the Peruvian variety.
5. Nitrogen in Bones.—The estimate in the text is thus derived: bones are supposed to contain 33 per cent. of gelatin, which, according to Scherer, contains 18°32 per cent. of nitrogen; 100 parts of bones will therefore contain about six parts of nitrogen.
6. Sulphuric Acid, of specific gravity 1:70.—This is the cheapest form in which sulphuric acid can be purchased, When first produced, this acid is diluted with much water, which is driven off by subsequent evaporation. The evaporation is effected, in the first instanee, in leaden vessels, and afterwards when the acid, becoming concentrated, begins to act on the lead, it is transferred to vessels of platinum or glass. The expense of this process is so great as materially to enhance the value of the acid. The farmer does not require the acid of ‘full strength, and it would be fre- quently far better for him to purchase this dilute acid, which for a certain sum contains a larger amount of acid. The expense of carriage will sometimes interfere with his doing so.
7. Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Oil-cake—¥From several analyses of the mineral ingredients of oil-cake, I find that 1 ton would contain about 43 lbs. of phosphoric acid and 32 lbs. of potash, which at the prices before given would be worth together only about Lis.
SSO LE,
X1i.—On the Construction of a Pair of Cottages for Agri- cultural Labourers. By Henry Gopparp, Architect and Surveyor, of Lincoln.
First Prize-Essay. Tur leading features of this communication being the plans, specification, and estimate, and as the views of the author are clearly defined therein, it is his intention as concisely as possible to confine his observations to an explanation of them, recording at the outset that no reference has been made to any published work, and that to a long residence in one of the most important
Cottages for Agricultural Labourers. 231
agricultural districts in the kingdom is he indebted for his ac- quaintance with the subject. In preparing the accompanying plans it has been his— |
Object.—To attain at the smallest cost the greatest amount of comfort and convenience in the construction of suitable residences for the large majority of the bond fide agricultural labourers. In effecting this, it has been his desire to avoid excess in cost and size, and the sacrifice of interior comforts for the sake of pic- torial effect. It has also been his aim to avoid if possible the creation of facilities to induce the tenant to “let off’’ a portion of the rooms which are designed for the exclusive use and due classification of his own family.
Situation, Aspect, Soil, §c.—Such a variety of circumstances, both natural and local, have to be considered in determining upon sites for the erection of labourers’ cottages, that the adoption of any fixed rules seems almost impracticable. It may not be amiss, however, to suggest that a plot of land abutting upon, and at a level of from two to four feet above a good road, forming part or being in the immediate vicinity of an allotment of land available for spade husbandry, and possessing facilities for efficient drain- age, seems most desirable; and in all cases care should be taken that the habitation of the labourer is not too remote from the locality of his daily avocations. ‘The aspect should be south, or as nearly so as can be obtained, and the value of the situation would be enhanced if protected on the north and east from the inclemency of the weather, but the close proximity of forest trees should be avoided as having a tendency to deteriorate the value of the garden ground, and in the autumn to clog up the gutters and spouts of the cottages with dead leaves. A good soil of easy cultivation, with a substratum of gravel or sand, is essential, or (when the prevailing prejudices are overcome) a piece of used-up old grass-land, sufficiently elevated for draining purposes, would not be unsuitable.
Exterior Arrangements —The cottages are proposed to be built in pairs, and should be placed at a distance of five or six yards from the road, leaying a small space for the cultivation of flowers, herbs, and the smaller kinds of garden produce; and the good feeling which it is desirable should exist between the occupants, is most likely to be secured by rendering them as inde- pendent of each other as circumstances will permit. With this view a separate entrance is made to each, and in the minor arrange- ments the pump only is used by both tenants. If further sepa- ration is desired, it may be accomplished by planting a privet fence between the two in front, and a post and rail fence at the back, and making the pump with a double handle to work both ways.
232 Cottages for Agricultural Labourers.
The author conceives it to be objectionable to make the entrance- door fronting the road, not only on account of its publicity, but because an indolent tenant is in the habit of throwing the ashes and other refuse matters into a heap immediately before the doorway, owing to its remoteness from the rear of the house. In the plan it will be seen that a receptacle has been provided within an easy distance of the door, to render such a practice unnecessary and inexcusable.
Interior Arrangements.—As the surest preventative of the house becoming a residence for two families, and as being more con- sonant with the wants and means of the labourer, one living room only is provided, which is approached by a small porch for the sake of privacy and warmth. The fireplace is recessed in the wall, and leaves an available space for household purposes of 13 feet by 11 feet in the clear (being equivalent to 13 feet by 12 feet 6 inches where the chimney-breast and cupboard project into the room). ‘The window is designed with a small recess on each side to receive fall-back shutters. ‘The only door (except the outer one) in the living room communicates immediately with the staircase, scullery, pantry, and coal-place. The scullery is § feet 6 inches by 7 feet in the clear, and is fitted up witha boiling- copper and stone sink, Another external, or “ back door,” and a second fireplace in the scullery are purposely omitted for the reasons before mentioned. If it is deemed advisable to have either one or the other, the former may be placed between the pantry and coalplace, and the latter beside the copper in the scullery. Neither of these alterations are recommended ; another door would make the living room much colder, and, under any circumstances, the cooking required for a labourer’s family is never of such magnitude as to require two fireplaces, or to render the living room even in summer (when the fire is seldom used except morning and evening) so hot as to be unhealthy. Imme- diately contiguous to, but apart from the living room and scullery is a convenient pantry, the floor of which is intended to be 16 inches below the level of the others, leaving sufficient height for suspending bacon and other provisions from the joists above, and permitting a bench to be placed at the end nearest the porch to receive milk and other articles requiring a cool temperature. In addition to a sufficiency of shelves, a cupboard is proposed to befixed at a height of three feet above the bench for the safe custody of such articles as are usually deposited in a similar con- venience beside the fireplace in living rooms of cottages, The upper story is divided into three separate bed-rooms, and from the mode of construction adopted, a larger amount of space is secured to these rooms than low walls and high pitched roofs
Cottages for Agricultural Labourers. 233
would permit. The height of each room is 8 feet, and the di- mensions are—No. 1,11 feet by 10 feet; No. 2, 1] feet by 7 feet 6 inches ; and No. 3, 8 feet 6 inches by 7 feet, containing 860, 645, and 469 cubic feet respectively. One room only (the largest) is provided with a fireplace, which will be found quite sufficient both for ordinary and extraordinary occasions. One might be placed in every room if required, without deranging the plan. A conyenient closet is obtained at the top of the stairs, and another in a recess adjoining the fireplace in Bedroom No. 1.
The Out- Offices.—It is very objectionable to make these indis- pensable adjuncts form part of the cottage itself; and equally offensive to good taste (if isolated) to have such a primitive out- line as indicates most unmistakeably their respective uses. In the plan the two extremes are avoided, and a situation is selected within easy reach of each cottage, and they are so contrived as to conceal as much as possible the purposes for which they are designed. Within the enclosure accommodation is made for keeping a pig, and where such a practice is not interdicted, it is better to build a suitable place, than leave the tenant to exercise his ingenuity upon old wood and thatch, and supply the defi- ciency in a manner most offensive to the eye, and prejudicial to the health of those around him.
_ Materials, Construction, Supply of Water, &c.—A difficulty arises here in laying down rules for universal adoption; the geology of the district, local customs, and the facilities of transit may interdict it; the author has, however, endeayoured to hit the rule rather than the objection, by suggesting as the most appli- cable—brick for the walls, Baltic timber for the carpenter’s work, and Welsh slate covering for the roofs. It must be distinctly understood notwithstanding, that any variation in the materials will not affect the general arrangements. All the window-frames are proposed to be of wood as being more economical and agree- able than iron or stone, and the squares not being large, the outlay for renewal in the event of breakage will be so trifling as to offer no inducement for the occupant to substitute a piece of old newspaper for a square of glass. ‘The eaves of the cottages project for the sake of appearance and better security of the walls. The water from the eaves on the south front is conveyed into the drain leading from the sinks in the sculleries, by which means any refuse will be effectually washed away at every fall of rain, and on the north side a sufficiency of water may be collected in water-butts (for the use of the tenants) placed against the outer walls of the staircases. The hard water pump (communi- cating with a well) is placed against the back wall of the cottages exactly central between the two, and the waste water therefrom
234 Cottages for Agricultural Labourers.
will communicate with the drain; in districts where the springs are ata considerable depth below the surface the well may be dispensed with, and a water-tight tank substituted, into which the water from all the eaves should be conveyed.
Warming and Ventilating.—To ensure the carrying out of these essentials to a poor man’s comfort, simplicity and economy must be borne in mind, consonant with which and being at the same time more agreeable to the habits and customs of English- men, open fireplaces are recommended, viz., “‘ Nichoison’s im- proved Cottage Range” for the living room, and a small sham stove for the bed-room fireplace. Iron or lead pipes, heated by hot air, water, or steam, however effective they may be in operation, form but a poor substitute for the cheerful fire, however small, which is most agreeable to the sight and pleasant to the feelings of an agricultural labourer after a cold wet day’s work. The living room and bed-room No. |, having each adoor, window, and chimney opening (considering their capacity also), have suf- ficient facilities for ventilation. ‘The scullery is ventilated by the
insertion of an air-brick | in the outer wall; the pantry
by similar means, one air- arek being built in the ot beneath the seat of the porch, and another at the opposite end under the floor-joists above; the two smaller bed-rooms to have a
perforated wood ventilator in each ceiling, and an
air-brick in each gable above the ceiling on the north and south fronts.
Cost.—In the following calculations bricks are supposed to be worth 30s. per thousand, lime 12s. per chaldron of 32 bushels, and sand 3s. per ton; the estimate may therefore be deemed a maximum one, and may be reduced in every instance where Janded proprietors make their own bricks, and the lime and sand are procured upon the estate. The substitution of stone in districts where it is abundant and easily worked would effect a considerable saving, and a further reduction may also be effected in the items of timber and carriage, where plenty of the former is available and the latter is not a matter of consideration :—
Note.—Although this essay was considered the best, it is not of course recommended by the Society as giving a perfect plan. The out-offices seem open to several objec- tious, The height of the surrounding wall would render the enclosure very offensive, unless the privies as well as pig- pounds were constantly cleansed. The pig-pounds are too confined, especially the sheds, the form of which is not good. The privy doors should not be opposite each other.—CHICHESTER.
The depression of the pantry-floor would be inconvenient when it is washed, and I should prefer a south-west aspect.—J, F. Burke,
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WEST ELEVATION, SECTION ON THE LINE A B.
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XIII.—On the Use of Rapecake as Food for Stock. By Pu, Pusey, M.P.
Two kinds of oilcake, as is well known to farmers, are used in high cultivation—one, the refuse of flax-seed, linseed-cake, for the feeding of stock ; the other, a less expensive article, the refuse of rape-seed, as a manure for wheat. Having been informed by UE eacliarmer that at isthe practice in French Flanders to mix rapecake with oilcake in the proportion of one to two for the nobler purpose, I tried the experiment last winter, when linseed- cake cost about 9/. and rapecake about 5/. per ton.
The cheaper cake, having a hot taste, was mixed with the other at first im the proportion of one-tenth, and the fatting tegs, half- breds chiefly, but a few of them Downs, ate the mixture with little reluctance. The admixture of rapecake was gradually in- creased until it reached the proportion of one to three, or one- fourth of the whole, when symptoms of mutiny showed them- selves, and we did not think it expedient further to adulterate the rations, but continued at that proportion; and among more than 400 tegs so fatted no mishap occurred from the use of rapecake, though occasional symptoms of purging arose. ‘The rapecake was tried with some fatting heifers,* but as they did not take to it rea- dily, and were in an advanced state, I did not think it worth while to press the point with them, for fear of throwing them back in condition. In Flanders, however, horned cattle are fed partly with rapecake, The most decided success was with about 60 old Down ewes, which, having borne twin lambs, were kept apart as usual to receive better food. ‘These being more sharply set than the fatting tegs, allowed my shepherd gradually to increase the proportion of rapecake until no linseed-cake was given at all. This of course is an important saving, if the cheaper cake be as nourishing as the dearer one. In that important respect my shep- herd could observe no difference; but the question seemed to be fit for chemical analysis, and was referred by me to Mr. Way, whose answer was satisfactory, being as follows :—
‘“‘T have had an analysis made of the rapecake Ae sent me: it contains a Nitrogen .”. : : : 5°23 per cent. Oil or fat : ° : 11°63 per cent. In neither of these enmieaties does it much differ from linseed-cake, of which I have examined eleven specimens, containing on an average Nitrogen ; She : : 4°60 per cent. Oil or fat . : ; : 113 90eperjcent; The oil is in general about from 12 to 14 per cent.”
* I propose, however, trying it next winter for cows kept in the yard upon mangold- wurzel and barley-straw, as was done successfully last year on Sir Robert Peel’s farm at Drayton Manor.. Unless the cake scoured the cows, it must, if given in moderation, improve, I should think, the quality of the milk.
248 Anatomy and Physiology of the
As these two ingredients, nitrogen and oil, representin Mr. Way’s opinion the feeding properties of cake, science appears to confirm the experiment, and [ cannot but hope that it may be useful to farmers, as justifying a saving of some considerable amount in preparing their sheep for market. I will only add, that though the use of rapecake as food has had no bad consequence with nearly 500 sheep of my own, I hope that any one who is disposed to give it a trial, will do so gradually and with caution, lest any unforeseen injury be the consequence.
Pusey, May 21, 1849.
XIV.—A Lecture on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Ma- ternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals, with the Principles of Practice applicable to Cases of Difficult and Preternatural Labour, more especially in the Cow and Ewe. By James Beart Simonps, Lecturer on Cattle Pathology of the Royal Veterinary College, London ; Honorary Member of the Royal Agricultural Society, &c.
My Lorp DvuKE anp GENTLEMEN,—On an occasion like the present, knowing that so many and important matters require your attention, I shall not presume to intrude unnecessarily upon your time by the introduction of remarks which are purely of a prefa- tory nature. It is, therefore, my intention to proceed forthwith to the consideration of the subject which has been selected for this lecture, namely, the general structure and function of the organs of reproduction in the cow and ewe, and the rules or principles which should guide us in cases of preternatural parturition. As the latter is that which chiefly interests you as men of practice, so it will receive from me the fullest description; but it is of equal importance that I should explain the construction of those parts in the female which are specially employed in the act of parturi- tion. It fortunately happens that no argument is needed to show to either the scientific or practical breeder, or to those more im- mediately connected with the feeding and rearing of our native breeds of cattle, the necessity of such imvestigation. It is a matter which may be said to come home to all, being intimately identified with our agricultural, and therefore with our national, prosperity. As Englishmen we may well be proud of our improved cattle and sheep, which are at once the boast of Britain and the envy of the world. But we might ask, how frequently are the hopes of the breeder disappointed, and his endeavours to improve a race of cattle rendered fruitless, by the casualties attending upon their birth? In such a dilemma science stands waiting, and offers a ready hand to guide him through difficulties and overcome
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 249
danger. Essential therefore to success is a knowledge of the principles to which we have alluded, and which will form the basis of this discourse.
It is not our intention to enter on the vexed question of the best means to improve the breed of any particular class of animals, nevertheless we may be allowed to make a few passing remarks on what is commonly designated “ the theory and practice of breeding.”
Breeding with a view to improvement may be said to be founded on an established law of nature, that like produces like. We should, however, always bear in mind that in animals there is a perpetual tendency to change, by which the development of their frame and strength of constitution are materially influenced, arising from a variety of causes, such as domestication, system of management, removal to a different climate, a continued habitation of the same district, partaking in general of the same diet, feeding on many kinds of provender, a liberal or niggardly allowance of food, especially when young, with protection from or exposure to the inclemencies of the weather, &c. But although these may be regarded as the chief causes in operation to produce the tendency to change, still among them we have the required means to pro- mote the permanent improvement of a breed. Thus it will be seen that, in the language of Sir J. Sebright, “ it is not always by putting the best male to the best female that the best produce will be obtained; for should they both have a tendency to the same defect, although in ever so slight a degree, it will in general preponderate so much in the produce as to render it of little value.”’ *
In order to improve a particular race of animals, two plans are advocated by the two classes of practical breeders. One of these is commonly called < the crossing,” the other “the in-and-in”’ system. ‘The latter of these was strongly advocated by the late Mr. Bakewell, and his example had at least the effect of destroying the great prejudice which existed against breeding from animals having a Close relationship to each other. The too rigid adoption of this plan is found, however, to produce degeneration, and there- fore its advantages are limited: for animals of the same family, living in the same locality, and subjected to the same system of management, are predisposed to the same defects and diseases, and these become hereditary. Besides which, every improvement of a breed requires the application of the same means to maintain it which produced it, and the chief of these is care in the selection of both the male and female, so as to avoid the consequences of that predisposition to which we have alluded. As with defects so it 1s with improvements ; these are transmitted from parent to
* «<The Art of Improving the Breeds of Demestic Animals,’ by Sir John Saunders Sebright, Bart., M.P. London. 1809.
250 Anatomy and Physiology of the
offspring. Hence when care in selection is fully and efficiently carried out, deterioration from ordinary causes does not so rapidly occur. ‘To assist in overcoming these causes, the taking of animals from different families and localities, or “crossing,” is adopted. But even here care in selection is of equal importance.
We have spoken of hereditary predisposition to disease: this is exemplified by the fact that horses bred from “ roarers”’ are so susceptible of this abnormal state of the respiratory organs, that “roaring” follows from causes which would be insufficient to produce it in other horses. And experience has shown that very many of the young horses sent from this county (Yorkshire) to London, being in this condition, early become diseased through the altered circumstances under which they are placed. That which is true with regard to horses applies equally to cattle, sheep, and all domestic animals. As with disease so it is also with colour ; this not only becomes immediately hereditary, but passes back, as it were, through several generations; hence the necessity of looking to the purity of a breed. Jn illustration of this position I quote from Mr. Wilkinson’s Letter to Sir J. Sebright, wherein we read that, <‘ suppose a number of pure Devon cows to be crossed with a breed of perfectly white bulls, itis probable that some of the calves would be perfectly red, others white, and the greater part would partake of these colours jointly. If we were now to take the red heifers produced by this cross, and put them toa Devon bull, it would not be a matter of any great surprise if some of their progeny, though sprung from red parents, should be perfectly white, and stil] less that several should be mixed with this colour ; though it would not, by any means, be so probable as in the former instance. And were we thus to proceed through several generations, this white colour would be less and less apparent in the’ breed, but would most probably occasionally show itself in some individual or other. If, on the other hand, we were to breed from pure Devons only, that is, from those that have been carefully bred for a great length of time, we should reason- ably expect their offspring to be of the same colour with the parents themselves.” *
It has often been remarked, that wild animals undergo but very slight changes either in form, size, or colour ; the reason of this, in many tribes, is obvious. We may take the class to which deer belong as an example. At the season of rut, when the herds commingle, great contentions take place between the males, by which the larger number of females falls to the most vigorous and healthy males, and a strong progeny is the result. Besides which, many of the weaker animals not unfrequently are carried off by the cold and privations of winter, thus leaving parents of good
* « Romarks on the Improvement of Cattle, in a Letter to Sir J. 8. Sebright,” by J. Wilkinson. Nottingham, 1829.
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 251
constitutions, and able to support their young, during the earliest periods of their life. In these uncongenial seasons, the robust, however, do not suffer to an extent sufficient to produce permanent injury, as the range they take is extensive, and thus space makes up for the local deficiency of herbage, and exercise overbalances the sedative effects of cold. Many other reasons might be ad- vanced were it necessary: these, however, are eticient to show that here we have nature’s plan of selectzon, which man but umi- tates in the care he bestows in pairing animals to breed together. There are several singular circumstances connected with this division of our subject, "and which may be here mentioned, al- though their causes cannot now be discussed. To speak of the existence of affection, or of favourable impressions in a female towards a particular male of another variety, but of the same species to which she belongs, being so strong as to influence the form and colour of her offspring, the immediate produce of a different male, appears to be very speculative, if not otherwise objectionable. Love of animals to man is however an attri- bute the possession of which will scarcely be denied to them. We know but little of the affection they have for each other, nor of its bounds or duration, and consequently it is difficult to say whether the facts we shall mention do in reality depend upon it or on the one sexual connexion with a favourite male exciting a peculiar development in the still immature ova of the female. The physiologist and the psychologist could each bring forward many well-grounded arguments in favour of his particular view. With these we have not now to do, and therefore we proceed to narrate the cases themselves. The first is as follows:—< The Earl of Morton, being desirous of obtaining a breed between the horse and the quagga, selected a young mare of seven-eighths Arabian blood, and a fine male of the latter species, and the produce was a female hybrid. The same mare had afterwards, first a filly and then a colt by a fine black Arabian horse. They both re- sembled the quagga in the dark line along the back, the stripes across the forehead, and the bars across the legs. In the filly the mane was short, stiff, and upright, like that of the quagga; in the colt it was long, but so stiff as to arch upwards, and hang clear of the sides of the neck. In other respects they were nearly pure Arabian, as might have been expected from fifteen-sixteenths of Arabian blood.”* The second case is analogous, but it occurred in the pig :—* D. Giles, Esq., had a sow of the black and white kind, which was bred from by a boar of the wild breed of a deep chesnut colour: the pigs produced by this intercourse were duly mixed, the colour of the boar being in some very predominant.
* “ Bell’s British Quadrupeds,” page 392.
252 Anatomy and Physiology of the
The sow was afterwards bred from by two of Mr. Wesiern’s boars.. and in both instances chesnut marks were prevalent in the litter. which in other instances had never presented any appearance of the kind.” * The third we shall quote is thus given:—A cow, the property of Mr. Mustard of Angus, “chanced to come in season while pasturing in a field which was bounded by that of one of his neighbour’s, out of which an oz jumped, and went with the cow until she was brought home to the bull. The ox was white, with black spots, and horned. Mr. Mustard had not a horned beast in his possession, nor one with any white on it. Nevertheless the produce of the following spring was a black and white calf with horns.” +
We select one other case, and in another animal, namely, the dog :—‘‘ On one occasion when the Jate Dr. Hugh Smith was travelling in the country, accompanied by a favourite female setter, she became suddenly so enamoured of a mongrel that fol- lowed her, that to separate them, he was forced, or rather his anger irritated him, to shoot the mongrel. The image of this sudden favourite, however, still haunted the bitch, and for some weeks after she pined excessively, and obstinately refused inter- course with any other dog, At length she admitted the caresses of a well-bred setter ; but when she whelped, the Doctor was mor- tified with the sight of a litter which he perceived bore evident marks (particularly in colour) of the favoured cur, and they were accordingly destroyed. ‘The same also occurred in all her future puppings: invariably the breed was tainted by the lasting im- pression made by the mongrel.”{ The latter two cases, and many similar ones which might be related, particularly in the dog, would seem to show that mental impressions received at the time of cestrum are of themselves sufficient to stamp the progeny. Be this as it may, each has a practical bearing, which he who looks to the preservation of the purity of a breed will not fail to profit by. - Before concluding this section of our address, it will be right to allude to the circumstance that accidental varieties, or /usus nature, may, by care in their selection, form the types of a future progeny. The solidungulous breed of swine, the two digits or toes being united and covered with a hoof similar to that of the horse, is thus accounted for, as is also the ancon or otter breed of sheep.
We proceed to speak of the general structure and functions of the organs of reproduction in the cow and ewe—these are the vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries, with their several appendages. In an unimpregnated state the uterus is chiefly lodged within the pelvic cavity, but encroaches more or Jess within
“ Philosophical Transactions,” 1821. “ Quarterly Journal of Agriculture,’ vol. i., Essays, p. 28. “ Blain’s Canine Pathology,” 1832.
t+ *
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 293
the abdomen when in the opposite condition. The cavity of the pelvis is formed by the bones constituting the hips and buttocks (see fig. 1), and it is important to bear in mind that its
Hig. 1:
a.—'The pelvic cavity. c, c.—The projections, called the hips.
b.—The sacrum, a continuation of the spine. d, d.—The bony prominences of the buttocks. size will materially interfere both with the rapidity and safety of parturition. Many an animal is lost from too narrow a pelvis mechanically obstructing delivery. The practical breeder should therefore always remember, that external form is but a type of internal development, and consequently when the hips are narrow, the buttocks compressed together, and the spine drooping, the size of the pelvic cavity must be small, and parturition thereb rendered more dangerous. The annexed woodcut (fig. 1) shows the relative connexion that the bones of the pelvis have to each other, and the way in which they form the opening through which the foetus passes in delivery.
The vagina, 7 (fig. 2), extends from the external shape, the labia pudendi, to the mouth of the womb, Jb; it is placed at the - lower part of the pelvis, and has the rectum aboke it, and receives inferiorily the opening of the urinary bladder, h; previous to par- turition its walls become flaccid, and its inner surface is bedewed with a copious mucous secretion to favour the passage of the foetus. In the act of coition the intromittent organ of the male is placed within the vagina, and is thus brought in contact with the mouth of the womb, by which means the fecundating fluid is conveyed into that organ.
The uterus, or womb, a, is melel 3 in its situation chiefly by the broad ligaments, ff; at its anterior part its coats are continuous with the vagina, and posteriorly it is divided into the two horns, cc, which have attached to their extremities the Fallopian tubes, d d, and connected with these are the ovaries,ee. During the period of gestation the os uteri (mouth of the womb) remains
254 Anatomy and Physiology of the
closed; but at the time of parturition it is widely dilated, thus forming a free and open passage from the vagina to the interior of the uterus. ‘The coats of the uterus are three, and are united to each other by areolar tissue: the external or serous coat is smooth and continuous with the linmg membrane of the abdo- men ; it gives support to the viscus, and by its reflections forms the two broad hgaments. The middle or muscular coat varies con- siderably in strength and thickness, referable to impregnation or non-impregnation ; it is thin and comparatively weak in the latter case, and its fibres, which interlace each other in every direction, become greatly increased during gestation. On the muscular coat the expulsion of the foetus from the uterus in delivery partly depends. The internal or mucous coat has a velvety appearance, and it secretes the menstrual fluid; but its principal use in the lower animals is to form a bond of connexion between the mother and her young ones, by which their vitality is preserved and their development effected. To this we shall her eafter more especially
refer. Fig. 2
! I : i ff Nay ih fF ils Vay nilt i i yi it wy Wii Me if ) i] 1) Wd HT) if WH wen!)
aé.—The body of the uterus. J; f-—ine broad ligaments, b.—The os uteri. g-— The urinary bladder. ec, c.—The horns, one of which is laid open. h.— The opening of the bladder. d, d.—The Fallopian tubes, with their fimbriated i.—The vagina cut open to show the passage extremities, leading to the bladder and os uteri.
e, e.—The ovaries.
We will now add a few remarks on the causes of cestrum, 1m- pregnation, and the development of the foetus. The term cestrum
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 255
is employed to designate that condition of the female which shows her fitness and desire for the male. Its early or late appearance is governed by a variety of external circumstances. It is asso- ciated with puberty, and passes off on the approach of old age. In some of our improved breeds of cattle, especially when well kept and tended, cestrum comes on very early in life, and in such in- stances the animal often conceives when she is little more than a year old. ‘These early conceptions, however, too frequently prove injurious, by interfering with the development of the frame of the female, and also by deteriorating the quality of her offspring. Do- mestication, with its ordinary accompaniments, exerts a consider- able stimulating influence on the generative system; thus some animals which in a state of nature produce but one litter a year, will, when domesticated, bring forth several: such are the dog and pig. The immediate cause of cestrum is the existence of fully matured ova within the ovaries of the female; and when these escape, without coition and consequent impregnation, we observe a temporary cessation of the desire uutil ciher ova are equally perfected. It follows, therefore, that impregnation can only be effected when the ova are in this condition. The time occupied in the development of the ova differs in different animals, hence the variation we witness in their return to the male. The ordinary symptoms of cestrum in the cow and other animals are too well known to render it necessary to repeat them; and it is sufficient to state that they denote a highly excited state of the system. Impregnation is produced by the fecundating fluid of the male acting on the matured ovum of the female, which action probably takes placeintheovarium. Physiologists are acquainted with many phenomena which illustrate this. The way in which the male or seminal fluid finds its course through the body and horns of the uterus, and thence through the Fallopian tube to the Ovarium, is disputed. Its conveyance, however, is generally be- lieved to be effected through the agency of ioving filaments, called spermatozoa, with which it abounds. Hence it is all important that the Fallopian tubes should be pervious, or impregnation can- not take place. If their passage be obliterated, as we have often proved by the experiment of passing a ligature around them, the animal is as effectually rendered non-productive as if the whole parts had been taken away. The above facts explain how it is that, in the ordinary operation of spaying, the simple removal of the ovaries, leaving in situ the uterus with its horns and Fallopian tubes, destroys the desire as well as the power of conception, and when by accident or otherwise the operator leaves behind an ovarium, all other parts being cut away, the animal returns to the male, notwithstanding she is sterile.
The impregnated ovum when it bursts and escapes from its
256 Anatomy and Physiology of the
ova-sac is seized or entangled by the fimbriated edge of the Fallopian tube, and subsequently conducted into the uterus, where it excites that extraordinary action which leads to the for- mation of a new creature in every essential particular like its parent. Should the ovum not be caught by the fimbria, it falls into the cavity of the abdomen, but is not necessarily destroyed, as even here, although out of its proper matrix, it sets up an analogous action to that which otherwise would have been pro- duced within the uterus. Thus we have explained the formation of those extra-uterine foetuses, which are occasionally met with both in human and veierinary practice.
Without describing the earliest stages of the formation of the foetus from the impregnated ovum, it will be sufficient to remark that in the descent of the ovum into the uterus it receives a coating of effused fibrin, which forms the membrane termed the corium, by which the fcetus is attached to the inner surface of the womb, and obtains from the mother the materials necessary for its vitality and growth. The outer surface of the corium (see Pilate) is thickly studded in the cow and ewe with shaggy pro- jections, c, named cotyledons, and these are fitted into corre- sponding concavyities, 6, in the membrane lining the womb, the tunica decidua uteri, thus forming the bond of connexion we have spokenof. The tufts of the corium contain the ramification of the foetal vessels, and the concavities of the tunica decidua uteri the enlarged and elongated branches of the uterine arteries of the mother : thus by the two sets of vessels lying in contact, the blood of the foetus is purified and reinvigorated, as the maternal blood is more highly oxygenated than that of the foetus. The change which is effected is a chemical one, and analogous to that taking place in the lungs of an animal after birth ; the cotyledons, there- fore, may so far be regarded as the foetal lungs. Besides this important office performed by them, the vessels of the foetus are here surrounded by a thick layer of cells which absorb nutrient matter from the mother and transmit it to the blood of the foetus. Hence the cotyledons may also be compared to the stomach, or rather to the digestive and assimilative organs of a perfect animal. Thus it will be seen that although there is no direct communication between the vessels of the mother and those of the foetus, yet every requisite for its life and growth is provided for.
Besides the corium, there are two other membranes to be noticed as belonging to the foetus, the amnion, g, and the allan- toid, e. The amnion immediately surrounds the body of the foetus, and secretes a fluid, the iqguor amnii, in which it floats, and by which it is protected from those injuries which might otherwise destroy its life : it being a property of fluids to diffuse and modify
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 257
the force of a blow. The liquor amnii, with its investing mem- brane, is also made to serve a no less important office, that of being protruded into the mouth of the womb at the commence- ment of parturition, thus acting as a hydrostatic dilator.
The allantoid membrane is situated between the amnion and corium, where it forms a sac to receive the urinary secretion of the foetus: it is of large size in the lower animals, and its dimensions increase with the growth of the foetus, a phenomenon which is not. observed in the human subject. ‘The allantoid sac has a direct communication with the true urinary bladder by means of the urachus (see Plate, f). The umbilical cord, h, is composed of this tube, the urachus, and the arteries, 7, which convey the im- pure blood out of the body of the foetus to the cotyledons, and the veins, 7, which return it after having been re-oxygenated in the manner previously alluded to. It will be evident from the fore- going remarks, that a due provision is made for an equal distribu- tion of this pure blood through the body of the foetus, so that every part of the frame may be built up at the same time; consequently we meet with vessels in the foetus that are not needed after birth. To enter more fully into this interesting and instructive subject, would be to encroach on the practical part of our lecture, and therefore I proceed to speak of the symptoms of pregnancy and the period of utero-gestation.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE OPPOSITE.
a.—The interior of the uterus, studded with,b, | f:—The urachus, or passage through which the
the maternal portions of the cotyledons, urine is conveyed to the allantoid sac. c.—The outer surface of the corium, with the = g.—The amnion, the membrane which enve:-
tufts of the foetal vessels, some of which lopes the foetus, and secretes the fluid in
are seen in union with the maternal which it floats.
portions of the cotyledons. h.—The umbilical cord, showing, 7, the arte- d.—The inner surface of the corium. ries conveying the impure blood to the e.—The allantoid membrane, which forms a cotyledons, and, j, the veins returning
receptacle for the urinary secretion of the it after its purification.
foetus.
The first and most striking indication of impregnation is the cessation of cestrum, the animal not returning to the male at the usual period, or refusing his overtures when introduced to him, With this is associated a general quietude of the system and tendency to accumulate flesh, and in some animais, as the mare, a sluggishness while at work. Shortly afterwards the abdomen is found to increase in size, the loins to droop, and the muscles of the croup to be less prominent. The labia pudendi are swollen and flaccid, a blush of redness pervades these parts, extending into the vagina, from which an augmented quantity of mucus is discharged. The abdomen gradually gets larger and larger, and has a peculiar round appearance at its lower portion, with a falling im immedi- ately beneath the bones of the loins. As the period of labour ap- proaches, the mammary gland enlarges, the secretion of colostrum
Vole XxX: 8
238 Anatomy and Physiology of the
takes place within its follicles, and the teats are hot and full. When delivery is about to be effected, the animal becomes rest- less, often lies down, strains, rises again, changes her position, looks to her flanks, and carries the tail higher than natural, &c. As I shall have again to allude to these indications, I pass on to remark on the means taken to satisfy ourselves that a foetus does exist within the uterus. During the earliest periods of gesta- tion the question of pregnancy is a most difficult one to decide, but subsequently that which was ambiguous becomes clear, and we are then enabled to make a correct diagnosis. As the foetus is early located within the womb, so we shall find that, in such animals as will admit of the hand being passed up the rectum, we can detect its presence in the form of a small, roundish, and slightly moveable body situated below and without the intestine. ‘The hand being quietly kept in this situation, and pressed upon the enlargement, will occasionally recognise volun- tary movements in the living embryo. Some persons prefer to introduce the hand into the vagina, and carry it towards the os uteri so as to ascertain its condition; for, as I have else- where observed, the mouth of the womb is closely shut during gestation, and we also find at this time that it contains a layer of thick albuminous matter. There are serious objections to this latter proceeding, for when the manipulations are most carefully performed abortion will not unfrequently result. Per- cussion over the uterine region is also of great assistance; and auscultation has its advocates, who inform us that the ear placed in contact with the abdomen of an impregnated animal, and moved gently from spot to spot, will often detect the sound of the feetal heart. We confess, however, that we have not succeeded to our satisfaction, although we have made very many investigations of this kind. With reference to percussion, all are practically ac- quainted with the manner in which this is adopted, and the side of the cow, viz. the right, that is selected. The inclination of the impregnated uterus to the right side depends upon the rumen being situated in the left division of the abdomen. In the still more advanced periods of gestation, foetal movements can be seen while standing by the side of an animal; and as these are often found to be both stronger and quicker in the mare after drinking a full quantity of cold water, grooms and stablemen have frequent recourse to this plan; to which, however, we object, as spasms of the intestines and death have occasionally been produced by it. The period of utero-gestation, or length of time that the feetus is detained in the uterus, depends upon several causes, and differs in nearly every variety of animal unless belonging to the same tribe or family. The average period that the mare carries her young may be stated as being near to forty-eight weeks, the
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 209
cow forty, the ewe twenty-two, the bitch nine, and the sow sixteen weeks. It certainly is a remarkable fact, and one which shows the mighty power of the allwise Creator, that, in animals placed so high in the scale of organised beings as the canine race, full and perfect development of their young should be effected in the short space of sixty-three days. If, however, we descend the scale, we shall find that this is comparatively a long period to be occupied in the perfecting of the offspring of the lower animals.
The late and much lamented Earl Spencer has recorded in the pages of your Journal * his observations on the duration of gesta- tion in no less than 764 cows; and we are much gratified in being able to say that he has thereby rendered most efficient aid to science, as well as considerable service to the practical breeders of cattle. I refer to the table accompanying the paper for full details, but I shall nevertheless make an extract or two in con- sequence of the important bearing these statements have on this part of our subject :—‘‘ From the inspection of this table,” his Lordship says, ‘it will be seen that the shortest period of gestation, when a live calf was produced, was 220 days. Any calf produced at an earlier period than 260 days must be con- sidered decidedly premature, and any period of gestation exceed- ing 300 days must also be considered irregular, but in this latter case the health of the produce is not affected. It will also be seen that 314 cows calved before the 284th day, and 310 calved after the 285th ; so that the probable period of gestation ought to be considered 284 or 285 days, and not 270, as stated in the book upon Cattle, published under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.”
The facts here mentioned with reference to the great differ- ences in the time of gestation cannot, even in the present ad- vanced state of science, be satisfactorily accounted for. Dr. Car- penter, writing on the same subject, remarks that “ the average length of time which elapses between conception and parturition in the human female appears to be 280 days or 40 weeks. There can be little doubt, however, that gestation may be occa- sionally prolonged for one, two, or even three weeks beyond that period ; such prolongation not being at al] unfrequent among the lower animals, and numerous well authenticated instances of it, in the human female, being on record. Upon what circum- stances this departure from the usual rule is dependent has not yet been ascertained; but it is a remarkable circumstance, ascer- tained by the observations of cattle breeders, that the male has an influence upon the length of gestation—a large proportion of
* Vol. 1.,-p. 165; ef seq.
260 Anatomy and Physiology of the
cows in calf to certain bulls exceeding the usual period, and a small proportion falling short of it. Hence we must attribute the prolongation of the period to some peculiarity in the embryo, derived from its male parent.” * Alluding to the opinion which is also entertained with respect to the sex of the foetus influencing the time of gestation, Karl Spencer observes, ‘‘ there is a preva- lent belief among farming men, and I believe farmers, that, when the time of gestation of a cow is longer than usual, the produce is generally a male calf. I must confess that 1 did not believe this to be the case, but this table shows that there is some foundation for the opinion. In order fairly to try this, the cows who calved before the 260th day, and those who calved after the 300th, ought to be omitted as being anomalous cases, as well as the cases in which twins were produced; and it will then appear that, from the cows whose period of gestation did not exceed 286 days, the number of cow-calves produced was 233, and the number of bull-calves 234; while from those whose period exceeded 286 days, the number of cow-calves was only 90, while the number of bull-calves was 152.” This places the matter in so clear a light that it 1s unnecessary to add another word, and therefore I shall pass on to the last division of this lecture, namely, natural and preternatural parturition.
Labour, although perfectly natural, may occupy some time, or be rapidly effected; we observe a considerable difference in this respect among the different animals which man by domestication has rendered subservient to his use, Delivery under ordinary circumstances is quick in the mare, the birth of the foal rarely occupying more than a few minutes; in the cow half an hour may be regarded as about the average time after labour-pains show themselves; while in the ewe it not unfrequently happens that several hours will be spent in labour. I will here advert to a table in which [ have attempted a classification of labours, showing the several varieties met with in practice.
CLASSIFICATION OF PARTURITION,
DivisIon. VARIETY. Natural. . . . » Quick. Lingering. Twin, Preternatural . . . Lusus Nature. Every kind of Malpresentation. Premature! 9/2 0.0, do. do, Protracted . . . . Mechanical Impediments. Imperfect Throes, Impractical. . . . Maternal Defects. Instrumental . . . Destructive, or not, of the Foetus.
Uterine Dropsy, Hemorrhage, Rupture. Inverted Vagina, Bladder, Rectum.
Complicated . . .{Ruptured do. do. do. Scirrhous Os Uteri, Lacerated Vulva. &e. &e, &e.
* Carpenter’s “ Manual of Physiology,” p. 478.
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 261
Before describing preternatural labour arising from false pre- sentations, I must speak of natural delivery and the way in which it is accomplished. The symptoms denoting the approach of parturition have been before described, namely restlessness, fre- quent change of position, lying down, quick rising, straining, &e. ; these all indicate an excited state of the system accompanied with pain; this pain is not, however, of the ordinary character, but early becomes propulsive or bearing down, and also intermittent. It is important to distinguish between straining and the true pro- pulsive pains of parturition; the former not unfrequently depends on the dilatation of the os uteri, and this, in many cases, precedes labour for some days. The dilatation of the mouth of the womb is often associated with great pain, and this is apparently pro- portionate to the freedom with which it expands. Proprietors of stock should not be in too great a hurry with their animals at the time of parturition, although they may express much uneasi- ness by continued straining. I have known many cases where valuable animals have been lost in consequence of impatience on the part of the owner in seeking too soon to give assistance. [ have also frequently seen cases where the symptoms of approach- ing parturition have disappeared, and not returned for two or three days. A careful examination per vaginam may be made under these circumstances, and should the mouth of the womb be found only partially dilated, the case must be left to nature’s efforts, when all will generally end well. I should state, however, that in extreme cases of this description an ounce dose of tinct. opii administered to a cow, and followed by an ordinary aperient, will be productive of much benefit.
The act of parturition, by which the foetus is expelled from the uterus, is in part effected by the contractility of the muscular coat of the womb, and in part by the energetic action of the abdominal muscles, The cause of this contraction taking place at the expiration of a given time cannot be satisfactorily ex- plained: it does not arise from the full development of the foetus, nor its capability of living, comparatively, independent of its parent ; if so, neither abortion nor premature labour would occur. Nor can the length of gestation be said to depend on the mere life of the foetus, for then a dead foetus would be cast off imme- diately, no matter what might be the stage of gestation; whereas daily instances are met with where a dead feetus is retained the full time.
The mouth of the womb being freely dilated, and everything prepared for the birth of the young, the simultaneous and re- peated contractions of the uterus and abdominal muscles propel the foetus, covered by its membranes, first towards and next into the vagina. This advance is assisted by its position, and also
Anatomy and Physiology of the
262
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and is commonly designated “the water bladder ;” as soon as
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Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 263
With the birth of the young the mother experiences an immediate relief, but labour is not considered to be completed until the membranes have also been cast off. This is effected by a more gradual and far less painful action of the uterus, which first detaches the cotyledons from their numerous connexions, and then ejects the membranes by an augmentation of the propulsive power. After this the womb contracts with some force upon itself, and thus effectually compresses the mouths of the uterine vessels and stays the escape of blood.
It is not always that delivery is accomplished with the facility I have described, although the presentation is perfectly natural : delay may arise from a disproportion between the size of the fcetus and its dam, when force will be necessary to assist the expulsive throes. This assistance ought only to be rendered during the continuance of each alternate pain: by a steady adherence to this rule considerable resistance may be overcome, and the life of both the mother and her young preserved. We can call to mind one case in particular, where we succeeded to our perfect satis- faction in removing from a small Suffolk cow a calf, which weighed, when taken away, no less than 8 stone; (14 lbs. to the stone.) Upwards of two hours were occupied in the act; never- theless we had the gratification of being instrumental in saving both the parent and her offspring.
PROTRACTED LABOUR in a natural presentation may result from congenital disease of the foetus ; that whichis most commonly met with is dropsy of the abdomen, and this is depicted in the annexed sketch. Under these circumstances no advance can be made by the application of a proper amount of force, and the life of the foetus should at once be sacrificed. To effect the necessary reduction in the size of the body by giving an exit to the fluid, a trocar of sufficient length should be thrust through the chest into the abdomen (as represented in the sketch), and the stilet withdrawn, when the pressure which is brought to bear on the foetus, by the traction employed, together with the labour-pains of the mother, will be sufficient to forcibly drive the fluid through the sheath of the instrument, thus reducing the enlarged abdomen and facilitating delivery. Several years ago I was called toa mare in labour, where the obstruction to its progress depended on the accumulation of a large quantity of urine within the blad- der of the feetus, from a congenital closure of the urachus; the case cost me a great deal of labour and anxiety; the mare, how- ever, did well; and I make mention of the circumstance for the purpose of stating that I was led to the subsequent employ- ment of this imstrument from the difficulty [ then experienced. The particulars of the case are given at length in the ‘ Trans- actions of the Veterinary Medical Association for 1841-2.’
Anatomy and Physiology of the
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266 Anatomy and Physiology of the
a hook attached to the end of a cord within the orbit, draw firmly at this with the left hand, so as to fix the head against the brim of the pelvis below, and the sacrum above. Introduce with the right hand an instrument called a perforator, thrust its point through the bones of the head, and split them asunder by com- pressing the handles of the instrument; an exit will thus be given to the fluid, and the bones will consequently now yield sufficiently to allow the fcetus to pass through the pelvic cavity. Prior to attempting delivery it is, however, necessary to re-adjust the legs by bringing one after the other into the vagina, when mode- rate traction alone will be needed to remove the feetus; the force being applied in this, as in every other case, only during the maternal efforts to unburden the uterus.
Among the varieties of natural delivery we may name TWIN- LAKOUR, although it rarely happens that both foetuses are presented with the head and fore-legs advancing; one being thus placed, and the other in the reverse position. It1 18, however, in but few instances that the veterinary accoucheur is required when par- turition is delayed, simply in consequence of twins: the young are generally of small size, and the one which lies in the natural position is first expelled, thus bringing the parts into a fit condi- tion to favour the birth of the other. And here I would remark that neither the veterinary practitioner nor the farmer should ever leave a case of parturition in which his services had been required, without a manual exploration of the uterus to satisfy himself that another foetus was not present.
I pass on to consider some of the principal forms of PRETER- NATURAL PARTURITION; and the first to which I shall allude is the one depicted in fig. 6. It will here be observed that the two fore- legs have passed through the mouth of the uterus into the vaginal passage, while the head is turned back and lies in contact with the side of the young animal. This presentation is of common occurrence, and may be regarded as a mere alteration of the natural position, arising from the circumstance that, when the head reached the pelvis, instead of its passing onwards in a straight direction, it became turned a little aside, and the repeated throes of the mother acting on the hinder part of the body of the foetus, forced it into the position here represented. The difficulty of adjusting the foetus, and effecting delivery, will be proportionate to the distance the head is placed backwards. In some cases it will be found within our grasp, while in others we can only succeed, after repeated efforts have been made to reach the ear or the orbit. Under either circumstance we are first to secure the fore- legs, by passing around each, directly below the fetlocks, a cord having a running noose; they are then to be returned into the body of the uterus; after which pressure is to be made upon the
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268 Anatomy and Physiology of the
vation of the life of the mother is of the first consideration, and we must not hesitate to use instruments to facilitate our manipu- lations. A hook attached by a hinge-joint to a steel rod, and which has at the other end a cross-handle, removable at pleasure, is the most useful instrument which can be employed. The operator, taking the hook in his hand and carrying it towards the orbit, directs his assistant to advance or draw it backwards, as he may find it necessary, so as to aid his efforts to place it within the orbit. After having adjusted the head, the legs by means of the cords are to be brought up, and delivery accomplished in the usual manner,
The second form of false presentation that I shall describe is shown in the annexed sketch, fig. 7. It will here be seen that the head of the calf is protruding from the labia; in other words it is born, while the fore-legs and the rest of the body of the animal still occupy the vagina and uterus. The first remark to make is, that at the commencement of labour this was a pre- sentation of the head within the vaginal passage, unaccompanied with the simultaneous advance of tne legs, a condition of things of not unfrequent occurrence. Occasionally it will happen in this presentation, when the pelvis is large and the parturient pains very strong, that the head will be forced out; but far more frequently, its being born depends on the misapplied efforts of those who are called to give assistance to the cow. Farmers and others are too apt to imagine, when an examination proves the head of the foetus to be located in the vagina, that by applying force and bringing it through, delivery will be effected; but it should be always remembered, that in mares and cows, and even in ewes, unless the lamb is very small and the pelvis of the ewe of full dimensions, it is impossible for this to be done. In a head presentation the operator should first place a cord, with a running- loop, on the lower jaw of the foetus, next exercise force sufficient to return it into the uterus; afterwards adjust the legs, then bring up the head by drawing at the cord on the jaw and proceed to deliver. Should he be called to a case like the one figured, no attempts to return the head, or to draw away the foetus, as I have before stated, ought to be made, as these will be altogether futile. The foetus must at once be sacrificed that the life of the mother may be saved. Let an incision be made through the skin from the pole to the muzzle, and another from the gullet to the end of the lower lip; dissect the skin on either side from off the head so as to unite the upper and lower cuts, and then detach the skull from the trunk at the occipital joint. Having done this, attach a cord to the incised skin, and put back the neck into the womb; feel for, and place in, their proper position the oe legs, then brine up the neck and deliver.
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 269
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The third kind 1 shall mention is represented in fig. 8. In this instance one of the fore-feet protrudes through the os uteri, while the other foot and the head are still in the body of the womb—the latter being curved downwards and pressing on the brim of the pelvis. We have here an occipital and foot presenta- tion, but which is not very difficult to overcome unless the labour- pains are very powerful. The first step to be taken is to secure the fore-foot in the manner described in the preceding cases, and
270 Anatomy and Physiology of the
the next to fasten a hook to one of the orbits. The hand is then to be re-introduced and carried towards the chest, following
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the direction of the protruding limb, and sufficient force employed to drive the foetus backwards ; this being accomplished, the hand is to be shifted to the upper part of the neck immediately behind the occiput, when moderate pressure being here made it will be effective in straightening the head and neck. When the operator has thus far succeeded, his assistant is to draw the cord attached
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 271
to the head moderately tight to prevent it again bending down- wards. Another cord is now to be carried in and made fast to the other leg, as shown by the dotted line in the sketch. The legs are then to be alternately brought forwards, and by simul- taneously drawing at them and the head the fceius will be ex-
tracted. The fourth variety I select for explanation is shown in fig. 9.
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272 Anatomy and Physiology of the
In this instance the calf is lying on its back in the womb, with the legs turned towards the spinal column of the cow. Labour here is usually of long duration, and various expedients are adopted by practitioners to adjust the foetus prior to the employment of traction to remove it: but in most cases [ have proceeded as follows :—first a cord has been placed on the lower jaw to secure the head so that at will it might be brought forward. Next, similar cords have been fastened on each fore-leg; the one attached to the leg represented in the fore-ground running on the outer side of the other limb, marked ain the sketch. An assistant has then been directed to draw tightly at this so as to facilitate © our endeavours to turn the foetus on its side, by placing the hand near the withers, as represented in the sketch. This being effected, the legs are brought into the vagina, and then the head : these additional manipulations will cause the foetus to turn, as it were, upon itself, when it may be safely extracted.
One of the most difficult forms to deal with, and which in- variably costs the practitioner considerable labour and anxiety, is that represented in fig. 10. Here we observe that the foetus is lying with its head towards the chest of the cow, having the hinder parts pressed against the brim of the pelvis, and the hind legs placed under the body, so that on introducing the hand we can only feel the breech. We have here to reverse the posi- tion of the hind-legs and bring them into the vaginal passage, as delineated in fig. ii, or delivery will be impossible. The great difficulty in doing this arises from the little command we ier over the parts from our inability to grasp the hind legs: consequently many years since I was led to construct a simple instrument to enable the practitioner to surmount this difficulty. The instru- ment, which is sketched in fig. 10, consists of a curved piece of steel having an aperture at one end, to which a small cord is attached, at the other a female screw is placed, which admits of its junction to a whalebone staff, and between the two another opening exists, into which is inserted a stronger cord.
Taking the staff with the two cords in his hand, the operator is to pass the instrument between the thighs of the calf, and push it in front of the stifle-jomt, and then with a turn of the wrist to direct the small cord outwards. An assistant holding the instru- ment, the hand of the accoucheur is now to be introduced and directed to the front part of the stifle-joint, when the cord can be readily grasped and brought out; thus the limb will be embraced between the two cords: the whalebone stafi is then to be detached, and the smaller cord to be run through a noose at the free end of the larger one, when, by drawing the smaller cord, the curved part of the instrument will travel round the limb, bringing with it the larger cord, and thus a looped ligature will be placed upon
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274 Anatomy and Physiology of the
turn the legs as to place them in position of fig. 11; after which, ordinary traction during each throe will enable him to effect delivery with safety, both to the mother and the young.
The above constitute the principal varieties of preternatural presentations; there are, however, some modifications of each, but these will not require from me a further explanation. The rules I have laid down are applicable as general principles, and can be adapted to each particular case.
Besides the methods of extraction which I have spoken of, it will sometimes be necessary, from the great size of the foetus and other causes, to have recourse to embryotomy, or the dissection of the foetus. Ina lecture of this kind it is not to be expected that we can describe this process, which must necessarily differ in almost every instance, and ought never to be undertaken by any but those who have made this subject their especial study. One rule, and only one, I will mention, and that is never to remove a hmb before having dissected back the skin, so that the various instruments employed may be attached to it, thus securing all the advantages of the limb to exercise traction upon without having the disadvantage of its size.
To the veterinary surgeon I need scarcely say that, varying the position of his patient will materially assist his efforts, and that he is enabled to manipulate with far greater facility when the animal is standing ; but whether standing or otherwise, he must not cease his endeavours to adjust the fcetus and accomplish its early removal.
During protracted labour the patient’s strength should be sup- ported by diffusible stimulants and cordials, for the expenditure of the vital powers is very great: many cases are lost even after delivery from inattention to this circumstance; good ale, with the addition of some alcoholic spirit, constitutes a most useful agent for the purpose.
When the foetus has been extracted, no stimulants should be given, as these would bring on inflammatory action; but to quiet the system, a dose of tenet. opiz, varying from 1 to 2 ounces, ought to be exhibited. The quantity here named wili be proper for a mare or cow, a fourth part of which will be sufficient for a sheep. And I should also state that, although my remarks have been chiefly confined to parturition in the cow, still the rules laid down are equally applicable to other animals.
It was my original intention to have spoken of the consequences of parturition and the diseases and casualties immediately con- nected therewith, but having already exceeded the limits of an ordinary lecture, I must bring our observations to a close, thank- ing you sincerely for the kind attention I have received, and expressing a hope that the principles I have laboured to expound
Maternal Organs of Reproduction in Animals. 275
will hereafter prove of advantage in regulating your proceedings in these difficult and dangerous cases.
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XV.—Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. Part I. By J. B. Lawes.
A PROMINENT feature in the best agriculture of Great Britain is the concentration of produce on the land, by means of the purchase of cattle-food or direct manures; and it may safely be affirmed that, with a rapidly increasing population and a limited area of land, this system must become more and more general if the enhanced demand for human food is to be in any degree adequately met by the supplies of the British farmer. The importance to him, therefore, of a clear conception of the nature and sources of value — of manuring substances generally, as well as of the characteristic differences or identity of those derived from the various resources at his command, will at once be obvious; yet, it will be admitted that even the most intelligent and observant practical farmer is far from possessing that clear and definite conception of the rationale of the practices he adopts, which alone can prove an unerring guide in his operations, and ensure such conduct of them in detail as is consistent with true economy, and calculated to yield the full advantages which a perfect application of their inherent principle must attain. Much has, however, been done of late years, both by societies and individuals, towards providing that basis of facts without which fixed principles in agriculture, and a right understanding of the practices already approved by experience, cannot be attained; yet, much remains to be done before even the more general and fundamental usages can be satisfactorily explaimed, whilst the circumstances of their local adaptation may be said to constitute a distinct and not less important, and at the same time more extensive and permanent, field of inquiry.
The growth of green and fodder crops, to be consumed by animals upon the farm, is recognised as a most important source of manure, and it is decided by the practice of the best farmers, that the full advantages which such a course is competent to yield are only attainable when it is aided by the purchase of foreign food for home consumption, or by the direct supply of purchased manure, and it is indeed probable that increased production at home is far more necessarily dependent on the accumulation of material from external resources than is usually supposed. Before, however, the exact economical effects of alternate cropping, the consumption upon the farm of roots or other home produc- tions, or of purchased food, or the supply of foreign manure, can be clearly appreciated or explained, much precise information has yet to be provided, as to the chemical circumstances connected with the growth and appropriation of the more important plants which enter into rotation, and the employment of food and manure
Agricultural Chemistry —Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 277
from abroad; and the investigation which we have in progress has been designed more especially with a view to providing data which may legitimately serve to elucidate these more fundamental practices of an improved agriculture. ‘The more important ques- tions connected with such an inquiry relate—to the conditions re- quired for the growth of wheat and the allied cereal grains, which constitute so material a proportion of the saleable products of the farm, and the nature of the exhaustion resulting from their growth and export—to the growth, and sourees of restorative influence, of root-crops—to the growth of the more important agricultural] plants of the leguminous family, both those which are cultivated for their seeds, perhaps to be sold off the farm, such as beans, peas, &c., and those, such as clover, trefoil, vetches, &c., which are supposed to be employed in the production of meat and manure—and, to the chemical circumstances involved in the con- sumption of food by animals upon the farm, whether of home or foreign growth.
With respect to the first two of these branches of the inquiry, we have already laid before the readers of this Journal many of the results of our experiments relating to them, and in the course of their diseussion have endeavoured to show their bearings upon the general principles of agriculture, so far as they seemed to be indicated by a consideration of the facts adduced ; and also, to direct attention to the more immediate and direct useful applica- tion of them to such of the details of practical farming as they tended to explain and enforce. Both before and since the publi- cation of our former papers many additional facts relating to the subjects respectively of which they treat have been aceumulated, which, when leisure is found to complete and arrange them, we hope to make the subject of future communications. Before doing so, however, it seems desirable to give some account of the results obtained in connexion with the other two branches of the investigation; and, although neither that relating to the chemical circumstances of the growth, the uses, and the adaptations in a system of alternate cropping, of the leguminous plants, nor that having reference to the consumption of food on the farm asa source of meat and manure, are at present in that state of for- wardness which will admit of so full an application of them as we could wish, yet it is thought that a consideration, especially of those relating to the production of meat and manure, will add something to the information already at command on the subject, and serve to give an useful direction to the observations and con- ceptions of the mtelligent farmer respecting it.
We propose then, in the present article, to give an account of some carefully conducted experiments, undertaken with the view of ascertaining, what becomes of food when consumed by animals
278 Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
upon a farm, and in what form, and in what proportions, some of their most important constituents come to be available for the market-—thus taking into account the quantities and qualities of the manure obtained, as a consideration by no means less essential in estimating the comparative value of different foods, than that of the amount of meat produced. Looking at the subject in this point of view, it has not been our special aim so much to deter- mine between one food and another as such, or between this or that mode of preparation, as to select those the general value and applicability of which are well recognised. Some information on these points will nevertheless be afforded by our results ; and, as — the question of the comparative feeding values of barley and malt has of late been much discussed, several comparative trials have been made with them, and the results of these will be more fully detailed and considered than would otherwise have been necessary, on account of the general interest at present excited by the subject.
The experiments upon feeding were commenced early in 1847, and bullocks and pigs were the animals first selected. It was soon found, however, that the former were in several respects ill suited to our purpose. Owing to their great bulk, and the large amount of food consumed and of manure produced, it was im- practicable to keep such a number under exact experiment at the same time as would ensure anything like an average constitution of animal, and it was deemed See and useless to rely upon the results of a single animal on each description of food. Bullocks, moreover, are sometimes very unmanageable, and as it was essential to our object frequently to put the animals in the scales, this was a material objection ; though by usage indeed, those even which are at first the most violent and refractory become compa- ratively quiet and easy of management. ‘Thus-—four bullocks were taken for experiment, of which the first weighing took several hours, yet they were after a short time weighed daily without any difficulty whatever, the animals frequently running playfully into the scales as soon as they were let loose. In consequence how- ever, it is supposed, of too frequent weighings and other sources of disturbance incidental to experiment, these animals gave but a very small increase, and, owing to this circumstance and to the difficulty of fairly sampling, arising from their great bulk and weight, no analyses were made af their food and excrements. The pigs gave a tolerable increase, but no attention was paid to their excrements, as they had not been fed upon ordinary food alone, but upon the dried flesh of the whale which remains after the extraction of the oil, and which is used in Newfoundland as fuel. ‘The animals increased upon it remarkably fast for a time, but it required a considerable dilution with other food, otherwise
Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep feeding and Manure. 279
they soon became surfeited, a fact which is not to be wondered at, considering that the substance contained about 12 per cent. of nitrogen, a circumstance which we shall see as we proceed would be much in favour of its use, so far as the resulting manure is concerned,
Sheep were next taken, which, from their docility and manage- able size, are convenient subjects for experiment; and, owing to their very general utility, they seem better fitted than any other description of farm-stock to be assumed as their type, in an in- vestigation of the general chemistry of the production of meat and manure, though at the same time it must be admitted, that it would in some respects have been desirable to have included bullocks also in the inquiry. It being essential to our object to collect, without loss and free from litter or extraneous matter of any kind, the whole of the excrements of the animals, both liquid and solid, to be accurately weighed and sampled for analysis, pens were constructed in a spacious barn, each about 8 feet by 74 feet, and having a flooring of rafters, on the plan proposed by the Rev. A. Huxtable, the width of the rafters being about 3 inches, and the distance between them about ? inch, so as to allow the whole of the excrements to pass through. Below this floormg, which is raised perhaps 2 feet or more above the ground-level, sheet- zinc is fixed at such an incline as to allow the urine to run off, while the dung is retained upon it. The urine passes through a spout into a covered pail kept constantly underneath to receive it, and to which a straining basket is fixed to stop any solid portions that may come down, the dung being removed from the zinc at pleasure for weighing, sampling, &c. The food, of course, was also accurately weighed. This arrangement appears sufficiently simple, and well calculated to attain the end desired, but we shall see as we proceed, that in the details of practice difficulties are met with from which serious errors in result may easily arise, unless great care be taken to avoid them. These sources of error are chiefly connected with the great difficulty of obtaining samples for analysis which shall accurately represent the budk of matters so heterogeneous and variable in their composition as the food and excrements of animals; and when it is remembered that in some processes of analysis a few grains only of substance are operated upon, and that from the composition of these that of the whole is calculated, it will readily be understood, that in an investigation like that in question—which itself constitutes indeed from the beginning to the end one process of quantitative analysis—the greatest care is requisite, if erroneous conclusions are to be avoided. And, that the reader may be enabled to decide as to the legitimacy of such as we shall found upon the results, a full de- scription of the experiments will be given, which moreover may
280 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
further serve both as guide and monitor to any who may choose to follow in a field of inquiry at present somewhat new.
The sheep employed in the experiments were Hampshire Downs, and the selections were made from large flocks, usually nearly 100 being weighed; from these a few animals of nearly equal weight and apparently equal make were taken, and one put into each pen—a second lot being then taken and divided in the same way, and so on—until each pen contained the desired number. It will nevertheless be seen by the results, that the selections and distributions were in some cases far from satisfactory, and that, although five sheep were placed in each pen, the average result of — these can by no means be taken as representing unconditionally the relative feeding value of the foods employed.
In the account which we shall now proceed to give of several separate series of experiments, the order adopted will be, to discuss the whole of the results—first, so far as they relate to the pro- duction of gross increase in live weight—secondly, as to the qualities and composition of the increase obtaimed—and, thirdly, as to the production of manure. We shall then endeavour to give a summary of the more important facts elicited, and to show the connexion between the conclusions to which they may lead, and those arrived at in our former papers,—concluding with some re- marks on their general application to the details of practical agriculture.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.—WSeries I.
The first series of sheep-experiments was commenced on Ja- nuary 5, 1848, and was continued until April 11, a period of 13 weeks and 6 days. ‘There were 4 of the experimental pens, as described above, employed, into each of which 5 animals were placed, their weights at the commencement being as under.
SERIES I.
TaB LE 1.—Showing the Weight of Sheep in pounds, when put up, January 5, 1848.
Numbers of Sheep. Pen 1. | Pen 2. | Pen 3. | Pen 4. a eee age lbs. lbs. or bas lbs. No. 1 , 1183 1173 M7; 115
a tigeteeye 1123 1123 114 1143 Oe inehibiady idee 111 112 1103 112
Ah coer a tisdale 110 110 110 1104 Oe Ne val oes 106 96 107 95
Total weight per Pen | 558 548 5583 5462
The sheep were brought from the field, where they had been receiving swedes and hay chaff; and, with the exception of the 5th
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 281
sheep of pens 2 and 4, which appeared however the most eligible at command at the time, the 4 pens seemed to compare sufhi- ciently with each other, so far as weight can be taken as a guide. The results will show, however, that although one of these light sheep soon proved itself unfit for experiment, the other increased considerably more than one of the heavier sheep on the same food, and also more than several of those on the different foods. ‘The special foods selected were—for pen I, oil-cake; for pen 2, oats ; pen 3, clover-chaff; and pen 4, oat-straw chaff; besides which, all were supplied with cut swedes as many as the animals chose to eat. ‘Taking | Ib. of oil-cake per sheep per day, as a fair and ordinary allowance, it would in some respects have been desir- able to apportion the other dry foods so as to provide an equal amount of nitrogen in each. ‘The experiments were commenced however before the analyses of the foods had been undertaken, so that no allotment founded on their exact nitrogenous contents could be made, and it was supposed that considerably more than two pounds both of oats and of clover would be required to equal 1 |b. of oil-cake in this respect. These quantities would ob- viously be too great; but it was decided to gain the end approxi- mately, by giving to pen 2 as many oats, not exceeding 2 lbs., and to pen 3 as much clover-chaff, not exceeding 2 lbs. per sheep per day, as the animals would eat, and to pen 4 oat-straw chaff ad libitum. It was found, however, that even the oil-cake was not eaten to the full amount provided; and, as might be expected, that the consumption of oats, and clover-chaff, did not nearly approach that required to equal in supply of nitrogen that of 1 lb. of oil-cake; whilst, the oat-straw chaff was taken to such a small extent, that its use was entirely discontinued after a few weeks.
In the following table are given the average weekly consump- tion of food per sheep in the several pens, and the pounds weight of increase of each animal between each period of weighing (chiefly weekly intervals), throughout the course of the experi- ments. Wherever the minus sign ( — ) occurs before a figure, loss anstead of gain is indicated.
The statement of the results thus in all their detail is useful, exhibiting as it does the liability to error in judging of the feed- ing value of different foods, or of the disposition to increase of animals of different descriptions, unless both a sufficient number of animals are experimented upon, and the trial be extended over a considerable period of time. By a glance down-the columns of the table it is seen, that there is not a sheep which does not during one or more, sometimes consecutive periods of the experiment, show a gain of 4, 5, or even 6 or 8 Ibs. in a week, whilst at an- other period it apparently gains nothing at all, or even loses weight. It is perhaps scarcely necessary to observe, that these
282 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
SERIES I.
TaBLe 2.—Showing the Average Weekly Consumption of Food per Sheep in each Pen, the pounds Weekly Gain or Loss of each animal, the weekly average for each Pen, and the total and mean weekly gain of each animal throughout the period of the experiment.
PEN 1. PEN 2. Periods. Average Food per Week per Sheep. Average Food per Week per Sheep. Oilcake, 64 lbs. ; Swedes, 89% lbs. Oats, 8+ lbs. ; Swedes, 824 lbs. No. Sheep Numbers. wer Sheep Numbers. eet From To of gain or gain or los: SSS SSS SSE HOS OP DAYS Te, ideas 2aipi oi Bs dle, Sibel gabe clits ree oal MMe Ne aan mee Ie Me SUNN rc Jan. 5 | Jan. 18 13 11¢ Wie uf 3 5 3°7 134 12 11 1 6 4°7 18 25 q 3 $ 4 24 2 2°4 %/- 1 14 5 —1t 0°9 25 | Feb. 1 q 2 44 1 14 0 1°8 2 2h 0 j= ota 1-2 Feb. 1 8 if 3 34 24 2 14 2°5 4 3 14 4 2 1°5 8 15 " 2 re 1 $ #] 1°3 4 ed a 3 2 204 15 22 7 3 i 4h l 2 2°3 34 24 4 24 5 3B°5 22 29 7 0 4 0 j— £¢]/— 4 |—0°2 2 2 |— 2 |— 2 0 0:0 29 | Mar. 7 7 5 4 5 2 —13 0°6 5 4 3 3 6 4°2 Mar. 7 14 Gi- £]— 2 t $ 0 |—0°3 34 2 6 4 2 3°5 14 21 q 24 8 14 34 12 9°95 4} 5 1 0 5 3°] 21 28 7 |- 1 =e 0 |j— 3 1 |-1°0 0 |—- 2 |—2 |— 3 |— 2 |—-1°8 28 Apr. 4 vf 2 1 4 |— 1 3 1°8 0 1 0 |- 6 1 |-—0°8 Apr. 4 11 7 4 2 1 1 4 | 2r4e 0 2a} 4 4 |=) | 1°9 Totals. 97 | 365|345|320]|130 | 140 355 | 36 32 ll 27 lbs. 0z.| 1bs. oz.| lbs. oz.| lbs. 0z.| lbs. oz.| lbs. oz.} Ibs. oz.| lbs. oz.| lbs. oz. ibe. oz.| lbs. 0z.| lbs. oz. Means. 29% |2 74 | 244] 0 148| 10114] 2 84] 29 | 2 44 | o 124] 1 148] 2 oF 1 PEN 3, PEN 4, Periods. Average Food per Week per Sheep. Average Food per Week per Sheep. Clover Chaff, 8} lbs. ; Swedes, 116 lbs. | Oat-straw Chaff, 4 1b.; Swedes, 1203 lbs. Week No. Sheep Numbers. wee Sheep Numbers. Mis From To of gain or igein or loss per Oss per Days. pee pS [advan Ge. | Sheewsy s1: Me es Rabe e: #01 | sheep. Jan.) 5: Jan, 18 13 2 8 9 84 114 4°2 6 5g 4 CEO eee) Dez 18 O50 say 3 Sey anaes SE | evel ae ee arias == 24) | 0°43 25 | Feb. 1 é 4 24 3 34 5 3°5 2 1] 23 $ $ 1°5 Feb. 1 8 q 4 34 g 2 5 2°3 34 34 + 6 ste 3°4 8 TB, PF Ale hd een alos | Qin | aded ia) <oeoe ermal Fol ale Selec. | O'S 15 LIM ie? 5¢ | 8 42| 5 Sehilwd one S312 5 vo ei! 22 29 7 14 24 |- 1 — 2 0 O2/— 7 |— 34 t$i- #4 oe —2°6 29 | Mar. 7 " 5k 3 4 4 4 4°4 8 " 2 2 ay 4° Mar, <7, 14 7 1 —- 1 14 4 1} 1°4 J— 2 1-1 j-1 oe O°7 14 21 q 4 4 24 2 44 3°4 4 6 3 5 oe 4°5 21 28 7 0 0 0 j-— 1 0 |—0°2 0 j- 3 J-— 1 |— 2 Of —1°5 28 Apr. 4 7 4 0 1 4 2 2°24,-— 1 0 0 2 66 0°2 Apr. 4 11 7 |I— 2 2 0 2 1 0°6 2 4 |— 2 ie il a O°7 Totals. 97 | 25 30 274 31 42 21 234 12 184 lbs. oz.| lbs. oz.| 1bs. oz.| lbs. oz. | lbs. oz.| lbs. oz.} lbs. oz.| lbs. oz.| lbs. oz.! lbs. oz.| Ibs. 0Z.| lbs. oz. Means. 1 124] 2 22 | 1 154] 2 34 | 30] 232]1 8 | 1 108] 0 138] 1 53 1 54
* Sheep No. 5, Pen 4, lost weight considerably from the commencement, and being evidently very unwell, was removed from the pen after the third week, and fed upon better food; its increase is therefore omitted trom the table.
Agricultural Chemistry-—Sheep- feeding and Manure. 283
variations mainly depended on the amount of the matters of the food retained at the time in the stomach and intestines of the ani- mals, an irregularity which was guarded against as far as seemed practicable without imposing unnatural restraints upon the animal, the plan adopted being, to weigh them always about the same hour of the day, and just before their second meal of dry food, their troughs being, however, constantly supplied with turnips. This variation is indeed a source of error which it 1s very difficult to control, and it is probable that many of the published results of very rapid increase are subject to objection on account of it. The fluctuation, as would be supposed, seems to occur nearly as promi- nently with those sheep which in the main show a good result as with the rest; and, although there is nevertheless considerable difference, yet there is, excluding the extreme cases of loss or gain of individual sheep, to an extent an uniformity throughout each pen at the several periods, and even between pen and pen, as a view of the columns of weekly average gain or loss in each,
placed side by side, will show. SERIES I.
TABLE 3.-— Showing the Weekly Average Gain or Loss per Sheep in each Pen throughout the course of the experiments.
PERIODS Brora aera ae nee | From. To Penl. Pen 2. Pen 3. Pen 4 1 Jan. 5 | Jan. 18 S617 4-7 AOD) 2°79 2 18 295 2°4 0:9 2°7 0°4 3 25 | Feb. | 1°8 1-2 3° Thos) 4 Feb. 1 8 9) 1:5 2°3 3°4 5 8 15 1-3 2:4 — 2:2 0:2 6 15 22 2°3 3:5 a2 1600 bog 7 22 29 | ,—0:2 0°0 0:2 —2°6 8 29 | Mar. 7 0°6 4+2 4°4 4°7 9 Mar. 7 Id | —0°3 3°95 1°4 0:7 10 14 21 5:5 3° or 4 4°5 I] 21 28 | —1:°0 —1°8 —0:2 —1°5 19) 28 | April 4 T's —0:8 2:2 O22 13 April 4 ll 2°4 i9 0:6 0:7 1°8 1:9 2°] 1°5
|
Thus it is seen that during the Ist, 4th, 6th, 8th, and 10th periods, there is throughout the pens a general disposition to more than the average increase, especially at periods 1, 8, and 10, excepting in pen 1, but on reference to the details it will be found that the small average of pen | at the two latter periods, de- pended upon a considerable loss of one single animal which was so unwell as to require removal and change of food for a time. Again, at periods 5, 7, 9, and Il, there is throughout the pens a gain much below the average, or even a loss, the cases rather ex-
284 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
ceptional being pen 2 at periods 5 and 9; on the other hand the uniformity is most striking at periods 7 and 11; at the former, pen 3 is the only gainer, to the small extent of 0-2 lb., pen I losing that amount, and pen 4 considerably more; whilst at period 11 there is a loss of weight in every pen. Considering the uni- formity as to time and circumstances of weighing, it is scarcely likely that these results are attributable to an irregular allotment of food on the days of weighing, but is more likely to be de- pendent on the state of the weather as to temperature and other circumstances, so influencing the appetite, the action of the lungs, the liver and the circulation, as materially to affect the © temporary amount of the contents of the alimentary cavities and passages. A reference, however, to the exact amount of food consumed, and to the maximum, minimum, and mean tempe- ratures during the several periods—whilst it is not without interest as bearing upon these points—does not so satisfactorily account for the facts observed, as to justify a full consideration of them in this place. The remarks already made, however, will serve some useful purpose, if they direct the attention of other experimenters to sources of errors which have not unfrequently been overlooked, and which, if not avoided, are in danger of leading the farmer sadly to miscalculate in reference to a very important branch of his operations.
The following summary will bring to view the average weekly increase of each animal upon the same and the different foods, for the entire period of 13 weeks and 6 days :—
SERIES I.
TasLe 4.—Showing the Average Weekly Increase of each Sheep for the entire
period of the Experiment.
Quantities stated in Pounds and Ounces.
Average Average Weekly Increase of each Weight Sheep in pounds and ounces. ean Pen | of Sheep Racd a Week Sh eekly Nos, | at com- ‘ood consumed per Week per Sheep. : l Increase e mence- Sheep, | Sheep, | Sheep, | Sheep, | Sheep,| in each ment. No. 1. | No.2. | No.3. | No. 4.| No. 5.{ Pe? Pen lbs. Ibs. oz. |Ibs. oz. |Ibs. 02. |Ibs. oz. Ibs. 02. |Ibs. oz. l 1114 | Oileake, 6$]bs.; Swedes, 89$lbs.. . | 2 92/2 74/2 44/0 142/1 0 |114 2 1093 | Oats, 84 lbs.; Swedes, 824 lbs. . 2 8 |2 9 | 2 42] 0122] 1142/2 0% 3 | 111% | Clover Chaff, 8} Ibs. ; Swedes, 116lbs, . | 1124/2 24| 1 15¢|2 32/3 0 |2 33 4 | 113 Swedes, 1204 lbs.; Oat-Straw Chaff,$1lb. | 1 8 | I 102 | 0132/1 53); -. 1 5%
Such is the variation between one sheep and another as shown in the Table, that taking the results of each pen collectively, little exact information can be obtained from them respecting the re- lative value of the different foods as meat-producers. In pen 1 with oil-cake, there are 2 sheep giving an amount of increase con- siderably less than half that of the other 3 on the same food. In pen 2 with oats, there is one animal scarcely exceeding 1-3rd
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 285
the mean increase of the other 4. In pen 3 the clover-chaff does not give a single bad result, and owing to a comparatively Jarge gross increase in one case (which, as we shall afterwards see, was an over estimate of the real progress), gives the highest mean of all the pens. As has been observed already, the oat-straw chaff was almost entirely refused by the sheep of pen 4, and it was therefore discontinued after 4 weeks’ trial. One of the animals, moreover, No. 5, lost from the commencement, and it was re- moved unwell from the experimental pen after the 4th week, but recovered on better diet. The 4 remaining, give, as might be expected, an increase very inferior to the mean of the other pens, and the result can scarcely be fairly compared with them.
Setting aside pen 4, the mean increase of the first 3 pens, taken together, is believed to be a fair practical result ; and it is probable that such variations upon tlie same food as have been noticed are by no means uncommon, and although they arise chiefly from variations in constitution, and cannot therefore be attributed to the food consumed, yet it is probable that they will be more likely to exhibit themselves under a high than under an inferior diet, provided this be not deficient.
In endeavouring to estimate the comparative feeding value of the several descriptions of food with such a small number of animals on each, and with such variations among them, perhaps the truest indication will be obtained, by excluding those sheep which appear to have been unhealthy, or at least ill adapted to food, the general value of which is fully recognised. Leaving out of view then the 2 sheep of pen 1 before mentioned, one of which was at one period so unwell as to require removal for a time, and the single sheep in pen 2 whose increase was so far below the average, we shall find that the oil-cake had given the best in- crease, the oats coming 2nd, and the clover-chaff 3rd. It is, however, chiefly as showing the probable average increase ob- tainable from a given amount of foods of known value and com- mon utility, rather than as pointing out any nice distinctions between them, that the results are useful.
In the next Table are given the results of analyses of the various foods, by which we shall be enabled to estimate the amounts of some of the more important constituents consumed.
The large quantities of the foods operated upon will surprise those accustomed to ordinary laboratory processes. It has been found, however, that the composition of most agricultural sub- stances is so heterogeneous, as to require that special attention be paid to the averaging and preparation of the specimens; and, that it is necessary to take from the bulk with great care somewhat large quantities in the first instance, more especially of roots and other succulent or moist substances. These, if necessary, are partially dried, to render them capable of being finely divided
286 Agricultural Chemistry —Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
SERIES I.
TaB.eE 5.—Showing the per Centages of Dry Matter, Ash, and Nitrogen, in the Foods.
Description of Food, particulars of Sampling, &c. Per Centage results.
Dry Matter. Ash. Nitrogen. Period of Fresh C ore re Particulars | Weight | Description ae ae See ae and taken | Inclu- on In In In In of Date of for sive ania fresh dry fresh | dry Food. Sampling. Drying,}| of a ~ | Sub- | mat- | sub- | mat- From To &e, Ash y+ | stance.| ter. | stance.| ter. lbs. oz. Swedes, No. 1. | Jan. 5 | Feb. 4 | From the field,| 43 2% | 10°58 | 10°002| 0°577 | 5°458 | 0°263 | 2 49 Dec. 1847 Swedes, No. 2. | Feb. 4 | Apr.11| Clamped, Nov.| 14 84 | 12°12 | 11°49 | 0°632 | 5°214 | 0°151 | 1°25 1847 ; Sampled, Feb. 9, 1848 OZ American Oil- | Jan. 5 | Apr.11 |} At commence- 50 89°50 | 84°08 | 5°420 | 6°060 | 5°083 | 5°68 cake ment Oatsi, 64 2 Jan. 5 | Apr. 11 | At conclusion, 25 | 85°18 | 82°24 | 2°940 | 3°450 | 2°078 | 2°44 Clover Chaff . | Jan. 5 | Apr.11 | From large 100 | 78°61 | 72°33 | 6:280 | 7°990 | 1°847 | 2°35 quantity cut at commence- ment Oat-Straw Chaff | Jan. 5 : ; 25 | 81°28 | 84°86 | 6°418 | 7870 ,
and well mixed, and smaller proportional amounts are then taken
if required for fully drying and burning ; for organic analysis. It will be seen, however, that notwithstand- ing these precautions, we have in some cases fallen short of the desired result. The dryings and burnings are accomplished by means of apparatus arranged specially for the conduct of these processes on the scale required i in agricultural investigation. The drying-bath consists of a fubles cased iron box with water between, heated by a furnace underneath, the internal dimensions being about 5 feet 6 inches length, by 2 feet 6 inches width, and 18 inches height. The burnings are conducted on sheets of pla- tinum placed in a series of cast-iron muffles about 16 inches in length, about 5 in width, and 3 to 4 in height, which are so fitted into a cast-iron furnace, heated by coke, as to prevent any dust whatever from the fire getting into them, a gentle yet sufficient draft over the surface of the burning substance being secured by means of a chimney of iron piping, fixed into the back of each of the muffles, and projecting some height externally to the furnace.
Referring to the results of the Table. it is worthy of remark, that the eedes No. 1, which were consumed from January 5 to February 4, had a per centage of nitrogen nearly double that of swedes No. 2, which were commenced at the latter date, and lasted to the end of the experiment. The former were part of an
a portion being reserved
Agricultural Chemistry-—Sheep- Feeding and Manure. 287 experimental crop grown by rape-cake, ammoniacal salt, and superphosphate of lime; the latter were grown in the ordinary course of farming from farm-yard dung and superphosphate of lime, We have shown in a former paper in this Journal, the effect of nitrogenous manures in increasing the per centage of nitrogen in iiiel white turnip, and the oa lis given above, support the supposition that the composition of the swede turnip js in- fluenced in the same way. It is probable, however, that a part of the result may be due to a difference in the stage of maturity, and to the circumstances of storing in the two cases. Weight for weight the oil-cake is seen to contain more than twice as much nitrogen as either the oats or the clover; the latter is the poorer of the two in that respect, and also so far as dry organic matter is concerned, and this latter moreover in the clover would probably consist to a much greaier extent of inert woody fibre, which would pass through the animal unchanged, than in the oats. ‘The clover, however, contains a much larger per centage of mineral matter. Below are arranged side by side the total amount of fresh food—of dry organic matter—of mineral matter—and of nitrogen (the three latter calculated from the data provided in the last Table), consumed in each pen during the entire period of 14
weeks ;
also the total increase of live weight obtained at their
expense, from 5 sheep in the first 3 pens, and from 4 in the 4th
pen.
SERIES I,
TABLE 6.—Showing the Amount of Food or Constituents consumed, and of Increase produced.
Total o. Total Description and Dry aetna Total Nitrogen ee Bess Increase | Quantities of Food con- Organic Nitrogen in In- : B ; Matter ix crease, to in Live sumed in each Pen Matter bowie con- crease at | 109 con- Weight. in 14 Weeks. con- ened sumed. | 3 percent. non. sumed. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. é Oilcake, 4564 lbs... 383% 242 232 Pen 1. Swedes, 6286 lbs. . A 6914 384 11% ; : 5 Sheep. | 3: ; ; Flac ibe eS 3°9 11°14 Total’ ye) sila 1075 634 35 “Oats, 598 Ibs... 4914 173 124 Pen 2. 143 Swedes, 5756 lbs. . . . 633 414 10$ 4°3 18°43 5 Sheep. — — ea = Total 1,124 583 224 (cee Chaff, 578 lbs. . 418 364 10¢ Pen 3. Swedes, 81214 lbs. 899 50 14§ 5 : 5 Sheep. 157 ; ‘ e aewtd| (eter y i hacen ea 4°7 18°43 Motal: su 4 i lseSl7 864 253 | Oat- Straw Chaff, 294 lbs. . 243 13 Pen 4, _ Swedes, 6742 Ibs. A 747 41} 124 : = 4 Sheep. is ; ——. — oe va Total TW 434 | 124 19 Sheep. 5074 For the 4 Pens 4,2884 2514 96 15°2 15°83
288 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
The actual amount of nitrogen contained in the gross in- crease in live weight of an animal fed upon food containing a given amount of that substance, cannot of course be experiment- ally ascertained; it is believed, however, that the estimate of 3 per cent., by which the last 2 columns of the Table are ar- ranged, is not wide of the truth, though it is more probably too high than too Jow, as we shall have occasion to show further on. Assuming the figures as given in the Table to be correct, it is seen, that by the feeding of 19 sheep for 14 weeks, during which time they consumed 1662 Ibs. of dry food, and 26,905 Ibs. of swedes, containing together 96 Ibs. of nitrogen, only 15% Ibs. of that element are obtained in the increase of weight produced. We learn too from the Table, that although the actual amount of nitrogen consumed in pen 4 was only one half that in pens 2 and 3, yet the amount of nitrogen retained by the animal to 100 con- sumed is almost identical in the three cases, thus indicating a close connexion between the amount of nitrogen in the food, and that of increase produced. It is possible that the actual per centages given may not be correct, yet the relation of the amounts to each other is probably a pretty close representation of the truth. It would appear, however, that the sheep upon oil-cake, although they consumed a larger amount of nitrogen in their food than those in either of the other pens, yet they gave an increase not only less in actual amount, but far less in proportion to the nitrogen con- sumed, than those in either of the other pens. This result is partly due to taking into the calculation the 2 sheep which in- creased so very much less than the rest; yet other experiments seem to show, that however important to the progress of the ani- mals a Jarge amount of nitrogen in their food may be, their in- crease will by no means be unconditionally in direct numerical proportion to the amount of the nitrogen consumed, especially when this is increased beyond a certain limit.
With the exception of the last two columns, of which chiefly we have been speaking, the figures in the preceding Table repre- sent the actual experimental results obtained. For more conve- nient reference, however, and for the study of the general bearing of the facts as to the probable amount of food or constituents re- quired to produce a given effect, they are arranged in Tables 7 and 8, which follow, so as to show the weekly consumption in each pen by every 100 lbs. of live-weight of animal, and also the amount consumed to produce 100 lbs. of zncrease. Before leaving Table 6, however, we may remark, that of the mineral matter con- sumed, there were in the Ist pen 60°8 per cent., in the 2nd 70:2 per cent., in the 3rd 57°9 per cent., and in the 4th 95-9 per cent. derived from the home-produced root-crop, the remainder being due to the dry, purchased or marketable food.
289
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VOL. X.
290 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
In explanation of the construction of Table 7, it should be ob- served, that the live weight, which is supposed to have consumed the total food in each pen, as given in Table 6, is the mean of the weight throughout the entire period of the experiment, obtained by adding together the total weight in each pen at the commence- ment and at the end of the experiment, and dividing by 2. Sekt may be well also here to mention, as affecting the correctness of Tables 7 and S—and, indeed, Table 6 also, Gunga the subject will be again referred to—that the samples of swedes No. | were taken direct from the field on the day they were carted from the land, a short time previous to the commencement of their use, and those of swedes No. 2, also near to the commencement of their consumption ; so that, if, as we have shown in a previous paper, a considerable exhalation of water takes place from roots and other succulent substances after they are gathered in, it is evident that the quantities weighed out to the animals, after being cut day by day as the experiment proceeded, would represent a larger amount of the fresh swedes such as came to the feeding-shed than was indicated by the scales. Indeed, it is to be feared that the amounts | of dry matter and of nitrogen in the swedes, are from this cause estimated too low in the Tables given above; and, judging by the aid of other results since obtained, it is supposed that they ought to be raised by about one-sixth of the total amount of those sub- stances stated as contained in the swedes. Supposing the error to exist, it would not materially affect the correctness of any observa- tions we shall hazard respecting the results, though its probability will certainly add to reasons already suggested for the exercise of caution in founding any nice calculations 1 uponthem. It is thought better thus to give the results as they were actually obtained, with such observations as may indicate in what respects they may be subject to error, than arbitrarily to amend them, upon data which are uncertain.
With these precautionary remarks we may safely call attention to the fact, that whether we take the figures as given in the Tables, or consider them amended, it would seem that there was very nearly the same amount of gross dry-organic-matter consumed weekly by 100 lbs. of live weight of Aaiural G in all the pens ; and when we consider that in the Bred pen with clover, which gives the highest amount, there would be a larger proportion of it inert woody fibre, which would pass through the animals unchanged, than in any of the other pens, and that in the 4th pen, which gives the least dry-organic-matter consumed, the swedes only would probably contain less effete matter than the mixed foods in
* This rule is applied in all the cases of a similar kind occurring in this article.
Agqriculiural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manuye. 291 Gg y -P 4
the other cases, it would appear that the amounts of really digest- ible dry organic food were almost identical in the four cases. The amount of nitrogen, on the other hand, which is consumed by a given weight of animal within a given time, varies exceedingly in the four pens: there being to 100 lbs. live weight per week,
0:39 lb. in pen I, 0:25 1b. in pen 2, 0°26 |b. in pen3, and (0:17 lb.
only inpen 4. If we now turn to Table 8, however, we shall see that the amount of nitrogen required to produce a given increase of weight was almost identical in pens 2, 3, and 4, with oats and swedes, clover and swedes, and swedes only, respectively : whereas in pen |, with oil-cake, in which by far the largest amount of nitrogen was consumed within a given time, a less effect was pro- duced by a given amount of it. It would thus appear that con- sumption 1s regulated much more by the amount of available non- nitrogenous substance in the food than by that of nitrogen; whilst the increase would seem to beara much more direct relation to the quantity of nitrogen consumed, when this does not exceed a certain limit—beyond which, however, the proportional effect would ap- pear to be lessened. From Table 8, again, we gather that although,
in pen 4 with swedes alone, a given amount of nitrogen produced an effect equal to that of any of the other foods, yet this would seem to have been attained at the cost of a larger consumption of available non-nitrogenous food; for not only is the gross amount of dry-organic-matter consumed to produce 100 lbs. increase greater in pen 4 than in any of the others, but it is supposed that less of it would be necessarily at once effete than in any of the other cases. From these facts we learn, that, so far at least as the production of increase is concerned, the nitrogenous constituents were, in pen 1 with oil-cake, in excess over the available non- nitrogenous ones; whilst in pen 4, on the other hand, where swedes alone were given, they were in defect.
Turning to the seneral rather than to the particular facts brought to view, we find—taking the average results of 15 sheep fed for 14 weeks on oil-cake, or oats, or Ane SRAe. and swedes, as shown in the bottom line of Table 7—that every 100 lbs. live weight of animal consumed weekly 61 lbs. of the special foods, and 763 of swedes, which contained together 1311bs. of dry- organic-matter, 2 lb. of mineral matter, and 0-3 lb. (about 5 oz.) of nitrogen; and from Table 8 we learn that 377 lbs. of the spe- cial foods and 4658 lbs. of swedes—the two containing 814 lbs. of dry-organic-matter, 463 lbs. of mineral matter, and 192 lbs. of nitrogen—were required to produce 100 lbs. increase in live weight. The results of pen 4 are excluded from this estimate, as the food consumed in it, being almost wholly swedes, can scarcely be compared with those of the other pens, nor was it, like them, such as is usually considered sufficient for animals preparing for the butcher.
wu 2
292 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
We have now given an account of the first series of experiments with sheep, so far as they relate to the production of increase in gross live weight of animal, to which point we for the present confine our attention. In so doing it has been our endeavour to arrange them in such form as would be convenient for their study, and to make such remarks respecting them, as may serve usefully to direct the attention of the reader to the chief points of interest in the results; at the same time pointing out several sources of irregularity, nil seem to demand that great caution should be prenceed boon in the conduct and the interpretation of such ex- periments.
We shall now proceed to consider the results of a second series, in relation, first, also to that branch of the subject to which alone we have as yet referred—viz. that of the production of gross hive weight; leaving the question of the probable qualities or SUR tion of the increase obtained, for consideration further on, in refe- rence to all the series collectively.
EXPERIMENTS with SHEEP.—Serves IT.
This series, like the former one, comprised 4 pens of 5 shee each. On June 5, 1848, 80 yearling wethers (part of a flock of 200) were weighed, from which the selection was made. In matching the animals in sets of 4, for the distribution of one of them into each pen, attention was paid rather more to the breed and make than to actual identity in weight, any discrepancy in re- spect tothe Jatter in one distribution, being compensated for, as far as possible, in the next; so that eventually a sufficiently equal weight was obtained in each pen, as the following Table will show:
SERIES II.
Tas iE 1.—Showing the weight of sheep in pounds when put up, June 5, 1848.
l |
| Sheep Numbers. Pen 1. | Pen 2. | Pen 3, | Pen 4. | Leese. bss) eee | Ibs.
PAC UNG: et Ace ne eTOD 195.) |) 199.) ae
| Oh ey eaten pri 193°) Vy le alee SW. ONS 125 LZ e120 ke (2210)
| ern Peiemremibige ania |). 10%
| 5 Bel ee CS 1i9 eae) | 124
| Total weight perPen| 607 | 607 | 602 602
The sheep having corresponding numbers in the several pens do not agree here so well as in the former series. The result will show, however, that the selection was probably somewhat an im- provement upon the last ; at least, with one or two exceptions, the variations upon the same case are much less, and do not so seriously interfere with the legitimacy of the comparisons between pen and pen, unless, indeed, inoderate uniformity be insufficient to give |
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 293
confidence in results obtained from so small a number of animals in each case. It should be mentioned, however, that No. 5 sheep, in pen J, fell ill and died in the fifth week of thd experiment, when his place was supplied by another from the same flock, having a weight the same as the one which was taken away before it had lost by the attack of illness.
Whilst, as we have before stated, the primary object of the ex- periments was not alone to decide the comparative value of diffe- rent yet allied descriptions of food, as such, the selection of foods was nevertheless made in the hope that some interesting facts bearing upon such points might be ascertained; and those taken were—for pen |, oil-cake; pen 2, linseed; pen 3, barley; and pen 4, malt. It would have been desirable to have given green clover, or tares, or some other summer green crop, as the comple- mentary food, such constituting the usual practice at the period of the year at which the experiments were made. But as such substances are even more variable and changeable in their compo- sition than roots, particularly as to the amount of dry matter they contain, 1f was decided that it would be quite impracticable so to supply such food as to obtain a trustworthy estimate of the actual amount of dry solid matter consumed, and as the accurate deter- mination of this point was essential to our object, there was no alternative but to supply dry hay, the composition of which would vary little, compared with that of any other substance at command. Clover-chaff was therefore taken, free allowance of water being of course necessary. It may be objected that the supply of dry food only, with water, was not in all respects favourable to the progress of the animals; it is, indeed, more than probable that a larger increase would have been obtained upon other food; but the re- sults by no means lead to the conclusion that they are far short of such as are frequently met with in practice, or that the value of the comparative indications Is thereby lessened.
In the absence of previous knowledge by analysis of the compo- sition of the food, it was considered desirable to give to each sheep i lb. per day of the special foods, as this was about the quantity that would be given of them in ordinary practice. It was found, however, that the sheep receiving malt would not eat it well at first, though afterwards they did so. The Eee was allowed to all,in any quantities the ‘animals chose to eat it; the amount, of course, being always accurately weighed, as alee" was that of the water taken. The oil-cake was broken small under an edge-stone. The linseed (excepting during the first few weeks, when some was found to be voided whole), the barley, and the malt, were also ground,
Below are given the average weekly consumption of food per sheep per w Bel and the pez riodical gain or loss of each animal throughout the course of the experiments :—
294 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
SERIES II.
TaBLeE 2.—Showing the Average Weekly Consumption of Food per Sheep in each Pen, the pounds Weekly Gain or Loss of each animal, the weekly average of each Pen, and the total gain of each animal throughout the period of the
experiments, Pen I. PEN 2. Periods. Average Food per Sheep per Week, Average Food per Sheep per Week. Oil-cake, 7 lhs. ; Clover Chaff, 22 lbs. 2 0z.] Linseed, 7 lhs.; Clover Chaff, 20 lbs. a | Weekl : Ww kly No. Sheep Numbers. Esoaed Sheep Numbers. eos From To of een or ain or ——— loss per ss per Days. | 2 3. 4, 5. |Sheep.J 1. 2: Se ite sb oD. Sheen | i Sk June 5 |June 13 gs |—ll 1 |-9 |-1 8 |-21]—6 |—4 1si—9 | 4 |—2°5 13 200 aeag! 8 3 vi Sen a IN fej fer tl eG Oe e es lt 7-2 20 on Peg ital a4 6 14] 4¢| 5:5] 3h] 5 4 5 4¢ | 4:4 27 | July 4 U 0 2 2 B25). 84 | eee 1¢ 0 Sale ai Dera) | (O53 July 4 1 eicdaal aes 3 ie 1 2 |— 2h) o2}t—1 #}-4 | 1 iz —0°4 aial 18 7 3 14 5 3 pallertets 3°1 5 1¢ 4 poe vl DECENT 18 25 ul 0 0 oS 1. (= 6e) tO tes 0 Soe te?) o4 25 | Aug. 1 7 t— OF i oe Ay eg $i) 03 52 0 5 2 4 Vb) 3°38 Aug. 1 8 7 5F | 4 |— 2 6 8 4°3 ly 4} 4 | 1] 4 3°0 8 15 7 Gye | nei 2k 7 ze + 4°] {— 2 $ 2 | EP pci Ol. 15 22 a OF 2 2% 1 i peg 0 |j-—- ¢ Os} 2 2a One 22 a9] 7 3) OS See TS 1) OF) * Osnls See mem 1d 20 29 | Sept. 4 7 0 Q |— 2 2 0 0°0 ays 4 7 | 4 24) 4°1 Sept. 5 12 Thy ee 1 j- 1 i) L092 0 | 0 1 | Tey eat (056 12 19 7 Sith 3 8 4 6 5°2 ae OE Oy teary BR a Be 1°6 19 26 7 4|/-—3 |-3 |- 14 ]/-—1. |-1-6 [— 2 2 2 IS LOS 26 |} Oct. 3 7 3t i ot 2¢ 3 4°3 3 |— #¥$ 1 1 Wass Le] Octave 10 Th VSO P= Sie ies 2 |-~ 1 |-0°9 0 2r ail 1 Sh pon 10 17 | ) 3 1 1 0 1°0 0 j—~ 5 |—2 j= 1 |= 2 1-2-0 Total 27 33 | 32 30 304 16 23 44 28 32 | | PEN 3. PEN 4, Periods. Average Food per Sheep per Week. Average Food per Sheep per Week. Barley, 7 lbs. ; Clover Chaff, 20 lbs. 14 0z.|Malt, 6 lbs. 9 0z.; Clover Chaff, 20 Ibs. 12 oz. | = | Weekly = |Weekly | No. Sheep Numbers. ayerage Sheep Numbers. Ears From To of | gain or feain or . = Oss per as a) er Days... 7 Oy. 3. 4. 3. Seep: eat mace 3. 4. Jea| Sheep: June 5 |June 13 Sai =aS and 8 4 = 4 j= O72 | hee eel 1 5 1—0°5 13 20 uf 14 4 6 3 9 ee 8 13 8 1 2 6°4 20 27 7 loi 2 5 3 il 0 0 2 4 4 2°0 27 july, . af 14 2 1 0 — 3 0°3 4 0 0 j-—I!1 2 1°0 July 4 | 7 i ys} 2 3 1 2 1°8 4 1 1 5 2 2°6 ll 5 7 6 j-1 2 3z 4 2°9 |j— 1 2 2 i— 1 0 0°4 18 25 naa ip. cael 22 1 0°5 |— 2 1 A eae ay 2 | ol 25 | Aug. 1 he | ete eset alleen 1 1 |—0°4 silts al 13 } 1d | 1:7 Aug. 1 8 u 2 3 2 4 At | 38°0 $ d 4 14 Peale 21 8 15 7 4 |—2 2g lheisO, hams Sey be Ons al aces 0 Oy, wasp 1°2 15 Pe ey 0 3 34) 4 SP) 278) pera 2 Sy |o Bea pee 22 29 7 j-1 1 j— ¢'—4 —1 = —I°1 f= 2 J! pe %¥.—3 (-1°5 29 | Sept. 5 7 5 3 4 3 6 4°2 Syrup, Oe Om 4, | 428 Sept. 5 12 7 bE j—- B= Fj 2 = aw (Se = ey as a ee ee it 0-6 12 19 rp oni 3 5 7 bi al S378 Seelam 4 13 See oss 19 26 7 5 OMS et ee Ost aa eee ee 2 i/—1 |-6'l 26 | Oct. 3 7 2 3 2 6 54 Bye 41-3 1; 2 5 1-2 Oct. 3 LOR 7 0 j-1 /-1 OG Ue | 1 ) 0 |— 2 |—0°4 10 Wait 7 j— 3 0 0 ji— 1 ae 1 \—0°8 [= 2) j= 2) #— 2 0 }—1 |-1°4 Total | 28 17 29 36 | 29 | 23 22 21 2 WES |
When dike sheep were put up it was intended to allow them a week in their new situation and upon their new food before com- mencing the experiments, they having been fed upon green clover
Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 295
in the field; but as almost every animal lost, and some very con- siderably, during the first 8 days, and then gained within a week or two very large amounts, it was thought that the average results would be overstated if the first week were not taken into ac- count. This is accordingly done ; and as the clover-chaff was not weighed during the first eight days, it is supposed to have been taken at the same rate as the mean of all the other periods. With this exception, and the replacement of No. 5 sheep in Pen 1 by a fresh one, as already noticed, the results of the ‘Table are exactly as obtained by experiment. On inspection of the ‘Table it will be seen that there is not a single animal which does not indicate a loss of weight at some, generally several periods of the experiment; whilst at others there is frequently during one week, or for several weeks together, an increase far above the average. Indeed such is the apparent generality of this fluctua- tion, which was so prominent also in the case of the first series, that the plan frequently adopted of deciding upon the quality of different foods by putting animals for a week or two on one, and then a week or two on another, and comparing the results, would seem on this account alone to be sufficiently condemned.
The average weekly gain or loss placed side by side will show how far there is any uniformity as to fluctuation throughout the several pens at the different periods of weighing.
SERIES II. TABLE 38.—Showing the Weekly Average Gain or Loss per Sheep in each Pen throughout the course of the experiment.
eey Average Gain or Loss per Sheep in pounds
AINTOIDS and tenths. Pen 1. Pen 2, Pen 3. | Pen 4, j From To Oil-cake Linseed and Baey and Malt and | and Clover. Clover. Clover. ie! Clover. | | 1 | June 5 | Junel3 —2°] | —2°5 —0°2 — fb) —0°5 | 2 20 5:0 | hate, 1s2 { 6°4 te 20 27 ay) 4:4 2°] | 2°0 | | 4 27 | July 4 2°2 | 0°3 0°3 | 1-0 | 5 July 4 1] —0°2 —O0:4 1°8 | 2°6 6 st 18 3°1 Deva 2°9 0:4 | 7 18 25 —1-0 0-4 0:5 0°] | 8 25 | Aug. 1 0:3 3°3 —0°4 Mishra) gor ql cue: J 8 4:3 3°0 3°0 me Leese | LOE 8 15 4] Hou 0:7 | tee? | 15 Os a PO 0:7 2°8 S104 lee Dre: 22 29 | 0:7 2°0 — dy, | ali Shay al 3 | 29 | Sept. 5 0-0 ALO} | 4-2 4°8 | 14 | Sept. 5 F b= 0-2 0:6 |} —2°2 | 0-6 yea ks) 12 19 | 5:2 1°6 3°8 2°35 1G: «| 19 26; -1°6 0:2 0:3 | —OQ-l | 17 26° Oct. Ss 4:3 | 11 ood | 1-2 18 Oct. 3 ~~ JO} —0°9 | 2°1 —0:2 — —Or4 ae 10 1 ilisss 4120 Se ee
296 Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
It can scarcely be said that there is more than a general coin- cidence as to tendency to greater or less gain or Joss at the-dif- ferent periods, as shown in this summary. Some coincidence, however, there certainly is, for we find that at almost every period three if not four pens will bear the same general character as to gain or loss at the same time; and that, if any figure which is discrepant, be not explained on bnalenence to the table of detail, by the evidently casual or unhealthy state of a single animal, a change to the opposite character immediately succeeds. There is at any rate a sufficiency of regularity to show that its cause is connected with a condition of the animal, apart from the casual irregularities in their management and the supply of their food, which a closer observation in relation to the health of the animal, and to the external circumstances affecting it, may serve to ex- plain. Whatever be the cause of the fluctuation, however, the fact of it should be kept constantly in view by the experimenter, in order that erroneous conclusions founded upon temporary or accidental indications may be avoided.
In the following table are shown the average weekly consump- tion of food, and increase of each animal, throughout the entire period of nineteen weeks :—
SERIES II.
TABLE 4.--Showing the Average Weekly Consumption of Food per Sheep,
and the Average Weekly Increase of each Animal in pounds and ounces.
Average | Average Weekly | Average Weekly Tounds exci, | a Increase per Increase per | Weight Description and | Sheep Numbers. Sheep in each | Sheep in each p of Sheep | Quantity of Food per | Pen during the | Pen during the oe sae Sheep per Week. ee evod iret dnevugehs a ment. | 1 9 3 4 5 experiment. experiment. | lbs. 02. | ‘ Oil Cake 7 00 + s | 3 1 1) pt j El Loe ere Nalsreseien Le sie 63] 1 114] 111] 1 93/1 98} 1 oF ee } | Linseed 1 One} | ¢ L ° ° Al 1 r m1) Sgillunene, Wis clurcem ty rad of | ose 1 332 5) 1 7a). 1 8 IW “ Barley Fone | | oO 4 e ae aln s L ps 3 1203 Clover Chath.20u1 4K 1 7H O 142] 1 82 1 N44 1 8} I (s3 114 ie Malle pelts 16 1G ye] igs fee 4 | 1204 | Clover Chaff 20 12 | 1 3) W251 1 1 1 42) 1 10 1 44 113 | | | | |
By this summary it is seen that the average weight of the ani- mals in the first and second pens, having respectively oil-cake and linseed, were identical at the commencement of the experi- ment; that of those in Pens 3 and 4, upon barley and malt, is I lb. less than that of the first two pens, but is identical in the two pens, the foods of which are supposed to compare with each other. The amounts of oilcake in Pen |, and of linseed in Pen 2, are seen also to be identical. In the case of the pens upon barley and malt respectively, owing, as before stated, to the sheep on the
Agricultural Chemistry —Sheep- Feeding and Manure. 297
latter not taking all that was provided for them at the com- mencement of the experiment, the average weekly consumption of malt is rather less than it was intended it should be, and by so much less than that of barley. We shall see further on, how- ever, that this circumstance brings the experiments in some re- spects more nearly to the conditions required for exact comparison of the relative feeding values of the two substances than had the designed amount been eaten; for, though the actual weight of malt was less than that of barley, the amounts of dry-organie- matter consumed in the two cases are almost identical, and the quantity of malt actually taken moreover exceeded to a small ex- tent that which would have been yielded by the amount of barley, with which its effects have to be compared.
It will be remembered, that in the first series of experiments there was so serious a variation in the degree of progress of the different animals on the same food, that the results were consi- dered to be quite unfit to be taken as representing as they stood the comparative values of the several foods. This variation was specially remarkable in the pen upon oil-cake, and considerabl y with that upon oats, and it was attributed to a faulty matching of the animals; and it was suggested also that any defective vigour of constitution might probably be more likely prominently to show itself in disease upon the higher foods, such as oil-cake, than upon others. Be this as it may, Table 4, just given, shows a great improvement in this respect, and especially in Pen 1, in which again oil-cake is the special food, the uniformity is quite as good as could be at all anticipated. In Pen 2, with linseed, there is much less regularity than in Pen l, there being one sheep giving an increase low compared with the rest, and another giving one as much higher; the two giving a mean so near to that of the other three, however, that the average of the entire pen may pro- bably be taken as not far from a fair measure of the effect of this food as compared with the others. Although the general uni- formity within each pen in this entire series is aa as to give some confidence in the results compared one with onners yet the average weekly increase is throughout considerably less than in the case of the former series, notwithstanding that the animals were somewhat heavier to begin with, that the temperature of the period was considerably higher, and the amounts consumed of some of the more important constituents of food were greater. This may be supposed to be due to the fact of confinement within doors being less appropriate during the summer period, and perhaps indeed not attended with benefit as in the colder one, in part to the want of green food, which 1s so much relished during the summer season, ‘and also in part to a rather long con- tinuance of the same food, for in the last column of the Table in
298 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
which is given the average weekly gain at an earlier period of the experiment, we see that it exceeds that calculated on the entire period. ‘That the confinement and want of green food were not without effect is rendered probable from the fact that the re- mainder of the flock from which the experimental sheep were taken, and which were allowed the run of 40 acres of very highly manured clover, and about | lb. each per day of oil-cake besides, gave during eleven weeks about double the average weekly in- crease of those in the experimental pens, as the particulars given below of those whose marks remained legible will show.
TABLE.—Showing the Mean Weekly Increase of 30 Sheep, fed upon Green Clover, and 1 lb. each per day of Oil-cake, during a period
| sh | | Stise Weicht | Weight Pounds | Average | | Nomber. | Jones. | alluvai | Wiveske | meena | | | | | lbs. tenths, &ce. | l EEN FS ORCR 4D. 1 ROAOO | y) V0 Sil 133 30:4.) 1k seueeene | | 112 147 35 3-18 | 1 os 108 148 ag” of Ses aiGat | Ae Vineet 134 33 1) We BaC0 haa 166 143 31 ce eunteoRee 7 100 13] S1ou' | eee 8 123 161 Bann lh eee 9 115 155 40 ¢ on esre4 10 9gi 142 432 4:00 | 1] 113 145 32 POG) OE | | 12 126 157 31 2-82 | 13 11] 145 a) 34 3-09 14 117 Vase Al 3°73 15 113 145 32 2-91 16 129 162 33 3-00 17 116 154 38 3°45 18 109 149 A0 Hl eee 19 114 145 31 2-82 20 111 142 31 2°82 21 103 138 35 3°18 NPD 110. 146 36 3:27 pees 107 145 38 3°45 He eae 116 146 30 2°73 25 101 144 43 3°91 26 97 131 34 3-09 27 Jide 158 43 3:91 28 101 140 39 3-54 29 109 143 34 3-09 30 116 152 36 3°27 3,3174 4,300 1,072 3° 28mean
The rate of increase here indicated falls little short of the wider estimates usually formed on this subject; and, whilst we are satisfied of the correctness of the figures given above, and do
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 299
not doubt the statements of others, yet we are convinced that such results are very mischievously misapplied, if it be concluded that they 1 in any degree fairly represent the average increase ob- tained in practical farming. Indeed the circumstances under which these sheep were placed were in every respect the most favourable that could be imagined, viz. summer weather and the feed of a luxuriant crop of highly manured clover, with oil- cake besides—conditions which at best can be equalled during a few months only of every twelve.
We now turn to a consideration of the composition of the food consumed in the experimental pens :—
SERIES It.
TABLE 5.—Showing the per Centages of Dry Matter, Mineral Matter, and Nitrogen in the Foods.
Per Centages.
Dry Matter. Ash. Nitrogen. | Period of | bf ; = . be +e Consumption. EIN: | | Description Date taken Inclu- (ape Te) dice In In In of | | of for sive bates | fresh | dry | fresh | dry Food. Sampling.| Drying, of Bore | mat- | mat- | mat- | mat- From Rovers &c. Ash, y: ters i| ters. eater. |. ters 2 Samples, | Oil-cake . . | June 5/| Oct. 17] Sept.12 | 250z, each | 87°36 | 81°88 | 5°48} 6°27 | 5°01 | 5°74
Linseed, No. 1. | June 5 | Aug.23| Sept.12 | 12302. ,, | 90°56 | 86°28 | 4°28 | 4°72 | 3°68 | 4:07 Linseed, No. 2. | Aug.23 | Oct. 17| Sept.12 | 25.02 ,, | 91°54 | 87°46 | 4°08 | 4°45 | 4°05 | 4°44 Barley. . . | June 5/ Oct. 17] Sept. 12 | 25 oz, ,, | 85°54 | 83°23 | 2°31) 2°70 | 1°49 | 1°74
| Malt 2%) < June 5) Oct. 17 | Sept. 12 25 OZ ;, 91°65 | 89°34 2°31 } 2152 1°51 | 1°65 |
Clover Chaff . | June 5.| Oct. 17] Sept. 16 | 50 oz. ,, | 84°66 | 77°39 | 727) 8°58} 2°11 | 2°50 |
From these analytical results it appears that weight for weight the oil-cake contained about 5 per cent. less dry-organic-matter than the linseed; the former has, however, about one-third more mineral matter, and nearly one-third more nitrogen than the latter. We believe that such may be taken, as representing, in general terms, the usual comparative composition of the two sub- stances, as respects the constituents here named. We see, how- ever, that one of the specimens of linseed contained 0:37 per cent. less nitrogen than the other, and it must be understood ihat dif- ferent samples of both oil-cake and linseed are found to vary con- siderably from those referred to, and that the remarks made above are only mtended to indicate a general fact, and do not at all do away with the desirableness of deciding upon the purchase of foreign food or manure, only upon the results of special ana- lyses, for the ready provision of which the Royal Agricultural Society has recently made arrangement open to all iis members.
300 Agricultural Chemistry —Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
The barley used in the experiments as such, and that wl
ich
was malted, were both of the same stock and quality; the weight of the malt produced was, exclusive of screened and hiln-dust, only
about four-fifths of that of the barley operated upon, so that as
the
weekly allowance of barley was 7 lbs. per sheep, that of malt
would have been little more than 53 |bs., instead of 6 lbs. 9
0Z.,
as were actually consumed, if so much only were to be given as was the produce of the amount of barley with which it was to
compare. Nearly one-half of the loss of weight sustained in
the
conversion of the barley into malt was, however, only water, and a portion of the remainder consisted of the ‘ dust,” which, if malting were adopted to any extent for feeding purposes, would certainly not be separated from the malt; and this, as we shall afterwards see in discussing other experiments with barley and malt, is a point of some importance. Weight for weight, how-
ever, the malt is seen to be about 6 per cent. richer than
the
barley in dry-organic-matter, and to be equal to it im mineral
matter and in nitrogen; and it will be found that the quant
ities
consumed of the two foods were in fact almost identical, so far as
above-named constituents are concerned.
The followimg Table brings to view the total amount of food consumed in the pens during the entire period of the experi- ment—the total increase produced, and the amount of some of the more important constituents contained in the food, these being
calculated from the Table of Analyses last given.
SERIES IH.
TABLE 6.—Showing the Total Amount of Food or Constituents consumed, and
| Total Nitrogen , | Total Rane | Total: Descriptions and | Dry 5] ‘Mineral: | eee wn ls | Increase Q aie cor esl) (Ole nnKe F | Nitrogen | crease of ; Z uantities of the different | B | Matter | : 2 in Live Boas 1 Matter | : con- Animals, Weieht cods consumed, [i aageece: Vi oacany ean at Sir sumed. | ; sumed, 3 percent. lbs. | | Ibs. Ibs. | Ibs. Ibs. Oil-cake, 665 lbs... . «| 5444 364 33°31 Pen 1. 1524 Clover Chalf, 2,1024 lbs.. | 1,627 152} 44°36 4:6 5 Sheep. i— —_— ——_— H Totaly wei. | 2,1714 1894 7°67 | \inseed, «665 lbs. | us ive: | ey 57, 273 25°50 Pen 2. ; Clover Chaff, 1,9084 lbs... | 1,473 1384 40°16 iS 143 | 4°3 5 Sheep. i— —_-—-— ——_—— otal ae 2,050 166 65°66 | Barley, 665 lbs. . , -« 5534 | 154 9°90 Pen 3. 129 | Clover Chaff, 1,986 lbs. . | 1,537 1444 41:90 10) 5 Sheep. i | = [= oe | | Motal wis 5 I se 090 a elo 94 51°80 | Malt, 625 Ibs... Siete 5584 14} 9°43 | Pen 4. a St Clover Chath, W072 Wbses a) sl aae7 1434 41°63 p mies 121 | ? 3°6 5 Sheep. ees ees es UO Wis gill “20S Matis 51°06
of Increase produced, in each Pen, during the entire period of 19 Weeks.
Nitrogen in In- crease, at | 3 percent.
| to 100 consumed,
lbs.
Agricultural Chemistry—=Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 3801
Taking the aggregate results of this Table, and again assuming the approximate correctness of the estimate of the nitrogen con- tained in the increase of animal produced, we find that by the feeding of 20 sheep for 19 weeks, during which time they con- sumed 665 lbs. of oil-cake, 665 Ibs. of linseed, 665 lbs. of barley, 625 lbs. of malt, and 7965L]bs. of clover-hay, the amount of increase obtained is Balontaced to retain only 16% lbs, of nitrogen, though 246 lbs. of it were supplied in the foods a result in this respect considerably inferior to that obtained in the first series of experiments, there being in that case 151 lbs. of nitrogen retained for 96 Ibs. of it swallowed. We may notice too in this place, though the point will presently be referred to in another form, that here again it would appear, as in the case of the former series, that the larger the amount of nitrogen consumed beyond a certain limit, the smaller will be the proportion of i sent to market as meat. The case of the malt in the 2nd Series is, however, somewhat exceptional—a fact to which we shall again refer.
The amounts of dry-organic-matter consumed in each pen during the entire period of the experiment, as shown in the ‘Table, when considered in connection with the nature of that contained in each of the special foods supplied, and with the total amount of nitrogen consumed, are such as pretty clearly to indicate that the consumption of the clover-hay, which was sup- pled ad libitum, was regulated toa great extent by the demand of the system for, or its competency to take up, digestible non- nitrogenous substances. ‘Thus there were 5444 |bs. of dry organic substance contained in the oil-cake, and 577 lbs. in the linseed, whilst of the smaller amount taken in the oil-cake there would be a much larger quantity indigestible and at once effete, and hence we find that more clover is consumed to make up the deficiency. Again, taking the pens upon barley and malt, we find the total amount of dry-organic-matter in these foods re- spectively to be 5533 and 5583 lbs.—a difference of only 5 lbs. ; and although in the one case there would be a predominance of starch, and in the other of sugar, vet the amounts of matters capable of digestion, and of those which are at once effete, would probably be very nearly identical, and hence we have a differ- ence of only 10 1bs. in’ the total amount of dry-organic-matter consumed in the form of clover-hay: and, taking the two foods of each pen together, there is only a difference of 5 |bs., equal to only 4 per cent. in the amount of “dry- organic-matter consumed in the two cases. ‘Throughout all four of the pens, indeed, the coincidence in that respect is very manifest, when the apparently excessive amount in Pen | is explained as above.
That the demand of the system for nitrogen had little to do in determining the amount of clover consumed, is evident from the
302 Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
fact, that, with the striking coincidences above noticed in the amounts consumed of non-nitrogenous substances available as food, the total amounts of nitrogen taken were—in the first pen, 77% lbs.; in the second, 653 Ibs. ; in the third, 512 lbs. ; and in the fourth, 51 lbs. It is true that the nitrogen and dry-organic- matter are both nearly identical in Pens 3 and 4, but the nitrogen of these differs much from that of either of the other two pens, which again are widely different from each other—the variation in amount in the four pens being as three to two. These indications are interesting as pointing to the fact, that although nitrogen is a very important constituent in the food of animals, yet the economy — of providing it in food, im quantity beyond a certain limit, must depend upon other circumstances than the amount of meat pro-. duced.
These points will be further illustrated by a consideration of Tables 7 and 8, which follow, in which the actual results of experiment as given in Table 6 are applied so as to show the average weekly consumption of food in each pen, by each 100 lbs. of live weight of animal, and also the amounts which were required to produce 100 lbs. of znerease.
It should be observed in reference to these Tables, that the in- crease during the entire period of 19 weeks is taken as the basis of calculation. It will be remembered, however, that the average weekly increase at the end of the first 11 weeks, as given in Table 4, was more favourable throughout the pens than that after a further continuance of the experiment. This was par- ticularly the case with respect to the pen on malt, and on refer- ence to the details it will be found that several of the animals on that food gained scarcely anything whatever during the last eight weeks, though even at the earlier period the result was still rather in favour of the barley as compared with the malt. It is evident, therefore, that the indications, especially of ‘Table 8, are less favourable throughout than they would have been had the ex- periment been earlier closed, and that the results of the malt oe are more affected than the rest. In vindication of the fair-
ess of the comparisons shown in the Tables it may be said, that the results were less likely to be vitiated by accidental fluctuations or irregularities, if taken on the longer than on the shorter period, and that 19 weeks is not longer than animals are fre- quently kept upon the same food when fattening for the market. On the other hand, it may be urged, in reference to the malt, that, im practice, it would not be continued so long without change or further mixture with other food; and indeed, it would seem probable that, however genial to the health and tastes of the animals malt may be when employed only to a limited extent, yet after a time it loses its beneficial effects, probably nauseating
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Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-keeding and Manure.
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804 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
to some extent by virtue of the large amount of sugar it con- tains. ;
From Table 7, we learn that the average quantities of dry- organic-matter consumed weekly to 100 ]bs. live weight of animal, were, in Pens 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively, in round num- bers 162, 15%, 164, and 164 lbs.—amounts which, when the dif- ference in the qualities of the food are considered, are probably very nearly identical, so far as the supply of the convertible non- nitrogenous organic substances is concerned. ‘The mean of these is about 16} ]bs., an amount which, as we shall see more in detail when the results of the several series of experiments are _ brought together, is about one-third more than was consumed in the case of Series [., notwithstanding that the mean temperature of the period of the latter was 40°6, and that of this 2nd series 58'4. The fact is, however, to be explained by a consideration of the character of the foods employed in the two cases. In Series I. swedes were the standard food, and in Series II. clover- hay, which, compared with the former, would contain a very large amount of inert woody fibre, and hence a much larger amount of gross dry organic substance was taken into the stomachs of the animals, to supply the same amount of that which would be subservient to maintaining the heat or promoting the increase of the body.
Looking, on the other hand, to the consumption of nitrogen in the several pens by a given weight of animal in a given time, we find here, as in the former series, a want of coincidence in this respect, the amount, as shown in the Table, being, in the first pen. 0:60; in the second, 0-51; in the third, 0°41 ; and in the fourth, O°40lb. It may be ahceave however, that ‘hie order of increase in the pens is that of the assumption of nitrogen within a given time, though the amount of it is not in exact proportion to that of the nitrogenous supply. The average weekly consumption of nitrogen in this series is, however, more than half as much again as that in Series I., whilst the rate of increase in the former is less than that of the latter. |
Thus, turning to Table 8, we see that, taking the mean of the four pens, there: were 474 lbs. of the special foous and 1442 lbs. of clover-hay consumed to produce 100 lbs. increase in hyve weight, and that these together contained 1521 lbs. of dry-organic- matter and 44 lbs. of nitrogen, whilst there were in Series is only 860 lbs. of the former and “194 Ibs. of the latter required to pro- duce the same amount of imereade. chiens being therefore nearly twice as much gross dry-organic-matter and more than twice as much nitrogen consumed in the one case as in the other, to produce the same effect; from which we learn that the circum- stances of adaptation of the animal and of the food, as well as the
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 305
actual composition of the latter, materially affect the amount of increase obtained.
Comparing the results of the several pens one with another, we find that the amounts of food consumed to produce the same effect were (excepting the case of the malt) such as to supply nearly identical amounts of gross dry-organic-matter ; though, allowing for the varying amount of effete matter in the several substances, there would appear to have been notably less of such as would be really available as food, in proportion as the supply of nitrogen is greater. The amounts of nitrogen are seen to be Jess uniform than in several cases in the former series, yet here, as in the latter (excepting in the case of the malt), the increase is less in proportion to the nitrogen consumed, the larger the amount of the latter, though the actual increase is somewhat greater. Indeed, whether we view the results alone or con- jointly with those which have gone before, it may safely be con- cluded that in all the pens in this second series the supply of nitrogenous compounds within a given time exceeded the limit that would have been required to yield the result obtained, pro- vided the non-nitrogenous ones had been better adapted to the season, and to the natural inclinations of the animals at the time.
If we take the indications of the malt-pen as givenin the Table, and calculated from the results of the entire period of the experi- ments, we see that there was a considerably larger amount of dry-organic-matter consumed in it, to produce a given effect, than in any of the other cases, and the amount of nitrogen moreover was considerably greater than in the case of the barley ; ; and when it is considered that the dry-organic-matter of the malt would be nearly one-tenth less than that in the barley from which it was produced, the results tell still less favourably tothe malt. If we were to make the calculations upon the results of the first eleven weeks, however, instead of the nineteen weeks as supposed above, the comparison would still, though to a small degree, be in favour of the barley, irrespectively of the cost of the malting process.
Relying upon the results of these experiments, it would appear that the increase obtained by the consumption of a given amount of wnmalted barley is considerably greater than would be pro- duced by the same amount after it had been subjected to the malting process; and, indeed, that not only is the weight of the malt considerably less than that of the barley which yielded it, but that weight for weight, independently of loss and cost of pro- cess, the feeding qualities of the former are not superior to those of the latter. It would obviously be unsafe, however, to trust to the results of a single experiment; and since, in the one in question, dry food alone was given, the malt-dust was not em-
VOL. X. x
306 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
ployed, and the use of the malt seems to have been continued beyond the period of its best result, its indications may be open to some objection. ‘To these points, however, we have paid par- ticular attention in the conduct of further experiments on this subject, and the results will be detailed in the sequel.
In reference tothe comparative effects of oileake and linseed, we observe that a larger amount has been required of the latter than of the former, to produce the same gross increase in live weight, whilst in a given weight of the two, a larger amount of nitro- genous and of mineral matter would be brought upon the farm in the oilcake than in the linseed; the latter would, on the other hand, contain more of the non-nitrogenous organic substances. These points will be treated of more fully, however, when we come to consider the comparative composition of the manures obtained by the consumption of different descriptions of purchased or saleable food; and it will then be seen that a consideration of them will materially assist in deciding upon the economy of one food rather than another, when the results of the feeding-shed may be uncertain in their indications.
Reviewing the more general results of the second series of ex- periments, it is observed that there was upon the whole a greater regularity in each pen upon the same food than in the former one; yet, that such again is the evident fluctuation in the apparent progress of the animals, so far as it is exhibited by the scales, that 1t would appear necessary to admit its occurrence as a general fact, which, when the comparative value of foods is to be decided by the increase in weight of the animals fed upon it, should never be overlooked; and further, that such is the variableness in the amount of constituents consumed, and in the effects they produce, according to their appropriateness to the demands of the animal at the time, that not only may there be a larger amount of food expended within a given time, but that its product of meat will be defective in spite of a liberal supply of the more umportant constituents as shown by analysis, provided these be not in such state of combination and adaptation to each other as is suitable to the season of the year, and to the habits and tastes of the animals.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SuEEP.—WServes III.
In the series of experiments last discussed, it was found that, although the amount of the highly nutritive nitrogenous com- pounds consumed by the animal was very large, yet the increase produced was far inferior to that obtained from a less amount of them in the case of the former series; and, the results now to be detailed will still further show, that the value of food depends materially upon other circumstances than the per-centage of
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 307
these substances in them, though in the instances now before us the sources of insufficiency will be found to be opposite in their character to those already referred to.
The special object of this series was to trace the relative feeding and manuring values of turnips grown by different ma- nures, “by. which, as we have shown in our paper on ‘ Turnip Culture’ in this Journal, the composition of the produce, espe- cially so far as the per-centage of nitrogen is concerned, may be materially influenced.
The turnips selected for the four pens were Norfolk-whites, grown in the season of 1848, in continuation of the experiments detailed in the paper above referred to. ‘Those consumed in pen 1 were grown by mineral manures alone; those in pen 2 by the same manures, with sulphate and muriate of ammonia added ; those in the 3rd, by the mineral manures, with rape-cake added ; and in the 4th, with both rape-cake and ammoniacal salt, in addi- tion to the mineral manures. ‘These conditions, it will be re- membered, are in kind the same as those supplied in the experi- ments of the season of 1845; the quantities have, however, been considerably varied, the amount of rape-cake being much in- creased, and that of ammoniacal salt diminished, by which, as will be explained on some future occasion, the progress of the plots relatively to each other has been somewhat altered.
In order that the amount of food consumed in each pen, and the effects produced, might fairly be taken to be attributable to the qualities of the different lots of turnips, and to their com- petency or insufficiency to supply the wants of the system, it was decided that the turnips should themselves constitute, almost ex- clusively, the supply of food to the animals. It was thought, however, that cut straw would interfere but little with the results in this respect, and that it would assist in providing the bulk of dry substance, which, independently of matters of more directly nutritive quality, seems to be essential to healthy digestion in ruminant animals more especially. It was found, however, that although both straw and turnips were finely cut and mixed to- gether for some time before being given to the animals, the former was almost entirely refused, in consequence of which its use was abandoned after a sufficient trial, and the turnips were given alone. It could not be expected that the animals would do well upon such food, but as the composition of the turnips was supposed to vary very greatly, especially as regarded the per-centage of nitrogen, which is generally believed to determine, to a great extent, the value of produce for feeding purposes, it was thought, that what- ever the results might be, they would not be without their lesson. It happened, indeed, that many of the animals lost weight, yet the results, thus negative in their character, are found to provide
x 2
ed
308 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
much useful information as to the conditions, other than those of mere per-centage composition, which are required to constitute a healthy food. Having reference, for the present, to this part of the subject more especially, and leaving the question of the ma- nure produced for future notice, it will not be necessary to give the results in much detail, but only such a summary as will illus- trate the point in question.
The animals taken were ewe lambs, bred upon the farm. About one hundred were weighed November 27, 1848, from which six were selected for each of the four pens. They were supplied with Norfolk-white turnips from the commencement, but the weighed quantities of those grown by the different manures were not commenced until December 9, up to which time there was a loss of weight in all the pens. The average weight of the animals was about 79 lbs.
The Table in the following page gives some insight into the composition and quality of the four lots of turnips.
In our former papers in this Journal we have called attention to the fact, that, notwithstanding it is well known that turmip- leaves are far inferior to the roots as food, yet they contain a much higher per-centage of nitrogenous compounds, which, other things being equal, are taken to indicate the feeding value of dif- ferent articles of food; and we have suggested, that to the rela- tively low state of elaboration of the constituents of the leaves may be due their defective feeding properties, containing, as they do, a comparatively large amount of matters, “only brought within the range of the organism, themselves as yet unorganized, and existing as saline and other changeable fluids, to which we may readily attribute a medicinal and purgative rather than a direct nutritive effect— elaboration to some extent being, as we are aware, an important element in the condition of food for animals.” We have further shown, too, that although the per-centage of nitro- genous compounds in the root may be much increased by the use of nitrogenous manures, yet when these are in excess, the tendency to the over-production of leaf will be much enhanced, whilst the root, though richer in nitrogen, may not be profitably developed ; and the results now to be detailed will sufficiently prove, that the high per-centage of nitrogen in the root can no more than in the leaf be taken as unconditionally indicating its feeding value.
Referring to the Table of composition just given, and assuming that, other things being equal, a greater degree of ripeness or maturity of specimens of turnips—after an equal period of growth, and the produce of different manures—is indicated by a large amount of dry matter, a small amount of mineral matter and of nitrogen, and a small proportion of leaf to bulb—and, that a rela- tively small amount of dry matter, a large amount of mineral
309
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310 Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
matter and of nitrogen, and a large proportion of leaf to bulb, betray, on the other hand, to a great extent, a less maturity of growth—we should at once decide, that of the four specimens of turnips, those consumed in pen | were the ripest, those in pen 2 coming next, then those in pen 3, and that those in the 4th pen were much below the others in this respect ; for, we find the pro- portion of leaf to bulb, and the per-centages of mineral matter and nitrogen, are progressively greater as we proceed down the columns from the Ist pen to the 4th; whilst, with a trifling excep- tion in the case of the turnips consumed in pen 4, the per-centage of dry-matter isin the inverse order. These inferences, indeed, accord perfectly with the judgment which was formed of the crops at the time they were drawn from the land, for the turnips grown by mineral manure alone had become somewhat ‘ pithy ;’
those of pen 2. the produce of mineral manures and ammoniacal salts, were fully ripe; those of pen 3, from mineral manures and rape-cake, were scarcely so; whilst qhdse of pen 4, having the mineral manures, and both rape-cake and ammoniacal salts in addition, were far behind the rest in fitness for consumption, and indeed they were considerably short of this point. If, however, the per-centage of nitrogen were to be our guide in deciding upon the feeding value of the several specimens, the crude turnips of pen 4 would far exceed the rest in this respect.
The results of the feeding experiments are arranged 1 in the three following ‘Tables (p. 311). In the first are given the actual quantities of fresh turnips, of dry-organic-matter, of mineral matter, and of nitrogen, consumed in each pen by six sheep during 68 days, and the increase or loss of weight of the animals; in the second is shown the weekly consumption of fresh food, and of the several constituents, to every 100 lbs. live weight of animal; and in the third, the amounts required to produce 100 lbs. increase in live weight.
In explanation of the construction of the first of these Tables, which supplies in fact, to a great extent, the materials for the other two, we should observe, that—in order to avoid the error to which it is sapposed the determination of the quantity of swedes consumed in the first series of experiments was subject, and which was attributable to the constant loss of weight of roots after removal from the land—in the present instance, 5 tons of each of the lots of turnips were weighed as nearly direct from the field as was practicable, and from this stock smaller quantities were weighed out to the sheep as they were wanted. It was thus found that the sum of the weights taken during the course of the experi- ments, which ended about three months after the carting of the turnips, fell short of the original amount by 204 per cent. in the turnips grown by mineral manures only, by 18 per cent. in those
311
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312 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
grown by mineral manures and ammoniacal salts, by 15} per cent. in those having rape-cake as well as the mineral manures, and by 138: per cent. in those having both ammoniacal salts and rape-cake in addition to the mineral manures. It is evident therefore, that the weights of the turnips, as they were given to the sheep, by no means indicated the amount of such as originally came to the shed; and it will readily be understood that the error from this cause in the estimate of the swedes consumed in the case of the first series of experiments, might easily amount to one-sixth, or more, of the whole quantity supplied, as has been already assumed.
The figures in the four columns constituting the first divisions of the Tables, show the quantities of food or constituents con- sumed, supposing the weights taken during the course of the experiments to denote the. quantities of turnips provided in the state in which they were brought from the field; and those in the second divisions are obtained by calculating from the per-centage of loss as given above, to what amount of turnips, in their original state, those left at the end of the experiment would be equivalent —deducting this amount from the 5 tons brought to the shed, and calculating what proportion of the remainder was consumed, and what was offal, according to the relative weights of these, as ascer- tained as the experiment proceeded.
A glance at the Tables will show that the estimate of the con- stituents consumed would have been very far below the truth, if the analysis of the turnips as carted from the field, and the weights as given to the animals from time to time, were taken as the basis of calculation. It is obvious, however, that although the figures of the second division are much nearer the truth than those of the first, yet they may probably slightly overstate the facts; for the per-centage of loss, or waste, would certainly be somewhat higher upon the turnips which remained to the end of the experiment than upon those which had been weighed at an earlier period, from the amounts of which the per-centages as given above are calculated. ‘The discrepancy would not be great, however, since the actual amount remaining at the conclusion formed but a small proportion of the entire bulk, there having been a considerable quantity thrown away as offal throughout the period, part of this bemg what the animals left in their troughs, but the greater portion those which were rotten, of which there were more than twice as many in the turnips of the 4th than in those in any of the other pens, there being least in pens | and 2.
These statements are only brought forward to illustrate the fact that a considerable change of some kind or other takes place in succulent food after it is stored, and to show that the estimate of the quantity of constituents consumed to produce a given
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure. 313
amount of meat or manure, is subject to a wide range of mis- calculation, unless special care be taken to avoid it. For our present purpose we shall assume the figures in the second division of the several Tables to be correct, though, as will be seen when we come to the question of the manure produced, some further corrections may require to be made, which, however, are unim- portant just now.
Looking to Table 2, and excluding the results of the 4th pen, wherein all the animals lost weight, we find that upon this insuf- ficient diet of turnips only, there were of them 22,260 lbs., or about 10 tons, containing 1757 lbs. of dry organic matter, 1403 Ibs. of mineral matter, and 37% lbs. of nitrogen, consumed to pro- duce 95 lbs. increase in live weight, which may be estimated to contain about 3 lbs. of nitrogen. This result, as far as regards the consumption of and produce by nitrogen, is as favourable as that of the second series, wherein the amount of dry substance in the food consumed was in excess rather than in defect, as in the present instance: they are, however, less favourable than that of series 1,
Turning to Table 3, we see that the average weekly consump- tion to 100 lbs. live weight of animal was about 14 cwt., there being, however, a smaller quantity consumed in pen 4, the roots in that case being more unripe than in any of the other pens. ‘The cémparisons will, however, he brought more clearly to view in the column of dry-organic-matter consumed.
Thus we have to each 100 lbs. live weight, 144 Ibs. in pen 1, 13 Ibs. in pen 2, 124 in pen 3, and only 114 lbs. in pen 4, of dry- organic-matter consumed weekly; and when we take into con- sideration the comparative qualities of the several lots of turnips, the relation of these quantities to each other would seem to be just such as might have been anticipated, and to offer further in- dication of the fact, that consumption, to a great extent, is regulated by a demand for available non-nitrogenous organic constituents of food. The highest amount of dry-organic-matter consumed was in pen |, where the turnips were too far grown, and such as are usually termed pithy; and it is probable, therefore, that the amount of matters strictly applicable as food to the animal was less than in pen 2, where the roots were Jess fully grown. In pen 3 there is a less amount of dry-organic-matter consumed than in the former ones, though it will be seen that the quantity of fresh roots was larger in this than in any of the other cases; and it is probable that, independently of the defective nutritive quality of these tur- nips arising from their lower state of maturity, the large amount of water necessarily swallowed with the food, would put some check upon the quantity eaten, and thereby prevent the supply to the animals of as much as would provide the amount required for
314 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
their health and increase, of the fully elaborated substances. In pen 4 there was much less dry-organic-matter consumed than in any of the rest, whilst it would appear that the limit of consump- tion was here less regulated by the amount of water taken with the food than by the composition of the solid substance itself, which was known to be not matured, and seems to have been quite unfit for food, since all the animals lost weight, notwithstanding that the weekly consumption of nitrogenous compounds was considerably greater than in any of the other cases; indeed, in pen 2, with a gain in weight of 45 lbs., there was only 0°29 lbs. consumed per week, whilst in pen 4 there was a loss of 20 lbs., with a con- sumption per sheep per week of 0°39 Ibs. of nitrogen—an amount as great as that provided in the pen with oil-cake and swedes in the first series of experiments!
Here then we have a striking illustration of the fact, that, how- ever important the ultimate composition of food may be, its state of combination may materially affect its value. Indeed it is seen that double the requisite amount of some of the more important constituents of food may be expended upon the animal without any benefit whatever; and with these facts before us in reference to the turnip bulb in different stages of growth and maturity, it can scarcely be wondered at that the deaves, notwithstanding their high per centage of nitrogen, should be comparatively valueless as food; nor can it be doubted that the want of nutritive quality is due, as we have before observed, to the amount they contain of unorganized or deficiently elaborated constituents.
The variableness in the amount of ultimate constituents re- quired to produce a given effect, according to their condition of combination and elaboration, is clearly seen in Table 4, in which are given the amounts of fresh turnips, of dry-organic-matter, of mineral matter, and of nitrogen, which were consumed in the several pens to the production of 100 lbs. increase in live weight, the results, of course, of pens I, 2, and 3 only being open to this calculation. There is a difference in this respect, according to the composition of the turnips in the several cases, of about 7 tons of the fresh roots—there being about 74 tons consumed in pen 2, about 112 tons in pen 1, and 142 tons in the 3rd, or nearly as many more as in the first. It is worthy of remark, too, that in pen 2, the turnips of which were taken at the best stage of growth, though their per centage of nitrogen was less than those of pen 3, there is not only a less amount both of dry-organic- matter and nitrogen consumed to produce a given amount of gross increase than in either of the other cases, but the quantity of these is less in this case, with common white turnips alone, than in any of the cases of the second series of experiments, in which, as will be remembered, there were given in one pen oil-cake and clover-
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 315
chaff, in one linseed and clover-chaff, in another barley and clover- chaff, and in another malt and clover-chaff.
The prominent inference from the results of the second and third series of experiments—in the former of which it is sup- posed that there was probably an excess of all required con- stituents of food, and in the latter at least of some—is, that in neither were these in a favourable condition to meet the wants of the animals; and that if, as we believe to be the case, other things being equal, the amount of nitrogen in food greatly determines its value as such, there will be a very wasteful expenditure of it, unless the food employed be suited to the tastes and circum- stances of the animals; and that if these points be not attended to, any calculation as to the probable amount of meat and manure respectively, produced by the consumption of a given amount of food, will be uncertain and unsatisfactory. Under any circum- stances, however, the attainment of so desirable an end as bringing within the range of fixed rule and measurement the subtle, yet not capricious, operations of animal life, would seem, from the very nature of the subject, to he fraught with difficulty, as indeed the results of experiment are found to furnish ample testimony.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP.—WSeries LV.
It was intended by this series of experiments further to test the feeding and manuring value of barley and malt, compared both one with the other, and with other articles of food. It will be remembered that in the former experiments with these sub- stances, the complementary food was clover-chaff; and, that the animals not making much progress, this was supposed to be due to the want of succulent food, which, however, could not at the time be employed.
The present series was commenced in February, 1849; and it was at first intended to have given Swedish turnips with the other foods, but it was feared that they would not remain ina good and sound condition so long as the experiment was required to be continued, and mangold-wurzel was therefore decided upon as better suited to our purpose in some respects, though in others not without objection; for although the mangoids would remain ina sufficient state of preservation to the end of the experiments, yet they are seldom a genial food so early im the season as it was required to use them, whilst sheep do not seem to relish them as they do the turnip; aud the results to be detailed will show that these circumstances were not without their influence.
A flock of 100 three-year old wethers, which had been recently fed in the field upon swedes and clover-chaff, were weighed February 26, from which, according to weight and general simi- larity of breed, 45 were taken, and 5 put into each of 9 of the ex-
316 Agricuitural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
perimental pens, it being so arranged, that, as far as possible, each sheep had its counterpart in weight and make in each of the other pens, though within each pen the animals might in both these respects show a somewhat wider difference. Six of these pens comprised the experiments now to be described, the other three constituting a series of themselves, of which we shall speak here- after.
When first weighed, the sheep were very dirty, and it would have been desirable to have had them previously trimmed ; but it was considered that they would compare with each other in this respect, and that as it was intended to allow them a week or more to get accustomed to the new food and situation before com- mencing the exact experiment, they would by that time have lost much of their adherent dirt, and that their second weights would be somewhat uniform. For some time, however, scarcely any of the animals did well upon their food, by no means a fair allow- ance of the mangolds being eaten. One or two of them, indeed, it was found necessary to kill; and most were in such a condition as to require that the commencement of the experiment should be postponed until the animals had been three weeks in the pens, during which time none had done well. Many had, besides the loss of dirt, apparently depreciated in actual live weight also; whilst the order within each pen, and the uniformity between one pen and another, were considerably deranged, as will be seen by an inspection of the following Table :—
Series LV.
TABLE 1.—Showing the Weight of each Sheep and each Pen on Feb. 26, when put up, and on March 20, when the experiment was commenced. Quantities stated in lbs.
6 5 March 20, when the experiment April No. February 26, when put up. Ceara area 17 ot Pen | Pen | Pen} Pen| Pen| Pen | Pen} Pen | Pen} Pen} Pen | Pen | Pen Sheep.| 1 2 3 4 Fetal lew (3 ‘Malad Mohit 3 4 5 6 6 1 143 143 143 143 143 | 443 136 | 146 139 144 134 142 | 150 2 140 140 139 140 139 140 136 121 ee 144 145 ee 55 3 13% 136 136 138 136 137 136 133 133 135 134 130 | 135 4 134 135 135 134 135 | 135 ste 130 127 137 136 ZO ete 5 Wey 132 133 132 133 132 lil 123 137 eo 117 107 | 120
average|137,2 |137,2 |137,2 |187,4 |137,2 |137,4 129 130 134 140 133 126 | 134
| |
Taking the first division of the ‘Table, it is seen that the average live weight was the same in all the pens when the animals were first put up, and that the weights of those bearing similar numbers in the different pens were also nearly identical. ‘There is, how- ever, a difference of about 10 lbs. between the heaviest and the lightest sheep in each pen. The second division shows that, on March 20, when the more exact experiment commenced, nearly
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 317
every sheep had lost—some very considerably—and the uniformity between pen and pen, as well as between the sheep previously supposed to match with each other in the different pens, was also lost, so far as weight is concerned. In some cases the loss was probably chiefly dirt and moisture, though in some it was mani- festly owing to an inaptitude of the food. This, however, can scarcely in any case be attributed to the special foods, but much more certainly to the mangolds, so that it would be unfair, in judging of the effects of the former, to calculate the result from the first weighing, though on the other hand a careful examination of the tables of increase which will be given, will show that several of the instances of rapid increase after the second weighing occur where the animals had previously lost considerably, so that the natural effect of the food during the actual experimental period is from this cause occasionally somewhat overstated. For, as we have already remarked, any considerable loss arising from causes of but temporary influence, is generally succeeded by an appa- rently excessive gain, and wee versd. It is obvious that these irregularities must to some extent depreciate the absolute legiti- macy of the numerical results; yet it is nevertheless thought that attention thus being called to any probable sources of objection to which the second weights are liable, they may be taken as the fairer starting-point in comparing the effects of the several special foods. These are, therefore, mainly relied upon, though the results, as calculated from the first weighing of the animals, will also be given, in order that the reader may form his own judg- ment in the matter.
The special foods selected were barley, malt, and beans, the latter chiefly as containing a much larger per-centage of nitrogen than the former. They were allotted to the several pens as under :—
Pen 1.—1 |b. of ground barley per sheep per day.
Pen 2.—Ground malt, with its dust (the produce of | |b. of barley), ditto.
Pen 3.—1\b. of barley, ground and steeped, ditto.
Pen 4.—Malt and dust from | |b. of barley, ground and steeped, ditto.
Pen 5.—1 |b. of malt and dust, ground, ditto.
Pen 6.—1 lb. of beans, ground, ditto.
The mangolds were supplied. to all the pens in any quantity the animals chose to eat them. ‘The beans were, from the com- mencement, scarcely touched; one of the animals fed upon them had soon to be removed and killed, and the rest, with the excep- tion of a single sheep, lost so much as to bring the average weight down below that of any of the other pens—a result which
. 1s not easily accounted for by a consideration of the character of
318 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
the food supplied. It was soon discontinued, however, and oil- cake and swedes, a few mangolds only being intermixed, were given to the animals until they were supposed somewhat to have regained their position, after which mangolds and oil-cake were given alone.
The collected results of the experiments are given in Table II.
An account of the progress of those animals which either died from illness, or were killed, is excluded from this Table; and it will be seen that there was one such in pen 1, with dry harley; , one in pen 3, with steeped barley; one in pen 4, with steeped malt; and one in pen 6, with the beans. No. 1 sheep, i in pen 3, — also with dry malt, became unwell during the last few weeks of the experiment, and it was found necessary to kill him a few days after the experiment closed. As, however, his increase was fair at the commencement, and he actually lived to the end of the experiment, his weights are admitted into the calculations. ‘Phis bad result, as to the health of the animals, is sufficiently general in the different pens to show that the explanation of it cannot be sought in the character of the special foods employed. It is indeed more probable that the mangolds, and perhaps not imma- terially the confinement also, were at fault.
A glance at the top line of results in the Table will show how very general throughout the pens was the loss of weight during the first 22 days. In the bottom one is given the total gain of each animal, inclusive of this preliminary period. ‘This estimate, how- ever, 1s an under-statement of the effects of the special foods, since it is affected both by the amount of dirt and moisture lost, and by the depreciation due to the inaptitude of the succulent food em- ployed. The results of the experimental period, on the other hand, being, as has been before observed, more probably in excess, depending chiefly on some few cases of individual irregularity. In some few instances, however, the somewhat excessive rates of gain of single animals, after the commencement of the experimental period, are seen not to have been preceded by a corresponding loss, and in such cases the results of the experimental period are not open to the objections referred to above.
The average weekly gain of the animals is given in Table IIT.
Looking across the columns of the Table, we see that whether we calculate from February 28, as in the first division, or from March 20, as in the second, the rates of increase of different sheep upon the same food are very variable, and so general is the irregularity in all the pens, that it cannot be determined that one food was less subject to it than another. The variations are, however, more prominent on the experimental than upon the longer period—a circumstance already explained.
So far as the average results can be relied upon as providing a
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 319
SERIES IV.
TaBLE 2.—Showing the Weekly and the Total Increase of each Animal and Mean Weekly Increase in each Pen.
Periods. Pen 1, Pen 2. Sheep Numbers. Mean Sheep Numbers. Mean No. Weekly Weekly From To of Increase Increase | er Jer DAYS Ne omelet abey Maer To.) gum 4a le! \anee,. Feb. 26 Mar. 20 22 |—7) —4 j-1 — 21 3 /—19 |—3 |—5 | —9 Mar. 20 | April 3 14 2 —3,|| 3 TOES 3 Ae Gi) 12, | V4 Bao April 3 HO mai aves 1 4 ] 3 2°2 2|—2 |—1 2|—4|—'6 10 We a 4 4) 8 1 4°5 oe 7 5 2 8 4°4 Ane Mayen ol 14 3 2 \|—3 15 Pat 6 il 1 2 a rele May 1 8 i (ea ee an 38 Je=3) |) ae — La 3 ep heg 8 15 tdi 3 8 4 q 5°95 1 2 2 1 4 2°0 15 22 7 4 oo | ee —2 0°5 oe 4 1 3} —1 1°4 22 29 7 |—2 oe 2 50 0°0: |=—1 te 4} oe 4 1°4 Total increase during experimental period | 70 17 15 | 15 34 Bi) ARB al eseia | Tie Total increase from time of putting up 92 | 10 11 | 14 13 ll 4 | 14] 20} 23 Periods. Pen 3. Pen 4. : 2 Mean Sheep Numbers. Mean No. Sheep Numbers Weeltly p s Weatly From To of Increase Increase er er Peele Veale: ay Seq) 44. Br) vsucep. le 14 | 2ia0) Bel 4.| ge lsheep: Feb. 26 Mar. 20 22 |—4 —3 |-—8 4 1 4 |—3 3 Mar. 20 | April 3 47 db aa oe 1°5 |—4} —2 |—4 |-2 1°5 April 3 10 7 j-1 7 3 3 3°0 oe 4 6 2 3°0 10 17 7 9 Sinllenite 5 4°0 4 6 6 5 5°2 Wei May 1 14 5) 2 41-3 1°0 12 Sal uf 4°] May 1 8 cal 9 ait 63 5 3°3 3 1 2 4} 2°6 8 15 7 2 2 1—1e 1 0°8. j—1 Z|. 3 4 1°6 15 22 dt 2 4 4 1 2°8 1 —}\—1 t 0°0 22 29 7 7 6] 6 6 6°3 1 4 1 HO’? Total increase during experimental period | ‘70 | 40 WOSN 24: poms) eves2 ue Ves Wien 275) 22 Total increase from time of putting up 92 | 36 162} 16 | 14 17} 1% 4 244 25 Periods. Pen 5. Pen 6. No Sheep Numbers. Mean Sheep Numbers. Mean ° Weekly Weekly From To of Increase Increase per per Days.| 1. | 2. | 3.) 4. | 5. | Sheep. | 1 2. 3. |] 4. | 5. | Sheep. Feb. 26 Mar. 20 22 |—9 6 |—2 1 j—16 Mar. 20 | April 3 14 6 Le Aaa G: || era aig April 3 10 7 0 ZW ind te Beatle ei 2) haw }Oy2) 10 17 7 1 4 5 4 7 4°2 Maal aye Veal Tara leer iss Sede) Sih Diels G6 | “Ses e i) a B49 1. G May 1 ST nee 2 1 Page ap gee 3 haoee > ml Fees Gas Ss 21 1| —# 8 15 a 4 34|—43 + 2 alsa 4 6 4 4} 15 22 7 |—2 0 4 i 8 2°2 |—3 1 4 4 22 29 q a! eal 2.\—4 M Q°2 3 7 3 9 _ Total increase during experimental period | 70 | 16] 16] 16] 19] 41 8 21} 21] 23 Total increase from | time of putting up 92 7 | 22) 14) 20 | 25
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320 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
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Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 321
measure of the comparative effects of the different foods, it appears, taking either period, that the dry malt with its dust (the produce of 1 lb. of barley), as in pen 2, gives a slightly higher increase than the I Ib. of dry barley, as in pen 1, but that in both periods, again, the steeped barley of pen 3 gives a better result than the steeped malt and dust of pen 4, and better, also, than either the dry barley of pen 1, or the larger quantity of malt and dust, as in pen 0; and it is remarkable, too, than in pen 3, with steeped barley, which on both periods is thus seen to give the best result of the five pens, there was a larger amount of mangolds consumed than in any of the other cases.
Comparing the steeped malt and dust with the dry malt and dust, we see that the dry gives the best results on the experi- mental period, and the steeped on the entire period: the dis- crepancy is due to the fact of a dissimilar condition of the animals in the two pens during the three weeks prior to the commence- ment of the experimental period—those on the dry malt losing in aggregate weight, whilst those on the steeped took better to their food at first, and did not, therefore, like the others, give afterwards an unnaturally rapid increase.
The barley and malt were at first both steeped for about 12 or 14 hours, but it was thought that the barley at least was not suffi- ciently softened, and therefore the time of soaking was extended to 36 hours or more for both malt and barley. This seemed to increase the relish with which the barley was taken, but the malt was almost entirely refused, and so long as it was thus prepared very few mangolds either were eaten, and within a few days all the sheep were seen to be deteriorating, and one was necessarily removed and afterwards killed. When, however, the short time of steeping was returned to, the animals took their food again, and progressed as well as before. Upon the whole, it may at least be said that there is much less necessity to steep malt than barley; and if the former be improved at all by such treatment. it should be exposed to it for a few hours only. The steeping of barley, however, from 30 to 40 hours, has been seen to increase the gross increase in live weight beyond that of the same amount of barley dry, of malt and dust, the produce of the same amount of barley, either dry or steeped, or than the dry malt and dust, the produce of one-fourth more barley.
These results are, it is admitted, wanting in some respects in that regularity which is calculated to give undoubted confidence in the conclusions to which they lead, and zt 7s possible that the mangolds, contaiuing as they do such a very large amount of sac- charine matter, may on this account be somewhat less appropriate as an accompaniment to the malt than to the barley. Upon the
whole, however, we see in the facts adduced in reference to this VOL. xX. Yy
322 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
series, as well as to the one previously discussed, nothing whatever that is favourable to the malt, as compared with the barley; and, indeed, taking the results as they stand, the simpler process of steeping seems prominently to exceed in effect the more expensive one of malting. As, however, we have before remarked, gross increase is ut a conditional indication of the progress of the animal, as we shall endeavour to illustrate further on.
As a check upon these trials between barley and malt in the shed, the remainder of the flock, after the selection for the expe- rimental pens had been made, were allotted, sheep by sheep, according to weights, into two nearly equal sets. To one of these were given 3 lb. of barley and 4 |b. of clover-chaff per sheep per day ; and to the other, malt and dust, the produce of 4 |b. of barley and 4 lb. of clover-chaff; the two lots being penned side by side in the field, and both allowed as many swedes as they chose to eat. The results are given in the following Table :—
Taste 4.—Showing the Total and Average Weekly Increase per Sheep, of 27 Animals fed with Malt, Clover-Chaff, and Swedes; and 27 upon Barley, Clover-chaff, and Swedes, both lots in the field, during a period of 9 weeks.
| | ] | 2.T otal Total Average | Description and Quantities of Food | Weight | Weight as Weekly She per Sheep per Week. | in lbs. in lbs. 9 Weeks Gain ver | March 12.| May 14. Sper Sheep. i 34 lbs. Clover-chaff ; 3} lbs. Barley ; and 2 | KS | a % zt ; Swedes, ad lib. : ANGE) Gee Gt 4 3602 2000 abe Dinas | 3% lbs. Clover-chatf, Malt. and Dust, ) | | 27 | produced from 34 lbs. of Barley ; and 3598 40354 4374 1°123 Swedbss ad Ubsisi.) icc 0 esis fe peter pteres | |
In this experiment it cannot be considered that the food was either ill adapted to the habits or tastes of the animals, or to the season of the year at which the trial was made; and here again, as in the previous trials, which might by some, perhaps, be con- sidered to be open to more or less objection, we have a result still in favour of the barley. The difference, it is true, is not great; yet, if it be not sufficient to show a decided superiority in the barley as compared with the malt, it nevertheless clearly indicates that there was no advantage in the use of the latter, the more expensive substitute; and since the result, as here given, does not stand alone, but is consistent with those of the two pre- ceding trials, we must confess that at least, so far as the produc- tion of gross increase or live weight of sheep * is concerned, we can see nothing in the experiments which should favour the opinion
* The question as to the utility of malt as food for oxen is of course only settled by inference from these experiments with sheep ; but even were itshown that the effects were greater with the former than with the latter, the cost of the malting process and the depreciation of the manure would have to be considered before deciding upon its use.
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure. 323 that the extended use of malt would be of any material benefit to the farmer.
The animals on oil-cake, in pen 6, are seen to show a much higher increase than those in any of the other pens. Since, how- ever, they had not, at the commencement of the use of that food (with the exception of a single animal), regained the weights as at first put up, it is probable that the rapid increase afterwards may unduly represent the effects of the oil-cake, so that we do not much insist upon the comparisons they might otherwise afford in relation to the question of increase, though the results will not be open to objection on this account, when we come to the material one of the manure produced.
We now turn to a consideration of the composition of the several foods consumed ; and in the following Tabie are given the results of analyses in reference to their contents in dry organic substance, in mineral matter, and in nitrogen :—
SERIES IV.
Description of Food, Particulars of Sampling, &c. Per-centage Composition.
TABLE 5.—Showing the particulars of Sampling, and the per Centage of Dry Matter, Ash, Nitrogen, &c., in the several descriptions of Food consumed.
Dry Matter. Ash. Nitrogen. Period of : Weichti.||tessaace: F ‘Particulars 2 Description USE OTe and | ete Inclu- On In Tels: In in of Date of “ sive ., | fresh | g fresh | eee P | Drying, ganic : Ty a Iry Food. | Sampling. | rae of ale UDR [eaters suUs enattor From | To : Ash stance. “| stance. ———s — -— —_ — — = — | — | —__ -_—. | | Ibs. oz Long Red Man- | Mar.20 | Apr. 17; Mar. 16 00 2 12°94 11°938 1°002 | 7°743 | 0°30 2 36 gold, No. 1 | Ditto, No. 2 .| Apr. 17 | May 29 | Apr. 30 46 74 13°14 | 12°161) 0°979 | 7°447 | 0°28 2°18 ‘ ae) | ee eS ee ee a | es Mean ,_ . | 13°04 | 12°049, 0°990 | 7°595 | 0°29 ORs e | | | Barley. . . | Mar.20|May29| Mar.12 | 2samples, | 81°84 | 79°51 | 2°32 | 2°84 | 1°45) 1:78 100 oz. each | Malt . = ..| Mar.20| May 29| Mar.12 | 2samples, | 95°39 | 92°78} 2°60 | 2°73 | 1°62] 1°70 ; 100 oz. each Malt Dust . Mar. 20 | May 29} Mar.12 | 2samples, | 93°76 | 85°06 | 8°70 | 9°28 | 4°10) 4°38 100 oz. each | Oileake. . . | Apr.17| May 29| Apr.26 | 2samples, | 89°74 | 83°60 | 6°12 | 6°82 | 5°26) 5°87 | #5 0z. each | | | | |
The two lots of mangold-wurzel were from different fields,
No. 1 having been somewhat more highly manured than No. 2: and we find at the same time a slightly higher per-centage of nitrogen in the former than in the latter. This might have been due to changes in the clamp as the season advanced, the lot No. 2 being sampled and used later than No. 1. The relative per-centages of dry matter and of ash in the two specimens support the notion, however, that there wasin reality some variation in the
> Y «z
324 Agricultural Chemistry —Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
composition of the mangolds as produced; for with the higher manuring and higher per-centage of nitrogen we have a lower amount of dry substance, and a higher amount of ash, conditions which lead to the supposition that the plants were not so ripe when drawn from the land as the others; and it is not improbable that much of the bad effect of tne mangolds at the commencement was, in fact, due to a deficient maturation, which both analysis and experience would indicate was more perfect as the season progressed. For our present purpose the mean composition of the two specimens will be taken as sufficiently near the truth.
The oil-cake here, as in former instances, is seen to contain a - considerably higher per-centage of nitrogen than any of the foods tried by its side—indeed, weight for weight, it contains more than three times as much of that element as either the barley or the malt. The important fact is here seen also, that the malt-dust contains about 24 times as high a per-centage of nitrogen as the screened malt; from which we learn, that although the quantity of “dust” bears but a small proportion to that of the malt, yet it may on this account be of much importance that it should not be separated from malt which is to be used as food. The “malt- dust’’ is, moreover, richer than the malt, in mineral matter, to a greater extent than in nitrogen. ‘The malt is seen to be, weight for weight, considerably richer than the barley in dry organic substance, and rather so in mineral matter and in nitro- gen; the weight of the malt, however, being much less than that of the barley which produced it, this superiority in composition is owing tothe Joss of water only; and we see, accordingly, that both mineral matter and nitrogen, though higher in the malt in the fresh state than in the barley in the same, are in a lower per-centage to the dry organic substance.
We shall now give such a sketch of the malting-process as will aid a conception of the losses to which the barley submitted to it is subject.
The malt used in the first series of experiments was made at the premises of Mr. William Lattimore, of Wheathamstead, who kindly observed and supplied an account of the weights and mea- sures of the barley, and of the malt, and of the “ dust” produced. The process was, however, in this case conducted very late in the malting season; and as the sampling for analysis was not made at the time of taking the weights, and as both malt and dust gained moisture, and therefore weight, very considerably after leaving the kiln-room, it was not thought that the results of further ex- amination in the laboratory would be sufficiently trustworthy to repay the expenditure of labour.
In order to trace with more certainty some of the changes which take place during the process, permission was asked and —
lad
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 525
freely granted by the Board of Excise to disturb the “ floors,” and remove samples for analysis from time to time, at the malting of Mr. Curtis of Harpenden, who kindly fontlered the end in view by his assistance and advice.
The barley being all measured over, the weight of every eighth bushel being taken, an average was struck from which the actual weight of the barley to be steeped could be calculated. ‘The grain, as is well known, first remains for a certain time ina cistern under water, where it swells considerably, having absorbed a large quantity of water, and lost by solution a considerable amount of saline matter and of organic substance containing nitrogen. The water being run off, the ‘‘ wetted” grain is then removed to the “couch,” where it remains for some time in a layer of from ]2 to 16 inches in depth. It is afterwards spread out at aless depth on the floor, and is frequently turned over, and moved along by degrees from time to time, until it is conceived to be sufficiently grown, when, provided it has been in progress as long as is required by the rules of the Excise, it is dried in the kiln, ivere it 1s placed upon a frame of wire- “gauze, which allows more or less of the young shoots or “ dust” to pass through; this portion being then called “ hiln-dust,’ which being contaminated with the ashes from the furnace is rendered unfit for food. ‘The remainder of the young shoots still adhering to the grain is separated by treading and screening, and the dust thus obtained is distinguished as “‘ malt-dust,” and is valued for feeding purposes.
Samples were taken of the barley, of the wetted barley in the couch, and several times afterwards from the “ floors,”’ at intervals of about four days, and finally from the malt and the several qua- lities of dust; and the following Table provides a view of the re- sults of analysis so far as already proceeded with, and as is essential for our present purpose, though specimens of all the products have been sufficiently dried for preservation, in order that the subject may be more fully worked out when leisure shall permit :—
SERIES IV.
TABLE 6.—Showing the Composition of Specimens of Barley, and products, taken at intervals as the Malting process proceeds.
] | | Let | Description | Dry Matter. Ree rea aes im a ee ye Y of | | Sampling. | Period ed pels Organic In In Dry In | In Dry (Days). Ash. only. | Fresh. | Matter.| Fresh. | Matter. Feb. 14 ey Dry, Barleyys gs2 < 81°84 | 79°51 2°325 2°841 | 1°45 1°78 ae a8 4 Inthecouch . . 57°74 | avers 4 Growings) 5... 4. |, 57°86 | eG) 4 Witton ee eae 2a | | March 3 5 Dittoves rs See VSS | | ss 6 3 DELON ee ea oos an cence 1 Malt. . 5 ly MRSS) 1) CEMA OTROS Wi) SOO rs als alah) 1°70 ‘ ae Malt Dust& Kiln Dus st| 93°76 | 88°06 | 8°70 | 9°285] 4:j9 4°38 | \ { ee
326 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
For the purposes of these determinations four samples were usually taken, each consisting of 100 ounces. All of these were immediately so far dried in a stove as to prevent their further growth, and render them fit for preservation. Two of the lots were then fully dried and burnt, thus giving the per-centages of dry-matter and ash respectively ; ; the other samples remaining for further examination at any future time.
From the first column of Table 6 we learn that the barley acquired nearly half its weight of water in the steep-cistern, and that this amount was gradually reduced as the growth proceeded, for the per-centage of dry matter is seen to increase at a some- what uniform rate of progression. ‘The exhalation would appear to be somewhat more rapid as the process advances, for it is greater during the period from the 22nd to the 26th than in the previous one, notwithstanding 568 lbs. of water had been sprinkled upon the floor.
At the period of each of these samplings the whole of the grain on the floor was measured, and the weight of every eighth bushel taken, from which the average being struck, the actual weight on the floor could be determined.
The actual and the applied results of these measurings, weigh- ings, samplings, dryings, &c., are arranged in the following
Tables :—
SERIES IV.
ABLE 7.—Showing the Actual and Corrected Quantities of Barley, Malt, and Intermediate Products of the Malting Process.
A | | | cy Actual Cor- Total p a ea . 6 = cz Description | Number| Weight | guen Qpanely rected fo Dry eels Total Sle coe of of per | 2 eye Organic Nitrogen = By orS |: Specimens, | Bughels!| Bashel. as ptox Weight Matter Matter Matter ening = g a P / Weighed Samples.) in Ibs. | in Ibs. | jy), | in Ibs. j QF '!4h in Ibs. | Fresh. : Feb. i4| .. | Dry Barley 144 53 7,632 | ee 7,632 | 6,246 | 6,0681 | 1774 | 110°6 | ;, 18} 4]|Inthecouch| ., SEANAD kid ty (igh OR », 22| 4 | Growing «| 2514 41% |10,482 | 25 | 10,504 | 6,0773 ,, 26| 4| Ditto. .| 288 36 |10,368 | 25 | 10,4143/ 6,0632 Mar.3| 5 | Ditto . .| 295 334 | 9,9412 | 25 10,0104] 5,889 39 6 3 Ditto e e ee ee | oe 25 yo TTL [aMalt t,. Mlepaap 40} | 5,837 ar, 5,907%| 5,6354/ 5,4814 | 153°90 | 95°7 Malt-dust . Aa ie 190 F 5 Ral eeaeee ee he We e. 266 249}, 2344 | 23°14 | 10°90
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 327
TABLE 8.—Showing the Proportion to 100 of Barley, of the several Products of the Malting Process.
Date =o ig ; | SR Description Dry : of bos P : Dry 4) allt Mineral | x, ; i gas of | Fresh. | Organic | x¢- Nitrogen. Sampling. Sau Specimens. Matter. ETE: | Matter. Heb mmecM een (Barley ry ue a 100 100 | 100 | 100 100 1) 22 6 8 | Ditto, growing. . 137 97°30 Ree PA ge 4 Witton ittoewks -.61) 136 97°07 | Mar. 3 5 Dittondittor.: .. . 130 94°28 | | Meee 2 Malta, yo yo rece (7774 90°22 90°32 | 86°74 | 86°52 Malt-dust ’ : ok 3°99 | *85 43? 9°85 Kslneduse.¢ 3°48 3°99 3°85 13°04 Total products . , 80°89 | 94°21-] 94°17 99°78 96°37 LLCS MEIGS MRI a OO | 5°79 5°83 0°22 3°63 Mota creas oh. elO0S 00% je. 100700 10006 | 100700 | 100°00 | |
Ve learn from Table §, that although the weight of the pro- ie malt was 224 per cent. less on that of the barley which yielded it, yet the mon in dry substance was less than half as much ; that of mineral matter and nitrogen is, however, proportionably greater than that of the gross dry vegetable substance. If, how- ever, we include the “ dust,” or young shoots, as a product of the process, the loss is considerably lessened, for then we have a reduc- tion of scarcely 6, instead of 10 per cent. of dry organic substance, and of scarcely 4 instead of 134 per cent. of nitrogen. The loss in mineral matter also would appear from the figures to be still less considerable, when the dust is received into the calculations: as however the crude ashes of the products are here assumed to represent their mineral contents, it is obvious that the estimate of them in the Table is somewhat too high, and this indeed is the less to be doubted when the large amount of saline substances carried off in the steep water are borne in mind. It is worthy of especial remark that the nitrogen in the “ dust ” amounts to 3th as much as is contained in the whole amount of malt produced! Itis evident then, that when malt is used for feeding purposes, the important nitrogenous constituents of food are reduced by about 13 per cent. of the entire amount contained in the barley, unless the “dust” be also supplied to the animals. Whilst, judging trom the quali- ties of other highly nitrogenous yet young and very succulent vege- table substances, it would appear by no means improbable that the 9 or 10 per cent. of the whole retained in the dust may have lost much of its nutritive properties. We have, however, seen on several occasions in the course of our report that the condition and quality of the non-nitrogenous constituents of food, as well as those of the nitrogenous ones, materially determines its productive effects; and if the results of experiments in the shed, or in the field, were found clearly to bear testimony as to the increased value of barley as food after being subjected to the malting process, we should be bound
328 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
to conclude that by the conversion of the starch into sugar, or whatever the changes may be, the loss of the admittedly valuable nitrogenous compounds had been, toa certain degree, compensated. Our experiments with sheep, hoveran have led us to no such con- clusion, whilst an analytical examination of the malting process has shown that in the barley submitted to it there is a reduction in some of its constituents which must obviously influence the value of the manure resulting from the consumption of the produced malt, Whilst, however, the results detailed do not in any degree encourage the idea that a much more extended use of malt for feeding purposes would prove to be of essential service to the farmer, we at the same time do not doubt, that, leaving out of view its cost, and the consideration of the comparative value of the manure produced, its occasional employment in admixture or alternation with other articles of food, may havea favourable influ- ence upon the progress of the animal; and, indeed, when used as a relish rather than as a staple article of food, it is as such an use- ful and genial auxiliary. But, in speculating as to the economy of its adoption, the loss of manuring constituents must always be charged against it; whilst the cost of the process of manufacture, as estimated by Mr. Curtis, would, at the lowest calculation, amount to 2s, 6d. per quarter on the barley, provided the process were conducted as is usual for brewing purposes. It is probable, how- ever, that a comparatively partial growth might yield a somewhat better result, with a cost and loss proportionally reduced ; and such a process might indeed be suggested for trial as an improvement upon that of “merely steeping, in cases where it may be deemed expedient to consume the highly elaborated* cereal grains upon the farm.
Having given some account of the per centage composition of the several foods employed in the experiments, and of the pre- paration of the malt, we now turn to the application of the in- formation thus provided to the actual facts of the feeding experi- ments themselves.
In the next Table are given the total increase in live weights in the several pens during the 10 weeks of the experimental period, and the total amounts of fresh food, of dry organic matter, of mineral matter, and of nitrogen consumed to produce it.
* Tt is true that the samples of the cereal grains which are generally used as food for stock are not as cereal grains “highly elaborated ;” though when compared with other articles of cattle food of home production they are so in an eminent degree, whilst they have been produced at a cost which would require that their beneficial effects upon the animal should be very considerable, if it is to be repaid by their consumption upon the farm to a great extent as the means of obtaining manure, the ultimate object of which ts the reproduction of the same description of produce, but possibly of a better quality.
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 329
SERIES IV.
TasBiE 9.—Showing the Total Amount of Food or Constituents consumed, and of Increase produced, in each Pen, during the Experimental Period.
Nitrogen Totaly4|), : in Total Total ior Total Hopat Nitrogen} Increase Increase Food | Oseanic (Mineral /Nitrogen in at 3 in Live Description of Food Con- Bi Matter x Increase | nerCent.) 5 Matter . Con- ; Pp : Weight sumed | “yn. Con- at 3 to 100 in 10 consumed. Fresh. anand’ sumed, | sumed. |perCent.| (Con- Weeks. sumed. Pen | Barley(Ground but not Steeped )} 280°0 | 222°64 6°51 4°06 4 81 Mangolds ° ° . - |38867°0 465°93 38°28 VLOP 2°43 13°91 Sheep Total . . |4147°0 688°57 44°79 15°27 Pen 2 Malt (Ground but not Steeped)| 271°25 | 251°67 7°06 4°39 5 105 | Malt Dust . ° . ° 12°03 10°23 1°04 0°49 Sheep Mangolds . 6 ° . 4693°60 | 565°53 46°46 13°61 Bia) 17°03 Total . . [4976-88 | 827°38 | 54°56 | 18-49 Pen 3 Barley (Ground and Steeped). | 280°0 | 222°64 6°51 4°06 4 1014 | Mangolds 6 e ° « [5321°7 641°21 52°68 15°43 3°C4 15°62 —— | ——_—_——— ————— || _——— Sheep Total . » |[5601°7 | 863°85 | 59°19 | 19°49 Pen 4 Malt (Ground and Steeped) . | 217°0 201°34 5° 65 3°51 4 78 | Malt Dust . 6 é a 9°6 8°16 0°83 0°39 Sheep Mangolds e ° ° e |4458°0 537° 14 44°13 12°92 2°34 13°91 Total . 2 |4684°6 746°64 50°61 16°82 Pen 5 Malt (Ground but not Steeped)| 335°0 | 310°82 8°72 5°42 5 108 Malt Dust . ° ° ° 15°0 12°76 1°30 0°61 Sheep Mangolds ., ° : - (5403°9 | 651°11 | 53°49 | 15°67 3°24 | 14°93 Total . . (9753°9 974°69 63°51 21°70 Pen 6 In Oil-Cake 6 ° ° » | 142°8 | 128°14 8°73 7°51 6 Weeks + 73 Mangolds . ° ° e |2635°9 317°59 26°09 7°64 2°19 14°44 Sheep Total. « |2778°7 | 445°73 | 34°82 | 15°15 6 Pens, Total special food . . 1562} | 13683 | 46°35 | 30°44 26 5464 Total mangold wurzel . | 263803 | 31783 | 261°13 | 76°48 | 16°39
——_ +__—_—_
Sheep sam ee |] | Total , e | 279423 4547 3074 106°92
|
The comparative indications of this Table will be more con- veniently studied when the results are arranged to an uniform standard, as in those which shortly follow; but, attention may here be recalled to the enormous expenditure of food and its constituents to obtain a comparatively small amount of market- able produce, as shown in the aggregate result given at the foot of the Table. Itis seen that for the production of 5463 lbs. of increased live-weight, there are. consumed 1,562 lbs. of barley, malt, or oil cake, and 26,380 lbs., or nearly 12 tons, of mangold wurzel—together containing 4,547 lbs. of dry organic substance, 3074 lbs. of mineral matter, and 107 Ibs. of nitrogen. It may be observed too that, on the supposition that the increase pro- duced pretty constantly contained 3 per cent. of nitrogen, the aiount of this element stored up in the animal, in proportion to
330 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
that supplied in the food, is more uniform throughout the pens, and that the average amount is greater in this than in the former series of experiments.
In the following Tables are given the amounts of food or con- stituents consumed weekly in each pen, to every 100 lbs. live weight of animal, and also the amounts consumed to produce 100 lbs. increase in live weight.
In the first division of Table 10 we at once observe that there was a considerably larger quantity of mangold-wurzel consumed per week to an equal live weight of animal, with the steeped barley, than with any of the other foods; and if we turn to the second division of the Table, we shall gather that this cannot altogether be accounted for by the demand of the system for non- nitrogenous organic matter, unless, indeed, there was in this case a more rapid expenditure of food than in the others, which how- ever not improbably was the case, since in this instance the in- crease Was greater than in the rest. ‘There is, nevertheless, some indication that such demand did so operate to a certain extent. Thus, taking the instances of pens | and 3, in both of which the special food was barley, we find that with the smaller amount of dry organic substance in the barley (of which the composition, though not the condition, would of course be similar in the two cases) of pen 3 than in that of pen I, there is at the same time in the former a more than compensating increased amount consumed in the mangolds; and again, taking pens 2 and 4, with malt, we see that with the smaller amount of dry organic matter consumed in the malt in pen 4, there is at the same time an increased amount in the mangolds, The Sth pen, also having malt as a special food, is, however, quite an exception to this rule; for with about one-fourth more dry organic substance in the malt than in either pen 2 or pen 4, we have at the same time a larger quantity consumed in the mangolds, the cause of which may possibly be sought in the fact before alluded to, of a more active circulation and passage of the food in and through the body, dependent here probably upon the larger amount of the more fully elaborated and less amount of the crude constituents of the food as supplied in the malt. It is interesting to observe, too, that, excepting pen 6, there is almost identically the same order observed in the supply of nitrogen as in that of the dry organic matter in the respective foods of the several pens. This is a result very contrary to that obtained in the former series, but as there was here a much more uniform proportion of the nitrogenous to the non-nitrogenous compounds in the several foods than in those of the other cases, it 1s not in any degree opposed to the conclusion before arrived at, viz. that consumption is, within a certain limit, regulated more by the amount of the
31
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3
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
A A ET TS A A RT NE A ES EE EL
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332 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep- Feeding and Manure.
non-nitrogenous, than of the nztrogenous constituents supplied in the food; whilst the much larger amount of the latter consumed in the oie cake pen than in any of the others, with, at the same time, anearly identical amount of the former, would seem to afford con- firmation of this supposition.
“Tour ning to Table 11, we observe a striking uniformity 1 in the quantities of nitrogen consumed to produce a given amount of increase. It is seen, however, that the case most exceptional in- this respect is that of the dry malt in pen 2, in which, according to the Table, a less amount both of dry organic matter and of nitrogen has been required than in any of the other cases with mnalt or with barley. It has been before explained, however, that the indications of that pen, as calculated on the experimental period, were probably more open to objection than those of the rest, whilst the results of pens 4 and 5, the one with steeped and the other with the larger amount of dry malt, would seem to dis- prove the correctness of the conclusions to which the figures as they stand might lead. It has also been supposed that the effects due to the oil-cake in pen 6 may probably be somewhat overstated in the Tables: if this be not the case, however, the figures in this ‘Table may be taken to show, that in the pen with oil-cake, wherein the consumption of nitrogen, both within a Oy en time and in proportion to other organic constituents, was Hale as great again as in any of the other pens, the amount of it comsumed to “produce a given amount of increase is almost identical with the average of the other pens, whilst that of the gross dry organic matter is very much less than in any of the other instances. ‘This fact, if it be to be relied upon, would lead us to conclude that the nitrogen taken in the pens with barley and se though proportionally uniform throughout, was insufficient
amount to turn to full account the large quantity of highly Soeeeal non-nitrogenous compounds as supplied in the cereal grains in these cases. ‘The weekly supply of it, mdeed, was not much below the average in the former series, but in these the food was rarely, if ever, so rich in the more perfected non-nitro- genous constituents as in the instances at present under notice.
It was our intention to have given the results of a fifth series of experiments with sheep before leaving the question of the gross increase in live weight of the animal : as, however, the de- tails connected with this branch of our subject have already ex- tended beyond the limits originally anticipated, we shall defer, unul some future occasion, the further consideration of such matter. Before closing the present article, however, it will be useful to provide in a tabular form a summary of some of the results already discussed, and to this we shall subjoin a collected state- ment of any of such results of other observers in relation to this subject as we at present remember to have met with.
N99 JO)
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
SUMMARY.
TaBLeE 1.--Showing the Weekly Consumption of Dry Organic Matter and of Nitrogen for each 100 lbs. Live Weight of Animal, as indi- cated by the results of the several series of Experiments with Sheep.
Sertirs 1, SeRTEs 2. SERIES 3. SeRIEs 4, an) Norfolk Whites, oops <a | | Special Food : grown by Special Heol: | Special Food : | Mineral Manure; | Barley (ary), Saas oe an | Oileake, aes ie cae ma Malt (dry), Oilcake, Oats, . : S x oit..| Barley (steeped), Linseed, Barley, | Ammoniacal Salts ; Malt (steeped) | Clover-chaff; Malt; (i eee 2t)| Extra Matei(dry)s ypstandard Hood’: Standard Food ; i Ditto and Uillcalel; Swedes, Cloverchatr "| Rape-cake and Rete Reed: ts aaa Ammoniacal Salts. her raw ac a il ees ee pit planes | Pen 1 | 12°31 16°71 14°33 12°92 Pen 2 12-94 15°87 13:00 iD ka7ey Pen 3 14:76 16°37 12°50 14°69 Pen 4 11-24 16°54 11°25 12°47 Pen 5 Beis | anes 13°52 Pen 6 is sls ae 13°08 : Sai Tears GU CED ( Se aaa SHAPER | PLOT OR Gd cera Meaty vas. | 1281, | 16°37 120) ee 12°96 | | NITROGEN, | SeriEs l. SERIFS 2, SERIES 3. | SERIES 4. { — | Norfolk Whites a7 : ’ | Special Food : grown by See. ao | Speci Food: | Oileake, Pet weapon 5 Mane (ary), Ollcalce,/Oats, | Linseed, Barley, | Ammoniacal Salts ; Male Gene ay u Clover-chaff’; Malt ; ook ir) | Batra Malt (dry); | Standard Food : Standard Food : | . Ditoiand a Oilcakes; Swedes. Cl x half | Ranecakeana Sapa ea | : over-enal’ | Ammoniacal Salts. a ee Pen 1 0:39 0-60 | 0:24 0:27 Pen 2 25 | 0°51 0229 0:26 Pen 3 0°26 | 0-41 | 0°31 0:33 Pen4 | 0°17 | 0-40 | 0°39 0-28 Pen 5 | Sines | one | Si isea 0°30 Pen 6 eens | mae see 0°45 Mean. . O27 oir. .| Qs48ue; |. O53 | 0-31 |
Dry OrGanic MATTER.
384 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
MINERAL MATTER.
| | Series l, | SERIEs 2. SERIES 3. SeRIEs 4.
| Norfolk Whites, |
Special Food :
Special Food: | grown by Special Food : Oileake Mineral Manure ; ae ae cay. 2 Oe. | z Ditto and : Onlcalve 1Gats; | Linseed, Barley, Ammoniacal Salts ;} Barley Creeper). Clover-chaff ; Malt: Ditto - : t cS Tera )» | Standard Food : wat. | and Naperenkes ey teaces o> (ie ‘| Standard Food : Ditto and Re ae eANRood: | Swedes. Glove ener Rape-cake and Sat 1 ae ; | 2 Ammoniacal Salts. eas Pen? | 0-71 | 1°45 1:03 0-79 Pen 2 | 0°60 | 1°28 1°06 0:76 Pen 3 | 0:95 1°25 eae 1-00 Pen4 | 0-61 1+24 1:09 0°83 Pen a . e se e e s 0 = 88 Pen6 | cat Bee ene 1-04 Meany }:-j «| 0°72 1°30 1°07 0-88
SUMMARY.
TaBLE 2.--Showing the Consumption of Dry Organie Matter and of Nitrogen to produce 100 lbs. Increase in Live Weight, as indi- cated by the results of the several series of Experiments with Sheep.
Dry OrGANIC MATTER.
| SERIES 1. SERIES 2. SERIES 3. SERIES 4. | | | Norfolk Whites F = | : Special Food : _ grown by : | ee on | Special Food : Oilcake, Mint ae 5 | Malt (dry >; | Oileake, Oats, Linseed, Barley, _Ammoniacal Salts : pe. eas | Clover-chaff ; M Ditto l Mal v 4 | Malt ; d Rape-cake; | “*t2 78 t (dry), Standard Food : | Bee oS] Oilcake ; ae Standard Food: | Ditto and ; StaridariuFaod: wedes. | x | Rape-cake an | ; E | - | Clover-chaff. var oneal Sults,| - Mangolds. eee — -___. =e SS = Pend |) <817-25 | 1424°0 | 2288-25 | §49-93 | " Pen 2 | 736°25 1433°5 1321-23 | 7&8°28 | | Pen 3 | 838°50 1504-0 | 2371°25 850-98 Pen4 | 101500 1723-5. | oie | 957-58 Pens | Le oar | om | 902-89 Pen 6 | were Bigs0 | 2 tee 598°48 SSS ES ee eee a | | | Mean) a7.) 864*25 | 1521°25 | 1993*58 824-68 | } |
Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep- Feeding and Manure. 335 NITROGEN, a, SERIES l, SERIES 2. | SERIES 3, Serigs 4, | Norfolk Whites Ms Special Food : | grown by me cies Hove : Special Food : Oileake | Mineral Manure; ERE : aa | Ditto and Pits 7 Oilcake, Oats, Linseed, Barley, Ammoniacal Salts; | Raney Gteeped), Clover-chaff ; Malt; | Iiktto I ext Male cae Standard Food : | and Rapecake; | Oil ok ( Ty); toe pee Standard Food : Ditto and St ‘ aa Fr ae Swedes. | | Rape-cake and re STC OOU | Clover-chaff. | ; Mangolds | Ammoniacal Salts. 5 7 — —_—— a —- —— Pen 1 96°59 | 50:92 | 39°00 | 18-84 Pen 2 16° 2407. | 45°90 | 29-50 17:61 . ' | Pen 38 16-23 | 37°26 | 60°75 19-19 Pend | 16+13 42-19 | a 21-58 Pen 5 z e e | . . 20 . 10 Ren 6 | 5 8 lemme Ie axe | ut | 20°75 EE Se ce | | Wea 2s =‘. 18-80 44-07 | 43-08 19°67 | | MINERAL MatTrTer, | | SERIEs 1. SERIES 2. SERIES 3. | SERIES 4. | Tre eae | Norfolk Whites, | oe as : Special Food : rown by npecial Bonde Special Food : | Mineral Manure ; Barley Cru), < | 5 i v\ 3 ~ heroine one, 4 cess Dittoand. | ie Foes Daten 78 | einseed. Barley, Ammoniacal Salts ; | Malt Gieeeans Clover-chaff; | p Ditto * 2? Senietd Food: | me and Rape-eakes | SG ai Ary) ee. | Standard Food : Ditto and Standard Food 1 Swedes. Mee sete Rape-cake and pa | WM att | Ammoniacal Salts. Mangolds. Pen 1 Ag *T2e if)" 194-07 164 | 55+ 29 Pen 2 26:97, ||. 116;23 | 1063 | 52-02 Pen 3 se-9g— | 114:90 | 2128 | 58°31 | | Pen 4 56°74 | 130+48 | capa 64-96 Pen 5 out Sean iy 58 +89 Pen 6 eae a Rn suis 47:70 Mean . . 121°40 161°17 56°19
336 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure.
TABLE, showing the Consumption of Food and the Increase of Animal per Week, for each 100 lbs. Live Weight,* as recorded by various observers.
BEASTS. f Food consumed per Week to Tareas Description |Number Donen each 100 Bes Hive weight of per Weeste of of Exr ore Authority. meres upon each Animal. Animals| “Dt 2 or am ara Gai 100 lbs. Description. |Quantities. |!ve weight. Wks. Days vel lbs. 02. hee Linseed . . 0 13! Oxen . . 4 5 0 | H.S. Thomson Bean-meal_ . 2125 |} 1 8 Straw & turnips oes Oileake . . 113 Oxens haro wee 4 4 0) H.S. Thomson Bean-meal_ . 1 13 ae Turnips cy ye : | | Peasig i veins 1 13 Oxen §. ..| 6 | 22 °0 | Mr. Postle Linseed . . 0 8 0 14 | | Turnips . . {| 64 0 | Oilcake 3 5 r | 2 2 0 Oxen ise os 6) Wy 22) NO) emt : Tami eaeee \ 0 134 Oxen rie ga) wT 9 0| J. H. Leigh | culate esti tL Ae Doe ae ue 30 L 10.0 Ditto® <-,. A Rates cull sceeaulee
* Tt is obvious that, if description of animal, breed, age, length of continuance upon the same food, &c., have any influence upon the progress of the animal, these Tables of weekly consumption of food, and weekly gain upon 100 Ibs. of live weight, cannot be taken as supplying facts in every respect strictly comparabie with each other. They may, however, be taken as affording some useful information as to the average result of the feeding process, by which at the same time some judgment may be formed as to how far our own results agree in the main with those of other observers. The method adopted in the construction of the Tables, with the view of bringing to one uniform standard results obtained under such dissimilarity of circumstance, has been to calcu- late the food consumed and the increase obtained upon the mean weight of the animal, as illustrated by the following example :—
Five Downs fed at Rothamsted for 14 weeks, upon oats and swedes, gained 1314 Ibs, The weights were :
Atcommencement . . . © 908 Atconclusion . « %» « .« 689%
2)1247+5
Mean weight. . » 623-75 lbs. The total gain for 14 weeks being 1314 lbs., the weekly gain would be 9°4 Ibs. Then say— 623°75 : 9°4 ome 100 100
623+75)940°000(1°5 = 1 Ib. 802. 623-75
316°250 311°875
weekly gain upon 100 Ibs, live weight, the food being estimated in like manner.
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 337
TABLE, showing the Consumption of Food and the Increase of Animal per Week, for each 100 lbs. Live Weight, as recorded by various observers.
SHEEP. : Food consumed per Week to I Saye | Duration each 100 lbs. live weight of CreASe Description |Number of TEC per Week of ha OF Experi- Authority. i upon each Animal. Animals} ment, 100 lbs. Description. |Quantities. live weight. | Wks. Days Ibs. oz. | Ibs. oz. Cotswold Ewes) 10 8 0| Rev. A. Huxtable! . : sare 2 3 Do. e e 10 8 0 Do. ry e ° ° ° ° 1 84 Leicester Ist Week Swedes} . . Lambs in 10 4 0 Do. 3) eo last (ages waht 3 93 Shed. . J! Weeks | Barley Leicester | Lambs in 10 ATOR ie DOrwee .y-t ) owedesonly: Slee 1 12¢ Field. . | | Dee iegg) | 10 5 |. B Lawes Se cleo aa Wether Tegs sane 4 : if =
Oil-cake .. 5 38 Swedes . . | 72
Oats. Fh, 6 1 Swedes . . | 66
Clover Chaff, 6 Swedes . . | 91
Downs . . 5 14 0 DOR ihre
LDS: St Sele 14s +0 Dos ven.
e. e e pws OOO
woet NS ©
Dow e % 5 14 0 IBYe}s. arene
Nie BR bl= — — bo B=
Do ese. 4 14 0 DOr, cee Swedes . . | 98° 5 1 1% | OP De... tl Cie cram 116 ae |p! 2 Dor +: 3 19 0 Doras i Gieesaiaal id 1s M1 MN Boe | | 19 De. Clove Chat | so puoi Do. . on) Ter 0") Do { arya ea | 15 ibe bo 153 Dae versit 8 2S pee ii(De; 6. . | : : : 1 08 Do + + 5 9 0 Do. { anes of ie a 52 Do.) (5G) ond 9 0| Do . fees | ae a 64 Bets) ule | 810,401 eee aie calle af Sheep . . 5 16 0 | Morton \ Sai ‘ 100 i eng} Do [MBL] Teoers. “sf Se ee anes Do." Beale 161,40 | Do. { Se a i i 196 Do 5 | TeiMlahDoy ints, “(Vara i ten gf ee
338 Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. : Food consumed per Week to Pots Duration each 100 lbs, live weight of Increase Description |Number of ‘Animal. per Week co) of Experi- Authority. bpon each Animal. {Animals nt. 100 lbs. ave Pan i Description. hepeseee live eight. Wks. Days lbs. 02. lbs. oz. Sheep . . 5 16 0} Morton . 4 aaa He 5 } sae ; Hayate 5.33 Shem Tel to 5 | 12k + | Lord Radnor .4| Pnicem as i 0 a fads cat ate Swedes 133 0 Hay.) ., &'. 6 3 Southdown . 5 123 Do. °/ ay egcllsers 12 5 2 153 Swedes . 180 0 Hay C e | 4 6 } Half-breds . 5 123 Do. : Pulser ge ae 2 62. Swedes . 138 0 { Hayes!) suo te 4 8. }} Cotswold 5 123 Do. . « 4 | Pulser 3 elligmonme 2 3 Swedes . a Leicester .| 5 TSeeOe Dor . Grass. , eo t 12 Southdown . 5 18 0 Do: °. : Do. al lak: 124 Half-breds . | © 5 | 18 07] Do, «| Aon. bare |. 1,48 Cotswolds. 5) 4/18) 0. |. Doe | Do: 5 eel 0 142 Leicester 5 12 70" Do... - ale Se ai 3 } 2 O04 Southdown. | 5 12 0! Do. 4 aoe eet on ‘ } 1 12 | E 1 Half-breds Bohr Oui, Do, {| swaneopie inlays ty Meine Cotswold 5) | 12 .0/..Do. Alerts eee pees ae tet Tee | Oilcake . ./| 2112 ee i 22 | 17 0| Mr. Rt. Woods }| Barley . . | 2114 |$1 83 ae | Turnips . | ad lib. | Oilcake . 2 113 ; Half-breds . 22 1s 10.,|.e Do: Barley . . 2115 |) 1 98 Turnips <. . | “ad lib: Southdown . | 4 10 0| J. B. Lawes 4 i= oF Me 5 } 1 62 | Barley steeped | 412 | Doi 2) 44 ia on eltao: \cwengaag 90 8 } ie | Malt,dry .| 4 12 LSA Be ios a aa DA nloMangeldst flee be |) Pg te | Malt, steeped. | 3 123 Do, 1:6) 64 |KO) 0 ieee 4 Mahgeldé Bate 1. 43 | Malt, dry 4 133 Doge 1) 5) | 10 .0sleDe: | Mangold. a a 8 | Oilcake. . ) 2) ania A Bop) 224 | 26--0e'Do. « {hchtangeladil : ahem f2 ag
Agricultural Chemistry—Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 389
The reader of the foregoing pages will at once discern that the results as thus far detailed are not alone fitted for direct application to those general questions which, in our introductory remarks, we have stated it to be the object of this investigation to elucidate ; it beiag obviously essential to such purpose that the collateral in- formation as to the composition of the increase and of the manure should also be before us. Some few observations, however, upon the Tabulated Summary which has been given, as well as upon the collected results of other experimenters by the side of our own, might with advantage have been offered in this place, had our time and space permitted it. The omission is, however, perhaps the less to be regretted, since the remarks which have been made in the course of the detailed examination of the results may probably serve, in the mean time, sufficiently to guide the observations of the intelligent reader to some of the chief points of interest in these concluding Tables, whilst, in re-opening the subject in our next communication, a suitable opportunity will occur for passing in review the facts already recorded, which, indeed, may now be accomplished with less fear of undesirable repetition. We pro- pose, then, in our next, first to recall attention to the facts of more prominent import which have thus far been brought for- ward, relating to the consumption of food or its constituents, and the increase in gross live weight obtained ; then to consider in detail, first the question of the composition of increase, and secondly that of the manure produced, each in relation to the general and special characters of the foods employed ; and, this being accomplished, we shall be prepared to direct attention to the more important bearings of the results, especially in relation ae characters and composition of manuring substances gene- rally,
\ ‘ ~ f 4 y : ea i ein Day a Asis 4 Wires “by a t i oe eri: ra ' ca \ : * i . f c We 2
B44)
XVI.—On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. By Joun C. Morton.
Prize Essay.
AGRICULTURE is an art which, by its plants and its animals, enables us to gather up and assort those atoms or particles existing in the air and soil and in vegetables, respectively, which, thus assorted and combined, are food for man.
That is the theory; and the practice bears it out: for in reality the farmer does but direct a succession of processes whose effect is to detach these particles from useless positions and connexions in earth, air, and water, and from comparatively useless positions in the substance of plants, in order, with such materials, to erect the structure of the ripened crop in the one case, or of the fattened animal in the other. His every act of cultivation, by assisting the action of atmospheric solvents, loosens these atoms from previous combinations in the soil—his manuring is a direct addition to them—his draining furthers their more ready trans- mission to the roots of his plants—the hoeing by which he stimulates the growing crop accelerates their assimilation into its substance; all the details of preparation have for their aim the easiest and most economical collection of these particles for the use of man, either as vegetable food or as MEAT on the bodies of fattening animals.
These remarks may be too general, but they will serve as an introduction to our subject, by showing—what, however, is evi- dent, almost at first sight without them—that increase of animal food, as of every other agricultural product, is to be looked for in the promotion of an increased fertility of the soil. It is true that our produce of meat depends much on our animals being of the largest growth in their best parts and of rapid growth throughout—much on their being fed on well-selected and rightly-prepared food in warmth, and comfort, and health—and much on those crops being grown which best supply this food, and those kinds of each which are most productive of the parts required ; but it is the soil ztself* whose substance furnishes that of the plant in the first place, and that of the animal in the end; and it is to the fertility of his fields that the farmer should first look who aims at increasing their productiveness in this as in any other respect.
For this reason I venture to depart somewhat from the order in which the Society has dictated the subject, and postponing consideration of the lean stock supplies, and of other statistical
* I do not forget that the greater part of a plant is supplied by the air: but I may overlook that here, as the consideration of it would not affect the argument.
VOL. x. FX
342 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
parts of the question, to discuss, in the first place, those answers which seem to claim the earliest consideration. The question is—
How can we best increase our supplies of animal food ?
And the answers are :—
1. First; by increasing the fertility of our land; by increasing in the soil the amount of that matter which, after union with con- tributions from air and from water in the substance of growing plants, really supplies the very particles which are ultimately gathered up by animal digestion into the form of meat.
2. Secondly : : after the attainment of a maximum fertility of land, by such a skilful use of the building materials it supplies, as shall result in the erection, along with the due proportion of grain and other vegetable produce for the use of man, of a maximum of nourishing food for the use of animals. Under this head the questions | of, arable versus pasture-land—rotations of crops— selections of the best plants, &c.—will require consideration.
3. And thirdly; after the attaimment of this maximum produce of food, by the selection of such animals and the adoption of such modes of treating them as shall occasion the least waste in the conversion of this food. Here, the qualities of our different breeds of cattle and sheep as regards early maturity, proportion of offal, &c.—the various modes of preparing and administering food—and the methods of housing and treating live stock will need consideration.
When perfect fertility shall have been attained, and the best crops in the best order of succession shall have been employed to develop it; and when the best animals, under the best circum- stances shall have been fed upon the produce of them, then will any farm have attained its maximum productiveness of animal food. And after considering the successive steps to so desirable an end, it will be necessary to refer to the other points which the Society has named, and to inquire how far economy in the process is served by the purchase of lean stock instead of breeding it, or by keeping animals fattening to greater age than is common; and taking a national view of the subject it will also be right to inquire what dependence for the supply of lean stock can be placed on the sources now in operation.
It will be seen that the subject the Society has proposed is thus a very extensive one, requiring, if fully treated, a discussion of what is in fact the whole practice of agriculture. Space, how- ever, would not be allowed me to enter into such detail as might be desirable on all the branches of the inquiry; and I shall therefore give, as briefly as possible, the earlier answers, stating at full length only those more immediate ones which, prilbad: might alone, at first sight, appear to belong to it.
I. First; it is to an increased fertility of the soil that we must _
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 343
look as the source of any great or general increase in the produce of animal food.
The soil, not to speak of its exclusively mechanical offices, is itself the food of plants; it is also a store-room of their food ; it is a laboratory in which their food is prepared; and it is the channel of conveyance through which their food is administered. Its fertility depends on all these circumstances: the soil is most fertile in relation to any particular plant when, in addition to pos- sessing a texture suitable to its growth, it is composed of material whose gradual decomposition furnishes the food the plant re- quires; and fertility is at its highest in relation to any particular climate when in addition to a texture fitting it for the growth of the most valuable plants which that climate can ripen, the soil is in all its characters of storehouse, laboratory, and food vehicle, the best fitted to meet the extremes of heat and cold, drought and moisture, to which it is subjected. By the improvement of a soil in any of these respects its fertility may be increased; as to its texture, this may be altered to a standard adapting it for a better rotation of crops or fitting it more perfectly to the climate under which it lies ; as a storehouse it may be kept more constantly full by less expensive methods; as a laboratory, limimg ‘may be used to convert its inert or poisonous ‘“‘ chemicals” into nour ishing food, and draining will with the best effect introduce air and rain- water into its mixtures: while as the food vehicle, if its action be too rapid and wasteful, it may be retarded by claying or marling ; if too slow, it may be accelerated by drainage. But, to drop the language of theory, we have not space to allude particularly to the modes of improving the texture of soils which marling and draining and burning them supply, nor to refer at any length to the increased fertility occasioned by a more economical manage- ment of home-made manures and by the use of purchased fer- tilisers, as guano, bone-dust, &c. I have not room to estimate
here in detail the benefit arising from the more extensive cultiva-
tion of manure-producing crops, as the turnip, mangold wurzel, &e., and from the fallow cultivation of which these crops admit during their growth; nor can I do more than merely allude to drainage as the great fertiliser, which it is by admitting the air and all its food particles into the land, by subjecting the soil throughout its substance to the action of atmospheric solvents, and by facilitating the conveyance of the food it thus provides and prepares to the roots of plants. All these are subjects proper for long and interesting essays of themselves; I can do little more than-merely enumerate them here in reference to their influence on the ultimate products of agriculture, as they induce an increased produce of vegetable food on which a more
numerous herd of cattle may be fed. Z2a2
344 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
The connexion between all these means and the resultant pro- duce of meat is most intimate. It is not merely that the extra manuring induces the extra crop—the manuring furnishes the very building material out of which the increased produce is made. Those very atoms of nitrogen and of phosphorus you are adding in guano—those very particles of potash and soda you are de- taching from impracticable positions in the soil by the influences which drainage has brought to bear upon them—those very atoms of carbon which your plants, vigorous owing to more thorough cultivation, are extracting Grol the air in the sunshine, may travel various roads, but they will come to an ultimate residence side by side in the flesh and the blood of the fattening animal. The various additions you make to your soil, the fertility you extract from it, may indeed be said to “occasion” the increased produce of meat which succeeds them, but it is in the same way as the stone and the lime occasion the buildings of which they are the very substance and material.
There is one topic connected with this branch of our inquiry to which we may usefully refer; and this is the fact that the pro- cesses of meat-manufacture when once commenced are conserva- tive of their own continuance through the thus maintained fertility of the soil. The more turnips the more stock and the more meat; the more stock the more manure; and the more manure the more turnips again. ‘There is no way of insuring and in- creasing fertility in land more certain of success than that of keeping a large head of stock upon it. Mr. Lawes has satis- factorily illustrated this in the eighth volume of the Society’s Journal, The manufacture of meat is not only a thing desirable on its own account, but it is the very method of all others to insure a larger produce of everything else. There is no cheaper way of supplying the soil with the material which is to feed the wheat plant as well as the turnip, than that of feeding a certain quantity of meat upon the land, and applying the manure made meanwhile.
So certain is this truth that we may safely quote Mr. Lawes when he says of the farmer, that ‘‘ so long as a due relation be- tween his production of meat and export of corn were maintained, there would be no fear of an exhaustion of the soil, even if he grew no green crops whatever.” We need not follow the technical argument urged in proof and illustration of this opinion, It is sufficient to appeal to all agricultural experience on the subject. Other things being equal, the greater the produce of meat upon a farm, the greater also, in peneralk will be the produce of corn.
Increased fertility, then, not only lays the only sure foundation for an increase in the produce of meat, but is itself augmented by the very processes of the manufacture to which it gives iI rise.
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 345
II. Secondly ; having attained a perfect fertility, our second point is to develop it in the manner most useful to feeders of stock. Having reached the highest capability of land to grow plants, our next object must be so to select and so to culti- vate the plants to be grown that there may be a maximum of food for animals. Of course agriculture is not a merely meat- producing art; it has other products, among which its profits as a business lie. ‘The methods by which the greatest weight of meat is to be obtained are thus not likely to be adopted ona large scale, or except for experiment. Possibly a climate may exist in some parts of the country—in western Ireland for in- stance—so unsuited for the growth of grain that meat might be made the exclusive staple of agricultural manufacture, any there perhaps farmers might be reasonably induced to pay exclusive attention to the cultivation of those plants on which sheep and cattle feed; but here, grain and other crops for the direct use of man have to be provided, and though, to be sure, our produce of them is dependent on the manure made in meat manufacture, yet to them directly, and not to the others, has the farmer hitherto been forced to look as the source whence to meet the rent and labour outgoings of the farm. In those cases where these are large—where intensive farming prevails—it is still a problem for solution how to convert green crops with sufficient profit to in- duce their exclusive cultivation; and this, not to speak of the straw of grain-crops, which is, one might almost say, necessary to the process, will long and perhaps always render a rotation of both kinds on the land indispensable.
There is indeed a state of things prevalent over a large part of the island, which it must be acknowledged is easily productive of both rent and profit, in which the land is made to yield but one class of plants in constant succession—a class indigenous to the soil, and thus requiring but little attention from the cultivator, and here meat, or other animal produce, is the exclusive result of agriculture ; but this system remains and will remain chiefly because its labour cutgoings are so small. Over large districts where it prevails, a more artificial farming might be profitably substituted.
it will be our first duty to compare grass and arable land in reference to our particular subject. But I must confess that it will not be any result to which that comparison may lead that will justify or condemn the continuance of the former. It is the value of the free produce—the worth of the remainder after all outgoings have been deducted from the gross returns of the land, except those for division between the only parties immediately concerned in the proposition, that will determine whether the condition to which those are owing shall continue. And it must be confessed that over a large extent of good land now in pasture,
346 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
the deduction on account of labour is so small, and the gross pro- duce so considerable, that neither landlord nor farmer has any interest in breaking them up. Land yielding 12 or 15 tons of green food per acre yearly without any labour but that of repair- ing the fences which divide it, destroying the docks and the thistles which invade it, and supplying manure to maintain it, is producing more at less expense than perhaps it could do in any other condition. It is not in such cases as this, then, that our comparison must be made: there is much poor pasturage in the country, which lies nevertheless under a climate proper for arable farming ; and it is about this that the question obtains.
There is no doubt that over much of this which, though drained, would not yield 30 tons of green food per acre in four years, an equal quantity might, if it were properly cultivated, be obtained in turnips and clover, with probably 2 tons of straw and 60 or 70 bushels of grain in the same time. Grass is probably more nourishing per ton than turnips; but when the one is con- sumed in all weathers by unsheltered animals, and the other in well-bedded houses, it may be doubted whether the resultant pro- duce of meat may not be about the same in either case—with a clear balance of course of so much grain as food for man in favour of arable culture. But this matter requires a detailed estimate, and this I shall endeavour to give, merely premising that the above figures are not given without reason; as on the farm I write from, three quarters of which were formerly grass, a stock of about 40 head of oxen fattening to 60 or 70 stones, and be- tween 200 and 300 sheep fattening to 24 lbs. a quarter, with 50 or 60 pigs, are now kept during winter, and about half those numbers during summer, where formerly a herd of 25 cows and about 20 yearling and 2 year-old heifers, with a few pigs, were maintained in store condition; while, in addition to the above, the land now permits an annual sale off it of about 4000 bushels of wheat.
Grass-land worth 30s. per acre of annual rent may be supposed to yield 8 tons of grass per acre per annum: and this may be believed able, by careful consumption, to produce 9 imperial stones of beef ; or at 6d. per lb. a money value per acre of 18/. 18s. in six years.
The same land, broken up, would under good management, yield durmg—
The Ist year 25 ewt. of wheat straw
2nd 24 tons of mangold wurzel
3rd. 25 ewt. of wheat straw
4th 18 tons of Swedish turnips
5th 20 cwt. of barley straw
6th 10 tons of clover
Or 52 tons of green food, and 34 tons of litter, in six years, beside the produce of grain.
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 347
Of course it is easy so to state figures as to arrive at any result that may be desired ; but in the above I have gone upon what [ believe to be reasonable data, viz.—
That 24 or 25 cwt. of hay is a probable produce from land of such value;
That hay is one-fifth or more of the grass from which it is made ;
That the growth of aftermath is to the growth up to hay harvest as 1 to 3 on such land.
We know from experience that turnips consumed without any artificial food, as it is called, given with them, will not generally yield more than | |b. of beef or mutton for every 150 lbs. of green food; and giving grass credit for a little more nourishment than this, we have assumed that 140 lbs. of it will yield the same meat.* On the side of arable land, again, I have stated amounts of produce which from several years’ experience I know to be probable.
The 52 tons of green food (supposing the straw to be all used as litter) will on the above datum yield 776 lbs. of beef, and this at 6d. per lb. is worth 19/7. 8s., an amount rather larger than that which was the whole return from the grass, while here we have in addition the produce of three crops of grains. Whether the whole extra expense of this mode of managing the land will be more than paid by this extra produce is hardly within the province of this inquiry.
We may now suppose another case—that of arable land wholly devoted to meat-producing crops, and it may be supposed to yield thus :—
Ist year 26 tons of mangold wurzel 2nd 30 ewt. of bean straw, and 34 bushels of winter beans, harvested in time for rye to be sown, which would yield ord 12 tons of green food in the following May, to be succeeded by rape yielding 16 tons in November 4th 30 ewt. of barley straw, and 48 bushels of barley 5th 20 tons of Swedish turnips 6th 30 cwt. of pease straw, and 32 bushels of pease; the land then to be thoroughly tilled - for the following mangold crop.
* The best grazing-land in Lincolnshire we are told on first-rate authority will, under the best circumstances, feed an ox and a sheep from New May-day till Old Michaelmas. The former will gain 20 stone, or 280 lbs., and the latter 10 lbs. a qr., or 40 lbs, in the time. —The acre will thus yield 320 lbs. of meat. Its produce of grass may be 16 tons—perhaps more, This is 1 lb. of meat for every cwt. of grass, but we must remember that the grass of such Jand differs from the average in the quality as well as the quantity of its produce.
348 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
Here we have 26 tons of mangold wurzel 12 or ss eye 16" > 0s) rape a 20°, 5,7 nturmips
Or in all 74 tons of green food. And 30 ewt. of bean straw
BO! F552.) Danley,
30 ,, pease
Or in all 43 tons of straw. And 34 bushels of beans 48 ~ barley 32 3 pease
Or in all about 3 tons of grain.
The average produce per acre of the different crops is put higher now than before, as every farmer will admit that under such circumstances (all the produce being converted into manure) it ought. Now if an ox consume | cwt. of turnips daily, in the above case he will need to eat 5 lbs. of grain and use 8 lbs. of litter daily, in order that all may be finished together. ‘The straw will be little enough, but oxen fattening to 7 cwt. will fare well on the food: they will pay at least 5s. a week upon it, 2. e. 5s. for every 7 cwt. of roots and 35 lbs. of grain; and the stock of food would at these rates keep 4 oxen for 50 weeks, yielding a money return of about 50/. from the sale of the meat produced. Ac- cording to this, about 8/. 10s. per acre is the highest produce of meat from land of the quality named; and whether that, taking the large labour of the crops into account, is a profitable produce does not appear.
But we may suppose a third method of cultivation in which the produce, summer and winter, is fed upon the land by sheep, and the following amount of the several crops may be expected :--
1st year 20 tons of early turnips, followed by rye yielding next May
2nd 12 tons of green food, followed by rape yielding in November 16 tons of rape
3rd 26 tons of mangold wurzel, followed by vetches 4th 16 tons of vetches, consumed in time to sow Italian rye-grass oth 8 tons of rye-grass, followed by
20 tons of Swedish turnips 6th 20 tons of Belgian carrots,
Here we have a gross produce of 138 tons of green food in six years, which at 1 Ib. from every 150 would yield 2060 lbs. of meat, or 512. 10s. worth per acre in six years; rather more than in the former case.
The two latter cases are not likely to be generally adopted until long experience shall have determined their profitableness :
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 349
and to no subject, we are convinced, could an agricultural expe- rimenter more usefully devote himself than this. If a cultivation of this kind would pay, it would be a source of immense wealth in many parts of Ireland, where waste-land reclamation proceeds so slowly mainly because of the unprofitableness of corn-culti- vation under their watery skies. The results of our first estimate, therefore, must be the standard with which to compare the pro- ductiveness of grass, and it has been seen that the former, be- sides the large crops of grain on the arable land, yields more meat than the latter. The conclusion which therefore seems to be unavoidable is, that in cases when equal skill and care have been brought to bear both on arable and pasture farming, the latter might be converted without diminishing, and probably with an increase to the national supply of animal food. What other advantages would follow the breaking up of poor grass-lands have already been considered in this Journal.
Suppose, then, that the land in high fertility, drained, ma- nured, and cultivated as our first section requires, is arable, the question still remains, What crops are to be grown upon it? What rotation of crops will it be most advisable to adopt? Of course the ultimate ce tetion on this point will depend on the consideration of profits to be expected under the existing circumstances of markets, climate, labour, &c. But we may refer to some of the better known successions in use, and discuss their relative merits as meat producers without regard in the mean time to the economics of the question. In the first place, how- ever, it seems proper to remark that not only is a good selection of crops, but a right choice also of the best sorts of each, required. The question is not only in what crops shall our fertility be de- veloped, but what varieties of each will most successfully exhibit it. We must not only ask whether swedes or mangold-wurzel are the most nourishing per acre, but also whether Skirving’s or Matson’s kind of the one—the long red or the globe variety of the other—is the bestto grow. ‘Two kinds of anycrop may make an equal draught upon the fertility of the land, but they may differ very materially in the quantity of food they respectively provide; and that of course is the measure of their use to the farmer. ‘Twenty tons of swedish turnips may mean 16 of bulb and 4 of leaf, or 10 of bulb and 10 of leaf; the latter would be equally severe upon the land -as the former (probably severer), but the former is by far the more valuable result; and a result of this kind is much more frequently the consequence of habit of growth peculiar to variety than of circumstances connected with soil or with climate.
It opens up an extensive subject connected with the one in hand, when we remark that this habit of growth—the distinction
350 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
of variety or breed—may be conferred upon and rendered perma- nent in plants just as it has been conferred upon animals, And if there were room, I could name many reasons why the society should bestow equal patronage on the breeding of plants with that of animals: the latter has hitherto engrossed its attention ; but the former even more than the latter determines the quantity of meat which land shall produce. It determines the quantity of real food out of which meat is produced, and that is of greater importance than the mere arrangement of the particles on the bodies of animals. A short-horn ox, or a Hereford or Devon, has attained its perfect form in consequence of a long and patient attention by the breeder to the laws of good breeding—laws which it is not mere confidence in the analogies of vegetable and animal existence to say have equal jurisdiction in the vegetable world. For they have in some instances been acted on by growers of plants, and they have been productive of as valuable results here as have been obtained under them by breeders of animals. Mr. Maund, of Bromsgrove, has more than once, by crossing varieties of wheat, obtained a hybrid of greater vigour and more useful growth than either of its parents had exhibited: the cross of the common and swedish turnips has resulted in Dale’s va- luable hybrid. Gardeners well know the use of hybridising as a source of variety in fruit and flower, and this is not the only art of value which agriculture might, under the influence of its guardian societies, if they would only exert it, be mduced to borrow from the horticulturist. Under the present accidental sort of benefit which the facts of this art have hitherto conferred upon the farmer, we can enumerate many useful sorts of well- known crops as their result. Natural hybrids accidentally formed, have been selected by careful observers—when artificial ones of the kind required might have been created. But even this less valuable use of hybridising has been of great service: it has given rise to our best varieties of turnip, rye-grass, tare, and even of wheat, oats, barley, &c. Messrs. Laing, Lawson, Matson, and Skirving, and others, have sent out well-marked varieties of swedish turnips selected from natural hybrids, and propagated with care and intelligence. Messrs. Rodwell and Dickenson have in like manner selected natural hybrids of Italian rye-grass. To Mr. Sherriff, late of Mungoswells, in Kast Lothian, we owe remarkably vigorous descriptions of the vetch and the oat; and all these plants deserve a more particular notice of their qualities as developers of fertility than either our room or our acquaint- ance with them permits. My experience among swedish turnips is, that Laing’s is the neatest grower of any, and one which on very rich land I should choose ;—that Matson’s, with its re- markably small head, and as being the least likely to run to seed,
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 351
is the best for early sowing ;—that Skirving’s yields the heaviest crop per acre, but that its somewhat coarse head renders it more liable to run to seed if early sown; and that perhaps the Fetter- cairn, a Scottish swede, is among the best as regards the quality of its flesh. JI have nothing to add on varieties of the vetch, of grass, or clover. On mangold wurzel I recommend the globe variety as retaining its juices till a later period in the spring than the long red variety, and as being, on that account, preferred by the cattle. A trial of their relative productiveness too was fa- vourable to the former. JI have also little to say on the relative nutritiveness of the different cattle crops. There is this difficulty connected with experiments on this subject—that contempora- neous trials of the different kinds can, alone, on the ground of circumstances being then common to all, be admitted as of au- thority ; and yet contemporaneous trials cannot be admitted at all, because at no one time are any two kinds of crop equally. ripe, so to speak, for use. The common turnip should be used in early winter—the swedish in early spring—and the mangold wurzel should not be consumed till March and April. If the two last kinds be tried together in December, it would not be fair to the latter, which would be still too juicy; if, in March, it would not be fair to the former, which would by that time have lost its juices. Lord Spencer found that the mangold wurzel was more productive of beef than the swedish turnip, per ton; but his expe- rience, we imagine, has not been generally realised : most farmers I think agree, that there is no better food for cattle than a good swede, and that it is better per ton than mangold wurzel: though as not being so productive in South England, it certainly is not so good per acre. ape, again, is another crop of most variable value. In the fen district it 1s considered the most valuable of all the green crops, and certainly nothing can exceed the rich crisp and juicy substance of the stem of that plant grown there; but on sandy soils of less luxuriant fertility it is far from being equal to the swede. Among other crops that deserve more extensive cul- tivation, kohl rabi, and some of the varieties of field cabbage which yield enormous bulks of food in rich soils, may be named. The Jerusalem artichoke, too, has been recommended for trial : and it is especially proper for cultivation in the case of corners and out of the way places inconvenient for ordinary plough culture.* :
I fear that no sufficient trials of the relative nutritiveness of
* It can also be grown with little or no manure, and may be allowed to remain in the ground, without danger to the crop, during the greater part of winter. In the feeding of cows, the bulb not only increases the quantity of milk as much as turnips, but has the advantage of improving the quality, stead of giving it the unpleasant flavour imparted by that root. It is planted in the same manner as potatoes,— F, Burke.
352 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
our cattle crops have yet been made even to the extent that was possible: at least we know of none; and having but little per- sonal experience of the subject, at least of any definite kind, we are forced to fall back upon the analyses of chemists; and the following table, taken from Professor Johnstone’s work, exhibit- ing the quantity of solid matter per cent. of the crops named will be held by many to be instructive on this subject.
Varieties of Turnip. Mangold Wurzel.{" Beet. Carrots. | (MbMRede Ml iebcdes suse ss Napa 9S d Psa hal 8 dey : ° ° Authorities. ‘3 3 2 oS ¢ ° ty i) fea] aS Le 0) o Ea & A O z oD © 3 2) 2 5) S| Sib Si Seely Sa amie eal eae eid eet eh -Oa ain<-e a==fo S fes W=meaCOat temp ea | fom, bale S) Ejinhof © ° 8 123 eo 14 ) e eo ° 14 ® Playfair ° ° 13 15 e eo ° oo ° r) 13 ° Hermbstadt QT) DOM. DOr Seas : 20 | . Horsford ° eo 17 1 184 @ 18 @e 14 ° ° oregon ealel oun NEV Side 185 Johnstone . { \.. va NS OPS Re { ee a @eo 12 iD eo ee 20 20 8 Payen . e e @e ee ee °° eo eo 15 eo e
There is difference enough among authorities here to make reliance upon any particular set of figures a very difficult thing ; the probability, and, indeed, in reference to some of the crops, the certainty is, that individual specimens vary too much in the quantity of water they contain to allow one set of results to stand as the representative of a crop. There is great difference too in the composition of the dry solid matter these roots contain. Some of them have a larger proportion of fatty substances, or a larger quantity of the flesh-forming principle than others; but I prefer on this subject to abide by the experience, imperfectly ascertained as it is, of the farmer, rather than by the doubtful* figures of the chemical analyst. We may prefer a ton of swedes to one of mangold wurzel, notwithstanding the enormous superiority of the latter, according to the chemist; and we may prefer the orange globe to the long red beet, notwithstanding that the specimen of the latter, hitherto examined, appears to have contained a smaller proportion of water. For this reason I do not further extract from Professor Johnstone on the composition of the other cattle crops; but I must not forget to remind the reader that the one given above professes to state the relative value per ton, not per acre, on which of course the farmer’s opinion must depend. ‘The
* “Doubtful” in respect that, however accurately true of the individual, they can rarely be held true of the species or genus,
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food, 353
variable. and unforeseeable sources of error in agricultural esti- mates, still so far exceed in their effect the decimal differences of which the chemist professes to take account, that the latter often are hardly of that importance to the indication of results which some would attach to them. ‘The quantity of protein compounds or flesh-forming matter in a plant may not be so influential on the quantity of meat it produces, as is the indefinable influence of the breed and constitution of the animal which feeds upon it; and I therefore abandon an unsuccessful attempt to determine the relative value of the different green crops as food for the more promising one, to ascertain thes relative merits of our rotations by comparing the weight per acre of green food produced by each.
a The first, the Norfolk or four-course rotation, may be sup- posed able to yield in the
First year, 25 cwt. of wheat straw per acre. Second year, 19 tons of Swedish turnips. Third ,, 20 cwt. of barley straw.
Fourth ,, 11 tons of clover and grass.
This is equal to 30 tons of green food in four years, or 73 tons per acre per annum, a quantity which, at the rate of one for every 150 lbs., is able to produce about 1 ewt. of beef per annum.
6 In the second, when this rotation is extended one year by keeping the grass down two years, we may suppose a somewhat larger acreable produce of green crop. Thus—
First year, 25 cwt. of wheat straw. Second year, 20 tons of swedes.
Third ,, 20 cwt. of barley straw. Fourth ,, 11 tons of clover. Fifth », 7 tons of clover.
Giving 38 tons as the produce of five years, or nearly the same acreable produce per annnm as in the former case,
c We now may take the Dunbar six years’ course of crops as our third rotation, and here we may expect
First year, 20 tons of Swedes. Second year, 20 cwt. of barley straw. Third ,, 12 tons of clover.
Fourth ,, 25 ewt. of wheat straw. Fifth ,, 25 ewt. of bean straw. Sixth ,, 25 ewt. of wheat straw—
which will yield 32 tons of green food, or 478 lbs. of meat per acre in 6 years, a quantity equal to about 80 Ibs. per acre per annum.
d In our fourth instance we take the eight years’ course fol- lowed on the farm from which we write. It may produce
First year, 25 ewt. of wheat straw. Second year, 25 ewt. of bean straw. Third ,, 25 cwt. of wheat straw. Fourth ,, 24 tons of mangold wurzel.
354 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
Fifth », 25 cewt. of wheat straw.
Sixth,,:...5 12 tonsiof clover.
Seventh ,, 25 cwt. of wheat straw.
Eighth ,, 20 tons of Swedes— or, in eight years, 56 tons of green food, corresponding, according to our original datum, to 104 Ibs. of meat per acre per annum.
e As regards heavy land rotations of crops, we take the following from Mr. Stace’s Essay on that subject in the 4th vol. of the Journal, It will produce probably
First year, 12 tons of vetches and 16 tons of rape and turnips. Second year, 25 cwt of wheat straw. Third ,, 12 tons of clover and tares. Fourth ,, 25 cwt. of wheat straw. Fifth », 2 cwt. of bean straw— or 40 tons of green food, 7. e. about 600 lbs. of meat per acre in five years, equal to nearly 120 lbs. per acre annually,
Ff Our last instance shall be selected from Professor Low’s work, where it is praised for its suitability to rich clays. It may yield
First year, Nothing—summer fallow.
Second year, 25 cwt. of wheat straw.
Third ,, 12 tons of clover.
Fourth ,, 25 cwt. of oat straw.
Fifth ,, 29 ewt. of bean straw.
Sixth ,, 20 cwt. of barley straw. It thus produces 12 tons of green food in six years, or 30 lbs. of meat per acre per annum.
It is proper to remark that the above estimates are more likely to be relatively than positively true; the datum on which their produce of meat is calculated is, of course, subject to the vicissi- tudes which affect all agriculture, and stultify all farm estimates : the herd which is to convert this food may be carried off by disease, and its produce of meat will then of course be anything rather than 1-150th the weight of the food. But all the rotations named are liable to this risk alike, and it may therefore be useful to compare them :—
Lbs. of meat Name. Period. produced per acre per ann.
a Norfolk . . . | 4 years 110 b Ditto Dies 110 c Dunbar . Ont. 80 d —— .« e« . Sar 104 ereStace wake nue D195 120 Ff Lowras’: taser. 6 t55 30
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 355
Of these the 5th is less likely to realise its estimate than any of the others, as its large produce depends upon the possi- bility, on an average number of years, of obtaining 16 tons of rape or turnips on a clay soil after a spring crop of vetches, and this is extremely doubtful. Of the fourth rotation—our own—we would only say that we have grown in the past year 30 acres of clover (15 of them for horses), 30 acres of mangold wurzel, 15 acres of swedes and turnips, 14 acres of carrots and potatoes (of which at least 12 acres have been sold, or eaten by horses), so that on 3-8ths of the farm we have had a produce for consumption of 960 tons of green food; and if all had been converted into meat, as it might have been, the produce available for that pur- pose would have been—
30 acres of clover . = 360 tons. BOE 4 bs:h mangold wur zel = | AZO) ey. Wage ae SW edes A =) a 14 eis carrots, &c. . =p PASO 5 Motal Hic) ke VON G2 A1B6O.e, §
The meat made from 960 tons has been as follows :— 70 sheep bought at probably 15 Ibs. a qr. are being _Ibs.
sold now at 25 lbs. =70 x40 . 2800
About 160 sheep bought at 13 lbs. a qr. will be sold in April at probably 23 lbs. = 160 x 40g - 6400 10 oxen weighing 5 cwt. have become 6 cwt. each . —:1120 20 oxen weighing 6 cwt. have become 8 cwt.each. 4480 6 cows weighing 5 cwt. have become 7 cwt. each . . 1344 Add say 30 ewt. of bacon and pork : : - 3360 Total meat made. : : - 19,504
But at least 240/. worth of food have been purchased, and if it be supposed to have made its worth of meat, which is by the way a very doubtful thing, then at 6d. per lb. we must deduct at least 9504 lbs. from the amount of meat made, leaving 10,000 Ibs. as the produce of 960 tons, or about 13000 lbs. as the produce of 1360 tons—the produce, in fact, of afarm of 240 acres. This is only about 60 lbs. of meat per acre; it is only 1 lb. of meat produced by the consumption of about 200 lbs. of green food. It isa result, however, probably as near the truth as we can attain; including the circumstances of illness suffered by stock, and of a deduction of the whole value of cattle-food purchased.
_ In the sixth rotation named, the small produce of meat illus- trates the effect of the naked fallow. I believe that there is no more effectual method of increasing our supplies of animal food than the substitution of a green crop such as the vetch, the cabbage, or the mangold wurzel—all clay soil plants—for the naked fallow. ‘This substitution could be effected without ex- pense, that is at a cost paid for by the additional returns it would
306 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
produce; acrop of 24 tons per acre once in four or six years would be a clear gain of animal food to the amount of 90 or 60 lbs. respectively per acre annually over those districts which admit of the change.
We have thus to recount, as the conclusions to which the second section of our subject has led, that the substitution of green- cropping for naked fallows would be cheaply productive of meat.
That the rotations in use on arable land vary as much as from 4 of a cwt. to more than | cwt. per acrein their produce of meat, and that much therefore may be added to the national supplies by the selection of a good succession of crops.
That the conversion of inferior grass land to arable culture, while it would add largely to the supply of human food in the shape of grain, would also to a small extent probably increase the supply of meat. And among the details of this branch of the subject—not to speak of the effect of mere variety in any one kind of crop—we have seen that the produce of meat depends considerably on a right choice of the plants to be cultivated for food. Thus I advise the trial of the field cabbage and the white carrot—the latter from several years’ experience—and on all low-lying lands in south and central England, I confidently recommend the substitution to a large extent of the globe man- gold wurzel for the swedish turnip. On the farm here we can grow 30 tons of the former per acre more easily than 20 tons of the latter; and our crop of Belgian carrots is generally heavier than our crop of Swedish turnip.
III. We have now to suppose the case of a thoroughly pro- ductive farm, and to consider the most economical method of converting its produce into meat. And I must remark in the outset, that the skill required to produce the crop and that re- quired for its profitable consumption are two very different things. It is for the former that the Scottish farmer is generally held to be distinguished ; both are essential to a fully profitable result.
Many questions arise under this head of our inquiry. Thus, we may ask—what sort of animal will most economically convert food, the ox, the sheep, or the hog? and what breed of each, the Shorthorn, Hereford, Devon, or other breed of the first—the Southdown, Leicester, or longwoolled breeds of the second—the Berkshire, Yorkshire, or Essex breed of the third? At what age, too, is any of these breeds most productive of meat? Again, how should the food be given to these animals-—cooked or raw— wholly succulent or mixed with dry food—green crop exclusively, or oilcake and farinaceous food as well? Lastly, how are the animals to be treated during the consumption of their food; are they to be sheltered or unsheltered; and if the former, should they be kept in yards, or stalls, or boxes ?
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 307
The unfortunate thing is, that in agriculture, as in other de- partments of knowledge, we can ask a great many more questions than we can answer. ‘There are many points in farming on which we must be content with the loose average sort of judgment which memory enables an unrecorded experience to pronounce ; and indeed, till we have the exact results of very many cases, I must prefer this rough average memory of things to the single instances, on which, if we would affect accuracy, we are at present forced to base our eobimnates. The few instances in which exact observations have yet been recorded cannot, in so variable a matter as ‘‘ feeding,” be taken as trustworthy guides; and, as published statements on this subject have generally been among the maxima of agricultural truth, as otherwise most probably they would not have been published, they are the less worthy of confidence. No one but the educated man, who has long been a farmer, can be aware of the extremely inexact state of the art, or how few trust- worthy facts exist as the groundwork of sound calculation in agriculture. Of course no amount of knowledge would enable a confident estimate in the case of a small farm, because there variations would be sure to occur in successive seasons—one year would be better than another. But when the result of extensive operations has to be estimated, the variations of season on the many small farms of different soil, which they would then affect, may be supposed to balance one another, and the average of a long and truthful experience would then be most useful. Perhaps all that can be said of this matter, in relation to the manufacture of meat, is that data such as this we do not possess; and thus a writer on this subject can do little more than state im- pressions and prevailing ideas on the topics which he requires to mention.
1. Our first question is, What sort of animal will most econo- mically convert vegetable produce into meat? A cottager would say, the hog; most farmers will say, the sheep. ‘The decision of the former is perhaps induced by the omnivorous character of the animal, which, where all sorts of waste have to be used, is a most useful quality. I believe that perhaps, if the same price could always be obtained for the carcase of the hog as for that of the sheep or the ox, the first would be the most profitable of the three. There is less waste of food in the growth of offal; the proportion of offal to carcase in a well-bred -hog is often not more than as 1 to 2, or one-third of the live weight of the animal; while in the sheep not more than a Smithfield stone of mutton out of every imperial stone of live weight can be calculated on; and in the ox the offal is very often heavier than the carcase.* Another most
* Tn published works the proportion of beef has generally been put much higher: VOL. X. 2B
358 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
valuable property of the hog, though hardly connected with this subject, is the rapidity with which it multiplies ; and this is apt to bias the judgment in its favour. Certain it is that, however pro- fitable to the cottager as the savings-bank of scraps that would otherwise be lost, the hog has not been found profitable when cultivated as the exclusive consumer of the farm produce. A farm near this was once wholly devoted to the produce of pork and bacon; the full details of its history I have not been able to obtain, but the result is well known, that the farmer lost money by the speculation and soon abandoned it. And the general idea I believe to be that, except for breeding and sale as “stores,” hogs on farms should be kept not many more in number than will suffice to consume the “ waste.”’
Of the sheep, by which probably as much as by any other animal the green produce of our arable lands is consumed, I have only to say, that the result of a winter’s consumption by a healthy flock of well-bred Cotswolds, folded on 30 acres of Swedish turnips, was the yield of | lb. of mutton for every 150 Ibs. of the food; a quantity which I believe to be as great, or greater, than is yielded by feeding cattle. And there is this in favour of the impression of the superiority of sheep to oxen as converters of green food into meat, that of about 150 sheep, cross- bred Cotswolds and Downs, weighed alive and sold by weight the winter before last, about +? of their weight alive * was mutton— a proportion nearly the same as, or a Smithfield out of an imperial stone—while of 20 or 30 oxen that we have weighed alive, and as beef, certainly not more than so has been carcase.
The profit of feeding is certainly no index to its produce, which alone, it would seem, is the subject proposed by the Society ; and therefore, however satisfactorily the following figures show that great averages by no means resemble the maxima of the items out of which they arise, we do not lay any great stress upon them as answering the question we are now considering. They are extracts from the annual balance-sheet during the past four years{ of this farm, where the system adopted has been exclusively the purchase of cattle and sheep, feeding and selling them.
and there is no doubt that in very fat animals the proportion of offal is smaller. But so far as our experience goes of beef in the condition in which butchers on the average buy, not more than 55 per cent. of the live weight is carcase ; and this has been in the case of a good breed.
* The wool was heavy upon them at the time, which would diminish the proportion of meat to weight.
+ Shillings and pence omitted.
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 359
| DATE. OXEN. SHEEP. | SWINE.
Year ending 6th April. Cost. | Receipts. Cost. | Receipts. Cost. | Receipts. [Say aes £ | £ £ £ 1845 ° . ° 642 | 672 467 579 121 158 1846 e a e 36453): 0158 961 1024 | 121 209 1847 e - ° 643 | 693 627 583 ys 282 TGES™: ° . 1067 | 1115 421 393°) + abe 305 Bale ie 1|). 2916 -| 3938) "| 12476 | 2579 |
|
| 1004
There was thus on the whole four years a profit on the
Oxen of 322/. on a cost of 29167. or 11 per cent. sheep 103/. ,, ,, 2476/. or 43 i Bias 2531. 2", (5 Jalil. or 33 ss
Do not let me be mistaken however: these sums are not net- profit. . It is merely the cost of purchase, of attendance, and of bought food (a very large item), with which these accounts are debited: the expense of cultivating the green crops on which the animals were fed has not been charged on them at all; had that been accounted for here, a great apparent loss would have been exhibited instead of this apparent profit; a loss, however, pro- bably balanced by the value of the manure of whicha great deal of excellent quality is made from animals so highly fed. And, neither must the proportionate nominal profit be taken accurately to represent the merits of the different kinds of stock as meat producers; for independently of the fact that profit and produce have rarely any direct proportion, | am by no means confident that each kind of stock was debited with the actual proportion of purchased food it consumed ; so that all I can possibly vouch for is that the gross result is accurate; namely, a profit, excluding the cost of home-grown food, of 67 81. on a cost of 6143/., that is of about 103 per cent. on the outlay. Supposing during the four years our sel consumption of the farm produce in green crops to have been 1000 tons, then this 678/. is all that we ae got for 4000 tons of green food. This is about 3s. 4d. per ton—a result singularly similar to some other tolerably extensive and very trustworthy specimens of experienee given hereafter.
I confess the extremely unsatisfactory character of the answer to the first question that was put—what animals make the most meat out of the food? but I imagine that their respective growths of offal and rapidity of return must furnish the best reply; and if so, the hog must be placed first in merit, then the sheep, and lastly the ox.
2B2
se
360 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
2. All the carcase is not meat; and some breeds of the hog, the sheep, and the ox respectively are more remarkable for fineness of bone and lightness of offal—trom being of larger growth in their best parts and of smaller growth where the meat 1s coarse—than others. And thus the next question is, what breed is best to adopt. But this is a question to which, if it be put to agriculturists generally, no one need ever expect to receive a unanimous answer. ‘The circumstances of localities differ so much, aud the habits and constitutions of animals are so variable, that a variety of breeds will, and indeed should, always exist.
The Cheviot sheep and the blackfaced will retain their position on their hills and heaths, however superior to them the Leicester, or Cotswold, or Down may be either in carcase or wool: these breeds could not live under the exposure which those must bear. And so with cattle—the Kylo and the Galloway will still be bred notwithstanding the superiority of the short-horn and Hereford. And when meat is not the exclusive, nor even the main produce of a breed, other reasons for maintaining existing varieties come in to complicate the matter. The Ayrshire breed and the Jersey are not likely to be dispossessed of their respective localities, however suitable the better breeds of Durham and North Devon may be for the agriculture there: their character as milkers saves them.
There seems to be less reason for maintaining the existing varieties of the hog; for this animal is kept so much in shelter that any climate would suit any sort; but even here we need large breeds and small breeds to meet the market, and to suit the calls respectively for bacon and for pork.
The answer to the question about breeds, if any be attempted, is thus not likely to satisfy either our readers or truth itself. For our own locality we have no hesitation in choosing the Hereford ox, the cross-bred (Down and Cotswold) sheep, and the Berk- shire hog; but [I do not pretend to dictate this as a right decision for all localities. Farther north one would probably prefer a short-horn and a Leicester, and farther south a Devon and a Down, simply because there it would be easier to procure good individuals of these breeds respectively, our plan having been to purchase our fattening animals, not to breed them.
But to be more particular:—-I have been unable to discover any exact information on the relative merits of the different breeds of the hog, as meat-makers; and all | can say on this point is, that taking all the circumstances of rapid growth, con- stitution, and lightness of offal, it is a general idea that a well- bred Berkshire hog is as likely as any other variety to manu- facture food into pork or bacon with economy.
Regarding sheep there certainly is more information, but not
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 361
so conclusive, as to silence those against whose interests it may lie. We may probably state as its result that a well-bred Leicester sheep carries more meat in proportion to offal than any other breed; anda well-bred South Down more than individuals of other short-woolled varieties. The relative precocity, or early maturity of these breeds stands also probably pretty much in the same order. The question regarding offal is, however, to be answered satisfactorily, only by a long series of facts regarding animals of either sex, of all ages and condition; for certainly a fat animal carries less offal proportionally than one but half fat; and to compare a fat Leicester with a fleshy South Down cannot be a fair thing. But we donot possess detailed information on this subject; perhaps as good a single set of facts connected with it as we possess is that furnished by Mr. Moore of Coleshill, in the 7th volume of the Journal. ‘The experiment included four breeds of sheep—the Leicester, Down, Cotswold, and half-bred (Down and Cotswold); but I do not quote the results, because even here the trial was of only three or five on either side, a number which cannot be held sufficient to decide the question.
Of oxen we may remark that in a very full and instructive paper on the carcase weight of cattle, in a monthly periodical called ‘ The Plough,’ the breeds are placed in the following order as to proportionate lightness of offal :—
1. Durham, Shorthorn, Hereford, Sussex, Devon. 2. Craven, Lancashire, &c., Galloway, Suffolk, &c. 3. Argyleshire, Kylo, &c.
There is no doubt that the Short-horn, Hereford, and Devon oxen are the most economical beef-makers we have. ‘The question remains, which of them is the best in this respect? and we have no exact answer to give it. But just to show the bearing of breeds on their relative manufacture of offal and meat respec- tively, out of food we may give the following figures, calculated from Mr. Ewart’s data in the paper alluded to. A short-horn ox (prime fat) of 70 stones carcase weight must, according to his estimation, have weighed 111 stones alive: —
st. lbs. It yielded beef of Ist quality . : 19 eS
ads oo) cQnddsoe, id, es Algo vt 16 Ch ee Sr ee oasis ADT ELEO 70-0
A Kylo of 40 stones carcase weight must in like manner have
weighed 71 stones alive. st. lbs.
It yielded beef of Ist quality : : J) 99 99 2nd ” ° ° 13 6 SIE are ke UPN Rye ok fa Da ae
40 0O
362 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
Or on the whole live weight, all of which of course in each case was made out of the food consumed, the per centage of offal and of the different qualities of meat is as follows :—
Shorthorn. Kylo.
b st. lbs. st. lbs
Ist quality . : 17. 6 : : 15 12 2nd 7,3 j 3 20 4 - : 18 8 SECs 3 ; ‘ 25 4 : y 21 8 Total meat : 63 0 eS : 56 O Offal : : 37 «0 : 44 0 100 0 100 O
So that in the former case 37 only, while in the latter 44 per cent. of the food consumed has, so to speak, gone to waste.
But no merely proportionate account of this matter can present the whole truth. A quantitative statement is required. In the one case we have 70 stones of beef and in the other 40. What if as much food has been consumed in the manufacture of the latter as of the former? {tis not in the mere relation between the live and carcase weight of cattle of the different breeds that their relative merits lie when the national supply of meat is under consideration. It is not so much the circumstance that this animal lays little meat on the coarsest joints and carries flesh most on the best parts, though that is of importance, but it is because out of this quantity of food it has in so short a time acquired such a weight that its possession is of value to either producer or con- sumer. The great national benefit which our breeders of cattle and sheep have conferred lies in the earlier maturity as well as the better form that they have communicated. An ox did not use to reach maturity till its fourth, nor a sheep till its third year ; now, thanks to the skill and perseverance of Collins and Bake- well, and Tomkins and others—we have fat beef of two years, and fat mutton of fourteen months of age. A farm may have pro- duced a maximum of food for animals during the last century; but its produce of meat could not have equalled what it now is, because the same herd which it then turned out fattened once in four years is now sent to market once in every two years; and the same flock which was fed and sold once in three years is now converted into mutton every fourteen months. This, it must be confessed, illustrates the fact that the choice of breed does greatly affect the produce of meat, rather than the question,—Which is the best to choose? But in the absence of more satisfactory information on this branch of our subject we must pass on to the next.
3. The third question that is asked is.—What kinds of food are to be given to cattle, and in what condition are they to be admi- nistered ?
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 363
Many, perhaps most, sheep and cattle are fed and fattened on grass alone or on turnips and other green food, with at best a little hay. In Scotland, where a turnip is a very different thing from that which it is in England, cattle may be, and to some extent are, fattened on turnips and straw. In England and in Scotland too, however, it is now more generally the custom to use oil-cake and other nutritive food in the process. In Lincolnshire large quantities of this linseed-cake are consumed every winter in the straw-yards: and the farmer is repaid for his outlay in this respect by the production of a large quantity of valuable manure. Of course the value of this manure as a fertiliser depends upon the quality of the food from which it is made, as well as on that of the other products of its consumption ; oil-cake minus the growth of a growing animal, which is zs manure in such a case, is a much better thing than mere straw minus the same, which would be the manure of a young animal fed on straw alone. The former contains various nitrogenous and mineral substances use- ful as food for plants, of which the latter is almost destitute. And so, by the way, is the manure made by a fattening animal better than that made by a growing one feeding on the same food ; just, indeed, in the proportion in which the mere extraction of fat, which is nearly all the growth in the one case, would leave a better remainder than the subtraction of flesh and bones from the food, which is the growth, in the other. But this is a di- gression. .
More lately the eyes of farmers have opened to the real compo- sition of the oil-cake, as it is purchased either from home or foreign makers. It is found in many cases to be very much adulterated with all sorts of seed and rubbish; and, in good measure owing to the exertions of Mr. Warnes, of Trimmingham, in Norfolk. the method has latterly prevailed of giving animals whole linseed (not the mere husk, which is all that oil-cake at its best contains), and along with it of adding to the straw chaff in which it is conveyed to the animals, some farinaceous substance, as Indian corn, barley or bean meal. ‘The question whether it is profitable thus to con- sume these concentrated sorts of food in feeding stock, depends altogether on the kind of animals that are fed. A sheep or ox which will not waste its food either in growing offal or in tedious growth, will convert that profitably which on an animal of coarser build and less thrifty growth would be thrown away. The latter would lose more of their food than the advantage of the propor- tion they managed to assimilate would repay; and thus the only question to deiermine is, what degree of nutritiveness is it most profitable to confer on the food given? ‘The use of this better food is perfectly economical even with a poor stock, provided it be used only to raise what of the farm produce may be below the
364 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
standard of quality which this question indicates. With poor stock I have used linseed with profit. A thin linseed soup poured over straw chaff will confer a savoury taste, even though it be so diluted as to leave the food thus prepared of less nutritive strength than the ordinary green food of the farm ; and there is perhaps no better door open to an increased produce of meat for the country at large than means such as this afford of imducing the larger consumption of what is now trodden under foot. A salt, hot, and weak linseed soup thrown over straw chaff, while conferring its own flavour, brings out that of the straw, which is thus far more readily consumed than the mere addition of oil-cake is likely to make it. This fact is submitted to those who are in the habit of using such large quantities of oil-cake as cattle food. We have kept oxen through winter in a rapidly improving condi- tion* on turnip-tops at the commencement, and half a cwt. of turnips daily a-piece afterwards, along with an ad lib. allowance of straw chaff, over which about half a pailful of salt water, for each beast, containing | |b. of linseed meal boiled in it, had been thrown.
Of course a more intensive system of feeding is profitable in the case of well-bred animals. Many instances of this are scat- tered about in agricultural publications, but they illustrate the possibility rather than prove the truth of our statement. They are not numerous enough, nor various enough, to show that the average experience of farmers bears us out; but I may specify one or two cases as illustrations, and for the rest appeal to the common impression which has arisen, however carelessly, out of experience, to corroborate the assertion that high feeding, by its greater produce of valuable manure, is profitable to the farmer ; and in the case of well-bred animals, by its greater produce of meat, is profitable even to the feeder. The following is a bit of our own experience during the past winter :—Four ‘good Here- ford oxen were bought towards the end of October for 60J. at a dear market, and sold again in thirteen weeks at 6d. per |b., for 771. These four oxen, in thirteen weeks, gained 17/., or 26s. per week, or 6s. 6d. per ox per week. They consumed during that time 18 tons of mangold wurzel, 30 bushels of beans, and 4 cwt. of linseed meal, for which, besides the manure, we have thus ob- tained the following prices :—
4 cwt. linseed, or more than'l Ib. daily per ox, at lls. . £2 4 30 bush. beans, or nearly 5lb. daily per ox, at 4s.6d. . 615 18 tons of mangold wurzel, or 1 cwt. daily per ox, at 9s. 8 2
£17 1 * At a cost of for turnips (at 10s. a ey i daily A » linseed 5 lésng Ad. a-day
Or 2s, 4d. a-week, beside fuel, attendance, and straw.
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 365
This has paid well; but though one of the oxen was ill fora fortnight, and lost flesh by its illness, I have no hesitation in saying that the result is far beyond the average truth in such matters.
Again, to add a case of older date, but well authenticated by the names of living farmers. In 1835, Mr. Brodie and another East- Lothian farmer communicated the results of a trial they had made on this subject to the Agricultural Society of that county. The whole report will be found in the 16th annual statement of that Association. Its results are given in the following Tables :—
1. Mr. Brodie’s experiment on four lots of seven Durham oxen :—
No, |Q8!2l) Valuation | Increase. CONSUMPTION. Cet half ee | £. eee Sy ey US. Laas: l.; 95 | 150 10! 55 10 | 96 tons turnips at 11s. 6d. per ton . . 55 10 2.| 95 | 157 10 | 62 10 | 58 tons turnips at 11s. 6d., and 16 tea 62 10 potatoes at 35s. 10d. per ton 2 . . 3. | 95 {| 175 0] 80 O | 93 tons turnips at 11s. 6d., and 23 tons 5 cwt. 56 lbs. cake at £11 13s—£3> 80 O OVEL COSL Priceless) rami ert ne. G 4.| 95 | 147 0) 52 O | 115 qrs. draff at 4s., 83 puncheons of dreg at 2s., cartage £9, 4 qrs. peas 52 0
42s., 13 qrs. oats 28s. bruising, &c. .
Here, so high a price was obtained for the turnips, and yet the oil-cake was more than refunded by the value of meat obtained. In the second case the potatoes did not repay their consumption. In the fourth, the distillery refuse and peas seem to have just paid their account. Draff is the spent malt and dreg the liquor after the spirit has been distilled from it.
2. The other experiment on four lots of five oxen :—
No, |_Value | Valuation | Increase. CONSUMPTION. Noy, 10.| Mar. 24. iE. ee £. ee Ie 35 61 26 33 acres furmips at'£7. 8s. 2 6: 3 2s 26 2.1 35 68 33 12 acre turnips at £7. 8s., 14 acre potatoes 8 33 | BG Ocsiinel alison toca e ceeli ie 3. | 395 74 39 12 acre turnips at £7. 8s., 59 bushels 39 bran at 8s. 9d.—double the value . : ABN 85) 70 35 Potatoes as No. 2, 59 bushels bran at 5s. ld. 35
Here again the best result was obtained where the most
366 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
nourishing food was given, and it was again shown that potatoes (supposing them to be an ordinary crop) are valued too highly for feeding purposes at 15/. per acre.
The method of feeding adopted in the case of our four Here- ford oxen was the same as we have for the last few years adopted with all our cattle and sheep. Each sheep gets about one-eighth the quantity given to an ox, with about 20 Ibs. of swedes daily in the beginning of winter, or of mangold wurzel in the spring. The same method is adopted with cattle during summer: they are fed on the linseed compound along with cut clover or vetches ad lib. ‘The following is our present arrangement, in which, simply owing to the proportion of the stock of food on hand, our pro- portion of linseed-meal and bean and other meal varies from it much. Every day—40 lbs. of linseed are boiled in 70 gallons of water, and thrown over 44 heaped bushel baskets full of chaff, on which again 250 lbs. of bean and other meal are dusted. Of this the sheep (200) get 16 baskets, 7. e. about 15 Ibs. of linseed and 90 lbs. of meal, equal to 14 oz. of linseed and nearly 4 lb. of meal daily apiece; and the cattle (30) get 24 baskets, 2. e. 22 lbs. of linseed and 135 lbs. of meal, equal to about 12 oz. of linseed and 43 lbs. of meal each daily. The rest is given to horses. I[ might give other instances of the profit of feeding cattle on pur- chased food, and of the greater economy of home-made food compared with the oil-cake whichis generally used. Mr. Warnes’ own published experience has furnished instances; and the fol- lowing is a case which he quotes :—
Mr. Postle, of Smallborough, Norfolk, tried the merits of oil- cake against those of linseed and peas. He found that six cattle consumed 20/. 6s. 1}d. in linseed, peas, fuel, and labour, besides the swedes and hay they received; and that the other six consumed 217. 14s. 9d. in linseed cake, besides an equal quantity of grown food and hay. The former lot, though apparently of only equal weight and quality with the latter at the commence- ment of the experiment, had gained by the close of it, during a period of six months, about 45 stones of beef more than the other. And this advantage on the part of linseed and meal over oil-cake holds good in the case of sheep as well as cattle. Mr. Bruce, of Waughton, in areport communicated to the Highland Society in 1844, gave the result of an experiment on this point, in which lots of twenty sheep each were fed variously and tried against one another for a considerable period, and the increase of each being compared with the food consumed, it was found that to every pound of increased weight in one case, there had been a consumption of 101 oz. of linseed-cake ; and to every pound of increased weight in another, there had been a consumption of 59 oz. of linseed and beans (mixed |! to 6); and to every
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 367
pound of increased weight in a third, there had been a consump- tion of 563 oz. of linseed and beans (mixed in the proportion of 3 and 2); while in a fourth instance, the same growth had been effected during the consumption of only 46 oz. of linseed by itself. It appears, therefore, that it is economical to use linseed whole rather than the mere husks of it which we obtain in oil-cake.* In all the former cases it was ground to meal and boiled in water enough to make a mucilage, and then thrown over chaff enough to make nearly a bushel of the porridge to every beast, the bran and other meal being’ first dusted over the whole and incorpo- rated with it. In the last the linseed was given tothe sheep whole, and they ate it out of troughs as they ate the oil-cake. Mr. Warnes has latterly recommended the linseed to be given in a cold mucilage, which can be obtained at less cost by the mere soaking of the meal in cold water for a day and a half. One measure of linseed meal is to be placed in 7 measures of water stirred up and allowed to stand; it will forma jelly in about 30 hours, and may then be thrown over chaff, and used with other meal just as the hot solution is: cattle, it is said, are found to do as well on the cold as on the warm food. I have no experience to offer on this assertion, but I should doubt it.
* T extract a passage on this subject by Mr. Valentine, of Leighton Buzzard, in the ‘ Agricultural Gazette.’ He says :— Our fatting cattle still continue to tbrive very fast upon the prepared food. We weighed a quantity of meal, hay, and turnips, and by this means ascertained the cost per head over a lot of 28. The meal is a mixture of linseed, lentils, and barley, in about equal proportions, and costs, including grinding, ld. per 1b. The hay consumed on the ground where it was grown we value at 22, per ton ; the turnips we value at 7d. per cwt., or about lls. 8d. per ton. The following account will therefore show the cost of each beast per week :—
g. 'd.
“ 52 lbs. meal per day, at ld. per lb., or 40 lbs. per week « -« - . 3 4 ** 56 lbs. turnips per day for seven days, at 7d. percwt. . 2» - « « 2 OF
* 20 lbs. hay chaff per day, or 140 lbs. per week, at 2s, percwt. . . 2 6 $,Cost,ot food persweelks <4, syireyi ferris Seas cede (od lOk
*“* Attendance and interest upon capital employed, about ld. per week . 0 1
pPhetall costibiel Pied Sh ile VPOMIS MILEY? GUI
“ The system of preparing and giving the food is nearly similar to Mr. Warnes’s, and need not be repeated here. Butchers who have inspected our stock annually, and previous to the adoption of feeding on prepared food, confidently assert that the beasts thrive faster now than before. We are quite satisfied that this is the case, and ought not to omit to state that the unprepared food cost from 12s. to even 16s. per week per head, in the years 1845 and 1846. Beasts of equal ages and equal sizes, when tried upon prepared and unprepared food, consumed by far the largest quantity of raw food, without a corresponding increase in size or value. I recently saw some fatting beasts living upon hay and oil-cake, at an expense of 18s, per week, and thought such a system enough to ruin a mint, I have no personal interest in recommending the fatting of cattle on prepared food, apart from a desire of diffusing an econominal system of farm management. But should any,one feel desirous of more detail, I shall be happy to furnish it. Butchers have given us 10s. per week for allowing half-fed beasts to live on
the prepared food, and are satisfied with the proportionate increased value of their animals,”
368 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
And this leads to the question in what condition should food be offered to cattle. Of summer food, vetches, &c., cut and carried to the house, a somewhat costly experience makes us say that it should be cut and left to wither some hours before use. Green and succulent as the vetch or clover is, they are as often physic as they are food, unless somewhat dried before consump- tion. Of winter food—turnips and mangold wurzel—I have only to say that they should be used in the order of their ripen- ing. Common turnips first, then the hybrids, then swedes, and lastly mangold wurzel. ‘They are rarely given boiled: Mr. Warnes has recommended them when cut to be laid in a heap or mashed in a cask along with the hot linseed mucilage which he pours over them, so that the whole is warmed; but the few exist- ing experiments on the subject, however fanaa to the feed- ing of pigs on boiled food, have not recommended its use for cattle. Mr. Walker, of Haddington, found five oxen and heifers on steamed turnips, &c., to cost 5l. 19s. more during the period of the experiment than the same number on food un- cooked ; and while the latter, after putting a certain value on the food consumed, paid 4/. 12s. beyond their cost, the former did not repay their expenses, similarly estimated, by about 16s. on the lot.
And as regards the condition of the artificial food given to cattle. The Harleston Farmers’ Club recommend the boiling of the corn even more than of the linseed with which it is mixed. Our practice has been to boil the linseed merely, and then dust the corn meal over the chaff after the boiling mucilage has been added. And that it is of importance thoroughly to reduce the linseed by grinding, and boil it, and convert it perfectly into a mucilage, is proved by the experiments of Mr. Thompson, of Moat Hall, near York. He found that of 1000 grains of un- crushed linseed, boiled for one hour, 845 were still insoluble, while of the same quantity crushed, and similarly treated, only 525 were insoluble. And, notwithstanding that most of our meat- producing animals chew the cud, it is well to be particular in assisting mastication and digestion by the utmost reduction of their food before it is administered. Turnip-cutters, and chaff- cutters, and corn-crushers, are useful in a meat manufactory, not only by causing the consumption of what would otherwise, to a great extent, be lost, but also by enabling the more perfect exhaustion of the nourishment contained in that which is con- sumed.
I have said nothing of swine in this part of our subject, but it is well known that they allow of a more concentrated nutritive- ness in their food than other animals, so that it is even the practice to give them greaves, and grease, and blood, and other
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 363
animal matters, which they convert into pork or bacon with a profit.
The following is a case of high feeding with profit in the in- stance of the hog. Two sows and thirteen pigs were bought for 15/.; they consumed 68/. worth of Indian corn and barley, both bought at so much as 5s. per bushel; they ate the produce of one-eighth of an acre of potatoes, and they had the run of a grass field during the period of feeding; they ultimately yielded 276 score lbs. of bacon, which, selling at 8s. 6d. per score, realised 115/., or 357. beyond the actual cost of animals and food; a sum which was ample payment for the potatoes and the grass. But every one can find in his experience instances of profitable feeding in the case of the hog, as well as in the case of the other animals also which the farmer fattens. The difficulty is to give only their due importance to detached instances of this kmd. The following instances appear to be average truths. They are extracted from the‘ Agricultural Gazette’ in 1847-8. Ona Galloway farm, thirty
aged cows and heifers were tied up to feed :-—
i S20 They cost . ° : ° ° ° . 2922008: 0 Were fed 30 weeks, Interest P 2 Wipe) Attendance : : ‘ ‘ 5 : Ly OO Fuel ‘ : 40.0 Linseed 10 qrs., beans 30 bshls., oats 50 Ibs. . - 40 18°" 6
Total cost : S@3G61 +9210 They were sold for . ; . : - 425 0 O
having consumed 400 tons of swedish turnips, which, at 3s. a ton (the price they thus obtained from them), make about 602. the amount they gained. Again, on a north Lincolnshire farm, sixty head of cattle (forty Galloways and twenty shorthor ns) were put up to feed :—
Ste Seb sth.
They cost : : - 905 0 O Were kept from January till May. Interest . . 22 10° © 12 tons of oil-cake . ° - - - 138 0 O 5 tons of hay - . . . : : din 2A OLD Attendance : : : - . ° si. 26,0, 0 Total cost : <a yt A yo had |
They were sold for . - . : . : 119¢ 2 0
—_—
having consumed about 580 tons of swedes, which, at nearly 3s, per ton, the price their feeding obtained fei them, make about 86/.. the amount they gained. These prices do not pay for growing these roots; but inthe one case 150 tons of good manure were made, and in ‘lie other 1300 cubic yards, nee it is to this that the farmer looks for repayment of his cost.
370 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
There is no truth more unwillingly learned by the amateur, or yet more certainly forced on him in a few years, than the small influence of maxima on agricultural averages; so that the expe- rienced farmer comes to look on all these reports of individual cases with an indifference which might appear unreasonable. It is a hard matter to say what is truth in so variable a matter as feeding ; or where it is to be found, if not in the instances whose details are recorded in our agricultural publications. But I believe that average experience concurs in recommending a treat- ment of fattening animals very much—if profit be our end—in proportion to their quality. Well-bred stock may be forced from calfhood forwards with the highest feeding from beginning to end; its precocity will take every advantage of every aid to deve- lopment: but coarse unthrifty animals will pay for little beyond a self-obtained livelihood from poor pasturage, where there is no labour, little rent, and nothing bought to swell the debit side of its account. And between these extremes of course every variety of treatment may be demanded by varying circumstances. If high feeding be adopted, the object should be to give, in the most digestible form—cut or crushed or even boiied, and inter- mingled — food combining nourishment and cost in the most economical proportion. Linseed, as a source of the fat, and pease or bean meal, as a flesh-forming food, seem to offer the best mixture. ‘This, with Swedish turnips and mangold wurzel to fur- nish water enough—not to speak of their own really nutritive quality—and hay and straw chaff to give the bulk without which the stomach cannot rightly perform its functions, and salt as a wholesome condiment, will fatten an ox or a sheep as fast as other circumstances permit.
4, What these other circumstances are we must now consider. They are all included in the words health, warmth, comfort.
I do not intend to discuss methods of restoring health when it has once been disturbed. It is very seldom that a veterinary surgeon can make much good of a fat patient. The best plan is to kill such an animal on the first symptom of anything serious, and sell the carcase. But it is with comfort and warmth as the preventives of illness that we have to do. I shall not quote at any length the explanations of the chemist on the advantages of warmth. No one doubts these advantages. The factis, that the quantity of food which is consumed—z. e. burned—in the body for the maintenance of its heat depends on the weight of the air drawn into the lungs. If an animal be artificially warmed it neither will nor can inspire so much as if it were cold. There is not so much loss of heat to restore, and less fuel burned will maintain it; and the animal, not needing so much air to burn that fuel, will not draw so much into its lungs. But it could not if it
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 371
would; for assuming that an equal bulk of air is breathed one day with another, the warmer it is the rarer and less heavy it will be; so that the artificial circumstances which mduce external warmth hinder the animal from making so much use of the means which have been provided for the natural maintenance of its temperature. The warmer, therefore, in reason, that an animal is kept the less of its food goes to waste as fuel. But it is not merely cold that an exposed animal has to sustain. A flock of sheep folded on the turnip-fields, as they often are, amidst frosts and snows and rain and wind and sleet, are in as miserable a plight for making mutton as can be conceived. And itis by the avoidance of ail the stagnation and disease consequent on this, as well as by the direct saving of food which warmth effects, that shed-feeding recommends itself. Mr. Childers first proved and published the benefits of the plan in the case of sheep to British farmers ; but it had long been known on the Continent.* The Society’s Journal contains several cases of the advantages attend- ing this mode of treating them. And Mr. Huxtable has latterly recommended a still more artificial treatment, of which we have as yet had no experience. He advises, in order to save straw as food, and to obtain manure in a state to drill, that sheep be kept without litter on a sparred floor, through which their dung may drop into a pit below. Of shed-feeding sheep we have had seve- ral years’ experience over, in the whole, nearly 1500 fattening sheep; and the plan, so far as yet appears, we shall continue to follow. Our balance of accounts, published in a past page, may not appear to speak well for the plan; but it is not out of this we are persuaded that the small returns from our sheep have arisen. It is the great expense of feeding them that has reduced our apparent profits. We have had this winter 230 heavy sheep in sheds, their litter and manure accumulating under them for three months together. The shed does not cover the whole of the space on which the animals stand. Every eight sheep have a pen of 10 feet by 15 feet, and of this a roof covers about 10 feet by 10 feet. Not asingle case of lameness has attended our flock this winter, and they have been growing fast.; They eat their food (7 lbs. turnips at 6 a.m., linseed porridge at 10 a.m., 6 lbs. turnips at 2p.M., and 7 lbs. turnips in the evening) and lie down the rest of the day. To this continual rest we attribute their
* Having farmed, largely, many years ago, on the shores of the Baltic, I was com- pelled to keep the sheep under sheds to guard them, during the winter, from the attacks of wolves, At first they were housed in an enormous barn ; but, afterwards, in covered sheds, in which they were found more healthy, and I could not perceive any advantage in the greater warmth of the barn than of the sheds in respect of their fattening.—F, BurKE.
+ The feet of about two pens of sheep are pared every day, so that the shepherd gets over the lot every fortnight, -
372 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
tendency to disease of the bladder, which certainly is somewhat remarkable: but upon the whole we do not hesitate to recom- mend shed-feeding of sheep as, other things being equal, the healthiest and fastest method of making mutton.* Whether it be the fastest way of making money is another thing: the modes of feeding come in for consideration then, as well as the cost of carrying food and manure.
I have nothing to say on the hog in this part of the subject. He has always received more care than the other stock of the farmer; and a warm, clean, and well-littered sty is as good an apartment to live in as any fattening animal can desire.
Of the ox there is more to say. I shall not refer to summer grazing, because that is so thoroughly inartificial a method of management. But as regards the winter feeding of cattle there is a choice of methods requiring discussion. Oxen, when fatten- ing, are sometimes kept in large yards, 10 or 12 together; or, as in East Lothian and other counties, in hemels—small yards containing about two feeding cattle each; or, as is a still more general practice, in stalls, each tied by the neck to a trough, and having a width of about 5 feet on which to stand or lie; or, as has latterly come to prevail, in covered boxes, as they are called— that is, in railed divisions, one ox in each, under a roof—the litter and manure being allowed to accumulate under them from one month to another.
The first plan is clearly inferior to the others. ‘The hemel system has been experimentally compared with the stall feeding by Mr. Boswell, of Balmuto, in Fifeshire. He found that 4 3-year old cattle, and 4 2-year olds, in hemels, gained from 17th October, 1834, to 19th February, 1835, 23 stones | lb. of meat more than the same number of similar animals fed on similar food in stalls. But this was not all profit, for the former con- sumed more turnips than the latter by about 34 tons. The gain of 23 stones of meat was accompanied with a greater consumption of 33 tons of green food.
I have not met with any other instance of exact experiment on this subject; but this one seems to indicate very clearly the advantage of giving the animals more exercise than they can take when tied by the neck. And I have no hesitation in recom- mending—from 4 years’ experience of above 160 head of feeding cattle—box-feeding, as combining the complete shelter and the comparative freedom characieristic respectively of stall and hemel feeding. In a box about 10 feet square, an ox will need about 15 to 20 lbs. of straw daily as litter. The dung and soiled liter
* It may be well just to mention that Lord Talbot and Sir R. Simeon, of the Isle of Wight, have adopted a plan of stall-feeding sheep, of which they speak highly, but the expense of which is we fear too great for an economical manufacture of mutton.
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 373
are allowed to accumulate for months together. The trough should be moveable, so as to be raised as the animal rises in his lair. The advantages are, that under these circumstances none of the liquid manure is lost, and the anima!s are dry, and clean, and warm, and the air they breathe is sweet. There has been a good deal of opposition to the system of box-feeding in the agricultural periodicals of late; but it certainly has been an unreasonable opposition. What though the tendency of manure when it accu- mulates is to ferment, and generate nauseous gases? What though these gases be injurious to animal health, and though an ox cannot lie down daily amid its own excrement without injury ?— All this I most readily admit; and yet the fact remains un- assailed, that a box-fed: ox, properly littered, will allow its litter and manure to accumulate under it, and maintain notwithstanding a dry and clean coat, and a healthy growth. The fact is, that under his weight the manure does not ferment in any mischievous degree ; the straw does not rot. The fact is, that he can choose his bed ; while a stall-fed animal lies where he stands whatever be under him, The fact is, that the former has twice the-space to. live in that the latter has: and the racr is, that the former lives. more comfortably in a warmer, drier, more healthy condition than the latter. I have not the smallest hesitation in recommending box-feeding, as, ceteris paribus, the fastest method of making beef,. and shed-feeding as the fastest method of making mutton.
These, then, have been the conclusions at which we have ar- rived—that box-fed or shed-fed animals of good breed, fed on purchased food properly prepared, in addition to the utmost pro- duce of the best-grown crops which a thorough fertile farm can yield, will turn out more meat per acre, than is possible by any other animais under any other circumstances. ‘That land must be raised to the highest fertility which the cost of drainage or burning, or marling or liming, of manuring and cultivation, per- mits—that it must then be made to yield alternately with grain crops, the best descriptions of Swedish and other turnips, of man-~ gold wurzel, of carrots, of clover, vetches, rape, or other green crops, which skilful cultivation can produce, and the best crops of each that cost and climate allow: that, with this produce, linseed and, say, beans, must be bought (or grown) for consumption in the proportion of 1 of the former, and about 3 of the latter, with every 100 of the green food: that this, properly prepared, must be given to good individuals of the Short-horn, Hereford, or Devon breeds of eattle, kept in clean, well-littered boxes, or to good in- dividuals of the Leicester, South Down, long-wooled, or cross-bred breeds of sheep, in well-littered and well-sheltered sheds, before a maximum of meat can be expected.
IV. I have now to consider some other points, perhaps less
MOL. X- 2c
374 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
immediately connected with our subject, to which the Society has called attention ; and this I shall do by presenting them in the form of questions, and I put them in the order in which the Society has dictated them.
A. What are the sources from which the supplies of lean stock are derived, and are such supplies on the increase or de- crease? ‘To the latter part of this question I imagine the proper answer to be that, excepting our altogether foreign sup- ples, these sources will, no doubt, generally diminish in produc- tiveness as the agriculture of their several localities improves. There can be no doubt that this will be more and more true of the more improvable districts, such as Herefordshire, &c., from which we now draw the best of our lean supplies. When each locality fattens its own stock, as in the case of an improved cul- tivation it does, then any extra stock that each may require must, excepting what is reared in uncultivated districts, be brought from abroad. ‘To the former part of the question we may answer :—
]. That it is an increasing practice, already prevalent in our best counties, to fatten one’s own stock, and not look to other districts for lean cattle. But this is the subject of our second question, and need not be discussed here.
2, That Ireland has been a productive source of lean stock for the English and Scottish farmer, though not much to his benefit, if our own experience of the quality of Irish beasts is any guide ; but that it 1s a source which, with an improved state of things there, we may expect will gradually dry up. The following are the only returns of importations of live stock from Ireland that I have succeeded in obtaining, and as they include the period of famine, they cannot be considered very instructive. If the quarter ending the doth of July, 1846 and 1847 respectively, be any guide to a conclusion, it would appear that the supplies have not fallen off as yet:—
Imported Number of from Ireland during Quarter ending Cea Caimee ar eestor Sine. 5 January, 1846. 32,883 583 32,576 104,141 5 April A) oS 14,859 183 1 EA | 15284 1 5 July spite 33,850 1,923 06,669 124, 762
10 October ,, .| 71,728 | 2,909 | 123,372 89,941 5 January, 1847. | 66,046 | 1,348 68,095 | 113,276 5 April spits ie! 28 1672 329 25,701 45,993 5 July » | 64, 017s ataes 88,173 14,750
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 375
3. That the hill districts of Scotland have been a large source of lean stock. Some of them will more and more feed their own stock than they have yet done, and supplies from some of them, Galloway for instance, will decline. ‘Thus, I am informed by one of the most extensive Galloway dealers, that the quantity of lean stock sent from the three counties, Wigton, Kircudbright, and Dumfries southwards, is at present from 13,000 to 14,000 annually, and that ‘these numbers are likely to diminish rather than increase, as every year the extent of home feeding is increasing. ‘The Highland districts of Scot- land, however, are likely to supply us in undiminished quantity for many years to come. The stock sold at Falkirk tryst and Doune fair, in the county of Stirling, is a sufficient measure of the Highland supplies; and the following details respecting these markets, extracted from old files of the two Stirling papers, I have been enabled by the kindness of a friend to procure :—
ESTIMATED STOCK AT MARKET AT FALKIRK. DOUNE. DATE. |- ‘ Observer.’ ‘ Journal.’ * Observer.’ ‘ Journal.’ 1836 | October . 40,000 55,000 Bad market Dull 1837 August . | Beyond expectation | Very extensive ae oe September | Better than last year} Average oe o October . Ditto Greater Little business done 10,000 1838 August . Ditto Greater Great number ; sales oe brisk September Bad tryst 18,000 a a. October . Full 50,000 50,000 | oe Good market 1839 August . Average 6,000 ze oe September} Smaller number 30,000 oe oe October . Full 70,000 70,000 Sales brisk 5,000 1840 August . About 15,000 15,000 oe oe September} Less numerous Short oe an October . | 80,000 to 90,000 oe Sales brisk Brisk 1841 August . 18,000 18,000 to ve oe 20,000. | September Good Good oe | Not so mapy October . Numerous Full Dull ce 1842 August . Greater number Very great oe oe October . Great number Full ve | oe 1843 August . Ditto oe ve ve September Fewer ve v6 ve October . Great show 7 Not good | oe
Ie 2
DATE.
1844 August . October .
1845 August
September October . 1846 August . September October . 1847 August . ‘September October . 1848 August . September October .
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
ESTIMATED STOCK AT MARKET AT
FALKIRK. DOUNE. ¢ Observer.’ ¢ Journal.’ ‘ Observer.’ Bad market : te
Over average
One-third more, and dull and dear, Below average
Fair average
Half the average Half over average
Short
Full average
Below average Not extensive Most extensive
Very large number
A great show of cattle
Short supply
Good supply
eo 38
Oo @
Beyond the demand
* Journal.’
—_==2
Upon the whole, the above extracts show that these markets are still as fully stocked as they have been, and that we may depend upon their at least maintaining their supplies for a long time to come.
4, But the great source of lean stock now open to us is the Continent: and the supplies imported thence are very rapidly increasing. ‘The following numbers tell us that plain enough, but, unfortunately for the farmer, much of it is not lean stock, but butcher-meat already fatted.
Se aoe
Oxen and Bulls. .
Cows «
Calves . Sheep. . Lambs .
Swine and Hogs ,
Noumser of Awimats Imported.
SP An SR olet sie 16 265
Year ending January 5,
18409.
9,782 6,502 586 15,846 112 1,598
1846, 1847. 17, 191) We 7eert 25,349 | 35,138
2,503 | 12,389 91,732 | 136,527
2,892 3,349
3,856 1, 242
Nine Months - ending October 10,.
1848,
16,791 15,919 12,389 79,388
175
On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food. 377
Another return, between which and the above there is some unexplained incongruity, states that there were imported in the years—
1842, 1843, iff Pel ee ed sa
@atttlex .) % 4,264 1,521 4,889 16,870 | Sheep... 644 217 ZrO oh ato. 958 | Wine. «3 | 410 361 | 265 1,598 | |
These numbers show that there is a source in operation of unknown productiveness, from which we may continue to draw our supplies of lean stock for many years to come, with what profit to ourselves the quality of the animals thus obtained to feed will determine.
B. But let us now inquire in what degree it is profitable, or even possible, to breed our own stock ? That, other things being equal, it is advisable to breed one’s own stock is apparent from the fact that then the feeder knows the stock he is fattening, and. can treat them, as regards quality of food, according as his expe- rience of them has shown to be profitable; and that it is possible the experience of Berwickshire farmers proves.* There the farmer purchases every few years a good bull, keeps a stock of perhaps a dozen cows, and rears, it may be, from 30 to 36 calves; his cottagers, having cows which are covered by his bull, sell him their calves, which are reared along with those of his own cows. One cow thus brings up 23 to 3 calves; and the cattle thus reared are sold at little beyond two years old, often as heavy as upwards of 7 cwt. a piece. It may be well to state the mode of management somewhat more in detail. The calves are made to drop at various times between the 1st of February and the Ist of April. As soon as dropped the calf is removed from its dam, rubbed dry, fed liberally on new milk thrice a day for a fortnight, then tempted to eat Swedish turnips and oilcake, giving the same quantity of liquid as usual, but now not new milk alone, but gradually more and more diluted with water, and containing perhaps a little oatmeal porridge. The cows all this time receive globe-turnips (but we English farmers cannot grow turnips of such quality as they can in the North), as being more productive of milk than the Swedish. When the calves are from 4 to 6 weeks old they are moved from cribs to a house, several together ; and as soon as the yards are empty, to the best and warmest of
* The statements regarding Berwickshire experience in this respect are adopted from the paper on that subject i in the Highland Society’s Transactions, 1841, by Mr. Wilson, of Edington Mains, Ayton, Berwickshire.
378 On increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
these. At6 weeks the mid-day meal of milk is discontinued, and at 14 weeks they are weaned altogether. At that time their allowance of cake is increased, and they readily eat enough to improve in condition: they are put to grass, and the cake then gradually diminished as they take to this kind of food. They are not permitted to lie out late at night in autumn, but are soon brought in and receive foddering of tares or clover. When put on turnips they receive | lb. of cake each in the yards daily, which keeps them improving ; and this continues till spring, when they are again put to grass, and then it is discontinued. ‘They are brought in the second autumn, and are fed liberally on turnips and Swedes, &c., during the second winter, and may be sold fat in the following May.
There are two sides even to this subject, however, and there are advantages connected with the purchase over the breeding of your stock, which, if you can easily obtain stock of good quality, may justify the abandonment of the latter plan. The chief of them is its economical use of the farm’s resources. When full-grown stock are purchased and brought to a farm, they remove from it when sold only the fat and flesh with which its crops have supplied them. When fat stock, bred at home, are sold, the whole of their substance is an extraction from the land, which, if bones are thus taken from it, must be replenished with bone-dust purchased for the purpose, or it will worsen in the process. In the former case the food purchased more than balances the material removed from the land ; in the latter, manures as well as food must be bought if fertility is to be maintained. Still there is no doubt that to breed one’s own stock diminishes the demand, which would otherwise injuriously increase, upon our supplies of lean stock, which are probably on the decline.
c. Another method of diminishing this demand, and so of suiting it more accurately to the supply, is to keep on fattening stock fully up to maturity before selling it as beef; and it isa question which the Society has put—how far it may be advisable thus to abandon the system of sending stock to the butcher at a very early age? Probably the right answer is—-the earlier the age the better, provided that, whatever it be, the animal shall have attained full maturity and such a degree of fatness as the market requires. The more rapid the process of feeding, the less the operation of all those constant sources of waste which the lungs and other excretory organs of the animal create; and the more complete the growth and maturity of the animal before it is sold, the fewer will be the individuals required to convert a given quantity of food, and thus the less will be the demand upon an already overtaxed supply of lean stock, and the less will be the demand for bone and other substances out of the soil of which
Lodging and Boarding Labourers. 379
the animal framework is built. It appears impossible to give any other than a qualitative answer to this question. ‘To state the ages at which the different breeds may be profitably disposed of to the butcher would not only be an invidious and probably inaccurate performance, but it would, to do each of them justice, require a specification of the mode of feeding and treatment proper to each, which it would be impossible to give with accu- racy or without great tediousness.—This, then, is all | have to offer on the subject of our supplies of animal food.
XVII—On Lodging and Boarding Labourers, as practised on the Farm of Mr. Sotheron, M.P. By Tuomas Dyke ACLAND.
To Mr. Pusey.
Dear Pusey,—The arrangement made by Mr. Sotheron for his farm servants at Bowden Park, near Chippenham, so fully comes up to the account we had heard of it, that I cannot refuse to comply with your desire that | should send you a description of it to be inserted, if you think fit, in the Journal. Mr. Sotheron has given his consent to my doing so, and furnished me with the details of the plan and of its results.
When Mr. Sotheren took his farm in hand about four vears ago, he found, as usual, a barn of double the size required, and divided one end of it into three compartments, a dining hall, a sleeping room containing six beds, a washing room with a loft over it, for keeping chests of clothes, and a sink communicating with the tank in the yard. The barn doorways are walled up with brick and fitted with glass casements, a large window with a swing sash is opened over the sleeping apartment, one of the threshing floors forms the dais of the dining hall, on which stand a plain iarge table and some wooden chairs. A lamp, and a long pole for drying clothes, are let down by pulleys from the tie-beams of the reof, a plain hearth and chnnney corner have been added at the end, and a cupboard completes the furniture. In this building from five to seven lads have been housed and fed during the last four years. Their wages commence at 4J. and rise gra- dually to 8/7. 10s. per annum. They purchase their own clothing out of their wages. The married man is a good workman and manages the steam-engine. Several of the boys have become ex- cellent ploughmen and have won prizes. After work they occa- sionally amuse themselves with cricket or other games, or with reading and writing, playing the flute, &c. The weekly expenses of their board per head are as follows :—
sy od. Bread and flour e ; ocee lcm Meat and bacon : te) Groceries . : : : Papin bine 0) Beer 1-8
Dip ede
They are allowed to come at sixteen years of age, and remain till they marry or obtain situations. The youngest boy cleans out the room, and they take it in turn to prepare the table for meals, which are cooked by the wife of the bailiff, who lives in an ad- joining house and has the assistance of one female servant, who is not allowed to go into the building where the young men live. The bailiff’s wife also provides for their washing. The young men are under the superintendence of the bailiff, who presides at their meals, and reads prayers with them morning and evening. A. bell rings at meal times, and those who are absent from a meal without leave or good cause, go without it. They are required to observe some rules, few and simple, tending to order and cleanliness—such as to sit down to their meals in clean smock frocks, which they put off when they go out again to work. [ ascertained that these rules are in no way irksome to them, but have inspired them with a feeling of self-respect—as their phrase is, they are glad to keep themselves respectable. 1 sat with them at their breakfast table, and conversed with them while the bailiff was out of the room, and can therefore testify to their demeanour being at once intelligent and respectful. There can be little doubt that such a plan, carried on with kindness and good sense,
must tend to the best results, and such in fact have been pro- duced.
* The following details are taken from the average of the consumption for several weeks :—
GaSe ate 38 lbs. bread-at 13d. 1) 27S 04g 43 lbs. flour at 13d. . - O 0 7; 93 lbs. butcher’s meat at 5d. 0 3 113 143 lbs. bacon at 5d. ous oe On mOnmOs 24 Ibs. cheese'at 61d. 5. 82's OFS 2% lbs; sugarat 4d)0s. be a0) LOMO 3 lb. coffee at 1s. 2d. . : 0 0 5} * lib. cocoarat (Sd. j.9 56 yu Ue: 2B elbs; ricelat 2d.’ 4. le fi Oe Oe PRepper,salt Se." >. aos ee Ome Board of five boys . . . . 1 0 62 Board of one boy « . - . O 4 Id Been in addition’ 2 iy... 0s <i
Actual food ofeach boy . . 0 5 13
‘To this must be added a small sum per head for washing, soap, and candles and firing.
Lodging and Boarding Labourers. 381
Of the total number of youths who have been admitted, two have married, one of whom works on the farm, the other for a neighbouring gentleman; four have been placed out in good situations ; three, having absented themselves without leave, were not taken back ; one left owing to ill health, and afterwards died ; five are now at the farm. None have misconducted themselves nor been discharged for any fault.
in connection with these arrangements for the boarding of the farm servants who live in the house, two advantages are provided for the ether labourers. A cup of cocoa is given to every person employed on the farm at the time appointed for the beginning of work ; and during the winter months nourishing soup 1s offered to those who choose to pay for it, at the rate of one-halfpenny per quart, which covers the actual cost, and is even more valued than it would be if it were given without payment. The early cup of cocoa is found to have the great merit of allaying the feeling of thirst during the day, which is so great a temptation to labourers: this probably is owing to the irritation of the stomach caused by beginning the day’s work fasting being prevented.
The receipt for the soup, which is made a la Soyer, is as follows :—
S. ud. Meat 2 lbs. minced . Ore Sago 6 lbs. : i +6 Pepper and salt Ort 2 4
Making sixteen gallons, which are sold for 2s. 8d., leaving 4d. to set against the value of the vegetables grown in the garden, fuel, and the time of the servant who makes it.
The merit of these plans, especially of the boarding of the boys, seems to be, that they are natural and simple, in fact a revival of an old English habit, universal some years ago, and still practised, even on very large farms, in the north of England, but driven out in the southern counties partly by the encourage- ment given to early marriages under the old Poor Law, and partly by the refinement of modern habits, which have banished the labourer from the, society of his master, whereas he would derive great advantage from it, and be made a more useful servant.
Yours sincerely,
T. D. Actanp, jun.
XVII.— The Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. A Lecture delivered in the Shire Hall of the City of Norwich, at the Annual Meeting of the Society, July 18, 1849. By the Rev. Epwin SIDNEY, A.M.
My Lorvs anp GEeNTLEMEN,—I have no common satisfaction in addressing you in a county where for many years my humble efforts, made long before similar exertions had become at all general, were so favourably received and kindly acknowledged by all classes of persons. I will not, however, indulge myself by any further preface, but proceed at once to the task I have cheer- fully undertaken. I shall endeavour to describe in simple popular language the nature, habits, and, as far as I can, the preventives or palliatives of the principal parasitic fungi of the British farm, beyond which, of course, | cannot go; avoiding all needless technicalities, and stamping my explanations with those characters which will promote their currency with every hearer. Whenever I am obliged to use a scientific term, I shall try to explain it; and I commence by remarking that the epithet parasitic applied to a plant, means that it lives at the cost of that on which it grows. A fungus is a cellular plant without flowers, living on air, and nourished through a stalk, stem, or spawn, called its mycelium. It is propagated by minute seeds or spores, or sporules, either colourless or not, but never green, and occasionally enclosed in skinny coverings, termed sportdia, or spore-cases. Fungi live by imbibing juices impregnated with the peculiar principles of the matrix on which they grow. The spores mostly germinate either by a protrusion of the inner membrane, or by a lengthening of the outer covering ; and the spawn is the develop- ment of these spores, or of itself already produced, possessing the power of imbibing the juices just alluded to. ‘The most familiar example is common mushroom spawn, which the little seeds will sometimes throw out on strips of glass, so as to be well observed. #ungals most commonly grow upon animal or vegetable substances in a state of decomposition ; but many of simplest organization attack tissues, in which its commencement is at least not ascertainable, or, if commencing, hasten it beyond recovery.
The simplest form of a fungus is common mouldiness, which has two types. ‘The first, as may be seen by the aid of the mi- croscope, is composed of jointed threads made up of simple cells placed end to end, which separate and seem capable of reproduction. This is represented in Fig. 1, where the little cells may be seen placed as described. ‘These cells are ca- pable of being separated, and appear to be reproductive. The
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 383
second -assumes a threal-like appearance, bearing spores on the tips of the threads, or on short processes, and sometimes
Fig. 1. The jointed Threads of Common Mouldiness.
BLS PINS
Fig. 2. Threads bearing Spores.
in cases, by the rupture of which they are dispersed. They sometimes assume the beautiful appearance delineated in Fig, 2, where the jointed threads and the attachment of the spores in the way mentioned will be perceived. The actual forms even of these simplest fungals are thus shown to be extremely interesting.
384 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
Examples of spores in cases will be pointed out as we proceed. In a higher state, fungi take a determinate figure formed of a mass of cellular tissue, the centre of which is all spores, attached to it often in fours. ‘This at length dries up, leaving only the dusty spores, as in the case of a common puff-ball. The most completely formed fungi have two distinct surfaces, one of which is even and without any opening, the other separated into plates, called the hymenium, or gills, to which the spores are attached, generally four together, as seen in Fig. 3. Upon these differences of structure de- pend those various attempts at botanical arrangement which I have no time to describe. So numerous are the seeds, spores, or sporules of fungi, that 1t is not easy to conceive a place whence they are excluded. Those which grow on matter in which decomposition has decidedly begun, have been well called “the sca- Fig. 3. Showing the attachment of Vengers of nature ;’ but others of a most
the Spores in fours. minute description, some of which belong to my subject, apparently attack tissues in full health and vigour. With regard to the properties of fung?, 1 can only mention, in a word, that they are respectively eatable, poisonous, medicinal, intoxicating, and even luminous, lighting up with their living lustre mines and caverns where they grow, and in some places assuming at night the appearance of pendulous lamps hanging from the trees on which they vegetate.
I. I now propose first to describe the chief of those minute parasitic fung? which injure the corn and grasses of this country, premising that corn-plants are themselves only grasses, the seeds of which are sufficiently large for our food.
These little pests generally present themselves to the unassisted eye under the form of masses of dust, differently coloured, and appear on all parts of the plants, except the roots.
(1.) The stems or straw of our corn-plants, and also the leaves, are frequently disfigured by a dark series of patches, constituting true mildew, and called by botanists puccinia, from the Greek guna, thickly, because of the dense masses of which it consists. It is found upon reed as well as corn, but the microscope reveals a slight difference in the structure of the spores, by which the puccinia of one species of plant is distinguishable from that of another. It was imperfectly noticed by Felice Fontana in 1797, but in 1804 was investigated more closely under the auspices of Sir Joseph Banks, on account of its ravages that season, and microscopical! drawings, still in the British Museum, were exe-
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 385
cuted by Mr. Bauer. Its common appearance is seen in Fig. 4,
Vig. 4. Common appearance of Mildew.
which represents it on the siraw a little magnified. Its appear-
ance, under a first-rate modern microscope is shown in Fig. 5,
Spores.
\ } NN
Nil aK \ ae - “ es ay BNNs ee S y
wf ENN eae le ae ESS ee ae. ee is ae
Fig. 5. Puccinia ah or Mildew, magnified,
where you perceive that these dusty patches are crowds of club- shaped fungi (spores), the thicker end of each of which is divided into two chambers containing the reproductive sporules. They burst through the epidermis, or upper skin, which they lift up, and the sporules, dispersed through the air, have been thought to find entrance by the stomata or pores. ‘The ground of this notion is, that the patches of mildew are first seen in small cavities immediately beneath these pores, which, as Pro- fessor Henslow, to whom [ am indebted for the specimens now before you, observes, “certainly looks very much as if the sporules entered there.” With his usual caution, he remarks, ‘that the fact stands in need of proof,’ and that hitherto the evidence is more in favour of similar fungi being imbibed by the roots of the plants which they attack.” We shall shortly see that some experiments on another fungal parasite of wheat, tend to show that these fungi are developed in a manner little sus- pected even by the most accurate observers. This parasite robs the living plants of their juices, and must not be confounded with a very minute fungus called dipazea, which is peculiar to the joints of the straw; nor, as is more common, with another black fungus, which gives a dingy aspect to whole fields towards harvest, and is often called mildew, but which never attacks a plant till it is previously diseased, and which, for want
386 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
of any other name, I am obliged to announce by its botanical one, cladosporium herbarum, the character of its growth being, as you see in Fig. 6, totally unlike mildew. It grows on old leather as
Fig. 6. Cladosporium Herbarum, magnified highly,
well as on wheat. The dissimilarity to Pucciniais visible enough. Spores may be seen here in their cases. ‘The common appear- ance on the straw, as shown in Fig. 7, not being accurately ob-
=<
Sa
Fig. 7. Common appearance of Cladosporium on Straw, slightly magnified.
served, misleads. ‘Though I have no other name but the botanical one by which to call it, I can trace its derivation to the Greek xrados, a branch, because the spores grow on minute branches. Whatever tends to preserve the health of the wheat will prevent also the attacks of this fungus.
(2.) We now come to other minute parasitic fung? of corn- plants. ‘They are called wredines, the plural of uredo, from the Latin uro, to burn, on account of the scorched appearance of the parts on which they vegetate. Dufferent parts are attacked by different species: the wredo of the maize alone growing every- where except on the roots. ‘The first wredo I shall notice is known familarly to the farmer as rust, red-rag, red-robin, red- gum, and comes out in yellow or orange blotches on the stem, the leaf, and the chaff-scales, appearing as a powder. The hue of a whole field is often affected by it, and fears naturally arise, but it frequently happens that a few days bright sunshine dissipates the fungus ;. but mischief has been done, and the crop feelsit. It is called uredo rubigo, and under the microscope the spores appear
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 387
asin the drawing, Fig.8. You may observe the spores in the highly
Fig. 8. Uredo rubigo.
magnified diagram, most accurately drawn from the microscope by Mr. Leonard. They are seen growing on the mycelium, which finds its matrix in the tissues of the plant. There is a curious botanical question whether this wredo passes to puceinia. I think the best evidence confirms the opinion that such is the case.
(3.) The sooty powder on the flowering parts of corn-plants, called smut, chimney-sweepers, and dust-brand, is formed of the spores of another uredo, called uredo segetum. It renders the whole interior abortive ; the pedicel of the flower swells, and a black dust occupies the whole. ‘These spores are so diminutive that the diameter of one is only ss57 inch. Strange to say, some farmers welcome its appearance, because they conceive it augurs a good crop, forgetting that whatever ear it attacks, it makes one less in that crop.
(4.) Another wredo, called bunt, or pepper-brand, seizes on the grain of wheat, and that to a great extent if not guarded against. This wredo is termed uredo fetida, on account of its filthy odour. If you break a grain of wheat infected, you will find the flour replaced by a black mass, oily and fetid, and all the ovary is seen to be destroyed, except the integument, which swells and encloses the spores, amounting in a single grain to nearly four millions. They are, like those of uredo rubigo, shown in
Fig. 9, on their myce- lium or spawn, and are in diameter about <3> inch. This drawing, also from the pencil of Mr. Leonard, shows the spores perfectly as they would appear un- der an achromatic of +> inch focal length, with an eye-piece of moderate
388 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
power. This wredo confines its attacks chiefly to the seed of wheat amongst our cereals, but some other plants, as the convol- vulus, and of the grasses, rye-grass, bromus, and poa, are subject to have their seeds destroyed in a similar manner.
(5.) These uredines, as well as mildew, though till recently not understood, have long been the subjects of observation. Moses threatened ine Greobediont Israelites with mildew, and the Romans had their false god Robigo, whom they thought to propitiate for the preservation of their fields from the disastrous attacks of these diseases. A feast called Robigalia, to this deity, was always kept on the 25th of April, to deprecate blasting and mildew. The diseases themselves were long matters of curious speculation, and they were, till lately, regarded as accidents of vegetation resulting im a mass of injured cells from the dampness of the soil, excess of manure, or fogs, or punctures of insects, and have even been attributed to the presence of the berberry, a fungus of which, called wcidium, is shown in Fig. 10. On the left is seen a piece
Fig. 10. Cicidium of the Berberry.
of the leaf of the berberry with the spots of ecidium upon it. On the right, one of these receptacles, containing spores, is magnified to show the form of this fungus. ‘The mycelium on which it grows is also visible. ‘There have been many botanists who have believed that the spores of @cidium come up as uredines when they fix upon any cereal, It is the microseope which has enabled us to recognise in all these parasites a true fungal cha- racter, and to trace their growth; but the damage accruing from them has not been adequately estimated for they never appear in the farm or garden without injury to the produce. For example, few can have failed to notice the effects of wredo on the rose-trees, and also, but less frequently, on geraniums.
(6.) Numerous have been the speculations, and often inge- nious the experiments, on the way in which the reproductive sporules find entrance into corn-plants. Various remedies have been tried, and some with success, as in the case of bunt, or pepper - brand, which may be Sige ly checked by good dressing of the seed. The principle of the dressing is the conversion of
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 389
the adhesive oily matter of the spores into that which is soapy, which is easily washed off. This requires an alkali, and suggests the use of a ley of potash, soda, or wood-ashes. Liming also has a good effect. Sulphate of copper and arsenious acid, the arsenic of the shops, are often used; but, besides the other objections to them,'there is the danger to the vegetative powers of the seed. It is not usual to dress for smut, which attacks not only wheat, but barley and oats; yet the same reason applies in these cases, except that more difficulties are in the way because of the dissipation of the sporules before harvest, and the remainder beimg knocked out in threshing. It is important to ascertain with certainty how the contents of the spores grow. ‘hose of bunt are too large to enter the stomata, yet if sown with wheat it reappears. Some think the mycelium divides in the earth into molecules, each of which has a vegetative power, and that any one absorbed by the roots extends till it reaches its peculiar point of election in the system. Others conceive that the spongioles of the roots imbibe the fine contents of the spores, which grow. It is certain that due dressings and washings prevent the reappearance of bunt, and that excess of manure encourages red-robin and mildew, which have also been observed to follow long feeding with sheep. Amongst the antidotes to mildew, I venture to name clean farm- ing, amendment of the texture of the soil, ventilation and letting in light, checking over-luxuriance in the young plants, growing early varieties in places subject to it, and avoiding putting on manure directly before wheat, and hoeing the wheat when young.
(7.) There seems no reason to believe that any uredo men- tioned is deleterious, though bunt is disagreeable in the flour. It has been said that in past times there were gingerbread-bakers who had no objection to flour which contained the black matter of buné, as it saved them the brown sugar which they must other- wise have used to render this confection sufficiently dark-coloured for the approbation of their customers. If such customers there ever were, they must have had more regard to appearance than to quality. But J] am now about to describe a fungus closely allied to uredo, which attacks grasses for hay, that appears to be quite poisonous. It is termed uwstilago, having a similar derivation with wredo, and is left by Corda in his general classification, in the same group. Tulasne wrote a long paper on ustz/ago in 1847, with drawings. ‘The one in question is called hypodytes. Its spores are black, round, and very small, and [I shall call it grass- smut. ‘There was a great deal of it in 1848, Ina field near King’s Cliffe almost every flower-stem of the bromus sylvatica, which was one of the principal grasses, was infected by it. A plan twas taken by Mr. Berkeley from this field, and instead of its throwing up fertile spikes, almost every one is attacked,
VOL. X. 2D
390 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
SOs SiR —
s
ee
ae,
OS Fig. 11. Ustilago Hypodytes. 1. Represents the stem covered with the black spores. 2. Shows a portion magnified, 3. Shows the spores under a high power of the microscope.
The structure in a very young stage is thread-like, but all traces of mycelium soon disappear, and nothing remains but a mass of minute spores (Fig. 11). The whole was drawn by Mr. Leonard from the specimen this day exhibited to the audience. In addition to the ruin of the grass, this fungus is most per- nicious. According to Leveillé, the immense quantity of black dust result- ing from it in the hay-fields in France, | produces disastrous consequences on the haymakers, such as violent pains and swelling in the head and face, with a great irritation over the entire sys- tem. A like account was given of these peculiar maladies by Michel, in 1845, which he compared to the well-known effects of ergot, on which singular abor- tion of the seeds of corn and grasses I do not enlarge here, because though accom- panied by a fungus called ergotetia, it cannot be called one. Botanists term it ergotetia abortifaciens, or ergot fungus, rendering the seed an abortion; but the only argument they adduce in favour of its producing ergot is, that it constantly attends it. But it is clear that because two things are coincident it does not follow that they are cause and effect, while the best examination does not warrant such an inference in this in- stance. I will only remark that it is more common than is supposed, and [ am persuaded that cattle in ill-drained localities, where it always abounds, derive serious injury from it, and that it is the unsuspected cause of many disorders both in them and human
beings.
Another ustilago, named typhoides, damages the stems of reed, swelling and distorting them, and rendering them almost
useless for thatching.
The only remedy for such a disease in a grass-field seems to be breaking it up, and substituting for 1t a crop not subject to its
ravages.
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 391
I have not time to dwell on other kindred fungi found occa- sionally on the gramineous tribes. All are more or less subject to some uredo peculiar to them.
(8.) I may be expected to allude to the true theory of fairy rings, which are due to three species of the most highly organized fungi, called agarics. Mushrooms are agarics. ‘Those of the fairy rings throw out their spawn in a circular direction, and the ground being continually exhausted by it, a ring is formed, which is rendered greener than the surrounding grass by the stimulus of the spawn itself. -
I may just observe that in some countries, grasses and corn, and particularly barley and rye, are destroyed bya curious mould, which is developed beneath the snow, and if it appears in snow without previous frost, it is often fatal to the whole crop. It has not yet been noticed in Great Britain, but the matter will be worthy of attention should any long frost occur.
I cannot omit to state here that the mouldiness in stacked hay is generally the commonaspergill, to be described presently, and some- times the common penicillium, also coming under review. The spores of these will be seen to be injurious, and therefore such hay ought always to be steamed. ‘The cut surface of hay-stalks is sometimes covered with a light orange or brick-dust red fungus, which is a fusarium, so termed from the spindle shape of the spores, but it is entirely confined to the section of the stems composing the hay.
If. I go on next to the parasitic fungi of leguminous plants, which are particularly subject tothem. A small dipazea destroys peas in wet seasons, attacking all parts, especially the pods; but the blight which we mostly see on peas, bears the botanical name erysibe, or erysiphe, the Greek for mildew, and is the same kind of mould that infests peach-leaves. In its early stage it is a jointed mould, seemingly superficial, which on examination shows little globules, changing from yellow to black, and springing from a flocose web, filled with minute sacs containing the sporules. (See Fig. 12.) These globules, and the sacs containing the spores, are
Re <—_ (5
Fig. 12. Erysiphe highly magnified.
wn
392 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
here depicted ; and a good idea may be formed from inspecting the drawing, of the character of this fungus, as exhibited by the micro- scope. They put out fibres, which lift them up from the surface of the leaf, and are preceded by threads, white or greyish, consisting of bead-like joints, of which it seems the uppermost fall offand grow.
Beans are injured by a wredo—the uredo of the bean—which was very prevalent last year.
Vetches are attacked by a fungus styled botrytzs, from the Greek forpus, a bunch of grapes, because the spores grow in this way. (See fig. 15.) This drawing shows a minute portion very highly ~ magnified, and will convey a just idea of its appearance and of the cause of itsname. It is called the botrytis of the vetch, but in some places it attacks peas and lucerne, and it might there- fore bear the name of the leguminous botrytis. Botrytis is distinguished from other moulds, which are articulated, and so named monila or necklace \ moulds, by it not having its threads jointed.
Dutrochet first stated, and I have verified it myself by a series of experi- ments detailed in my little work on the blights of the wheat,* that if a single drop of almost any acid is mixed with albumen, in eight or ten days necklace moulds appear ; but, on the other hand, caustic alkali gives botrytis. With fibrine of blood and phosphoric acid, the results are reversed. Every sort of vegetable matter I tried with acid yielded a mould, but when albumen contained a neutral salt none appeared. If salts of mercury are present the development is stopped; zthiops mineral does not check it; oxide of lead hastens it; oxides of copper, nickel, and cobalt, retard it; oxides of iron, antimony, and zine, have no effect; all perfumes stop it. Flowers of sulphur effec- tually check the erysiphe on the peach, but they could not be applied to pea-fields. How far a knowledge of the facts I have just stated may lead to a remedy, easily applied in the shape of manure, future experiments may show.
III. These observations naturally lead to the botrytis infestans, found on the leaves of the potato when suffering from the true murrain. The mycelium of this fungus traverses the entire cellular structure of the plant, and emerges from the stomata of the leaves, choking them, and the consequence is decay.
Fig. 13. Botrytis of the Vetch.
* The title is “ Blights of the Wheat and their Remedies.” |
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 393
Fig. 14 shows the microscopic appearance. This fungus is, I believe, new to Europe; so widely distributed a species
Fig. 14. Botrytis infestans.
could not have been overlooked. This diagram is the same as that given by Mr. Berkeley in his admirable paper on the potato fungus. The mycelium may be observed traversing the cellular tissue of the leaf, and one of the threads of botrytis, that to the left, issuing from a stoma. Mr. Berkeley, the very highest authority, is of this opinion; and he writes me word, “Iam convinced more and more that the fungus is the real enemy.” Cer- tainly, all other theories have failed. The prin- ciples of the geographical distribution of food- plants plainly show us that extremely minute and inappreciable differences in climateric con- | dition may throw plants into an unhealthy state ; | which conditions might exist unsuspected for a |
few years. Hereby plants may be brought |
being attacked by certain parasitic fungi, of } which the potato blight may be an example, \A and the botrytis infestans become, as it really \' seems to be, the proximate cause of the malady. The dotrytis is found on the tubers ; but besides this a fusarium, which must not be confounded with the former, nor regarded as characteristic of the potato disease, but of another, often occurring in the same tuber with it. (See Fig.15.) This fusarium, highly magnified, is represented in this figure. It will be per- ceived to be totally different from the botrytis, and the spindle-shaped spores tell the origin of its designation. Genuine science alone yy, 15. Fusarium, from enables us to make such discriminations ; and _ the tuber of Potato,
394 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
it is not too much to hope that experiments founded on some such results as | have announced from the few I have had leisure to make, may lead to the discovery of a check to the growth of this pestiferous botryéts. |
The root crop of the farm suffers much occasionally from fungal diseases. Parsnips are subject to a variety of the botrytis parasitica, which blights the leaves. ‘The leaves of turnips are attacked by the same fungus; but a different one, called fusz- sporium, is found on the roots, but with no extensive injury. Mangold-wurzel is affected by the uredo of beet, with brown or black spores like that of the bean; but in all these cases the con- nexion between the disease of the leaves and decay of the roots has not been sufficiently observed.
IV. Hops are damaged by an erystphe, having the habits of that of the pea. It seems to be in its early stage a peculiar mould, but this opinion needs fuller confirmation. The whole subject needs investigation, and I therefore do not dwell upon it.
V. I now pass from the parasitic fungi of the fields to those found in other parts of the farm, its buildings, yards, and interior economy. The fungi destroying timber are not sufficiently known, though their effects are so common. Dry-rot is gene- rally attributed to the spawn either of the merulius lacrymans, or weeping morel, so called from the little drops of water it contains, or to that of the polyporus destructor, named from its many pores. But any of the fungi found on wood, and they are numerous, are capable of producing it; and amongst them are, besides the two mentioned, another morel called vastator, the dedalea of the oak, deriving its appellation from its labyrinthine structure; various polypori, thelephora, from 8ndn, a nipple, by reason of its papillose surface, and sporothricum, the spores bearing hairy filaments. (See Fig. 16.) ‘The microscopic view of a morsel of sporothricum
Fig. 16. Sporothricum.
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 395
(wide Fig. 16) is here given, very highly magnified. The effects of all these pass by one designation, dry-rot. I will now describe its progress. The first signs are small white points from which a filamentous substance radiates parallel with the surface of the wood. ‘This is spawn, which, as it gains strength, insinuates itself into any crevices however minute, and the threads are so fine that they pass be- tween the tubes from which the wood is organized, and forcing them apart, destroy all cohesion. (See Fig. 17.) This diagram shows these threads from one of the polypori. Sometimes various spawns interlace and form a tough stratum; and the rapidity and force of increase are such as to cause, under favourable circumstances, the total ruin of the wood. From the experiments previously described on the growth of fungals, you will perceive that the acidulation of the fermenting sap promotes their growth. Kyanizing, or the application of corrosive sublimate, has been resorted to as a preventive. An experiment may he made to show its effects: a solution of fish- glue will be found to yield fungi in abundance, but if corrosive sublimate be mixed with it none appear, and the same result will follow additions of certain preparations of copper and other mineral poisons. Oak felled in the spring, when full of sap, is almost sure to have dry-rot, therefore that which is destined for farm erections should be cut in winter, for otherwise the only chance of stopping the appearance of the fungi is to substitute _some poison by saturation for its proper juices, or to force them out by an objectionable pressure. Immersion in water is bene- ficial, but heat applied to dry the wood only hastens the malady. In Brest dry-rot is said to be unknown, and all the timber used in its yards is kept in a creek of the harbour.
VI. Fungi of a different kind from any yet described follow. the British farmer into his dairy, and interfere with his household economy. Penicillium and aspergill are two terms applied to some of them, because in their microscopic appearance, given in the delineation before you, they resemble sprinkling brushes. (See Figs. 18,19.) Fig. 18 represents the Penicillium very highly magnified. Aspergill is shown in Fig, 19. They are sufficiently indicative of their names. Penicillium is the mould on hay, as
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Fig."17. Threads from a Polyporus.
396 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
Fig. 18. Penicillium. Fig. 19. Aspergill.
was mentioned, and is found on bread, and also in the inside of casks, and there is reason to believe its spores poisonous, for two coopers who entered a great tun, covered with this mould, to
Lecture on. the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 397
clean it, inhaled them, and were seized with violent pains in the head, giddiness, and vomiting, which only yielded to severe medical treatment. A penicillium is the mould of milk, and we have here a magnified representation of itsdevelopment. (See Fig. 20.) The penicillium may be here noticed developing itself from the mass of mould. If these moulds appear much in the dairy or on the bread kept in it, the best remedy is washing the walls with chloride of lime, which it is important to know, as milk often suffers greatly in this way. Foreign badly made cheese has an unpleasant mould in brilliant scarlet patches; but in England the principal one on cheese is an innocent mould called torula, from torus, a bed, from its coming in layers. I may here just observe that the vinegar plant, as it is called, is in its advanced state a penicillium; and the beer fungus has been called torula; but before we decide the latter, we must see a regular fructification in air. There are hundreds of non-pro- ductive spawns for want of air and light, as, for example, the strange forms which diffuse themselves in cellars, which are incomplete developments.
You will permit me to state in this place, that the fungi on stored fruit are a torula, a penicillium, common fruit mucor, and a mould like the first stage of the erysiphe. Harting asserts that he has actually propagated the potato disease from the brown matter in mouldy apples and pears, and it is remarkable that some ingenious experiments of Mr. Berkeley, on the growth of bunt, lead to show that its propagation may arise from mere grumous matter in the spores, which proves that many of our theories are immature. The experiments were thus made :— Wheat seeds were immersed in a mixture of water and the spores of bunt. A curious mould with conjugated spores sprung up on the spores of bunt. The wheat was sown, and the plants came up infected; but no communication could be traced between the cells and the shoots thrown out by the spores; no intrusion of the mycelium developed by the spores into the wheat could be dis- covered. The inference is that the fine contents of the spores propagate the fungus ; but this is quite opposed to our general ideas of the growth of fungals.
398 Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.
VII. I will lastly touch on the facts now established relative to the fungi attacking animal tissues, which are very surprising. Sapy meat has always a fungus something analogous to what is called the yeast fungus. This fungus is a mass of molecules. pro- bably an early state of the same that is called the Vinegar Plant, the last stage of which has been stated to be a penzcillium. What are called sclerotia, from cxdrnpos, hard, appears in ammal matter under particular circumstances; but these are only states of other fungi, for even agarics have been known to spring from them. The fungus of the West Indian wasp, of the caterpillar of New Zealand, and the muscardine of the silk- worm, are all well-known examples of fungi attacking living animals. The last is easily propagated by inoculating healthy caterpillars, which I mention to show that a fungal disease may be conveyed from one animal to another ina state of health. I believe a more accurate knowledge of such facts will be ultimately of great use in investigating certain diseases prevalent among animals of the farm and hitherto inexplicable. Sclerotia have been found in bad fractures, but they are not parasites; true parasitic animal fungi grew only on the skin or mucous membranes. M. Robin published in 1847 a most curious account of the vegetable matters growing on living mammalia, which he classes into two divisions—those of the skin, and those of the mucous membranes. The mucous membranes of the digestive canal and of the lungs are subject to their attacks ; nor is the stomach free. All herbi- vorous animals are liable to moulds in the digestive canal, very like the yeast fungus, but larger; yet it is confined to them, and never found in carnivora, birds, or reptiles. A penicrllium of birds is tolerably well known; and pheasants, fowls, and pigeons are the prey occasionally of amould as yet imperfectly described. An aspergill is found in eggs; and that found in the air-cells of the lungs of the eider-duck has been often noticed. Parasitic animal fungi yield, it is said, to sulphuric acid, whence a hint may be obtained as to remedy; but I wish to speak with due caution on these novel investigations. Attempts have been made to inoculate dead animals with these fungi; they have entirely failed ; the life of the animal is essential to their growth, the con- ditions of which seem generally to be imperfect states of respira- tion or nutrition, or irregularity. ‘There seems to be a moment when the powers of assimilation flag, and then the fungz step in and appropriate the nourishment designed for the system. It may be the same with apparently healthy plants. We may here have the first ward of the key to many a hidden secret as to the ailments of the animals of the British farm.
VIII. I. have now completed my humble attempt to give a
Lecture on the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm. 399
popular outline of the chief parasitic fungi of the farms of Eng- land, which only require simpler names to be easily understood ; and the farmer must learn to distinguish them from the diseases of the superficial tissues. It is a subject well suited to farmers’ clubs, where good botanists and microscopists might be induced to attend with their instruments, and give simple explanations. Let it be remembered that simplicity is the handmaid of all use- ful science, whose truths are only impeded by needless grandilo- quence. I can say by experience that endeavours to propagate it will be found good subordinate auxiliaries to the higher aims of men of my own sacred calling; and while we see that there is not a thing so small or so apparently mean, but that it sparkles with some beam of the skill of its great Maker, I conceive that it befits the office I bear to show that the nobler teaching of Divine Wisdom by things revealed, does not tend to deface, but to elevate, our conception of God’s perfection in things created. ‘This earth was not made to be neglected, nor man to be unobservant ; andif these unpretending gleanings I have gathered in my few moments of leisure shall this day have proved in the least degree acceptable to the present audience, or generally of any interest to the British farmer, of the kindness of whose disposition | had more proofs than I have deserved, I shall rejoice in the honour conferred upon - me by being allowed the privilege of addressing you.
XIX.—Experiments on the Application of Guano and other Manures, in the Duke of Somerset’s Park at Stover, near Newton Abbot, Devon. By E. 8S. BEarne.
No. I.
Report of an Experiment to test the comparative efficiency of five different kinds of Artificial Manure in improving Pond Mud, the experiment being made on an acre of inferior pasture
land in Stover Park, in the years 1847, 1848, and 1849.
The land on which the experiment was conducted is of uniform quality, the soil being a light, sandy loam, a few inches in depth, incumbent on a stratum of white clay.
The land underwent thorough draining in 1844, prior to which it would not produce a rent of more than os. an acre.
No manures were applied to the land in 1848 or 1849.
The object sought to be attained by extending the experiment over a period of three years was to test the durability of the different manures.
400 Experiments on the Application of Guano.
Weight | Weight | Weight | Weight | Weight | Weight of hay | of hay | of hay | cut per | cut per | cut per cut in | cutin | cutin | acrein | acre in | acre in 1s47. | 1848, | 1849. | 1847. | 1848. | 1949, | Manures.
Cost
No. | Manures applied in 1847. of the
— |. $$ __. —_______. | | | | | —..
Seams of|Seams of |Seams of lbs. lbs. lbs. 8cwt. | 3cwt. | 3cwt. |. s. da.
1 | Six cubic yards of mud mixed with sixcwt.ofSalt| 312 327 613 42 43 9 0 14-0 2 | Six cubic yards of mud mixed with 14 hogshead Of Mime eye) fal teyie 353 337 538 51 BS) 8 0 13 6 3 | Six cubic yards of ‘nud mixed with three bushels of Bone-dust. . « . e 511 419 670 74 64 10 Oo V4 3 4 | Three cubic yards of mud mixed; with three cubic yards of Tan-yard refuse 524 354 558 73 54 8i |0 14 0 5 | Six cubic yards of mud mixed with 90 lbs. of Peruvian guano .. . . 930 550 125 13% 8 10% 0 14 0
N.B.—The after-grass in 1847 was stocked with sheep, but in 1848 it was left unconsumed.
No. 2.
Report of an Experiment made with the under-mentioned Manures on an acre of pasture land in Stover Park, in the
year 1849 :—
The manures, when mixed with a small quantity of fine earth, were applied broadcast on March 29th, and during the rainy weather which prevailed at the time.
The land is of a fair average quality, and was formerly used as tillage land, but has been in pasture for many years.
The crops were mown on 22nd June, and the herbage pro- duced by the different manures was of a superior quality.
: Quantity | Quantity | Weight | Weight | Cost of eens No. Manures applied. Manures | 2PPlied | of hay | cut per the Mctiitues applied. | Per acre- cut. acre. Manures. per acre. an ee ane mea, Vato 1 Ee ON Se ee eae
ewt. cwt. Ibs. |of3cwt| & s. d. | &. s. d.
WS INO ay Bod GG 1G As 50 401 4% Oued 5.5 2 | Superphosphate of lime 2} 9 616 ven 0 18 0 HTP) 3 | Nitrate ofsoda ... . 1 4 706 84 0 18 0 3 12 0 4 | Peruvian guano... . 14 6 1210 144 0 18 0 Sh wl2ip.0
Stover, near Newton Abbot, Devon, September 22, 1849.
re re
XX.—Labourers’ Cottages. By J. Youne Macvicar. SECOND Prize Essay. Tue want of Labourers’ Cottages throughout the country is much to be deplored; nevertheless it is a paramount duty incumbent
on every proprietor to provide habitable dwellings for the la- bourers belonging to his estate.
Labourers’ Cottages. 401
How often, however, do we find a state of matters the very reverse! In some instances, no opportunity is lost of removing a cottage in order to rid the property of what is deemed an incumbrance ; and, with the exception of the favoured villages adjacent to the mansions of our nobility and gentry, Cottage building—of a kind adapted to the wants and within the means of our agricultural labourers—is far from being popular.
How this neglect has arisen towards so industrious and peace- able a portion of the community—how so little attention (with some praiseworthy exceptions) has hitherto been paid to the dwelling of the agricultural labourer, it may be well to inquire.
We believe the omission is in a great measure attributable to two causes. First, to the want of due consideration of the claims of the labourer, in comparison with those of the larger occupier : for, on the one hand, we have seen arise the commodious farm- house, replete with every convenience suited to a refined state of society, and extensive offices attached thereto, adapted to the wants of every domesticated animal. On the other hand, without drawing a comparison farther than we are warranted, we shall find upon investigation that the labourer’s cottage has not ad- vanced in respect of comforts in the same proportion. Secondly, it may be attributed to the want of personal knowledge, on the part of our English noblemen and gentlemen, of the actual state or manner in which the labouring population is in general housed.
Their sympathy may have been excited on perusing the sicken- ing details of the evils arising from the crowded state of the dwellings of the poor, as set forth in the valuable Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Classes; but they have little suspected that a careful examination of the cottages on their own estates would, in all probability, have shown these to be not the abodes of comfort and cleanliness, but of squalid wretchedness, resulting from the unavoidable and indiscriminate mingling of their numerous inmates and occupants.
It is saddening to reflect on the demoralizing influence which such a state of society must inevitably produce upon the minds of the rising generation. Much, of late years, has been done to extend the advantages of education to the poorer classes ; and, no doubt, giving their children both religious and moral instruction is a great national advantage ; but it must be kept in mind, that the lesson of morality and religion taught in school will be of no avail, will be neutralized, if at the same time the child is not brought up at home in habits of cleanliness, order, and the external proprieties of life, by which, conjoined with a sound education, and in de- pendance upon the Divine blessmg, we can alone hope to render him a good and useful member of society.
402 Labourers’ Cottages.
To the kind and considerate proprietor—to the zealous paro- chial clergyman—to all who consider the bearing and tendency of such a measure upon the moral and physical condition of the labourer, this step in the nght direction will at once re- commend itself; and all, practical men especially, who have had opportunity of seeing and forming a judgment of the necessities and privations of the agricultural labourer, must hail with satis-. faction well-considered and matured plans for the amelioration of his condition.
Before proceeding to detail the construction of the cottage I have found best adapted for the dwelling of the labourer, I beg to offer a few remarks upon the auxiliaries connected therewith, for the improvement of bis condition, which I trust will with the aforegoing not be deemed altogether irrelevant to the subject now under view.
Considering it most desirable that the bands of mutual good- will and attachment should be strengthened between the pro- prietor and his cottager, we would hold out to the latter a fair and reasonable prospect that industry and good conduct will assuredly lead to his advancement in life and the increase of his comforts.
Those who are acquainted with the wishes and ambition of the industrious cottager well know how ardently he desires to be- come the occupier of land sufficient for the keeping of one or two cows; an advantage which, connected with the cottage garden or allotment, will effect a most salutary and beneficial influence on his life and morals, by giving him something to look forward to, as a prop in his old age, or an ‘assistance when his strength through sickness has failed, and, although willing, not so able for work as heretofore.
And here let me not be misunderstood: I deprecate the idea of the cottager becoming a poor and needy husbandman; but no dread of this result need be entertained by an extensive pro- prietor allotting in his different parishes to the most deserving cottagers in his village a convenient portion of grass-land, at a rent not exceeding that which would be charged to the farmer.
In the next place, | would recommend that the cottage holdings should be rented direct from the landlord, as it induces him to exert a greater influence in correcting and removing any evils which may exist either in the state of the cottage dwellings or in the habits or morals of their mmates. ‘These considerations are too frequently overlooked when they are sublet.
In support of my argument, that cottages should be held direct from the landlord, I gladly quote the followine remarks made by His Grace the Duke of Buccleuch at the last general meeting of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, lately held at Edinburgh i
Labourers’ Cottages. 403
‘¢ The Duke of Buccleuch said that nothing was more disgraceful than the condition of the cottages of the labouring classes in many parts of the country, even at this present moment, though of late years great improve- ments had certainly been effected. The system in many parts of Scot- land was unfortunately a very erroneous one, for it was very rare that a cottager held his cottage directly from the proprietor. In almost all cases, especially in the south of Scotland, the cottages, often in whole rows, were let to the farmers as a portion of their farms. The proprietor had no more to do with the cottagers and with these houses than he had with the animals which occupied the stall of the farm-ofiices.
‘“« The system of letting the labourers’ houses with the farm was neither good for the proprietor nor the labourer, and he had felt it to be so great a grievance, that whenever it was practicable he had tried to remedy it. He had only the day before taken an immense number of cottages entirely into his own hands, reserving for the farmer such as were necessary for the accommodation of yearly servants, but letting the greater number of the cottages to the day-labourers, who were to pay the rent directly to himself. It was their interest also to keep} respectable people in those houses; and if any one was in possession of a cottage who had not that character, the proprietors would be enabled by that means to keep them under control.”
Upon the estate which the writer of the aforegoing remarks has the honour and pleasure of superintending, the proprietor has within the last few years erected upwards of fifty labourers’ cottages of different designs; some single, others double, and in two instances four and six dwellings combined together; but the plan which has been found most suited to the habits of the labourer and his domestic privacy, at the same time combining economy in expenditure, is a double cottage, with three bed- rooms (in each), for the best arrangement and construction of which the Royal Agricultural Society of England has offered a prize.
Two plans, accompanied by the elevations, specifications, and estimates of the cost, are hereunto annexed.
Plan No. | has been erected in numerous instances, according to both the elevations, and the arrangement has given general satisfaction to the occupiers.
Plan No. 2 has not been executed, having been presented to the writer of this essay during the prosecution of the subject, by the architect who has drawn out the plans and specifications ; and whose able assistance in bringing the author’s ideas and wishes into a tangible and practical form, he has great pleasure in acknowledging.
Situation.—Although this must be determined by local cir- cumstances, the cottage should, as a general rule, be placed near to, and the front (or side) parallel with a public road, having, if practicable, a south, or what is even more to be preferred, a south- east aspect.
The ground on which it stands, if not naturally quite dry,
should be made so by thorough-draining; and, where attainable,
404 Labourers’ Cottages.
the cottage should be surrounded by an ample garden, divided into two portions, the smaller in front, and the principal one behind the cottage. Where this arrangement can be carried into effect, We consider it much more convenient and desirable than an allot- ment of land in a distant field.
The garden in front for raising vegetables, with a small plat for flowers, should contain about 20 per chee. A garden of this size, the labourer, generally speaking, can easily manage at his vacant hours.
The principal garden, for the cultivation of the potato, may vary, according to the circumstances of the occupier, from a rood to half an acre; “bey ond which size it is very rarely advisable it should be extended, as interfering with the duties of the daily labourer.
Pian No. Il.
_ Description.—A. Is the porch, entered by two steps, forming an ascent of 12 inches, and from which there is a separate entrance to the front and back kitchens,
B. The back kitchen or scullery, 9 feet 6 inches by 9 feet, and provided with a fire- place, boiler, and sink.
C. Front kitchen, or living room, 14 feet by 18 feet.
Warmth being essential for the comfort of the cottage, the fire- place is carried up in the middle wall; and, from the position of the window and doors in this room, it will be observed that no draught of air can incommode the inmates. A cupboard, or shelves, may be placed in the recess on each side of the fire-place. The kitchen-range ought to be fitted up with an oven on the one side and a boiler on the other. (We have tried the cottage- grate by Nicholson of Newark, for which a prize was awarded by the Royal Agricultural Society in 1848, and have found it well adapted for the use of the cottager, “ combining safety and economy of fuel, with effectual war mth and facility for cooking.”’)
D. Pantry, 8 feet by 6 feet. The walls are fitted up with shelves, and there is a closet under the stairs. The window ought to be provided with a zine perforated blind,
HE. Cupboard, off the living-room.
F. F. Staircase and landing, from which there is a separate entrance into each of the bed-rooms. There is also a small window, for lighting the stairs, &c.
G. Principal bed-room, 14 feet by 10 feet, in which there is a fire-place, which, although perhaps seldom used except in cases of sickness, is most desirable on account of ventilation. (We have seen the drawing of a bed-room cottage-grate, also by Nicholson, on the same principle as his kitchen-grate, which we think will be equally efficacious. )
Hi. Bed-room, 9 feet by 8 feet.
J. Bed-room over back kitchen, 9 feet 6 inches by 9 feet.
EK. Coal-house, 9 feet by 5 feet 3 inches.
I. Privy, screened by a porch, leading to it, and to the coal-house.
M. Dust-bin.
N. Pigsty. That the cottager should keep a pig has been condemned by some; but when properly and carefully attended to, we think without sufficient reason, as we consider the pigsty an essential, as it certainly is a profitable appendage to the cottage.
The pigsty should be built by the landlord. When placed in
a proper situation and drained, it should not offend either the
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406 Labourers’ Cottages.
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eye or the sense of smelling, especially in the country (for in the crowded localities of the poor in towns it is highly objectionable), and is in no respect injurious to the health of the inmates of the cotiage.
Pran No. 2.
Description —The two cottages are precisely alike, and the entrance to them is beneath a shedded porch, which should front the south or south-east, and open upona small plot of ground reserved for a few flowers and fragrant herbs.
Each cottage contains in the ground-floor a living-room, scul- lery, and pantry.
The living-room is 14 feet by 12 feet, and it will be observed that no encroachment is made upon this area by the projection of the fire-place, and that a useful closet is also obtained without any deduction from the dimensions of the apartment.
The scullery is 12 feet by 8 feet, and has a fire-place by which culinary operations may be carried on at seasons when the tem- perature may not make it convenient to have a fire in the living- room. A tinned iron or a copper pan is proposed to be placed in the recess near the fire-place, from which a flue should be built within the chimney-shaft for the purpose of conveying away the steam without the liability of its passing into other apartments.
410 Labourers’ Cottages.
The pantry, which is 8 feet by 6 feet, has a northern aspect, and has its entrance from the passage in preference to entering from the scullery, that the vapour occasioned by washing or similar operations may not pass into it.
A closet, in which a barrel may stand, is proposed to be made in the pantry beneath the staircase.
On the chamber-floor are three bed-rooms, respectively 12 feet by 104 feet, 10} feet by 8 feet, and 11 feet by 83 feet, and on the stair-landing is a good store-closet for cheese, &c.
The detached offices consist of a pigsty, coal-house, privy, and ash-pit, which are so arranged as to form a small kitchen- yard to each cottage, one side only of which would require to be inclosed by a paled fence.
Construction.— The foundations should be dug out to a width and depth beyond what is actually required for carrying the walls of the cottage, and filled up with concrete, as a preservative from damp; and, for the same reason, the floor-line should be raised 12 inches above the level of the surrounding ground, the earth removed 18 inches beneath the ground-floors, and the space filled up with broken stones, brick-rubbish, or gravel and lime, so as to form a bed of dry materials, impervious to damp, for the floors to rest upon.
The walls may be constructed either of brick or stone, which- ever material the locality affords the cheapest. If bricks are used, the walls should not be less than 9 inches in thickness, and 20 inches when of stone; but in either case a layer of slates, bedded in cement, should be laid upon the course of brickwork immediately below the floor-line of the ground apartments, which will effectually prevent any damp from rising in the walls.
I particularly desire to call attention to the precautions re- commended to be taken against damp, as in our experience we find so many cottages suffering and prematurely decaying from its evil effects; and peculiar care is requisite for a dwelling formed without underneath cellars.
In several instances of cottages recently built, the inner walls of the ground apartments, instead of being plastered, are made of dressed bricks. ‘This, besides being a saving in expense, has, when painted, a neat and clean appearance, and is not so liable to be injured or chipped by accident, or by the children.
The floors of the ground apartments are laid either with dressed bricks or paving-tiles, which make a clean and smooth floor.
With respect to the bed-room floors, experience has dictated a change of opinion; formerly I considered boarded floors the most comfortable, but latterly I have given the preference, as likewise the occupiers themselves, to plaster floors, as being more cleanly, comfortable, and less liable to fire.
Labourers’ Cottages. All
The. roofing can either be of slates or tiles, and should be made to project considerably, as another means of keeping the walls dry; and, where expense is not an object, we should recommend the asphalted roofing felt to be used under the tiles or slates, which, being a good non-conductor, would add mate- rially to the comfort of the bed-rooms by making them warmer in winter and cooler in summer.
Windows.—Although the lattice-window looks the prettiest, yet, having comfort and economy in view, I give the preference to a window reaching to the ceiling, thereby affording perfect ven- tilation, with a wood frame, one half of which is made to slide horizontally; the squares to be of moderate size, consequently more easily replaced when broken.
The cottages’ should be spouted with cast-iron spouting. I have shown no rain-water cistern, finding the cost to be too ex- pensive. In practice, an oil-cask, which can be obtained for about 15s., will form an ample water-butt for the cottager’s wants. The same remark applies to spring-water, as probably one well may be made to supply several cottages.
An efficient drain, for carrying off the waste water, should be laid up as far as the scullery, and the ground between the porch and the pigsty either paved or gravelled, as both the comfort and neatness of the premises materially depend upon this portion being kept dry.
Elevations.—Design No. 1. I have submitted two elevations ; of these the first is a plain and simple cottage built of brick, and which we should recommend to be adopted where economy is the chief object of the proprietor. ‘The estimate is formed from this plan.
The second is an ornamental cottage built of stone, of the style in which cottages have been erected near the residence of the proprietor. This elevation will of course be more expensive than the other, but hasa handsome appearance. The same effect may be produced, should the design be executed in brickwork with the dressings or ornamental parts of stone.
Design No. 2. This elevation, which is characteristic of the cottage style of building, will look well when erected either in brick or stone.
Estimates —On reference to the specifications and estimates annexed, it will beseen that a pair of cottages after our first plan, with the necessary outbuildings, will cost 295/. 15s. Ll4d.,* and
* Lest the amount of these estimates should deter any gentleman from engaging in this most necessary field of improvement, I must remark that in many neighbourhoods a pair of cottages, with three bed-rooms each, may be built fora much smaller sum. A builder has lately engaged with me to build such a pair for 160/.; the team labour being provided for him
412 Labourers’ Cottages.
according to the second, 2961. 9s. 8d. At the first glance this will probably appear to many a large outlay, when contrasted with other estimates professing to build cottages at a much less cost.
Having had considerable experience in cottage-building, I do not think that a substantial cottage, containing the same accom- modation, can be erected much, if at all, below my estimate.
Fully sensible that the more economically suitable dwellings can be erected, the more will the labourer really be benefited, by inducing the landlord to build, I have endeavoured to com- bine economy with utility, while at the same time not professing so much to build cheaply as substantially, and at fair remunerating prices to the builder, below and without which no work can be expected to be executed in a proper and durable manner. And here I also beg to call attention to the circumstance, that in our estimates the total expense of cottages and outbuildings connected therewith is given; whereas in other estimates possibly the expense of the cottage alone is stated. This, at first view, would present a startling difference; but when necessity and discomfort call for the after-addition of these, it will be found that the final, actual expense, will be assimilated.
it may be confidently depended upon, that the cost of the cot- tages, &c., will not exceed the estimates, the first having been de- duced from the actual measurement and valuation of similar cot- tages built in 184, and tested by the cost of those erected in pre- vious years. Where materials afforded by the estate are used, the cost will be still less, but no advantage has been taken of this circumstance in forming the estimates: the materials are calcu- lated at the current prices of the country, and we entertain no doubt that similar cottages may be built in almost any locality for
as in the present estimate ; and, in addition, rough timber, which however on most estates may be provided from thinning of plantations, and can scarcely be called, certainly would not be felt as, an expenditure. The deal floors, &e., to be found by himself. The cost of digging rough building-stone is here 6d. per cubic yard, and lime is put by himself at 6d. per bushel. Every one now feels the necessity of improving our labourers’ cottages, but as to the best plan we can only say, I fear, that we have made a beginning. Economy is necessary, because the complete work would require millions, and the means are very limited. Experience, however, will probably reduce the expense. One necessary step is, that gentlemen should become acquainted with the details of building, so as to check fraud, or at least carelessness, on the part of builders and measurers. A gentleman who attends to his own affairs may build, as I have seen, for 100/. what would’cost another 2007. It also seems a formidable thing, even at the lowest estimate, to rebuild a whole village, but though many villages consist entirely of mean cottages, even they need not be renewed altogether. For two bad cottages of two rooms each, if laid into one, might make an extremely good one; and thus half the new building is saved at once. A useless barn too may be converted into an excellent pair of cottages.—Pu. Pusry.
Labourers’ Cottages. 413
the same cost; in some districts not so far inland, for somewhat less.
Rent.—I\n determining the amount of rent of the cottages before spoken of, the consideration was, how much the daily labourer, earning from 12s. to 15s. per week, could really afford to pay, rather than what he would readily have promised to give, had ad- vantage been taken of his necessity and the utmost rent exacted. The rent charged for one of these cottages, with a garden contain- ing about 20 perches of land, is 3/. 10s. per annum; all the taxes and rates of every description being paid by the landlord. This rent yields only a small rate of interest upon the outlay, but while our appeal is made to generous feeling more than to calculating speculation, we yet venture to say that it will bear comparison with the return upon the generality of farm-buildings.
These cottages have been erected for the express purpose of bet- tering the moral and social condition of the labourer and his family ; and it will be seen in the following rules, that in accordance there- with, one of the conditions is, that the tenant shall not take in lodgers without express permission. But in cases where the pro- prietor takes every shilling which the cottage will let for, can he, in fairness, enforce so salutary a proviso? While, on the other hand, the occupier, from the profits obtained from lodgers, can easily afford to pay a higher rent in the one than in the other case.
In addition to the customary agreement in use upon the estate, the following condition should be strictly enforced :—
That no tenant-cottager shall take in any lodger or lodgers under penalty of forfeiting a quarter’s rent for the first offence, half a year’s rent for the second, and deprivation of his cottage and land for the third transgression; unless he has first obtained, in writing, the consent of the proprietor, or his agent, and of the clergyman of the parish. This permission should in no case be granted, unless the circumstances of his family, in regard to num- bers, sex, age, &c., are such as, with the strictest propriety, admit of it being given.
Observation.—1 have experienced considerable difficulty in enforcing this important rule relating to lodgers; and recom- mend that great vigilance be used, as the temptation of gain from this source outweighs the inconvenience and annoyance the lodger causes to the cottager, and endangers the re-produc- tion of all those evils from which, perhaps, he has but recently emerged.
General Remarks.—These cottages, placed in groups of three, each surrounded by a neat garden, and the centre cottage slightly in advance of the others, have a neat and comfortable appearance, rendering them agreeable features in the rural landscape; more especially when associated with the pleasing consideration that
414 Labourers’ Cottages.
under the cottage roof dwells a family amply provided with all the requisites and conveniences of a comfortable home.
It would be unjust to the occupiers not to state my experience that the rents are punctually and cheerfully paid, and that, gene- rally speaking, both cottage and garden are kept clean and in good order—in some instances to a much greater degree than might have been expected, contrasting the state of the dwellings they had previously occupied.
The landlord taking upon himself the payment of the parochial assessments upon cottage property rented under 10/. per annum, is a plan I venture strongly to recommend ; thereby conferring a great boon, not only on the cottage occupier, but on the parish generally. Every parish officer can bear testimony to the diffi- culty of collecting the rates from the small householders—them- selves frequently not far removed in ¢hezr circumstances from the poor whom they are called upon to pay their quota to support.
SPECIFICATION of Works to be done in the Erection of Two Labourers’ Cottages.
General Conditions —The land-carriage of all materials will be executed without cost to the contractor ; the sand and gravel re- quired for the works will be provided from the estate.
The whole of the works are to be executed with the best mate- rials, in a substantial and workmanlike manner, to the satisfaction of the surveyor of the proprietor, and according to the directions which may from time to time be given by him; and his certificate that the works have been so executed will be required to be pro- duced before payment is made.
Diggers, Bricklayers, Mason's, Plasterer’s, and Slater’s Works. —The surface-soil for 6 inches in depth to be removed from the site of the cottages, and the areas of the rooms to be filled up with gravel to receive the brick-paving. The soil thus removed, and also that which may arise from the excavation of the foundations, is to be distributed round the exterior, so as to give a descent in every direction from the buildings. The ash-pits and privy- vaults to be sunk 3 feet below the floor. :
A bed of concrete, composed of one measure of lime and seven measures of gravel, 2 feet 6 inches wide and | foot 6 inches thick, to be laid throughout all the walls beneath the footings.
All the brickwork to be executed with hard-burnt kiln bricks, laid with close joints, all the return and cross joints being flushed at every course. The walls of the coal-houses, piggeries, and ash-pits to be pointed on both sides.
A course of strong slates, bedded in cement mortar, to be laid throughout every wall of the cottages, intermediately between the surface of the ground and the floor-line.
Labourers’ Cottages. 415
Twenty yards of drain, formed of cylindrical pipes 4 inches diameter, with socket-joinis, to be laid from the sink of each cottage towards the outfall drain. Drains of similar pipes, 2 inches diameter, to be laid from the feet of the descending pipes into the larger drains.
The jambs and arches of the fire-places of the living-rooms and sculleries to be built with pressed bricks, laid in fine mortar, projecting three-quarters of an inch in front of the other walling, so as to stop the plastering. The arches of these fire-places to be turned upon iron chimney-bars.
The flues to be well pargetted with mortar mixed with cow- dung; the gatherings to be made as nearly as possible over the centres of the fire-places. The flues in the chimney-shaft above the roof to be reduced to 9 inches square, and the two upper courses to be laid in cement mortar.
Rubbed hearth-stones to be laid to the fire-places of the living rooms and chambers; brick hearths to be laid to the sculleries. Mantels and jambs 5 inches wide to be fixed to the fire-places of the bed-rooms.
The contract to include the provision and setting of two Nicholson’s cottage grates with side ovens and boilers, two small chamber grates and coves, and a small range with brick cheeks and coves, and a fifteen-gallon metal boiler, with furnace-bars, door, and frame, for the scullery, of the aggregate value of 8/. at the first cost.
The ground-floors of the cottages are to be paved with 6-inch square paving-tiles bedded in mortar. ‘The coal-houses and privies, ash-pits and privy-vaults, to be paved with bricks laid flat in mortar. ‘The pigsties and courts to be paved with bricks laid edgewise in mortar, A tooled flagstone 4 feet by 2 feet, with a plain wrought-iron scraper fixed therein, to be laid in front of each porch door.
The windows to have rubbed, weathered, and throated stone sills, 10 inches by 3 inches. The outer doors to have 3-inch tooled flag sills 9 inches wide, morticed for door frames.
A 5-inch dished sink-stone, 3 feet by 1 foot 9 inches, to be fixed on brick piers in each of the sculleries, and the lead pipe and air-trap hereafter described to be let into the same.
The whole of the walis of the cottages and privies to be ren- dered and set fair, and the ceilings of the living-rooms and bed- rooms, the soffits of the stairs, and the external eaves and gables, to be lathed, plastered, and set fair. The ceilings of the scul- leries to be pane-drawn between the joists.
The floors of the bed-rooms to be of grey floor-plaster upon laths, and to be at least 24 inches thick.
The roofs to be covered with Bangor Countess slates, nailed
416 Labourers’ Cottages.
with two copper nails in each to red wood battens 14 inch by 3 of an inch, and laid with not less than 23 inches lap in any part. The ridges to be covered with rolled slate ridging, fixed with copper screws.
Carpenter's, Joiner’s, Smith's, and Ironmonger’s Works.—The works to be executed with best Memel fir timber and Petersburgh deals, excepting otherwise hereinafter directed.
A course of bond-timber 43 inches by 3 inches to be laid in all the walls of the cottages immediately beneath the chamber floors. The lintels to be 3 inches thick, and the breadth of the wall to be supported. A sufficiency of wood bricks to be fixed to receive all casings, frames, and skirtings.
The roof over the front chambers to be framed with trussed purlins, having timbers of the following dimensions, viz., sills of trusses for purlins 5 inches by 3 inches; purlins 5 inches by 3 inches ; trussing pieces 4 inches by 3 inches; rafters 33 inches by 2 inches ; wall plates 5 inches by 3 inches; ceiling joists nailed up to trussing pieces 3 inches by 15 inch.
The roofs over the back chambers, coal-houses, and piggeries, to be lean-to roofs, having rafters 4 inches by 2 inches; wall- plates 5 inches by 3 inches; purlins 6 inches by 4 inches ; and hip and valley pieces 8 inches by 14 inch.
The ends of the rafters, and the plates and purlins, to be carried 9 inches beyond the walls, and to be faced with inch beaded boarding.
The eaves of the cottages, to have 4-inch cast-iron spouting fixed on neat metal bearers to the facia boarding, with proper falls to the descending pipes. Three stacks of 24-inch cast-iron descending pipes, with S heads to conduct the water from the spouts, and with long elbow shoes to lead it into the drains, to be fixed in the position shown on the plan.
The floors of the front chambers to have joists 8 inches by 24 inches, and those of the back chamber joists 54 inches by 23 inches ; the latter to be wrought where exposed.
The staircases to have inch-treads on 32-inch risers, upon strong carriages, the underside being bracketed for lath and plaster. —
The external doors of the porches to be of 14-inch grooved, tongued and beaded battens with four ledges at the back, hung with 16-inch Scotch hinges to rebated and beaded frames 5 inches by 3 inches. ‘The other doors to be of Z-inch battens with four ledges, hung with 15-inch cross garnets, the coal-house and privy doors having frames 4 inches by 3 inches, and the internal doors 1d-inch and half rebated jamb linings. The porches and coal- house doors to have each a 9-inch stock lock, and all other doors except the piggeries to have strong Norfolk latches. The doors
of the piggeries to be $-inch ledged doors, hung with hooks and
Labourers’ Cottages. 417
bands to oak posts 5 inches square, and fastened with hasps and pins.
The windows to be 13-inch slide sashes in solid frames, with 2-inch linings, and l-inch window-boards, with rounded edges to stop the plastering. Every window to have a proper screw fastening.
The living-rooms, bed-rooms, staircases, and porches, to have #-inch plain skirtings 34-inches wide. Angle beads to be fixed up the chimney breasts, and all other external angles not de- scribed to be otherwise protected.
The privies to be fitted up with l-inch wrought seat and front boards on proper bearers.
Plumber’s, Glazier’s, and Painter’s Works.—The valleys to be lined with milled lead six pounds to the foot, 18 inches wide.
The flashings round the chimneys to be of milled lead five pounds to the foot.
A 3-inch lead pipe to be fixed from each of the sink-stones in the sculleries, and carried at least a foot into the drain.
An air-trap and grate to be fixed to each pipe.
The sashes to be glazed with thirds sheet-glass sixteen ounces to the foot.
The wood and iron-work to be painted three coats in oil colour, the woodwork being previously knotted and stopped.
EstiMaTE of Design No. 1 for Labourers’ Double Cottages.
Mdsveettey in. Stee Csti lel oe Saude 88 10 0 | Cube excavating and distributing soil . ele Ay alae OMrae, dl 25 0 +, concrete . ° : : . open latlie Ob] CeO ReLO Rods. ft. in.
12 10 0 | Superficial reduced brickwork : - |146 0 | 87 17 4 0 83 6 3 extra facing of pressed bricks ot OMe) 0 10N"S 0163 4 * slate course in cement . 3 Si calie De EMT yc eae
:Yds, ft. in 380) 0 0 * 6-inch ae Ee yneile floor, laid in mortar . ° : ° 4 I Gas 28 0 0 | Superficial brick flat paving : . . alte s4 Iie Ve! 14 4 6 - brick on edge paving . he 88) 1 5 42 Extra to two courses of brickwork in cement to chimney heads : : : ° : ate #0" 12" 0 No. 2 chimney bars. ° Q 29 0 | Superficial rubbed stone hearths. ° are FR Rea ele AD) 0 16 0 tooled flagstone . : sae, be sOr oe ck ORO) 6 f 3-inch tooled terete 5 ‘ 0) 9h" Oh 72105 Ore LOw 6G if 5-inch dished sink-stones, including brick piers, air-trap, and 3-inch lead pipe. oe PLL A0 0 20 0 | Lineal rubbed mantles and jambs, 5 inches wide | 010| 016 8 0 44 OU =, rubbed, weathered, and throated window- sills, 10 inches by 3 inches é : ie OLO 116 8 40 0 0 | Lineal 4-inch drain-pipes, and laying . ° 2 0 4 0 0 40 0 0 ye 2inch ditto ditto 61) SOLOrvo
418 Labourers’ Cottages.
EstTiMaTE of Design No. 1—continued.
So) Gen ease.
Yds. ft. in.
No. 2 plain iron scrapers, and letting in . . », 8 mortice holes cutting . ay Genes A ., 2 Nicholson’s cottage stoves aad pees and setting the same : ° ° ° Solr As 2 Superficial two coats rendering 5 SauOne dal ablan 2 ot 152, 0,0 0 two coats lath and plaster . AP (Mer Ori cde be eerie) 66; 16, 0 > two coats pane drawing Bea [Dew es 9 192-0770 plaster floor : ° o) olen Ome Oneles NG Squ. ft. in.
V7. 27,0 5 Countess slating . : . 24 0| 2014 6 0 78 0 | Lineal slate ridging . a) Onin 2 geo 6 0 240 0 | Cube fir without labour, including sawing and
waste . : : Pk Se iezqanO x, 0 0 91 6 | Superficial 3 3-inch valley boarding - : 6 Opal ky 408 0 87 6 a 3 inch plain casings. é o | OO 2 Oe 1 0 15 4 ey qinch window boards , 6 22 OV ROm I ORs os 0294 5 . Z-inch ledged doors ° ie bene Vamye= ator Lile 5 ee) 0 60 O A l-inch shelves and bearers. Pee Voces ib a7 aa 0100 5 Af) 1-inch steps, risers, and carriages. 0 10 4 3 8 0 29 4 ~ 14-inch wall string housed for steps i C0 ise ee Seas) OF 21,0 - l-inch privy seat and bearers . O.5S5(2 20 12. 0 OAL. 6 Pi ly 4-inch ledged doors ° ° ~ | OL OU 2a lor 7s 0 88 0 = 13-inch rabbeted jambs : | [OPO Ginmoy Gr 0 0 157 6G Peon slide casements and frames. | 1 2| 9 3 9 0 68 0 Lineal beaded and rabbeted door-frames, 5 inches by 3inches . OT lla lO) FS 0 94 O | Lineal beaded and rabbeted Naaratthoncce 4 inches by 3 inches : a : 5 5 Rem Oe Oia aero) 0 66 8 | Lineal centres on frames : : occhsl Locke] Onan eG gOS. 0 463 4 », single mouldings . 5 : oO mona wee 0 90 0 » angle beads 5 5 5 : “ 0 23; 018.9 Ore Coyne C6} » Geal pole handrail : 5 ; 1 Oa tee ane 0 43 0 5» square balusters : 5 ° Hee fe ntl | rn 0 22 0 » o-inch newels - A . : : 0 6 OFS =0 OseOen0 »» footing and nosing. ° Osa Oe2 20 0114 0 cast-iron-eaves spouliPe ane bears, fixed complete . . 0 OTF spa. 0 0 45 0 » descending pipes, fixed complete : 0 & PPO 0 No. 5 heads and 3 shoes to ditto . é : », 22 thumb-latches, 12 screw fastenings ° ‘ Be ies G », 2 hasps and staples ° : ° : : », 6 9-inch stock locks : : : »» 6 pairs of 16-inch Scotch hinges : : » 16 pairs of 15-inch cross garnets : hon 912 4 » 6 cut brackets : : A : s » 4 oak posts to piggery . ° ; d Labour and Nails.
16 84 6 | Superficial roofing, with trussed Bunn ° - | 6. 6 lig Sato tor 5 69 6 ha ceiling floor 5 3 HOT rOneide or 7 50 O A thorough joist flooring, Gnrouett on
the under side . . A ° . oxy al eho 1 p10 0 3 33 6 | Superficial stud partition . ; : aa OG 0 dake 0 74 O | Lineal extra to hips and valleys. on sO a ees 0120 0 hae hn; 008 Ooo
7» | bond : A
Labourers’ Cottages. 419
Estimate of Design No. 1—continued.
| | s d.| £2. d.
Yds. ‘ft. in. | 1
| No. 32 lintels. ; : : “ | | Centring to 2 semi-arches - . ? ial _ eee e
54 cwt. milled lead to flashings and labour to | “the same : S26" Ot ae’ 20 0 102 0O | Superficial g glazing of thirds shectplacs ° Pi EY Fal He 211° +O 0 - three coats painting . ° Os te Gok | Total AP Sige | £/295 15 112
Estimate of Design No. 2 for Labourers’ Double Cottages.
Yds. ft. in. | Swe. 3 de 78 0 O | Cube excavating and distributing soil . o it O14. F 1640 29 0 0} 4, concrete . : ° - . A 9 210 0 Rods ft. in. | 10 74 O Superficial reduced brickwork ° . - 1460 7419 83 0 83 6) = extra facing of pressed bricks . - |0 13) 010 5 0170 O| - slate course in cement . : s |.0 -4 5 2:16 58 Yds. ft. in ford =O pa 6-inch amas paving-tile floor, laid / in mortar : : . - 2 4 15. 38 28 60 O Superficial brick flat paving > : ° a tiliclnee 4) td 2 a4 Pet G: se brick on edge paving 13 1 5 43 | Extra to two courses of brickwork in cement to | chimney heads. . - = ‘ = ee 1-2. 0 | No, 2. chimney bars . _ Extra labour to weatherings of phaaierse v6 2 0 0 0 29 O | Superficial rubbed stone hearths. : oid “Ory be 26 0 16 0} = tooled flagstone . : ay SAO ee Oi Oe oe 07 10. 6 | re 3-inch tooled flag door-sills . - | 0 9) O 7 103 G> 1026: - 5-inch dished sink-stones, including | brick piers, air-trap, and 3-inch lead pipe. | ve 1 Ti 40 0 20 0 | Lineal rubbed mantles and jambs, 5inches wide | 0 10 016 8 0 20 0 4, rubbed, weathered, and throated window- | _ sills, 10 inches by 3 inches. - ~ Or 10) 0°16 78 40 0 O Lineal 4-inch drain pipes, and laying oat, 2a OF eet 0 49, 0. 0}. ,,.: : Zinch ditto ditto “ ail 6 eis 0:70 , No, 2 3-light windows with stone dressings =i] ee 2-light ditto ditto ~ : ae plain iron scrapers, and letting in . ~{ | 2 4 4 3, & mortice-holes cutting | ox » 2 Nicholson's cottage stoves and grates, He | - setting the same - ° ° = 374. 0 0) Superficial two coats rendering : ° Foot ba ya eae 150 0 0| * two coats lath and “plaster ° Eprae iel ehs 1 fade ELS cee ee. two coats pane drawing . : eel gear Petes ia OSU S plaster floor . - E : «oj 2-6 9° 7-6 Sau. ft. in. 17 96 0O - Countess slating . - ° tte | Se EE 0 91 0 Lineal slateridging . seuss). 2 la 2 0 227 O | Cube fir, without labour, inelading sawing and waste , - A : 2 : ey oat 20 10° 9
420 Labourers’ Cottages.
Estimate of Design No. 2—continued.
Sidauiee. Sd,
Wadssettswan.
0 140 9 | Superficial 3-inch valley boarding . : « av Op 3dt) 2 0 10 0 32 9 vs # inch plain casmgs . : «iO rox 0 14 8 0 15 4 $3 Z-inch window boards . : 2 | O62) e028) 35 0 262 0 i, Z-inch ledger doors 5 ° ; 0 7 1210 0 60 0 is l-inch shelves and bearers . a Ors) 1s 7.6 0100 5 a l-inch steps, risers, and carriages. 0 10 4.3 8 0 429; 4 3 14-inch wall string housed for steps. | 0 10 1, 4.5 0 21 0 HS i inch privy-seat and bearers . . 0 8 014 0 0 7i 6 ss 13-inch ledged doors. ° : Og 213 72 0 74 OU a Tz 4 inch rabbeted jambs . . A (Vie i) 2loy 6 0157 O “3 14. inch casements and frames ‘ L422 D.peBe~-9 Ope a0 l4-inch bargeboards ° 0 10 ZAUS- 2 0 68 O Tinea beaded and rabbeted door-frames, 5 Banichies by 3inches . Verne 7 ITI 8 0 94 O | Lineal beaded and rabbeted doce: frames) 4 arches by 3inches . ¢ é 5 . een OR a6 Pye ert) 0 46 8 | Lineal centres on frames ° : : : 0 3 011 8 0 401 O » single mouldings : ° ‘ 9 OR 20 ia te OxlO 0 60 0 5, angle beads : 5 ° : © ORL ee On a6 0 6 6 » deal pole hand-rail : A Omwerie: OF Fo, 72 0 43 0 » Square balusters. : ° . A WV 2 ORNs «2 0 22 0 » 98-inch newels . ° : < « -lc0e s6hiM Ole 0 On a0 » footing and nosing . : = Oe a ee Ona aires 0 84 0 cast-iron eaves, spouting, and ieee fixed complete. Oy cdhitesee o> 30 0 80 0O | Lineal descending pipes, fixed complete ° 6 ORS Bl ear 13) 4 No. 6 heads and 6 shoes to ditto . : 5 », 20 thumb-latches, 12 screw fastenings . . 310 6 2 hasps‘and staples Bin 39 ps: Pp a ° . e 55 69-inch stock locks , A » 6 pairs of 16-inch Scotch titees ‘ 4 », 14 pairs of 15-inch cross garnets 4 : >», 6 cut brackets . : : “ . oe 201908 » 4oak posts to piggery . ° : », 1 ditto with brackets to porch . . Labour and Nails. 15 18 0 | Superficial roofing, with trussed purlins . Gi Fog t4” 18) 8 5 47 6 ” ceiling floor. 3.0; 016 54 7 54 0 x thorough joist flooring, wrought on the under side . A é 7 . ° 4 0 110 2 3 40 0 | Superficial stud partition 5 A : 4 0 013 7 0 92 0 | Lineal extra to hips and valleys . P 0 4 110 8 0 120 O 5 abond ° ° : . ° pO, wUsiO co. O No. 30 lintels’. & ° oe 010 0
62 cwt. milled lead to helene and lanern to
Yds. ft. in. the same 4 - (26 0 8 15 6 0 98 O | Superficial glazing of thirds sheet-elass ; EO 29 0
1987 (70770 re three coats painting : : 2 0) OA Op LO. 6
totaly. ; a ‘ Seid GO Oe
eee
G (42 lis)
XXI.—On the Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Lo- calities. By T. RowLanpson.
Prize Essay.
Prorit being the ultimate object of the farmer, it is necessary, in considering this subject, to review other circumstances than the mere fact of which breed will produce the most meat on a given quantity and quality of herbage, as sheep, unlike other animals bred by the farmer, yield a certain amount of annual revenue by the sale of their fleece, prior to their final disposal to the butcher. Wool, and in some instances the sale of lambs, form prominent items in the profits derivable from sheep farms: these circumstances, combined with the fact of different breeds being more suited to one locality than another—respect being had to climate and herbage—render the solution of this question one of the most difficult, whilst at the same time it is one of the most important problems connected with the science of agriculture. In endeavouring to solve this complicated subject, it will be expe- dient to separate the returns which may fairly be anticipated from wool, meat, and lambs into separate heads, prior to summing up the whole. ‘There are certain districts, however, where the ques- tion of wool may fairly be set aside, long experience having proved that only particular species of sheep are adapted to subsist on the dreary wastes where such breeds are only found: the question in such places being not as to the return which may be derived from wool, but will the animals live at all; in these cases the wool forms a very secondary consideration. Notwithstanding the character of the herbage and climate found on the wide spreading moors and craggy hill tops of North and South Wales, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, the Highlands and West- ern Islands of Scotland, Wicklow, Kerry, Mayo, and Galway in Ireland, is much alike, the breeds are as dissimilar as the countries named are geographically distant, several of which are greatly inferior to others living under like conditions, which point will be more dwelt upon in its proper place; we shall now proceed to investigate the various bearings which the quantity and quality of the wool of different breeds of sheep have upon the profits of the sheep-farmer.
Wool has for centuries been-esteemed our staple production, and was the original source of our greatest manufacture,* em- blematical of which the Lord High Chancellor’s seat in the
* In the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII. flourished at Newbury, in Berkshire, John Winchcomb, commonly known as Jack of Newbury one of the greatest clothiers that ever existed in England prior to the use of the steam-engine in forming textile fabrics. He kept 100 looms in his house; and in the expedition to Flodden Field, marched 100 of his own men, armed and clothed at his own expense.
MO Xs OF
422 ~=6 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
House of Lords is formed of a wool-pack covered with velvet. A large portion of the revenues of our earlier kings was derived from an export duty on wool and woollen cloths. Smith, in his « History of Wool and the Woollen Manufacture,” qeeonis the prices of English wools in 1341, for home use and exportation— it is valuable not only as giving the price of wool, but the relative value of wools grown in different districts at that period.
To the Staple for Home use. | For Exportation. Per Sack, |PerStone.| Per Sack. Per Stone. Per Sack. PorStone Leese Gi Atisee Gg, £8S.) denise ae £55 sn tao ds Salop Saar i as) 7, 6 BO OP pS One aar ds Ditto, Stuffs, eluaime Lact Leicester’ soi) 5 OW Seer col nee fe 14 6 6 8| 411 8 6 8|6 43 Nottingham. . Apt oee 4 6 fond Ou en An Aga 7:13.41 5 102 York and Ratland 4°10 0 | 3" 53) 510 OR 4 ego oars Derby . a ge A 438 4/3 2 6 3 4/4 8 Garibevettl and West- | morelandyettcey « 9-434.) 2 3) | 3018-42 Oe Ser eee eel | |
Anderson also, in his “‘ Origin of Commerce,” gives a nearly similar list of prices of some of the wools in 1343, when exported —Shropshire, 9/7. 6s. 8d. per sack; Oxford and Staffordshire, 8/. 13s. 4d.; and Leicester, Hereford, and Gloucester, 8/., the lowest price being that of Cornwall, which is set down at 41. In 1342, the king (Edward II.) sent a great number of sacks of wool to Cologne, in order to redeem Queen Philippa's crown, which was pawned there for 25001. ; the average price of that wool was is. 34d. per |b. In 1354, the exports had risen to 31,651 sacks, equal to 8,356,864 lbs., on which Edward levied duties to the amount of 277,606/. 2s. 9d.
At this period, the first mention is made of exported manufac- tured goods, viz. :—47744 cloths, of the value of 40s. each, and also 8061 pieces of worsted goods, valued at 16s. 8d. the piece ; on the other hand, there were imported 1832 cloths of the value of 6l. each. The preceding extracts are important as indicative of the fact that the finest cloths were imported, whilst no worsted goods were needed from abroad; indeed, the quantity and value of the latter which were exported show that their manufacture in this country had arrived at a very high degree of perfection, as compared with the fine cloth manufacture, and further shows that a large portion of the wools exported were of the fine or short description: in fact, the fine wool of Britain was celebrated in the time of the Romans, and that luxurious people had British wool manufactured into the finest description of cloth, such as robes, &c., which were only used on festive and other celebrated occa- sions: these circumstances, together with the fact that in 1172,
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 423
Henry II., by statute, ordained that Spanish should not be mixed with English wool ; and in 1186, the prohibition of Spanish wool Was more strictly enforced, and it was ordered, that all cloth of British manufacture found made of Spanish wool, or in which that material should be mixed, should be burned in the presence of the Lord Mayor of London. Now it is well known to manu- facturers that foreign wool may be mixed with those of British growth, with a decided advantage to both; this the manufacturers of that period appeared fully to understand. Such mixture not appearing equally beneficial to the wool grower, the practice was ordered to be prohibited in so far as a statutory enactment could enforce the prohibition.
The preceding details, coupled with the fact that when Henry III. permitted the importation of fine cloths, the price of home grown wool declined and stocks accumulated, show clearly that fine wools which competed with those of this country were grown on the Continent ; they also show that wool of sufh- ciently fine quality for making broad cloths was grown in this country. The disuse of such in making English broad cloth has arisen from two causes,—first, a slight deterioration in the quality of fine- British wool for fulling purposes, and secondly, the in- creased attention paid in recent years to the growth of wool in Spain, Germany, Australia, &c., where the efforts in improving the fineness of the fleece has been seconded by natural causes,— warmer and drier climate, a somewhat arid soil, and consequently not so luxuriant pasture. Without a thorough knowledge of this fact, persons unacquainted with the woollen manufacture may be permitted to doubt that such a thing is possible as that, in the course of two or three years, the fleeces of a flock of the same breed, bred on the same land, should so far deteriorate as to be- come unfit for fulling purposes, and this solely attributable to the fact of a greater variety and luxuriance of food being given to them ; yet such statement is strictly true; on ihis and several other points most valuable evidence was given before the Com- mittee of the House of Lords with reference to the wool duties in the year 1828, from which we shall draw some copious extracts illustrative of the changes which have taken place in the growth of British wool and manufacture of British woollen fabrics. Mr. Bull stated that
‘“‘There are not many more sheep kept in Sussex than formerly, but the Guantity of wool has increased.”
Mr. Fison,—
‘‘The farmers now return their sheep, as they are accustomed to call it, much quicker—that is, fatten and sell them at earlier periods. The farmers formerly were not able to fatten and sell their sheep before they were two or three years o], b ut under the improved gate eee,
Z2E 2
424 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
they fatten and sell them at from one to two years old, so that there has been a gradual deterioration of wool since 1793.”
With reference to the question respecting the change which 1s alleged to have taken place in the weight of the carcase of the sheep, in the quality of the fleece and in its usefulness for the pur- poses of manufacture, it was stated by Mr. William Pinkey of Salisbury Plain,
“that he did not think the quality of wool from ow Southdown sheep has deteriorated within the last four or five years. It is generally considered that our wool, since the introduction of Southdown sheep, is of a finer description than that grown upon the Wiltshire sheep, which preceded
them, and which were larger: we could not keep so many Wiltshire sheep on the same quantity of land.”
Mr. J. Ellman, jun.—
“T think the quality of the wool from our Southdown fiock is as good as it was six years ago; each sheep produces upon the average about three pounds of wool. I keep my sheep better than they were kept before, and I fatten my sheep now, which I did not before, and of course the fleeces are heavier.”
It may be observed that farmers may most conscientiously believe that no deterioration has taken place in the quality of their fleeces for manufacturing purposes, yet still such may be the fact ; the choice and assortment of wools for the finer kinds of goods is a much more delicate matter than is usually imagined. The whole of the evidence given by the agricultural interest went to show that no deterioration of Southdown wool had taken place, the only cases of alleged improvements were adduced by Mr. ‘Thomas Duke of Sussex, who considered the wool of the Duke of Richmond's flock * to be a great deal better than it was, and those of the Duke of Norfolk and of Mr. Huskisson were no worse than they were formerly.
The evidence of all the woolstaplers and manufacturers was conclusive as to the deterioration: this part of the evidence abounds with so much interesting imformation, and will be almost totally novel to farmers, induces us to give some copious extracts, '
Mr. William Nottage, fellmonger of Bermondsey, stated— ‘that in the year 1800 he was ordered to make a trial of several different sorts of skins as to their produce. Southdown skins slaughtered in London, when at full maturity, produced about 3} lbs. per skin; now they are estimated to produce from 4 lbs. to 44+ Ibs.; and we find a corre- sponding increase in weight, from the farmer’s fleeces, generally in Kent and those parts. Where the weight has increased there is always a less
quantity of fine wool and a larger quantity of coarse. Considered there is a great deal less fine wool grown now than there was twenty years back ;
* If this should ever meet the eye of the Duke of Richmond, that patriotic nobleman could afford, most probably, some interesting information respecting the cause of this improved quality.
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 425
but the sheep which are now kept by farmers generally he considered an improved sheep—improved in size, and in the produce as to quantity, as applicable to carcase, and also more wool, but not of so fine a quality. In sorting wool in that part of the county of Kent, at the time that fine wool bore a good price, used to make about one-eighth of our best quality of English wool ; now (1828) we do not set a basket for it at all; the quantity 1s so small we do not throw it out, we do not separate it. Had been in the habit for several years of purchasing the fleeces of particular flocks ; there is one flock of Southdown wool in the county of Sussex that he has had from the year 1792 up to 1828; and in the year 1814 the fleeces ran, some fourteen to the tod, and some few fifteen, and some few sixteen and seventeen. Had some wool last year and it ran eleven and a half fleeces to the tod all the way through, so that there has been an in- crease of weight of probably one-third, and of course a deterioration of quality; the quantity of coarse wool has greatly increased from that description of sheep. As far as his observation goes, wherever in- closures take place and the land becomes better cultivated, they keep a better kind of sheep, and Southdown sheep of a good size are always more marketable than of a small size. There are some few Southdown flocks now, the wool of which is as good as ever it was, but generally they are deteriorated.”
Mr. William Cunnington, woolstapler, Wiltshire, principally purchased Southdown wool, and gave the following particulars of Southdown wool assorted :—
ice os Tt Razer 42 Cross :
| List. | Wash. | Abbs. | Drt. | Head. Super. ‘Choice. | Prime. | Pick Flower Farm : Ths. | Ibs. | Ibs. | tbs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs, | Ibs BM eee? 4) 568 |, 205 | 11. |, 20, | .56, | 202. | 412. |" 43 ies) = | 167 | 117 | 70°} 52 | 86 || 160° | 323 "| 915° | 170 1822 . 62 | 95 | 134 | 93 | 288 | 274 | 309 | 665 | 19
Aytons: Pea! 23 2), 98 | -41| 21 | 50. | 131 | 305. | 387 “| 127 eee) 52° | 106) | 62 | 65. | 145 |"213 | 329° 468) Heoee Se ch102 (952 12 55° .57 -| 120 | 200 | 272 | 392 | ..
Deveriest: | 1823. . | 110 | 209 | 353 | 369 58 | 614 | 800 | 848 | 16 baer S| 96. 1 93.1 397 «=| 374° | 758°. | 956° | 6386" | 444° | Te a2 56 | 297 | 10 | 16 21 | 95 | 247 | 493
|
{ Nowlson: | | | |
Is17 . .| 23 | 100 | 55 | 67 | 59 1159 | 386 | 946 | 72
ime. | Sl s3 | 190 | 188 | 425 | 322 | 308 | 272 8 Powell: |
1815. .| 7 | 112 | 64 | 40.) 67 g | 347 | 875 | 90
2 2) Se Sy. 52. | 218 G4 a S76, . oda 2 Uk Mie none.
“Tn the year 1815 one of those portions of wool, the gross weight of which was 1006 lbs., made the best quality in sorting 60 Ibs.; and in the year 1827 the same wool, grown on the same farm, made none of that quality. From the year 1811 till 1822 lived at Heytesbury, and sold the whole of my wool, or nearly so, to the Frome Market; and when I removed to where I now reside, near Pewsey, I sold then the greater portion of my wool stil] in Frome; but within the last two years the greater part has been sent to Rochdale, and that-district, where it is used principally for flannels, baizes, and goods of that description. Attributed
426 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
that alteration to the great deterioration of quality, and to the taste of the country ; the public will not wear the coarse Southdown cloths, they are so very coarse. Attribute the deterioration to the improved system of agriculture.
“The farmers are in the habit of growing so much more artificial food than formerly, and paying greater attention to the size of the sheep than to the quality of their wool ; they have now much larger framed sheep than they had fifteen years ago.” |
Mr. John Brooke, of Honley, manufacturer, stated-—
‘That he had purchased the Duke of Norfolk’s clip in Norfolk and the Messrs. Ellmans’ of Sussex, viz., Mr. E., junior’s, clip from 1817 to 1822, and Mr. E., senior’s, from 1817 to 1821; the latter clip was
In 1817. . . 384 lbs. 77 prime. 84 choice. 65 super. aaa 8 ose Go 32 1G, 126M A
‘* Mr. Ellman, junior’s clip had a similar result. The ‘greater part of the fine Southdown wool was used in the manufacture of livery cloth.”
That a deterioration in the character of Southdown wool for felting purposes has taken place there cannot be a question, not- withstanding which the depreciation in value has been much greater than the depreciation of quality: this has arisen partly from an increased taste for wearing fine cloths having thrown the Southdown wool entirely out of the market as a clothing wool, and partly from the shortness of the staple of Southdown wool not adapting 1t for combing purposes; improvements in machinery have, however, been effected, which combined with the constantly annual increasing length of the staple of Southdown wool, causes it now to be pretty extensively used for fine flannels, &c., and will no doubt in a few years become one of our most valuable, and at the same time one of our most extensive combing wools; on this point I shall have something more to state hereafter as cor- roborating in some measure what has been just stated, viz., that the depreciated value of Southdown wool has arisen partly from its short staple not adapting it for combing pur- poses. It was stated by Mr. William Nottage, in the evidence already so extensively quoted, that wool from the Southdown sheep, crossed with a larger breed and fed on enclosed lands, having a longer staple, meets with a readier sale, and is worth more money than fine Southdown wools of better quality.
In the year 1800 a prime Leicester skin in the wool weighed s. d. 20 Ibs., the wool of which was 83 Ibs., pelt 133 Ibs.; the carcase supposed to be about 14 stone: the skin was worth 7 0
A middling Lincoln skin. ‘The wool was 8 lbs., the pelt 9 lbs., the carcase 12 stone: the skin : 3 : 5 Tr Dik te,
A Hereford skin. The wool was 5 lbs., the pelt 10 Ibs., the earcase 14 stone: the skin . : : S 7 cee one
A Southdown skin. The wool 34 lbs., the pelt 72 lbs., the carcase 10 stone: the skin . : : : : - Lion
A Norfolk skin. The wool 3 Ibs., pelt 7 Jbs., carcase 8 stone: the skin». 5 ; ; : : : , Sty EAS
Shortlings . : : : ; : : 1.2
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 427
The following valuable table of the prices paid by Mr. Not- tage in Kent, in the spring, for wools, indicates the eradual change which bites taken place in the relative values of Silanes and long or combing wool :—
Southdown, Marsh. Southdown, Marsh, Southdown, Marsh, per lb. per lb. per 1b. per lb. per lb. per lb. Some ae Sd Sa de S. ae Ss. d. S. d. 1792 2 0 113 1805 i 9 LAs chee LOG Lane | Pee 1793 0115 O 94 1806 1 a | 1 23 _ 1818 2 ie el 1794 16 0 93 |} 1807 1.10 ee eal “ESS 2 0 Bes Pee Bs. | 0.106) 180825551229) 2 he Oa) 482005)-de Soc Do 4 1796 1 4 0 93) 1809 a | Ol OSL | NE ee (A | 1797 1 33 0 94) 1810 2 8 ice L822 i Np ae 0 11 1798 eae 0 92. [2 18ti 129 Reo 1823 Nt ales tulad ieee Ao: AKO Arot812 sro o6k) oy IZ | 1824 1.0 15:1 PU eee. OF) 18i38 le ze, 8 | 1825 1.4.1 4 1801 Ligh: times ge 1 1814 2 OF Eo ey 1826 0 10 Oat 1802 Lbdaiie | 12 | 1815 2 A 110 ; 1827 0 9 0 104 Peewee as | E816 =) 4,26 + E38 |}1828.. 0. 9: 0-112 1804 I Tt Ss
"The preceding feneihened statements $ respecting the Price, Ke of wool, have been Pade | in order to demonstrate, as it does most clearly, that it is now impossible to seek an increased money return from Southdown sheep by its increased price as a felting wool: the attention paid on the Continent and Australia to the finer qualities of wool will for ever render abortive attempts to rival those countries, either as regards price or quality, particularly as the wool-grower in this country has a climate to contend with adverse to the growth of the finer qualities. I state this advisedly, notwithstanding I hold a very strong impression that the major part of the broad and finest cloths were almost exclusively manu- factured from British wool from a period commencing with the Christian era up to the thirteenth century, and that a large por- tion of the wool exported during that period was of the finest description. The account previously given of the price of Shrop-
eer wool, the highest in England, is in a great degree con- rmatory of this opinion, and was composed most probably of the fleeces of the more common sheep, which were so long the pride and boast of Shropshire, producing as they did the finest wool in England, superior to the Ryelands. The Morfe sheep have small horns, with speckled dark or black faces and legs; their general characteristics are more or less to be found amongst all the short-woolled breeds throughout the British European dominions, whether we search amongst the Kerry, Wicklow, and Galway mountains in Ireland, the Ryelands, Southdown, and Herdwicks in England, or the diminutive race found in the Orkneys and Shetland Isles. The Herdwicks may be classed amongst the middle woolled species: this arises ina great measure from the great quantity of kempy locks which compese the fleece
428 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
of this breed: the fine wool which is found on the neck and underneath the kempy covering, together with their general aspect, indicate one generic origin. Whether the long-woolled sheep, such as the Cotswold, Lincoln, Teeswater, &c., are de- scended from the same common stock, viz., the short-woolled variety, or the reverse, is a question that can never be satis- factorily answered ; that a change of character may arise from depasturing such on rich plains and alluvial soils through a series of ages without having the blood intermixed with the smaller breed and short-woolled variety is highly probable. ‘The change now going on in the character of the wool from the improved Southdown sheep is an apt illustration of such an alteration which it would be well if the breeders of Southdown stock would direct more attention to, as Southdown wool at the present time is not fit for carding, neither is it well adapted for the more valu- able kinds of combing. If the staple could be lengthened, and consequently a heavier fleece produced without deteriorating the present fine, smooth, silky character of the fibre, the Southdown would then yield a money return equal to that of our heaviest long-woolled sheep. By judiciously crossing with a Cotswold, and an occasional dash of the Anglo-merino, I feel persuaded that such a desideratum might be obtained, in which case the carcase would be increased and the wool at the same time be adapted for the manufacture of cashmeres, challis and all the finer kinds of manufactures, where silk and worsted are combined in one fabric, by which means it would realise as high a price as any of the finest German wools, with the exception of a very small quantity selected with particular care for the purpose of forming the bodies (known as felts) of the finest beaver hats. A wool of the description named would find a ready market when the finest felting wools are com- paratively unsaleable : the vacancy in this species of wool is now in a great measure filled up by Alpaca* wool from South America, but there are many purposes for which Alpaca wools are unsuitable, and for which a combing wool such as described® would be well adapted.
The Duke of Bedford made several experimental trials on the relative values of different descriptions of sheep, on some of which the greatest amount of care and attention was paid, and were the longest continued of any similar experiments made in England. The following is a synoptical table of the results of one of these experiments made on four different breeds, viz. twenty, each of Southdowns, Leicesters, Worcesters, and sixteen of Wiltshire: the experiment was only carried on with sixteen Wiltshires, as they were found to consume as much food as twenty of the other breeds :—
* An animal of the Llama tribe which inhabits the mountains of Peru. The sub- stance here alluded to possesses, in some degree, the joint properties of goats-hair, silk, and wool,
429
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
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450 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
In order to ascertain the consumption of turnips, they were weighed from October 19th, 1795, to February 14th, 1796, as they were given to the sheep, and the remnants not eaten also weighed and deducted: the following is the result :—
se ag a Twenty Twenty Twenty Sixteen Sheep’s Food—17 Weeks. Southdowns.} Leicesters. | Worcesters- | Wiltshires. p ; lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Turnips given 2 : ° 54,036 54,036 54,036 54,036 >, taken away ° , 1,812 2,001 1,361 les Re
eaten . ° - | 52,224 52,035 02,675 02,847
23
Hay given . ° : ° 64 | o4 68 76 Turnips, per week . ° . 3,072 3,061 3,098 3,108 Hay, ditto ° ° 5 4 3 4 5
A good acre of turnips, supposed) | __ | to weigh 14 tons, or 31 ,3601bs., Weeks. day. | Weeks. day.| Weeks. day. | Weeks. day.
will keep 20 sheep, with the/} 10 1 | 10 1 10hea Sei hay asabove. . °
Between December 4th, 1794, and February, 1795, at which period the whole of the lots receded in condition, the consump- tion of turnips was as follows :—
Southdowns . : 4 : ; 10,945 Ibs. Leicesters . : ‘ 3 : TT Score. Worcesters . : A ; : 11,498 ,, Wiltshires . uf (hi sae
All the four lots had 120 lbs. of hay each.
From the above it appears that, notwithstanding the great deterioration in condition of the Leicesters as compared nik the Southdowns, and from which the former were so long in recover- ing, still the Leicester yielded an equal money return per week with the Southdowns, and would have exceeded the latter if the wool were valued at present prices. ‘The Wiltshire return is also higher than it would be according to the present prices of wool ; it was not necessary to alter the price named, viz., 74d., as the same price being carried through all the lots made the comparison hold good throughout. In order to make the experiments still more complete and more satisfactory, one from each lot was chosen; the second best as nearly as could be, for killing and weighing; and that the question of bone might not depend on any g Penekal assertions, they were ordered to be carefully kept and weighed from every joint as eaten. The following is the
result :—
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 431
Sonthdown Leicester Worcester Wiltshire
Sheep. Sheep. Sheep. Sheep.
lbs. oz. Ibs: "07. lbs. oz. Ibs. 0z,
Weighed alive A ; . 155 0 152 0 161 0 755-0 Shin 5 ‘ 4 ° ies 20 0O 23 0 Zp: 0 RAW th Rete kABTs I 9 11 8 12 8 13 8 Head and pluck F s 10 8 9 6 120 14 0 Entrails ° , A aye 1 15 0 L746 Blood . . é ° ° Qo. 14 6-0 rope A) Sey) Four quarters 4 A : 92 6 92° 0 89 0 a7 OD
Waste ; viz, urine and evaporation 2a 6 2 0.4) ets} T 12 Bones, selena ; 5 . 6 52 Be ue || 6 0 We Fat, with the ties) im % ; o6 ats aaa 6 12 4 33 Kidnies ; é : ; 0 43 0 4 O; 775 O55
weight 20 gives 112) 20 gives 12 20 gives11 | 20 gives 11
Proportion of live and mast
By which it appears that a new Leicester, which weighs about 114 stones, carries as much flesh, when freed from the bones, as a Wiltshire of 12 stones, and would consequently have made a greater profit than the Wiltshire when that half stone has been deducted and the difference in the value of wool accounted for. It is a very singular circumstance, in connexion with the preceding experiment, that the Leicesters should have eaten a greater quantity of food between December 4th, 1794, and February 24th, 1795, than the Southdowns, yet should have decreased in weight between November, 1794, and the latter date, so much as 269 lbs. live weight, while the Southdowns only decreased 194 Ibs. weight. On the contrary, between October, 1795, and February, 1796, the Southdowns consumed a trifling weight more food, and in- creased only 162 |bs. in weight, whilst the Leicesters mierensed 264 1bs. The ikensetatice is the more remarkable, as the _ decrease and increase occurred at corresponding periods in their respective years. It has, perhaps, arisen in the following manner: the latter end of 1794 and the commencement of 1795 has pro- bably been cold and frosty, accompanied by bleak, windy weather. In such case all the sheep might be expected to suffer as they did; but the Leicester, as being most obnoxious to such influences, suffered the most of any. On the other hand, if the termination of the year 1795 and the commencement of 1796 had been wet, but mild, such weather would be equally obnoxious to the Southdown. The experiments just detailed have led us rather prematurely to enter on the discussion of the question respecting the merits of the Leicester and Southdown. As these two classes of sheep occupy by far the largest share of the attention of agriculturists at the present day, a better opportunity will not perhaps be
432 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
found to discuss their respective merits. ‘The respective advo- cates of the breeds under notice struggle not only for the pre- dominance of their favourites, but would appear, from their earnest advocacy, not content with anything less than the absolute dominion of all the arable and grazing land being ceded to their pets. In this I believe both sides to be wrong. From observations care- fully made, I feel convinced that ordinary Leicesters will succeed better, return a greater amount of money to the farmer in less time and on a smaller amount of food, both of flesh and wool, than an ordinary Southdown, if they are fed on a pasture fairly succulent, up to a rich one, or on artificial food, such as rape, Swedes, &c.; and this will be still more distinguishable if the experiment is made in a moist country. On the contrary, if the experiments were made on wide, open, bleak downs, with a scanty herbage, where the animals will be compelled to travel far for their food, exposed at the same time to cold, cutting winds, the merits of the Southdown would be found decidedly to preponderate. In passing an opinion on this matter I do not include the merits of the Southdown for folding, that being a practice, which, however indispensable it might have been in former times, is now questionable, since the benefit derived by folding on arable land is more than balanced by the loss sustained on the sheep and pastures.* ‘Three hundred weight of guano will be a much better dressing to an arable field than the best folding; and as regards treading the land, in order to render it firmer, the roller and seam-presser will be much more effectual. To sum up this matter in a few words, regard being had to the climatic cir- cumstances already alluded to, Southdowns will be found most advantageous on dry soils much exposed to the bleak winds of winter and the drought of summer, the herbage of such places usually consisting of varieties of rye-grass (Lolium perenne), bent (Agrostis), sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina), sweet-scented vernal- grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), hard fescue (Festuca duriuscula), crested dog’s-tail (Cynosurus cristatus), annual meadow-grass (Poa annua). With such herbage, and on arid downs and plains, the Leicester would cut but a sorry figure ; the Southdown, how- ever, will do well in these places. In stating this, however, it must be clearly understood that ordinary Southdown sheep—not the splendid prize animals extibited occasionally by the Duke of Richmond, Jonas Webb, and — Grantham, Esqrs.: such animals must be fed equal to Leicesters.
On pastures where several of the above grasses, such as rye- grass, sweet-scented vernal, hard fescue, crested dog’s-tail, &c., are accompanied more or less with cocksfoot (Dactylis globerata),
* Upland downs, however, on a farm would probably form one exception.—Pu. P.
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 433
Timothy grass (Phleum pratense), meadow fescue (Festuca pra- tensis), meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis), white and red clovers, &c., the Leicester will be found to flourish; and if the grasses consist in a great degree of timothy, meadow foxtail, and cocksfoot, a still heavier animal, the long-woolled sheep, may be fattened profitably.
I consider there are two causes which may be assigned for the increasing adoption of Leicester sheep in districts where, until a recent period, the Southdown knew no nival. One is the or adually i increasing practice of breaking up down-land and sandy pastures in the south of England, for the purpose of converting the same into arable cultivation, and the adoption of turnip-hus- bandry. For this description of husbandry I think it will be conceded that the Leicester has no rival; added to which is the circumstance of the greater annual return for wool made by Leicesters, in consequence of the great change which has taken place in the relative prices of short and long wool. Our long wools, for combing, have ever stood unrivalled. Besides its longer staple (foreign wool being about 5 inches, whilst Lincolnshire is 8 inches, sometimes 9 or 10 inches in length), its much stronger and more endurable fibre, has caused the foreign demand far long wool to continue after the call for fine felting wool has ceased. The French buy a considerable quantity “of wool in Ireland, for the purpose of manufacturing their mixed stuff fabrics, the soft quality and long staple of the superior kinds of Insh sheep rendering the wool well adapted for the purposes intended, but which would fall infinitely inferior to such a wool as we presume might be engrafted on the Southdowns, In the opinion that a superior combing wool might be produced or engrafted on one or more of our native stocks, 1 am happy in having to record that the late Lord Western, than whom no man paid greater attention to the growth of fine wools, concurred in opinion, for he observed in a letter to the late Karl Spencer :— ‘‘But I am of opinion that we should never stand still, but rather be always aiming at new objects; and I sincerely think that that for which I am now striving is not absolutely Utopian. There is plenty of room for the introduction of another breed of animals without trenching upon or superseding in any way those which are valuable and now in existence. My object then may be familiarly stated to be the placing merino wool upon a Leicester carcase, perhaps not exactly resembling the short finest clothing wool of Saxony, but a fine combing wool superior to any that has heretofore been grown.’
In continuation, he further justly adds—
‘“‘T Jook upon what is commonly called a Southdown to be now a very different animal from the little pure Southdown of fifty years ago.’
I shall only make a few brief remarks respecting the Rye- lands, the Wicklow, Kerry, &c., sheep, as these are the only true
454 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
short-woolled sheep which we have at present left within the British islands: of the first kind there are not probably to be found two pure flocks in existence, but were at one period much valued for their fleece, and also for the practice of cotting. They were hardy, and could endure hardship and hunger equal to any breed, but were of small size; their shape was very much like the merino, and a tradition exists that the merinos are de- scended from the Ryelands. The Kerry and Wicklow sheep partake of the fleece and form of the Ryeland, with the prolific- ness of the Dorset sheep, which they in other respects somewhat resemble, particularly in the circumstance of their receiving the ram at an earlier period of the season, by which means what is termed housefed lamb is procured at Christmas and during the first months of the new year; in Kerry, lamb is quite common at the latter end of March, and the Cork market is tolerably well supphed with house-lamb from this species during the month of January. Dublin is similarly supplied by the Wicklow sheep ; London receives its early lamb from the Dorset; the latter are larger animals than the Wicklow or Kerry. Feeding house-lamb forms only a very minor portion of agricultural economics: we have merely alluded to the subject for the purpose of indicating the breeds best adapted for the purpose of such persons as may feel disposed to practise this part of rural economy.
Setting aside for the present the consideration of the Cheviots, black- faced, and other varieties of mountain sheep, we will pro- ceed to examine the various qualities, as adapted to different situations, of the long-woolled races of sheep—these consist of the old Lincolnshire, Teeswater, Romney Marsh, Bampton, and Cotswold sheep. ‘The thorough old Lincoln and ‘Teeswater are all but extinct; they were ungainly in every way, were long arriving at maturity, arrived at very great weight, and possessed heavy fleeces: both these descriptions of sheep are now much mixed with Leicester blood, the cross doing better than the pure breed of either race, as, although the Leicesters when first put on the rich Lincolnshire marshes do better than any other sheep, it has been observed that after the third or fourth generation, successively bred on the same rich lands, the wool sensibly deteriorates in quality, known on the banks of the Tees by the term cotting; the frame also assumes an awkward appearance, and the disposition for early fattening in some measure disappears. The Romney Marsh were originally somewhat similar in charac- ter to those just described ; in consequence, however, of the more heavy stocking of the Kentish marshes, together with the fact of the herbage on Romney Marsh not containing so heavy a per centage of the most succulent and feeding grasses, the Romney Marsh sheep did not attain the same weight of carcase or wool
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 435
that the old Lincoln or Teeswater did, but, like the last named, did not arrive at maturity until they were three years old. ‘The meat and wool were, however, of a finer quality than the Lincoln and ‘leeswater. ‘The modern Romney Marsh sheep is a very superior animal, containing a cross of about one-third new Leicester bleod ; the wethers now arrive at market at two years old, instead of three as heretofore: the fleece and flesh continue good, and the cross has become gradually acclimated to the bleak winds of the exposed marshes. The upland Kentish sheep contain a still greater amount of the blood of the new Leicester and im- proved Southdowns, and is the only county with which we are acquainted where the mixture of the two latter with the original large breed of the country has effected a permanent improvement ; this. is probably owing to the fact that the uplands of a large portion of Kent possess a milder climate than such sheep walks of similar altitude in other parts of the kingdom ; also to the cir- cumstance that the chalks of Kent are aon intermixed with a soil composed of debris from the gualt, green sand, and wealdean clay ; in consequence of which the downs of Kent possess a much richer herbage than others composed principally of sand or chalk. In conclusion, it may, however, be observed that the pure South- down or new Leicester will not answer on Romney Marsh; the former will not return an adequate amount of wool and flesh, and the latter would starve in winter.
Of the Bampton sheep I know little, and believe they are principally confined to the vicinity of Taunton and the more fertile vales of Devon and Somerset. The present breed is a cross from the old breed with the Leicester, and from the few specimens which I have seen in Smithfield market, I should judge from their appearance that their qualities are very similar to those of the improved Kent just described. The breeders of this class of sheep assert that it 1s the most profitable for wool and mutton of any breed in the kingdom; how much of their famed quality in this respect is due to ine. richness of the vales and the mildness of the climate in which they are reared and fattened we cannot say: that they are admirably adapted for the country in which they are adopted we are not prepared to dispute, but were their qualities to be tested on the Cheviot Hills with the native breed of that district, or on Romney Marsh during winter, we anticipate they would not come off altogether victorious, On this point it may be stated as a general rule, that whilst animals or crosses from animals bred on inferior pastures or severe climates may safely and often advantageously be removed to milder climates and better pastures, the reverse of this is often most disadvantageous, and should not be attempted without great cireumspection and previously well weighing and balancing the
436 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
beneficial or injurious effects that may arise therefrom; under such circumstances the cross should only be proceeded in with great care, and as it were experimentally, until the benefit was clearly seen and established by indubitable proof.
I now proceed to the consideration of the Cotswold, or, as they are more generally and emphatically known in places distant from the Cotswold Hills, the long-woolled sheep. The name of the hills has undoubtedly been derived from the practice pursued there centuries ago of cotting the flocks on the Glouces- ter Wolds known by that designation, and at one period was very generally practised in the counties of Hereford, Worcester, and Gloucester. Camden states that these cots were long ranges of buildings, three or four stories high, with low ceilings, and with a slope at one end of each floor, reaching to the next, by which the sheep were enabled to reach the topmost one; from this and other circumstances, there are good grounds for believing that the original breed of the Cotswold Hills were similar to the Ryeland and Morfe Common sheep of Shropshire. The fineness of the Ryeland fleece and freedom from kemps is probably attributable to the shelter and warmth they thus received during the inclemency of winter nights: whether this opinion is correct or not, there cannot be a doubt that the system of cotting has the effect of causing the staple of the wool to be much finer than it otherwise would have been.
The Cotswold is a large breed of sheep, and is the stock from which the class called new Oxford is sprung: they are superior to the new Leicester in hardiness of constitution, are more prolific, will sustain themselves “ by holding their own,” or improving on pastures and in severity of weather where the new Leicester would decidedly deteriorate. In suckling their lambs the Cotswold ewes are decidedly superior to those of the new Leicester; in this quality and in being more prolific the Cots- wold agrees with those breeds which have been least indebted to the care of man. Although I have previously said that the Cotswold Hills were formerly occupied by a short-woolled breed of sheep, I by no means infer that the race known as Cotswold is descended from the diminutive Ryeland ; I believe the Cotswold to be the original and finest type of all our long- woolled breeds; the old Leicester was a much coarser animal than the Cotswold, which I attribute in a great measure to the richness of pasture in that celebrated pastoral county. The fine upstanding sheep found in the wide-spreading and fertile vale of York, and known as Yorkshire sheep; the celebrated sheep on the Currah of Kildare, and the rich dry loamy soils of Kilkenny, approximate closely in character to the Cotswold sheep, the principal difference being that the former are not quite so large
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 437
in the carcase, and the fleece not being quite so heavy, but pos- sessing a much finer staple, the coarser wool of the Cotswold sheep being very probably attributable to the coarser herbage on the wet “spewy” pastures of the Cotswold Hills, for which description of places the Cotswold is the best adapted as com- pared with all other breeds of large sheep: it is only upon hills not exceeding 900 feet in perpendicular height above the level of the sea that the Cotswold sheep will flourish; and it must also be remembered that although they are cold and wet, yet they are covered with a soil otherwise tolerably rich, and yielding a con- siderable quantity of rough coarse herbage, greatly superior to that found on the Grampians, Cheviots, and hills of Cumber- Jand, Westmoreland, &c., on which the Cotswold sheep would starve. Crosses of the Coiswold with the Leicester have answered exceedingly well in some places, and many of the carefully bred Cotswolds are scarcely to be excelled by any breed in England : for wet coarse pasture no large sheep is so well adapted as the Cotswold.
I have now taken a somewhat extensive review of the most widely diffused breeds of sheep which occupy all our level grounds and downs; we are therefore now about to enter on a review of sheep adapted to our more elevated and less fertile mountains. How the Cheviot came to be classed amongst short- woolled sheep by Sir John Sinclair and others is to me inex- plicable, except from the circumstance that people were content to use a coarser cloth formerly than at the present day: that the staple of the wool has been lengthened, and the wool otherwise become coarser, I am prepared to admit, but certainly not to the extent that the fleece has been changed from a short felting wool to a combing quality. The Cheviot, when carefully bred, is a handsome compact sheep, not quite so “leggy” as the Cotswold and Yorkshire sheep, notwithstanding which they are an active race, are jamous foragers, and withstand the vicissitudes of the weather exceedingly well, more so than any of the breeds pre- viously noticed. ‘They are particularly adapted to that class of hills from which they derive their name, and also to an extensive range of mountains which are to be found more or less extended over the whole of the Lowlands of Scotland. These hills princi- pally consist of the upper silurian rocks (a large part of them argillaceous), limestone, and Plutonic rocks, the decomposition of which has produced a soil of tolerably fertile quality, but only thinly spread over the subjacent rocks and boulders, and much intermixed with stones; a great quantity of heathy bogs and moory soil are also to be found on these hills. Arable cultivation, on many accounts, 1s wholly out of the question; on places such as described, elevated from 800 to 1500 feet above the level of
VOL. X. 2G
438 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
the sea, no sheep will pay the farmer equal to the native Cheviot. The present breed is largely crossed with the new Leicester, and is found an exceedingly profitable cross for the purpose of putting on turnips when hoggets. On a large part of the lower Grampians the Cheviots might advantageously replace, and in some instances are superseding, the black-faced breed, which we are about to notice.
The black-faced sheep are of the horned kind; they are a straight, upright sheep, with a short body, and from that cireum- stance are locally known on the borders as the short breed of sheep in contradistinction from the long or Cheviot sheep. They will clip on an average five pounds of wool, suitable for making a medium description of worsted, and would clip considerably more only from the circumstance that they are not shorn until late in aS season, and then by no means close, otherwise if an unfayour- able winter set in early the sheep would suffer most materially. Of the breeds generally known and extensively used, none have been found so well qualified to withstand the inclemency and hard fare of our highest mountains, with the exception of another breed, the Herdwicks, which are not generally known, but which will shortly be noticed.
The black-faced sheep are extensively bred on the Cumber- land, Westmoreland, and Lancashire mountains, better known as “the Lake District,” and more or less on the Lowland Scottish hills, and, with the hardy race of black cattle, are the sole occu- pants of the northern highlands of Scotland. That this breed can be greatly improved was evidenced by the fine animals shown at our Society’s Newcastle Exhibition. They are exceed- ingly hardy. This breed has been very much improved in many places, but the improvements are made entirely by selection. All the crosses with heath sheep, having in view the improvement of the progeny as heath sheep only, have proved decided failures ; but crossing with the Leicesters and Southdowns for the purpose of procuring lambs of superior quality, or with the intention of selling the produce of such cross as hoggets to the Lowland farmers, is a practice that has proved decidedly successful, and is practised in some places to the utmost extent that heath farms are capable of sustaining. To follow this system it is necessary that the farmer should possess some dale land, in addition to his heathy pastures ; they will not fatten until they have quite turned three years old, and will then attain a weight of about 15 or 16 Ibs. a quarter; we have seen some extraordinary fine ones attain a weight of 20 lbs. per quarter. It is worthy of remark at the same time, that these have generally been black-woolled sheep. The ewes are not put to the ram until about November, at which time they are brought from the mountains into the vales and
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 489
enclosed lands in the vicinity of the homestead, for the purpose of salving or smearing, an operation to be noticed hereafter. A large number are also retained there until the commencement of the succeeding spring; to such, in severe weather, a little hay 1s given in addition to their ordinary pasture. The practice of drawing turnips, and distributing them to these sheep on their winter pastures, is also much increasing; the introduction of turnips amongst the dale lands of the mountainous districts has enabled farmers to maintain 50 per cent. more stock during the winter months than they were formerly capable of doing; the ewes are excellent mothers, with an abundance of milk; the lambs are weaned about three months after being dropped. These sheep are again collected in the vales about the latter end of June or beginning of July, for the purpose of being shorn, prior to which they receive a thorough washing in some adjacent stream. It has been doubted by some whether the black-faced sheep, which now graze the greater portion of the wildest mountains of England and Scotland, are those which have immemorially inhabited those districts; for Cully, on ‘Live Stock,’ observes that the dun-faced sheep were the early inhabit- ants of these mountain ranges; which sheep he describes as being sometimes to be seen, and as—
“having faces of a dun or tawny colour; the wool is fine and mixed and streaked with different colours.” ‘They are polled, small in size, weighing at four or five years old not more than 7 or 8 lbs. a quarter, the flesh being of excellent flavour. They are hardy and require little trouble ; but in every essential quality, except the fineness of the wool, they were far inferior to the black-faced.”
Dr. Anderson also shows that a breed of sheep that produced a finer description of wool than the black-faced sheep now yield was once common in districts of Scotland where the black-faced sheep only are now to be found. It prevailed in Annandale, Nithsdale, and Galloway; it lingered longest in some of the mountainous parts of Aberdeen. It was known not fiity years ago in Fifeshire. Hector Boethius, who wrote about the year 1460, takes notice of the fineness of the wool produced in various parts of Scotland. Speaking of the sheep in the vale of Esk, and where of late, until the introduction of the Cheviots the rough-woolled black-faced sheep alone were found, he says, accord- ing to Hollinshed, ‘“ Whose sheep have such white, fine, and excellent wool, as the like of it is hardly to be found again in the whole island.” Sebastian Munster, in his ‘ Cosmographia Universalis,’ published ninety years afterwards, says, in each country (speaking of the borders of England and Scotland) is such that nowhere is there better or finer wool.
Having made these incidental remarks, I shall proceed to the
262
440 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
consideration of a breed which is very little known, the name not having extended much farther than the narrow precincts within which they are tobe found. The breed alluded to is denominated the Herdwick, which is a polled breed, whilst the black-faced are horned. Its origin is involved in some obscurity; the tra- ditional history is as follows: Early in the last century a ship was stranded on the coast of Cumberland, which had on board some sheep, stated to have come from Scotland. They were got on shore, and, being driven up the country, were purchased by some farmers living at Wasdale Head. They were small, active, polled, and their faces and legs speckled.* They were at once turned upon the neighbouring hills; they had not been there Jong before they evinced a peculiar sagacity in foreseeing the approach of a snow-storm, as it was invariably seen that a little before its coming, they clustered together on the most exposed side of the mountain, where the violence of the wind usually prevented the snow from lodging. ‘This instinct caused them to be regarded with a degree of interest amounting to superstition; and their excellent qualities and adaptation to their new situation became speedily evident; some portions of the fleece were considerably finer than that of the common black-faced sheep, whilst the matted quality of the wool enabled them to endure any severity of weather. The proprietors of these animals determined to keep them as much as possible to themselves, and an association was formed,—one of the regulations of which was that no member should sell a ram and not more than five ewe lambs in one season. ‘This monopoly, however, was soon evaded, and the breed has gradually spread; but it is still confined within very narrow limits, relatively to its adaptation to such extensive breadths of mountains. ‘They are principally to be found on Langdale Pikes, Wasdale, Eskdale, Ulpha, part of Coniston, and Seathwaite, or, in other words, in that part of the lake district stretching from Ambleside, at the head of Windermere Lake, to near Whitehaven, in Cumberland; its northern boundary bemg Keswick Lake, and its southern Coniston Lake. The breed is, however, spreading fast into Westmoreland, viz., at ‘Troutbeck, Sleddle, Grayrigg, &e.; they will doubtless ultimately displace the old heath or black-faced sheep. Great endeavours are now being made by the farmers in the district named to procure flocks of pure Herdwicks: some of whom have been constantly aiming at this point for upwards of twenty years, and are still under the impression that they have not got their flock to the
* From observations made in North and South Wales, subsequent to this paper being written, the writer is strongly inclined to believe that the Herdwicks are a Welsh variety of sheep, and also thinks that the Welsh mountain sheep might be greatly im- proved by situation and attention.
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 441
proper degree of purity of blood; it is certainly an indirect proof of the great value of this breed for its own peculiar locality, that farmers should strain and devote themselves to a point so apparently simple ; but there are difficulties to surmount of no ordinary nature in order to procure a genuine flock, which serves in a like manner to indicate their great worth. These sheep, not being at first properly appreciated, got more or less crossed with the prevailing black breed, and to restore the breed to its original purity is one of the difficulties that a Herdwick flockmaster has to overcome. ‘This difficulty is greatly enhanced by the peculiar habits of the animal, who is exceedingly shy, and cannot be held within any bounds in an enclosed country, except it is kept very quiet for a week. Another cause is that they are always depastured on the open mountain, where black-faced flocks also frequently pasture ; this isa common source of disap- poimtment to the breeder; in addition to which it must be remembered that if a Herdwick ewe gets with a black-faced ram, the sheepowner is often compelled to retain the progeny ; for if he sells it, he cannot obtain a Herdwick in its place, in consequence of the scarcity and growing demand for the breed, not only to breed from for the perpetuation of the pure race, but also for the value of the ewes in rearing lambs crossed from Leicesters and Southdowns. When we see a set of careful farmers, than whom there is not a more thrifty and hard- working body in. the United Kingdom, thus strenuously and perseveringly bending themselves to the one object—the im- provement of the breed under consideration—we may rest assured that their superiority over the old black-faced race is of no ordinary description. As a proof of the value set on this breed, I insert the following account of the exhibition for the year 1848, which is annually held at Ennerdale Bridge. It will be satisfactory to agriculturist to know that the spirit of enterprise and improvement is to be found in this wild and remote district, and will serve as an example to others more favoured but less enterprising to follow in the lke steps.
West Cumberland Fell Dales Association Sheep Show.—The annual exhi- bition of the Fell Dales Association for the improvement of the Herdwick breed of sheep, took place at Ennerdale Bridge on Friday last. The day was exceedingly fine—a circumstance which tended very materially to increase the numerical importance of the meeting, for which most ex- cellent arrangements had been made by the Committee of Management and Mr. Robert Beck, who proved himself as good a caterer in that as in the culinary department. The full attendance of breeders and agriculturists generally, caused the trade in tups to rule with unusual activity, and it is computed that not less than two hundred specimens of the genuine breed changed hands on the occasion. Great impartiality and discernment were shown by the judges (Mr. Henry Steel, of Catta, Mr. Thomas Gasgarth, and Mr, Joseph Porter), who complimented the competitors on the ex-
442 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
cellence of the stock exhibited, and the visible improvement which had annually been effected in the different breeds since the show was instituted four years since.
The following are the awards made by the judges :—
Herdwick Sheep bred and depastured in the Ward of Allerdale-above- Derwent.
= A af For the best Herdwick Tup of any age:— Robert Briggs, Wasdale Head, « . best . é 6 wee Dae O Robert Briggs, ditto ox 0) ) NG Gest wer POR) Edward Nelson, Loweswater . . 3rd best . . ff OU Kleven competitors,
For the best Herdwick Tup, not showing more than four broad Teeth :—
Robert Briggs, Wasdale Head . . best . ° + 9 12,10..0
Charles Rawson, Nether Wasdale . 2nd best . pele 3) eh)
John Bowman, Mire Side, Ennerdale, 3rd best . 0) OO oO Seven competitors.
For the best pen of five Herdwick Ewes, of any age,
Lamb-sucked :—
Joseph Tyson, Tows, Eskdale . . best . . s «bdo-0
Thomas Pearson, How Hall, Ennerdale, 2nd best . tig to. 40
Joseph Wright, Roughton . . . dSrdbest . > 010, 0 Twelve competitors.
For the best pen of five Herdwick Ewes, not showing more than
four broad teeth :—
Joseph Tyson, Tows, Eskdale . . best . ° s) POs 0
Charles Rawson, Nether Wasdale . 2ndbest . =» 0) 1o5.8
Joseph Wright, Roughton . . . 3rdbest . 010 O Seven competitors.
For the best pen of five shearling Gimmers, of the
Herdwick Breed :—
Robert Briggs, Wasdale Head . . best . . SB i ean he
Charles Rawson, Nether Wasdale . 2ndbest . - 015 O
John Tyson, Gillerthwaite . . . 3rdbest . + 010 0
Ten competitors.
For the best Shearling Tup, of the Herdwick Breed :-— William Ritson, Wasdale Head . . best . 5 « Oe 0 John Tyson, Gillerthwaite . . . 2Qndbest . - 010 0 Charles Rawson, Nether Wasdale . 38rdbest . ot) (ONT 2 1G
Kight competitors.
For the best pen of five fat Herdwick Wethers. No competitors,
Herdwich Sheep bred and depastured in the Ward of Allerdale-below-Derwent, and the other Wards. . For the best Herdwick Tup, of any age:—
Allan Pearson, Lorton . « « « best. 5 J.Sanderson, Beck Stones, Thornthwaite 2nd best . Five competitors.
oo oo
For the best pen of five Herdwick Ewes, Lamb-sucked :— Thomas Richardson, Threlkeld . . best . 3 3) CG Thomas Richardson, ditto . . . Qndbest . it, BOT
Five competitors,
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 448
Premiums offered by the Keswick Manufacturers for the best white-fleeced Sheep of the genuine Herdwick Breed, bred and depastured in the Ward of Allerdale- above- Derwent.
For the best white-fleeced Tup :— John Bowman, Mire Side, Ennerdale best . é ° John Tyson, Gillerthwaite . . . 2nd best : Robert Briggs, Wasdale Head . . <ordbest . ° Twenty-three competitors.
oc m= — Ow oO (SS (SVs)
For the best pen of five white-fleeced Kwes :-—
Thomas Pearson, How Hall . « «best . eee BO) ea) Edward Nelson, Loweswater . . . 2ndbest . (0 1220 John Jackson, Swinside End. . . <drdbest . = Uy ie MY)
Three competitors.
Being ninety-four competitors for prizes exclusively devoted to one description of sheep, all of whom dwell within, and have their flocks within a very limited extent of country.
The Herdwicks of the present day are characterized by being polled, and have brownish or speckled black and white or mottled faces; some few have black faces, and also some have horns, but neither of these are considered genuine; they are also known from the circumstance that, as they get older, they assume a white or grey appearance about the nose and legs (in the shepherds’ phrase they grow raggy).* The ewes should always be polled; on a few wethers and rams small smooth horns make their appear- ance—a proof of intermixture of blood: the wool is fine, only about the neck and fore-quarters often intermixed with kemps. The wool on the body is open and very kempy, assuming in some instances the appearance of hair, and is only used for the coarsest purposes, such as horse-rugs, &c., and consequently obtains only a low price, notwithstanding which Herdwick flock-proprietors prefer this sort of fleece to one of better quality, as it is found from experience that stock with coats as described withstand the severe winter weather on the bleak mountains which they inhabit much better than sheep with a better fleece. A singular anatomical character is also found amongst many of them, viz. that of having a rib more than any other breed, fourteen instead of thirteen. if “they keep their ground well,” as it is locally termed, the ewes are kept as long as they will breed, which is often until they are ten or fifteen years of age, and some few have been known io attain the age of twenty years. The wethers go off at four and a half to five and a half years old, and are generally killed without being placed on any better pasture, being found sufficiently fat off the mountain : in fact, they have been tried on turnips, clover, and other artificial food, without any commensurate advantage, and sometimes with an evident loss of crop and deterioration in the
weight of the sheep. When fat, they weigh from 10 lbs. to 12 lbs.
* Orrimy; that is, have an appearance something similar to hoar frost. The true sort always assume this “rimy ” aspect,
A444 = Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
per quarter, and are the finest mutton produced in England, assi- milating in flavour closely to venison; they also, when at the fattest, possess a larger portion of lean meat than any other sheep ; and, when the legs are cured in the same way that pigs’ hams are, make a most exquisitely-flavoured grill. The ewes are frequently sold to graziers in the vales, and are put to Leicester and South- down rams; and, if put on good fair land, will fatten a lamb as large as themselves, being excellent mothers and possessing an abundant flow of milk. No hay is given to Herdwicks during the winter; they support themselves in the deepest snow by scratching down to the herbage, and if any part is blown bare they are certain to discover it. ‘The lambs are dropped about the 12th of May, and are well covered with wool when dropped ; sometimes the lambs are taken to the lower grounds the first winter, ‘The ewes are not put to the ram until they are two years and a half or three years and a half old. ‘There is another breed of sheep which are taken to the mountains in the north of England in April and May, and are brought to the lower grounds in November to winter. ‘These are sometimes but improperly called Herdwicks; they are a mixed breed, bemg crossed with the heath or black-faced sheep, and the white-faced sheep of the low country, called “ mugs:’* they are larger, and have more wool than the Herdwicks, and have not the propensity of fattening on the hills, equal tothe latter. There is a striking peculiarity in connexion with the Herdwick sheep, viz. that when once domes- ticated, as it may be termed, to any particular portion of mountain land, the shepherd 1s always certain to find them on their proper locality, unlike the black-faced sheep, who are desperate wan- derers. ‘This valuable quality in mountain sheep has, however, this disadvantage, that the ewes, if removed from the place where they were reared, will be invariably found to return to their native locality at the lambing season. This renders it almost impossible to procure a flock of Herdwicks except by purchasing lambs, at which early stage of their growth this fixed attachment to the place of their birth may be presumed to be not so strong.}
The sheep of North and South Wales need not be mentioned, as they are every way inferior to the black-faced heath sheep, and greatly so to the Herdwicks; neither is the flavour of the mutton, size of the carcase, nor value of fleece, equal to the latter.
* This diversified cross is often termed mugs also. The term ‘‘mug” amongst the mountains alluded to is very generally, but ignorantly and improperly, applied to all large, white-faced sheep,
+ This remark applies with full force as to the Principality, notwithstanding the pre-
ceding note in which the writer expresses his belief that the Herdwicks were originally derived from a Welsh stock.
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities, 445
It will be here proper to make some observations on a matter connected with sheep farming, which is only practised in the north of England and Scotland, viz, smearing, which is the name given for rubbing on the skin of sheep an ointment formed of tar and reasty butter, oil, or the foots of oil. The tar that should be used for this purpose comes from America, and is called “roany,” being of a fat unctuous nature of the con- sistence of very thick molasses; although, for naval and general purposes, Baltic tar obtains a very superior price to this descrip- tion of American tar, we have known instances where American roany tar has obtained double the price of the Baltic species when required for sheep-smearmg. The usual proportions are 8S lbs. of tar of the kind described and 6 lbs. of butter, well mixed together and formed into a fluid ointment ; which being prepared, the smearer commences operations by dividing and opening the fleece of a sheep along the back, laying the skin bare—when bared, he dips his forefinger in a pot containing the ointment, and by drawing it along the skin of the animal from the head to the tail, a portion of the mixture becomes attached to the skin; this being finished, he proceeds to open the fleece in the same manner on the part next the place first operated on; and so on until the whole of one side of the sheep is finished, when he commences on the other side: the cost averages from 43d. to Gd. per sheep. The practice has been much decried, amongst others by “the Ettrick Shepherd,” who states that, if the sheep are kept supplied with a sufficiency of food, smearing is unnecessary. That an abundance of food will in some degree counteract the ill effects of severe cold is perfectly correct, but I know that the neglecting to smear sheep in mountainous districts has been attended with the worst results to both animals and fleece.
The ill effect of smearing is that it stains the wool, but not so much as is generally imagined, if the operation is carefully per- formed in the manner previously described and properly com- pounded.
- Mild weather, about the latter end of October and the begin- ning of November, should be chosen for smearing, as the sheep suffer very much if cold weather sets in before the wool has risen from the skin. When the wool has risen from the skin after smearing the animal does not suffer—a fortnight generally elapses prior to this taking place.
Having now reviewed at some length the different characteris- tics of the principal breeds of sheep, I will proceed to re- capitulate briefly their adaptation to various situations as regards climate, soil, and food. It would be ridiculous to suppose that one of the large Lincoln, improved Cotswold, or, as they are now frequently termed, Oxford sheep, could compete with Down sheep
446 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
on the bare pastures and hard stocked down lands. The natural habitat. of the first is on rich moist pastures, or at least such pastures where, from the prevalence of moisture, a great weight of herbage is thrown up, though perhaps of a coarse nature, the result of which is that, a number of successive generations being thus abundantly supplied with food, without having occasion to use any considerable amount of exercise, the lurigs decrease in size; exercise, in consequence, is fatiguing to the animal, which, as soon as its im- mediate wants are supplied, immediately lies down and begins to ruminate. In this way, after the frame has been fully developed, the greater portion of the food ingested is formed into fat and muscle; the quantity consumed in supporting the requisite animal temperature being decreased to an almost minimum amount in consequence of the little exercise used: in this way has the large Lincoln and Teeswater breed been formed. It will easily be seen that if Southdowns* were placed on the rich Lincolnshire marsh lands, their naturally active disposition would lead them to expend a considerable amount of force and consequently of food in exer- cise. Under such circumstances the down sheep would suffer in comparison with the larger animal. Under areversed experiment, namely, take a large sheep to down land, the former would be starved on the short bite and dry herbage with which he would have to subsist, as compared with his foirtner more succulent marsh pas- ture ; independently of which it would have to travel over a greater extent of ground for its food, which, to a heavy animal requiring so much larger an amount of food than the native down sheep, would not only retard its feeding properties, but most probably would entirely put an end to them; or perhaps a diminution of flesh would take place. Now the native unimproved Cotswold, and sheep of an analogous description, such as the Yorkshire, Kildare, Kilkenny, and similar Irish sheep, a large sheep with white faces, called mugs in the north of England, are all of a hardier nature than the first described, doing well on rough, cold pastures, are longer legged in proportion to the weight of carcase than the former; are more active, as they have to seek their food over a greater extent of country, where the herbage is of a less nutritious nature, and consequently are furnished with a greater development of lungs, a circumstance intimately connected with the feeding qualities of animals, as I shall proceed to show when I take “into consideration the dis- cussion of the physiological and anatomical part of the subject. Another matter of some importance in reference to the varied adaptation of different breeds of sheep to different localities, irre-
* By Southdown is here understood not prize animals, but such as actually obtain their subsistence on the downs without any particularly extra amount of care.
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities, 447
spectively of the questions of climate, soil, &c.,is the different character of the grasses composing the pastures of varied localities. For instance the down sheep are exceedingly fond of that grass which is found so abundantly on their native habitats, viz., the Cynosurus cristatus or crested dog’s tail grass, yet will not touch the Festuca Cambrica or Welsh fescue; the Welsh sheep are equally fastidious, and would not touch the dog’s tail grass so long as they can get the Welsh fescue. <A very happy illustration of this difference of taste is givenin Marshall’s ‘ Survey of Norfolk,’ where a flock of Lincolns and Downs were turned into the same pasture, which consisted partly of dry upland, partly of a marshy bottom, throwing up a great quantity of rank grass. The two flocks separated, the Lincolns being always found on the marshy part, the Downs as invariably on the dry part of the pasture. In making experiments on the relative value of sheep, it will always be necessary to keep in view that they are not too suddenly removed from one pasture to another of a totally different nature.
It will never be known in what manner the celebrated Bake- well proceeded in the first instance in order to obtain his cele- brated stock. I agree in opinion with Marshall that he did not confine himself to any particular breed, but selected well pro- portioned animals which he considered would suit his views, from any breed: the Cotswold and old Leicester, doubiless, were those principally used; Down blood being little if at all employed. That there was a considerable amount of crossing, from sheep procured from various sources, is tolerably well evidenced by the fact that none of our celebrated breeds degenerate so soon from the true blood, after a second or third descent with foreign blood, as the descendants of the Leicesters on the third and fourth remove. They also vary greatly from the original type, even though kept to true Leicester blood, when removed to inferior localities as’ regards food and climate.
On looking at sheep of different breeds, it will be found almost invariably, that square, compact, and well-proportioned sheep have been grazed on good land, or otherwise well fed; whilst sheep bred and fed on indifferent pasture, will as constantly be found with deep but narrow chests. In very starved sheep, such as the Welsh, the fore legs will almost touch each other at the breast ; at the same time the flanks will be pinched up like a greyhound’s, thus greatly narrowing the compass of the intestines ; such a form is emphatically entitled by farmers ‘ nip-gutted,’ and amongst domestic animals is the invariable indication of slow feeders, although when fat they are generally found to contain a more than average proportion of internal fat. The Irish grey- hound pig, now nearly extinct, is a remarkable example of this
448 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
profitless kind of animal. Amongst sheep we find this form amongst the Welsh mountain, the Herdwicks, and black-faced sheep, The Southdowns more or less partake of this form in the unimproved state. It must, however, be always kept in view, that though the above described sheep have not the quality of fatten- ing early, they possess what is particularly desirable in order to fit them for their natural habitat, namely, great hardiness, powers of endurance and activity, which combination of properties enables them in their respective localities to obtain a subsistence and make a return to their proprietors where a finer kind of sheep would not only be unprofitable, but would most probably perish.
It is well known that all our improved breeds of animals are remarkable for their wide chests and deep flanks; the former appearance is usually considered an indication of large sized lungs; such, however, is not the fact. The attention of agricul- turists was first drawn to this circumstance by Dr. Lyon Playfair, in the course of one of his admirable lectures, given during December, 1843, to the members of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in which he remarks on this subject—
‘¢Now let us take two well-marked breeds and compare them. The Leicester breed of sheep have round, broad, and capacious chests ; while the Southdowns have, comparatively speaking, narrow shoulders and breasts. But an inspection at the butcher’s shop shows that the lungs of
the Leicester breed are small, firm, and compact in their texture, while the lungs of the Southdowns are larger and coarser.”
It was further stated that the habits of these breeds show this, as—
‘‘the Leicester sheep cannot inflate its lungs like the Southdown, and pants for want of breath.”
It is also observed, that according to the aptitude of different ‘animals to lay on fat is the relative size of their lungs, viz.—pig, sheep, ox, horse, &c. A further comparison may be made between the wild boar, with his high shoulders and narrow but deep chest, and the modern improved race of pigs, with their broad, capacious chest; also between the improved Leicester and the Herdwick, the Arabian and the Flanders cart-horse. The racehorse and the greyhound are probably the largest consumers of food as compared with other animals of the same races, and these are remarkable for their deep chests and large lungs, accompanied by the pinched-up flanks .already noticed. From the preceding illustrations it may fairly be inferred that the broad-chested and square-formed animal is naturally adapted, from its weaker lungs, to a pasture sufficiently rich that it can obtain its food without much exercise: thus contributing in three ways to the desirable quality of fattening early from asmall amount
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 449
of food—in the first place, in consequence of possessing small lungs, the consumption of the carbonaceous portion of the food, such as starch, sugar, &c., is less than in an animal with larger lungs, the difference serving to furnish fat; secondly, the smallness of the lungs makes the animal indisposed to use much exercise, and thus becomes naturally addicted to those quiet habits which are so well known to aid materially in the well doing of fattening animals ; and, thirdly, but indirectly, in consequence of the two first named qualities, such animals being found to be ill adapted to poor pastures, are placed only upon those of richer quality, where their profitable qualities become developed. The very fine prize animals which are exhibited of the Southdown breed would be almost equally unfit to graze the arid and bare pastures of the exposed downs as the Leicesters, and that just in proportion as their anatomical and physiological structure assimilated. It thus appears to be a rule which pretty generally holds good, that as a sheep gains in feeding properties, it loses in hardihood, and the reverse ; notwithstanding which there are some cases which, although they do not amount to exceptions, yet are such variations that they give the farmer a considerable choice in selection: for instance, the Welsh, the black-faced, and the Herdwick sheep are of a nearly equal hardy nature, the last named being the hardiest, whilst at the same time it will return a greater value of wool than the first, nearly equal to the second, and in fat and flesh will yield a money return for its food greater than either, whilst heavy losses through hard weather rarely occur with the Herd- wick,
On some pastures between the character of down and heath- land, it may be desirable to possess an animal of considerable endurance, good size, with aptitude to fatten—for such we must look to the Cotswold and crosses thereon, together with the Cheviots. 'These breeds possess moderate activity, endurance, and fair fattening qualities, and will do well on pastures where a first-rate Leicester would scarcely obtain a living. The character of these pastures has already been described. ‘The downs appear, for the reasons already given, as well as from long experience, to be best adapted for their own localities ; should, however, arable cultivation take piace on down land, it will then become a question which breed is best adapted under the altered circum- stances—the Leicester, or the Southdown? In considering this question we entirely put out of view the value of folding, which was always a doubtful practice, and was only justified under peculiar circumstances; besides it is capable of proof in a great degree that what was gained in corn by this method was lost in meat and wool ; it is the more questionable now, when the benefit that was formerly derived from folding can be obtained
450 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
from using a few hundredweights of guano. or mountain sheep there are none comparable with the Herdwicks.
I cannot leave the subject without again adverting to a practice previously noticed in describing the Herdwicks, viz., putting first- class Leicester and Southdown rams to Herdwick ewes; the produce is avery superior animal for grazing purposes, and fattens quickly to a large size, combining hardihood and aptitude to fatten beyond any other breed or cross, particularly as hoggets.* If this kind of sheep should become generally distributed over our worst description of mountain land, I believe the mountain flock-owner would find it his most profitable business to rear the crosses alluded to as stores for the lowland farmers, and that the latter would find it more profitable to purchase such stock than to be rearing lambs. From these considerations, and also from ob- serving that, unless carefully looked after, both the improved Southdown and Leicester gradually become changed for the worse in the course of two or three descents, I look upon it as an established fact in husbandry, that tup-breeding will become more and more a distinct occupation. In stating this I do not anticipate a continuance of very high prices for male animals; but I believe the practice of buying or hiring tups, instead of using a home-bred animal, will become more generally adopted, as flockmasters will find their profitable account in doing so, whilst the extended demand will remunerate tup-breeders for the lower prices accepted. In viewing the original habitats of the large and small breeds of sheep, it will be seen that the Tees- water, Lincoln, and Leicester were originally produced on rich lowland pasiures, where the absorbent properties of the soil, whether it consists of marl, clay, or vegetable loam, except in very dry seasons, yields a plentiful supply of juicy herbage; con- sequently ammals grazing such pastures would not be under the necessity of using much exertion in procuring sufficient food. The combined effects of using little exercise and passing a con- siderable part of their time in the act of rumination, would cause the air-cells of the lungs to be constantly surcharged with blood.t This deficiency of exercise would also predispose the animal to be still more inactive, by which means a large part of the carbonaceous matter of the food, which would other-
* The practice of putting Southdown rams to mountain sheep isnow much followed amongst some farmers adjacent to the Choydiar Range of hills in Flintshire and Den- bighshire, and is found a very profitable method of breeding good useful lambs; the practice is principally followed by the lowland farmers of this district, who purchase in autumn a flock of ewes from the mountain farmer, feed them on turnips, &c., during the winter, send the lambs to market in summer, and the ewes in the autumn following.
7 Prize runners, in order “ to obtain wind,’ as it is termed, undergo severe training, in running and walking exercise, in order to remove the partial state of repletion of the lungs, arising from the inactivity and overfeeding of ordinary life.
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 451
wise have been consumed in the Jungs and exhaled in the form of carbonic acid, becomes deposited in the cellular tissue as a hydro-carbon—fat.
With the hardier active breeds of sheep, such as the South- down, Ryeland, Black-faced, Herdwick, &c., the lungs are more largely developed in consequence of the additional exercise which they are compelled to take in order to obtain a sufficient amount of nutriment; on the dry downs being deficient in quantity, whilst on the heathy mountains it is deficient in quality—either or both causes will necessarily compel the sheep occupying such pastures to make increased exertions to satisfy their appetites, beyond what would have been required from them were they grazing on a luxuriant plain; thus a development of lung and corresponding activity of disposition become concomitant physiological features of the respective breeds. From this cause arises the fact that the old down and black-faced sheep will not fatten until they have passed the third year, for which the following reason may be assigned : in the earlier stages of life the circulation of the blood is much quicker than at a maturer period, being the most rapid in infancy, and the slowest in old age. This is one of the most beautiful provisions of nature, as by this means the warmth ne- cessary during youth and infancy is secured; every extra pulsation which drives the venous blood through the lungs in order to be- come again oxygenated is attendant with the formation of carbonic acid gas, evolved in the act of respiring, heat at the same time being developed. As the animal becomes older, the circulation — ceasing to have the same rapidity, consequently consumes less of the carbonaceous matter in the food, the difference being, as in the former instance, converted into fat: a large development of lung is therefore inseparably connected with a breed which is con- stantly exposed to the effects of cold, as ona bleak down, in order to maintain the requisite animal heat; this scantiness of herbage enforces on the animal increased exercise. Large lungs and great exertion are both adverse to the formation of fat. It is therefore clearly impossible to obtain a breed of sheep which will withstand the effects of cold and scanty herbage, and at the same time possess the valuable property of arriving at early ma- turity. All the breeds which are of a hardy nature possess deep, but not wide chests, such are the black-faced, the Herdwick, the old-horned Wiltshire, the old Southdown, the Welsh, &c., and all require to have passed their third year before they will put on fat profitably. The Chevioits and the Cotswolds hold an intermediate position between the Leicesters and the more hardy races, not possessing the early fattening property of the former, nor quite so hardy as the latter; in this respect it will be found that their position is fixed in a great degree by the character
452 Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities.
of the country they inhabit,* the Cheviots being found on rocky and lofty hills, covered with heath, but with a soil tolerably rich formed from the decay of trap and other decomposed Plutonic rocks, which with the moisture of the climate affords a not incon- siderable amount of nutritious herbage, often a much greater weight of herbage per acre than is found on the dry downs of the south vf England; with the Cotswold, though on a different geological formation, the same general remark holds good. The Cotswold hills vary greatly in the character of their soils, having generally, however, much more moisture than down land; being composed of the following strata, viz., lower lias shales, lias marl- stone, upper lias shales, inferior oolite, fuller’s earth, stonesfield slate, and ragstone, and bedsof clay. Atseveral of the outcrops of the impervious argillaceous beds, numerous small land-springs are formed, which keep what would be the otherwise arid calcareous and arenaceous soils tolerably moist, and consequently yielding a considerable amount of rough herbage adapted to the breed of sheep found in the district. It must, however, be remembered that although the herbage is abundant it is not equally nutritious, and, consequently, imposes on the animal a considerable amount of exercise, which, by a natural reaction, causes an increased develop- ment of lung, which last property depreciates the early fat-forming propensity. We cannot, therefore, ever expect to obtain a breed of sheep which will possess the hardihood of the Herdwick with the early fattening property of the new Leicester, neither can we ex- pect the fine felting property of the Saxon merino with the long staple of the new Leicester wool; all that we can do is to select each kind for the locality to which its physiological condition and general habits best adapt it: these will be the new Leicester for rich pastures, and also those of moderate fertility in moist cli- mates: it 1s also the breed especially adapted for that part of arable husbandry which consists in consuming root crops, such as turnips, rape, &c., on the ground. ‘The Southdown is particu- larly well suited to dry exposed downs—their natural dwelling place. They will also do well on good pastures, but will not make a proportional money return equal to the new Leicester, par- ticularly since the change that has taken place in the wool market ;
if, however, down flockowners would only produce a wool seh as has been already described, there can be little doubt but they would be made to rival if not to exceed the new Leicesters in the money return. <A heavy fleece like the Leicester must not be
* On the lower Silurian Rocks of Denbighshire, known as Mudstones, the Cheviots are found to do well by Colonel Myddleton Biddulph of Chirk Castle, and H. R. Sandbach, Esq., of Hafodunos. We doubt, however, whether they would do well on the arenaceous greywacke soils of the Upper Berwins, and the slate clay alpine summits of Caernarvonshire,
Breeds of Sheep best adapted to different Localities. 453
looked forward to, as the arid nature of down pastures forbids such a result; a lengthened quality possessing fineness of staple, so as to obtain an enhanced price per |b., with no great addi- tional weight of fleece, is what must be aimed at. For moun- tain sheep none equal the Herdwick, of which sufficient has already been said. On rough pastures exposed to cold and wet, yet not partaking of the nature of heath, the Cotswold will be found well adapted, as also on wet, cold, impervious clays; the Cheviots possess a somewhat similar character.
XXI.— On the Management of Barley. By Haut W, Keary.
PrizE Essay.
Barwey, unlike the more valuable grain, wheat, can only be grown successfully upon certain soils, and under certain circum- stances adapted to its culture; for while the latter may be sown with advantage upon almost every variety of land, and under apparently disadvantageous circumstances, the former, that is to say, the finest malting samples, cannot be produced in perfection without great care and management in the preparation of its seed- bed. ‘The time of sowing and variety of seed are also important considerations ; I propose therefore to treat this subject under the following three heads, those pointed out by the Society, viz. :—
lst. The preparation of the land. 2nd. Advantages and risks of early sowing. 3rd. Different varieties of seed as suited to various situations.
Upon the proper preparation of the land depends most materially the quality, even more perhaps than the quantity of the future crop; and although the finest samples of barley are only produced on soils generally known as decidedly barley lands, yet even on these the greatest difference is often seen in the same season, and with other circumstances alike, when dif- ferent systems of tillage have been adopted; I shall now endeavour to describe the different modes of growing barley which have come under my observation in various districts of the kingdom. In several of the Midland counties there are fine deep loams upon gravel, and also upon clay, which produce very bold heavy barley, although it cannot be said to hold for malting purposes the first place in the London market. The usual sys- tem followed in those districts, upon what are termed turnip and barley soils, is to sow barley after turnips, which have previously been wholly or partially fed off by sheep. ‘The firm and beaten
WO: X. 24H
454 On the Management of Barley.
state produced by the continual treading of the sheep is generally broken up during the autumn and winter months by the plough, and in this state the ground remains until the time of seed. Scarifying and harrowing is the only additional preparation given before the seed is sown or drilled ; which latter plan is now very general, although there are some farmers in those districts who still contend for the broadcast system. Unquestionably the more the seed can be dispersed over the ground the better; but the difficulty of depositing it at an equal depth is the great objection; for hence two or three growths are the result, entirely spoiling the quality of the grain and involving much trouble and difficulty at the time of harvesting. ‘The drill, on the other hand, sows exactly the same quantity throughout at an equal depth, and thus all grows together and is ready for the scythe the same day. The sowing season varies according to circumstances from the middle of March to the end of April. The chief varieties of seed are the old common barley, the Chevalier, and the Nottingham long-ear. Chevalier is now more generally grown than it was, although some contend that it does not produce so muck per acre as other varieties; it is also more sought after by maltsters and commands the highest price. On some of the rather strong clay lands of the Midland counties it is not unusual to grow barley after fallow. ‘The land being left rather rough and cloddy in the autumn, the seed is sown broadcast as early after February as the weather will permit upon the stale furrow, and dragged or scuffled in without any further preparation. Very good crops too of barley are frequently grown upon this plan; and for such soils I very much doubt whether a better one could be adopted. In some of the southern counties the turnip-land is ploughed up as soon as it is dry, and then well worked twice with the scarifier or drag-harrow, upon which the seed is drilled, at the rate of about 3 bushels per acre.
On all warm genial soils the sowing commences as early after February as possible; but on the colder lands it is thought preferable to leave it until April, unless indeed they are very rich, in which case the earlier the seed is sown the less will it be laid.
Generally speaking the common sort of barley is more usually - grown in the south ; the Nottingham long-ear is occasionally sown, and so 1s the Chevalier, but the latter is somewhat out of favour in some districts, as it is said not to produce sufficient quantity on those soils.
Hertfordshire is much celebrated for the quality of its barley, and I believe the London brewers consider the malt made in some parts of that county the best in the market. The finest samples are grown in the light districts, which have generally a
On the Management of Barley. 455
chalk subsoil. The land is, for the most part, ploughed only once, and the seed sown in March or April. On the stronger lands, on which some years ago a fine malting sample could not be produced (when the old common barley was sown), very good crops of superior quality are now obtained, since the introduction of Chevalier, which has very much superseded the other varieties.
The Yorkshire and Lincolnshire wolds have of late years become large barley growing districts, and although their northern climate is somewhat unfavourable for producing in perfection that grain, which delights in warmth; still the system of high fanning so extensively apne on in those counties has enabled them to rival, if not excel, some of their more favoured southern neighbours.
In those districts the white turnip is chiefly grown, and the whole or greater part of the produce is fed off with sheep; when Swedes are grown, they are seldom or ever stored, but are left standing where they grow, until they are wanted in spring. It is a prevailing opinion amongst the Wold farmers that they obtain a much better crop of barley after white turnips than after Swedes ; whereas a completely contrary opinion exists in Norfolk, so cele- brated as a barley growing county. It may not be amiss to com- pare the different systems, and endeavour if possible to arrive at a correct conclusion. As the feeding properties of the Swede are decidedly more nutritive than those of the white or common tur- nips, it is fair to presume that the manure from sheep fed upon the former will prove a richer fertilizer than that from sheep fed upon the latter. In Norfolk the Swede turnips are generally speaking stored in November and December, and the land is thus relieved from the exhausting effects of a root crop, drawing for so long a period nutriment from it. May not this circumstance explain in some degree why a difference of opinion exists in two districts alike celebrated for good farming and for intelligent agriculturists ? After close observation of the difference in crops of barley after Swedes, as compared with barley after white turnips, I must decide im favour of the former ; and I cannot but think that if more atten- tion were given to this, subject by those eminently practical men, the farmers of the Wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, and if the Norfolk plan were fairly tried and tested, opinions, which I am bound to think erroneous,.would gradually give way. Then I believe we should see that most valuable of roots, the Swedish turnip, growing on the best wold lands, producing infinitely more sheep feed, and consequently more mutton, and, from the increased fertility imparted to the soil, producing more barley also; nor would the advantages end here, although it may perhaps be foreign to the subject to trace it further; but if the soil be ferti-
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456 On the Management of Barley.
lized for barley it will also tell upon the clover, and this again on the wheat crop.
The plough is mostly used in the Wold districts for breaking up the turnip land after feeding sheep. The land thus remains until seed-time approaches, when it is dragged and harrowed, and the seed occasionally drilled. In many instances the seed is sown broadcast, and then well dragged in with the scarifier. The objections to this plan, which I have previously alluded to, are, however, becoming apparent, and the drill is more frequently seen than formerly. From 10 to 12 pecks per acre are usually sown. The general seed-time varies, from the first week in March to the end of April.
The Norfolk system of storing Swede turnips has been already alluded to, and I will now endeavour to describe the different plans of growing barley generally adopted in that county. In addition to the growth of a large breadth of Swedes, the most spirited farmers consume a large quantity of linseed cake, crushed barley, or peas, with their feeding sheep; and it may here be right to notice one circumstance connected with this practice, which I think must be admitted to be true, viz., that although the produce per acre of the barley crop may be increased, it 1s yet thought that the quality is somewhat deteriorated, perhaps, however, not to such an extent, but that the increase in produce more than makes up for any deficiency in price. To this system, perhaps more than any other, is to be ascribed the fertility and corn producing capa- bility of some of the worst lands of West Norfolk. I believe also it is universally allowed that the above is by far the best and cheapest mode of bringing a poor farm into a state of high culti- vation. ‘The cake passing through the animal, an increase of mutton is added to the increase of corn, and the cost of artificial manure is thus doubly paid for. It is usual to draw off a larger proportion of the root crop for consumption in the yards by oxen, from those fields where the fatting and cake-consuming sheep are intended to be fed.
The system of ploughing twice for barley very generally prevails in Norfolk. Experience has invariably shown that more barley can be grown from twice ploughing than from once. By the former system, the manure of the feeding sheep is more equally and intimately mixed with the soil than when it is merely turned over once ; and, of course, the greater part of it left at the bottom of the furrow. As the last ploughing generally takes place immediately before sowing, a lighter, kinder, and more genial seed-bed is also obtained than when sowing takes place on the dead surface of land ploughed up many weeks previously. It is, however, frequently found that in all soils, except those of the lightest and most sandy character, the use of the plough in
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On the Management of Barley. 457
the first instance, for breaking up, is not altogether the best; the land is left too close and impervious to the action of frost, and frequently does not work so well in the spring as when some of the followmg modes are adopted. A strong scarifier, with the teeth closely set, and drawn by four horses, is frequently used to break up the turnip-land ; in which state it remains, rough and uneven, until the proper time for the second ploughing arrives, which invariably is performed immediately before it is thought proper to sow barley. Another plan occasionally followed, is to remove the iron breast or mould-board, substituting a piece of rough wood in its place, or anything, in fact, to keep the furrow open, without turning it completely over, which thus presents a rough and accessible face to the action of frost, or other numerous atmospheric changes, which invariably mark our English winters. If this operation be well performed in dry weather, and a small and sufficiently deep furrow taken, I believe the land is left in the most favourable state for producing a good and genial seed- bed for the future crop. This surface is of course well harrowed before the second ploughing takes place, which, as before ob- served, is not done until immediately before barley sowing ; upon the large light-land fields of West Norfolk it is usual to plough the whole field, and then drill across the furrows. If the drill follows the plough, it does so upon a less level and even surface, and the seed is not deposited so equally at one depth; nor can the dmill-man perform his work so straight and well, from the impossibility of preventing the drill-coulters running into the furrows made by the ploughs. Harrows follow the drill, and, in some instances, the roll; and the small seed-machine, followed by light harrows, complete the operation.
Upon stronger land, and especially in a wet season, it is usual for the drill to follow the plough; so that all the work may be harrowed and finished close up at night. Upon these soils the rolling does not take place generally until the barley has made its appearance above the ground and become strong in the blade; when the passing of a light roll across it breaks the mouldering clods, and gives a little fresh soil and firmness to the roots.
It used to be a very common practice in Norfolk some years ago, to sow the barley broadcast, and then plough it in with a one- horse plough. In some parts of the county, on lght tender land, this system still prevails, though it cannot be said to be at all generally practised.
On strong soils, which are apt to work unkindly in the spring, the plan of two-furrowing or ridging is frequently adopted. The ploughman takes rather a shallow furrow to start with, and
458 On the Management of Barley.
returns with a deeper, leaving a small balk, and turning it over so as to leave a complete ridge; when this has been exposed to the atmospheric changes for some weeks, an opportunity of dry weather is taken to reverse these ridges and expose the inside to the weather. It thus remains till seed-time, when a skeleton plough is used to split open the ridges ; it is then well harrowed, and levelled as much as possible. The drill follows imme- diately ; and if the above operations are performed properly in dry weather, an admirable seed-bed will generally be the result.
There are, however, objections to the above mode which ought to be stated. It is most difficult to make the land completely level: and hence, particularly in a dry season, the furrows show themselves in the growing crop, which always looks much stronger and healthier in alternate rows all through the field. This is more seen in the early part of the season, but it cannot be doubted that it must operate unfavourably upon the yield when the time of cutting arrives,
The usual time of sowing may be said to extend from the middle of March to the end of April, although the two first weeks of the latter month are generally considered, in average seasons, - the most favourable. Upon some of the stronger and more back- ward soils, barley is sometimes sown early in March, and, pro- vided the land works well, undoubtedly the quality is improved by early sowing ; but it is generally thought that the quantity is somewhat diminished. The old common barley is now but little sown in Norfolk. Within the last few years Chevalier has become very general. “The Brewers’ Delight” is almost, if not quite, equal to Chevalier for malting purposes, grows stiffer in the straw, and is gradually coming into use. ‘The Nottingham long-ear is a great favourite with some, while others prefer Ame- rican barley. Another variety, obtained from Leghorn, has lately been introduced, and it is favourably spoken of by the maltsters, but experience has not yet tested its productive qualities. Chevalier, however, is still grown by many, and when eare is observed to change the seed, by taking it from a different loeality, I believe few kinds will be found to equal it.
Having now described the different systems pursued in some of the most important barley-growing districts, I shall, in con- clusion, make a few observations, founded on experience and personal observation.
It has before been noticed how much depends upon the way in which the land is treated in the first instance, not only as to the mode of performing the work, but also as to the weather in which that work is performed. It is no uncommon occurrence to see
On the Management of Barley. 459
ploughing going forward upon land intended for barley when the water stands in puddles on the surface, and the whole ground is perhaps saturated with moisture, the idea being to get the ploughing done in order to accelerate the spring work. The ploughing is then done, it is true, but it is not sufficiently considered that numerous harrowings, rollings, and perhaps clod-crushing, must be gone through before barley can be sown amongst clods, which are the sure result of working in wet weather. Nor is the labour and loss of time of those opera- tions the only evil; soils forced into tillage by harrows and rolls, rarely, if ever, become kind and genial for the reception of the seed ; and it must be strong in the recollection of all who have sown barley under the above circumstances, that_an inferior crop has generally been the result. Upon very light sandy soils liberties may be taken in wet weather, with little or no bad effect, but upon land with any degree of staple in it, 1 am inclined to think that too much importance cannot be attached to working it at every stage in dry weather. There are, however, peculiar seasons when the weather is so constantly wet, that it is almost impossible to carry out the above practice strictly. Asa modi- fication of the bad effects of ploughing turnip land for barley, when the soil is too wet, I last vear saw tried, and with remark- ably beneficial effects, a most simple plan, which, although from its very simplicity some may be tempted to despise, | am con- vinced is most efficacious. A piece of cord was tied round the fore-part of the breast or mould-board of the plough, which pre- vented that smooth shiny surface left by it in wet weather, and entirely removed the necessity for rolling; whereas in the same field where the cords were taken from the ploughs, Jarge clods prevailed, and the greatest possible difference was perceptible to the most casual observer. For those soils generally denominated turnip and barley soils, I think there can be little doubt that the system previously described, of breaking up in the first instance by a scarifier, or skeleton plough, ana then ploughing imme- diately before sowing, is preferable to the more common mode which prevails in some districts, of merely ploughing once and then putting in the seed. In the first place the manure is thoroughly mixed and ready for the young roots of barley as soon as they begin to shoot, and in the generality of seasons. more- over, a better tilth will be obtained. For these lands, also, the drill system must, I think, be considered the best and safest, There may be districts, circumstances and seasons, which would point out another mode of sowing to be more advantageous; but these may be deemed exceptions to a practice, which, T cannot but think, will be still more universal. After drilling very much
460 On the Management of Barley.
harrowing and rolling are by no means desirable: the land may with advantage be left somewhat cloddy, provided the clods are small, until it is time to sow the small seeds, when the light roll makes it sufficiently fine, and gives a little fresh soil in which to sow the young clover.
Advantages and risks of early sowing.—Although very early sowing is strongly advocated, I hold it to be quite impossible to fix any period which will suit all circumstances and seasons. If the weather be perfectly dry and the land works well in February, the quality of the barley will unquestionably be improved by early sowing; but that a corresponding increase takes place in quantity may, however, I think be doubted. ‘There is a great difference in seasons, and a practice which would prove highly suitable to one year might, if persevered in under different cir- cumstances and with different weather, be productive of very inju- rious results in the next. It can never be judicious to meddle with the land in the spring until it is dry and works well. On strong cold land also, barley should be sown much earlier, senerally speaking, than. upon light sandy lands with a warm dry subsoil. Ty the (onmer there 1 no danger of a too rapid growth in the first stages, and the land having sufficient staple to carry it out, the quality of the grain will be decidedly improved and the period of cutting will be accelerated. On the other hand, if sown before the land is in proper tilth and fit to receive the seed, a rough coarse sample will be produced. ‘The invariable result of very late sowing, there can be no doubt, is an inferior quality of corn. From the 20th of March to the same date in April will, I think, in average seasons be found a safe and judicious period for barley sowing.
There is at the present day a great difference of opinion as to the question of thick and thin sowing ; after several careful expe- riments, [ am inclined to favour a middle course. From 8 to 10 pecks per acre on kind and genial soils will generally suffice; but on unkind land in imperfect tilth it may occasionally be necessary to sow a larger quantity.
The different varieties of barley comprise the old common barley, Chevalier, Brewers’ Delight, Oakley, American, Notting- ham Long-ear, Berkshire, &c. ‘The Chevalier decidedly ranks first for malting purposes, and is most eagerly sought after by the brewer in every district. The objections urged against it are, that it does not produce so much per acre as some of the other varie- ties. Jam, however, inclined to think that, under proper culti- vation and with occasional change of seed, there are few sorts that can be compared with it. I will give the result of some experi-
ments carefully tried between 1836 and 1845:—
On the Management of Barley. 461
CORN. STRAW. In 1836 a ae Bush. pecks. Tons cwt. lbs. Chevaliers. ipo) ois a0 4en, O 0 14 1 Common barley . . 42 0O 0 15 6 mMmericai. «3. 40’ =O O 14 4 1841 Brewers’ Delight... . 57 1 185.16: 26 IBETKSNWC er ss. 1G 2 Gao 2 Chevalier er. 2s OO'y 1 tw G Nottingham 7.) *. “56 3 Sa 0 1845 Brewers’ Delight. . 52 0O Chevalier. es 7 48,03
The foregoing experiments are strong proofs in favour of Che- valier—in every year it was the best quality. « Brewers’ Delight” is, I believe, quite equal to Chevalier for malting purposes ; “and in appearance, there is in fact little or no igen Tam a very strong advocate for a constant and judicious change of seed, and although it may sometimes be expensive to obtain it from a great distance, J believe it will generally repay the cost by an increase of produce and an improvement of quality.
A few years ago a very strong instance confirming my opinion in this respect came under my observation. On two adjoining farms, in a barley growing district, both much alike as to quality of soil, the occupier of No. 1 being in the habit of constantly changing his seed and sowing tolerably early, and the occupier of No. 2 systematically never changing his seed and sowing rather late, the quality of the barley grown upon No. 1 in the year referred to, was remarkably good; and upon No. 2 it was so very inferior, as to be quite unsaleable for any but the most common purposes; and 2s. per bushel, or 16s. per quarter, was the differ- ence in the price these barleys fetched at several times during that season, on the same day and at the same market. The pro- duce per acre also was, as nearly as could be ascertained, very much greater on farm No. L.
I have never heard that Chevalier, or any of its varieties, were not hardy, or incapable of beimg produced in cold and bleak situations ; but rather the contrary, and on the whole it appears that the charge brought against it, of yielding badly in some districts, is not borne out by universal opinion. Before it be con- demned, I should strongly ‘recommend all to test it accur ately by careful experiments.
There may be, and probably are, descriptions of land quite incapable of producing the best quality of barley, and upon such soils, a greater produce of the common barley may perhaps be grown. It would, however, be going too far to recommend this
462 On the Management of Barley.
or that variety as being the best or most productive for every locality ; but my own opinion is decidedly in favour of Chevalier and Brewers’ Delight; bearing always in mind the necessity for a change of seed, and care being taken to sow the boldest and best that can be obtained. There can, I think, be no doubt that the same laws prevail in the vegetable as in the animal world. Few will dispute the fact, that strong and healthy animals propagate a like progeny, and vice versGé. So we may fairly infer, and it is moreover borne out by the results of practice, that from the largest and best kernels of grain of every description the best crops will
be produced.
XXITT.—On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. By Pu. Pussy, M.P.
SoME years since a slight account of some Devonshire water- meadows, and of the cheap rate at which they are formed, was inserted by me in this Journal. Having now formed some myself on the same plan in Berkshire, | am thus enabled to state dis- tinctly what they have cost me; and if the money so spent yield a profit of 30 per cent., which at a moderate estimate it can be shown to do, this mode of improvement must deserve the atten- tion of landlords, now especially, when tenants stand so much in need of assistance, and labourers of employment.
It is well known that, in forming water-meadows, to moisten them is not the main object, the stream being laid on chiefly in winter, when commonly the ground is already rather too wet. Yet a slight film of water trickling then over the surface, for it must not stagnate, rouses the sleeping grass, tinges it with living green amidst snows or frost, and brings forth a luxuriant crop in early spring, Just when it is most wanted, while the other meadows are still bare and brown. It isa cheerful sight to see the wild birds haunting these green spots among the hoar-frost at Christ- mas; or the lambs, with their mothers, folded on them in March. A water-meadow is the triumph of agricultural art, chang- ing, as it does, the very seasons: but though our rustic fore- fathers so long since mastered the result, the mode of the water's action has been left a mystery. It consists not in moistening the roots, for they are moist enough—nor yet in covering the surface, for stagnant surface-water is merely injurious, the fluid must be kept in motion, however slow—it is not in the deposit of fine mud, for though the first runnings after the autumn rains are rendered the most beneficial by the thickness of the waters, a stream, clear as crystal, is often employed. About Exmoor I have
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 463
seen a stream issuing near the top of a steep moor-side, down which, in its descent, it draws a straight line of vivid verdure, visible at a mile’s distance against the black heath. Not but where a deposit does take place, it is most beneficial. However dull the stream when it enters, after trickling through the grass it issues clear. So that, as I have heard, at Tempsford, a sluggish mill- stream previously thick, allows you, after it has passed over the meadows, to detect the pike basking six feet deep under its surface. The matter thus left behind is proved to be fertilizing by the superior efficacy of the first floods ; but where are we to seek the cause of the clear water’s action? An experienced maker of water- meadows examining a spring, told me, after feeling the water by holding some of it in the palm of his hand, that it must be good for watering : all streams, it should be remembered, are not equally good, some are even injurious. When asked the ground of his opinion, he answered, that it felt warm and oily. To confine our- selves for the present to the former quality warmth—springs, issuing as they do from different depths, and partaking therefore more or less largely of the earth’s central heat, vary much in their tem- perature, though most of them, perhaps all, are warmer than the earth’s surface in winter. But the warmer the spring the better it is considered for water-meadows in Devonshire, where spring's are much used for the purpose; elsewhere it is chiefly small rivers which are so employed. We must suppose, then, that the water acts in irrigation partly by the warmth it communicates to the soil. A curious proof of this view is afforded by the following circumstance :—There is a stream in Devonshire which was use- less in irrigation until it reached a station of the Atmospheric Railway, where warm water escaping into it from the steam- engine, rendered it at that point, for the first time, beneficial to the land it passed over. In that county where the warmth of springs is much studied on this very account, a wide difference of temperature is found in springs issuing from the same hill-side. Some springs freeze at once in a hard frost, a thick basin of ice forming around the well-head. Another spring a few hundred yards off may be seen on a frosty morning steaming like a caul- dron. It not only does not freeze at the source, but its waters will continue to pass in a fluid state over meadows during a frost. The warm spring is selected for irrigation: the cold one is kept aloof. Itis also supposed that the south sides of hills yield warmer streams than the north sides, and these southern streams are there- fore preferred for meadows. We may safely conclude then, I think, though [ have never seen it so stated in any agricultural work,*
* Since the above was written I find that, though recent agricultural works deny the efficacy of warmth in irrigation, Sir H. Davy, himself a west-countrymanp, asserts it in his Agricultural Chemistry.
464 On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows.
that the main principle of irrigation is the warmth produced by the water trickling over the surface. Warmth is a prime agent in vegetation, and a slight difference in warmth has a marked effect in hastening or retarding the growth of plants. On hills of avery moderate height—as the chalk range in Berkshire—the harvest is sometimes a fortnight later than in the vale at their feet. The warmth of the London air opens the buds earlier. A south- ern wall, by reflecting heat, hastens the growth of vegetables near its foot. ‘The warm spring too or river does not merely flow over the surface, but sinks largely into the land if it be at all porous, and suck land is most benefited by irrigation; some of the best water-meadows being mere gravels, almost bare of soul. Thus the roots of the grass are kept in a state of genial warmth. But the conclusive argument, as appears to me, may be drawn from avery curious operation called Gurneyism, of which an account was given in the seventh volume of this Journal.
Mr. Gurney having observed, what many may have remarked, that wherever any loose object,a bare branch, or an old gate, lies on a mea- dow in March, the grass grows exuberantly beneath it, conceived the idea of spreading a field with straw, at the rate of about a ton to the acre, and thus promoting the growth of the grass. ‘The scheme succeeded so well that it was adopted by many neighbouring farmers in Cornwall ; and thus, curiously enough, a thin coat of dry straw produced the same effect which had hitherto been obtained only by a thin sheet of moving water. How, it may be asked, did the straw produce its effect? J can see but one way. Gardeners, it is well known, spread light nets over their young crops in order to protect them from morning frosts in the spring. This effect is clearly due to the interception of the radiation of heat. ‘The earth is constantly sending forth, in a perpendicular direction upwards into empty space, especially when the sky is clear, its warmth derived from the sun, just as a stove darts its heat around it; but avery slight interruption, such as the gar- dener’s net, is found to check the passage of the heat, and thus to prevent that morning frost on the surface so much dreaded by gar- deners. Gurneyism must actin a like manner, though on a larger scale, by preventing the escape of the natural warmth from the soil of a meadow. Irrigation, we have had reason to conclude, acts by imparting to the meadow the superior warmth of the stream or the spring. ‘The effect is the same: the mode of action is the same nearly. The difference is as between covering up asick man with blankets, or placing him in a warm bath. The one is stronger treatment than the other, and so also irriga- tion acts in winter—Gurneyism only in spring. It may even be questioned, I think, whether irrigation do not also act in some degree by intercepting the radiation of heat. Myr. Gurney
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 465
found that round rods of transparent glass suspended over grass acted as well as opaque bodies in promoting its growth. Is it not possible that the rippling water may act like these rods of glass? It is true that water, after passing over a portion of water-meadow, is found to have lost much of its power when turned over another portion. ‘This we should expect, because in travelling over and through the ground it has parted with its native heat, and will produce a diminished effect. I believe that it produces still some effect, otherwise the conjecture must, of course, fall to the ground —the point need, however, not be pursued further.
But, it may be asked, if streams act by their warmth when turned over meadows, why do not all streams of the same tem- perature act equally well? Why are some streams better than others? Why do some not act at all? ‘lhe answer, I believe, is this. Several foreign substances, present sometimes in streams, are found by experience to be noxious to vegetation. Thus it was mentioned above that water for irrigation should feel, ina practised hand, oily as well as warm. ‘This oiliness, I suppose, is the same with what is commonly called softness, the opposite of hardness, which is caused by the presence of carbonic acid, of which latter quality the laundress also complains when the soap will not dissolve in her washing-tub without the aid of wood ashes or of soda. <A spring which contains carbonic acid largely is a petrifying one. We have some streamlets in this neighbourhood which, for the first mile or two of their course, en- crust their sides and bottoms with lime. Such are declared to be unfit for irrigation, why I know not, butso experience teaches. It is observed that the two favourable and the two unfavourable qualities are generally found together in springs; softness with warmth, and cold with hardness. Ochrey springs, having on their surface a film, which presents the colours of the rainbow, and containing iron, are said also to be injurious; though in one district this iridescence was mentioned to me as even a favourable sign for irrigation. There is another substance most certainly mischievous to vegetation—the matter suspended in bog-water. Such water is destructive to the growth of meadow-grass. Marsh peat is itself so highly injurious, that when marsh peat has been put by a mistake into flower-beds for the growth of rhododendrons, it destroyed the garden turf for some breadth on each border. But this is not a hopeless obstaele, though found in a stream. I have seen water which a year or two before dribbling from a bog had been worse than useless, now issuing from the drain- pipes of that bog, ztseJf cultivated, and after resting in a reser- voir, spreading verdure over a field lower down the hill-side. This vegetable extract, however, sometimes infects rivers them- selves, as in the romantic scenery of West Somerset round Dul-
466 On the Theory and Practice of Water- Meadows.
verton, a neighbourhood well known to fishermen. In that beau- tiful district, four mountain torrents, rushing in a perpetual fall along deep wooded valleys, join to form the river on which Exeter stands. The Haddyo has the finest trout, and is best for water- meadows. ‘The Exe is moderate in both respects. ‘The Barle has poor trout, and is useless, or if not utterly useless, is rated so low that other streams are carried over 1t by wooden aqueducts for irrigating the fields on its very banks. The Danesbrook has no trout, and is injurious upon meadows. The Barle and the Danesbrook,* though clear as crystal, are brown as a cairngorm with bog-water from Exmoor. When those moors are drained, the fish may yet thrive in their waters, and the winter’s grass — become green on their banks. It may be instructive to pursue
* Ishall be forgiven for recalling to the reader that these four romantic streams have twice been admitted into English poetry—once by the late Dean of Manchester :—
‘Oh, how I love the woody steeps to climb Which overhang thy solitary stream, Clear-flowing Barle! or tread the broken stones Round which thy never-ceasing waters foam, And ever and anon rough-tumbling roar Beneath the oaken shade... .. . And thou, romantic spot where close beneath Mountsey’s proud brow and Anstey’s stately moor Danesbrook and Barle their noisy streams unite : Upon your sides abrupt the pausing eye Dwells charmed as it views each sparkling spring Shine through the gloomy woods and trickle down.”
Miscellaneous Poetry, by Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert, 1801.
And once again, among a later generation, in the tender recollections of his boyhood, by a dear departed friend :—
“With beating heart how many a reckless day Has marked my boyish step delighted bend Where Haddon’s heights of purple heath ascend, Where Hawkridge’ wild and sullen wastes extend : And verdant Storridge to the thundering wave His mighty mass of oaken forest gave By Haddyo’s foaming flood and Danesbrook’s tide That parted once a rival people’s pride. . ... Here have I heard in summer’s liveliest glow Mid hail and mist the raging tempest blow, Eternally on hoarse resounding shore The infant Exe with tide impetuous roar.
In Pixton’s woods the chase was fierce and strong ; At night their limbs on couch of heather spread, The mountain fern wild pillow for their head, And, if they listed melody, might hear Our rushing Barle make music for their ear.” The Moor, by the late Earl of Carnarvon. —Pu. Pusry.
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 467
the united streams further. The conjoint river is unfit for water- ing until it has received another stream of excellent quality near to Bampton, after which it is capable of being used not alone, indeed yet, but to assist in making up the volume of tributary streams which are diverted along its banks. When the Exe however, now a broad river, has passed through the busy town of Tiverton—every street of which has a running stream washing away the ordure—the Exe becomes again fertilizing, and mea- dows are formed to receive its waters. The theory of irrigation appears then to be this :— Water acts upon meadows by im- parting its warmth to them; perhaps also as a covering, by enabling them to retain their own warmth. If the water contain mud or fine soil its action is stronger. If the drainings of yards or of towns, stronger still. On the other hand, the colder the stream the less likely it is to act, and its powers are weakened or destroyed by the presence of carbonic acid (by hardness), or of iron, or of tannin. The quality of the fish has been seen to indicate that of the water. A well-known herb, the watercress, is said to be an unfailing witness for the goodness of the stream along whose bottom it flourishes.
We may now turn from the theory to the practice of irrigation. Water-meadows are formed on two systems. In the southern counties, Hampshire, Berks, Wilts, Gloucester, and Dorset, the Itchin, the Kennet, the Avon, and other rivers, are diverted ; and the neighbouring land being flat is entirely reshaped to receive them. The turf is pared. The whole surface is laid up in high regular ridges, about thirty feet wide, along whose summit the water runs in gutters, overflowing the sides to the bottom, where other gutters receive them and carry them off. In form the meadows are like the sea after a storm, when the long waves are subsiding.
Plan of Water-Meadow.
Section of Water-Meadow.
aw
CO) cas
A. Dam across river. B. Main Carrier. c. Watering Gutters d. Draining Gutters. E. Main Draining Gutter.
468 On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows.
Those who are conversant with earth-works will see at once that to make a water-meadow on this plan must be an expensive process. Twenty pounds per acre would be a low average: thirty pounds not unusual. I remember having asked in Dor- setshire to see a cheap water-meadow, and being shown a field of eight or ten acres, which had just been made at a cost of forty-five pounds for each acre. Few new water-meadows, however, are any longer made in these southern counties, as the heavy ex- pense of the system is barely compensated, now that the growth of green crops has supplied more food for flocks in March and April. It is to the south-west we must turn, to Somerset and to Devonshire, for patterns of future irrigation. In those two lovely counties, which have the valleys without the Alps of Switzer- land, abundant streams roll cheerfully in a rapid descent over stones, or among mossy rocks, and the sheltered sides shelving rapidly upwards, have long since tempted the farmers to lead the water along their sloping face in tiers of channels, each of which receiving the overflow from above, as it begins to gather irregularly, receives it in a level trough to brim over anew, until it reaches the lowest channel, which deliversit back tothe river's bed. The horseman as he rides along sees meadows of a few acres rising above his head, bright as emerald, glistening against the sun with their thin film of water, alternating with orchards in which cottages are nestled, that seem to cling to the hill, with a canopy of oak copse above, whose russet leaves, a remnant of the last summer, look the ruddier against the narrow space of blue sky that roofs in the glen. These are called catch-meadows, because each trench thus catches the water from its neighbour above it.
Section of Lower Part of a Valley.
a. Stream. 6. Gutters.
‘The catch-meadow is as cheap as the water-meadow is expen- sive toform. For the slope being already there, it 1s necessary but to take the levels for the gutters; which being done, these may be dug, and the surface be laid smooth, for two or three pounds per acre instead of twenty or thirty. J have seen near Winsford, a water-meadow on the hang of a hill so steep that one could scarcely climb it without help of the hands. It had been until lately rough furze ground. The tenant had given it rent free to
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 469
a labourer for two years. The labourer broke it up, grew two crops of potatoes for himself, smoothed it, and actually cut the gutters, so that the farmer had converted moorland into rich grass at the cost only of a good dressing of lime which was given it. Many a hill-side in Cardiganshire, or Argyleshire, or Kerry, might be thus transmuted, if one energetic landowner would lead the way. Catch-meadows have been successfully formed in more level counties by the Duke of Portland, and by Lord Hatherton, who possessed natural slopes. But most English streams are sluggish, flowing through level tracts. It is dis- tinctly stated in one of our best and handiest agricultural works, ‘« The Dictionary of the Farm,” by the late Mr. Rham, that “‘catchwork is only applicable where there is a considerable fall of water, and a gentle declivity towards the river.” If this pre- vailing opinion be sound, a large part of England must remain without increase of its irrigation.
This opinion, however, is a mistake ; for in Devonshire—the classic land of catch-meadows-—catchwork has been lately applied to levels as flat as the banks of the Cherwell, and is spreading rapidly on such levels. At Killerton, near Exeter, Sir Thomas Acland has two wide catch-meadows, each of about 60 acres, with- out perceptible fall, called ‘ Wish meadows’ and ‘ Beer-marshes’ Gan Devonshire a meadow means a water-meadow ; a low unwatered grass-field is called a marsh), and Lord Poltimore, on a farm occupied by Mr. Norris, has a catch-meadow 3 furlongs long, with a fall in that distance of only four inches and a half; what is important, the land is irrigated in the line of this fall, that is, by cross gutters. For there are two falls we have to consider in catchwork, as in the quotation from Mr. Rham, the fall of the stream onwards and the fall of the land towards the stream s7de- ways. The fall of the stream is required for diverting its water to a point from which it may run over the land: the fall of the land is required for carrying the water off from the land into a lower part of the stream. A stream might have but a slight fall, say a foot, in passing through a water-meadow a quarter of a mile long, yet if the neighbouring land shelved towards the stream, and if the meadow were but 200 yards broad with the stream in the middle, there would be a side fall for the water re- turning over the land into the stream equal to 1 foot in 300, though the fall of the river is assumed to be only 1 foot in 1320.
Fall, 1 foot. Length, 2 furlongs. Fall, 2 feet.
Fall, | foot or 3 feet Length, 100 yards,
VOT x. Py
A470 On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows.
Ifalittle higher up there were a fall of 2 feet, and the water could there be diverted, a side fall of 3 feet, or of 1 in 100, might be obtained on the water-meadow.
But if the land adjoming a stream do not shelve sideways, the only fall to be obtained will be in the direction of the river’s de- scent, and that fall cannot be increased by damming the stream higher up. The gutters must be cut athwart the line of the river, and the course of the irrigating water must be in the same direction with the course of the stream thus,—
!
a. River. 6. Watering gutiers.
Tn this case it follows that the fall of the irrigated land cannot exceed the fall of the river. Since the fall of the river on this meadow of Lord Poltimore’s is only 43 inches in a course of 3 furlongs, or 1980 feet, and the course of irrigation is not lateral but direct, it follows that the fall of irrigation is but ] im 5280. This is so wonderfully low, that unless the measurement had been given me by the person who laid it out I could not have believed it, for the fall considered desirable, if not necessary, on the old-fashioned system is about lin 18. A new meadow is now being made for Lord Poltimore where the river has a fall of 24 feet only in half a mile length. On one side of the stream the field is 2 furlongs wide, so that even where the fall is lateral it will be but 23 in 2 furlongs, or 1 in 528. Another is being made for Mr. Barber with the exceedingly low fall of 24 inches in 23 furlongs. This is a direct irrigation. The fall of one inck ana furlong, or 1 in 7920, is remarkable even according to the new system of Devonshire. There is indeed one old meadow near Crediton exceedingly flat, so flat that, as the stream which waters it brings down large quantities of mould from the hills, as well as refuse from the town, the land rises rapidly, and in order to keep down the levels the surface has been removed twice in seven years to a depth of 2 feet, to be. carted off as a top-dressing for other fields. These flat meadows are now spreading widely in South Devon. That they pay for their formation there can be no doubt, costing from three to four pounds an acre to form, and yielding three pounds of rent, whereof two pounds may be taken as the new value imparted by the operation. This, for an average rate of profit, is a very high one. In single cases it is exceeded. About two miles from Exeter there is a small .
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 47 i
property of 156 acres, all but eight of which, that are orchard- ground, are watered by two moderate brooks. Jt is let at more than six pounds an acre all round to different occupiers. ‘Three acres, worth naturally three pounds an acre, let at ten pounds, six acres at eight pounds per acre. The whole was worth about two pounds an acre originally, and the portion recently made cost about three pounds twelve shillings per acre to form. These are actual dettings. ‘The Clipstone water-meadows are valued by Mr. Denison at eleven pounds fourteen shillings per acre yearly, without allowance for rates and taxes. ‘They are, indeed, a noble creation of the Duke of Portland’s. Great difliculities have been overcome, and great perfection attained. As you wind up the valley you see ‘nothing but one universal luxuriant tapestry of grass spread on each side along the well-moulded slopes—
“ Hic ver assiduum atque alienis mensibus estas.”
“ The fields here Spring’s perpetual beauties crown, Here Summer shines in seasons not her own.” *
This work, however, cost his Grace one hundred and thirty pounds per acre in forming, or 39,2971. for 800 acres—a price few could pee ete shove case from the neighbourhood of Exeter, we have the value not merely estimated, but realized in the form of rent, and the cost insignificant. if ] dwell often on cheapness of construction in farming it is because no improvement can be- come general if it be not also cheap. It is by reducing the cost of production that the Lancashire manufacturers have sent our cottons round the whole world.
As to the management of the catch-meadows in Devonshire, the watering is begun in autumn with the heavy rains, and great importance is attached to these first floodings. Sometimes the use of a stream is divided among neighbouring farmers by periods of three days. I have been told by one who contracts to keep such meadows in order, that when an unneighbourly farmer insists on keeping his water for the full term, that is till midnight, my informant is obliged to remain out half the night, perhaps wet to his skin, setting re bays and distributing the water on the land of the next recipient, who, he says, might lose ten shillings an acre if he waited till morning. So much value does the experience of Devonshire attach to water.
Sometimes a crop of feed is forced before Christmas ; but in general the water is so shifted, that the strength of the land and the grass may be reserved for an early crop, which in Devonshire is often ready by the end of February. If the ewes are admitted into a field on the Ist of March, they feed it down perhaps ina fortnight, and are removed. The water is let in, and kept on
* Warton’s Virgil. 7 je 1p
472 On the Theory and Practice of Water- Meadows.
for a fortnight; after a few days there is a good bite of grass, and the ewes are let in once more. Sometimes on good land, and in good seasons, a third crop even of feed is grown before the land is laid up for hay, which is generally done on the Ist of May; in six weeks from that time, by the middle of June, the hay is ready to cut. Afterwards the meadow is “damped,” that is, wa- tered for about three days. A longer watering is improper in warm weather, as it leaves a white scum on the land, the dried remains of the same loose green vegetable matter (a conferva), which is often seen in stagnant ditches.
Such being the cheapness and such the advantages of the level catch-meadow in Devonshire, it becomes an important question whether the system would answer generally in the south of Eng- land. A question it is certainly, for the marked difference of climate forbids us to form a peremptory conclusion.
It is well known now, that the western sides of both England and Ireland are more favourable to grass than the eastern sides; the western breezes being loaded with vapour which, whether retained in its invisible form or condensed as rain, is most propitious to vegetation. The air too is warmer in winter, and, the sky being more clouded, the sun less scorching in summer. On a naked field it is as difficult to check the natural grasses in Devonshire as to bring a turf, if wanted, in Berkshire. Severe frosts too are much less frequent in Devonshire, as well in winter as spring, at which latter period they destroy grass which has been forced forwards, unless its roots be well covered with running water. Two years since, however, I determined to try the experiment in Berkshire, and secured the assistance of an experienced “ gut- terer”’ (as the makers of water-meadows are called in Devon- shire), Mr. Ley, of Newton St. Cyr, near Exeter, who with his son had laid out the meadows instanced above for their exceed- ingly low gradients—a matter of the nicest skill in agricultural engineering. His son formed for me sixty acres, at a contract price of Al. per acre, to which price must be added 30s. an acre for bringing water from the streams, and for trunks and sluices. Much of this land is flat, and there is also a great scarcity of water. Catchwork, it should be remarked, has the further ad- vantage, that it works not only with little fal/, but with little water, as upon fields almost level the water with so slight a fall flows very slowly. ‘The water is also spread very thinly. Mr. Ley says that, if a catch-meadow be laid out well, you ought to be able to walk across it, while the water is on, without wetting your feet. This perhaps isa figure of speech, but it illustrates the point. The meadows were completed early in 1848; but appeared, except- ing one small field, to be a total failure. The crop was not earlier than in other years. Mr. J. Ley accounted for the deficiency by
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 473
the natural poverty of the soil, and its want of condition. Both these imputations were just; but the undertaking seemed hope- less enough. I dwell upon the circumstance, because it may be useful to others. It seems to be a principle that irrigation may gradually raise the condition of land, but requires either good land or fair condition to produce a marked immediate effect. One field looked decidedly worse than before, because there had been previously more moss than grass on it, and the moss had been killed by the water. But on the worst part of that field the ashes of some burnt bull-peats or hassock-grass had been spread, and a luxuriant crop of grass had sprung up. The hint was taken, and there being peat at command for burning, a liberal dose of ashes was applied in March, 1849. The effect was marvellous, espe- cially on some worn out rye-grass, which is now full of young clover and is become at once a close sward. This is not the case where either the ashes or the water have been deficient. Here is a remarkable agreement with what is said of Gurneyism in the following passage :*—
‘‘Many experiments were made. The results of those experiments were very interesting. They showed that the action was general; that the difference in growth in a given time was i proportion to the natural fertility of the soil. On some of the coarse moors where experiments were tried, the increase of growth was very slow as compared to better soils. It was found that the rate of action was also influenced by artificial manuring, and that the increase of vegetation was in a ratio with the natural quantity that would be produced by a given manure when laid on a field, and not assisted by the operation of any fibrous covering. A certain quantity of stall-dung, which would double the quantity of grass in a given time when laid on in the usual way, was found to increase it to siz times when properly treated with fibrous covering.”
It appears to me that in irrigation also the water does not merely add to the produce, but tends to double or treble it. If the produce by other means be half a ton, water will make it one ton. If the produce be one ton, it will become two tons by irrigation; a remarkable agreement with the action of fibrous covering, and a great encouragement to maintain or to raise the condition of water-meadows.
In one way or other, partly by ashing the land, partly by the irrigation alone, an entire change was made by last spring. The grass grew so rapidly that we could not feed it all off, and were obliged unwillingly to make much of it into hay. I say un- willingly, because to carry off a crop of hay is of course not the way to raise the condition of the land. As far as possible, how- ever, sheep were penned regularly over the new catch-meadows, in general three times successively on the same land, and partly with artificial food because they were new and poor; but to show
* Journal of Royal Agricultural Society, Vol. vil. p. 279.
474 On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows.
the amount of stock kept, I will give the account of sheep folded onasmall field without other food. ‘The field is under two acres, better land than the rest, but so much out of condition that latterly the hay-crop had been hardly worth cutting.
Day’s keep of
a Sheep.
First penning, sheep put on, but grass too strong to feed, and made into hay, say only ° 7 3,000 Second feeding, 400 lambs for eight days, | say 240 sheep : ° 1,920 Third penning, 250 sheep for ten days» ° ° ° . 2,500 Fourth ditto, 250 sheep, fourteen days . ‘ : ‘ : 3,500 10,920
The total amounts to 5 months’ keep for 73 sheep on two acres, thirty-six sheep to an acre.
‘The calculation is made for five months, because that is the period for which the wintering of sheep on turnips is reckoned. A thoroughly good crop of turnips is said in Lincolnshire to keep ten sheep an acre for five months. It is difficult to find a standard of comparison upon grass-land, because beasts and sheep are usually grazed together. I know one instance, however, in which sheep were fattened on grass-land in the five summer months at the rate of seven sheep to an acre, and the number was thought to be large. ‘This might be equal, however, to fourteen sheep of mine, which were merely kept in store order. Still the account would stand thus: fourteen sheep kept on an acre of superior grazing land unwatered, thirty-six sheep on an acre of moderate land watered. ‘The very high rate of my sheep to the acre certainly surprises me, but the figures are perfectly accurate. The large number may be partly accounted for by a peculiarity of the management, namely, that the sheep were folded not only for the first time, but every time after, instead of roaming at large. In his report upon Gloucestershire, Mr. Brayender mentions that a farmer who adopted this system found an increase of twenty per cent. in the number of sheep he could keep on his farm. ‘This point seems to deserve attention, tndependently of irrigation. ‘The allowance of 20 per cent. for folding would still leave the numbers at 14 and 29. But as sheep at turnips are equally folded, the comparative numbers per acre will there stand at thirty-six and at ten, not to mention the expense of culti- vation for turnips, and the absence of labour on water-meadows once formed. ‘This meadow is a very flat one; in fact before it was levelled it appeared to have no fall; there is a fall however of 3 feet 8 inches in 140 yards, or 1 in 114. I mention this because the most doubtful point for our cold counties seems to me to be the slow fall,-and hitherto certainly a fall six times sharper, has been thought requisite. On other parts of my new meadows: a much lower fall is found sufficient.
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 475
As in other branches of farming, so in the management of water - meadows, constant attention and the master’s eye are essential to complete success. Even in Devonshire, where all understand water-meadows, the farmer’s management materially affects their production. The plan of repeated folding has answered, as has been seen, with me hitherto. On many water- meadows, where the animals roam at large, they neglect to eat portions of the field which thus become rank. JSesides, the droppings are distributed more equally. One agricultural work intimates that there is danger of rot in feeding sheep on water- meadows during summer. In Devonshire, I am told, they have no such fear, nor have I suffered by it as yet; but I gave my sheep large lumps of rock salt to lick constantly in their folds. The danger may arise from improper flooding in summer, or it may be a real risk, and I therefore mention it. It certainly occurred on a part of the Clipstone meadows. In new water- meadows which require to be raised in condition, I should parti- cularly recommend it as a cheap way of effecting that object. Probably, if continued in after years, it might raise the condition to too high a point; in order to lower which it might be necessary that a crop of hay should be severed and carried off in the usual manner. ‘he yield of food for sheep would be, of course, the same, though in a different form. I should also recommend folding when ashes are applied to the land: as ashes being what was called formerly a stimulant, a manure of quick but passing action, might impoverish the land if the sudden crop produced by them were carried off. If the grass be fed off on the land, the extra produce is returned to it, and a solid foundation of future high condition is laid.
There is another point of detail which appears to answer. In folding the sheep I endeavour to have the hurdles so set that on each day, or second day, as they are shifted forwards, the water may be passed ever the recently manured land. Every one knows the strong smell of a sheep-fold. Without entering upon the power of water to fix ammonia, a substance on which it is dan- gerous unless for a chemist to enter, and which led even Liebig astray, there is no doubt that the water thus following destroys the stench and must therefore distribute the manure. In fact, when this is carefully done no spots of dark herbage are seen to arise from the droppings. The water carries the salts down among the roots of the’ plants: for a great deal of the water sinks into the earth. When land is formed into water-meadow it is rather disheartening for a beginner to see a strong stream sink for days into the bottom of the carrier without overflowing at all; and when it does at last overflow, to see it creep over the land, ad- vancing but a few inches perhaps im an hour. Even though the
476 On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows.
stream be strong it sinks through the worm-holes, from which the escape of the air-bubbles produces a general noise like the distant singing of birds ; the ground indeed is said to sing. The worms however die (they are found dead in large numbers), and the pores of the earth are gradually filled up by fine particles of soil carried down by the water. It is a good sign when the water begins to lie in the bottom of the gutters after the stream is drawn off. This effect may be anticipated by rendering the water muddy where that is possible, or, according to Mr. Roales in his Prize Essay, by spreading fine earth on the surface.
Still a great deal of water is drunk by the land, and this circum- stance may be made serviceable. In summer only “ damping,’ as it is called, is allowable. Here, however, ina dry summer we have not water enough even for damping. But by leaving the gutters brimfull, so that the whole stream might be absorbed in the channels, J was enabled to make the most of the dribbling brook which the long drought had left, and to keep some very dry land green and grassy, while other pastures were parched and had ceased growing. For our inland counties, which are subject in summer to constant droughts, | believe that this power of keeping the land moist would alone go far to pay the cost of making a catch-meadow.
There is another use which may be made of water-meadows. The two streams employed here | have turned through two of the farm-yards, The cattle in these yards are kept loose, even while fattening, in the old-fashioned way, though tied up at feeding- time. When heavy rains come, the muck-water is washed down into the passing stream, and distributed over the meadow without labour to man or to horse. In this case, and whenever a reservoir is filled with black water from other yards, as happens in sudden rains, the manager is desired to put only so much of this rich water on a piece of the ground as will sink into it, and then to turn the dark liquor over a fresh portion of meadow. ‘This is done lest the soluble salts should be carried away over the surface of the field into the stream, and so wasted. As to the winter management of the water it may generally be left on any particular portion for a fortnight at once. When the grass turns dark, the water should be taken off. A standard Scotch work on farming directs that it should be taken off on the arrival of frost. The true rule, however, at least in Devonshire, is not to take zt off nor to day it on in a frost ;—not to take it off, because the water freezing on the ground forms a coat of ice which protects the grass exactly as a covering of snow guards the young wheat,—not to lay it on, because the ground, being already frozen, can be no longer protected.
There is a novel use of irrigation which I may be permitted to
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 477
mention, as it has answered in the only experiment I have hitherto made—the application, I mean, of artificial manures. ‘The two chosen were—guano, as an universal manure; and sulphate of ammonia, the refuse, I believe, of gas-works, as being the most likely of chemical salts to favour the growth of grass. The guano was applied by mixing it in the gutter as the water was laid on; the ammonia by distributing it along the edge of the same gutter in another part, where it was rapidly dissolved by the water. Both applications have succeeded: the chemical salt answered the best. The land should be previously dry, that the solution may enter it.
It may now be convenient, perhaps, to sum up shortly some of the practical points mentioned above.
It is clear that in the moist climate of Devonshire the system of catchwork which originated on steep slopes has been gradually transferred to land which an unpractised eye would regard as a dead flat.
It appears also that this inexpensive method of irrigation may be transferred in some degree to our drier and colder inland coun- ties, though caution is still necessary, as Mr. Denisen says, that at Clipstone Park, | in 9 is the best fall, and that very flat lands will not answer for irrigation. Clipstone Park, however, is far towards the north. The degree of fall suited for each shade of climate is matter for further trial. It should be observed, that since the Devonshire system does not profess to recast the land on a per- fect model, but only to effect its object by using and improving the natural irregularities of the surface, the distribution of the water on the level catch-meadows will not be perfect at first; but a constant improvement may be made in these meadows by rolling them while they are wet, and by using the earth which is taken out of the gutters in cleansing them every autumn, for raising gradually any spots where the water lodges.
It should also be remembered that land, if at all unsound, must be underdrained when it is irrigated, and the drains must be larger than ordinary, as Mr. Denison informs us in the excellent paper* to which reference has already been made. The drains should be laid so that the water issuing from them may be made to flow again over on a lower part of the meadow. Drains are the only source of water on Lord Hatherton’s meadows at Ted- desley.
The safest mode of agricultural improvement is, not the adop- tion of entirely new principles or contrivances, but the cautious yet courageous development of existing practice. The level catch- meadow is clearly a promising ground to be worked out; and in
* See Journal, vol, i.
478 On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows.
endeavouring to carry it further, the following points should, I think, be attended to:—
1. The increased use of folding for sheep.
2. 'The conveyance of the stream through farmyards, as the simplest method of preventing the waste of manure.
3. The rapid application of the water as the sheep-pens are shifted, for preventing the waste of manure deposited on the land.
4, The increased use of the water for maintaining vegetation during the droughts of summer.
5. The use of the water for diffusing chemical manures on the land watered.
6. The cultivation of Italian rye-grass, which grows three times as rapidly as the common meadow grasses under the influence of irrigation.
7. It being necessary, where the stream is scanty, to form a reservoir, the ornamental sheets of parks may be used for the purpose, by placing, as I have done, an addi- tional but removable board on the sluice-gate, so as to raise the pond occasionally a few inches above its level —a considerable rise for the purpose, if the sheet of water be at all extensive.
There is nothing more that I need now add. I will not pre- tend to teach how catch-meadows are to be made. Since the natural irregularities of the ground, which an unpractised eye would overlook, are to be used for distributing the water, the work must be left to a professional manager, as in Devonshire. Even among “gutterers” there is great difference of skill ; thus it is said of Mr. Ley, that his eye is better than many another man’s level. I have proved what I set out by promising, that money expended on catch-meadows may pay 30 or even 50 per cent. ; and as the work is done by contract, there can be no error as to its cost. In any branch of manufacture, to prove this fact would be to ensure its immediate accomplishment. If such a profit were likely to arise from cutting through the Isthmus of Suez or Panama the canals would be dug at once. Much more persuasion I know is needed in stimulating landlords to the im- provement of even English estates. I will only say that it is mainly these catch-meadows which enable me to keep a flock of 550 ewes, and winter their lambs also, on nearly the same farm upon which my predecessor kept 170 ewes with their lambs. There is one test, however, often applied by farmers, when a person adopts and recommends some improvement in farming. They ask the question—Has he gone on with it? This is a very good test, for there are many disappointments in new systems of farm- ing. I may therefore be allowed to mention, that having last
On the Theory and Practice of Water-Meadows. 479
year suspended any fresh plan of irrigation, on account of the apparent failure of those which were already executed, I have con- tracted this winter for 26 acres of catch-meadow to be made at ol. 10s., and 30 more at only 2/. an acre. But what is described gives no clear impression; a work of art must be seen. Next year, however, our Society meets at Exeter. July, indeed, is not a good season for seeing catch-meadows, as the water is not upon them, and the grass wears no unusual verdure. Still the method of irrigation may be even then understood, and some one of the meadows could easily be watered slightly for the inspection of visitors. ‘To see what might be done in Wales or in Scotland, the owners of mountain properties might make a pleasant excursion along the Exe towards its source northwards. ‘The scenery will beguile the way, and near the Bristol Channel they will find excellent samples of hill-side catch-meadows about ‘Timberscombe and upon Dunkerry not much below the Beacon. For level meadows the patterns are to be found within ten miles of Exeter, and I hope that they will not be seen in vain by English gentlemen having villagers without winter work, as who of us is there that has not ?
Pusey, Nov. 23, 1849.
XXIV.—On the Composition of Linseed Oil-Cake, Beans and Peas, §c. By J.'THomas Way, Consulting Chemist to the Society.
THE consumers of linseed-cake in this country are almost unani-
mous in the belief that the different samples of this article are of
very varying value as food for stock. Where such an opinion as this is general, it would argue little wisdom to dispute. its cor- rectness: it only remains to investigate the cause.
When linseed, ground into coarse powder and digested with a small quantity of water, with the aid of heat, is exposed to strong pressure, two products are obtained—the one, an oil of well- known characters, linseed oil; the other, the cake which remains in the presses. No other substance but oil* is separated from the cake; and the two products, therefore, correctly represent the composition of the seed from which theyare derived. Linseed is known to consist principally of mucilage, or gum, sugar, oil, and albuminous matter—the three former being substances devoid of nitrogen, the latter having the same composition as the flesh of animals, or the gluten of wheat. Now as linseed oil contains
* Unless it be some very small quantity of water.
480 On the Composition of Linseed Oil- Cake,
no nitrogen, it is obvious that the cake must be richer than the seed in albuminous principles in the exact proportion of the oil which it has lost by pressure. Given, then, the composition of any sample of seed, and the quantity of oil which is expressed from it, we have by the simplest calculation the composition of the cake. In the present inquiry the order of procedure has been reversed: instead of starting with the examination of linseed, and speculating from the results upon the necessary composition of the cake produced, I have applied myself first to ascertain whether, in samples of cake taken carefully but indiscriminately from commercial sources, there existed chemical differences sufii- cient to account for the variations in feeding qualities observed by the farmer. Not disputing, as I before said, that such supe- riority of one sample over another was a fact, it yet seemed gratuitous in the outset to allow that it resulted from difference of composition.
There are indeed two distinct circumstances which might influ- ence the value of cake, independently of its chemical characters :— the flavour, which is more or less agreeable to stock, and the state of division—the fineness or otherwise to which the seed Is ground, To this latter circumstance, in all probability, very great differences in the feeding properties of specimens of cake might with justice be referred. Mr. H.S. Thompson published some time ago experiments made by him upon the relative merits of using linseed whole and crushed.
He found that of linseed used in its entire state, a very con- siderable proportion passed through the stomach of the animal undigesied, being present in the dung, and apparently in an unaltered condition. The same result in kind, though not in degree, might be expected to occur in the case of linseed-meal of various degrees of fineness, and with greater reason in cake, the particles of which in addition are, by the extent of pressure to which they have been subjected, closely compacted together.
Both these causes of variation—the mechanical condition of the cake and its flavour—lie, however, out of my province, which is confined to the chemical composition of the substance in question.
Ist., then, we must inquire, Is there any real difference in the chemical composition of various cakes; and if so, does the distinction apply to those of different manu- facture or origin ? |
2nd. Is the difference (supposing there to be any) sufficient to account for the observed effects in feeding ?
And 3rd. Is it to be attributed to adulteration, or to neces- sary variation in the composition of the seed ?
Beans and Peas, §c. 481
These three points of inquiry will, it is believed, successively develope themselves as we proceed to detail the analyses.
I should here state to what kind of analysis the inquiry has been limited. Linseed, as before mentioned, contains albumi- nous matter, oil, mucilage, and sugar, together with a certain quantity of mineral matter, or “ash.”
The mucilage (or gum) and the sugar have no doubt their share in the value of the cake as food. It is indeed contended by some that sugar serves in the animal to the production of fat: they are more usually, however, considered in the light of “ ele- ments of respiration”’ only, and not as employed either in the formation of flesh or fat. And holding, as is generally done by chemists of the present day, the doctrine of the simplest adoption, so to speak, of the vegetable principles into the animal frame— the more nearly allied to each other, the less being the effort on the part of the system—it is hard to believe that, in the presence of oil in abundance, nature should have recourse to sugar for the production of fat.
The quantity of oil, as representing the fat-forming principle, and of albuminous matter, as indicating the feeding qualities, seemed the points of principal importance in the chemical history of linseed-cake. With these it appeared important to ascertain the per-centage of ash, in order that any introduction, accidental or intentional, of sand or other inorganic matter might be detected.
The quantity of albuminous matter in vegetable substances is now usually estimated by the proportion of nitrogen which they yield. ‘The different modifications of albumen, gluten, casein, &c., are, with one exception, so nearly alike in composition (con- taining about 15:75 per cent. of nitrogen) that it is more exact to determine their proportion by that of the distinctive element (nitrogen) than by recourse to methods for the separation of the proximate principles themselves. It is not doubted that a full analysis of linseed-cake, as well as of the other vegetable sub- stances used in feeding cattle, would be a great boon to agricul- ture; but in the existing state of knowledge as to the relative offices of different constituents in the production of muscle and fat, the present inquiry has appeared to offer advantages, as em- bracing a far larger number of specimens than could be examined in a more detailed form.
The larger number of the analyses of linseed and oil-cake that follow were made by Mr. Ogston in my laboratory; some few, however, having been executed by Mr. Ward and Mr. F. Eggar. Of the nitrogen, a duplicate determination has in all cases been made; and, both to give confidence in the results and to impress upon the present contribution that air of exactness which should ~
482 On the Composition of Linseed Oil-Cake,
never be wanting in chemical papers, wheresoever they may be published, I have made a point of recording the double result. It has not appeared necessary to make a second analysis for oil ;* but some cases are mentioned which show that the liability to error is not great.{
In order that any differences between the varieties of cake might be perceived, [ have grouped them accerding to the dif- ferent countries from which they were imported.
The first table contams the analyses of eight specimens of
French cake, all of them imported this year, and the growth of 1848.
TABLE 1.—Analyses of French Linseed Cake.
NITROGEN. 1st es omy Oil. Water. Ash.
| | Analysis. | Analysis. | Mean.
ae,
|
Nosd of ec OT 4°56 4°58 9°97 6°96 | 21°62 ISRO LSS See ROG [PGeCY) 4°08 3°98 7°45 7°48 | 22°66 No. 3. Dunkirk . .| 4°45 4-82 4°63 10°12 7°20 8°72 No. 4. Treport . .| 4°66 4°78 4°72 | 10-16 7°32 7°61 No. 5. Bordeaux. .| 4°65 4°56 4°61 9-99 8-16 8:08 No. 6. Marseilles. .| 4°61 4°58 4°59, cise9 26 7°50 8-02 INO 0. 4-96 8:40 7°85 7°25 riot 5
Marseilles. .| 4°98 4:94 | 5
Marseilles. . -68 5:76 °72 7°89 8°31 7°66
Any remarks about the extent of variation will come better when the whole evidence is before us; in the meanwhile, the mean composition of the above may be given.
In the Vable is one very high and one equally low per-centage of nitrogen. These will in great measure balance each other, and not greatly affect the result. The mean of eight specimens of French cake is—
Nitrogen . : : : . 4°72 per cent. OMil ° ° . . = 9706 Water . : . 5 » 7:60 Ash (omitting Nos. 1 and 2) 7°89
* The oil was obtained by extraction with ether in the usual way.
+ It may appear to some unnecessary and objectionable that the pages of the Journal should be occupied with the detai] of experiments where the results only are immediately serviceable. To these it must be answered, that in all scientific journals it is usual to give the most minute details, in order that the reader may possess ample means of discovering error, whether of experiment, calculation, or opmion; and this amplification forms, in the eyes of the scientific man, an indispensable requisite of sci- entific writing. Neither is it just to the writer that the evidences of his labour should in large measure be suppressed, for it must be remembered that, when the results of a research have been published in this Journal, the details are of no value to any other ; and as they would never meet the public eye, all trace of them would be eventually lost, These remarks apply more to other instances than the present, where the double results, being tabulated, occupy no additional space.
Beans and Peas, §c. 483
The next Table gives the analyses of seven specimens of Ame- rican cake :—
TaBLE 2.—Analyses of American Linseed Cake.
NITROGEN. nee ona Qj] Water. Ash Analysis. | Analysis. | Mean
WNOMON es 6s a ye |) 4°58 ae 4+58 13°04 | 7°63 6+49 INOS LUGS is ae 4°09 4-10 4:10 13°57 9°51 7°56 INOtallerie ove! 4.1.8 5:30 5:19 5°25 10°71 6°56 5:76 INOEMCtuts se 8 8 4°59 4°68 4°63 D497 753 5:67 No. 13. . eet 4°86 4:96 4-9] 7°45 | 8:81 6:04 INO PMLA ree vet foes eet hve 4°91] 4°79 4°85 11°51 7°06 HONE No. 15. New Orleans 4°85 or 4°85 12°11 | 6°09 5°78
We may fairly take the mean of the nitrogen in this table without the exclusion of any one specimen. The mean of seven specimens of American cake will be— Nitrogen ° : - ° 4:74 Oil $ . : : A 11°41
Water . : . 5 6 7°60 Ash. 5 3 A 6 6°39
The next table gives the composition of nine specimens of English cake. I am unable to say how many of these cakes were made from foreign seed—no doubt the greater number. They were all pressed at home.
TasLe 3.—Analyses of English Linseed Cake.
NITROGEN. | “ie a I>. Oil. Water. Ash. Analysis, | Analysis.| Mean.
INO Hall Opeaeraroente a! 3°91 3°94 3°92 16°55 8:23 6°18 INOseliZienzes ce Pee 4°29 4°18 4°93 13°43 8°66 6°92 INOS Sete eee St 4-94 4°84 4-99 13°88 8°83 6:90 -No. 19, ° e ° ° 5°04 5:12 5:08 13°34 9-38 8:04 NOD OF sealord eck. 6 4°95 4°85 4°90 14°33 8:10 7°54 INom ile cee é 4°55 4:47 4°51] 10°05 9-25 6:94 INGA ee eh Oe 3:93 on 3°93 16:10 10°26 5°45 No. 23. Coase rey 4-3] 4°97 4-99 | 11-98 7-20 9°63 Non beter re in eee he gg Pa 4-62 | 15°32 7-51 6:04
The mean of the foregoing specimens of English cake is, for the s | Nitrogen : 5 ° : 4°57 Oil a s : 5 13°52 Water . : A 5 : 8:60 AShy > . a : : T°27
484 On the Composition of Linseed Oul-Cake,
The nitrogen is, on the aveage of these specimens, somewhat lower than in the case of the French and American series; but this arises from the extreme lowness of specimens Nos. 16 and 22. If these be thrown out, the average on the remaining seven samples will be 4°66, which practically does not differ from the mean of the French and American. Of the other varieties I have fewer samples to describe.
The following are analyses of two specimens of Russian
cake :—
TaBLEe 4.—Analyses of Russian Linseed Cake.
NITROGEN. ; an Oil, Water. Ash. t 2 Avialyis: eases Meat:
No. 25 . : 5°08 4-92 5°00 11°83 8:84 8°67 No. 26 ‘ 5°21 5°36 5°28 11°89 8°92 6°21 Mean of the two Russian Cakes :—
Nitrogen . ° 5°14 Oil A ° 11°86 Water 9 ° 8°88 Ash 4 8°39 TaBLE 5.—Analyses of German and Dutch Linseed Cake. NITROGEN. | a Oil. Water. Ash Ist pena yest Kasia eae No. 27. German 4-88 | 4:79 | 4:84 | 10°62 | 7°54 | 905 No. 28. German 4-81 4°90 4°85 8°58 8°11 8°54 No. 29. Dutch 4°23 4-30 4°26 | 10°33 8-29 iW hot | Mean of the three Specimens of German and Dutch Cake. Nitrogen . ° : 4.65 Oil ° ° . ; . 9°84 Water e ° e 7°98 Ash 5 9°56 TaBLe 6.—Analyses of Italian Linseed Cake. NITROGEN. te ae Oil. Water. Ash, s n Analysis. | Analysis. Mean: No. 30. Genoa 4:77 4°88 4-82 12°34 8°77 8°37 No. 31. Genoa . . 5°33 5°38 5°35 11°32 9°29 6°74
Beans and Peas, &c.
Mean of two Italian Cakes.
Nitrogen 5+03 Oi: 11°84 Water 9-03 Ash ° e ° ° 2 °55
TasBLeE 7.—Analyses of Sicilian Linseed Cake.
485
NITROGEN. ond Oil. Water. Ash. Ist n Amal ysis: Analysis. wean:
No. 32. 4°40 4°39 4-40 6°60 8°97 8°53 INOMOSM Wa lite 5°03 5°05 5:04 7°00 9°96 7°51 Mean of two Sicilian Cakes :—
Nitrogen 4°72 Oil 6:80 Water . ; 3 9°46 Ash e e ° 8°02
The preceding tables present one specimen of cake (No. 16) with 3°92 per cent., and another (No. 8) with 5:72 per cent. of nitrogen.
Calculating from these data the quantity of albuminous * ingre- dients, we shall find that No. 16 will contain 24:9 per cent., whilst No. 8 will contain as much as 36:3 per cent., or in other words, it is possible to meet with specimens of which one has half as much again of the “ flesh-forming principles” as another. It is not certain even that the extreme limits of variation may have been reached in either of these cases; but I do not imagine that it is usual to meet with them either so poor or rich as the samples in question.
It may be asked, Is this variation sufficient to account for the different results obtained in feeding with oil-cake? The question is only to be answered by another: Do we possess trustworthy numerical data of these results? The above variation in the composition of oil-cake is undoubtedly great, and would, I think, go far to explain the matter if it were at all common, which it 1s not.
Of the thirty-three specimens examined, twenty-one, or two- thirds, afford quantities of nitrogen varying only between 4°5 and oO per cent.; whilst of the whole number only two are to be found under 4:0 per cent., and four sensibly above 5:0 per cent As I before remarked, it is impossible to say whether the differ- ence in composition sufficiently explains the difference in feeding
* The expression is used in a general sense, without reference to the particular forms of nitrogenized principles, 2K
VOL. X.
486 On the Composition of Linseed Oil- Cake,
qualities, whilst the latter is not capable of being expressed even approximately in figures. It must, therefore, for the present, be left to the intelligent farmer to decide for himself upon this point.
The per-centage of o7/ 1s more uniformly variable, if we may so speak. The extremes are found in No. 16, which contains 16-55 per cent., and No. 32, where it is only 6:60. Between these points the samples present every degree of variation, although in this respect the cakes of different countries possess well marked peculiarities.
In order that the reader may trace the above-mentioned differ- ence, and that he may also observe the absence of any such dis- tinction in the case of nitrogen, I shall offer a table of the average composition of the specimens from different sources.
TABLE 8.—Mean Composition of Linseed Cake from different countries :—
| Nitrogen. Oil. Water. Ash. French . . «. 8 specimens 4°72 9-06 7°60 7°89 AIM@NIGal ieys, tee ppd: 5 4°74 11-41 7°60 6°35 Rang lish casks ae Ae 4°57 13°52 8-60 7°27 German and Dutch 3 ips 4°65 9°84 7°98 9-56 Riussianyen) eevee ae 5°14 11°86 8°88 8:39 Ttahians, ccecseea tion 22 vA 5°03 11-84 9-03 7-55 Sicilvamipssgias eee e5 4°72 6°80 9.46 8°02
From this statement it would appear very evident that the specimens of French, American, English, German, and Sicilian cakes are on the average practically alike in regard to nitrogen. Neither should we be inclined to believe that the Russian or Italian would have furnished an exception to this rule, had a sufficient number of samples been examined.
On the other hand, there is an obvious difference between the quantity of oil in the cakes of different countries. ‘To instance only those of American, French, and English manufacture, which are sufficiently numerous to afford an average:—In French we have 9, in American 114, and in English 133 per cent. of oil; that is to say, English cake contains on the average half as much again. Neither is this peculiarity irregular, as in the case of the nitrogen. Of eight specimens of French cake, no case occurs of a greater proportion of oil than 10 per cent., whilst this number expresses the least per-centage of nine English cakes. This circumstance, which, from the great perfection of English ma- chinery, we should have been at first unprepared to expect, will go far to explain the superior softness and mellowness of English- made cake. How far it may influence the fattening properties I cannot pretend to say. It hardly admits of a doubt that, to
Beans and Peas, &c. 487
obtain the greatest advantage from a given weight of food, either in feeding or fattening, it is necessary that the flesh-forming, fat- producing, and heat-evolving principles should bear a certain pro- portion to each other.* Of what that proportion may be, we are at present ignorant. Practical men are nearly agreed that, in linseed itself, the quantity of oil is, in relation to the nitrogen, too great for the general purposes of cattle-food, and that the two ingredients are better proportioned in cake ; but it does not follow that 13 per cent. may not be a more advantageous proportion than 9; and although an opinion on this subject would be pre- mature, I would suggest to the intelligent farmer to bear this peculiarity in mind in any trials which he may institute between the cakes of different countries.
Having by the preceding analyses given answers to the first and second points of inquiry which were proposed in the com- mencement, namely, first, whether there existed any real differ- ence in chemical composition, and if so, whether there was any marked distinction between the cakes of different countries, and secondly, whether the variation was sufficient to account for ob- served effects in feeding, we may pass on to inquire, thirdly, Is the difference attributable to adulteration, or to necessary variation in the composition of the seed?
Adulteration might be effected in two ways, either by admix- ture with the cake of sand or other earthy matter, or of sawdust, bran, or other vegetable substance.
I omit in this place the deterioration produced by the use of mixed and badly harvested seed; for although no doubt this is of very common occurrence, dl very prejudicial to the interests of the consumers of cake, it is hardly to be called adulteration— a term which we apply to the wilful and dishonest falsification of any article of commerce: but of this there will be presently occasion to speak.
In the first place, then, Is cake ever adulterated with sand or earthy matter? Farmers are in the habit of taking a portion between their teeth, and, should they find it ‘ gritty,” believe ‘that it is so adulterated. ‘To me it has always seemed unlikely that the cake-manufacturers should resort to so clumsy a method of falsification, because, if the mixture of sand should be made with the meal during the earlier pressings, it would not only diminish greatly the yield of oil, but would increase to an im- portant extent the labour of its-extraction. If, on the other hand, the mixture were reserved till after the complete extraction of the oil, it would demand an additional pressing. Unless, therefore,
—* See Mr. Lawes’s paper on Sheep-Feeding in the last (July) Number of this Journal. 2 K y)
458 On the Composition of Linseed Oil-Cake,
the per-centage of sand or earthy matter introduced were very considerable, the manufacturer would hardly find his account in such adulteration. So much for speculation. Let us now look at the analyses. With the exception of two cases (specimens 1 and 2) the proportion of ash never rises above 10 per cent. The exceptions are two French cakes: but even here the in- crease of mineral matter is not due to sand, but to the real ash of some other vegetable substance than linseed. Of the 22 per cent. of mineral matter in these specimens, more than one-half was carbonate of lime, of which very little is found in the ash of cake in general. It was obviously the ash of some woody matter, and so far might be due to adulteration, but certainly not by sand. The greater number of the ashes are under 8 per cent.— a quantity which will presently be shown to be but little above the proper proportion, supposing the cake to be made from pure and perfectly clean seed. ‘The following analyses of the ash of four of these cakes, made in this laboratory by Mr. Ward, will help to explain the point under discussion.*
TaBLe 9.—Composition in 100 parts of the Ash of Linseed Cake :—
Mean of 3 American. | American. Russian. Russian. PP ce menes | Spec. 11. Spec. 12, Spec. 25, Spec. 26. 11, 12, & 26. Per-centage of Ash . | 5°76 5°67 8°67 6:21 5°88 Silica and Sand. . | 9°08 12°86 39-10 14:41 12-12 Phosphoric Acid. . 33°43 28:02 25°52 34:91 32°12 Sulphuric Acid . . 2°38 5°29 1-43 1°63 3:10 Carbonic Acid . . 6°88 °64 26 -19 °90 Moines: 5. 4s ty atc 9°04 7°87 5:60 7°52 8°14 Magnesia 4 5 15°33 15°27 9°35 15°43 15°34 Peroxide of Troan : 2°64 3°28 1°45 1-60 Zr ol Potasha dukes ieuell «kv. 24°32 23°50 16:01 22-90 TROBE Soda. a 93 “51 °43 1°01 * 82, Chloride of Pocus — — — — — Chloride of Sodium . 1°06 1°87 85 *42 e112
100-09 99-1] 100°00 100°02 99°74
In taking the mean composition of the ash of linseed-cake, the specimen in the third column has been omitted from the high per-centage of sand which it contains. The other specimens afford a mean per-centage of 5°88 of ash, of which 12°12 is sand
* These per-centages of ash will all be a little above the mark from imperfect burning. Specimens 11, 12, 25, and 26, give the true ash, the charcoal, being weighed in the analysis and deducted. The average quantity of sand and charcoal in these ashes was determined upon the mixed ash of 25 specimens, which gave 9°54 per cent. of char- coal, and 22°32 per cent. of sand : consequently the ash determinations are 10 per cent. too high, except in the 4 specimens just meutioned.
Beans and Peas, &c. 489
in other words, 100 parts of cake contain less than one part of sand, whilst even specimens 25, which has an outside per-centage pe ash, two-fifths of which consist of sand, will only contain
4 grains of sand in every 100 grains of cake. So far, then, as the 33 analyses here recorded of specimens taken indiscriminately may enable us to judge, we are justified in stating that sand is not employed, or not often employed, to adulterate linseed-cake. Other remarks occur to us in examining the last table, but they will be better deferred.
Since, then, mineral adulteration is not practised, Is any vege- table substance ever mixed with the cake, having the effect of altering the per-centage of nitrogen to the extent we have seen? This question rightly belongs to the microscopical observer. It is possible that such may be the case; but the low per-centage of ash, together with the general absence of carbonates in it, forbids the notion that any large proportion of woody matters, such as sawdust, &c., should be used to adulterate the cake. And, independently of this negative evidence, it can be shown that the composition of the seed sufficiently accounts for all differences in that of the cake. To this point I therefore at once pass.
Linseed.
The following analyses of linseed will serve to show to what variations the seed is liable, although their number is insufli- cient to afford very satisfactory averages of its composition.
Circumstances did not allow of the extension of this part of the inquiry; but as the analyses are sufficient for the present purpose, I regret it the less that another opportunity of publish- ing a larger number of these results will no doubt occur, when the question can be entertained at greater length.
The first specimens to be described are foreign linseeds: they were obtained from an intelligent merchant and manufacturer, who is practically conversant with the whole subject.
No. 1 is average Riga, weighing 524 Ibs. to the bushel, and should
produce from 90 to 95 Ibs. of oil per quarter (22 per cents):
No. 2, good Memel, 56 Ibs. per bushel, should produce 100 to 105 Ibs.
of oil per quarter (22°8 per cent.).
No. 3, Black Sea, 53} lbs. per bushel, should produce about 112 Ibs. of
oil per quarter (26°3 per cent.).
All ‘of these specimens were mixed with other seeds: these were carefully picked out, and their proportion ascertained.
No. 1, Riga, contained of other seeds (principally cabbage, turnip, and
rape) 9°30 per cent.
No. 2, ewer 10°34 per cent. No. 3, Black Sea, 7°56 per cent.
We do not possess any analyses of these seeds (with the ex-
490 On the Composition of Linseed Oil-Cake.
ception of rape), and cannot therefore judge what would be their effect on the composition of the cake. They are, however, all of the description which we know to be rich in nitrogen as well as oil; and although they might injure the flavour, it is not pro- bable that they would much diminish the albuminous principles of the cake which should be made from the linseed containing them. It is to be observed, however, that the analyses which follow were made upon the pure linseed itself, after the separation of the other seeds, and no peculiarity of composition is therefore to be referred to their presence.
TaBLz 9.-—Analysis of Specimens of Foreign Linseed :—
NITROGEN. | | Oil. Water. Ash,
Ist 2nd
Analysis. | Analysis. Mean.
No. 1. Riga Linseed . 3°57 3°64 3 60 | 34°70 9°45 5°25 No. 2. Memel Linseed 3°31 3°36 3°33 | 36:00 8°74 3°56 No. 3. Black Sea Linseed} 3°36 3°27 3°31 | 38°42 | 10°12 5+ 64
The mean of these specimens 1s :—
Nitrogen : , ° : 3°41 Oi ae: Se Me : A 028) Water . : . ° . 9°44
Ash*™ =< % . . . ° 4°78
The next table gives the composition of four specimens of home-grown seed, the first having been grown by Mr. Warnes, the second by H.R.H. Prince Albert, and the other specimens obtained from Messrs. Gibbs, of Half-Moon Street. These
samples were all free from dirt or other seeds.
TasLE 10.—Analyses of Specimens of English Linseed :—
NITROGEN.
Ist 2nd Analysis. | Analysis. Meap:
No. 4. Grown by Mr. Warnes, 1847.
No. 5. Grown by his H.R. H. Prince Albert, 1847.
Mow G. Growth of 184711 4-91 | 4-29 | 4-95 | 33-5084 MOpnas aed -08
No. 7. Growth of 1848,)| ,. | Messrs. Gibbs . } 4°22 4°37 4°29 38°11 8°57 4°03
eer rn ora errata at ec
\ 4.54 4°66 | 4-60 |.36-66..1 12-33 | 2-68
* For the reasons given in the analysis of the cake, I believe the stated per-centage of ash to be somewhat over the truth,
Beans and Peas, ec. 491
The mean being—
Nitrogen. ° : ° 4°35 Oil: A ; R A 34:76 Water : 3 : ; 10-62 Ash . 4 : z ° Biot)
Comparing the results in the table with those of foreign linseed, we find that great differences occur in the proportion of albu- minous matters. No.3 contains only 3°31; No. 4, 4°60 per cent. of nitrogen—which numbers are equivalent to 21:0 and 29:2 per cent. of albuminous principles respectively. It is not my inten- tion to assert that foreign linseed is uniformly or generally less rich in nitrogenous substances than home-grown seed: the number of specimens examined does not warrant such a conclusion, and for the present, whatever may be the result of a further exami- nation, the question must be left open. But the facts do appear to justify us in believing that the seed itself, even when free from the admixture of other seeds and from dirt, is subject to great variation in composition. Neither in the present case is the low per-centage of nitrogen to be referred to an inferior or imperfectly ripened seed, since No. 2 is called by a competent judge “ good Memel,”* and has a high weight per bushel (56 lbs.). Whether the variation in albuminous constituents is to be attributed to climate or any other circumstance is not the question at present, but simply whether the difference in the seed is sufficient to account for the difference in the cake. ‘The quantity of oil yielded on the large scale by samples of linseed varies considerably. Average Riga, for instance, will yield about 20 per cent. of its weight, whilst Bombay seed affords as much as 26 per cent.
For the convenience of calculation, let us suppose that two samples of seed, the one containing 3°31, the other 4:54 per cent. of nitrogen, lose upon pressure 20 per cent. of oil each. As the whole of the nitrogen remains in the cake, whilst the latter is diminished in weight by one-fifth, the per-centage of nitrogen in the resulting cake will be one-fourth | more than the above numbers, Consequently the two samples instanced would afford cakes containing 4:14 and 5°67 per cent. of nitrogen respectively, which numbers represent, within a very little, the amount of varia- tion actually observed between different samples of linseed-cake.
No doubt, had a larger number of samples of hnseed been examined, the limits of variation might have been extended ; but the instances now adduced amply prove that differences
* In the eyes of a linseed crusher a seed would probably be “good” which would give a large yield of oil. + Thus 80 of cake wil] contain the same nitrogen as 100 of seed—then Cake. Nitrogen. Cake, Nitrogen. AS S06. -d* al oy 100 : 4:14 which is therefore the per-centage.
492 On the Composition of Linseed Ourl- Cake,
occur in the composition of the seed adequate to account for similar differences in the composition of the cake. Thus an answer is afforded to the third question proposed, and indirect evidence supplied in the negative to the question of adulteration.
That this subject may be as complete as possible, I insert here the mean of two ash analyses of linseed.
TABLE 11.—Mean Composition of the Ash of Linseed :—
Silica - . 5 ; 1°45 Phosphoric Acid. . : 38°54 Sulphuric Acid. B < 1.56 Carbonic Acid : ‘ : °22 Lime ; 5 é : 8:40 Magnesia . : ‘ 4 13°11 Peroxide of Iron . ; a °50 Potash ‘. . s ° 34°47 Soda . 5 . . : 1°69 Chloride of Potassium . A oe Chloride of Sodium 4 ° 36 100-00
The composition of the ash of linseed, and that of linseed- cake, should exhibit no other difference than that produced by the accidental introduction into the latter of a little sand and dirt, as well as of some portion of the substance of the stones used in grinding the seed. Accordingly we find that, making allowance for this circumstance, the per-centage composition of the ash of the cake approaches very nearly what would be expected.* In quantity of ash, the cake of course exceeds the linseed in propor- tion to the oil expressed. Where the per-centage of ash in the cake is high, it is mostly due to its containing more sand, as in the case of specimen 25, which is given in the table at p. 484. We may conclude this subject by recapitulating the conclusions to which we have been led :—
1. That samples of cake differ considerably both in the pro- portion of albuminous matter and of oil contained in them.
2. That in respect to the former (the albuminous matter) there would appear to be no general distinction between home-made j or foreign cakes.
3. That in the proportion of oil there is reason to believe a general distinction does exist, more especially between English and French cakes, and in favour of the former.
* Except in the potash—some of which seems to have been lost—for whilst in the ash of the seed it stands to the phosphoric acid in the relation of 34 to 383, in the cake it is as 233 to 32, which is a very different proportion. Is potash expressed from the seed in the form of soap dissolved by the great excess of 011?
+ I say ‘“‘ home-made.” This term merely implies that the seed was pressed at home —there being no evidence to show that the seed inany of the English cakes described was other than Foreign seed,
Beans and Peas, §c. 493
4. That there is no reason to believe that linseed-cake is adulterated at any time with sand or other earthy matter —adulteration by other matters being also rendered unlikely, by the next fact, namely,
5. That different samples of seed, free from admixture of other seeds, or from impurity of any kind, present vari- ations in the proportion of albuminous matter amply sufficient to account for those found in specimens of cake.
But whether the differences in chemical composition of the cake are such as to account for observed differences in feeding properties, it is left with the reader to decide.
Of the relative price of different samples of cake I have nothing to say. Under the most favourable circumstances for comparison, it would be difficult to fix upon any starting-point, where the price is so fluctuating. Some of the samples described were sold at 9/. 10s., others as low as 6/. per ton. The only general relation at all perceptible between price and composition is in the fact before mentioned, that the English-pressed cakes, which are richest in oil, also bear a very generally high price in the market. That this is no rule, however, the higher price of French than American cake, coupled with a smaller per-centage of oil, sufficiently proves.
Rape- Cake.
Two analyses of this cake, and one of rape-seed, are given below. Of their history I am unable to speak.
Analyses of Rape-Cake :—
NITROGEN. 1st 2nd Oil. Water. | Ash. Analysis. | Analysis. Mean. No.1]. —— .. - 5°29 5°17 5°23 11°63 7-06 5°70 Now 2st a SS 5°62 5°54 5°58 10:62 6-62 10°41
\
All that can be said from the above analyses of the compo- sition of rape-cake is, that it is very much the same with that of linseed-cake. ‘Till lately, however, the hot flavour of rape-cake has been an insurmountable objection to it as a substitute for the more costly article.*
Rape-cake has been more often employed as manure. The following analyses of its ash, made for me by Mr. Eggar, will not therefore be without interest :—
* See Mr. Pusey’s notice on this subject in the July Journal, 1849.
494 On the Composition of Linseed Oil-Cake,
TasLe 12.—Composition in 100 parts of the Ash of Rape-Cake (Spec. 1) :-—
Sand and Silica . s § 3 § 13°07 Phosphoric Acid . ° . ° - 32-70 Carbonic Acid . 5 ’ . 2 2°15 Sulphuric Acid . ° ° ° ° 1°62 Lime 2 3 c . ; . 8 62 Magnesia . a . ; : - ol4*75 Oxide of Iron 4 5 : : 4°50 Potash 5 és Fi : ae EZ Soda . 5 4 4 4 —_— Chloride of Potassiam , ¢ ; 5 °17 Chloride of Sodium ¢ 4 3 h °46 100:00
The ash of rape-cake is therefore in every respect the counter- part to that of linseed-cake. A ton of the cake will contain 128 Ibs. of mineral matters, one-third of which is phosphoric acid, one-fifth potash, and one-seventh magnesia. Even although, as in the second specimen, the total quantity of ash should be greater, the above numbers will hold good, the excess being sand. Only one specimen of rape-seed has been examined: it was the seed of dwarf-rape, and obtained from Messrs. Gibbs.
Analysis of Rape-Seed :—
NITROGEN. ist ond Oil. Water. Ash. Analysis. | Analysis. Mean. 4: 26 Adil 7°84 6°44 3°31
Beans and Peas.
The want of certain data as to the composition of even the commonest agricultural produce is constantly felt by all those who are engaged in investigating the principles of agriculture, and every trustworthy analysis will therefore be welcomed as an addition to our stock of knowledge. Such analyses, though they may serve no immediate purpose, must greatly smooth the way for those experimenters who, having chalked out for themselves a path of inquiry sufficiently arduous in itself, are anxious to deviate as little as possible into secondary or collateral subjects of research.
As a contribution to the scientific statisties of agriculture, I offer a few analyses of peas and beans, which will serve to show the average composition of these grains, so far as the albuminous principles and fatty matters are concerned.
The specimens were those of which the ash analysis is given in a former number of this Journal (vol.ix. part 1); and although
Beans and Peas, &c. 495
I do not propose to offer any remarks upon their composition in relation to the soil on which they were grown, it may not be amiss so far to record the history of each. ‘The nitrogen analyses were made for me by Mr. Ward; the estimations of oil prin-
cipally by Mr. Eggar.
TaBLE 13.—Analyses of Peas :—
NITROGEN.* OIL. |
On the Onthe Dry} On the On the Water.
Undried. | Matter. | Undried.! Dry.
—-—_ —_— ——__—.
-98 | 4-61 Not Jestimated| 13°60 57 4-22 01 1-19 15°40 97 3°44 Not jestimated! 13°60
No. 1. White Peas (Seed) «. . No. 2. Ditto (Produce on Clay) . No. 3. Ditto (Produce on Sand) .
—
|
Go co Co bo GO CO
No. 4. Maple or Grey Pea (Seed) 0S 3°67 1°56 1°83 14°60 No. 5. Ditto (Produce on Clay). °47 4°16 1:54 1°85 16°60 No. 6. Ditto (Produce on Sand) . -28 3°92 1:04 1°24 16-40
The mean result of the foregoing analyses is as follows :—
Undried. Dry. Nitrogen in White Pea . : See oe of 6 4: mee of 6 Nitrogen in Grey Pea . : 3°28) 3:40 3°92$ 4-00 Oil, Mean of 1 White and3 Grey 1-29 1°53 TaBLE 14.—Analyses of Beans :— NITROGEN. OIL. ional lontiepr| onthe || on the | Water | Undried. | Matter. | Undried. Dry. Heligoland or Tick Beans (Seed) | 3°57 | 4°11 | 1-15 | 1+29 | 13-20 Ditto (Produce on Clay) . .~ | 2°81 3°27 |. 1°25 1°45 | 14°20 Ditto (Produce on Sand). . .| 3:40 | 4-04 | 1:53 | 182 | 15-80 Mazagan Bean (Seed). . . . | 2°36 3°74 1:47 | 1°69 | 17°00 Ditto (Produce on Clay). . . ong 3°59 a ee ah 00 Ditto (Produce on Sand). ». . 3°49 4°18 171 2°05 | 16°50 | . Mean Composition— Undried. Dry. Nitrogen in Heligoland Beans . 3°26) Mean of 6 3°81
Leer of 6 Nitrogen in Mazagan Beans . 3°01 3°13 SrOay on ou. Oil inHeligoland Beans . 1-31) Mean of 5 1°52) Mean of 5 Oil in Mazagan Beans , . 1 59} 1°45 1; 37} 1-79
Of these analyses, I would merely say that they show a very close resemblance between beans and peas in the proportion of albuminous matter, although it is at the same time obvious that
* A second analysis for nitrogen was not made in all cases; the following, however,
may be mentioned :— ‘i Ist Analysis. 2nd Analysis. Mean.
No: Ss of 2 4°64 4°58 4-6] INO sos. sek cig OnOae 3°72 3°67 No! Os A 2.0. NAS20 4°12 4:16
496 On the Composition of Linseed Oil-Cake, &c.
their composition is liable to very considerable variation. Neither in the peas nor beans does the average composition appear to fluctuate with the variety, but to rise or fall in obedience to laws which the analyses are not intended to elucidate.
Note by Mr. Pusey.
I am glad to be able to report favourably as to the discovery accidentally made by me (as mentioned in the last number), that sheep, when at turnips, can be fed on rape-cake without the ad- mixture of linseed-cake. This autumn I have kept 700 fatting sheep in this way, on rape-cake, with entire success ; and in order to be certain that the progress in condition was equal, I put up two little lots of ten sheep each, keeping one upon rape-cake and the other on linseed-cake. Not the slightest difference could be perceived between the two lots. As the best linseed-cake costs 71. 10s., and the best rape-cake only 4/. 10s. per ton, the saving in the production of mutton, arising from the use of rape-cake, is really considerable. In that of beef it is not so much, as I do not find that my beasts like a larger proportion of rape-cake to linseed - cake than pound for pound of each.
XXV.—On the Advantage of Deep Drainage. From the Right
Hon. C. ARBUTHNOT.
To the Secretary.
Walmer Castle, October 9, 1848.
My pear Sirr—No consideration could induce me at any time to engage in litigious controversy upon any subject whatever, and much more unwilling should I be upon the question, whether it be the more advisable to have deep drains or shallow ones.
If, therefore, J fee] inclined to make some observations upon the stbject of drainage, 1 can assure Mr. Bullock Webster, whose article I have read in the Royal Agricultural Journal of August last, that, to use his own words, I am neither of the deep nor of the shallow faction; but that I will confine myself to stating what has been my own experience, and what that of friends to whom I had communicated the result of my practice.
I had happened some years ago to read an article in the Royal Agricultural Journal on deep drainage by Mr. Josiah Parkes, and it struck me to be so reasonable that I resolved to try the plan upon some very stiff clay on the farm I cultivate in Northamptonshire. I wrote to my bailiff, Mr, Andrew Thompson,
On the Advantage of Deep Drainage. 497
to drain a small field of seven acres, and to put the drains at the depth of 4 feet, and at wide intervals between the drains. This was effected as I had desired. My bailiff, being a very intelligent and unprejudiced man, made no objection, but he only doubted much whether the very wet and most tenacious clay which I had selected could be rendered dry by drains at wide intervals and 4 feet deep.
The field in question, at the time of trying the experiment, was old grass-land, which, previous to the deep draining, was pared and burnt; and being in high ridges of various widths, it was necessary to place the deep drains at intervals of unequal width. The width of the intervals was 40 feet upon an average.
My experiment succeeded so completely that I was then anxious to communicate with Mr. Parkes, but I neither knew him nor where he resided. You may perhaps remember that I sent to you the letter which I had written to him, desiring that you would be so obliging as to forward it.
Since that first experiment I have drained a considerable part of my cold clay land on the same principle, and invariably with the same success. It would, therefore, be quite unnecessary to enter into further details as to my own practice; but, neverthe- less, I must be allowed to notice one particular field which has been subjected by me to the deep-drainage system. This was a field a. varied at top, but chiefly Of strong clay; and the subsoil in particular is so tough, and so difficult to work, that doubts were entertained as to the practicability of laying the land dry by means of drains sunk so deep as 4 feet from the surface. The work, however, was perfectly well executed; and the ques- tion then was, what should be the first crop on this deep-drained field. My bailiff, who had become a perfect convert to deep drains at wide intervals, resolved to sow it with turnips. The farmers of the neighbourhood said that such strong clay land was not calculated for turnips. They, however, turned out the best that I saw that year; and my bailiff, having gone in the autumn to see his father in Roxburghshire, declared to me on his return that he had seen no crop superior to it in Scotland. More than this, it had happened that Lord Lilford, livmg not many miles from me in Northamptonshire, saw that particular field while under the process of draining. He was struck with the very bad appearance of the soil, consisting, as I have said, of very strong clay above and below; and his lordship was again at my place when the field was covered with a magnificent crop of turnips. His astonishment was the greater, frou seeing upon that field of strong clay a flock of sheep, which remained flere without the slightest injury to the land during the winter ell all the turnips were consumed.
498 On the Advantage of Deep Drainage.
Having satisfied my own mind that deep-draining is advisable, I naturally stated the result of my proceedings to those of my friends whose lands required draining. I will mention some of those friends with whom I communicated upon the subject, selecting those whom I knew to be possessors of very strong clay- land. I advised the Duke of Wellington, the Duke of Bedford, Sir Francis Lawley, and Sir Robert Peel, to try the system which had so entirely succeeded with me. I have seen land belonging to the Duke of Wellington, at Stratfieldsaye, so drained, and upon tenacious clay, as I know by the analysis of it; and with him it has had such good effect that his land-steward is intending by degrees to have the whole of the Duke’s estates in Hampshire drained to a great depth; never at a less depth than 4 feet, but in some instances, according to the nature of the soul, at a still greater depth.
I have seen also the beneficial effects of deep drainage at Drayton Manor, the seat of Sir Robert Peel, in Staffordshire. Some of Sir Robert’s land in that county is strong, and some of it inclining to sand. On all of his land, that which is clayey and that which is sandy, the deep drains have been efficacious ; taking care, of course, to drain at greater and at lesser depths, and at wider or closer intervals, according to the nature of the soil; but never, I believe, on land in his own occupation, putting in a drain at less than 4 feet deep.
I have not seen Sir Francis Lawley’s land. He has, however, told me that he considers deep drainage, upon his very strong clays in Shropshire, the greatest improvement that he had ever practised himself, and, in his belief, the greatest that had ever been introduced into the agriculture of this country.
I have reserved for the last what I have to say respecting the practice of the Duke of Bedford.
I wrote to the Duke soon after I had read the article by Mr. Bullock Webster, and I requested him to let me see againa letter which last spring he had received from Mr. Bennett, his principal steward at Woburn.
I have no doubt erroneously, but certainly I had imagined that Mr. Bennett, when some few years ago | wrote to the Duke of Bedford upon this subject, was adverse to deep-drainage upon the very strong Bedfordshire clays, termed there “ gault,’ I think ; stating, as I thought, I recollected that it would be im- possible for rain to percolate through their tenacious subsoils. Whether I was mistaken or not respecting Mr. Bennett's first opinion, it was highly satisfactory to me to read a letter of his to the Duke of Bedford, in which he mentioned that after the heavy rains of last sprmg he had found the deep-drained land made sounder to ride upon than the land which had been shallow-
On the Advantage of Deep Drainage. 499
drained. It was the more satisfactory, as I knew that Mr. Ben- nett was a very sensible, and, in agriculture, a very practical gentleman.
On the 4th of the present month (October) the Duke of Bedford wrote to me as follows :—
<¢ T have not been able to find the Report you asked for about draining, but I spoke to my steward, Mr. Bennett, on the subject the other day, and I have since received from him the enclosed letter. These last rains have caused great floods in Beds and Northamptonshire. Mr. Bennett has looked at several of the drains since, and finds his deep ones again acting best. Return his letter, but take a copy of it if you please.”
Thus writes the Duke of Bedford, and towards the end of his letter he reverts again to the subject of draining. He says :—
<*T went in August to Castle Howard, where I saw a field that had been drained. Half by —— shallow ; the other half by Mr. Parkes deep. The advantages of the latter were very great, both as to cost and effect.”
Having quoted parts of the Duke of Bedford’s letter, I will now give a copy of Mr. Bennett’s letter to his Grace, which I have been allowed to make use of as I please. ‘The following is Mr. Bennett’s letter :—
*¢ Park Farm Office, 3rd Oct. 1848.
«* My Lorp Duke,
‘¢ In reference to the question your Grace asked me about draining, I beg to inform you that when the work was first begun in the park the drains were put in 30 inches deep and 1 pole apart. They have gra- dually been increased in depth and distance apart up to 43 feet, and in some instances 5 feet deep, and 11 yards and in some cases more apart. After last spring, which was the longest continued wet we had experienced since the work was done, I found the deepest drained land was the soundest and the driest to ride over. I do not know whether I may be classed as a convert to deep draining or not, for I always was of opinion the nature of the subsoil ought to regulate the depths of draining, and that one uniform depth would not suit all piaces alike.
‘¢ T find the 11 yards apart is on strong clay land as great a distance as can be depended on, but I have sume at 15 yards which answers exceed- ingly well, the subsoil being more porous.
‘“‘ T have the honour to be ‘‘ Your Grace’s most obedient servant, “‘ THomas Bennet. “To his Grace the Duke of Bedford.”
After what I have written, and after what I have heard from others, it will not I think surprise any one that I should be an advocate for deep drainage. The gentlemen who have given a different opinion to Mr. B. Webster must know best what they think is suitable to the land they occupy. I say nothing against their expressed opinion, except only that in more emcee than one I have observed that the land drained by them was a /iat, from which, without an adequate fall, or without methods attain- able for the purpose, it would not be possible for deep drains to
300 On the Advantage of Deep Drainage.
emit the water contained in them. I have given some of the many instances in which deep draining has been found far supe- rior to the shallow mode. I am satisfied with the result, and my hope is that the system of draining deep will in time be generally adopted.
Mr. Webster says that the deep-drainage system is pretended to be a new one; I believe that it has been newly reproduced, and by the science and good sense of Mr. Parkes; but that the system is not new, and only revived, may be proved by a book written in the time of Oliver Cromwell, and called ‘ Blyth’s Improver Improved; and still more anciently was the system practised in our country by the Romans, as was discovered by excavations to have been the case some few years ago, when a regular system of deep drains at wide intervals was found to have been the practice when the Romans had possession of the greatest part of Britain.
I should be exceedingly sorry if I had said a word which Mr. B. Webster could think offensive. It would appear to me as absurd to belong to a “ faction” for deep or shallow draining as we all think it laughable in ‘ Gulliver’s Travels’ that there should be in Lilliput a deadly feud between Big and Little-endians. I have sought to establish what I believe to be the truth; but I do not say a word against Mr. B. Webster's practice nor against that of the friends he has quoted. J make no comment on the prac- tice of others; I merely state what I have witnessed myself and what I learn from my friends.
There is indeed one additional observation which I ought not to omit. My first experiment in deep-draining was, as I have already mentioned, on a field of 7 acres. ‘That small field was separated only by a hedge from a much larger field, which had previously been drained according to the shallow system by drains 30 inches deep and at intervals of 18 feet. Nothing conld be better executed than the drains in that field; and the soil and subsoil (as I knew by analysis) were precisely similar to those in the adjoining field which had been drained 4 feet deep and at very wide intervals. I happened to be at home soon after the fall of very heavy rains. I myself saw the deep drains begin to pour out water from their main drain before the same occurred in the shallow-drained field; and subsequently I saw that the shallow drains ceased running long before the deep ones.
I felt that if was due to Mr. Parkes, and due also to the farming world in general, that I should make known what has been my practice, with its results, and what also has been that of some of my friends.
We need not be alarmed by the apprehensions intimated by Mr. B. Webster. He fears that deep drains, though efficient at
On the Advantage of Deep Drainage. 501
first and for a time, will become inoperative after a lapse of years. Some have doubted whether rain could ever force its way through very strong clay; but, when channels have been made, every suc- ceeding shower must tend more and more to keep those channels open and also to cause new ones. In this way deep draining may to a certain extent produce the effect of subsoiling; for deep- drained land becomes annually more porous and more accessible to the roots of plants. I am, dear sir, very faithfully yours, CuHarLes ARBUTHNOT.
To James Hudson, Esq.
Below Mr. Webster’s article a note is added by Mr. Pusey. With him I have not the honour to be acquainted, but I know his character sufficiently to respect him greatly. I have under- stood that Mr. Pusey had never himself practised deep draining ; and indeed his note leads me to believe that he was, as he had done before, merely advising caution in draining, and that his observations have not been on drains of his own land. If in this I am correct, he could not have so well known whether the drained land shown to him was underneath and out of sight pro- perly or ill executed.
Cu, A.
P.S.—Since writing the above I have had a letter from Mr. Bennett, in which he says that the shallow drains at Woburn were not by his advice, but upon the recommendation of a person thought an authority in such matters. It will have been seen by the letter above quoted to the Duke of Bedford that the shallow drains were superseded as ineflicacious, and, being replaced by deep ones, the land had become drier and sounder to ride upon. Mr. Bennett also states in his letter to me that last year he had put in drains at 11, 15, and 22 yards apart, and at 4, 43, and _ Ofeet deep in the same field, and that after the rains of Jast month there was no perceptible difference, all having been equally effi- cacious, The subsoil in that field, he says, 1S a very strong clay, interspersed with small veins of sandy loam and gravel, which of course act as so many arteries and feeders to the pipes.
Thus writes Mr. Bennett, and nothing can be more valuable and conclusive than his testimony in favour of deep drains at wide intervals.
[t would have been unjust to Mr. Bennett if I had not let it be known that he had not been the adviser of shallow drains at
Woburn.
Cu. A.
Note.—The above letter to Mr. Hudson was written,as the date will
show, in October of last year. I sent it too late for the next publication VOL. X. 2 L
502 On the Advantage of Deep Drainage.
of the Journal, Other circumstances prevented its appearance in the Journal of July last; but this delay has enabled me to add an additional proof of the superior advantage arising from deep drainage. On the 5th of this month of August the Earl of Ellesmere wrote to me from Lan- cashire, that ‘* he was busy organising further drainage, and that he shall have enough to do in that way for the rest of his life. He had been obliged,” he says, “ to redrain Jand which remained wet after a 3-feet drainage, and to insert 4-feet drams.”
I know from Lord Eljesmere himself that he had on the chat moss gone from necessity so deep as 10 feet before he put in his drains, and that the part of the moss so drained had been rendered quite dry.
August 7, 1849. CuarLes ARBUTHNOT.
Note by Mr. Pusey.
There can be no doubt that agriculture is much indebted to Mr. Parkes for the talent with which he has pointed out the ad- vantage of deep-draining upon the majority of soils. The only question is, whether it be applicable to all soils without exception. Mr. B. Webster, in the paper referred to, brought forward cases in which farmers, having laid down deep drains in tenacious clays, had taken them up, and replaced them with shallower drains at their own expense. It still appears to me, therefore, that caution is required in employing very deep drains on very tenacious clays, and that Lord Portman * is right in saying,—
“Tam more and more convinced, by experiment and observation, that no rule can be safely fixed for the depths and distances of drains. I think that in each case it would be wise to make experiments prior to the en- gaging in any large work of draining, having regard to the strata of the earth, as well as the sources of the supply of water.”
Quite recently two careful but contradictory experiments have been made in Scotland on this very subject. They are here sub- joined from the Mark-Lane Express. The first tells in favour of deep draining :— ,
« At the last monthly general meeting of the East of Berwick- shire Farmers’ Club, D. Milne, Esq., of Milnegraden, the pre- sident of that very efficient club, read the following report of experiments he had recently made on the above subject :—
« Mr. Milne stated that, having to drain a 24-acre field, he took the opportunity of trying the effect of drains varying in depth and distance. He divided the field into four parallel breaks—each about 6 acres in extent. In the westernmost the drains were 34 feet deep and 30 feet apart; in the one next to it the drains were 3 feet deep and 15 feet apart; in the third the drains were 33 feet deep and 15 feet apart; in the fourth they were 3 feet deep and 30 feet apart, The furrow-drains in each break led into a _
* Roy. Agric. Journ., No. XXII, p. 452.
On the Advantage of Deep Drainage. 203
large drain at the ends; and at the mouth of each large drain a water-meter was placed. The field was drained in the winter of 1847-48. It had been 14 years in grass. Its last crop (viz. in 1834) was wheat, of which the land produced on an average 33 bushels per acre. In the spring of 1848 the field was partly sown with sandy oats, and partly with black oats got from Essex. The water-meters were set in June, 1548, and were removed in April, 1849, At harvest of 1848 the stooks were counted, and the following was the result :— Sandy Oats. On 3 feet and 15 feet drains, 5583 stooks per acre.
9» 35, 30 9 503% 3 Black Oats. On 3 feet and 15 feet drains, 5623 Ee Ox 5; 30 As 542$ 55 These crops, on being thrashed, yielded as follows :— Sandy Oats. On 3 feet and 15 feet drains, 44 bushels per acre. 393 OF 39 30 ak 632 a — Weight—41 lbs. per bushel. Black Oats. On 3 feet and 15 feet drains, 522 a » SF 30 743 ¥3
Weight—40 Ibs. per bushel.
Some modification of these results was, however, necessary, in regard to the black oats, in consequence of one of the breaks on which it grew having been on nearly one-half of it shaded by trees. That the trees had the effect of considerably lessening the produce, particularly of grain, is evident from the following
Statement :— Black Oats. Break shaded, produced 611 stooks per acre.
» unshaded _,, 5144 » 99 shaded 9 703 99 ae unshaded. - «5, 343 a
If the shaded break is thrown out of view, the result, as regards black oats, would be as follows :—
On3 ft. and 15ft. drains, 611 stooks per acre.
34 ~=and 30 bs 5422 ,, 3 and 15 ws aii cOs bushels s:,, 3} and 30 7 T9355
The quantity of seed sown for both kinds of oats was at the rate of five bushels per acre. ‘The water discharged from the two sets of drains was as follows :— !
From the 3 ft. and 15 ft. drains, 35,711 gals. per acre. toy BE amdi80to0 any 46.500 if 2uL2Z
504 On the Advantage of Deep Drarnage.
In this calculation the quantity of water which fell on the few acres shaded with trees was thrown out of view. From these results it would appear that rather more water had been dis- charged by the 3$ drains than hy the 3-feet drains, though the latter were twice as numerous as the former. In those parts of the field therefore drained by the 3-feet drains there was more water left in the land, or went off by evaporation; and there was also less depth of soil for the roots. This fact seemed to explain the produce obtained, If the number of stooks afforded a correct criterion of the quantity of straw, there was most straw on the 3- feet drains, and most grain on the 33-feet drains; from which he would infer that a damp soul, theuen favourable to large produce in straw, was unfavourable to large produce incorn. The 33-feet drains probably produced with greater dryness greater warmth, as the larger quantity of rain which they carried off would impart to the soil a greater amount of heat. Why the 3§ drains, though one-half as numerous as the 3-feet drains, should carry off as large or a larger quantity of water, was a separate question. Of course the deeper drains would draw from a greater extent of surface ; but he had not anticipated that a 33- feet drain would have drawn off double, or rather more than double, the quantity of water that a 3-feet drain draws. The water-meters, however, showed that this had been the case, unless indeed there were springs in those breaks where the deeper drains were. He was not aware that any such springs existed. The subsoil was pretty uniformly retentive throughout the field; and the upper soil was not perceptibly more open in one part than in another. So far, therefore, as his experiments had proceeded, they showed that if drains were made 31 feet deep, only one-half the number will produce the same or a little better effect than 3-feet drains. The expense per acre of the former, in the field referred to, had been 4. 6s. 4d. ; of the latter 87. 12s. 43d. Mr. Milne stated that he had heard of a similar experiment having been tried in East Lothian by Mr. Hope of Fenton, with an opposite result. He had seen no account of Mr. Hope's experiment but if correctly reported to him it would lessen his confidence in the results obtained by him- self, and would be an additional inducement to persevere with his observations, in order to obtain further data for coming to a right conclusion. Probably, 1 in another year, more correct data could be obtained, as in a few months only after the drains were made the soil could not have been opened very thoroughly, He had last winter put the subsoil plough through the field, and he would endeavour to ascertain what was the produce of this year’s crop on the several divisions, and report the result to the club. One thing was quite evident, that with almost any system of drainage the increased produce amply compensated the cost. From the
On the Advantage of Deep Drainage. 505
crop which had been yielded on the field above referred to, even after only six months had elapsed from the execution of the drains, he calculated that an increase of about 20 bushels of oats (equal to about 2/.) per acre had been obtained. This result was in conformity with what had been obtained from other fields previously drained by him. Sut on the generai benefits of drain- ing it was unnecessary to dwell. ‘The great question now was, What is the system of drainage which could be done most effi- ciently, and at the least expense? ‘To this point inquiries ought to be specially directed.”
Mr. Hope’s experiment, alluded to by Mr. Milne, is favour- able to shallow draining, as the following account shows :—
To the Editor of the North British Agriculturist.
‘‘Sir,—In reply to your inquiry as to the result of the experiments made by me, in draining with tiles at different depths and distances, I may pre- mise that the field operated on may be described as rather a free loam, but upon a very stiff retentive clayey subsoil, mixed with small stones, quite free from under-water. The ridges were 18 feet in width, and were gathered up from the stubble, leaving every furrow open, to save spade labour. Into eight contiguous furrows, each upwards of 330 yards in length, there was put a drain of 3 feet in depth below the plough furrow. Then one furrow was missed, but in the following another drain of the same dimension was put. After that followed two furrows without any drain, thus leaving a ridge which may be said to be undrained. The rest of the field was done with drains 1 foot 8 inches in depth below the plough furrow. The land since then having been ploughed flat, the drains may be considered as 10 or 12 inches deeper than the depths cut with the spade. The cost of the 3-feet drains was 6d. per rood, or 4/. per S. acre ; the ebb drains, 23d. per rood, or 1. 10s. per statute acre.
“The draining of the whole field, which contains 15 S. acres, was finished early in February, 1841, and in summer was sown with turnips, the drills running across the drains or ridges. One half was made white globe, the other half Swedish turnip, the manure applied being half a ton of rapedust and 12 carts of farmyard dung to each variety per acre. The crop was removed and weighed on the 14th December, and the produce - found as follows, per Scotch acre :—
White Turnips. Swedish Turnips.
tons. cwt. tons. cwt.
- On 3-feet drains, 18 feet apart . ° ° 2S 13° 15 On 1 foot 8 inches ditto, 18 feet apart : . 24 G UG Saal U7 On 3-feet drains, 36 feet apart . A - - 20 14 1 — On portion undrained : . ° OPA is) 10 15
“It was only after the white turnip had finished growing that the land could be said to be wet, and to receive any benefit from the draining. The subsoil, from the deep drains, appeared to be against the white tur- nips ; but the Swedish were much larger where they came in contact with it. At the same time they were obviously thinner en the ground.
‘‘ About the middle of February, 1842, the field was sown with wheat, drilled across, that a like quantity of seed might be given to each part of it. Three bushels per acre was the quantity sown. The different portions were cut, stacked, and threshed separately ; and the following is the result, per Scotch acre, the weight of all being the same, 62 Jb. per bushel :
506 On the Advantage of Deep Drainage.
Wheat. Straw.
qrs. bush. tons. cwt. lbs. On 3-feet drains, 18 feet apart . : - 5 62 Lia alos On 1 foot 8 inch drains, 18 feet apart . eye NO el Doe Ayo On 3-feet drains, 36 feet apart . : 3. Ov WeO 1 9 84 On portion undrained ° * : OO) IN) ie! bit 22
‘From the period when the land was sown, until the crop was reaped, there never was more moisture in the soil than what was requisite for the growth of plants.
‘The field was grazed in 1843 and 1844. Little or no difference was observed in the pasture during the first year, though, in the second, appearances were against the portion with deep drains. In the spring of 1845 the whole was ploughed up and sown with grey Angus oats. Before harvest the effects of the drains were very obvious, the crop on the ground ebb-drained being much heavier and bulkiest; at one period it was laid when the crop on the deep drains was all standing. On the Jatter, and on the ridge undrained, the crop was sooner ripe, though the field was all cut in one day. This accounts, in part, for the weight per bushel being greater on these portions ; indeed, the quality improves as the quantity diminishes. The following table exhibits the result, per Scotch acre :—
Oats. Weight per bsh. Straw.
qrs. bsh. pks. Ibs. tons. cwt. 1b. On 3-feet drains, 18 feetapart . . 10 0 O 40 2 6 108 On I foot 8 inch drains, 18 feet apart 12 1 2 39 2 GTP 96 On 3-feet drains, 36 feetapart . . 9 4 2 40 Zi s..26 On portion undrained . . 2. . 9 0 O 403 2 4 40
On the removal of the crop there was a marked difference in the condition of the land, the deep-drained portion being full of couch grass, while the part with the ebb-drains was comparatively clean.
“In 1846 the field was sown with Skirving’s purple-top yellow turnip, the manure applied being 5 cwt. of guano, 1 qr. of bone-dust, and 16 tons of farmyard manure, per Scotch acre. No difference was observable by the eye, the whole crop being fine. One-half of the crop was consumed. on the ground with sheep, they being allowed at the same time I Ib. of linseed cake each daily. While the sheep were on the ground it was found necessary to complete the drainage of the whole, every 18 feet, the water having stood from end to end of the field on the undrained furrows, for even the deep drains had little or no effect on the undrained furrow betwixt them. In 1847 the field was again in spring wheat (Fenton), and was a most magnificent crop throughout; it yielded, over the whole, 7 qrs. 6 bushels per Scotch acre, and weighed 63 lbs. per bushel. The field was pastured last year, and it kept but a small stock. It is now in oats, which, unfortunately, are a light, shabby crop, similar to most of the oats this season in the neighbourhood, and one part of the field cannot be said to be better than another. I have therefore no hesitation in giving it as my decided opinion, that on Jand with a stiff clay subsoil free from under-water, 30-inch drains are all that is required to carry off the surface water. All practical men are well aware that no general rule ever can be laid down for either the depth or the distance betwixt drains; this can only be determined by the nature of the soil and subsoil in each particular case. I have seen material benefit obtained from making drains 4 and 5 feet deep, when 23-feet drains would have been money thrown away; but from the above and other experiments under like circumstances, I am also satisfied that to insist upon it as a rule to go deeper than 30 inches in all cases, the difference of the expense may be worse than money lost, that the crops may be materially hurt into the bargain.—I am, Sir, &c.,
Fenton Barns, Aug. 10, 1849. GrorceE Hops.
a
On Draining. 507
XXVI.—On Suiting the Depth of Drainage to the Circumstances of the Soil. By J. H. Cuarwnock, an Assistant-Commissioner under the Drainage Acts.
A Lecture before the Darlington Farmers’ Club.
Looxine with a present and prospective glance at the several circumstances and events which have to some extent aroused both the apprehension and the energy of the agricultural interest, and which are in all probability destined to exercise, for good or for ill, a still greater influence over that portion of the community, it may be affirmed that at no former period in the history of this kingdom did a more urgent necessity exist for a progressive ad- vance! in the science of agriculture, nor, happily, at the same time such an available amount of practical and scientific know- ledge for furthering and securing so desirable an end. We have but to look back a comparatively few years and trace in our minds the several gradations by which we have arrived at the all but perfect adaptations of those discoveries and appliances which it has been reserved for our own era to complete, to realize their full influence. The day, for instance, was, and that within the recollection of most of us, when the application of gas in its pre- sent convenient form for illumination was considered at least of doubtful practicability, if not wholly chimerical ; now, it is more common than the candles it eclipsed. Who does not also well remember the sceptical prognostications of the multitude, if not of the impossibility, at least of the very great improbability of steam power ever being beneficially applied to locomotion—and yet look at the result! See, too, the last crowning effort of man’s research and application in the transmission of his embodied thoughts from one end of the land to the other in no longer time than is required for their utterance. And shall the cultivator of the soil, witnessing and experiencing the benefit of these achievements, remain stationary, when he, of all men, in matters pertaining to his vocation, has need of skill and observation ? ‘That a considerable advance towards a higher, and therefore more profitable state of cultivation, has been made in many locali- ties, is beyond doubt, and from the growing desire evinced on all hands for information on agricultural matters, it is equally mani- fest that this improvement will be extended; but, after all, how insignificant, unless as an earnest of more, is that which has been effected, when compared with what yet remains to be attained. Take, for example, an area of country with which you are pro- bably more or tess familiar, comprised for miles on either side of the line between Northallerton and Newcastle: now, with occa- sional exceptions, is not the general condition of this otherwise really fine corn-producing country, such as might be expected,
508 On Draining.
were there neither hands nor appliances to be found to till it, nor mouths to be filled by its products, when in truth both are in excess? And yet by a judicious expenditure of about 4/7. or 5. per acre in an effective course of drainage the great proportion is capable of having its average yield of wheat increased by from 10 to 20 bushels per acre. What possible chance has the occupier of such undrained wet land of competing with his more fortunate neighbour on the naturally dry soils? Where the latter with two horses ploughs an acre or more a day, he has to use three or four horses for about one-half the same extent of work ; and every other operation is subject to the same discouraging hindrances. He gets a scanty and precarious crop of wheat and weeds, yielding it may be 20 to 25 bushels per acre, whilst the other is comparatively certain, with less labour and anxiety, of 30 or even 40 bushels per acre. What, therefore, is 10s. or 20s. per acre additional rent for dry land, compared with the ruinous cost of cultivating these undrained soils? Not worth one moment’s consideration; and the more so since at this day means and facilities for the execution of the work are within reach, on easy terms, of every owner. Some few years back a really valid and prudential reason did exist for the possessors of land having only a life interest, and being under other disabilities, not expending money in improvements which they might never enjoy. But these difficulties and prohibitions (for such they were in effect) are at length matters of history only; and any owner of entailed and settled estates, or tenant for life or lives, may improve his property by drainage, inclosure, building, &c., and his rent-roll at the same time, without any cost to himself, and with the greatest benefit to his tenantry. ‘‘ What,”’ the pos- sessor of some long-neglected and water-logged property may exclaim, “do you seriously mean to tell me that without any greater interruption to my accustomed ease than the execution of a few forms and documents for the purpose, I can, at no abso- lute cost to myself, so improve this unfortunate property as to make it yield me a clear additional rental, and be the saivation of my half-ruined tenantry?’’? We do—and will endeayour to show how. :
Within the area of the clay districts already alluded to it would not, in all probability, be difficult to find enclosed estates the average rental of which does not exceed from 10s. to 15s. per acre, and yet the occupiers barely able to live upon them. Now I dare say you know that, under the General Drainage Act (9 & 10 Vic., cap. 101), Government was authorized to advance the sum of two millions for the drainage of lands in England and Scotland, repayment being made by a rent-charge on the lands drained of 64 per cent. per annum on the outlay, for 22 years,
On Draining. 509
which paid both the principal and interest in that period. The whole of this sum has been long since applied for; and later applicants are left regretting their ill fortune. All this, I say, you probably know, and may think, with many others, that seeing the inconvenience of such grants in times of pressure, Parliament may be slow to vote any further sums for the purpose ;* but you may not be aware of the powers and facilities which the legisla- ture has given for obtaining the means from other sources on terms but little if at all inferior to those of the Government loan itself. Suppose then an owner of an estate of 500 acres of this wet land obtains 2500/., or 5/. per acre, under the provisions of this Act,} the rent-charge on the land will be about 6s. 4d. per acre, which, with the original rent of 10s., gives 16s. 4d. an acre as the rent of the land when effectively drained, but without adding any present profit for the owner. But I apprehend once let the occu- piers of such land experience the benefit of cultivating it in the drained state, and they will infinitely prefer paying 20s. an acre, or more, to continuing in the old course; and thus both they and the owner will realize all they desire.
As respects the practical execution and effects of drainage, without wearying you by entering into minute details; there are yet some leading points which it may be well to notice. That there is no one mode of drainage equally applicable and effective on all soils, may now be considered as a settled truth; and hence it necessarily follows that a certain knowledge and ex- perience must be exercised in conducting the work in such a manner upon each character of soil and subsoil as shall attain the most perfect result at the least cost. And what, you will natu- rally ask, is a perfect result? for assuredly without a definite perception of this there is little hope of its being attained. But, fortunately it is one of those essential points which is not de- pendent upon mere opinion for a practical settlement, because we have presented to us in all the naturally dry turnip and barley soils of the kingdom an example of suitable and effective dryness which ne one can dispute or gainsay. The more nearly then by artificial drainage we make the mechanical condition of the clay soils approach this standard, the more nearly shall we secure that perfect state for cultivation which every scientific drainer ought to understand and aim at obtaining. There may be, and doubtless
* The Legislature have in the past Session passed an Act, entitled “ The Private Money Drainage Act,” giving the same facilities, and continuing the Inclosure Commissioners and their staff the medium for its operation, as was given under the general Act, the only difference being that the money is obtained from private sources instead of from the public purse.— York, October, 1849.
+ The West of England Drainage Company’s Act of Incorporation enables owners of a limited interest to make the charge absolute on the land, as well as for a limited period of 25 years; and the advantages thus afforded may be regarded by some as exceeding those given under the General Drainage Act.
510 On Draining.
are, many whose scepticism and prejudicial love for the beaten track, be it ever so toilsome and slippery, will not admit of their crediting the practicability of the drainage of clay lands being rendered so thoroughly effective as these remarks indicate; but since we must feel, from past experience and the evidence of practical results in things of much more improbable accomplish- ment, how mistaken we were, I venture to think that none of those I am addressing will be found in that state of doubt.
Experience and observation have convinced me that in the drainage of retentive subsoils it is quite impossible to insure a proper uniformity of dryness over the entire surface if the drains are at too great intervals. Additional depth will not in these cases compensate for additional distance; and it must always be borne in mind that -the safe side is the best, for nothing but a satisfactory result can attend the more frequent, whilst only a doubtful or protracted effect may follow the more distant; and in a season like the present practically render the work of little or no use. I know some land which in the autumn of 1847 was pretended to be drained in a masterly manner, with the drains 41 feet deep and 60 feet apart, but the work being completed at too late a period to be sown with wheat, it was reserved for spring sowing: as ill-fortune, however, would have it, the spring of this year was so unpropitious that there never was a long- enough interval from rain to allow these drains to act so as to dry the land sufficiently to be worked; it consequently remained in fallow, and it may be questionable whether it is even yet sown. See therefore the serious loss to all parties from such a misappli- cation of deep and distant drains. For an instance of the proper application of deep drainage, we may refer, amongst numerous other examples, to that on the estate of Sir Samuel Crompton, at Wood End, near Thirsk, where one or two independent drains of from 7 to 10 feet deep, are laying perfectly dry a very large area of land on either side of them. ‘The subsoil is a sandy gravel, into which, as into a basin, the water from the adjoining hill percolated and lodged, oosing to the surface as the supply kept up the pressure, until by one of these drains an outlet was made through the side of the basin and the whole of this subsoil immediately became an active natural drain, and the land con- verted into fine turnip, wheat, and barley soil.
But in confirmation of the general adoption of deeper and more distant drains, we are told that if land of a retentive cha- racter be drained at 4 feet and 3 feet deep, the 4 feet drains will be the first to emit water; and under certain circumstances this may be the case, which has given plausibility to some very falla- cious reasoning for the efficacy of deep drains under all circum- stances. I could enumerate instances, where land has been drained at 3 feet deep and 30 feet apart, of very great improvement
On Draining. 511
thereby; but from certain indications, after a time, that a perfect effect was not obtained, other drains from 5 to 6 feet deep and 120 yards apart were put in, and the result is that not a single one of the shallower drains has run since, and the land is now perfectly dry at all times. But is this any proof that the same result will follow a similar plan of operation on the uniformly tenacious subsoils? Most certainly not. Suppose 4-feet and o-feet drains to be laid alternately throughout a clay-land field of uniform contour and tenacity, it 1s quite possible, and even probable, that the 4-feet will run first after rain. But take two distinct portions of such land, having similar characteristics in all respects, and drain the one at from 30 inches to 3 feet deep, and from 18 to 24 feet apart, as may be judged necessary to insure that completeness for which we contend, and the other with drains from 4 to 44 feet deep, and 26 to 40 feet apart, as may be deemed sufficient, and I maintain it is a physical impossibility for these deeper drains to run before the shallower, or to dry the land in the same time, or so effectually ;—that they will run the longest is manifest, and is of itself an evidence of their in- sufficiency.
The more clearly to demonstrate this, let us look at a section of such drains, drawn to the same scale :—
eel ox
LY)
irl
LLL RD
1—Shows 4-feet and 3-feet drains, cut alternately at 21 feet apart, under which circumstances we say, it may be probable that the deeper ones will run first after rain. Each 3-feet drain has on either side of it an opening for the exit of the water at a foot lower level, the effect of which, as you will rea- dily imagine, may be that when the rain has per colated to the bottom af the 3-feet drain, mstead of passing off, its natural tendency is to descend to the lower level, where it meets with a fully saturated bed, and having no longer a lower attraction, of course runs off by the drain at that level. This may not
O12 On Draining.
always be the case; but we are showing its probability, and hence that such a mode of experiment is by no means con- clusive evidence that drains 4 feet deep, in clay subsoils, will emit the water sooner than 3-feet drains.
2—Is a section of land drained 3 feet deep, and at 21 feet apart.
3—A section of the same land with the drains at 30 feet apart, and 4 feet deep. And with these three sections in juxta- position it would be a reflection on your perception to attempt any more detailed arguments to prove the truth of the asser- tion, that it is physically impossible for the deeper drains to run before the shallower. I shall, however, presently have the pleasure of placing before you the results of some experi- ments on filtration, which will still further confirm what we have advanced.
While, however, showing the superior efficacy of compara- tively shallower and more frequent drains on clay-lands, it must not be understood that anything but a safe and permanent depth is contemplated; and which cannot, I think, be depended upon at less than about 3 feet. Assuming the general fall and breadth of the lands to be suitable, the best and most economical plan of setting out the drains will be in the furrows; and then by cutting them full 30 inches, and subsequently working down the ridges, a good 3-feet drain is secured. It is most essential, after proper and effective drainage, that the land should be laid flat, and not retained in ridge and furrow. The mechanical action of drains is two-fold—the discharge of superfluous water; and, in propor- tion as that is complete, the admission of atmospheric air and influence with each succeeding shower of rain or fall of dew— but if the surface of the land be such as to cause the rain to flow into the furrows, instead of sinking into the soil where it falls, it cannot be otherwise than productive of a partial action of the drains, in lieu of that uniformity which is always observable on naturally dry land. Why not lay turnip and barley land in ridge and furrow? Because it is dry and does not require it. And is not the same reason equally conclusive on drained land, properly dried? 1 saw an instance, last spring, of the bad effects of retaining the ridge and furrow after draining ; and, inasmuch as it had the effect of making a convert of the prejudiced occupier, may be worth mentioning. One of a succession of tolerably strong land fields was being drained in fallow, and as the intention was to sow it with wheat I particularly requested (after a long discussion of the advantages) that it might be worked down flat. Bent, however, upon practically showing me I was wrong, and ‘that it would not do in that country,” the occupier kept it in the old form: and the consequence was that the heavy rains
On Draining. 513
washed the finer particles of the soil into the furrows, forming a puddle which prevented the action of the drains, and much of the crop was damaged. When I visited the land on the completion of the entire work, you may judge of my annoy- ance at seeing what had been done; but which was in some degree appeased by observing that the adjoining field was laid perfectly flat, and that the barley upon it looked particularly well. The man admitted he had seen the error and its palpable conse- quences on the first field, and resolved not to commit it a second time.
In the execution of what may properly be termed drainage works, 7. e., the draining of entire and extensive estates, it is a matter of some surprise how comparatively few are conducted upon any prescribed plan, or with any view to apply the drainage water to other useful purposes, such as irrigation, power, or ornament. The drainage of a field here, and another there, without regard to entirety of design or purpose, is the usual course, and although it might have been expected that on many of the extensive properties which are being drained under the general Act such a course could have been adopted with benefit to all parties, yet it may be doubted whether there is any one instance in which such an attempt is being made. The provi- sions of the original Act evidently contemplated such works, for they required the production of plans of each property, and the delineation thereon of the proposed drainage, for the inspector’s consideration, suggestion, and approval; and had this systematic and safe course been adhered to some very complete works. would have been the result, for general imitation ; but the outcry of proprietors against what they esteemed an unnecessary trouble and expense, induced the legislature in the Amendment Act to dispense with these plans, the consequences of which may, I fear, be felt when too late. How manya homestead by a little simple engineering and suitable direction of the drainage water might be supplied with power sufficient for every purpose of threshing, grinding, chopping, &c., at a comparatively insignificant cost. How many an extra crop of grass a year might be cut from the lands of the lower levels irrigated by the drainage water from the higher grounds. And Hews many a town, village, and mansion, now but precariously provided, might, by a proper system of col- lection, conservation, and filtration of the drainage from the adjoining lands, be supplied, at an easy cost, with abundance of the purest water for every purpose. And I say purest, because there can be little doubt that, subjected as in such cases it would necessarily be to repeated filtration and aeration, it would not only be soft and peilucid, but more free from those mineral con- stituents which spring-water imbibes from the foundation on which it is found, and which are frequently very objectionable
514 On Draining.
both for domestic and manufacturing purposes. And would not such a supply be preferable, at least in idea, if not in palatable reality, to that which so many of our towns now obtain by water- works; many of which receive their supply from the river after it has passed the town. ‘The consequence being that, in the summer months, it might not require any very close calculation to estimate the repetition of purposes and processes through which each gallon passes in the eight and forty hours, however disgusting one result might prove to the lovers of a pure beverage. Were an area of country thus treated, that is, the land subjected to a perfect course of drainage, and such portion of the water as it was practicable to obtain applied to other useful purposes, it wouid be found, after the heavy rains of autumn and spring which now swell our rivers and brooks with water washed from the sur- face and so thickly intermixed with the finer particles of the soil as in its deposit to choke up the outfalls of the lower lands, that it would pass off in a filtered and almost colourless condition, and thus two important results would be secured ;—the best of the soil would not be washed away; and the water of the rivers would be kept comparatively pure.
And is there anything impracticable or even difficult in such an application, under ordinary circumstances and with common engineering skill? ‘The cost too in many localities would be trifling compared with that at which towns often obtain their supply by pumping from the river level. ‘The same mechanical means by which draining pipes are now made will mould clay sewerage pipes of any form and dimensions ; and by having them of a suitable substance, well burnt, and if necessary glazed, they will bear a very considerable pressure. Pipes for the purpose of sewerage are now being made with socket-joints and glazed, and sold at 8d. per yard for 6 inches, and Is. 10d. per yard for 12 inches diameter. In districts, however, where fuel is reason- able, the clay suitable without glazing, and without sockets (which I should much prefer for making a joint, as well as for other reasons) these rates might be reduced. It is very common for the Water-works of towns of 10,000 to 20,000 inhabitants to cost from 20,0002. to 40,0002., for which of course the population must pay a handsome crue len impost in the shape of profit to shareholders, as well as being subject to all kind of surveillance and annoyance from officials and collectors. The average fall of rain in /ngland may be taken probably at 25 inches a year, each inch being equivalent to about 25,000 gallons per acre. Suppose, however, that we estimate the available quantities at 20 inches per annum and 20,000 gallons to the inch, we have a supply of 400,000 gallons a year from every drained acre of area from which it can be collected; therefore you will see that no very excessive extent of surface is necessary for the abundant supply of
On Draining. 515
many of our towns; and in point of first cost | am persuaded that, where practicable at all, the plan indicated may be applied at one quarter the sum expended upon many existing works.
Let me now direct your attention to some ‘of those meteorolo- gical effects which, without pretending to any very intimate know- ledge of that interesting science, I nevertheless believe exercise an important influence in promoting the efficiency of drainage, as well as that completeness in that operation will in its turn have an equally observable effect over meteorological causes them- selves. It is very common to speak of undrained land as being cold, and a more significant designation could hardly be given, for it is literally so, and that at a time when, for the purposes of vegetation, it ought to be the warmest. ‘The following observya- tions on evaporation and filtration (for which we are indebted to the patient and carefully conducted experiments of my relation, Mr. Charles Charnock, of Holmfield House, near Ferrybridge) present some curious facts for ane See demonstrating the cause of, and suggesting the remedy for, this baneful coldness. (See Table in next page.)
In the first place, it is observable how much greater is the amount of evaporation from water than from land, and how near, as shown by columns 2 and 5, the evaporation from wet land is to that from water itself—hence the wetter the land the greater the evaporation, and, as the well-known consequence, the greater its excess of coldness. We have a familiar illustration of Nature’s process in this particular, in the method often adopted to cool our wine on a hot summer’s day, by wrapping a wet napkin round the bottle and exposing it to the full sun: as the moisture from the napkin is evaporated, the temperature of the wine declines to almost freezing-point. The school-boy’s experiment of producing ice before a fire, by incasing the vessel in wet flannel and adding a portion of salt to the water, is a similar example, with this addi- tional lesson to the farmer—that to apply certain limes to wet land is only increasing the evil.
You will then, in the second place, notice how much less the evaporation is in the shade than in the sun, and consequently that wet land must be the warmest when there is the least sun. From which cause no doubt arises that too vigorous growth of young wheat, so often observable on such land in the winter and spring months, which never fails to produce serious injury to the crop in all its subsequent stages. And, thirdly, you will remark how com- paratively small a proportion of the rain which falls is shown to be carried off by filtration. ‘Taking the average of the five years’ experiments, it will be seen that only 4-82 ese out of 24-60 inches of rain, passed through the land to the depth of three feet. We might, therefore, be led at the first glance to infer that land in general stands less in need of drainage, or may be drained by
2
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On D
516
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On Draining. 517
a less perfect system, than is supposed to be requisite, did not daily experience oppose such a conclusion. We must, therefore, endeavour to reconcile this seeming incongruity, and deduce at the same time from the facts disclosed such data as may guide us in determining the essential requisites to ensure completeness of effect in drainage.
Now, although there can be no reason to question the accuracy of the experiments on filtration made by Mr. Dickinson, and recorded in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. v. part i., yet there is a very considerable differ- ence in the aggregate result, as shown by them and the account before us. “ The first important fact disclosed,” says the com- mentator, page 148, “is that, of the whole annual rain, about 42% per cent, or 11,8, inches out of 26,55, have filtered through the soil ;’ whereas in the Holmfield House experiments there is only Shean; as we have already said, 4:82 inches out of 24°60, or about 5, per cent. against 42! per cent. This is certainly a very great and somewhat irreconcilable difference in the result of two experiments made professedly to ascertain the same fact. Now, on referring to the ‘ Memoirs of the Literary and Philoso- phical Society of Manchester,’ vol. v. part ii., you will finda paper on rain, evaporation, &c., from the pen of the celebrated Dr. John Dalton (the father of the science of meteorology), wherein he ex- plains a series of experiments made by himself and his friend Mr. Thomas Hoyle junior, to ascertain the amount of evaporation and filtration, and giving the following table of results, viz. :—
Water through the Two Pipes.
Mean Mea Months. MAG he 8 a ase Mean. Raine Evapora-
W796i (179% | .LI98. oe January : : 1°897 680 | 1°774/] 1°450 | 2°458 | 1-008 February 2 : 1°778 e918: Gle122 1¢273 1°801 *528 March . é °431 °070 °335 *279 °902 *623 April . fs B *220 295 °180 +232 NLOeity) 1+485 May “ 2°027 | 2+443 °010 1°493 | 4°177 2°684 June * : °17) +726 <6 299 | 2°483 | 2°184 July : °153 °025 ee 059 | 4:154 | 4:°095 August ° ° . oD °504 168 | 3°554 | 3°386 September . : O76 Son °325 | 3°279 | 2-954 October : 7 aie 680 Ain 224 2:°899 2°672 November . od 1-044 | 1°594 °879 | 2°934 2°055 December . : °200 | 3:°077 1°878.| 1°718 3°202 1°484
ee | |
6°877 | 10°934 | 7-379 | 8-402 | 33-560 | 25-158 Rain . : - | 30°629 | 38°791 | 31-259
Evaporation . ~ | 23°725 | 27°857 | 23-862
‘* Having got a cylindrical vessel of tinned iron,” says the Doctor, “ ten VOL. X, 2M
518 On Draining.
inches in diameter and three feet deep, there were inserted into it two pipes turned downwards for the water to run off into bottles: the one pipe was near the bottom of the vessel, the other was an inch from the top. The vessel was filled up, for a few inches, with gravel and sand, and all the rest with good fresh soil. Things being thus cireumstanced, a regular register has been kept of the quantity of rain-water that ran off from the surface of the earth through the upper pipe (whilst that took place), and also of the quantity of that which sank down through the three feet of earth, and ran out through the lower pipe. A rain-gauge of the same dia-
ney was kept close by, to find the quantity of rain for any corresponding Ime.”
You will notice that the general result of these experiments accords pretty nearly with that of the Holmfield account; and — yet it may be readily conceived that circumstances of situation and stratification may often occasion as wide a difference in the amount of filtration as is shown between Mr. Dickinson’s and Mr. Charnock’s observations.
On an examination of the details registered in the account before us, it will be evident that the amount of filtration is not exclusively dependent on the fall of rain; but that a variety of other causes combine to affect its proportion. or instance, in March, April, May, June, and July, of 1842, the fall of rain was 13-65 inches, and the filtration for the same period was only 2°05 inches; whilst in April, 1846, there was 5-97 of rain and 2:99 of filtration. Similar instances are also noticeable in Mr, Dickin- son’s details. From March to October, inclusive, of 1840, a fall of 11°52 inches of rain is recorded, without any filtration ; but in November, 1842, the rain was 5°77, with 5 inches of filtration. Dr. Dalton’s table also shows the same variations. The lesson, therefore, derivable from these experiments, so far as regards fil- tration by drains, is one rather of a speculative than of a definite character ; for, allhough we are assured filtration must be secured, we are left with a large and varying margin as to the proportion. We must not, however, overlook the fact, that all the registered details show occasionally an amount of filtration nearly equal to the rain that falls, and therefore, in determining the size of pipe to be used, the ready exit of this maximum quantity must be provided for.
Considering the Holmfield House observations as a whole, and the result of each experiment in conjunction with the others, they establish very conclusively this important fact—that drainage, to be complete in its effects, must secure the greatest and most uni- form amount of filtration of which the land is capable with a given outlay ; for of course there is always a compensating balance between cost and effect to be regarded. Seeing then that, even in a comparatively open subsoil of gravel and calcareous sand, this desirable proportion of the rain that falls only very occasion-
On Draining. 519
ally passes off by filtration at a depth of 3 feet, how is it possible in the retentive clay subsoils to obtain the proper proportion at a depth of 4 feet, with any wide interval between the drains? A judicious difference may be made where the land is intended to remain permanently in grass, and where it may be sufficient to remove merely the really injurious surplus water, without laying it so perfectly dry as is essential to the most profitable cultiva- tion of arable land. Much has of late been said upon the efficacy of what are termed air-drains—that is, a drain at the head of the field connected with each of the parallel drains, and so with the main-drain, producing a current of air through the whole. Ina former paper before the Wakefield Farmer’s Club in 1843, and which was published at the request of that body, I suggested the adoption of head-drains, showing, as I then conceived, their be- nefit; but further reflection led me to doubt their advantage, and to discontinue their application. They not only add to the cost of the work, but, having a current of air through the drains, must necessarily tend to the early decay of all the pipes of a pe- rishable character, as we see exemplified in the brickwork of many of the railway tunnels; as well as to promote the growth into the pipes of any roots that may approach them.
There yet remains to be attained one other desideratum in the execution of drainage, which perhaps more than any other would facilitate the operation and reduce its cost, and so in all the strong clay lands allow of the drains being sufficiently near to ensure completeness without an extravagant outlay. I allude to the application of some better mode of cutting the drains, either wholly or in part mechanical, whereby a more suitable section of cut would be obtaimed without the removal of so much of the subsoil as is now necessary. A course of experiments are being made, which, so far as they have yet gone, promise success, and | hope ere yery long to be able to announce the attainment * of the object.
York, Oct. 1849.
* Tam since fully satisfied, by further experiments, of the practicability of con- structing a very efficient implement, to be worked by manual power, whereby the cutting of drains to a depth of 3 feet in suitable subsoils may be accomplished at a cost of ¢d. per yard, in lieu of 3d. as by the present means, and without encumbering the land with so much of the subsoil.
520 Causes of the Presence of Phosphates
XX VIT.— On the Causes of the general Presence of Phosphates in the Strata of the Earth, and in all fertile soils; with Observa- tions on Pseudo-Coprolites, and on the possibility of converting the Contents of Sewers and Cesspools into Manure.—By W. Bucktanp, D.D., Dean of Westminster.
Proressor Liepie five or six years ago invited the attention of agriculiurists to the possibility of applyig to the same use as bone-dust and guano the fossil bones and coprolites which occur together in certain beds of the has formation. This invitation took place not many months after I had the honour of conducting him to the well-known bone-bed in the lower region of the lias, at the Aust Passage Cliffs, on the left bank of the Severn, near Bristol, where two beds of lias (each from one to two feet thick) are densely loaded with dislocated bones and teeth and scales of extinct reptiles and fishes, interspersed abundantly with coprolites derived from animals of many kinds, which seem to have converted that region into the cloaca maxima of ancient Gloucestershire, at the time of the commencement of the formation of the lias. Coprolites are also dispersed plentifully through the strata of many other parts of the has, e.g. on the coast at Lyme Regis ; but neither there nor in the bone-bed at Aust Passage is a suff- cient quantity accessible at a cost that would repay the digging for the express purpose of collecting these mineralized fragments of skeletons and fzecal balls of digested bones for use as a sub- stitute for recent bone-dust or guano.
Geologists have long been acquainted with the abundant occur- rence of rolled fragments of the bones and teeth of large qua- drupeds, and of whales and sharks, and also of the bones and teeth of many marine fishes, in the tertiary beds of gravel and shells, called crag, in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk; and in 1846 Professor Henslow Jaid a paper before the British Association at Cambridge, on the abundant occurrence of the ear bones of whales in the crag beds of Felixstow, on the coast of Suffolk, together with large quantities of rolled pebbles of phosphates of lime (which he then supposed to be coprolites) among the miscellaneous gravel and shells that compose the bulk of the crag formation.
About this time also, Professor Solly’s analysis of these sup- posed coprolites proved their chemical composition to be nearly identical with that of real coprolites from the lias; and the atten- tion of agriculturists was invited to their use as a manure of nearly equal value with guano or bone-dust. Mr. Solly’s advice to agriculturists to make use of this newly discovered storehouse of - fertility has been duly responded to; and many thousand tons of these pebbles and bones have been collected from the shore near Felixstow ; whilst many occupiers of inland farms near Felixstow
in the Strata of the Earth. 521
and Woodbridge have been and are still collecting similar pebbles from superficial beds of gravel of the crag (eeahiou! varying in thickness from one foot to many feet, “and extending over areas of variable extent and irregular forms, modified by the sweep of currents, by which the bottom of the tertiary sea was affected during the formation of the crag.
The contents of these crag gravel-beds are of three kinds,— ]. Siliceous sand, and rolled chalk-flints and miscellaneous gravel. 2. Marine shells, and rolled bones and rolled teeth of land quadrupeds and fishes. 3. Rolled pebbles, resembling cropolites, among many thousands of which in the coilections of Professor Henslow and Professor Solly, | have never found one that has just pretensions to that name and title; although, from this acci- dental fictitious resemblance, the name of coprolite manure has obtained an agricultural and commercial currency, which now cannot be withdrawn, but to which the name of pseudo-coprolite would be more appropriate; better still would be the name of phosphorite, which I shall use in the following observations.
Mr. Lawes has established, on the east bank of Deptford creek, near Greenwich, very extensive works for grinding to powder these false coprolites or phosphates, and my attention will be directed— 1. To the origin of the pebbles, and the causes which have charged them with phosphoric compounds, 2. To the causes that have dispersed similar phosphoric compounds through nearly all rocks and soils. 3. To the possibility of imitating the natural processes that co-operated to their production, and of converting the valuable phosphates of our sewers to the manufacture of a similar manure, by placing sewage-water in conditions analogous to those which attended the formation of phosphates in the crag, and in other strata formed at the bottom of ancient seas and lakes.
We may here observe that the presence of peroxide of iron, which pervades all these pebbles, and incrusts or pervades also all the rolled fragments of bones and teeth, and the shells of the crag formation, may be an accident not essential to the production of the phosphorites, though possibly auxiliary to or connected with it.
I believe the essential condition was the admixture (in a fluid or semi-fluid state) of all the now consolidated ingredients of the marlstone and of the septaria (which we use to make our Roman cement), viz., of clay, carbonate of lime, and protoxide of iron, in a state of mud on the sea bottom, at the time of the disengage- ment of phosphoric compounds from the dung and putrefying bodies of fishes, and of molluscous animals and marine worms, at the bottom of the seas in which the deposition of the London clay was going on. ‘These conditions that attended the depo- sition of the material of the London clay, were similar to those attending the deposits of sedimentary mud (subsequently con-
522 Causes of the Presence of Phosphates
verted to beds of clay and marl) in all geological formations, since the waters were first peopled with swimming creatures of ten thousand kinds, with creeping things innumerable, both small and great beasts.
From the first creation of fishes to fill and multiply in the waters, there must have been a never-ceasing deposition of phos- phoric compounds in every bed of mud that was in progress of accumulation at the bottom of all inhabited portions of seas, and lakes, and rivers ; and thus the fecal dejections of all subaqueous animated nature must, by their decomposition, have supplied daily and hourly accessions of matter convertible to phosphorite.
There must have been also a further never-ceasing supply of phosphates from the decay of the bodies of all these animals after their death, 7. e., from the dead bodies of all fishes and molluscs and sea-worms that were not devoured by other animals.
From these twofold sources incessant additions of phosphoric matter must at all times have been falling into decay, and mixing phosphoric compounds with the earthy sediments at the bottom of ail inhabited waters; and these incessant and almost univer- sally diffused supplies of animal exuviz must, in the act of decom- position, have been continually evolving phosphoric compounds in the nascent state, which is the state most apt to enter into new chemical combinations.
Where the bottom of the sea was covered only with siliceous sand, no phosphoric combinations could take place; and hence the barrenness of the great siliceous sandy deserts of the world ; but wherever the bottom of the water contained (in an unconsoli- dated state) the ingredients of future marl, or marlstones, or septaria, conditions were present favourable to the formation of the new combinations of phosphorite.
Now, as both phosphate and carbonate of lime are soluble in water charged with carbonic acid, and as carbonic acid is one of the most abundant substances in nature, evolved under all kinds of animal and vegetable decay, it follows that wherever decom- position of faecal dejections, or of dead animals, or of sea-weeds was going on, over the entire bottom of all the ancient seas, and great oceans, beds of these cumulative additions, in every day and every hour of antediluvian time, became the grand receiver-general and cloaca maxima of the terraqueous globe, an universal laboratory and conservative storehouse of universally dispersed manurance for the future corn-fields and pastures of the earth, when these ancient sea-bottoms should be raised up to become dry lands, and in process of time be converted into vine- yards and oliveyards, and lands of wheat and barley, for the sus- tentation of man, and of land animals, of higher functions and higher organization than those multifold generations of marine reptiles, and fishes, and worms, and creeping things which were
in the Strata of the Earth. 523
the appointed purveyors of future food for man, destined by the functions of their daily digestion, and of their life and death and decay, to lay up stores of universal fertility in the deep foun- dations of the earth, and to prepare the nascent strata in the very act of their construction, to become, in due time, a grateful soil to reward the labours of the agriculturist.*
As the processes we have been tracing in the London clay are types of operations that have more or less pervaded all deposits formed under water, in all formations, I will state further parti- culars respecting this London clay. Phosphoric matter, elabo- rated in the bodies of animals, has not only become combined with the earthy ingredients of its larger septaria, the Roman cement stones, but also with the millions of minor concretions that crowd the London clay, and which often envelope fragments of some animal or vegetable that formed a nucleus around which the materials of these concretions were collated and aggregated while in a fluid state.
Many of these half-calcareous concretions in the London clay contain enough of phosphoric matter to place them in the family of pseudo-coprolites, the history of which, im other formations, ! shall presently describe; we are now considering the fate and fortune that has attended these minor phosphoriferous concre- tions of the London clay. From their matrix in the London clay they were dislodged by the waters of the seas of the eocene period, and accumulated by myriads at the bottom of those shal- low seas where is now the coast of Suffolk. Here they were long rolled, together with the bones of large mammalia and fishes, and with the shells of molluscous creatures that lived in shells. From the bottom of this sea they have been raised to form the dry lands along the shore of Suffolk, whence they are now ex- tracted as articles of commercial value, and ground to powder in the mills of Mr. Lawes, at Deptford, to supply our farmers with a valuable substitute for guano, under the accepted name of copro- ite manure.
But it is not certain that these pseudo-coprolites collected all their phosphates whilst they were in the Londonclay. Itis possible that many, if not all of them, and also many fragments of the larger septaria, which we find rolled and broken in the crag, may have absorbed a larger dose of phosphorus than they contained before
* This self-same process, which has beén made to lay up in every stratum, during the act of its formation, stores of fertility for the then future ands and continents, pro- duced a simultaneous reaction advantageous to the sanitary state and habitability of the waters of the sea; for had not this or some other process of purification been in continual operation, from the time when living things of all dimensions, from the infusorial animalcules to the sharks and great sea lizards and whales (Enaliosauri and Ceteosauri), were first created to inhabit the sea, the exuvie of these myriads (not- withstanding diffusion) would, in a few centuries, have tainted all oceans and waters with impurities exceeding those of which we hear so much complaint in the waters of the Thames at London Bridge.
524 Causes of the Presence of Phosphates
they were washed out of their matrix in the London clay, from the dejections and decaying bodies of fishes and molluscs and worms, that inhabited the tertiary sea, at whose bottom they were for a long time rolling, while the gravel of the crag was in process of formation.
The bodies of the molluscous creatures that inhabited the very shells of which the crag is composed, must have given out phos- phoric compounds during their decay, which may, by absorption, have supplied additional phosphoric matter to that which these concretions brought with them from their matrix in the London clay. Experiments are wanting to show whether concretions of other fragments of marlstone, and of marl, and chalk, and soft limestone, bathed in sewage water, mixed with salt enough to equal that in sea-water, and with peroxide of iron, and burnt clay, and at a temperature approaching the probable warmth of the shallow sea-water in which the crag was formed, may absorb and form similar phosphoric compounds from the ingredients of sewage. I earnestly commend such experiments to the care of the many accomplished chemists who are now directing their attention to sanitary and agricultural improvements.
There seems to be little doubt as to the power of the chemical agents I have spoken of, the chief difficulty lies in the time required to effect the desired combinations. Experiments on this subject are at the present time of pressing importance, with a view to the grand desideratum of turning to a profitable use the noxious contents of our sewers. The great difficulty seems to lie in discovering a method of expediting the processes of com- bination.*
In many of the red marl districts, from Devonshire to Durham, through the entire centre of England, it is the practice to lay quicklime in long heaps parallel to the hedges of fields under preparation for wheat, and to mix lime with the vegetable rubbish and rough soil from the ditch and foreland margin of the field ; these are left together many days before the compound is laid on the furrows, and ploughed into the soil before the wheat is sown.
* The stronger affinity of lime for carbonic than for phosphoric acid may cause a decomposition and conversion of carbonate of lime, or of marl, or marlstone, or chalk, into phosphate of lime by a substitution of phosphoric for carbonic acid; and a similar effect might follow if slightly baked or sun-dried clay or marl, or powdered chalk, be submerged in sewage. The result being (as Dr. Lyon Playfair has suggested) a kind of exchange and pseudomorphic conversion of carbonate to phosphate of lime. It is probable that by a similar process the phosphorites were formed in all the strata of the crag. But the formation of these strata occupied longer periods ef time than the chemists have at their disposal, and the great desideratum to which I would call attention, is the discovery of a cheap and easy method of accelerating this process. I repeat what I have before stated, that the addition of carbonic acid to sewage, and of protoxide of iron and salt, and moderate heat, may induce conditions, approaching to those under which analogous compounds were formed from putrescent animal and vegetable matter in ancient deposits, both under salt and fresh water, throughout all geological time.
in the Strata of the Earth. 525
The efficacy of this manure may in part be due to the decompo- sition of the phosphates contained by the vegetable rubbish, and by the weeds and roots in the soil of the field, during two or three weeks’ contact with quicklime.*
The practice of manuring with quicklime for a crop of wheat, though not exclusively limited to the red mar! districts, pervades all those parts of England in which this kind of red soil prevails ; and as Dr. Lyon Playfair has found phosphate of lime in very many samples of this marl, it may exist more or less through its whole extent.
Before the introduction of lime asa manure, more than one hun- dred years ago, the preparation for wheat was a coat of red marl, the decomposition of which, by the winter’s atmospheric action, must have set free many of its phosphoric and other ingredients. Quickiime produces a similar effect more rapidly. By the first rain that falls upon it, lime-water is formed; this lime-water (by its affinity for carbonic acid) disengages from the carbonate of lime within the marl, enough cabonic acid to make it dissolve further quantities of carbonate of lime, and also of phosphate of lime, from the phosphoriferous mar], in a state fit to be absorbed by the next crop of corn.
It has been stated that the quicklime sets free carbonic acid from all the vegetable matter in the soil to which it is applied, and that this acid decomposes and renders soluble not only the phosphoric and numerous other compounds of vegetable matter present in the clods (viz. old roots and stems and dead leaves), but also any mineral phosphoric compounds that may be present in the marl. The practice of laying marl on land under prepara- tion for wheat, was in usea century and a half ago in Devonshire, and through the Midland districts, extending thence N.E. through Worcestershire and Staffordshire, into the south of Derbyshire, and along the valley of the Trent and vale of York, to the mouth of the Tees. Fields on the red marl through this district are full of old deep marl-pits, that were abandoned as soon as the cessation of the use of marl followed the introduction of lime, which was found to be a more quickly acting and more efficient substitute.
in water, and fit to be absorbed by the new crop. Now as one of the essential elements of this crop is phosphorus, should any fixed phosphates be present in the soil or subsoil, they also would be decomposed in consequence of the lime setting free carbonic acid from fragments of dead plants present in the soil; this acid (being absorbed by rain water) enables it to dissolve both carbonate and phosphate of lime from any fixed carbonate or phosphate of lime contained in the marl.
ST SE ET LTE TEINS
( 526)
XXVIII.—Report on the Exhibition and Trial of Implements at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. By H.S. Tuompson.
CONTENTS.
Pag InTRODUCTORY REMARKS : . ; ; é : 527 Prizes offered by the Society : C : : EY, Judges and Consulting Engineer, Names ie Addresses of . 5384 Awards . fe ‘ é : é : ‘ i « 004 Ploughs . : : ‘ : : : ; : . 040 Skim or Paring Ploughs . . : : ; . Ys O4) Draining Ploughs . : ° : . : 5 einiOat Drills. : é 2 : : ; : . 642
Wand-drilling salelienee : ‘ : : é ‘ . 0438 Broadcast Manure Distributor . : ‘ : . - o40 Horse Seed-Dibblers . ; A é : : : . 043 Scarifiers or Grubbers : : : ‘ : : #5 fod
Harrows ; < ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ é » O45 - Norwegian Harrows : . 5 : : : 2 O40 Horse-Hoes on the fiat : : : é : : . 046 Horse-Hoes on the ridge. ; . : ; F . 46
Horse-Rakes_ . : ; : , : : : a1 O46 Drain Tile or Pipe Machines. ‘ ‘ ; : . OAT
Steam-Engines. : - : : : ° : . 549 Threshing Machines . : : : ° ° : . dod Steaming Apparatus . : i ; . é g . 909 Corn-Dressing Machines . ‘ 6 : : ‘ - 560 Grinding Mills ‘ é 5 ‘ ‘ : : . d61 Chaff-Cutters . : : ; : : : : =) O02 Linseed and Corn-Crushers : ° ‘ ° j eS
Carts and Waggons . : : : ° : é ee OO Haymaking Machines : . : é : ° - 066 Gorse-Bruisers : : ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ « 666 Cake-Breakers . : : ; ; : : ; ON, Portable Railway . ° : ; i ‘ : . 668 Miscellaneous Articles F . : : « 668 Amos’s Machine for testing fea Peat 1 $ 4 =) 069
Report on the Exhibition of Implements. 527
Tue Eastern Counties have long been celebrated for the manu- facture of agricultural machinery; and on the occasion of the Society’s late Meeting at Norwich great exertions were made by the implement-makers of that district to maintain their well- earned reputation. [The number of implements at York was unprecedentedly large, yet three hundred more were exhibited at Norwich; and it is satisfactory to be able to trace from year to year a gradual weeding out of bad implements, and a progressive improvement in their general principles of construction, which is highly encouraging to those who take an active interest in this department of the Society’s proceedings.
On no occasion has this improvement been more marked than at the last Meeting, and it was particularly observable in the steam-engines, carts, and waggons. ‘The nature of the im- provements introduced into these machines will be described in a subsequent part of this report, and it will be sufficient to state here that the rapid progress made in these cases may be partly attributed to the improved mode recently adopted of testing the machines under trial, and partly to the greater degree of precision with which their faulty construction was pointed out in the reports of the judges at the York meeting.
This opinion is one the correctness of which it is desirable to ascertain, as, if true, it goes far to prove that the rapidity with which the improvement of agricultural implements progresses is materially influenced by the mode of trial adopted, and the kind of judges employed by the Royal Agricultural Society. The whole question, therefore, has an important bearing on the future management of these trials; and to obtain data for arriving at a sound conclusion respecting it, it will be necessary to give a brief sketch of the progress which the Society has hitherto made in rendering the exhibition and trial of implements effective for the purposes for which they were designed.
The Society’s early shows of implements must be viewed chiefly in the light of bazaars or expositions. ‘Those who attended the Cambridge meeting in 1840 will not have forgotten the brilliant collection of implements exhibited by the Messrs. Ransome, and thongh every one praised the excellence of their workmanship, and admired the skill with which eighty different kinds of ploughs were grouped tier above tier with artistic effect, still it was evident that this imposing array was not prepared in anticipation of such a searching ordeal as that to which candidates for prizes are now subjected, but was rather intended to teach the visitors what sort of implements they ought to have, and to show them to what perfection this branch of manufacture had been brought.
Nor could it well have been otherwise, since the knowledge
028 Fieport on the Exhibition of Implements
of these matters possessed by a few of the leading manufacturers was quite in advance of the general agriculture of the day. Neither stewards nor judges had yet acquired the experience requisite for the adequate discharge of their office, so that such men as Messrs. Garrett, Hornsby, Ransome, and a few others would have laughed in their sleeves had they been told that they could learn anything i in the Society’s show-yard. In spite, how- ever, of acreditable display on the part of a few leading firms, the majority of the implements exhibited at these early shows were of inferior construction and workmanship, and the general appearance of the exhibitions meagre and unsatisfactory.
The attention of some of the leading members of the Society (especially of the late lamented Mr. Handley) was earnestly directed to the improvement of this department, and they soon perceived that httle was gained by collecting implements in a show-yard for people to gaze at, unless an adequate trial could be made of their respective merits. To attain this end great
exertions were made, and every improvement in the mode of trial was followed by so marked an increase in the number and merit of the implements brought forward at subsequent shows, as to prove the strongest incentive to further effort.
At the Cambridge and Liverpool meetings, when these trials were in their infancy, their main attraction consisted of ploughing- matches on a large scale, which gratified sight-seers, but gave no results that could be depended upon, and, therefore, disappointed all practical men. It would occupy time unnecessarily to trace the gradual changes which have led to the discontinuance of these showy exhibitions, and the substitution in their place of quiet business-like trials in the presence of stewards and judges alone. Suffice it to say, that what they have lost in display they have gained in efficiency, and, consequently, in favour with those classes for whose benefit they were designed. At the York meeting the improved mode of trying the threshing-machines supplied a de- ficiency which until that time had been much felt, viz., the absence of any means of ascertaining the amount of power ex- pended in working the machines ane trial ; and it may now be asserted with some confidence that, with the exception of an occasional error or accident, the best implements are uniformly selected for prizes.
It now remains to answer the question proposed for con- sideration, viz., to what extent the great improvement made of late in agricultural implements is due to the exertions of this Society, and with this view a tabular statement is subjoined, which shows the relative extent and importance of the Society’s two first and two last shows of implements :—
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 529
| Awards. No. of | | Exhibitors. yl | | Money. | Medals. | | | a ee peesos Oxiord . < . s--« | 23 5 | 4 | 1840 | Cambridge. . . .| 36 Ohba Ea Vork. 6) ieee. yess eyo: 146 OR a | | be hlS849..< |) Norwich)» 5:0) | +:: «ss 145 S64 va ulen wl ieee | |
From this it will be seen that at Cambridge, where the trial of implements was confined to one day and was in other respects so immature as to be of little practical value, the number of exhibitors was only thirty-six, and the judges, in whom a certain discretionary power was vested, awarded no money and but seven medals, in consequence of the scarcity of objects deserving of reward ; whilst at York, eight years after, when the trials lasted several days and had attained a considerable degree of perfection, the number of exhibitors had increased fourfold. The additional amount offered in prizes at the later meetings has undoubtedly assisted in creating this great increase of competition, but it cannot be considered the principal cause, since the implement- makers are unanimous in declaring that, even when most success- ful, the prizes they receive do not reimburse them for their expenses and loss of time. How then are the increased exer- tions of the machine-makers to be accounted for? Simply by the fact that the trials of implements have gradually won the confidence of the farmer, so that when selecting implements for purchase, he gives the preference to those which have received the Society's mark of approval. This inference is corroborated by the makers themselves, who readily admit that the winner of a prize for any implement of general utility is sure to receive an ample amount of orders, and that the award of a medal is worth on an average OO/,
It thus appears that concurrently with the extension and improvement of the trials, a corresponding increase and improve- ment has taken place in the exhibitions of implements, and though it is difficult to prove that the one has been the cause of the other, still the probability that such is the case almost amounts to cer- tainty when it is found that classes of implements which are so faulty in construction as to be strongly animadverted on by the judges at one meeting, are at the next nearly free from those defects which had been previously pointed out. This is precisely what has occurred during the past year in the case of carts and steam-engines, which were severely criticised at York, and found
530 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
to be greatly improved at Norwich in those points to which atten- tion had been specially directed.
If the foregomg reasoning be correct (and the facts on which it is founded will not admit of question) the Society may fairly claim to have been in great measure the authors of the very rapid improvement made of late in almost every kind of agricultural implement. ‘The managers of the Society have, ther efore, every reason to be satisfied with the past, and it may perhaps not be thought presumptuous to endeavour briefly to show that the prospect for the future is equally encouraging.
It has been already stated that the trials as at present conducted are effectual for the selection of the best implements exhibited. ‘To have obtained this result is to have done much—t is, in fact, to have attained all that has hitherto been contemplated or desired ; no sooner, however, had it been secured than another point of equal importance suggested itself, and the experience of the Norwich meeting has shown it to be no less attainable than the good results which have already been realized. The object alluded to is to obtain so accurate a register of the force required to work the different kinds of agricultural machinery, that the public and the manufacturers themselves may be informed whether the results obtained are satisfactory, when compared with the means employed. Thesame arrangements which are required for deciding this question will also in certain cases be useful in showing in a complex machine the respective efficiency of its several parts. To make this more plam, it may be said that what has been hitherto accomplished has been limited to selecting the best of a class—the point now aimed at is to decide whether that class is a good one; whether, therefore, the best implement in it possesses intrinsic ‘merit, and, if not, which are the defective parts which require amendment. A good illustration of the im- portance of this object occurred in the trial of threshing-machines at Norwich, where two of the best machines produced very nearly equally good results. When, however, the different parts of these machines were separately examined, one was found to excel very much in its horse-works, the other in its barn-works, so that it is fair to presume that if they could have borrowed from one another, both would have been improved, and at any rate neither of them are as good as they will probably be made now that their deficiencies have been pointed out.
The full importance of this question will probably not be recognised at first sight, but it 1s one which will assuredly be more and more appreciated in proportion as the necessity becomes more apparent for increasing the amount of capital applied to the cultivation of the land. Leaving all political probabilities and improbabilities out of the question, it is clear that the British
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 931
farmer is exposed to constantly increasing competition, and it becomes him to take a rational survey of the means which he pos- sesses for meeting it, and to consider in what way he can make the most of the resources within his reach. Whuilst making such an estimate of his position, he can scarcely fail to perceive that the abundance of British capital and the superiority of British machinery are important items in his fayour when called upon to contend against the superior climate of other corn-growing coun- tries ; and without mooting the question whether or no these alone will enable him to maintain his position, it is yet sufficiently clear that if he neglects these advantages he cannot retain the pro- minent place he now occupies amongst the leaders of the agricul- tural world. It would be foreign to the subject of the present report to offer any suggestions respecting the use of additional capital, except in so far asit applies to increasing the use of machinery for farming purposes ; and when considering this point, the question immediately arises, In what does excellence in machinery. consist? In any other branch of industry it would not be necessary to ask this question, as not only are all the manufacturing community aware that their profit, nay, their living depends on obtaining any desired result with the smallest possible amount of motive power, but they are provided with tests by which any undue expenditure of force would be at once detected. ‘This, however, is quite out of the farmer's reach, and it is therefore necessary to tell him that a machine which makes good work may nevertheless be a bad machine, a wasteful one that is—which it is very expensive for him to use. ‘This is precisely the case where a great national society may confer a great national benefit, by stepping in between the manufacturer and the public, and telling the former that if he wishes for the Society's award of merit, he must submit to the most searching test which scientifie engineers can devise, one which shall enable the Society to point out those cases where a machine requires the expenditure of two bushels of corn (in horse-keep) or two bushels of coal (for steam-power), where only one ought to have done the work. Many will doubtless think it a hopeless task to introduce such aceuracy into the trials of farming implements, but it will be sufficient to refer them to what took place at Norwich, where, with Mr. Amos’s excellent arrangements and ingenious apparatus, great progress was made in convincing even the makers them- selves of the feasibility and advantage of the new mode of trial. One exhibitor of a threshing-machine (a winner, too, of more than one important prize at this meeting) publicly confessed that he did not know how a threshing-machine ought to be made until he had witnessed the trial on that occasion. In the case also of drain-tile machines, the merits of two were very nearly
Cr
32 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
balanced until the hand-power machines showed a considerable difference in the power required to work them. ‘This had pre- viously escaped notice, but when thus accurately recorded it materially influenced the decision of the judges. Other instances might be quoted, but enough has been said to warrant the assumption that if so much was accomplished when the arrange- ments were confessedly incomplete, it is reasonable to anticipate that by judicious encouragement on the part of the Society the trials of implements may be made productive of stil] higher benefits to the farmer than they have hitherto been.
PRIZES OFFERED BY THE SOCIETY.
For the Plough best adapted to heavy land . . Five Sovereigns. For the Plough best adapted to light land. . Five Sovereigns. For the Plough best adapted for General Purposes _‘ Five Sovereigns. For the best Paring Plough : : : . Five Sovereigns. For the best Subsoil Pulverizer é : Five Sovereigns.
For the best Drill for general purposes, which shall possess the most approved method of distributing Compost or other Manures in a moist or dry state, quantity being especially considered
N.B.—Other qualities being equal, the preference will be given to the
Drill which may be best adapted to cover the manure with soil before the seed is deposited.
Fifteen Sovereigns.
For the best Corn Drill. 2 : . Ten Sovereigns.
For the best Turnip Drill on the flat, which shall possess the most approved method of distributing Compost or other Manures in a moist or dry state, quantity being especially considered :
Ten Sovereigns.
N.B.—Other qualities being equal, the preference will be given to the Drill which may be best adapted to cover the manure with soil before the seed is deposited.
For the best Turnip Drill on the ridge, which shall possess the most approved method of distributing Compost or other Manures in a moist or dry state, quantity being especially considered ‘
N.B.—Other qualities being equal, the preference will be given to the Drill which may be best adapted to cover the manure with soil before the seed is deposited.
Ten Sovereigns.
For the best Probe) Drill for deposiins Seed ed eane Ten Sovereiens
Manure For the best Horse Seed Dibbler ° : . Ten Sovereigns. For the best. Hand Dibbler : : . Three Sovereigns.
For the best Barrow Hand Drill, to ee with cups Three a
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. d00
For the Manure-Distributor which is best adapted for distributing broadcast any kind of compost or hand-tillage when in a moist state, and which is> Five Sovereigns. capable of adjustment for the delivery of any quantity from ‘Two to ‘Twenty bushels per acre .
For the best Liquid Manure Distributor _. . Five Sovereigns,
For the best Heavy Harrow. : 5 . Five Sovereigns. For the best Light Harrow ; : : . Five Sovereigns. For the best Norwegian Harrow 5 : . Five Sovereigns, For the best Scarifier A : : ; . Len Sovereigns. For the best Cultivator or Grubber : . Ten Sovereigns. For the best Horse Hoe on the flat. : . Ten Sovereigns. For the best Horse Hoe on the ridge . : . Five Sovereigns. For the best Horse Rake . : . Five Sovereigns.
For the best Machine for making Deine Tiles or Pipes for Agricultural purposes. Specimens of Tiles or Pipes to be shown in the Yard: the price at which they have been sold to be taken; ‘Twenty Sovereigns. into consideration, and proof of the working of the Machine to be abe to the satisfaction of the Judges : 5 :
For the best Set of Tools for General brains . Three Sovereigns.
For the best portable Steam-Engine, applicable i} Fifty Sovereigns.
Threshing or other Agricultural purposes . ‘ For the second best ditto, ditto . : : . Twenty-five Sovereigns. For the best and most economical Seegene pokee ees aeeeo ste tus for general purposes . : : : a For the best portable Threshing Metin. 0 PE eat Twenty-five Sovereigns. to Horse or Steam-power : : For the best Corn-Dressing Machine . : Ten Sovereigns. For the best Grinding-Mill for breaking g Agricaly alls Sewrersioae. tural produce into fine Meal . ; For the best Linseed and Corn-Crusher ; . Five Sovereigns, For the best Chaff-Cutter . : : : - Ten Sovereigns For the best One-Horse Cart . - : . Ten Sovereigns For the best Harvest Cart cries ‘ . Ten Sovereigns, For the best Waggon : . : 4 . Ten Sovereigns For the best Haymaking Machine. ores, ut Five Sovereigns: For the best Gorse-Bruiser ; x . Five Sovereigns, For the best Turnip-Cutter : Siagh in hie . Five Sovereigns. For the best Oilcake Breaker. 2 : . Five Sovereigns. Silver Medals estimated Miscellaneous Awards-and Essential Improvements at ''wenty-six Sovereigns.
Such sum as the Council For the Invention of any New Implement . : may think proper to award. Vode X. 2N
534 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
PRIZES OFFERED BY ROBERT AGLIONBY SLANEY, ESQ., M.P-
For the best Drain-Plough, to cut out, at one, two, or three cuts, to shee greatest depth, wich nail more than four horses, so as to prepare a drain mii far for deeper cutting . ° ° ° °
For the best Plough, to fill in the soil cast out of
drains, with not more than four horses (two sal Ten Sovereigns.
two abreast), and not to exceed 5/. in cost 5 JUDGES.
Wiiiam N, PArRssown.......... Gravel Lane, Southwark, Surrey. CHARLES JOHN CARR.......... Belper, Derbyshire. Wiliam IUISTER Dunsa Banks, Yorkshire. PlENRY DAV POR hei. fccceses: Dilham, Norfolk. OWEN WW AMUNS i St, tele Seveaet Overstone Grange, Northamptonshire. Wi LT AM SHAW, tou vcoscveceee.: Far-Coton, Northamptonshire. THOMAS HAWKINS .......0..00000 Assington Moor, Suffolk. PETER LOY Ge Nee Ra ---Naseby, Northamptonshire. Tuomas W. GRANGER..........Stretham Grange, Cambridgeshire. JH. NALDER (oiciss aie. Alvescot, Gloucestershire.
Ten Sovereigns.
CoNnsULTING ENGINEER—CHARLES Epwarps Amos (of the Firm of EAsron and
Amos), The Grove, Southwark, Surrey.
AWARDS.
Description of Implement and Name of , Exhibitor. Prize.
PLovuaus.
To William Williams, of Bedford, and Law- rence Taylor, of Cotton End, near Bedford, for their Patent Wrought-Iron Plough with Two Wheels, for heavy “land, marked US; invented, improved, and manufactured by William Williams, of Bedford
To John Howard and Son, of Bedford, for their Patent Iron Plough with Two Wheels, for light land, marked J D; invented and manufactured by the exhibitors
£5
To William Ball, of Rothwell, near Kettering, for his Tron Plough for general purposes, marked ‘ Criterion” Plough; invented by the exhibitor, and improved by James Biggs, of Desborough ° :
£5
To George Kilby, of Aa ae aate near Leicester, for his Turf and Stubble Paring Plough; invented, improved, and manufac- tured by Thomas Glover, of Thrussington, near Leicester : e
Supsoin PuLvERIZER.
To James Comins, of Southmolton, for his Iron Subsoil Pulverizer ; invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibitor . ° °
Referexce to Catalogue.
Stand.
£5 122
37
98
86
18
Article.
11
bo
Price.
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849.
AWARDS.
Ov
eo Or
Description of Implement and Name of Exhibitor.
DRILLs. |
To Richard Hornsby, of Spittlegate, Gran- )| tham, for his Drill for general purposes, and [| Depositing Compost; invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibitor , |
near Saxmundham, for their Eleven-row Lever Corn-Drill; improved and manufac- tured by the exhibitors.
To Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works, =
for his Six-row Tumip Drill on the flat, ae for Depositing Compost; invented, proved, and manufactured by the exhib?
To Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works, :
To Richard Hornsby, of ai ey Grantham, 4
near Saxmundham, for their Two-row Turni p Drill on the ridge, and for Depositing Com- post; invented and manufactured by the | | exhibitors . = z
To Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works, near Saxmuudham, for their Patent Drop Drill on the flat and ridge; invented and manufactured by the exhibitors
| | }
Hanp SEED-DIBBLE.
To Dr. Newington, of Knowle Park, Frant, near Tonbridge Wells, for his Patent Kco- nomic Hand Seed-Dibble; invented by the|| exhibitor, and manufactured by Mary Wed- [| lake and Co., of Hornchurch, near Romford, and Penfold, of Ticehurst, Sussex. ;
Hanp-Barrow DrRItt.
To John Holmes, of Norwich, for his Hand-)| Barrow Drill, to work with Cups; invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibitor} |
To William Crosskill, of the Iron Works near Beverley, for his machine for Distributing Pulverized Manures broadcast; invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibitor? |
Liquip-MAnurE DISTRIBUTOR.
To Robert and John Reeves, of Bratton, et Westbury, Wilts, for their Liquid-Manure Distributor; invented and improved by Thomas Chandler, of Stockton, Wilts, and manufactured by the exhibitors .
£15
£10
£10
£10
£10
th Cr
| |
Reference to Catalozne.
Stand. 65 1 Sl 10 65 3 8] 8 si | 9 | 1Gy Local | | | | S651 - OE 26 51 90 1 PN 2
Atticle.| !
Price. eB a3 «9 27 (0 | 29 9 25 | 24 5 ba si GRS 2 10 10 10 | 30 0
d.
536 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
AWARDS. | Ref t logue. Description of Implement and Name of ' eference to Catalogue Exhibitor. Prize. Stand | Article. Frice. LS a7 P Harrows.
To William Williams, of Bedford, and Law- rence Taylor, of Cotton End, near Bedford, for their set of Patent Four-beam Diagonal Iron Harrows for Heavy Land ; invented by £5 122 3 5 10 0 Samuel Taylor, of Cotton End; im POEs and manufactured by William Williams, of Bedford : ° : ° ° °
To William Williams, of Bedford, and Law- reuce Taylor, of Cotton End, near Bedford, for their set of Patent Four-beam Diagonal Tron Harrows for Light Land; invented by Samuel Taylor, of Cotton End; improved and manufactured by William Williams, of Bedford ° ° °
| £5 122 2 415 0 To Stratton, Hughes and Co., of Bristol, for their improved Norwegian Harrow, with Bodkin and Shafts; invented by George Edward Frere, Esq., of Roydon, and the ex- hibitors; improved and manufactured et by|
the exhibitors 3 .
SCARIFIERS.
To Ransomes and May, of Ipswich, for their Biddell’s Patent Scarifier with seven wrought- iron tines, No. 2; invented by Arthur Bid- dell, of Playford; improved and manufac- tured by the exhibitors .
£10 116 50 18 18 0 To Smith and Co., of Stamford, for have im- proved Caltivator or Grubber ; invented by S. Smith, of Northampton; see and
manufactured by the exhibitors
HorseE-Hoks.
To Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works, near Saxmundham, for their patent Horse- Hoe on tlie flat ; invented and manufactured by the exhibitors.
his Horse-Hoe on the Ridge; invented, im- proved, and manufactured by the exhibitor .
To William Busby, of Newton-le-Willows, for £5 9 12 210 O
HorseE-RAKE.
To Willam Williams, of Bedford, and Law- rence Taylor, of Cotton End, near Bedford, for their Patent Horse-Rake; invented by 2 Samuel Taylor, of Cotton End; improved £5 a G ‘ng leet and manufactured by William Williams, of Bedford - . ° ° °
Or Ww a |
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849.
AWARDS.
Reference to Catalogue. Description of Implement and Name of
Exhibitor. Prize. 1 |
| Stand. | Article.! Price,
DRAIN-TILE OR PireE-MACHINES.
To John Whitehead, of Preston. for his Machine for making any description of Tiles or Pipes ; invented and manufactured by the exhibitor
their set of Draining Tools ; manufactured by £3 KenGidgy ale; O4 hile Legon O
the exhibitors 3 : : :
To Mapplebeck and Lowe, of Birmingham, |
STEAM-ENGINES.
To Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Myon | | near Saxmundham, for their Six-horse power || Portable Steam-Engine; improved and ma-{/
nufactured by the exhibitors . ° -/ |
To Clayton, Shuttleworth and Co., of Lincoln, } | for their Seven-horse power Portable Steam- | Engine with improved Tubular Boiler; = £25 5 =| invented, improved, and manufactured by the einlhae : : : 5 :
th
Ou
fous) bo Or j=) Cc oO
Sia ten
9 | 209 0 0
To William Prockter Stanley, of Peterborough, for his Portable Steam-Generator with Com- | pound Tub and Vegetable Pan; invented, £5 4] Sy cgdo 159) 0 improved, and manufactured by the ex- | hibitors ‘ 3 By Ee ; : |
STEAMING APPARATUS, | |
THRESHING MACHINES.
To Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works, near Saxmundham, for their Bolting Thresh- ing Machine for Steam or Horse Power; in- vented and manufactured by the exhibitors
GIS1 00s
CorRN-DRESSING MACHINES. _
To Richard Hornsby, of Spittlegate, Grantham, for his registered Corn-dressing Machine ; in- vented, improved, and manufactured ty the exhibitor . ° .
£10 65 12 13 10 0
To Clayton, Shuttleworth and Co., of Lincoln,
for their Grinding Mill for breaking agricul- ! £10 40 0 0
Or “I
tural produce into fine meal; mavented: im- proved, and manufactured by the exhibitors
To Hurwood and Turner, of St. Peter’s Foundry,} | Ipswich, for their Linseed and Corn Crush- Ing-machine; improved aud manufactured | by the exhibitors . .
10 10 O
oo
£5 | 107 |
538 Report on the Exhilition of Implements
AWARDS.
Description of Implement and Name of Exhibitor.
CHAFE-CUTTING MACHINE.
To John Cornes, of Barbridge, near Nantwich, ) | for his registered Chafi-cutting Machine with three Knives; invented and manufactured by the exhibitor . ° : °
CaRTs.
To William Crosskill, of the Iron Works near Beverley, for his improved One-horse Cart, or Harvest-cart ; improvedand manufactured by the exhibitor . : : °
HARVEsT-CaRT.
To William Crosskill, of the Iron Works, near Beverley, for his improved One-horse Cart, or Harvest-cart ; improved and manufactured by the exhibitor . A : A
W AGGONS. |
To William Crosskill, of the Iron Works near| Beverley, for his Waggon; improved and > manufactured by the exhibitor . ° |
HAYMAKER.
To Smith and Co., of Stamford, for their Patent Double-action Haymaker; invented, im- proved, and manufactured by the exhibitors
GORSE-BRUISERS.
To Barrett, Exall, and Andrewes, of Saget Tron-works, Reading, for their Gorse cutting | and bruising Machine; invented and manu- factured by the exhibitors ° ° °
TuRNIP-CUTTING MAGHINE.
To the Executors of the late James Gardner, of Banbury, for their Patent Turnip-cutting Machine, with 26 knives for sheep, and 8
Gardner, improved and manufactured by the
Prize.
——_—$—_—- |
£10
£10
£10
£10
knives for beasts; invented by the late James exhibitors e ° ° ° °
OIL-CAKE MACHINE.
To William Newzam Nicholson, of Newark-on- Trent, for his Machine for Breaking Oil-cake for Beasts antl Sheep; invented and manu- factured by the exhibitor A ; ;
Reference to Catalogue.
Stand. | Article.
26
26
26
95
113
38
38
28
|
Price. oy Sk 14 0 0 13% 6 0 13 0 O 29 0. ® lo, to, 0 28 0 O
510 0
dase 0
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849.
AWARDS,
539
Description of Implement and Name of Exhibitor.
MIscELLANEOUS.
To Ransomes and May, of Ipswich, for their Patent Universal Corn and Seed Dropping Machine; invented and manufactured by the exhibitors . ° : ° .
To William Busby, of Newton-le-Willows, near Bedale, for his registered Ribbing and Drillmg Machine; invented by Rev. Wil- liam Wharton, of Barningham, near Barnard- castle, and manufactured by the exhibitor .
To Richard Hornsby, of Spittlegate, near
the Manure on the ridge before the Roller, and combining the two principles of the| | ridge and flat in the same implement
To Richard Downs, of Ryhall, near Stamford, for his Plough for general purposes, w ith
Subsoil Attached to it; inv ented and manu- factured by the exhibitor. :
Grantham, for his invention of =
To Ransomes and May, of Ipswich, for their Universal Patent Trussed-Beam Iron Plough, marked YUL; invented by John Clarke, of Long Sutton, improved and manufactured by the ‘exhibitors. 4
To James Hunter, of Kelso, N.B., for his Cart Saddle; invented and manufactured ue! el exhibitor ° : :
To Wedlake and Thompson, of Union Foundry, Hornchurch, near Romford, for their Patent Irrigator ; invented by George Coode, of Haydock Park, Lancashire ; manufactured by the exhibitors ; 3
Tc Ransomes and May, of ries for their Digging Fork; invented by J. Sillett, of Kelsale, and manufactured by the exhibitors
To John Whitehead, of Preston, for his regis- tered Churn ; Bees afaotuned by the osdnintias
To William Crosskill, of the Iron Works near Beverley, for his Portable Farm Railway, Turn-Table, and Waggons; invented, -im- proved, and manufactured by the exhibitor
To Charles Burrell, of ‘Thetford, for his Cir- cular-Saw Bench, for aking hurdles or gates ; invented by Walter Palmer, of South- acre; improved and manufactured by the
: |
= :
exhibitor - : °
Prize.
Silver Medal.
SilveriMedal.|
Silver Medal.
Silver Medal. |
Silver Medal.
Silver Medal,
Silver Medal.
Silver Medal.
Silver Medal.
Silver Medal.
Silver Medal.
if
Reference to Catalogue.
| Stand. lArticte. | Price | | Seon O 116 | 49 | 28 0 0 | | 9 eglO: 3}, tA 14. 20 Ce lel aaa : 125 Fl 610" 0 95 NIG © 4g ome meuberey 98 | Gora et deo. 0 190 cl a dsb. 20-1080 T16 | 127 0 6 6 75 Ga], Ptah. 0 Ree sae 26 | 48 | to | 49 | so 10 0 aay 13 | 9 | 45 0 0
540 Report on the Lxhibition of Implements
AWARDS.
Reference to Catalogue. Description of Implement and Name of
Exhibitor. Prize. Stand. | Article. Price, a Ss cl To Thomas Scragg, of Calveley, near Tar- porley, for his improvements in cutting wires and die-plates, as exhibited in his Single- Silver Medal. (039 9 22 0 «0
invented and improved by the exhibitor, and
action Tile-Pipe and Brick-making Machine; manufactured by James Hewett, of ir an
COMMENDATIONS.
To Thomas Scragg, of Calveley, near Tar-
porley, for his Single-action Tile-Pipe and Hichl Brick-making Machine; invented and im- ee proved by the exhibitor, and manufactured by James Hewett, of Calveley .
commended.
To Hurwood and Turner, of St. Peter’s Foundry, Ipswich, for their Portable Threshing Ma- chine; invented and manufactured by the exhibitors . ; . ; °
Commended. | 107 2 60 0 fo Ransomes and May, of Ipswich, for their 95 Universal Patent Trussed-Beam Iron Plough, marked YUL; invented by John Clarke, of Long Sutton, es and manufactured
by. the exhibitors : ‘ ° °
To Richard Downs, of Ryhall, near Stamfor Hi for his Plough for general purposes, with Subsoil attached te it; invented and manu- factured by the exhibitor. ° : :
Commended. | 116 ao 6 0
Commended. | 125 1 610 0O
Ploughs.—The following is the Judges’ Report of the trial of these implements :—
Heavy Land Plough.—* This prize was awarded to Messrs, Williams and Taylor, for their plough, Art. 11. The judges particularly commend this plough, for it was almost the only one that could make decent work when ploughing 9 inches deep, which was the depth first attempted. Owing, however, to the hardness of the ground, the whole were altered to 6 inches, and at that depth it preserved the same superiority.”
Light Land Plough.—‘ The prize for this implement was awarded to Messrs. Howard and Son, for their champion plough. In reference to this prize the judges wish to remark that the Jand upon which the ploughs were tried was of so hard and stubborn a character, that it was by no means a fair trial for them. ‘They do not wish to infer that the result would have been
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. d41
different, but they are of opinion that many of the ploughs selected for trial, which were of excellent construction and first-rate work- manship, would, under more favourable circumstances, have made very different work.”
Plough for General Purposes.—“< The prize for this plough was awarded to Mr. W. Ball, for his ‘ criterion’ plough. On _ both the light and heavy land it came into very close competition with the winning ploughs; and for all farms of mixed soils the judges consider this an excellent implement, and one that will render two descriptions of ploughs on the same farm quite unneces- sary.”
Paring Plough.—* This prize was awarded to Mr. G. Kilby, for a plough invented by Thomas Glover. This plough, for paring old turf, stands unrivalled; and though there are others that answer well on stubble, this, for all purposes, was decidedly the best exhibited.”
Draining Ploughs.—“<The ploughs exhibited for this prize were either bad in principle, or so hastily and imperfectly constructed as to be entire failures, and the prize was not awarded. That invented and exhibited by Mr. Joseph Paul,* was, on a trial subsequent to the public one, by far the most ef- fective, though it fell far short of a perfect implement. Whether it will ever be made to answer all the purposes for which it is intended it is impossible to say, but the judges are of opinion that Mr. Paul well deserves the thanks of the landlords and his brother farmers for having expended so much time, money, and ingenuity on an implement which, if perfected, will be of such great national utility.”
Subsoil Pulverizer.—‘ This prize was awarded to Mr. Comins, for an implement which performed its work in a very excellent manner ; not only dog more execution than any other by fairly entering the soil and thoroughly breaking it up, but it passed through its trial without being in any way ‘broken or injured.”
« The judges commended and awarded a medal to a universal plough, exhibited by Messrs. Ransome, which is applicable to all the purposes of a ridge plough, a moulding-up plough, a horse-hoe on the ridge and on the flat, and a broad-share.”
“ ‘The judges also commended and awarded a medal to a plough for general purposes, with subsoil plough attached, ex- hibited by Mr. Richard Downs. ‘There is nothing new in the principle of this implement, but it was more successfully
* T attended very closely to the working of this implement, and, although it is at present very far from perfect, it is in my opinion the first step in the right direction towards obtaining an implement of sufficient power to cut a deep drain at once.— C. B, Cxrattoner.
042 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
carried out than they had before seen it, and they consider it the best method of subsoiling, as the treading by the horses after the subsoil plough is by this means obviated.”
Drills for General Purposes.—( Judges’ Report.) “ Mr. Hornsby obtained this prize for his ten-coulter corn, seed, and manure drill. This drill did its work in a very effective manner; a valuable addition has been made to insure a uniform de- livery of seed: the slides which regulate the supply from the pigeon-holes all move simultaneously; they are attached to a light bar, which is raised in an exact horizontal position by two small racks and pinions; the feed of every coulter can by this means be increased or diminished at pleasure without even stop- ping the drill.”
Corn-Drilis.—“« The prize offered for this implement was awarded to Mr. Garrett for his eleven-coulter drill. It has an improved parallel steerage,—a great improvement on the swing principle, as it remains in one position, without being touched, the whole length of a field; and yet at the ends, where a steerage 1s so important, possesses the most perfect movement. The seed was deposited in good style on very rough ground. Mr. Hornsby had avery good corn-drill, but, having no steerage, it was not considered so generally useful. Mr. Busby, of Newton- le-Willows, had a new implement, a ribbing-drill, to which a medal was awarded, and which promises well to compete with any of its more costly rivals; the working of this implement was quite astonishing, there certainly being nothing in its appearance to recommend it.”
Turnip-Drill on the Flat.—< Mr. Hornsby’s six-row drill for turnips and manure did its work in a most satisfactory manner. That exhibited by Mr. Garrett also performed well, but the manure was not exactly of the description to test the powers of these drills. Mr. Hornsby’s buried the manure the best, and the coulters appear most capable of a large delivery of tillage of a rough description. We accordingly awarded him the prize.”
Turnip-Drills on the Ridge.—< Mr. Garrett obtained this prize, and, we think, for the most perfect implement of the description ever produced ; a large amount of manure was deposited in front of the fore-rollers, which effectually covered it and again pro- duced a beautifully formed ridge to receive the seed coulters ; after which a second pair of concave rollers finished the work in a style most creditable to the maker. The plan of fixing the manure-coulters before the concave rollers having originated with Mr. Hornsby, we also awarded his drill a medal.”
Drop- Drills.—“ Mr. Garrett was awarded the prize for his drop-drill. .It worked with the greatest exactness at the trial depositing any reasonable quantity of manure, covering it beau-
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 543
tifully, and then setting the seed over it; the oscillating move- ment of the tins is so very rapid that we think it not unlikely to get out of order. |
Messrs. Ransome and May exhibited and obtained a medal for a new implement,—a. corn and seed dropping machine ; it plants the seed with the greatest regularity, but the weight is strongly against it, and it appears doubtful whether it can supersede the drill: but in such hands as theirs nothing appears impossible.”
Horse Seed-dibblers.—«<'There being no competition this prize was withheld.”
Hand-Dibblers—“<'The only machine of this kind tried which did not injure the grain was Dr. Newington’s. This drops any - quantity of grains, which are thrust into the soil by blunt-ended dibbles. It looks complicated, but is in reality the least so of any, and obtained the prize.”
Hand-barrow Drills with Cups, for Ridge-work.—“« Mr. Holmes’s was the most useful drill under this head, and obtained the prize.” :
Manure- Distributors.— Five manure distributors were tried ; none of them were quite so perfect in their operations as we could have wished, not sowing small quantities sufficiently even for powerful manures. Mr. Crosskill had the advantage, how- ever, having this year introduced a number of small scrapers to the delivering roller, which could not fail to have the desired effect on the moistest manures. We considered this addition entitled him to the prize, and awarded it accordingly.
Liquid Manure Distributors—*« Myr. Chandler obtained this prize, his.being the only machine likely to act effectively with any thick or muddy fluid; the delivery being by two series of endless buckets, the choking or stopping is rendered impossible, as in the ordinary method of perforation. Mr. Stratton’s was not so ma- nageable as might be, but may become very useful in the double capacity of water-cart and distributor.* Mr. Coode obtained a medal for certainly a novel invention,—a patent irrigator. In its present form it would require the liquid to be in a strictly hmpid state, or its action would be impeded altogether.” +
The foregoing remarks of the judges of drills show that the two great rivals in drill-making, Messrs. Garrett and Hornsby, have not been idle since the York Meeting; but that both brought out at Norwich substantial improvements which de-
* Mr. Chandler’s appeared to me to he the best principle we at present know of for the delivery of liquid manure; and I suggested to Messrs. Reeves, the manufacturers, to apply the same principle to a simple and cheap water cart, in which case it would be a most valuable implement.—C. B. CHALLONER.
7 It seems more particularly calculated for market gardens, though upon a farm it would possess the advantage of being used without horse-labour, poaching the land, or injuring young crops,—Duprity PeLnam.
344 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
servedly obtained for their implements the prizes appropriated to their respective classes. These improvements are not of a showy kind, and would be overlooked by a casual observer, but they materially add to the precision with which the seed is deposited, and therefore to the value of a drill. Mr. Hornsby’s improved mode of regulating the feed is so fully described by the judges, that any additional remarks would be superfluous ; but of Mr. Garrett’s parallel steerage it may be as well to men- tion that it is especially applicable to stetch work where the stetches or lands are narrow. Where, for instance, the stetches just require a single bout of the drill, one wheel-is always in the furrow, and the parallel steerage not only enables the drillman to start the coulters exactly in their right places, but keeps them true to their position as respects the crown of the land, without any attention on his part, until the steerage is again called into action when the horses turn at the end of the field. ‘The cause of the superiority possessed by the parallel over the ordinary swing steerage is, that in a drill made on the latter principle the coulters when acted upon by the steerage describe part of a circle, and have a natural tendency to fall to the centre, which is the lowest point. They therefore lie heavy on the hands of the attendant whenever removed from this position, 7. e., whenever the steerage isin action, ‘The parallel steerage, on the other hand, moves the coulters in a direct line, so that they have no tendency to any particular point, and remain where they are placed. For stetch work, therefore, this steerage is very superior to anything that has hitherto been brought out. For broad flat work, the fore- carriage steerage previously in use by the Messrs. Garrett, is capable of somewhat greater accuracy ; but most farmers would be satisfied with the performance of the drill with parallel steer- age, especially when they knew that it was cheaper than the fore- carriage steerage, and required one man less to work it.
In the Implement Report of last year an appeal was made to the implement makers to supply a cheap and simple corn-dmill for the use of small farmers. This appeal has been well re- sponded to by Mr. Busby, who brought out at Norwich a drill, on an entirely new principle, the invention of the Rev. W. Wharton, of Barningham, near Greta Bridge, Yorkshire. The working of this drill was, to use the Judge’s own words, ‘‘ quite astonishing, as there was nothing in its appearance to recommend it.” It is well known to those who farm strong land, that it is frequently very difficult to make the coulters of an ordinary drill enter the land to a sufficient depth to deposit the seed out of harm’s way; and even where a pressbar is able to effect the purpose, the: draught of the drill is so much increased that an additional horse is required at a time when the land will ill bear
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 545
any additional trampling. In such cases the ribbing-plough is fre- quently had recourse to, nor is there any better method of securing a good plantof wheat: though the slowness of the process and the necessity for sowing the seed by hand are decided drawbacks to this mode of preparing the land. Mr. Busby’s implement adopts the mode of opening the seed-furrow which forms the peculiar merit of the ribbing-plough, but combines with it the method of delivering the seed which is usual in corn-drills; so that it promises to be animplement of great utility, especially in those cases where other drills fail. The Judges found fault with the appearance of this implement; this will probably be ium- proved when it next comes before the public: but it is to be hoped that in any extra finishing which Mr. Busby may bestow upon it, he will not lose sight of one of its great merits at present, viz., that it is a cheap as well as effective drill for small farmers.
Harrows for Light Land.—(Judges’ Report.) “This prize was awarded to Art. 12, stand 122, exhibited by Messrs. Williams and Taylor. For strength of construction and steadiness in working the Judges consider these harrows superior to any others exhibited. With respect to Howard’s jointed harrows, they wish to remark that though they would in all probability work exceed- ingly well under ordinary circumstances, on the hard ground on which they were compelled to try them they worked very unsteadily, pulling up the furrow instead of cuttimg through it, and conse- quently leaving the surface very rough.”
Harrows for Heavy Land.—*‘'This prize was also awarded to Messrs. Williams and Taylor, for Art. 3, stand 122, for the same reasons as the above.’
‘*Mr. Coleman, stand 32, exhibited a set of expanding lever harrows, which worked exceedingly well; but they are nearly double the price of the above, and more liable to get out of order.”’
Norwegian Harrows.—“'This prize was awarded to Messrs. Stratton. Their Norwegian harrow, after having been closely tried with others on both heavy and light land, performed its work most to the satisfaction of the Judges. It. however, did very little good on the heavy land, and they are of opinion that this implement i is not of that general utility which it was expected it would have been,”
Scarvfiers —<'This prize was awarded to Messrs. Ransome for their Biddell’s scarifier, as it was the only one, with the exception of Smith’s, of Stamford, that would enter Ae ground in its then hard state. The Judges consider the (ight scarifiers can never fairly compete with the heavy ones, and that a separate prize should be given for them, as they are, as to price, within the
3416 Report on the Exhibition of Lmplements
means of the small farmer, and are, in ordinary seasons, very useful implements.”
Cultivator, or Grubber.—< "This prize was awarded to Messrs. Smith and Co., for their cultivator, Art. 10. It is a very effective implement, either as a scarifier or grubber, both of which operations it is capable of performing in a very efficient manner; and as it is moderate in price, and very strongly made, it was considered fairly entitled to the prize.”
Florse- Hoe on the Flat. Yor this prize there was no one to compete with Mr. Garrett’s well-known implement, which on this occasion fully sustained its previously well-earned reputation.”
Horse Hoe on the Ridge.—<'This prize was awarded to Mr. William Busby, for his horse-hoe, Art. 12. This implement is very strong, and well made, and performed its work exceedingly well. Its moderate price also recommends it to the notice of every farmer. The Judges feel bound to notice Mr. Garrett's double ridge hoe, which did its work in a most satisfactory manner; and to those farmers who use a double ridge drill, which it is best adapted to follow, it is a great acquisition. By having additional knives it is convertible into a hoe for corn or root crops on the flat.”
«The Judges wish to notice Art. 7, stand 105, a five-tined drill grubber, exhibited by Gray and Sons, as a very strong and well-made implement, and most effective for deep cultivation between the rows of root crops.”
Horse-rakes (Judges’ Report).—* In this class great improve- ment had taken place in all the implements, with a few exceptions, where the alterations had been rather in the wrong direction. We selected the following six for trial :—
‘“‘ Stand 9, art. 19.—Mr. Bussy’s—This rake worked tolerably well.
“ Stand 37, art. 25.—Messrs. Howarp’s did not work so well as expected, as it had all the appearance of being the same as the prize implement, but in working had not its merits, although it worked well.
“ Stand 64, art. 9.—Messrs. HensmAn’s did its work pretty well.
“ Stand 95, art.4.—Smirn and Co’s did its work very well indeed, and stood next in merit to the prize implement.
“ Stand 104, art. 2.—Mr. Granv’s did its work in its usual way.
“ Stand 122, art.6.—Mr. WittiaAms’s rake did its work in that way which has so long been desired, the peculiar curve of the teeth causing the hay, corn, or stubble to rise round their face until its own weight caused it to fall over, so that the whole is rolled into a piece like a lady’s muff or the roll of wool from a carding-machine, giving the air and wind free circulation through the mass; the same action also allows the stones and lumps of
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 547
soil to fall between the teeth while the stuff is being pushed round the face of the teeth. ‘The leverage for raising the teeth worked easier thanany of the others; so with all these advantages we felt justified in awarding it the prize.”’
Drain-tile or pipe-machines (Judges’ Report).—‘‘ There was a considerable falling off in the number of these machines this year, only 24 being exhibited, and the principal part of those appear to remain unimproved, or have not advanced in the same propor- tionas Whitehead’s, Scrage’ s, and Clayton’s: these three machines are much improved ; mmdecdl so nearly balanced were the two former, that it would have ee a difficult task to decide between them, had not Amos’s machine for testing hand-power been applied: by this very ingenious instrument it was discovered that Whitehead’s machine required much less power to work it than Scragg’s did, and the prize was accordingly awarded to him. It is well finished; the clay-box has a planed, smooth surface, which very materially reduces the friction on the sides, top, and bottom ; the method of closing and fastening the box-lid 1s also well worthy of remark. In this machine there are two racks, by which the great power required to force out the clay is more distributed ; in Scragg’s there is only one, and all the strain is on two cogs alone; he fixing the die-plates is most effective and simple : the cutting apparatus is very good; indeed, the machine in all respects is worthy of the prize. Mr. Scragg has made improve- ments in his cutting apparatus and die- -plates, which are very creditable to his ingenuity; and we highly commended his ma~ chine, and awarded it a medal,
“Mr. Clayton’s machine is still on the combined principle of vertical and horizontal. This maker has displayed a vast deal of patience and ability in the endeavour to perfect an erroneous system—not that a horizontal motion will produce pipes of very large bore so perfect as the vertical, but when it is considered how few pipes of this description are required compared with the smaller sorts, it must at once be seen that a machine which re- quires the cylinders at ail times to be filled from such an ele- vation, cannot be economical of labour.
« Franklin’s combined plan of pugging, screening, and moulding was shown. ‘The earth was of a description to test its utmost powers ; the work was done in good style, but was not expeditious enough to answer.
«The following tabular statement gives the result of five minutes’ work of the ejght machines selected for trial. Every preparation was made beforehand by the respective exhibitors to ensure the largest delivery in their power within the time aa ified; any faulty pipes were thrown aside and not counted :”
548 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
Length of No. Stand. | Art. Name. Pipes of 2-inch |Men.!Boys.| Horse.| Price. in Inches. Pipes. | sn) 8 5 2 ice Clay tOWe veniiueet te 133 110 21 Valk wees 29h) 0 7 Soa alOM as Velen same 13 4] 2] oe ’ 20 0 39 2 | Scragg Biriter inte 13 134 DF ile eli] Bete ge GO 75 1 Whitehead . .j| 132 185 2 1 oe 23 0 81 AGy s | Garrettaiiets sical is 14 718 ] 1 e 25 0 94 ] Ainslie nit nme 15 40 1 4 30 «(0 101 1 Franklin 2116 13 24 1 2 1 25 0 122 13 Williams Wind si cea 13 54 1 1 ° 13 13 |
‘There were ten less of these machines exhibited at Norwich than at York. All the best machines extant were, however, brought forward, and there was no reason to regret the reduction im numbers. The names of Whitehead, Scragg, and Clayton still appear at the head of the list, and with one or two exceptions their machines are the only ones which call for any particular notice. One of these exceptions is the one invented by Mr. Weller, and exhibited by Messrs. Garrett. This machine un- doubtedly made very good tiles at a tolerably rapid rate; and had the principle of construction been as good as the workmanship, it would have been very hard to beat, for, as might be supposed from its being in Messrs. Garrett’s hands, it was exceedingly well got up and admirably served. It is, however, impossible for skill and zeal on the part of master and man to enable a machine to compete successfully with those on a decidedly better principle; and there are two weak points in this implement, either of which would be conclusive with the present close competition: one is, that it is worked by lever, a very objectionable mode of applying hand-power ; and the other, its having cylinders which require to be placed in a different position for filling to that which they occupy when at work. ‘This necessarily takes up time and com- plicates the construction, and contrasts unfavourably with the simplicity and substantial character of the fixed clay-box.
The case of Mr. Clayton’s machine is somewhat similar, and the duty of a reporter becomes painful when it 1s necessary to point out objections to an implement upon which great labour and mechanical ingenuity have been perseveringly bestowed, and which when first introduced was a decided improvement upon those which had preceded it. That Mr. Clayton’s machine makes excellent work is undeniable, but when it is necessary to decide which is the best principle of construction, it is at once apparent that the numerous clever contrivances by which his shifting cylinders are made as little objectionable as possible, are yet proofs of the faulty nature of the original plan. The first
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. J49
requisite in an agricultural implement is efficiency, the second simplicity, and this last is scarcely less important than the first, inasmuch as simplicity is the very quality which ensures its being efficient in the hands of ordinary unskilled labourers, and at the same time affords the best guarantee for its being rarely out of order, and being easy to repair when an accident does happen. Let the two prize-machines (which may be considered identical in principle) be compared with Clayton’s in the two points above mentioned. With respect to efficiency, all three make very good tiles, and though the prize-machines are more rapid in their per- formance, Clayton’s is sufficiently expeditious for most tile-yards, and the additional number, though a point in favour of the former, is not one of a decisive character. Under the head of simplicity, however, the case is very different. If a labourer of the most ordinary capacity were once shown how to open and fill Whitehead’s clay-box and which way to turn the handle, it is hardly conceivable that he could ever after make a mistake, and the strength and simplicity of construction of the whole machine are such as almost to defy wear and tear. Clayton’s machine, however, has several additional movements, and is therefore of necessity more complicated, and when the men who work it have become thoroughly acquainted with its action, there must always be a good deal of nicety and exactness required in stopping at the moment that a length of pipes is complete, and in holding the horse in the right position for receiving the tiles. This only applies to the vertical mode of delivery ; but if the horizontal plan be practised, then the height to which the clay must be handed, and the additional labour required in filling small cylinders instead of a large clay-box, besides the extra cost of the machine, will cause an unfavourable comparison to be drawn between it and the prize-implements of Messrs Whitehead and Scragg. _
The machine invented by Mr. Ainslie made pipes of better quality than any other in the yard. This excellence of manu- facture is attained by the forcible compression of the clay between iron rollers, which gives it a more uniform density, and effec- tually gets rid of the air-bubbles which more or less blister the tiles made by all other machines. _ Its high price and the slowness of its action must prevent its coming into common use unless much improved, but it would be valuable to any one who was anxious to make a limited number of tiles of very superior quality, re- gardless of expense. ——
Steam-engines (Judges’ Report).—“ In making our report of the trial of steam-ergines at the country meeting of the Royal Agri- cultural Society held at Norwich, July, 1849, we would remark that the arrangements made by the Society were very judicious, and gave every facility for the application of the force-resister,
VOL. X. 2.0
900 feport on the Exhibition of Implements
which has proved so excellent a test of the relative powers of the different engines and machines. And we think great credit also due to the Society’s engineer, Mr. Amos, for the very efficient arrange- ments made by him for ascertaining the real power absorbed for the amount of work performed by each threshing and other ma- chine subjected to this trial.
‘‘In the following remarks we have taken the engines in the order as entered in the Catalogue, and under their respective stands and numbers, for easy reference.
Page 16.—Stand 5, art. I, 2, 3.
“Three portable steam-engines, manufactured by Messrs. Clayton, Shuttleworth, and Co., the powers of 5, 7, and 9 horses respectively. ‘Iwo of these engines were of the same construction, the third a two-cylinder engine, which we think an unnecessary complication when designed for agricultural purposes. The three boilers were all tubular, and precisely the same in make, thereby cbtaining on the trial an unfair advantage over but one of a kind exhibited by other parties. In saying this, we intend not the slightest reflection upon Messrs. Clayton, Shuttleworth, and Co., but under similar circumstances we should recommend in future that but one of a kind should be tested for each exhibitor. The workmanship of these engines was good, the arrangement for working the governors new, and the general performance satis- factory, doing good duty for the fuel consumed, as will be seen by reference to the tabular statement.
The crank-shaft we thought too short between the bearings to remain steady in constant wear; the piston and valve-rods worked through screw stuffing-boxes, which is a method now seldom adopted but for the sake of cheapness; the engines were mounted on iron wheels, which we think not so suitable for farm roads as wooden ones. Having made these observations, we have now the pleasure to add that we felt so well satisfied with the quick gene- ration of steam and duty done by these engines, as to select the 7-horse article, No. 2, for the second prize of twenty-five pounds.” |
Page 22.—Stand 13, art. lL.
““A 4-horse portable engine, manufactured by Mr. Burrell. This engine in workmanship was moderate: it was fitted with three different speeds, the governors being made adjustable to the same, ‘he duty performed for the coal consumed will be seen to be less than half that of the prize-engines, which sufficiently stamps its comparative merits.”’
Page 134.—Stand 65, art. 8.
« A 6-horse portable engine, manufactured by Mr. Hornsby.
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. dol
The workmanship of this engine was good; working parts firm, and strong-fitted; complete; with mercury-gauge, and an ad- ditional safety-valve placed out of the control of the engineman, thereby giving greater safety. The boiler was tubular, but formed of two sets of tubes, the one direct, the other returning the smoke from the smoke-box to the chimney placed in front of the boiler. This arrangement caused a great deficiency in the draft, so that combustion of the fuel proceeded very slowly, and consequent upon this, the time used in getting up steam, namely, 92 minutes, was too long to be good in practice, and the effective duty performed by the engine showed a corresponding result.”
Page 156.—Stand 81, art. 21.
“©A 6-horse patented portable engine, manufactured by the patentees, Messrs. Garrett and Son. The boiler of this engine was formed with two direct.side flues and one return circular flue, the chimney being over the fire-box, and was the only flue- boiler exhibited, which makes it interesting to notice, that with a good draft and capability of burning an inferior description of fuel, the duty done was equal to several of the tubular boilers, while the price is Jess) The workmanship of this engine was good, working parts firm, strong, and well fitted, with mercury and water-gauges and governors well adjusted. The force- pump is fitted with a tap so constructed as to return a portion of water back to the cistern when the boiler is sufficiently sup- pled, thereby rendering the bursting of the joints through the carelessness of the attendant, impossible. ‘This engine was mounted on strong wooden wheels very suitable to farm roads.”
Page 157.—Stand 81], art. 22.
«“ A 6-horse portable engine, also manufactured by Messrs. Garrett and Son. The general remarks made upon. their former engine are also equally applicable to this as respects workmanship and strength; it is also fitted with the necessary steam and water-gauges and governors, and we would espe- cially notice the strength and construction of the one carriage of the four bearings of the crank-shaft, admitting of their being bored out at one operation in the lathe. ‘The boiler of this engine is tubular, but the fire-box circular, the outer case being an uni- form cylinder throughout, thereby ‘attaining great strength and durability, points so essential to be noticed in engines to be w orked by unexperienced hands ; the plates of this pouee were $, and tube- plate 23-inch thick, showing much greater strength than in the one which obtained the second prize. The duty ‘performed by this engine was very satisfactory, as will be seen by refereuce to the tabular statement: and if we make due allowance for a cold rain falling during the whole of é/zs trial, the other engines having the
2 o2
D024 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
advantage of a hot sun, the result will assign to this engine in duty done, as well as in strength and durability, the first prize of fifty pounds, which was awarded accordingly. We would observe in addition, that the driving-wheel of this engine contains a groove for a round band, which cannot be too highly recommended for working threshing-machines, as avoiding the great exactness ne- cessary in placing the machines when working with a flat belt.”
Page 161.—Stand 83, art. 1.
«A 6-horse portable engine, manufactured by Messrs. J. and E. Headley. ‘This engine was made with a double cylinder, and had a tube-boiler, workmanship good, but working parts too slight for the power stated; the throttle-valve was placed in the smoke-box, an arrangement which we think bad and incon- venient; 107 minutes were occupied in raising the steam to 45 Ibs. pressure, and the duty performed was comparatively small ; the result would have been something better had the firing been properly attended to. The exhibitor stated that his engine was better suited to work with coke than coal.”
Page 188.—Stand 98, art. 1.
«A 6-horse portable engine, manufactured by Messrs. John Ferrabee and Sons. The general workmanship of this engine was very moderate; cross-head cast instead of wrought-iron ; the boiler tubular, but the number of tubes too few, and of insufficient diameter. In work, this engine was unable to sustain the weight on the force-resister at the required speed, con- sequently there are no tabular results given.”
Page 199.—Stand 107, art. 1.
“A 6-horse portable engine, manufactured by Messrs. Hur- wood and ‘Turner. The tube-boiler of this engime was too large and heavy for the power stated; the cylinder and starting- gear being placed out of reach from the ground, and was fitted with two heavy fly-wheels, which is unnecessary. The workman- ship generally below mediocrity, and after three hours consumed in a fruitless effort to get up steam, the trial was abandoned: the exhibitors wishing it recorded that their engine was suited to work with coke in preference to coal.”
Page 206.—-Stand 116, art. 1.
« A 6-horse portable and locomotive engine, manufactured by Messrs. E. B. Wilson and Co., and exhibited by them in conjunction with Messrs. Ransome and May. ‘This engine, excellent in workmanship, was fitted with two cylinders; its weight for the power very light, and strong in all the working parts; the boiler tubular and beautifully made; but we think such an engine not suited to put into the hands of farmers’ engine-
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 00d
men generally, and should doubt its locomotive powers being of much practical benefit as connected with agriculture, entertaining a fear also that accidents might be of frequent occurrence in steaming from farm to farm.”’
«The duty performed for the coal consumed in this case was below that of the prize-engines, as will be seen on reference to the tabular statement.
«This engine was stated to be better adapted to work with coke than coal.
«The other engines entered in the catalogue were not brought into the trial-yard, with the exception of one by Mr. John Smith, which was withdrawn by the owner without trial.”
While working
TABULAR, STATEMENT OF RESULTS.§ up to their Nominal Powers. Semis Saree ayn Weneme 1 aegia 5 Seis] aa oy ea @ le ale ys gee Bla IN Ge ole eae Name: so | Segal) She) SSe|Sacloees Blas ‘8 eeu (eee| S83) 425214555 SB) 5] Sm | swat | Sha | She | Gos |S on 8, Minutes Ibs. lbs lbs ii Clayton, Shuttleworth,& Co.| 5 | 1 | 5 Horse 44 324 | 20 5 11-8 Ditto ditto. 5 DY fae 45 372 20 753 | 10°78 Ditto ditto. OS st 9) is, 37 4lz | 20 |. 105 11°66 Bureelivgr ilies fei: *s 13 | 1} 42 ,, 57 282 | 20 | 1143 | 25:5 Hornsby Rete Sh isda | GO SuieG ; 92 464 20. 1 8d2e) Fag Garrett and Son . . ./| 81/21/16 ,, 61 593 | 20 | 84 | 14 Ditto. - ditto ~ . Sie22 Owe... 63 733 20 69 11°35 J. and E. Headley . g3| 1/424, | 107 | 44%] 20 | 108 | 24 E. B. Wilson and Co., acid 1 Cae. LG. | PEE | 4054): 47 294 | 20 | 61 | 14
Threshing-Machines.*—Great pains were taken with the trial of these machines, as it was felt that their importance could hardly be overrated, and yet that no trial of them had hitherto been made which could be considered really satisfactory. <A great step in advance was undoubtedly made at York, where for the first time the power required to work each machine was ascertained ; but even this important step fell short of the real requirements of the case, as the mode of registering the power was by no means perfect, and the method then adopted was also deficient, from its furnishing no means of judging of the efficiency of the horse-works. A large majority of threshing- machines are necessarily worked by horse-power, so that no state- ment of their relative merits could be generally satisfactory which
* The judges of threshing-machines requested the writer of the report to draw up the account of the trial of these implements, and furnished him with the tables A, B, C, &c., for that purpose.
o04 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
left the horse-works unnoticed. The importance of this point will appear when the tabular statement (A) comes under con- sideration, The trial commenced by a general examination of each machine by the judges and consulting engineer, after which a single horse (and in some instances a second) was attached,
with a dynamometer, and the empty machine driven at such a rate as, according to the maker’s description, would cause the drum to revolve at the requisite speed. After trying a few of the machines it became evident that the specifications furnished by the makers were not accurate, and it was found necessary to count the cogs of all the working parts and calculate the number of seconds in which the horse-wheel should revolve in order to produce the number of revolutions of the drum intended by the exhibitor. It is much to be wished that exhibitors would be strictly accurate in describing their machines, as misstatements not only lead to great waste of time and trouble in conducting the trials, but frequently place a machine in an unfavourable position as respects other competitors. To show the extent to which these inaccuracies are carried, it is only necessary to mention that in the description of one of the machines it was stated that two revolutions of the horse- wheel produced 700 revolutions of the drum, whereas on calcu- lation it was found to produce 1146, so that, had there been no check to the exhibitor’s estimate, he would only have had the credit of making his drum revolve 700 times per minute, whilst the dynamometer charged against him the amount of draught re-
Table A.—Showing the Draught of the Horse and. Barn Works of Threshing-Machines when Driven Empty, as indicated by a Draught-Gauge.
1 2 3 4. 5. 6 7. 8 9 10. dps 4 © oH aks | BB bas Diameter te BS joe Revo- | 28 Horse of Sa | es lutions | = 9 ¢ : Stand.) Art. Name. Power.) Horse- | % 2 F a2 8 o of 28 Price. Walk 5 Dd 4S rum SO ones | aa Sp Q a n a £. SS. 54 19°} Sparke «3. > « 4 21°5 2 1°53 728 26 60 0 36 1 Holmes... . = 6 20 3°15 2°25 1141 48 79 40 51 1 Pageipe fe veiplesie ve 4 18°25 3 1°81 891 20 52 10 107 2 Hurwood ..-. 4 21°6 2°45 1°88 830 28 60 0 58 1 Bxalliyey ie) vo Vientze 4 22 3°6 2°85 900 24 53 0 13 3° | Burrell. 2 + 6) 4 23 225) 2°04 950 21°5 50 0 100 8 Ferrabee, . . « « 4 20 3°1 Pa 1k) 895 Wes 60 0 79 i] Cornish . cee 4 19°5 3°5 2°45 912 2285 48 0 24 1 Bly thyeweeiye) et tte 4 22°3 3 2°38 867 24 70 O 44 1 Woods. 60 «6 « 4 24 2 iA 1146 44 65 0 at least. 81 23 Garrett jo: eh 4 22 aur hs) 2°18 900 37 61 10 65 10 TOrnsbyieu- ie) si 4 23°6 2°6 2°20 900 32 85 0 64 6 Hensman. . .”. 4 24 2°14 1°83 900 35 53 0 116 9) Ransome 3 .)%s 4 4 20 3°22 2°31 1000 20 68 0 26 54 Groraiwl, A Galo 4 24 2°77 2°33 840 22°5 56 10 ne ean
C
~~
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. DOD
quired to produce 1146 revolutions, a rate of speed 62 per cent. above his estimate.
Table A gives various particulars respecting the machines tried with the dynamometer. These for the most part require no remark; but column 9, which gives the draught in stones when the machines were running empty, is well worthy of notice from the great variation in the amount of power required. In one instance it amounted to 48 st. It should be mentioned that this was a six-horse machine, but after making all due allowance on this score its draught when doing no work was far too great. In another instance it will be observed that the draught was 44 st. To assist in forming an opinion respecting the figures in this column it may be mentioned that the average draught of a plough turning a furrow 9 inches by 6 rarely exceeds 24 stone, and on light land (when not too dry) is generally under 20 stone. Yet this is considered a fair amount of work for a pair of horses, and taking 10 to 12 stone as the average draught of each horse, it appears that in no less than four of pili machines tried on this occasion, and which professed to be four-horse machines, it required the ordinary pull of three horses at plough to drive them at their proper speed when doing no work. Had these machines acquitted themselves ill when put to work, the fact would scarcely have been worth notice, but it becomes im- portant when we find that they were subsequently proved to be some of the best exhibited. The result then of this first trial was to show that the best threshing-machines now manufactured are still far from perfect, and as the trials proceeded some progress was made in detecting their weak points.
It will have been gathered from the preceding remarks that Table A gives the result of the application of an entirely new test to threshing-machines, one, viz., which registers the amount of force required to drive the machines when empty. Table Bb records a further attempt to ascertain the proportions in which the amount of draught given in column 9 of Table A should be apportioned between the horse-works and the barn-works of the respective machines. It will be observed that the number of the
Table B. i | | } i a 3, peas Giehche sure ——— —E————— oS cee eee | { sky suebtieorvclee ices | Fo | Friction | Friction | Friction | Stand.) Art. Name Power ioe whole} of Barn | of Horse | | | we " Machine Works. | Works. | = oe ee Eee fd 64.) 6 Hensman\egiok. ceiie tele 4 | 2°39 WB8i hE or 107 See eLUn WOO wanker le ls vcs 4 1°99 69 1°30 | 36 | 1 FLOIMeS eae, os at eae ene 6 | 4°02 97 | 3°05 SIgA tse Garrett ese ee ete | 4 2°78 2°07 STH. 44 | 1 IWi0odSsfebisjest coeieuere 4 2°81 46 2°39 | | | u
Scealinceniiciemiezimactidienbaimtiariadiontemmscmemnmemmmemmemmmmenmmmeemnmteemmntamatiiatimmtieteataetiantiadampaceameemamamacmmmntia dicate ex ee
006 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
machines tried is reduced from 16 to 5. This arose from the trial in question being a new suggestion which occurred to the consult- ing engineer at a period of the proceedings which did not admit pilates being extended to more than a very limited number, those being selected which had acquitted themselves the best in the previous trials,
The mode of conducting this trial was as follows:—The machines were driven by steam, and the power registered which was required to drive them empty. This gave the friction*® of the barn-works alone, and is recorded in col. 6. The friction of the whole machine (7. ¢., both horse and barn works) is shown in col. 5, and is in fact identical with col. 9 of Table A, the power being given in stones in one case, but expressed in the equivalent horse-power in the other. The difference between these two (see col. 7) gives the friction of the horse- works, ‘T'his method does not pretend to absolute accuracy, but it furnishes an approximation which will in the opinion of the reporter do much to improve the construction of these machines. Its importance will be best seen by comparing two machines in which the whole friction was about equal, but where it was due in very different proportions to the barn-works and_ horse-works re- spectively. The machines of Messrs. Garrett and Woods furnish an excellent illustration of this point, the whole friction being in these cases 2°78 and 2°81; the friction of the barn-works being, however, 2:07 and -46; whilst that of the horse-works was -71 and 2°35. It is not an improbable supposition that both of these makers on their return home might have endeavoured to reduce the draught of their machines, and had the whole friction only been ascertained, they would have had no clue to the particular part which was in fault. If therefore they had both endeavoured to improve their barn-works, the result would probably have been that the former maker would have improved his machine, but the latter made his worse; and if, on the other hand, they had both altered their horse-works, the case would just have been reversed. From the success which attended this first attempt it is probable that the consulting engineer will be prepared at the next meeting to conduct a trial “of this kind in a still more complete and satis- factory way; and it is worthy of remark that itis only by some such method as that above described, in which the draught is ascertained of both horse and barn works combined, that an opinion can be safely given respecting the efficiency of the whole machine when set to work in the farmer’s stack-yard.
* The term “friction,” which is used for the sake of brevity, is here intended to represent the whole resistance offered to the acquirement and maintenance of the stated velocity, whether arising from friction, vis inertiz, or any other retarding cause.
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. HDL
Table C. 1. 2. 3. 4, 5. | 6. th 8. Sk 10. x Horse} Wheat- Clean State State “a Stand ye Name. Power |Sheaves, MiG Threshed. mee Straw. of Grain. Price ere eer EN A littl 4 A ue | x. $ 5 4| Clayton... 6 100 9 23 | Nearly clean Broken! i vols. t 40 0 Simos) Garrett oir 7) 4 100 6 26 | Quite clean Good pane fee } 30 0 24 1} Blyth. ... 4 100 8 47 | Nearly clean aera tit \ Not broken. | 25 0 116 3 | Ransome . . 4 100 8 57 Clean Broken { ey i 27 10 100 8 | Ferrabee . . 4 100 9 14 Not clean Broken Broken. 22 51 WisPagebevct. « 4 100 9 8 Clean Broken {icra } 19 58 ] Bee Co. t Had a very Hae Cast-Iron Concave, which i 54 | 19] Sparke... 4 100 8 58 | Nearly clean { mn us Not injured 25 0 36 1 | Holmes... 6 100 5 34 Clean { Saeee ee we j 28 9 65 | 10 | Hornsby . . 4 100 6 17 Clean Broken Not injured aoe Very much oe AY 26 | 54 | Crosskill. .| 4 100 | 735 Clean | Not broken |{ Moers ze. with 2 wheels. feten part clean, but A lit 2 13 3 | Burrell. ..| 4 100 6 47 bunches >} ) Ret fe eheais } O.< not ; " threshed. ’ 44 Woods ... 4 100 5 52 Clean Broken linea } sto 5 5 | Clayton. .. 4 100 6 16 | Not threshed Not injured. ee ee BY) Bienes . HOY ae Nils Gem | Base \ ee } hecho A little Very little 27 0 un ei purroeds 2). 4 OD § 2 ae broken. } { injured. } with 2 wheels
Table C gives the performance of ali the machines which were adapted for steam power, and the trial was conducted as follows :— Each machine was furnished with 100 sheaves of mown wheat, and the time it took to thresh them, as well as the quality of the work, with regard to clean threshing and the state both of straw and grain, is given in the columns “appropriated to those details. The following attempt was made to place all the machines on an equal footing as regarded motive power. Two steam-engines were employed, and a communication established between their boilers, one being used simply to generate steam, the other both for this purpose and to drive the machines. By this arrangement it was anticipated that the supply of steam would be so great that the boiler of the driving machine could be kept constantly supplied with steam of the desired pressure even whilst the machines were at work, and on trial this was found to be the case. At first sight nothing could appear more satisfactory than this trial, as all the machines worked under an equal pressure of steam, and the time they occupied in doing the same quantity of work would seem to be the fairest possible test of their respective
008 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
powers. The consulting engineer, however, who watched the trial with great care, discovered that though the steam was con- stantly at the same pressure, some machines were able to obtain a greater quantity of it than others, and that this depended on the size of the driving pully, which varied in different machines, and thus enabled some to obtain, as it were, a greater number of measures of steam than others. This trial, therefore, was not quite conclusive, but it enabled the judges to select seven of the best for further trial, and the following mode of obviating the above-mentioned inequality was adopted :—Two steam-engines were employed as before, and their boilers connected by a pipe, in which was a cock which regulated the supply of steam from the boiler which merely generated steam to that belonging to the driving engine. The working engine moved at equal velocities in all the experiments, consequently the machine requiring least power was the one which worked with steam of the lowest pressure in the second boiler. The plan adopted, therefore, was to record the pressure of steam which was required to drive each machine,
as indicated by a pressure gauge (see Table D).
Table D. 1 2 3 4 5. 6. qi 8 9. 10. ea cemi alae H5¢o 1/28 / 9 State s FE — 5 15 Wheat- Clean State of Corn. BS Bes S Stand. |No. Name. sheaves.| Threshed. | of Straw. eos | oH e 2 oO oO 2 Syl Suieie meee < min 64 63\Flensmant., cou. 100 |Not threshed oie Lar 6°00 3°96 | 23°76 j A little 36 Wale Eolmess sen saice 100 Clean. { beckons Oe 5°07 5°41 | 27°42 44 Te Wioodsis 52 4.4?) 100 Ditto. ote Bhs 4°26 6°55 | 27°90 Rather 107 2| Hurwood. .. 100 Ditto. broken Slee a eae 3°92 | 6°75 | 26°46 : : Rather Aj > 13%i/8)| Burrell) 2° '.(23|'- Joo |") Ditto. buken ft] eB «| 6:69 15-63 | 37"66 _ 81 | 23| Garrett . . .| 100 Rosetta Not broken.| , 6 ~. | 715 | 3°43 | 24-52 65 Th). Hornsby?" wren te Drum broke.
Col. 8 gives the actual pressure of steam expressed in its equi- valent horse-power ; col. 9 gives the time of threshing 100 sheaves of wheat, and multiplying the two together we obtain a result which expresses the comparative expenditure of power in each case; this is given in col. 10. The quality of the work is shown in cols. 5,6, 7. ‘The numerals in col. 7 refer to the proportion of broken grain found amongst the threshed corn; Hensman’s machine, which is marked lL, having the fewest broken grains, the rest following in the order of the respective numbers.
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. Dog
Table E.—Barley. 20 Bundles threshed ; each Bundle weighing 20# lbs.
lee 3. 4 5 beve'6 "7 8 92104 [FL0: ® 4 a g Bion aN SO. , SFH) 98 1 os F Sod as ° deigee nhs Barley- Clean State State eso l/ee |] 8 Sees No Name bundles.) Threshed. of Straw. of Corn, mo S We SR 2 ra o 5 S HO o & i) a2 gee | Ae | 8° a0 in <q | min. 64 67 Hensman, < « 20 Quite clean. | Much broken in ae BU | IG) te 107 2} Hurwood, . . 20 Ditto. 18.0 DOBYNS ye (6) alk ur fool Uap 36 Me | PEKOlmesi sty sue 20 Ditto. aii 3°92 4°80 | 18°81] Sin 23) |G A little {| .. : Neos TLE LGN oli. lature 20 Not threshed injured. { 7°15 QAM e235 AV Nh Wogds. is. «|» 20 Ditto. || ele Good. | 3°00 || 8°51] 10°53 81 | 23'| Garrett '. . . 20 Quite clean. || Broken. perils t 5°53 | 4°28 | 23°66 41 Ie Woods): eh"? 2 20 Clean. | oie . 2°07 6°85 | 14°18 |
Table E records a precisely similar trial to the last, except that 20 bundles of barley, each weighing 202 Ibs., were threshed by each machine, instead of 100 sheaves of wheat. Messrs. Garrett and Woods were, with the steward’s consent, allowed a second trial, in consequence of the men who fed their machines having mistaken their instructions, and believed that the object of the trial was to getthe corn through in as little time as possible, without reference to the quality of the work. It will be seen that the 20 bundles were threshed in a marvellously short time ; it was, however, done in a very slovenly manner, and they were each desired to thresh 20 bundles more, as they could not be allowed the credit due to rapidity of execution if it was attained by sacrificing the goodness of the work.
After a careful comparison of the results of the above-men- tioned trials, it was found that Messrs. Garrett’s machine was entitled to the prize.
A hand-power threshing-machine was exhibited by Messrs. Barrett and Exall, which was tested by Amos’s machine, and found to require a force to work it which was about equal to the power of 34 men or + of a horse.
Steaming apparatus (Judges’ Report).—“<28 Ibs. of coal and 10 lbs. of wood were allowed to each competitor, and they were directed with this quantity of fuel to heat as many gallons of cold water as they were able to 180°. The following table shows the performance of the four which were tried :—
560 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
Time of | Gallons Gallons a oF Stand. | Art. Name. getting up| of Water added Saiueaeeeotn Price. Steam. /|in Copper. | afterwards, 60° to 180°, Min. eens 41 3. | Stanley < 4 «. 19 40 86 126 15 15 30 2 | Robinson ... 23 40 30 70 9 10 29 3 | Richmond . . 23 30 58 88 17 0 56 1 | Thompson . .| 253 30 63 93 | 21 10
«The prize was consequently awarded to Mr. Stanley’s appa- ratus. The Judges have to observe, that Mr. Thompson’s steamer worked under a disadvantage, as some of its fittings did not arrive at Norwich, but were lost on the railway.”
Corn-dressing machines (Judges’ Report).—* 1st Trial. In this trial the dressing-machines were supplied with the corn and the chaff just as it came from the threshing-machines. Column 5 of the annexed table gives the weight on the lever of Amos’s machine, and shows the comparative power required in each case. They were directed to do as much work as they could with 62 turns of the handle :—
: Length : iiieatis Weight on Best Tail : Screen- Art.| Name. Tames Lever. eee Grain. Corn. AUIEETIS ings. Inches.| B. p. q.| B. p. q.| Quart. | Quarts. 12 | Hornsby . 62 14 lbs. empty, 14 Bio Bt al 02 0 1 43 Turns.| 015 lbs. working. 15 lbs. empty 13 2 2 6; 1 0. 23 50 11 36 | Holmes. . | ails 17 lbs. working. % 29 | Garrett. . ans 124 lbs. empty. Fai ed to feeditself,. 1 | Kilb 14 lbs. empty, 13 3 3 3] 2 2 O of Tail-corn Screen-| Spies oe 15 lbs. working. ings, and much good Corn 14 ene } Failed to feed itself. see & Taylor shed e Arion ; f ue Fae Tei@och } 9 lbs. empty, 13 1 3 2) 2 0 4 of Tail and Screen- it utuige 10 lbs. working. ings mixed. 11 | Nicholson. | , , ll lbs. empty. | Failed to work properly. | |
Price.
ase 13 10
11 11
« 2nd Trial. The corn that had passed through the machines was now dressed a second time over ; 6 bushels were allowed to each—
Weight Quantity of Height of Stand.| Art. Name. Time. on Grain Feeding Lever. supplied. Box. Feet. In. | Time. Power. 65 12 | Hornsby . . » | 35 Turns | 15 lbs. 6 Bushels 4 9 35) hb — p25 4 il
45 | MC Ooch tomearies ae 50 rake . Best Grain came out with inferior,—failed to work satisfactorily.
86 Wel SW 5 ey G5 1) OB Turns 15 lbs. | 6 Bushels
4 10 | 63 X 15 = 945
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. d61
In this trial Kilby’s machine made nearly as good a sample as Hornsby’s of the best grain, but was unable to divide the refuse in the masterly manner that Hornsby’s performed this part of the work. It is worthy of remark, that Hornsby’s performed as much work as Kilby’s ina better manner, and 1 in little more than half the time. It therefore won with ease.”
Grinding-mills (Judges’ Report).—“ The portable mills for grinding fine meal did not possess much merit, with the exception of Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth’s, to which we awarded the prize. It both kibbled and ground in superior style to any of the others, grinding barley perfectly well at the rate of 6 bushels per hour without much heating the meal. It was upon the same principle as fixed mil] stones usually are, was well got up in point of workmanship, and took little room, so that we considered it a valuable implement, though we are aware that a pair of 2-feet 8-inches millstones can be put up at considerably less cost where the motive-power is fixed, and applicable to several machines for different purposes.
««Mr. Sparke’s mill made very good work for a steel mill, grinding at the rate of 3 bushels per hour, and as a cheap imple- ment deserves the attention of small farmers.”
Root-Cutters (Judges’ Report).— In this class there was nothing new or worthy of notice, except that there were several machines exhibited that cut both for cattle and sheep by merely reversing the motion of the crank or handle.
«Out of the number we selected four for trial, the result of which we have put in a diagram, showing the quantity of roots cut and the amount of power required to accomplish the work :”—
W eight Comparative
pecan Stand.| Art. | Price.|of Roots Does @5 OBSERVATIONS. required. £a..Se lbs. Ibs. The executors of the 8 2 |5 10 112 910 Did its work admirably, both for cattle and late James Gardner. sheep, cutting into pieces $ by ¢ inch for sheep, and 2% by 3 for cattle. Crosskill. . . .{| 26 61 5 0 112 1500 Worked well, cutting both for cattle and
sheep; for sheep into pieces 14 inch by 3, and for eae slices 2 inch thick.
Gillet 2s 7. | 02 3 | 415 112 1568 Cut pieces $ by 43-inch, convex on one side and concave on the other, well adapted for mixing with chaff. Worked well.
Phillips and Co. .j| 89 aur ko 0 112 | | 1664 The same as Gardner’s, with the addi- tion of Mr. Phillips's grating for pre-
venting the last slice of the root from passing unslit, which it performs admi- rably, but at nearly as much expense in power as the whole cutting amounts to, the cutting absorbing 910 lbs. of power, and slitting of the last slice 754 lbs. of power, which is well worthy the con- sideration of the farmer, as it is possible it may cost more to do a thing than it is worth.
© tana ata aaaaa ae
K
562 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
Chaff- Cutters (Judges’ Report).—“In this class there was some improvement, but there did not seem to be any principle in- troduced that was better than Cornes’s ; although many makers are turning out machines of his sort better got up than he turns out some of his ; and if he does not look very active, he will find an awkward competitor in Messrs. Richmond and Chandler.
«‘We do not approve of the difference generally made between large and small chaff-cutters, inasmuch as they have a narrower box and also one knife less. Narrowing the box gives great additional lever-power to the man or other power employed at the crank; and we see no reason why the narrow width, with three Lies should not be the most efficient and useful plan of making small chaff-machines.
«Fight were selected for trial, and supplied with the barley- straw that had just been threshed, which was very short, soft, awkward stuff to get through the machines; the result is given in
o the annexed diagrams :”’—
‘ Comparative
Sea 5 Weight | Amount of
Peg Stand.} Art. | Price. | of Chaff Power OBSERVATIONS:
rade Cut. required. £. Ss. lbs. lbs.
Cornes); i tier) > | 228 a |V4o-40 112 14,126 Did its work well, and had no tendency to choke. Well managed in feeding.
Richmond and 29 7 |14 0 112 15,740 Worked well without choking, although
Chandler, very badly fed, sometimes too fast and at others too slow ; ; the chaff was cut a little longer than the others, but very even.
Smithand Co. . . 95 WEP ee @) 112 16,187 Worked well 3 did not choke; tolerably well fed ; would cut a great quantity ina short time.
Stanley « . . .] 41 14 |12 12 112 21,166 Worked well, though very badly fed ; it is the same as Cornes’ s, with some im prove- ments.
Ransome and May . | 116 4. \21 0 112 26,128 By some means this machine got choked ; the quality of chaff cut was good.
Womaxsaes denies 87 1 9 0 112 30,291 Had an ingenious description of knives, but through bad feeding it was choked.
Garrett and Son. . 81 31 Om 0 112 31,291 Cut rather shorter chaff than the rest, but with only two knives it could not compete with three-knived machines.
Crosskill . . . 26 56 {18 0 112 44,800 This machine made very rough chaff.
« Another diagram, showing the quantity that each machine would cut per hour, when driven at the rate chosen by the ex- hibitor as the best for his machine :—
iy ib Weight | Amount Exubitors Stand.| Art. | Price.) Cut per| of Power OBSERVATIONS. Hour. required. £. Ss. lbs. lbs.
Cornes . 78 "ooVaO | 1 470 185,400 | Cutslitter into 4-inch lengths, but not fast.
Richmond & Chandler 29 7 (\14 0 1,560 219,240 | Beautifully got up, and strong.
Smithand Co. . . 95 12% |17 0 |. 2,040 294,840 | Cuts litter into 6-inch lengths at the rate of 5 tons per hour. Price 3/, extra when fitted with a litter-cutter.
Stanley . . C 4] 14 {12 12} 1,080 204,000 | Cuts litter into 4-inch lengths, but not fast.
Ransome and May | 116 4 |21 0 840 195,960 | Does not cut litter.
Womaxciere Meta tm) | aS 1S Ne9= 40 420 113,400 | Likely to come out well when the feeding. parts are improved.
Garrett andSon., . 8 31 |10 10 1,380 385,560 Does not cut litter.
‘Crosskill , . . 26 56) 1820 660 264,000 | We think this ought to be the last ofits sor
eS a SR A TEEPE NEE
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 563 « All the machines were tried cutting chaff three-eighths of an inch in length, and each exhibitor was allowed to fill his machine until he was satisfied with the feed and speed at which it was driven ; the machine was then stopped, and re-started with the “register attached that records the power consumed.”
Linseed and Corn-Crusher (Judges’ Report).—< Of these machines there were many that cut or ground the linseed rather than crushed it. Crushing is better than partially grinding, be- cause when crushed it does not become lumpy, nor burn to the copper so much as when ground. We therefore tried only those
that crushed linseed and corn. the annexed diagram :””—
The result we have recorded in
| 258 Linseed. Oats Ze | Total| £8 o Exhibitors’ oi gf |\23 | ¢ (2 | Time eS Nae i ps = [8 oo Pt “4 | ue| for | 8 23 OBSERVATIONS. ° 2 . mon » Es Dames > x te =-= Z/Si 8 lg2 2 [ESSER] © [53 |Both.| ge aie a n| acl inn | om S180.) B16 So ed 2 alala @ |e 8S 16 |) 6 1 c £&. s. | lbs. M.Sec.) lbs. | lbs.|M.Sec.| lbs. |M. Sec,| lbs Hurwood and 107 3/10 10 |112 35 12 |27,456)112 | 43 52/36,848) 79 4) 64,304 | Made beautiful work, Turner. | and had a highly im- | proved feeding appa- | ratus.
Stanley . . .| 41] 6 |12 O |112 30 O |24,388/112 | 47 36/39,984| 77 36] 64,372 es exceedingly well,
Richmond and 29 | 11 | 6 10 j112 ‘61 52 |46,400|112 | 52 32/41,496|114 24) 87,896 | Pressed the oil out of the
Chandler. seed,and was defective in feeding, but crushed | well.
Ferrabee and Son 100 | 12 | 8 10 j112 69 20 |33,680/112 | 93 20/56,800|162 40) 90,480 | Pressed the oil very much out of the lin- seed, which is jobjec- tionable.
Garrett and Son | 81 | 35 |11 0 {112 |39 28 |33,152/112 | 78 24/63,856|117 52) 97,008 | Did its work well, Ransome and {116 | 31 |12 10 /112 '48 32 |40,768/ Did not crush Grain. ee Did its work well, but May. ¢ defective in feeding. Stratton and 3 | 54 |12 12 |.12 62 24 |46,800/112 |107 20/80,500/169 44|127,300 | Pressed the oil very Hughes. much out of the liv-
seed; work in other respects well done.
Taylor and Dean} 96 | 4 | 6 15 /112 80 0 |67,200)112 | 78 24/65,850)158 24/133,050 | The feeding very im- perfect, but crushed well.
W. N. Nicholson }113 | 8 | 5 0 /112 |130 40/94,080) Did not crush Grain. ee Work very well done,
: | but slow, and expen- sive in power.
J, C. Grant . . {104} 18 | 6-10 | Would not work.| .. | .. aie 46 as A new machine on a promising principle, and likely to come out well when matured.
«The time recorded is that in which the power of two men
would crush I cwt. of linseed or oats.
The principal things to
be considered are cost price, durability, and the power required to perform a given quantity of work. We did not try them with any grain except oats and beans, and finding that none of them would do beans either so well, so fast, or with so little power as a common bean-splitting machine, we have not recorded the result. It will be observed that we have made the diagram show
564 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
the relative powers of each machine in crushing both linseed and oats; also the total time and power consumed by each machine in crushing | cwt. of linseed and | ewt. of oats.
« As the power employed and the interest upon the cost price to cover wear and tear, are the expenses incurred in perform- ing the work, the machine that costs the least and absorbs the least power is the machine that will crush the cheapest. Taking these as just data, we have arranged the machines in the diagram according to their merits.
« We entertain a very high opinion of the value of the machine introduced by the Society's consulting Engineer, for testing the various machines which come under the notice of the Judges; discovering, as it does, any waste of power, we think that it will prove of incalculable advantage in driving all the power-devouring machines out of the show-yards, and preventing them from get- ting into the farm-yards of the kingdom, to the injury both of man and beast.”
Carts (Judges’ Report).—‘In this class of implements we found that great improvement had been made since last year,
“Firstly, in their being made generally upon more simple principles, with less foolish ornamental carving and shaving, by way of forming apertures for dirt to lodge in.
“Secondly, in the bodies of the carts being placed upon the axle without bolstering up, thereby giving greater facility for filling, less alteration of the weight upon the horse’s back in ascending and descending hills, and in rough roads less lateral pressure on the wheels, and less jostling of the horse.
« Thirdly, in several of the exhibitors, especially Messrs. Strat- ton, Hughes, and Co., Mr, Eaton,and Mr. Crosskill, having wheels made upon the principles best calculated to sustain the lateral and perpendicular pressures of the load when in motion, also in being less liable to cut into the land, from the tire of the wheels being perfectly cylindrical, which gives the true rolling motion desired.
«‘ Fourthly, in the power of making a harvest-cart of sufficient dimensions for one horse, by placing a frame upon the body of these low carts. This frame should turn up at both ends at least two feet higher than the wheels, so as to overcome the spliting action of the arch that goes over the wheels (to defend them from the load), and should not be less than 11 feet in length, being made the full width of the wheels, thus gaining sufficient surface to carry a load for one horse without going higher with the load than its own width ; there will also be but little liability to upset, and in short distances it will not be requisite to bind the hay or corn with ropes, as the high ends will have the effect of condensing the load by the motion of the cart as it passes over the various inequalities of the field or road.
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 065
«* Inasmuch as we found all these advantages carried out most in Mr, Crosskill’s cart, Stand 26, Article 38, we felt justified in awarding it the prize, not only as the best cart for general pur- poses, but also as the best harvest-cart, seeing that when the harvest-frame was placed upon this cart, it was only six inches higher than Hannam’s harvest-cart (exhibited by Messrs. Strat- ton, Hughes, and Co.) ; and the frame being 11 feet long by 6 feet wide, gave sufficient surface to build upon, thus realizing the principal advantages of Hannam’s cart, at the small expense of 27. The mode of altering the cart for general purposes into a harvest-cart is also simple and easy. In Hannam’s and Morton’s (both exhibited by Messrs. Stratton, Hughes, and Co.), the whole body has to be taken off the wheels, and another put on every time a change of work takes place; whereas in Crosskill’s the harvest-frame only has to be put on or taken off. Lastly, the expense of this frame is but a little more than a third of the price of either Hannam’s or Morton’s harvest bodies.
«We recommended to Mr. Crosskill to raise the ends of his harvest-frame at least two feet higher than the top of the wheels,. for which improvement we thought he would be justified in charging 13 guineas instead of 13/. for the complete cart.
‘*'To parties who are in the habit of carting any sort of soft sub- stance, such as road or street scrapings in a wet state, night-soil, &c., we would highly recommend Mr. Stratton’s tumbler-cart, Article 18, Stand 3, as truly adapted for scavengers. The body of this cart can be always kept level, whether the horse be ascending or descending a hill, thus preventing any loss of manure or soiling of the street or road. It is also very low, and turns completely over, so that there 1s no difficulty in either filling or emptying it, whatever be the nature of its contents.
« Asa cart exclusively for carting hay and straw, or for harvest work, we recommend Messrs. Stratton, Hughes, and Co.’s im- proved Hannam’s cart, Stand 3, Article 2, and Mr. Eaton’s cart, Article 6, Stand 7.” }
Waggons ( Judges’ Report).—< In this class, as in that of carts, we found the elevation of the body by bolstering up was greatly done away with; but with regard to the simplifying of their con- struction, the advance was but very meagre, except by Mr. @rosckilll who seems to have quite diolen a taal upon the other exhibitors in simplicity, with its attendant cheapness. We regret that the other makers did not think the waggons worthy of being mounted upon a set of wheels made on the principles best adapted for bearing hard work and running straight forward, and it is to be hoped that this will not be the case another year.
“We highly recommend Mr. Crosskill’s break as a great im-
VOL. X. 2P
566 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
provement for hilly roads; but where roads are generally level, the extra weight to be carried about would be more expensive than the occasional advantage would be worth. We would also recommenda pole, as used in Yorkshire, this method being superior to double shafts, which are too confining, and expose the horses to a great deal of jostling that with a pole they would avoid. They would also escape the burden of the heavy harness which is re- quired to enable them to carry the weight of the shafts.
«« Perhaps we may now be allowed to make a few remarks on the advantage of lightening wheel-carriages for agricultural purposes. We have found that a good cart with wheels 43 feet high, with hoop-tire 3 inches by ¢ of an inch, will, if properly cared for, last until it has travelled over greatly above 12,000 miles in road and farm work. Now, if we take the cost of a horse at 2s. 6d. per day, and the carter at Is. (as he will attend to and drive two horses), making 3s. 6d. altogether, and if we further assume that 20 miles per day is a fair day’s work, drawing | ton net material, we find that each ewt. costs about 2d. per day’s journey of 20 miles: so that if we reduced the weight of the cart 1 cwt., we could add that amount to the load without in- creasing the work of the horse. In this way we should save 2d. in every day’s work; and, as in 12,000 miles there are 600 days’ journeys of 20 miles each, if we multiply the 2d. by 600 it gives us 5/. as the amount saved before the cart is worn out, for every cwt. by which we can reduce the weight of the cart;’ and even supposing that some additional repairs might be required in a eart of lighter construction than ordinary, there would still be a considerable balance left in favour of using light carts.”
Haymaking Machines (Judges’ Report).—“ We found that in this class of implements there was practically no competition, as Smith and Co.’s machine, stand 95, article 1, was very superior to any of the others in all its parts and performance of work ; in fact, we think it so near perfection that no man need fear buying under the impression that any great improvement will take place in itin future. We regret to say that all the others fall into the shade when brought into competition with it, yet we hope that others will, after another year’s application, be able to give Mr. Smith a closer run for the prize.”
Gorse-Bruisers (Judges’ Report).—* In this class there were only two machines, ‘That made by Mr. Charles Burrell (Stand 13, Article 11) did its work exceedingly well, but slow, viz. at the rate of 3 cwt. per hour. The trial was interrupted by the giving way of the leverage used for pressing the rollers together, in con- sequence of the owner having imprudently put extra weight on so as to reduce the gorse to a proper state at one operation, which it failed to do, the gorse being too old. With two-year old gorse,
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 567
however, we think that this machine would accomplish it. Price 251.
“The other machine, made by Messrs. Barrett, Exall, and Andrewes (Stand 58, Article 9), did not perform its work quite so well as Mr. Burrell’s, the exhibitors not having used any extra weight of pressure, but it did a much larger quantity, namely, at the rate of nearly 9 cwt. per hour—the power required being, as nearly as we could judge, about that of 3 horses. ‘This machine did its work pretty well, although the gorse was too old, there being a great many old dry twigs which it was impossible, with any rea- sonable power, to bruise sufficiently ; and with two-year old gorse we think it would do its work sufficiently well. It also got through three times as much work as the last-mentioned imple- ment, so that we felt justified in awarding it the prize.
“« We are of opinion that a smaller machine than either of the above would be more generally useful, as many farmers have a limited quantity of land that might be profitably employed in growing gorse, but the great expense of a machine for bruising it acts as a barrier to its cultivation, even under favourable cireum- stances.”
Orlcake-breakers (Judges’ Report).—‘“ In this class there was great competition. Mr. Hornsby’s (Stand 65, Article 14) was a most efficient machine, doing its work exceedingly well, and working easily.
« Mr. Maynard’s (Stand 88, Article 3) was avery good ma- chine, having a decided improvement in the means of conveying the motion to the rollers. This also worked exceedingly well.
«« Messrs. Ransome and May’s (Stand 116, Article 47) is also a capital machine, doing its work exceedingly well.
«« Mr. Nicholson’s (Stand 113, Article 4) was powerfully made, worked easily and well, and was calculated to do a great quantity of work.
« We decided to try only those machines possessing merit as breakers for both cattle and sheep, considering them best calcu- lated to supply the wants of farmers in general. We accordingly selected seven possessing the greatest merit, one of which was withdrawn, and one—namely, Mr. Hornsby’s—was not tried, owing to his being taken up in the field, and not able to attend to its working. ‘This we were sorry for, as we had a high opinion of his machine.
« We have given the result of our trial in the following tabular form :— F
968 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
See nr
Weight | orrount Exhibitors’ Stand.| Art. | Price. ax of OBSERVATIONS. Names. ae Power ESOS required. aes: lbs. lbs. Barrett, Exall, and 58 24 | 410 112 3,696 Worked well, breaking the cake -Andrewes. very well for sheep, but too fine for cattle.
W.N. Nicholson 113 1 3 112 &64 Did its work well, both for cattle and sheep, making very little dust.
W.N.Nicholson . | 118 2) 6) 5 112 1,288 Did well, breaking for cattle and sheep, and tolerably well for tillage.
W.N. Nicholson , | 113 BAGG 112 3,696 Did its work well, both for cattle - and sheep.
Ransome and May. | 116 46 |4 4 112 2,688 Broke the cake rather too fine for cattle, but did it beauti- fully for sheep.
«In these trials we used the large square Marseilles cake, break- ing it into pieces, of which the largest were about 2 inches square for cattle, and about | inch square for sheep. In the trial recorded above the cake was broken for cattle alone, but we found that it did not take above a fourth more power to break it for sheep, and in the machine, Stand 113, Article 1, the power was but little increased ; and as it did its work well, making the smallest amount of dust, and taking a small amount of power, we awarded it the prize as the best machine for breaking cake for cattle and sheep. It was not, however, calculated to break cake for manure, and for that purpose we would recommend either of those noticed above.”
Miscellaneous Department.*
The Judges have not made any report on the miscellaneous
* Portable Farm Railway. (Stand 26, Articles 46, 47, 48, 49. Silver Medal.)
“ JT have requested Mr. Crosskill (and it would be wellif other exhibitors of implements would consider this point) to turn his attention to a method of avoiding the change of load from the cart to the truck, or from the truck to the cart, whichis necessary in the present arrangement of this rail- way. This might be accomplished either by having carts that would run upon the rails as well as upon the land, or by some mechanical contrivance for lifting the bodies of the carts off their field-wheels, and placing them on the rails, and vice versa.
‘¢ There are many situations where rail or tram ways might be made use of at the homestead or in the field, with much economy of time and labour, if some such plan were adopted.
Circular-Saw Bench, or Machine for making Hurdles and Gates, as well as Sawing Planks, §c. (Stand 13, Article 9. Silver Medal.)
‘* The consulting engineer considered that, with a little additional cost, this machine might be much improved. A hurdle was completed in twelve minutes in the trial-yard, from a larch-tree in the rough state, when the machine was worked by steam-power, and with practice less time
at the Norwich Meeting, 1849. 969
articles which were this year very much reduced both in number and importance, in consequence of specific prizes having been offered for several classes of implements, which on previous occa- sions were placed in the Miscellaneous Department. The report will, therefore, conclude with the following description of the apparatus frequently referred to in the preceding pages, viz. :—
Amos’s Machine for Testing Hand-power, to which the Society’s Gold Medal was voted by the Council_—: This machine consists of a fly-wheel, 3 feet 9 inches diameter, with a winch- handle placed in one of the arms and having a radius of 154 inches. This is fixed on the principal shaft, which is placed in a horizontal position, resting in bearings on cast-iron fram- ing at both ends. A spur-wheel is keyed on this shaft, 14 inches in diameter; and on the boss through which the shaft works a lever is loosely fitted, say 50 inches long, and balanced by a cast-iron weight on the opposite side of the boss, or centre of motion. The lever has a bush or pivot hole through it, at 14 inches from its centre of motion, and a hook at the end for re- ceiving the weights used in testing.
«¢ A second shaft is carried at one end by the bush or pivot hole in the lever last mentioned, having aspur-wheel | 4 inches diameter keyed upon it, and is driven by the wheel on the first (or fly- wheel) shaft; while at the other end it rests in a bearing in the iron framing of the machine. It is carried a short distance beyond this bearing, and has a cast-iron drum or rigger, of 31 inches dia- meter, keyed on its end, for driving the machine to be tested.
«A counter is attached to the first or fly-wheel shaft, and registers the number of revolutions made by the testing machine.
‘¢ A pendulum is attached to the framing, and its vibrations indicate the proper velocity. After a little practice, the labourer has no difficulty in timing the revolutions of the machine with the pendulum. 7
« The whole of the testing machine is mounted on wheels, and moves (upon a temporary railway) to the machine to be tested. The mode of using it is as follows, viz.:—The machine to be tested has a pulley placed upon the spindle, of the same diameter as the circle described by the winch by which the machine is
would be necessary. It is adapted for vse in woods and plantations, in making fencing and hurdles, and can be worked by horse-power.
“The attention of exhibitors of implements should be drawn to the re- quirement of a good portable and not expensive arrangement for sheltering sheep in the field, and feeding them under cover. The arrangements exhibited hitherto are neither sufficiently portable nor low enough in price to be of practical service, nor are they adapted to uneven or hilly ground.
_ “© Dupitey PELHAM.”
970 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
usually worked, and motion is given to it by a strap from the pulley on the testing machine.
«« The resistance (or the work done) now causes the spur-wheel and one end of the second shaft to be carried upwards, and par- tially (in an orbicular manner) round the first shaft. By hanging weights on the lever, the wheel and shafts are prevented from rising, and the power applied and work done indicated by the weights employed.
« For instance: If the work done is equal to one man’s power, 81 lbs. will be the weight required on the lever to keep the whole in equilibrium, supposing the standard of a man’s power to be 3750 lbs. lifted one foot high per minute.
«« A modification of the principle of this machine has long been in use in paper-mills for disengaging the driving machinery of presses.”
Moat Hall, Dec. 1849.
XXIX.—A Lecture on the Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the Organs of Respiration and Circulation ; with especial re-
~ ference to the nature and treatment of Pleuro-pneumonia in the Ox. By James Beart Simonps, Lecturer on Cattle Patho- logy in the Royal Veterinary College ; Honorary Member of the Royal Agricultural Society, and its Veterinary Inspector ; Corresponding Member of the Sociéié Nationale et Centrale de Médecine Vétérinaire, &c.
My Lorp,—Pursuing the course which I have heretofore adopted in addressing the members of this Society at their annual meetings, 1 shall not venture to trespass upon your time by a lengthy exordium. ‘To speak of the great and rapidly increasing benefits which arise from these periodic meetings, however in- viting the theme is but a work of supererogation, for all are ready to admit, from the prince of royal blood to the humble ple- beian, that they exercise an important influence both socially and morally over our rural population, and contribute in no small degree to our national welfare and independence. The’subject which has been selected for this lecture is one of considerable importance to the agriculturist, as it relates to ‘the Anatomy, Physiology, and Diseases of the Organs of Respiration of Domes- ticated Animals,’ and to an investigation, in particular, of the nature of that destructive malady affecting the Ox tribe, termed Pleuro-pneumonia.
In directing your attention to the general structure and func-
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 571
tions of these important parts of the animal organism, it will be necessary, first, to take a somewhat rapid glance at the processes of digestion and assimilation, for the purpose of placing the office of the lungs in a clearer view. ‘The propriety of this course will doubtless be admitted when we state that here are to be traced the various changes which the nutritious part of the food passes through, prior to entering the circulating fluid, the blood, to con- tribute to the support eke Anas. “During life the repeated demand for new materials to supply the constant waste of the tissues, which arises from a multiplicity of causes, gives origin te those sensations which are designated hunger and thirst. The former of these shows the requirement of solid, and the latter of fluid alimentary matters; and they only yield to the proper amount of food and drink being received. Notwithstanding that both the quantity and the quality of the food which is partaken of, will depend on the habits and conformation of each particular animal, still in all it undergoes a successive and similar series of changes before it ministers to the wants of the system. In the mouth it is masticated, or divided by the operation of the teeth into smaller masses, and while this reduction in size is being ac- complished, it is mixed with the saliva, a fluid abundantly fur- nished by the ducts of the contiguous glandular structures. This insalivation of the food produces both a chemical and mechanical effect; by the former the mass is fitted for digestion by the alka- line action of the saliva, and by the latter for deglutition by being rendered soft or pulpy. Thus prepared, the food descends the gullet and enters the stomach, where, uniting with the gastric juice, it is subjected to a second chemical change, in which lactic and hydrochloric acid are chiefly concerned. This process, com- monly called the digestive, is effected, as we have seen, by the succus gastricus; a fluid which is secreted within the follicles of the stomach, whence it is poured on the reception of alimentary or other matters.
Digestion thus converts the aliment into a chymous mass, and portions of this are alternately passed out of the stomach into the intestimal canal, where they are mingled with the hepatic and pancreatic secretions furnished by the liver and pancreas. The result of the commingling of these fluids with the chyme is the speedy separation into its nutritious and non-nutritious parts, te which is given the name of chylification; and, like the other changes we have described, this separation is most probably pro- duced by chemical agency.* ‘The chyle thus formed is next pre- cipitated upon the villous coat of the intestines, to be absorbed or
* For fuller particulars of these various processes, see ‘Lecture on the Digestive Organs,’ Society’s Journal, vol. ix. part i.
072 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
conveyed into the general circulation, while the effete matter is passed onwards in the canal to be expelled from the system.
The vessels which transmit the chyle are designated the lac- teals ; and as its entrance into them is one of the most interest- ing and instructive phenomena in the animal economy, we shall describe it somewhat at length. The absorptien of chyle taking place in the small intestines, the lacteals are freely distributed here, and consequently a different development of their internal lining membrane exists compared with that of the large intestines. In the former it is thickly studded with shaggy projections, villi ; hence the name, the villous or velvety tunic. Each vidlus is plen- tifully supplied with blood-vessels, besides which it contains nerves and the radicles of the lacteal absorbents. The minute- ness of these tubes, added to other physical causes, has however prevented their precise arrangement being demonstrated ; but it is generally believed that they are formed into loops more or less perfect, as shown in the annexed diagram.* ‘The several component parts of a villus are united together by areolar tissue, and are protected by a scaly epithelial covering. This epithelium is a membrane analogous to the cuticle of the true skin, and is formed after a like manner, and performs a similar office by defending the sensible struc- tures beneath it from injury. By some phy- siologists the epithelium is supposed to be cast off from the surface of the villi during the activity of chylifi- cation and absorption, and tc be reproduced in the intervals of their suspension ; by others however this shedding is not regarded as an essential step in either process. Immediately beneath the epithelial scales les a great number of cells varying in size from the z+)'s7 to the sj5y of an inch, whose office it is to imbibe the chyle and transmit it to the radicles of the lacteals. The trans- mission of the chyle to these minute tubes is effected by the bursting or deliquescence of the cells after acquiring their full size; but its entrance into them is due to the law of endosmose and exosmose. The imbibition, however, of chyle alone by the cells, as they are surrounded by other matters, some of which are even necessary to the well-being of the various organs, shows a power of selection by them, which doubtless is an act of vitality.
We cannot now speak of the means provided for a constant deve- lopment of new cells; but it is right to add a few words on endos- mose and exosmose, and which we prefer to do in the appropriate language of Dr. Carpenter. He says, that “when two fluids
* From Kirkes and Paget’s ‘ Handbook of Physiology.’
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 573
differing in density are separated by a thin animal or vegetable membrane, there is a tendency to mutual admixture through the pores of the membrane; but the less dense fluid will transude with much greater facility than the more dense: and consequently there will be an increase on the side of the denser fluid; whilst very little of this, in comparison, will have passed towar ds the less dense. When one of the fluids is contained in a sac or cavity, the flow of the other towards it is termed Endosmose, or flow- enwards ; whilst the contrary current is termed Lxrosmose, or flow-outwards. Thus, if the cecum of a fow] filled with syrup or gum-water be tired to the end of a tube, and be immersed in pure water, the latter will penetrate the cecum by endosmose, and will so increase the volume of its contents as to cause the fluid to rise to a considerable height in the attached tube. On the other hand, a small proportion of the gum or syrup will find its way into the surrounding fluid by exosmose. But if the cecum were filled with water, and were immersed im a solution of gum or syrup, it would soon be nearly emptied, —the exosmose being much stronger than the endosmose.” *
Tile chyle, by the operation of this law being conveyed into the lacteals, is carried by them into a receptacle marked c in fig. 2 situated near to the lumbar vertebree, and in its course it passes through the mesenteric glands, where it is further elaborated and fitted for its conversion into blood. For the purpose of making this better understood, it is necessary to state that the intestines are attached to the spine, by a double reflection of the serous membrane which lines the abdomen, termed the mesentery, and that the lacteals travel upon this to reach the receptaculum chyh. These several parts are depicted in fig. 2, where the lacteals are marked-a, the mesenteric glands b, and the chyle-receptacle c.
To enter into a description of the particular changes which are wrought in the chyle by passimg through the mesenteric glands would encroach too much on the subject of this lecture, and it will be sufficient to observe that, quitting the glands, it is found to contain a large number of spherical corpuscules, and to possess a power of clotting, like the fibrine of the blood. These corpus- cules are formed from the lining membrane of the chyle-convey- ing tubes; they average in size about the 4600th of an inch, and are probably identical with the white corpuscules of the blood, as these latter are well known to be chiefly concerned in nutrition. The lacteals form frequent unions with each other, by which their size 18 increased, but their number diminished, so that they ulti- mately enter the receptacle by avery few trunks. (See fig.2.) The mesenteric glands are composed of coils of these tubes, ramityang
* Carpenter’s ‘Manual a Bice “ips 281,
and Pathology of the
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74
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Organs of Respiration and Circulation. O79
among a minute network of blood-vessels ; they are likewise dilated or enlarged within the glands, and make their exit from them in fewer numbers than they entered. Thus the vasa afferentia are more numerous than the vasa efferentia.
Within the receptacle the chyle unites with the lymph, a fluid which is carried there by the lymphatic absorbents which are freely distributed throughout the body. The lymph is chiefly composed of the excess of the materials of the blood which had been exuded by the capillary blood-vessels proper to each organ for its nutrition, and which is thus conveyed back to the general circulation. This fluid in its passage undergoes a series of changes, like the chyle, by traversing the /ymphatic glands in its course; and’ the vessels carrying it make frequent unions with each other, so as to end, like the lacteals, in very few trunks. It is thus seen that the supply of new blood takes place from two sources, the chyle and the lymph, and which in health is sufficient to compensate for its continued waste. The contents of the receptaculum chyli are conducted into the circulation through a canal, called the tho- racic duct. (Seed, fig. 2.) This duct passes through the chest (hence its name) very near to the spine, and empties itself into the left jugular or auxiliary vein: in the accompanying sketch it is represented as joining the former at the point marked e. The new materials are thus mingled with venous blood, which of itself is unfitted for the support of life until it receives fresh elements of nutrition, and is re-oxygenated by its transmission through the lungs. It is also probable that the chyle and lymph, being almost immediately after their entrance into the circulation exposed to the action of the atmospheric air in the lungs, thus pass through the last stage in the process of converting them into pure blood.
We proceed to speak of the blood, the changes which it un- dergoes during its circulation, the constituents of which it is composed, and the vessels by which it is conducted throughout the system, as without this we cannot explain the functions of the lungs. Blood may be defined to be a fluid circulating through
-the heart, arteries, and veins, carrying the materials necessary for the support of vitality, nutrition, and secretion, to every organ of the body ;—building up the frame of the young, and support- ing that of the old animal. It not only circulates for the pur- poses of nutrition or renovation, but also to maintain the heat of the frame,—all animals possessing a power of keeping up a heat within themselves, independent of the temperature of the atmos- phere they inhabit, be it higher or lower than their own. This is designated animal heat; and its modus operandi will hereafter be explained. The heart may be viewed as the central pump from which the system derives the fluid; the arteries the trans- mitting, and the veins the returning conduits.
076 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
In vertebrated animals the blood is of a red colour, but it is colourless in the invertebrated. While circulating it not only appears to be red, but of a homogeneous character; however, on investigating it after being removed from the vessels, it is found to be composed of dissimilar parts. Its chief components are four— fibrine, albumen or serum, corpuscules, and salts; and each of these contributes to the maintenance of the varied functions of the body. ‘The redness of the blood is owing to the presence of red par- ticles or corpuscules, a fact which is demonstrated by their removal, when a colourless fluid, the Miquor sanguinis, remains behind. Thousands of these bodies exist in a few drops of blood, and conse- quently they are so minute as to require the aid of the micro- scope to detect them. It was formerly supposed that the vessels in many parts of the system, of which those of the eye were ad- duced as an example, did not contain red corpuscules; modern research has, however, disproved this position; and the true ex- planation of the white appearance of the eye is, that its vessels are so small as not to transmit a sufficient number of these cor- puscules at one time, to give colour to the circulating fluid. We have frequent means of ascertaining this, for when inflammation of this organ takes place, these minute vessels are then enlarged, and consequently the red particles, entering in greater numbers, colour the fluid. Hence the cause of the “ blood-shot eye.”
The microscope, as before stated, is necessary to develop the existence of the red particles, and when thus examined they are found to be flat- tened discs, of a round form (see fig. 3), varying in size from the 4500th to the 2800th of an inch. We may state their average size as being near to the 3000th of an inch. Bulk of animal seems not to influence their dimensions, and they differ but little in this respect if taken from the elephant or the mouse. Asa
rule, they may be said to be small in
These figures represent the blood- : ; discs of the ox, highly magni- the Herbivorous Mammal, larger in the fied, and placed in dierent Po” Carnivorous, and largest in Omnivorous, They are of greater specific gravity than the other constituents of the blood, and hence, when blood is kept in a fluid state, after being drawn, they will be found to sink towards the bottom of the vessel, and thus tend to give that peculiar appearance which is called its buffy coat or inflammatory crust, for the blood in general is longer in clotting when inflam- mation exists. ‘The red particles are intimately connected with the health, strength, and vigour of an animal; and are found in fewer numbers in ill-health. Wald animals are said to possess
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. a7
a greater quantity than domesticated, and those which are fat less than those which are lean. The redness of these corpuscules is due to the presence of ared pigment, hematosin, which is diffused in the fluid which distends their walls, and it is in consequence of this pigment being chemically acted upon in the minute vessels of the system by the carbonic acid, and in those of the Jungs by the oxygen, that the difference in the colour of arterial and venous blood is observed. The change in the colour of the blood is hkewise connected with the process which generates animal heat —facts which we shall again advert to.
We pass onwards to speak of the fibrine of the blood. It is generally known that very shortly after the withdrawal of blood it clots or coagulates into a tolerably firm mass; this is owing to its fibrine, and in no way depends on any other of its constituents. This peculiar quality of the fibrine has led to its being called self-coagulating lymph—a term very rarely employed in the present day. It is only by abstracting blood that we are enabled io obtain this material, and to investigate its properties. Various means are had recourse to for this purpose, such as filter- ing the blood while it is fluid, washing the crassamentum or clot, or stirring the blood while it is undergoing coagulation. The latter is the plan usually adopted ; and if a small bundle of twigs are used for the purpose, it will be observed that the fibrine will adhere to them more or less in a colourless condition, leaving behind the serum and red particles.* Washing the mass thus obtained renders it white by removing the colourmg matter from the few red particles which were entangled in its meshes while coagulating. An examination of the fibrine shows not only that itis white, but also that it is very tough and elastic, and, when viewed by a magnifying lens, it is found to be made up of fibres which intersect each other in every possible direction. The fibrillating or self-coagulating power of this material serves most important purposes in the animal economy. It forms the tem- porary bond of union between broken bones, and plugs to arrest the flow of blood from vessels which have been lacerated or torn asunder: and were it not for this, death would frequently result from causes which are now nearly inoperative. Fibrine may justly be described as the basis of the animal machine; and as its appropriation takes place during its circulation through the capillary blood-vessels, and as these form the connecting link between the arteries and the veins, so it will be apparent that venous blood must eontain a smaller portion of it than the arterial. The relative quantity in these vessels is calculated by Muller to be in the proportion of 29 to 24. In health, about 3 parts of
* Some fibrine thus obtained was exhibited at the lecture.
578 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
fibrine exist in every 1000 of blood; but it becomes increased in inflammatory affections, and often rises to 8 or 10 parts in the same quantity. ‘This fact explains why a larger amount of blood can be abstracted during the acute stage of inflammation than in health, without the system suffering to an equal extent.
We pass on to consider the serum. After the coagulum of blood has stood at rest for a short time, a fluid of a pale straw- colour appears on its surface: this is the serum. The separation of-the serum from the clot is due to the contraction of the fibrine, which continues long after the blood has coagulated. The fluid therefore is forcibly expelled; being, prior to its separation, me- chanically retained in the coagulum, as water may be said to be in a sponge. Serum holds in solution the albumen and salts of the blood, and it is chiefly composed of these matters with the addition of water. Its viscosity will depend on the relative amount of albumen, which in health has been estimated at about 8 per cent. An alteration in the specific gravity of serum will hkewise indicate the proportion of its albumen; as in healthy subjects its specific gravity is about 1030. Under disease, and more espe- cially when of a debilitating nature, such as dropsy, the watery parts of the serum are increased, and become effused into various cavities of the body, as the chest, abdomen, or ventricles of the brain. Ordinary serum is also quickly transuded through the thin coats of the capillary vessels, of which we have daily proofs in local inflammation of the external structures, where the swelling is referable to that cause. Unlike fibrine, serum, whether in or out of the body, remains fluid ; but as it contains albumen, this is capable of being solidified by heat, and likewise by the admixture of mineral acids, or alcohol.* The heat required to accomplish this is 162° of Fahrenheit—a temperature the body never attains to. Albumen is believed to be converted into fibrine, and thus to minister to nutrition ; and it is also thought that the white cor- puscules of the blood, of which the limits of this lecture will not allow of a further mention, are the agents which effect the con- version. The salts can be only incidentally alluded to; they amount to between 6 and 7 parts in 1000, and are chiefly com- posed of the chlorides of sodium and potassium, and the phos- phates of lime, magnesia, and soda.
Having now described the constituents of the blood, we pass on to explain its circulation, and the changes which take place during its passage from one part of the system to another. We have before likened the heart to a central pump, as it is by the contraction of the muscular walls of this organ that the blood is
* The solidification of the albumen of serum was demonstrated in the lecture by the employment of hydrochloric acid.
Organs of Resptration and Circulation. 579
driven into the arteries, that arise from two of its cavities, to be conveyed throughout the body. ‘The heart is a double organ, and usually described as having two sides, a right and left. It is also divided into four cavities; the right auricle and ventricle, and the left auricle and ventricle. The two auricles, and also the ventricles, are separated from each other by a muscular partition, so that the right side has no direct communication with the left. In the accompanying sketch, fig. 4, the cavities of the right side are laid open to illustrate the course of the blood. The two vene cave, marked d and e, receive the blood from the veins of the system which unite to form these vessels, and they empty them- selves into a, the auricle. From this cavity, by the contraction of its muscular sides, the blood is driven into 6, the ventricle. The filling of this second cavity leads likewise to the contraction of its walls, by which the blood is propelled into f, the pulmonary artery ; as the rising of the valve e prevents the blood passing back into the auricle by closing the auriculo-ventricular opening.
Fig. 4,
a. The auricle. _6, b.. The ventricle. c. The valves which prevent the return of the blood from the ventricle to the auricle. d, The anterior vena cava. e. The posterior cava. f. The
pulmonary artery. © g. The anterior aorta. h, The posterior aorta, i. The pulmonary veins,
580 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
This valve is called the valvula tricuspis, being divided into three portions, each of which tends from its base which is attached to the sides of the ventricle towards a loose or floating apex. From the pulmonary artery the blood enters the capillaries of the Jungs, where it undergoes a peculiar change, hereafter to be explained, and is thence conducted back again to the heart by the pulmonary veins. ‘The action of the artery in assisting the on- ward course of the blood would drive a portion of it into the ventricle, but this is prevented by three valves of a semilunar form which guard the mouth of the vessel. The pulmonary veins, 7, empty themselves into the left auricle, and this into the left ventricle ; a similar valve to that of the right side, the valvula bicuspis, preventing any retrograde motion of the fluid into. the auricle. From the left ventricle the blood passes into the aorta, which, bifurcating into g, the anterior, and h, the posterior aorta, conducts it through the medium of the arteries branching off from these vessels to ali parts of the body. Semilunar valves are also placed at the origin of the aorta from the heart, and serve a like purpose to those existing in the pulmonary artery. The arteries of the system in their course give off many branches, all of which end in hair-like vessels, capillaries (see figs. 6 and 7), by which the blood is appropriated to the maintenance of the several tissues; here it likewise undergoes a chemical change (which we shall presently describe), and is afterwards returned to the heart by the veins which unite and form the two cave before spoken of. ‘This circulation of the blood is divided into the pul- monic, or that which conveys it from the right to the left side of the heart through the lungs, and the systemic, or that which takes it from the left to the right side, through the arteries and veins of the system. The contraction of each auricle is simultaneous, and precedes a little that of the ventricles, which likewise con- tract together. ‘This action of the heart produces the pulse, and the number of its pulsations within a given time materially assists the surgeon in arriving at a correct diagnosis when an animal is suffering from disease.
Having explained “ the general round of cir culation,” we shall add some further remarks on the arteries and veins, and after- wards speak of the chemical changes of blood. ‘These vessels are represented in fig. 5, the artery beimg marked a, and the vein B: it will also be seen that their inner structure is exposed by a section being carried through their coats.
It has already been stated that the arteries arising from the heart are two, namely, the aorta and the pulmonary, and that valves _are placed at their origin to prevent a retrograde movement of the
blood ; from which it will be inferred that these vessels are not mere passive conduits for the fluid. The amount of their action
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 581
A. An artery partly cut open to show its Inner coat. B. A yein also opened, and showing c, its valves.
in assisting the circulation is a vexed question among physiologists, but no doubt it is very considerable. The simple fact of these vessels being found empty after death, goes very far to prove their importance as active auxiliaries to the heart: ; for were they passive tubes merely, they would then be in the opposite condition, viz.,
full. The early ‘anatomists were acquainted with the circum- stance of these vessels being void of blood after death, and conse- quently they were led to suppose that the ‘animal spirits, being of an aeriform nature,’ were conveyed by them; hence the name artery, or air-carrying tube. At their origin oe lear large, but they gradually decrease in size as they proceed from the heart,
which is produced in part by the number of the branches they give off in their course. It has been rightly said that the capacity of the arterial system is rather increased than diminished by this sub-
division, and therefore no mechanical obstruction from that cause can interfere with the flow of the blood in the small arteries.
The rapid splitting up of these vessels into smaller ones is in VOE. X. 2.Q
582 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
proportion to the nearness of the organ they are going to, and in every part, as before stated, they end in tubes so minute as to be named capillaries. As the blood which traverses the arteries is destined to supply the system with the materials necessary for the support of life and development, so do we find that they usually take the most direct course to each particular organ. ‘They also run in parts which are most protected from injury, such as the inner side of limbs and bend of joints. Occasionally also they gain security by passing through canals formed in bones—a fact which can be demonstrated in the skull and the feet of several of our domesticated animals. In number the arteries are considerably less than veins, it being necessary that due provision for the return of blood should be made to balance the circulation, as from the situation of veins the current through them is frequently obstructed. The section of an artery (see fig. 5) shows that its inner coat, which is an epithelial membrane, is, unlike that of a vein, perfectly smooth. Besides this coat, these vessels have four others—a serous, a muscular, an elastic, and a cellular. These tunics are not of equal thickness throughout the course of the artery; and espe- cially do we find that the elastic is increased in substance the nearer the vessel approaches the heart; but, on the contrary, that the muscular is most developed at a distance from that organ. The elastic coat gives strength to the vessel, and yields to the distend- ing force of the blood at each stroke of the heart; but as soon as the volume of the blood has passed, it returns by its inherent pro- perty to its former condition. . The expansion and recoil of the elastic coat converts these jets of blood into a continuous stream ; but this stream is still augmented in volume at each contraction of the heart. Hence we observe that, when an artery is divided, the flow of blood from its cut end is alternately increased both in quan- tity and force, synchronously with the heart’s action. Under these circumstances we likewise perceive that the vessel rises in its bed with a peculiar vermiform action, which proves that the elastic coat is not simply distended, but also elongated by the passing current. The elongation is always greater than the expansion, and the two actions combined produce the arterial pulse. Thus we feel the pulse of the artery when its calibre and length are in- creasing, and that of the heart when its ventricular cavities are con- tracting. In the language of the anatomist, the heart is ima state of systole, and the artery of dzastole, during their respective pulsa- tions. It is not to be inferred from the foregoing remarks that the elastic coat exerts any propulsive power on the passage of the blood, as this can only be effected by lessening the area of the arterial tube, and must consequently depend on its muscular or contractile coat.
It is right that I should state that the muscularity of arteries, although strongly insisted upon by the immortal John Hunter,
has since his time not been generally admitted. I could adduce
D>
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 583
a multiplicity of facts, were it necessary, to prove the correctness of Hunter’s views, but content myself by stating that I am of the number of his disciples.*
As the arteries everywhere terminate in capillaries, so do we find that the veins arise from them. A vein (see B, fig. 5) differs materially from an artery, first in the thickness of its coats, and secondly in having its internal lining thrown into folds here and there, forming thereby its valves, marked c, fig. 5. These valves perform the office of such structures in general, namely, that of allowing a fluid to pass but in one direction; and as their free edges are directed towards the heart, it follows that they prevent any retrograde motion in the blood by rising and closing the canal. This arrangement is rendered the more necessary in con- sequence of veins not exerting any power per se in the return of the blood, this being chiefly effected by their being pressed upon by the various muscular movements of the body. Veins are also non-pulsatory, and the stream of the blood through them is con- tinuous and even. They are far more numerous than arteries, and are divisible into a superficial and deep-seated set, which freely communicate by anastomosing branches. ‘They likewise increase in size, but diminish in number as they approach the heart, near to which those of the system ultimately terminate in the two cave. The blood which they carry is dark in colour, unlike that of the arteries, in which vessels it is of a scarlet hue. ‘This change in the colour of the fluid is produced in the capillaries; the cause and the consequence of which we shall now consider. Fig. 6
Fig. 6.
Capillaries <f fat. a. The terminal artery. b. The primitive vein. (From Todd and Bowman's ‘ Physiological Anatomy.’)
* Since this lecture was delivered, an opportunity has been afforded the author, by the death of the rhinoceros in the gardens of the Zoological Society, of confirming these opinions. He examined a portion of the carotid artery, and found its muscular coat extensively developed, The fibres were arranged more or less in a circular order.
2 or2
084 Anatomy, Physielogy, and Pathology of the
shows an artery, a, terminating in a capillary rete of vessels, and a vein, 0, arising therefrom; it will also be observed that, in accordance with the facts we have described, the former is repre- sented light, and the latter dark in colour.
The brightness of the arterial blood is due to the presence of the oxygen of the air acting on its coloured corpuscules, and which it receives by its passage throvgh the lungs; and the darkness of the venous blood, to the influence of the carbonic acid of the system on the same bodies. ‘These gases, however, affect only the pigment of the red corpuscules to produce this altered appear- ance of the circulating fluid ; and consequently the corpuscules can only be viewed as the indirect carriers of the oxygen into, and the carbonic acid out of the body.
I have before stated that the various tissues of the frame are undergoing a continual waste or change, and therefore they need a constant reparation, which is provided for by the appropriation of the blood by the capillaries. ‘The thinness of the walls of these vessels allows of a transudation of the liquid fibrme, which being imbibed by the surrounding structures administers to their sup- port ; while any excess is carried back into the circulation by the lymphatic absorbents. ‘The metamorphosis, however, of the tis- sues furnishes both carbon and hydrogen, and with these the oxygen, which has been conveyed into the capillaries by the red corpus- cules, unites, forming thereby carbonic acid and watery vapour. In this process heat is evolved ; and as it takes place in every part of the system, so it follows that the temperature of the body 1s every- where kept up to its standard, viz., about 99° of Fahrenheit, inde- pendent of external causes. An animal may thus be said to carry with him a self-supplying furnace, which continues in active operation so long as health and vigour of constitution remain. It is this generation of heat by chemical union which is designated animal heat. By the loss of some of its fibrine, and by the pre- sence of carbonic acid, the blood is now rendered unfit for the purposes of life, and in this condition it returns to the heart by the veins (see fig.6). Near to this organ it receives a fresh sup- ply of nutritive matter through the medium of the thoracic duct (see fig. 2), and passing from the heart to the lungs it again obtains the required oxygen, and parts with the carbonic acid and watery vapour (see fig. 7).
The function thus performed by the lungs, of which we must speak more at length, will be better understood by again referring io the diagram, fig. 7. One portion of this diagram represents the four cavities of the heart laid open, and the vessels which are going to and from them; and the other a branch of the windpipe terminating in the air-cells of the lungs, which are surrounded by a network of capillaries indicating the change in the colour of the blood. ‘The intervening arrows show the course of the blood to
585
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586 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
and from the lungs to the heart. The atmospheric air which enters the lungs at each inspiration through the medium of the windpipe, contains by weight 77 parts of nitrogen and 23 of oxygen; but the expired air is deficient of oxygen, its place being supplied by carbonic acid gas.* An interchange of the oxygen of the air and the carbonic acid of the system is thus effected, these gases displacing each other by permeating the thin walls of the capillaries, which are everywhere spread out as a minute net- work on the surface of the air-cells. ‘The immediate result of this change is the conversion of the blood from a dark Modena red to a bright scarlet colour, and the fitting of it again for the chief purposes of life.; ‘Thus we see that the blood in circulat- ing through the system becomes unsuited to life, and that it is re-invigorated by its passage through the lungs. The function of respiration is therefore no less important than that of circula- tion. Many operations of the animal system may be suspended for a considerable time with but little ill consequence, but re- spiration must be continued, or life quickly ceases. It is true that respiration may be increased or diminished even at plea- sure, but it cannot be altogether arrested; for if we attempt to hold the breath for a long time, we experience so much inconvenience, that irresistibly we are compelled to resume the act of breathing. ‘This without doubt depends on the cir- cumstance that during its suspension there is an accumula- tion of carbonic acid in the system, the continuance of which would produce asphyxia or suffocation. We have here another proof of the wisdom and design of the omnipotent Creator in making respiration, like the circulation, independent of our will. As the circulation has its central organ, the heart, so has re- spiration—namely, the lungs: and both these are situated within the same cavity, where they are secure from external injury or im- pediment to their function. We may in this place observe that the osseous portion of the body of an animal forms three important cavities: an anterior, called the skull, which contains the brain and the nerves of special sense ; a middle, the thorax, in which is lodged the heart and lungs (see fig. 8) ; and a posterior, the pelvis, holding the uterus and its appendages, the chief of the female organs of generation, ‘The thorax, however, is constructed on a different plan from the other cavities, for there is an all-important necessity that its area should be capable of being enlarged and diminished, in accordance with the altered volume of the lungs during respira-
* This fact was illustrated by breathing into some pellucid lime-water, by which it was rendered turbid; the carbonic acid uniting with the lime, and forming thereby ~ an insoluble carbonate of lime.
+ The experiment of pouring some dark, or carbonized, blood into a vessel of oxygen gas was introduced, and immediately it became of a bright red colour.
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 587
Represents the heart and left lung in situ, the side of the chest being cut away.
tion. Such not being needed in the skull or pelvis, the bones forming these cavities are firmly and immovably united together. The thorax is bounded above by the spine, on the sides by the ribs, below by the breast-bone or sternum, and behind by the diaphragm ; a muscular tendinous partition separating it from the abdomen.
The form of the thorax is that of a truncated cone placed hori- zontally, having its apex formed by the near approximation and shortness of the first pair of ribs, and its base by the diaphragm. The dimensions of the cavity are consequently increased from before backwards; while the hinder part, or base of the cone, is cut off obliquely from above downwards and forwards. The first pair of ribs are situated nearly perpendicular; and more especially in the ox, where they form a right angle with the spine. One of these is represented in situ in fig 8. ‘The ribs of the horse num- ber eighteen on either side, but in the ox and sheep they are only thirteen. ‘They increase in length from the first to the eighth, and likewise in their curve obliquely backwards from the spine, from the first to the thirteenth ; but they gradually diminish in length from the eighth to the last. “Their interspaces are filled up by muscular fibres, the zztercostal muscles, which are active agents in inspiration. The ribs therefore with the diaphragm form the moveable boundaries of the chest; the spine and the sternum being more or less the fixed points from which they act.
As seen in the annexed figure, No. 9, the ribs are united to the
588 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
spine above by moveable joints, and to the sternum below by means of their cartilages. ‘The inferior attachment is not, however, in all of them directly to the sternum, some being joined by their carti- lages to each other, and thus indirectly to that bone; hence their division into sternal, or true, and asternal, or false ribs. [In the sketch the hindermost rib is a false one.} Each rib articulates by its rounded head and tubercle, marked 6, with corresponding hol- lows in the vertebrae, marked a, forming the moveable joints al- luded to: these distinct articulations by the head and tubercle are, however, less perfect as we proceed from before backwards. ‘That every facility may be given to the movements of the chest while the ox is recumbent—a position, as is well known, he frequently assumes during rumination—the attachment of the ribs to the sternum, as well as the development of that bone, differ consider- ably from the horse. These peculiarities, which we are about to
earn ee hE SS
a. The cavities in the vertebra which receive b. The head and tubercle of the rib. c. The surfaces of the synovial joint uniting the rib to the cartilage. d. The icint formed by the eartilage and sternum.
-
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 589
describe, will be at once recognised by a reference to the annexed figures 10 to 13. In the first-named figure the under surface of the sternum of the ox is de- picted, and it will be observed that it is perfectly flat, conse- quently it can be subjected to pressure without inconvenience to the animal when he is rest- ing on the ground. On the contrary, this part of the ster- num of the horse has a thin cartilaginous edge, similar in appearance as well as in posi- tion to the keel of a boat, see fig. 12, which ill adapts it to receive a similar pressure. In both animals the sternum is originally composed of several bony pieces, which as age ad- 4 vances are more or less per- ZY fectly umited together: these Sternum of ox, inferior view. a. The manu- pieces are, however, very differ- brium, b. The ensiform cartilage. ently arranged, so that in the Ox bone supplies the place of cartilage in the horse, and forms the flat surface before mentioned. The loss of elasticity, and consequently of motion, cartilage being highly elastic, is however more than compensated for by the manner the first bone is united to the second in the ox. In this animal, the first bone, manu- brium, is attached by a synovial joint, which allows of a free motion in yarious directions, but more particularly from side to side; see a, fig. 1]. The cariniform cartilage in the horse (a, fig. 12) is substituted for the manubrium with its synovial joint. The arrangement here spoken of allows the anterior portion of the thorax of the ox to yield the more readily to the respira- tory movements, and likewise facilitates the curving of the lower
Fig. 11.
Lateral representation of the sternum of the ox.
a. The joint formed by the union of the first bone, manubrium ; the cartilage of the rib being partly removed to bring it into view. 6b. The manubrium. c. The ensiform cartilage,
090 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
part of the neck upon the front of the chest when the ani- mal’s head is directed towards his side. The posterior portion of the sternum in both animals presents fewer differences for ob- servation, being terminated bya cartilage called the ensiform,
lettered c, fig. 11, and 8, fig. 12. The attachments of the ribs
Fig. 12.
F
i , Samy Abe a Mi) Hl ’
Sane
Lateral view of the sternum of the horse, showing its keel-like shape. a. The cariniform cartilage. b. The ensiform cartilage.
to their cartilages also varies considerably, as seen im the sub- ioined sketch, fig. 13, where a represents a portion of the nb of the horse, with its cartilage, and 6 the same paris of the ox. In the former the lower end of the rib is received into a cup- like cavity in the upper part of the car- tilage; a union which is further strength- ened by indentations of their edges, locking into each other, but greatly limiting the extent of the motion between them: d, Portions of the ribs ane wer | fo. 13. » In the latter; howevemame ameet
tilages of the horse and ox. a. bib of horse, showing d, itsin- with a true synovial articulation in this gna aes Ramet place, marked e, in figs. 9 and 13. The articulation with the cartilage. nature of this attachment was several years since pointed out by Mr. Varnell, Demonstrator of Anatomy in the Royal Veterinary College. Besides the facilities for motion hereby obtained, the cartilages at their lower extremities are united to the sternum, as in the horse, by synovial joints: see d, fig. 9. Having described the mechanical arrangements of the walls of the thoracic cavity, we proceed to speak of the principal organs which are concerned in respiration: they are the larynx, the wind- pipe with its branches, and the lungs. At the upper part of the windpipe, which, as its name unplies, is the conduit of the air to the lungs, we observe a peculiarly constructed organ, called the larynx, It differs in many particulars in nearly every variety of animal, and is more complicated in man than in any of the in- ferior creatures. The larynx discharges a double office, being the organ of voice, as well as the conduit for the air in breathing ; and in proportion as the voice is incapable of modification, so do we find simplicity in its structure, It presents the same general
Fig. 13.
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. o91
appearance in all animals, being slightly altered to suit the tones uttered by each ;—this will be observed on comparing figs. 14 and 15, which represent the larynx of the horse and the ox.
The larynx is composed of a number of cartilages which are united to each other more or less firmly. One of these, the epiglottis, a, figs. 14 and 15, defends the entrance into the wind- pipe, and in the act of swallowing it rises and closes over the opening of that tube, thereby preventing the passage of the food into it. Except in deglutition the epiglottis is always depressed to preserve a free and open conduit for the air to and from the lungs. ‘The larynx is held in its situation through the medium of a singularly shaped bone, the os hyoides, 6, figs. 14 and 15, which is united to the under and back part of the skull. The os hyoides gives attachment also to the muscles of the tongue, and as this organ possesses a great freedom of action in ruminants, we find the bone to be composed of more pieces in these animals than in many others : these pieces are likewise connected to each
The larynx of the ox. The larynx of the horse. The references are the same as in a. The epigloitis. 6. The os hyoides. Fig. 14.
other by synovial joints. (Compare the os hyoides in the horse and Ox.) The necessity for a modification of the cartilages of the
larynx 1s apparent when we reflect on the varieties of the voice of our domesticated animals. We recognise the horse by neigh- ing, the ox by bellowing, the dog by barking, the sheep “by bleating, the pig by grunting, &c., &c. Many of these sounds are influenced by the existence of folds in the lining membrane of the larynx, called vocal cords. In the ox and the sheep we ‘have the simplest form of the organ, for bellowing and bleating are little more than long-continned expiratory acts.
592 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
The ingress and egress of the air in respiration also differs. In the horse each is carried on through the nasal passages, ex- cept in coughing, when a portion of the air is expelled by the mouth. But in the ox and sheep the air enters and escapes both by the mouth and nostrils, This variation in part depends on the situation of the larynx with reference to the velum palati, and also on the length and position of the velum ; peculiarities which can only be alluded to.
The lower part of the larynx is continuous with the windpipe, which is likewise composed of a series of cartilages arranged in acircular order. The windpipe, in common with the other portions of the respiratory passages, is lined with a mucous membrane, the secretion of which defends these parts from the irritation of the atmospheric air. This membrane not unfre- quently suffers from a change of temperature, &c., and is the seat of those diseases recognised as catarrh, laryngitis, bron- chitis, &c. The number of the rings of the windpipe will of course be governed by the length of neck: in the ox we usually find from 55 to 60. These rings are greater in sub- stance at their front, being here more exposed to external in- juries, than at their hinder part. ‘They are united to each other by elastic tissue, which allows the windpipe without inconvenience to accommodate itself to the various movements of the neck. On the inner and back part of the rings, lying between them and the mucous membrane, is a thin layer of muscular fibres, the use of which is one of the vexed questions of physiology. The late Mr. Youatt denied the existence of this muscle in the ox ;* I have satisfied myself, however, that it not only exists in this animal, but in every other which hitherto I have examined. It is a singular fact, and one which I am desirous of naming in this place, that in the dog the muscle is situated on the outer, and not on the inner, part of the windpipe. Mr. Percival is of opinion that the muscle resists the tendency of the elastic cartilaginous rings to form an elliptical-shaped canal; and, by converting the ellipsis into a circle, may thus tend to expand and not to contract the calibre of the tube.t Whether it be so in moderate action of the muscle or not, it is clear that when its fibres are contracting with energy, or are unduly stimulated, it must diminish the area of the canal. I would ask if it be not specially employed in the lower animals, in whom the vocal appa- ratus is exceedingly simple, compared with man, for producing the voice, by regulating the volume of the exhaled air, entering the larynx from the lungs; and also whether some of their into- nations do not depend on the amount of its action ?
* See ‘Cattle,’ p. 374, Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. + Anatomy of the Horse, p. 225,
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 593
The windpipe, passing down the neck, enters the chest between the first pair of ribs (see fig. 8) ; and, in the ox and sheep, it almost immediately afterwards sends a branch to the anterior part of the right lung (0, fig. 16) :—this is called the third bronchus, and does not exist in the horse. A little below this, the windpipe divides into the two main bronchial tubes: one of which penetrates the substance of each lung, dividing and re-dividing into smaller and innumerable branches, which ulti- mately communicate with the air-cells (figs. 16 and 17).
Bea
Set Nest
Sos
SS}
= 7: 4
> SY S S 4
a. The windpipe. b. The third bronchus. _ c. The two principal bronchi. d, d. The rami- fication of the bronchial tubes throughout the lung.
It may here be mentioned that the chest is divided into two cavities by a membranous partition, the mediastinum, extending from before backwards, by which the right and left lung are separated from each other. Hence an explanation in part of the fact that pleuro-pneumonia, as well as other diseases, are frequently confined to one lung. The air-cells are clustered
594 Anatomy, Physiology. and Pathology of the
around each terminal bronchus, somewhat after the manner of grapes upon their stalk (fig. 17); and “it has been calcu- lated by M. Rochaux, that in the human subject about 18,000 surround each bronchus, and that the total number in the lungs amounts to six hundred millions.” <<If this estimate,” says Dr. Carpenter, “be even a remote approximation to the truth, it is evident that the amount of surface exposed by the walls of those minuie cavities must be many times greater than that of the exterior of the body.’* The air-cells follow no definite shape: they are tor the most part flattened against each other, and are said to vary in size in the human subject from about the 200th to the 70th of aninch. [In the ox the air cells are many times smaller than in man, and even more minute than those of the horse ; and injected preparations of their ca- pillaries show thatthe rete formed by these vessels is likewise finer, or more closely woven. This circumstance throws some light on the peculiar appearances met with in pleuro-pneumonia, and will hereafter be alluded to. rE : i d. Terminal bronchus, commu- From the foregoing remarks it is ap- nicating with ¢, the sir-cells. parent that the chief bulk of the lungs is Bio uae a ae a made up of air-cells, surrounded by their network of vessels, and communicating with the minute ramifica- tions of the bronchial tubes. Through the medium of these structures both elastic and contractile tissue enter into the com- position of the lungs, by which they possess a certain amount of action independent of the expansion and contraction of the boun- daries of the chest, and are thus enabled of themselves to assist in the process of respiration. ‘The various structures forming the lungs are united together by areolar tissue, and they are also col- lected into small masses, termed lobules, which are joined to each other by the same material. Hence the expressions interstitial and znterlobular areolar tissue: the former being applied to the bond of union between the different structures, and the latter to that connecting the lobules to each other. In the ox the lobules are very distinct, and the amount of areolar tissue is proportion- ably large (see fig. 19); thus again accounting for the appear- ances produced by pleuro-pneumonia. | Each lung is divided into lobes by a deep fissure :—the num- ber of these lobes varies, although not to great extent, in different classes of animals. [In the ox and sheep, the right lung consists of four, and the left of three lobes. The lungs are held in their
* Manual of Physiology, p. 389,
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. O95
situation principally by the large vessels which are going to and from them, and also by the windpipe: they are covered externally with a serous membrane, the pleura, which is reflected upon the sides of the thoracic cavity, and forms also the mediastinum before spoken of. The lungs are everywhere free in the chest, except along their middle and upper surface, which is connected by the large vessels, &c. before mentioned, to the spine. They may be said to completely fill the cavity, their external covering of pleura being in contact with the reflection of the membrane which lines the chest.
Respiration consists of inspiration and expiration, and the bulk of the lungs will accord with the dilatation or contraction of the cavity; nevertheless they are not, as elsewhere stated, mere passive agents in the process. Many of the muscles which lie externally to the ribs, as well as those filling the spaces between them, the musculo-tendinous partition between the thorax and the abdomen, the diaphragm, and the abdominal muscles, are concerned in breathing, In expiration a portion only of the air contained in the air-cells is forced out by the pressing forwards of the viscera of the abdomen upon the thoracic cavity, through the contraction of the abdominal muscles, the diaphragm being at that time in a relaxed condition ; the sides are also compressed at the same instant by the fall of the ribs, which is aided in part by their cartilages. This action ceasing, the diaphragm contracts, and assumes a flatter aspect ; the viscera of the abdomen recede, and the ribs, the motion being assisted by their synovial joints, are drawn forwards and outwards, thus enlarging the cavity. To fill the vacuum which would thus be occasioned, a rush of fresh atmospheric air down the windpipe takes place: this equalizes the density of that portion of the air which had not been expelled, and which by its retention had become rarefied, and thereby assists the expansion of the lungs; the pressure to which they were sub- jected in expiration being now removed. As the chief use of this function is to eject carbonic acid gas from the system and produce oxygenated blood, so the quantity of air respired ina given time will be regulated accordingly. Ina state of quietude and in health, the number of respirations in the ox are about 12 in the minute; being in proportion of 1 to 44 of the pulsations. The puny of apebonte acid evolved varies peu four to even eight per cent. ; the rapidity of its production depending, amongst Baer causes, on the amount of exertion an animal undergoes. ‘To supply the necessary quantity of oxygen to aout with the carbon, an increase of breathing must take place, otherwise death will quickly ensue. This rapid combustion of the carbon would, however, raise the temperature of the body far too high compatible with the main- tenance of its functions; and consequently, as the circulation is increased, so will be the secretion from the follicles of the skin,
F
O86 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
bedewing the surface with a copious perspiration, which, by its evaporation, tends to regulate the amount of heat by depriving the system of its excess of caloric.
I might dwell at far greater length on this part of our subject ; but having to speak of an important disease to which the respi- ratory organs are subject, I pass now to its consideration. ‘The name given to this affection by almost universal consent 1s PLEURO- PNEUMONIA. I object, however, to the malady being thus de- signated ; and if my view of its nature be correct, a less appro- priate name could scarcely have been selected. ‘The term pleuro- pneumonia, or pneumo-pleuritis, which has been proposed by some who consider the pleura more especially implicated, would immediately convey to the mind of the medical man that the disease was an inflammatory one, involving the substance of the Jungs, with their investing membranes, Although there may not be much in a name, nevertheless it were to be wished that a better one had been adopted for this disease; as inflammation is not its essential feature, especially at its commencement. An incorrect nomenclature is sure to lead to false conclusions with regard to treatment, and thus the life of the patient will be greatly endangered.
Prior to our discussing the question of the true nature of this malady, I shall take a rapid view of the epizootics which have visited Europe from the earliest history to.the present time. Mention is frequently made in the pages of Holy Writ of these diseases, and we read that among the plagues of Egypt a griev- ous murrain swept off the cattle. Homer frequently alludes to their ravages in Greece; and Virgil, Ovid, and other Roman authors, speak of their destructive effects among the cattle of Italy, &c. Of late years these maladies appear to have been on the increase, and within a short period England has been visited by eczema-epizootica, pleuro-pneumonia, and variola-ovina. The prevalence in this country of these particular diseases may certainly be said to be new to the present generation ; but whether they have existed here at a remote period is somewhat doubtful. Believing this matter to be of some importance, we are induced to look into the history of these outbreaks; and should it appear that there is a reasonable ground for the supposition that pleuro- pneumonia 1s not altogether new, but that it has long since both visited and quitted our shores, we have thereby a strong reason to hope that it may again disappear from among us.
About the commencement of the Christian era diseases of this class are mentioned by Columella, who considered that they spread by means of their contagious properties. In the fourth century they are again noticed by Vegetius, who described some of their symptoms, and entertained similar views to Columella with regard to their extension.
a
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. d9T-
In 810, it is recorded that all the cattle in Charlemagne’s dominions, France, Italy, and Germany, were destroyed by one of these pests, the nature of which can only be conjectured, for the term ‘‘murrain” seems to have been of general application, and consequently its adoption throws but little light on the inquiry. _from this period to the revival of the arts and sciences, nothing satisfactory can be learned respecting these epizootics; but in the sixteenth century we have detailed accounts of their progress and devastating efiects. According to Ramazim, in 1514, and again in 1599, the Council of Venice forbade the use of beef and veal, and even milk, on account of the diseased condition of the cattle. The same author likewise states, that in 1691 sheep were swept off by thousands—pustular eruptions covering their bodies, which he unhesitatingly affirms were of the nature of small-pox. In 1693, the cattle in Hesse fell victims to “pulmonary phthisis:’” it may, however, be reasonably doubted whether the disease was properly named ; and it is probable that it was identical with the modern pleuro-pneumonia. Both cattle and sheep in Lower Hungary suffered severely at the commencement of the eighteenth century, the former from an epizootic, which is undefined, and the latter from small-pox: these maladies made their appearance early in 1712, and continued with great virulence throughout the year. About the same period the cattle in England were likewise attacked with a disease which bore a great resemblance to eczema epizootica. -
During nine months in the year 1715, no less than 30,000 cattle are said to have died in Rome and its environs, of malig- nant dysentery, accompanied with tumours and ulcers on various parts of their bodies. And in 1730-31, Bohemia, Saxony, France, &c., experienced a heavy loss from the outbreak of a similar dis- ease. In 1745, thousands of the cattle of Italy, France, Ger- many, and England, again fell victims to one of these pests. The ' malady seems to have been accompanied with many symptoms | akin to those of pleuro-pneumonia, and to have been equally destructive. ‘ihe lungs-are described as its seat, and the post- mortem appearances, as recorded by Dr. Barker, bear a strong resemblance to those observed at the present day. Whether this disease extended hither through the medium of a vitiated condi- tion of the atmosphere, or owed its origin to a more direct intro- duction, has not been satisfactorily proved.
«Some authors assert that it was brought from Holland by certain calves, imported into the neighbourhood of London by a farmer for the purpose of crossing the breed; while others state that the lucrative views of an English tanner, who bought a parcel of distempered hides in Zea- Jand which were forbidden to be sold, was the origin of the affection.” *
In a pamphlet written in 1745 by Dr. Barker, it :s stated that
* Simonds on Variola Ovina. VOL. X. oR
598 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
the malady was centred in the lungs; and its acute symptoms were preceded by a dry and husky cough, lasting from ‘a fort- night to three weeks.” In the second stage, he says—
“They begin to forsake their food, and if they be milch-cows their milk dries up—the fever, which was before obscure, begins now to be very per- ceptible: the cough increases, they breathe with great difficulty, and the eyes and nostrils in many of them begin to run with athick and sometimes fetid rheum ; the body grows hot, and the pulse is very full and hard. In three or four days after their milk is gone off, and they have ceased to eat and chew the cud, a purging most commonly comes on. The stools are at first thin and watery, soon afterwards they grow slimy and fetid, and sometimes they are mixed with blood. The purging continues for a week or more, if the cattle live so long; but if at the end of six or seven days it begins to abate, and the excrements grow more solid, it is a token of their recovery. The difficulty of breathing does not seem to be relieved by this discharge. When the disease has been of long continuance, the body has sometimes swelled extremely, either before or immediately after death, and even to such a degree as to burst the paunch; but in those which have died early in the disease, the body has seldom or never been known to swell. If the cattle begin to swell, and their flesh grow cold towards the end of the disease, it is a certain sign of approaching death. The continuance of the disease is very uncertain and precarious, for many have died in two or three days after the fever has appeared, others have lived six or seven, and some even twelve or fourteen days.”
This graphic account of the symptoms of the epizootic observed by Dr. Barker, agrees in many essential particulars with those of pleuro-pneumonia; as is likewise the case with the post-mortem appearances, which he describes as follows :—-
‘Upon opening the bodies of several which have died of this disease, I have constantly found the blood-vessels of the lungs stuffed up and dis- tended with grumous or coagulated blood, and the bronchia or air-vessels so much inflated as to make the bulk of the lungs appear much larger than usual, And though some of these cattle were opened before the body was cold or the blood congealed in the other vessels, yet in those of the lungs it was constantly found to be coagulated to such a degree as not to flow out of the vessels upon cutting them.” *
The lesions here spoken of, as well as the symptoms, bear so striking an analogy to those of the present malady, that I am most strongly inclined to believe it to have been pleuro-pneumonia which thinned the herds of the British agriculturist rather more than 100 years since ; and it follows that it had so long disappeared from among us, as not to be recognised in its recent outbreak. If therefore I am right in the conjecture that the disease is not in reality new, it is evident that certain causes, of which we are now ignorant, came into operation and produced its withdrawal ; and we are thereby encouraged to hope that ere long it will assume a milder type, and ultimately cease altogether.
It has already been stated that pleuro-pneumonia was preceded by the affection vulgarly called ‘‘the old epidemic,” im which
* An Account of the present Epidemical Distemper amongst Black Cattle. Lon- don, 1745.
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 599
vesicles arise on the tongue, lips, feet, &c.: by some this malady is regarded as its cause. In my opinion they are perfectly distinct diseases,and neither of them can be viewed as a necessary sequela of the other. It is true that animals which have been affected with eczema are occasionally the victims of pleuro-pneumonia; but it is equaily true that many of those which have died of pleuro- pneumonia have not been attacked with eczema. The two ma- ladies are often seen on the same farm at the same time, and run their course perfectly independent of each other ; besides which, eczema, unlike pleuro- pneumonia, shows no EE Ne for the ox tribe ; but extends to sheep, pigs, and even poultry. ‘These facts are sufficient to prove their separate independence, without look- ing to the special characters of either affection.
The origin of pleuro-pneumonia, like all other epizootics and epidemics, cannot be traced to any positive cause :—
** Exposure to the changeable state of the weather, the partaking of bad provender or stagnant water, are viewed by many as the chief causes of epizootics, while others trace them to a vitiated condition of the atmos- phere: but whether such state consists of a mingling of mephitic vapours, or deleterious gases arising from either animal or vegetable decomposition, or from an excess of humidity or dryness, affecting the electrical condition of the air, they scarcely venture to conjecture.” *
Pleuro-pneumonia undoubtedly existed on the Continent for several years before showing itselfin England. Its extension here did not however depend, like variola ovina, on the direct impor- tation of infected cattle, but the destructive poison was wafted hither through the medium of the air, as has been the case with that of Asiatic cholera and similar pests. The atmosphere is, consequently, to be looked to as the source of the disease; but in the present state of science we are compelled to admit that the precise nature of the poison is as little understood as it was cen- turies since. Experience proves that a vitiated condition of the air gives rise to diseases which speedily destroy both animal and vegetable life; but we fail by analyzation to detect the delete- rious matter. The true cause of the potato disease has engaged the attention of our scientific investigators, but both it and the laws which govern the extension of the affection have hitherto remained undiscovered. Nor is this a matter of surprise; for chemistry equally fails in demonstrating such substances as our senses quickly recognise. ‘The perfume of a bouquet, and the most offensive odour, are alike undetectible by chemical means. We often judge, therefore, by the effects which we observe to follow the inhalation of an atmosphere which is thus charged, and of this we have a striking illustration in the deleterious results of the malaria engendered by the rays of the sun on stagnant water in marshy districts.
* Simonds on Variola Ovina,
Ps as
600 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
The mingling of noxious matters will occasionally produce a physical change in the air; a remarkable instance of which is thus
described by Dr. Prout in his Bridgewater Treatise.* He says that—
‘He had for some years been occupied in investigations regarding the atmosphere ; and for more than six weeks previously to the appearance of cholera in London had almost every day been engaged in endeavouring to determine, with the utmost accuracy, the weight of a given quantity of air under precisely the same circumstances of temperature and pressure. On a particular day, the 9th of February, 1832, the weight of the air suddenly appeared to rise above the usual standard. As the rise was at the time supposed to be the result of some accidental error, or of some derange- ment in the apparatus employed, in order to discover the cause the suc- ceeding observations were made with the most rigid scrutiny ; but no error or derangement whatever could be detected. On the days immediately following, the weight of the air still continued above the standard, though not quite so high as on the 9th of February, when the change was first noticed. The air retained its augmented weight during the whole time these experiments were carried on; namely, about six weeks longer. The increase of the weight of the air observed in these experiments was small, but still decided and real. The method of conducting the experiments was such as not to allow of an error, at least to an amount so great as the additional weight, without the cause of that error having become apparent. There seems, therefore, to be only one mode of rationally explaining this increased weight of the air at London, February, 1832; which is, by admit- ting the diffusion of some gaseous body through the lower regions of the atmosphere of this city considerably heavier than the air it displaced. About the 9th of February the wind, which had previously been west, veered round to the east, and remained chiefly in that quarter to the end of the month. Now, precisely on the change of the wind the first cases of cholera were reported in London; and from that time the disease con- tinued to spread. ‘That the epidemic cholera was the effect of the peculiar condition of the atmosphere is more perhaps than can be safely main- tained; but reasons, which have been advauced elsewhere, lead the writer of this treatise to believe that the virulent disease termed cholera was owing to the same matter which produced the additional weight of the
air.
I am not aware if any physical alterations of the atmosphere have accompanied the present outbreak of Asiatic cholera; but the foregoing statements, together with the quotation I have just made, are sufficient to establish the point that the air may be vitiated by an admixture of various matters.
By a careful investigation of epizootic diseases we become acquainted with certain laws which govern their spread, as well as with the secondary causes which predispose animals to their attack. Some of these maladies are contagious or infectious, as is the case with the small-pox of sheep, and may be also with pleuro-pneumonia. Many an outbreak can be clearly traced to diseased animals being brought upon the farm; nevertheless this is not a necessary consequence of such a procedure; and very
* Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Functions of Digestion considered with reference
to Natural Theology, by William Prout, M.D., F.R.S., &c., p. 853 e¢ seq.
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 601
often the malady breaks out independent of any such cause. The very existence of a doubt on the contagious nature of pleuro- pneumonia should put the purchaser of cattle on the alert, and prevent his obtaining them from an infected district. Having been led to make ae following remarks in my work on Variola Ovina, with reference to infection, and they having a practical bearing on this subject, I trust I shall be excused for introducing them here :—
“« Whatever the combination of causes may be which produce these maladies, certain it is that very many cf them assume an infectious nature, otherwise we could not account for animals separated and kept avart from those which are diseased, frequently, and sometimes altogether escaping ; while those are sure to become early victims that are allowed to pasture or live with the affected: besides we can often succeed in producing the malady by inoculating healthy cattle ; thus showing how closely the spread of the disorder depends upon contagion or infection. The fact, however, of animals when in health, if placed with affected ones, contracting a dis- ease of the same kind as that which the latter are suffering from, is the best proof of the infectious or contagious nature of a complaint. An animal escaping an attack, when such affections are raging in the locality in which it is placed, may arise from a variety of causes, as non-susceptibility, and also the possibility of the exciting agents never having been brought within its sphere of inhalation.”
Whether an epizootic be or not a contagious disease, its victims are rendered susceptible of receiving the malady by the opera- tion of secondary causes. This predisposition, as it is called, may be induced from a variety of circumstances, and a mere alteration in the food will be occasionally sufficient to produce it. A want, however, of nutritious diet—exposure to the changes of the weather—pasturing on wet and cold soils—neglect of a proper ventilation of the building the animals occupy—inhalation of offensive gases from accumulated manure—the fatigue of being removed from one locality to another—are the general predis- posing causes of pleuro-pneumonia and similar diseases. Care should, therefore, be always taken by a better system of manage- ment, ede &c., to av oid ev ery thing which tends to bring the system into a condition fay ourable for the reception of the special ‘cause of an epizootic, and more especially when such is raging in the neighbourhood. All these means will, however, fail when the disease is purely an infectious one, from a neglect of isolation or the removal of the healthy from the diseased. It is a well established fact that infection has its limits; and although these
may ever remain undefined as to their extent, still daily experience proves that the removal of animals but a Ehext distance from each other, and the prevention also of indirect communication between them. will at once put a stop to the spread of the malady.
From the preceding remarks, it is evident that I look chiefly to a viuated state of the atmosphere as being the cause of pleuro- pneumonia, and hence the greater necessity for the avoidance of
602 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
all predisposing causes. If this be the case, it may be asked how the empoisoned air produces its morbid results? I answer, not by its direct irritation on the membrane lining the air-passages, but by its specific action on the blood, which fluid, thus acted on, does virtuaily by its changed condition subsequenily affect the pulmonary tissues. [| have before stated my conviction that pleuro-pneumonia is not an inflammatory disease in the strict and legitimate meaning of the term. In order more distinctly to explain my view of the manner in which the abnormal condi- tion of the lungs is produced, I beg to direct attention to the annexed sketches, which exhibit sections of the lung of the horse and ox. Fig. 18 represents the lung of the horse, which on
Fig. 18.
A section of the lung of the horse, showing its condensed structure, and relative deficiency of the interlobular areolar tissue, which is represented by the irregular dark lines scattered on its cut surface.
being compared with fig. 19 (a similar portion of the lung of the ox) shows its structure to be more condensed, and a less
Fig. 19,
A section of the healthy lung of the ox, with its lobules and interlobular or connecting areolar tissue. a,a. The lobules. b, b. The interlobular areolar tissue.
amount of areolar tissue to enter into its composition. in the anatomical portion of this lecture, mention has been made of the lobules of the lungs and their connexion to each other by areolar tissue, designated the interlobular tissue. ‘The lobules in the ox are much more distinct, and they are also very loosely joined together, consequently a much larger proportion of the in- terlobular tissue exists here than in the horse. This excess of the connecting medium when infiltrated with the colourless por- tions of the blood, gives rise to those light-coloured or yellowish bands which intersect the lungs in all directions in pleuro-pneu-
603
Organs of Respiration and Circulation.
re, as well as to the character of do not show a similar condi-
the disease; and the reason the lungs of the horse, when loaded
These appearances, therefore, are with the serous parts of the blood
monia (see figs. 20 and 21). to be referred to original structu
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604 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
tion, is their deficiency of the interlobular tissue. Besides the. union of the lobules here spoken of, I have also stated that the various component parts of the lungs are held together by interstitial areolar tissue. ‘The network of this tissue is very minute, and when in this disease the red corpuscules of the blood escape from the capillaries by a rupture of their coats, it retains these bodies in its meshes, and assists in producing the dark colour of the isolated patches. This colour likewise depends in part on many of the capillaries being distended almost to bursting by the red corpuscules. The united pressure of the overloaded vessels, and of the infiltrated interlobular and interstitial tissues, Fig. 21,
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a. The right lung of the ox, considerably increased in size, and covered here and there with effusions of fibrine. b. The left lung, still retaining its healthy condition. ¢;1¢: The yellowish bands which intersect the diseased lung in various directions, being produced by the interlobular tissue surcharged with the fibrino-albuminous portions of the blood. d,d. The -
dark-coloured patches, arising from a retention of the red corpuscules, &c.
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 605
compresses the air-cells of the lungs, and prevents the entrance of the atmospheric air into them; hence the absence, in the advanced stages of pleuro-pneumonia, of the respiratory sound in the affected parts. ‘The great depth in the colour of some of the patches is also produced by the same cause; for the pigment of the accumulated corpuscules cannot be decar boueed from the non-entrance of the oxygen of the air into the cells.
I have already remarked that the vitiated atmosphere does not act as a direct irritant to the pulmonary tissues or mucous mem- brane of the air-passages, a fact which is proved by the absence of all the usual symptoms of catarrh, laryngitis, or bronchitis, as precursors of pleuro-pneumonia. Besides, if such were the case, both lungs would be equally affected ; whereas it is well known that the disease is very partial, and that the nght lung is princi- ek involved (see fig. 21). The aerial poison, whatever may be
its nature, being carried by the ordinary process of respiration into the air-cells of the lungs, exerts its baneful influence upon the blood in its circulation through the capillaries. The blood thus impregnated with something detrimental to its healthy condition undergoes changes similar to the solids when diseased, and these changes are figured forth in the pulmonary tissues.
Each organ of the body seems susceptible of being acted upon ma special manner by deleterious matters entermmg the circu- lation: thus the poison of small-pox reacts on the skin ; that of glanders on the mucous membranes of the nasal ceriiee ED rabies on the nerves,—of eczema on the lips, tongue, and feet,— and of pleuro-pneumonia on the lungs.
The amount of the deleterious matter received at each inspi- ration appears to be sufficient to interrupt at once the functions of the lungs, for, were this the case, death would speedily occur from asphyxia ; ; whereas we have constant proofs that the disease we are considering is partial in its attack, and insidious in its nature, making its way stealthily ; being very often unobserved, until it has made great inroads on the constitution. This cha- -racter of the affection is alone sufficient to create a doubt of its being inflammatory, for inflammation of the lungs, even at its commencement, is marked by unmistakable indications of ill- health. ‘The absence of the ordinary symptoms of pneumonia, together with the peculiar changes observed in the lungs, have satisfied me that pleuro-pneumonia is not of an inflammatory nature ai its outset, and that inflammation is rather the result than a cause of the disease. It is difficult to explain the precise change which takes p!ace in the blood from the operation of the aerial poison ; but it appears to me that the vitality of the fibrine is in- terfered with, and that it, with the albuminous constituents of the fluid, also altered in quantity, is transuded from the capillary
606 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
vessels, and finds its way into the areolar tissue of the lungs, accumulating where this tissue exists in greater abundance, namely, in the interlobular spaces. This inordinate transudation seems to depend on a tendency in the blood to separate into its several con- stituents, arising most likely from the diminished vital force of the fibrine, and an arrestation to the conversion of the albumen of the serum into fibrine. ‘The fibrino-albuminous portions of the fluid are thus changed, and probably also augmented, and their exudation is a natural consequence of such condition. ‘The red corpuscules, being in part deprived of the liquor sanguinis in which they float, are retained in the capillaries, where they accumulate in un- limited numbers, obliterate their passage, and compress the air- cells they surround, so as to stay the entrance of the air, and produce, as elsewhere stated, the dark-coloured spots which stud the lungs. It is these effusions and the obliterated condition of the vessels which give bulk, increased weight, and solidity to the lungs, and destroy their function as aerifying organs.
From this explanation it is evident that I regard pleuro- pneumonia to approach nearer to a dropsical than to an inflam- matory disease. ‘The lungs, if examined at the commencement of the affection, will show that the morbid action commences here and there in their substance, and that these patches quickly increase in size so as to run into each other. We have also frequent opportunities of verifying these remarks in animals which have died in the advanced stages of the malady, from the circumstance that one lung is principally affected, the other exhibiting the beginning of the disease. Fig. 22 is inserted for the purpose of rendering this description more evident. The spots marked aa represent the tumified portions of the
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’ Lung, showing the commencement of pleuro-pneumonia.
a. Elevated spots produced by effusion. 6. A cut carried through one of the spots, to demon- strate the nature of the change producing it.
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 607
lung, which the cut 6 discloses to be referable to effusion into its substance.
The exudation of the altered liquor sanguinis is not limited to the lungs themselves, but extends to their investing mem- brane, the pleura, thus accounting for the depositions of semi- solid fibrine on their exterior, and the existence of serous effusions in the cavity of the thorax. That these results are not pro- duced by inflammation is clear from the circumstance that in innumerable cases no redness of either the pleura covering the lungs or lining the chest can be detected; both the fibrine and the serum being likewise perfectly colourless. Dyropsy of the chest may be said to be now associated with dropsy of the lungs. Although inflammation takes no part in the original production of these morbid lesions, still, as previously remarked, it may arise as a consequence, and this I believe is generally the case with those animals which recover. The blocking up of the air-cells, vessels, &c., produces death of these structures ; and when this is partial and of little extent, portions of the lung will ultimately become detached, and be enclosed in sacs formed by the adhesive stage of the subsequent inflammation. ‘This will also explain how it is that collections of pus and other morbid products are occasionaily met with in our post-mortem examinations of long- existing cases of pleuro-pneumonia. It ought therefore to be no matter of surprise, nor to be viewed as an opprobrium of the vete- rinary art, that an affection which depends on an empoisoned atmosphere, and is associated with such extensive lesions of organs so essential to health, and which stealthily but securely wends its Way and saps the very vitals, should prove so destructive to life, and likewise resist the most vigorous and scientific treatment.
Having given my view of the nature of the malady, I proceed to narrate the symptoms which accompany it. The disturbance of the animal’s health is rarely observed until the disease is fully established, and effusion into the lung has made some progress. Proprietors of cattle should, therefore, be early and late with their stock, narrowly watching the slightest indication of ill-health. It will often be observed that oxen at pasture, when the dis- ease is commencing, will early in the morning be separated from the herd, standing under the hedge with their backs arched, coats staring, and refusing to eat; while as the day advances they will join the rest and appear in their usual health. A slight but husky cough will be occasionally recognised, and now and then the breathing will be increased, as if the animal had under- gone some extra exertion; while in milch-cows there will bea diminished amount of milk in addition to the above symptoms. As the disease progresses, the cough becomes more frequent and husky, the respiration is hurried, the pulse increased and some-
608 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology of the
what oppressed, the appetite diminished, rumination suspended, bowels constipated, surface of the body chilly, &c. In the more advanced stages the respiration is difficult, laboured, and pain- ful; the patient is frequently lying, or if standing, the head is protruded ; the mouth is covered with a frothy saliva; the muzzle is cold ; rigors occasionally come on; and the pulse is rapid and often indistinct. An enlargement of the right side of the chest can generally be detected in this stage of the malady; percus- sion gives a dull sound, and auscultation detects an increased bronchial respiration, with a crepitating rale in some parts, but a total absence of sound in others. Approaching death is shown by frequent moaning, grinding of teeth, total loathing of food, cold extremities, wavering pulse, distressed reve: liquid stools, and distension of the rumen by the disengagement of gaseous compounds from the ingesta. This deranged condition of the digestive organs is probably owing to the high carboniza- tion of the blood; as the elimination of the carbonic acid is prevented by the obliteration of te anleclio oman lungs.
The length of this lecture forbids a more minute decal as well as a separate analvzation of the symptoms, and therefore I pass on to speak of the principles which should govern our treatment of the disease. The first remedy to which I shall allude is bloodletting. ‘The propriety of abstracting blood will depend on the stage of the malady, and the amount of symptomatic fever which is present. It must be done early, or not at all; for m proportion to the extent of the effusion, so will be the debility of the patient. To bleed late is to hasten a fatal termination ; but if we attend to the animal at the very commencement of the disease, much good will be done by a bold bloodletting. No rule, however, can be laid down as to quantity to be abstracted, but the pulse must be carefully watched, and as soon as its character is altered the bleeding must be suspended. I do not recommend an early bloodletting for the single purpose of allaying the febrile condition of the system, but to withdraw a portion of the vitiated fluid which has laid the foundation for, and is quickly building up, the disease.
Another remedy of frequent adoption is the exhibition of purgative medicine. In most disorders it is of the first import- ance to clear out the prime vie, as thereby we not only remove offensive and offending matters from the system, but subdue the excitation which is present by the nauseating effects of the medi- cine, which is furiher assisted by the agent increasing the intes- tinal and other secretions. If constipation is present, even in the advanced stages of pleuro-pneumonia, a gentle aperient may be given, but. cathartics should be avoided. I have already stated that diarrhoea often comes on as the case approaches its end ; and it should be remembered that this morbid condition of the
Organs of Respiration and Circulation. 609
bowels is very easily excited by purgative medicine. Cathartics, like bloodletting, must be used cautiously. ‘They are admissible at the beginning of the affection, but rarely afterwards. ‘The ordinary saline mixtures are as good as any, but they ought to be given without the large doses of ginger, &c., with which they are too generally blended.
Diuretic agents stand next in the list. Medicines of this class stimulate the kidneys to increased action, and their employment is found to be associated with far less weakening effecis on the lower animals than is the case with purgatives. They may, therefore, be frequently and quickly repeated. Diuretics carry off a considerable portion of the watery parts of the blood, and hence their great use in affections of a dropsical nature. ‘The nitrate of potash is one of the safest and best of our diuretic agents, and I especially recommend it in the treatment of pleuro-pneumonia. [I do this for several reasons; among which is the established fact that the alkaline carbonates and nitrates are of the greatest benefit when the blood itself is in an abnormal condition. One of the best ways of using the nitrate of potash is to add it to the water which is given to the animal to drink,
Sedative medicines have been extensively employed by some persons in treating this disease, but in my experience they have rarely proved of service; nevertheless, their occasional adminis- tration will be needed, especially when the circulation is much excited: Pulvis Doveri; opium; and ext. belladonna are the most valuable agents of this class. Calomel in combination with opium has also its advocates, and in certain cases I have given it with advantage.
Diaphoretics, or medicines which promote the secretions of the skin, are beneficial, but their action should always be assisted by warm clothing, without which they are nearly useless. Antim. tart. is one of our chief diaphoretics; I have found it, however, to act too freely on the mucous membrane of the intestinal canal and to produce thereby considerable mischief; as a rule I do not employ it, and more especially in protracted cases of the malady. The other preparations of antimony are not open to the same objection, and these, with the Pulvis Jacobi. should be selected. ‘To effect a copious meerenOn Of perspiration, the skin of a recently killed sheep, applied while yet warm to the back and sides, surpasses everything we have as yet tried.
Diffusible stimulants and tonics are, in my opinion, the most valuable of all remedies, and invariably I have recourse to them as early as circumstances will permit. Of late we have heard much of the beneficial effects of brandy as a diffusible stimulant, and doubtless in the second stage of the malady it has proved of service. I prefer, however, the spt. eather, nitr. and the liq. ammo. acet. in combination, the ammonia being in excess.
610 Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory.
In the advanced stages, however, even these agents fail to support the system against the debilitating effects of the disease, and we must now employ both vegetable and mineral tonics; the sul- phates of iron, and quinine, gentian, ginger, columba, and the barks, are the best. Before concluding these remarks on the treatment, which are of necessity very much condensed, I shall allude to another remedy which has many advocates, and properly so in my opinion, namely, counter-irritation, or the application of stimulating ointments and liniments to the sides of the chest. This class of remedies is generally adopted when active inflammation pervades some internal organ, and with the happiest results; and although I do not view pleuro-pneumonia as essentially an inflam- matory affection, still we can easily understand that benefit will follow the use of a counter-irritant. By the long-continued action of an agent of this kind, the inflammation which it excites in the skin will be attended with effusion of the albuminous parts of the blood into subcutaneous tissue, and thus we artificially produce a disease here analogous to that of the lungs and thereby give relief to those organs.
I might add many observations to the foregoing on the nature and treatment of this disease, but hope to have said sufficient in explanation of the principles which should govern our proceedings both with a view to its prevention as well as cure. It is evident that no specific can exist for such a malady ; and it is likewise equally so that he who undertakes its treatment without a knowledge of its nature, and of the structure and functions of the organs it affects, is acting like an ordinary artisan who sets about the repair of a machine the wheels and levers of which he has never investigated.
XXX.—Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. By J. Tuomas Way, Consulting Chemist to the Society.
’ (It is proposed to publish under this title, from time to time, the re- sults of isolated analyses made by the Chemist of the Society, which, although not sufficiently important to form the subject of a separate com- munication, may yet possess an amount of value to justify their introduc- tion in a Journal devoted to agricultural improvement. )
Analysis of Sprats.—It is well known that on the coasts of Sussex, Kent, and Essex, such quantities of sprats are at certain seasons taken, that they are frequently employed as an economical and very powerful manure. They have been used for many different kinds of crops; but more espe- cially for wheat and hops, which plants are known to be benefited by highly nitrogenous manures.
Although the general chemical characteristics of fish are well known, I was induced to examine the composition of sprats, partly to develope their exact manurial value, and partly in the hope of finding some way of cheap preparation by which they might be rendered fit for transportation
Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. 611
to a longer distance than their perishable nature will now admit. They were first examined in the year 1847, and, to ascertain that their composi- tion was not variable, a second time in the following season, Decem- ber, 1848.*
In all cases a sufficient number of fish was operated upon to ensure an average result. They were bruised in a mortar, and then dried at the temperature of boiling water; from the dry mass, the oil or fat was ex- tracted by digestion with ether; after which, the residue, again dried, was analyzed for nitrogen. The mineral matter was obtained by burning a quantity of the sprats previously dried. Thus examined, they were found to yield in 100 parts :—
Sprats of 1847. Sprats of 1848. BViateryis Fe ei . 64°6 ee 63°65 Open hc he leur ie hire ua) LOVOOK gs Meron 18260 Dry Nitrogenous matter . 15°90 ++ 17°75
100-00 100-00 The specimen of 1847 was not examined for nitrogen; that of 1848 was. The dry matter (after separation of the oil) gave :— Per Cent. of Nitrogen. First experiment . . » « «» 11°75 Second experiment .« . . . 11°31 MiCaner meta as cists wemeas) wet oliloo Upon this datum it will be found that the sprats in their natural condi- tion contain 1°94 per cent. of nitrogen. The quantity of mineral matter
obtained by burning the fish was— Sprats of 1847. Sprats of 1848.
Ash per cent. on the natural fish .« . 2. .« 2°12 «- 2°10
A result which is identical for the two years. These ashes had the fol- lowing composition :—
‘Sprats of Sprats of
1847. 1848. Silicaedi cause ii) ts Mies traces °30 Phosphoric Acid .-. « - 43°52 40:49 Sulphuric Acid .« «© « « traces 1-40 @arbonic) Acid’) >. « «6 Ue none none 1 baie Sa ae ie vee ea a ace Sacer 23°57 27°23 Magnesia) < © »« « =» 3°01 3°42 Reroxidejof rom es) arte se °28 °65 Potash er wie wh! outs | eres 17°23 21°89 S Olam ep went eh nt erunieh tte uuie 1-19 none Chloride of Potassium. . none 2°31 Chloride of Sodium. 11°19 2°31
otal heuncaih ks 100°00 100-00
1060 ers. of the fish in its natural state, when examined directly for sulphur, gave 1.50 gers. ; This ash is precisely what we should expect to find it—the phosphate of lime being furnished by the bones, and the potash by the fleshy sub-
stance of the fish. It is worthy of remark, that the quantity of potash should be so consi-
* Iam told that there is a marked difference between the fish of the early and late months of the season; they are at first plump and fat, and subsequently become shrivelled and lean, when they would probably contain much less oil.
612 Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory.
derable, not as a physiological fact of an unexpected character, but in relation to the composition of guano, which is in reality produced from fish, having probably a chemical character very closely allied to that of those we are discussing. It will be remembered that in guano, according. to analyses I had the honour of publishing in this Journal, the per centage of phosphoric acid being 25-0, that of potash was shown to average 3°95, or about 1-7th. In the original fish, however, if we may judge by the present analysis, the relation is more nearly as 2 to 1; so that in the pro- duction of guano, three parts out of four of the potash disappear. This peculiarity is mentioned rather as curious than as of any importance. The size of bone in the fish in relation to its flesh might possibly account for the above-named circumstance ; but of this I have no means of judging.
As a matter of more practical importance, I would draw attention to the similarity in composition between some of our cultivated crops and that of sprats. Wheat, for instance, contains about 2 per cent. of nitrogen; so does this fish. 100 Ibs. of wheat require about 12 lbs. of ash, of which about one half is phosphoric acid, and 1-3rd potash. 100 Ibs. of sprats coutain 2 Ibs. of ash, of which 2-5ths is phosphoric acid, and 1-5th potash. What manure should be more fit to produce a bushel of wheat than 3 ewt. of sprats ?*
Indeed, there is nothing surprising in this resemblance. ‘The composi- tion of sprats would probably be found nearly identical with that of any entire animal examined in the same way.
We know that wheat contains everything that is necessary to support life and to increase the animal frame; in other words, it is identical or nearly identical in composition with the body which it nourishes. Sprats then may be taken as the type of animal—wheat as that of vegetable life, and there can be no doubt of their mutual convertibility, when placed in the proper circumstances.
I have dwelt upon this point in order to show how very valuable a source of manure, and consequently of food, we have in the waters that surround our shores, if we could. work out the problem as one of economy. Practically we do so at this day, by bringing guano, which is digested fish, from far distant parts.
The use of fish manure is very limited, being confined to within a cer- tain distance of the sea-shore, and this for obvious reasons. In the first place, it requires to be used in large dressings, although it is, weight for weight, at least four times as powerful as farm-yard dung; consequently the expense of carriage, added to its original cost, soon places a limit to the transportation of this kind of manure. Secondly, it will not keep for any length of time ; and at whatever season it is taken, it must be at once, or within a few days, applied to the ground. . This is another serious draw- back to its employment. The third and last objection which we shall bring against the employment of sprats as a more general manure, is the great uncertainty of the collection ; in some seasons being very scarce, in others so abundant that it pays the farmer to send his waggons 20 or 30 miles for them.
I stated that my motive for examining sprats was to ascertain whether by any means they could be preserved and concentrated for transportation. I was unprepared at the time for the discovery of so large a per centage of oil in the fish ; but it immediately occurred to me that the circumstance might render it possible to make them more generally available for ma- nure.
So far as we know, oil is of no value as manure, or at all events of a
* That ts to say, supposing that in the production of wheat no loss of manure occurs, a supposition whichis rendered very doubtful by Mr. Lawes’ experiments. .
Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. G15
value far beneath that which it holds as an article of commerce. The oil of sprats is a clear, limpid fluid, and would no doubt be highly prized in the market. It would probably be capable of easy extraction by pres- sure,* which at the same time would remove the water and reduce the sprat to a dry mass. This dry residue would contain nearly 12 per cent. of nitro- gen,t a quantity greater than in any known manure, with the exception of guano. ‘The manure would be portable, and worth its carriage to any distance ; and from the pressure to which it had been subjected, together with the absence of water, capable of being kept for any length of time till it was required for use as a drill manure.
These remarks are only thrown out as hints to the many reflecting men who are ever anxious to take advantage of the opportunities which are so generally presented to us, if only the intelligence and energy to benefit by them be not wanting. It is not for me to say whether the preparation of a dry manure from fish, depending for its expense on the product of oil, is economically practicable ; but should it be so, 1am sure that sooner or later the redundant capital of the country would be brought to bear upon this new zmportation of manure, to the advancement of general agri- culture and the benefit of the speculators.
The circumstance which alone makes the maiter worthy of considera- tion is the fact—previously, I believe, unobserved—of the large quantity of pure oil which sprats contain, together with the possibility of ex- tracting it by pressure with equal or greater ease than that of linseed. The great difficulties which would stand in the way of this manufacture would be, first, the wncertainty of the season in regard to quantity ; and, secondly, the short period of the year during which the manufacture could be carried on. Of the first circumstance I have very little know- ledge ; but the remedy in such case would be of the same kind as that which I should propose for the second trouble. In order that the presses and other machinery of the sprat-manure maker should not be idle during two-thirds of the year, he should also be a manufacturer of linseed-cake, in the production of which he should employ himself when the other branch of his business was from circumstances impracticable.
It is probable that many other kinds of fish, some of which are caught in enormous quantity, might be applicable to the same purposes.
Liquid Manure.—The following analysis of the contents of Mr. Huxtable’s liquid-manure tank will probably be of use as furnishing a practical basis upon which the farmer may build his calculation for the use of tank-water.
The tank in question receives the liquid running from the cow-houses, the stables, and the piggeries—none of the water from the yards or the buildings is allowed to find its way into it; Mr. Huxtable’s practice being to dilute the tank-water at pleasure and according to circumstances at the time of using it. The liquid mainly consists, therefore, of the putrid urine of cows. In taking the specimens for analysis, the contents of the tank were stirred in such a way that an equal proportion of the sediment could be collected ; owing, however, to the mode in which the urine is conveyed to the tank, the deposit in it is very slight.
It must be understood that the analysis exhibits the composition of putrid urine, or tank-water which has been kept some time; in this con- dition all or almost all of the animal matters will have passed into the state of ammonia; but with this exception, there is no difference between the urine in the two states, and the analysis will for all practical purposes equally represent the value of fresh tank-water as a manure.
* Since the above was in type, I have been informed by a gentleman, that with the aid of a powerful press he had failed to extract more than 13 or 2 per cent. of oil from the fish,
+ Practically perhaps so perfect a result could not be hoped for.
VOL. x. 2s
614 Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory.
The analysis was made in my laboratory by Mr. F. Eggar:— Grs. of solid residue. One gallon of the liquid manure gave upon evaporation . 1208°42
of which Grains.
The combustible portion weighed . . . . «+ e 397°63 The incombustible portion, or ash . . »« « «= e« « SiO579
The combustible portion consists principally of carbonate and muriate of ammonia, with some unchanged animal matters. To ascertain the pro- portion of ammonia—the only point considered of importance in the com- bustible portion—two experiments were made by distillation of the original liquid with potash, the ammonia being collected in the usual way.
a Grs. of Ammonia
in the Gallon. The first experiment gave . 9. « « . «) 362°33 The second ,, 5 : lvl tol 68 9aigisalizas
The mean of the two results giving 356°45 grains of ammonia as the quantity in an imperial gallon.
The ash was analyzed in the usual way. I have placed in one column the per centage composition of the ash, and in another the quantities of by different mineral substances which exist in a gallon of the tank- water :—
In a gallon
In 100 parts
of the Ash. | ee | Grains. CLF cer i ea a Soe A re 1:01 8-18 Phosphoric Acid . «6 « « 1-10 8°91 | Sulphurie Acid vos. res 12°97 105°16 Carbonic Acid™., 7. eos] ao 100:05 Times sie GAs ae 2°61 21°24 Mapnesia Xj Sl) aati ate dreaty 9°49 Peroxide of Iron .5-40 > ay Ait 1°73 14:02
43°47 303'01 MINE none none
Chloride of Potassium . 4+28 34°86 Chloride of Sodium . 18°75 152:26 Sand, &c. (accidental impurity) | “44 3°56
Potashyeavise 346 wie Soda Sesion: 2
Totaly, <- are. 99-85 810°74
In addition to the chlorine, set down in combination with potassium and sodium, another portion escapes in the preparation of the ash with the ammonia.
A direct determination of chlorine was made in the original liquid, which gave an excess of 98°84 grains in a gallon of this ingredient over that obtained by the method of burning.
The first column of the preceding table is interesting on more than one account. It will be seen that the chief ingredients of tank-water (setting aside the ammonia) are the sulphate and carbonate of potash and com- mon salt, the latter obviously derived from the turnips or mangold-wurzel, which form the staple of the food of cows. (See Analyses of Turnips, &c., in this Journal, vol. viii., part i.)
Phosphoric acid is a very minute ingredient of the liquid manure ; indeed, in the examination of pure cow’s urine, some chemists of great authority have been unable to detect it at all; and Baron Liebig has as-
Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. 615
sumed that the whole phosphoric acid of the food finds an exit in the case of this animal by the solid excrements and the milk. Be this as it may, the quantity of the acid in liquid manure is very small, and in the use of tank-water it should never be forgotten that such is the case.
Again, as might be expected, the proportion of silica in the urine is equally minute; this substance being necessarily in great part removed from the body in the dung.
1000 gallons of undiluted tank-water will, according to the above ana- lysis, contain about—
POHANG Cand ate ek ce ch es ey ss wt OS Geist, Peewee os ts, c.g le tmalelo ehioe is Phosphoric Acid, and Magnesia, each . . . 1 ,,
The other substances it is unnecessary to calculate.
_ The foregoing analysis has not been given as a correct statement of the ingredients of urine, but as a guide to the practical composition of tank- ela supposing it to be collected without dilution, and carefully pre- served.
ftefuse Manures.—The different manufacturing processes carried on in large towns give rise to certain waste products, which, some of them being of animal origin, and others containing one or more of the mineral ingre- dients considered indispensable to growing crops, will possess some value as manures. Advantage may frequently be taken of local circumstances to procure in this way a supply of particular manuring substances, at a cheaper rate than from any other source. Whilst, however, I believe that these refuse manures may be occasionally most valuable adjuncts to the ordinary resources of the farm, I feel convinced that their purchase is often a source of joss and disappointment, owing partly to mistaken ideas of their composition and value, and partly to the great variability of those which may at times be well worthy the farmer’s notice. In the purchase of manures of this description one circumstance is often over- looked; namely, the expense of their conveyance. Waste manures are usually cheap, that is to say, low priced; and though they may really be economical when they are to be had within a few miles of home, they will seldom bear the cost of transportation. This truth must be obvious to all. it costs as much to convey a ton weight 50 miles, when its value is i/., as when it is 102. ; but in the one case the price is doubled, in the other increased only by 1-10th. Nor is the matter mended when the expense of carriage is nominally taken by the dealer, for the farmer may be assured that one way or the other it becomes chargeable upon the manure.
Having offered these few remarks in reference to the value of refuse substances in general, under the conviction that their importance in an agricultural point of view is often overrated, I shall proceed to give the analyses of two or three of these which have come under my attention.
Scutch.—A substance accumulates in the yards of the glue-maker and fellmonger, to which the above name is given. It is in general a mixture of hair and other animal matters with lime, partly as carbonate and partly in the caustic state. It has a smell, which is more or less offensive ac- cording to the time it has iain decomposing, and bears a price in propor- tion to its age. P
* The above will furnish the data for regulating the quantity of gypsum to be em- ployed in a tank where this substance is used to fix the ammonia, 17 parts of ammonia require 86 parts of pure gypsum; 51 lbs. therefore (the quantity in 1000 gallons) will require 258 lbs, of the salt—in practice about 3 cwt. to 1000 gallons.
+ For many years, indeed as long as I could procure it, I used Scutch for agri- cultural purposes extensively. I procured it immediately from the ee of the glue-
2s 2
616 Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory.
The following analyses of Scutch were made in my laboratory by Mr. Ogston. The specimen No. 1 was said to be worth 25s., and No. 2 40s., per ton :—
Scutch, Scutch, ©
No. 1. No. 2.
W ater ° ° ° e ° e e 26°48 QA- 30
| Animal matter and Salts of
IAMMOMIae | ot Well Went enelG 12°42 82°42 (Sanh Vacea ste ek) euik or eemee 18-00 6°10 Carbonate of Lime. . . © 33°19 29°98 Sulphate of Lime . . . . 7°25 3°79 Phosphate of Lime, . «- . °50 1°84 Magnesia cules see dnioumns traces °56 Peroxide of Iron and Aluminum 1°87 of7 Potaly ey oee te: ne 99°71 99°76
When examined for nitrogen :—
No. 1 gave +89 Nitrogen, equal to 1-07 per cent. Ammonia. No: 2>),, 1:57 99 ” 1-90 39 ”
The only ingredients in this case to which any money value can be fairly attached, are the ammonia and the phosphate of lime. Taking the ammonia of the 2nd specimen at 2 per cent., and the phosphate of lime at the same.amount, we shall in a ton obtain 45 Ibs. of each of these sub- stances.
I have elsewhere shown that ammonia may be bought in Peruvian guano for 6d., and phosphate of lime in the same form for éd. per Ib. We should thus have for the value of the ton of scutech—
s. d. 45 lbs. of, Ammonia at Gd. 3 6» se sek eee 45 lbs. of Phosphate of Lime at $d. - »« . ». « 210
25 4
If, then, specimen No. 2 were sold at the same price as the inferior kind, whose analysis is given, the expense would be barely made good.
It is quite possible that the refuse may at times be of greater value, and to be had at a less cost than in the cases I have instanced, and its use will then be economically admissible. It should, however, be borne in mind, that 2cwts. of Peruvian guano, at a cost of 1/7, would supply very nearly the same quantity of ammonia, and more of phosphate, with the advantage of a known composition, and requiring only one-sixth of the cartage, mixing, &c., previous to its application.
Alkali Waste-—In the manufacture of carbonate of soda from common salt, large quantities of sulphuric acid are employed for the purpose of con- verting the muriate into sulphate of soda. In a subsequent stage of the
maker in its wet state, and paid 7s, a waggon-load for it. Iused it on various de- scriptions of land, red sand, clay, mountain limestone, and marl, and on all found the most beneficial results to ensue from its application. The advantage of using it _ was apparent not only in the first and second crops, but the parts of the fields to which this species of manure was applied were easily distinguishable by the greater luxuriance presented in the last crop of the four-course shift. It is possible that the Scutch analyzed by the learned Professor may have been subjected to a process which I under- stood was common some years back, viz. the abstraction of the bones from the mass left as refuse after the glue had been extracted.—W. MILEs.
Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. 617
process this latter product is heated in a furnace with powdered chalk and coal, in which operation the) sulphate of soda is changed into a mixture of carbonate and caustic alkali. When removed from the furnace the mix- ture is treated with water to wash out the soda. An insoluble residue now remains, containing lime and sulphur in astate of combination, which it is unnecessary to explain in the present place. It should be observed, how- ever, that this alkali waste when fresh possesses caustic properties which are believed to be highly dangerous to vegetation. After a time, by exposure to the air, the whole sulphur compounds become converted into sulphate of lime, or gypsum; and the refuse can then be employed without the smallest fear to any variety of produce. , A gentleman in Wales, living near to some alkali-works, had the oppor- tunity of purchasing a quantity of this refuse, which accumulates largely in the works, much to the annoyance of the alkali manufacturers. A spe- cimen was sent to the laboratory, and analyzed by Mr. Ogston, with the following results :—
Analysis of Alkali Waste.
Carbonate of Lime wee eae ask OU OO Sulphate of Lime ° ° e e e . 60 °: 17
Water e e se e e s e e e 2 °. 13 Sand, &e. . s s e e e « . 3 : 38 Oxide of fron, Alumina, and loss in , ; 3°82
AMON VSISitiee se, Lot od elite 100°00
It might reasonably be imagined that some portion of soda would remain in the mass—such, however, was not the case; the manufacturers taking especial care to lose none of their important products. Nor, if it had been so, would it much have affected the value of the waste as manure.
Essentially, then, alkali-waste consists of sulphate and carbonate of lime, and may be used with advantage and economy wherever gypsum would be of use.
The above was purchased at the rate of Is. per ton.
Woollen Refuse.—W oollen rags are well known to farmers as a powerful manure. Owing to their slow decomposition they are not well fitted for root-culture ; turnips, and other plants of this kind, requiring active and readily-soluble manures to produce a rapid growth.
To wheat and to hops woollen ragsareapplied with the best effects. For- merly they were to be purchased of good quality and unmixed with any jess valuable substance; but of late years rags of a size that used to be sold to the farmers are bought up to be re-converted into an inferior kind of cloth. The supply, being thus in part cut off, is frequently made good by the admixture of such linen or cotton rags as may not be worth the paper-maker’s attention. The composition of wool in a state of purity was some years ago ascertained: it contains upwards of 17 per cent. of nitrogen. Were woollen rags, therefore, of the same strength as the wool itself, they should produce wémately a larger amount of ammonia than even pure Peruvian guano. ;
To reason from the composition of a raw material of any kind upon that of the manufactured article which has passed through perhaps half a dozen different processes, is often to lay oneself open to much error ; and nothing short of the direct analysis of the rags themselves would enable any person to form a correct notion of their manuring value.
A short time since the Earl of Tyrconnel suggested to me the desirable- ness of analyzing specimens of wool refuse, very justly remarking that, if
618 Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory.
they contained anything like the proportion of nitrogen which their origin would lead us to expect, they would furnish a supply of ammonia at an excessively cheap rate. His Lordship subsequently furnished the speci- mens, of which the analysis is given below.
Specimen No. 1.—Rags costing (at Leeds) 2/. per ton, and consisting of the seams and other useless parts of old cloth clothes which (from the appearance of these remnants) have been cut up, as before mentioned, to be remanufactured into cloth. To the rags are attached portions of the calico linings, together with the cotton thread used insewing them. Of the quantity of these in relation to the cloth itself no accurate notion can be formed.
No. 2, called ‘‘ premings,” and No. 3, “cuttings,’* appear to be much of the same character, but totally different from the rags; they both consist essentially of coloured wool less than one-eighth of an inch in length. No. 2, ‘“‘premings,” is sold at 15s., and No. 3, ‘‘ cuttings,” at 3/. 5s. per ton.
These three specimens were analyzed for nitrogen, with the following results :—
Per centage of Nitrogen in Woollen Refuse, dried at 212°. No. 1, Rags. No. 2, Premings. No. 3, Cuttings. First experiment . . ~ 11:54 —¢ + 10°49 6+ 13°18 Second experiment ./ 14 casi ‘sin WD ihe sal TOW aye 1281 Mean of the two experiments . 11°37 ++ 10°67 ++ 12°97
These results were afforded by the dry refuse. As all the specimens contain a certain quantity of water, a correction requires to be introduced in order to arrive at their value in the ordinary state :—
No. 1.—“ Rags” contained . . 7°87 per cent. of Water. No. 2.—“Premings” . . . . 7°00 No. 3.—“ Cuttings” . . . . 8:70 iS is
The following table gives the quantity of nitrogen in the specimens, taken in the ordinary condition of dryness, together with the ammonia which, by decomposition of the animal matter, willeventually be produced.
No. 1, Rags. No. 2, Premings. No. 3, Cuttings. Per centage of nitrogen in Woollen refuse in | 10°47 ee 9*92 ee 11:84 ordinary state of dryness
Ammonia to which the ern * (acy Pe a egs any eet
9? >
It appears, then, that it is quite incorrect to estimate the value of the different kinds of woollen refuse by the known composition of wool itself ; for to whatever cause the inferiority may be due, it is plain that they do not, on the average, contain 2-3rds of the nitrogen found in the raw material. Again, it is worthy of attention that the “cuttings” and “premings,” differing in composition from each other only by 2 per cent. of nitrogen, should bear a price in the relation of 4 to 1; whilst the rags, which are pede ed alike in composition with the “premings,” are three times as costly.
I place very little stress on the relative price as of general application, inasmuch as nothing can be more capricious; but it is very evident that by a knowledge of the composition great economy may be effected ; but this can only be by a special analysis of the individual sample which it is proposed to employ.
For obvious reasons the “rags” are the least desirable of the above
EEE EE Gn 3c LT Hs evi 74 © eu ep ne * The “cuttings” are obviously produced by the shaving process, which gives smoothness to the cloth,
Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. 619
specimens, being both more difficult to incorporate with the soil and of much more tardy decomposition when placed there. Where, however, the direct value cannot be ascertained by chemical analysis, it would be pro- bably better for the farmer to purchase woollen rags, of the genuineness and purity of which he may form a fair notion by simple inspection, rather than those kinds which are more open to falsification.
The price of ammonia, as furnished by the “ premings” at 15s. a ton, will be exceedingly moderate.
One ton of “‘premings” at 12 percent. will yield 269 Ibs. of ammonia for 15s., or less than 13d. per lb.
In guano ammonia 1s bought at 6d. a Ib., so that wool-refuse affords a very cheap supply ; allowance, however, being always made for the slow- ness with which the wool suffers decomposition. The conversion of the animal matter of the wool into ammonia may be facilitated by watering it with urine or mixing it with the dung-heap, but it will probably be always more advantayeously applied to corn than as a substitute for manures containing ready-formed ammonia.
Lord Tyrconnel subsequently sent me some “shoddy,” which is, I believe, the sweeping of the mills and other mixed refuse from the cloth-works— it costs 16s. a ton in Leeds. Upon analyzing it, Mr. Ogston found that in its original state it contained—
Per centage of Nitrogen. By the first experiment . . . 4°43 By the second experiment . . 4°68 Mean of the two experiments . 4:55 equal to 5°52 of Ammonia.
It contained 6°11 per cent. of water.
Shoddy, if we may judge by this specimen, is not half so valuable a manure as the other woollen matters. As it is excessively full; of oil, it was thought worth while to ascertain whether the quantity of this ingredient was adequate to explain the low per centage of nitrogen. The shoddy, when treated with ether, gave 26°36 per cent. of oil, containing some colouring matter. The presence of one-fourth of its weight of oil does not, therefore, sufficiently account for the inferiority.
The above results are borne out by an analysis which some time since was made in this laboratory of some wool-refuse for the Rev. A. Huxtable, with the following result :—
Analysis of Inferior Wool-Refuse from Mr. Huxtable.
Water eI eOls eee ak, ae 7°15 Animal Matterang Ors) so. ne 2 OStO2 Phosphate of Lime Selon Cleaned chu es AS
Oxide of Iron and Alumina Sea kes stilivan 2:10 Carbonate or lime 6%" of ee 9°42
Sand saccntrcdi se tte. tiene ote e 21°23 Alkaline Saltsand lossin analysis . . . -10 100-00
Analyzed for nitrogen, the above afforded about 2°5 per cent., or less than that in the specimen of shoddy before described.
The per centage of pure ash in woollen refuse is not great, and the ingre- dients of the ash are of small agricultural value. One of the above speci- mens when burned afforded 10°12 per cent. of ash, principally clay and sand, and of the mineral matter only 44 per cent. was found to be phos- phorie acid. ‘
Worthless and Inferior Manures.—The adulteration of manures of real value, and the sale of others possessing little or no fertilizing power, is a mat-
620 Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory.
ter of common notoriety at the present day. In spite, however, of all that has been said or written on this subject, farmers persist in purchasing from dealers, of whom they know little or nothing, manures of which they know even less. To those who have any faith in composition as the test of manurial efficacy, I offer the following analyses as specimens of the kind of stuff to which, under the plea of economy, many are content to intrust the success of their crops.
The first analyses, No. 1 and No. 2, are those of so-called ‘ animal guano,” offered for sale by the same dealers to two gentlemen on different occasions; No. 1 at 5/., and No. 2 at 4/.a ton. They consisted respec- tively of
No. 1. No. 2. Waiter tg 7 ont ono ate eens 1°95 3°43 Organic Matters"). s.) ¢s 26°23 32°43 Sang Gestie « cues 9°68 28°35 Oxide of Iron, Anan witha little Phosphoric Acid . . | 5:40 6°29 Carbonate of Lime’. 93" .! °.)'|/° 43¢o7 15+30 Sulphate of Lime . ». . . 2°80 11-97 Causticof Lime . . 4°26 ve Common Salt and loss in analysis Gel oe | 100: 00 100°77
When analyzed for nitrogen—
No. 1 gave . . 1°62 percent., equal to 1°97 per cent. of ammonia, No.2 gave . . 1°61 per cent., equal to 1°96 per cent. of ammonia.
Practically these, no doubt, were one and the same substance. The analysis closely resembles that of scutch (Specimen No. 2); and the “animal guano” was, in all probability, that article. I have already said that scutch cannot be, on any showing, worth more than 25s.a ton; and con- sequently the purchaser of either of the above specimens would be defrauded of three-fourths of the sum paid for them.
The next analyses are those of two specimens of manure purchased by a gentleman in Yorkshire :—
No. 3. No. 4.
Wiateninms aitcte le@ yeti tt cae me 27°61 | Dian"
Organic Matter. 0% 2 hetl: 26:60 9) Sao 0
Sand : Sete. 9:02 9:00 | Phosphate of Tew tei. . is 98 } 14°62
Oxide of Iron and Marana 5 4°7]
Sulphuric Acid she caine [33735 10°23 | AIGtme pike) oc: SI rer 5°3 5°45 | Magnesia inn rgne ty. ntl aon “23 ee Goan Salty’ fishhiwsree Se 3°77 o | Free Sulphur ao rephaeh ae ee 3°78 | Loss . e ° ° ° © ° 1°02 4°15
——| raha 100°00 100°00
The nitrogen was as follows :—
InNo.3 . . . ‘*78 percent. = +96-per cent. of ammonia. In No.4 . . . 1°65 per cent. = 2:01 per cent. of ammonia.
Miscellaneous Results from the Laboratory. 621
These were samples from the same manure, purchased at different times. Although possessing a quality which farmers much like, that is to say, a very offensive smell, there is evidently nothing to justify the price of 41. per ton which was charged for them—their outside value, in relation to standard manures, being from 25s. to 30s.
I will conclude this list by the analyses of two specimens of manure ee exceed the former in price, while they fall short, if possible, of them in value.
The first of these, No. 5, is a manure of which, by the talents and per- severance of its originators, a very considerable amount was disposed of in the neighbourhood of Leeds, as well as in more distant markets. The second (No.6) was sold as a “tillage for turnips,” bearing the dealer’s name.
The following will give the idea of their value :—
FICE oc ne ec we ite hs Common Salt . .
° e e ° i 94 ] * 62 Substances not determined, and loss 1
°Q1 ee
No. 6. No. 5. *¢ Tillage for Turnips.” WATERSS St, SUL G1EC9..08. ile 31°34 4+93 Sandvandc Clay ts Gish )@ Meliss 8:96 74°16* Organic Matter); 6) 6 102)) i)} ian 15°30 4:43 Phosphate of Limé. « . - .. + “40 trace. Oxide of Iron and Alumina ers 7°94 13:88 WrEHOMICTNCIU rec ou eae en hoists 2°23 trace, Sulphuric Acide so sje ye 3°80 none, ; 6°88 1°05 9 3
Total e e ° e e e 100°00 100°07
* Including 12-06 soluble silica.
No. 5, analyzed for nitrogen, gave ‘5 per cent., equal to °6 per cent. of ammonia.
The first of these ‘‘ manures’ was sold at 7/. 10s. per ton; the second, at 82. per ton. The “tillage” is nothing more nor less than a red soil (probably of the new red-sandstone formation) broken down into a tolerably fine powder, the dealer not having even troubled himself to disguise its real character by the addition of any known manuring substance.
No wonder that ‘ no beneficial results were obtained from its trial.”
I shall take leave of this subject with the expression of my belief that thousands of pounds are annually wasted upon such rubbish without the smallest return ; which, employed to purchase a smaller amount of standard, recognised fertilizers, would be amply returned to the farmer’s pocket.
SE EI IT
(62249)
XX XI.—On the Bloching-up of Drains by the Roots of Mangold. By Mr. Moore.
To Mr. Pusey.
Dear Srr,—The specimen of mangold-wurzel roots which I showed you at Pusey a short time since, and which at your request I purpose taking to London the second week in December, was taken from a drain constructed of two large horseshoe tiles (6 inches by 3 inches), and placed in the land at an average depth of about 27 inches. This drain was made some thirty years ago to convey water to the farmhouse, and, consequently, there is a constant stream flowing along its channel; the whole of the field across which the drain passes has recently been thorough-drained, and in the month of September, the water having ceased to flow into the trough at the farm-buildings, a man was sent to examine the ground to discover if there was any appearance on the surface of the drain being stopped; not finding any, he was directed to open the drain in a few places. Not being acquainted with its exact course, he opened on a place where the mangold- wurzel leaves appeared darker than the general crop, and on reaching the drain ata depth of about 3 feet 6 inches it proved not to be the water-drain already referred to, but one of the main drains laid down in the winter of 1847. This drain (size 44 inches by 3 inches) was not stopped, the water running freely (after the early rains we had in the autumn), but there was a mass of fibrous roots formed in the bottom tile about 2 inches deep and 14 in width, very similar to what I showed you, though much more white and delicate. After having satisfied myself, both by tracing the roots from the surface and tasting those in the drain, that it was really from the man- gold-wurzel above, we proceeded to examine the water-drain, and had no difficulty in finding its course, as the leaves of the wurzel were so decidedly dark and Juxuriant, more so than in the former case. On arriving at the drain it was found completely choked with these roots, and the water was totally stopped and forced out at the joints of the tiles in another part of the drain. There can by no possibility be any mistake about the matter, as the piece of mangold-wurzel was about 6 chains wide (4 acres), and on either side potatoes and swedes ; and directly we were off the land on which the wurzel was growing, the appearance of roots in the drain altogether ceased. The impression produced on my own mind is this: that man- gold-wurzel will always be lable to stop drains along which water continu- ally flows, but not otherwise, because, generally speaking, in dry summers there will be no water in drains on strong or clay soils to attract its roots, and in wet seasons, or, as they are often designated hereabouts, “ dropping seasons,” the plants would always have sufficient moisture in the active or cultivated soil, and therefore would not be tempted to penetrate into the uncongenial strata below. I think it may be accounted for, with reference to the roots having gone down into the main drain first referred to, by the fact of its being so recently laid; the land was hollow, and a good deal of the top soil had been mixed with subsoil; no doubt, from the appearance of the plants, they had found nourishment on their way, as well as in the drain. I should therefore say it would be wise to wait a few years before growing mangold-wurzel on recently drained land.
Between this and the Society’s meeting in December I purpose having a few drains examined where we have grown large crops of mangold-
On the Blocking-up of Drains by Roots of Mangold. 623
wurzel since they were drained, and if any injury has been done I will communicate it {o yourself or at the meeting. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, E. W. Moore. Coleshill, November 19, 1849.
P.S.—I may add, that in the furrow-drains (pipes 12-inch bore) no fibres had penetrated, though here and there traces of roots were found underneath the pipes. In the water-drain the whole extent of the drain across the mangold-wurzel Jand was filled.
END OF VOL. X.
PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET.
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Hopal Aaricultural Sortetp of England,
1848—1849. PresiVent. THE EARL OF CHICHESTER. Trustecs. Acland, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., M.P. Portman, Lord Braybrooke, Lord Pusey, Philip, M.P. Clive, Hon. Robert Henry, M.P. Richmond, Duke of Graham, Rt. Hon. Sir Jas., Bart., M.P. Rutland, Duke of Lawley, Sir Francis, Bart. Spencer, Karl Neeld, Joseph, M.P. Sutherland, Duke of Pice-PrestVents, Barker, Thomas Raymond Fitzwilliam, Earl Chichester, Earl of Gooch, Sir Thomas Sherlock, Bart. Downshire, Marquis of Hardwicke, Earl of Ducie, Earl of Hill, Viscount Egmont, Earl of Wellington, Duke of Exeter, Marquis of Yarborough, Earl of Members of Counctl.
Austen, Colonel Jonas, Samuel Barnett, Charles Kinder, John Bennett, Samuel Lawes, John Bennet Blanshard, Henry Leicester, Earl of Booth, John Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P. Bramston, Thomas William, M.P. Miles, William, M.P. Brandreth, Humphrey Milward, Richard Burke, J. French Pelham, Hon. Captain Dudley, R.N. Challoner, Colonel Pendarves, Edward W. Wynne, M.P, Childers, John Walbanke, M.P. Price, Sir Robert, Bart., M.P. Denison, John Evelyn, M.P. Pym, Francis Druce, Samuel Ridley, Sir Matthew White, Bart. Foley, John H. H., M.P. Sewell, Professor Garrett, Richard Shaw, William Gibbs, B. T. Brandreth Shaw, William, junior Grantham, Stephen Shelley, John Villiers Hamond, Anthony Slaney, Robert Aglionby, M.P. Hatherton, Lord Smith, Robert Hillyard, C. Stansfield, W. R. Crompton, M.P Hobbs, William Fisher Stokes, Charles Howard, Hon. Captain Henry, M.P. Thompson, Henry Stephen Hudson, George, M.P. Turner, George Hudson, John Webb, Jonas Hyett, William Henry Wilson, Henry
Johnstone, Sir John V. B., Bart., M.P.
Secretary. JAMES HUDSON, 12, Hanover Square, London.
Consulting-Chemist—Joun Tuomas Way, 23, Holles Street, Cavendish Square. Consulting-Engineer—JamEs Easton, or C. KE. Amos, The Grove, Southwark. Seedsmen—Tuomas Gipss & Co., Corner of Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, Publisher—Joun Murray, 50, Albemarle Street. Bankers—H., A.M., C,, A.R., G., and H. DrumMonp, Charing-Cross,
VOL. X. b
( u)
Wonorvary PHembers.
Austria, His Imperial Highness, The Archduke John of.
BuckianD, The Very Rey. WiL.1Am, D.D., Dean of Westminster.
Carr, Captain J. STANLEY.
Corman, Henry, Agricultural Commissioner of the State of Massachusetts. DausBeny, Cuares, M.D., Professor of Rural Economy, University of Oxford.
De 1a BecuE, Sir Henry Tuomas, Director of the Ordnance Geological Survey. Everett, The Hon. Epwarp, President of Cambridge University, U. S.
GrauAm, Tuomas, Professor of Chemistry, University College, London.
Henstow, The Rev. J. S., Professor of Botany, University of Cambridge.
Hormann, Dr., Professor of Chemistry, Royal College of Chemistry, London, Jounston, JAmEs F. W., Reader in Chemistry, University of Durham.
Lizzie, Baron, University of Giessen.
Morcuison, Sir Roprrick I., K.S.P., President of the Royal Geographical Society, Parkes, Jos1au, C.E., 11, Great College Street, Westminster.
PiayralR, Dr. Lyon, Chemist to the Ordnance.
Srwonps, James Beart, Lecturer on Cattle Pathology, R. Veterinary Coll., London. Sotty, Epwarp, Professor of Chemistry, Hortic. Society, and Addiscombe College. SPRENGEL, Dr. CHAR zs, Secretary to the Pomeranian Agricultural Society. STEVENSON, The Hon. ANDREW, Washington.
VAN DE Weyer, M. SytviAn, Belgian Minister.
Way, Joun Tuomas, Consulting-Chemist to the Society.
Gun
Ropal Agricultural Society of Gngland.
GENERAL MEETING,
12, HANOVER SQuARE, Tuxspay, May 22, 1849.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
Tue Council have to report to the Members at their present General Meeting, that during the past half-year 3 Governors and 226 Members have been elected into the Society, 3 Governors and 35 Members have died, and the names of 6 Governors and 893 Members have been, on various accounts, omitted from the list of the Society, which accordingly now comprises—
89 Life Governors, 178 Annual Governors, 582 Life Members, 4643 Annual Members, and 20 Honorary Members.
They think it, however, right to remark that, in the lst of names which have been erased from the books of the Society, are included, not only those of Members who, for various reasons in the course of things, have signified their desire to withdraw; but a much larger number. who, with reference to the transactions of former years, have ceased to belong to the Society. A corrected list of the Governors and Members will be printed at the end of the Volume of the Journal for the present year. : 7
The Council have elected Mr. Thomas Raymond Barker a Vice-President of the Society, in the place of the Earl Talbot,
b2
iv Report to the General Meeting.
deceased ; and Mr. Henry Blanshard, a General Member of the Council, to supply the vacancy created in that body by the transfer of Mr. Barker’s name to the list of the Vice- Presidents. They have also elected Professor Simonds an Honorary Member of the Society.
By the sale of 10007. Stock out of the invested capital of the Society, and the application of a portion of the current cash balance in the hands of their Bankers, they have been enabled
to pay off the loan contracted with Messrs. Drummond in the —
autumn of last year; and they have received from the Chairman of the Finance Committee an intimation that previously to the ensuing Country Meeting, the Committee will be fully prepared to report in detail the result of their investigations into the whole financial condition of the Society, both in reference to points in which the expenditure may be submitted to judicious control, and to measures by which the income of the Society may be relieved from the inconvenience arising from unpaid arrears of subscription.
The Council receive with the highest satisfaction the con- tinued assurance of the increasing value of the Journal of the Society ; and it is a most gratifying fact, that out of an issue by post of upwards of 5000 copies of the last part, addressed to Members residing in remote localities in the kingdom, only one instance of miscarriage has been complained of. They cannot but regard the combination of these most important circum- stances, namely, the increased value of the: work and the fa- cilities for its mechanical transmission, as calculated very essen- tially to effect the diffusion of sound practical knowledge among their Members, and through them among the agricultural com- munity in general. They have decided, that the price of the Journal to non-members shall henceforward be ten shillings for each part, instead of six shillings as heretofore.
The Council, feeling the essential importance of calling in the direct aid of science for the purpose of effecting a decided advancement in the great object of improved cultivation, by the development of the latent energies of the soil, and a more exact
Report to the General Meeting. V
knowledge of the sustenance required by or taken up by plants, have, after mature deliberation, agreed to the following Report of their Chemical Committee, in the hope that while an immediate personal privilege is conferred by it on the Members of the Society, a decisive step will have been taken for the attaiment of the more remote, but not less certain advantages resulting from a well-organized system of chemical research, on questions connected with the mutual relations of the plant and soil, and from analytical investigations into the composition and yalue of substances produced by the farmer or employed in his ope-
rations.
“* REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL COMMITTEE.
“The Committee recommend that in future the privilege of ob- taining analyses of manures, agricultural products, and soils, at the following reduced rates, be made a privilege of all Members of the Society.
‘“ No. i. An opinion as to the genuineness of a manure in the market, 7s. 6d. By this is meant such an opinion as could be formed by a scientific person, by inspection, with a few simple con- firmatory experiments.—|It will protect from fraud, but is not calcu- lated to assist materially in the choice of the best specimens, where all are genuine; it will inform the applicant whether a specimen of guano or oilcake, for instance, be adulterated or not; but will not touch the question of its relative value as a pure specimen. Such an opinion will only apply to ordinary market articles, as guano, oilcake, super- phosphate of lime, sulphate of ammonia, gypsum, common salt, &c.] No. 2. Guano. <A determination of the nitrogen (ammonia), or of the same and of the earthy phosphates, &c., 14, The following is an instance, taken at random, of such an analysis:—Water, 17:95; organic matter and ammonial salts, 51°39; sand, &¢., 1°34; earthy phosphate, principally phosphate of lime, 20°98; alkaline salts, and loss to make up the difference, often consisting of common salt, &e., 8°34: total, 100°00. This is all that is needed to give the agri- cultural value of guano, or a close approximation to it. No. 3. Lime- stone. The proportion of lime, 7s. 6d.; the proportion of magnesia, 10s.; the proportion of lime and magnesia, 15s. This analysis is sufficient for many purposes; but in most limestones, sulphur, lime, phosphorus, and magnesia are present. ‘The next analysis is better for farmers, inasmuch as it is impossible to say how much of the effect
vi Report to the General Meeting.
may be due to minute ingredients. No. 4. Limestone, or Marls, including carbonates, phosphates, sulphate of lime, and magnesia, with sand and clay, If. No. 5. Partial analysis of a soil, including sand, clay, organic matter, and carbonate of lime, 1l. No. 6. Complete analysis of soil, 3/. No.7. Letter, asking advice, one topic, 7s. 6d. On more than one topic, 10s. No. 8. Oileake, or dung, or any animal products (such as cheese or butter in milk), nitrogen, and phosphoric acid, 1/. Oileake, including nitrogen, oil, and phosphoric acid, 30s.
“That a salary of 2001. a-year be paid to Prorrssor Way for this purpose, and that the Committee have further power to expend a sum not exceeding 800/. a-year in such chemical inquiries for the Journal as the Council shall yearly direct, on consideration of the report made by the Chemical Committee.”
The Council have decided that the ensuing Country Meeting of the Society, at the city of Norwich, shall be held in the week commencing Monday the 16th of July, the Thursday, as for- merly, being the principal day of the Show; and they have the satisfaction of reporting that, great as was the number of imple- ments exhibited at the York Meeting of last year over the entries on any former occasion, the number entered for ex- hibition and trial at the ensuing Norwich Meeting exceeds that amount by a very considerable number. They have received from the principal railway companies throughont the kingdom a grant of the same liberal concessions in favour of the Society’s exhibitors as was made by them last year, namely, the free con- veyance of live stock, and a reduction of one-half the usual rates ef charge for implements, on proceeding to the Show, and with similar concessions on returning from it, provided the’animals or implements are unsold and remain bond fide the property of the respective exhibitors. The authorities of Norwich have granted the free use of St. Andrew’s Hall, fitted up at their own expense, for the purposes of the Great Dinner of the Society, and of the Council Dinner; and Professor Simonds, and the Rev. Edwin Sidney, have kindly consented to deliver Lectures before the Members on the occasion of their meeting in that -city—the former, ‘‘On the Diseases of the Organs of ‘Respiration, with particular reference to Pleuro-Pneumonia, in the.Ox ;” the latter,
Report to the General Meeting. vil
«On the Parasitic Fungi of the British Farm.” It has been decided that the Country Meeting of the Society for the Western District shall be held next year at the city of Exeter; and that the District for the year 1853 shall be comprised of the counties of Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham, and Rutland, and be desig- nated the East-Midland District.
The Council have the satisfaction of receiving from their Journal Committee the most favourable report of the number and value of the Essays competing for the Society’s prizes of the present year. They believe that the spirit of inquiry thus aroused On sO many important topics of practical interest will lead to that continued progress in the improvement of agri- cultural economy, in all its branches, which it has hitherto been the great object of the Society to promote. But while they regard the stimulus of honorary distinctions and pecuniary rewards, the collection and dissemination of important facts, and the communication of personal experience among farmers them- selves at the Council Meetings in London, and at the Country Meetings held in successive districts of the kingdom, as most effective means for the extension of agricultural knowledge; they rely with the greatest confidence on the friendly co-operation of the owners and occupiers of land, for devismg and carrying out, to their mutual advantage and the common good of the country, the most approved systems for the cultivation of the soil, and the best measures for promoting the comfort and welfare of those who depend upon it for their support.
In conclusion, they beg to remind the Members of the Society that the Council Meetings, onthe first Tuesday in each month, are set apart for the strictly official business of the Society, in order that the Meetings on the other. Tuesdays of the month may be devoted to the consideration and discussion of such communi- cations of apractical nature as may from time to time be made to them ; and they are desirous to make it extensively known that every Member of the Society has the privilege of attending such three Weekly Meetings of the month, and has it in his power to-contribute, by his participation in their proceedings, to
Vill Report to the General Meeting.
the common interest of the parties present, as well as to the gradual promotion of the several objects of the Society. By order of the Council,
(Signed) JAMES HUDSON,
Secretary. London, May 18, 1849.
REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL COMMITTEE, 5 June, 1849.
THE Chemical Committee have considered the charges for the different subjects of analysis, and have seen no reason for any material alteration in the scale, which stands as follows :—
No. 1. An opinion as to the genuineness of a manure in the market, 7s. 6d. By this is meant such an opinion as could be formed by a scientific person, by inspection, with a few simple confirmatory experiments.—[ It will protect from fraud, but is not calculated to assist in the choice of the best specimens, where all are genuine: it will inform the applicant whether a specimen of guano or oil-cake, for instance, be adulterated or not; but will not touch the question of its relative value as a pure specimen. Such an opinion will only apply to ordinary market articles, as guano, oil-cake, superphosphate of lime, sulphate of ammonia, gypsum, common salt, &c.] No. 2. Guano. A determination of nitrogen (ammonia) and of the earthy phosphates, &c., 17. No.3. Limestone. The proportion of lime, 7s. 6d. ; the proportion of magnesia, 10s.; the proportion of lime and magnesia, 15s. This analysis is sufficient for many purposes; but in most limestones the phosphate and sulphate of lime, and magnesia, are present, though in small proportions ; and inasmuch as it is impossible to say how much of the effect may be due to other minute ingredients, it is recommended that their quantity should always be determined. No. 4. Limestone, or marls, including carbonate, phosphate, and sulphate of lime, and magnesia, with sand and clay, 17. No.5. Partial analysis of a soil, including sand, clay, organic matter, and carbonate of lime, 1/. No. 6. Complete analysis of a soil, 32. No.7. Letter asking advice, one topic, 7s. 6d. On more than one topic, 10s. No.8. Oil-cake, or dung, or any animal products, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid, 1/. Oil-cake, including nitrogen, oil, and phosphoric acid, 17. 10s. They have also added a ninth subject, namely, No. 9. A determination of the quantity of carbonate and sulphate of lime in any specimen of water, 1/. ;
They recommend a grant of 300/. for the ensuing year, to be apportioned in the following manner :—A sum not exceeding 100/. for an account of analyses of guano (a paper on which subject is nearly completed). 2. A sum not exceeding 100/. for an account of analyses of oil-cake and linseed, with reference to the nutritive qualities of different specimens. 3. A sum not exceeding 100/. for an account of analyses of chalk and marls used in top-dressings.
“¢ The Committee further recommend that when Mr. Way is applied to for an analysis he shall inform the applicant the cost of such analysis, together with the cost of carriage of any specimen sent up, and shall not be authorized to make such analysis until the amount due shall be sent to him.
‘¢ That a printed copy of this resolution be sent to every member apply- ing for an analysis.”
. (Signed) Puitip Pusey, Chairman.
Statement of Accounts.
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Cssaps and Reports.
I. AWARDS MADE IN 1849.
To Cuare Sewevt Reap, of Kilpaison, near Pembroke, the prize of Fifty Sovereigns, for the best Report on the Farming of South Wales.
To Tuomas Rowxtanpson, of Greek Street, Liverpool, the prize of Twenty Sovereigns, for the best Report on the Breeds of Sheep best suited to different localities, respectively with reference to soil, climate, elevation, and mode of farming.
To Tuomas Rowuanpson, of Greek Street, Liverpool, the prize of Fifteen Sovereigns, for the best Essay on Top-dressing of Soil with Mineral Substances.
To Wiiu1am James Garnett, of Bleasdale Tower, near Garstang, the prize of Fifty Sovereigns, for the best Report on the Farming of Lancashire.
To Joun Farncomse, of Patriot Place, Brighton, the prize of Fifty Sovereigns, for the best Report on the Farming of Sussex.
To Tuomas Rowranpson, of Greek Street, Liverpool, the prize of Twenty Pounds, for the best account of the Breeding and Manage- ment of Pigs.
To Hatt W. Kearny, of Holkham, Norfolk, the prize of Fifteen Sovereigns, for the best Report on the Management of Barley.
To Joun CHatmers Morton, of Whitfield Farm, Gloucestershire, the prize of Fifty Sovereigns, for an account of the best method of increasing the existing supply of Animal Food.
To Henry Govparn, Architect and Surveyor, Lincoln, the prize of Fifty Sovereigns, for the best Essay on the Construction of Labourers’ Cottages. |
To Joun Youne Macvicar, of Barkwith House,. Wragby, the prize of Twenty Sovereigns, for the second-best Essay on the Construction of Labourers’ Cottages.
“ji
Prizes for Hssays and Reports. x1
Il. PRIZES OFFERED FOR 1850.
All Prizes of the Royal Agricultural Society of England are open to general competition.
** Competitors will be expected to consider and discuss the heads enumerated.
I. FarMInG oF LINCOLNSHIRE.
Firry Sovererens will be given for the best Report on the Farming of Lincolnshire.
1. Character of the soils of the county, especially of its marsh and fen lands.
2. The peculiarities, whether advantageous or defective, in its agricultural management.
3. The drainage of the county in a general view and the improve- ments which may yet be effected therein, especially by effect- ing natural instead of artificial drainage.
4. The management of the farm-yard, with the advantages and disadvantages of putting up the ricks at one central homestead.
5. The suitability or otherwise of the present long-woolled breed of sheep to the ranges of light turnip land in the county.
6. The desirableness or otherwise of increasing the proportion of Swedes in the turnip crop for spring consumption.
7. The grounds of the present practice in consuming the straw with oil-cake given to beasts on light arable farms.
8. The comparative merits of rape and turnips on peaty land, and the best mode of growing and feeding off rape.
9. The condition of the labourer and the improvement required therein, by bringing his dwelling nearer to his place of labour.
Il. Farminc or SOMERSETSHIRE.
Firry Soverriens will be given for the best Report on the Farming of Somersetshire.
1. The soils of the county.
2. The peculiarities, advantageous or otherwise, in its farm management.
3. The general drainage of the Bridgewater and other levels, and the improvement yet required’in the outfalls.
4. The degree to which the cultivation is mjured by small inclo-
Xl Prizes for Essays and Reports.
sures and hedge-row timber, and the extent to which they ought to be removed, unless in high situations, where they may be required for shelter.
5. The causes and remedies for the foulness of arable land, whether with couch or rootweeds.
6. The defective cultivation of the turnip crops, and the best mode of management, keeping in view the peculiar moisture of the climate.
7. The advisability or otherwise of abandoning the alternate system of arable and grass cultivation in the western parts of the county.
8. The quality of the soil on the moor-lands, and the advisability of bringing them into cultivation, with any instances of success in such improvements.
9. The formation of catch-meadows in valleys or on mountain sides, according to the cheapest methods, with an account of the improved value thus given to the land so employed.
10. The state of the labourers as to employment, with the means of increasing it, and as to their habitations.
III. Asortion 1n Cows.
Tuirty SovEREIGNS will be given for the best Report on Prevention of Abortion in Cows.
1. The extent of its prevalence. 2. The causes thereof. 3. The means of prevention.
IV. DisrasEs or CATTLE AND SHEEP OCCASIONED BY Mis- MANAGEMENT.
THIRTY SOVEREIGNS will be given for the best Essay on the Diseases of Cattle and Sheep occasioned by Mismanagement.
1. Insufficient food in different stages of growth. Insufficient shelter and exposure to rain and cold. Insufficient drainage of soil.
Carelessness of shepherds and feeders.
. Inattention to contagiousness of disorders.
- Inattention to first symptoms of disorders.
ork wD
Prizes for Essays and Reports. XL
V. MANAGEMENT oF Oats.
Twenty Soverricns will be given for the best Essay on the Management of Oats.
1. Soil best adapted to oats.
2. Whether the effect of the cooler climate of Scotland in pro- ducing superior oats can be compensated in the southern parts of the island by any improvement of cultivation.
3. Different varieties as suited to different situations and different purposes.
4. General management.
VI. ReEaRING AND MANAGEMENT oF PovuLtRy.
Twenty SoverEiens will be given for the best Essay on the Rearing and Management of Poultry.
1. Construction of poultry-house. 2. Rearing young broods of fowls, ducks, geese, turkeys, and Guinea-fowls.
. Limit, if any, of numbers, in proportion to size of farm.
. Different kinds of food.
. Different varieties or breeds.
Best mode of fattening according to the received practice of districts which afford the chief supply of each kind of poultry to the London market.
Oo wb w
VII. Cummate or Britisu IsLANDs IN ITS EFFECT ON CULTIVATION.
_ Firry Sovererens will be given for the best Essay on the Climate of the British Islands in its effect on Cultivation.
1. Increase of winter cold in passing from south to north, and from west to east.
2. Different distribution of heat in the various seasons of the year,
3. Different amount of imsensible vapour in the atmosphere on the western and eastern sides of England and Ireland.
4, Different amount of sensible moisture or fogs.
. Different degree of general cloudiness of the sky.
6. Different annual quantity of rain, and difference in the distri- bution of rain, with the signs of its approach.
Or
X1V Prizes for Essays and Reports.
7. Effect of elevation on temperature and lateness of harvest, with the highest level for the growth of corn in different latitudes.
8. Effect of climate on the growth of grass, the different kinds of corn and roots, fruit and timber trees.
9. The situations in Great Britain and Ireland proved by experi- ence to be best suited for each kind of agricultural produce and stock.
10. How far it is desirable to adopt the regular four-course arable system on the western sides of England and Ireland, the same being naturally fitted for the spontaneous growth of grass.
N.B. It is not expected that competitors should necessarily answer the whole of these questions, which in the present state of agricultural meteorology, would be unreasonable to require.
VIII. Destruction or WiREWoRM.
Firry Sovererens will be given for the best Essay on the Destruc- tion of the Wireworm, provided the proposed remedy be founded on practical grounds.
These Essays must be sent to the Secretary, at 12, Hanover Square, London, on or before March 1st, 1850.
*..* Contributors of Papers are requested to retain Copies of their Communications, as the Society cannot be responsible for their return.
RULES OF COMPETITION FOR PRIZE ESSAYS.
1. All information contained in Prize Essays shall be founded on experi- ence or observation, and not on simple reference to books or other sources.
2. Drawings, specimens, or models, drawn or constructed to a stated scale, shall accompany writings requiring them.
3. All competitors shall enclose their names and addresses in a sealed cover, on which only their motto, and the subject of their Essay, and the number of that subject in the Prize List of the Society, shall be written.*
4. The President or Chairman of the Council for the time being shall open the cover on which the motto designating the Essay to which the Prize has been awarded is written, and shall declare the name of the author.
5. The Chairman of the Journal Committee shall alone be empowered to open the motto-paper of such Essays, not obtaining the Prize, as he may
* Competitors are requested to write their motto on the Paper on which their names are written, as well as on the envelope.
Prizes for Essays and Reports. XV
think likely to be useful for the Society’s objects, with a view of consulting the writer confidentially as to his willingness to place such paper at the disposal of the Journal Committee.
6. The copyright of all Essays gaining prizes shall belong to the Society, who shall accordingly have the power to publish the whole or any part of such Essays; and the other Essays will be returned on the application of the writers ; but the Society do not make themselves responsible for their loss.
7. The Society are not bound to award a prize unless they consider one of the Essays deserving of it.
8. In all reports of experiments the expenses shall be accurately detailed.
9. The imperial weights and measures only are those by which calcula- tions are to be made.
10. No prize shall be given for any Essay which has been already in print.
11. Prizes may be taken in money or plate, at the option of the successful candidate.
12. All Essays must be addressed to the Secretary, at the house of the Society.
Greneral ¥leetinas of 1849-50.
The GeneRaL DecemBer MEETING, in London, on Saturday,
- December 15, 1849.
The Generar May Meeting, in London, on Wednesday, May 22, 1850.
The Annuat Country MEETING, at Exeter, in 1850.
Annual Subseriptions.
SUBSCRIPTIONS may be paid to the Secretary, in the most direct and satisfactory manner, either at the Office of the Society, No. 12, Hanover-Square, London, between the hours of ten and four, or by means of Post-Office orders, to be obtained on application at any of the principal Post-Offices throughout the kingdom, and made payable to him at the General Post-Office, London ; but any cheque on a London banker, or other house of business in London, will be equally available, if made payable on demand. The subscriptions are due in advance for each year on the Ist of January, and are in arrear if unpaid by the Ist of June ensuing. No Member is entitled to the Journal, or to any other privileges of the Society, whose subscription is in arrear.
ELECTION, &., OF MEMBERS.
Nomination.—Every candidate for admission into the Society must be proposed by a Member; the proposer to specify in writing the name, rank, usual place of residence, and post-town, of the candidate, either at a Council, or by letter to the Secretary. Every such proposal shall be read at the Council at which such proposal is made; or, in the case of the Candidate being proposed by a letter to the Secretary, at the first meeting of the Council next after such letter shall have been received.
Election.—At the next Meeting of the Council the election shall take place, when the decision of the Council shall be taken by a show of hands; the majority of the Members present to elect or reject. The Secretary shall inform Members of their election by a letter, in such form as the Council may from time to time direct.
Payments.—1. Annual.—The subscription of a Governor is 5/. and that of a Member 1/., due in advance on the Ist of January of each year, and becoming in arrear if unpaid by the Ist of June. Members elected in November or December may date the commencement of their liabilities and privileges with the Society from the Ist of January in the ensuing year. 2. For Life.-—Governors may compound for subscription during future life by paying at once the sum of 50/., and Members by paying 10/7. No Gover- nor or Member in arrear of subscription can be allowed to enter into composition for life until such arrears have been paid.
Privileges.—The Journals of the Society for the year during which their subscription has been paid, transmitted by post, free of charge, to their address; analyses performed at a reduced charge by the consulting chemist ; the “liberty of attending all weekly Meetings of the Council in London, and of consulting the books in the library ; free entry of stock, and priority of claim for dinner and lecture tickets at the Country Meetings of the Society. No Member in arrear of his subscription is entitled to any of the privileges of the Society.
Inabilities: —All Members belong to the Society, and are bound to pay their annual subscriptions, until they shall withdraw from it by a notice in writing to the Secretary.
Resignation.—Members can only withdraw their names legally from the Society by a written notice to the Secretary, and the payment of all sub- scriptions due from them at the date of such notice.
Eixpulsion.—Members may be dismissed from the Society in the fol- Jowing manner :—Any ten Members of the Society may send, in writing, signed by their names, to the Council, a request that any Member of the Society shall be dismissed from the Society. Such request shall be placed in a conspicuous part of the Council-room, and a copy thereof transmitted by the post to the Member proposed to be so dismissed, signed by the Secretary. At the monthly Meeting of the Council which shall take place next after one month shall have elapsed after such request shall have been placed in the Council-room, the Council shall take the matter thereof into their consideration; but the Council shall not so take it into consideration unless twelve Members of the Council at the least shall be present. If this number is not present, the consideration of the request shall be adjourned to the next monthly Meeting of the Council, and so on till a monthly Meeting shall take place at which twelve Members are present. If the Council so constituted shall unanimously agree to the dismissal of such Member, he shall be no longera Member of the Society ; but if they do not unanimously agree to’his dismissal, their decision shall be considered to have been made in his favour : Provided always, that his dismissal shall not relieve him from the payment of any debt previously due by him to the Society; and that if a Life-Governor or Life-Member, he shall not have any claim to any portion of the commutation he has paid.
C isuriy <)) Grenerval Meetings in 1850.
The Generat May Meertine, in London, on Wednesday,
May 22, 1850.
The Annuat Country Merrine, at Exeter; principal day of the show, Thursday, July 18, 1850.
The GENERAL DecemBer Meerrina, in London, on the Satur- day of the Smithfield Club show-week,
Annual Subscriptions.
SUBSCRIPTIONS nay be paid to the Secretary, in the most direct and satisfactory manner, either at the Office of the Society, No. 12, Hanover-Square, London, between the hours of ten and four, or by means of Post-Office orders, to be obtained on application at any of the principal Post-Offices throughout the kingdom, and made payable to lim at the General Post-Office, London ; but any cheque on a Bank, or other house of business in London, will be equally available, if made payable on demand. ‘The subscriptions are due in advance for each year on the Ist of January, and are in arrear if unpaid by the Ist of June ensuing. No Member is entitled to the Journal, or to any other privilege of the Society, whose subscription is in arrear.
srise Wists.
The followmg Prize Lists of the Society, for the year 1850, may be had on application to the Secretary, No. 12, Hanover Square, London.
1. Prize List for Essays and Reports.
2. Prize List for Agricultural Implements, &c. at the Exeter Meeting.
3. Prize List for Live Stock at the Exeter Meeting.
The competition for Essays and Reports closes on March 1, 1850. All entries for Implements are to be made by the First of May, and all entries for Live Stock by the First of June. The Prizes of the Society are open to general competition.
NOTICE.
In consequence of the appearance of a new List of Members, and of an unusual press of matter, the ordinary Appendix, and several contributions to the Journal, are unavoidably postponed.
VOL. X. C
(sayy)
Consulting: Chemist.
Tue Council have fixed the following rates of Charge for Analyses to be made by the Consulting-Chemist for Members of the Society; who, to avoid all unnecessary correspondence, are particularly requested, in applying to him for analyses, to mention the kind of analysis they require, and to quote its number as specified in the subjoined schedule. The charge for analysis, together with the carriage of specimens, must be paid to him by the members at the time of application.
No. 1. An opinion as to the genuineness of a manure in the market, 7s. 6d. By this is meant such an opinion as could be formed by a sci- entific person, by inspection, with a few simple confirmatory experi- ments.—[It will protect from fraud, but is not calculated to assist in the choice of the best specimens, where all are genuine: it will inform the applicant whether a specimen of guano or oil-cake, for instance, be adulterated or not; but will not touch the question of its relative value as a pure specimen. Such an opinion will only apply to ordi- nary market articles, as guano, oil-cake, superphosphate of lime, sul- phate of ammonia, gypsum, common salt, &c.] No. 2. Guano. A de- termination of nitrogen (ammonia) and of the earthy phosphates, &c., 1Z. No.3. Limestone. The proportion of lime, 7s. 6d.; the propor- tion of magnesia, 10s.; the proportion of lime and magnesia, 15s. This analysis is sufficient for many purposes; but in most limestones the phosphate and sulphate of lime, and magnesia, are present, though in small proportions ; and inasmuch as it is impossible to say how much of the effect may be due to other minute ingredients, it is recommended that their quantity should always be determined. No. 4. Limestone, or marls, including carbonate, phosphate, and sulphate of lime, and magnesia, with sand and clay, 12. No.5. Partial ana- lysis of a soil, including sand, clay, organic matter, and carbonate of lime, 1/. No. 6. Complete analysis of a soil, 37. No.7. Letter ask- ing advice, one topic, 7s. 6d. On more than one topic, 10s. No.8. Oil-cake, or dung, or any animal products, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid, 17. Oil-cake, including nitrogen, oil, and phosphoric acid, 17. 10s. No.9. A determination of the quantity of carbonate and sulphate of lime in any specimen of water, 1/.
Theaddress of Professor Way, the Consulting-Chemist to the Society, is No. 23, Holles Street, Cavendish Square, London.
*.* Assistants.—As competent assistants will from time to time be re- quired to carry on the increased operations in Professor Wav’s laboratory, he has made arrangements to receive a few pupils who may wish to qualify themselves in the practice of Agricultural Analyses.
Ropal Agricultural Society of Englany.
LIST OF GOVERNORS AND MEMBERS,
AU TUMN.—1849.
gS~ The Council particularly request the favour of communications being made to the Secretary of any errors observed in this List.
1
ee
+i Gain Sale
> ‘erry
Ropal Aqricultural Soctety of Englanv. 1849—1850.
PRESIDENT. THE MARQUIS OF DOWNSHIRE.
TRUSTEES. Acland, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., M. | Portman, Lord Braybrooke, Lord Pusey, Philip, M.P. Clive, Hon. Robert Henry, M.P. Richmond, Duke of Graham, Rt. Hon. Sir Jas., Bart., M.P. Rutland, Duke of Lawley, Sir Francis, Bart. Spencer, Earl Neeld, Joseph, M.P. Sutherland, Duke of
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
Barker, Thomas Raymoné Fitzwilliam, Earl
Chichester, Earl of s Gooch, Sir Thomas Sherlock, Bart. Downshire, Marquis of Hardwicke, Earl of
Ducie, Earl of Hill, Viscount
Egmont, Earl of : Wellington, Duke of
Exeter, Marquis» Yarborough, Earl of
MEMBERS OF COUNCIL:
Austen, Colonel Lawes, John Bennet
Barnett, Charles s Leicester, Earl of
Bennett, Samuel Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P. Blanshard, Henry Miles, William, M.P.
Bramston, Thomas William, M.P. Milward, Richard
Brandreth, Humphrey Pelham, Hon. Captain Dudley, R.N. Burke, J. French Price, Sir Robert, Bart., M.P. Camoys, Lord Ridley, Sir Matthew White, Bart. Challoner, Colonel Sewell, Professor
Childers, John Walbanke, M.P. Shaw, William
Denison, Jolin Evelyn, M.P. Shaw, William, junior
Druce, Samuel Shelley, John Villiers
Foley, John H. H., M.P. Simpson, William
Garrett, Richard 5 Slaney, Robert Aglionby, M.P. Gibbs, B. T. Brandreth Smith, Robert
Grantham, Stephen Southampton, Lord
Hamona, Anthony Stansfield, W.R., Crompton, M.P. Hatherton, Lord Stokes, Charles
Hillyard, C. Stradbroke, Earl of
Hobbs, William Fisher Thompson, Henry Stephen Hudson, George, M.P. Turner, Charles Hampden Hudson, John Turner, George
Johnstone, Sir John V. B., Bart., M.P. Webb, Jonas
Jonas, Samuel Wilson, Henry
Kinder, John Wilson, Hon. H. W.
SECRETARY. JAMES HUDSON, 12, Hanover Square, London.
Consulting-Chemist.—John Tiiomas Way, 23, Holles Seedsmen.—Thomas Gibbs and Co., Corner of Half-
Street, Cavendish Square moon Street, Piccadilly Consulting-Engineer.—James Easton, or C. E. Amos, Publisher.—John Murray, 50, Albemarle Street The Grove, Southwark Bankers.—H., A. M., C., A. R., G., and H. Drum-
mond, Charing-Cross
re
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
HONORARY MEMBERS.
Austria, His Imperial Highness The Archduke John of
Buckland, The Very Rev. William, D.D., Dean of Westminster
Carr, Captain J, Stanley
Daubeny, Charles, M.D., Professor of Rural Economy, University of Oxford
De la Beche, Sir Henry Thomas, Director of the Ordnance Geological Survey Everett, the Hon. Edward, President of Cambridge University, U.S.
Graham, Thomas, Professor of Chemistry, University College, London
Henslow, The Rev. J. S., Professor of Botany, University of Cambridge
Hofmann, Dr., Professor of Chemistry, Royal College of Chemistry, London Johnston, James F, W., Reader in Chemistry, University of Durham
Liebig, Baron, University of Giessen
Murchison, Sir Roderick I., K.S.P., Belgrave Square, London
Parkes, Josiah, C.E., 11, Great College Street, Westminster
Playfair, Dr. Lyon, Chemist to the Ordnance
Simonds, James Beart, Lecturer on Cattle Pathology, R. Veterinary College, London Solly, Edward, Professor of Chemistry, Horticultural Society, and Addiscombe College Sprengel, Dr. Charles, Secretary to the Pomeranian Agricultural Society
Stevenson, The Hon. Andrew, Washington
Van de Weyer, M. Sylvian, Belgian Minister
Way, John Thomas, Consulting-Chemist to the Society.
DY)
LIST OF GOVERNORS.
+ Life Goyernor’s mark.
+Acland, Sir T. Dyke, M.P....Killerton Park, Col- lumpton, Devonshire
+Albert, H. R. H. the Prince... Windsor Castle
+Alcock, Thos., M.P....Kingswood Warren, Epsom, Surrey
7yAldam, William, Jr., M.P....Frickley Hall, Don- caster
Alford, Viscount. ..Belton House, Grantham
Amherst, Earl... Knole, Seven Oaks, Kent
yAngerstein, John... Woodlands, Blackheath, Kent
Antrobus, Sir Edmund, Bart.,,. Amesbury Abbey, Salisbury, Wiltshire
Arkwright, C....Burton-upon Trent, Staffordshire
Arkwright, John...Hampton Court, Leominster,
Herefordshire
Arkwright, R....Sutton Hall, Chesterfield, Derbysh.
+Ashburton, Lord...Bath House, Piccadilly
Austen, Col. Thomas ... Kippington, Seven Oaks, Kent
+Aylesford, Earl of... Pakington Hall, Coventry, Warwickshire
+Bailward, J....Horsington, Wincanton, Somerset
+Baker, R. W....Cottesmore, Stamford, Lincolnsh.
+Barclay, Charles... Bury Hill, Dorking, Surrey
+Barclay, Dayid ... Eastwick Park, Leatherhead, Surrey
+Barker, John Raymond... Fairford Park, Fairford, Gloucestershire
Barker, Thomas Raymond...Hambleden, Henley- on-Thames, Oxon
Barrow, Wm. Hodgson...Southwell, Notts
+Beach, Wm....Oakley Hall, Basingstoke, Hants
Beauchamp, Earl... Madresfield, near Worcester
+Beaufort, Duke of...Badminton, Chippenham, Wiltshire
Beaumont, Lord. ..Carleton Hall, Selby, Yorks.
Bedford, Duke of... Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire
Benett, John, M.P....Pyt House, Hindon, Wilts
Benyon, Richard de Beauvoir...Englefield House, Reading, Berkshire
‘Blake, William,.Danesbury, Welwyn, Herts
+Blanshard, Henry...Kirby-in-le-‘Soken, Colches- ter, Essex A
Blount, William. ..Orchhill, Gerrard’s Cross, Bucks
Bonsor, Jos....Polesden, Great Bookham, Surrey
Bosanquet, G. J. ... Broxbournebury, Hoddesdon, Herts me
Boucher, J. G....Shidfield, near Wickham, Hants
+Bowes, John ...Streatlam Castle, Staindrop, Dur- ham
Bramston, T. W., M.P...Skreens, Chelmsford, Essex
Brandreth, Humphrey...Houghton House, Dunsta~ ble, Bedfordshire
Braybrooke, Lord.,,Audley Ind, Saffron Walden, Essex
Bridport, Lord...Cricket Lodge, Chard, Somerset
Bridges, Sir Brook Wm., Bart. ... Godnestone Park, Wingham, Kent
Briscoe, Jolin Ivatt... Fox Hills, Chertsey, Surrey
Brown, James.,.Rossington, Bawtry
Buccleuch, Duke of... Whitehall
+Buller, Edward, M.P....Dilhorne Castle, Cheadle, Staffordshire
Buller, Capt. T. Wentworth, R.N....15, Sussex Gar- dens, Hyde Park
+Bunbury, Sir Henry E., Bart....Barton Hall, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk
Burlington, Earl of...Holker Hall, Milnthorpe, Westmoreland
Buxton, Sir Robert Jacob...Shadwell Pk. Thetford
Cabbell, Benjamin Bond, M.P....2, Brick Court, Temple
Calthorpe, Lord...33, Grosvenor Square
7Cambridge, H. R. H. the Duke of... Kew Palace, Surrey
Camoys, Lord...Stonor Park, Henley-on-Thames, Oxon
Campbell, Alex. Francis...Great Plumstead, near Norwich, Norfolk
Campden, Viscount,..Exton Park, Stamford, Lin- colnshire
Cator, Rey. Thos....Skelbrook Park, Pontefract
+Cavendish, Hon. Chas. Compton, M.P....Lati- mers, Chesham, Buckinghamshire
Cayley, Sir George, Bart....High Hall, Brompton, Pickering, Yorkshire
Challoner, Col. C. Bisse...Portnall Park, Virginia Water, Chertsey, Surrey
Chichester, Earl of.. .SStanmer Park, Lewes, Sussex
+Childers, John Walbanke, M.P....100, Eaton Sq.
+Christopher, Robt. Adam, M.P....Bloxholm Hall, Sleaford, Lincolnshire
Clifford, Hon. Chas. Thos....Imnham Hall, Colsters- worth, Lincolnshire
Clifton, Thos.... Lytham Hall, Preston, Lancashire
+Clive, Hon. Robert Henry, M.P....Oakley Park, Ludlow, Salop
Colvile, Chas. R., M.P....Lullington Hall, Burton- on-Trent, Staffordshire
+Copeland, Alderman, M.P.,..The Poplars, Leyton, Essex
Cotes, John,,. Woodcote, Shiffnal, Salop
6 Royal Agricultural Society of England.
+Craven, Earl...Coombe Abbey, Coventry Crawley, Samuel,..Stockwood House, Luton, Beds. Creyke, Ralph... Rawcliffe Hall, Selby, Yorkshire Crompton, John Bell...Duffield Hall, Derby Curteis, Major E. B., M.P....Leesam House, Rye
Dacre, Lord... The Hoo, Welwyn, Herts
De la Warr, Earl... Buckhurst Park, East Grinstead, Sussex
Denison, John Evelyn, M.P....Ossington, Newark, Nottinghamshire
Dering, Sir Edw. Cholmeley, Bart.,..Surrenden- Dering, Charing, Kent
Devonshire, Duke of,..Chatsworth, Derbyshire
Dickinson, Francis Henry, M.P.... King’s Weston, Somerton, Somersetshire
Douglas, Sir Charles, M.P....27, Wilton Crescent
Downshire, Marquis of...East Hampstead Park, Bracknell, Berkshire
Drummond, Chas.,..Newsells, Royston, Herts
Drummond, Henry, M.P....Albury Park, Guildford
+Ducie, Earl of,..Tortworth, Wootton-under- Edge
Duffield, Thos., M.P....Marcham Park, Abingdon, Berkshire
+ Dysart, Earl of...Buckminster Hall, Colstersworth, Lincolnshire
+Egerton, Wilbraham...Tatton Park, Knutsford, Cheshire
Egmont, Earl of,..Cowdry Lodge, Petworth
Essex, Earl of.,.Cassiobury Park, Watford, Hert- fordshire
Esteourt, T.G. Bucknall.,.Esteourt, Tetbury, Glouc.
+Etwall, Ralph...The Monnt, Nursling, Southamp- ton
Euston, Earl of, M.P....47, Clarges Street
Evans, William, M.P....Allestree Hall, Derby
+Exeter, Marquis of...Burghley House, Stamford, Lincolnshire
Eyre, Charles...Welford, Newbury, Berkshire
Farquharson, J. J.... Langton, Blandford, Dorset
+ Fellowes, E., M.P....Ramsey Abbey, Huntingdon
Feversham, Lord...Helmsley, York
Feilding, Viscount...Downing Holywell, Flintshire
+Fitzwilliam, Earl,..Milten, Peterborough, North- amptonshire
Foley, J. H. H., M.P....Prestwood, Stourbridge, Worcestershire
+Fortescue, Earl of...Castle Hill, Southmolton, Devon
Freshfield, J. W....Moor Place, Dorking, Surrey
+Fuller, Francis...29, Abingdon St., Westminster
Gibbs, B. T. B.... Brompton Lodge, Old Brompton
Gillies, Robert Maule...17, Mark Lane
Goldsmid, Baron...St."John’s Lodge, Regent’s Park
Gooch, Sir Thomas S., Bart....Benacre Hall, Wren- tham, Suffolk
Gore, Wm. Ormesby, M.P....Porkington Hall, Os. westry, Salop
Grafton, Duke of...47, Clarges Street
7Graham, Right Hon. Sir J., Bart., M.P... Netherby- by-Carlisle, Cumberland
Grey, Earl... Howick House, Alnwick
Guest, Sir J. J., Bart., M.P....Dowlais House, Mer- thyr Tydvil, Glamorganshire
Guise, Sir John W., Bart.... Rendeomb Park, Ciren- cester, Gloucestershire
Hale, Robert Blagden, M.P....Alderley Park, near Wootton, Gloucestershire
Hale, Wm....Kingswalden Park, Welwyn, Herts
Hall, Sir Benjamin, Bart., M.D., M.P.,..Llanover Court, Newport, Monmouthshire
Hamond, Anth....Westacre Hall, Rongham, Norf.
Handley, W. F....Newark-upon-Trent, Notts
+Harcourt, George Simon,...Ankerwycke House, Staines
Hardwicke, Earl of... Wimpole, Arrington, Cambs.
Hartley, W. H. H....Lye Grove, Cross Hands, Sod- bury, Gloucestershire
+Hastings, Lord.,...Melton Park, East Dereham, Norfolk
Hatherton, Lord...Teddesley Hall, Penkridge, Staf- fordshire
Hayter, Right Hon. W. Goodenough, M.P....Stow- berry Park, Wells, Somersetshire
Heathcoat, John, M.P....Bolham, Tiverton, Devon.
Heathcote, Gilbert J., M.P....Stocken Hall, Stam- ford, Lincolnshire
+Heneage, G. F....Hainton Hall, Wragby, Linc.
+Henniker, Lord...Brome Hall, near Eye, Suffolk
+Herbert, Right Hon. Sidney, M.P..,. Wilton House Salisbury, Wiltshire
+Heywood, Thos. P..,.Claremont, near Manchester
+Hill, Viscount... Hawkston Park, Shrewsbury, Salop
Hippisley, Henry...Lambourne Place, Hungerford
+Hobbs, Wm. Fisher...Boxted Lodge, Colchester
Hodges, T. L., M.P....Hempsted Park, Cranbrook, Kent
+Hoghton, Henry... Hafod, Aberystwith
+Holford, R. Steiner... Weston Birt House, Tetbury, Gloucestershire
Holbech, Wm.... Farnborough, Banbury, Oxfordsh,
Holland, E....Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, Worcest.
Hope, Hen. T....The Deepdene, Dorking, Surrey
Hoskyns, Chandos Wren. . Wroxhall Abbey, Warwick
Hulse, Sir Charles, Bart.....Breamore House, Ford- ingbridge, Hampshire
+Hulse, Lieut.-Col....Breamore House, Fording- bridge, Hampshire
Hyett, W. H.... Painswick House, Painswick, Gloucestershire
+Ilchester, Earl of....Melbury House, Sherborne, Dorsetshire
Johnstone, Sir John V. B., Bart., M.P....Hackness Hall, Scarborough, Yorkshire
Keene, Rev. Charles Edmund Ruck... .Swincombe House, Nettlebed, Henley, Oxfordshire
Kerrizon, Lieut.-Gen. Sir E., Bart., M.P....Oakley Park, Eye, Suffolk
Kenyon, Lord,...Gredington Hall, Whitchurch, Salop
+Knight, Frederick Winn, M.P....Simon’s Bath, Exmoor, Devonshire
List of Governors. 7
Labouchere, Rt. Hon. H., M.P....Stowey, Somerset
Langston, J. Haughton, M.P.....Sarsden House, Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire
Lansdowne, Marquis of,...Bowood Park, Calne, Wiltshire
+ Lawley, Sir Francis, Bart.... Middleton Hall, Faze- ley, Staffordshire
+Le Couteur, Colonel, Viscount of Jersey... Belle Vue, Jersey
Lefevre, Right Hon. C. Shaw, M.P....Hecktield Place, Hartford Bridge, Hampshire
Leicester, the Earl of... Holkham Hall, Norfolk
Leigh, Lord.....Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth, Warwickshire
Lemon, Sir C., Bart., M.P.....Carclew, Penryn, Cornwall
Lisburne, Earl of. ..Crosswood, Aberystwith, Cardi- ganshire, S.W.
Liverpool, Earl of....Pitchford Hall, Shrewsbury, Salop
+Long, W., M.P...Rood Ashton, Trowbridge, Wilts
+Lonsdale, Earl of,.. Lowther Castle, Penrith
Lovelace, Earl of... East Horsley, Ripley, Surrey
MacDouall, Col. James,..2nd Life Guards
+Malcolm, Neill,.,Kilmatin, Lochgilphead, Argyle- shire, N.B.
Maitland, E. F....Henley-on-Thames, Oxon
+Marshall, Wm. M.P....Pattendale Hall, Penrith
}+Miles, W., M.P.... Leigh Court, Bristol, Somerset
Milward, R....'Vhurgarton Priory, Southwell
+ Morrison, Jas... Fonthill Abbey, Hindon, Wiltshire
Moseley, John.,.Glemham House, Saxmundham, Suffolk
Mostyn, Lord...Pengwern, St. Asaph, Flints. N.W.
Mostyn, Hon. Ed. M. Lloyd, M.P....Mostyn Hall, Holywell, Flintshire, N.W.
Murray, Chas. R. Scott, M.P....Danesfield, Marlow, Buckinghamshire
Naper, Jas. Lennox W..., Lough Crew, Old Castle, Ireland
Neeld, Jos., M.P....Grittleton House, Chippenham, Wiltshire
Newry and Morne, Viscount.,..Marine Parade, Brighton
Northampton, Marquess of.,.Castle Ashby, North- amptonshire
tNott; John...Bydown House, Barnstaple, Devon
Nugent, Hon. M. W. Bellew...
Oldham, F. Oldham,..Belle-amour Hall, Rugeley, Statfordshire
Palmer, Berks
Patten, John Wilson, M.P....Bank Hall, Warring- ton, Lancashire
}Peel, Right Hon. Sir Robert, Bart., M.P... Drayton Manor House, Fazeley, Staffordshire
Pelham, Hon. Captain Dudley, R.N., M.P....St. Lawrence, Isle of Wight
}Pendarves, E. W. W., M.P.,,.Pendarves House, Truro, Cornwall
Robt., M.P....Holme Park, Reading,
Pennant, Hon. Col. Ed. Gordon Douvlas..,Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, N.W.
f+ Percival, John... Woodlands, Ryde, Isle of Wight, Hants
+Perkins, H.,. Hanworth Park, Hounslow, Midlsex.
Petre, Hen....Dunkenhalgh, Blackburne, Lanca- shire
Plowden, W...Plowden Hall, Bishop's Castle, Salop
Pole, E. S. Chandos,,.Radbourne Hall, near Derby
+Popham, F. L...Littlecott, Hungerford, Berks'
+Portman, Lord....Bryanston House, Blandford, Dorsetshire
Powlett, Lord William...Downham Hall, Brandon, Norfolk
Price, Sir R., Bt., M.P...Foxley Hall, near Hereford
Pryse, Pryse... Lodge Park, Aberystwith, S.W.
+Pusey, Philip, M.P..., Pusey, Faringdon, Berkshire
Pym, F.,.The Hasells, Biggleswade, Bedfordshire
Quantock, John,..Norton House, Yeovil
f¢Radnor, Earl of,...Coleshill House, Faringdon, Berkshire '
Rayleigh, Lord... Terling Place, Witham, Essex
+Richmond, Duke of...Goodwood Park, Chichester, Sussex
Ridley, Sir Matt. White, Bart...Blagdon, Morpeth, Northumberland
Ripon, Earl of...Nocton Hall, Lincoln
Rogerson, Joseph...24, Norfolk Street, Strand
Rosebery, Earl of,,.Warren Wood, Hatfield, Hert- fordshire
+Rutland, Duke of....Belvoir Castle, Grantham, Lincolnshire
Saint Germans, Earl... Port Eliot, Devonport
St. Quintin, Wm....Seampstone Hall, Scarborough, Yorkshire
+Sanford, Edward A...Nynehead Court, Wellington, Somersetshire
Scarborough, Earl of...Sandbeck Castle, Bawtry
+Scholey, W.S....Thurlow Terrace, Larkhall Lane, Clapham
Fcott, Jas. Winter...Rotherfield Park, East ‘Tisted, near Alton, Hampshire
+Shadwell, Lucas... Fairlight, Hastings
Shaw, William...7, King’s Road, Bedford Row
tSlaney, R. A., M.P...Walford Manor, Shrewsbury, Salop
+Smith, J. A., M.P...Dale Park, Arundel, Sussex
+Sondes, Lord...Elmham Hall, Elmham, Norfolk
Somers, Earl... Eastnor Castle, Tewkesbury, Glost.
Sotheron, Thomas H. S. B. E., M.P... Bowden Park, Chippenham, Wiltshire
Spencer, Earl...Althorp, Northampton
Stanhope, J. S...Cannon Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire
+Stanley, Lord... Knowsley Hall, Prescot, Lance.
Stansfield, Wm. R. C., M.P....Esholt Hall, Leeds, Yorkshire
+Stradbroke, Earl of... Henham Park, Wangfvrd, Suffolk
+Strutt, Edward, M.P...St. Helen’s, near Derby
+Sutherland, Duke of...Trentham Park, Newcastle- under- Lyme, Staffordshire
& Royal Agricultural Society of England.
4 Sutton, Sir R., Bart... Sutton, Hon. John Manners, M.P.... Kelham, Newark, Notts
+Tanqueray, John... Hendon, Middlesex
+Thorold, Sir John Charles, Bart.....Syston Park, Grantham, Lincolnshire
+Torrington, Lord Visct.... Yokes Court, Mereworth, Kent
+Townley, R. Greaves, M.P,..Fulborne House, near Cambridge
Tremayne, J. H,..Heligan, St. Austell, Cornwall
Tunno, E. Rose... Warnford Park, Bishop’s Waltham
+Turner, Charles H...Rook’s Nest, Godstone, Surrey
Turner, Thomas...Croydon
Villebois, Fred... Benham Place, Newbury, Berks
+Wakeman, Sir O. P., Bt...Perdiswell Park, Wor- cester
Walsh, Sir John, Bart., M.P... Warfield Park, Brack- nell, Berkshire
Walsingham, Lord...Merton Hall, Thetford, Norf.
Waterton, Capt. Geo...Grove House, Hunslet, Leeds
Watson, Hon. R...Rockingham Castle, Northamp- tom
+Wellington, Duke of,..Strathfieldsaye, Hampshire
+ Wenlock, Lord...Escrick Hall, Selby, Yorkshire
West, F. R..Arnwood House, Lymington; Ruthin Castle, Denbighshire
+Whitbread, W. H...South-hill House, near Bedford
Wilbraham, G..... Delamere House, Northwich, Cheshire ‘
+ Williams, Sir Erasmus, Bart...Marlborough, Wilts
Wilmot, E. Woollett... Hulme, Walfield, Congleton
+Wilson, Henry.... Stowlangtoft Hall, Ixworth, Suffolk
Wilshere, William, M.P...The Frythe, Welwyn
Wingate, W. B....Hareby House, Spilsby, Lincoln- shire
Wood, Edward Robert...Stout Hall, Swansea
Wood, Col. Thos., M.P... Littleton House, Chertsey, Surrey
Wroughton, B... Woolley Park, Wantage, Berkshire
Wyndham, Col. George... Petworth House, Sussex
Wynn, Sir W. W., Bart... Wynnstay, Rhuabon, Den- bighshire
7Yarborough, Earl of.....Manby Hall, Glanford Bridge, Lincolnshire
Zetland, Earl of,..Aske Hall, Richmond, Yorkshire
LIST OF MEMBERS.
+ Life Member’s mark.
+Abbey, G....Silsworth Lodge, Daventry, North- ampton
Abbey, John...The Grange, Wellingborough
Abbey, Thos...Dunnington, York
Abbot, C. H.. .. Bower, Long Ashton, Bristol
Abbott, Charles T....36, Gower Street
+Abbott, Step., jun....Castleacre, Swaffham, Norf.
Abel, John...Rising SunInn, Chapel Field, Norwich
Abel, Philip... Northampton
Abinger, Lord...Abinyer Hall, Dorking, Surrey
Ablett, J....Llanbedr Hall, Ruthin, N.W.
Abraham, Wm....Barnetby, Brigg, Lincolnshire
+Ackers, J., M.P....Prinknash Park, Painswick
Ackland, R.I....Boulston, Haverfordwest
Acland, Thos, Dyke, M.P....Killerton, Exeter
+Adair, Alexander,..Heatherton Park, Wellington, Somersetshire
Adair, Sir R. S., Bart....20 (a), St. James’s Square
Adam, Alexander... Boulogne
+Adams, Edward... Bassford Hall, Newcastle, Staff.
Adams, Francis H....Alton Court, Ross, Herefords.
Adams, G. T.... Hawkhurst, Kent -
Adams, Henry...High Street, Windsor, Berkshire
Adams, Rev. Thos. B....Aldridge Lodge, Walsall, Staffordshire
Adcock, E....Farmdish, Wellingborough, Northam.
Adcock.W....Farmdish, Wellingborough, Northam.
Addams, Charles ...Moor House, Kilton Holford, Bridgewater, Somersetshire
+Adderley, C. B...-Hams Hall, Coleshiii, Warwicks.
Ade, Charles... Westdean, Lewes
Agar, Hon. G. C.... Boyton House, Heytesbury, Wilts
Aglionby, H. A., M.P.... Nunnery, Cumberland
Ainslie, William...Wood Hill, Ripley, Surrey
Aitchison, Capt. R., R.N....».Mapperton, Beamin- ster, Dorset
Aitchison, Wm ...Hazelridge, Belford, Northum.
Aitken, Andrew. ,..Deeping Fen, Spalding, Linc.
Akroyd, Edward...Denton Park, Otley, Yorkshire
+Albright, Arthur... Edgbaston, Birmingham
Albright, Nicholas. ..Charlbury, near Enstone, Oxon
Alderman, Robert, jun....Farmdish, Wellingboro. -
Aldous, Robert...Burlingham, Norwich
Aldridge, James... Throop Farm, near Christchurch Hants
+Aldworth, W., jun... Frilford, Abingdon, Berks
Alexander, C..,.Sudbury, Suffolk —
Alexander, James. ..Doncaster, Yorkshire
Alexander, Rev, John... Norwich
Alexander, Wm. Maxwell... Ballochmyle, Mauch- line, Ayrshire, N.B.
+Alington, G. M....Swinhope House, Louth, Line,
Alington, H. W....Welton-on-the-Hill, Louth, Linc.
Allday, John,..Griston, Watton, Norfolk
+Allen, B. Haigh... Longcroft’s Hall, Lichfield
Allen, Chas. W....The Moor, Kington, Herefordsh.
Allen, Henry...Oakfield, Hay, Herefordshire
Allen, J....Holt Farm, Pilton, near Shepton Mallett
Allen, John... Wellington, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Allen, Seymour... Cresselly, near Pembroke
Allen, Thomas. ..Thurmaston, Leicester
Allen, T., jun....Upton Cottage, Macclesfield, Ches.
Allen, William...The Lodge, Malton, Yorkshire
+Allfrey, Robert...Wakefield Park, Reading, Berks
Allhusen, Christian.,.Elswick House, Neweastle- upon-Tyne
Allies, George, . Hill House, Worcester
Allin, Richard... Little Moore, Oxford
Allin, Wm....Great Hendred, Wantage, Berkshire
Allington, Rev. J....Little Barford, St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire
Allison, Joseph... Bilby, Retford, Nottinghamshire
Alliston, John. ,.38, Russell Square
Allix, Chas.... Willoughby Hall, Grantham, Linc.
Allnatt, John Joseph... Wallingford
Allsop, Henry... Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire
Allsop, John...Wellow Farm, Romsey, Hampshire
Allsop, Thomas... Ridge Green, Ryegate, Surrey
Almack, Barugh...18, Sackville Street
Almack, John, jun.,..Leckonfield Park, Beverley, Yorkshire
+Ambler, Henry.. Watkinson Hall, Halifax, Yorksh.
Ambrose, John...Copford, Colcliester, Essex
Ames, George Henry. ..Cote House, near Bristol
Ames, John. ..33, Green Street, Grosvenor Square
Ames, Lionel,..The Hyde, St. Albans, Herts
Anderdon, J. L....3, New Bank Buildings
Anderson, Jos.... Whitley, Tynemouth, Northum- berland
Anderson, Robert. ..Cirencester, Gloucestershire
y+Anderson, Robert...Grey Street, Newcastle-upon- Tyne
Anderson, Robert... Weston, South Shields, Durham
Anderson, Thomas...Little Harle Tower, Newcastle- on-Tyne, Northumberland
Anderson, William...Bont House, South Shields
Anderson, William, jun.,..Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Andrew, George...Carne, St. Austell, Cornwall
Andrewes, Charles James,.Kate’s Grove Iron- Works, Reading, Berkshire
Andrews, Edwin...Shroton, Blandford, Dorsetshire
Andrus, Francis... Scadbury, Southfleet, nr, Graves- end
Cc
10
Angeworth, William...The Hay, Bridgnorth
tAnnandale, Peter....Shotley Grove, Newcastle- upon-Tyne
Annesley, Rev. Charles A. F.,..Eydon Hall, near Banbury, Oxon
Ansley, G.... Houghton Hill, St. Ives, Hunts
Anslow, William ..Eyton, Wellington, Salop
Anstice, J..,. Madeley Wood House, Broseley, Salop
+Anstruther, J. H. L...Hintlesham Hall, Ipswich
yAnstruther, Sir R. A., Bart...,Balcaskie, Leven, Fifeshire
Antrobus, Joseph... Barnton, Northwich, Cheshire
Aplin, Henry...Combe St. Nicholas, near Chard, Somerset
Appleby, Wm.... Eastfield, Alnwick, Northumb.
yApplewhaite, Edw.,..Pickenham Hall, Swaffham, Norfolk
Arbuthnot, Right Hon. Charles,..Kettering, North- amptonshire
yArbuthnot, John A..,.Coworth, Chertsey, Surrey
Arch, J..,.Clifton, near Shefford, Bedfordshire
Archbold, James... Neweastle-upon-Tyne
Archbold, John...Riffington, Berwick-on-Tweed
FArchbold, Robert, M.P....David’s Town, Castle Dermot, Ireland
Archer —Burton Lancelot... Woodlands, Emsworth, Hampshire
Archer, Edward... Trelaske, Launceston, Cornwall
Archer, Thomas. ,.Ely, Cambridgeshire
Archer, William.,.Tullibardine Cottage, Auchter- arder, Perthshire
yArden, Hon. R. P....Pepper Hall, Catterick
Arkcole, Wm....Langney, Westham, Eastbourne, Sussex
yArkell, Thomas...Pen Hill Farm, Cold Harbour, Swindon, Wiltshire
Arkwright, E....Rock House, Matlock, Derbysh.
Arkwright, Rev. J....Mark Hall, Harlow, Essex
Arkwright, Peter... Willersby, Matlock, Derbysh.
Armitage, Arthur..,Moraston, nr, Ross, Hereford- shire
Armitage, George... Yattendon, Newbury
Armstrong, Charles,..Axwell Park, Gateshead
Armstrong, George... Heddon-on-the-Wall, Neweas- tle-upon-Tyne
Armstrong, Joseph...Higham Place, Newcastle- upon-Tyne
Armytage, Col....Broomhill Bank, near Tonbridge Wells
Arnett, Henry...Ifield, Crawley, Sussex
Arrowsmith, W. L....Island of Malta
Arundell, Hon. Robert A... Houghton Lodge, Stock- bridge, Hants
Ashdown, George....Braxted Hall Farm, Witham, Essex
Ashdown, Samuel H..,.The Hern, Shiffnal, Salop
Ashhurst, John Henry.. - Waterstock, Oxford
Ashley, Charles Gordon...Butcombe Court, near Wrington, Somersetshire
Ashlin, John... Frisby, Spilsby, Lincolnshire
Ashmore, Joseph... Norton, near Evesham, Woresh.
+Ashton, Hen... - Woolton, near Liverpool, Lancash.
Ashton, Richard... Limefield, Bury, Lancashire
Ashwin, Thomas. , »Stratford-on-Avon, Warwicksh,
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
+Askew, Sir Henry...Pallinsburn House, Cold- stream, N.B.
Assheton, Wm....Downham Hall, Clitheroe, Lanc.
+Astbury, William... 4, Munster Terrace, Fulham
yAstley, Francis L’Estrange...Melton Constable, Thetford
Aston, Rt. Hon. Sir Arthur...Aston Hall, Preston Brook, Cheshire
+Aston, Samuel... Lynch Court, near Leominster
Atcherley, Thos. C....The Hurst, Westbury, Salop
Atherton, George T.... Mount Alyn, Wrexham
+Athorpe, J. C....Dinnington Hall, Sheffield
Atkins, E, M....Kingston-Lisle, Wantage, Berks
Atkins, Thomas.. Kimberley, Wymondham, Norf.
Atkinson, Charles... Broughton, Cartmell
+Atkinson, George.. Morland Hall, near Penrith
+Atkinson, James... Winderwath, Penrith, Cumber- land
+Atkinson, James Henry Hollis...Angerton, Mor- peth, Northumberland
Atkinson, John... Newbiggin, near Hexham
Atkinson, John...Charlton, near Salisbury, Wilts
Atkinson, Joseph... Embleton, near Alnwick
Atkinson, J. R. W....Elmwood House, Leeds
Atkinson, Matthew... Peepy, Hexham, Northum- berland
Atkinson, Ralph...South Gosforth, Newcastle-on- Tyne
Atkinson, Thos...Kidside, Milnthorpe, Westmoreld.
Atkinson, Tobias... Kendal, Westmoreland
+Atkinson, Wm, James..,Marlow, Buckingham- shire
Attenborough, James,..Brampton Ash, Market Har- borough, Leicestershire
Attenborough, Robert... Braybrooke, Market Har- borough, Leicestershire
Atterbury, Henry Thomas, ’*. Woburn, Bedfordshire
Attwood, William... Manor Farm, Longstock, Stock- bridge, Hampshire
Atty, James...Rugby
+Austen, Col. Henry...Bellevue, Seven Oaks, Kent
Austen, Robt... Merrow House, near Guildford, Surr.
Austin, William Hazledine,..Manor House, Woore, near Market Drayton
Avery, Thomas Charles,,.Gloucester
Aylmer, John Harrison... Walworth Castle, Darling- ton, Durham
+Aynsley, J. Murray...Torkington, near Bristol
Ayre, Thomas...Trafford Park, Manchester
Ayres, Robert. ..Girtford, Biggleswade, Bedfordshire
+Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A....St. John’s College, Cambridge
Back, Hatfield James.. Hethersett Hall, Norwich
+Back, John Alfred..,Hethersett Hall, near Nor- wich
+ Backhouse, Edmund.,.Polam Hill, Darlington
Bacon, James... Pluckley, near Ashford, Kent
Bacon, Rich. Noverre...Mercury Office, Norwich
Bacon, William.,..Chilton House, Darlington
Badcock, Benjamin, ..Broad Street, Oxford
Baddeley, Thomas... Wellington, Salop
Baddeley, William...Brutton, Wellington, Salop
Baden, Andrew, . Long Street, Enford, Pewsey, Wilts
List of Members.
Bagge, Richard.,.Gaywood, Lynn, Norfolk Bagot, Hon. Wm... Blithefield, Rugeley, Staffs. Bagshawe, Wm. John,..The Oaks, near Sheffield Bailey, Charles.. .5, Stratford Place Bailey, Edward... Martyr’sWorthy, near Winchester, Hants Bailey, George..,Lea Hall, Albrighton, near Wol- verhampton Bailey, James... Nynehead, near Wellington, So- mersetshire Bailey, James Wm..,.Shenley House, Stony Strat- ford, Bucks }Bailey, Joseph, M.P...Glanuske Park,Crickhowell, Brecknockshire Bailey, Joseph, jun., M.P.., Easton Court, Tenbury, Worcestershire TBailey, William...Hazling, near Belford, North- umberland Bailey, Wm....Hursley, near Winchester, Hampsh. Baillie, Wm. Hunter,..4, Upper Harley Street Bainbridge, C. H....Lumley Park, Fence Houses, Durham Baines, John.. -Goosnargh, Preston, Lancashire Baines, John Fuller...Stisted, near Braintree, Essex Baird, Sir David, Bt.... Newbyth, East Lothian Baker, Benj. Heath...Acle, Norfolk 7Baker, Sir Edward Baker, Bart..,.Ranston House, Blandford, Dorsetshire Baker, George Williams. ..Park Farm, Woburn Baker, Joseph Brogden...Throxenby Hall, near Scarborough Baker, Rev. R. H....Linchmere, Liphook, Hampsh. Baker,-Robert... Writtle, Essex Baker, R....Chisshill Hall, near Royston, Hert- fordshire Baker, Robert... West Hay, near Bristol Baker, T. Barwick L.,.. Hardwick Court, Gloucester Baker, T., jun...Chilton, near Ferry Hill, Durham Baker, T. Baker. .. Hastings, Sussex Baker, William Robert...Bayfordbury, Hertford Baldwin, T.,.Barnt Green, near Bromsgrove, Wore. Baldwin, W. W. T....Stede Hill, Maidstone, Kent Bale, S....Flint Hall, East Harling, Norfolk Balguy, Johbn...Duffield, near Derby Ballard, James...Llwynhelig, Cowbridge, Glamor- ganshire Balls, George... Brixton Hill, Surrey Balman, W...Radley Barton, South Molton, Devon Balmer, Thomas... Fochabers, N. B. +Bankes, John Scott...Corfe Castle, Dorsetshire 7Bannerman, Alex.....South Cottage, Chorley, Lancashire Bannerman, Henry... Hunton Court, Maidstone Bannister, J. S.... Weston, near Pembridge, Here- fordshire Barber, John...Derby Barber, Thomas...Hobland Hall, Great Yarmouth Barber, Rev, William... Duffield, Derby Barberie, John...House Dean-Farm, Falmer, Lewes Barclay, Donald...Mayfield, Uckfield, Sussex Barclay, J. Pringle... Wickham Market, Suffolk Baring, Hon. Francis Thornhill,...Buckingham House, Brandon, Norfolk
11
Baring, Hon. and Rev. Fred....Melchit Park, Salis- bury Baring, John...Oakwood, Chichester, Sussex Barker, Rev. Benjamin,..Shipdham Rectory, Thet- ford, Norfolk 7Barker, G. Raymond,..Fairford Park, Fairford, Gloucestershire Barker, H. B. Raymond..4, Garden Court, Temple Barker, Horace...Suffolk Fire Office, Bury St. Ed- munds Barker, James... North Shields Barker, James...The Hall, Bakewell, Derbyshire Barker, J. H...East Lodge, Bakewell, Derbyshire Barker, Robert...Glynn, Barmouth, Merionethshire Barker, William...Claremont, Poulton, Bebington, Cheshire Barkus, William, senior...Coxhoe, Durham Barlow, Frederick Burgh... Woodbridge, Suffolk Barlow, Rev. Peter...Cockfield Rectory, Staindrop, Durham Barnard, Charles... Norwich Barnard, E...Coldham Hall, Wisbeach, Cambs. Barnard, E.G., M.P... Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex Barnard, Ferdinando... Manor Farm, Wantage, Berks Barnard, Fulke Toovey. . Bristol Barnard, John...Olives, Dunmow, Essex Barnardiston, N. C...The Ryes, Sudbury, Suffolk +Barneby, William...Clater Park, near Bromyard Barnes, John Stagg. . Middleton in Teasdale, Durham Barnes, Thomas... Whitburn, near Sunderland Barnett, C...Stratton Park, Biggleswade, Beds. Barnett, Henry..»Glympton Park, Woodstock Barnett, Joseph... Remenham Dill, Henley-on- Thames, Oxon Barratt, John, ., Winterton, Brigg, Lincolnshire Barratt, William,..St. John’s, Wakefield Barrett, G. A....Kate’s Grove Jron-Works, Reading, Berkshire Barrett, James, .. Royal Hotel, Ross, Herefordshire Barrington, Visc., M.P...Beckett House, Faringdon, Berkshire Barroby, Christ... Baldersby, near Ripon, Yorkshire Barrow, Charles James... Lopham, Norfolk Barrow, G. H... Ringwood House, Chesterfield Barry, Thomas... Chilton, near Thame, Oxon Barter, Rey. V. C...Sarsden, Chipping Norton, Oxf. Bartholomew, Thomas... Largton, Wragby, Lincoln- shire Bartholomew, W...Goltho, Wragby, Lincolnshire Barthropp, Nathaniel...Cretingham Rookery, near Woodbridge, Suffolk Barthropp, N.G....Cretingham, Woodbridge Bartlett, Wm...Burbage, near Marlborough, Wilts Bartlett, William... Whatcombe, Blandford, Dorset Barton, Henry... Rangemoor House, near Lichfield Barton, Humfrey C... Hastings Barton, John...East Leigh, Emsworth, Hants Barton, Nath,..Corsley House, Warminster, Wilts Barton, R. Watson...Springwood, Manchester. Barton, Thomas...Threxton, Watton, Norfolk Barwell, John,..Norwich Bascombe, Thomas... Dorchester, Dorsetshire Baskerville, H. .Crowshy Park, near Reading, Berks
c 2
12
Baskerville, Thos. B. M., M.P....Clyro Court, Hay, Herefordshire
Bass, Michael... Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire
Batard, Thomas M. Bearda...Sydenham, Kent
Bate, Edward... Keisterton, Flintshire, N.W.
Bate, G... Houghton, Rougham, Norfolk
Bate, Robert...The Square, Bridgewater, Somerset
Bate, Samuel....Knutton, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire
Bate, William... Yaxley, Eye, Suffolk
Bateman, Henry...Asthall, Witney, Oxfordshire
Bateman, Henry...Maple Lodge, Rickmansworth, Hertfordshire
Bateman, Thomas... Guilsborough, Northampton
Bateman, Thos. Hudson. . Halton Park, near Lancast.
Bates, Rev. C. C...Castleton, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Bates, Edward...Shieldykes, Alnwick
Bates, George... Heddon, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Bates, Thos... Kirkleavington, near Yarm, Yorkshire
Bates, Thos. Ellis... Fittleton, Amesbury, Wilts
Bath, Robert Phippen...Northover, Glastonbury, Somersetshire
Bath, Thomas... Northover, Glastonbury, Somerset
Bathurst, Earl of. . Cirencester; Gloucestershire
Bathurst, Hon. Wm. L...38, Half-moon Street
Batley, Benj. James..,Lee Road, Blackheath, Kent
+Batson, Thos... Kynastone House, near Ross, Here- fordshire
Batt, William...West Drayton, Uxbridge, Middlesex
Batten, Abraham, ,Ayott St. Peter’s, Welwyn, Herts
+Batten, John... Yeovil, Somersetshire
Batterham, John... Terrington, near Lynn, Norfolk
+Battersby, A. G. Harford...Stoke Park, Redland, near Bristol
+Battersby, John Harford....Stoke Park, Redland, near Bristol
Batty, Benjamin R.... Fenny Hall, near Huddersfield
Bawden, H. J. Norris...Southmolton, Devon
Bawtree, F....Abberton, Colchester
Bawtree, John...Abberton, near Colchester, Essex
Baxter, Robert... Doncaster, Yorkshire
Baxter, S. S.... Atherstone, Warwickshire
Baxter, William Edward...35, High Street, Lewes
Bayes, T. H....Oak Farm, Iltringham, Aylsham
Bayning, Rev. Lord... Honingham Hall, Norfolk
Bayne, William...High Street, Oxford
Bayzand, Joseph,.Kingley, near Alcester, Warwksh.
Beach, John... Redmarley, near Gloucester
+Beach, Sir Michael Hicks, Bt....Williamstrip Park, Fairford, Gloucestershire
+Beadel, James...Witham, Essex
Beadon, Rev. Frederick... North Stoneham Rectory, Southampton
Beale, James,..Canford, Wimborne, Dorset
+Bearcroft, Edw...Mere Hall, Droitwich, Worcestsh.
Beard, Rev. Jas....Goldington House, near Bedford
Beard, John... Berwick Hall, Whitecolne, Halstead, Essex
Beard, William...Tormarton Cross Hands, Ciren- cester, Gloucestershire
Beards, Thomas...Stowe, near Buckingham
Beare, Samuel,.. Town Close, Norwich
+Beart, Robert. ..Godmanchester, Huntingdonshire
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Beaseley, John... Brampton, near Northampton’
Beaseley, Thomas Calvert...Harston, Grantham
Beauchamp, George Edw...The Priory, near Read- ing, Berks
Beauclerk, Lord Chas.. .80, Piccadilly
Beauford, Henry W...Bletsoe, near Bedford
Beaumont, E. B...Firmingley, Bawtry, Notts
Beaumont, John...Dalton, Huddersfield
+Beaumont, John Aug....Westhill, Wimbledon, Surrey
Beaumont, Joshua...Parkton Grove, Honley, Hud- dersfield
Beck, Charles Wm....Upton Priory, near Maccles- field, Cheshire
Beck, Edw.,.Harpley, Lynn, Norfolk
Beck, John...Congham, Castle Rising, Norfolk
Beck, John, jun...Castle Rising, Norfolk
Beck, Peter...Shrewsbury
Beckett, William, M.P...Kirkstall Grange, Leeds, Yorkshire ;
Beckford, Wm...12, Upper Belgrave Street
Beckwith, Rev. Henry... Eaton Constantine, Shrewsbury
Beddall, Charles... Dairy Farm, Finchinfiel¢e, Brain- tree, Essex
Beddall, Henry... Finchinfield, Braintree, Essex
Beddall, John ..Brent Hall, Finchinfield, Braintree, Essex
Beddall, Thomas, jun... Justices, Finchinfield, Brain- tree, Essex
Beddoe, Richard Cartwright.. .Bristol
Bedford, John... Woodcote, near Shiffnal, Salop
Beevor, Henry... Barnby Moor, East Retford, Notts
Beevor, Sir T. B., Bart...Hargham Hall, Attle- borough, Norfolk
Belcher, Robert Shirley...Burton-on-Trent, Staf- fordshire
+Beldam, Valentine... Royston, Hertfordshire
Belding, George... Newmarket Road, Norwich
Belding, Geo. B., jun.... Newmarket Road, Norwich
Bell, Christopher Seymour... Park Cottage, Alnwick
Bell, Henry.. . West Sherbourne, near Durham
Bell, John... Break’s Hall, Appleby, Westmoreland
Bell, Matthew, M.P... Woolsington, near Newcastle- on-Tyne
Bell, Richard Hansell... Deckham Hall, Gateshead
Bell, William...32, Bucklersbury
Bell, William Read...Gillingham, Shaftesbury
Bellairs, Rev. Henry...Bedworth Rectory, Coventry, Warwickshire
Belliss, Thomas... Brittle Street, Birmingham
Belliss, William... Burlington, Shiffnal, Shropshire
Beman, Robt., .Moreton-in-the-Marsh, Gloucesters.
Bence, Henry Alex....Oxford and Cambridge Club
Bencraft, Stephen... Barnstaple, Devon
Benington, Wm.,.Stockton-upon-Tees
Benn, Joseph... Lowther, Penrith, Cumberland
Benn, Thomas,..Greenbank, Whitehaven
Bennet, Philip...Rougham Old Hall, Bury St. Ed- munds, Suffolk
Bennet, Philip, jun., M.P....Rougham Hall, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk
Bennett, Absalom... Mertyn Hall, Holywell, Flint.
List of Members.
+Bennett, Barwell Ewins,..Marston House, Market Harborough, Leicestershire
Bennett, Charles... New Inn, Stowe, Buckingham
Bennett, Edward... Tettenhall, Wolverhampton
Bennett, John.,.Ingstone, Ross, Herefordshire
+Bennett, Joseph... Hitchin, Hertfordshire
Bennett, Joseph B. H..,Tutbury, Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire
Bennett, Samuel... Bickering’s Park, Woburn, Beds.
Bennett, Thomas,,.Penk Farm, Woburn, Beds.
Bennett, Thomas Oatley... Bruton, Somersetshire
Bennett, William...Lewsey, near Luton, Beds.
Bennion, Edw. David.,.Summer Hill, Oswestry
Benson, Alan..Papcastle, near Cockermouth, Cumb.
+Benson, Rev. Henry B....Utterby House, Louth, Lincolnshire
Benson, John,..Secretary of Farmers’ Club, York
Benson, John... Tavistock, Devonshire
Bent, John... Liverpool
Bent, Major John.,. Wexham Lodge, Slough, Bucks.
Bent, William, jun....Walton Grove, Walton-on- Thames
Bentall, Edward Hammond,..Heybridge, near Mal- don, Essex
Benyon, Rev. E. R....Culford Hail, Bury St. Ed- munds, Suffolk
+Bere, Montague B...Exeter
Beridge, Rev. Hele .Algarkirk, Spalding, Line.
Bernard, Rev. W....Chatworthy, Wiveliscombe, See ice
Berners, Captain Hugh, R.N....Gatcombe House, Newport, Isle of Wight
Berners, John... Holbrook, Suffolk
+Berney, Sir Henry, Bart....Sheepy, Atherstone, Warwickshire
Berney, Rev. Thomas.. brivekeriie, near Norwich
Berridge, Matthew...Ingarsby, Leicestershire
Berry, John...Chagford, Exeter, Devonshire
+Berwick, Lord. ..Cronkhill, Shrewsbury
Besley, Henry...South Street, Exeter
Best, Rev. F....Flyford Flavell, Alcester, Worcest.
Best, George. ..Compton, Guildford, Surrey
Best, Jas....Park House, Boxley, Maidstone, Kent
Best, Hon. and Rey. Samuel...Abbots-Ann, An- dover, Hampshire
Best, Rey.T....Red Rice House, near Andover, Hants
Bethell, John... Brighton
Bethell, Richard... Worglesdon, Guildford, Surrey
Bethell, William...Rise, Beverley
+Bethune, J. D....Thorncroft, Leatherhead, ‘Surrey
Betts, John...King’s Langley, Hertfordshire
Beyan, George Rees... Brecon, S. W.
Beynon, Join...Adpar Hill, Newcastle Emlyn, Carmarthenshire
Bick, Michael... Park Hill, Bromsgrove, Worcestsh.
Bicknell, Charles...Beaumaris, Anglesey
Biddle, Waring...Long Ham, Wimborne, Dorset
Biddulph, Robert... Ledbury, Herefordshire
Biddulph, Robert M.... Chirk Castle, Chirk, N. W.
Biel, Wm....St. Leonard’s Farm, Beaulieu, near Southampton
Bigg, Edward Smith. ..The Hyde, Slangham, Sussex
55?
Bigg, Thomas...21, Church Place, Hampstead
2 2)
]
Bigge, Chas, Wm....Linden, Morpeth, Northumld.
Bigge, Matthew Robert. ..Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Biggs, H....Stockton House, Heytesbury, Wilts
Biggs, James. ..Desborough, Kettering
Bigmold; Samuel... Norwich
Bilbie, Thos... .Nettleworth Hall, Mansfield, Notts
Bill, Joun...Trent Vale, Newcastle, Staffordshire
Billington, Leonard.,.Bull Hotel, Preston, Lancash.
Binks, Christopher... Friars Goose House, Gateshead
Birch, William John... Pudlicot, Enstone, Oxon
Birch, Wynley...Wretham Park, Thetford, Norfolk
Birchall, A. C.,.. Darlington
+Birchall, T....Kibbleton Hall, Preston, Lancashire
Bircham, Robert...Dunton, Fakenham
Bircham, Samuel...Booton Hall, Reepham, Norfolk
Bird, Rev. Christopher... Chollerton, Hexham
+Bird, Rey. James Waller...Breston, East Dereham
7Bird, Jolin... Yaxley, near Stilton, Huntingdonsh.
Bird, J. A....Park Cottage, Brixton, Surrey
Bird, Thomas... Westerfield, Ipswich, Suffolk
+Birkbeck, Henry... Norwich
Birket, Chas....Plungington Hall, Preston, Lancash.
Birks, J....Hemmingfield, near Barnsley, Yorksh,
Birt, Jacob, ..50, Sussex Gardens, Hyde Park
Biscoe, Thomas P. B....Kingellie House, Inverness
Bishop, John...23, New Bridge Street, Blackfriars
Bishop, John... Norwich
Bishop, Thomas...Brecon, S. W.
Bissill, Edward. .,Sutterton, Boston, Lincolnshire
Black, John.,. Marske, near Guisborough, Yorkshire
Blackbourn, D..,. Temple Brewer, Sleaford, Linc.
Blackburne, John Ireland, M.P....Hale, near War- rington, Lancashire
Blackburne, Captain John Ireland, junr..,.Light Oaks, Cheadle, Staffordshire
Blackden, J. C.... Ford, Berwick+on-Tweed
7Blacker, Murray...Loft Monks House, Beccles, Suffolk
Blacker, William..,Armagh, Ireland
Blackett, Sir Edwd., Bart....Matfen, Newcastle-on- Tyne, Northumberland
Blackett, Henry...Sockburn, Darlington, Durham
Blackstone, J....31, Bayham Terrace, Camden Town
Blagrave, Edward.,,Magdalen College, Oxford
Blagrave, Col. John...Calecot Park, Reading, Berks
+Blair, John...
Blake, Francis John...Norwich
Blake, James,..Bathingbourne, Newport, Wight, Hampshire
Blake, S. W....Venne House, near Wiveliscombe, Somerset
Blake, Thomas... Horstead, Norwich
Blake, William Jex....Swanton Abbots, Norfolk
Isle of
Scottow,
.| Blake, Wm. John..,62, Portland Place
Blakeway, William...Leigh Hall, Worthen, near Shrewsbury
Blakiston, Thomas...Thorpe Old Hall, Norwich
Bland, John.,. Wine Street, Bristol
Bland, William...Hartlip, Sittingbourne, Kent
Blane, Capt. Robert...2nd Life Guards
| Blane, Sir Seymour, Bar¢....The Pasture, Derby
| |
+Blane, Lieut.-Col..,.16, Lower Grosvenor Street
4
+Blanshard, Richard...37, Great Ormond Street
Blayds, C. C.... Seal Lodge, Farnham, Surrey
Blayds, John...Oulton Hall, Leeds
Blencowe, John George. .The Hooke, Chailey, Lewes
Blencowe, Robert W...»The Hooke, Lewes, Sussex
Blenkensop, John...Slake House, South Shields
Blennerhassett, Rev. William...Iwerne Vicarage, Blandford
Blick, Rev. Charles...Brandesburton, near Beverley
+Bliss, Rev. Philip, DD....Oxford
Bliss, William...Dean House, Kimbolton
Blisset, Rev. H....Letton, Weobley, near Hereford
Blomfield, Lieut.-Col....Necton Hall, Swaffham
Blomfield, John, jun.... Warham, Wells, Norfolk
Blood, J. Howell... Witham, Essex
Bloodworth, Thos.... Kimbolton, Huntingdonshire
Bloxham, William...28, Duke Street, Grosvenor Square
Blundell, Joseph...Maidenstone Heath, Hound, Southampton
Blundstone, Wm....Lady Wood, Rick Hallam, near Derby
Blunt, Edwd. W....Kempshott Park, Basingstoke, Hampshire
Blyth, D’Urban...Great Massingham, Rougham, Norfolk
Blyth, H. E....Burnham Westgate, Norfolk
Blyth, Robert John... Norwich
Blyth, William... Weasenham, Rougham
Boards, William...Edmonton, Middlesex
Roby, Charles... Alton Hall, Stutton, Ipswich, Suffolk
Boddington, Benj....Burcher Court, near Kington, Herefordshire
Boden, Henry ..The Field, Derby
Bodenham, Francis Lewis...Hereford
Bodley, John...Stockleigh, Crediton, Devonshire
Body, Moses... Northiam, Rye, Sussex
Body, Wm....South Brent, near Cross, Somerset
Boger, Deeble...Plympton, Devonshire
Boileau, John Elliot... Ketteringham Park, Wy- mondham
Boileau, Sir John Peter, Bart.. .Ketteringham Park, Wymondham, Norfolk
Bolam, Christopher...Low Northumberland
Bolam, Isaac W...:Fawdon, Whittingham, North- umberland
Bolam, Jno... Easington Grange, Belford, Northumb.
Bolam, William... Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Bolden, John...Hyning, Lancaster
Bolden, Samuel Edward... Lancaster
Boldero, H....South Lodge, Horsham
Bolton, George.. .Shropham, Larlingford
Bolton, Lord... Hackwood Park, Basingstoke, Hants
Bompus, G. G., M.D....Fishponds, Bristol, Som.
Bond, Barnabus...Alburgh, Harleston, Norfolk
Bond, Benjamin... Draycot, Stone, Staffordshire
Bond, Rev- N....Eglestone Holme, near Wareham, Dorsetshire
Bond, Thomas... Bishop’s Lydeard, Taunton
Bond, Thos. James... Perry Elm, Wellington, Somerset
Trewitt, Rothbury,
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Bonham, Rey. J....Ballintaggart, Ballitore, Ireland
Booker, Josias... Allerton, near Liverpool
Booker, Thos. Wm.... Velindra House, near Cardiff, Glamorganshire
Booth, James Godfrey... Hamburgh
Booth, John...Kelston Grange, Louth, Lincolnshire
Booth, John... Killerby, Catterick, Yorkshire
Booth, John...Cotham, Newark, Nottinghamshire
Booth, Richard... Warlaby, Northallerton, Yorksh.
Booth, Wm. B....Carclew, near Penryn, Cornwall
Bocthby, J. B.... Twyford Abbey, Acton, Middlesex
+Borough, C. B....Chetwynd Park, Newport, Shrop- shire
Bosanquet, Rev. R. W....Roch, near Alnwick, Nor- thumberland
Bostock, Ellis...41, Hunter Street, Brunswick Sq.
Boswell, Thos. Alexander. ..Crawley Grange, New- port Pagnell, Bucks.
Bosworth, Charles...Dishley, Loughborough
Bosworth, Thos. Wright. ..Spratton, Northampton
7Botfield, Beriah.,.Norton Hall, Daventry, North- amptonshire
+Botham, George... Wexham Court, Slough, Bucks.
Bott, John...Coton Hall, Burton-on-Trent, Staff.
Boucher, Chas....Greenway House, Wiveliscombe
Boucher, Jas....Kinlet Hall, Bewdley, Worcest.
Boucher, Jas. G., jun....Shidfield House, Wickham, Hampshize 2
Boucherett, A.... Willingham House, Market Rasen
Boughton, Sir W. E. R....Downton Hall, Ludlow, Salop
Boultbee, John... Noyadd House, Aberayron, South Wales
7Bourn, James, jun....Mawley Town Farm, Cleo- bury Mortimer, Shropshire
Bourne, John,..Hildenstone, Stone, Staffordshire
Bourne, John,..5, South Parade, Leeds
Bourne, Wm. Kemp...Fisherwick, Lichfield
Bouverie, Edward,..De la Pré Abbey, Northampton
Bonverie, Hon. P. Pleydell...Brymore, Bridgewater, Somersetshire
Bouverie, Rey. W. Arundell,..Denton Rectory, Harleston, Norfolk
Bowden, Henry...Coopers, Chislehurst
Bowen, Geo....Coton Hall, Prees, near Whitchurch, Shropshire
Bowen, Jas....Troedyraur, Newcastle-Emlyn, S. W.
Bower, Thomas Bowyer...Iwerne House, Blandford
Bowers, John... Westdean House, Chichester, Sussex
Bowett, Thomas... Warsop, near Mansfield, Notts
Bowles, J. T....Milton Hill, Abingdon, Berks
Bowly, David,..Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Bowly, Edw..,.Siddington House, near Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Bowly, William C....Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Bowman, Chas....Greatford, Market Deeping, Lin- colnshire
Bowman, Fred....Belmont Cottage, Duddington, Stamford, Linc.
Bowser, Richard,..Bishop Auckland, Durham
Bowser, Wm.,...Tunstall, near Hartlepool, Durham
Bowstead, John.,.Beckbank, Penrith, Cumberland
Box, Philip... Radclive, Buckingham
List of Members. 15
Boxall, W. B....Stepham, Petworth
Boycott, Thos..,. Rudge Hall, Wolverhampton, Staff.
Boycott, Wm.,.. Donnington, Shiffnal, Shropshire
Boyd, Thomas...Holt, Norfolk
Boyes, Wm. Edw....Alkerton, Banbury, Oxfordsh.
Boyle, Robert...Ayr, Scotland
Boys, Robert... Eastbourne, Sussex
Bracebridge, C. H....Atherstone Hall, Atherstone
Brackenbury, Wm, T....Shouldham-Thorpe, Down- ham, Norfolk
Braddock, Henry... Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk
Bradfield, Jas. B. Sanders. ..Stoke Ferry, Norfolk
Bradley, Edward.,.Traguff, Cowbridge, Glamorgan- shire
Bradley, John...Blyth, near Worksop, Notts.
Bradley, Thomas. ..Richmond, Yorkshire
Bradshaw, F., jun....Barton-le-Blount, near Derby
+Bradshaw, John...Knowle, Cranley, Surrey
Brady, Robert Watts... Kerdiston, Reepham, Norf,
Bragg, William..,Cockermouth, Cumberland
Bragge, Colonel...Sadborough Park, Chard
Bragington, George... Torrington, Devon
Braithwaite, J.,..Orresthead, Kendal, Westmoreld.
Braithwaite, Septimus... Powell Villa, Weymouth
Brakenridge, John... Bretton Park, Wakefield
Bramwell, D. K.,..Funtington, Chichester
Brand, Henry...Glynde, Lewes
Brand, Thomas,..The Hoe, Weiwyn, Hertfordshire
+Brander, Robert Burnett...Essex Lodge, Norwood
Brandford, W. W....Godwick, Litcham, Norfolk
Brandram, John B..,.Chapmore End, Ware, Herts.
Branson, T.,.Norton Cottage, near Shiffnal, Shrops.
Branwhite, Chas. H...Gestingthorpe, Sudbury, Suff.
Brasnett, Thomas,,,Saham, Watton, Norfolk
Bravender, John...Cirencester _
Brent, Dr....Sydney Cottage, Woodbury, Exeter
+Bretts, Chas..,.Exbury House, Fawley, Hants
Brewer, Edgar,...The Maindee, Newport, Mon- mouthshire
Brewer, John...8, Upper Bedford Place, Russell Sq.
Brewit, Thomas...Rayleigh, Essex
Brewitt, John,.. Wickford, Ingatestone, Essex
Brewster, Joseph. .. Brewood, Penkridge, Staffordsh.
Brickwell, C....Overthorpe Lodge, Banbury, Oxon
Brickwell, John D....
Brickwell, William Henry..Leckhampstead, Bucks.
Bridge, Sealy. ..South Petherton, Somersetshire
Bridge, Thomas... Buttsbury, Ingatestone, Essex
Bridges, John. ,. Westwood, Tuxford, Notts.
+Briggs, Rawdon....Birstwith Hall, Harrowgate, Yorkshire
+Briggs, Rawdon, jun.....Birstwith Hall, Harrow- gate, Yorkshire
+Bright, J... Teddesley Park Farm, Penkridge, Staff.
Bright, John, M.D.,..19, Manchester Square
Bright, Joseph... Leamington, Warwickshire
Bright, Paul.. .Sheffield ;
Brigstocke, Rey. Augustus..,Gellidywyll, Newcastle Emlyn, Carmarthenshire
Brigstocke, W. O.... .Blaenpont, near Newcastle Emlyn
Brine, Rev. A.J... Boldre Hill, Lymington, Hamps.
Brine, W...Tolpuddle, near Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Brisco, Musgrave, M.P....Coghurst Hall, near Has- tings, Sussex
Brise, John Ruggles...Spains Hall, Finchingfield, Braintree, Essex
Brittain, G. Dawes, ...Ercall Park, Wellington, Salop
Broade, P.B... Fenton Hall,Stoke-upon-Trent,Stafls.
Broadhurst, Thomas M... Brandiston, Woodbridge, Suffolk
Broadmead, Nicholas.,.Langport, Somerset
Brockman, F. H....Beachborough, Hythe, Kent
Brodhurst, J. E..,Crow Hill, near Mansfield, Notts.
+Broke, Sir A. de Capell.. .Oakley, Kettering
Brokenbrow, Wm. Perrins,..Beenham Farm, near Reading, Berkshire
Bromfield, W. Williams... Dunchurch, Warwickshire
Bromley, John... Derby
Bromley, Robert... Derby
Bromley, Rev. Walter Davenport... Wootton Hall, Ashbourne, Derbyshire
Bromwich, Thomas, ..Wolston, Coventry
Brook, Arthur Sawyer... Bexhill, Hastings, Sussex
Brook, Thos... .Pencraig Court, near Ross, Hereford
Brooke, Edward,..Burnage, Withington, Manchester
Brooke, James,..Park Farm, Brading, Newport, Isle of Wight
Brooke, John William...Sibton Hall, Yoxford
+Brooke, Sir Rich., Bart....Norton Priory, Runcorn, Frodsham, Cheshire
Brooke, W...Babworth Cottage, near Retford, Notts
+Brooke, Wm. de Capell,..The Elms, Market-Har- borough, Leicestershire
Brooker, Pitman... Foot’s Cray, Kent
Brookes, William... Elmstree, Tetbury, Glouc.
+Brooks, Bernard...Lyford, Abingdon, Berkshire
Brooks, Rey. Jonathan,.. Everton, near Liverpool
Brooks, Thomas...Croxby, near Caistor, Lincoln.
Broomhall, T. T... Beech Cliffe, Stone, Staffordshire
Bros, Thomas,..16, St. James’s Place
Brough, Wm....Shaw Farm, Overton, Wiltshire
Broughton, Richard N.... Llwynygroes, Llany- mynich, Oswestry
Brouncker, Richard... Boveridge, Cranborne, Dorset
+Brown, Alex....Birely Grange, Wetherby, Yorksh.
Brown, Chas...Redbourn, St. Albans, Hertfordshire
Brown, David...Cathendine House, near Brecon
Brown, Edward.,..Harewood, Leeds, Yorkshire
Brown, Francis... Welbourn, Grantham, Lincolnsh.
+Brown, Frederick,...King Street, Norwich
Brown, G..., Avebury, near Marlborough, Wiltshire
Brown, Geo. .. Kingsley Cottage, Alton, Hampshire
Brown, Henry..Ashby-de-la-Zouche, Leicestershire
+Brown, Rey. H. H....Burton, Sleaford, Lincolnsh,
Brown, Henry Langford...Barton Lodge, Kings- kerswell, Newton Abbot, Devonshire
Brown, Isaac..Cowpen Lodge, Blyth, Northumberl.
Brown, John,..,Compton, East Ilsley, Berkshire
Brown, John,..Pear-tree Hill, Elm White Lion, Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire
Brown, John,..Lower Upham Farm, Hogbourne St. George, Marlborough, Wiltshire
Brown, John,,.Wingerworth Hall, Chesterfield
Brown, John...Seaton Delaval Hall, North Shields, Northumberland
16
Brown, John Thomas,.. Pitt Street, Norwich
Brown, John W.,..Ufcott, near Swindon, Wiltshire
Brown, Joseph Lyne...Beaumont Cote, Barton-on- Humber
Brown, Rev. L. R.... Kelsall, Saxmundham, Suffoik
+Brown, Potto... Houghton, near Huntingdon
Brown, Robert Jefferys...Cirencester
Brown, Thomas... Packington, Lichfield, Staffordsh.
+Brown, Thomas...Branbridge, Hand Cross, near |
Horsham, Sussex
Brown, Thomas C...Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Brown, William...Tring, Hertfcrdshire
Brown, William...Horton, Devizes, Wiltshire
+Brown, William... Richmond Hill, Liverpool
Brown, William.,.South Mills, Blunham, St. Neots
Brown, William...New Court, Ross, Herefordshire
Brown, William... Winterbourne Stoke, Salisbury
Browne, George Lathom ..3, Brick Court, Temple
Browne, John...Chisledon, Marlborough, Wiltshire
Browne, Rey. R. G.S...Atwick Vicarage, near Horn- sea, E. R. Yorkshire
Browne, Rich...Duncombe Farm, Crediton, Devon
Browne, T. Beale...Salperton House, Andoversford, Gloucestershire
Browne, Rev. T. C...The Priory, Sydenham, Kent
+Browne, Wade...Monkton Farleigh House, Brad- ford, Wiltshire —
Browne, William...Titchwell, Lynn, Norfolk
Browne, Wm....Stuckeridge Farm, near Tiverton, Devon
Brownlow, George... Woottondale, Barrow-on-Hum- ber, Lincolnshire
Broce, C. L. C., M.P...Dunphail, Forres, N.B.
Bruce, J... Tiddington, Stratford-on-Avon, Warwick- shire
Bruges, William...Haxon, Pewsey, Wiltshire
Bruges, W. H. L., M.P...Seend, Melksham, Wilts
Bryan, Fred. Thomas...Knossington, near Oakham
Brymer, J... Burgate House, Fordingbridge, Hants
+Bubb, Anth,..Witcombe Court, near Gloucester
Buck, James... Warham, Wells, Norfolk
Buck, William...East Farleigh, Maidstone
Bucke, L., M.P... Moreton House, Bideford, Devon
Buckland, George.. Benenden, Cranbrook, Kent
Buckland, Thomas, jun... Wraysbury, Staines
Buckley, Col. Edwd. P.... New Hall, near Salisbury
Buckley, John N.., Normanton Hill, Loughborough, Leicestershire
Buckmaster, J. C.... Parkhurst, Isle of Wight
Buggins, John..,Sutton Coldfield, Birmingham
+Bulkeley, Sir Rich. W., Bart....Baron Hill, Beau- maris, Isle of Anglesey ;
Bull, Alban...Hanwell, Banbury, Oxon
Bull, Humphry...Aston Clinton, Tring
Bullen, John...Charmouth, Lyme Regis, Dorset
Buller, Sir A...Pound, near Plymouth, Devonsh.
Buller, James Wentworth... Downes, Exeter
Buller, John Buller Yarde...Churston Court, Tor- quay
+Buller, Sir John Buller Yarde, Bart., M.P....Lup- ton, Torquay
Bullimore, W... Witham, near Grantham, Line.
Bulling, John.,.Great Tew, Enstone, Oxon
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Bullock, Benjamin. ..Spital Hill, Morpeth +Bullock, F...East Challow, Wantage, Berkshire
- Bullock, Henry... Marden Ash, Ongar, Essex
Bulmer, Charles... Hereford
Bult, Jas. S...Dodhill House, Kingston, Taunton, Somersetshire
Bulwer, Rev. James...Aylsham
Bulwer, Wm. Lytton...Heydon Hall, Reepham,Norf.
Bunbury, H. M...Marlston House, Newbury, Berks
Bunny, Edward Brice.. ,Speen Hill, Newbury
Burd, T,.. Whiston Priory, near Shrewsbury, Salop
Burden, Rowland...Castle Eden, Stockton-on-Tees, Durham
Burder, Alfred H...Hinnington, Shiffnal, Shropsh.
Burdon, George,...Heddon House, Newcastle-on- Tyne, Northumberland
Burgam, H...Bickerton Court, Ledbury, Herefrdsh.
Burgess, Henry...29, St. Swithin’s Lane, City
Burgess, James... Ridlington Park, Uppingham, Rutlandshire
Burgess, John....Muston, near Blandford, Dorset
Burgess, Joseph S...Holme Pierrepont, Notts.
Burgess, Robt... Winterbourne Zelston, Blandford, Dorsetshire
Burgess. Stephen. . » Westbrook, Lydd, Kent
Burgess, Wm...Wiggenhall, St. Mary Magdalen, Lynn, Norfolk
Burgoyne, Sir John M., Bart... Sutton Park, Biggles- wade, Bedfordshire
Burke, J, French.. .William Street, Woolwich
Burn, Richard...Orton Hall, Penrith
Burn, William. ..Shirland, near Alfreton, Derbyshire
Burne, T. H...,Loyriton Hall, Newport, Shropsh.
Burnell, Edward... Hanham, near Bristol
Barnell, Edward Pegge...Winkburne Hall, near Southwell, Notts.
Burnham, Geo.... Wellingborough, Northamptonsh.
Burnham, James. .,Winwick, West Haddon, North- am ptonshire
Burnbam, Wm. Booth,..Spital Farm, Lower Beb- bington, Birkenhead
+Burr, Daniel Higford...
Burr, Edward... Dunstable, Bedfordshire
Burrard, Geo... Walhampton, Lymington, Hants
Burrell, Bryan...Broome Park, near Alnwick
+Burrell, Charles... Thetford
Burrell, James F., jun...Manor Farm, Frimley, Bag- shot
Burrell, John...Fornham St. Martin, Bury St. Ed- munds
Burrell, Robert... Durham
Burrell, Walton... Westley, Bury St. Edmunds
Burroughes, Hen. Negus, M.P....Burlingham Hall, Norwich
Burroughes, Rey. Jeremiah... Lingwood Lodge, Nor- wich
Burroughes, Rev. T....Gazeley, Newmarket
Burroughes, Wm...-Burlingham, near Norwich
Burroughs, James Burkin.,.Burlingham Hall, Nor- wich
Burt, Henry...Gincocks Farm, Oxted, Surrey
Burt, Wm..,.Witchampton, Wimborne, Dorsetsh.
Burton David, jun.,.Cherry Burton, Beverley
List of Members.
Burton, Robert... Longnor Hall, Shrewsbury
Burton, Thomas, jun....Thurton, near Norwich
Burton, Thomas...Langley Grange, Loddon, Norf.
Burtt, James..,Clenston, Blandford, Dorsetshire
Bury, Edward...Hanslope Park, Wolverton, Bucks.
7Bush, John Whittaker....Fairwood, Westbury, Wilts
Bushell, W.,.Poulton, Ash, Kent
Busk, E. Thos... Ford’s Grove, Edmonton, Middlesex
Busk, Joseph. .. Little Birkhempstead, Hertfordsh.
Buston, Roger,..Buston, near Alnwick
Butcher, Edward...Tring
Butcher, Richard... Longville, Wenlock, Salop
Butler, Ambrose E,...19, Call Lane, Kepstearn, Kirkstall, Leeds
Butler, G.,.Bowling-green, eoaedo Berks
7Butler, Henry...Tulse Hill, Brixton, Surrey
Butler, John...Caerleon, Newport, Monmouthshire
Butler, Capt. John... Kirby House, Inkpen, Hunger- ford, Berkshire
Butler, Major Robert...
Butler, Thomas... Walwick, Hexham
Butler, Thomas... Ewell Hall, Kelvedon, Essex
+Butterfield, C. Cotton....The Bank, Petersfield, Hants
+ Butterfield, John Hen... Brackley, Northamptonsh.
+Buxton, Sir Edw. North, Bt.,M.P...Runcton, Norf,.
Byron, Robert...Bradford, Yorkshire
Cadle, Joseph... Westbury-on-Severn, Gloucest.
+Calcraft, J. H...Kemstone, Corfe Castle, Dorset
7Caldecott, Thos., .Rugby Lodge, Rugby, Warwicks.
Caldecott, William..,Frating Lodge, Frating, Col- chester
Caldicott, C.M...Holbrook Grange, near Rugby
Caldwell, H. B.,.Hilborowe Hall, Brandon
Caldwell, J. S...Linley Wood, Newcastle, Staffs.
Caldwell, Capt. William...3, Audley Square
Caley, Digby... Ripon, Yorkshire
Calhoun, W. F..,.Binderton, near Chichester, Sussex
Calvert, Edmund...Hunsdon, Ware, Hertfordshire
Calvert, Maj.-Gen. Felix,..Hunsdon House, Ware, Herts.
7Calvert, Frederick,..9, St. James’s Place
Calvert, Dr. J. W....11, Blandford P1., Park
Cambridge, William,..Market Lavington, Devizes, Wilts
Cambridge, Wm....South Runcton, Downham Mar- ket, Norfolk
Camden, Marquis.., Wilderness Park, Seven Oaks, Kent
Cammell, Charles... Wadsley House, Sheffield
Campbell, Rev. Chas....Weasenham, Norfolk
Campbell, Robert... Fakenham, Norfolk
Campion, Arthur. ..Circus, Exeter
Campion, Rev. C. H...Albourne Rectory, Hurstper- point, Sussex
Campion, Edwd..,.Melchbourne, Higham Ferrers, Northamptonshire
Campion, Wm. J., jun...Danny, near Brighton
Cane, Rev. T. C...Southwell, Nottinghamshire;
Cannon, Joseph Sims, ..Beckley, Oxford
Regent’s
| Capron, George. | Carew, John F...
17
Cantrell, Charles S., jun....Shaw Farm, Windsor, Berks.
Cantrell, Hy... Bayliss Court, Stoke, Slough, Bucks.
7Capel, Arthur....Bulland Lodge, Wiveliscombe, Somersetshire
Capel, Wm...The Grove, Stroud, Gloucestershire
Capper, Henry...The Willows, Coar’s End, near Great Marlow, Bucks
.. Stoke, Northamptonshire
-Crowcombe Court, near Taunton, Somersetshire
+Carew, W. H. Pole...Anthony House, Devonport, Devon
Carey, John..,Pylle House, Shepton Mallet, Soms.
Cargey, George...Sandon Hall Farm, Stafford
Carins, Michael.,.Meldon, Morpeth, Northumberl.
+Carleton, Hon. and Rey. Rd...25, Bruton Street
Carlin, Wm., jun... Haverfieid, Pattrington, Hull
+7Carline, R... Lincoln
Carlisle, Bishop of... Rose Castle, Carlisle
Carnac, Sir J. R., Bart... Warborne, near Lyming- ton, Hants
+Carnarvon, Earl of...Highclere House, Newbury, Berkshire
Carnegie, Hon. J. J.,..Fair Oak, near Petersfield, Hampshire
Carpenter, John Nelson,..Eardisland, near Leomin- ster, Herefordshire
Carpmael, William...Streatham Hill, Surrey
Carr, George...Greenla Walls, Berwick-on-Tweed
Carr, John..,Roseworth, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Carr, Ralph....Dunstan Hill, near Newcastle-on- Tyne
Carrington, Fred. A...10, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden
Carrington, Geo., jun.. Buckinghamshire
Carrington, John,..Croxden, near Uttoxeter, Staffs.
Carrol, H.,.Tulla House, Nenagh, Tipperary
Carruthers, Day...Grondra House, Chepstow, Mon- mouthshire
Carter, John... Scales Farm, Richmond, Yorkshire
Carter, John,..65, Southmolton Street
+Carter, John Bonham,..Ditcham Grove, Peters- field, Hampshire
Carter, J. R....Spalding, Lincolnshire
Carter, John Thomas...Hunstanton, Lynn, Norfolk
Carter, J. W.... Little Totham Hall, Maldon, Essex
Carter, Thos....Styvechale, Coventry, Warwickshire
Carter, Thomas A.,..Lynn Regis, Norfolk
Carter, Thomas S...Moor Place, Much Hadham, near Ware, Hertfordshire
Carter, T. S.... Watlington Park, Tetsworth, Oxon.
Cartlich, Thos... Chill Lodge, Tunstall, Staffordsh.
Cartwright, Geo... Cliff Cottage, Lyme Regis, Dorset.
Cartwright, Moses,...Stanton House, Burton-on- Trent, Staffordshire
Cartwright, Nathaniel... Haugham, Louth?
Cartwright, Richard Aubrey...Edgceott, Banbury
Cartwright, R. Norton... The Abbey, Ixworth, Suff.
Cartwright, Sir Thomas...Aynhoe Park, Brackley
+Cartwright, Thomas W....Ragnall Hall, Newton, Newark, Nottinghamshire
-The Abbey, Gt. Missenden,
D
18
Cartwright, Col. W.... Weedon, Northamptonshire
Carver, W. C....Melbourn, Royston, Heitfordshire
Carver, William...Ingarsby, near Leicester
Case, Frederick...Testerton House, Fakenham
Case, John Ashton...Hartham Park, Corsham, Chippenham
Castellain, Alfred... Liverpool
Castellain, Hermenegild,..Belgian Consul, 3, Cort- hall Court
Castle, T... Worle, Weston-super-mare, Somersetsh.
Castlereagh, Viscount...25, Chesham Place, Bel- grave Square
Castree, Josiah. ..Gloucester
Cathcart, Sir John Andrew...Cooper’s Hill, Chert- sey
Catherall, John...Mold, Flintshire, N. W.
Catlin, Thomas..Butley Abbey, Woodbridge, Suffolk
Cator, Capt. J. H....10, Wood Street, Woolwich
Cator, Col., R.H.A... Beckenham, Kent
Catt, Wm... Bishopstone, Newhaven, Sussex
+Caulfield, St. George...Wentworths, Chertsey, Surrey.
Caulton, John Thomas...Spalding, Lincolnshire
Cavan, Earl of... Barford House, Bridgewater
Cave, Sir John Cave Browne, Bart... Stretton-in-the- Fields, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire
Cavendish, Hon. F....Codicote Lodge, Welwyn, Herts
+Cavendish, Hon. Capt. G., R.N....Lyne Grove, Chertsey, Surrey
Cavendish, Hon. George H., M.P....Ashford Hall, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Cavendish, Hon. William Geo... Latimer, Chesham Bucks.
+Cawdor, Earl of,..74, South Audley Street
Cawley, James. ..Heath House, Runcorn, Cheshire
Cayley, E. S., M.P...Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire
Chadwick, E...4, Stanhope St., Hyde Park Gardens
+Chadwick, Elias...Pudleston Court, Leominster
Chaffey, R. T...Perridge House, Shepton Mallet
+Chafy, W. W...»Connington House, St. Ives, Hun- tingdon
Chalcraft, W...Bramshot House, Liphook
Challenor, John... Blackwood, near Leek
Chamberlain, Hen... Bredicot Court, near Worcester
Chamberlain, Henry...Desford, near Leicester
Chamberlain, Robert. .. Norwich
TChamberlayne, Thomas...Cranbury Park, Win- chester, Hampshire
Chamberlin, Fred....Toft Monks, Norfolk
Chambers, George...High Green, Sheffield
Chambers, J...The Hurst, Tibshall, Alfreton
Chambers, Joseph. ..Wilne, near Shardlow, Derbysh.
Chambers, Thomas, jun....Colkirk, Fakenhara
Chambers, William Frederick.,.Hordle Cliff, Ly- mington
Chamhers, Wm., jun....Llanelly House, Llanelly, Carmarthenshire
Champion, F. B... Edale, near Castleton, Derbyshire
Champion, H...Ranby, near East Retford, Notts.
Champion, Rev. John...Taxal Rectory, Stockport, Cheshire
Champion, T. A,, ,Sarr, near Margate, Kent
>
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Champion, W...Bridge House, Worksop, Notting- hamshire
Champneys, Rev. T. Phipps...Snarleston, near Wakefield
Chandler, Henry...Salford, Manchester
Chandler, Thomas...Stockton, Warminster, Wilts.
Chaplin, F...Tathwell, Louth, Lincolnshire
Chaplin, W. Jas.,M.P....Ewehurst Park, Basingstoke
Chapman, Benjamin...Lambcroft, Skelton, Guis- borongh
Chapman, George...3, Arundel Street, Strand
Chapman, Thos...Stoneleigh, Coventry, Warwicksh.
Chapman, Thomas...Esher Lodge, Esher, Surrey
Chapman, Thomas...3, Arundel Street, Strand
Chapman, T. S.... Aston Clinton, near Tring, Herts.
Chapple, William...Gornhay, Tiverton
Chare, Robert... Buckland Marsh, Faringdon, Berks
Charleton, Charles Forster.,.Alndike, near Alnwick
Charlton, P...Withyford Hall, Shrewsbury, Shrops.
+Charlton, St. John Chiverton...Apley Castle, Wel- lington, Shropshire
Charlton, Thos. P... Hilden, near Tonbridge, Kent
Charlton, W. H....Hedleyside, Hexham
Charnock, John Henry...Copmanthorpe, near York
Charrington, Nicholas...Leytonstone, Essex
Charteris, Hon. F., M.P....Armisfield, Haddington, N. B.
Chasemore, P...Horsham, Sussex
Chatterton, Richard. .Hallington, Louth, Lincolnsh.
Chatterton, William..,.High Risby, Barton-on- Humber
Chattock, J...Hay House, Castle Bromwich, near Birmingham
Chawner, Henry... Hound Hill, Uttoxeter, Staffs.
Chawner, Rich,..Sudbury, Derbyshire
+Chawner, Richard Croft... Wall, Lichfield, Staffs.
Cheale, Alex. J....Uckfield, Sussex
Cheatle, Farmer... Dosthill, Fazeley, Staffordshire
Cheere, Rev. G... Papworth Hall, Caxton, Cambs.
Cheere, W. H... Papworth Hall, Caxton, Cambs.
Cheese, John...Castle Weir, Kington, Herefordshire
Cheffins, H.... Little Easton Manor, near Dunmow, Essex
Cheney, Edward...Gaddesley Hall, Melton Mow- bray
Cheney, R. H...Badger Hall, near Shiffnal, Shrops.
Cherry, Alfred Henry...Clapham, Surrey
Cherry, George H...Denford, Hungerford, Berks.
Chester, Thomas....Haven Farm, near Tickhill, Bawtry, Nottinghamshire
Chetwode, Sir John Newdigate Ludford, Bart.... Ansley Halli, Atherstone, Warwickshire
Chetwynd, William Henry...Longdon, Lichfield
Chetwynde, Major Wm. Fawkner...Brocton Hall, near Lichfield, Staffordshire
Chichester, Bishop of... Palace, Chichester, Sussex
Child, Thos....™Michelham Priory, Hailsham, Sussex
Child, Rev. V. Knox...Takeley, Dunmow, Essex
Child, Wm...Wigmore Grange, Ludlow, Shropshire
Child, Wm....Vernham Manor, Andover, Hants.
Chitty, Edward. ,.Guildford, Surrey
Cholmeley, Henry... Brandsby, near York
List of Members.
{Cholmeley, Sir M.J., Bart.... Easton Hall, Col- stersworth, Lincolnshire
Cholmeley, Waldo....Staincross, near Barnsley, Yorkshire
+Cholmondeley, Lord H...Holly Hill, Southampton
Chouler, Chas....Wollaton, near Nottingham
Choyce, W....Ham’s Bridge, Atherstoue, Warw.
Chrisp, Thomas. ..Hawkhill, Alnwick, Northumb.
Christian, John Robert....16, St. Mary Abbott’s Terrace, Kensington
Christie, Langham...Preston Deanery, Hackleton, Northampton
Christmas, James...Hayling, near Havant, Hants.
Chune, Geo... .Coalbrookdale, Salop
Church, John... Woodside, Hatfield
Churchill, Geo...,Buckland-Reapers, Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Churchill, Henry. ,Barton House, Morshard Bishop, Exeter
Churchward, Henry....Stone House, Brideslow, Oakhampton, Devon
Churehyard, Isaac... Petistree, Wickham Market, Suffolk
+Churton, John.. -Foregate Street, Chester
Chute, W. L. Wiggett, M.P....The Vine, Basing- stoke, Hants
Clare, W. H...Twycross, Atherstone, Leicestershire
Clarina, Lord...Elm Park, Limerick, Ireland
7Clark, Edwin...Ellinthorpe Hall, Boroughbridge, Yorkshire
Clark, Geo....Hyde Hall, Sandon, Buntingford, Herts.
7+Clark, Heaton. .Ellinthorpe Lodge, near Borough- bridge, Yorkshire
fClark, James...Chapel Farm, Burley, Oakham, Rutlandshire
Clark, Rev. Johu Crosby...Chertsey, Surrey
Clark, John Wm...Timsbury Farm, Romsey, Hants.
Clark, Joseph...Maidenhead, Berkshire
Clark, N., jun. .. Urpeth, Chester-le-Street, Durham
Clark, Thos., jun.,..Derndale, near Hereford
Clark, Wm. John...Buckland Toutsaints, Kings- bridge, Devon
Clarke, Charles...Aisthorpe, near Lincoln
Clarke, Sir C. Mansfield, Bart., F.R.S.... Wigginton Lodge, Tamworth
Clarke, Edward. ..Canwick, near Lincoln
Clarke, George Rochfort. ,.Chesterton Lodge, Bicester
Clarke, Jno... Long Sutton, Lincolnshire
Clarke, John Altham Graham...Kinnersley Castle, Hereford
Clarke, Joseph, jun....Waddington Glebe, Lincoln
Clarke, R. Trevor... Welton Place, Daventry
Clarke, Thos. Truesdale...Swakeleys, Uxbridge
Clarke, W. R.... Wymondham, Norfolk
+Clavering, W....University Club, Suffolk Street :
Clay, John...East Boldon, near South Shields |
+Clay, Sir William, Bart., M.P....Fulwell Lodge, Twickenham, Middlesex
Clayden, John... Littlebury, Saifron Walden, Essex
Claydon, Charles. ,.Cambridge
Claypon, Joseph. .9, Westbourne Street, Hyde Park Gardens
19
Clayton, David S..,. Norbury, near Stockport, Ches.
Clayton, Hy...21, Upper Park Place, Dorset Square
Clayton, John.,.Chesters, Hexham
Clayton, Nathaniel...Melvell Street, Lincoln
Clayton, R. C. B....Adlington Hall, Wigan, Lance.
Cleave, Benjamin... Newcombe, Crediton, Devon
Clement, Hampden...Snareston Lodge, Atherstone, Warwickshire .
Clement, W. J....Shrewsbury
Clerk, Edmund Hugh..Westholme House, Shepton Mallet, Somersetshire
Clerke, Rev. Francis.,Eydon, Brackley, Northamp.
Cleveland, Augustus,..Tapley Park, Barnstaple
Cleveland, Duke of.. Newton House, Bedale, Yorks.
Clifford, Henry Clifford... Frampton Court, Dursley
Clifford, Hy. Morgan...Llantilio, Crosseney, Rag- land, Monmouthshire
Clinton, Colonel F....No. 1, Haymarket
Clinton, Lieut.-Col. H....6, Audley Square
Clinton, Lord...Hinton House, Hatherleigh, Devon
+Clive, Rev. Archer... Solihull Rectory, Warwicksh.
Clode, John ... Great Linford, Newport Pagnell, Bucks.
+Clonbrock, Lord .,.Clonbrock, Ayaseragh, Ireland
Clough, John... Bootham, York
Clover, John... Kirtling Place, Newmarket, Cambs.
+Clowes, Edmund. ..Warton, Lancaster
Clowes, Wm. Leigh,..Spondon, near Derby
Clutterbuck, Rev. Jas. Charles...Long Wittenham, Abingdon, Berkshire
Clutterbuck, Robert... Watford House, Watford, Herts.
Clutton, John...8, Whitehall Place
Clutton, Robert... Hartswood, Reigate, Surrey
Clutton, Thos. C.,,.Chorlton Hall, Malpas, Chesh.
Clutton, Wm....Edwinsione, Ollerton, Notts.
Clutton, Wm. James...The Mount, York
Coape, Capel...Union Club
Coape, H. Coe...Maldon, issex
+Cobb, Henry. ..18, Lincoln’s Inn Fields
Cobb, Robt....Town Place, Faversham, Kent
Cobb, Robt. L....Higham, Rochester
Cobbold, John Chevallier, M.P.... Ipswich, Suffolk
Cobham, T....Marley Lodge, near Exmouth, Devon
Cobon, James... Well Hall, Lynn, Norfolk
Cock, Wm....Courtledge, Appledore, near Tenter- den, Kent
Cockell, Charles... Bridgham, East Harling, Norf.
Cockeram, Thomas...Up Cerne House, near Dor- chester, Dorset
Cocks, Rev. W....Neen Savage Rectory, Cleobury Mortimer, Salop
Coe, Robert, jun.... Tilney, Lynn, Norfolk
Cogan, Thos. S....Eastdean, Chichester, Sussex
+Colborne, Lord,.. West Harling, Norfolk
Colchester, Benjamin. .. Ipswich
Coldham, H, W....Anmer, near Lynn, Norfolk
+Cole, Richard John...Chertsey, Surrey
Cole, T. H...The Green, Wick, near Bath, Somerset
Cole, William Henry...Pulham, Harleston
Coleman, John...Kearsney Court Farm, near Dover
Coleman, John.,.Runhall, Wymondham, Norfolk
Coleman, Richard,.. Langdon Abbey, Dover, Kent
D 2
20
+Coles, Alfred...Snelsmore, Newbury, Berkshire
Coles, Colonel... Kean Hall, Wells, Somerset
Coles, Colonel... Woodcote, Alresford, Hants.
Coles, H. B.. . Middleton House, Whitchurch, Hants.
Collard, Edwin...Chislett Park, Chislett, Canter- bury, Kent
Collard, Thomas W....Canterbury, Kent
Collett, Russell... .The Jungle, near Lincoln
Colley, John. ,,Osbaston, Wellington, Salop
Collier, John,..Panlathy, Muirdrum, Forfarshire, N. B.
Collin, Rev. John, jun....Rickling Vicarage, near Bishop Stortford, Herts.
Collings, Daniel Harson.,.Sneed Park, near Bristol
Collingwood, Edward, ..Tissington Hall, Newcastle- upon-Tyne
+Collins, Henry. . Berkeley Lodge, near Chichester
+Collins, John... Wonham, Bampton, Devon.
Collison, Brown . . New England, Hitchin, Herts.
Collyer, Rev. R...Warham Rectory, Wells, Norf.
Colquhoun, J. C., M.P....8, Chesham Street
Colthurst, Jonathan...Hantworth Park Farm, Bridge- water, Somersetshire
Coltman, Wm. Joseph...Alborough Hall, Borough- bridge, Yorkshire
Colvile, Rev. A. Asgill...Livermere Rectory, Bury St. Edmunds
Colvile, Col....12 a, Great Cumberland Place
+Colvin, Beal Blacknell. .Monkhams Hall, Waltham Abbey, Essex
+Colyer, William... North End, Crayford, Kent
Combermere, Viscount..Combermere Abbey, Nant- wich, Cheshire
Comins, James. ..South Molton, Devonshire
Comins, Richard...Tiverton, Devon
+Commerell, Will. Augustus...Strood, Horsham
+Compton, Henry Combe, M.P....Minstead Manor House, Lyndhurst, Hants.
+Compton, Richard...Eddington House, Hunger- ford, Berkshire
Connell, Dr....2nd Life Guards
Connop, N....Honeylands, Waltham Abbey, Essex
Conroy,Sir J., Bart.,.K.C.H.. Arborfield Hall,Reading
Conway, Wm. Shipley...Bodryddan, St. Asaph’s, Flintshire, N.W.
Cooch, Joshua... Harleston, near Northampton
Coode, Geo.... Haydock, Newton-le- Willows, Lance.
Cook, Charles...High House, Litcham, Norfolk
Cook, Henry G....Lacton Hall, Willesborough, near Ashford, Kent
Cook, Rev. J. G...-Purley Hall, nr. Reading, Berks.
+Cook, John...Hothorpe, Welford, Northamptonsh.
Cook, William, jun....Orton, Rowell, Kettering
Cooke, Rev. Jas. Y....Semer, near Hadleigh, Suff.
Cooke, John...Flemston Hall, Bury St. Edmunds
Cooke, John Malsbury...Towcester, Northamptonsh.
+Cooke, P. D.,..Owston, near Doneaster, Yorksh.
Cooke, Thomas... Newport, Monmouthshire
Cooke, Wm... .Catraw, Stannington, Morpeth
Cooke, Wm....Camerton Hall, Workington, Cumb.
Cooke, Wm....Risby Hall, Bury St. Edmunds
Cooke, Sir Wm. B.; Bart.... . Wheatley Hall, Don- easter, Yorkshire
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
+Cooke, Wm. Fothergill... Eliot House, Blackheath
Cookson, Charles Edward... Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Cookson, I....Meldon Park, Morpeth, Northumb.
Cookson, John...Hatherton, near Nantwich
Cookson, Thomas...Swinburne Castle, Hexham
Cookson, Wm....Benwell Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Cooling, John...Lower Winchindon, Thame, Oxon.
Cooper, Geo. F.... Langenhoe Hall, near Colchester, Essex
Cooper, G. Kersey... Euston, Thetford, Norfolk
Cooper, I....Long Brackland, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk.
Cooper, J. G....Blythburgh, near Halesworth, Suff.
Cooper, Jonathan... Barton, Bury St. Edmunds.
Cooper, Lewis Judah...23, Broad Street, Reading
Cooper, Samuel, jun....Ardleigh, Colchester, Essex”
Cooper, Thos.... Norton Seaford, near Lewes, Suss.
Cooper, Thomas,..Ashford, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Cooper, Thomas H...Camden Street, Camden Town
Cooper, William... Barningham Park Farm, Ixworth
Cooper, William D. C....Toddington Manor, near Dunstaple, Beds.
Cooper, William Henry...Shrewsbury
Cope, Sir John...Bramshill, Hartford Bridge, Hants.
Copeman, George...Aylsham
Copeman, Robert, jun....Hemsby, Great Yarmouth
Copeman, Thomas...Aylsham, Norfolk
Copestake, Thos. G....Kirkby Langley, near Derby
+Coppard, Thomas.,..Horsham, Sussex
Corbet, Andrew W....Sundorne Castle, Shrewsbury
Corbet, Sir A. V., Bt....Acton Reynald, Shrewsbury
Corbett, Edward... Longnor, Hall, Shrewsbury
Corbett, James,,.The Sheriff’s Farm, Pembridge, Herefordshire
Corbett, Rev. Joseph...Tugford, Ludlow
Corbett, Vincent... Worthy, near Sheffield
Cornes, John... Barbridge, Nantwich
Cornewall, Sir Velters, Bart....Moccas Court, near Hereford
Cornwallis, Earl of...Linton Place, Staplehurst,K ent
Corrance, Fred....Lowdham, Woodbridge, Suffolk
Corringham, R. W....Gringley-on-the-Hill, near Bawtry, Notts.
Corsbie, John... Horrenger, Bury St. Edmunds
Cosens, William, ..Langdon, Dawlish, Devon
Cotes, Rev. Chas. Grey. ..Stanton St. Quintin, Chip- penham, Wilts.
Cother, William...Middle Aston, Woodstock, Oxon.
Cottam, Geo....Winsley Street, Oxford Street
Cottenham, Lord...Coppice Hill, Wimbledon, Surr.
Cotterell, Jacob Henry... Bath
+Cottingham, Edmund..,.Chunb Farm, Cove, Hythe, Wrentham
Cottingham, John G.,..Chesterfield, Derbyshire
Cottingham, L. O....Reydon, Southwold, Suffolk
Cottle, W....Cheney Court, Box, near Chippenham
7Cotton, Alexander...Hildersham Hall, Cambridge
Cotton, Chas. Robert...Broughton Hall, Worthen- bury, near Wrexham
Cotton, H....Amor Hall, Washbrook, Ipswich, Suff,
Cotton, W. A... .Ellesmere, Salop
+Coudie, James...Perth
Coulman, Robt. Jno.... Wadworth, Doncaster, Yorks.
List of Members.
Coulson, Col.,..Blenkinsopp, Haltwhistle, Northum.
Coulson, John, jun.. .-Kenninghall, Harling, Norf.
Coupland, J....Southampton
Coupland, John Geo....Freeston, Boston, Linc.
+Courtenay, Viscount, M.P....Powderham Castle, Exeter
Courthorpe, G. C....Whyly, Lamberhurst, Sussex
Coussmaker, Lannoy... Westwood, Farnham, Surrey
Coward, Charles Leach...Masbro’, Rotherham
Cowen, Joseph... Blagdon Burn, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Cowper, Earl...1, Great Stanhope Street
Cox, E. W...-Haddenham, Aylesbury
+Cox, Henry. ..Trevereux, Edenbridge, Kent
Cox, John Henry...Parkfield, near Derby
Cox, Samuel Walker...Breadsall, near Derby
Cox, Thomas... Walton Hill, Burton-on-Trent
Cox, William..,Brailsford, near Derby
Cox, William...Scotch Grove, Thame
Cox, Wm. Thos....Cottage, Spondon, near Derby
Coxe, Francis L.... Wye Cottage, near Chepstow
+Coxe, James... Newtown Lodge, Hungerford
Coxe, Philip S....Ardington Mill, Wantage, Berks.
Coyney, Chas.... Weston Coyney, Newcastle-under- Lyme, Staffordshire
Cozens, Robt... . Norton Farm, Sutton Scotney, Win- chester
Cozins, John... Wraxhall House, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham
Crabtree, John... Halesworth, Suffolk
Cradock, S....Hartforth Hall, Richmond, Yorkshire
Cradock, Thos....Woodheuse, Loughborough, Lei- cestershire
Craig, John...Quatt, Bridgnorth
+Crallan, Thomas...3, Ardwick Green, Manchester
Crane, Henry...Oakhampton, Stourport, Worcester- shire
Crane, Jno....
Crawford, Rev. W. H....Haughley Park, Woolpit, Suffolk
Crawford, William... Newton Purcell, near Bicester
Crawhall, Isaac... White House, Stanhope, Durham
Crawhall, Joseph... Newcastle-upon-Tyne
+Crawhall, William...Stagshaw Close House, Hex- ham, Northumberland
Crawter, Henry...7, Southampton Buildings, Chan- cery Lane
Crawter, Thomas...Cobham, Surrey
Cree, John...Ower Moign, Dorchester, Dorset
Creed, George... Boarhunt Farm, Fareham, Hants
Cresswell, A. J. Baker, M.P....Cresswell, near Morpeth, Northumberland
Cresswell, Oswin A. Baker..Cresswell, near Morpeth
Cresswell, Robert...Idridgehay, near Wirksworth, Derbyshire
Cresswell, William G. Baker...Cresswell, near Morpeth
Cretney, Thomas... Dunsfold, Godalming
Cripps, J.Martin. . Novington, Hurstperpoint, Sussex
Cripps, Thomas... Oxford
Crisp, Fortunatus...1, Smith Terrace, Smith Street, Chelsea
+Crisp, Thos....Gedgrave Hall, Woodbridge, Suffolk
Crispin, Henry, jun....Chumleigh, Devon
21
Crockford, Henry...Dee Cottage, Queen’s Ferry, Flintshire
Crockford, Rev. William John. ..The Vicarage, More- ton Say, Market Drayton
Croft, Archdeacon James, M.A....Saltwood, Hythe, Kent
Croft, Sir J., Bart... Millgate Lodge, near Maidstone
+Crofton, Lord...Mote Park, Athlone, Ireland
Crofton, Thos... Holywell, Durham
Croggon, T. J....8, Laurence Pountney Hill, Cannon Street, London
Crompton, Joshua Samuel...Sion Hill, Thirsk
Croome, James...Breadstone, Berkeley, Gloucesters.
Croote, William, jun....Lapford, Chumleigh, De- vonshire
Crosby, John..,Kirkby Thore, Appleby, Westmore- land
Crosland, J. S.... Burbage House, Hinckley,
Cross, John... Ely
Cross, William Assheton...Red Scar, near Preston, Lancashire
Crosse, Henry... Boyton Hall, Stowmarket, Suffolk
Crosse, James...Gringley, Retford, Notts.
Crosse, William...One House Hall, Stowmarket
Crosskill, William. ..Beverley, Yorkshire
Crossley, J...Scaithcliffe, near Todmorden, Lancs.
Crosthwaite, John,..Much Wootton, near Liverpool
Crouch, James...Cainhoe, Silsoe
Crouch, John...Cirencester
Croughton, William Peel. ,. Heronden House, Tenter- den, Kent
+Crow, G...Ornhams, Boroughbridge, Yorkshire
Croxon, John... Llanforda Isaf, Oswestry, Shropsh,
Crump, Jos.... Wooler’s Hill, Tewkesbury
Crundwell, George... Manor House, Southborough> Tunbridge Wells
Cruso, John, jun... Leek, Staffordshire
Crutchley, Percy H....Sunning Hill Park, Chertsey, Surrey
Cubley, Tamberlain,..Quarrington, Sleaford, Lin- colnshire
+Cuff, W. F...Merriott, Ilminster
Culley, John, jun...Guton Hall, Norwich
|} Cullum, S...Townsend Farm, St. Albans, Herts
Culverwell, J... Wedmore, near Wells, Somerset.
Cummins, Thomas,..Gateshead
Cunliffe, Sir Robert, Bart....Acton Park, Wrexham, Denbighshire, N.W.
Cuninghame, John,..Hensol, Castle Douglas, Kirk- cudbright, N.B.
+Cure, Capel, ..Blake Hall, Ongar, Essex
Cureton, George... Westbury, Salop
Cureton, John...Hordeley, Ellesmere, Salop
Curl, Jacob... East Winch, Lynn Regis
Currie, Edmund...Oakley House, Abingdon, Berks.
Currie, H...West Horsley Park, Leatherhead, Surrey
Currie, Jas... Hillside, King’s Langley, Herts
Currie, Raikes, M.P. . 4, Hyde Park Terrace ,
Curteis, George. ..Canterbnry
Curties, Rev. Thomas Chandler, .. Linton Vicarage, Ross
Curtis, Edward...New Barn Farm, Gatcombe, New- port, Isle of Wight
22
Curtis, Admiral Sir Lucius, Bart. ..Gateombe House, Portsmouth, Hampshire
+Curtis, Sir William, Bart... . Ramsgate
Curtler, T. G.... Bevere House, near Worcester
Custance, H. F... Weston House, Norwich
Cuthbert, James...12, Clayton Square, Liverpool
Cuthbert, William... Beaufront, Hexham
+Cuthbert, William, jun....Beaufront, Hexham
e
Dadds, James... Wingham, Kent
Dadds, John, sen... Wingham, Kent
Daintree, R... Hemingford Abbots, St. Ives, Hunts.
Daintry, T. R...North Rode, Macclesfield, Cheshire
Dalgairns, William...Guernsey
Dalton, James.. eae near Colchester, Essex
Dalton, John... West Bilney, Lynn
Dalton, Rev. William. . swaffham
Damen, Angel.. .Isle Beever! Langport, Somerset
Damen, John Angel...New Farm, Winforth, Dor- chester, Dorset
Damer, Hon. Dawson,. Chelsea
Dand, Robert... Field House, Alnwick
Dandridge, Daniel...East Hendred, Berks.
+Daniel, John,..Parson’s Green, Middlesex
Daniel, Thos., jun...Stoodley, Tiverton, Devonshire
Daniel, William...Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire
Darby, George, M.P....Marklye, Warbleton, Hurst Green, Sussex
Dare, R. W. Hall...Rossana, Ashford, Ireland
Darley, Charles Albert...Burtonfield, near York
Darling, Geo...Hetton House, Wooler, Northumb.
Darling, Thomas,...Beau-Desert Farm, Lichfield, Staffordshire
Darnell, Thos. Smith...St. Neots, Huntingdonshire
+Dartmonth, Earl of...Sandwell Park, Birmingham
Darton, Thos. H.....Temple Dentley, Hitchin, Hertfordshire
Dartry, Lord... Dartry, Rockcorry, Ireland
Dashwood, Francis... Halcott, Bexley, Kent
Dashwood, Henry... Kirtlington, Gosford, Oxon
Daubeny, Rev. Edw. A... Ampney, near Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Daubuz, J. B...Offington House, Worthing, Sussex
Davenport, Edward,..Spurstow Hall, Bunbury, Tar- porley, Cheshire
Davey, George...Dorchester, Oxon.
Davey, George, jun... Buckland, Faringdon, Berks.
Davey, Richard... Redruth, Cornwall
David, Evan...Fairwater, Cardiff, Glamorganshire
Davidson, A. D. Greaves..-Hylton Grove, West Boldon, Gateshead
Davidson, Thomas Atkinson... Police Office, New- castle-upon-Tyne
Davidson, Wm.,..Scotter, Gainsborough, Lincoln- shire
Davig, Sir H. Ferguson, Bart...Creedy, Crediton
Davies, D. S., M.P....Pentre, Newcastle Emlyn, Carmarthenshire
Davies, James... Foschydgaled, Aberystwith
Davies, John... Halford, near Ludlow, Salop
Davies, Rev. Lewis Charles.,.Ynishir, Aberystwith
-Rectory, Church Street,
Abingdon,
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Davies, Rev. R. W. P..Court-y-Gollen, Crickhowell, Brecknockshire
Davies, Rev. S...The Grange, Oystermouth, Swansea
Davies, Mrs. Susanna...Rochlayeston Manor, Not- tingham
Davis, Cornelius Butler...East Woodhay, Newbury
Davis, Hy...Old Downs, Oakhill, nr. Bath, Somerset.
Davis, Major H. T. . Waterhouse, near Bath, Somerst.
+Davis, John...Cranbrook, Ilford, Essex
Davis, John... Banbury, Oxfordshire
Davis, John...Maperton, Wincanton, Somersetshire
Davis, Peter. ..Milton House, Pembridge
+Davis, Richd....Skeynes, Edenbridge, Kent
+Davis, Samuel...Swerford Park, Enstone, Oxon
Davis, Thos.. Little Wenlock, Wellington, Shropsh.
+Davis, Thos. Henry...Orleton, near Worcester
Davison, Thomas... Durham
Davison, William...Seaton Delaval, North Shields
Davy, Francis...Topsham, near Exeter, Devonshire
Davy, H...Warsop, ur. Mansfield, Nottinghamshire
Davy, James...Churchill, Broad Clist, near Exeter
Davy, John...Owersby, Market Rasen, Lincoln
Davy, John T... Barton, Roseash, nr. South Molton
Davy, Joseph...Kelling, Holt, Norfolk
Davy, Robert... Ringwood, Hampshire
Davy, Walker... Thorseway Vale, Caistor, Lincoln- shire
Dawes, Edward Nathaniel...Rye, Sussex
Dawkins, Henry...Encombe, Folkestone, Kent
Dawson, Edward..,Aldcliffe Hall, Lancaster
+Dawson, Edward,..Long Whatton House, near Loughborough, Leicestershire
Dawson, G. P...Osgodby Hall, Selby, Yorkshire
+Dawson, H.., Launde Abbey, Uppingham, Rutld.
Dawson, J...Gronant, Holywell, Flintshire, N. W.
Dawson, William... High Street, Bedford
+Dawson, William Edward...Plumstead Common, Kent
Day, Francis...Priory, St. Neot’s, Hunts.
Day, John... Newick, near Lewes, Sussex
Day, John Woodhouse...Pelau House, Durham
Day, Thomas,.. Wornditch, Kimbolton, Hunts.
Day, William...St. Neots, Huntingdonshire
Dayman, John...Trebarfoot, Stratton, Cornwall
Dean, Alex...Pershore Road, Smithfield, Birming- ham
+Dean, A. Keball...East Brent, Axbridge, Somerset.
+Dean, F. Keball,.. East Brent, Axbridge, Somerset.
Dean, G. A...Stratford, Essex
Dean, Henry... Weston, Petersfield, Hanupehige
Dean, James...The Yews, Tottenham, Middlesex,
Dean, John... Peterborough, Northamptonshire
Deane, George...46, King William Street, City
Deane, John...46, King William Street, City
Dearden, Jas... Rochdale, Manchester, Lancashire
De Berg, M...30, Dover Street, Piccadilly
De Broke, Lord Willoughby...Compton Verney, Stratford-on-Avon
Deedes, William...Sandling Park, Hythe, Kent
De l’Isleand Dudley, The Earl of.,.Penshurst, Kent
Dell, Thos... Broadway Farm, Great Berkhampstead, Hertfordshire
Delves, William Frank...Tonbridge Wells
List of Members.
+De Manley, Lord.,.Canford House, Wimborne, Dorsetshire _
+Denbigh, Earl of...Newnham Paddock, Lutter- worth, Leicestershire
Denison, Edmund,.. Doncaster
+Dennett, Mullens...Lodsworth, Petworth, Sussex
Dennis, Robert...Greetham, Horncastle, Lincolnsh.
Dennison, William, jun....Redbrook Manor Farm, Blackheath
Dent, John... Worcester
Dent, John...Streatlam Castle, Barnard Castle
Dent, Joseph... Ribston Hall, Wetherby, Yorkshire
Dent, Ralph...Streatlam Castle, Barnard Castle
Dent, Villiers, ..Avon Cottage, Ringwood
Dent, William... Brampton, North Huntingdon
Denton, Thomas...Lew, Witney, Oxfordshire
Derry, Charles M...Gedney, Holbeach, Lincolnshire
Dester, Joseph... Bramcote, Tamworth, Staffordshire
Des Veeux, Henry...Drakelow Park, Derby
Devas, Thomas. .. Dulwich, Surrey
Deverell, John...Purbrook Park, Portsmouth
Devon, Charles... Teddington Place, Middlesex
Devon, Earl of, ... Powderliam Castle, Exeter, Devon.
Dew, J...Cradock, Ross, Herefordshire
Dew, Tomkins...Whitney Court, Hereford
Dewey, Lewis... Woodcock Lodge, Little Berkhamp- stead
Dewing, Augustus... Ash Wicken, Lynn Regis
+Dewing, R...Carbrooke, Watton, Norfolk
De Winton, J. Jetfrys...Priory Hill, Brecon
De Winton, J. Parry...Maesderwen, Brecon, S. W.
+Dickens, Charles Scrace...Horsham, Sussex
Dickin, John...St. John’s Hill, Shrewsbury
Dickins, Robert A...Woodford Grange, Wolver- hampton, Staffordshire
7Dickinson, E. H.....King’s Weston, Somerton, Somersetshire
Dickinson, Harvey...Sundridge, near Sevenoaks, Kent
Dickinson, Henry...Severn House, Colebrook Dale, Salop
Dickinson, John...Abbot’s Hill, Watford, Herts,
Dickinson, John...Red How, Cockermouth
Dickinson, Joseph... Westbury, Salop
Dickinson, William...7, Curzon Street, May Fair
Dickinson, Wm. Lindow. . Workington, Cumberland
Dickon, Thomas... Doncaster
Dickons, Thomas...High Oakham, Mansfield
Dickson, James...Chester
Dickson, John...Feelwalls, Ayton, Berwickshire
Dickson, Robert....East Wickham, near Welling, Kent
Didsbury, Thomas... Rotherham, Yorkshire
Digby, E...Minterne House, Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Digby, Rev. K...Tetteshall Rectory, Litcham, Norf.
Digby, Lieut.-Col. Robt. ..6, Chapel Street, Gros- venor Square
Dighton, Francis...Northallerton, Yorkshire
+Dilke, Capt., R.N....Maxstoke Castle, Coleshill, Warwickshire ‘i
+Dilke, C. Wentworth...76, Sloane Street
Dilke, C. W....9, Lower Grosvenor Place
Dinning, John. -, Newlands, near Belford
23
Disbrowe, Sir Edward Cromwell...the Hague
TDivett, E., M.P...Bystock, Exmouth, Devonshire
Dix, Robert...Stamford Rivers, Romford
Dixon, Charles..,.Stanstead Park, Chichester, Sussex
Dixon, Henry...Witham, Essex
Dixon, Henry...Oxford
Dixon, James... Page Hall, near Sheffield, Yorksh.
Dixon, John,,.Harmston, near Lincoln
Dixon, Joln...Knells, Carlisle
Dixon, John Bond,..Freechase, Slangham, Sussex
Dixon, J. G....Caistor, Lincolnshire
tDixon, John William.,.Beasby, North Thoresby, Louth
Dixon, Peter... Holme Eden, Carlisle
Dixon, Thomas.... Darlington, Durham
Dixon, Thomas J....Holton, near Caistor, Lincoln- shire
Dixon, William Frederick... Birley House, near Sheffield
Dobito, Geo.... Kirtling Hall, Newmarket, Cambs. °
Dobree, Harry... Beau Séjour, Guernsey
Dobson, William... Tritlington, Morpeth
Dod, J. Whitehall, M.P.,..Cloverley Hall, Whit- church, Shropshire
Dod, Henry D....Mansfield Woodhouse, Notts.
Dodd, Thomas... Rainham, Sittingbourne, Kent
Dodds, Ralph... 32, Prudhoe Street, Newcastle- upon-Tyne
Dodds, Thomas...Standish, Wigan, Lancashire
Dolby, Charles.. .Spalding, Lincolnshire
Dolby, Wm....Marston, Grantham, Lincolnshire
TDollond, Geo.... North Terrace, Camberwell
Dolphin, Thos....Swafield, North Walsham, Norf.
Domett, Samuel,..Westhay, Axminster, Devon
Domvile, Charles Compton William...Hampreston Rectory, Wimborne
Donkin, Edward...Westow, near York
Donkin, Geo... .Wyfold Ct., Henley-on-Thames
Donkin, Samuel. ,Bywell, Felton, Northumberland
Donkin, Thos....Westow Hall, Whitwell, near York
+Donovan, George... Buckham Hill, Uckfield
Dorchester, Lord. ..Greywell, Odiham, Hants.
Dormer, C. Cottrell, ..Rousham, Woodstock, Oxon.
+Dorrien, Charles. , .Sennecotes, Ashling, near Chi- chester, Sussex
Dougill, John... Finthorp, near Huddersfield
Douglas, Rev. H. Cockburn ... Duntze, Weaver- thorpe, Sledmere, Yorkshire
Douro, Marquis of, M.P.... 3, Upper Belgrave Street, Belgrave Square
Dover, Henry... Caston, Watton, Norfolk
Dowden, Thos... .Mitcheldever, near Winchester
Downes, William. ,.Dedham, Colchester, Essex
Downes, Wm. Henry...New House, Much Wen- lock, Salop
Downing, John Cole ..The Hill, Earl Soham, Wood- bridge, Suffolk
Downs, John Henry...Grays, Essex
Dowson, Henry G....Geldeston, Norfolk
Dowson, B..,.Quay, Yarmouth
Downward, Rev. Geo. Rich.. ..Shrewsbury, Shrops.
Doyne, Robert... Wells, county Wexford, Ireland
Drage, Thomas, ,, Haddenham, Ely
24
Drake, F. W. T.... Hitchen Hill, Hitchen, Herts
Drake, George...Manor Farm, E. Tytherley, Stock- bridge, Hants.
Drake, Sir T. Trayton F. Elliot, Bart....Nutwell Court, near Exeter, Devonshire
Drake, T. T....Shardloes, Amersham, Bucks.
+Drax, J. S. W. Erle, M.P....Charborough Park, Blandford, Dorsetshire
Dray, William...46, King William Street, City
Drew, John...Peamore Cottage, near Exeter, Devon.
Drew, John, jun.....Powderham, near Exeter
Drew, P....Glanhassen, Newtown, Montgomerysh.
+Drewe, E. S....The Grange, Honiton, Devonshire
+Drewitt, George... Manor Farm, Oving, Chichester
Drewitt, John. ..North Stoke, Arundel, Sussex
+Drewitt, R. Dawtrey... Burpham, Arundel, Sussex
Drewitt, Thomas, jun....Guildford, Surrey
Drewry, George. ..Holker House, Cartmell, Lancas.
Driver, Edward...8, Richmond Terrace
+Driver, George Neale...8, Richmond Terrace
Druce, Joseph... Ensham, near Oxford
Druce, Samuel, ..Ensham, near Oxford
+Druce, Samuel, jun....Ensham, near Oxford
+Drummond, Andrew Robt...Cadland, New Forest, Southampton, Hants.
Drummond, Dr. Henry...103, Gloucester Place, Portman Square
+Drummond, Hon. W. H....Castle Strath Allan, Auchterarder, N. B.
Drury, George V....Eastbourne, Sussex
Drury, Thomas. ..Shawbury, near Shrewsbury
Du Cane, Capt. Chas....Braxted Lodge, Kelvedon, Essex
+Duckworth, Sir John, Bart....Wear House, near Exeter, Devonshire
Duffield, James...Great Baddow, Chelmsford
Dugdale, John. .. Manchester
Duke, Charles... East Lavant, Chichester, Sussex
Duke, Henry...Earnley, Chichester, Sussex
Dumolo, John...Dunton House, Fazeley, Stafford- shire
Dunbar, Hon. Robert... Latheronwheel, Dunbeath, Caithness
Duncalfe, R... Honington Grange, Newport, Shrops.
Duncan, William George....Great Houghton House, near Northampton
+Duncombe, Hon. Octavius M.P....24, Arlington Street
Duncuft, John, M.P.... Westwood House, Oldham
Dunn, Geo....Ellingham, Alnwick, Northumberld.
Dunn, Richard,.. Ryden Farm, Evesham, Worcest.
Dunn, Thomas...Richmond Hill, near Sheffield
+Dunne, Thos., jun... .Bircher, Leominster
Dunning, Ralph... Bishop’s Burton, Beverley, Yorkshire
Dunning, William, jun....Friar Waddon, near Dor- chester, Dorsetshire
Duppa, Thos. Duppa... one rile: Church Stretton, Shrewsbury, Shropshire
Du Pré, Caledon George, M.P.... Wilton Park, Deaconsfield, Bucks.
Dyer, George... 3, Pollington Villas, Holloway, Middlesex
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Dyke, Henry...Parade, Monmouth
Dyke, J. D....Glovers, near Sittingbourne, Kent
Dyke, Sir Percival Hart...Lullington Castle, Dart- ford, Kent
Dyke, Rev. Thomas Hart...Long Newton, Stockton- on-Tees
Dymock, Rey. Edward,..Penley Hall, near Elles- mere, Salop
Dymoke, Sir Henry, Bt....Scrivelsby Gourk Horn- castle, Lincolnshire
Dyott, Capt....Freeford, Lichfield, Staffordshire
Dyson, Thos...Manor House, Braithwell, Rotherham
Eames, James. .Beck Farm, Beaulieu, Southampton Eames, John... Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire Eardley, Sir Culling E....Belvedere, Erith, Kent +Earle, Richard...Knowsley, Prescot, Lancashire Earle, Thomas...Itchen Stoke, near Alresford, Hampshire East, Edwin...Streatham, Surrey East, Sir East Clayton, Bart....Hall Place, Maiden-~ head, Berkshire +Easthope, Sir John, Bart.... Fir Grove, Weybridge, Surrey Easton, Richard... Moortown Farm, Canford, near Wimborne, Dorset +Easton, James...Nest House, Gateshead Eastwood, Richd.... Townley Brimshaw, near Burn- ley, Lancashire Eaton, George...Spixworth, Norwich, Norfolk Ebbetts, John... Witchingham, Reepham, Norfolk Eckley, Richard. ..12,°Darlington Place, Bath +Eddison, Edwin...Headingly Hill, Leeds +Eddison, Hy....Gateford, Worksop, Notts. Eddowes, John...Grimmer, Shrewsbury Eden, John....Beamish Park, Chester-le-Street, Durham Eden, Robert... Hampton Court, Middlesex Edgar, Rev. Mileson G....Red House, Ipswich, Suffolk Edgell, Richd. Wyatt. .Milton Place, Egham, Surrey Edgington, Benjamin ...2, Duke Street, Southwark Edmondson, John...Grassyard Hall, Lancaster Edmunds, Edmund... Rugby Edwardes, Hon. William. .Edmondthorpe, Oakham, Rutlandshire Edwards, Frederick... Barnham, Thetford, Norfolk Edwards, Henry... Winchester Edwards, Sir John, Bart.,..Greenfields, Machyn- Neth, N. W. Edwards, John...Ness Strange, near Shrewsbury Edwards, Joseph... Ross, Herefordshire Edwards, O. H....Chesterford, Essex Edwards, Richard... Roby Hall, Prescot Edwards, Samuel... Foxhall, Ross, Herefordshire Edwards, Thomas...Hapton Hall, Long Stratton, Norfolk Edwards, Thos. Downes...Hodgebatch, Bromyard Edwards, William...Brook House, Ross, Herefords. gerton, Major-Gen. Richard...Eaton Banks, Tar- porley, Cheshire Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, Bart., M.P.... Oulton Park, Middlewich, Cheshire
List of Members.
Egerton, Rev. Thomas....Middle Rectory, Shrews- bury
Eggar, Frederick.. .22, Whitehall Place
yEland, Stephen Eaton. ..Manor House, Stanwick, Higham Ferrers, Northamptonshire
Eldin, Joseph...Cottam Grange, Sledmere, Yorks.
Eley, Charles,.Beavere Farm, Hounslow, Middlesex
Elgar, James.,.Wingham, Kent
jy Elkins, Joseph Norton...Elkington Welford, Nor- tham ptonshire
Elliot, John...Field House, Clifton, Bristol
7 Elliot, John..Chapel Brampton, near Northampton
Elliot, Rev. T. Elphinstone,.., Whalton Rectory, Morpeth
Elliott, Eustace...Smeaton Pellaton, Landulph, near Devonport
Elliott, John...Chichester, Sussex
Elliott, William...Fawley, near Ross, Herefordshire
Ellis, Charles... Franklands, St. John’s Common, Hurstperpoint, Sussex
Ellis, John...Beaumont Leys, near Leicester
Ellis, John...12, Clement’s Lane, City
Ellis, Richard. ..Northampton
Ellis, Robt: Ridge ., Yalding, Kent.
Ellis, Thomas R. ...Oxnead Hall, Buxton, Norwich
Ellis, William, LL.D... .Caistor, Lincolnshire
Ellis, William...Ashford, Chertsey
Ellison, John...Sandbeck, Rotherham, Yorkshire
Ellison, J. ... Allerton Park, Green Hammerton, York
Ellison, Michael ...Sheffield, Yorkshire
Ellison, W....Syzergh Castle, Kendal, Westmoreld.
Ellman, Rev. H. J....Carlton Rectory, near Bedford
Ellman, John...Landport, Lewes, Sussex
Ellman, R. H....Landport, Lewes, Sussex
Ellman, Thomas...Beddingham, Lewes, Sussex -
Elton, Sir Edw. Marwood, Bart..,Widworthy Court, Honiton, Devon ;
Elton, Major Robt. J....Whitestanton, Taunton, Somerset.
Elwes, H...Colesburne, Cheltenham, Gloucestersh.
yElwes, Capt. Henry Cary...2, Aurora Place, Ex- mouth, Devon
Elwes, J. M.....Bossington House, Stockbridge, Hampshire
Elwood, Lieut.-Col. Charles W....Clayton Priory, Hurstperpoint, Sussex
Embleton, Robert... Embleton, Alnwick
Emery, Charles... Burcot, Wellington, Shropshire
Emery, Richard...Huston Place, Storrington, Pet- worth, Sussex
Emlyn, Viscount, M.P....Stackpole Court, near Pembroke, S. Wales
Empson, Henry.... West Ravendale, Binbrook, Spital, Lincolnshire
Emson, H. H....Nether Hall, Cherry Hinton, Cam- bridge :
England, Richard,..Bingham, Wells, Norfolk
Enniskillen, Earl of..Florence Court, Fermanagh, Ireland ‘
Ensor, John...Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Enys, John Samuel...Enys, near Penryn, Cornwall
+Erle, Rey. C.,,.Hardwicke, Aylesbury, Bucks.
|
25
Errington, John...High Warden, Hexham, Nor- thumberland +Escott, Bickham...Hartrow, Taunton, Somerset. Etches, J. Clifford...Hareby Thorn, near Stone, Staffordshire Ethelstone, Rev. C. W....Up Lyme, Lyme Regis, Dorset. Etheredge, Charles... .Starston, Norfolk Etheredge, Fred. Wm.... Mill Hall, Maidstone Etwall, William...Penton, Andover, Hampshire Evans, C. H...Plasgwyn, near Beaumaris, Anglesey Evans, H. R., jun.... Ely, Cambridgeshire Evans, Isaac P....Griff, Coventry, Warwickshire Evans, Rich....Tyny Park, Cardiff, Glamorganshire Evans, Robt....Foleshill Road, Coventry, War- wickshire Evans, Robt., jun.... West Hallam, near Derby 7 Evans, R. W....Eyton Hall, Leominster Evans, Samuel... Darly Abbey, near Derby Evans, Capt. T. B...Deane House, Enstone, Oxon Evans, Thomas William...Allestree, Derby Evans, Wm..Glascoed, near Llansantffraid, Oswestry Evans, William... Roath, near Cardiff, Glamorgan- shire, S. W. +Evans, Rev. W. E.... Burton Court, Herefordshire Eve, William .... Manor Farm, North Ockendon, Romford, Essex Everard, Edward. ..Middleton, Lynn, Norfolk Everard, James Elsden,.,Congham, Castle Rising, Norfolk +Everett, William, Chase Side House, Enfield Everett, Isaac...Capel St. Mary, Ipswich, Suffolk Everitt, Isaac. . .Pottergate Street, Norwich Everitt, James... North Creake, Fakenham, Norfolk Eyershed, John...Albury, Guildford, Surrey Ewen, Thos. L’Estrange... Dedham, near Colchester, Essex Ewings, William,..213, High Holborn Exall, Wm....Kate’s Grove Iron Works, Reading, Berkshire Exley, William H....Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire Exton, John.,.Eastwell, Melton Mowbray, Leices- tershire +Eyre, Geo. Edw....Warrens, Stony-Cross, South- ampton, Hampshire _ Eyre, Robert... Bartley Totton Wear, Southampton Eyston, Charles... Hendred, Wantage, Berkshire Eyton, John Wynne...Lee’s Wood, Mold, Flintshire +Eyton, Thos, C...Donnerviile, Wellington, Shrops. Eyton, Thomas W....Brook Park, Northop, Flint. Eyton, William.. Condover, near Shrewsbury
Fair, James... Warton Lodge, Lytham, near Preston, Lancashire
Fair, Thomas...Frenchfield, Penrith, Cumberland
Fairhead, W. F....Totham, Maldon, Essex
Faithful, Rev. Geo. D.... Lower Heyford, Wood- stock, Oxon
Falcon, Thomas... Workington, Cumberland
Falkner, Edward Dean... Fairfield, near Liverpool
Fane, Cecil...4, Upper Brook Street
Fane, John... Wormsley, Watlington, Oxon
Fardell, Rey. Henry... Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire
E
26
7Fardon, Henry Fowler...The Firs, Bromsgrove, |
Worcestershire
7Farhall, John N....Tillington, near Petworth, Sussex
Farhall, Richard. .. Billingshurst, Sussex
Farley, George. ..Henwick, near Worcester
Farmer, Edw....Fazeley, Staffordshire
Farmer, Henry Grimes....Haven Farm, Tickhill, Bawtry
Farmer, Rd....Sheldon, Birmingham, Warwickshire
Farncombe, Geo... .Bishopstone, Lewes, Sussex
Farnham, E. B., M.P....Quorndon House, Lough- borough, Leicestershire
Farquharson, Hen. J... Langton, Blandford, Dorset.
7Farr, Wm. W....Iford, Christchurch, Hampshire
Farrell, Richard,,.35, North George Street, Dublin
+Farrer, Edmund...Sporle, Swaffham, Norfolk
Farrer, James... Ingleborough, Settle, Yorkshire
Farrer, Rev. Richard. .Ashley, Rockingham, North- amptonshire
Farrington, J. Nowell.,.Worden Hall, Chorley Lancashire
Faulkes, Robert.,.Beckingham, Newark, Notts.
Faulkner, Chris F. A...Bury Barnes, near Burford, Oxon
Faux, Edward... Yaxley Hill, Stilton
Faviell, W. Fred....Bakeham House, Egham
Fawcett, Rev. Chris. ., Boscombe Rectory, Salisbury, Wilts
Fawcett, John...Durham
Fawkes, F. Hawkesworth...Farnley Hall, Otley, Yorkshire
+Fearnhead, P,..17, Clifford’s Inn, Fleet Street
Fearnley, Fairfax. ,,Bishopsfield, Bawtry, Notts
Featherstonhaugh, Walker...Hermitage, Chester- le-Street
Feilden, Joseph, . Wilton House, Blackburn, Lancash.
Fell, William...The Close, Lichfield, Staffordshire
+Fellowes, Jas....29, Gloucester Place, Portman Square
Fellowes, J. Newton...Eggesford, Chumleigh, De- vonshire
Fellowes, Hon. N....Eggesford, Chumleigh, Devon
Fellowes, Richd.... Englefield House, Reading
Fellowes, Rey. Thos... Beighton Rectory, Norwich
Fellowes, Thos. Abdy...Chippenham
Fellows, Wm. Manning...Ormesby,Great Yarmouth
+Felton, Clement...Dunton, Fakenham
Fenn, George... Beccles
Fenn, J. G....Ardleigh Rookery, Colchester, Essex
Fenton, Kirkby...Caldecote Hall, Nuneaton, War- wickshire
Fenwick, Andrew Robert....Netherton, Morpeth, Northumberland
Fenwick, J. Manners.,.Gallow-hill House, Morpeth
Fergnsson, Archibald.,.Dunfallundy, Pitlochry, Perthshire
Fernandez Edward...Hatton Parsonage, Warwick
Fernie, George... Fron, near Oswestry
Ferrabee, John...Phoenix Iron Works, Stroud, Gloucestershire
Ferrers, Earl...Chartley Castle, Staffordshire
near Lichfield,
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
+Ferris, Thos... Manningford Bohune, Pewsey, Wilts
Ferris, William...Draycot, Pewsey, Wiltshire
Festing, Richd. Grindall...35, Green Park, Bath, Somersetshire
Fetherstonhaugh, Timothy...The College, Kirks- wald, Penrith, Cumberland
Ffrance, R. Wilson... Rawcliffe Hall, Garstang
Ffrance, T. R. Wilson... Rawcliffe Hall, Garstang
Field, James Pope...Tring, Herts
Field, Jonathan... Laceby, near Limber, Lincolnsh.
Field, William David...Ulceby Grange, Barrow-on Humber, Lincolnshire
Fielden, Samuel,..Centre Vale, Todmorden, Lan- cashire
Fielding, Jas... Denbigh House, Haslemere, Surrey
Fieldsend, Charles, jun....Kirmond, Binbrook, Lincolnshire
Fifield, Job...Hill Park, near Romsey, Hants
Filder, James Moses,..The Pages, Bexhill, Sussex
Fiiliter, Geo... Trigon Hill, Wareham, Dorsetshire
Finch, Henry...69, King William Street, City
Finch, Hon. Col. John, C. B....The Castle, Berk- hampstead
Finch, Rev. W...Warboys, Huntingdonshire
Finden, Geo. Fred.,.254, High Street, Borough
Firth, John, jun... Wentworth, Rotherham, Yorksh.
Fisher, George. ..Cambridge Bank, Cambridge
Fisher, Rev. R. W,..Hill Top, Kendal, Westmld.
Fison, Cornell...Thetford, Norfolk
Fison, Thomas... Barmingham, Ixworth
+Fitzgerald, H. T. G...St. Mary’s Vicarage, Read- ing, Berkshire
Fitzgerald, William Seymour. ,. Hollbrook, Horsham
Fitz-Herbert, Sir Henry, Bart...Tissington Hall, near Ashbourne, Derbyshire
Fitz-Herbert, William...Somersal Herbert, Uttox- eter, Staffordshire
Fitz-Hugh, Thomas... Plas-Power, near Wrexham, Denbighshire
Fitz-Hugh, Kev. W...Street, near Lewes, Sussex
Fitz-Patrick, Right Hon. J. Wilson, M.P...Lesduff, Rathdowny, Queen’s County, Ireland
Fitz-Patrick, Richard Nelson..,Granstown Manor, Queen’s County, Ireland
Fitzroy, Geo... Grafton-Regis, Stony Stratford, Bucks.
Fitzroy, Lieut.-Col. Hugh...Sennowe Lodge, Guiest, Norfolk
Flack, William... Water’s Place, Ware, Herts.
Flesher, Rev. J. T....Tiftield, Towcester, Northamp- tonshire
+Fletcher, Major E. C....Ulcombe Place, Maid- stone, Kent
+Fletcher, Sir Henry, Bart...Ashley Park, Walton- on-Thames, Surrey
Fletcher, Jno... Knipton, Melton Mowbray, Leicests.
+Fletcher, John Philip...Ashley Park, Walton-on- Thames, Surrey
Fletcher, Josiah... Norwich
Fletcher, W....Radmanthwaite, near Mansfield, Notts.
Flint, John., .Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire
Flowerdew, J. S,... Hinderclay, near Botesdale, Norfolk
List of Members.
Floyd, Cookson Stephenson,. Holmforth, Hud- dersfield
Floyd, Thomas... Frilford, Abingdon, Berkshire
+Floyer, John.. .Stafford, Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Floyer, John...Hints, Tamworth, Staffordshire
Floyer, Jno. W....Caukwell, near Horncastle, Linc.
+Foljambe, Geo. Savile...Osberton House, Worksop
Folkes, Sir Wm. Browne, Bart....Hillington Hall, near Lynn, Norfolk
Folkestone, Viscount...Longford Castle, Salisbury, Wiltshire
Fookes, Henry, jun.... Monkton, Blandford, Dorset
Footner, W. A....Romsey, Hampshire
Forbes, Sir J. S., Bart....Pitsligo, Fettercairn, N. B.
Ford, A. R....Ellel Hall, near Lancaster
Ford, John, jun....Preston Farm, Blandford, Dorset
Ford, Richard S..,..Clifford’s Wood, Stone, Staffs.
Fordham, J. E....Melbourn Bury, Royston, Herts,
Fordham, John George... Royston, Herts.
Forester, G. T....Ercall Magna, Wellington, Shrops.
Forester, Rev. R. T. ..High Ercall, Wellington, Salop
Forrest, John...Stretton, near Warrington, Lancs.
Forrester, George... Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset
Forrester, John,..Stanmore Priory, Middlesex
Forster, John...18, Carey Street, Lincoln’s Inn
Forster, Richard Carnaby...Whitehouse, Gateshead, Durham
Forster, Robert...Tottenham Green, Middlesex
+Forster, Samuel...Southend, Sydenham, Kent
Forster, Wm... Burradon, near Rothbury, Northumb.
Forsyth, Thomas. ..South Shields
Fort, George...Alderbury House, Salisbury, Wilts.
Fortescue, Hon. G....Boconnock, Lostwithiel, Corn- wall
Fortescue, Rev. H. R....East Allington, Totnes |
Fosbrooke, Leonard... Ravenstone, Ashby-de-la- Zouch, Leicestershire
Foster, Aug... Warmwell House, Dorchester, Dorset.
Foster, John... Lingodell, Tickhill, Rotherham
Foster, Jno... Rumbridge Street, Eling, Southampton
+Foster, John James... The Scaws, Penrith
Foster, Joseph... Blunt’s Hall, Witham, Essex
Foster, Richard...Castle, near Lostwithiel, Cornwall
Foster, Richard, jun....Cambridge
Foster, Robert Carr...4, Marine Parade, Worthing
Foster, William...Hanworth, Sleaford, Lincolnshire
Foster, Wm....Wordsley House, near Stourbridge, Worcestershire
Fothergill, Mark...Chaleot Villa, Haverstock Hill
Fothergill, Matthew...Cefmachder, Bedwelty, near Newport, Monmouthshire
Fothergill, Richard... Lowbridge House, Kendal
Fothergill, Richard... Tredegar, Abergavenny, Mon- mouthshire
Fothergill, Rowland..,Hensol Castle, Cowbridge,
Glamorganshire
Foulkes, James Hassall. ..Chester
Foulkes, John...Penyboyn, Newtown, Montgome- ryshire ;
+Foulkes, John Jocelyn... Eriviatt, Denbigh
Fountaine, Bernard ... Stoke Hammond House, Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire
27
Fouracre, T. W.... Durston, near Taunton, Somerset.
Fowle, Wm..,.Market Lavington, Wilts.
Fowler, Geo. W....Prince Hall, Tavistock, Devon
Fowler, Henry... Kingham, Chipping Norton, Oxon
Fowler, John Kersley, jun....Aylesbury, Bucks.
Fowler, Marshall,..Preston Hall, near Stockton-on- Tees, Durham
Fowler, Michel... Little Bushy Farm, Stanmore, Middlesex
+Fowler, R.C....Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk
Fowler, Rear-Admiral M.,.,Walliscot House, Whit- church, near Reading
Fowler, Rd. jun.. .Gravelly Hill House, Birmingham
Fowler, Thomas...Tottenham, Middlesex
Fowler, William Barrett... Freazley, Fazeley, Staffs.
Fowler, William M....59, Grosvenor Street
Fowlie, Wm....Red House, Hursley, Winchester, Hants
Fox, Baruch. ..Beaminster, Dorsetshire
Fox, Rev. Dr....Queen’s College, Oxford
Fox, Frederick F....Melbourne, near Derby
Fox, George C....Grove Hill, Falmouth, Cornwall
Fox, Hy. Hawes, M.D.....North Woods, near Bristol
Fox, Robert...153, Westbourne Terrace, Bayswater
Fox, William ... Elfordleigh, Plympton St. Mary, Devon
Foxwell, Thos. S....High Street, Shepton Mallet, Somersetshire
Frampton, Hy....Oakers Wood, Dorchester, Dorset.
Francis, Samuel... Ford Place, Stifford, near Rom- ford, Essex i
Francis, S. R. G....Scranham Place, North Ocken- don, near Romford, Essex
Francis, William... Packsfield House, Raynham, Fakenham
Franklin, Edw. L....Ascott, near Benson, Oxfordsh.
Franklin, Jno....Ewelme, near Benson, Oxfordshire
+Franklin, Richd....Clemenstone, Bridgend, S. W.
Franklin, Robt....The Park, Thaxtead, Essex
Franklyn, Thomas,..Maidstone
Franks, George... Hunsdon, near Ware, Herts
Franks, James...Albury, Guildford, Surrey
Fraser, Alexander...Gatwick, Crawley, Sussex
Fraser, Alex....Middle Claydon, Winslow, Bucks.
Frederick, Sir Rich., Bart.... Burwood Park, Walton- on-Thames, Surrey
+Freebody, W. Yates...9, Duke Street, Westminster
Freeman, John,..East Rudham, Rougham, Norfolk
Freeman, Jno., jun...Summerfield, Docking, Norfolk
Freeman, John Gardner... Rockfield, near Hereford
Freeman, Joshua... Dersingham, Lynn
Freeman, W....Heigham Grove, Norwich
Freeman, W. Peere Williams. .. Fawley Court, Hen- ley-on-Thames, Oxon.
Freestone, Thomas. ..Irthlingborough, Wellingboro.
Fremantle, Rt. Hon. Sir W. H...Englefield Green, Chertsey, Surrey
Fremantle, Rev. W. R....Rector of Middle Claydon, Winslow, Bucks.
+Frere, Geo. Edw... -Roydon Hall, Diss, Norfolk
Frere, Ph. H.... Downing College, Cambridge
Frogley, Ralph Allen. . .-Hounslow, Middlesex
Fryer, Wm. R.... Lytchett, Poole, Dorsetshire
Hee
28
Fulford, Baldwin.., Great Fulford, Exeter
Fullagar, James... Milton, Sittingbourne, Kent
Fullard, Thomas....Thorney, near Peterborough, Northamptonshire
Fuller, Aug. E., M.P....Rose Hill, Robert’s Bridge, Sussex
Fuller, Hugh.. .Portslade, Brighton, Sussex
Fullerton, Rey. Arthur,...Thryberg Rectory, Ro- therham
Fulljames, Thos...,Hasfield Court, near Gloucester
Fulshaw, Richard... Knighton, near Leicester
Furniss, Lawrence, ..Birchill Farm, Bakewell, Der- byshire
Fussell, Rev. G. C....Chantry, Frome
Fust, Right Hon. Sir Herbert Jenner. , ,Chislehurst
Gabell, Chas... Hollyfield, near Crickhowell, Breck- nockshire
Gage, Hon. William... Westbury House, Petersfield, Hants
Gale, Edward M.,., Upham, near Bishop’s Waltham, Hants
Gale, Richard Christopher... Winchester, Hants
Gale, Wm. Hy... -Grately, near Andover, Hants
Gale, Rev. W. W.,,.Pylle Rectory, Shepton Mallet, Somersetshire
Gall, John...New Buckenham, Norfolk
Galpin, John...Dorchester, Dorset.
+Galton, Darwin. . Edstone Hall, Stratford-on-Avon, Warwickshire
Galton, Erasmus.,.Loxton Manor Cross, Somersetshire
+Galway, Viscount, M.P....Serlby Hall, Bawtry
Gambier, Chas. S.,..19, Upper Harley Street, Caven- dish Square
Gamble, John... Manor Farm, Shouldham, Thorpe, Norfolk
Gamble, J. C....Sutton House, St. Helen’s, Lancash.
Game, John....Pointington, near Sherborne, Dorset.
Gamlen, Wm. H.,..Hayne House, Tiverton, Devon.
+Gandy, James. .Heaves, near Kendal, Westmorld.
Gape, Thos. Foreman.. .St. Albans, Hertfordshire
Garbitt, Richard... Lawley, Wellington, Salop
Gardener, Jas....Oxford Arms, Kington, Herefordsh.
Gardiner, George...Horsford, Norwich, Norfolk
Gardner, Robert...Leighton Hall, near Shrewsbury
Gardner, Wm. Nettleton... Wells, Norfolk
Gardner, Wm. Wells... Biggleswade, Bedfordshire
7+Gardom, Thomas...The Yeld, Baslow, Bakewell
Garland, Captain Joseph G., R.N.... Stoneleigh, Wimborne, Dorsetshire
Garmston, John... Worcester
Garne, Wm....Aldsworth, Northleach, Gloucestersh.
+Garnett, Robert... Wyreside, Lancaster
Garnett, Wm....Quernmore Park, near Lancaster
Garnett, Wm. Jas.... Bleasdale Tower, Garstang, Lancashire
Garrard, Chas. B. D.., Lama Hall, St. Albans, Herts.
Garrard, James...Pinner Place, Watford, Herts.
Garratt, Francis. ,.Ellacombe, near Torquay, Devon.
+Garratt, John, jun... Farringdon House, nr. Exeter
Garrett, John...Ickleton, Saffron Walden, Essex
Garrett, Rich., jun... ,Leiston, Saxmundham, Suffolk
House, near
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Garrod, James... Wells, Somersetshire
Garsed, John. ..Llanwitt, near Cowbridge, Glamor- ganshire
Garth, Rev. Richard...Farnham, Surrey
Garth, Thomas C....Haines Hill, Reading, Berks.
Gascoyen, George. ..Stanwick, Higham Ferrers
Gascoyen, George...Birehmore, near Woburn, Beds.
Gaskell, W. P....Rolfes Hould, West Wycombe, Buckinghamshire
+Gatacre, Edward L....Coton, near Kidderminster, Worcestershire
Gataker, George... Mildenhall, Suffolk
Gater, C. H...Swathling, near Southampton, Hants
Gates, John A....Grange Farm, Sapistone, Ixworth
+Gates, Richard...Marshall Vale, Bramley, Guild- ford, Surrey ;
Gatrell, Wm. Verling... Lymington, Hampshire
Gaudern, John...Earl’s Barton, Wellingborough, Northamptonshire
Gaussen, Robt. Wm.,..Brookman’s Park, Hatfield, Hertfordshire ;
Gawler, Henry... Ramridge Cottage, Andover, Hants
+Gawne, Edward M....Kentraugh, Isle of Man
Gay, James...Thurning Hall, Norfolk
Gayford, Geo....Rymer House, Thetford, Norfolk
Gayner, John... Filton, near Bristol
Gearey, James. ..Gt. Westwood, Watford, Herts.
+Geary, Sir Wm. R. P., Bart....Oxen Heath, ‘Tun- bridge, Kent
Gedge, Johnson...Bury St. Edmund's, Suffolk
Gee, Thomas... Brothertoft, Boston
Geldard, George A....Aikrigend, Kendal, West- moreland
Geldard, John,..South Benwell House, Newcastle- upon-Tyne
George, James...Cotham, Bristol
George, James Gilbert...Monmouth
Gerrish, Thomas...Upton, near Andover, Hants
Gervais, Rev. Francis...3, Grafton Street, Dublin
Gibb, John...Coollatin Park, Wicklow, Ireland
Gibbon, Alexander.. Staunton, near Coleford, Glou- cestershire
Gibbons, Edward...Minster, Isle of Thanet, Kent
Gibbons, Stephen...Brocklesby, Great Limber
Gibbons, Thomas.., Wolverhampton, Staffordshire
Gibbs, Chas... Bishop’s Lydeard, Taunton, Somerset- shire
Gibbs, Geo... .26, Down Street, Piccadilly
+Gibbs, Geo.... Belmont, near Bristol .
Gibbs, Joseph... Elsfield, near Oxford
Gibbs, Wm....Tyntesfield, Bourton, near Bristol
Gibbs, Wm....Itchenor House, Chichester, Sussex
Gibbs, William, jun....Alveston Hill, Stratford-on- Avon, Warwickshire
Gibson, George...Kendal, Westmoreland
Gibson, Geo. John...Sandgate Lodge, Storrington, Steyning
Gibson, John...Leazes Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Gibson, Richard,..Swarkeston Lowes, near Derby
Gibson, William... Kirkby Green, near Lincoln
Gidney, Jeremiah W....East Dereham, Norfolk
Giffard, Rev. Jas., M.A....Viear of Wootton, near Barrow-on-Humber, Lincolnshire
List of Members.
Gilbert, Henry...Castle Gate, Newark, Notts.
Gilbert, James. ..120, Bordesley Street, Birmingham
+Gilbert, Robert,..Ashby Hall, Berghapton, Norfolk
Gilbert, Wm.. .Chute, Hippenscombe, near An- dover, Hants
+Gilbert, Wm. A. ...Cantley, Acle, Norfolk
Gilbertson, M....Elm Cottage, Egham Hill, Surrey
Gill, George... Weston, Shrewsbury, Shropshire
Gill, Wm....Billingford, Dereham
Gillespie, Robert...33, York Place, Portman Square
Gillett, John,..Brailes, Shipston-on-Stour, War- wickshire
Gillett, John...Tunstall, Acle, Norfolk
Gillett, Joseph Ashby...Banbury, Oxfordshire
Gillett, Richard..,Plumstead, Norwich
Gillett, William...Southleigh, Witney, Oxfordshire
Gilling, Thos....Wells, Somerset
Gilpin, George...Sedbury Park, Richmond, Yerk- shire
Gilpin, Lieut.-Col. Richard... Hockliffe Grange, Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire
Gilstrap, J.... Hawton, Newark, Nottinghamshire
Ginders, Samuel...Ingestre, near Stafford
Girdlestone, Rev. H....Landford, Salisbury, Wilts.
Girdlestone, Robert... Kellinghall, Holt, Norfolk
Girdwood, John...Chirk, N. W.
Girling, John...Earlham, Norwich
+Gisborne, Matthew...Walton Hall, Burton on- Trent, Staffordshire
Gleaves, Wm....Abbotsley, St. Neot’s, Hunting- donshire
+Glegg, Baskerville, . Backford, Chester, Cheshire
Glegg, Jno. Baskeroyle... Withington House, Chel- ford, Knutsford, Cheshire
Glencross, William... Luxstowe, Liskeard, Cornwall
+Glendining, A....Ash Grove, Seven Oaks, Kent
Glover, John...Bangley, Tamworth, Staffordshire
Glover, Wm....12, Northumberland Street, New- castle-upon-Tyne
Glynne, Rev. Henry... Hawarden Rectory, Chester
Glynne, Sir Steph. Bart., M.P.... Hawarden Castle, Flintshire
+Gobbett, John...Iken Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk
Goddard, Ambrose... The Lawn, Swindon, Wilts.
Goddard, Horatio Nelson,..Cliffe, Wootton Bassett, Wiltshire
Goddard, Thos...St. Fagons, Cardiff
Goddard, William Gilbert....Berwick St. John, Salisbury
Godfrey, George...Childrey, Wantage, Berkshire
Godsell, Thos.,..The Bower, Holme Lacy, near Hereford
Godwin, Shadrack...Grove Hill, Hemel Hempstead
Godwin, William...Bossington, Stockbridge, Hants.
+Goldhawk, Rowland, jun.,..Hasle Hall, Steer, Guildford, Surrey
Golding, Wm., jun... Leavers, East Peckham, Kent
Goldsmith, John... North Farm, Crostwich, Norwich
Goldsmith, Thomas,..Dairy Farm, Ixworth
Goldsmith, William...30, Parliament Street
Gomme, John...St. Julians, near St. Albans, Herts.
+Gooch, Edward Sherlock, M.P...Ashmans, Beccles
29
Gooch, John Kerr... East Tuttenham, Norwich
Gooch, Stephen... Honingham, near Norwich
Goodacre, R... Ullesthorpe, Lutterworth, Leicesters.
Goodall, Michael... Evelith Manor, Shiffnal, Salop
+Goodden, J....Qver Compton, Sherborne, Dorset
Goode, Edw.... Aston Court, Tenbury, Worcesters.
Goode, George... Croft Cottage, Carmarthen
Goode, Hy. Philps....Scotchwell, Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire
Goodenough, Joseph ... Godmanstone, Dorchester, Dorsetshire
+Goodlake, T. Mills...Wadley House, Faringdon, Berkshire
Goodman, Timothy ..Warminster, Wiltshire
Goodricke, Sir Fras. L. H., Bart....Clermont Lodge, Watton, Norfolk
Goodwin, Capt. Fras. Green... Wigwell Grange, Wirksworth
Goodwin, George... Langar, near Bingham, Notts.
Goodwin, Wm...Birchwood, near Alfreton, Derbys.
Goodwyn, S. C.,.Huntingfield Hall, Yoxford, Suff.
Gordon, Alexander...Eudon, Bridgenorth, Salop
Gordon, Charles... Heavitree, near Exeter, Devon
Gordon, Jas. Adam...Naish, near Bristol, Somerset.
Gordon, Rey. Lord George...Chesterton, Stilton, Huntingdonshire
Gordon, Robt...Kemble House, near Cirencester, Gloucester shire
Gorham, John... West Wittering, Chichester, Sussex
Goring, Chas... Wiston Park, Steyning, Sussex
+Goring, Sir H. D., Bart....Highden, Shoreham, Sussex
Goring, Mrs. M....Wiston Park, Steyning, Sussex
Gorringe, James...Selmiston, Lewes, Sussex
Gorringe, J. P... Eastbourne, Sussex
Gosford, Wm...Everingham, Pocklington, near York
Gosling, Bennett... Roehampton Grove, Surrey
Gosling, John ..Bocking, Essex
Gosling, Robert. ..Hassobury, Bishop’s Stortford
Gosling, Thos....10, Chandos Street, Cavendish Sq.
+Gosset, Capt. Arthur... Eltham, Kent
Gotch, T. H.., Kettering
Gough, Edward...Gravel Hill, Shrewsbury, Salop
Gough, Ralph...Gorsebrook, Wolverhampton
Gough, R. D.... Yniscedwin, near Neath, Glamorg.
Gould, John... Poltimore, Exeter, Devon
Gowan, George...20, Park Crescent
+Gower, Abel L...Castie Malgwyn, Llechryd, New- castle Emlyn, Pembrokeshire
Gower, A. W...Hook, near Hartford Bridge, Hants.
Gower, George... Dilham, near Smallburgh, Norfolk
+Gower, J. Leveson...Gonver, Alverstoke, Gosport
+Gower, Robt. Fred...Glandovan, Pembrokeshire
+Gower, W. Leveson, jun...Titsey Place, Godstone, Surrey
Gowing, George... Trowse, Norwich
Graburn, R. S....Butleigh, Glastonbury
Graburn, William... Barton-on-Humber, Lines.
Grace, Edward,.. Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Grace, Edward Nath. ...Byker Hill, Newcastle-on- Tyne
Grace, H..,.Gates Ewhurst, near Northiam, Sussex
Grace, Jas... Wardrobes, Princes Risborough, Bucks.
50
Grace, Wm....Saltwick, Morpeth, Northumberland
Graddon, Wm....Bratton House, Chittlehampton Devonshire
+Greme, Major Geo. D....Inchbrakie House, Crieff, Perthshire®
Graham, Carolus J. H.,..Strawan, Crieff, Perthshire
+Graham, James...Berstead Lodge, Bognor, Sussex
Grain, Peter,..Shelford, near Cambridge
Grain, Peter, jun....Shelford, near Cambridge
Grainger, Richard... Newcastle-on-Tyne
Granger, John...Stretham, Ely, Cambridgeshire
Granger, Joseph. ..Stretham, Ely, Cambridgeshire
Granger, Thos. W...Stretham Grange, Ely, Camb.
Grant, H. J...The Gnoll Castle, Neath, Glamorg.
Grant, John...Manningford Bruce, Pewsey, Wilts.
Grant, Jonathan.., East Coulston, Westbury, Wilts.
Grant, Joseph Cooke...Stamford, Lincolnshire
Grant, Wm...Litchborough, Towcester, Northamp.
Grantham, George... Barcombe Place, Lewes
Grantham, Stephen... Ryder’s Wells House, Lewes, Sussex
Grantham, Rev. Thos... Bramber, Steyning, Sussex
Granville, Bernard ... Wellesbourne, Stratford-on- Avon, Warwickshire
+Granville, Earl... Aldenham, Bridgnorth
+Gratwick, W. G. K...Ham, Arundel, Sussex
Graves, Robt....Charlton, Shaftesbury, Dorsetshire
Gray, Alex. Geo... Newcastle-on-Tyne
Gray, Edw... Leazes Hill, Burnop Field, Gateshead
Gray, Russell... Barcombe, near Lewes, Sussex
Gray, William... East Bolton, Alnwick
Grazebrook, George.. .Stourbridge, Worcestershire
Greaves, James... Radclive, near Buckingham
Greaves, William...Matlock-Bath, Derbyshire
Green, Daniel... Fingringhoe, Colchester
Green, Francis...Court Henry, near Llandilo, Car- marthenshire
Green, Rev. Geo. Wade...Court Henry, Llandilo, Carmarthenshire
Green, James... Wroxham, Norwich
Green, James... Prescot, Lancashire
Green, Joseph B....Marlow, Ludlow
Green, Rich... Deepdene, Bury St. Edmund’s, Suffolk
Green, Rich.,..Metheringham, nr. Sleaford, Lincs.
Green, Robt....Odstone Hill, Measham, Ashby-de- Ja-Zouch, Leicestershire
Green, Thomas...Trench Hill, Gateshead
Green, Rev. Thos. .. Vicar of Badby, Daventry
Green, Wm. Geo.. .Belford Villa, Belford, Northumb.
+Greenall, Gilbert, M.P... Walton Hall, Warrington, Lancas.
+Greenall, John... The Bank, Warrington, Lancas.
Greene, J., M.P....Greenville, co. Kilkenny, Ireland
+Greene, T., M.P....Whittington Hall, Lancaster
Greene, Capt. W. Burnaby... Wickham, Hants.
Greenfield, James,..Brynderiven, Usk, Monmouth.
Greenham, Jas....Blankney Fen, Lincoln
Greenhow, John... Kendal, Westmoreland
Greenway, Henry..-Hambrook, near Bristol
Greenwood, Chas... , Wallingford, Berkshire
+Greenwood, Edwin,..Swarcliffe, Harrowgate
+Greenwood, Fred....Ryshworth Hall, Bingley
Greetham, Thomas,, .Stainfield Hall, Lincoln
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
| Greg, Thos....Ballymenock, Hollywood, co. Down
Gregg, James ..Ledbury
+Gregg, Thomas...
+Gregor, Gordon H. F,...Trewarthewick, Tregony, Truro, Cornwall
+Gregson, Mathew...Toxteth Park, Liverpool
Grenfell, C. P., M.P....38, Belgrave Square
Grenfell, Riversdale... Ray Cottage, Maidenhead
Grenville, Hon, and Rev. G.N., Dean of Windsor. . Butleigh Court, Glastonbury
Greville, Algernon,..North Lodge, Potters’ Bar, Barnet
Greville, Fulke S.. North Mims Park, Hatfield,Herts.
Grey, Hon. B. N. Osborn De... Fawley, Southampton
+Grey, Capt. Chas, Bacon...Styford, near Hexham, Northumberland
Grey, Hon. and Rev. F. De..Copdock Rectory, Ips- wich
+7Grey, Capt. Hon. F. W., R.N...Howick, Alnwick
Grey, Right Hon. Sir George, Bart., M.P....Fal- lowdon, near Alnwick, Northumberland
Grey, G. A....Milfield Hill, Wooller, Northumb.
Grey, Hon. G. De...Rokeley, nr. Watton, Norfolk
Grey, Jas...Kimmerston, near Wooller, Northumb.
Grey, John. ..Dilston House, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Grey, Thos. R.... Norton, near Stockton-on-Tees
Griffin, John... Borough Fenn, Peterborough, North- ampton
Griffin, Richard. ..Coleshill, Amersham, Bucks.
Griffin, Wm. Ervin..,Werrington, Peterborough, Northamptonshire
Griffinhoofe, Rev. T. S...Arkesden, near Bishop’s Stortford, Hertfordshire
Griffith, ©. D... Padworth House, Reading, Berks
Griffith, E, H...Ty-Newydd, near Denbigh
Griffith, J..Llwynduris, Newcastle-Emlyn, Carmar- thenshire
Griffith, Samuel Y...Queen’s, Cheltenham
Griffithes, Thomas J. ..Bishop’s Castle, Salop
Griffiths, Edward...New Court, near Hereford
Griffiths, Henry... Bryndafydd, near Swansea
Griggs, Money...Creake, Fakenham
Grime, Thomas... Ticknall, Derbyshire
Grimmer, Fred... Thurlton Hall, Loddon, Norfolk
Grimmer, H.S...Haddiscoe, Norfolk
Groom, Rich...3, Henrietta Street, Cavendish Squ.
Grose, Nich. M... Wadebridge, Cornwall
Grove, Dr...Fern, Shaftesbury
Grutt, Collings de Jersey...Sark, Guernsey
Guilford, Thomas... Nottingham
Guillonneau, Jacob...Twickenham
Gundry, Joseph, .. Bridport, Dorset
Gunner, William... Will Hall, Alton, Hampshire
+Gurdon, Brampton...Grundisburgh Hall, Wood- bridge, Suffolk
+Gurdon, John Barrett...Assington Hall, Boxford, Suffolk
+Gurdon, Rev. Philip...Cramworth Rectory, Ship- dham, Norfolk
7Gurdon, R. J...,Wivenhoe Park, Colchester
+Gurdon, Wm....11, Crown-office Row, Temple
Gurney, Charles... Launceston, Cornwall
Gurney, Jobn.,.Earlham, Norwich, Norfolk
List of Members. 3
+Gurney, John Henry...Easton, Norwich
Gurney, K. H.., Hethersett, Thickthorn, near Nor- wich, Norfolk
Gwatkin, John... Pare-Behan, Tregony, near Truro, Cornwall
Gwilt, Rey. Dan..Icklingham Rectory, Mildenhall, Suffolk
Gwyn, H., M.P....Baglon House, Neath, Glamor- ganshire
Gwyn, KR. H...Astbury Hall, Bridgnorth, Shropsh.
Gwynne, Capt. A. L...Monachty, Cardiganshire
Gyles, John,,.Aplayhead, East Retford, Notts.
Hack, James...Torquay, Devonshire
Hacker, John Heathcote... Leek, Staffordshire
Haggard, Wm. M. R...Bradenham Hall, Shipdham, Norfolk
Haggitt, Henry... Bury St. Edmunds
Hague, John...Coursehourne, Cranbrook, Kent
Haigh, Geo... Erdington, Birmingham
Haines, Edw.,..Moor Wood House, Cirencester Gloucestershire
Halcomb, Wm...Poulton, Marlborough, Wilts.
Halcomb, W. H...Chilton, Hungerford, Berkshire
Hales, Baseley...Salehouse, Blofield, Norwich
Hales, Rey. Robt... Hillington, Castle Rising, Norf.
Halford, Rey. Thos., Downing College, Cambridge
Halford, Wm...Broughton Astley, Lutterworth
Halke, Rev. J... Weston-by- Welland, Northampton
Halket, Geo.,.. Wainskeel, Bridgend, Glamorgansh.
Hall, Benj..., Hanley Castle, Upton-on-Severn
Hall, Benj. E....Cilgwyn, Cardiganshire
Hall, Col., M.P. (ist Life Guards)
Hall, Edward Lloyd C.,..Emlyn Cottage, Newcastle Emlyn, Carmarthenshire
Hall, Francis...Park Hall, Mansfield, Notts.
Hall, George. ..Ely, Cambridgeshire
Hall, George, .. Barton Seagrave, Kettering
+Hall, Henry...Fritwell Manor House, Brackley Agho, Oxon
+Hall, Henry...Neasdon, Willesden, Middlesex
Hall, James, ..Scorborough, Beverley, Yorkshire
Hall, J. W. R....Springfield, near Ross, Herefordsh,
+Hall, John... Wiseton, near Bawtry, Notts.
Hall, J. O....1, Brunswick Row, Queen's Square, Bloomsbury
Hall, John.,.Arnold Lodge, near Nottingham
Hall, John... Kiveton Park, Sheftield, Yorkshire
Hall, Joseph.. .Callington, Bromyard, Herefordshire
Hall, Richard. . .Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Hall, Thomas. ..Hopton, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Hall, Thomas Kirkpatrick... Holly-bush, Burton-on- Trent, Staffordshire
+Hall, William...Ashton, near Leominster
Hallam, John...Newcastle, Staffordshire
Hallett, John James, M.D....Queen’s Farm, Jersey
Halley, Francis. ..Shiffnal, Shropshire :
Hallowes, Thos... .Glasswell Hall, Chesterfield
+Halls, Joseph...Denham Hall, Bury St. Edmunds
Halsey, Rev. J. F. Moore... .Gaddesden Park, Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire
Halsted, Thomas ....Woodcote, near Chichester, Sussex
vi
]
Halton, Rev. I.,..Winfield Manor, Alfreton, Derby
Halton, Rev. L. M. ... Woolhampton, Newbury, Berkshire
tHambrough, Albert J...Steephill Castle, Newport, Isle of Wight
Hamersley, Hugh...Great Haseley, Tetsworth, Oxon
Hamerton, James...Hellifield Peel, Skipton
}Hamilton, Capt. Archd.... Rozelle, near Ayr, N.B.
Hamilton, Edward... Bridgnorth
Hamilton, G. A., M.P.... Hampton, near Balbrigan, Treland
Hamilton, Geo. Ernest,.. Wolverhampton
tHamilton, John...Sundrum, Ayr, N. B.
Hammond, Geo... Manor Farm, St. Mary Cray, Kent
Hammond, Horace John...Lewis Heath, Horsmon- den, Cranbrook
Hammond, J.W... Wistaston Hall, Nantwich, Chesh.
Hammond, Thomas...Penshurst, near Tonbridge
+Hamond,W. Parker... Pampisford Hall, Cambridge
Hanbury, Edward....Hacheston, Wickham Market, Suffolk
Hanbury, Rev. G....Swaffham
Hanbury, John...Carborough, Lichfield, Staffordsh.
Hanbury, Robert...Poles, Ware, Herts
Hancock, Abraham... Hall Place, Ropley, near Alresford, Hampshire
Hancock, J.... Halse, near Milverton, Somersetshire
Hand, James... Ludlow, Shropshire
Hand, Rob. .. Woolsthorpe, Grantham, Lincolnshire
+Handley, Major Benjamin... Pointon House, Fol- kingham, Lincolnshire
Handy, Edward...Sevenhampton, near Andovers- ford, Gloucestershire
Hanford, C. E... Woolas Hall, near Pershore, Worc.
Hanham, Joseph Carey...Gunville, Blandford
Hankey, J, Barnard... Fetcham, Leatherhead, Surrey
Hanmer, Colonel...Bear Place, Maidenhead
Hanmer, Sir John, Bart., M.P....Bettisfield Park, Whitchurch, Salop
Wannam, Charles..,Northbourne Court, Deal, Kent
Hannam, Henry J....Burcot, Benson, Oxon
Hannam, John.. North Deighton, Wetherby, Yorksh.
Hannay, Rev. James.. Ashley, Stockbridge, Hampsh.
Hanson, John..,346, Strand
Harbin, George...Newton House, Yeovil, Somerset.
+Harcourt,G. G., M.P... Nuneham Park, nr. Oxford.
Harcourt, Capt. Octavius, R.N....Swinton Park, Bedale, Yorkshire
Hardcastle, J. A., M.P.... Coptfold Hall, Ingatestone
+Hardcastle, Jonathan..Blidsworth Dale, Mansfield, Notts.
Harding, Egerton William...Old Springs, Market Drayton, Shropshire
Harding, G....Fern Hill, Market Drayton, Salop
Harding, Geo...Durweston, Blandford, Dorsetshire
Harding, James... Waterson, Dorchester, Dorset.
Harding, J. C....Upton, Scudamore, Warminster
Harding, J. Goldie... Monkleigh, Torrington, Devon.
Harding, Richard... Warren Farm, Finmer, Bucks.
Harding, Stephen T....Stinsford Farm, near Dor- chester, Dorset.
Harding, Wm. C... Lower Winchendon, Aylesbury, Bucks
32
Hardy, James...Jaques Hall, Manningtree
Hardy, Joseph... Midville, Boston, Lincolnshire
Hardy, Robert...Tendring Hall, Colchester, Essex
+Hardy, W. H. Cozens...Letheringsett Hall, Holt, Norfolk
Hare, Jabez...10, Nelson Square, Southwark
Hare, Joseph... Wilton Farm, Beaconsfield, Bucks
+Hare, Sir J....26, Royal Crescent, Bath
Hare, Sir Thomas, Bart...Stow Hall, Downham Market, Norfolk
Harewood, Earl of,... Harewood House, London
+Harford, John S....Blaize Castle, near Bristol
+Harford, W...Barley Wood, Wrington, near Bristol
Harkes, David...Mere, Knutsford
Harland, W. C...Sutton Hall, York
Harper, George... Belvidere, Whitchurch, Salop
Harper, John...Isham, Kettering, Northamptonsh.
Harper, John...Madley Manor, Newcastle-under- Lyne, Staffordshire
Harries, Francis, jun....Cruckton Hall, Shrewsbury
Harries, Gilbert J....Llanwnwes, Haverfordwest,
~ Pembrokeshire
Harris, James..,Plumstead Common, Kent
Harris, James...Long Sutton, near Odiham, Hants
Harris, John...Hinton, Abingdon, Berks
Harris, John...Springwell Cottage, Clapham Com- mon
Harris, Joseph...Graysouthern, Cockermouth
Harris, Rich. .. Wootton Grange, near Northampton
Harris, Thomas ..Fletchamstead, Stoneleigh, Co- ventry, Warwickshire
Harris, Wm....Weston, Leamington, Warwickshire
Harrison, Anthony...Hexham, Northumberland
Harrison, Daniel... Kendal, Westmoreland
Harrison, Rev. J...Dinton, Aylesbury, Bucks
Harrison, John...Summerlands, Kendal
Harrison, John...The Bank, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Harrison, John, jun.,..Snelston Hall, near Ash- bourne, Derbyshire
Harrison, John B,.. Douglas, Isle of Man
Harrison, Rev. J. H...Erdington, Birmingham
Harrison, Richard... Wolverton, Bucks
Harrison, Rev. R. J... Caer Howell, Welshpool
Harrison, Thomas,..Norris Green, West Derby, Liverpool
Harrison, Rey. T. H... Bugbrooke Rectory, Weedon
Harrison, William... Walsall, Staffordshire
Harrison, William...Bagworth Park, near Market Bosworth
Harrowby, Earl of... Norton House, Campden, Essex
Hart, Henry P...Beddingham, Lewes, Sussex
Hart, John Geo. ..Stowmarket, Suffolk
Hart, Thos. , Wing, nr. Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordsh.
Hart, Thos. Fred...Barham House, East Hoathly, Hurst Green, Sussex
Hart, Thos. P...Housham Hall, Matching, Harlow, Essex
Harter, Rev. G. G.,.-Cranfield, Newport Pagnell
+ Harter, J. C...Broughton Hall, Manchester
Hartley, Gilfred William... Rose Hill, Whitehaven, Cumberland
Hartley, Thomas...Gilfoot, Whitehaven
Harvey, Chas. W...2, Dale Street, Liverpool
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Harvey, Edw. N...Mount House, Southampton
Harvey, John,..Hemsworth, Wimborne, Dorset
Harvey, Matthew... Balderton, Newark, Notts.
Harvey, Robert E.... Walton Priory, near Liverpool
Harvey, °Maj..Gen. Sir R. J....Moushold House, Norwich
Harvey, R. J....Brancondale, Norwich
Harwood, Samuel... Bradley Hall, Ashbourne
Haselfoot, R. C.,. Boreham, Chelmsford, Essex
Haselwood, Wm....Hoddesden, Herts
Haslar, Richard,..Aldingbourne, Chichester, Sussex
Hassall, Wm....Hadley, Whitchurch, Salop
Hassell, John...Shelford Manor, Nottingham
Hastings, John...Longham, near East Dereham, Norfolk ;
Hastings, John, jun...Gressinghall, East Dereham
Hastings, John Kerr... Hereford
Hatfield, Charles T...Hartsdown House, near Mar- gate, Kent
Hatfield, R... Thorpe Arch Hall, Wetherby, Yorksh.
Hatfield, Thomas... Yarwell, Wansford, Northampt.
Havers, Wm...Bacon’s Farm, Mountnessing, near Ingatestone, Essex
Hawdon, Robert. ..Morpeth, Northumberland
Hawker, Admiral E...Ashford Lodge, Petersfield, Hampshire
Hawkes, Matthew...Melton Constable, Dereham, Norfolk
+Hawkesworth, R. S...Forest Mountrath, Queen's County, Ireland
Hawkins, H. M...Tredunnock, Usk, Monmouthsh.
+Hawkins, Thos...Assington Moor, Sudbury,Suffolk
Hawkins, Wm. W...St. Botolph’s, Colchester, Essex
Hawks, Geo. . -Redheugh Hall, Gateshead-on-Tyne
Hawthorn, Wm....Benwell Cottage, Newcastle-on- Tyne
Haydon, Joseph...Guildford, Surrey
Haydon, Samuel... Guildford, Surrey
Hayne, John,..Ferdington, Dorchester, Dorset
Hayne, Capt. Rich... .Stanley, New Brunswick
Hayward, George... Walford House, nr. Dorrington, Shrewsbury
Hayward, Harry... Wilsford, Devizes, Wiltshire
Hayward, Jolin.. .Hisland, Oswestry, Shropshire
Hayward, J. C... Quedgeley House, near Gloucester
Hayward, Joseph.,.Beechingstoke, Devizes, Wilts.
Haywood, Henry... Moccas, Hereford
Haywood, James... Derby ;
Hazlerigg, Sir A. Grey, Bt... Noseley Hall, Leicester
Heacock, Philip... Buxton, Derbyshire
Head, Charles... Hexham
Headlam, Morley... Wycliffe Rectory, Greta Bridge, Yorkshire
Headlam, T. E., M.P....Newcastle-on-Tyne
Headly, Richard...Stapleford, near Cambridge
Heanley, William... Croft, Wainfleet
Heard, W..-.St. Margaret’s, Ware, Herts.
Hearn, John Henry...Newport, Isle of Wight
Hearsey, Rich...Greatham, near Petersfield, Hants.
Heath, Samuel... Frankton, Southam, Warwickshire
Weath, Sergeant,..Kitlands, Dorking, Surrey
Heathcote, A. H... Blackwell, Bakewell, Derbysh.
Hythe, near
List of Members.
7 Heathcote, J. Moyer..,Connington Castle, Stilton, Huntingdonshire
Heathcote, Richard...Bayterby, near Atherstone, Warwickshire
Heaton, Chas...Endon, Leek, Staffordshire
Heaton, Thos... Endon, Leek, Staffordshire
Hedding, James..,Manor Farm, Chawson, near St. Neots, Huntingdonshire
Heelis, Thos....Skipton Castle, Yorkshire
Hegan, Joseph... Liverpool
Helps, Richard. , .Gloucester
Helyar, C. J....Poundisford Lodge, Taunton, Soms.
Hemsworth, H. D’Estere.. -Shropham Hall, Lar- lingford, Norfolk
Henchman, Fras....Kew, Surrey
Henckel, Count Hugo. .Donnesmark, Siemianowitz, Konigshutte, Prussia
Henderson, Edward. .Lowick, Berwick-upon-Tweed
Henderson, Matthew...Landends, Hexham, Nor-
-thumberland
Henderson, R...Langles Ford, Wooller, Northumb.
Hendy, James... Trethurffe, near Truro, Cornwall
Heneage, Geo. H. Walker, M.P....Compton Basset, Calne, Wiltshire
;Henley, Jos, Warner, M.P....Waterperry, near Wheatley, Oxon.
+Henning, Jas,..Wolveton, Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Henning, W. L...Frome House, Dorchester, Dorset- shire
Henshall, Edward... Huddersfield
Hensman, William...Woburn, Beds.
Hensman, William, jun.... Woburn, Beds.
Henty, Robert... Chichester
Hepworth, Joshua. ..Rogerthorp, near Pontefract
Herbert, John...Powick, near Worcester
+Herbert, John Maurice...Rocklands, Ross.
Hercy, John...Hawthorn Hill, Maidenhead, Berks.
Hereford, Viscount ..Tregoyd, Hay, Herefordshire
Herrick, William...Beau Manor Park, Loughbo- rough, Leicestershire
Herring, John Barnwell... North Barsham, Walsing- ham, Norfolk
Herring, P. B...Finchley, Middlesex
Hersee, Dennett... Wepham, near Arundel, Sussex
+Hertefeld, The Baron... Liebenberg, near Berlin
Hervey, Wm...Bradwell Grove, near Burford, Oxon
Hesseltine, Wm.,..Worlaby House, Barton, Lin- colnshire
-+Hester, G.P... Town Clerk’s Office, Oxford
Hetherington, Joseph Walker...Newcastle-upon- Tyne
Hetley, H...Long Orton, Peterborough, Northamp- tonshire
Hewer, George... Leygore, Northleach
Hewer, Wm...Hill Farm, Northleach
Hewitt, Richd....Dodford, Weedon, Northampton- shire i
Hewlett, Thomas Barnard... Northampton
Hews, Richard Scott. .Hoo Pall, Revenhall, Witham, Essex
Hext, Thos...Trerarren, St. Austell, Cornwall
Hey, Richard...York
Heytesbury, Lord...Heytesbury, Wilts
33
+Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart,..Claremont, near Manchester
+Heywood, James, M.P...Atheneum Club
Heywood, John Thos... Brimington, near Chester- field, Derbyshire
Heyworth, Rey. James..Henbury Hill, near Bristol
Heyworth, Ormerod...OQakwood Hall, near Stock- port, Cheshire
+Hibbert, John, jun....47, Great Ormond Street
Hibbert, Nathaniel...Munden, Watford, Herts.
+Hibbert, Washington... Bilton Grange, Rugby
Hickin, John... Bourton, Dunchurch, Warwickshire
Hicks, Leonard... Paddock Lodge, Kentish Town
Hickson, Rich... Hougham, Grantham, Lincolnsh.
Higgens, Wm. W. . Fairfield, Hambledon, Horndean, Hants,
Higgins, Rev. Edward...Bosbury House, Ledbury, Herefordshire
Higgins, Henry...Brinsop Court, near Hereford, Herefordshire
Higgins, John...Alford, Lincolnshire
Higgins, Wm. Thos....George Hotel, Northampton
Higgins, W.B....Pict’s Hill, Turvey, Bedford
+Higginson, Edmund,..Saltmarsh, Bromyard
Higginson, Jonathan.... Reaseheath Hall, Nantwich
Higginson, Rev. J....Thormanby Rectory, Thirsk, Yorkshire
Highmore, J. N.... Preston Yeovil, Somersetshire
Hilder, James, ..Bodiam, Staplehurst, Sussex
Hilder, John..,Sandhurst, Kent
Hilder, Thos.....Salehurst, Robertsbridge, Hurst- green, Sussex
Hilditch, George... Treflach Hall, Oswestry
Hildyard, Colonel.,.Stokesley, Yorkshire
Hilhouse, Henry. ..Halstead, Leicester
Hill, Charles... Winceby, Horncastle, Lincolnshire
Hill, Charles...Great Harrowden, Wellingborough
Hill, Col. C. J....Tickhill Castle, Bawtry
Hill, Rev. Copinger. .Buxhall, Stow Market, Suffolk
Hill, Clement Delves...Sandford Hall, Salop
Hill, Edw... Brierley Hill Iron-Works, near Dudley, Worcestershire
Hill, Edward...63, Gray’s Inn Lane
Hill, Harcourt...Hevers Wood, Brasted, Kent
Hill, Rev. John,..The Citadel, Hawkstone, Shrews- bury, Salop
Hill, Josiah... Briston, East Dereham
Hill, Robt. Broadhurst... .Backe Hall, near Chester
Hill, Col. Sir Robert Chambre, Knt....Prees Hall, Shrewsbury, Shropshire
Hill, Rd. Clarke...Stallington, Stone, Staffordshire
Hills, David... Norwich
Hills, Henry...Span, Godshill, Isle of Wight
Hillyard, C....Thorpelands, near Northampton
Hilton, Henry,..Sole Street House, Selling, Faver- sham, Kent
Hilton, Stephen Musgrave... Brambling, Wingham
Hilton, Thomas... Nackington House, Canterbury
Hincks, T. C....Breckenborough, Thirsk, Yorkshire
Hinde, Geo. T. Preston... Harmston Hall, Lincoln
+Hinde, John Hodgson, M.P.... Acton House, Felton, Northumberland
near
F
34
Hindmarsh, Wm. C....West Horton, near Wooller, Northumberland
Hine, Thomas C....Nottingham
Hipkin, John...Singleton, near Midhurst, Sussex
Hippisley, Edw. Burgess...Chewton Mendip, Bath, Somersetshire
Hippisley, John.. Stone Easton, Bath, Somerset
Hirst, Godfrey...Longdon Hall, Knowle, Warwicks.
Hitchcock, Simon,... Allcanings, near Devizes, Wiltshire
Hoare, George Wm.... The Lodge, Morden, Surrey
Hoare, Henry Chas....7, York Street, St. James’s
Hoare, Sir Hugh Richard, Bart... Lillingstone, Tow- cester, Northumberland
Hoare, Capt. Richard, . Tag’s End, Hemel Hempstead
Hobbs, B....Earl’s Colne, near Halstead, Essex
Hobbs, Wm....Bocking, Braintree, Essex
Hobgen, Chas... .Siddlesham, Chichester, Sussex
Hobgen, J., jun....Aldingbonrn, Chichester, Sussex
Hobhouse, Henry...9, King’s Bench Walk, Temple
Hoblyn, D. P....Colquita, near Bodmin, Cornwall
Hobson, Edward..Stoke Park, Stapleton, nr. Bristol
Hoddenett, James...Silberlake Farm, Sherborne, Dorsetshire
Hodding, Matthias Thos....Fryem Court, Salisbury
Hodge, Henry... Lower Bossistow Vale, St. Levan, near Penzance, Cornwall
Hodgkinson, Rev. G. C.... Training Institution, York
Hodgkinson, John.,.Hardwicke, near Chesterfield, Derbyshire
Hodgkinson, R., sen....Morton Grange, Retford, Nottinghamshire
Hodgkinson, R., jun....Osberton Grange, Retford, Nottinghamshire
Hodgson, James...Eldon Street, Newcastle-upon- Tyne
Hodgson, Isaac Scott...14, Furnival’s Inn
-+Hodgson, William...Wanstead, Essex
Hodson, Rev. J. J....Yelvertoft Rectory, Rugby
Hoff, William...Halton, Spilsby, Lincolnshire
Hogarth, John... Akeld, Wooller
Hoggins, Thos..,.Trafford Lodge, near Chester
Holcombe, Rev. George Francis... Brinkley, New- market, Cambridgeshire
Holden, Edw. A....Aston Hall, Derby
Holden, Robt... Nuthall Temple, Nottingham
Holder, John...Cubberly, near Ross, Herefordshire
Holding, Henry...Shaldon, near Alton, Hants
Holdsworth, Geo...2, Upper Dorset Place, Clapham Road, Kennington
Hole, James...Knowle, Dunster, Somersetshire
Hole, William... Hannaford, Barnstaple
Hole, William...Clare House, Tiverton, Devonshire
+Holland, Dr. Charles...Rodbaston Hall, Penkridge
Holland, Sam., jun...Plasy Penrhyn, Port Maddock, Carnarvonshire
Holliday, James...Lord Street, Liverpool
Hollier, W... Walton, near Burton-on-Trent, Staffs.
+Hollist, Hasler. ..Lodsworth, Petworth, Sussex
Holloway, Harry... Ringwood
Holloway, Horatio... Marchwood, Southampton
Holman, John,..Glastonbury, Somerset
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Holmes, Fred.,..Tibbenham, Attleborough, Norfolk
Holmes, George.. .Brooke Lodge, Norwich
Holmes, Rev. John... Brooke Hall, Norwich
Holmes, John...Prospect Place, Globe Lane, Nor- wich
Holmes, Hon. W. A’Court... Westover, Newport, Isle of Wight
Holton, George... Wiston, Sudbury, Suffolk
Homer, J., . Martinstown, near Dorchester, Dorsetsh.
Honnywill, W. Henry...Alveston, Bristol
+Hony, Rev. P. F...25, Old Bond Street
Hony, Rev. W. E....Baverstock Rectory, Salisbury, Wiltshire
Honywood, W. P...Mark’s Hall, Kelvedon, Essex
Hood, Hon. Colonel A. N....50, Grosvenor Street
Hooper, George, jun...Cottington, near Deal, Kent
Hope, Thomas Henry... Netley, Shrewsbury
Hoper, John, jun.,..Shermanbury, Hurstperpoint, Sussex
Hopkins, Jno.... Tidmarsh House, Reading, Berks.
Hopkinson, Luke...10, Bedford Row
Hopkinson, Dr. W. Landen.. .St. Martin’s, Stamford, Lincolnshire
Hopper, John Mason,..Newham Grange, near Middlesbro.
Hopton, Rev. John...Canon-Frome Court, Ledbury, Herefordshire
Hopton, Rev. W. P... .Bishop’s Frome, near Brom- yard, Herefordshire
Hordern, Alex...Oxley, Wolverhampton, Staffordsh.
Horlock, Frederick... Handcox Farm, Seddlescombe, Sussex
Horne, Allen... Bridge Street, Sunderland
Hornby, H...Ribby Hall, Kirkham, Preston, Lanc.
Hornby, Joseph...Everton, near Liverpool
+Hornby, Rev. R... Walton-le-Dale, Preston, Lanc.
Hornby, Rev. William....St. Michael's Vicarage, Garstang
Horneastle, John, jun... The Yews, Tickhill, Rother- ham, Yorkshire
Horner, Rev. John... Mells Park, Frome, Somerset.
Hornsby, Rich....Spittle Gate, Grantham, Linc.
Hornsby, R., jun,...Spittle Gate, Grantham, Linc.
Hornyold, Thos....Blackmoor Park, Great Malvern, Worcestershire
Horton, R...Audley End, Saffron Walden, Essex
Horwood, John...Stean Park, Brackley, Northamp.
+Hoskins, T...Haselbury, Crewkerne, Somersetshire
+Hoskins, W... North Perrott, Crewkerne, Somerset.
Hoskins, Kedgwin....Birch House, Ross, Hereford- shire
Hoskison, John Mayon. .Thiestleyfield Farm, Wilne- cot, Fazeley, Staffordshire
Hoskyns, Sir Hungerford, Bart....Harewood, Ross, Herefordshire
Hotchkys, Arundell Calmady... Cleverdon House, Bradworthy, Holsworthy, Devon.
Hotson, John... Long Stratton, Norfolk
+Houblon, Richard A...Coopersall, Epping, Essex
Houghton, Henry...Baginton, Coventry, Warwick- shire :
Houghton, John... Broom Hall, Sunninghill, Berks.
Houldsworth, Henry...Coltness, Wishaw, N. B.
List of Members.
Houldsworth, Thomas, M.P..,.Portland Place, Man- chester
Hovell, John Rayner...Soham, near Mildenhall, Suffolk
How, Wm....Hammond’s End, Harpenden, Herts.
How, William Wyburgh..,Shrewsbury
Howard, Charles. ..28, Castlegate, York
+Howard, Hon. Capt. H... Norton Court, Gloucester
jyHoward, H. ..Greystoke Castle, Penrith, Cumberl.
+Howard, Hon. James,..Hazelby, near Newbury
Howard, John...Brereton Hall, Sandbach, Cheshire
Howard, John... Bedford
Howard, W.. . Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Northumberl.
Howell, Henry... Driffield, Cirencester, Glostersh.
Howell, H. Williams...Glasspont, near Newcastle Emlyn, South Wales
Howell, W. Parker...7, Britannia Square, Worcester
Howes, Ephraim... Holt House, Leziate, Lynn Regis
Howey, T...Lilburn Grange, Wooller, Northumber- land
Howlett, John...Bowthorpe Hall, Norwich
Hubbersty, John, C. E....
Hubbersty, Rev. Nathan... Wirksworth, Derbyshire
Hubbersty, Philip... Wirksworth, Derbyshire
Huckvale, T....Choice Hill, Chipping Norton
Huddlestone, Peter... Little Haugh, Norton, near Ixworth, Suffolk
Huddlestone, Purefoy...Norton, Woolpit, Suffolk
Hudlestone, Andrew Fleming...Hutton John, near Penrith, Cumberland :
Hudson, ©. 8... Wick, near Pershore, Worcestershire
Hudson, George, M.P... York
Hudson, Henry, jun...Wick, near Pershore, Worc.
Hudson, John. ..Castleacre Lodge, Swaffham, Norf.
+Hudson, John, jun.. Lower Swell, Stow-on-the-Wold
Hudson, John...Warham, Wells, Norfolk
Hudson, Peter... Warham, Wells, Norfolk
+Hudson, Thomas Moore....The Grove, Warham, Wells, Norfolk
Huggup, James...Shieldykes, near Alnwick
Hughes, Alfred...Stowe Park, Bungay
Hughes, Edw....Smeeth Hill House, Ashford, Kent
Hughes, George Huglhres... Middleton Hall, Wooller
Hughes, John....Donnington Priory, Newbury, Berks.
Hughes, John,..Phennant, near Wrexham
Hughes, Samuel... Bristol
Hughes, William...Browning’s Grove, Blackboys, Hurst Green, Sussex
Hogill, John... Whitby
Hulme, James Hilton... Manchester
Hulme, Wm...Pembroke Bank, Pembroke, S. W.
Humbert, Charles F.... Watford, Hertfordshire
Humble, Edw.....Renishaw, Chesterfield, Derbysh.
Hume, John...Beau Regard, Jersey
Humfrey, John...Upton, Wallingford, Berkshire = -
Humfrey, Robt. Blake... Wroxham House, Norwich
Humphreys, E....Walcot, near Montgomery
Humphreys, John...Evenhall, Oswestry, Salop
Humphreys, John..,Berricw Rectory, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire mt
Humphries, John,..Cranmere, near Bridgnorth, Salop
PN
Pa r8)
Hunloke, Sir H., Bart.... Wingerworth Hall, Chester- field
tHunt, Geo....The Grange, Broughton, Preston, Lane.
Hunt, Henry John... High Street, Lambeth
Hunt, John,..Thornington, near Wooller, North- umberland
Hunt, John...Shirley, Southampton
Hunt, Joseph... Addlesthorpe, Spilsby
Hunt, Robert... Aldeby, near Beccles
Hunt, W. A...St. Mary’s Street, Stamford, Lincolns.
Hunt, Wm....Bretton Park Office, near Wakefield, Yorkshire
Hunt, William... Leicester
Hunt, Zachary D....Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire
Hunter, Henry L....Beech Hill, Reading, Berkshire
Hunter, Wm....Lovaine Row, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Hurle, John...Clifton, Bristol
Hurley, Rich....Gadden House, Uffeulm, Collum p- ton, Devonshire
Hurry, J... Knarefen, Thorney, Whittlesea, Cambs.
Hurt, Francis...Alderwasley, Belper, Derbyshire
Hurt, Francis, jun... . Duffield, near Derby
Hort, Richard..,Wirksworth, Derbyshire
Hurwood, George... Ipswich, Suffolk
Hussey, Edw.,..122, Park Street, Grosvenor Square
Hussey, Richard H....Upwood, Huntingdon
Hussey, Thomas... Waybrook, Alphington, Exeter
Hussey, Thos....Hambledon, Henley-on-Thames, Oxon
Hutchins, John... Waltham, Melton Mowbray
Hutchison, John...Monyrny, Peterhead, N. B.
Hutchinson, Rich... .Stanhope, Weardale, Durham
Hutchinson, Hon. Col. H. H...Weston House, Towcester
Hutley, Jonathan...Rivenhall Hall, near Witham, Essex
Hutley, William...Pounds Hall, Witham, Essex
Hutt, John.,. Water Eaton, near Oxford
Hutt, William,..Thrupp, Woodstock, Oxon
Hutton, Rev. H.,.Rector of Filliegh, South Molton
Hutton, John...Sowber Hill, Northallerton, Yorksh.
Hutton, Thos. .. Upton Gray, near Odiham, Hampsh.
Hutton, Wm.,.Gate Burton, Gainsborough, Lincoln- shire
Huxtable, Rev. Anthony.. Sutton Waldron, Shaftes- bury, Dorsetshire
Hyde, Francis C....Syndale, Feversham, Kent
Hyde, Thomas... Manor House, Maidstone
Ide, John... West Wittering, Chichester, Sussex
Ibert, William R....3, Cavendish Crescent, Bath
+lles, F....Barnoldby-le-Beck, Grimsby, Lincolnsh.
Iles, John... Binbrook Hill, Market Rasen
Inett, W...Asfordby, Melton Mowbray, Leicestersh.
Inge, Captain W....Thorpe, near Tamworth, Staffs,
Ingham, Robert... Westoe, near South Shields
Ingle, Thomas...Belper, Derbyshire
Ingle, Thomas, M.D.... Wood Hall, Hilgay, Norfolk
Ingram, Herbert...198, Strand
Ingram, Hugh...Steyning, Sussex
Ingram, Hugo F. M....Hoarcross, Rugeley, Staffs.
+Ingram, Rev. James. . Trinity ae Oxford FZ
36
+Ingram, John Andrew...Codford St. Peter, War- minster, Wilts.
Instone, Thomas...Calaughton, Wenlock, Salop.
+Ireland, I. Ireland C....Brislington, near Bristol
Treland, Philip...Muckleton, near Shrewsbury
Isaacson, John...Clare, Suffolk
Isaacson, Wm. Parr... Newmarket, Cambridgeshire
Isham, Sir C. E., Bart... Lamport Hall, Northampton
Isham, Rey. Robt... Lamport Rectory, Northampton
Ivatt, Robert...Cottenham, Cambridgeshire
Ivens, Thomas. ..Lutterworth, Leicestershire
Ives, George... Norwich
Ives, Capt. Ferdinand. .St. Catherine’s Hill, Norwich
Iveson, John... Marlborough, Wilts.
Izon, John...Sowe, Coventry
Jackson, Daniel... Boston, Lincolnshire
Jackson, Geo. V... Carramore, Ballina, Ireland
Jackson, Hugh...Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire
Jackson, John S.,..Eastham, near Chester
Jackson, John... East Haddon Grange, near North- ampton
Jackson, Notts.
Jackson, W. K.,..Barbot Hall, Rotherham
Jacson, Charles R....Myerscough Cottage, Preston, Lancashire
James, Rev. Chas. Thos....Exeter College, Oxford
James, C. F....Kirknewton, near Wooller, North- umberland
James, Edward... Wylam Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
James, Herbert G....243, Whitechapel Road
James, Joseph R.,..Burnewhall, St. Buryan, Pen- zance, Cornwall
James, Robert...Carden Thursby, near Carlisle, Cumberland
James, Thomas...Brandon, Wooller, Northumb.
James, Thomas...Otterburn Tower, Newcastle-on- Tyne
James, William... King Street, Hereford
y;James, Captain W. E....Barrock Lodge, Carlisle
James, William P....Pantglasse, Trelleck, near Monmouth
Jarratt, George Jarratt... Elmfield House, Doncaster
+Jarrett, John...Camerton House, Bath, Somerset.
Jarvis, Sir R. ..Cove Cottage, Ventnor, Isle of Wight, Hants
Jebb, George...The Lyth, Ellesmere, Salop.
Jecks, Charles...Thorpe, Norwich
Jefferson, Rev. J. D....Thicket Priory, Escrick, near York
Jefferys, N. N....Hollybrook House, Shirley, near Southampton, Hants
Jeffkins, George....2, Crosby Square, Bishopsgate Street
Jeffs, Wm....Costow House, Marston St. Lawrence, Northamptonshire
Jeggo, Thos. Bayley ..Pear Tree, Gosfield, Halstead, Essex
Jelley, Thomas. ..Tickencote, Stamford
Jenkins, G. John...Pantirion, near Cardigan, S. W.
+Jenkins, John, jun. ,.Caerleon, Monmouthshire
Jenkins, Richard David,..Cardigan
Matthew...Bilsthorpe, near Southwell
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Jenkinson, Joseph. ..Millwich, Stone, Staffs.
Jenner, Arthur Rice...Chislehurst, Kent
Jenner, Montagu Herbert.. Chislehurst, Kent
Jenner, Robt. Fras... Wenvoe Castle, Cardiff, S. W.
Jennings, J. C...Evershot, Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Jennings, Richard...21, Portland Place
Jennings, Robt. F....Little Belshanger, Sandwich, Kent ,
Jenyns, Geo....Bottisham Hall, Cambridge
Jermyn, Earl, M.P....Bury St. Edmund’s
Jersey, Earl of...Middleton Park, Bicester, Oxon
Jervoise, Samuel Clarke... Porter’s Shenley, Barnet, Hertfordshire
Jessop, Joseph. ..Grove Farm, Chiswick, Middlesex
Jessop, Wm... Butterley Hall, Alfreton, Derbyshire
Jesty, Charles...Holywell, Evershot, Dorchester, Dorset.
Jesty, Thomas ..Druce Farm, Piddleton, Dorset.
Jewett, Llewellyn. .. Headington, Oxon.
Jex, William... Hopton, Gt. Yarmouth, Norfolk
Jobling, John....Seaton Lodge, North Shields, Northumberland
Jobling, J. C... Newton Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Jobling, Mark L...Percy Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Jobson, Thomas... Bank Farm, Shrewsbury
Jobson, William...Glanton by Alnwick, Northum- berland
Jodrell, Sir Rd. Paul, Bart....Sall Park, Reepham, Norfolk
Johnson, Cuthbert Wm... Waldronfield, Croydon
Johnson, Edward... The Deanery, Chester-le-Street
Johnson, Fras, Dixon...Aykley Heads, Durham
+Johnson, George... Blaco Hill, Retford, Notts.
Johnson, George... Willington, Newcastle-on-Tyne
+Johnson, Rev. H. Luttman,...Binderton House, Chichester, Sussex
Johnson, John G...64, St. Giles’s Street, Norwich
Johnson, John G.,..Bentley, near Ashbourne, Der- byshire
Johnson, Joseph.,, Ravenswood, Manchester, Lan- cashire
Johnson, Rev. N. P...Aston-on-Trent, near Derby
Johnson, Rev. P...Wimborthy, Chumleigh, Devon.
Johnson, Robert... Westborough, Long Bennington, Newark, Notts.
Johnson, Samuel...Somersall Hall, Derbyshire
Johnson, T. C....Chevet, Wakefield
Johnson, Theophilus F...Spalding, Lincolnshire
Johnson, Thomas ..Cheapside, Leicester
Johnson, Thomas... Whittlesey, Cambridgeshire
Johnson, Walter... East Field, Warkworth, Northbd.
Johnson, William B...Strathfieldsaye, Hants.
Johnston, Charles. ..Claramount, Cheshunt
Johnston, John A...Crondall, Farnham, Surrey
Johnstone, George...53, Tavistock Square
tJohnstone, Rev. George... Broughton, Hunts
Johnstone, Capt. J... Ashfold, Crawley, Sussex
;Jolliffe, Col. J. T...Amnerdown Park, near Bath
Jolliffe, Sir Wm. G. H., Bart., M.P...Heath House, Petersfield '
Joly, Fred...4, Hatton Court, Threadneedle Street
Jonas, Samuel...Ickleton, Saffron Walden, Essex.
Chesterfield,
List of Members.
Jones, Anthony Gilbert. ..Gloucester
Jones, Benjamin H... Lark Hill, Liverpool
Jones, Charles...Poole Keynes, Cirencester
+Jones, David.., Blaennose House, Llandovery
Jones, Edward...94, High Street, Borough
Jones, Edward...6, York Crescent, Clifton, Bristol
Jones, George... .Lower Hill, Hereford
Jones, George, -.Stanton, near Warwick
Jones, John...Pant-y-Corred, Brecon, Brecknock- shire
+Jones, John...Blaennose House, Llandovery
Jones, John... Harrington, Spilsby, Lincolnshire
Jones, John, ..Glanhonddi, near Brecon
Jones, John Edw... Baysham, Ross, Herefordshire
Jones, J. H. W....Chastleton, Chipping Norton, Oxon
Jones, J. O...Dollycorsllwyn, Welshpool, Montgo- meryshire
Jones, Matthew LEaston..,Henningwell Lodge, Wellingborough, Northamptonshire
Jones, Matthew Edw....Stalloe, Montgomery
Jones, R. P....The Hermitage, Whitchurch, Salop
Jones, Thos...Kensworth, Market Street, Herts.
fTJones, Sir Willoughby, Bart.... Cranmer Hall, Fakenham, Norfolk
Jones, Walter David, M.D... Lancych, Newcastle Emlyn, S. W.
j;Jones, Wm....Harrington, Shiffnal, Shropshire
Jones, Wm.... Waterloo Villa, Spa, near Gloucester
Jones, Wm...Record Street, Ruthin, Denbighshire
y+Jones, Wm. Bence... Kilgariff, Clonakilty, Ireland
Jones, Wm. T...Gwynfryn, near Aberystwith
Jordan, Francis...Eastburn, Driffield
Jordan, G. B. J.,..Pigeonsford, Newcastle Emlyn, S. Wales ;
Jordan, Wm....Charlton Kings, near Cheltenham, Gloucestershire
Josselyn, John...Sproughton, Ipswich, Suffolk
Jowett, Rev. J. F.... Kingston, Bagpuze, Abingdon, Berks
Joyner, Henry St. John... Chadwell Place, Grays, Essex
Juckes, Richard...Cotwall, Wellington, Shropshire
Juckes, Thos....Tearn Farm, Wellington, Shropshire
Julian, John...Bury, Huntingdon
Justice, Henry...Hinstock, Market Drayton, Salop
Justice, Rev. John...Ightfield, Whitchurch, Salop
Jutsum, Edward. ..Gibbs-at Perry, Romford, Essex
Karkeek, W. F...'Truro
+Kay, John Robinson..,Bass Lane House, Bury, Lancashire
Kay, Richard...Hansfield, Rochdale, Lancashire
Kaye, Lister L...Denby Grange, Wakefield
Keary, H. W...Longlands, Holkham, Norfolk
Keeling, Chas...Congreve, Penkridge, Staffs,
Keen, Jas... Weston Park, Campden, Gloucestersh.
Keen, Thomas...Croydor, Surrey
Kekewich, S. T...Peamore, near Exeter
Kelham, R.K.,.Bleasby, Southwell, Notts.
Kell, William... Gateshead, Durham
Kelsey, Fred. J... West Lavington House, Wiltshire
+Kemble, Horatio... Leggatts, near Hatfield, Herts.
37
+Kemble, Thos...Leggatts, near Hatfield, Herts.
Kemp, James C.,.. Liverpool
Kemp, Jesse... Thurlby Grange, near Alford, Lin- colnshire
Kempson, J., jun.. Birchyfields, Bromyard, Here- fordshire
Kendall, John. .. Hog Hall, Burbage, Hinckley
Kendall, Nicholas..,Pelyn, near Lostwithiel, Corn- wall
Kendall, Samuel... East Moulsey, near Kingston, Surrey
Kendle,C. J... Fordham, Downham Market, Norfolk
+Kennaway, Sir John, Bart.. Escot, Honiton, Devon.
Kennett, Rich... Lagenhoe Wick, Colchester, Essex
Kent, John...Mortimer, Reading
Kenward, J. W...Fletching, near Uckfield, Sussex
Kenyon, Hon, Thomas... Pradoe, Oswestry
Keppel, Hon. and Rev. Thomas..North Creake, Fa- kenham, Norfolk
Kerl, Wm...1, Hans Place, Sloane Street
Kerr, Robt.. .Heywood, near Kington, Herefordsh.
+Kerrich, John,. Geldeston Hall, Beccles, Norfolk
Kerrison, E. C...-31, Old Burlington Street
Kerrison, John... Ranworth, Norwich
Kersey, Henry. ..Helmingham, Stoneham, Suffolk
Kersey, James..Tarlton Farm, near Cirencester
+Kesterton, Thomas ... Woodlands, Leatherhead, Surrey
Kett, Geo. S...Brook House, Norwich, Norfolk
Keyworth, Joseph. ..Spital, Lincolnshire
Kidstone, Thos....Prospect Hall, Horn Hill, Chal- font St. Peter’s, Rickmansworth
Kilby, George.,.Queniborough, Rearsby, Leices- tershire
Killick, Henry... Liverpool
+ Kinder, John...Sandridge Bury, St.Alban’s, Herts.
Kinder, Thomas....Sandridge Bury, St. Alban’s, Herts.
7Kinderley, Geo. Herbert...Kilpaison, Pembroke- shire
King, Benj... Bilsden Hall, Chipping Ongar, Essex
+King, Chas...Little Brinton, Northamptonshire
King, Charles... New Cottage Farm, Potter's Bar, Barnet
King, E. B...Umberslade, Henley-in-Arden, War- wickshire
+King, Fielder... Buriton, Petersfield, Hampshire
+King, Frederick. ..Oxford
King, James...Dullingham, Cambridge
King, Rev. James... Longfield Court, Dartford, Kent
King, James K....Staunton Park, near Leominster, Herefordshire
King, Rev. J. M....Cutcombe Vicarage, Dunster, Somersetshire
King, Hon. P. J. Loche, M.P....Woburn Park; Chertsey, Surrey
King, R. K. Meade... Walford, Somerset
King, R. Meade... Pyrland Hall, Taunton, Somerset- shire
King, W. F... Wincanton
Kingdon, Rev. S. N,..Bridgerule Vicarage, near Holsworthy
near Taunton,
38
+Kingscote, Thos...Kingscote, Tetbury, Glostsh.
Kingsford, John,..Esher, Surrey
7Kingsmill, Wm....Sydmonton Park, Newbury, Berkshire
Kinlock, Col. John...Logie, Kirriemuir, N. B.
+Kirk, Richard...Gale Bank, Leybourne, Wensley Dale, Yorkshire
Kirkby, Thomas,..Cuxwold, Caistor
Kirkham, John,,.Hagnaby, Spilsby, Lincolnshire
Kirkland, Sir John...80, Pall Mall
Kirkpatrick, William ...Delves House, Ringmer, Lewes, Sussex
Kirsopp, James...The Spittal, Hexham, Northumb,
Kitton, John.,.Norwich
Knatchbull, H. E....Elmham Vicarage, East Dere- ham
Knatchbull, Rev. Wadham...Cholderton Lodge, Amesbury, Wilts
+Knatchbull, William...Babington, Frome, Somer- setshire
Knight, ©. A...Simondsbath, Southmolton, Devon
Knight, Edw.,..Godmersham Park, Canterbury, Kent
Knight, Edw., jun...Chawton House, Alton, Hants
Knight, John B... West Lodge, Dorchester, Dorset.
Knight, Richard...Dunton Hall, Brentwood, Essex
Knight, Richard...Headley, Liphook, Hampshire
Knight, Rev. Robt....Tythegston Court, Bridgend, Glamorganshire
Knight, Thomas...Norlington, near Lewes
Knight, Thos... Bobbing Court, Sittingbourne, Kent
Knight, Thos... Edmonton, Middlesex
Knightley, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P...Fawsley Park, Daventry, Northamptonshire
+Knighton, Sir William, Bart... Blendworth Lodge, Horndean, Hants
Knipe, J. A... Manor Street, Clapham
Knollis, J. E... Langford, Brandon, Norfolk
Knollys, Colonel. ..Blount’s Court, Henley, Oxon
Knowles, Joshua...Stormer Hill, Tollington, near Bury, Lancashire
Knowles, Joshua...Old Manor House, Tinsley, near Sheffield
Kynaston, Cabot... Caldy Island, Tenby
Kynnersley, T. C. Sneyd...Loxley Park, Uttoxeter, Staffs.
Kyrke, Richard V.,.Pendrell Cottage, Wrexham
Laborn, Daniel...Eske, Bever’ey, Yorkshire
Labrey, John... Yew Cottage, Huddersfield
Lacey, Wm...Adboulton House, Nottingham
Lacey, W. Chas....Sutton, Carshalton, Surrey
Lacon, Sir Edmund H. K., Bart...Somerton Hall, Great Yarmouth, Norfolk
La Coste, Thos. B... Abbey Mills, Chertsey, Surrey
Ladbroke, Felix...Hedley, Epsom, Surrey
Ladds, James...Deanshanger, near Stony Stratford, Bucks.
Ladds, Wm.... Ellington, North Huntingdon
Laidler, Matthew...West Fenton, near Wooller
Laidler, Thomas,..Fenton, near Wooller
Lake, Machin,..Saham, Watton, Norfolk
Lake, Robert... Milton, near Canterbury, Kent
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
| Lamb, Joseph...Axwell Park, Newcastle-on-Tyne
+Lamb, William...Hay Carr, Ellel, Lancaster
Lamb, William...Cranwell Grange, near Sleaford, Lincolnshire
Lamb, Wm....Fair Mile, near Henley-on-Thames Oxon
Lambard, Wm... Beechmont, Seven Oaks, Kent
Lambert, Wm. Chas....Knowle House, Wimborne, Dorsetshire
y;Lamothe, Fred. J. D...Ramsey, Isle of Man
Lamprell, Wm...Little Bradley Hall, Newmarket
Lance, Edwd. J... Blackwater, Bagshot, Surrey
Lance, Rev. John E...Buckland St. Mary, Chard, Somerset
yLandor, H. Eyres, ..Warwick
Landor, Thomas... Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire
Lane, John...Barton Mill, Cirencester, Gloucest.
Lanfear, Thos... Avington, Hungerford, Berks.
Langdale, Hon. Charles,..Houghton Hall, Market Weighton, Yorkshire
Langdale, Marmaduke R....Garston House, God- stone, Surrey
+Langford, Fred. ., Udimore, near Rye
Langham, Herbert. ..Cottesbrooke, Northampton.
Langlands, John Chas... Bewick, near Alnwick
Langley, Henry...2nd Life Guards
Lansdale, R., jun... Worsley Hall, Manchester
Lanwarne, Nicholas...St. John Street, Hereford
Large, Charles... Broadwell, Lechlade, Gloucest.
Large, John, .. Hill Field, Combe Abbey, Coventry
Lasham, R. S... Woodlands, Westmeon, near Peters- field, Hants
Latham, R. Cousins... Clifton Hampden, near Abing-
i don, Berkshire aioe
La Touche, David...Marlay, Dublin
Lattimore, Chas. Higby....Wheathampstead, St. Alban’s, Herts.
Lavender, William...Biddenham, Bedford
+Law, Rev. R. V...Christian Malford, Chippenham, Wiltshire
Lawes, John Bennet...Rothamsted Park, Harpen- den, Herts
Lawford, Edward, .. Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordsh.
Lawford, John... Mount Pleasant, Tottenham, Mid- dlesex
+Lawford, Thomas, jun. ..Tirydail, near Llandilo, Carmarthenshire
Lawford, Wm. R....Oerley Hall, near Oswestry, Salop :
+Lawley, Hon. Beilby R...Escrick Park, York
Lawley, Hon.and Rev. S. W...Escrick Rectory, York
Lawrance, T. M...Dunsby Hall, Folkingham, Lin- colnshire
Lawrance, Wm ., Peterborough, Northamptonshire
Lawrence, Charles...Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Lawrence, George... Cowsfield, Salisbury, Wilts.
Lawrence, Capt. I. R.... East Harptree, near Bristol, Somersetshire ;
Lawrence, Wm. E.,.The Greenway, Cheltenham
Lawrence, Wm. Scott...Stapleton, near Bristol
Lawson, Andrew, M.P.,..The Hall, Boroughbridge, Yorkshire
+Lawson, C...George the Fourth’s Bridge, Edinbro.
List of Members.
Lawson, Edw.,..Redesdale Cottage, Newcastle-on- Tyne
Lawson, Robt...Everley Lodge, East Barnet, Herts.
Lawson, William...Longhirst Hall, Morpeth
Lawson, Sir Wm., Bart... Brough Hall, Catterick
Lawton, J. B..Newark, Nottinghamshire
Lax, George... Wells, Somersetshire
Lax, J., jun... East Horsington, Wells, Somerset
Lax, William... Darlington
Laxton, R. W...Morbone, Stilton, Hunts.
Laxton, William... Pinchbeck, Crossgate, Spalding
Lay, John G...Great Tey, Colchester, Essex
Laycock, Joseph... Lintz Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Laye, Lieut. H.T., R.N...8, Albion Place, Scarboro.
Layton, Robt. M....Thorney Abbey, Peterborough, Northamptonshire
Layton, William,..Soham Place, Mildenhall
Lea, John...Ellesmere, Salop
Leach, Frederick. ..Grove Mill, Watford, Herts.
Leach, George...Stoke, Devonport, Devonshire
Leach, Henry...Corston, near Pembroke
Leake, Lieut.-Col. Robert Martin....Woodhurst, Oxted, near Godstone, Surrey
Leamon, Robert... Whitwell, Reepham, Norfolk
Leche, John Hurleston,..Carden Park, Chester
Ledger, Reuben... Knotty Ash, near Liverpool
Lee, Charles...Coldrey House, Alton, Hants.
Lee, Charles ... Ellington Masham, Bedale, Yorksh.
Lee, Edward... .Stocksfield Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Lee, George B....Frampton, Dorchester, Dorset
Lee, Joseph... Dilston, Hexham, Northumberland
Lee, Joseph, jun...-Red Brook, Whitchurch, Salop
+Lee, J. L... Dillington House, Ilminster, Somerset.
Lee, Richard...Grove Hill, Ferrybridge
Leech, John... Wall Hill, Leek, Staffordshire
Leedham, William ...Westbury Hill, near Bristol
Leeds, Henry...Stibbington, near Wansford, Nor- thamptonshire
Leeke, Ralph... Longford Hall, Newport, Salop
Lees, William...Bakewell, Derbyshire
Leese, Benjamin... Hastling, Faversham, Kent
Legard, George... Fangfoss, Pocklington, Yorkshire
Legard, Capt. J. A.... Lenton Hall, Nottingham
Legh, G.C., M.P....High Leigh, Warrington, Lanc.
Legh, Peter... Norbury Booth Hall, Knutsford
Legh, Richard... Fox Hall, Oswestry
+Leigh, Capel H...Pontypool Park, Montgomerysh.
Leigh, Rev. John...Egginton Rectory, near Derby
Leighton, Sir Baldwin, Bt... Loton, Shrewsbury
Leir, Rev. W. M....Ditcheet, Castle Carey, Somer- setshire
+Leith, Sir Alexander...Freefield and Glentindie, Aberdeenshire, N.B.
+Lempriere, Capt. G. O....Pelham Place, Alton, Hampshire -
Leslie, Chas. Powell...Glasslough, Ireland
Lethbridge, A. G.. .Sandhill Park, Taunton, Somer- setshire
Lethbridge, J. K...Tregeare, Launceston, Cornwall
Lett, Joseph... Rushock, Kidderminster
Leuw, Dr. de...Grafrath, Elberfeld
Leven and Melville, Earl of.,.Melville House, Fife, N.B.
39
Levett, John... Wicknor Park, Lichfield, Staffs.
Levi, William... Woughton House, Fenny Stratford, Bucks.
Levick, Henry... West Woodhay, Newbury
Lewellin, Daniel.,.Tremains, Bridgend
Lewes, Rev. Thos.. .Taynton, Burford, Oxon
Lewis, A. M.... Nether Wallop, Andover, Hants
Lewis, David,..Stradey, Llanelly, near Carmarthen
Lewis, Edward. .,Hertingfordbury, near Hertford
Lewis, Israel Harris...Gallants Court, East Far- leigh, Maidstone
Lewis, Laurance... Northington, near Alresford
Lewis, Thos... . Norchard, near Pembroke
Lewis, W. H....Clynfiew, Newcastle Emlyn, Car- marthenshire
Ley, Rev. Henry... Kenn, near Exeter
Ley, John Henry...Treehill, near Exeter
Ley, John H., jun....Treehill, near Exeter
Lichfield, Coventry H...,Golder Farm, Tetsworth, Oxon
Lidbetter, Richard... Bramber, Steyning, Sussex
Liddell, Henry George...Eslington House, Whit- tingham, Northumberland
Liddell, Hon. H. T., M.P....Ravensworth Castle, Gateshead
Lilford, Lord...Lilford Hall, Oundle, Northampsh.
Limerick, Earl of... Ditcham Park, near Petersfield
Lincoln, Earl of, M.P....Ranby Hall, Retford, Not- tinghamshire
Lindley, Urban .... Radmanthwaite House, near Mansfield, Notts.
Lindsell, Robert... Biggleswade, Bedfordshire
Lindsell, Thos.... Hemingford, St. Ives, Hunts.
Ling, Henry...24, St. Giles’s Street, Norwich
Linnell, Rich...Stowe, Weedon, Northamptonshire
+Linton, Rev. Jas....Hemingford, St. Ives, Hunts.
Linzee, Robert G....Hampton Lodge, Farnham, Surrey
Lishman, William.. Fenwick Shield, Stamfordham, Northumberland
Lismore, Viscount...Shambally Castle, Clogheen Ireland
Lister, William... Dunsa Bank, Richmond, Yorksh.
Lithgow, George...Stanway, Colchester
Little, R. D...Chippenham
Little, Wm. Hunter...Llanvair Grange, Aberga- venny, Monmouthshire
Littledale, Harold... Liscard, near Liverpool
Littledale, Henry...Cardington, near Bedford
Littledale, Henry A....Bolton Hall, Clitheroe
+Livesey, Joseph .,Stourton Hall, near Horncastle, Line.
+Llewellin, Richard...Tregwynt, Fishguard, Pem- brokeshire
Llewellyn, Pearce... Merrian Court, near Pembroke
Llewellyn, Wm...Greentield, near Neath, S. W.
Llewellyn, Wm....Courtcolman, Bridgend, S. W.
Llewelyn, J. D....Pullengare, Swansea, S. W.
Lloyd, Edward H.. .. Aston Hall, Oswestry
Lloyd, Geo. P....Plasyndre, Bala, Merionethshire
Lloyd, J. A. ..Seaton Knolls, Shrewsbury, Shropsh.
Lloyd, Llewellyn,..Pontriffith Hall, Mold, Flint- shire
40
Lloyd, L. F....Nannerch Hall, Mold, Flintshire
Lloyd, Rey. Thos., .. Rectory, Christleton, Chester
Lloyd, Thos....Langley, Ludlow, Shropshire
Loader, Caleb,. .Gomaldon, Salisbury, Wiltshire
Loat, Wm. John...Clapham Common, Surrey
Lock, George... Blandford, Dorsetshire
Lock, Thos.,..-Higher Kingston, Dorchester, Dorset
+Loft, William...Trusthorpe, Alford, Lincolnshire
Long, Rev. C. M....Settrington, Malton
Long, Henry Laws...Hampton Lodge, near Farn- ham, Surrey
Long, John...Marwell Hall, Winchester
+Long, Kellett R....Dunstan Hall, Norwich
+Long, Richard P....Rood Ashton, Trowbridge
Long, Robert.. Overton, near Marlborough, Wilts.
Long, Walter... Preshaw House, Bishop’s Waltham, Hampshire
Long, Walter Jervis....Preshaw House, Bishop’s Waltham, Hampshire
Long, Wm....Hurt’s Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk
Longbourne, John..,.Bouville’s Court, Saunders- foot, Tenby, Pembrokeshire
Longbourne, W. T....4, South Square, Gray’s Inn
Longcroft, C. R...Llanina, Abereyron, Cardigan- shire
+Longe, John...Spixworth Park, Norwich, Norfolk
Longmore, George...Orleton Court Farm, Ludlow
Longridge, Wm. Smith,..Bedlington Iron Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne
+Loomes, Edward... Whittlesea, Cambridgeshire
Lopes, Massey... Maristow, near Plymouth, Devon
Lopes, Sir Ralph, Bart., M.P....Maristow House, near Plymouth, Devon.
Loraine, Edward...1, St. Thomas Street, Newcastle- on-Tyne
Loraine, John L...Newcastle-on-Tyne
+Lord, John...Standish Hall, Wigan
Loscombe, Francis... .Goodworth, Chatford, Andover
Loud, George H.... Buckland, Dover, Kent
+Loud, H. F..,.Herne Bay, Kent
Love, Peter..s.Manor House, Naseby, Northamp- tonshire
Love, Samuel...Castle Farm, Shoreham, Dartford, Kent
Loveband, John.... Parsonage, Bishopsnympton, South Molton
Loveday, John... Williamscote, Banbury, Oxon
Lovel, Rich....Edgecot Lodge, near Banbury
+ Lovell, Edwin...Dinder, Wells, Somersetshire
Lovell, Thomas, jun...,West Haddon, Daventry, Northam ptonshire
Lovett, Joseph V.... Belmont, Oswestry, Salop
Lovick, James J....Thorpe, Norwich
Low, Joseph... Hill Hall, Gt. Bardfield, Braintree
Lowdell, George... Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead
Lowe, John... Ryhall, Stamford, Lincolnsh.
Lowe, John...Birmingham
Lowe, Peter... Marston, Stafford
Lowe, Richard. ..Park Street, Bristol
Lowe, Wm....The Lea, Cleobury Mortimer, Salop
Lowman, Robert...Crewkerne, Somerset.
Lowndes, Richard Chas..,.Rice House, Clubmore, Liverpool
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
7 Lowndes, William Layton...Morville Hall, Bridg- north, Salop
Lownds, Robert...Tatten Hall, near Chester
Lowrey, Stephen...Shieldfield House, Newcastle- on-Tyne
Lowrey, Wm....Barmoor, near Wooller, Northumb.
Luard, Godfrey..Blyborough Hall, Spital, Lincolns.
+Lubbock, Sir J. Wm., Bart...23, St. James’s Place
Lucan, Earl of... Laleham, Staines, Middlesex
Lucas, George...Newport Pagnell, Bucks.
Lucas, Henry...Uplands, Swansea, Glamorganshire
Lucas, Joseph... Rowsham, Aylesbury, Bucks.
Lucas, Lieut. Richard....Edith Weston, Stamford, Lincolnshire
Lucas, Rev. W....Burgh, near Acle, Norfolk
Luckham, Levi... Broadway, near Weymouth, Dorset
Lucy, Rev. J.... Hampton Lucy, Stratford-on-Avon, Warwickshire
Lucy, William F....Charlecote Park, Stratford-on- Avon
Ludgater, John.. .Stiffkey, Wells, Norfolk
Ludlow, H.G.G.. .Heywood House, Westbury, Wilts.
7 Lugar, Henry...Hengrave, Bury St. Edmund’s
Lumbert, R. C..,.Burghfield Hill, Reading, Berks.
Lumsden, John.,.Moussen, near Belford, Nor- thumberland
Lungley, Brooke M...Peyton Hall, Boxford, Suffolk
Lunn, J. W....South Ferriby, Barton-on-Humber, Lincolnshire
Lunn, Robt., jun....Norton, Evesham, Worcesters.
Lush, Joseph...Kilmington, Mere, Wilts.
Lushington, Sir H., Bart....32, Montague Square
Luttrell, Rev. Alexander H. F....Minehead Vicar- age, near Bridgewater, Somersetshire
Luxmoore, Rev. C. T. C....Guilsfield, Welch Pool, Montgomeryshire
Luxton, Robert George...Brushford, Crediton
Lyndhurst, Lord.... Turville Park, Henley-on- Thames
Lyne, Wm...,Oddington, near Stow-on-the-Wold,
Gloucestershire
Lyon, C. W....Silver Hill, Lichfield
Lyon, Captain Jas....Dangstane, Petersfield, Hants
+Lyon, J. W...,Miserdine Park, near Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Lysoght, Admiral Arthur... Bath
Lyttleton, Hon. and Rey. W. H...Kettering, North- amptonshire
Mabbett, John...Stinchcombe, Dursley, Gloucest.
+Mabbott, William Courthorp...Southover Priory, Lewes, Sussex
+MacDonald, Sir Arch, Bart....Woolmer Lodge, Liphook, Hants
MacDonald, Rev. Douglas... West Alvington, Kings- bridge, Devonshire
MacDonald, Wm. M....Rossie Castle, Montrose, Forfarshire
+MacDougall, A. H.,...44, Parliament Street
+MacDowall, J. C. S....New Freugh, near Patrick’s Plains, Upper Hunter, Sydney, N.S. W.
MacDuff, Capt. .. Blair Castle, Blair Athol, Perthsh.
+ MacEwen, James...Tregothnan, Truro
Machin, J. Vessey...Gateford Hill, Worksop, Notts.
Mackrell, William....Collingbourne Kingstone, Marlborough, Wiltshire
Mackworth, Lieut.-Col. Sir Digby, Bart.. .Glanusk, Caerleon, Monmouthshire
MacLagan, Peter....Invercauld by Ballater, Aber- deenshire
Maclean, Allan, M.D....Colchester
+Macleod, Norman...
MaeNicoll, John Craig...Alyth, Forfarshire, N.B.
+-MacNiven, Charles... Perrysfield, Oxted, Surrey
MacTaggart, James... Foxlease, near Lyndhurst
+ Maddison, George W....Partney, Spilsby
Maddison, Thomas... Wandon, Wooller, Northumb.
Maddox, Alfred...Ringland Hall, Cossey, Norfolk
Maddy, Thomas Watkin...Sutton Court, Hereford
Maher, J. H.... Lynn, Norfolk
Maidens, Thomas Cousins... Brinkhill, Spilsby
Maine, Rev. J. T...Bighton Hall, Alresford, Hants.
+Mainwaring, C. K...Oteley Park, Ellesmere, Salop
+Mainwaring, Rev. James....Bromborough Hall, Chester
+ Mainwaring, Townshend, M.P....Merchiviel Hall, Wrexham, Denbighshire
Maitland, Capt. Fred, Thos.,..Hollywick, Hart- field, East Grinstead, Sussex
Maitland, John G....Surrey Villa, Lambeth, Surrey
Maitland, William Whitaker... Chigwell, Essex
Majendie, Ashhurst...Hedingham Castle, Essex
Major, Stephen. .Stanhorn Green, near Hungerford, Berkshire
+Malcolm, Lieut.-Col. George A..17, William Street, Lowndes Square
Male, Henry...East Chinnock, Yeovil,Somerset _
Malins, George W.R....Thelsford, near Barford, Warwickshire
Mallinson, John...Thick Hollins, Huddersfield .
Malloch, C. H.... Court-House, Cockington, Devon
Malmesbury, Earl of... Heron Court, Christchurch, Hants
+Maltby, Edward Harvey...G 3, Albany
Mammath, John. ,.Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestersh.
+Manchester, Duke of....Kimbolton Castle, Kim- bolton, Hunts
Manclarke, R. B. .. Warslow Hall, near Ashbourne, Derbyshire
+Mangles, F., M.P.,.Down Farm, Compton, Guild- ford, Surrey
Manley, John Shawe... Manley Hall, Lichfield
Mann, John...Thornage, Dereham, Norfolk
Mann, John... Fenstanton, Saint Ives, Hunts.
Manners, Lord Charles, M.P.... Belvoir Castle, Leicestershire:
Manning, Fred....Byron House, Leamington
Manning, Henry...251, High Holborn
Manning, John...Harpole, Northamptonshire 2
Maunings, George.. .Downton, Salisbury, Wiltshire
Mansel, John Clavel...Whatcombe House, Bland- ford; Dorset
Mansel, Lieut.-Col..,..Smedmore, Corfe Castle, Dorset
Mansel, Raleigh A.,. Heathfield, Swansea, S.W.
Mansel, Thomas... Pembroke
List of Members.
41
+Mansell, Sir John, Bart....Llanstephan Cottage, near Carmzerthen
Mansell, Thomas...Adcott Hall, near Shrewsbury
Mansfield, Earl of, ..Scone Palace, Perth, N.B.
+March, Earl of, M.P.... Chichester, Sussex
Marchant, George.,.Titsey Court, Godstone, Surrey
Marden, William. ..Gerpens, Rainham, Essex
tTMargetts, Charles... Huntingdon
Marindin, Rev. Sam....Shanks House, Wincanton, Somersetshire
Marjoribanks, D. C....Bushey Hall Farm, Watford !
tT Marjoribanks, Edward, jun....
+Marjoribanks, Stewart, M.P....Bushy Grove, near Watford, Hertfordshire
Markby, John R.... Middleton, Yoxford, Suffolk
+Markham, Charles, jun.,.. Northampton.
Markham, Rev. Rice... Morland, Penrith
Marks, Richard,..Quainton, Aylesbury
Marmont, James... Bristol
Marr, William... Yarm, Yorkshire
Marryatt, Frank... Langham Manor, Norfolk
+Marshall, Arthur... Headingley, Leeds
Marshall, Francis... Grimstone Cottage, Wolver- hampton, Staffs.
+Marshall, James Garth...Headingley, near Leeds
Marshall, John... Eden Lodge, Beckenham, Kent
Marshall, John...Alnham, Whittingham, Alnwick
Marshall, John... Riseholme Lodge, near Lincoln
Marshall, Joseph...Ashgrove, Halifax, Yorksh.
Marshall, Jos... Waldersea House, Wisbeach, Camb.
Marshall, Rey. T...Eccleston, near Chorley, Lance.
Marshall, William... Bolney, Brighton, Sussex
Marsham, Charles W....Stratton Strawless, near Norwich
Marsham, Rob. (D.C.L.)...Merton College, Oxford
Marsham, Rob...Stratton Strawless, near Norwich
Marsland, Major Thos.,.Henbury Hall, Maccles- field
Marston, Francis...Wigley, near Ludlow, Shrop- shire
Martin, Chas. Wykeham, M.P...Leeds Castle, Maid- stone, Kent
Martin, David...Wainfleet, Spilsby, Lincolnshire
+Martin, Fran. P. B... Kingston House, Dorchester, Dorset
Martin, Henry... Littleport, Ely, Cambridgeshire
Martin, H. B...Colston Basset, Bingham, Notts.
Martin, John... Evershot, Dorset:
Martin, John William...Shoborough, Tewkesbury
Martin, Peter... Chilham, Canterbury
Martin, Robert...Asterby, Horncastle, Lincolnshire
Martin, Capt. Thos., R.N....Montpellier Lodge, Brighton
Martin, Thomas...Hextle House, East Peckham, Tonbridge, Kent
Martin, Wm...Scamblesby, Horncastle, Linc.
Martin, Wm... Bixley Hall, Norwich
Martin, W. B... Westborough, Barnsley, Yorkshire
Martinson, Ed...Hedegfield, Newcastle-on-Tyne
+Mason, C. A...Farrington, Ledbury, Herefordshire
Mason, Mathew... Baddow, Chelmsford, Essex
Mason, Richard... Pound, Leominster, Herefordsh.
Mason, Thos.. Pallinsburn Cottage,Coldstream, N.B.
G
42
Mason, Col. Wm...Necton Hall, Swaffham, Norfolk
Mason, Wright... Northolme, Boston, Lincolnshire
Massey, Alfred...Market Downham, Norfolk
Massey, Wm... Watton, Norfolk
Master, Chas. Legh Hoskius...
Master, Colonel Wm. Chester... Knole Park, near Bristol
Master, Col. Thos. William Chester...The Abbey, Cirencester
Masterman, Thos. J... Little Danby, Northallerton, Yorkshire
Masterson, James... Collingbourn Ducis, Marlbo- rough, Wiltshire
Matcham, Geo... New House, Downton, Wilts
Matchett, Wm... Norwich
+ Matheson, Jas., M.P...The Lewes Island, N.B.
Mathew, Nath...Wern, Tremadoc, Carnarvonshire-
+Mathews, Jeremiah...Park Hall, Kidderminster, Worcestershire
Mathias, W...Llambed, near Fishguard, Pembroke- shire
Maton, L. Pitt...Maddington, near Devizes, Wilts.
Matson, Edw., jun...Star Hill, Rochester
Matson, Henry...Wingham, Kent
Matson, John... Eastchurch, Queenborough, Kent
Matson, Robert... Wingham, Kent
Matson, Wm...St. Osyth, Colchester, Essex
Matthews, Frank...Glyn Moore, Isle of Man
Matthews, Rich. Wm...Beamish, Chester-le-Street
Maud, Charles T...Sydney Place, Bath, Somerset
Maughan, John... Durleigh House, Marlborough
Maughan, John...Dudley, Worcestershire
Mauleverer, Wm....Arncliffe Hall, Cleveland by Thirsk, Yorkshire
Maunsell, Thos. P., M.P...Thorpe Malsor, Ketter- ing, Northamptonshire
Maurice, R. M. Bonnor...Bodynfol, Oswestry
Maw, Hy. Lister...Tetley, near Crowle, Lincoln- |
shire
Maw, Mat....Cleatham, Kirton-in-Lindsey, Lincoln- shire
Maxwell, M. C....Terregles, Kirkcudbrightshire, NOB:
+Maxwell, Wm. C. .Everingham Park, Pocklington, Yorkshire
May, Chas...Ipswich, Suffolk
Maybery, Walter... Brecon
Mayes, Charles Hoveton...Coltishall, Norwich
Mayhew, Joshua...Holly Cottage, Ridge Road, Botany Bay, Enfield
Maynard, Anthony Lax...Marton-le-Moor, Ripon, Yorkshire
Meade, Hon. Gen...48, Bryanston Square
Meadows, Rev. John Brewster...Witnesham, near Ipswich
Mechi, John Joseph. .4, Leadenhall Street, London
+Medlycott, Sir Wm. Coles, Bart....Milborne Port, |
Wincanton, Somersetshire Meire, J., jun.. .Uckington, Shrewsbury Meire, Samuel... Berrington, Shrewsbury Meire, T. L ..Cound Arbor, Shrewsbury Mellor, James...Hunter Street, Liverpool Mellows, William...Carburton, Worksop
Royal Agricultural Socrety of England.
Melville, Hon. A. L... Branston Hall, near Lincoln
+Mercer, James..-13, Monkgate, York
+Mercer, William...Newton, near Warrington
Mercer, William..Grove House, Hunton, Maidstone
Meredith, Lewis. ..Shrewsbury
Merest, Charles W...The Priory, Fornham, Bury St. Edmunds
Merrifield, Thomas S... Wainfleet, Lincolnshire
+Merriman, Thomas B...Marlborough
+Merriman, Wm. Clark... Lockeridge, Marlborough
+Mertens, Baron Edw...Rue Ducale, Brussels
+Metcalfe, Chas. James, jun....Chawson House, near St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire
Meux, Sir Henry, Bart... Theobald’s Park, Walt- ham Cross, Essex
+ Meyer, James,..Forty Hall, Enfield, Middlesex
Meyer, Ph. Herman.. Forty Hall, Enfield, Middlesex
Meyrick, Edward... Windsor
Meyrick, Owen Fuller...Bodergan, Anglesey, N.W.
Michelmore, Thos., jun., .Berry House, Totnes
Mickleburgh, Charles... Montgomery
Micklethwait, Sir Peckham, Bart... .Iridge Place, Hurst Green, Sussex :
Middleton, Jno...Sparham, near Reepham, Norfolk
Midgley, Thos... Buersill, Rochdale, Lancashire
Milburn, John.,.Crawerook, Ryton, Newcastle-on- Tyne
Miles, John...Wexcomhe, Great Bedwin, Wilts.
+Miles, John William... Leigh Court, Bristol
+Miles, Grosvenor...Chessington Lodge, Kingston, Surrey
+Miles, P. W.S., M.P... -Leigh Court, Bristol
Miles, Roger Dutton... Keyham, Leicester
Miles, Thos... Keyham, near Leicester
Miles, Wm. Marsh...Fragham, Wingham, Kent
Milford, Lord...Picton Castle, Haverfordwest
Milhouse, Wm....Barwell Hall, near Hinckley
Mill, Sir Jno. Barker, Bart... Mottisfont Abbey, near Romsey, Hants
+Miller, Bartlett... Moulton, near Northampton
Miller, Giles...Goudhurst, near Lamberhurst, Kent
Miller, John, jun... Mora Maur, Aberystwith
Miller, Rev. M.H...Hopton, Lowestoft
Miller, Thos... Castle Farm, Sherborne, Dorsetshire
Miller, T. B.,. Thorpe Vila, Loughborough, Leices.
Millett, Charles,..19, Brunswick Terrace, Brighton
Mills, John...Castle Gate, Nottingham
Mills, John... Burford, Oxon
Mills, John...Bisterne, Ringwood, Hampshire
Mills, Wm...Saxham Hall, Bury St. Edmunds, Suff.
+7 Milne, Alex...1, Whitehall
Milne, David...120, Pall-Mall
Milne, E. W....Pit Farm, Cartmel, near Milnthorp
Milne, O., jun... Prestwich Wood, near Manchester
Milner, Sir Wm., Bart....Nunappleton, Tadcaster, Yorkshire
Milner, Wm...Nunappleton, Tadcaster, Yorkshire
Milnes, Jas... Alton Manor, near Wirksworth, Der- byshire
Milnes, R. Monckton, M.P....Fryston Hall, Ponte- fract, Yorkshire
Milnes, William...Stubbinedge Hall, near Chester- field, Derbyshire
List of Members.
Minett, Chas. Wm...41, West Smithfield
Minor, John Bishton...Astley House, Shrewsbury
Mitchell, John...Wymondham, Norfolk
Mitchell, John Hoffe..,Dean’s Leaze, Witchampton, Wimborne
+Mitford, Wm. Townley...Pitshill, Petworth, Sussex
Mold, Chas. John... Makney, Duffield, near Derby
+Molesworth, Sir Wm., Bart.... Pencarrow, near Bodmin, Cornwall
Molyneux, J. M...Loseley Park, Guildford, Surrey
Monck, J. Bligh... Coley Park, Reading, Berkshire
Monckton, Geo...Stretton, Wolverhampton, Stafis.
Monk, C. A... Wylam, Oakwood, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Monkhouse, John...The Stowe, near Hereford
Monins, John... Ringwould, near Dover, Kent
Monson, Rev. John... Rectory, Bedale
+Monteagle, Lord,.-Mount Trenchard, Limerick, Treland
Montgomery, James... Lillington, Leamington
Montgomery, Rev. Robt....Holcot, Northampton
Moody, C. A., M.P... Kingsdon, Yeovil, Somerset
Moody, Capt. R. C...Junior United Service Club
+Moore, Rev. E...Frittenden, Staplehurst, Kent
Moore, Edw. Wells...Coleshill, Faringdon, Berks.
Moore, George... Appleby Hall, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire
Moore, Rev. G. B... Tunstall, Sittingbourne, Kent
+Moore, H...Redbourn, Kirton-in-Lindsey, Lincsh.
Moore, James. ..Shrewsbury
Moore, John...Church Street, Warwick
Moore, John... Moor House, by Ackworth, Wake- field, Yorkshire
Moore, John...Appleby, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leic.
Moore, John Kirby... Badley, Stowmarket, Suffolk
Moore, Robert C.,.Harmslow, near Lincoln
Moore, Thomas... Barkby, near Leicester
Moore, Thomas... Ruddington, near Nottingham -
Moore, Thomas, jun...Shelford, Braintree, Essex
Moore, Thos. Sewell...Warham, Wells, Norfolk
Moore, Wm.,. Elm, Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire
Morant, George... Holme, Wareham
Morant, John... Brocklehurst, near Lymington, |
Hants
Mordaunt, Rev. C...Badgworth Rectory, near Cross, |
Somersetshire Morewood, Col. W. P...Alfreton Park, Derbyshire Morgan, Charles... Llanrhidian, Gower, S. W. Morgan, Sir C. M. R., Bart., M.P... Rapona Castle, Glamorganshire Morgan, Francis...51, Bedford Square Morgan, Henry... King Street, Norwich Morgan, John B...King Street, Norwich Morgan, Robert...41, West Smithfield Morgan, Wm... Brampton Park, near Huntingdon Morison, Alex. J., M.D... Portcleu, near Pembroke Morland, George Bowes...Abingdon, Berkshire Morland, Wm. C...Pickhurst, Bromley, Kent Morle, Thomas B...Cannington Park, Bridgewater Morley, Benjamin...Snenton, near Nottingham Morley, Earl of...Saltram, Plympton, Devonshire +Morley, John... a. ; Morley, Richard...Snenton, near Nottingham Morrell, Frederick J.. Oxford
Morris, Clarke...Oakham Grange, Rutlandshire
| Morris, George...Gosfield, Halstead, Essex
| Morris, George Byng...Sketty Park, Swansea
Morris, Henry... Gosberton, Spalding, Lincolnshire
Morris, Henry... Maidstone
Morris, Lewis... Mount Pleasant, near Carmarthen
Morris, Philip... The Hurst, Ludlow
Morris, Robert M....Seafield House, North Sunder- land, Northumberland
Morris, Thomas... LJanvillo, Brecon
Morris, William... Carmarthen
Morriss, Charles C...Loddington Hall, Uppingham, Rutlandshire
Morriss, Nicholas... Blue House, Washington, Gates- head
Morton, James... Parham, Storrington, Sussex
Morton, J. C... Whitfield, near Berkeley, Glouces- tershire
+Morton, John D...Lower Wick, near Worcester
Moseley, Chas... New Barns, Ely, Cambridgeshire
Mosley, A. N. E...Burnaston House, near Derby
Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart... Rolleston Hall, Burton- on-Trent, Staflordshire
Mosley, Tonman,,.East Lodge, Burton-on-Trent, Staffs.
Moss, Francis.., Whiston Hall, near Rotherham, Yorkshire
Moss, John... Liverpool
Moss, Joseph...Aughton, near Rotherham
Mossop, John... Moulton Marsh, Spalding, Linc. Mostyn, Sir P., Bart...Talacre, Holywell, Flint Mott, J. T...Barnivgham Hall, Aylsham, Norfolk Mott, William...Wall, Lichfield, Staffordshire Moult, Wm... Knowsley, Prescot, Lancashire Mount Edgecumbe, Earl of...Mount Edgecumbe, Devonport Mount, Thomas...Saltwood, Hythe, Kent Mount, Wm... Wasing Place, Newbury, Berks. Mountford, Geo... Pentrehyling, Churchstoke, Salop Mousley, Isaac...Sandwell, near Birmingham Muggeridge, Henry...St. Andrew’s Hill, City Mumford, Geo... Bricett Hall, Bildestone, Suffolk Mumford, Geo... Cockfield, Stowmarket Mumford, Geo... Little Cornard, Sudbury, Suffolk
| Mundy, William...Markeaton, near Derby
Munn, Fred....Temple Langham, St. John’s, near Worcester
Munn, Wm. Angustus...Throwley House, near Fa- versham, Kent
Murdoch, James Gordon...11, Haymarket
Murrell, Gibbs Howes...Lesingham House, Sur- lingham, Norwich
Murrell, Thos. R.... Potter Norwich
Murton, John...Cooling Castle, Rochester, Kent
Murtcn, Wm...Tunstali, Sittingbourne, Kent
Muscott, John..Westonbury, near Pembridge, Here-
fordshire
| +Musgrave, Sir G....Edenhall, Penrith, Cumberland
| Mnskett, Alfred... Raynham, Fakenham, Norfolk
| Muskett, Chas....Bressingham House, Diss, Norfolk
Muskett, John... Fornham, Bury St. Edmunds, Suff-
Heigham, Ludham,
Musters, Joha...Annesley Hall, Nottingham »
=
G
44
Mytton, Rev. D. F. Glynn....Llandyssill, near Montgomery
Mytton, Thos.,,Shipton Hall, Much Wenlock, Salop
Nainby, Richard... Barnolby-le-beck, near Grimsby, Lincolnshire
Nairn, Philip... Waren, Belford, Northumberland
Naish, W. B... .Stoneaston, near Wells, Somerset
Nalder, J. H... .Alvescot, Lechlade
+Napier, Edw. B...Pennard House, Shepton Mallet
Napper, John...Ifold, Petworth, Sussex
Nash, Charles. ..Royston, Hertfordshire
Nash, Daniel...60, Strand
Nash, James.. «Chesham, Buckinghamshire
Nash, Joseph...Reigate, Surrey
Nash, Thomas F..,..Manor House, Great Chester- ford, Essex
Nash, Wedd William...Denmark Hill, Surrey
Naylor, John... Liverpool
Neale, Charles... Mansfield Woodhouse, Notts
Neame, Charles... Faversham, Kent
Neame, Frederick. ..Preston, near Faversham, Kent
Neave, Richard Digby...Pitt House, Epsom
Neave, Sheffield...38, Old Bond Street
Neems, John...Frocester, Stroud, Gloucestershire
+Neild, William...Maytield, Manchester
Neilson; Robert... Halewood, Rotunda Club, Liver- pool
Nelson, John... Highford, Sheffield
Nelson, Rev. John... Sparsholt House, Wantage, Berks.
Nesbit, John C....38, Kennington Lane, Lambeth
Nethercoat, John... Moulton Grange, Northampton
Neve, John.,.Tenterden, Kent
Neve, Thomas... Benenden, Cranbrook, Kent
+Nevile, Rey. Christ....Thorney, Newark, Notts.
Nevill, R. J....Llangennech Park, near Swansea, Carmarthenshire
Neville, Ralph, M.P....15, St. James’s Place
Newbatt, Ed....Old Place, Sleaford, Lincolnshire
Newbery, Charles, ..Godstone, Surrey
+Newbery, Richard P....Kimmeridge Dorset
+Newburgh, Earl of....Hassop Hall, Derbyshire
Newby, Henry...Hall Garth, near Darteon
Newdegate, C. N....Arbury, Coventry, Warwick- shire
Newdigate, Francis... Blackheath, Kent
Newill, Joseph... Walcot, Bishop’s Castle, Salop
Newill, Thomas...Spring Bank, Welshpool, Mont- gomeryshire
Newington, Dr. S....Knole Park, Frant, Tonbridge Wells
Newman, Chas....Court Farm, Hayes, Uxbridge
Newman, Jacob...Eastcott, Devizes, Wiltshire
+Newman, John...Brands House, High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire
Newman, Joshua...Bayford Hall, near Hertford
Newman, Matthew... Hayes Court, Hayes, Uxbridge
Newman, Thomas.. Teh near Exeter, Devon- shire
Newman, Wm... .DarleyHall, Barnesley, Yorkshire
, Corfe Castle,
Bakewell,
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Newstead, Thomas, jun....Dunham, Newton, near Retford, Nottinghamshire
Newton, Rowley Bradley... Brunswick Macclesfield, Cheshire
Newton, Marcellus...Warham, near Hereford
Newton, Thomas F....Dogdean, Wiltshire
Newton, William...The Close, Norwich
Niblett, D. J.... Haresfield Court, near Gloucester
Nice, Thomas...Great Bradley Hall, Newmarket
+Nicholl, The Right Hon. John...Merthyr Mawr, Glamorganshire
Nicholls, George...17, Hyde Park Steet
Nicholls, John S....Melplash Court, Bridport
Nicholson, Calvert,..Bunny, near Nottingham
Nicholson, Charles...Staniwells, Brigg, Lines.
Nicholson, E. A....Burford St. Martin, Salisbury, — Wiltshire
+Nicholson, Geo. T.... Waverley Abbey, Farnham, Surrey
Nicholson, Henry... Broughton Vale, Brigg, Lincs.
Nicholson, Henry... Peterboreugh
Nicholson, John...Shotley Bridge, Durham
Street,
Nicholson, John...Kirkby hore, Bridgend, Appleby
Nicholson, Samuel...Waverley Abbey, Farnham, Surrey
Nicholson, Thomas...Grayingham Grange, Kirton- in-Lindsey, Lincolnshire
Nicholson, William Nurzam..,Newark-upon-Trent
Nickisson, John.. .Stone, Staffordshire
Nicklin, Richard...Glen Ville, Douglas, Isle of Man
Nicol, James Dyce...5, Hyde-Park Terrace
Nightingale, Peter... Worsley, near Manchester
fNightingale, W. E....Embley, near Romsey Hants
Nixon, William... Kirkdale, near Liverpool
Nixon, William...Union Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Nock, John... Kinver, Stourbridge, Worcestershire
Nockolds, J. A....Stanstead, Essex
Nockolds, Martin...Saffron Walden, Essex
Nodder, Rev. Joseph...Ashover Rectory, Chester- field, Derbyshire
Noel, Charles,..Peckleton Farm House, Hinckley
Noel, Chas.,..Bell Hall, Bromsgrove, Worcester- shire
Norman, George...Goadby Marwood, near Melton Mowbray
+Norman, George Warde...Bromley, Kent
Norman, J. M.,..Dencombe, Crawley, Sussex
Norreys, Robert Henry...Davy Hulme Hall, near Manchester
Norris, Rev. Geo. Poole...Roscraddock House, St. Cleare’s, Liskeard
+Norris, Wm,...Woodnorton, Fakenham, Norfolk
Norris, W. John...Clifton Wood House, Bristol
North, Chas....South Thoresby, Spilsby, Lincolnsh.
North, Frederick... Rougham, Swaffham, Norfolk
North, Lieut.-Col.... Wroxton Abbey, Banbury, Oxon
North, Nicholas... Wiggenhall, St. Mary Magdalen, near Lynn, Norfolk
Northcote, Henry Stafford... Pines, Exeter, Devon
List of Members.
Northeast, T. B....Tedworth, Marlborough, Wilt- shire
Northey, Edward Richard...Epsom, Surrey
Norton. William Fletcher Norton..,Elton Manor, Bingham, Notts
Noyes, J. W. F....Laverstock Hall, Salisbury
Noyes, Thomas H.....East Marscalls, Lindfield, near Cuckfield, Sussex
Nunn, E. C....Diss, Norfolk
Nurse, W. M...Great Cell Barns, St. Alban’s, Herts.
Oakden, John.., Waresby, Caxton, Cambridgeshire
Oakes, T. H...Riddings House, Alfreton, Derbysh.
Oakley, John...Darland, Chatham, Kent
Oakley, John...182, Piccadilly
Oatley, W. H...Wroxeter, Shrewsbury, Shropshire
O’Brien, Stafford... Blatherwycke Park, near Wans- ford
Odams, James... Bishop’s Stortford, Hertfordshire
Ogden, John Biss. ..Bury Hill, Coldstream, N. B.
Ogden; John Maude...Sunderland
Ogilvie, George S...Stapleton Court, Bristol
Ogilvy, Hon. Col. Donald...,Balnaboth Kirriemuir, N. B.
Ogilvy, Sir John, Bart....Baldovan House, near Dundee, N.B.
Ogle, Charles... Newcastle-on-Tyne
Okes, John... Cherry Hinton, Cambridge
Oliver, Francis... Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Oliver, James...Hanford, Blandford, Dorsetshire
7 Oliver, John. ..Abingdon, Berkshire
7 Oliverson, Richard...14, Portland Place
Onions, John... Broseley, Shropshire
Onslow, Rev. Chas...Church Knowle, Wareham, Dorset
Onslow, Phipps V...Suckley, Worcester
Ord, William., M.P... Whitfield Hall, Hexham, Nor- ihoniberiand
Orde, Charles W...Nunnykirk, Morpeth
Orde, Rev. John... Winslade Rectory, Basingstoke, Hants
Orford, Earl of... Wolterton Park, Aylsham, Norf.
Orlebar, R. Lonquet...Hinwicke House, Welling- borough, Northamptonshire
Ormerod, George... Fern Hill, near Rochdale, Lan-
'. eashire
Ormerod, George, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A.. Park, Chepstow
Ormerod, Archdeacon Thos. J... Ridenhall Rectory, Harleston, Norfolk
Crmston, Solan. Curnborland Row, Néweastle at Ryne se
Ormston, Robert... Newcastle-on-Tyne
Orton, Francis... Bottisford, near Nottingham
Osborn, Charles... Fareham, Hampshire
Osborn, Geo... Manor House, Pattishall, near Tow- cester
Osborn, George. ..Waterloo Terrace, Northampton
Osborn, Thomas...Market Square, Northampton
Osborne, Geo...Court Farm, Elberton, near Thorn- bury, Gloncestershire
Osborne, James... Maids Moreton, Buckingham
House,
.Sedbury
Osborne, William...Stockholt Farm, Akeley, Bucks. |
Oswald, Thomas,..Storrs, Windermere
+Otrante, Count Athanase...Nygard, Sdderképing, Sweden
Overend, Wilson... Sheffield
Overman, C. E...4, Queen’s Road, Regent’s Park
Overman, Hen... Weasenham, Fakenham, Norfolk
Overman, Henry R... Weasenham, Fakenham
Overman, John R....Burnham Sutton, Burnham Westgate, Norfolk
+Overman, Robert, Burnham Market, Norfolk
Overman, T. W...Fiamstead, near Redbourn, Herts
Owen, E. W. S...Condover, Shrewsbury, Salop
Owen, Henry... Worksop, Nottinghamshire
Owen, John...Lynn, near Shenstone, Staffordshire
Owen, John D...Broadway Hall, Shrewsbury
Owen, Rich... Baddiley Cottage, Nantwich, Cheshire
Owen, William.,..Blesington, Ireland
Owen, Wm.,. Woodhouse, Oswestry, Shropshire
Oxford, Bishop of.,.Cuddesden, Oxon
+Packe, Rev. Augustus,..Walton Rectory, Lough- borough, Leicestershire
+Packe, G. H...Caythorpe Hall, Grantham, Linc.
Packe, Col. H...Twyford Hall, Guist, Norfolk
+Packe, Dr. James... Mildenhall, Suffolk
Padwick, Fred... West Thorney, Emsworth, Hants
Padwick, Wm...Manor House, Hayling, Havant
Padwick, Wm. Frederick... Manor House, Hayling, Havant, Hants
Page, Robert...Sidmouth, Devon
Page, Rob. jun.,.Bawburgh Lodge, Norwich
Page, Thomas... Ely, Cambridgeshire
Paget, Charles... Ruddington Grange, near Notts.
Paget, E. Arthur...’Thorpe, near Leicester
Paget, G. B.,.Sutton Bonington, Kegworth, Leices- tershire
Paget, Henry... Birstal, near Leicester
Pain, George. ..Salisbury
Pain, Joseph... Felmersham, near Bedford
Pain, Philip,.Boughton House, Kettering, North- amptonshire
Paine, John Denton...Risby, Bury St. Edmunds
7Paine, John Manwaring... Farnham, Surrey
Palgrave, Charles Frederick. .. Bedford
Palin, John...Christleton, near Chester
+Palin, Wm...Stapleford Hall, near Chester
Palmer, Arth,..Briningham Lodge, East Dereham
+Palmer, Sir Geo. J., Bart... Wanlip Hall, Leicester
Palmer, John... .Stockton-on-Tees
Palmer, Sir John H. Bart...Carlton Park, Rocking- ham, Northamptonshire
;Palmer, Rev. Philip H.... Wolsthorp Rectory, Grantham, Lincolnshire
Palmer, Wm.. Green Lane, Feckenham, Worcester- shire
Palmer, William James...The Close, Lichfield
+Palmerston, Viscount, M.P... Broadlands, Romsey, Hants
Pank, John...Oxney, Peterborough, Northampton- shire
Pantin, James Henry...Westeote Rectory, Stow-on- the-Wold, Gloucestershire
Papendick, Bridget Ann,.,Glasbury Honse, Glas- bury, Radnorshire
46
Papillon, Thos....15, Marlborough Buildings, Bath
Pardoe, Rev. George...Hopton Castle, Ludlow
Pardoe, James...Sion Hill, Kidderminster
Pares, Thomas...Hopwell Hall, near Derby
Park, Philip... Preston, Lancashire
+Parker, Chas. S...Annesley, Liverpool
Parker, George... Bexley, Norwich
Parker, Sir Hyde, Bart...Melford Hall, Long Mel- ford, Suffolk
Parker, J. Oxley...Woodham Mortimer Place, Maldon, Essex
Parker, K.S., Q.C...13, New Square, Lincoln’s Inn
Parker, Rev. R... Welton, near Spilsby, Lincolnsh.
Parker, Samuel... Neweastle-on-Tyne
Parker, Thos. H...Park Hall, near Longton, Staffs.
Parker, Thos. T...Sutton Grange, St. Helen’s, Lan- cashire
Parker, Viscount....Sherburn Castle, Tetsworth, Oxon
+Parker, William...Yanwath Hall, near Penrith, Cumberland
Parker, Wm...Skirwith Abbey, Penrith, Cumberld.
Parker, Wm...The Park, Ware, Hertfordshire
Parker, Capt. W...Ciopton Hall, Woolpit, Suffolk
Parker, Rev. William...Rectory, Little Comberton, Pershore, Worcestershire
Parker, Rev. W. H... Soham Rectory, Watton, Norf.
Parkins, Edw...Chesfield Lodge, Stevenage, Herts.
Parkinson, Capt. Chas. Aug...Sunny Bank, Crick- howell, Brecknockshire
Parkinson, John... Leyfields, Newark, Notts.
Parkinson, John ..66, Lincoln’s Inn Fields
+Parkinson, John, jun....Hexgreave Park, South- well, Notts.
+Parkinson, Thomas...Thurgarton Priory, South- well, Notts.
+Parkyns, Thomas G. A....Ruddington, near Not- tingham
Parmeter, Robert W...Aylsham, Norfolk
Parr, Thos... Grappenhall, Heyes, Warrington, Lanc.
Parr, Thos. Cart..Cossington, near Leicester
Parris, Jno... Farnham, near Bishop’s Stortford, Herts
Parrott, Jasper... Dundridge, Totnes, Devonshire
Parrott, Thos...Green Bank, Sutton, Macclesfield, Cheshire
Parry, Nicholas... Little Haddam, Ware, Herts
Parson, George John... Haslemere, Surrey
Parson, Rey. W. H....Lynchmere, Lephook, Hants
+Parsons, George...West Lambrook, South Pether- ton, Somersetshire
Parsons, John...Oxford
Parsons, Wm., jun...Wilnecot, Tamworth, Staffs.
Puirtridge, Henry Samuel...Hockham Hall, East Harling, Norfolk
Partridge, John... Bishop’s Wood, near Ross, Here- fordshire
Partridge, Rev. John Anthony...Baconsthorpe, near Holt, Norfolk
Partridge, Thos... Dilbridge Farm, Colchester
Partridge, H. C....Hockham Hall, East Harling, Noriolk
Partridge, Rev. William Edw....Horsenden House, ‘ring, Herts
Royal Agricultural Soctety of England.
Patchett, Rev. W. H...Dishforth, Thirsk
+Paterson, Geo...Poyle House, Colnbrook, Bueks.
Patrick, Jarman. ..Wiggenhall St. Germans, Lynn
Patterson, John... Holbeck, Ulverston, Lancashire
+Patterson, W. J...Durnford Lodge, Wimbledon, Surrey
Pattisson, Jacob... Witham, Essex
Paul, Joseph . -Thorpe Abbots, Scole, Norfolk
Paul, Walter..High Groove, Tetbury, Gloucestersh.
Paver, William...Peckfield, Ferrvbridge, Yorks.
Pawlett, Thos. Edwd...Beeston, Biggleswade, Beds.
Paxton, Joseph...Chatsworth, Bakewell, Derbysh.
Paxton, Robert....Woolaston Farm, Hethe, near Bicester, Oxon
Paxton, Thomas...Potsgrove, Woburn, Beds.
Paxton, Wm... Langford Farm, Bicester, Oxon
Payne, William... Willcott, Shrewsbury, Salop
Paynter, Thos... Boskenna, Cornwall
Peacey, Robert...Chedgelow, Tetbury
Peachey, Wm... Ebernoe, near Petworth, Sussex
Peacock, A...South Ranceby, Sleaford, Lincolnsh.
Peacock, Thos... Bishop’s Auckland, Durham
Peacock, Wilkinson..Thorpe Tilney, Sleaford, Lin- colnshire
Peake, Samuel...Silverdale, Newcastle, Staffs.
Pearce, R. M...Hill Farm, Hook Norton, Banbury, Oxon
Pearce, Samuel...Ruislip Manor Farm, Uxbridge, Middlesex
Pearce, William...Poole, Dorset
Pearce, Col. Wm... Ffrwdgrech, near Brecon
Pearce, William..!0, Whitehall- Place
Pearman, Luke....Mercote Hall, Berkswell, Co- ventry, Warwickshire
Pearse, George... Harlington, Dunstable, Beds.
+Pearse, Henry... Digswell House, Welwyn, Herts
Pearse, J. G...Southmolton
Pearse, Thomas...Launceston, Cornwall
Pearson, Wm...Husband’s Bosworth Grange, near Welford, Northamptonshire
Pedder, Edw...Clifton Hall, Preston, Lancashire
Peel, Edmund,..Bonehill House, Tamworth, Staffs.
Peel, Henry...Aylesmore House, near Chepstow, Monmouthshire
+Peel, Jonathan, M.P...Accrington House, Acering- ton, Lancashire
Peel, Right Hon. W. Y... Bonehill, Fazeley, Staffs.
Peel, Wm... Taliaris Park, Llandillo, S.W.
Peele, R... Long Sutton, Lincolnshire
Peers, Chas...Chislehampton, Bensington, Oxon
Peers, Joseph... Ruthin, Denbighshire
Peirson, John... Thornton Fields, Guisborough
+Pell, Albert...5, Albert Row, Gloucester Gate, Regent’s Park
Pell, Edwin...Sywell Hall, near Northampton
Pell, Jens... The College, Winchester, Hants
Pell, P. F... Tupholme Hall, near Wragby, Lincs.
+Pell, Sir W. O... Royal Hospital, Greenwich
Pellatt, Apsley... Knowle Green, Staines
Pellew, Hon. and Very Rev.George, D.D... Deanery, Norwich
Pelly, Richard Wilson,..Upton, Essex
Pemberton, Chr., ,Trumpington Street, Cambridge
List of Members.
+Pemberton, Rev. R. N....Millichope Park, Church Stretton, Salop
Pemberton, Walter Hamilton...Holt, Norfolk
Penfold, Chas....Croydon, Surrey
Penfold, James...Lancing, Shoreham, Sussex
Penn, Edw.. .Hewell, near Bromsgrove, Worcestersh.
+Penn, G. J....Stoke Park, Colnbrook, Bucks.
Pennell, H. B....Dawlish, Devon
Penrice, Rev. Chas.... Plumstead, Norwich
Penrice, Thos...,Kelvrough, Swansea
Penrose, R....Clyn-y-bout, nr. Neath, Glamorgansh.
Pentland, Gan Hy... Black Hall, Drogheda, Ireland
Penton, Thos.. .Middleton Farm, Long Parish, Whit- church, Hampshire
+Peploe, Capt. Daniel Peploe...Garnston, Hereford
Peppercorne, Henry.. Bradburn Park, East Malling, Maidstone, Kent
Perceval, Hon. and Rev. Chas, George...Calverton, near Stony Stratford, Bucks.
+Perceval, Chas.. ,. West Haddon, Northamptonshire
Perkins, Abraham... Westfield House, Arnesby, Lut- terworth, Leicestershire
Perkins, Edw., Monknash, Cowbridge,Glamorgansh.
Perkins, Fred... Chipstead Place, Seven Oaks, Kent
Perkins, Joseph.. Laughton, Market-Harbro’, Leices- tershire
Perkins, Matthew... Bristol
Perkins, Thomas. a ectporough Court, Ashford, Kent
Pern, Thos.,..Crawley, Winchester, Hampshire
Perry, J. W....Moor Hall, Harlow, Essex
Pester, Philip...Dole’s Ash, near Dorchester
Peters, Daniel...College Green, Bristol
Peterson, Jos... Mangotsfield, Bristol
Peterson, T. P...Mangotsfield House, Bristol
Petley, C.C....Riverhead, Seven Oaks, Kent
Pett, Henry...Shuart St. Nicholas, Thanet, Kent
Pettat, Rev. Charles Richard,,Ashe Rectory, Over- ton, Hants
Pettman, Robt... Morehall Cottage, Folkstone, Kent
Phelips, Chas...Briggins Park, Ware, Herts.
Phelps, J. B... Monkton, Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Phelps, Rey. H. Dampier...Snodland Rectory, West Malling, Maidstone, Kent
Phelps, Thos...Sellack Vicarage, Ross, Herefordsh.
Philipps, John Walters. ,Aberglasney, Llandilo, Car- marthenshire
Philips, Col. F. C.,.Rhual, near Mold, Flintshire
{Philips, Sir Geo., Bart... Weston House, Chipping Norton, Oxon.
7Philips, G.R., M.P....12, Hill Street, Berkeley Sq.
Philips, Mark. ..Snitterfield, Stratford-on-Avon
Phillimore, W. B....Newberries, St. Alban’s, Herts.
Phillippo, Elisha. .Tacolnestone, Wymondham
Phillipps, James. .Bryngwyn, near Ross Herefordsh.
+Phillipps, R. Biddulph... Longworth, nr. Hereford
Phillipps, T. J... Landue, Launceston, Cornwall
Phillipps, Richard..Aldermaster, Newbury, Berks.
Phillips, Frederick...Downham Hall Farm, near Thetford, Norfolk
Phillips, Henry, ..Coventry, Wativickwbite
Phillips, John...Culham, Abingdon, Berkshire
Phillips, John... Lordship Lane, Tottenham
47
Phillips, Rev. Jno....Ludlow, Salop
Phillips, John B.. Brockton Leasows, Newport, Salup
Phillips, J. F. P..,..Gitcumbe, near Totnes, Devon.
Phillips, Jos. Taylor... New Lodge, Newport, Salop
Phillips, Richard. ..Brocton Grange, Shifnal, Salop
Phillips, Richd., jun... Brocton, near Shifnal, Salop
Phillips, Sir T., Knt.... Newport, Monmouthshire
Phillips, Thos....Helmsley, near York
Phillips, Rev. Wm. J. G....Eling Vicarage, near Southampton
Phillott, E. P...Thorn Falcon, Taunton
Phippen, Robert.,.Badyworth Court, Somersetshire
+Phipps, C. P...Doe Park, Liverpool
Phipps, Christopher, .. River, near Dover, Kent
+Phipps, John Lewis...Doe Park, Liverpool
Pickard, Henry W....Hooton Roberts, Rotherham
Pickering, Leonard... Wilcot, Witney, Oxon
Pickering, William.. Beaumont Chase, Uppingham, Rutlandshire
Pickford, Thos...May Fair, Manchester
Pickin, Wm. John...Whitemoor, Ollerton, Notts.
Pierpoint, Matthew...Crow’s Nest, near Worcester
+Piggott, Geo. G...Somerset House, Strand
Piggott, Simon Frazer... Fitzhall, Midhurst, Sussex
Pigott, Jchn,..Thropham, Rotherham
Pigott, Sir R., Bart...,Patshill, Wolverhampton, Staffs.
Pike, Llewelly Adolphus....Chute Manor Farm, Ludgershall, Wilts.
Pilcher, Chas....Winkfield, near Bracknell, Berks.
Pilcher, Jesse... Cheriton Court, Sandgate, Kent
Pilgrim, Charles H....Bear Place, near Maidenhead
Pillans, Wm....Alnwick Castle Gardens, Northum)).
Pillans, Wm....Pott, Swaffham
Pilley, Samuel. ..Sudbrooke, near Lincoln
Pinckard,J. T.., Handley, Towcester, Northamptonsh.
+Pinfold, Charles...77, Wimpole Street
Pink, Charles... Hambledon, Horndean, Hants
Pink, Richard.,. Hambledon, Horndean, Hants
Pinkerton, Thomas...Ancroft Steads, Berwick-on- Tweed
Pinkney, Rey. Dr....East Sheen, Surrey
7Pinnegar, Christopher..Rockbourn, Fordingbridge, Hants
Pinney, Wm., M.P...The Park, Somerton, Somerset.
Pipon, Major Thos.,.Langtons, nr. Alresford, Hants,
Pippet, William...Downside College, near Bath
Pitfield, John Eype.,.Symondsbury, near Bridport, Dorsetshire
Pitman, James S...Dunchidcock House, Exeter
Pitt, Geo.. .Stork’s House, Wellington, Herefordsh.
Pix, Saml...Baron’s Grange, Peasmarsh, Sussex
Pix, Thos... Woodside, Peasmarsh, Sussex
Platt, G. EK, .Smith’s Cottage, ParkCrescent, Worthing
Platten, G...East Winch, near Lynn, Norfolk
Platten, John...King’s Lynn, Norfolk
Platten, Robert...East Winch, Lynn, Norfolk
Plaxton, Rich...Cam Hall, Wanstead, Essex
Plestow, C. B... Watlington Hall, Downham, Norfolk
Plummer, Matthew...Sheriff Hill, Newcastle-on- Tyne
Plumptre, J. P., M.P....Fredville, Wingham, Kent
near Cross,
48
+Pocock, Chas...Sulham, Reading, Berkshire
Pocock, Geo... Beaumont Farm, St. Alban’s, Herts.
Pocock, Henry. .Curtle House, near Beaulieu, South- ampton
Pocock, Richard... Hedge’s Farm, St. Alban’s, Herts.
Pocock, Saml.. Barnes Farm, King’s Langley, Herts.
Pocock, T. W...Green’s Farm, Chieveley, Newbury
Pole, Peter...6, Upper Harley Street, London
Pole, Rev. Reginald C....Radbourne, near Derby
Polhill, Wm....Broadwell, Moreton-in-Marsh
Pollard, Geo. A... Brockhurst, Coventry, Warwicksh.
Pollard, Pascho, jun....Berrys, Totnes
Pollen, Sir J.W., Bart... Redenham, Andover, Hants
Pollock, John O.G...Mountain’s Town, Navan, Co. Meath, Ireland
Poltimore, Lord... Poltimore, near Exeter, Devon
Pomfret, Richard Curteis...Rye, Sussex
Pomfret, Earl of... Easton Hall, Towcester
+Pomfret, Virgil...Tenterden, Kent
Poole, Domville... Marbury, Whitchurch, Salop
Poole, Rev. John... Enmore Parsonage, near Bridge- water, Somersetshire
Poole, Wm. H...Tenick Hall, Whitchurch, Salop
Pooly, Thomas... North Wold, Norfolk
Pope, Edw...Great Toller, Maiden Newton, Dorset.
Pope John...Symondsbury, Bridport, Dorset.
Pope, John... Eastwood House, March, Cambs.
Pope, William...Toller Whelme, near Beaminster, Dorsetshire
Porcher, Charles. .. Cliffe, Dorchester, Dorset.
Porcher, Henry ... Park Corner, Hartford Bridge, Heck, Hampshire
Porquet, M. Fenwick de,..Iron Foundry, Horn- church, Romford, Essex
Portal, Melville ... Freefolk Priors, Whitchurch, Hampshire
Porter, Lieut.-Colonel.,..Mintern House, Dorches- ter, Dorset. :
Porter, Wm...Hembury Fort, Honiton, Devon.
Porter, Wm...Frieston, near Boston, Lincolnshire
Portman, Wyndham B., R.N....Hare Park, New- market, Cambridgeshire
Postle, Rev. Edw.... Yelverton Rectory, Norwich
Potter, Addison, jun....Heaton Hall, Newcastle- on-Tyne
Potter, Edward...Chisbury, Gt. Bedwin, Wilts.
Potter, Joseph...Horsley Woodhouse, Derby
Potter, R...Lydden Court, Dover, Kent
Potter, Wm. H...28, Clapham Road Place, Ken- nington, Surrey
Potterton, Nathaniel... Boughton Park, near North- ampton
Potterton, T. B....Clipstone, Market Harborough, Leicestershire
Potts, Forster C...Whorlton, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Potts, Timothy...Rising Sun, Long Benton, New- castle-on-Tyne
Poulton, Wm....Head Master of the Norwich Dio- cesan School, Aylsham
Povey, John...The Derwen, Oswestry
+Powell, Alex.. ,.Hurdcott House, Salisbury, Wilts.
Powell, Colonel... Hardwick, Hay, Herefordshire
Powell, George...8,Beaufort Buildings, Strand
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Powell, Harrison...Toft, near Cambridge
Powell, John... Watton Mount, Brecon, S. W.
Powell, John Folliot... Welwyn, Herts.
Powell, John Thos...Easton Pewsey, Wilts.
Powell, Phillips. ..South Lands, Denham, Uxbridge, Middlesex
+Powell, Rev. S. H...Sharon Hail, Ripon, Yorksh.
Powell, Thomas... Muckleton, Shrewsbury
Powell, Rev. Thos. John...Cantriff, near Brecou
+Powell, Colonel W. E., M.P...Nanteos, near Abe- rystwith, S. W.
Powell, Wm... Eglwys, Nunydd, Bridgend, Glamor- ganshire
Powell, William ,... Tickford Abbey, Pagnell, Bucks.
Powles, Thos. W...Barham Lodge, Elstree, Herts. _
Pownall, Rev. C. C. B....Milton Ernest, near Bed- ford
+Powys, Capt. T... Westwood House, Leek, Staffs.
Poynder, Thomas...52, Wimpole Street
Pratt, Edw....Caldwell, Burton-on-Trent, Staffs.
Pratt, Edw. B....Sedlescombe, Battle, Sussex
+Prentice, Manning..-»High Easton, Chelmsford
Preston, Cooper... Flasby Hall, Skipton
Newport
‘Preston, Capt. R.N...Borde Hill, Cuckfield, Sussex
Price, Charles...Cannon Gate, Hythe, Kent
Price, Edw....Court House, Pembridge, Leominster, Herefordshire
Price, Fowler Boyd... Huntington Court, Hereford
Price, Joseph... Monmonth
Price, Wm... Benhall, near Ross, Herefordshire
Price, Wm. P...Tiberton Court, near Gloucester
Prichard, Robt....Llwydiarth Esgob, near Bangor Anglesey
Prickard, Thumas...Dderu House, Rhayader, Rad- norshire
Prickett, Rev. Josiah J....Markington Parsonage, Harrogate
Priday, Samuel... Linton, near Gloucester
Pride, Thos....Llanvihangel, near Chepstow, Mon- mouthshire
Prideaux, Sir Edmund S., Bart....Netherton, near Honiton, Devon.
Priestley, John...Kirdrefaig, Isle of Anglesey
Priestley, S. O...Treefan, Pwllheli, Carnarvonshire
+Pritchard, George... Broselev, Salop
+Pritchard, John...Broseley, Salop
Pritchett, Wm. D....Little Hallingbury, Bishop’s Stortford, Herts
Proctor, Robt.. .Geys House, Maidenhead
Proctor, Thomas...Cothay, Bristol
Proctor, Thos. Beauchamp...Langley Park, Lod- don, Norfolk
Proctor, Sir W. B.... Langley Hall, Norwich
Propert, John.,..Blaenpistill, Cardigan
Prower, Rev. John M...Purton, Swindon, Wilts.
Pryme, George... Westow, Huntingdon
Pryor, John Izard...Clay Hall, Stevenage, Herts.
Pryor, John...Baldock, Herts.
Pryor, Morris... Baldock, Herts.
Pryse, John B...Penylan, Meifod, Welshpool
Pryse, John P...Peithill, Aberystwith, S. W.
Pryse, Pryse, M.P....Gryerddan, Aberystwith, S.W.
List of Members.
Pugh, Major David... Llanerchydol, Welshpool, | Ratcliffe, Richard..,.Ingleby, near Derby
Montgomeryshire Pugh, George...Coal Port, Iron Bridge, Salop Pugh, Wm. Bb... Patrington, near Hull 7Pugh, Wm. ..Coal Port, lronbridge, Salop. Pulini, Iario.. .39, Brewer Street, Golden Square Pulleine, James...Crakehall, near Bedale, Yorksh. TPuller, Christoph. W...Youngsbury, Ware, Herts. Pulver, Rich.... Evenley, near Brackley, Northamp- tonshire Pulver, Thomas... Broughton, Kettering, Northamp- tonshire 7Punnett, P. S...Chart Sutton, Maidstone, Kent Punchard, Charles. ..Blunt’s Hall, Haverhill, Suff. Purechas, R. W....Pilstone, near Monmouth Purser, Edward...40, Bridge Street, Black(riars Parton, Thos. P...Fairtree, Bridgenorth, Salop Purves, Peter... Aleconbury, near Huntingdon Putland, Henry...Hurst Green, Sussex Pyatt, Abiaham... Wilford, near Nottingham Pye, Henry A....Louth, Lincolnshire Pyne, William..,..Cradley, near Great Malvern, Worcestershire
Quartly, Jas....Molland House, South Molton, De- vonshire
Quicke, Rev. Andrew. ., Winchester, Hampshire
Quicke, John J.... Newton House, Exeter
Quinn, Peter...,Newry, Ireland
Racster, William...Thingehill, near Hereford
Radcliffe, Rey. Walter... Warleigh, Plymouth, De- vonshire
Radclyffe, Chas. James,..Hyde House, Bere Regis, Blandford, Dorsetshire
Radford, John, ., Stanton House, Burton-upon-Trent, Staffordshire
yRaincock, H. D....Croydon, Surrey
Raine, W. Surtees... Weston-super-Mare, Somerset.
Ralph, Rowland,..Westby, Halifax, Yorkshire
Rammell, E. Wootton.,.Chelshen, near Croydon
Rammell, Thomas, ..Sturry Court, Canterbury
Ramsay, Geo. Heppel... Derwent Villa, Newcastle- upon-Tyne, Northumberland
Ramsay, Sir James, Bart.... Banff House, Alyth,
_ Perthshire
Ramsay, Jolin...9, Endsleigh Street
Ramsbottom, John...Bilham Grange, Doncaster
Ramsden, Henry...Ledstone, Pontefract
Ramsden, Robert.. «Carlton Hall, Worksop, Notts.
Randall, John... Bridgend, Cardiff, Glamorganshire
Randall, Richard. ..Tunbridge Wells, Kent
Randell, Alexander...Maidstone
Randolph, Capt. C. G., R.N....St. Comp, Wrotham, Kent
Ransome, James Allen...Ipswich, Suffolk
Ransome, Robert...Ipswich, Suffolk ;
Raper, Henry...5, Chapel St., Grosvenor Square
Raper, Robert...Chichester, Sussex
Raphael, Lewis... Bush Hili Park, Edmonton, Mid- dlesex
Rasbotham, Dorning ,.. Staffordshire
Doddlespool, Newcastle, | ; | Reynolds, Dr, William,.,OCoeddi, near Mold, Flint
Rathbone, Theodore W...Allerton Priory, Liverpool
Ratleff, William... Newmarket, Cambridgeshire
Ravenshaw, Rev. Edward... West Kington Rectory, Chippenham
Rawes, John... Duxbury Park, Chorley, Lancashire
Rawlence, G. C...Parsonage, Fordingbridge, Hants.
Rawlence, Jas., .Heale, Woodford, Salisbury, Wilts.
Rawlins, George... Lee House, Romsey, Hampshire
Rawnsley, Rey, Edward... Raithby Hall, Spilsby, Lincolnshire
Rawson, Charles... Wardale Hall, Whitehaven
Rawson, Rich...Wheathill, near Liverpool
Rawson, Thos. Sam....Bridgen Place, Kent
Rawsthorne, Thomas..,Heysham Hall, Lancaster
Ray, Henry... Bristol
Ray, John... Heanor Hall, near Derby
Ray, John...South Green, East Dereham, Norf.
+Raynbird, Hugh. .Laverstoke,Andover Road,Hants
Raynbird, Robert... Hengrave, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk
Rayne, Chas...Carville Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Rayne, Robert...Flatt’s Farm, Bishop Auckland, Durham
Rayner, Henry...Ely, Cambridgeshire
Rayner, W....Ely, Cambridgeshire
Raynes, Michael...Tent’s Hill, Frome, Somerset.
Rayson, Robert...Stockton-on-Tees, Durham
Rea, Geo.,.. North Middleton, -near Wooler, North- umberland :
+Read, Clare Sewell... Kilpaison, Pembroke
Read, George...Easton Hall, near Norwich
Read, John... Derwent Hall, Sheffield
Read, J. O. C....Wern, Northop, Flint
Read, Richard,..35, Regent Circus, Piccadilly
Read, Robert...Crediton, Devonshire
Reade, Rev. Joseph Bancroft, M.A., F.R.S..., Vicar of Stone, Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire
Redhead, John... Walker Farm, Newcastle-upon- Tyne
Reed, John... Hopton, near Thetford, Norfolk
Reed, Nicholas Ridley... Byrness, Newcastle upon- Tyne
Reed, Thos....Warksworth Barns, Alnwick, North- umberland
Reeks, James. ..Standen, near Hungerford, Berks
Rees, Barton Edmund...Carlisle
Rees, John... Flinston, near Pembroke
Rees, Rees Edward...Pantriwgoch, near Newport, Monmouthshire
Rees, W. T... Holly House, Newport, Monmouthsh,
Reeve, James...Snetterton Hall, Larlingford, Norf,
Reeve, Major-Gen.... Leadenham, Grantham, Line.
Reeve, Richard, ,. Nassington, Wansford; Northam p- tonshire
Reeves, John Fry.. .Fitzhead Court, Milverton, So- mersetshire
Reeves, J. R....Huntsland, Crawley Down, Sussex
Relf, Samuel... Ryegate, Surrey
Relph, G. R. Greenhow.,.Turner’s Hall, Cheshire
Reynolds, Joseph...131, Piccadilly
Bexley,
H
a0
Rhodes, J. Armitage,..Roundbury, near Leeds, Yorkshire
Ricardo, David.,. Gatcombe Park, near Minchin- hampion, Gloucestershire
Rice, Edward Royd, M.P...Dane Court, near Wing- ham, Kent
Rich, Edmund William...,Didmarton, Tetbury, Gloucestershire
+Richards, Edward Priest... Cardiff, Glamorganshire
Richards, Jas... Dumbleton, Evesham, Worcestersh.
Richards, W. H.. .Lea Coombe, Axminster, Devon.
tichardson, Geo.... Bridlington Quay, Yorkshire
Richardson, John. ..Asgarby, Horncastle, Lincolnsh.
Richardson, Sir John Stewart, Bart... Petfour Castle, Perth, N. B.
Richardson, Joseph... Woodside, Luton, Beds
Richardson, Percival.,.Horkston, Barton-on-Hum- ber, Lincolnshire
Richardson, Capt. T...Suttonhurst, Lewes, Sussex
Richardson, Thomas... Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Richardson,Thos,.,Brandenburgh House, Chatteris, Cambridgeshire
Richardson, William,..Great Limber, near Brigg, Lincolnshire
Riches, Thos. H. Currey...Uxbridge, Middlesex
Richmond, Francis...Salford, Manchester
Richmond, George... Heighington, Darlington
Riddell, Edward...Cheeseburn Grange, Newcastle- on-Tyne
+Riddell, Sir Walter Buchanan, Bart....13, Square, Lincoln’s Inn
Riddell, Thomas...Felton Park, Felton, Northumb.
Ridge, Thos. John... Hambledon, Horndean, Hants,
Ridgway, John... Fairlawn, Wrotham, Kent
+Ridgway, John...Cauldon Place, Shelton, Stoke- on-Trent, Staffordshire
Ridgway, Thomas...Lymm, Warrington, Lancash.
Ridley, Rev. Chas. John...University Coll. Oxford
Ridley, John,.. Park End, Hexham, Northumberld.
Ridley, John M..,Humshaugh, Hexham, Northum- berland
Ridley, William...¥Felstead, Chelmsford, Essex
Rigden, William...Hove Farm, near Brighton
Rigg, Robert, F.R.S.,..Greenford, Middlesex
DD? Rigg, Sam...Abbey Holme, near Wigton, Cumberld.
oD)
Riley, W. F....Forest Hill, Windsor, Berks.
Ringer, John...West Harling, near East Harling, Norfolk
Rippingall, Rev. Stephen Frost.,.Langham, Holt, Norfolk
Rising, William...Somerton Hall, Great Yarmouth, Norfolk
Risley, Rev. W. C....Deddington, Banbury, Oxon.
+River, John...
Rivers, Lord... Rushmore Lodge, Woodyates Inn, Blandford, Dorsetshire
Rix, Benjamin.,.St. Matthews, Ipswich, Suffolk
Rix, Nathaniel... Bowman’s Green, Ridge, near St. Albans, Uerts.
Roads, John...Ashmore Farm, Middle Claydon, Bucks.
Roals, John. . BrendonFarm, Wiveliscombe,Somerset,
Robarts, Abraham George.,.15, Lombard Street,
Old
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
| Robbins, Maj.-Gen. Thos, Wm.,..Castle Malwood, Stoney Cross, Hants
Roberts, Charles... The Quarry, near Stourbridge, Worcestershire
| +Roberts, Charles...Barnstaple, Devonshire
Roberts, Edward...King’s Wood, Baldock, Heris.
Roberts, John...New Hall, Rhuabon, Denbighshire
Roberts, Owen...Dinas, near Carnarvon, N. W.
Roberts, Thomas...Ivington Bury, Leominster
Robinson, Dixon....Clitheroe Castle, Clitheroe, Lancashire
Robinson, Francis... Frampton, near Boston, Lines.
Robinson, G. Carnaby... Bridlington, Yorkshire
Robinson, George... Wolverhampton, Staffordshire
Robinson, Rev. Sir Geo. S., Bart,..Cranford, Ketter- ing, Northamptonshire ;
Robinson, Jas.,.. Huggart’s Farm, Brindle, Chorley, Lancashire
Robinson, James S....Hunter’s Hall, Sunderland
Robinson, John... Royal Agricultural College, Ci- rencester
Robinson, John...Harton, South Shields
Robinson, Rey. John.. Widmerpool, nr. Nottingham
Robinson, Joseph...Tanfield, Chester -le - Street, Durham
Robinson, Richard... Eliza Street Works, Belfast
Robinson, Thomas...Castle Ashby, Northampton
Robinson, Thomas...Oxford. Bank, Oxford
Robinson, Thos.TempleLow, .. Newport, Sunderland
Robinson, William. ..Bonehill, Tamworth, Staffs.
Robson, Daniel..-Shipcote, Gateshead
Robson, Rev.James... Ponteland, Newcastle-on-T yne
Robson, John... West Cherton, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Robson, John,.,.Sunniside, Neweastle-on-Tyne
Robson, John,,..East Kielder, Bellingham, North- umberland
Robson, John... Whitwell Grange, Durham
Robson, Joseph.,..Gateshead Park, Gateshead.
Robson, Richard...Howick, nr. Alnwick, Northumb,
Robson, William... Wilton, near Salisbury
+Roch, Nicholas...Paskiston, Pembroke
Rock, James John,..Glastonbury, Somersetshire
+Rodd, F. H...Trebartha Hall, Five Lanes, Cornwall
Roddam, Wm...Roddam, Wooler, Northumberland
Roddam, John J.... Newtown, Stanhope, Darlington
Rodwell, Joshua..Aiderton Hall, Woodbridge, Sniff.
Rodwell, William. . .Ipswich, Suffolk
Roe, Freeman,..70, Strand
Roe, Hen. R...Geaton Hall, Yealmpton, Plymouth, Devonshire
toe, J. C.... Lynmouth, Minehead, North Devon +Roebuck, J. A....Milton, Christchurch, Hants +Rogers, Francis... Ramsey, Isle of Man
Rogers, Hen...Stagenhoe Park, near Welwyn, Herts Rogers, Jasper W....Nottingham Street, Dublin Rogers, Samuel S.... Douglas, Isle of Man
Rokeby, Lord...Hazlewood, King’s Langley, Herts +Rolfe, Charles F. N...Sedgeford Hall, near Lynn, Norfolk
Rolfe, John... Beaconsfield, Bucks.
Rolls, John E. W,..The Hendre, near Monmouth Romilly, Edw...Porthkerry, Cardiff, Glamorgansh. Romney, Earl of,., Maidstone, Kent
List of Members.
Ronalds, John... Brentford, Middlesex
Roods, Wm.,,. Litlington, near Lewes, Sussex
Rooke, Wm. W.... Woodside, Leamington
+Rooper, J. Bonfoy.. Abbotts Ripton, Hunts.
Roper, John... Keighly, Leeds
Roper, John... Foscott, near Buckingham
Roper, Roper S. D. R.... Sedbury Park, near Rich- mond, Yorkshire
Roper, Samuel...Croxton, Thetford
Roper, William. ..Bayham, Lamberhurst, Sussex
Rosewarn, John... Nanpuska, Gwinnear, Hayle, Cornwall
Roskruge, John, jun....Roskruge St. Anthony, Hel- ston, Cornwall
Ross, James... Dibden, near Southam pton
Ross, William... Fobdown, near Alresford, Hants
Rossmore, Lord...The Dell, Windsor, Berkshire
+Rothwell, Rich. Rainshaw... Preston, Lancashire
Round, C. G....Birch Hall, Colchester, Essex
Round, John...15, St. James’s Square
+ Rous, Rev. George... Laverton, Bath
+Rous, T. B.... Newton St. Loe, Bath
Rous, Hon. Wm. Rufus... Worsted House, Norwich
Row, Wm. N....Cove, near Tiverton, Devonshire
Rowe, Samuel. ..Malpas, Cheshire
Rowe, Wm. W..Longbrook, Milton Abbots, Devon.
+Rowland, Richard. ,.Creslow, Aylesbury, Bucks.
Rowland, William... Water Eaton, near Oxford
Rowland, Wm... Ramsbury,near Hungerford, Berks.
Rowlandson, Thomas... Flint, North Wales
Rowley, John G,...
Rowley, John Jephson.. .Rowthorne, Chesterfield
Royce, John... Boxted Hall, Colchester, Essex
Ruck, Lawrence..... Pantlludw, Machynlleth, Aberystwyth Ruddle, George...Walton House, Tewkesbury,
Gloucestershire
+Rumbold, Charles E.... Preston Condover, Basing- stoke, Hants
Rusbridger, Geo... .Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex
Rusbridger, John...Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex
Rusbridger, Rey. J...Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex
Ruscoe, Ralph... Newport, Monmouthshire
+Rushout,Capt., M.P. (1st Life Guards)... Atheneum Club
+Russell, Lord Charles J. F...Drakeloe Lodge, Wo-
~ burn, Bedfordshire
Russell, David... York
Russeil, George G... Willington, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Russell, G. L.. .4, Mansfield St., Cavendish Square
Russell, Thos. A...Cheshunt Park, Waltham Cross, Herts
+Russell, Sir William. ..Charlton Park, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire
Russen, Joseph... Stoke Prior, Bromsgrove, Wor- cestershire
Rust, James...Alconbury, near Huntingdon
Rutley, Samuel...Kemsing, Sevenoaks, Kent
Rutson, Wm...Newby Wisk, Northallerton, Yorksh.
Rutzen, Baron Fred. de...Siebeck Hall, Haverford West, Pembrokeshire
Rycroft, Sir Richard H. C...Marydown Park, Basing- stoke, Hants
‘
9)
l
Ryder, Hon, Granville Dudley.. Westbrook, Hemel Hempstead, Herts
| Ryland, George... New Canal Street, Birmingham | Rylatt, W...Branswell, Sleaford, Lincolnshire | Sabin, John,..Harbury, Southam, Warwickshire
Sadler, Henry..,Mid-Lavant, Chichester, Sussex
Sadler, William J.,.Purton, Swindon, Wilts.
Sage, Edward... Furze House, Romford, Essex
Sainsbury, William,..Manor House, West Laving- ton, Devizes, Wiltshire
St. Aubyn, Rey. Hender Molesworth. ..Clowance, Camborne, Cornwall
St. John, Lord,,.Melehbourne, Higham Ferrers
St. Vincent, Viscount...Meaford, Stone, Stafls.
Salisbury, Edw. D...Middleton Tower, Lancaster
| Sallit, Matthew. ..Saxlingham, Norwich | Sallows, Henry., .Semer Dairy, Hadleigh, Suffolk
Salmon,Perridge. , LuffieldAbbey,near Stowe, Bucks. Salmon, Richard... Watton, Norfolk Salmon, William... Park Fields, near Stowe, Bucks. Salomons, Dayid..,Breom Hill, Tonbridge, Kent Salter, Geo...Combe Farm, Crewkerne, Somerset. Salter, W. P....Whinherg, East Dereham, Norfolk Salter, W. P., jun....Cottessey Lodge, Norwich Salusbury, Rev. Thelwell J. T....Offley, Hitchin, Herts
near
| TSalvin, Marmaduke Chas... Burnhall, near Durham
Samman,Wm.. Middleton Park, near Bicester, Oxon
Sampson, Arthur.,.Drummond, Ballykelly, Derry, Treland
Sampson, John... Brympton, near Yeovil, Somerset
Samson, Thomas ..Kingston Russell, Dorchester
Sancton, Philip...the Ley, Leghane, St. Stephens, St. Albans, Herts
Sanday, Wm....Holme Pierrepont, Notts
7Sandbach, Hy. R....Hafodunos, Lanrwst, Den- bighshire
7ySandbach, Saml., sen... Woodland, near Liverpool, Lancashire
Sandbach, Saml., jun....Handley, near Chester
Sandby, Rey. George... Denton Lodge, Harlestone, Norfolk.
Sanders, E. A....Stoke House, near Exeter, Deyon
Sanders, Henry...Harleston, near Northampton
Sanders, Joseph...Taplow House, Maidenhead
Sanders, Samuel,., Fernhill, Newport, Isle of Wight
Sanderson, George... Mansfield, Nottinghamshire
Sandford, Mark.,. Martin, Dover
Sandford, T. H...Sandford Hall, Whitchurch, Salop
Sandham, Major...Rowdell, Steyning, Sussex
Sandle, Wm....Withersfield Place, Braintree, Essex
Sandwich, Earl of...Hinchingbroke House, Hunts.
Sankey, Richard.. .Nant, Holywell, Flintshire
Sargeaunt, Rev. John...Stanwick, Higham Ferrers, Northamptonshire
Sarney, Edw....Soundness, Nettlebed, Oxon.
+Satterfield, Joshua...Green Keys, Manchester
Saul, Wm....High Ferry, Sibsey, Boston, Lincolnsh.
Saunders, John E....Glanrhwdw, near Carmarthen
Saunders, RandleW.., Nunwick Hall, Penrith, Caim- berland
Saunders, Thos.,..Brightwell, Watlington, Oxon,
7;Saunders, Thos. B..,.16, Brompton Square
3
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Savile, Albany B....Arthur’s Club
Savill, Robt. Maitland...Colchester, Essex
Savory, John...Rudham Grange, Rougham, Norf. ,
Savory, John...Burnbam Overy, Lynn
Sawbridge, Hy. Barne.,. East Haddon, near North- ampton
Sawers, John (Hon, E. I. C.)...Oriental Club, Han- over Square
Saxby, William., . Rottingdean, Brighton
Saxon, John..,Green’s Combe, Bruton, Somerset.
Saxon, Samuel... Green’s Combe, Bruton, Somerset.
Sayce, Morris... Kington, Herefordshire
Sayer, Daniel... 27, Pottergate Street, Norwich
Sayer, Robert... .Sibton Park, near Yoxford, Suffolk
Sayers, John ,. Field-Dalling, near Holt, Norfolk
Scales, John,,.Agricultural College, Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Scarsdale, Lord... Kedleston Hall, near Derby
Scarth, Ed... Westside House, Darlington, Durham
Scarth, James...Ne weastle-upon-Tyne
Scarth, Jonathan...Shrewsbury, Salop
Searth, Thos. F....Keverstone, Darlington, Durham
Scarth, Wm. T....Keverstone, Darlington, Durham
Sclater, Wm. Lutley...Hoddington House, Odiham, Hampshire
Scobell, J. Usticke...Chewton House, Chewton Mendip, near Bath, Somersetshire
Scott Sir Edw. Bart.. .Great Barr Hall, Birmingham
Scott, G. D.. ,Lovel Hill, Winkfield, Windsor, Berks.
Scott, Geo. G....Edenham, Bourn, Lincolnshire
Scott, J. B....Bungay, Sussex
Scott, Joseph...Colney Hall, Norwich, Norfolk
Scott, Robert...Stourbridge
Scott, Thomas...Beal, near Belford
Scott, Thos. Edw....Carbrook, Watton, Norfolk
Scott, Wm. Stephenson,..Seal, nr. Farnham, Surrey
Scragg, Thomas...Ualveley, Tarporley, Cheshire
+Scratton, D.R...Prittlewell Priory, Rochford, Essex
Scriven, George...Castle Ashby, Northampton
Scruby, Wm....Broxted, Dunmow, Essex
Scudamore, J....Abinghall, Mitcheldever, Glouces- tershire
Scudamore, Lieut.-Colonel.,..Kentchurch Court, near Hereford
Scurr, Rev. Robt. William... Rector of Shenley, Stony Stratford, Bucks.
Seagrave, Rev.S.¥...Barton Rectory, Woodstock
Seaman, B.C. P..,. Rotherby, Melton Mowbray, Leicestershire
Seaman, Robert... Norwich
Seamark, Richd.., Mount St. Albans, near Caerleon, Monmouthshire
Searle, Wm....Sarsden, Chipping Norton, Oxon
Searson, Robt. ...Cramnon Lodge, Deeping St. James’s, Market Deeping, Lincolnshire
Sedgwick, Professor... Trinity College, Cambridge
Seels, Henry John... Wainfleet, Lincolnshire
Selby, James... Otford Castle, Seven Oaks
Selby, Charles...Earle, Wooller
Selby, Leopold ,.Pelton Colliery, Chester-le-Street
Selmes, Jas....Tufton Place, Northiam, Rye, Sussex
Selmes, James... Lea, Rye, Sussex
Senhouse, Captain Wm....Ashby St, Ledgers, Da- ventry, Northamptonshire
|
fioyal Agricultural Society of England.
Seppings, Thos. Johnson...South Creake, Fakenham
Seppings, William...Lynn Regis
Severn, John Percy,,.Penybont Hall, Penybont, Radnorshire.
Severne, Thomas... Newent, Gloucestershire
Seward, Samuel... Weston, Petersfield, Hampshire
Sewell, Joseph...Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Sewell, Robt. B.... Newport, Isle of Wight
Sewell, Professor Wm....Royal Veterinary College, St. Pancras
Sewell, Russell, .. Little Oakley Hall, Harwich, Essex
Sewell, Rev. Thomas...Fingest House, Henley-on- Thames
+Seymer, K. H....Hanford, Blandford, Dorset
Seymour, Admiral Sir Geo. Francis, K.C.B..,.The Palace, Hampton Court
Seymour, Henry... Knoyle House, Hindon, Wilts.
Seymour, Henry, jun....Knoyle House, Hindon
Seys, William Aineas.,.Tutshill, near Chepstow, Monmouthshire
Shackel, Geo....Maple-Durham, Reading, Berks.
Shafto, Rey. A. Duncombe...Buckworth Rectory, Huntingdon
Shafto, Rev. J. Duncombe...Brancepeth Rectory, Durham
Shafto,R. Duncombe... Hampworth Lodge, Salisbury
Shafto, R. E. Duncombe...Whitworth Park, Rushy- ford, Durham
Shafto, T. Duncombe...Cheveney House, Hunton, Maidstone
Shand, Alexander... Rupert House, near Liverpool
Shanks, Wm....Bishop Auckland
Sharman, Alexander... Bedford
Sharman, John W.... Wellingborough, Northampsh.
Sharman, Peter...Elsing, East Dereham, Norf.,
Sharman, PeterJohn..Scarning, East Dereham,Norf.
Sharp, Thomas,.. Northampton
Sharpe, James.,.Fawley-Court Farm, Henley-on- Thames
Sharpe, Joel... Pinchbeck, Spalding, Lincolnshire
Shaw, Thomas,..Kilrie, Stonyford, Ireland
Shaw, William, jun....Far Coton, Northampton
+Shawe, R. F....Brantingham Hall, Hull, Yorkshire
Shawe, R. N....Kesgrave Hall, Woodbridge, Suffolk
shawe, Samuel P.... Hints Hall, Tamworth, Stafis.
Shearer, Bettesworth Pitt...Swanmore House, bi- shop’s Waltham, Hampshire
Shearm, Edward...Stratton, Cornwall
+Sheild, W. H... Landhawke, Langharne, S. W.
+Sheldon, Jonathan... Ensham, near Oxford
Sheldon, Wm....Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwicksh.
Sheffield, Earl of...Sheffield Park, Uckfield
Sheffield, Sir Robert, Bart.,.Normanby, Brigg, Linc.
Shelley, J. V....Maresfield Park, Uckfield, Sussex
Sheppard, John.,.High House, Campsey Ashe, Woodbridge, Suffolk
Sheppard, Sir Thomas Cotton, Bart....Crakemarsh Hall, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire
+Sherard, P. Castel...Glatton, Stilton, Hunts.
Sherborn, Francis...Bedfont, Middlesex
Sherborn, Mathew... Heston, Hounslow, Middlesex
Sherbroke, Henry Porter...Oxton, Southwell, Notts.
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley... Frampton House, Dor- chester, Dorset
List of Members.
Sheriff, William... Treworgan, near Monmouth Sheringham, Edward.. -Scrulthorpe, Fakenham Sheringham, Edward, jun....Scrulthorpe, Fakenham Sheringham, V. D....Thornage, Holt, Norfolk Sherley, William...Catherine Wheel, Egham Sherlock, Thomas...Kew, Surrey Sherring, Ed.,.,Milborne, Sherborne, Dorsetshire Sherring, John...Milborne Wick, near Sherborne Sherwin, J. S.,..Brameote Hills, Nottingham Sherwood, Richard., . Chaddleworth, near Wantage, Berkshire Shiffner, Sir Henry, Bart....Combe Place, Lewes Shilcock, T. Beaumont.,.Hose Hall, near Melton Mowbray, Leicestershire Shipman, William.. -Sedgebrooke, Grantham, Linc. Shittler, John... Bradford Farm, Wimborne, Dorset Short, Francis..,Abbot’s Leigh, Bristol Short, Thos...Martin, near Bawtry, Nottinghamshire 7Shubrick, Major-Gen....The Grove, Leatherhead, Surrey . 7Shuter, James, ..Chilton House, Kintbury, Berks. Shuter, T. A....Hooley House, Coulsdon, Croydon, Surrey Shuttleworth, John Spencer Ashton...Hathersage, near Bakewell, Derbyshire Shuttleworth, Joseph...Pelham Street, Lincoln Sibley, Robt... Kingsborne Green, Harpenden, Herts Sidgreaves, James...Fishergate, Preston Sikes, John.. .Sndbury, Suffolk Sillar, Z....Rainford Hall, near Prescot, Lancashire tSillifant, John. ..Coombe, Crediton Simcoe, Rev. H. A.,..Penheale, Launceston 7Simeon, Sir Rich., Bart... .Swainston, Isle of Wight Simmonds, Henry...Hadlow, Tonbridge, Kent Simmons, James...Sutton Wick, Abingdon, Berks. Simmons, John Messer... Killinganson, Truro Simon, James...Greenfield, Holywell, Flintshire | Simonds, J. Charles... Fishtoft, near Boston, Linc. Simonds, W. Barrow...St. Cross, near Winchester Simpson, Henry B.,jun..., Eaton, Retford, Notts. Simpson, John...Pyie Inn, Bridgend, Glamorgansh. Simpson, John...Wyken Hall, Bardwell, Ixworth, Suffolk +Simpson, Hon. John B....Babworth Hall, Retford Simpson, Rich....The Cliffe, Douglas, Isle of Man Simpson, William...29, Saville Row Simpson, Rey. W. B....Babworth, Retford, Notts. Sinclair, Archib....2, Chapel Street, Liverpool Sisson, John. .-Plascock, St. Asaph, Flintshire Sitwell, Chas. John...Stainesby House, near Derby Sitwell, Edward Degge...Stainesby, Derby Sitwell, Rev. H. W....Dunchureh, Warwickshire Sitwell, Robert Sacheverell...Merley, near Derby Skelton, Spencer. .Sutton Bridge, Wisbeach, Cambs. Skelton,Wm...Shrub House, Sutton Bridge, Wisbeach Skingley, Henry....Wake’s Hall, Wake’s Colne, Colchester, Essex : Skipwith, Sir Gray, Bart... Newbold Hall, Brinklow, Rugby, Warwickshire Skipwith, Henry Green... Rothwell House, Caistor Skirving, William...15, Queen Square, Liverpool Skynner, Rev. William... Rushden Vicarage, near Buntingford, Hertfordshire
d3
| Slack, Joseph A... .32, Weymouth St., Portland Pl, Slade, A. F....Kemnal House, Chiselhurst. Kent Slade, Lieut. Edgar, R.N., ..Belmont, Chiselhurst Slaney, W. Hen., .. Hatton Grange, Shiffnall, Salop. Slater, Martin....Weston Colville, Newmarket, Cambridgeshire Slatter, Wm....Stratton, near Cirencester Sleight, Thomas, ..Rhyd, St. Asaphs, Flintshire Small, Rey. Harry Alex. ...Rector of Haversham, near Stony Stratford, Bucks. Smallpiece, Job...Compton, Guildford, Surrey Smallpiece, John... Leith Hill Place, near Dorking, Surrey Smallpiece, William Haydon... Guildford Smallwood, E..,.. York Smart, Major George John...Tumby, near Boston Smart, William. ,,Rainham, Sittingbourne, Kent Smart, William. ..2, Fig-tree Court, Temple Smart, William Lynn.,.Linden, Woburn, Beds. Smeddle, William...Ordnance Office, Tower Smedley, Charles E. B....Swanton Morley, East Dereham, Norfolk Smith, Augustus...Ashlyns Hall, Berkhampstead Smith, Benjamin... Hastings, Sussex Smith, Benjamin...Great Lodge, Tonbridge Smith, Charles Brent... Whaddon, near Gloucester Smith, Charles H....Gwconllwynwyth, near Swan- sea, S. W. 7Smith, Charles R..,.Southrop House, Fairford, Gloucestershire Smith, Chas. Robert...Collingbourne Ducis, Marl- borough, Wiltshire Smith, Edward...Charlbury, Oxon Smith, E. W....Routh, Beverley, Yorkshire Smith, Francis...Salthill, near Chichester, Sussex 7Smith, George...The Luham, near Penrith, Cum- berland Smith, George...Potton, Biggleswade, Beds. Smith, G. Robert...Selsdon Park, near Croydon Surrey Smith, Sir Harry, Bart....The Cape of Good Hope Smith, Henry ...Stamford, Lincolnshire Smith, Henry... Maids Moreton Lodge, Buckingham Smith, Henry...Drax Abbey, Selby, York Smith, Hen. , Heywood Farm, Waltham, Maidenhead Smith, Henry...The Grove, Cropwell Butler, Bing- ham, Notts. Smith, Henry Abel... Wilford, Nottingham Smith, James...Stansted, near Chichester, Sussex Smith, James ..Icklesham, Rye, Sussex Smith, James... Wainfleet, Lincolnshire Smith, James...G@wdwyr House, Whitehall Smith, Jeremiah...Springfield, Rye, Sussex +Smith, John... Welton Garth, Hull, Yorkshire Smith, John.,.Spring Fields, Newcastle, Staffordsh, Smith, John.,.Crownthorpe, Wymondham Smith, John...Brancepeth, Durham Smith, John... Lewes, Sussex Smith, John... Weyhill, Andover, Hampshire Smith, Col. John..Ellingham Hall, Bungay, Suffolk Smith, John Geo.... Manor House, Crediton, Devon +Smith, John J.... Down House, Blandford, Dorset ! Smith, John K. .,Radbrook Villa, near Shrewsbury |
54
Smith, Rev. John Tetley...Repton, near Derby |
Smith, JohnThos...Thornby Grange, Northampton
Smith, John T.,..Goswick, near Berwick-on-Tweed |
Smith, Sir John Wyldbore, Bart....Down House, | Blandford, Dorsetshire
Smith, Rich.,.. Marton Lodge, Bridlington, Yorksh.
Smith, Rich....Westacre, Droitwich, Worcestersh.
Smith, Richard... Kimberley, Norfolk
Smith, Richard B.....Huxley Farm, Mdmonton, Middlesex
Smith, Robert...Heath Farm, St. Albans, Herts.
Smith, Robert...9, Stafford Street, Edinburgh
Smith, Robert... Emmett’s Grange, South Molton, Devonshire
Smith, Right Hon. Rob. Vernon, M.P.,...Farming Woods, near Thrapstone, Northamptonshire
Smith, Rev. Sam. Colvy...Denver Rectory, Down- ham, Norfolk
Smith, Thos... .Blore Hall, Ashbourne, Derbyshire
Smith, Thomas...Madeley, Shiffnall, Salop.
Smith, Thomas,..Shareshill, Wolverhampton, Staffs.
Smith, Thomas...Reigate Lodge, Surrey
Smith, Thos. Deacon.,Cashie Bridge, Watford, Herts.
Smith, Thos. G....Togston, Acklington, Northumb.
Smith, T. Hogan... Forberry Grove, near Newbury, Berkshire
Smith, Thomas, jun.... Chillingham Wooler, Northumberland
Smith, T. W....Greenfield Lodge, Oswestry
Smith, Timothy...Hoyland Hall, Barnsley
Smith, Sir William, Bart....Eardiston House, near Worcester
Smith, William... Easthope, Bottesford, near Not- tingham
Smith, William,..Hemel Hempstead, Herts.
Smith, William... West Rasen, Spital, Lincolnshire
Smith, Wm...Barton Mere, Bury St. [Mdmunds, Suffolk
Smith, William...Gaydon, Kineton, Warwickshire
Smith, William... Lilleshall, Shiffnal, Shropshire
Smith, William... Houghton Castle, Hexham
Smith, William...Sydenham
Smith, Wm. Burton, ..Belford, Northumberland
Smith, W. C....Shortgrove, near Saffron Walden, Essex
Smith, W. T....Brereton Lodge, Rugeley, Staffs.
Smithers, Sidney...Churchdale, Bakewell, Derbysh.
Smyth, Rev. Christopher,..Little Houghton, near Northampton
Smyth, James...Peasenhall, Yoxford, Suffolk
+Smyth, John G,..Heath Hall, Wakefield, Yorksh.
Smyth, Wm...Little Houghton, near Northampton
Smyth, Rev. Wm....South Elkinstone, Louth, Line.
Smythe, J. W....Acton Burnell, Shrewsbury
Smythies, Carleton...Oak Lawn, Eye, Suffolk
+Smythies, Geo... Bickerstaffe Hall,Ormskirk,Lanc.
Smythies, Rev. J. R....East Hill, Colchester, Essex
7Snell, John F....Hundon, near Clare, Suffolk
Snibson, Richard...Bakewell, Derbyshire
+Snoulton, Osborne...
Snow, Johnson, ..Ewerby, near Sleaford, Lincolnsh. |
Snowball, Joseph... Netherwitton, near Morpeth
Snuggs, Wm...Preston Condoyver, Alresford, Hants
Newtown
Royal Agricultural Socvety of England.
Solly, S. R....Serge Hill, St. Albans, Hertfordshire Somerset, John... East Wick, Pewsey, Wilts +Somerville, J. C...Dinder House, Wells, Somerset Somes, Samuel... Wollaston, near Wellingborough, Northamptonshire Soulby, J. C....New Bolingbroke, Lincolnshire Sonlsby, C. P..,. Hulme Walfield, Congleton Souter, Geo.... Box Grove, near Chichester, Sussex +Southampton, Lord..,Whittlebury Lodge, Tow- cester, Northamptonshire Southern, G. W....Kibblesworth, Gateshead Sowerby, Francis... Aylesby, Great Grimsby Sowerby, John..,.Shipcote House, Gateshead Sowerby, Thomas... Saltwell Vale, Gateshead Spanton, Robert, jun....Little Thoms Farm, Swatf- ham, Norfolk Sparham, James...Blakeney, Norfolk Sparke, Alfred...Thorn Lane Foundry, Norwich +Sparks, William...Crewkerne, Somersetshire Spéaring, Jno. B.,.Chilton, near Hungerford, Berks Spearman, H. J., M.P. ... Newton Hall, Durham Speke, William...Jordans, Ilminster, Somersetshire Spelman, William... Norwich Spencer, Francis,..Claybrooke, Lutterworth, Leices- tershire +Spencer, Hon. F. G....9, King Street, St. James's Spencer, John... Bishop’s Lodge, Wrotham, Kent Spencer, Jno... Odstone Hall, Measham, near Ashby- de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire Spicer, John Wm....Esher Place, Esher, Surrey Spilsbury, Samuel... Little Osbaston, Monmouth Spinks, Abraham... West Bilney, Lynn Spittal, Alexander... Douglas, Isle of Man Spooner, Prof. Chas., . Royal Veterinary College Spooner, Lucius H....Beauly, N. B. Spooner, Richard, M.P....Brickfields, Worcester Spooner, William C.,..Southampton, Hants Spoor, Richard... Whitburn, near Sunderland Spraggon, Mark...Nafferton, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Northumberland Springett, Robt....Twysden, Goudhurst, Cranbrook, Kent Spurgin, Dr.,..Orplands, Bradwell, Essex Spurling, John...Shotley, Ipswich, Suffolk Spurling, Wm....Grange Farm, Worlingworth, Sufi. Spurr, Jeremiah.,.Wigthorpe, near Worksop, Notts Squire, William... Yarmouth, Isle of Wight Stable, R. S....Willesley, Cranbrook, Kent Stables, Walter...Crossland Hall, Huddersfield +Stables, W. A. . .Cawdor Castle, Nairnshire, N. B. Stace, William... Berwick, Lewes, Sussex Stacy, Wm...Barton Farm, Abingdon, Berkshire Staffurth, Samuel., .Ramsey, Huntingdonshire Staffurth, William...Ramsey, Huntingdonshire Stainsby, Mark, jun....30, Lady Pitt Lane, Leeds Stainton, John... Dalby, Spilsby, Lincolnshire Stallard, Joseph...Redmarley, near Gloucester Stallard, William...Blankets, near Worcester Stamford and Warrington, Earlof.,.Enville House, Stourbridge tammers, J. B.... Holywell Cottage, St. Albans Stanbrough, Chas. H.,..Isleworth, Middlesex
| Stanbrough, James...Isleworth, Middlesex
List of Members.
+Standish, W. S.... Duxbury Park, Chorley, Lance. Stane, J. B.... Forest Hall, Ongar, [ssex +Stanhope, J. B....Reresby Abbey, Horncastle, Lincolnshire Stanier, Chas....Uppington, Wellington, Shropshire Stanier, Edw....Wroxeter, Shrewsbury, Shropshire Stanier, Jno.. .. Leaton, near Wellington, Shropshire Staniforth, Rev. Thos... , Bolton Rectory, Clitheroe Stanley, Charles... Denhall, Neston, Cheshire Stanley, Edward...14, Grosvenor Square +Stanley, Hon. E. H.... Knowsley, Prescot Stanley, Wm. Hans Sloane, jun...21, Curzon Street, May Fair Stanley, Wm. Proctor... Peterborough Stanton, W. H....Stroud, Gloucestershire Staples Browne, R. T...Launton, Bicester, Oxon Stapleton, Valentine...Stow Gate, Market Deeping, Lincolnshire Stark, William... Norwich Statham, Rev. R. J.... Rector of Tarporley, Cheshire Statter, Thomas... Knowsley Hall, Bury, Lancashire Staunton, Rev. Dr....Staunton Hall, Grantham, Lincolnshire Stedman, Dudney...Horsham, Sussex Stedman, Robt....Pakenham, Ixworth, Suffolk Stedman, Robt....Great Bookham, near Leather. head, Surrey Steedman, E. H..,.High Ercal, Wellington, Salop Steel, Geo., jun... Depden Elms, Bury St. Edmunds Steel, William...Abergavenny, Monmouthshire Steele, John...Epsom, Surrey Stenning, Edward. ..Godstone, Surrey Stenning, William,..Godstone, Surrey Stenning, Wm....Halsford, East Grinstead, Sussex Stent, Bridger... Frittleworth, Petworth Stephens, Charles... Reading Stephens, Evan...Berton, St. Ishmaels, near Car- marthen Stephens, Rey. F. T....St. Mawgan, Cornwall Stephens, Henry Lewis... Tregenna Castle, Hayne, St. Ives, Cornwall Stephens, John...The Abbynes, near Bridgnorth, Salop Stephens, John...23, Eastbourne Terrace, Hyde Park Stephens, S. J....5, Charlotte Street, Portland Place Stephens, Wm....Prospect Hill, Reading, Berks Stephens, Wm. Vernon...186, Fleet Street Stephenson, Marshall. , .Fourstones, Hexham, North- umberland Stephenson, Wm....Throckley, Newcastle-on-Tyne Stevens, Alfred...Tongham Manor, Farnham +Stevens, John...Holywell Street, Oxford Stevens, J. C. M...Winscott, near Torrington,Devon Stevens, J. T....Seaborough, Crewkerne, Somerset. Stevens, Robert... Watton, Norfolk +Stevens, Rev. Thos.... Bradfield Rectory, Reading, Berks ~ Stevenson, J. A....Madeley Park Farm, Newcastle, Staffordshire Stevenson, S. W....Surrey Street, Norwich Steward, A. B....Chapel House, near Whitehaven -++Steward, Charles. ..Blundeston, Lowestoft, Suffolk teward, R....The Armoury, Great Yarmouth
Stewart, Sir W. D.,..Murthly, Perth, N. B.
Stickney, William...Ridgmont, Hull, Yorkshire
Stiles, Thomas...Pinchbeck, Spalding, Lincolnsh.
Stilwell, James... Killinghurst, Haslemere, Surrey
Stirling, W. M....Abercairny, Perth
Stock, Sam....Blackley Hurst, St. Helens, Lanc.
Stockley, Joshua,. .Jvetsey Farm, Weston, Shifnal, Salop
Stokes, Charles... Kingston, Kegworth, near Derby
Stokes, Jonathan...Stamford Rivers, Romford, Essex
Stokes, Thomas,..New Park, Leicester
Stone, Joseph... Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Stone, N.C....Rowley Fields, Leicester
Stone, T. P.... Barrow, Loughborough, Leicestersh.
Stone, W. F. Lowdues. . Brightwell, near Tetsworth, Oxon
Stopford, W. Bruce...Drayton House, near Thrap- stone
Storer, Charles... Lowdham Grange, Nottingham
Storer, Rev. John...Hawksworth, near Newark, Notts
Storey, Ralph..Beamly, near Alnwick, Northumb.
Stott, Robert...Tanfield, Chester-le-Street, Durham
Stow, William... Farnborough Hall, Kent
Stowell, W.S....Faverdale House, Darlington
Stracey, Sir E....Rackheath Hall, Norwich
+Stracey, H. J....The Grange, Sprowston, near Norwich
Stracey, John...Sprowston Lodge, Norwich
Strachan, J. M... . Teddington Grove, Middlesex
+Strahan, William...Asburst, Dorking
Strafford, Henry. ..3, Camden Villas, Camden Town
Straker, John... Jarrow Lodge, Durham
Strangways, H. B....Shapwick, Glastonbury, So- merset
Strathallan, Viscount of.. Castle Strathallan, Auch- terarder, N. B.
Stratton, Alfred...Rushall, Pewsey, Wiltshire
Stratton, B. T....Bristol
+Stratton, J. L...Turveston House, Brackley, North- amptonshire
Stratton, James,..93, Castle Street, Reading
Stratton, William... Upavon, Pewsey, Wiltshire
Streatfield, R.S.... Rocks, Uckfield
Streeter, William...Sanderstead, Croydon, Surrey
Stretton, Alexander... Bunny, near Nottingham
+Strickland, C. W...Boynton, Bridlington, Yorksh.
Strickland, H. E....Tewkesbury Lodge, Tewkes- bury, Gloucestershire
Strickland, Walter...Cokethorpe Park, Witney, Oxon
Strode, George... Newnham Park, Plympton St. Mary, Devon
Stronge, Thomas, ..Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Stroud, William...Swansea
Strouts, Edward. ,.St. Dunstan’s Place, Canterbury
Strutt, John... Bridge Hill, Belper, Derbyshire
Stuart, Henry, M.P...Kempston, near Bedford
Stubbs, Charles...Preston Hill, near Penkridge, Staffordshire
Stubbs, Frederick... Wetmoor, near Ludlow
Stubbs, Walter... Beckbury, Shifnal, Salop
Stunt, Frederick...Higham, near Rochester
56
Stunt, John...Gillingham, near Chatham, Kent
Sturgeon, T. B.,..South Ockenden Hall, Romford, Essex
+Sturt, H. C., M.P....16, Portman Square
Stutfield, William ..,Hildersham, Cambridge
Suggers, George... Hurstperpoint, Sussex
Sumner, Rev. C. V. H....Hatchlands, Guildford, Surrey
Sumner, Col. Holme... Hatchlands Park, Guildford, Surrey
Surtees, Robt. L....Redworth House, Darlington
Swaffield, Benjamin. ..Chatsworth, near Chesterfield, Derbyshire
Swaffield, Samuel. ,.Ampthill Park, Bedfordshire
Swaine, Charles... Wrangle, Boston, Lincolnshire
Swaine, Thomas... Buckingham
Swan, J. W....Hockham, near Larlingford, Norfolk
Swan, W. R.... Walls’ End, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Northumberland
Swann, George... York
Swann, James... High Onn, Stafford
+Swete, J. Beaumont,..Oxton House, Exeter
Swinborne, Robert...Great Oakley, near Colchester, Hssex
Swinburne, Joseph... Knutsford, Cheshire
Swinburne, R. W....Cleadon Cottage, near South Shields
Sydney, Viscount...3, Cleveland Square
Syer, Rev. Thomas...Little Wratting, Clare, Suffolk
Sykes, Edmund.,..Mansfield Woodhouse, Notts
+Sykes, Sir Tatton...Sledmere, Malton
Symonds,John...Symondsbeg, Bridport, Dorsetshire
Symonds, T. P....Pengethy, near Ross, Herefordsh.
Symonds, William..,Milborne St. Andrew, near Blandford, Dorset
Symons, Thomas...Coryton, Launceston, Cornwall
Symons, Thomas George... Mynde Park, Hereford
+Synge, F.H....Weston-super-Mare,' Somersetshire
Taber, James. ..Lawford, Colchester, Essex
Tabley, Lord de.,.Tabley House, Northwich, Cheshire
Tabrum, Litchfield... Boishall, near Ongar, Essex
Talbot, Karl...Ingestre, near Stafford
Talbot, C. R. M., M.P....Margam, Glamorganshire
Talvot, Sir George, Bart....21, Grosvenor Square
Talbot, Miss... Temple Guiting, Cheltenham, Glon- cestershire
Talbot, R. R....Wickford, near Rochford, Essex
Talbot, Hon. and Rey. W. C....Ombersley, Stour- port, Worcestershire
Talbot, W. Hawkshead.., pope brooke Hall, Orms- kirk, Lance.
Talbot, Wm. Hollings.. Westmoreland
Tallant, John.. Little Houghton Lodge, Northamp.
Tancred, Sir Thomas, Bart...Stratton House, Cirencester
Tanner, A. O....Brook House, Edmonton
Tanner, James... Kingsnympton, Chumleigh, Devon
+Tanner, William,,.Patcham, near Brighton
Tanner, William...Nethercott Farm, Rose Ash, South Molton, Devon
.Preston Patrick, Burton,
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Tarleton, Rev. J. E....Chelsfield St. Mary, Foot’s Cray, Kent Tasker, William.
Hants Tatham, T. J....27, Bedford Place, Russell Square Tattersall, Edmund...Grosvenor Place Tattersall, Edward... . Newmarket Tattersall, John. ..58, Ebury Street, Pimlico Taunton, W. E....Freeland Lodge, Ensham, Oxon Taunton, W. P.,..Ashley, near Stockbridge, Hanis Tawke, Arthur... Norwich Tawney, A. R.,..Banbury +Tawney, Charles., .Oxford Taylor, Sir Charles, Bart....Holly Combe Lodge,
Liphook, Hants } Taylor, C. H....Bamburgh Friars, Belford, North-
umberland Taylor, Frederick,.. Worcester Park, Ewell, Surrey Taylor, F. Manley Shawe...Castle Taylor, Ar- drahan, Galway, Ireland Taylor, George... Wolverhampton, Staffordshire Taylor, George... Brecon Taylor, Henry...Dilham Hall, Norwich Taylor, Henry...Bampton, Oxon Taylor, Henry John...Hay Gate, Wellington, Salop Taylor,Hugh, . Cramlington, Newcastle-upon-T yne Taylor, Isaac...Shrewsbury, Salop Taylor, John... Brewers Hall, Mereworth, Kent Taylor, John.,.Morton Hall, Whalley, Lanc. Taylor, John, jun...,Essex Standard Office, Col- chester Taylor, J. O....Hardingham, Norwich Taylor, J. P....Treeton, Rotherham’ +Laylor, Joseph... Bishops Stortford, Herts Taylor, Richard, ..Penmear, near Falmouth Taylor, Robert...Treeton Mills, Rotherham +Taylor, Sam....Eccleston Hall, Prescot, Lancashire Taylor, Silas B....Foxhall, Upminster, Essex Taylor, Thos.,..Burleigh Villa, Wellington, Salop Taylor, T. L....Starston, Harleston, Norfolk Taylor, Wm....Showle Court, Stoke Edith, Hereford Tayton, William...,Syderstone, Fakenham Tebbitt, Walter... Cottage House, Clapham Common Tekell, John, ..Frimley Park, near Bagshot, Surrey Tempest, Sir Charles...Broughton Hall, Skiptcn,
Yorkshire Tempest, Henry... Newland Park, Wakefield Templeman, John,,.Merriott, Crewkerne, Somer-
setshire +Templemore, Lord
Ireland Tench, John... Ludlow, Salop Tench, Richard... Ludlow, Salop Tennant, J.R....Kildwick Hall, Skipton, Yorkshire Thackwell, J. C... Wilton Place, near Ledbury, Here-
fordshire +Thew, Edward
umberland Thexton, John Yeates...
Westmoreland Thomas, David.. , Brecon Thomas, I. D...Welfield House, Builth, near Brecon Thomas, F. H.,..»Hereford
. 2» Waterloo Iron Works, Andover,
-..Dunnoby Park, “Wexford,
..Lesbury House, Alnwick, North-
-Ashton House, Milnthorpe,
List of Members.
Thomas, Georgé...18, Redcliff Street, Bristol
Thomas, Rev. George... Llandaff Court, near Cardiff, Glamorganshire
Thomas, Ilted,. . Hill House, Swansea, Glamorgansh.
Thomas, J. Ayre...Ditchet, Rose Ash, Witheridge, Devon
Thomas, John, jun... .Ynissiwnd, near Neath, N.W.
Thomas, Le Marchant... Billingbear Park, Woking- ham, Berks
Thomas, R. G....Llysnewydd, near Carmarthen
Thomas, T. E....Glanmor, Swansea, S. W.
Thomas, William...Dadnor, near Ross, Herefordsh.
Thompson,Andrew... Keele, Newcastle-under-Lyme
Thompson, Rey. Cornelius...Kirton Rectory, Ol- lerton, Notts
Thompson, Henry A.... Lewes
+Thompson, H.S....Moat Hall, near Boroughbridge
Thompson, James, ..Kirkhouse, Brampton, Cum- berland
Thompson, John..,Paston, near Wooler, North- umberland
Thompson, John... Woolvers Farm, Reigate, Surrey
Thompson, Leonard. ..Sherriff Hutton Park, York
Thompson, Robert... Norwich
Thompson, R. J... Kirby Hall, near York
Thompson, John S...Clements, Ilford, Essex
Thompson, Wm,..12, Dunsford Place, Bathwick, Bath
+Thompson, Wm., M.P....Underby Hall, Kirby Lonsdale
Thompson, William...Bishop Auckland, Durham
Thompson, W. C. F...Solway House, Carlisle, Cumberland
Thomson, Guy...Old Bank, Oxford
Thomson, Henry...Primrose, Clitheroe, Lancashire
Thornewill, Edward...Dove Cliffe, Burton-on-Trent
Thornhill, George, M.P....Diddington, Buckden, Hunts
Thornhill, George, jun... Harefield, Cheam, Surrey
+Thornhill, Thomas... Riddlesworth Hall, Thetford, Norfolk
+Thornhill, W. Pole...Stanton, Bakewell, Derbys.
Thornthwaite, Joseph..,Arkleby House, Cocker- mouth, Cumberland
Thornton, Claude G...Marden Hill, near Hertford
Thornton, Harry...Turvey, Newport Pagnell, Bucks
Thornton, Rev- John... Kimbolton
Thornton, Stephen...Moggerhanger House, Big- gleswade, Beds
+Thorold, Richard... Weelsby Hall, near Grimsby
Thorold, William...Norwich
Thorp, Archdeacon Charles... Ryton Rectory, New- castle-on-Tyne .
+Thorp, Archdeacon Thomas... Kemerton Rectory, Tewkesbury
+Thorp, Thomas...Alnwick, Northumberland
Thorpe, James Cole... Otley, Walesby, Market |
Rasen, Lincolnshire
Thorpe, John... Pitt, near Hastings.
+Thorpe, John.. .Shenton, Hinckley
Thoume, James...Guernsey
Thoyts, Mortimer Geo...Sulhamstead House, near Reading, Berkshire
t
57
Threlfall, Lazarus... Lancaster
‘Thresher, Frederick... Bentley, Farnham, Surrey
Thring, Rev. J. G..,Alford House, Castle Carey, Somersetshire
Throckmorton, Sir R. G..,.Buckland, near Far- ringdon, Berkshire
Thruston, Capt. C. T., R.N...Talgarth, Machynlleth, Montgomeryshire
Thurlow, Rey. Thos....Baynards Park, Guildford
Thurnhall, Henry...Royston, Herts
Thursby, Rey.—...Abingdon Rectory, Northampton
Thursfield, Wm... .Barrow, near Broseley, Salo p
Tigar, Pennock..,Grove House, Beverley
Tighe, Rt. Hon. W. F.... Woodstock Park, Inis- troge, Ireland
Tilden, John...Ifield Court, Gravesend, Kent
Tillett, Samuel...Hill House, Lexden, Colchester
Tilley, Joshua. ..Gurston, Redstone Hill, Reigate
Tilly, Tobias H....Tremough, Falmouth, Cornwall
yTillyard, Philip... Godmanchester, near Hun- tingdon
Tillyer, George... Feltham, Middlesex
Tillyer, James, jun....Yeavenly Farm, Staines, Middlesex
Timings, Richard... Wacton Court, near Bromyard
Timm, Dr. C...Scrooby Honse, Bawtry, Notts.
Timm, Joseph...Champion Hill, Camberwell
Timm, William... Ratcliff Grange, Worksop, Notts
Timms, William...Cadley Hill, Burton-on-Trent
Timson, Rev. Edward...Woodlands House, near Southampton
Tindal, Thomas...Aylesbury, Bucks
Tindale, Benj... Mount Pleasant, Dawlish, Devon
Tindale, Wm.... Wheatley, Doncaster
Tingey, John...Scoulton, Hingham, Norfolk
Tinker, William...Conock House, Devizes
Tinkler, Richd... .Bolton, Westmoreland
Tinling, Capt. Charles.. 4, York Place, Worthing
Tinne, John A.., Briarley, near Aigburth, Liverpool
Tisdale, Thomas...Quarry Terrace, Shrewsbury
Todd, F. S...Picton House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Todd, Joseph...New Shipton, Sutton Coldfield, Warwickshire :
Todd, W. R...Picton House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
+Tollemache, H. B....Junior United Service Club
+Tollemache, John...Tilston Lodge, Tarporley, Cheshire ;
Toller, Samuel...Gedgrave, Orford, Suffolk
Tollet, Geo....Betley Hall, near Newcastle, Staffs.
Tombs, Edw....Maizey Hampton, Fairford, Glouc.
Tombs, John... Hanghill, near Cirencester, Glouc.
Tombs, Joseph. .. Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire
Tomkins, W. S....Broughton, near Stockbridge Hants
Tomkinson, Wm.... Newcastle, Staifs.
Tomline, Col. Geo., M.P...1, Carlton House Terrace
Tomlinson, Capt. Frederick...Clitfe Ville, New- castle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire
Tomlinson, Sam....Suttom Place, St. Helens, Lane.
Tomlinson, William...Biggins House, Kirkby Lons- dale, Westmoreland
Tompsett, James,..Hextall Court, East Peckham, Kent
I
58
Tompson, C. Kett...Witchingham Hall, Norwich Tompson, H. Kett... Burgh Apton Cottage, Norwich Tompson, Rob. Jas... Round Coppice, Iver, Bucks Tomson, James... Barnt Green, Bromsgrove Tonge, John, jun....Edenbridge, Kent Tonge, Wm., sen.... Morante Court Farm, Cheven- ing, Sevenoaks, Kent Tonge, Charles... Branston, near Lincoln Tongue, Edward...Aldridge, Walsall, Staffordshire Tongue, Wm...Comberford, near Tamworth, Staffs. Tooke, William..12, Russell Square Topham, James... West Keal, Spilsby, Lincolnshire Topham, Robert... Mowthorpe, Malton, Yorkshire +Torkington, James...Stukeley, Huntingdon +Torr, Wm.,.Aylesby, Great Grimsby, Lincolnshire Toulson, John P..,.Skipwith Hall, Selby, Yorks. Tower, Christ. T.., Weald Hall, Brentwood, Essex Towers, John...Park Place, Fairfield, Croydon Towneley, Chas...Towneley, Burnley, Blackburn, Lancashire Townley, Rev. Gale...Beaupré Hall, Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire Townsend, Rich. Edw....Springfield, Norwood +Townsend, Thos...Hillmorton, Rugby, Warwicks. Townsend, Wm. Hicks... 3, Montague Parade, Bristol z Townshead, Geo....Sapcote, Hinckley, Leicesters. Trafford, Sir Thos. De, Bart... .Trafford Park, Man- chester, Lancashire Traherne, Rey. John M.,..Coedrigtan, near Cardiff, Glamorganshire Trebeck, Thomas. ..Southwell, Notts Treby, H. H...Goodamoor, near Plympton, Devon Tredwell, J. C.,.Oddington Grange, Bicester, Oxon} Tremenheere, Seymour...105, Pall Mall Trenchard, Rey. John A...Stanton House, Swindon, Wiltshire Trench, Richard... Freehill, Southampton, Hants Trench, William...Cangort Park, Roscrea, King’s County, Ireland Tresawna, Sampson... Probus, near Truro, Cornwall Tress, Wm...1, Princes Street, Wilson St., Finsbury Trethewy, Henry,..Grampound, Cornwall Trethewy, Henry, jun....Silsoe, Beds Trevor, Hon. Gen....Glynde, near Lewes, Sussex Trollope, Sir John, Bart., M.P....Casewick, Stam- ford, Lincolnshire Trollope, Capt. W. H...Landford House, Salisbury Trood, Edward... Matford House, Exminster, Devon Trotter, Geo. Dale... Bishop Middleham, Darlington Trotter, John...Staindrop, near Darlington, Durham Trotter, Robert...Twyford, East Grinstead, Sussex Trotter, Thomas...Bywell, Newcastle-on-Tyne Trower, Capt. E. S... Watton House, Ware, Herts Trower, Henry S...Castle Thorpe, near Stony Strat- ford, Bucks Trudgen, H. H...Trevellev, Penzance, Cornwall Trumper, Edward... Nuneham Park, near Oxford Trumper, Robert, Wyke Farm, Isleworth, Middx. Trumper, William...Iver, Colnbrook, Bucks Trustram, John...Higham Gobion, Ampthill, Beds +Tryon, Thos. ..Bulwick, Wansford,Northamptonsh. Tuck, Rev. G. R... Rectory, Wallington, near Bal- dock, Herts
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Tuck, Henry...Avon, Ringwood, Hampshire
Tuck, John Henry...Blofield, near Norwich
Tuck, John J.... Wortham, Eye, Suffolk
Tuck, T. G....Strumpshaw, Norwich
Tucker, Henry...Coleraine House, Stamford Hill, Middlesex
Tuckett, Alfred... Moorend, Mangotsfield, near Bristol
Tuckey, Thomas...Compton-Beauchamp, Faring- don, Berkshire
Tuckwell, Humphrey...Signet, near Burford, Oxon
yTudway, R. C.... Wells, Somerset
7Tull, Edward..Peasemore, Newbury, Berks’
7Tull, Henry...Crookham, Newbury, Berks
7Tull, Richard. ,.Crookham, Newbury, Berks
Tullidge, William...Houghton Farm, Blandford
Tunnicliffe, Fred. W...Biana, Eccleshall, Staffs.
Tupholme, Thomas...Horncastle
+Turnbull, John Geo...2, Sussex Square, Bayswater
yTurnbull, Rev. T. 8....Blofield, Norfolk
Turner, Ellis...Caston Hall, Watton, Norfolk
Turner, George... Flitching, Uckfield, Sussex
Turner, George... Barton, near Exeter, Devon
Turner, Lieut.-Col. Henry...32, Argyll Street
Turner, Henry John...Richmond, Yorkshire
Turner, James §..,.Clinton Farm, Seaford, near Lewes, Sussex
Turner, John... Trowse, Norwich
Turner, John...Gravetye Manor, West Hoathly, near East Grinstead, Sussex
Turner, John Beresford... Worcester
Turner, John Henry,. .Little Horringer Hall, Bury St. Edmunds
Turner, Sam... Branch Bank of England, Liverpool
Turner, Thos,..Castwood Farm, Rotherham, Yorks.
Turner, Wm. B....Feltham Hill, Hounslow, Mid.
Turner, W. H...8, Mount Place, Whitechapel Road
+Turnor, Christopher... .Stoke, Grantham, Lincolns.
Turnor, Michael...Brereton, Rugeley, Staffs.
Turnor, Thos....Abbotts Bromley, Rugeley, Staffs.
Twemlow, Thomas... Peatswood, Drayton, Salop
Twining, F...Parbold Hall, Standish, Wigan, Lane.
Twitchell, Thomas... Willington, near Bedford
Twort, Tyler...-Horsmonden, Kent
Tylden, Lieut.-Col. Sir J..,.Milsted, Sittingbourne, Kent
Tyler, John...Layton, Essex
Tyler, Rev. R. T....Ulantrithyd, near Cardiff, Gla- morganshire :
Tynte, Lieut.-Col. C. J. K...Cefn Mably, Newport, Monmouthshire
Tyrconnel, Earl of,,. Kiplin, Catterick, Yorkshire
Tyrell, Sir John, Bart.. .Boreham House, Chelmsford
Tyssen, W. G. D..,Foulden Hall, Brandon, Norfolk
Ullock, Thomas... Quarry How, Bowness, near Kendal, Westmoreland
Umbers, Abraham... Weston Hall, Leamington
+Umbers, Edward... Weston Hall, near Warwick
Umbers, Samuel...Cubbington Heath, near Lea- mington
+Underwood, Joseph...Blackheath Park, Kent
Underwood, Capt. W.... Castle Hill, Bakewell Derbyshire
List of Members. D9
Unett, J. W....Smethwick, Birmingham
+Upperton, Robert...35, Steyne, Brighton, Sussex
Uppleby, Leadbitter... Wootton House, Barton-on- Humber, Lincolnshire
+Upton, Hon. Gen. G. F....G2, Albany
Upton, H. J....Aldwick, Bognor, Sussex
Urry, Barnabus..,Newport, Isle of Wight
Urwick, Edward,..Felton, Ludlow, Salop
Utting, John,..Stunning Hall, Norfolk
Vaisey, Thomas...Stratton, near Cirencester, Glouc.
Vaizey, Geo. De Horne...Halstead, Essex
Vallance, James... Hurstperpoint, Sussex
Vanderstegen, W. H....Cane End House, near Henley, Oxon
Vandeleur, George.,.King’s Newton Hall, Derby
+Vane, Rey. John...Dulwich, Surrey
Vansittart, Geo. H....Besham Abbey, Great Marlow
Vardon, Thos. (Librarian of the House of Commons)
Vaughan, Hugh,..Redland House, near Bristol
Vaughan, John... Velin Newidd House, near Brecon
+Vaughan, Nash V. E....Rhesla, near Neath, Gla- morganshire
Vaughan, Sir R. W....Hengurt, Dolgelle, Merio- nethshire
Vaughan, Rey. Thomas... Llandwailog, Brecon
Vaughan, Col. Wright... Woodstone, Peterborough
Veal, John B...Ringmer, near Lewes, Sussex
Veale, J. H...Passaford, Hatherleigh, Devon
+Vere, John. ..Carlton-upon-Trent, Newark, Notts
Verelst, Rev. Wm....Grayingham, Kirton-in-Lind- sey, Lincolnshire
Verity, Richard. ..Dean, Kimbolton, Hunts
+Verney, Sir Harry, Bart., M.P.....Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks
Vernon, Geo. Croft... Mount Flanbury, Bromsgrove, Worcestershire
Vernon, G. H., M.P.,..Grove Hall, East Retford, Notts. ;
Vernon, Hon. and Rev. J. V...Nuttall Rectory, near Nottingham
Viall, King. ..Stoke, Clare, Suffolk
Vibant, James, ..Chilliswood House, Taunton
Vickers, Samuel...Sprotborough, Doncaster
+Vickers, Valentine...Ellerton Grange, Newport, Salop
Villiers, Viscount...Upton Park, Banbury
Vincent, Henry Wm....Queen’s Remembrancer’s Office, Duke Street, Westminster
Vincent, James... Clifton Maubank, Sherborne
Vincent, Jolin Fras... Frostenden, Wangford, Suff.
Vines, Richard,..13, Great College Street, Camden Town
Vivian, George...Claverton Manor, Bath, Somerset
Vivian, John Henry.. .Singleton, Swansea
Vivian, Lord...Plas Gwyn, Beaumaris, Anglesea
Vizard, Wm...16, New Street, Spring Gardens”
Vogan, Rey. Thomas S. L.,..Vicar of Walberton, Arundel =
Voss, Wm... West Bucknowle, Corfe Castle, Dorset
+Vyner, Henry...Newby Hall, Ripon
Waddington, H. S,..Cavenham, Mildenhall, Suff. Waddington, J. H,..Langrish, Petersfield, Hants
Waddington, John T.... Twyford Lodge, near Win- chester, Hants Wade, Rev. Albany,..Elton Rectory, Stockton-on- Tees, Durham Wade, Major H. C...Hanxwell Hall, Bedale Wadham, Thomas...Frenchay, uear Bristol Wagner, G. H. M.,. Hurstmonceaux, Battle, Sussex Wagstaff, Edward...Gordon Castle, Fochabers, N. B. Waite, W. S... Woodborough, Bath, Somersetshire Wake, Bartholomew... North Barrow, Castle Carey, Somersetshire Wakefield, George ... Minworth, Warwickshire Wakefield, John... Sedgwick House, Westmoreland Wakeman, Thomas...Chalfont St. Giles, Gerard’s Cross, Bueks Wakley, James...111, Pilgrim Street, Newcastle- upon-Tyne Walbey, Henry... Wyddial, near Buntingford, Herts Walbey, Thos. C.,..Barley, near Royston, Herts Walkden, Thos... Rushall Down, near Pewsey, Wilts Walker, David... Maidstone Walker, Delabere...Netherwood, Tenbury, Worces- tershire +Walker, George... Eastwood, near Nottingham Walker, Geo. J. Alexander... Norton, near Worcester Walker, Geo. R... Heathfield House, near Oxford Walker, Gibbon N.,,.Market Cell, Market Street, Herts Walker, James... Suttie, near Kintore, N. B. Walker, James... Northleach, Gloucestershire Walker, Capt. J. R....Gilgarran, Whitehaven Walker, John... York Walker, John ... Westfield House, Holmer, near: Hereford + Walker, Ormerod Oliver...Bury, Lancashire Walker, Dr. Thomas...10, Lower Seymour Street, Portman Square Walker, Thomas...Kendal, Westmoreland Walker, Thomas...Cockermouth Walker, Thomas...The Bank, Doncaster, Yorkshire Walker, William... Wilsie, near Doncaster Waller,H.S...Farmington, Northleach,Gloucestersh. Waller, James... Digswell Hill, Welwyn, Herts Wallington, James...Charlecote, Stratford-on-Avon Wallis, Owen. .Overstone Grange, near Northampton Wallis, Robert. ..South Shields Wallis, Samuel... Barton Seagrave, Kettering Wallis, W. 'F....New Shifford Farm, near Witney, Oxon Walmsley, Joln...Creamore, Wem, Salop Walmsley, Thomas.,.Ribblesdale Place, Preston, Lancashire Walrond, Lloyd B...Flanley, Westbury-on-Severn, Gloucestershire Walsh, John...Oxford Walter, John....Gore House, Upchurch, Sitting- bourne, Kent Walter, Stephen... West Farleigh, Maidstone Walter, Wm..,Rainham, Upchurch, Sittingbourne, Kent +Walters, James W...Barnwood, near Gloucester Walters, John.,.Derby 12
Birmingham,
Kendal,
60
Walters, Robert... Charlotte Square, Newcastle- upon-Tyne
+Walton, Thomas..,Albany House, Old Kent Road
Walton, Wm...Merdon Farm, Hursley, Winchester
Warburton, R. E. E...Harley Hall, near Northwich, Cheshire
Ward, David...Iron Works, Melford, near Sudbury, Suffolk
Ward, G. A.... Downham Bridge, Norfolk.
Ward, H. W....Uindurn Road, Lincoln
Ward, John...79, Bishopsgate Street Within
Ward, R. M....Watton, Norfolk
Ward, T. E....The Lodge, Chirk, Denbighshire
Ward, T. R....Upton, Slough, Bucks
Ward, W. S....Wellow Hall, Ollerton, Notts
Ward, W. T....26, Old Elvet, Durham
Warde, Charles...Squerries, Westerham, Kent
+Ware, Samuel...34, Portland Place
Waring, William...Chelsfield, Kent
Warman, Robert...Idstone, near Faringdon, Berks
Warner, Frederick...28, Cornhill, London
+ Warner, George... Priory, Hornsey, Middlesex
Warner, Henry...The Eims, Loughborough
Warner, H. J. L., jun....Tibberton Court, near Hereford
Warner, James... Tixall Hall Farm, Great Haywood, near Stafford
Warner, William... Botley, Southampton, Hants
Warre, Henry...15, Upper Wimpole Street
Warre, J. A.... West Cliff, Ramsgate, Kent
+ Warren, Rev. J. C. B... Horkesley Hall, Colchester, Essex
Warren, Richard.. .Shillington, Blandford, Dorset
Warry, Elias T...., Wimborne, Dorset
‘Warry, George...Shapwick, Glastonbury, Somerset
Warsop, John. ..Alconbury Hill, near Huntingdon
Warter, Henry de Grey... Meole, Shrewsbury
Wartnaby, John...Clipston, Northamptonshire
tWasey, J. T... Prior’s Court, near Newbury, Berks
Washbourne, T. E...Donnington, Newbury, Berks
Washbourne, W. E., jun.... Tillingdown, Tandridge, Surrey
Wason, Rigby...Kildonan, Newton-Stewart, N. B.
Wass, Joseph...Lea, near Matlock, Derbyshire
Waterhouse, Daniel... Aigburth, near Liverpool
Waterhouse, Edward... Liverpool
Waterpark, Lord... Doveridge Hall, Uttoxeter, Staffs,
Waters, Edward... Arminghall, Norwich
Waters, Henry...Sutton, Seaford, Sussex
Waters, Robert...Boscombe, Amesbury, Wilts
Waters, R. S...St. Giles’s, Cranborne, Dorset
Waters, Thomas...Stratford Sub-Castle, Salisbury
Waters, Wm,..Wighton, near Walsingham, Norf.
+Watkins, John Gregory... Woodfield House, Om- bersley, near Worcester
Watkins, Col. L. V., M.P....Pennoyre, near Brecon
Watkins, Samuel... Forest Hill, near Worksop, Notts
Watkins, Sober...Bodrhyddan, St. Asaph, N. W.
+Watkins, Wm.,..Ombersley, Worcester
Watson, B. F....16, Cambridge Terrace, Hyde Park
+Watson, C. W....Wratting Park, Linton, Cambs.
Watson, George... Willingham, Fakenham, Norfolk
Watson, H. G.. ..123, George Street, Edinburgh
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
+Watson, James....Thorney, near Peterborough, Northamptonshire
Watson, James... Wouldby, near Hull, Yorkshire
Watson, John...Bolton Park, Wigton, Cumberland
Watson, John... Kendal
Watson, Capt. Wm....New Place, Acacia Road, St. John’s Wood
Watson, W. C...14, Great Cumberland Place
Watts, James...Hythe, Kent
Watts, Robert... Battle, Sussex
Watts, William...Scaldwell, Northampton
Wavell, Wm....Rookley Farm, Blackwater, Isle of Wight
‘ Wayne, T. M...Manor House, South Warnborough,
Odiham, Hampshire
Weall, Thos... Woodcote Lodge, Beddington, Surrey
Webb, Daniel C....Hethe, Bicester, Oxon
Webb, George...Beaumont Hall, near St. Albans, Herts
Webb, Humphrey...Orslow, near Newport, Salop
Webb, John...Horseheath, Cambridgeshire
Webb, J. C...Hempnall, Stratton St. Mary, Norfolk
Webb, Jonas.. .Church Farm, Babraham, Cambridge
Webb, Samuel...Babraham, Cambridge
Webb, Thomas...Hildersham, Cambridge
Webb, Theodore V...Clare Hall, Cambridge
Webb, Rev. Wim... Master of Clare Hall, Cambridge
Webb, William... Haselor, Tamworth, Staffs.
Webb, William...Clownholme, Rocester, Staffs.
+Webber, Chas. H... Buckland, Barnstaple, Devon
Webber, Samuel,..Ipswich
Webber, Thos...,Halberton Court, Tiverton, Devon
Webber, Wm....Tonbridge, Kent
Webster, Baron Dickinson.. Penns, nr. Birmingham
Webster, Frederick... Marley Farm, Battle Abbey, Sussex
Webster, James... Peakirk, Market Deeping, Lin- colnshire
+Webster, J. Philip...Heath and Reach, Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire
Webster, Thomas...Kendal, Westmoreland
Webster, W. B...-Houndsdown, near Southampton
Wedd, Octavius...Foulmire, near Royston, Cam- bridgeshire
Wedge, Charles...Hornwood Farm, Meridan, near Coventry
Wedge, Francis...Badminton, Tetbury, Gloucesters.
Wedlake, Mrs. Mary...Hornchurch, Essex
+ Weeding, Thomas...47, Mecklenburgh Square
Weeks, Frederick...8, London Road, Brighton
Weeks, R. M...Ryton Park, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Welbank, Captain...Tandridge Priory, Godstone
Welch, Alfred. ..Southall, Middlesex
Welch, Jno,.Bachymbyd Back, Ruthin, Denbighsh
Welchman, Robt. Frederick..Southam, Warwicksh.
Weld, Edw. J...Tavistock Court, Barnstaple, Devon
Weld, Joseph... Lulworth Castle, Dorset
Welfitt, Wm. T...Manby Hall, Louth, Lincolnshire
Welford, R. G...Northaw, near Barnet, Middlesex
Weller, Richard...Capel, Dorking, Surrey
Wellingham, E... Walton, Lynn
Wellings, Thomas...Muckleton, near Shrewsbury
Wells, Charles,.. Ware, Herts
+Wells, John,,,Armyn, Booth Ferry, Yorksh.
List of Members.
Wells, John,,. . Woodborough, near Nottingham
Wells, Thomas,..Hampnett, Northleach, Glouc.
Welman, C. Noel... Norton Manor, Taunton
Welsh, William...Leake, Boston, Lincolnshire
Welstead, Benjamin... Kimbolton, Hunts
Wemyss, Major-Gen.,.Cumberland Lodge, Windsor Park
Wentworth, Godfrey...Woolley Park, Wakefield, Yorkshire
West, Desaguliers... Water House, near Bath
West, Capt. Henry, R.N....Jesmond, near New- castle-on-Tyne
West, John... Miningsby, near Spilsby, Lincolns.
West, J.... Melton Ross, Brigg, Lincolnshire
West, Wm. H....Gliffaes, Crickhowell, Brecknocks.
' Westbury, Giles...Andover, Hampshire
+Westcar, Henry...Burwood Cottage, Esher, Surrey
Westcote, John Baker...Coate, Martock, Somerset
+Western, Thomas B...Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex
Westminster, Marquis of .... Motcombe House, Shaftesbury, Dorset
+Weston, James, jun.....Stoneleigh, Coventry, Warwickshire
Weyland, John..,.W Norfolk
Weyland, Richard... Woodeaton House, near Oxford
Whaley, J....Holly Hill, Enfield, Middlesex
Whalley, Charles Lawson...Lancaster
Whalley, Capt. G. B....Birdlip, near Painswick
Whalley, Robert... Brantham Hall, near Manning- tree, Essex
+Wharncliffe, Lord... Wortley Hall, Sheffield
Wharton, Rev. Fitzwm. Wm...,Barningham Rec- tory, Richmond, Yorkshire
Wharton, Francis... Dunscroft, Hatfield, near Don- caster, Yorkshire
Wharton, Rev. James Charles...Gilling Vicarage, near Richmond, Yorkshire
+Wharton, John Thomas...Skelton Castle, Guis- borough, Yorkshire
Wheatley, Matthew.. Tyne
Wheble, Edmund...27, Upper Montague Street, Montague Square
Wheble, J. J....Bulmarsh Court, Reading
Wheeler, John...Trippleton, Leintwardine, Lud- low, Shropshire
Wheldon, Stephen... Pelton, near Chester-le-Street
Whetham, Major-Gen... SESE SEOe Hall, South- well, Notts
Whieldon, Geo....Springfield House, near Coventry
Whincup, Francis... Ketten, near Stamford
Whistler, John... Brancaster, Norfolk
oodrising Hall, Hingham,
-Shieldfield, Newcastle-upon-
Whitaker, Rev. Geo. A....Knodishall, near Sax-
mundham, Snffolk Whitaker, Joseph... Ramsdale House, Nottingham Whitaker, Joshua...Bratton, Westbury, Wilts — Whitbread, John... Hazlewood Farm, Edmonton +Whitbread, Samuel Charles...22, Eaton Place Whitby, Mrs. Mary A. T....Newlands, Lymington, Hampshire
+White, Alg. Holt ...Sewald’s Hall, Harlow, Essex
~; White, Henry... Warrington, Lancashire
White, James... Yayerland Farm, Isle of Wight
| White, R. Edward..
61
White, John... Hertfordshire
White, John B.... Little Bedwyn, near Marlborough
White, J. H....Chevening, near Sevenoaks, Kent
White, John Mould...Mickleover, Derby
White, Joseph...Ampfield House, Romsey, Hants
White, Richard, ..Prior Halton, Ludlow, Shropshire
White, Richard... Norwich
. Aspley Guise, Woburn, Beds
White, Thomas ...Elly Hill, Hougliton-le-Skerne, Darlington
White, Thos....Kenward, Yalding, Kent
White, Wm....63, Beaumont Square, Mile End
Whitehead, John... Barnjet, West Barming, Maidstone
Whitehead, John...Preston
Whitehead, Richd... West Farleigh, Maidstene, Kent
Whitehouse, Wm....Exchange Buildings, Liverpool
Whitgreave, G. T. .. Moseley Court, Wolverhampton
Whiting, John.,.Heston, Hounslow, Middlesex
Whiting, T. S....Codford St. Peter’s, Wilts
Whitlock, Francis..,Lovingtons, Great Yeldham Halstead, Essex
Whitmell, John. .Crick, Daventry, Northamptonsh.
+Whitmore, Thos....Apley Park, Bridgnorth, Salop
+Whitmore, Thos. C....Apley Park, Shiffnal
Whitmore, W. W....Dudmaston, Bridgnorth, Salop
Whittaker, Oldham...Hurst House, Ashton-under- Lyne
Whittam, James Sibley...Cowndon, Coventry
Whitter, William.,. Worthing, Sussex
7Whitting, Wm...,..Thorney, near Peterborough Northamptonshire
Whittle, Edward,,.Toller Fratrum, Dorchester
Whitton, Corbett. . Stafford
Whitworth, H. B....Northampton
Whitworth, Joseph....Chorlton Street, Portman Street, Manchester
Whitworth, Wm.,..Earl’s Barton, Wellingborough
Whybro, Edward...Tottenham Green, Middlesex
+Wickens, James Stephens...35, Mortimer Street
Wickham, Edward...St. Margaret’s, Rochester
Wickham, James..,Sutton Scotney ERODES ACI Road, Hampshire
Wickham, John...Butcombe, near Shepton Mallet, Somersetshire
+ Wicksted, Charles..,Shakenhurst, Cleobury Mor- timer, Salop
Widdicomhe, John... Ladbrook Cottage, Ugborough Deyon
Widdrington, Capt. (R.N.).. Newton Hall, Alnwick Northumberland
Wiffin, William..,Crabs Castle, Wells, Norfolk
Wigan, Edmd. ..Lapley Breewoed, Wolverhampton
Wigg, Wright...South Green, East Dereham, Nortk
Wiggins, John...Tyndale, near Danbury, Essex
7 Wight, James... Tedstone Court, Bromyard, Here- fordshire
Wigney, Thomas Jennings... Huddersfield
Wilberfoss, Thomas... Wetwang, Driffield, Yorkshire
Wild, S. Bagnall....Costock, near Loughborough Leicestershire
Wild, Thos. Martin,,.Branbridges, East Peckham Tunbridge, Kent
Wilde, George,..1, Cambridge Square, London
.Parsonage Farm, Rickmansworth,
62
Wilding, Charles... Powis Castle, Welshpool
Wilding, James...High Ercal, Wellington, Salop
Wiley, Joseph...Sprowston, Norwich
Wiley, Samuel...Bransby, near York
Wilkin, Charles...Tolleshunt Knight, Kelvedon, | Essex
Wilkin, Charles... Twerton, near Bath, Somerset
Wilkins, Henry... Westbury-on-Severn, near Glou- cester
Wilkinson, Geo. H....Harperly Park, Durham
Wilkinson, H. J....Walsham-le-Willows, Ixworth
Wilkinson, J. Etridge,..Dunston Lodge, Gateshead
Wilkinson, O. R....Eaton Socon, St. Neots, Hunts
Wilkinson, Percival Spearman....Furze House, Leamington
Wilkinson, Thomas,.Chawton, Cowes, Isle of Wight
Wilkinson, Thomas Aytown...Dringhouses, York
Wilkinson, Capt. T. H....Walsham, near Ixworth, Suffolk
Willes, George... Hungerford Park, Hungerford
Willes, William...Fritwell, Brackley, Northamp- tonshire
Williames, J. B,...Glan Hafren, Montgomeryshire
Williams, Alf. Edw.... West Mersia Hall, Colchester
Williams, Major Arthur Charles...Eaton-Mas-Caul, Shrewsbury, Salop
Williams, Charles. ..Torquay, Devonshire
Williams, Rev. Charles...Gedling Rectory, near Nottingham
Williams, C.C.,.Roath Court, Cardiff, Glamorgansh.
Williams, Cyril... Faleymeran, Pwllheli
Williams, Edward...Tre-beirrd, Mold, Flintshire
Williams, Edward...Lowes Court, near Hay, Here- fordshire
Williams, Evan... Rhayader, Radnorshire
Williams, Evan...Aberyskir, near Brecon, S. W.
Williams, Fras. E....Doddenham, near Worcester
Williams, G. M....Brocklesby, Great Limber, Lin- colnshire
Williams, Herbert...Stinsford House, Dorchester
Williams, H. Lloyd...Llanfillyn, Oswestry
Williams, Hugh...Kineton, Stratford-on-Avon
Williams, Rev. James. .Llanfair-yn-Nghornwy Rec- tory, Anglesey
+Wiiliams, James,..Northcourt, near Abingdon
Williams, John...Bank, Chester
Williams, John...The Grove House, Denbigh
Williams, John...Buckland, Faringdon, Berkshire
Williams, J. A....Baydon, Hungerford, Berkshire
Williams, Leigh...Castle Hill, Farnham, Surrey
Williams, Martin... Bryngwyn, Oswestry
Williams, Matthew Davies....Cwmeynfelin, near Aberystwith, S. W.
Williams, Peter...Siamberwen, Anglesey
Williams, Rees...Maesgwyn, Neath, Glamorgansh.
Williams, Rees... Manest Court, near Brecon
+Williams, Robert, jun....Bridehead, Dorchester
Williams, Rev. Thos....Fir-y-cewm, Ystrad, Swansea
Williams, Thomas...Bryn, Beaumaris, Anglesey
Williams, Thomas... Brecon, S. W.
Williams, William...Skethrog, near Brecon
Williams, Wm... -Tregulloa, near Truro, Cornwall
Williams, Wm..,.Aberpergwyn, Neath, Glamorgsh.
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Williams, Wm....High Street, Bedford
Williams, Wm. Adams....Llangibby Castle, Usk, Monmouthshire
7 Williamson, Hugh Henshaw...Greenaway Bank, Burslem, Stafis.
Williamson, Isaac...East Orielton, near Pembroke
+ Willich, Chas. M....24, Suffolk Street
Willis, Jos., jun... Bucknowle, Corfe Castle, Dorset
| Willoughby, Edward... Birkenhead
+Willoughby, W....
Wills, John.,.South Petherwyn, Launceston
Wilmer, Wilmer...4, Elm Court, Temple
Wilmot, Sir Hy. S., Bart....Chaddesdon Hall, near Derby
| Wilmot, Rey. Rich. Coke... Neswick Hall, Baynton,
Beverley, Yorkshire
Wilson, Ashley Henry...The Abbey, Wigton
Wilson, Edward.,.Rigmaden Park, Kirby Lons- dale, Westmoreland
Wilson, George. ..Dallam Tower, Milnthorpe
Wilson, Geo. Edwd....Ilmersham, Milnthorpe
Wilson, Geo. St. Vincent,..Redgrave Hall, Botes- dale, Suffolk
Wilson, Henry Corbett...Southam, Warwickshire
7 Wilson, Hon. HenryW....Keythorpe Hall, Tugby, Leicestershire
Wiison, Capt. John...The Howe, Kendal
+ Wilson, Joseph... Highbury Hill, Islington, Middx.
Wilson, Matthew, jun....Eshton Hall, Skipton, Yorkshire
+ Wilson, Richard Bassett...Cliffe House, Darlington
7 Wilson, Hon. and Rey. Robert... Ashwell-Thorpe, Wymondham, Norfolk
Wilson, Robert. ..South Shields
Wilson, Robert... Yarm, Yorkshire
+ Wilson, Thomas...Shotley Hall, Newcastle-upon- Tyne, Northumberland
Wilson, Thomas Francis,..123, Fenchurch Street
y Winchester, The Marquis of....Amport House Andover
Winder, J. W. Lyon...Vaenor Park, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire
Wing, Tycho...Thorney Abbey, Peterborough
Wingfield, John...Onslow, Salop
Wingfield, John M.,..Tickencote Hall, Stamford Lincolnshire
Wingfield, Richard Baker...2, Lowndes Square
Wingfield, William...91, Katon Square ~
Winn, Rowland...Appleby Hall, Brigg, Lincolnsh.
Winnall, John... Newland, near Worcester
Winnall, Thomas...Eccleshall Court, Lea, Ross, Herefordshire
Winnington, Sir Thomas, Bart...Stanford Court, Worcester
Winns, Thomas... Lincoln
Winsor, George...Sarratt, Rickmansworth, Herts
+ Winterbottom, James Edwd..,.East Woodhay, near Newbury, Berkshire
Winthrop, Rey. Benjamin...Clifton, Bristol
Wippell, John... Exminster, Devonshire
} Witney, William...26, Conduit Street
Witt, Edward... Fornham All Saints, Bury St. Edmunds
List of Members. 63
Witt, Matthew... Waterbeach, near Cambridge | Woodward, Wm....Bredons Norton, Tewkesbury, Witt, Samuel...Swaffham, Cambridge Gloucestershire
Wittingstall, E. F....Langley Bury, Watford, Herts | -Woodyeare, Rey. J. F. W....Crookhill, Doncaster Wodehouse, Edmund,M.P....Thorpe, near Norwich | Wooldridge, Henry,..Meon Stoke, Bishops Walt- + Wodehouse, Lord... Kimberley, Wymondham ham, Hampshire
Wolfe, R. Birch... Wood Hall, near Newport, Essex | Wooldridge, J. W....Webb’s Land, Wickham, Hants Wollaston, Major Fred...Sheepy Magna, Atherstone | Wooldridge, Rich... Titchfield Park, Fareham, Hants Wollen, Joseph... Wedmore, near Wells, Somerset | Woolfe, Joseph...Haslington Hall, Crewe, Cheshire
Wood, Arthur W... . Littleton, Chertsey, Surrey Woolley, Te Smith, jun.. .» North Collingbam, New- +Wood, Rt. Hon. Sir Charles, Bart., M.P....Ickledon ark, Notts Hall, Doncaster, Yorkshire Woolrich, Abraham... little Ness, Shrewsbury Wood, Charles... Langford Hall, Maldon, Essex Worledge, W....Creeting, near Stowmarket, Suffolk Wood, Charles,..Siddington, Cirencester, Glouces- Worlledge, John., .Ingham, near Bury St. Edmunds, tershire Suffolk Wood, Edward A... fosmiaatoa. near Weymouth Worsley, Chas. Cavill,.. Platt, near Manchester
Wood, G...Denver, near Downham Market, Norfolk | Worsley, Rev. P. W... Little Ponton, near Grantham Wood, George...South Dalton, Beverley, Yorkshire | Wortham, Biscoe Hill...Royston, Herts Wood, George...Hanger Hill, Ealing, Middlesex Worthington, Archibald... Whitchurch, Salop
Wood, Geo. J.. Se Ndicton Hall, Blandford, Dorset | Worthington, Isaac Jackson... Whitefield Cottage, Wood, Henry.. Wovingdean House, Brighton Lymm, Warrington Wood, Henry.. Woolgarston, near Penkridge, Staffs. | Worthington, Jonathan.. -Moorhill House, Stour- Wood, James....Ockley, Hurstperpoint, Sussex port, Worcestershire Wood, Rev. John...Swanwick Hall, Alfreton, Der- | Worthington, Richard...Saddington, Market Har- byshire borough Wood, John...Croham Farm, Croydon, Surrey Worthy, Samuel....Temple Coombe, Wincanton, Wood, John... Melton, near Woodbridge, Suffolk Somersetshire 7 Wood, John...Excise Office, London Wortley, N. W...Ridlington, Uppingham, Rutland Wood, John... York | +Wratislaw, Wm. F....Rugby, Warwickshire Wood, Sir J. P., Bart....Glazenwood House, near | Wray, John...6, Suffolk Place, Pall Mall East Braintree, Essex Wren, Adderley Bacton... Lenwood, Bideford, Wood, Nicholas. .. Killingworth, Newcastle-on-Tyne Devon Wood, Rev. Richard,,.Woodhall Park, Leyburn, Wren, Wm. Weld...East Wood, Bury, Rochford, Bedale, Yorkshire Essex Wood, Richard. ..18, Temple Row, Birmingham Wren, Wm. Weld, jun....73, Gower Street Wood, Thomas...Grendon, Atherstone, Warw icksh. Wrench, Samuel...Great Holland Hall, Colchester Wood, Rev. W....Martock, Somerset Wrey, Sir Bouchier, Bart....The Chase, Ashburton, Wood, Wm...Gopsall House, Twycross, Leicestersh. Devon Wood, Capt. W. Mark...5, Audley Square +Wright, Charles...Bilham House, near Doncaster, Wood, Willoughby...Campsall, Doncaster Yorkshire Woodall, Henry... Beverle vy, Yorkshire Wright, Charles... Worsborongh, near Barnsley, Woodcock, Hy. C....Buntingley, Melton Mowbray, Yorkshire Leicestershire Wright, David... Hepworth, Ixworth
Woodcock, John G.,.,Breston, Dereham, Norfolk Wright, Edmund...Halston, Oswestry Woodd, Basil Thomas.. -Thorpe Green, Borough- | Wright, Francis...Osmaston Manor, Derby bridge, Yorkshire Wright, Henry...Kelvedon Hall, Brentwood Woodham, Rey. Thos. F.... Winchester, Hampshire | Wright, James...Blyth, North Shields +Woodham, William Nash...Shepreth, Melbourne, Wright, James...Ravenhill, near Rugely, Stalfis. Cambridgeshire Wright, John... The Terrace, Chesterfield, Derbysh. Woodhams, W. R.... Hammonds Udimore, Rye, | Wright, John, jun....Buxton, near Norwich Sussex Wright, Robert ..The Close, Norwich Woodhouse, John...Over Seale, Ashby-de-la-Zouch | +Wright, Thomas...North Runcton, Lynn Woodley, Matthew.. Benfield Bury, Stanstead, Essex | Wright, Thos. Poyntz...Stuckeridge House, Bamp- Woodman, Henry. .Stitchcombe, Marlborough, Wilts ton, Devon Woodman, Richard, jun....Glynde, Lewes, Sussex | Wright, Wm.,,.Gresford Bank, near Wrexham Woodrow, Wm. Robberds...Tombland, Norwich ~ Wright, Wm....Fring, Rougham, Norfolk
Woods, Henry...Merton, Thetford +Wrightson, W. Battie, M.P...Cusworth Park, Don- Woods, Richard..,Osberton, near Worksop, Notts caster Woods, W. Leyland...Chilgrove, near Chichester | Wroughton, Philip...Ibstone House, near Stoken- Woodward, Francis... Little-Comberton, Pershore, church, Oxon
Worcestershire Wyatt, Osmond Arthur...Troy House, near Mon-
Woodward, Robert... Liverpool Wyatt, Harvey...Acton Hill, near Stafford
| Woodward, Jos... Birlingham, Pershore, Worcestsh. | mouth
{ Woodward, Robert,.. Rise Hall; Akenham, Ipswich | v Wyatt, Hugh,.,Cissbury Findon, Shoreham, Sussex
64
Wyatt, Hugh Penfold.,.Cissbury Findon, Shore- ham, Sussex
Wyatt, James... Limegrove, Bangor, Carnarvonshire
Wyatt, John...Nutbourne, Emsworth, Hampshire
Wyatt, T. H.... Heythrop, near Enstone, Oxon
Wyatt, William... yam, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Wyid, John Hopton... Bristol
Wyld, William Hopton.. . Bristol
Wyles, Thomas... Little Ponton, Grantham, Linc.
Wyley, James... High Onn, Stafford
+Wyley, James, jun....Longdon, Lichfield, Staffs.
+Wyley, Wm.... Vineyard, near Wellington, Salop
+Wyndham, J. E.... Fairburn House, Acton Green, Middlesex
Wyndham, J. H.C....Carhampton House, Bishops Waltham
+Wyndham, Wm..
Wynne, John Lloyd, jun... Denbighshire
Wynne, Brownlow Wynne,..Garthewin, Abergele, Denbighshire
Wynne, Rich. Lifton.,.Astrad, near Denbigh
..Dinton, Salisbury, Wiltshire .Coed Coch, Abergele,
Royal Agricultural Society of England.
Wynne, Wm. W. E....Mount Sion, Oswestry
Wynniatt, Rev. R.,..Guiting Park, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire
Wyvill, Rev. Edward... Fingal, Bedale, Yorkshire
Yeates, James... High House, Stainton, near Kendal» Westmoreland
Yeates, John Yeates... Park-head, Levens, Miln- thorpe, Westmoreland
Yeatman, Harry Farr,..Marston House, Blandford, Dorset
Yeld, Thomas... The Broome, Leominster
Yeo, Wm. Arundell... Fremington House, Barn- staple, Devonshire
Yorke, Hon. Eliot Thos., M.P. panminpole. Arring- ton, Cambridge
Yorke, Joseph.. .Forthampton Court, ‘Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire
Young, Allen A.,.Orlingbury, nr. Wellingborough
Young, George. ..Shrewsbury
Young, Wm... Yarlington, Castle Carey, Somerset
* ' ; er or ‘
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SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES
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