1 1
Reriuvianicuanol is se ee 54 Ibs. rs 1 3
5. Peruvian guano ot, carte) Os bse 3
6. No manure.
Mineral superphosphate... .. 163 lbs. s 3 -
(EVeOEIN MES T55 Daa go co - LU) Woe, = 2 5
Sulphate of ammonia .. .. 53 lbs. s bE i
8. Rotten dung .. oy cle ston x 20 tons per acre.
Mineral super phosphate. -- 163 lbs. a 3 cwt. per acre.
9.5 Potash .. cop end Nise “ 2 3
Nitrate of soda Fe wieeeN a? Lor gliiss a 1 fe
10. — dung i. % Lt Bh + ton ce 10 tons per acre.
Mineral superphosphate doh San lbss bs 13 ewt. per acre.
Bone dust se wee UGH UTS is 3 5,
*) Mineral superphosphate tat) Cb libs: fe 1g ¥.
12. No manure,
Samples of the experimental fields were desired to be sent to
Dr. Voelcker, 11, Salisbury-square, Fleet-street, London, E.C.
Field Experiments on Potatoes.—The following experiments
are specially recommended on light soils; each plot to be one-
twentieth of an acre :—
Plot.
1. No manure.
Mineral superphosphate... ., 22 lbs., or at the rate of a cwt. per acre.
A.Orade potash Salts | =. Ibs. 5 2 a
Sulphate of ammonia .. .. 11 lbs. % 2 33
3. Good rotten dung .. .. .. Ilton 33 20 tons per acre.
Chemical Report. 135
Plot.
Mineral superphosphate .. .. 22 lbs., or at the rate of 4 cwt. per acre.
Crude potash salts .. .. .. 22 Ibs.” J ie
5. No manure.
Mineral superphosphate... .. 22 lbs. ; 4 3
6.; Crude potash salts .. .. .. 11 Ibs. a 2 ‘
Nitrate of soda fo Ape pcre Li Na)5)- ane 2 -
7. Peruvian guano .. . .. 22 bs. 55 4 ne
Mineral superphosphate .. .. 22 lbs. 5s 4 3
“Gommon salt .. .. . «. 22 lbs, x +
9. Good rottendung .. .. .. ton 5 20 tons per acre.
10. No manure.
The artificials should be first mixed with ashes, burnt clay, or
dry earth, and then dug in, or ploughed in, quite early in spring,
when the dung is put on the land, and when the se are
planted.
Experiments on Artificial Grasses.— Each plot to be one-
twentieth of an acre :—
Plot.
IPeRMA KOU SOG. les ce gs, ea eon» 2G 18;
Remipaatevof lime 2 ys... 9.5 361 f sei! *23) ee) ao) Pear “Subs,
9. eating superphosphate, s.°) 214 0 hos — Me ciel ne ee lis:
MCMERCICMSOOHi.5)| Y2s. lsaphlvenk (Xt) Wall b coteecaiiticeu 022) lose
10 Mineral superphosphate... «. .. «. « « .. 22 bs.
silane on potash ts 555) Geillvei) asl Ger | od ings aoe, acelbs.
11. No manure.
The manures should be applied not later than the end of
February, and the first crop, as well as the aftermath, be weighed
green. The produce of each plot should be weighed directly
it is cut.
Experiments on Permanent Pastures—Each plot to be one-
tenth of an acre :—
Plot.
1. Quick-lime ES Mic 42 Sikes ayn gee les | 10 bushels
2 Quick-lime Rs) ca se esse ©» - LO) bushels
= Common SOM ewe ss. 6c; ise. robusta
libanieeewes
atlantica
douglassi 60
orientalis ae
menziesil fie Op
obovata .. oe
mertensiana .. ..
MODwISMee ee eee
cephalonica
pinsapo
bracteata
nordmanniana
balsamea Es
canadensis
fraseri |. 5
grandis .. ..
pichta ..
pindrow.. ..
religiosa ..
rubra Se 6) do
webbiana nee oo
HENS WG bo, eo
Excelsavnen mee Auras
lambertiana .. .-
monticola Fes rs
ponderosa BW Sd0
WAS BIMIS “Go | ao ac
maritima or pinaster
CATA CA EN ely yee cla
cembra .. By kis)
uncinata or mugho
nGGEY | Sor Tok | ide
pyrenaica .
austriaca te
sabiniana Soe Mec
taeda Bot ae
taxodium sempervirens
Remarks.
. Universally vigorous.
Very hardy.
- Not in general cultivation,
. Very universally hardy.
Not so generally grown.
. The hardiest of the Cupressus family.
Sometimes tarnished by winds.
. Generally stands well.
Requires care when young.
Better habit and leader than above-named
variety.
More adapted for England. than for Scotland.
Thrives well in Lreland.
Hardy.
Worthy of extended cultivation.
Ditto.
Sometimes rather deficient in Scotland.
.. Not generally grown.
Hardy.
- Hardy ix most situations. *
Sometimes suffers from spring frost.
Sometimes browned in spring.
Sometimes suffers from spring frost.
Hardy in most places.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Sometimes injured by spring frosts,
Hardy.
Ditto.
. Worthy of general cultivation, and where
rabbits abound.
Sometimes doubtful.
Peculiar as to soil and district.
Hardy.
Ditto.
Sometimes suffers from frost.
. Valuable for coast planting.
oe
Hardy.
Very hardy.
is Hardy.
Ditto.
Very hardy.
Ditto.
>, Usually hardy.
Ditto.
Browned by spring winds in some situations,
but thriving in many places.
Carlowrie, Kirkliston, N..B., December, 1268.
( 153 )
IX.— Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. By
H. EversHep.
Tue industrial condition of the country, suffering from the
panic of 1866, was unfavourable to a transition from cheap to
dear bread, which occurred contemporaneously with a reduction
in the price of most other articles of produce. The prices of
wheat per quarter, according to the imperial averages, were—
1865, 41s. 10d.; 1866, 49s. 11d.;* and in 1867, 64s. 5d. A
rise of 25 per cent., after the average crop of 1866, shows that
the stocks of old wheat were small, and that a considerable
rise in price had not been expected. It has often been asserted
that the price of wheat would always rule low in time of
peace, owing to the wide area from which we draw our supplies.
It has even been stated that a complete system of agricultural
statistics in all the corn-producing countries would prevent any
other variation in price than that due to the difference of freight.
But there is a law of variation that applies even to wheat. Its
production is subject to a variety of disturbing causes, which act
on markets and affect the price. We propose to inquire into the
causes of variation.
The great sources from which our supplies are drawn are
America, the Black Sea, and the Baltic. France only produces
a surplus in years of abundance; she has been a corn-importing
country for half a century, and occasionally outbids our merchants
on their own markets. Variation in price is, no doubt, mainly,
though not entirely, due to the great difference in the yield of
the crop ; as for example, in the case of our own deficient har-
vests of 1860, 1861, and 1867, compared with the large wheat-
crops of 1863, 1864, and 1868. The year 1865, which pro
mised so badly during the cold, ungenial spring, gave on the
whole a full average return; for, although the light thin soils
had suffered past recovery, a favourable blossoming time and a
genial summer scattered over our fields in general an unex-
pected fruitfulness,
Although the difference of seasons is beyond our reach, we
can, to some extent, control the conditions of agricultural pro-
duction and moderate the evils of scarcity, Extremes are par-
tially avoided under an improved system of farming. It can
easily be shown that the variation of yield is least in such
countries as England, the north of France, and the best-peopled
parts of the Continent, where an alternate system of husbandry
* The price of the year does not indicate the actual changes in the market
Eeoreter:; in 1866 a rise of 10s. or 12s. a quarter took place in the last six
months.
154 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
is pursued, and grain-crops are separated by green-crops in the
rotation; and on the contrary, it 1s greatest in new or thinly-
populated countries, where the system of cropping is bare
fallow, followed by as many grain-crops in succession as can
be extracted, until the cleansing and restoring fallow is again
indispensable.
In such cases, farming is carried on, without resources, on a
hand -to-mouth system. When there is no demand for stock,
the “ameliorating crops” cannot be grown, and the repetition of
grain-crops, without return to the soil, destroys its productive
power. Ina new settlement, production is expansive so long as
fresh tracts continue to be reclaimed, but the land is wasted by
constant cropping ; the settler lives on the spoils of the soil; he
marches onward, subduing the wilderness and exacting tribute,
but his course “is marked by the devastation of the land. And
this is a source of wealth which, however great, is continually
decreasing. It is well known how much the yield depends on
season. Mr. Morton’s paper in this Journal, on Agricultural
Maxima’*, affords interesting proofs of the immense influence of
the season; and Mr. flares experiments show that even on
land purposely exhausted, the yield, in very favourable years,
takes a jump and becomes condone: the extraordinary vigour
imparted to the plant apparently overcomes the adverse eendi-
tions of cultivation. In such seasons, even over-cropped and
slightly-cultivated land becomes productive, as it did in 1863
and 1864, when the great harvests in England, France, and the
Continent generally, caused what must be considered a state of
** over-production ” and extreme cheapness.
These extremes will always be excessive while the system of
farming in other countries is scourging, and that of our own falls
short of the high standard which is still exceptional among us.
In the south of France the extremes of yield, and the evils
arising therefrom, are far greater than in England.
The most reliable information as to the agricultural condition
of the great corn-producing countries is found in the reports
of British Consuls. We have taken considerable pains to exa-
mine these, scattered as they are throughout the pages of a great
number of Parliamentary Blue-Books. They show the effect of
“crop and fallow” farming in speedily taming the exuberance
of the most fertile soil, and prove that the supposed fertility of
new countries is practically a romance, however great their
capability may be; the actual average yield of corn being little
more than half that of our own worn-out fields! Wherever the
population is scanty and agricultural, the yield of corn must
* Vol. xx. p. 442. First Series.
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 155
be small; as it is in the old corn-exporting countries, where
the triennial system of cropping prevails. A classic writer, in
pointing out the defects of this ancient rotation, described our
own experience, as well as that of Roman agriculturists, when he
said, ‘Your land would be equally well restored by changing
the crops, and then there would be no rent to pay for land “that
yields nothing.” Yet the triennial system [1. Fallow ; 2. Wheat ;
3. Spring corn, or wheat] was long considered the Bet and only
good one; in proof of which were cited its aniiquity and univer-
sality, its cheapness, ease, and simplicity, the little capital it
required, and its close connexion with established laws and
customs, which would have been annihilated by any change of
practice. In the reign of Charlemagne, the triennial rotation
was dictated to the officers and stewards of the immense estates
farmed for the king. Thaer, who witnessed the dawn of a new
era in agriculture, writes in the ‘ Principles of Agriculture :’—
“Tt became prevalent throughout Christendom (in the time of Charle-
magne). No change was made in the dark and troublous times which
followed, when agriculture was essentially carried on by a class of peasantry,
men buried in the depths of slavery and ignorance, or under the inspection of
the lowest grade of freemen. Those institutions and practices which custom
had sanctioned, swayed the arts and sciences tor a cousiderable lapse of time
with irresistible power; and any one who ventured to express the slightest
doubt of their conformity with the Jaws of reason, was regarded as little short
of a heretic. It is only of late years that anything like discussion on the
virtues and defects of this system has arisen ; aud it was only on some portion
of the land in the Netherlands, Holstein, and in some counties in England
where any other system of cultivation has "been adopted.”
Thaer was called in Germany “the father of the alternate
system of cropping,” by which clover and roots are introduced
into the rotation, and the land is “restored by changing the
crops” and by manure. But he failed to introduce his improve-
ments where circumstances were not yet ripe for their adoption.
A large population and good markets for all her products are the
sine qua non of improved agriculture, and the improved system
which was adopted in certain populous countries and districts
is still confined to them. A stock farmer, as a grower of roots
and green crops and an importer of feeding stuffs, is able to
increase the productive power of the land, and in so doing to
diminish the cost of production; and he occupies a strong posi-
tion as a corn-grower, from which the competition of mere
*‘ rain-and fallow” farmers cannot drive him.
Thaer, who was a close observer and a zealous farmer, says,
in describing Continental farming, that the fallow, in the trien-
nial and biennial courses, ought always to be idee but this
can only be done where there is'a great deal of meadow-land, or
Sires
156 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
where stall-feeding and the cultivation of plants for fodder gives
a supply of manure :—
“Tn general only every second, and sometimes every third, fallow is
manured, and thus the fields are only ameliorated once in every six or nine
years. ‘The small produce, under such circumstances, is well known to every
person.”
He considers fallows to be necessary, notwithstanding their
expense; and that it is impossible to dispense with them in
rotations where roots or forage-plants have no place, except
with the assistance of some extraordinary means of tillage.
Where the attempt has been made, even on land near towns and
well manured, the ground has been filled with weeds and the crop
has become very scanty. The ‘industrious Belgians” tried to
dispense with fallows by sowing grain alternately in narrow
strips, and bestowing the most careful tillage on the intervals,
which were sown the following year. A similar attempt has
been made in England in recent years; but the cultivation of
alternate strips of grain and fallow is worthless as a system
of farming, though interesting as an experiment.
Tue CoRN-GROWING COUNTRIES OF EUROPE.
The countries bordering on the Baltic and Northern Ocean
form a great plain, seldom much above the level of the sea,
narrowing as it approaches its western limits on the French
frontier, and gradually widening towards the east until it meets
the great plain which stretches over the whole of Russia from
the Baltic to the Black Sea. Between the Rhine and the Elbe,
the average width of what is, in fact, a continuation of the great
eastern plain of Europe is about 160 miles. Eastward of the
Elbe the average width is 300 miles. It includes the whole of
Hanover, and great part of Westphalia and Saxony. With the
exception of the alluvial deposits and reclaimed marshes of
Holland, the deltas of the rivers, and the wide river-bottoms,
this extensive district is generally poor and unproductive, only a
comparatively small portion of it contributing to the exports of
grain from the coast. The mountain-ranges of Germany and
the Carpathians form the southern boundaries of this region,
and separate it from the fertile countries drained by the Danube
and its tributaries. ‘The rivers are at once the source of fertility
and the means of conveyance, and at their mouths are the corn-
ports, which we may consult as the great pulse of an agricultural
country. The Vistula and the Elbe are the chief grain-carriers
of North Europe, whilst Dantzig and Hamburg are the chief
corn emporiums. Rostock and Stettin are smaller grain-ports
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 157
on the Baltic, connected with the same wide district by railway or
water communication. Koenigsberg, insignificant twenty years
ago, has now become a large grain-port; it is the outlet for
East Prussia and the adjoining Russian Provinces. Under the
stimulus of an extraordinary demand for corn in manufacturing
countries, arising from the rapid increase in wealth and popu-
lation during the past twenty years, the agricultural capabilities
of these countries have been severely tested, and the exportations
of corn from them have greatly exceeded the calculations of Mr.
Jacob, and the more recent estimates of Mr. Meek, who visited
the corn countries of the Baltic in 1841. All subsequent esti-
mates of prices and supplies have been based on the elaborate
Reports of these two gentlemen, who, as agents of our Goyern-
ment, had every facility for acquiring information, They both
greatly underrated the agricultural capabilities of the countries
they visited.
During the fifteen years following the abolition of the Sliding
Scale in England, the exportation from Dantzig to this country,
of wheat alone, averaged 465,000 quarters a year; and the usual
exports to Holland and Belgium are 80,000 quarters. The
exports of rye to Sweden, Norway, and elsewhere, were about
250,000 quarters in 1865, which does not greatly exceed the
average. From Keenigsberg, the next largest grain-port of
Northern Europe, the average exports of all sorts of grain for
the six years ending 1865 were nearly 900,000 quarters a year.
This enormous increase in the production of corn shows the
produce of agricultural industry. Will it continue? and will it
keep pace with the vast strides in commercial industry? All
the rich and thickly-populated countries import corn. Germany
exports at present, as England did, until towards the end of the
last century ; and the tide may turn from the same cause. We
have elsewhere shown the rapid development of manufacturing
and mining in Germany.
Mr. McCulloch’s estimate of the future price of corn was
singularly correct, The data on which he formed his opinion of
future prices were, and still are, comparatively trustworthy, and
they will probably remain so while new land is available and
production can easily keep pace with consumption.
Some of our Consuls, who have the best means of judging,
have stated that the improving agriculture of the old exporting
countries will not lead to larger exports of wheat; because, the
population being at present fed on rye and inferior grain, will
absorb the extra growth of wheat. It is impossible to calculate
the future balance of consumption and supply in these countries,
where increased production follows, but cannot precede, an in-
158 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
crease in wealth and population. In the purely agricultural
countries of Europe, we find that the proportion of rye and other
inferior grain-crops in cultivation is from three to five times as
much as that of wheat. Wheat is grown for exportation until
the land is reduced to the rye-stage, and from this low mark in
the scale of corn-growing it cannot be raised until the con-
sumption of animal food introduces ameliorating crops into the
rotation, And this requires a home-population, which returns
to the soil what it has received from it and maintains its fertility.
More wheat and more animal food are consumed, and much
grain is used as food for cattle in the winter months,
Quoting the case of an essentially agricultural country, where
other industries are quite subordinate, and the only manufacture
is that of abstracting sugar from beet, we find that in Poland
there are five times as much rye and four times as much oats as
wheat; whilst there is a smaller breadth of green-crops than of
wheat, and five times as much bare fallow. The official returns
of the growth of grain in 1860 were 11,400,000 quarters ; the
inhabitants living chiefly on rye-bread. Wheat is grown only
on the best of the fallow which can be manured, and its average
production is only 1,470,000 quarters,—slender rations, as far as
wheat goes, for a population of 4,840,466. The export depends
on the temptation to sell. A sudden rise on our markets has
a singular effect in wringing wheat out of poor countries. A
Report of the Agricultural Society of Poland points out, with
great truth, that a succession of crops is not of itself sufficient
to restore fertility; the mere subdivision of the cultivated soil,
when it is exhausted, is insufficient. The want of capital pre-
cludes the use of artificial manures, or the adoption of draining
and similar improvements. The length and severity of the
winter, and the coldness and frequent dryness of the spring, are
also great drawbacks. In 1861, the price of wheat was 42s. per
quarter ; whereas the average for the previous thirty years had
been 18s. per quarter. Prices generally, both of grain and of
stock, have doubled of late years,
The Government statistics state the yield of grain at a little over
1 quarter per acre ; the Consul, however, prefers the figure 14 as
representing the average yield of wheat in bushels. It is singular
that this unknown quantity—the yield of wheat per acre—should
be expressed by the same symbols in so many countries. In
America, the south of France, the Russian provinces, in the
countries of the Black Sea and the Baltic, the same figures are
used. In England, the figures 26 or 28 represent our unknown
quantity, and perhaps express our belief that we farm twice as
well as anybody else!
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 159
Colonel Stanton’s Report on Poland * gives a graphic picture
of the retrograde and barbarous condition of agriculture in that
unhappy land; but whether we look on this picture, or on that
of some new and prosperous colony, we see that improved agri-
culture requires an outlay of capital which can only be incurred
in a wealthy and populous country.
FrencH AGRICULTURE.
We shall commence a brief sketch of the corn countries by a
short account of the agricultural condition of France, the nearest
and greatest of our neighbours. ‘The French press constantly
refers to the rise in the price of wages and the scarcity of agri-
cultural labourers, arising from “emigration from the fields,”
and the continual drafting of the youngest and best workmen
into the towns, where they find better-paid employment. An
increased labour-bill is a heavy burden to the French farmer,
and nearly the whole of its weight falls on wheat, which is
his staple production. ‘‘ The growth of wheat,” says a French
agricultural writer, “is the sole aim and object of almost all
French farmers.” The breadth sown is three times as much as
that of roots and green crops; while in the United Kingdom it
is only in the proportion of two to three. The burdens of rent
and taxation have also increased ; and in the case of the numerous
small proprietors, it is to be feared that the equivalent for rent
—the interest on capital sunk in the purchase of land—has in-
creased in still greater proportion. The competition for small
plots of land in rural districts, owing to the intense desire for
ownership among the peasantry, has artificially raised its price.
They are ignorant of any art but that of farming, and of any
mode of investing their savings except by the purchase of land,
after the fashion of their forefathers. The transfer of these
minute properties is costly, and the peasant-proprietor is often
overburdened and short of capital before he reaps his first acre
of wheat. If the price be low, he becomes extremely pinched,
as was the case in recent years. His attachment to routine, his
want of intelligence and observation, and, above all, of capital,
are much to be lamented. But the ruin of a small farmer is a
slow process in any country, especially in France. Losing his
capital is only a short step towards it; his credit remains ; he
takes to rye-bread, and sells all his wheat instead of only a
portion of it. He and his must work harder and live harder; the
beloved plot of land suffers latest of all; but by-and-bye, where
little was spent nothing can be afforded, and the end seems
* See Appendix,
160 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
approaching. ‘Then comes a new crop, and a turn in prices.
Ruin seldom quite overtakes a small farmer.
The Métayer system and the “petite culture” are bad insti-
tutions for corn-growing. Small farming succeeds where the
variety of the crops and the care of the dairy, the garden, and
the orchard afford constant occupation to the farmer and his
family, as in Jersey, some parts of Switzerland, and Italy ; but
corn-growing for exportation should be a wholesale business,
conducted on a large scale, and with the necessary machinery.
The ‘ Journal @ Agri iculture Pratique ’ constantly points out that
“ wheat is grown at a costly rate in France by the Métayer and
small proprietor-farmers, because they have neither the system
of cultivation, nor the proper implements for obtaining the
greatest return at the least cost.” It is only in years of abund-
ance that there is a surplus for exportation.
While wages have risen and rents have increased as ten to
one since 1750 (they were then 3s. 6d. an acre under large, and
9d. to 1s. an acre under small, farming), the price of wheat
remains the same as in the latter part of the century. Quesnay
estimated the average yield of corn in France, in 1750, at 17
bushels an acre under large farming, and 84 bushels an acre
under small farming (after deducting seed). The present esti-
mated average return for wheat only is 14 bushels an acre (after
deducting seed): a quantity not greatly exceeding one half of
the estimated average yield of wheat in England. The breadth
of land in wheat had increased under the sliding-scale, but has
retrograded under free trade ; the slight apparent increase being
due to the annexation of territory. During the recent years of
low prices, it is said that the growth of wheat on soils yielding
less than 13 bushels an acre was abandoned. Land naturally
poor, or exhausted by scourging, may yield a slight profit in rye,
but none in wheat.
In the last year of the Continental War (1815), the statistical
return of the yield of wheat showed the low average of 9 bushels
per acre, partly owing to the bad season, and partly to the
decimation of labourers during the war. The breadth sown
was 11,500,000 acres. In 1838 the breadth was 16,500,000 acres,
and in 1866 it was 17,250,000 acres. For the forty-three years
succeeding the war the average yield of wheat for each de-
cennial period varied from 124 to 15 bushels an acre; for the
five years ending 1865, and including the great harvests, the
average Crop varied from 12,5, to 183 bushels an acre. These
last figures are due to the ‘crop of 1863, when the yield of
wheat was the largest ever known in France, that of 1838 (a
year of extraordinary abundance) having peed slightly inferior.
These figures show the extreme variability of the crop, but
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 161
afford no evidence that the average yield is increasing at the
present time,
The true test of agricultural progress is the increase of
production arising from improved cultivation. In this respect
the progress in a hundred years under petite culture has been
slow, and the cost of growing wheat has been reduced very little,
—and not at all, if the Journal already quoted be correct in
maintaining that when the price of wheat falls below 49s. a
quarter the French farmer ceases to prosper. Where little
besides wheat is grown, the dependence on a single article of
production causes an adverse price to be severely felt, and
fluctuations in price are at once more frequent and harder to
bear. The minimum cost of production in France is not likely
to be at present reduced.
In average years there is already an excess of imports over
exports ; and although the northern districts, favoured by climate
and a large population, will, no doubt, become more productive,
it seems probable that France will long continue to be a corn-
importing country. The excess of imports over exports of wheat
averaged 180,000 quarters a year from 1820 to 1860; from
1861 to 1865 inclusive, the excess of imports over exports was
912,000 quarters‘a year; in 1861, when the harvest was defi-
cient, the excess of the imports of wheat over the exports was
4,700,000 quarters; in the following year it was 1,700,000
quarters; and it has only been during the recent wheat-flood.
that France has figured largely in the opposite direction—to the
extent, in one year, of 2,000,000 quarters. The increased im-
portation of wheat has been partly owing to the alteration of
the corn-laws on June 15th, 1861, when the sliding-scale was
abandoned in favour of a fixed nominal duty on corn imported.
Wheat for grinding and re-exportation, as flour, is admitted free.
Quoting from a circular by M. Béhec, late Minister of Agri-
culture :—
“The process is to import wheat at the southern ports free of duty, and
available for consumption in that part of France, and to export from the
northern and western sea-board an equivalent in flour made from French
wheat. This system has the double advantage of bringing wheat into the
southern departments, where the growth of cereals is insufficient for consump-
tion, and of opening a market for the northern and western departments,
which generally produce more than they require.”
In 1750 the population was sixteen to eighteen millions; it is
now thirty-seven millions. With a greatly-increased breadth of
corn since 1750, the production of wheat has tripled; that of
oats has quadrupled; while that of barley and rye remains the
same. Twenty-four million quarters of wheat, barley, and rye
(after deducting seed), and 4,000,000 quarters of oats, were
VOL. V.—S. S. M
162 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
grown in 1750, according to Quesnay, on 21,000,000 acres
of land, (102 bushels per acre). The present breadth of cereals
is about 39, 000, 000 acres. Cattle have doubled in the same
period ; the number of non-agricultural horses has largely in-
creased, ‘The improved condition of the labouring classes and
of the people generally has greatly affected the consumption of
wheat. ‘They have entered that stage in social economy when
wheaten flour begins to be substituted for that of rye and
other inferior grain, The miserable condition of the peasantry
in France, in the middle of the last century, was without a
parallel in the history of Europe. It is related that in one year
of unusual scarcity the Duke of Orleans laid on the council-table
a piece of black bread, made partly of fern-leaves, as a specimen
of the diet of the country people.
The price at which corn can be grown cannot be learned
from statistics. It is more to the purpose to inquire the actual
condition of agriculture under fluctuations of price. The average
prices in 1863, 1864, and 1865, were 46s., 41s., and 38s. 6d. per
quarter. There is no doubt that the low prices of this period
caused much agricultural distress. The press constantly dis-
cussed ‘the sufferings of agriculture,’ and the Central Agri-
cultural Society held a succession of meetings to consider the
general subject of agricultural distress and the expediency of a
duty of 2s, 6d. a quarter, and a reduction of farmer’s taxes to
the amount of the revenue thus raised.
The fact of agricultural distress was recognised in circulars
issued by the Minister of Agriculture; it was referred to in the
Emperor’s speech on opening the Chambers; it formed the
subject of an important debate, and a Commission of “‘ inquiry
into the condition of agriculture” was then appointed. An
“Inquiry,” furnished with elaborate means of obtaining evidence
and assisted by the numerous Agricultural Societies of France,
could not fail to obtain a vast amount of information on agricul-
tural affairs. There is no doubt that wheat cannot be profitably
grown in France at 40s. a quarter; and however much our own
agriculture may be depressed by a period of low prices, it cannot
be endangered by the competition of our nearest neighbour.
The broad distinction between English and French agricul-
ture is the relative proportion of the various crops and of bare
fallow, and especially the breadth of cereals grown for human
consumption, In France this breadth is one-fourth of the culti-
vated land ; in the United Kingdom one-seventh. France, with
rather more than double the area of cultivated land, has five
times as much Jand in wheat as the United Kingdom; thirteen
times as much bare fallow ; of roots and green crops, France
has 6,200,000 acres against 4,900,000 acres; of clover and
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 163
artificial grasses, 7,000,000 of acres against 5,700,000 acres;
and of pasture and meadow land, 16,360,000 acres against
22,200,000 acres. France has 5,400,000 acres under vineyards,
The various schemes for raising capital, by means of credit, to
supply the “great want” of agriculture will probably prove
abortive, until a population, larger and better fed, admits of a
more expansive system of farming.
PROVINCES OF SOUTHERN Russia.
These provinces are peopled generally, though scantily, by
an agricultural and industrious race. Labour is lower than in
America and land equally cheap, and, in favourable seasons,
equally productive. These are the oldest corn countries in
Europe. Herodotus describes South Russia as “a plain country
of a deep soil ;’ the inhabitants were “husbandmen, who sow
wheat not for food, but sale.” The first kings were the sons of
Jupiter and a daughter of the river Borysthenes (the Dnieper),
It was in their reign that the sacred gift of the golden imple-
ments of husbandry fell down from heaven, The historian
qualifies a rather fabulous narrative with the remark, “if any
man think these things credible, he is at liberty ; for me, I am
obliged to write what I have heard.’ But though the plough
was not so directly the gift of heaven as the ancient inhabitants
believed, the art of husbandry was practised by them a thousand .
years before the invasion of the country by Darius, and their
corn was carried to the markets of three continents, as it is
still, feeding the diverse races that dwell on the shores of the
Mediterranean and finding its way to our own coasts.
In glancing through the Reports, a great and almost fatal
drawback to agricultural development forces itself on the atten-
tion. The climate is one of extremes, and the harvests are
consequently exceedingly various. We read, “the main diffi-
culty which agriculture will have to contend with wil] be the
droughts to which this country is subject.” The disturbed
state of agriculture during the “transition from serfdom to
free labour,” the ‘‘ scanty population,” the occasional destruc-
tion of the crops by locusts and rats, the insufficiency of the
means of communication; the want of roads and the difficult
navigation of the rivers; the difficulty of access to the ports,
the dangerous navigation and the expense of lightering owing
to the bars of sand, the filling up of the harbours by the
drift brought down by the rivers,—all these are hindrances
which may be overcome by time, capital, and labour; but the
disadvantages of the climate will be felt more severely in pro-
portion as agriculture progresses and wages and other expenses
M 2
164 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
increase, Under serfdom, the immense territories of the pro-
prietors were farmed at the least possible cost; the main
object was to raise food for the inhabitants. In favourable
years a store was accumulated ; buried, perhaps, in heaps, and
covered up with earth, to be dug out when the years of plenty
came to an end. Occasionally, the wants of other countries
made themselves known, even in the most distant provinces.
The cultivators were tempted to break into their heaps. The
mass of sprouted corn which thatched and protected them was
stripped off, and the grain sold to the merchants, who, like
the sons of Jacob, had ‘‘come down to buy corn,” because of
the ‘‘ dearth in all lands.” The corn was then loadéd on pack-
horses or into carts, and sent off in little driblets to the coast.
The Greeks, who monopolised this traffic, generally secured a
profit of 10s, to 15s, a quarter. It was a golden age for corn-
merchants !
As to the husbandman, he sold at these times what had cost
him little and might otherwise have been wasted. The “cost
of production,” as we understand the term, has no place in
these primitive transactions. Now, however, the word labour is
beginning to have a real meaning among the Russian land-
owners; and when capital, labour, and rent assume their place
in the rural economy of Russia, the effect of an occasional failure
of crops will be more fully realised, and the price for which
corn can be grown for delivery at Marseilles and in London
will then be ascertained. On the whole, it is unlikely that the
farmers of South Russia will ultimately be able to compete with
those of France or America, much less with those of the United
Kingdom.
The exports of wheat from Taganrog for the eight years from
1860 to 1867 inclusive, averaged about one million quarters a
year. The prices of hard wheat in 1864 varied from 34s. 3d.
to 37s. 6d., and therefore could only have been sold in England
at a loss of about 10s. a quarter.
The great corn-emporiums of the Black Sea and the Sea of
Azoff are Odessa and Taganrog. The former is supplied from
Bessarabia and Kherson and the immense tracts drained by the
Dnieper and Dniester.
Taganrog commands the fertile territory of which the Don is
the outlet. This is the land of the Don Cossacks, a people not
remarkable for settled pursuits and agricultural industry ; but
there is no reason to believe that a Don Cossack can resist the
laws of “ development,” and time may change him into a patient
husbandman and follower of the plough! At present each of
these great ports sends to the West an average of about one
million of quarters of wheat a year.
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 165
In 1847, when the prospect of a late deficient harvest sent
up the price of wheat in England from 50s, to over 100s., the
exports from Odessa were doubled. In 1867—one of the worst
harvests ever known in England and France—there wes a similar
demand for corn, and the Poulter ports of Russia sent to Eng-
land the unprecedented quantity of 2,900,000 quarters of wheat,
including the sweepings of the most distant provinces. The
average exports, however, increase but little, and the corn-trade
of the Black Sea proves inelastic: Those whe accept too literally
such phrases as ‘‘ boundless tracts” and “inexhaustible fertility,”
may learn from the Reports that the supposed advantages to the
corn-grower are often counterpoised by some actual drawback.
We are told that steam-power ought to be introduced on the
large estates, and that these fertile provinces would outstrip the
world, if they had water-communication and practicable roads.
The completion of the railway to Kishineff would enable South
Russia to supply England with corn at prices which would defy
competition. But then we find that fuel is costly, repairs are
difficult, and engines liable to blow up under native manage-
ment: and on completion of this railway we find that the main
line must be followed by branch lines, opening up the grain
districts generally ; after which, and with proper teade—ot
which there are none at present—it is believed that grain will
be shipped at less than one-fourth of its present cost, We Odessa
become one of the chief granaries of the world. But the dis-
closure of the droughts to which the country is subject, “and
which will always be an evil,” moderates our expectations.
Roads and railroads can hardly be built to collect the surplus
produce of an immense tract of country, thinly inhabited by a
rude population, River and canal navigation is always cheaper
than railways, and America is not within the limits of occa-
sional droughts. The reader will remark the low average yield
of South Russia, and the rapid exhaustion of “virgin soil.”
The Consuls’ quotations of the price and a statement of the
exportations of wheat are given in the Appendix.
CoUNTRIES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN.
Irrigation, §c.—North of the rainless region of Africa, and
including the coasts of the Mediterranean, is a district where
rain seldom falls in the summer, the currents of heated air which
ascend from the Sahara preventing the formation of rain in the
upper strata of the atmosphere. This district includes the coast
of Africa, the southern parts of Spain, Portugal, and lialy, the
island of Sicily, and the whole of Greece. The general average
yearly fall of rain is perhaps 30 inches, equal to that of the
166 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
British islands (not including our mountain ranges); but the
average proportion falling in the summer quarter of the year is
only 4 per cent., instead of nearly a fourth as with us. A waying
line drawn across the map of Europe through the countries men-
tioned, and including the north coasts of the Black Sea, would
define the limits of those “occasional droughts,” which have
been referred to as such great drawbacks to the agriculture of
France and South Russia. The annual rainfall on the coasts of
Spain is 25 inches, and in some spots 35 inches; while on the
table-lands of the interior, surrounded by mountains which
precipitate the rain-clouds, the annual rainfall is only 10 inches.
The annual rainfall of central and eastern Europe, Moravia,
Poland, and Russia is 15 inches. In the west it rains twice as
many days as in the east of Europe. Ireland and the Nether-
lands are the culminating points of precipitation for the rain-
clouds of the Atlantic, drifted hither by the prevailing westerly
winds. The rainfall decreases eastward and southward. The
effects of this abundant moisture are seen in the “ emerald”
green even of the topmost hills in Kerry, and in the rich pasturage
of Holland.
The moisture of our climate is indispensable to natural
pastures and to turnips. South of Paris, turf and turnips do not
thrive. Spain is only famous for sheep and cattle through the
extent of its unploughed land; they pick up a living by ranging
widely and migrating according to the season. England is
the land of turnips, and of the farming that follows them ;
and the Mediterranean is the land of dates and grapes, figs
and olives. Corn and cattle farming do not find a home under
the clear skies of the south; consequently, the countries of the
Mediterranean import corn, and, in proportion to their wealth,
will continue to arrest the supplies sent westward from the Black
Sea or from the rising corn-port of Trieste.
lrrigation is the first step of agricultural improvement in
these dry countries. The benefit of carrying off the surplus
water from heavy land is as nothing compared with that of
leading on water, on dry soils, in a hot climate, because they are
absolutely sterile without it. Egypt, without the Nile, would
immediately become a desert of sand. When the river rises only
a few inches less than usual, the lean kine appear at once. The
abandoned works of irrigation are among the traces of departed
greatness, so frequent in the countries of the Mediterranean. In
Syria, where the scanty population of Turks and Arabs is often
visited by famine, “the country, reticulated with canals” for
irrigation, shows by what means a teeming population was once
supported. Arabia Deserta is a dreary waste of sand, because
there are no rivers to fertilise the soil. It was by irrigation that
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 167
the Romans, at the period of their agricultural celebrity, grew
the artificial grasses which they had introduced from their
forerunners in civilisation, the conquered empires of the East.
Lucern was cultivated under irrigation in Media, where it is
indigenous. It is so cultivated in Spain, and in Italy, where the
peasant-proprietors of Tuscany and Lucca co-operate for the
irrigation of their little domains. The Greeks were manufac-
turers of linen, woollen, and silk fabrics in the days of Homer ;
and they grew the raw products of their industry on irrigated
lands, where the crops now too often fail under the visitation of
scorching winds and drought.
There is a strip of land of from 80 to 100 miles in breadth,
extending 1500 miles along the coast between the Mediterranean
and the great desert of Africa. Part of this dry tract was
inhabited by the Moors, whose works of irrigation are still
decaying in Spain. Algeria was once famous for corn; it is
at this moment the scene of fearful famine, through a failure of
the crops from drought. Irrigation made these countries pro-
ductive, and without it the coast of Africa could not be the seat
of a modern Carthage, the centre of empire and commerce, which
could be fairly described, like its predecessor, as being founded
in a fertile country. Agricultural engineering is, however, more
costly at the present day than in ancient times, when building a
pyramid or cutting a canal across a desert amused the leisure of
some Eastern King and used up the captives of his latest war.
While on the subject of water, we may state that the Mediter-
ranean receives 14 per cent. of the running water of Europe; the
Caspian ‘Sea, 16; the Baltic, 13; the German Ocean, 13; and
the Black Sea, 27, or nearly one-third. The Danube discharges
12 per cent. of the water; the Volga, 14; the Dnieper, 06; the
Rhine, -03. These figures may be taken to show with tolerable
accuracy the proportionate extent of river-basin and of fertile land
on the banks of the different rivers. The Elbe, the Vistula, and
the Guadalquivir are smaller even than the Rhine, which does
not compare with the two great rivers of the Black and Caspian
Seas.
SPAIN,
Or rather such small patches of it as could have been under
cultivation, was carefully farmed both as a Roman province and
by its subsequent conquerors, the Moors, whose works of irriga-
tion, indispensable in a country where the rainfall is small and
the soil light, may be still traced. Numberless rivers and streams
drain the valleys where the more fertile land is situated. But in
this dry and hot climate the grass-lands, excepting those under
168 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
irrigation or near the clouds, only afford winter pasturage, and
the large migratory flocks of sheep, after wintering in the plains
of Estremadura, Andalusia, Leon, and the Castiles, are driven,
about the end of April, up the mountain-sides of the Castiles oz
further north to those of Biscay, Navarre, and Aragon, where, in a
cooler and more humid climate, they find green herbage through
the summer. The dairies of Andalusia have disappeared, and.
even Madrid is supplied with goats’ milk.
Wines and fruits, silk, and olives, are the rich products of the
soil and climate of Spain; her agriculture is exotic. Scotch
turnips and mangold wurzel are not suited to Andalusian skies,
West Indian plants, the sugar-cane, coffee, and the banana all
grow freely on the southern coasts. The pine-apple has been
grown in the open air, The date ripens at Malaga. The agri-
culture of Spain might become superior even to that of France
in the value and variety of its productions, Her mineral wealth
is also very great, and when the resources of the country are
developed under a better government, the importation of wheat
will be very large, and Spain may boast a second Marseilles,
into which will be poured the produce of Hungary, Wallachia,
and the future corn countries of the Mediterranean. Some parts
of Castile and the northern provinces generally would grow
corn in abundance if there were roads for conveyance, and if
the inhabitants were as industrious and energetic and as attached
to rural pursuits as the northern races of Europe, and _theiz
descendants, instead of being as non-agricultural in their tastes
and habits as their Latin ancestors.
Spain is wanting in the means of traffic ; the irregular surface
does not admit of water communication, and the roads are about
equal to ours 100 years ago. Wheat often sells at a low price in
a rural district on the spot where it is grown, and at almost a
famine price elsewhere. Under the present corn-law it is at
a maximum price at the sea-ports, and a minimum in the inland
provinces. In 1866 it sold for 24s. a quarter in the province of
Segovia (Old Castile), and at 80s. per quarter at the sea-port
of Pavia (Asturias). In the inland provinces of Burgos, Segovia,
Soria, and Saragossa, the average price was below 30s. per
quarter, whilst in those of Alicant, Barcelona, Cadiz, Malaga,
and Pontevedra, all bordering on the sea, the price exceeded 50s.
per quarter. The maximum price of barley on the coast was
42s,, and the minimum price inland was 11s. 9d. per quarter,
The population of Spain is 15,600,000 ; of Portugal, 6,000,000.
There is land in Portugal of marvellous fertility, which is said
to be capable of growing 55 bushels of wheat per acre, but
capital is not attracted to agricultural pursuits. The land is
principally possessed by the nobles and by religious corporations,
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 169
who, in the exercise of oppressive feudal privileges, have reduced
the peasantry to a condition little better than that of absolute
slavery,
ITALY.
The southern provinces are fertile, and yield silk, oil, madder,
liquorice, cotton, &c., besides wine and grain of all kinds,
Maize is eaten by the population generally. The principal corn-
producing countries are those bordering on the Adriatic, commonly
called the Puglia, and these compete with the Russian pro-
vinces for the supply of other parts of Italy. Corn is transported
across the Apennines to the towns on the opposite coast on the
backs of mules. The hard wheat used in the manufacture of
maccaroni at Naples comes from the Puglia. Extensive dis~
tricts, supposed to be well adapted to the cultivation of cotton,
are lying unreclaimed, especially in the province of Basilicata.
The capital for agricultural enterprise and for roads and rail-
ways is not yet forthcoming. Corn is sometimes exported to
Marseilles and England, but not in large quantities. Imports
from the Black sea are the rule.
The plains of Piedmont and Lombardy, sloping from the
Alps to the Adriatic, and watered by the Po and its afiluents,
though famous for agriculture, are not self-supporting as regards
corn, and there are usually extensive importations of wheat and
maize at Venice, from the Black Sea and the Danube.
Corn is also imported for the supply of the towns on the oppo-
site sea-board.
TURKEY IN ASIA.
Among the existing remains of ancient empires that once
flourished in Turkey are the canals for irrigation. The only
conditions for raising every description of grain are the supply
of water and the means of irrigation. At present, cultivation,
like the fixed population, is restricted to the neighbourhood
of towns and villages, situated on the great trunk roads, and
to canal-irrigated districts, which are very limited in extent.
The intermediate country is occupied by the great nomad
tribes, who never engage in agriculture, and by the _half-
settled Arab communities who shift their place of abode con-
tinually within certain limits, and only raise sufficient grain for
their own consumption, But sun and sand, and the need of
water, are not everywhere excessive; the finest pastoral countries
in the world are those rich alluvial plains in the eastern por-
tions of Turkey, watered by the Euphrates and the Tigris and
the numerous rivers of Mesopotamia. The climate is genial,
170 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
and in past times was famed for its salubrity. At the present
time fever, diarrhoea, and dysentery are more or less prevalent
according to the proximity of the extensive marshes which form
the peculiar features of the extensive tract of country through
which the Euphrates winds by more than one channel. In dry
seasons the great river is swallowed up by these marshes. The
obstacles to industry are the wretched social condition of the
inhabitants and the general insecurity arising from the weakness
of the administration, the power of the Arab chiefs, and their
constant dissensions. ‘The predatory tribes of Arabs, in the dis-
tricts most frequented by them, wander about the great plains
and make them dangerous and inaccessible to honest settlers.
Four-fifths of the land is the property of the crown, and is let in
large parcels and sublet on a vicious principle, without security
of tenure. Works of irrigation are consequently everywhere pre-
cluded. The fellahs, or peasant proprietors, and farmers, are
universally in debt.
The crown lands are devoted to cereal produce; the private
lands and life grants consist for the most part of date-plantations,
orchards, and kitchen-gardens. The implements of farming are
the plough, the spade, and the hoe. Corn is trodden out by oxen,
and water for irrigation is raised from the river by skins drawn
over a roller by oxen, or horses, working up and down a ramp.
The price of wheat varies according to locality and distance
from the towns. The average for the last five years at Bagdad
was 29s, a quarter, In 1863 it was 40s.
North of the province of Bagdad are Diarbekr, Kurdistan,
and the northern provinces. These are rich in natural resources ;
the rich valleys and well-watered plateaux are sheltered by the
mountains of Armenia, and watered by the Tigris and numerous
other rivers. The rivers never fail, and they abound in fish.
The climate is equable and agreeable, free from extremes of heat
and cold, and healthy to Europeans. The plains and uplands
are rich in pasturage throughout the year, and consequently
they are superior beyond comparison to the arid sheep runs of
Australia. The arable land is equally fertile in corn and native
fruits. Luscious sultana grapes, equal to those of Smyrna, peaches,
and plums, the largest and finest flavoured in the world, grow in
profusion in the northern districts. Nuts, walnuts, almonds,
pistachio nuts, and button nuts thrive everywhere in the upper
provinces. This would be a land of fruits, preserves, and sweet-
meats, as well as of corn and wool and cotton, if the inhabitants
possessed skill and industry. But the cultivation is the laziest
that can be conceived. The cotton might rival that of any other
country in price and quality if careful cultivation and Arab
tribes could co-exist in the same land. These erratic traders
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 171
monopolize the wool trade; in other words, they bring it to
market when they are inclined and are not in a state of quarrel
with the government. In spite of the popular belief in their
integrity, the Bedouins are the most dishonest people to deal
with in the world.
The western portion of Asia Minor is also shorn of its former
greatness. Here was the kingdom of Croesus, King of Lydia,
and on the coast of the AXgean Sea were those famous cities,
Troy, Ephesus, and Sardis, whose names recal the history of
former power and wealth. The resources of the country are
great. Among the products of cultivation are silk, cotton,
wine, maize, sugar, and every kind of grain.
A small quantity of wheat is sometimes sent to Marseilles and
Egypt, but quite as often there are fears of famine at home.
Locusts and the Turkish government are the great impediments
to prosperity. Labour and provisions are low in price, but
flour and manufactured articles are not so, The quotations,
however, are in a debased currency. The ‘‘ murrain” some-
times attacks the cattle, and leaves localities and individuals
destitute. The disease is rarely fatal to buffaloes ; and the un-
happy Turks have merely to contend against cholera and famine.
A Turk, with turban, pipe, and slippers, is a firm believer in
destiny, and Providence, he thinks, did not destine him to labour.
The population of Turkey in Asia is said to be thirteen mil-
lions ; the area, four times that of Great Britain and Ireland.
Industry alone is required to restore the former prosperity of these
rich historic countries; and when the Turk ceases to rule, their
old fertility may return.
EGyret.
Alexandria used to send us a considerable quantity of wheat
and of beans, mixed with a large proportion of dried nodules
of Nile mud; of late years the river has overflowed for cotton
and crops more profitable than corn. But since the fall in the
price of cotton, Egypt has again become an exporter of grain.
THE OTHER Corn CouNTRIES oF HUROPE.
South of the Carpathians the principal tracts of fertile land
may be traced in broad belts marked by the course of the
Danube and its numerous tributaries. This great river rises in
the far west near the sources of the Rhine, flows through the most
productive countries in Europe, and falls into the Black Sea,
after a course of nearly 1500 miles, including the windings of
the stream, or nearly 900 miles of direct distance. The Main
172 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
Canal links the Danube to the Rhine, and thus completes the
great thoroughfare, and makes it continuous from Odessa to
the German Ocean. The plains of the Danube, in Hungary
and Bavaria, are among the richest in the world. The agricul-
tural resources of the former country are unsurpassed. Mr,
Bonar, Secretary of Embassy at Vienna, in an account of the
industry of Austria, in 1867, writes as follows :—‘‘ Hungary with
its dependencies is traversed by a whole network of broad and
powerful streams all verging to one great artery, the Danube,
and some of which have been again connected by canals. The
principal commerce and trade of Hungary consists in raw pro-
duce derived from the vast plains bordering the numerous rivers.
The Waag, Gran, Theiss, and Maros, furnish the lowlands with
timber, minerals, and other products of the Carpathians, and
carry them, together with grain, &c., to the Danube ports. The
Franzens Canal, traversing the fertile districts of Baczka; the
Bega Canal, with the corn-harvests of the Banat; the Drave,
bringing the produce of the iron industries of Carinthia and
Styria; even the diminutive Temes stream and the Save all
combine to raise the traffic of the watercourses of Hungary to
the highest importance.”
The population is about 8,000,000, and the growth of corn as
follows :—Wheat, 5,000,000 quarters; rye, 4,000,000 quarters ;
barley, 4,700,000 quarters; oats, 6,300,000 quarters; maize,
3,300,000 quarters. This is about 94 bushels per acre for the
whole of the arable land, and if one-half of it is in corn every
year, the average yield is 184 bushels per acre. There are
4,500,000 acres of pasture, 4,500,000 acres of meadows and
gardens, 1,500,000 acres of vineyards, and 15,900,000 acres of
forests. ‘The number of sheep is 15,000,000. Some of the finest
cattle in Europe are bred on the luxuriant pastures. Swine are
numerous in the forests; while herds of bears and wolves and
wild fowl swarm in the lakes and marshes: bustards frequent
the plains, and birds of prey the wilder parts of the country.
The climate is favourable in the south, on the plains of the
Danube ; here snow seldom lies many weeks; the lemon and
orange blossom all the summer, fruit and wine are abundant,
and the tobacco is nearly as good as in America. In the north,
under the snow-capped Carpathians, winter lasts till May or June.
Here are rich mines of iron, lead, copper, and coal ; but manu-
factures are not yet important; and the exports, which are chiefly
of produce, exceed the imports by one-third.
STATES OF THE ZOLLVEREIN.
The States comprising the German Customs Union will have
a great influence on the future corn-trade of Europe; we there-
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 173
fore preface our remarks with statistics of their population.
The last census was taken in December, 1864, and shows the
following results :—
Population.
TPSUSHishearh Vda: ta) ord) caduigemipraemmlorO42, 004.
NOGIIOUTO, | er os ds, oes pals Me 202,987
ISMURTIM ME dsm ccnp cs us, ne oe) sono O16
MESODY ek ee eae ue. Re 8ES 904
PIaHOUEIEC ce ef css Usd i soi) al | dees SeRUNOAO 772
RWmbemm bine ai: Wisse cee) sav! sondh cegelghterone
Baden fo. GRE Wee re cee ee te 1 aS
Ja SECA ORES ean Tics aR MR SOMMRS A ee 716,889
iHesse-Darmstadiv se 9 5) 3. 871,839
GTI sath lef) Se)! ah cae LOS DBO
Brunswick RIS Meaty =) «sss dene 268,523
Ol Ealoane ae Soa! Gol oneeiaemo amc 244,407
INASSA a eseeRNEM Tee Fics) csi} ao 468,311
Frankfort-on-Maine.. .. 5 .. «. 92,244
There is a complete system of agricultural statistics in these
States, and all that information, utility, or even curiosity, can
suggest, is afforded in a great array of figures. The figure 1 is
taken to represent an average harvest, and the decimal propor-
tions of that figure are used for the purpose of comparison ; thus
the bad harvest of 1865 was represented by 0:78; the ten years
ending 1865 were written 0-91, viz. 9 per cent. under an average.
The same mode of comparison is applied to each crop, as well
as to the whole harvest.
Sazxony.—This little kingdom has always been a model of
good cultivation, since the time when the wool of Saxony was
the finest in Europe. The population has rapidly increased,
no country in Europe being more densely peopled. Agriculture
is the source of wealth, and embraces a great variety ef crops of
more value than corn, including the vine, which is very carefully
cultivated.
In the province of Saxony the same productive system of
farming is followed. It is the best cultivated part of Prussia,
and is too far advanced for the exportation of corn generally.
The fine barley grown on the banks of the Saale is an exception.
The best part of Prussian Saxony is Magdeburg, a fertile level
tract. Merseburg and Erfurt are equally well cultivated, but the
soil is not so rich, Cattle are imported from Hungary, Galicia,
and Podolia.
Hanover and Mecklenburg, which are near the coast, have the
advantage of situation, but not of soil, the former is generally
poor. Instead of corn-fields and cultivation the country is covered
with marsh, bog, moor, heath and sand, lake and forest. Fertile
land is the exception.
* The territory acquired by the war adds 4,336,154 to this number.
174 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
Westphalia is similar in character, being also within the limits
of the great plain of North Germany, except the southern half,
which is covered with small mountain chains, offsets of the
Hartz.
Wurtemburg, formerly agricultural, has, within the last 15
years, become one of the German manufacturing States. The
mineral products are iron and salt, and the native manufactures
are those of cotton, linen, wool, and the working of metals,
These trades have absorbed labourers, to the injury of the landed
proprietors. Rents have fallen, and farmers have turned their
attention to the production of meat, hops, flax, beet-root, and
wine, instead of cereals, Corn is imported from Hungary in
increasing quantities, and more cattle are raised in Wurtemburg
in proportion to its area than in any other German state except
Bavaria. The following is the estimated number of cattle, per
square mile, according to German statistics:—Bavaria, 662;
Wurtemburg, 552; Hanover, 495; Prussia, 303.
_ Prussia.—We extract the following from a recent Report by
Mr. Lowther, Secretary of Embassy at Berlin :—
Prussia is one of the best peopled countries of Europe.
The increase of population since 1816 has been far greater than
that of France and Austria, and almost on a par with that of
Great Britain and Russia. The consumption per head, per
annum, was then estimated at 4/7. 10s., at the present time at 61. ;
so that the inhabitants of the old Prussian provinces must pro-
duce 69,000,0002 more than they did in 1816. The woods and
forests, especially in the provinces of Brandenburg and the
Rhine, are very extensive, occupying one-fourth of the area of
the old provinces of Prussia. The agriculture is very varied ;
the vine and tobacco covering a large area. The cultivation of
hops has greatly increased, especially in Posen, and the growers
have made large fortunes. Various plants are grown for oil,
colour, flavour, and for textile fabrics; fruit-trees are much
cultivated in the valleys of the Rhine, in Saxony, Brandenburg,
and Silesia. Silk-worm culture has been recently much encou-
raged. The number of bee-hives is estimated at more than
1,000,000! The new territories are chiefly agricultural, and
the breeding of cattle is more considerable than in the old
territories, where manufacturing and commercial industry are
more general. ‘The number of animals in all Prussia, according
to the last list, is about 6,600,000 oxen, 22,000,000 sheep, and
4,000,000 pigs, besides 2,200,000 horses.
There has been a great increase in mining industry, especially
that of coal and iron, in consequence of railway and manufac-
turing demands. Prussia is rich in minerals and coal, and her
various factories are increasing and thriving. Agricultural ma-
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 175
chines, which formerly came from England, are now made to a
great extent at home. In a variety of manufactures Prussia has
gained ground, and in some instances has outstripped this country.
Textile industry has also greatly extended ; the weaving of cotton
flourishes wherever wages are low, as in Saxony, Silesia, and
Westphalia, and especially in the Thuringian districts. Woollen
manufactures have lately attained a superiority which has ex-
tended their sales to all parts of the world.
The manufacture of sugar from beet-root bears still more
directly on the question of agriculture. This trade has met with
the same enormous development in Prussia as the manufacture
of spirits from beet in France. Eight times as much sugar is
manufactured as in 1844; the home consumption has increased
from 5 lbs, to 10 lbs. per head per annum ; and the exports are
very large. The distillation of spirit from potatoes, on the
larger farms, is also an increasing business. ‘The spirit is
exported to England, France, Spain, Portugal, &c., and much of
it “finds its way” into wine, and is used in the manufacture
of liqueurs.
Of the total value of the exports about 52 per cent. fall to
manufactured goods, and 19 per cent. to articles of daily con-
sumption, chiefly the products of agriculture. The amount and
description of the imports are signs of the wealth of the country
and the progress of its industries.
Bavaria.—The growth of wheat amounts to about 6 bushels
per head of the population. The exports of manufactured
articles already greatly exceed those of raw produce. This is a
manufacturing country, highly favoured in soil and climate.
Wine is grown on the Saale, in the Palatinate and in Franconia ;
hops and tobacco in Franconia and Swabia. Among the agri-
cultural products are sugar from beet-root, hemp and flax in
increasing quantities, rape and linseed oil, silk, madder, on the
Main, and a variety of flavouring and colouring and other seeds and
plants. This sort of farming used to be carried on at Coggeshall
in Essex, and in other districts, where a lucky crop of onion-
seed was worth more than the fee-simple of the land twice over,
and carraway and coriander growers flourished independent of
the price of corn; but since the alteration of our tariff, seed-
farming has found a home in the plains of Germany, where the
climate is more favourable. There are good pastures on the
banks of the streams and rivers. This is the chief cattle-rearing
State in Germany, especially on the mountain pasture of Swabia
and Jpper Bavaria. We need hardly add that the hops and beer
are famous. Very little corn finds its way to the coast, the only
available channels for heavy traffic being the Main and Danube
Canal, the Lake of Constance, and the Rhine, by which means
176 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
com is received from the Austrian States, and is exported to
France and Switzerland ; but the grain trade is inconsiderable.
AUSTRIA.
We learn from Mr. Bonar’s Report that the usual markets for
the produce of rye, pulse, and other grains, are Italy, France,
England, and Greece. Oats are imported from the “ rich
plains of the Danube in Bavaria ;” maize from Bessarabia, and
Jarge quantities are exported from other parts of the empire.
Sheep are exported to Hamburg, and imported from Bosnia,
Servia, and Wallachia.
The exportation of fat bullocks to England and France, which
is greatly increasing, amounted during the past 12 months to
175,000 head, worth 20/. each. These animals are sent by
special trains to the North German seaports, and thence by quick-
sailing vessels. ‘They are chiefly from Moravia and Bohemia,
and are fattened on the refuse of sugar and spirit manufactories.
The principal cattle-breeding districts of Austria are Hungary
and Transylvania. ‘The total number of horned cattle in Austria,
according to recent statistical returns, is 13,600,000, including
6,100,000 cows.
Bohemia is the chief seat of manufactures in the Austrian terri-
tory. Locked up among the mountain fastnesses of Germany, with
only one outlet by the Elbe, Bohemia does not contribute much
to the wants of other countries. ‘The growth of corn is stated at
1,200,000 quarters wheat; 3,000,000 quarters rye; 1,700,000
quarters barley. Population, 4,500,000. Cattle are imported
from Poland.
GALICIA
Is also ‘behind the mountains,” It is a fertile and an old-
exporting country, but too distant to send wheat to the coast in
ordinary times; the population is about the same as that of
Bavaria ; the growth of wheat is about one-half, that of rye less,
and of barley more: oats and potatoes are grown in large
quantities.
-NoRWAY AND SWEDEN
Are both agricultural countries with resources limited by their
northern latitude. The former, as will be seen by the Report in .
the Appendix, imports a large quantity of corn, as also do the
northern countries of the Baltic generally, where the rigour of
the climate is adverse to agricultural pursuits, and but little
wheat is grown. The poverty of the people of these regions pre-
vents their buying much besides the inferior grains.
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 1th
NORTHERN LIMIT OF WHEAT CULTIVATION.
The northern limit of the profitable cultivation of wheat in
Russia is at about the latitude of Petersburg, viz. 60°.
The saxonka, and other kinds of superior red wheat from
Petersburg, so esteemed at Mark Lane, are grown in the Baltic
provinces south of the capital. The limit of cultivation extends
further north on the Atlantic shore, under the influence of the
Gulf stream.
BELGIUM,
Like other manufacturing countries, also imports corn, as do
Hamburg and the Hanse Towns, and, in fact, any portion of
the poorer seaboard of the German Ocean where a considerable
population is collected.
When the Dutch were the carriers of the world, Rotterdam
and their coast towns were the emporiums for the corn of other
nations; and corn was always abundant in Holland, though little
was grown there. Now, this industrious people have become
essentially agricultural, and, in addition to their famous pastures,
they manage to cultivate enough corn to diminish their necessary
imports from year to year.
AMERICA.
Of America we shall say but little; because, when con-
sidering the vast extent and great resources of the country, we
seem to be approaching the illimitable and unknown.* Before
the war she exported largely in good years. A slight variation
in yield over a great area gives a large aggregate difference.
America has sometimes had a large surplus, and sometimes
barely enough for her own wants. In 1862, the United States
exported to England about five millions of quarters of wheat and
flour against less than a hundred thousand quarters in 1859.
More recent deficits were owing to the interruption of cultiva-
tion during the civil war, and to the bad wheat-harvests of 1864
and 1865. The average yearly exportations of wheat and flour to
this country from the United States for the eleven years including
1567 were 1,824,000 quarters, and for the eleven previous years
1,053,000 quarters. The increase is partly due to Canadian corn,
* After remarking on the low average yield of wheat in the new States, which
he thought did not exceed 12 or 13 bushels, while in Ohio, supposed to be the most
productive State, it was only 153 bushels, Mr. MacCulloch gives his opinion that
‘at no very distant period the exports of wheat and flour from tlie United States
will, if they do not cease altogether, become comparatively inconsiderable,’’—Geo-
graphical Dictionary, 1854.
VOL. Y.—5. 8. N
178 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
grown in the West, and now brought through the United States
by the Erie Canal and Hudson river.
In the countries we have been considering we find a com-
paratively exhausted soil, with a low average yield, which can
only be increased profitably by an increase of population, the
extra mouths consuming the increased produce. In America
circumstances are entirely different. Population is increased by
immigration ; new tracts of land are broken up by new settlers,
who “ reckon” to supply the wants of the New and the Old World.
The average produce is small ; because the land, though rich, is
roughly cultivated and over-cropped. It is a system of spolia-
tion. As the great centres of population become larger, such
sources of supply must become more variable and uncertain.*
PRICES.
The earliest predictions of Mr. McCulloch, forty years ago,
that the price at which corn could be obtained would not, in
ordinary years, be less than 50s. a quarter, and would most
likely range from 52s. to 57s., have been verified. It is remark-
able that steam-conveyance, which has opened up the most
distant tracts, and brought them, it may be said, so much nearer
our shores—to say nothing of special improvements in agricul-
ture—should have had so little effect that the average price of
wheat for the twenty-one years since the repeal of the corn-laws
has been 53s. per quarter.
The opening of the English ports to corn widened the area
of cultivation both in the Old World and the New. It was
the signal for an army of settlers—the outposts of civilisation—
to march further into the wilderness to subdue it. Many an
American pioneer shouldered his tools, the weapons of a peaceful
conquest, and marched into the Far West to use them in patient
warfare with the forest and the prairie. And in the central
plains of Europe the territorial lord, proud of his vast though
wasted possessions, began to organise their subjection to the
plough, with England as a rake for his produce. The steam-
engine, and fie! auote complicated machines of tillage, have
found these way to the plains of Egypt, and to the ruder regions
watered by the Volga or the Dnieper. The Russian and Gein
peasant have learned the use of labour-saving machines, and in
doing so have acquired the means of a double cultivation—that
* This paper, accidentally deferred, was commenced when wheat was 40s. a
quarter. Our intention was to show that, whatever the resources of English agri-
culture might be, foreign countries would not continue their supplies at any such
price. This was certainly true of America before the war. The future cost of
production cannot be less.
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 179
of the soil and of the humble tiller of the soil, in whose mind
is implanted the desire for improvement. Trade thus extends
the influences of wealth and civilisation into remote corners of
the world, and distributes increased comfort and happiness
among mankind. Increased wants accompany the general pro-
gress, labour rises, the cost of production increases, and the low
prices of a ruder age pass away. Prices rose from these causes,
in this country, from the middle of the last century ; a similar
rise has commenced, and will no doubt continue, in some
countries which have entered later on the path of advancement.
That the price of corn should be maintained at a period when
one-third of that brought to market is of foreign growth is what
none could have anticipated thirty years ago.
A variety of details on the price of growing corn in Europe
were laid before the Agricultural Committee of the House of
Commons in 1821; and Mr. Jacob’s “ Report on the Trade in
Corn and on the Agriculture of the North of Europe,” printed
by order of the House of Commons in 1826, is still a standard
authority. This gentleman was employed by the Government
to investigate the capabilities of the various corn countries, their
soil, the average yield of corn, cost of production, and the means
of transit.
The average price of grain per quarter, free on board at
Dantzig, was—
tof)
Wheat. Rye. Barley. Oats.
ig. rd: 8. 2d. s. d. ed
From 1770 to 1779 Si eace 33 9 21 8 16: 1 il
ats 1780 ,, 1789 a8 Pe 33 10 22 1 17 OL 1g 4
EE 43 8 26 3 19 3 12 6
ee S00), 7 1809) | 5.) 69 0 34 10 25 1 13 1
PeeSTO) ., 1StS: ss 55 4 Sie 26 0 20 4
Average price for 49 years | 45 4 27 2 20 10 13 10
The average price at which a quarter of wheat grown near
Dantzig could be put on board ship at that port was stated to
be 35s., and the cost of freight, insurance, unloading, and ware-
housing was 8s. But in case of an active foreign demand the
price would immediately rise ; as any considerable supply could
only be derived from the more distant and fertile districts of
Galicia, Volhynia, Moravia, and Massovia. The lowest price
at which corn could be produced, “if land could be had for
nothing, and reckoning upon no casualties, such as a failure of
N 2
180 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
the crop, extraordinary taxes, &c., would be,” wheat 31s. 9d.
per quarter, rye 15s. 10d., barley 12s. 8d., oats 9s. 6d. To this
must be added, ac cording to the distance and description of
the grain, from 4s. to 6s. a quarter for bringing it to market (at
Dantzig). This estimate, however, applies to the vicinity of
Dantzig; the cost of transit from all provinces south of War-
saw would be much greater, as appears from the following
estimate :—
s, d.
Cost of wheat at Warsaw, per quar WOaeor bos HO 63 ZAsk
Conveyance to the boats, charges for loading, stowing,
and freight to Dantzig ye
Loss on the passage by; plfering, and rain causing it to
grow «. 3.0
Expenses at De antzig, turning, " screening, warehousing,
and loss of measure .. Sm ca het: O)
Profit or commission to merchants ‘at Dantzig 1G)
Freight, primage, shipping, charges, and insurance at
Dantzig and am Wondon! ) 9.5) esl ise as) ee ee OMO
Cost of the wheat to the English merchant .. .. 48 0
To which must be added the risk from heating on the voyage
and, at the present day, the 1s. duty. Any unusual demand
would raise the cost of freight on the Vistula 30 or 40 per cent.
The usual cost of freight from Dantzig to various ports of the
United Kingdom is 3s. to 5s. per quarter in sailing-vessels, and
1s, per quarter more in steamers, The cost of freight from the
Upper Vistula to Dantzig, in 1865, was 3s. to 6s. 6d. per quarter,
and from the Lower Vistula 2s. to 5s. per quarter.
The decennial average price of wheat at Rostock for the ten
years from 1855 to 1864 was 46s. 8d. per quarter. The consular
reports from Dantzig in 1864 mention the distress of the German
farmers, and the im :pending bankruptcy of many of them during
the period when low prices prevailed in the overstocked markets
and Western Europe.
The total charges on Black Sea wheat sold in London, in-
cluding freight, duty, and insurance, are not less than 16s. a
quarter; and more if grown far jelbmih On American wheat
the charges are about 10s. a quarter, at the average rate of
freight, exclusive of land-carriage. The charges for ‘importing
5 quarters of wheat grown on an acre of “virgin soil” in South
Russia would pay the rent and taxes and part of the labour-bill
of land in England that yields as much corn, besides meat.
The incidental expenses of the home-grower are small; he
delivers the corn at the mill, in his own waggon, at leisure
times, at less than the cost of landing charges, to say nothing of
the 1s. duty and the commission 6n the sale. English farmers
must expect an increase in the cost of labour, but the movement
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 181
in this respect is European, Even the Russian labourer claims
wages, instead of the miserable payments in kind which he
received in the days of serfdom. In those parts of Germany
where large estates are badly farmed, the condition of the
labourer must either be improved or emigration will continue
and cultivation become still worse.
A scarcity of labourers in impoverished corn-districts abroad
is more injurious than in England, where the use of machines
and implements saves labour, and by the care they require edu-
cates the labourer and increases his efficiency. Improved agri-
culture, which permanently increases the value of the land,
requires an outlay which cannot be incurred except in a thickly-
peopled country where capital is concentrated.
The rate of wages rose from 6s. per week in the middle of
the last century to 9s. at its close. It has been calculated that a
fair day’s wage was the value of a peck of wheat, viz., 10s. a
week at 53s. per quarter, and 7s. 6d. at 40s. per quarter; this,
however, was exclusive of the additional pay in haytime and
harvest; but this calculation has become obsolete, as increased
pay is allowed in the use of machinery, task-work is more general,
and wages have risen.
Thaer’s estimate for the German labourer, sixty years since,
was the value of three pecks of rye a week. Women were then
constantly employed in field-work, in cultivation generally, and
in stock-feeding. ‘‘A maid-servant is allotted to every ten
cows, and she is expected to feed them and carry away their
dung.” ‘A woman spreads an acre and a quarter of dung a
day, and a man one and a half to two acres.”
The various consular reports, as well as our sketch of French
agriculture, confirm the accounts of the average cost of production
abroad, ‘The following is a curious calculation of the effect of a
deficient harvest in raising the price of corn :—
Deficiency of crop :—
O1
IDS O
©Or1co
0-2
0'3 Raises prices
os |
05
Mr, Tooke, in his ‘History of Prices,’ observes, ‘‘ No such
strict rule can be deduced, but there is some ground for sup-
posing that the estimate is not very wide of the truth,” when the
deficiency has not been relieved by foreign supplies.
The large imports of wheat and flour in 1860, 1861, and 1862
{average 9,150,000 quarters per annum) did not depress prices
below an average of 53s. 6d. to 55s. 6d.; the moderate imports
of 1857-8-9 (average 4,780,000 quarters per annum) did not
182 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
prevent prices from falling to an average of 48s. 1d. for the three
years, and to 44s, for the last two years; our own growth being
very great,
Average prices of Wheat.
bs WSieas
For 10 years ending and including 1770.. 2 OS
wey 10. % s 1860.. 214 9
a 10 Pe x 1850.. 213 38
40 i is 1800.. 29 8
», 40 < 1860...) 2 | ne ee
0 eS 59 1820 (war prices) .. 4 6 O
5 BO sf a 1800%3 a died 9 ee ee
oo BO ie 5h WEGVira tie 216 5
PRODUCTION AND CoNsuMPTION, &c.
Formerly, when neither farmers nor dealers had capital to
withhold corn from market, and when forestalling, engrossing,
and regrating were forbidden by law, corn was squandered by
the consumers in proportion to its abundance and cheapness,
and the result was scarcity and often absolute famine before
harvest; prices were four or five times higher in June and
July than in September and October; and the reaction was
also greater, from the dependence of the people on bread-corn.
The improved diet of the people and the greater variety of their
food helps to equalise the demand. Instead of a wasteful con-
sumption in years of great abundance, the bulk of the people—
all but the poorest—consume less bread when it is very cheap
than when it is at an average price. The proportion of the
weekly wage allotted for dear bread is large, and the balance
left for distribution among other articles is, of course, propor-
tionately small; but when the loaf falls to 6d. the mechanic, if
well employed, becomes a much more dainty feeder: he buys
less bread and spends more on animal food. The butcher finds
him among his best customers for beef and mutton. It is a
baker’s complaint that, “when bread is cheap, they don’t ask
whether the loaf is new, but whether it is hot; and if it is not,
they return it to the counter, with the remark, ‘You may eat it
yourself!’ ”
The history of the corn-trade is the history of English agri-
culture. We refer to it briefly, in order to trace the progress of
agricultural production. During the five hundred years suc-
ceeding the Conquest, importation was practically free: these
were the dark ages of agriculture, and, small as was the popula-
tion of the country, its productive industry was insufficient for
its supply. But in the prosperous reign of Elizabeth peace and
security had turned the scale; corn began to be exported, and it
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 183
was thought necessary to impose a duty on exportation amounting
to 2s, a quarter on wheat and 1s. 4d. on other grain, and exporta-
tion was to cease when the price of wheat rose above 20s. and
that of barley 12s. per quarter. During the next century several
other Acts were passed with the same object of checking ex-
portation. In the time of William and Mary a totally new
principle was introduced ; and in the exercise of a paternal and
not very impartial spirit, and for the succour of agriculture, a
bonus was given on all corn exported. At first the bounty was
5s. a quarter on wheat, 2s. 6d. on barley, malt, and oats, and
3s. 6d. on rye; but the bonus was only granted when prices were
as low as 48s. for wheat, 24s. for barley and malt, 32s. for rye,
and 15s. for oats. Exports of corn were almost continuous for
the first sixty-six years of the last century, reaching, in 1750, to
947,000 quarters of wheat only. For the ten years ending 1751
the bounties paid amounted to 1,515,000/. ; but the increase of
the population soon turned the scale. At the time of the Peace
of Paris, in 1763, the seeds of our manufacturing and commer-
cial industry may be said to have been sown. Ten years later
the exportation of wheat was prohibited, when the price rose to
44s, Its importation soon became common. An Act was passed
in 1773 allowing foreign wheat to enter at a nominal duty of 6d.
a quarter when the home price was at or about 48s. Except in
very productive years and during the disastrous period of the
American War, wheat was regularly imported; and with the
revival of trade at the close of the century England ceased to
export corn.*
In 1760, *‘the average annual produce of wheat,” according
to Mr. Comber, ‘On National Subsistence,’ was about 3,800,000
quarters, of which about 300,000 had been sent out of the king-
dom, leaving 3,500,000 for home consumption. In 1773 the
produce of wheat was stated in the House of Commons to be
4,000,000 quarters, of which the whole and above 100,000
quarters imported were consumed in the kingdom. In 1796 the
consumption was stated by Lord Hawkesbury to be 500,000
quarters per month, or 6,000,000 quarters annually, of which
about 180,000 quarters were imported, showing an increased
produce, in about twenty years, of 1,820,000 quarters.
These comparisons show the increase in the production of
wheat which took place at that period of our agricultural
* During the latter half of the eighteenth century the English and European
harvests were much less productive than in the first fifty years. A cycle of bad
seasons also occurred during the continental war. The rise of prices in the last
century was occasioned by unfavourable harvests and by increased population;
the “war prices” would have been less extreme if the seasons had been
favourable.
184 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
history, owing to the general improvement of agriculture
and the large addition to the number of acres under cul-
tivation; nearly three million acres of land having been en-
closed under numerous Acts of Parliament from the beginning
of George Third’s reign to 1797; while in the three preceding
reigns the area of the enclosures had been less than 340,000
acres, ‘This was a period of commercial and agricultural pro-
gress, of free trade in corn and of moderate prices, the general
price of wheat being between 40s. and 50s. a quarter, and the
extreme prices 26s. 9d. in 1761, and 81s. 6d. in 1795.
It was at this period that the geverning class destroyed the
principles of free trade in corn, which had been long maintained
in England. In 1791 the first measures of restriction were passed,
and for the next thirty-five years the corn-laws were the subject
of incessant legislation, always with a view to the protection of
British agriculture and raising the price of wheat. There were,
however, one or two bills of indemnity to Ministers who had
been compelled, as in 1826, to let in a little foreign grain, under
Orders in Council, to avert a famine. During the war the price
of wheat was enormous: for the ten years ending 1805 the
average price per quarter was 81s, 24d.; and in the ten years
ending 1815 the average had risen to 97s. 6d. Under the influ-
ence of deficient crops and depreciation of the currency, the
average prices of the years 1812 and 1813 were respectively
128s. and 120s. per quarter. At the close of the war a ruinous
reaction took place, and with it agricultural distress, parlia-
mentary inquiry, and a great amount of evidence and reporting
on the state of the corn-trade, with examination of eminent
agriculturists. These witnesses were unanimous that, at the then
present prices (70s. to 80s. per quarter), the poor land broken
up during the war must go out of cultivation. ‘They differed as
to the lowest limit at which foreign wheat might be admitted
free of duty: some thinking it could not be safely admitted
while the home price was under 120s., while cthers put the
limit at 80s. to 90s., and some ventured as low as 70s. In 1815,
Mr. Robinson passed a bill excluding foreign wheat when the
price was below 80s. per quarter; but the price continued to
fall, and in 1821 there was more distress, followed by more
inquiry and the reduction of the limit of importation to 70s. a
quarter. In 1826 came a drought, and a rise in prices from
natural causes. Deficient crops in 1829 and 1830 caused large
importations, with an average price of 65s. a quarter. Then
came six abundant harvests, with a cessation wf importations
and a reduction of price in 1835 to an average for the year of
39s. 4d. per quarter. The occasional agitation of the industrial
classes on the subject of the corn-laws was now hushed for a
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 185
time, and it began to be thought that improved agriculture had
permanently raised the rate of production. But this vision, so
often entertained, was found to be baseless. In 1842 the harvest
was deficient for the sixth time in succession, At the appear-
ance of the lean kine the Anti-Corn-law League had started up
in Lancashire. Then came the trial of strength between the
producers and consumers ; the former were still the most powerful
party in the legislature, but the numbers out of doors could not
be refused, and an accidental scarcity of food from the potato-
disease and failure of the crop in Ireland in 1845 decided the
struggle. In 1846 Sir Robert Peel carried his measure for im-
mediate alteration of the corn-laws with their total repeal, to
take effect on the Ist of February, 1849.
The annual consumption of wheat in England and Wales has
usually been estimated at 1 quarter per head of the population.
The data on which this estimate was founded were the result of
many careful investigations, in 1765, by Mr, Charles Smith,
author of ‘ Tracts on the Corn Trade,’ and these were confirmed
by inquiries of the Suffolk magistrates in forty-two parishes in
1795 and 1796.
In France, M. Paucton’s estimate of 10 bushels (reducing
all corn to the standard of wheat) seemed to confirm our own
figures; as the French were known to consume more bread and
less animal food than their English neighbours, the south of
France hardly producing any meat. Probably neither of these
estimates applies now to the better-fed population of the two
countries,
Sir F. W. Eden stated that, in 1796, the family of an agri-
eultural labourer—taking 65 families in different parts of Eng-
land—consisted of an average of 5} persons, and their yearly
expenditure was found to be—
HAS) ids
ETOVISIONS, Neos pace eke FS obec 74 per cent.
Rent - liao had ieee deed [eo mee saree PR AREB
JRUNSUAT SiGe Ak Seles se: mabe umee’ial KO Mae ( Boda 7 3
Clothes and washing 418 0 13 i
Contingencies ae 1 OO e110 Sh oe eer
36 14 4 100
In the family of a well-paid mechanic there is always bread
enough, and the item “ provision” includes less of it and more
of other articles of diet; and the consumption of meat increases
in proportion as wages rise above the sum actually needed for
mere maintenance. It was very aptly remarked by M. Léonce
de Lavergne that Arkwright and Watt must precede Bakewell!
There are no exact data as to the production and consumption
186 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
of this country; but by comparing the estimates of the best
authorities with the increase in importations and in population
we obtain considerable insight, and can safely infer that the
public diet improves and requires a continual increase in the
supply of animal food, and that English farming is not now
progressing, in the direction of meeting the demand, so fast as
could be desired.
We shall trouble the reader with as few figures as possible.
The following statistics will, perhaps, be sufficient for reference.
AcREAGE and EstrmaTep Propuction of Grain of the Unrrep Kryepom,
according to the AGRICULTURAL RETURNS in 1867.*
Production per =
= . Acre, after otal
Kinds of Grain. ares. deducting for | produce in Quarters.
Seed.
Bushels.
Wheaton 5,640,925 | 26 11,833,006
Barleyeerse tn “sch sas ec 2,439,947 | 30 9,149,801
Oats and rye A tegeh Be 4,482,616 32 17,930, 464
Beans and peas .. .. ... | 868,452 26 2,822,469
|
MGtaleccm waste mon orale csc 50 90 41,735,740
In Scotland and Ireland there has been a considerable change
in the proportions of arable and pasture in the last ten years.
The area in wheat in 1807 was respectively 243,240 acres and
544,348 acres; it is now 110,609 acres and 280,549 acres.
This represents a reduction of about 1,200,000 quarters, or an
eighth of the available growth of the United Kingdom. Thearea
of oats and barley in Scotland has slightly increased. In Ireland
the two million acres of oats have been reduced by 329,652
acres. Potatoes, now one million acres, have fallen off 100,000
acres. In England there has been a similar but less startling
conyersion of arable into pasture, which cannot be ascertained
for want of statistics.
IMPORTATION OF FOREIGN CorRN INTO THE UNITED KinGpom.
The average yearly importation for the seven years ending
with 1852 :—
* As these Returns are only reproduced here for the purpose of general com-
parison, it is not considered necessary to replace them by those of last year.
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 187
Quarters.
Wheat and flour, reduced to quarters of wheat .. .. 4,231,185
MGV oct hone. con Maen, ania Pee cca wes. ans 870,786
Glatgvand: catmealseee-' iy fs. cd Seeeree ae ce | 1,162 546
VG eters cme bes 4c rca) ae er 99,510
AN Cope ha is er eee) ft Se 173,393
UO ee ee eee ae 393,366
Total (Maize not included) .. .. .. .. 6,980,786
The average yearly importation for the eight years ending
with 1860 :—
Quarters.
Wheat and flour, reduced to quarters of wheat .. .. 5,100,000
Barley ae yen! fal 6a 469 Se 993,000
RRS er. SMe OE Me Bein 6s Se eh are 934,000
SM Sg SE 7 bE a NR 0
IEEES) GA. Se lkotbe saidcere bo), MO Ccii cae aaa ae mr 155,000
Iban) oo. kee GA 50 ES eal Oe 362,000
SEP EE PIE i bE a) ee ec 5. ~~ ROO
UR MRRP Tae lee, ene ts ee oo 90912000
The average yearly importations of corn for the seven years
from 1861 to 1867 inclusive :—
Quarters,
Wheat and flour, reduced to quarters of wheat .. .. 7,960,000
DOME MMOH Sa. Wica fe) iste Sie ce) lanl od Lit ES LOOOe
DROME ews ty wo lyase (kee ad rman (jee fede), Lg HO,OO0
MESS SP. Ti si, st by Pan’ p mew ot Boe 48,000
PP eck Sc) cee ye oes sme yee see OOOO
PEA UT Wes ol Raw ds’ Siadtugemn eas i kee 384,000
RUS Cee Dace lila) Sich Mivee!| “SN. Foe TA at 7 2,4301000
“hi TPES a em Sl Ree a RON asia SY SYNE. 0 0
In 1860, 1861, 1862, and 1863, the exports of wheat from
Russia, Prussia, and the United States were very large, the
latter country sending us as much as Russia and Prussia to-
gether. In 1864 and 1865, the imports of wheat from these two
countries remained about stationary; those from America and
Egypt fell off. The great exports of wheat in those four years,
both from Europe and America, were owing to the exceptional
abundance of the harvests abroad and to our bad crops in 1860
and 1861, As long ago as 1853, Prussia figured for nearly as
large an export of wheat to England as in the recent great years,
viz., more than a million quarters. In 1856 her exports dropped
to about 200,000 quarters. So extreme is the variation in yield.
The supplies from the northern ports of Russia, since the Crimean
war, have been tolerably steady, within the range of from 155,000
quarters to 475,000 quarters. Those from the southern ports
have varied within the wide range of from 300,000 quarters to
188 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
1,200,000 quarters, until the last four years, when they were
suddenly increased, amounting, in 1867, to nearly 3,000,000
quarters,—under the attraction 1 of high prices.
AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS FOR THE UNITED KINGDOM.
England, Wales,
and the Isles in the | Scotland. Ireland.
British Seas.
Population in 1867 . . | 21,607,044 3,136,057 5,571,971
Total area 4 37,551,567 19,639,377 20,322,641
es x under erops and 25,569,337 | 4,379,552 | 15,542,208
Com, &c. .. 7,952,774 1,364,029 2,115,137
Turnips, &e. 2,851,502 668 ,042 1,432,252
Bare fallow 844,716 83,091 26,191
Flax . 30 39 253,105
Clover and grasses under ny 2,809,881 1,211,101 1,658,451
Permanent pasture 38 do 11,046,184 1,053,985 10,057,072
WER 9 AB Gok 12,046,510 15,259,829 4,780,433
Total population .. .. .-
otalitanGalyactee:stcieete ietets
In Ireland the breadth under the potato has slightly de-
creased in the last ten years; it is still 1,000,000 acres, which
supplies the reduced population with 43 lbs. a day. In England
and Scotland the supply is 4 Ib. a day.
In McCulloch’s ‘Statistical Account of the British Empire,’
1846, he estimated the average yield of wheat per acre in Eng-
land and Wales at 273 bushels, after deducting seed. In his
‘Commercial Dictionary,’ 1858, these figures were reduced to
26 bushels. Arthur Young’s estimate in 1770 was 23 bushels,
Mr. Caird has stated that the clays of the Wealds of Surrey,
Sussex, and Kent have been over-cropped with wheat, and yield
less than they did in 1770. ‘The same remark probably applies
to a good deal of the unimproved clay land.
The population in Great Britain and Ireland, in 1821, was
21,500,000. Mr. McCulloch’s estimate of the annual consump-
tion was—
30,315,072
77,513,585
of pooeeude: Description of Corn. pa Heal. Quarters,
10,309,000 Wheat. 8 10,300,000
te Barley used in malt and spirits. 4,250,000
5,000,000 Oats. 16 10,000,000
2,000,000 Barley, rye, and pulse. 10 2,400,000
4,000,000 Potatoes. e a0
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 189
A little less than half the population was maintained by
wheat: now the proportion is more than two-thirds. There were
nearly 7,000,000 in Ireland, of whom 4,000,000 were supported
by the potato, and the other 3,000,000 consumed corn of various
kinds to the amount of 2 quarters per head yearly.
At this period the country was suffering from the effects of
the war. Prices were high, and taxes and burdens overwhelm-
ing. The diet of the people was inferior to what it was in 1760,
when Mr, Charles Smith estimated that the total consumption of
wheat amounted to 5 bushels per head for the whole population ;
and the barley used in malting and distilling to 44 bushels per
head, In 1821 a duty of 28s. 10d. per quarter had reduced the
consumption of malt, excluding spirits, to 3,000,000 quarters.
In 1853 Mr. McCulloch’s estimate of annual consumption in
the United Kingdom was—
Consumption per Annum.
Quarters.
RRAN Heke, vaeccmie get soa ol
which gives the following proportion of the live stock to the acreage of the
kingdom, viz :—
1 horse to 53 acres,
1 head of horned cattle to 134 acres,
1 sheep to 84 acres.
1 pig to 34 acres.
There can be no doubt that this proportion of live stock is far too small for
an agricultural country; and though it has been steadily on the increase
for some years, many causes impede progress, the chief being the periodical
visit of the cattle epidemic, “ Peste Bovine,” so destructive in its character.
Another serious impediment to the progress so much to be desired is to be
found in the very slight inducement offered to breeders by the small con-
sumption of, and consequently demand for, animal food throughout the
country.
It is worthy of remark that all the cattle in the kingdom is insured
against the cattle epidemic, and that stringent measures are adopted by the
Government to prevent this terrible scourge from spreading should it un-
fortunately pass the frontier. In fact, wherever this disease makes its
appearance within the kingdom, the whole of the cattle in the immediate
202 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
vicinity are destroyed forthwith, the Government paying a remuneration at
the following rates, viz. :—
Poram ox orbullt its Tor) ea) ae pen, oe Sees
For a cow LMU TAPAS Se Senne sen teeeem) Maun ess ty Oma
Fora heifer?” 20 0 Seas Oe Tee MO PUEREO
The total value of the cattle insured amounted, in the year 1861, to
8,813,3897. 10s. ; whilst, in the year 1857, it amounted to 7,602,129; this
increase being chiefly due to the non-appearance of the epidemic since the
year 1857, probably owing to the precautions taken to prevent its reaching
the frontier of the kingdom.
Population and Industries—The population of the kingdom of Poland at
the latest census amounted to 4,840,466 persons.
Poland is so essentially an agricultural country that little extension is given
to manufactures, or industries in general; the extraction of sugar from beet-
root is, however, an exception to this rule.
Report by Consul Stanton for 1862-3.
The improvements that had been introduced into the system of cultivation
pursued in Poland durimg late years were completely brought to a standstill
by the late insurrection; the insecurity of life and property in the country
districts, and the heavy losses of farming stock, particularly of horses, to which
the owners of land have been subjected, rendering any continuation of these
ameliorations quite out of the question during the past year.
The late Imperial ukases published in the month of March of this year,
which make a complete social revolution in the country, and constitute the
peasants the actual possessors of the lands they had previously held on leases,
and the numerous unsettled questions connected with the various rights, or
claims, these peasants may have on the lands still remaining to the former
proprietors, have naturally tended to depreciate (at least temporarily) the value
of real property throughout the kingdom, and have created a state of uneasiness
and uncertainty in the relations of the two classes to each other, the results of
which can hardly as yet be calculated. It may, however, be supposed that
the agricultural prospects of the kingdom are not likely to be improved by the
fact of so large a portion of the soil passing into the hands of a totally un-
educated class, without the necessary qualifications for good farming, viz.,
capital and energy.
In the past year the principal cattle epidemic has committed great ravages,
in consequence of the impossibility of maintaining, during the insurrection,
the necessary precautions against the spread of this scourge.
POLAND. Reporr py Mr. Consun Mawnsrietp ror 1865.—The great
social reforms which have been initiated during the last two years have
caused great embarrassment, but will ultimately be of the greatest service to
the country.
The navigation of the Polish waters opened the 15th of April and closed the
last days of November.
Kaports by Water.—W heat 430,000 quarters ; rye, 240,000 quarters. Other
corn and pulse trifling.
Average depth of the Vistula, 3 feet 9 inches; the greatest depth having
been 13 feet 4 inches in April, and the least, 1 foot 4 inches in October.
The bad quality of last harvest, and the absence of forced labour, were most
disast;ous to the farming interest; and as a large section of the population
depend entirely upon the cultivation of the soil, a great and general distress
prevailed, The agricultural class are now pretty well alive to the fact that the
old régime is at an end, and that henceforth they must depend on their own
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 203
energy and call in the aid of science to make up the deficiency of labour.
Much attention is being given to manuring and draining, and even to pasture
land an attention is being paid which was before unknown, and the farmers are
now convinced that it will pay best to get heavier crops from a smaller area of
land. Much greater progress would be made were there not such a total want
of capital in the country ; and the bad feeling of the peasants to the better class
is another source of loss and difficulty. The arrangements connected with the
peasant question are a cause of the greatest loss and inconvenience to the land-
owners of the kingdom of Poland, more especially to the proprietors of the
larger estates.
1866.—Crops abundant ; corn in many instances sold standing, as neither
proprietors nor peasants had money to live upon, or to pay for harvesting.
Vast tracts must go out of cultivation for want of capital.
The cultivation of beet root and manufacture of sugar has become a pro-
ae speculation, and also helps to withdraw capital from pure agricultural
usiness,
Return of Grain Crop for 1864.
Wheat. .)) <<. sey. <~ |-= fi, 440), 000) quarters.
ENG is ccidunyieiagel : naxx
222 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
The following is the official return of the production of corn in Belgium :—
Average per year for the three years ending 1865,
Wiheat iin or fea en ote GsoRSoUlgmartenss
iG Garson Maabeinameres hs oe 353,618 Pie
Ibe EGGh Gop Sa loo | a0 66 225,849 * ..
ye | 7,.) OS, SR ae eee o Oe Lees
Backwheat! :./") <2. 3S PP 209,916 A
DREN 65 on ad SERRA
9?
HANOVER, 1866.—Hanover exports nearly every year a small amount of
various sorts of grain.
Toe Hanse Towns: BREMEN AND HAMBURGH.
Territory very small, and the agriculture chiefly grazing. The grain
required for consumption is chiefly brought from Hanover, Mecklenburg,
&e.
HAMBURGH, 1861.—The harvest for 1861 was abundant throughout Ger-
many. Very large quantities of corn were exported from Hamburgh and Baltic
ports to Great Britain, France, and other countries, and the stocks in warehouse at
the close of the year were nevertheless considerable. ‘The reduction of the rates
of freight on most of the railways, and the alterations in the French corn law,
whereby fixed duties were substituted for the sliding-scale, were circumstances
which could not but tend to the expansion and security of the German corn
trade; a trade still of great importance, although its character has so much
changed since the abolition of the English corn restrictions and the consequent
opening of the English ports to grain and flour coming from America and all
other parts of the world.
As there was a deficiency in corn in 1861, in other countries, prices rose
considerably, so that unusually large quantities were brought to Hamburgh
and sold chiefly for exportation in the course of the year.
Navigation is sometimes interrupted by ice on the Elbe, but not in
1863.
1862.—A good harvest in 1862 in Germany generally somewhat reduced
the prices of the necessary articles of consumption throughout the country,
and promoted exportation. 801,720 quarters of wheat were brought to
Hamburgh in the year 1862, chiefly from the interior of Germany, either by
the Elbe or by railway, in transit for exportation. The total transactions in
corn (valued at one million and a half pounds sterling), at Hamburgh,
were nearly one-third less than in 1861, when the business was extraordinarily
large.
1867, Corn TrRADE.—The extent of the corn and flour trade of Hamburgh,
will be seen in the following statements of the quantities imported. The
time when large quantities of corn were kept in warehouse here ready for ship-
ment at short notice has passed away, in consequence of the .abolition of the
English protective system, and the supplies are now forwarded hither from
the interior, as occasion may require, chiefly by the Elbe and the Berlin Rail-
way, and are shipped at once for British or other foreign ports.
1865. 1866. 1867.
Wheat .. «»-(Qrs.) ‘.. .«- 280,000 .. 330,000 .. 480,000
Rye: i yeti. «. «. 200,000 .. 1825000 =.) 125,000
Barley j. s«- 9 | «sl wei! 100,000°. 45 1505000 +». 208,000
ZOLLVEREIN RENEWED.—The German States lying to the south of the River
Maine preserved, as is well known, their independence after the war of 1866,
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 223
and were not under any obligation to unite themselves either politically or
commercially with Prussia, or even to renew the Zollverein which the war had
dissolved.
Hanse Towns REMAIN I'rur Ports.—The Federal Constitution became law
in the Hanse Towns on the 1st of July, 1867. In consideration, however, of
the peculiar position of the Hanseatic cities, they have been permitted, by a
clause of the Federal Constitution (Article 34), to remain as free ports outside
of the Customs frontier, until they shall signify their own desire to be admitted
within it. But for this privilege they are obliged to pay an annual sum, called
an Aversum, equivalent to the amount of Customs duties which would other-
wise have been levied within their respective territories. The Aversa for the
year 1868 have been fixed as follows :—For Liibeck 85,950 dollars (12,9002.) ;
for Bremen 248,600 dollars (37,290/.); and for Hamburgh 710,160 dollars
(106,530/.). It is understood that Liibeck will speedily put an end to her
Aversum by procuring the admittance of her territory into the Customs Union ;
but the circumstances of the two larger cities of Bremen and Hamburgh are
different, and they conceive it to be their interest to maintain the freedom of
their ports, at least until by the construction of proper bonded warehouses and
quays, they shall be in a situation to submit to the Customs Tariff, combined
with the advantages of a good entrepdt system. ‘The harvest of last year was
below the average in Germany as well as in a large portion of the rest of Europe.
The high price of bread and of the other necessaries of life has pressed hardly
upon the working-classes, and greatly limited their consumption. Indeed,
towards the close of the year the distress in the eastern provinces of Prussia
was known to be so severe and widely spread that the government was obliged
to come to the relief of a starving population, and likewise to appeal to the aid
of private benevolence,
Hamburgh and its neighbourhood have not indeed been afflicted by famine,
but the prices of necessaries have been gradually rising, and the prospect of
increased taxation is not a favourable one either for the wages of labour or the
profits of trade. ;
Sor and Crors.—The harvest of last year was deficient in the Hamburgh
territory, as it was likewise in the surrounding districts belonging to Prussia
and Mecklenburg. In fact, when the corn came to be threshed out it was
found that the yield was even less than had been expected in the autumn,
and in some of the most fertile parts of the country the rye (on which the
population chiefly subsists) did not return more, on an average, than the fifth
grain of corn. The consequence was that many farmers were left without
seed-corn, having entirely exhausted their winter stock.
The actual prices, especially of-rye, are so high as to show that great scarcity
still prevails in Germany. Much has been done by the Prussian Government
and by individuals to relieve the severe distress which has affected the eastern
provinces of Prussia; but such efforts cannot cheapen the necessaries of life,
And throughout Northern Germany the people have been more in want of
bread during the past winter than at any since the scarcity of 1847,
NETHERLANDS.
AMSTERDAM, 1860.—The breeding of cattle and the making of butter and
cheese have been more profitable than the tilling of land, partly from the high
prices that could be obtained for them ; and this accounts for the fact that
pasture ground is continually rising in price while the arable is almost at a
standstill, and even in some parts diminishing in value, though upon the
whole no very important variations have arisen. The manure generally used
is stable dung and mud from ditches; guano and artificial manure are seldom
employed.
224 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
1863.—* Reports from all quarters have been on the whole satisfactory.
With regard to the breeding of cattle, improvement becomes apparent every
year. Over the whole of the district, formerly the lake of Harlem, agriculture
is making rapid strides,”
ROTTERDAM, Fesruary, 1867.—The outbreak of the rinderpest has been,
and unfortunately continues to be, a scourge of terrible severity to this
country, which consists almost entirely of meadow and grazing land.
The measures taken at the commencement were not sufficiently stringent,
and the consequences of a mistaken leniency are now being felt throughout the
kingdom. i
It is true that the present government are doing their utmost, by the
application of a sterner policy, to remedy the faults of their predecessors ;
and by strong repressive measures, a total prohibition of the movement of
cattle from infected districts, military cordons, wholesale slaughtering of all
the live stock in an infected farm, &c., it is hoped that the plague may be
stayed.
The official returns, however, show a lamentable number of cases, as will be
seen by the following table :—
— Total Cases. Died. | Slaughtered, Recovered. | Doubtful.
South Holland .. .. 78,585 34,604 14,707 27,148 2,126
North Holland .. .. 5,870 798 4,279 793 6
Guelderland steak tes 1,350 22 1,247 on 6
Utrecht Ah eatin ik O05 43,591 25,236 3,479 12,900 1,976
Since the first outbreak | 129,396 | 60,660 23,712 40,841 4.108
The energy with which England has met the case has, as may be supposed,
attracted great attention ; and public opinion amongst the farmers and stock-
holders, which has hitherto always opposed the Government in repressive
measures, is gradually coming round to the necessity of a strong and decisive
policy.
Juty, 1868.—Farmers have been compelled to import cattle from neigh-
bouring provinces, and even from abroad, to replenish their stock, reduced by
cattle~plague.
SAXONY.
LEIPSIG. Rerorr py Mr. Coysun-GeneraL Crowe ror 1865.—
Harvest of 1865 a bad one in Saxony, which was an importer of corn
to a greater extent than usual, competing with Prussia, in which the har-
vest was but three-fourths of an average, for the supply that poured in from
Prussian and Russian provinces. For several weeks in autumn the railways
throughout Germany were busy beyond precedent, carrying wheat and rye.
One house in Berlin contracted to deliver 500,000/. Hungarian corn alone.
This great importation and the surplus of previous good harvests have caused
low prices and loss to farmers.
The cause of a bad harvest in Saxony and Russia, in 1865, was the heat
and moisture of the spring and a rapid thin growth of straw followed by
a burning summer. Several years previous had been dry, and for two seasons
no water had flowed from the pipes of the well-drained Saxon fields. Want of
forage favoured the exportation of cattle, and the rinderpest in Holland and
England gave a new impetus to it.
Price of wheat per quarter, 1865 :—April, 37s. 9d.; July, 39s, 2d.; Sept.,
41s, 4d. ; Dec., 47s. 10/1.
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 225
Not far from Leipsig the hills above the valleys of the Saale and the Elbe
are clothed with vineyards. ‘Che cultivation is extending. 'The wine is good
in hot seasons; it is sent to Magdeburg and worked up as Bordeaux. Price
of Must, 8d. per quart.
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Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
248
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Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 249
AMERICA.
BOSTON. Massacnuserts, October, 1862.—The large crops of grain of
the West and South-West, and surplus of last year, have come forward
in larger quantities than ever before known, being diverted from their usual
channels by the war. Railways crowded, freights double. Demand for
Europe equal to the large receipts here.
Exports to Hurope, 1861.
WlOurie ss ce co ss os oc J lis QdOsmarrels,
Wheat .cs <2 o« as 8 «+ 250003000 quarters.
IVETE (GEO OREM Phot scb8 Scar oh 600,000 5
1862.—The high price of exchange has stimulated the export trade.
Railroads connected with the west so fully employed as to have raised the
cost of flour, &c., on the sea-board. A great home demand in consequence of
the increased activity in manufacturing towns: prices therefore higher. This
country has been able to make good the deficient harvest in Europe.
1863.—The drain on the male population for recruitments has enhanced
wages and augmented greatly the price of necessities of life. Price of flour
higher than in any year since 1856. Agricultural wages have risen from 64s.
a month to 97. 12s.a month. Crop short.
The excitement in the wool market has been beyond all precedent; the
increase in woollen machinery is estimated at 30 per cent. in eighteen months.
1864.—Exports of flour to the provinces only 342,000 barrels ; of wheat,
6 bushels!
1866.—Boston itself is increasingly a large and very handsome city ; but the
high prices render it a very costly and onerous residence. Even a very moderate
house, if furnished, cannot be rented under 4000 dollars and taxes; unfur-
nished, 2500 dollars to 3000 dollars; and, even at these prices, there are
scarcely any in the market, so that persons of small means are necessarily
driven to hotels, where 4 to 5 dollars a day are expected for accommodation,
without any extras. Labour commands at least 23 dollars a day; skilled
labour a very much higher rate; so that the money which would give a
competence in Europe is absolutely here absorbed by necessities. The cessa-
tion of the war has not induced, as was expected, lower prices; but, in many
articles, the contrary ; and no relief can be looked for as long as there is such
a large amount of currency in circulation.
1867.—Has suffered from the unsettled state of finance, the political agita-
tion, and the prohibitory tariff. Stagnation of commerce. Harvest generally
moderate; good in the West. Prices high in consequence of the deficient
crops in Europe.
Exports to Foreign Ports.
1866, 1867.
Blourbarrelsites seh eae) AVS; (D488 se ee LGR IOS
Wheat, quarters neh tee GOT ese wer 8,000
Maize.. attests ASGQS7 base | aa'e 8,441
CALIFORN IA, 1861.—The agricultural resources of the country have been
considerably extended during the past year.
The total yield of wheat has been 680,000 quarters; average yield per acre
estimated at 202 bushels,
The number of cattle increased so greatly that the price fell to less than
half that of 1860, Several thousand have been boiled down for tallow, netting
to the owner about 44s. to 48s. each.
Growth of wool attracting attention.
1862.—Yield of wheat estimated at 1,115,000 quarters, or nearly 24 bushels
an acre; but this the Consul thinks cannot be entirely relied on, though it is
ne best statistical information that can be obtained from the Surveyor General’s
ce,
250 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
1863.—170,000 quarters of wheat, and 12,000 barrels of flour, shipped to
England in 1863 ; chiefly superior white wheat averaging 641bs, per bushel.
Cost on board, including freight, 47s. 6d. for the first seven months, 42s. to
44s. for the last five months.
Cattle almost unsaleable. Stall-fed, 27. to. 77. 10s.
1864.—The drought of last winter injured the crop of grain. 60,000 quarters
of wheat and 281 barrels of flour were shipped to England early in the year,
and 13,000 quarters and 22,000 barrels of flour to Australia. Flour was
imported later in the year, oie
1865.—Price of wheat before harvest, 90s. to’ 100s. per quarter: supplies
were received from Chili. After the crop the ‘price receded to 60s., and at the
close of the year was 40s. to 42s, Large exports of 1865 crop to Australia,
New Zealand, and China, viz., 86,745 quarters of wheat, 163,700 barrels of
flour. Stocks on hand larger than ever before. The price of barley had been
54s. to 56s. in January ; after the new crop it fell to 17s. per quarter. There
have been exports to New York, Peru, Mexico, and Vancouver Island.
BALTIMORE, 1861.—Connected with Virginia and the interior by the
Baltimore and Ohio railway, Baltimore is favourably situated for trade.
Receipts of Grain.
1858. 1859, 1860. ‘1861,
Quarters. ice eS Quarters.
Wikleatmscy Wsicuueren sas 340,000 383 ,000 355,000 330,000.
Corn, viz. maize... .. 500,000 450,000 380,000 310,000
1863. 1864. 1865. 1866.
Wiheatiyc es eve) cesar: 291,000 240,000 235,000 170,000
Corn, viz. maize «- -. 275,000 285,000 367,000 550,000
The tobacco planters complain of the scarcity of labourers; they depend
almost entirely on coloured hands, to whom they pay 9 dollars to 18 dollars
a month with rations. The tobacco lands, as a rule, are very unhealthy.
The state is rich, but the grain trade is not very considerable.
Exports of Flour from Baltimore for the last Four Years.
Destination. 1866. | 1865, | 1864, 1863.
barrels. barrels. barrels, barrels.
Great Britain 30, 50 ‘ 6 3 20,509 39,809
Hanse Towns ane ae 16 18 1,242 330
lollaxid’.- laments 33 1 2,359 8,817
Firancaire- tif aaena a Er, re ac qe
Braziliie vel cee cme s 92,541 120,951 170,594 157, 286
River La Plata .. .. ZF 57 12,286 933
British North America
Chlontes “us ny 16,507 17,249 14,430 33,412
Venezuela ha oe 50 40 1,369 30
Wiestiindics: <20 Reames 70,070 76,401 | 98,869 83,473
Other ports: . 4: 7. |) 125 851 | 11,424 7,331
Potall 2) ts 179,298 | 215,474 333,082 326,391
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 251
Trade and Commerce.—The increase in trade at Baltimore during the past
year was, in a great measure, owing to the facts that the evil effects of the
late war had partly been overcome, and because communication with the South
and West having been uninterrupted, the receipts of produce from those sec-
tions were greater, while, in return, they took larger supplies of imported goods
from here; also because the political sympathies between a large number of
the people in Maryland and of those of the South attracted a considerable trade
from that quarter; a trade greatly developed by the establishment of steam
communication with New Orleans vi@ Havanna, with Charleston, Savanna, and
Wilmington, by which means large quantities of grain and other merchandise
were shipped go the South, and cotton, naval stores, &c., received in return.
There is good ground to believe that this trade will prove most successful,
because as the effects of the abolition of slavery are recovered from, the cost
of produce (grain, tobacco, &c.) will be reduced, while, on the other hand, the
demand for Southern produce in this market will increase by the growing
requirements of manufacturers, and through the increased traffic with Hurope
by direct steam communication.
Two classes of trade have been seriously affected by the war; that with
the British West Indies, diverted during that period to New York, has not
been recovered; and that with the continent of Europe, based mainly on
the trade in tobacco grown in Maryland, has been greatly contracted in con-
sequence of the reduction in cultivation of tobacco by the change.in the labour
system,
Wheat.—The crops in Maryland and neighbouring States during the last
three years have been but partial, and the harvest of 1866 proved the
psec of these years, obliging millers to have recourse to western spring
wheat.
Indian Corn—The crop of 1865 was, the largest known for many years ;
that of 1866, only gathered late in the year, is generally estimated still larger,
and of very fine quality.
Guano.—A. heavy increase in imports of this article took place, and it
appears probable that still larger quantities will in future be required here.
Hleven cargoes have arrived from the Chincha Islands with upwards of 13,000
tons, and 20 cargoes from Navassa with 7000 tons. The Peruvian guano sold
at 60 dollars (gold) per ton, and was chiefly taken by the Southern States.
The Navassa guano was sold cheaper, and remained in Maryland,
MAINE, 1862.—Not enough wheat or other corn grown for consumption ; it
is procured from Canada and the Western States.
1863.—The flour which was formerly supplied to this State and its sea-
board towns from Boston and New York is now obtained more cheaply from
New Hampshire and the British Provinces.
PORTLAND, MAINE. Reporr ror 1866.— Communication with the
West and with the great produce trade of the Lake Cities by the Grand Trunk
Railway. The general and extensive export trade at this city has been
checked by the high rate of wages and outfits, the enormous expenses at
Southern ports, the high rates of insurance, and the cost of building a ship,
which is from 50 to 75 per cent. more than. before the war, in consequence of
the heavy tax paid to the Government in the shape of duty on materials.
The lumber trade is very great, and as immense quantities of lumber are
required from Canada and the British Provinces to build houses for the rapidly
increasing population of the city and State, the Board of Trade of Portland
petitioned Congress against the abrogation of the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854,
which admitted lumber from Canada free of duty. Portland is the natural
entrepot of Canada for six months in the year. Itis one of the great highways
ieee the producing territories of the great West with the Atlantic sea-
oard.
252 Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat.
BUFFALO, on LAKE ERIE, 1861.—Navigation on Lake Erie opened 18th
April; but the Erie Canal, which connects this port with New York, was not
opened till May 1st, and continued open till December 11th.
Principal import trade, grain and timber; and owing to the closing of the
Mississippi river and the cutting off of the Southern market, the arrivals for
shipment by the Erie Canal have been unprecedented.
Receipts of Grain at the Port of Buffalo.*
1857, 1858, = 1859. 1860., 1861.
Quarters. Quarters. Quarters. Quarters. Quarters.
Wheat .. «6 «- | 1,040,000] 1,334,000] 1,180,000 | 2,310,000 | 8,400,000
Indian corn .. .. | 730,000} 840,000] 890,000 | 1,400,000 | 2,630,000
1862. 1863. 1864, 1865.
Wheat .. .. «+ |3,800,000 | 2,655,000) 2,222,000] 1,555,000
Indian corn ., «. | 3,036,000 | 2,512,000 | 1,360,000 | 2,480,000
Grain and cattle chiefly derived from the prairies of the West.
1862.—Imports of grain much increased; traffic diverted from the usual
routes to the seaboard, to the canals and railways of this State. The Western
States are adding to the number of their mills,
Movement of grain from Erie ports larger than in any year during the last
ten years.
Wheat supply chiefly from Chicago, Milwaukee, Toledo, Sandusky, Cleve-
land, and Detroit.
1865.—On flour, wheat, and oats, there was, it will be observed, a decrease
of imports in 1865, which is, as nearly as possible, counterbalanced by the
increase on Indian corn, barley, and rye. ‘The deficient wheat crops of the
last two seasons on this side of the Atlantic, and the abundant harvests on
the other side—tending together to diminish at once both supply and demand
—sufficiently account for the falling off of grain exports in 1865 as far as
wheat and flour are concerned. ‘The crop of Indian corn in 1865 was the most
abundant on record, and the price of this cereal was further affected by the
closing of many of the Western distilleries in consequence of the high excise
tax upon whisky. The crop of barley was also rather above than under the
average, and the duties on spirits have greatly increased the demand for this
cereal by the brewers, who are profiting largely by the financial burdens
thrown upon the distiller.
1867.—The principal railways centering in Buffalo are the Lake Shore Line,
which places the town in communication with the great railway system of
the West; the Buffalo and Lake Huron Line, connecting with the Grand
Trunk Railway of Canada; and the New York Central and Erie Lines, both
of which terminate in New York.
The Lake Huron Railway crosses the Niagara river by means of a floating
steam bridge, which is registered at the Custom-house as an ordinary steamer,
The traffic of this line is, therefore, included under the head of “ lake com-
merce,” as above given.
* Quantities nearly corresponding are noted as “ Exported by Canal.”
Variation in the Price and Supply of Wheat. 253
The main trunk of the Erie Railway, along which by far the greater por-
tion of its traffic flows, has its Western terminus at Dunkirk. A branch
line, starting from Hornungsville, connects it with Buffalo, and is commonly
known as the Buffalo, New York, and Erie division of this important
railway.
The total length of the Lake Shore, Erie, and New York Central Railways
is 1244 miles. Buffalo is essentially a port of importation, above all for the
article of grain which forms by far the largest item on the list of Canadian
produce. The Reciprocity Treaty was equivalent, as far as it went, to the
commercial “‘ annexation” of Canada. The argument, therefore, of the “ balance
of trade,” whatever it may be worth, would have no more application to the
preponderance of grain importations from Canada than it has to a similar pre-
ponderance from Chicago.
Canadian Produce imported free under the Reciprocity Treaty.
1861. 1862, 1863. | 1865.
OUT asd. wach o eet) (CWks 291,582 183,435 241,308 233,644
Grain (all kinds). bus. 950, 787 912,304 977,228 | 1,301,409
PHILADELPHIA, for the same reason (the war and diverting of traffic)
rose from very trifling exports in the previous four years to 250,000 quarters
of wheat in 1861: flour, 336,000 barrels.
Mr. Heman’s Consutar Report ror 1865.—The deficient wheat crops of
the last two years on this side of the Atlantic, and the abundant harvests on
the other side, account for the falling off in the wheat and flour trade; which,
however, is nearly counterbalanced by the increase in Indian corn (of which
the crop of 1865 was the largest on record, viz., 88,000,000 quarters, irre-
spective of the Southern States), barley, and rye.
The deficit of the wheat crop, as compared with that of 1864, has been
estimated at 3,280,000 quarters.
Probable average product of wheat is 15 bushels per acre, at 60 lbs. weight
per bushel : on the best farms 50 bushels an acre is a common yield. Maize
averages 50 bushels an acre: best farms 80 bushels,
1865.—‘ Owing to the fatal destruction of human life caused by the four
years’ war, the price of labour has ruled very high in all branches of industry ;
nevertheless, with the sole exception of wheat, the staple products of the State
have been amply remunerative.”
PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA, June 7, 1867.—Besides its vast
mineral wealth this is a prominent agricultural State; the character of the
agricultural products is seen in the folowing Table for the year 1866 :—
Crops.
Indiancorn .. .. «. ,. quarters 4,480,000
Wiig “Ea Sod bal Weauiitod 4 1,315,000
Te Gy hee ee? Pee ; 821,000
JOAtG iste es: ss as 4 6,870,000
ISAUICVAN cad Mies fos ee » 77,000
buckwheat leans. > sa “5 1,210,000
Potatoesis (se) es ss «» bushels) 15,636,000
GODACCOM Sen OOO
Mountain limestone ie @ a. ll 000:
Yoredale rocks and millstone erit . .. 64,000
Coal measures o0 ee eon oe en SOROOO
Permian <. _. ace, oe) | eee Mee OU
New red sandstone . APE asco atts: 40)(010)0)
IGS Rex bP agec wy ae see a 5,000
Total sel oer cee tear 285408
In North Staffordshire the carboniferous series of rocks consists,
in descending order, of coal measures, millstone grit, Yoredale
rocks, and mountain limestone, succeeding one another in natural
order. A long synclinal called the Goyt Trough runs due south
from Mottram, near Staleybridge, by the east of Leek to the
Cheadle coal-field.*
This hollow, or trough, is for the most part bounded on either
side by ridges of millstone grit. The coal-field of the Potteries
is enclosed on the north by the ridges of grit which form the
northern boundary of the county at Mow Cop and Cloud. At
Biddulph commences the valley, called Biddulph Trough, which
“runs southward to Stoke and Longton. Play steele Pavers yay aos) eee Rue
Thrashing-machin aia ae) | aster lester fae aS
PSLOMe=TM Pee cee aan) te teeth coet eeme
pticel=maill iid. Tas tts UR ee Ra)
Ghatt-cubter sss; lied cadena ones) Weslo
FUL CIY seta, “UsSjeryevec ecu echt hack URE) on
Iub ch Anm tay eR enOOR bam Sch par bayl 25
498
Another light-land farm to be noticed is at Pendeford, near
Wolverhampton ; it was the residence of Mr. W. Pitt, whose
Report of the Agriculture of Staffordshire, for the Board of
Agriculture, has been several times referred to. It is now occu-
pied by Mr. R. H. Masfen, a leading agriculturist in his county.
The farm consists of 370 acres of light land on hard sandstone
rock, and of 150 acres of indifferent pasture. ‘The management
in some respects is that common to the light-land tract. The
rearing of cattle is a system only pursued in this immediate
district; and the use of a large quantity of town dung from
Wolverhampton is an advantage confined to particular neigh-
bourhoods, but requiring notice, as it affects the farming of this
part of the county considerably.
The usual rotation is the four-course; but, as an experiment
on the clover plant, is modified on part of the farm as follows * :—
1. Turnips (early) or mangold ;
2. Wheat ;
* Red clover and Italian rye-grass alone are sown where the six-course is adopted.
The Agriculture of Staffordshire. 293
3. Barley ;
4. Seeds ;
5. Ditto;
6. Wheat.
By dunging the turnips, and folding half of them on the land,
a good start is obtained for the cropping.
Talavera wheat is usually sown in February. The barley
which follows is sown at the usual time, after once ploughing
the stubble, which is manured with 10 or 12 tons of dung in
January or February. The seeds are the usual mixture of
clovers with Italian rye-grass, which is so useful on sheep farms
for its early feed. The first year the seeds are mown, the
second they are fed. Wheat follows without manure, after
ploughing and pressing, or consolidating with the Cambridge
roller. In the case of the four-course rotation, the turnips are sown
with dung only; little artificial manure is used, the farm being
within reach of dung from the town. The seeds are nearly all fed.
Mr. Masfen has a flock of 200 Shropshire ewes; and at his
annual sale he disposed of 50 rams, 50 cast ewes, and 50 draft
theaves. The wether hoggets are fattened. ‘This may be called
the parent flock of Shropshires in this county, Mr. Masfen’s
father having originated the practice of an annual sale of rams.
The neat stock consists of six or seven cows, which form the
nucleus of a herd of about a hundred, young and old. The cows
calve in October and November. A succession of calves is then
bought of the cow-keepers and dairy farmers, who supply the
neighbouring populous towns with milk. The calves are weaned
at ten or eleven weeks in the winter, when they take readily to
trough food. In summer the foster mother suckles them a week
or two longer. From six weeks old their principal support
during the winter months is on cut turnips, hay-chaff, and oil-
cake. A good cow will rear five or six calves a year. This home-
reared herd is summered on the pasture and seeds for two years,
and fattened in yards between December and May. ‘The
summer maintenance of the large head of stock has been shown.
Little aid can be got from “snatch” crops, even on light land,
in this climate. Stubble turnips are occasionally obtained ; and
common turnips or rape are sown on seeds ploughed up in June,
when they are deficient. The work of the farm is economically
done by thirteen horses. The cultivation for turnips is only one
ploughing, during autumn and winter, toa moderate depth ; and
spring cultivation, followed by ridging up.
The economical use of roots by substituting straw and pur-
chased food is well managed by means of ‘ blend-fodder,” which
consists of the coarsest hay, carted in a partially made condition,
and mixed in the stack with an equal quantity of good wheat straw
294 The Agriculture of Staffordshire.
or oat straw. Last season 20 tons of straw were used in addition to
the 30 or 40 tons of mixed fodder; 25 to 30 acres of meadow,
and 15 to 20 acres of seeds, is the usual breadth of hay. The
homestead is provided with a fixed steam-engine and the neces-
sary machinery.
Cannock CHAsE.
The masses of conglomerate which cover the greater part of
Cannock Chase can hardly be called hills; their rounded contour
reminds one of the shape of Dutch cheeses, or of saucers
inverted. The surface is covered, for miles together, with
heather, or with a delicate green carpet of whortleberries. The
waste certainly looks, at first sight, more like a field for sport than
for farming; but the ominous tall chimneys which rise here and
there, beside the peculiar tackle which, like skeleton arms, over-
hang the shafts of the coal-pits, and the little villages which are
springing up around them, bespeak the wealth which lies below
the surface. The straight roads, newly made, and making,
prove that the Chase is doomed; but even an agricultural
reporter may be allowed to hope that a few fir-clad knolls will
remain untouched—a few spots too steep for the plough, where
all innovations and improvements may be baulked, showing
what Cannock Chase was like when it abounded with grouse
and black game, and had its native breed of sheep before the
‘mineral line” crossed it, or the populous towns of South
Staffordshire began to press upon its rude outskirts.
The Chase consisted of about 25,000 acres, on which several
enclosures have been effected, and others are in progress. The
Marquis of Anglesea, as lord of the several manors, has an allot-
ment of one-fourth of the land, and a further share as owner of
adjoining property, which had rights of grazing. The remainder
is allotted in the usual way among the surrounding proprietors,
and a further allotment falls to the Enclosures Commissioners,
who sell it to pay the expense of road-making, &c. M/‘Clean’s
and the Cannock and Rugeley Colliery Company hold extensive
tracts on lease, parts of which are cultivated by themselves, or by
their colliers, who hire small plots. Altogether, a vigorous
attack has been made on the heather, which, with a few patches
of furze, covers the surface. Mr. Darling, the Marquis of
Anglesea’s agent, to whom I am indebted for much assistance,
enabled me to inspect the different modes of reclaiming the
waste. The first operation is burning the heath. The breaking
up is comparatively easy, on account of the stunted condition
of the vegetation, from the constant grazing of stock. The
root-hold is therefore so slight that in some cases the steam culti-
vator had done the work that is generally performed by a
ee $——— ——_—_——_—_———————
The Agriculture of Staffordshire. 295
four-horse plough, turning the first furrow, which is afterwards
broken by cultivators and dragged to pieces, and the rubbish
burnt or removed ; 40s. an acre covers the first expense. The
land is then limed, and ploughed, and planted with potatoes.
Oats are sometimes grown as a first crop; but a good liming
and a year’s cultivation in roots are the best way to destroy the
excess of vegetable matter in the land. High farming must
immediately follow, and must be continued on this light soil,
which contains no accumulated store of fertility. Turnips,
artificial manures, and sheep, and the aid of the great towns near,
with that of the increasing population of the collieries, are the
means by which this land will be made productive.
The numerous small occupiers have used the spade with
great success ; and by sometimes buying manure, by keeping a
pig, and wasting nothing, they soon make the poorest land rich.
The colliers are attached to their garden-plots, where they work
after spending the day in pits 250 yards below the surface.
This deep subsoiling of theirs is not beneficial to cottages, roads,
or any sort of buildings, which crack and sink when the opera-
tion is carried on beneath them; but it seems to suit the gardens,
for they look well. One of the effects of the mining is to lower
the surface, as the earth bends down into the place filled by the
seam of coal,
Small freeholders are always found on the edges of extensive
commons, where they have settled sometimes from remote
periods, gaining the freehold by twenty years’ uninterrupted pos-
session. The original home-built hut of turf or wood is in time
replaced by a more substantial cottage. I saw a unique dwelling
on the Chase, which was simply a railway carriage, abandoned
probably by some insolvent company, and now set on a brick
foundation, and furnished with a chimney and other conveniences
for habitation, by a man who farms his own little manor, and
who, I venture to say, will never become bankrupt! On the
roadside in Needwood Forest, there are a number of small plots,
mostly in pasturage, with neat brick houses, held by freeholders,
who were originally squatters ; their small domain is generally a
paddock, surrounded by a good quick-hedge, trimmed neat and
level. A cow is generally kept. I met with one case where the free-
holder had irrigated his two or three acres of pasture from a small
brook. On Whittington Heath, near Lichfield—a waste of 450
acres of light dry land, which boasts its native breed of sheep—
there are several of this industrious class ; they invariably give
their consent to the enclosure by private Act of Parliament,
which can be obtained on gaining the permission of the pro-
prietors of three-fourths of the parish. Their little domains are
then increased by the new allotments,
VOL. V.—S.S. x
296 The Agriculture of Staffordshire.
On Lord Lichfield’s estates surrounding Ranton Abbey, and
on his lordship’s Acton and Baswich and Dunstan estates, near
Shugborough, there are forty-five small holders of land, with
comfortable cottage-houses, and cowhouse, pigstye, &c., suitable
to the land they hold. They are let to the most industrious and
well-conducted agricultural labourers as a reward, and as an
inducement for others of this class to pursue such a course of
conduct as would lead landowners to select them for occupa-
tions. The land is well cultivated and productive; the houses,
gardens, and premises neatly kept. The conditions on which
the occupations are held require good conduct and good manage-
ment. ‘The quantity of land in these holdings is from four acres
to seven acres. Ina small village on this estate, which I passed
through, there were four of these occupations—four detached
picturesque cottages in luxuriant gardens, with the cowhouse and
out-offices behind, and the pasture and tillage land adjoining.
The small meadow which each had was irrigated by a stream at
a short distance. The extent of land on three of these occupations
was about seven acres, where two cows were kept; on one of
four acres, one cow is kept; about one acre of tillage-land is
allotted to each. At least half the tillage-land each year is in
green crop, and the remainder in corn crop. The green crops
are first rye and winter vetches, sown early in the autumn, and
cut green for cows before the pasture is ready, and as they are
consumed potatoes are set. The corn crop supplies wheat for
household consumption, or barley for pig food, and the straw
litter and manure. These four cottage-landholders regularly work
with farmers near; two are waggoners and two labourers, and
have been trustworthy and skilful farm-servants. When necessary,
these tenants obtain a little hired assistance to put in or get off
their crops, or their employers spare them four or five days in
the season for this purpose, and sometimes give a little aid.
Rivrrs, STREAMS, AND IRRIGATION.
Staffordshire is remarkably well watered ; its hills are the source
of numberless springs and rivulets, whose waters are used to a
considerable extent for irrigation. Cloud, Mow Cop, and the
other boundary heights, which are precipitous on the Cheshire
side, slope towards the valleys in that elevated part of Stafford-
shire; and the direction of these slopes and valleys brings the
water into this county. In the “ Biddulph Trough,” or rather in
an adjoining offshoot, the Trent takes its rise. A tributary of
the Churnet rises near, and the watershed which divides them is
so narrow that the two streams may be seen running away from
each other. Every “trough,” or little valley, in this Staffordshire
The Agriculture of Staffordshire. 297
“highland” has its stream, and they all run south, or south-east,
and join the waters of the Trent, the Churnet, or the Dove; and
while the configuration of the land prevents the escape of any of
the native springs, Staffordshire gains a further water supply from
the limestone hills of Derbyshire. Probably the great under-
ground reservoir of hard water, beneath the town of Burton, now
tapped by the wells of the great breweries, is partly filled from
this source. It is remarkable that the limestone district is not
drained by the streams that pass through it, which are very
slightly fed during their course through that formation, This is
owing to the numerous fissures in the rock, into which the water
drains away. ‘There are two streams, the Hamps and the Many-
fold, that disappear by cracks in the earth, and find a subterranean
passage of two or three miles in the limestone beds. They rise
together in Ilam gardens. ‘The millstone grit and coal measures,
which form a large portion of the high land, throw off the greater
part of the 35 inches of annual rainfall ; and by simply embanking
the narrow valleys at Rudyard, Stanley, and Knypersley, three
reservoirs haye been formed, which feed the Trent and Mersey
Canal. This partly fulfils a suggestion of Pitt for retaining
flood-water in reservoirs to irrigate the sloping sides of the vales.
Our notes on the application of water naturally commence with
the River Dove, of which an old doggrel declares that—
“Tn April Dove’s flood
Is worth a king’s good.”
The Dove has also been called the “ Nile of England.” The
verses are privileged, but the other old saying must be pronounced
untrue. The river valiey is a deep alluvial soil, rich everywhere,
Sat more valuable when out of reach of floods, because the deposit
of mud, washed from the steep valley banks, above Uttoxeter,
chokes the herbage with silt and dirts the hay. The floods,
therefore, are exceedingly injurious in spring and summer, and
are carefully shut out when practicable. On one farm 170 acres
of meadow were formerly under water in time of flood; now
50 or 60 acres is a large flood, owing to the combined outlay of
tenant and landlord in embanking the river. On Lord Lichfield’s
estate, on the Trent, between Lichfield Alrewas and King’s
Bromley, the flood-water has been excluded from 200 acres, with
power to admit it at the proper time, by means of flood-gates, for
the purpose of irrigation, An August flood, in a dry season, is
no doubt useful; but, in general, flooded grass encourages rot in
sheep, and diarrhcea and abortion in cattle.
The richest part of the valley of the Dove is that between
Rocester and Rolleston and Marston (below Tutbury). Farther
down, the valley is wider, more subject to floods, and not so rich.
x 2
298 The Agriculiure of Staffordshire.
In this famous district 105/. per acre is a common price ter land,
37. a customary rent, and 4/. or 5/. an acre for accommodation
land. The fall of the river through this reach is 10 feet per mile,
which is much more than that of the Trent. It occasionally
proves too rapid for the owners of stock to save their sheep from
being washed away. It has been noticed at the Tutbury Mills.
that there has never been a flood in June for the last thirty or
forty years. The period of summer floods is from the 5th to the
20th July. The crop of hay, therefore, might always be saved
by shutting up the meadows early in April, so that the crop
might be cut in the third week in June.
The soft marly banks of this rapid stream are easily worn by
the current ; deep holes are made, and the materials deposited at
the lower bends of the river; thus the banks have been described
as swaying to and fro. Flitering * is the simple plan of protec-
tion. It consists in building a wall from the bottom of the river,
when it is low, with thorns and weed ; this is done with a flitering-
hook, and the wall is tied by means of piles driven through it,
about 6 feet apart. These are bound with wattles and turfed at
the top, level with the surface of the meadow. The abrupt edges
of the bank are sloped gently for some yards from the river, and
the turf replaced. Nothing resists the action of water, in sapping
the river banks, so well as grass.
On the banks of the streams there is a considerable extent of
meadow-land which is under artificial irrigation, but a good deal
more might be accomplished by combined action on the part of
proprietors. About fifty years ago an Act of Parliament was
obtained by several proprietors to improve the meadows of the
Penk, before its union with the Trent, by keeping off superfluous
waters by irrigation; but this mode of procedure proved compli-
cated and costly. The Commissioners ‘‘ improved” about 100
acres at an expense greater than the value of the land, and the
scheme failed. There are mills on some of the streams which
head back the water for many miles, and as the question of com-
pensation is only a question of the difference in the cost of water
or steam power, it might be arranged if proprietors could agree,
and a great improvement would be at once effected.
Irrigation is perhaps never desirable on the richest pastures,
nor where the water is poor. I have met with several instances
of its abandonment from both causes. In the valley of the Dove
twenty-two acres were turned into water-meadows in 1836, at a
cost of between 122, and 13/. an acre for a carrier, about half a
mile long, flood-banks, draining, &c. The tiles for draining and
the bricks for culverts amounted to about one-fifth the outlay.
* Flitan, in Saxon, to strive, or contend.
The Agriculture of Staffordshire. 299
The first summer was dry, and the crop was heavy. The five or
six following crops did not produce more than common meadows,
and the hay was deficient in feeding quality. Since then the
pasture has been grazed, but the stock was removed from
November till the middle of April, and the water turned on all
the winter, until eight years since, when irrigation was aban-
doned. On the whole this land was considered to be damaged 5s.
an acre by irrigation. The water destroyed the clover and best
grasses, and it rendered the pasture unsafe for sheep during winter.
It has been said that ‘‘ Dove’s Flood” is less beneficial now
than it was forty years ago, owing to the reduced drainage from
the farmyards up the stream, and to the care taken of road-
washings, and of any other available run, which is now turned
over the meadows, instead of finding its way into the river. The
waters of the Blyth below Blythfield are proverbially poor.
Above that town there are some fine water-meadows. Perhaps
it is the washings of the steep “sidings,” during rains, which
give the water its richness. Water that has been used is of little
or no use farther down; the occupier above is the wolf, who
destroys the lamb below. I met with a very clever mode of
applying the water of a muddy stream on some meadows 70 acres
in extent. Instead of the water flowing over the sides of the
carriers, it is conveyed through subterranean channels, cut from
the bottom of the carriers and through their sides. he fall was
considerable, and the large volume of swift-running water agi-
tated the mud and carried it over the surface of the meadow,
instead of allowing it to settle in the carrier. A slow current fills
up carriers, and occasions the expense of frequent cleansing ; and
in flooded meadows, where the mud is the fertilising agent, it defeats
the object to some extent. Some of the best water-meadows in
Staffordshire, however, lie immediately below the source of the
springs, and are fertilised by water that is always bright. At
the head of a little valley, near the Hollington stone quarries,
there are several acres of meadows watered by a trout-stream,
which rises here in the sandstone rock. The soil is gravel, and
inferior, but it is made exceedingly productive by the goodness
of the water. The warmth imparted to the land prevents the
first meadow from ever freezing. The meadows are but a narrow
strip, extending some distance down the glen. The lower mea-
dows are less forward and less productive ; and, still further down,
the water is found to have lost its fertilising virtues, having
parted with its mineral constituents and with heat.
Mr. Dinnock, of Swinnerton, showed me a poor gravel pasture
that was exceedingly productive when irrigated from a spring
which rises in the sandstone rock above it. The spring had
been recently cut off by the London and North-Western Railway,
300 The Agriculture of Staffordshire.
and the meadow was now unproductive, as it had been formerly.
In both these last cases the grass, though abundant, was poor in
quality, and the hay made from it was little better than the
sweetest oat-straw ; and this is always the case when great crops are
produced from poor land by means of water. The production of
water grasses is an evil avoided by not keeping the water on
more than twenty-four hours at a time.
There are about 40 acres of irrigated meadows at Thorpe
Hall, where, for want of a natural stream, the proprietor has
formed reservoirs to catch drainage and spring water. There
is a very ingenious and elaborate system of waterworks, with
several inches of iron and *earthenware pipes, and enormous
underground tanks, for adding doses of sewage from the farm
premises. The varieties of the grasses are at present unchanged,
and, as the pasture is very superior, it would be a mistake to sop
it and spoil it with water.
Mr. Harding, of Acton Trussell, and Mr. Keeling, of Ted-
desley Hay, also showed me small extents of meadow, watered
by small streams, and enriched occasionally in each case with the
drainage from the farmyards. The instances of similar con-
trivance which I observed in my journeys are too numerous to
mention. On the banks of all the large streams there is a con-
siderable extent of water meadows, and the abundant water
supply of the northern, central, and eastern divisions of the
county has been largely appropriated for purposes of irrigation.
There is undoubtedly scope for further enterprise, but probably
the general opinion is correct that it is unprofitable to irrigate
with poor water, or to irrigate very rich pastures. Practical men
test the quality of water by a very simple mode of analysis—
when the watercress and the brook-lime grow luxuriantly, the
water is suitable for irrigation,
Nearly all the water in Staffordshire has the desired quality ;
that which is deficient usually flows from the gravel-drift, and
has a sterile look, with black pebbles at the bed of the stream.
Mr. Pitt was very earnest on the subject of irrigation, and
he pointed out the scanty supply of water in some streams in
summer, and the superabundance discharged by them in winter,
and showed how the waters might be equalised throughout the
year by storing it in reservoirs, as they do in hot countries.
Economy in this respect is not yet practised, and animals are
occasionally nearly drowned in winter, and they sometimes suffer
from thirst in summer.
AGRICULTURAL CUSTOMS.
The custom of Staffordshire is a Lady-day entry; the dung in
yards belongs to the landlord; the out-going tenant is paid for
The Agriculture of Staffordshire. 301
labour only, if any, on the dung; he is paid a consuming price
for hay and straw; he takes two-thirds of the corn of a crop of
wheat after fallow, leaving the straw and one-half of the wheat if
taken after a crop. Wheat after seeds ploughed before Midsummer
is fallow-wheat. The crop is usually valued a fortnight before
harvest, or the out-going tenant can elect to take his share after
thrashing the crop; in which case he must pay the cost of reap-
ing; this is seldom done. It will be observed that the out
going tenant sows the wheat, and the in-coming tenant pays the-
year’s rent. The sale takes place in February or March, and
the in-coming tenant sows the spring crops. The in-coming
tenant pays two-thirds the cost of the lime applied on the fallow
for wheat, and one-third of the lime used on the farm the pre-
vious year. The in-coming tenant pays for all necessary acts of
husbandry done on the farm, for the young seeds, if not stocked
after the lst of November, for a proper proportion of the uncon-
sumed hay and straw, the growth of the previous year, if properly’
ricked and thatched, two-thirds the market value of hay, and
one-third the market value of straw. There is a probability of
valuers agreeing by a general arrangement to allow in future a
-, portion of the cost of purchased food used in the last year, viz. :
in the case of grains, one-fourth ; of corn, one-third ; and of cake,
one-half. This does not refer to corn eaten by horses. The
custom of valuations is exceedingly vague ; there are no acknow-
ledged rules to which valuers could appeal in cases of dispute,
and men of experience are unable to agree as to the custom. It
is obvious that the tenant has no security for the value of real
improvements, and unless allowances are granted for purchased
food, the manure left in the yards will be of poor quality. In
fact, there have been instances of the tenant stripping the farm
by selling off the stack-hay, straw, and root-crop, and leaving no
manure. For some years there has been a growing desire on
the part of both landlords and tenants to define customs, and to
establish a better system.
It may be said of the greater part of Staffordshire that there
are no leases, This is remarkable in a county where some
of the great proprietors had intimate relations with the Earl of °
Leicester, the father of the leasing system, whose visits and
inspection of farms are well remembered. In 1819 Lord
Leicester advised his son-in-law, Lord Anson, to offer leases,
with liberal covenants, to his tenantry, who, however, refused
them, on the ground that they were satisfied with their present
position. Recent discussions induced the grandson of Lord
Anson to offer a prize of 50/. for the best farm agreement for a
yearly holding, which was awarded to Mr. May, of Elford,
by a committee selected from the members of the Staffordshire
302 The Agriculture of Staffordshire.
Agricultural Society. It completes the narrative, and shows the
experimental nature of this attempt to frame a good agreement,
to state that the successful one has been superseded, after further
experience, with the full sanction of its author. Lord Lichfield’s
new agreement, which is on the point of completion, is well
drawn and practical.
STEAM-CULTIVATION.
Steam-cultivation is represented by a very few sets of tackle.
Smith’s has been working on Lord Hatherton’s Home Farm for
some years, and I saw it steering its way in rather difficult work,
where part of the extensive park had been ploughed up for tem-
porary cultivation, and the trees had been left. Howard’s tackle
is still doing strong work on a farm of the Marquis of Anglesey,
at Sinai Park, where the Royal Agricultural Society’s reporters
saw it in 1867, and has since performed a very novel feat in
breaking up the heather on some portions of Cannock Chase that
are being brought into cultivation. The small size of the farms and
the limited extent of arable land are drawbacks. Nevertheless, five
sets of Fowler’s ploughs and engines are available, if required,
since they belong to a small company of Staffordshire gentlemen,
though they are at present employed on the larger fields of other
counties. Mr. Webb, of Smallwood Manor, is the principal
mover in this company, and he has purchased one set which will
no doubt be confined to the county, and used in connection with his
steam mole-plough. His price for ploughing 7 inches to 10 inches
deep varies from 12s. to 15s. per acre, according to the size of the
field, and the nature of the soil. Cultivating once costs 10s. to 13s.,
twice over 18s. to 2ls., the farmer finding coal and water ; but
of 14,000 acres of work completed, 12,000 have been cultivated.
The Staffordshire Agricultural Society, established twenty-five
years ago, divides the county into districts, appoints a com-
mittee in each, who offer prizes out of funds placed at their dis-
posal by the general committee—for skilled labour, ploughmen,
drainers, &c., and for good cultivation; and, until the cattle-
plague diminished the number of its subscribers, prizes open to
the county were offered for the best crops of mangold, turnips,
&c. These are discontinued for the present. Landed proprietors
are allowed to compete for prizes offered for stock, not for good
cultivation. These prizes have been a decided stimulus to agri-
culture, and the meetings and gatherings have helped the work
of general improvement (such as the drainage of estates), by
drawing attention to such subjects. A local society at Cannock
has been in abeyance since the cattle-plague, but will probably
resume its show this year. Lord Anglesey and others have
offered prizes for good cultivation, A Chamber of Agriculture
The Agriculture of Staffordshire. 303
was established in 1867, and has held meetings once a month up
to Midsummer in each year, besides an annual meeting, and has
discussed such topics as the local taxation, malt-tax, the cattle-
plague, &c. The game question has not been discussed, and it
has not become a great grievance, though in some cases ground
game is much too numerous.
Farm BUILDINGS.
In Staffordshire they are generally better, more substantial, and
more central, than they are in the arable counties. Less room is
required both for corn and stock, and the good but limited
accommodation which dairy stock requires can be secured at a
moderate outlay compared with the value of the land. An econo-
mical system of feeding has been adopted, which introduces the
use of machinery. A root-pulper and a chaff-cutter, at least, are
almost always found on dairy farms, and the addition of horse-
gear and a thrashing-machine is very common. A further ex-
tension, to include a steam-engine and mills for grinding and
crushing, has been made on a great many estates. There are
perhaps more fixed steam-engines and more improved machinery
on that of Mr. Sneyd, of Keele Hall, than on any other of the
same extent. Those who are interested in the steaming of chaff
may like to know that the practice is carried out well and
cheaply by a tenant-farmer, Mr. Harding, of Acton Trussell, who
feeds a considerable number of stalled oxen. ‘The boiler of a
fixed steam-engine, a large iron vat, which is easily filled and
emptied, and a tramway for the conveyance of the food to the
troughs, are the principal features. There are very few such
establishments, and the general opinion is that the cooking of
roots and chaff has been superseded by pulping and mixing.
Cooking corn, especially maize-meal for pigs, is very general.
The dairy farmers are more apt than arable farmers at all such
manipulations. They are more accustomed to what the latter
would consider to be troublesome work. Their establishments
are larger, and in some respects more homely; there are, as a
rule, more servants in the house, and there are the calves which
must have their food prepared, and a pot boiling for them on the
kitchen-fire.
Straw and roots are the most important home-grown feeding
articles; in arable districts generally they are abundant, in dairy
districts they are very scarce. The dairy farmer has learned to
use them with economy; he knows that straw with meal, &c.,
are to a great extent substitutes for roots, and that roots are
relatively costly food on heavy land. He uses, as a rule, less
than half the quantity of roots that the root- growing arable
304 The Agriculture of Staffordshire.
farmer uses, and he substitutes for them, both in the case of
sheep and horned stock, a large quantity of dry food, such as
straw-chaff, brewers’ grains, malt-dust, oilcake, and meal, with
which he makes a suitable mixture.
Mr. T. D. Botteley, of Tixall Heath, near Stafford, informs me
that last winter he cut up from 70 to 80 tons of straw, with 25 tons
of hay ; and this food, mixed with boiled corn and oilcake, fattened
40 beasts and 200 sheep, besides wintering 50 store oxen and 300
sheep, with the aid of only 7 acres of mangold, 16 acres of
middling swedes, and a few stubble turnips.
The machinery and the necessary store-rooms and mixing-
houses occupy an important part of the farmstead in Stafford-
shire; the amount of barn-room required is not great. The
buildings are generally of bricks, which are good and cheap,
20s. a thousand. Stone, though plentiful, is costly to work, and
timber is not allowed to occupy much space in rich grass
districts.
There are very few covered yards, which are undesirable in
the rearing of cattle, for sanitary reasons, obvious to those who
know that direct sunlight as well as pure air are necessary for
young animals. Mr. Bass has a covered homestead at the
Deanery Farm, in Needwood Forest, where he fattens a number
of famous Galloways, and makes manure which has no doubt
been a principal agent in doubling the value of his land to rent,
a feat which has actually been performed in a few years.
Colonel Inge has erected a wonderful range of farm buildings
at Thorpe Hall, which are remarkable for a great outlay without
any ostentation, and for the convenience and utility of all the
arrangements. ‘The internal fittings and contrivances are singu-
larly ingenious. The poultry reside, not in a house, but in a
palace, or Alhambra, with the great improvement for our climate
of a glass roof over the court where the fountain plays; a horn
calls the birds to meat. They roost and nest in great state, and
a very ingenious zinc guard protects them from feline enemies.
I must mention the underground passage for pigs, by which they
pass to their pastures and promenades without the inconvenience
of crossing an approach road. The courts for lambing, the
paved dipping pens for sheep, the residence for rams, and the ad-
joining harem, are all superb. In the midst of an assemblage of
buildings, too numerous to mention, is an amateur farmhouse
where the servants employed on the farm and in the dairy are
quartered. An extensive cellarage and larder supply their daily
mess; a wing of the house is appropriated to each sex, and here,
if nowhere else, the young Jabourer can live in comfort, though
single. The discipline, so necessary where the number is large,
is well preserved ; and the Colonel’s arrangements are perfect.
The Agriculture of Staffordshire. 305
Amongst novel and ingenious contrivances must be noticed the
balance-gates, patented by Mr. Webb, of Smallwood Manor, which
are opened by a simple mechanical contrivance on the approach
of a carriage. They obviate the necessity of a lodge, and if their
appearance, when rising into the air to let the visitor pass, is a
little startling, they are certainly exceedingly convenient, and
especially suitable for small gates to secure cattle from lawns or
gardens.* P
The labourers’ cottages are in many instances superior. On an
estate of more than 20,000 acres (Lord Lichfield’s) there are, or will
be ina few months, three bedrooms in every cottage. There are very
many instances in which proprietors have erected superior cottages
on their estates. But as the outlay is not remunerative, and must
therefore be incurred from motives of good taste and good feeling,
there are many cases where, from want of means or some other
cause, this outlay has not been made. It is difficult, when im-
provements have been partly effected and partly neglected, to give
a tolerable idea in a few words of the actual state of things.
There are fewer cottages than in the southern counties generally,
and probably their average condition is better. The cottages
are generally built of red bricks, and blue, or rather black, tiles,
of capital quality, and very often so hard that time does not tone
down the colour to the grey quiet tint which is so agreeable.
The moss-covered houses, such as one sees in Sussex, Surrey, and
Kent, are seldom met with; and one misses the vine, which does
not ripen here, and therefore never adorns the cottage walls.
The cottagers’ well-known attachment to their gardens helps to
compensate them for many hardships. Every cottage should havea
good garden in front, if possible on the south side, near the road.
That is the best site and the pleasantest spot for evening labour,
and the harmless gossip which sweetens it. A row of cottages
having gardens behind is an unfortunate arrangement, which
ne out of sight one of the brightest and happiest spots on
earth,
THE SHEEP AND HorseEs oF STAFFORDSHIRE.
The former are almost invariably Shropshires, more or less
resembling the original type, which yet remains on Cannock
Chase, as well as the various long and short woolled breeds
which have been used to improve it. The extremely dry sur-
face of the Chase and its good climate have produced a sheep
much heavier than the native heath-breeds elsewhere. Their
descendants retain their hardy prolific qualities, and their excel-
lent grazing character; and they frequently retain some points
* They are manufactured by Mr. Bewley, of Uttoxeter.
306 The Agriculture of Staffordshire.
of resemblance which modern breeders are now obliterating, viz.,
the arched back, dropping behind the shoulders, the long coun-
tenance and bare head, the long limbs, and the speckled face and
legs. The original breed had a short light fleece, of about 3 Ibs.,
and a carcase which might be fattened at three years old to 8 or
even 9 stone; the derivative animal has a deep, heavy fleece, a
compact form, a close-woolled head, the dark face of a Down,
and a frame weighing 10 stone at thirteen months, without
extraordinary treatment.
The breeder’s art has been skilfully exercised in many flocks
of local repute, and the means employed may be traced in the
great variety of character which appears in the sheep commonly
kept and commonly called Shropshires, which, however diverse
in appearance, have in general the common quality of doing
well on grass, or on seeds. They are extremely good mothers,
and there is good evidence that the yield of lambs in many flocks
is 150 to 100 ewes,
The native breeds on other heaths and commons have assumed
characters varying with the soil and other circumstances ; that on
Whittington Heath, near Lichfield, has the same appearance as
the Cannock sheep, but is rather larger.
There is every mixture of white, black, and rusty-haired pigs
kept on the dairy farms, and fattened on whey. Many farmers
keep two or three sows; but the principal supply of store pigs
comes from the breeding district of Shropshire. The sort kept is
generally the bacon-hog of the large breed.
Many farmers breed their own horses, and large numbers are
brought from Wales, Derbyshire, and other breeding counties.
‘There are a few of the larger, or dray, horses, and the rest are
either the smaller-sized, or Welsh, van horse, or the rough-legged
midland counties’ breed.
DRAINING.
A large area in this county until recently required draining; a
large extent has been done, and that which remains is chiefly on the
smaller and less important properties. Like the other great im-
provements, it has been principally effected in the last thirty years.
Under an old, but not the best, system the tenant found labour,
the landlord pipes; recently a large extent of under-draining has
been done by means of the Lands Improvement Companies, or
by private expenditure on the part of the more opulent pro-
prietors. On the whole, the draining under Government in-
spection has not been well carried out. It was perhaps too
extensive for thoroughly effective superintendence; it is too
costly; and, moreover, the principle of a uniform depth of
A feet, when the fall admits, is a bad one. In many instances
The Agriculture of Staffordshire. 307
4-foot work has not drained the land, and shallower drainage
would have done so, This is the case on a large portion of Need-
wood Forest, where the subsoil is paved with an impervious floor
of hard clay, which prevents the water from sinking. The con-
sistence of a subsoil depends on the materials of which it is com-
posed, and the pressure to which it has been subjected ; it may
have been consolidated into a hard rock, or it may be a soft
absorbent soapy clay, with great powers of expansion and con-
traction. In the case referred to, it is a hard solid clay, into
which water does not penetrate. The retentive subsoil forms a
watertight bottom, and the surface-soil becomes a reservoir.
The pipes, therefore, must be laid on the bottom or floor, and
not underneath it. In strong clays, the excess of rain-water does
not sink into the subsoil quickly enough, if at all. Some clays
crack to a considerable depth at the period of the year when they
contract, and water then flows freely through them; but there
are hard solid clays which have not this property, and in
these tough clays the drains should not be laid deep, because
very little cleavage takes place in them and the water does
not sink rapidly. The power ‘of contraction in drought, and
of expansion when the soil is again wetted, varies with its
composition. In general the soil is harder and less _per-
meable to moisture as the depth increases. Sometimes the
surface stratum passes into an impenetrable subsoil at between
20 and 30 inches. The mole-plough is then as effective as pipes,
and very much cheaper. Mr. Willoughby Wood informs me
that he has re-drained Jand at 3 feet (and 6 yards), which had
been drained at 4 feet, ineffectively, under Government super-
intendence. On that land he finds, at the former depth, traces
of a brashy gravel, below which is a hard impervious clay. Mr,
Bass has re-drained at Rangemoor for the same reason, and many
other instances could be given. The late Mr. Arkwright, of
Dunstall, induced Mr, Parkes to drain his land at 10 yards’ dis-
tances, instead of the usual distance of 12 yards. But the depth
(4 feet) proved too much for that soil, and it has been re-drained
by a subsequent purchaser. At Croxden Abbey, 4 feet by 10
yards has answered well in an open subsoil, a soft good-cutting
marl, which the drainer undertakes readily at 14d. per yard, and
earns 2s, 6d. a day. On the heavy shale of Trentham the Go-
vernment draining, at 8 yards and 4 feet, did not master the
rushes, and has been replaced by drains at 6 yards, and the
13-inch pipes, which were soon choked by a white earthy mat-
ter, were abandoned for larger ones. I refer to these exceptional
instances of failure to show that there is no golden rule applying
to depth and width. If the object be to remove the water, the
drains must be laid at the depth and width indicated by the
308 The Agriculture of Staffordshire.
nature of the subsoil; and in draining some hundreds of acres, I
have found that these points should be tested by trial, and not
settled by routine. But sometimes the object has appeared to
be to carry out certain official regulations, the depth has been
measured by red tape, and pockets only have been drained !
It was in this county, on the estates of Sir Robert Peel and
Mr. Thomas Gisborne, that Mr. Parkes’s system was first carried
out by the originator. Deep draining was the subject of one of
Mr. Gisborne’s able articles in the ‘ Quarterly Review,’
On Lord Lichfield’s estates about 7000 acres have been drained
during the last fifteen years by the experienced agent, Mr. Wyatt,
who availed himself of local skill and instructed the superinten-
dents who took charge of the large staff of workmen. The drains
were done at various depths, which were adopted after digging
and trying the subsoils. Where veins of sand existed in the
clays, bottom water was generally found, and this required thorough
draining at a depth of not less than 5 feet. On the gravel-drift
a porous subsoil is frequently charged with water, derived from
a higher level, and rising in wet weather to a point where it proves
injurious to the cultivated surface. In such circumstances Mr.
Allen, of Knightley Hall, has drained the gravel 5 to 6 feet deep,
at distances varying from 15 to 20 yards. ain-water probably
seldom finds its way into these drains in a locality where the
average rainfall does not exceed 24 inches ; it is absorbed by the
surface above the drains, and does not hinder cultivation.
The mole-plough, an ancient implement so effective on Essex
clays, has recently been introduced by Mr. Webb, of Smallwood
Manor, near Uttoxeter. I saw this useful implement in Lord
Bagot’s Park attached to a 14-horse-power steam-engine, and
armed with a large mole, 4 inches in diameter. It was marching
over ten acres a day, at a depth of 30 inches and 1 rod apart,
and would, therefore, soon complete its 300-acre task. The price
charged for the work is 20s. an acre, and the cost of mains and
fetching water, coal, &c., is 7s. more. In all clay subsoils this
is a most satisfactory mode of draining. Lord Bagot has expended
14,0002. or 15,000/. in draining in the last fifteen years by aid
of the Lands Improvement Company. The depth was never less
than 4 feet, and the distance about 8 to 12 yards, according to
the nature of the subsoil. ‘The effects are satisfactory.
LABOUR.
Corn is usually cut by piecework, at prices which in the case
of wheat range from 10s. per acre to 20s. or more. When reaped,
it is usually done by the thrave of 24 sheaves, the number vary-
ing from 80 per acre for a light crop to 60 per acre for a strong
The Agriculture of Staffordshire. 309
one; the price is 5d. per thrave. Mowing with the scythe is done
at rather lower prices. In the neighbourhood of towns, where
straw is in demand, “badging” (fagging or bagging) is preferred.
The best and most painstaking badgers come from the neighbour-
hood of the Peak and the Derbyshire hills. The ‘“ Peakrils,” as
they are called, do a good deal of badging in the early districts,
and return home in time for their own harvest; the price is about
18s. per acre. The Irish and other strangers who migrate from
towns and districts where harvest is later are employed to cut
wheat; the home labourers load and stack the corn by the day,
and cut the later crops. Barley costs 3s. to 4s. to mow; Qs. if
sheavedand set up, which is preferred. Oats cost 3s. to 6s., or 9s.
if sheaved and set up. In Staffordshire generally the carrying of
corn is done by the regular labourers, milkers, &c. In some cases
they are paid 25s. for the harvest month, with a large quantity of
beer for their encouragement when at work; but generally the
wages of regular men are not raised in harvest; they are either
paid for overtime, or much more generally they get food and beer
on the days they are at work. As there is no established custom,
the practice varies a good deal. On some farms luncheon is given,
viz. bread and meat, cheese and beer, and after late carrying, say
five or six times during harvest, they come in the house to sup.
On other farms the feeding is more extensive, extending to break-
fast, dinner, “fours,” and supper on busy days; the eating and
drinking accompanies and sustains the work. If carrying begins
late, or ends early, the first or last meal is waived. A hot supper
of meat and vegetables, bread and cheese, is provided at about
8.30 P.M., or whenever the work is over. A gallon of ale per acre
is added to the usual allowance of one quart of beer a day all the
year round. In short, beer is commonly given without stint, and
it is a bribe that never fails) Work never comes amiss when
beer abounds; it oils creaking wheels and prevents rust. The
machinery of a harvest-field, if I may so speak of the labourers,
would stop in a moment if the beer were withheld.
Some farmers have given up feeding because it is troublesome
and brings work into the house; but the old plan is far more
popular than paying for overtime, however liberal the wages may
be. With plenty to eat and drink the men work willingly all day, and
carrying goes on cheerfully till ten or eleven o’clock at night, when
a good supper is to follow ; but, without this expectation, work comes
to a stop at six or seven, After a hard day’s work and supper,
the men go quietly home, and are orderly and well conducted. A
harvest supper is a popular and it is a common celebration after
harvest. Keaping-machines are becoming universal. Women
and families do considerable work in harvest. In hay-harvest
4s. 6d. to 5s. per acre, without beer, isa common price for mowing
310 The Agriculture of Staffordshire.
grass, and 6s, for a strong crop. Beer is given when the hay is
carried, on the same principle as at harvest. Frequently a bonus
of 10s. is given at the end of haytime, and afternoon luncheons
are allowed. Mowing-machines are now very much reducing the
expenses,
A dairy-maid capable of managing a dairy of forty cows, without
a mistress, receives from 18/. to 22/. a year and board ; assistants,
with a mistress, receive from 8/. to 144.
The usual wages of a milker are 14s.a week all the year round,
besides the harvest perquisites. Common labourers get 12s. in
winter, and they do hoeing or taskwork, according to custom.
Married ploughmen receive 12s., a house and garden, carriage of
coal, which costs about 10s. per ton at the pit, and ten rods of
potato-ground, manured and prepared, and allotted in the field of
the employer. The total amounts to 15s.a week. Day men also
get 12s., and the potato-ground on farms where this custom pre-
vails. Local differences in the price of wages in different parts
of the county are slight. In the south the labourers are drawn
off by the mining and manufacturing towns; in the north by the
potteries, A man can go from one extreme of the county to
another in two hours and a half for less than 5s. Around Burton
the employment of a large number of men in the great breweries
in the winter months only causes an unequal disposition of labour
in that locality.
Statute fairs, with all their bad accompaniments, are upheld
at Burton, Uttoxeter, Tamworth, and Fazeley. On the occasion
of these rough carnivals, young persons of both sexes crowd the
streets and market-place, where the hiring proceeds. The most
respectable repair punctually to their engagements, but they are
exposed to the evil influence of those who are bent on mere
pleasure and dissipation, ‘he evils are apparent, and it is much
to be desired that masters would discourage the fairs by hiring
servants elsewhere.
Tur LIMESTONE AND Moorztanp DIstRicts.
It is seldom that romantic scenery and fine land are found
together ; but they frequently are on the limestone range that ends
at the Wever Hills. Except in the river glen called Dove Dale,
with its huge walls of grey limestone 800 feet high, the rock
seldom appears at the surface, which is generally covered with
grass. The hills are as smooth as the Downs of Hampshire and
Wiltshire, but they are on a larger scale, and the sheep, which
are scattered very thinly over them, are all of a heavy long-
woolled breed. Cows are the grazing stock of this singular
district, and though the long winter and the difficulty of finding
The Agriculture of Staffordshire. 311
food and bedding are drawbacks which reduce the average
returns, the cheese is as good as, and in some instances the
pasturage is quite equal to, that of any parts of Staffordshire.
The parish of Butterton, which is almost entirely in grass, is
perhaps the richest in the county, and the land is entirely the
property of farmers and others living in the village ; and so good
is it, and so great the competition for it, that 600/. has recently
been given for 5 acres by a small farmer, and one freeholder can
boast of 9 acres worth 1000/.,, with the cottage and cow-house.
There are other localities where 3/. to 42. an acre are common
rents, and some of the land is rented at 5/. This latter rent can
only be paid by men who work at the copper mines, or lime-
stone quarries, while their families do the work of the dairy.
A farmer of 50 or 60 acres seldom pays more than 50s. an acre.
The value and the rent of land have greatly increased of late
years. The highest returns in cheese-making which I met with
were in this parish, where a woman with 4 cows and 12 acres
of pasture made 22 ewts. of cheese. The great drawback of
the hill district is the climate, which, though favourable to grass,
prevents the cultivation of a due proportion of ploughed land.
The bleakest exposures are quite bare of trees; there are a few
in the smooth wide hollows, which resemble the coombs and
basins among the chalk hills, but no kind of fruit trees thrive
even in the most sheltered situations, except the gooseberry and
currant. Apples and cherries are rare, and even the damson,
which flourishes at Wootton-under-Wever and the adjacent
parishes, where it is largely grown for sale at distant markets, is
unable to travel the few hundred feet which would bring it into
the gardens of the hill farmers. In ascending the highlands the
gradations in the scale of vegetation are very striking. The
steep road which leads from Oakamoor, in the narrow glen of
the Churnet, is for the first half-mile like a white chalk lane in
Surrey ; but the oaks and beeches are then replaced by rows of
Scotch firs, which become blacker and more ragged in appear-
ance, till at the edge of Wever Hill a stunted scrub or two of
elder and thorn alone remain in that unsheltered site. The
northern portion of the hill-district has been already described
as consisting of millstone grit and other rocks; they are covered
by soil and grass of a very inferior description. The line where
the two formations meet is very clearly drawn on the surface by
the sudden change in the vegetation. This line crosses the road
halfway up the hill above the village of Onecote, and is the
boundary between the clovers and good herbage of the limestone
and the harsh rough grass of the moorland; you step at once
from 30s. an acre to 2s. 6d. The hay-fields are three weeks
later, the stone-wall fences are blacker, and the country poor and
VOL. V.—S.S. ¥
312 The Agriculture of Staffordshire.
barren. Four plants mark the exact spot where the soil changes
—the furze, the heath, the whortleberry, and the sorrel. Two
systems are pursued in this extensive district, one adapted to the
farms which have little or no arable land except the garden and
potato-field, and the other which prevails on the farms which
are partly under the plough. A good example of these is a
large farm of 400 acres at Wever Hill. The soil is mixed with
chert or limestone flint, and often covers the rocks to a depth of
only 6 inches, It produces excellent grass when well treated,
otherwise the best herbage soon fails. The natural herbage of
these shallow soils resembles that of the Downs; under good
management 100 acres will maintain, summer and winter, a
dairy of 15 cows for cheese ; besides 40 ewes, whose Jambs will
be sold in autumn ; 6 or 7 cow calves will be reared annually.
About one-third of the 100 acres is under the plough, and is
under the following crops :—
Years. Crops. Years. Crops.
Ea dees veree ELUTIS: 9 wise. Sal eeamn@atas
Did oiler 2eieluape: LO, \cecie gah dweeealOUiEOS
Situs. ese) a CEOS: |
The oat stubble is ploughed up at harvest and again in
spring, then cultivated and the turnips drilled on the flat. The
turnips as well as the rape are used to fatten the draft ewes, and
a portion is removed. After the turnips the land is ploughed
once in spring and then cultivated previous to sowing broad-cast
2 lbs. per acre of rape; at the end of May the seeds are sown
with the rape, and consist of a mixture of the usual permanent
grass seeds. The sheep eat off the rape without being folded, so
as to avoid too much treading on the young grass, The old
turf is ploughed once only for oats, which are sown the first
fortnight in April; the first year’s oats are ploughed once
for the- second crop at the time of sowing. This simple and
inexpensive mode of cultivation is practicable because the crops
are not liable here to the attacks of wire worms, &c. The usual
artificial manures are applied to the crops. Bones are indis-
pensable ; they are applied to turnips and to rape, and in the
case of oats they increase the crop as well as produce a much
heavier sample. Good pasture can be retained for years by the
use of bones. On one farm I saw four-year-old pasturage full of
the best grasses, divided by a stone wall from a field where the
familiar turf of the Downs has supplanted the more produc-
tive herbage, because the dressing had been withheld, and I
was assured by an experienced farmer that 7 ewts. of bones
applied to this field in January would bring up a plentiful crop
of clovers the same season. But the best practice is to plough
up worn-out turf, or rather never to allow it to become so.
The Agriculture of Staffordshire. 313
I have described what may be called for this district an
arable and sheep farm. ‘The great autumn fairs held at
Newhaven (in Derbyshire) and at Calton are supplied with
their eighteen-month-old colts from these farms, which generally
maintain one or two breeding mares. Two localities, usually
isolated and solitary, become once a year scenes of considerable
animation. The great supplies of stock, however, are not drawn
from the farms referred to, but from those which cover by far
the larger portion of the district, where the stock kept in summer
must be annually reduced, because the land is almost entirely in
grass, and provisions are scarce in winter. One such farm,
rather exceptional in size, consists of 400 acres, on which a
dairy of 120 cows is kept in the summer, 60 or 70 of which are
sold in the autumn and replaced ready for turning out on the
customary day (May 18th). There is no arable land, and there
is no farmyard: the stock, both young and old, is tied up in the
winter ; wheat-straw is purchased from a distant district for litter,
and for chaff to mix with bran, cake, bean-meal, &c. On this
particular farm 100 Leicester lambs are bought in autumn and
sold fat in June or July; no calves are reared; it is more
general to keep one ewe to about two acres, and sell the lambs
in the autumn (this refers to the limestone; on the moorlands
the number of sheep is very small). Ona moorland grass-farm
about one-fifth is mown for hay, and about 15 cows and 20
ewes are kept during the summer, and the usual proportion sold
in autumn. Instead of selling the sheep, some farmers send them
for the winter to other districts from about 10th October to 25th
March. The sheep are either pure Leicesters or crossed with
Cotswolds or Lincolns; rams of considerable value are some-
times bought, and few traces remain of the blood of the “old
limestones ” and native breeds. ‘The calves are generally reared
and sold at the fairs referred to. The variations of practice are to
reduce the dairy in favour of rearing stock for sale at 18 months,
and to graze the richest pastures with fatting oxen. A cow
calving in April will make from 8 to 34 cwts. of cheese, and in
winter, when cheese-making is over, butter-making begins, and
the milk is thus disposed of until within ten or eleven weeks of
calving. The quantity, though small per cow, is large in the
aggregate ; it is taken to Leek, which is the great market of
the district. The dairies are replaced in spring from Leek and
other fairs. In the “moorlands” small mixed hardy cows are
preferred to the larger shorthorns. A deficiency of springs in
some neighbourhoods has been overcome by the artificial
**meres,” which are constructed with clay, puddled with a layer
of lime to keep off worms, &c., and the bottom paved with
stones to strengthen it. On some parts of the limestone
Var
ol4 The Agriculture of Staffordshire.
abundant springs rise from the ‘‘ shake holes” in the rock: as
at Grindon, where Ryebrook rises. Part of this parish, as well
as Butterton, was famous seventy years ago for a strong soil, which
rotted sheep by flukes in the liver. This character is retained
where an undrained soil, generally rich and deep, rests on black
** shale,” which moulders when exposed to the air. Sheep can
only be kept one winter, and must be fattened in the spring.
In conclusion I beg to express my thanks for the ready
assistance I have invariably received during my various excur-
sions. Iam especially indebted for much general assistance and
for many useful introductions to Mr. Tomkinson, of Newcastle,
the Secretary of the Staffordshire Agricultural Society, and to
Mr. Sydney Evershed, and Mr. R. W. Abbotts, of Burton-on-
Trent.
APPENDIX.
The following statistics are taken from the Census Tables,
and from the Agricultural Returns collected by the Statistical
Department of the Board of Trade :—
Area of Staffordshire in statute acres, 728,468.
Population.
1851. 1861, | 1868,
608,716 Town.. .. 402,644 463,000
Country .. 344,299 | 344,871
746,943 | 857,871
Increase between 1851 and 1861 .. 138,227 = 23 per cent.
Number of Inhabited Houses.
1851. 1869.
116,273 os 147,244
Gross value of property rateable to the county rate, 3,104, 090/.
Excluding the Metropolitan Counties, the percentage of increase between
1851 and 1861 was greater than in any other county in England except
Durham, which increased 32 per cent. The numerical increase was greater
than in any other counties except Lancashire, Yorkshire, Middlesex, and
Surrey. In the agricultural counties of Cambridge, Rutland, and Hunting-
don, the population diminished in the same period 5 per cent., 3 per cent.,
and 2 per cent. respectively. Lancashire increased 19 per cent.
The proportion of the town population of Staffordshire at the last census was
58°9 per cent., that of the country population 46°1 per cent. In Lancashire
the proportions were 69°7 and 30°83 per cent.; in Warwickshire 72°5 and
27°5 per cent. In the agricultural county of Huntingdon the proportions
were reversed: they were 25'3 per cent. in towns, and 74:7 per cent. in the
country. Almost the same figures would apply to Rutland and Herefordshire.
The Agriculture of Staffordshire. 315
Total of Acreage under all kinds of Crops, Bare Fallow, and Grass, in 1868.
Acres.
Corn-crops ‘cg shlnceeriovin cba Be yet ean al
Grecarcropsm ss V. - <5. SUT) ee 44,545
Artificial grasses and clover underrotation .. 45,631
Permanent pastnre, not broken up in rotation 340,112
(exclusive of heath on mountain lands)... .. } e:
PSECCMBULOW sca ree wa, Yas” © coteyse se 11,242
ICR ng Oe aoe een TE Beye PE 22
Total acres under enltivation .. 570,723
Houses, water, &c., or a waste, or occupied oo) 157,745
roads F
Ota wer esh weNMss atesn eee creo mEE
Green Crops. Aerea: Corn Crops. Aterea:
LOLAtO@SM a Or wo bo
On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets. 357
The land in the neighbourhood of Lavenham, upon which the
beets were grown in 1868, was for the greater part rather too
stiff and retentive, not over fertile, and altogether not particu-
larly favourable to beet-root culture. In several instances the
land was in too poor an agricultural condition to promise a fair
crop, and use was made of Peruvian guano’in raising the beet
crop. Mr. Duncan has entered this season into an engagement
with a number of Suffolk farmers to pay them at the rate of 20s.
per ton for well cleaned trimmed beets, and with a favourable
season expects to receive 4000 tons. His works, when fully
employed, are capable of using up 60 tons a day. At this
rate he will be able to complete the extraction of the sugar from
6000 tons in 100 days.
Besides the experiment at Lavenham, Mr. Duncan last spring
(1868) distributed seed in various parts of England and Scotland
with a view of testing by analysis the sugar-yielding qualities of
different districts, and, by way of comparison, obtained some
Dutch beet-roots, which he sent me for analysis.
Much crédit is due to Mr. Duncan for the spirited manner in
which he is now carrying out an experiment on a large scale,
which, it is to be hoped, will benefit alike the beet-root grower and
the manufacturer of sugar ; and which moreover recommends itself
by providing rural districts with a new agricultural industry that
will afford employment, if successful, to a large body of people
during three months of the slackest period of the year.
In reporting on the numerous beet-root analyses which I made
of roots grown in 1868, I will, in the first place, refer to the
composition of the roots grown in the neighbourhood of Laven-
ham (see Table I., following page), and afterwards on that
of beets grown in other districts, and on roots under special
conditions.
The weight of the roots, to which the following analyses refer,
varied, it will be seen, from 14 to 2? lbs. Several of the heavier
roots yielded a higher percentage of sugar than No. 2 beet,
which weighed only 14 lb., and contained 91 per cent of sugar,
that is, a smaller percentage than any of the other 7 roots. It is
quite true that big roots generally are more watery and less rich
in sugar than beets of a moderate size, but, at the same time, it
does not hold good that small roots invariably contain more
sugar than large beets. In the course of my investigation I
found frequently beets weighing above 2 lbs. and not exceeding
3 lbs. richer in sugar than roots weighing only 1 lb. and under.
As far as my present experience with respect to sugar-beets
grown in England goes, I am inclined to think that, as a rule,
it is neither profitable for the farmer to grow beets of less weight
than 2 lbs., nor to the manufacturer to work up any small roots.
On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets.
358
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On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets. 359
I have placed the preceding analyses together because the
variations in the composition of the several beets are but incon-
siderable, and these analyses may be taken as fairly representing
the composition of English sugar-beets of good sugar-producing
qualities.
In the next Table the composition of similar roots is given,
in conjunction with that of beets containing a high percentage
of sugar (See Table II., following page).
The beets Nos. 10, 11, and 12, it will be noticed, yielded on
an average a little over 124 per cent. of crystallizable sugar, and
the remaining ones, with the exception of No. 9, rather more than
11 per cent.
As might have been expected, the roots with a high percentage
of sugar contained less water than those poor in sugar. The
relations between the percentage of water and sugar, however,
are not exactly the same in the different roots, and the amount
of water in a beet-root cannot therefore be regarded as indicating
exactly the percentage of sugar which it contains,
Thus, if we compare No. 13 with No. 15, we find that the
former, which contained a little more water than the latter,
nevertheless yielded about 4 per cent. more crystallizable sugar,
whilst No. 9, containing the same percentage of water as No. 13,
in round numbers yielded 2 per cent. less sugar than the latter.
It is, therefore, true only in a general way that the percentage of
water affords an indication of the sugar-producing qualities of roots.
A glance at the preceding analyses will show that the specific
gravity of the expressed beet-root juice may be regarded asa good
general indication of the sugar-producing qualities of beet-roots.
The roots marked No, 10 and No, 12 are very rich in
sugar, and the specific gravity of their juice, as will be seen,
is also higher than that of the juice of the other beets. Whenever
the specific gravity of the juice of beet rises above 1-07, the roots
may be considered very superior, and to yield a high per-centage
of sugar; whilst a low specific gravity of the juice invariably
characterizes roots of low sugar-yielding qualities. In the next
Table (III.) I have placed side by side the composition of some
sugar-beets of a lower specific gravity than fair average sugar-
producing qualities.
In every instance the beets with a low percentage of sugar
yielded a juice of low specific gravity. Thus, the juice of beet,
No, 19, yielding 6 per cent, of sugar in round numbers, had a
specific gravity of 1-0469, and that of No. 22, containing only
5 per cent. of sugar, a gravity of only 1:0457.
On throwing a glance at Table III, it will also be observed that
the juice of comparatively small beets has not invariably a higher
specific gravity than that of larger roots. Within certain limits
VOL. V.—S.S. 2B
On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets.
360
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On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets.
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362 On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets.
this is generally the case, but not unfrequently we meet with
exceptions to this general rule; and it sometimes happens that
the juice of very small roots has an unusually low specific gravity,
whilst beets weighing considerably more than 3 lbs., when well
ripened, not unfrequently produce a juice containing a much
larger percentage of sugar and having a higher specific gravity
than very small immature roots.
In the preceding Table, No. 19 was the smallest root, and
weighed only 13 ounces. Nevertheless its juice had only a gravity
of 1:0469. Again, No. 21 and No. 22, which were both grown on
the same farm, differed greatly in weight, No. 21, weighing
5 lbs. 6 oz. or more than twice the weight of No. 22. Not-
withstanding its greater and, for a beet, unusually heavy weight,
the juice of No. 21 was higher in specific gravity and yielded
more sugar than that of the smaller beet, No, 22.
The percentages of water in the preceding tabular statement
vary greatly, the lowest in round numbers being 804 and the
highest 87? per cent.
The heaviest beet of the 8 (No. 21), weighing nearly 54 lbs.,
was not the most watery, for it contained 24 per cent. less water
than No. 22, weighing only 25lbs. Indeed No. 21 contained
scarcely 4 per cent. more water than the very small root, No.
19, weighing only 13 ounces and yielding 2 per cent. less sugar
than the big beet. These results are of practical importance,
for they show that it is quite possible to grow large sugar-beets of
good average sugar-producing qualities. The aim of the beet-root-
grower should be to obtain from his land a heavy crop, and at
the same time roots of good average sugar-producing quality.
On some land in England, I believe, from 20 to 25 tons of sugar-
beets, of a quality not objected to by the manufacturer of beet-root
sugar, might, and probably will, be produced at no very distant
period, when more attention than at present will be paid to the
proper selection of the seed, to the mechanical cultivation of
the soil, and especially to the supply of the right kinds and
proper quantities of manuring matters most favourable for beets
on particular soils,
The amount of water in the preceding roots varies from 81 to
862 per cent., and that of sugar from 7 to 114 per cent.
Attention may be directed to the great similarity of the
composition of roots No. 25 and No. 26, both grown on the same
farm. Although white beets weighed 1}]b. more than the red-
skinned root they yielded quite as much sugar as the latter, and,
taking no account of minute differences, contained not more
albuminous matters, water, and saline mineral constituents.
Probably white Silesian beets are better suited for the land on
which both kinds were grown than the red skinned and purple-
top sugar-beet.
363
On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets.
408.
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On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets.
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On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets. 365
TABLE VI.
Composition or Srnustan SUGAR-BEETS GROWN IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD
or LAVENHAM.
No. 41. No, 42. No. 48.
Description of root .. «» | White skin. Red skin. Orange skin.
Weiesptangoot of. .<. ... | 2ilbs. 12.028: 1 lb. 9 ozs. 1 lb. 124 ozs.
Specific gravity of juice .. | 10487 1°0542 1°0601
Atatemperature of .. .. 62°F. 62° F. 62° F.
WEOIGUINOM.. \ivseys ube lyom) <8 84°67 85°07 81°86
* Albuminous compounds 1°95 2°41 2°37
Crude fibre (pulp)... .... 3°99 4°11 4°79
Crystallizable sugar... | 7°27 6°32 8°78
Peciine E50... 20) + 0% mine *83 *56 *76
Mineral matter (ash) 1°29 1°53 1°44
100*00 100-00 100°00
* Containing nitrogen .. .. .. | *312 “386 *380
Nos. 41, 42 and 43 grown by Mr. Gayford, Preston.
In the preceding tables I have placed side by side the compo-
sition of some of the best and some of the worst roots which
were grown in 1868 in the neighbourhood of Lavenham. It
will be seen that No. 33, weighing nearly 3 Ibs., and being the
heaviest of the 11 roots, yielded a high percentage of sugar, and
No. 38, weighing 24 lbs., a still higher percentage, namely 12
per cent.
Comparing No. 38 with No. 39, and taking no account of
minute differences, it will be noticed that the larger of the
2 white Silesian beets, both grown on the same farm, was rather
the better of the two beets.
On the other hand Mr. Biddell’s red-skinned Silesian beet,
weighing only 3 ounces more than the white (No. 38), contained
about 44 per cent. more water, and only just half the amount of
sugar found in the white.
The difference in the composition of the white and red
skinned Silesian beets, grown by Mr. Hustler, East Hill, is very
striking. The white beet (No. 33), though heavier than the
red skinned (No, 84), in round numbers contained 5 per cent.
less water and 43 per cent. more sugar than the latter.
Of the 11 roots, 1 had an orange coloured skin, 5 were red-
skinned and purple-top roots, and 5 white and green-top beets.
All the 5 red-skinned roots were inferior in quality in com-
parison with the white beets grown on the same farms on which
the red were grown.
The 5 red Silesian beets were much more watery, and poorer
366 On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets.
in sugar, than the 5 white roots which in all probability arrived
earlier at maturity, and on that account may be more suitable
for our English climate than the red skinned and purple topped
Silesian sugar-beet.
The analyses of the 43 beet-roots, all grown in the neigh-
~bourhood of Lavenham, Suffolk, are well calculated to illustrate
the great variations which, may and do, occur in the sugar-
producing qualities of beets, although grown in the same season
and the same locality. At the same time the analyses of most of
the Lavenhain sugar-beets clearly show that the Silesian beets
grown in 1868 in that neighbourhood, though not equal in
sugar-yielding quality to the sugar-beets raised in the celebrated
beet-root districts near Magdeburg and other parts of Northern
Germany, compare favourably with French, Belgian, and Dutch
beets, which on an average seldom contain more than from 8} to
9 per cent. of crystallizable sugar.
Last season (1868) Mr. Duncan procured some Silesian sugar-
beets from Holland, and forwarded them to me for examination..
The two varieties of the Dutch roots on analysis yielded the
following results :—
Taste VII.—Composition of Silesian Beet-roots grown in Holland.
Kin daat rook \ seaeaeoer y ae Pink-coloured
root. root.
Weight of root'.... .. 2lbs. 10% 0zs. .... 1 Ib. 134 ozs:
Specific gravity of juice .. 1°0655 abe 1°0542
Atatemperature of .. GOem. sas 60° F.
NIGER bie ameecte ae 82°79 ee 85°67
*Albuminous compounds... 12 Bly; 1°91
Crude fibre (pulp) .... 4°07 iota 3°40
Crystallizable sugar Bi 10°56 ot 7°42
Rectiny Goce, ‘wisi aisieit . us.« “45 38
Mineral matter (ash) .. 1°01 CG
100° 00 100-00
*Containing nitrogen .. “18 * 306
The first variety of the Dutch beet-root, it will be noticed, is
much superior to the second, but not quite equal in sugar-
yielding qualities to the beet-roots grown in the same season in
the neighbourhood of Lavenham in Suffolk.
In the next place I beg to direct attention to two varieties of
Silesian sugar-beets which were raised in 1868 at Lodge Farm,
Barking Creek, entirely upon sewage. The red-skinned beet
weighed 2 ]bs. 24 0z., and the white 4 lbs. 1 oz. The former
was very firm and of a delicate texture, the latter rather spongy
and decayed in the centre.
On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets. 367
The two roots yielded on analysis the following results :—
Taste VILI.— Composition of Silesian Sugar-beets manured with London
Sewage, Lodge Farm, Barking Creek.
Kemadwonrcounnaa oof OO ae Red. et White.
Weight of Post weeps vince utes, i QortOhiaree abe tbudeitondyons
Specific gravity of juice “weno 1°0716 shi eee ss 0258
Atatemperatureof .. .. .. 64° F. epee OGL.
Moisture Be Piel 80°79 tae 87°94.
* Albuminous compounds tet *88 PORE 1°26
Crude fibre (pulp) saline Bis abe ists 3°32 eter 3°08
Crystallizable sugar... 3 13°19 tz 6°05
Pectin, colouring matter, &e. 3.3 “91 eee 48
Mineral matter (ash) 5p ~ go Rb “91 ane Joa,
100°00 100-00
*Containing nitrogen .. .. .. *124 202
It is a remarkable fact that of all the specimens analysed last
season, that grown on the London sewage at Barking proved the
highest in sugar-producing quality. Fearing a mistake might
have been made I repeated the analysis with closely agreeing
results. There can, therefore, be no reasonable doubt that the
red-skinned Silesian beet grown on London sewage really con-
tained 13 per cent. of sugar.
It is further well deserving special notice that, notwith-
standing the large amount of sugar, and the fact that the beet
was grown on sewage, it contained but a very small amount of
albuminous or nitrogenous compounds, and less saline mineral
matter than almost any other specimen analysed by me in 1868.
This is of great importance to the manufacturer of sugar, who
knows full well that the albuminous compounds and the saline
matters in beet-root juice destroy, in the process of manufacture,
the crystallizing property of a certain amount of sugar. Of two
roots containing an equal percentage of crystallizable sugar, but
variable proportions of albuminous and saline matters, the one
containing the smaller amount of soluble compounds, other than
sugar, will therefore produce the larger proportion of soluble
crystallized sugar.
The larger white Silesian beet from the same farm, it will be
noticed, contained 88 per cent. of water, or about as much as
ordinary mangolds grown for feeding purposes in this country,
and yielded not quite half the amount of sugar which | found in
the red-skinned beet.
As stated already the large white root was rotten in the
centre, of a porous texture, and had more transparent flesh than
the red and much smaller specimen.
368 On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Bects.
I have not been able to ascertain whether both varieties were
sown at the same time, and whether each were dressed with the
same amount of London sewage. Judging by the physical
character of the white Barking beet, and its chemical compo-
sition, I am inclined to think that it probably received an excess
of sewage and by it was forced on too rapidly. If this be so
we learn from the remarkably good qualities of one of the
sewage grown beets, and the watery poor condition of the other,
the lesson of applying sewage to beets and mangolds with
discrimination. Used at the right time, and in proper quan-
tities, town sewage may become one of the most useful fertilizers
for sugar-beets ; on the contrary, when applied in excess or ata
period of the year when the further supply of plant food ought
to be withheld as much as possible, sewage is likely to do serious
mischief to that crop.
As yet our experience with regard to the most profteie mode
of applying sewage to the land is very limited, and it would,
therefore, be rash to give special directions as to the quantities
of sewage which should be applied to sugar-beets, or to point
out how often and when this fertilising liquid should be used.
It may be stated, however, in a general way, that town sewage
may be employed with great advantage in repeated doses during
the first 2 or 3 months of the growth of the root-crop. It will
then encourage an early luxuriant and healthy development of
leaves, by which sugar is afterwards elaborated from atmo-
spheric food and stored up in the roots. The more completely
the supply of soil-food is withheld during the late summer
months, the more fully will the beet-crop ripen, and the richer it
will become in sugar in consequence. Sewage, therefore, should
not be applied to sugar-beet during the last 2 or 3 months of its
growth.
Many persons with whom I have conversed on the subject of
sugar-beet culture have entertained doubts whether our English
summers are warm enough to ripen sugar-beets sufficiently,
because they have an idea that this crop requires a great amount
of heat for coming to perfection. Whether or not England is a
country favourable to sugar-beet culture experience alone can
decide, but if beet-root culture should ultimately prove to be a
failure in England, it will not be on account of the want of
summer heat. In point of fact sugar-beets do not nearly so well
in Central France or Germany, nor in the South, as in the
North where the summer temperature is much lower. It is not
so much heat as a dry and unclouded sky during the autumnal
months which makes the sugar in the beet. It is further of
much consequence whether the end of April and the month
of May are wet or dry. The more rain falls on the land—
On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets. 369
during the first two months of its growth—the better the crop is
likely to turn out if a dry autumn follows.
A bright and dry August seems to do more for sugar-beets
than almost any other condition, however favourable it may be
to the healthy development of this crop.
Sugar-beet culture therefore is not likely to succeed well in a
great part of Ireland, nor in the south and south-western counties
of England, nor in localities in which the late summer and
autumnal months of the year are asa rule warm and wet. On
the other hand, the eastern and northern counties, and even many
districts in Scotland, as regards climate, unless 1 am greatly
mistaken, appear to me decidedly favourable for the cultivation
of sugar-beets. By way of experiment, Mr. Duncan had some
Silesian sugar-beets grown in several places in Scotland, and the
result of this experiment proved to be a great success as far as
the quality of roots was concerned.
The next tabular statement embodies the analytical results
which I obtained in ascertaining the composition of these beets
(See Table 1X., following page.)
These analyses present several points of interest.
Looking at the three roots grown by Mr. Kennedy, in Ayr-
shire, it will be noticed that the smallest root of the three, weigh-
ing little more than 1 lb., contained much more water and was
much poorer in sugar than the two other roots, each of which
weighed over 3 lbs. The root marked No. 2 is indeed an
excellent sugar-beet, for it is not only rich in crystallizable sugar,
containing 12 per cent., but it likewise contains very small
quantities of saline matter and nitrogenous compounds, which
destroy the crystallizing power of sugar in the manufacturing
processes.
With the exception of No. 1, all the beets grown in Scotland
in 1868 were of a good size; some weighed nearly 3 lbs., and
most 3 lbs. and more.
Even these beets, which contained rather a high percentage
of water, yielded in round numbers‘not less than 84 per cent.
of erystallizable sugar which may be taken as a very good
average percentage.
Altogether the beets grown in Scotland showed as high an
average percentage as those raised in England, a smaller amount
of nitrogenous and undesirable saline matter, and, on the whole,
were more valuable to the manufacturer of beet-root sugar than
the majority of the English roots,
The roots grown in Norfolk, in Berkshire, and Buckingham-
shire possess fair average sugar producing qualities; but those
grown in Devonshire are very watery, and scarcely so useful
for general purposes as ordinary well-ripened mangolds (See
Table X.).
On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets.
370
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372 On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets.
It is to be regretted that I had merely the opportunity of
examining sugar-beets grown in only one locality of Devonshire.
The red-skinned beet, it will be seen, contained 894 per cent.
of water, and yielded 5} per cent. of sugar; while the white
Silesian beet from the same place was still more watery than the
red, and produced only 3} per cent. of sugar.
Equally poor in sugar to the Devonshire roots I found some
sugar-beets which the late Mr. P. H. Frere raised in 1865 from
four varieties of French sugar-beet seeds on his farm in the
neighbourhood of Cambridge.
These roots on analysis were found to have the composition
given in Table XI.
TABLE XI.
Composirion or Four VARIETIES OF SUGAR-BEETS GROWN FRoM FRENCH
SEED, BY THE LATE Mr. P. H. Freez, near Camprives, mv 1865.
Not. 2 Or “gore No. 3, No. 4.
|
: {| Toupé Blanche| Blanche | Rose Toupé Rose
Variety hy choisie, commune. ordinaire. choisie.
|
Water 35°. Ab. G0" W5p 89°34 89°42 90°63 90°47
Crystallizable sugar 2c 5-22 5°90 3°94 3°54
*Soluble albuminous com- 4 : ¢ F
pounds .. ee i Le75 1°19 1°63 1°76
+ Insoluble albuminous com- ;
PONNGS We ned eta ere 3h at a2 =:
Crude fibre a3. moc Secon LO, 1°70 1°60 Ge ir¢
Pectin, &c. see mate | es 21 : +08 ‘80 *78
Soluble mineral matter .. 1°38 1°33 1°13 1°28
Insoluble mineral matters 07 “07 °15 ld
| 100°00 100°00 100° 00 100°00
) —— SS _
|
* Containing nitrogen .. .. 28 | “19 26 “28
7 Containing nitrogen .. .. | “05 “05 “02 “04
In raising these roots no particular attention was paid to
the condition of the land. ‘They were grown like ordinary
mangolds, with plenty of fresh dung, and no doubt owing to this
cause they were not better than common mangolds, and were
unsuitable for the manufacture of sugar.
It will be noticed that nearly the whole amount of the albumen
and similar nitrogenous compounds existed in these roots in a
form soluble in water, and that the mineral matter or ash like-
wise consisted of salts which are soluble in water.
Not only in these, but in all sugar-beets and mangolds
which I have examined, the albuminous compounds and mineral
matters occur almost altogether in a soluble state, and conse-
On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets. 373
quently pass into the juice when the rasped roots are placed in
the presses of the sugar-manufacturer.
The injurious effects of a heavy dose of dung applied to sugar-
beets in spring is shown still more strikingly than in the preced-
ing analysis in the subjoined Table, in which the composition is
given of two unusually large roots, both raised from true white
Silesian beet-seed.
Taste XII.— Composition of Two very large White Silesian Beets analysed
on the 8th December, 1868.
Wiieisbtiofroote..0 «sec wc) oe WTS: Gozs. 7 1Gaullbs:
Specific gravity of juice .. .. .. 1°0481 oo 6 170553
Atatemperatureof., .. .. .. 65° F. Sale Gorm,
Moisture .. . a COW FOr 92°58 «one OSmle
*Albuminous compounds eee Bes 1:40 onict 2°16
Grude fibre (pulp); .. 0... s 1°73 Rs 2°74
Crystallizable sugar .. .. .. .. 2°22 see 4°82
Pectin, &c. bone Hae 47 ape: 44
Mineral matter (ash) | oe ee 1°60 ae ial
100°00 100°00
*Containing nitrogen .. .. .. 225 847
The larger of the two beets contained only 73 per cent. of solid
matter, of which little more than 2 per cent. was sugar. Consider-
ing the large amount of water in this root, the percentage of both
albuminous compounds and saline mineral matter is very high.
The smaller of the two beets was not so watery as the larger
one, and was richer in sugar. It was, however, a poor root even
for feeding purposes, and, like all roots of low feeding quality,
comparatively rich in albuminous matters and ash constituents.
With a view of studying the influence of different soils and of
manure on the quality of sugar-beets, Mr. Duncan made some
experiments last year, which are not without interest.
One lot was grown in very light sandy soil, another in rather
heavy clay land without manure, a third was heavily manured
with farmyard manure, and a fourth was grown in vegetable
mould or earth out of a trench.
None of the roots which I received for analysis exceeded
2 Ibs. 54 ozs. in weight, and one weighed only 144 ozs.
The roots grew luxuriant tops, and, bulbs neither remarkable
for weight or ‘good quality. In all probability the soil of all four
experimental plots was naturally too rich in fertilising matter,
and the differences in the results were not so striking as they might
have been had the unmanured root been grown in sterile sand
and poor clay loam.
The results of the chemical examination to which I submitted the
specimens sent by Mr. Duncan are given in the subjoined Table :—
On the Chemistry of Silesian Sugar-Beets.
374
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TWIX aTaViL
The Production of Successive Green Crops. 375
It appears from the preceding analyses that all the beet-roots
produced a juice of comparatively low specific gravity, which
may always be taken as a good general indication of poor
sugar-yielding quality. Notwithstanding the small size of the
roots the greater number contained a high percentage of water
and a correspondingly low percentage of sugar.
The heavily manured beets, as might have been anticipated,
were very much poorer in sugar, and contained a larger propor-
tion of nitrogenous and saline matters, than the roots grown
without manure.
Thus, one of the heavily manured beets yielded 44 per cent.
and the other 3 per cent. of sugar, in round numbers; whilst
the two unmanured beets produced 7} and 64 per cent. of sugar
respectively.
The beets grown in rich garden mould were also poor in sugar,
especially the white Silesian beet, and both contained an abnor-
mally high percentage of nitrogenous compounds as well as
much saline matter, which always distinguishes beets of low
sugar-yielding quality. é
I may further mention that I found in the heavily manured
roots, as well asin those grown in garden mould, apparently con-
siderable quantities of nitrates. The white Silesian beet grown
in vegetable mould was so rich in nitrates that the dried root
burned with scintillations like touch- or match-paper.
Laboratory, 11, Salisbury Square, Fleet Street, E.C.,
July, 1869.
XIV.—On the Production of Successive Green Crops. By
JOHN CHAMBERS, Farm-Bailiff to the Strines Calico-Printing
Company.
Tue Strines Calico Printworks are in Derbyshire, distant from
Manchester 14 miles, Stockport 7, and Buxton12. They employ
from five to six hundred work-people, and in connection with
them is a farm of about 105 acres. Part of the land is in Derby-
shire, and the remainder in Cheshire, the river Goit passing
through the midst. About 50 acres are level and low-lying, the
remainder being elevated. The climate is late, especially if east
or north-east winds prevail in the spring, and there is not much
growth before the month of May.
The stock at present on the farm consists of 14 horses, 1 mule,
1 ass, 21 cows, 13 young cattle, 26 sheep, and 3 pigs.
The horses are heavy draught horses, and are mostly used for
VOL. V.—S. 8. 2c
376 The Production of Successive Green Crops.
draught-purposes at the works, as also are the mule and ass; the
cow-manure is used for dyeing purposes at the works,
A good supply of manure is obtained from the works, con-
sisting of a mixture of human excrement, flue-ashes, and am-
monia-water from the gas manufactory ; also a supply of gas-lime.
I have had charge of the above farm for nearly nine years, and
have conducted the following operations, by means of which I
have obtained a continuous succession of green crops :—
40 acres meadow land, grass cut and made into hay ;
aftermath grazed.
43 acres grazed.
22 acres under cultivation.
105 acres. 2
Sixteen acres of the 22 are about half a mile distant from the
works and farmyard, and on high ground; they are cultivated
under a four-course rotation, namely—4 acres oats, 4 acres swedes,
4 acres barley or oats, and 4 acres rye-grass and clover.
The turnips are pulled and carted home in October and No-
vember ; the rye-grass and clover are ready to cut the first time
the fourth week in June; the second cutting being ready about
the second or third week in August. This for distinction I will
call the 16 acres.
The other 6 acres are near the works and farmyard, and are
level, with a good strong soil, gravelly subsoil, and good natural
drainage. They have been devoted entirely to the production
of successive green crops for the last seven years.
The six acres have been divided into five as equal parts as
possible, which I will call Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
No. 1. is manured during the autumn with gas-lime, which is
ploughed in; the land is prepared during the spring; in the
third week of April drills, 27 inches apart, are made; the land is
manured with farmyard manure, and potatoes (the early sort) are
planted in alternate drills. In the first week of May ox-cabbage
plants, 30 inches apart, are put in the drills remaining (the ox-
cabbage seed having been sown the previous August and pricked
out during the autumn); during the months of May and June
the land is hoed, cleaned, and the plants earthed up; in August
the potatoes are dug and sold at once, the small and diseased
ones being steamed and stored for pigs.
Immediately the potatoes are cleared the land is scarified, and
the cabbages earthed up, as they will soon cover the vacant space.
In October the outer leaves are taken off, and the cabbages are
yeady to cut in November.
No. 2.—In January or February the cabbage-stalks are
ploughed out, and gathered off; the land is harrowed and
The Production of Successive Green Crops. 377
ploughed, and sown with spring tares, with rye and a few beans
to hold up the crop. The sowing is made in February or
March (according to weather), and the crop is ready to cut in
July.
N o. 3.—Immediately the tares are cleared the land is manured
with manure from the works, which is ploughed in; it is then
prepared for sowing Italian rye-grass not later than August.
During the autumn, winter, and more especially in the spring,
liquid manure from the farmyard is applied; the first cutting is
generally ready to cut in the beginning of May, and the last
cutting not later than the first or second week in September.
Under ordinary circumstances there will be three cuttings, and
if the land ‘is well supplied with liquid manure between each
cutting, there will be four.
No. 4.—Immediately the Italian rye-grass is cleared off, the
land is dressed with manure from the works, which is ploughed
in; and winter tares are sown, to be ready to cut in May and
June. The crop is cut up in small strips at a time; and asa
strip is cleared the land is ploughed, manured with manure from
the works, and drilled 21 inches apart; savoy cabbages are then
planted 18 inches apart (the savoy cabbage-seed having been
sown in February or March, and pricked out in April or May,
and held in readiness) ; each successive strip is treated in the
same way, only, in case the last strip should be rather late, the
plants are put in a little thicker there. The savoy cabbage will
be ready to cut in January.
No. 5.—The cabbage-stalks are ploughed out, and gathered
off as in No. 1; the land is then ploughed and sown with spring
tares, with rye and a few beans to hold up the crop. The sow-
ings are made twice, one in April the other in May; the first
sowing is ready to cut in August the other in September.
Having described the mode of raising the above crops, I will
now describe the mode of consuming them.
May.—A supply of Italian rye-grass and winter tares from
Nos. 3 and 4 is cut and carted into the farmyard, and the greater
part passed through one of Richmond’s chaff-cutters (attached to
steam power). When too succulent they are mixed with hay or
straw chaff. All the horses, the mule, the ass, and the cows get
an allowance, the young cattle being out at grass.
June.—-W inter tares from No. 4, and clover and rye-grass from
the 16 acres, form the supply for this month ; the winter tares are
now strong, and have to be cut into chaff. All the horses, mule
and ass, and the cows consume tares and make room for the
cabbages. When the tares are all consumed, about six of the
horses are put out on the pastures during the night, and the cows
are more at pasture until the next supply from the 16 acres and
2c 2
378 The Production of Successive Green Crops.
the second cutting of Italian rye-grass come in. All the young
cattle are out at grass; what is not required of the rye-grass and
clover is made into hay.
July.—Spring tares from No. 2 now come into use; and a
strong heavy crop requires cutting into chaff. To these are
added rye-grass and clover from the 16 acres, and in the first week
a second cutting of Italian rye-grass off No. 3. The six horses
are out at pasture during the night, the cows are partly at grass,
and the young cattle entirely.
August.—Spring tares are obtained from No. 5, first sowing
Italian rye-grass, a third cutting from No. 3, and clover from
the 16 acres if required. Six of the horses are at pasture during
the night, all the others receiving green food; all the cows
are at pasture on aftermath, and the young cattle are also at
grass.
September.—Italian rye-grass from No. 3, spring tares from
No. 5, (second sowing), a strong crop being passed through the
cutting-machine, and clover from the 16 acres are got this
month. All the horses receive a supply, but all the cows and
young cattle are at pasture.
October.—Ox-cabbage leaves from No. 1, and turnip-tops from
the 16 acres, are used this month; the horses receiving a small
quantity of turnips from the 16 acres, and the cows a cart-load
per day of the cabbage-leaves or turnip-tops, carted out into the
meadows and spread there, so that all can be consumed. The
young cattle are at grass.
November.—Ox-cabbages are got from No. 1, viz. two feeds
per day for the cows, and one feed per day for young cattle (or
turnip-tops) ; the cabbages are cut as near to the ground as pos-
sible with a strong hedging-bill; each cabbage is cut in four
quarters, taking care to cleave the stalk up the middle, as there
is some valuable eating in it. The horses have a small quan-
tity of steamed turnips the last week.
December.—Ox-cabbages continue to be obtained from No. 1,
viz., two feeds per day for the cows, one feed per day for the
young cattle. A week’s supply is always kept cut beforehand,
in case frost should set in, as the cabbage breaks like glass in
frost. If the weather seems settled for frost, another week or ten
days’ stock is got in; and if the storm should last longer, turnips
are substituted; the sheep receive a few cabbages this month,
and the horses get a small quantity of steamed turnips, as in
November.
January.—Savoy cabbages from No, 4 are now commenced ;
and a supply is kept cut beforehand asin December, The cows
obtain two feeds per day, and the young cattle one; the sheep also
get a few, and the horses are kept the same as during last month.
The Production of Successive Green Crops. 379
February.—Same as in January.
March.—Swede turnips are used from the 16 acres, all the
cows receiving two feeds per day, with corn purchased by the
money got for potatoes sold off No. 1. The young cattle get one
feed per day, some of them being out at pasture a few hours per
day. The horses have a few steamed turnips as before, and the
sheep a small quantity also.
April.—Swede turnips continue to be got from the 16 acres,
all the cows receiving two feeds per day as in March, but the
young cattle, being out at pasture all day, do not require any,
nor do the sheep. ‘The horses have a small quantity steamed.
If the season be early, the Italian rye-grass will be ready towards
the latter end of this month,
REMARKS ON THE ABOVE.
No. 1. Potato or Cabbage System.—I have tried swede turnips,
mangolds, and cabbages, each singly, in the place of the cabbages
and potatoes, but they did not answer as well as the present sys-
tem; as the cabbages are not of much size before the latter end
of July, and after that the potato-tops begin to decay, and the
cabbages, now beginning to spread out their leaves, would cover
up the potatoes if they were not dug out. I have frequently seen
the leaves of two cabbages projecting over each other several
inches when the stems have been 54 inches apart; and the
potatoes are readily sold to the workpeople, and realise a good
price. In getting the potatoes, every alternate drill is dug out
first; and in a few days the cabbages will incline over the
vacant space, just like a tree over a turnpike road.
No. 2. Spring Tares, with Rye and Beans.—l\ have tried tares
with oats, but could not keep the crop up; with the above it will
stand either rain or wind, and not go down. If the crop did
go down, it would either have to be consumed at once or made
into hay, and it would leave a vacancy in the continuous
supply which could not be filled up. The above crop is too
heavy and strong to admit of Italian rye-grass being sown in the
spring.
No. 3. Jtalian Rye-grass.—This is an excellent crop, with its
three or four cuttings, and it is always ready. I have had but
one failure in this crop during the last seven years, and that was
caused by my not being able to attend to the sowing at the pro-
per time.
No. 4. Winter Tares and Rye.—I have tried tares with wheat,
but could not keep the crop up; sown with rye it is sure to
stand. I have tried swede turnips, and also yellow turnips after
the tares, but have not succeeded in raising a full crop, as the
380 Professor Simonds’s Keport to the Committee of
season is too far advanced in this locality, as I find from expe-
rience in the 16 acres that the first or second week in May is the
best time in this district; and, as the yellow turnips come in at
a time when not required, | am in favour of the savoy cabbages,
for I have never yet failed in raising a full crop, and the sayoy
cabbages come just when the others are done.
No. 5. Spring Tares, with Rye and Beans.—(Same as No. 2.)
I have tried them with oats, but could not make the crop stand.
The spring tares in Nos, 2 and 5, and the winter tares in
No. 4, ought not to be cut until they are at their full growth, if
it can be avoided, as there is no second cutting like that yielded
by Italian rye-grass, each cutting of which ought not to be allowed
to grow too long, as by so doing it interferes with the next. There
is sufficient time, after each crop is cleared, to prepare and sow or
plant the next, and there will not be any failure if the dates
given are attended to.
The result may be thus briefly summed up: the land has
grown heavier crops each succeeding year; and, by careful
management, a supply of green food has been kept up for each
succeeding day in the year.
XV.— Extract from Professor Simonps’s Report to the Committee
of Governors of the Royal Veterinary College, included in the
Annual Report of that Body, for 1868, to the Council of
the Royal Agricultural Society.
Wiru reference to the specimens of disease which have been
received from members of the Royal Agricultural Society, and
also from provincial veterinary surgeons, it may be observed that
a larger number than usual have come to hand during the year;
but that communications from the former asking for a personal
investigation of disease on their respective farms have been fewer
than usual.
Many of the specimens possessed more than ordinary inte-
rest, particularly some of scrofulous deposits in the several
organs of the body. They showed unmistakeably that this
hereditary and malignant disease had been unusually rife among
our established breeds of cattle, more especially the Shorthorns
and Devons.
3
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Eastburn Farm, near Driffield, Yorkshire. 401
bear a tolerably strict relation to the accompanying physical
features; and the divisions of land appear to be the same as
those which prevail over the whole Wold range. It is, therefore,
desirable to give a-short description of the geology of the Wolds,
so far as it bears on the distribution of soils. Fortunately this
can be done clearly and succinctly, as Mr. J. R. Mortimer, of
Fimber, near Driffield, a well known local geologist and anti-
quary, has kindly given me a description of it, which is con-
tained, almost verbatim, in the following paragraphs * :-—
‘The Yorkshire Wolds consist of chalk, which in many places
and at all heights is capped with a few small outliers of late
drift-clay and sand, and in many of the valleys of which a deposit
of gravel is found.
“(1.) The first and most extensive subsoil-area is that of the
rubbly chalk, which is generally found immediately beneath
the thin surface-soil on the northern and western escarpments of
the Wolds, as well as on the southern and eastern slopes above
an elevation of about 100 feet above the sea-level. On these
slopes the surface-soil varies from 4 to 8 inches in depth; it is
light and porous, and contains a large quantity of small chalk-
rubble, with flints of various sizes, both derived from the dis-
integrated rock beneath.
“*(2.) The next extensive subsoil-area is that occupied by the
outliers of late drift-clay which rest on the chalk, and which in
a few places are substituted, and in others accompanied, by beds
of a sandy character. In some places this description of subsoil
is represented by a peculiar stiff earth, covering the chalk-rock
to a thickness of from 1 to 4 feet, being sometimes of a loamy
character, almost free from flint and chalk-rubble, and at others
remarkable for containing a great quantity of native angular
flints stained with ferruginous matter, though wanting in pieces
of chalk. The soils on this deposit, which is mostly found on
the hill-tops and the northern and western sides of the Wolds,
are cold and ‘unkind,’ though deep, and in mineral character
very much resemble the beds beneath, being, except where
marling ¢ has been done, easily distinguishable by the absence
of fragments of chalk (See No. 3 on the map.)
**(3.) The third, and least extensive, subsoil-area is occupied
by a much water-worn chalk-gravel, containing angular and sub-
angular flints, and a few pieces of transported rocks—such as
* Mr. Mortimer has also been so kind as to survey the farm for me, and
construct a geological map of it. This map is given on the opposite page, and I can
vouch for its accuracy, as it accords very nearly with one which was made by
myself on the occasion of my visit there, in company with Mr. Torr, to obtain the
materials for this report.
} A large area of these deep soils has been marled during the last twenty years,
but the greater portion has been done during the last ten years.
402 Farm Reports.
granite, trap, quartz, and sandstone—most of which are more or
less rounded by aqueous action. This subsoil occurs on the
bottoms of most of the Wold-valleys; and in some places it
reaches a little way up the skirts of the hills. It is covered with
a thin open soil, much mixed with material from the subsoil
(See No. 4 on the map).—J. R. M.”
The spur of chalk on which the Eastburn Farm is situated is
covered on its northern side with the gravel just described as
No. 3 (marked No, 4 on the map), the top-soil being very thin
and light, especially in the lower ground near the railway, where
it is gravelly. The higher ground exhibits a soil gradually
increasing in strength and depth as one ascends the hill, and
near the ‘highest ground, namely, near the Warren, the gravel
subsoil ceases, and its place is taken by the drift clay described.
by Mr. Mortimer as No. 2 (marked No. 3 on the map), which
is here covered with about 18 inches of soil, Near the junction
of these formations, and also on the other side of the drift clay,
the underlying chalk comes so close to the surface, that it
might almost be mapped as actually cropping out.
The geological features of the remainder of the farm are very
peculiar, and are best described by Mr. Mortimer, who says,
** The subsoil of the most southern division—the Carrs—consists
of slightly raised banks of chalk gravel, between which are beds
of peat, and occasionally clay (marked No. 1 on the map). From
under the northern side of these a ‘loamy clay’ containing
boulders (marked No, 2 on the map), crops up,’ and reaches
northwards a considerable way up the southern slope of the
chalk formation. The feather-edge of this ‘loamy clay’ is but a
few inches thick at its northern limit, and rests immediately on
the chalk.”
The soil upon this portion of the farm partakes of the nature
of the subsoil, and its thickness follows a rule precisely opposite
to that prevailing on the gravel land to the north. Instead of
the depth and strength of soil increasing with the height, the
opposite is now the case. The only essential physical difference
in the two cases seems to furnish the explanation of this anomaly,
namely, that we now have to deal with a wet valley of very slight
slope, the soil on the sides of which consists of the mud (or
warp) deposited by the stream in times gone by; whereas in
the other case the valleys are dry, and their slopes have been
denuded of any alluvial soil which may formerly have covered
them, by an agency which has also deepened the valleys, and in-
creased the pitch of their sloping sides.
The farm consists, therefore, of two natural subdivisions, the
northern of which, being the lighter land, is almost entirely
arable ; and the southern or stronger portion, one-half of which is
Eastburn Farm, near Driffield, Yorkshire. 403
permanent pasture. The arable land should, for our purpose, be
again divided by the road which leads from Elmswell to Kirk-
burn, The eastern portion was under cultivation when the farm
was taken by the late Mr. Jordan; but the western, consisting of
450 acres, was at that time a rabbit-warren, and is even now
known as Eastburn Warren, or the Warren Farm,
The gravelly land of this warren was so sterile, that tradition
says it would not even grow twitch ; but Mr. Jordan, after giving
it a good dressing of bones, essayed to grow a crop of turnips on
it, much to the astonishment of his neighbours and servants.
His success was not brilliant the first year, but what few roots he
did obtain were fed off by sheep, with a liberal allowance of
cake. The next year he again attempted to grow turnips, and
this time obtained a good crop, which was disposed of as before ;
after which the land was cultivated for many years on the four-
course system, and, by a continued liberal use of artificial
manures, it has been rendered tolerably productive.
The stronger loamy land at the Warren was subjected to
another process. This land was of much better quality, and
had produced good crops for some years, when the turnip-crop
began to show symptoms of disease—a frequent occurence upon
freshly broken-up old leys. The corn crop also suffered from
mildew and blight. Mr. Jordan therefore applied,'as soon as
opportunity permitted, 6 chaldrons of lime to the acre, with
excellent effect. The succeeding crop of turnips, instead of
exhibiting “ finger and toe,” and otherwise diseased roots, yielded
good healthy roots and proved a full crop; while the wheat crop
was distinguished by brighter and stronger straw and the absence
of mildew and blight. After such marked success, Mr. Jordan
was encouraged to repeat the liming as the rotation allowed, and
this process is now in course of completion.
FENCES.
Proceeding along the high road from Kellythorpe to Kirk-
burn—about a mile of which is kept in repair by Mrs. Jordan
at a cost of 100]. per annum—one is struck with the uni-
formity of the quick-fences, in height, form, compactness, and
symmetry; with the straightness of the hedgerows, and with the
contrast presented by the land on the two sides of the road. On
the left hand, immediately after arriving at the commencement
of the Eastburn Farm, the fields are picturesque and pastoral,
studded with a sufficient number of trees to throw into strong
relief the straight, trim, well-kept fences which divide the land
into about 30-acre closes, On the right-hand side of the
404 Farm Reports.
road the land is entirely arable, and scarcely a tree breaks the
neat and pleasing monotony of alternation furnished by square
field and straight fence. The homestead stands on the pasture
side of the high road, about midway between the east and west
boundaries of the farm ; and from that point, looking northwards,
nearly two-thirds of the arable land can be seen at one glance.
The fields, with their various shades of green, and brown, and
white; and the hedges, with their identity of form, colour, and
size, give the impression of a large garden divided into beds by
prim box edging, rather than of a farm where nothing is done
that will not pay. —
The fences were made by planting on the level nine quicks in
the yard. They have been trimmed once a year on both sides at
a cost of 34d. per chain, including raking up; and have thus been
kept to a height of from 4 to 5 feet, of a somewhat triangular
form, the base measuring a little more than 4 feet across the
water-boughs, the sides being slightly convex, and making an
angle of about 45° at the ridge. ‘The fences show the variation
in the quality of the land with as much precision as a thermo-
meter will indicate variations in temperature. Accordingly
there is a perfect gradation from the most luxuriant fences on
the pastures to the comparatively stunted ones in the gravel
bottom.
In 1849 and 1850 Mr. Jordan divided the Warren Farm into
fields, and made the two main roads which run through it
towards Elmswell and Garton. He levelled 6 miles of warren
sod-walls, planted 20 miles of quick-fences, and protected them
with 40 miles of post and rail. Most of the fields on the Warren
are about 60 acres in extent; at Eastburn the majority run about
30 acres, though some range up to 60.
PonDs.
The farm is thoroughly well supplied with water by a
number of wold-ponds, which are perfectly circular in form,
and are placed either in the line of a fence, or where three or
four fences join; thus supplying two, three, or four fields. The
straight line of the hedge-row is thus abruptly stopped; but the
fence is continued all round the pond quite as carefully and
neatly as elsewhere, access to it being obtained through a gate-
way from each field which it supplies. These ponds are about
20 yards in diameter, and have a depth of about 5 feet in the
centre, the bed having the shape of a basin, or a segment of a
hollow globe. The bed is made of about 6 inches of well-beaten
puddled clay, resting upon a good layer of quicklime, another
layer of which is then laid upon the clay, and the whole is
Eastburn Farm, near Driffield, Yorkshire. 405
covered with chalk and gravel. Each pond is made at a cost of
about 20/., including leading.
GRAss-LAND.
With the exception of 45 acres at the Warren Farm, all the
grass-land is, as already mentioned, on the south side of the road
leading from Kellythorpe to Kirkburn. At the latter village the
road crosses the stream, making the apex of a triangular area,
the base of which is formed by the boundary-fence between East-
burn and the adjoining farm, one side being the stream, and the
other the road. This triangular area measures about 250 acres ;
it consists of the best and strongest land on the farm, being a
deep soil on loamy clay, and is, therefore, the best adapted
for permanent pasture, which in the Wolds is a very valuable
portion of a farm. The quality of this pasture has been
much improved during a series of years by the liberal use of
linseed-cake, roots, &c. It is mostly stocked with from 100 to
120 head of young beasts, which, when older, are fed in the
foldyards. The young draught-horses are also kept on the pas-
ture-land, and in the summer the whole of the cart-horses ; but
sheep are chiefly put on seeds. The close of grass-land near
the stream, consisting of about 60 acres, and known as the Carr,
is the only portion of the farm which required drainage. It was
accordingly thoroughly drained by the late Mr. Jordan, and the
effect can be computed by comparing it now with undrained
pastures in the district in a similar situation.
The Warren grass (45 acres) was laid down about twenty years
ago, and was soon afterwards dressed with bones, a second dress-
ing being given about seven years afterwards. In the interval
it received liberal dressings of foldyard manure, and about five
years ago it was treated with 2 cwts. of guano to the acre. Early
turnips are given to the feeding beasts on this grass-land about
the end of September, before they are put into the foldyards.
This grass is not so good as the older pasture, but is very valuable
on a Wold farm. A very small quantity of hay is made at East-
burn, no more than is requisite for riding-horses and for animals
in sickness..
ARABLE LAND.
The arable land, comprising about 1050 acres, is farmed on
a four-course system, which is partly extended to a seven-course
on account of clover sickness. This disease appears to be particu-
larly rife on those farms where the subsoil consists of any descrip-
tion of chalk. When Mr. Legard wrote his essay on ‘The Farm-
ing of the East Riding of Yorkshire,’ the necessity of modifying
406 Farm Reports.
the old four-course system was commanding serious attention,
and compelling a general resort to experiments on a large scale,
which, however, were held to be merely tentative ‘makeshifts.’
Tares, and in some instances peas, had been tried and found
unsatisfactory substitutes for clover, chiefly on account of their
proving ‘prejudicial to the succeeding corn crop.” On the
deep Wolds rape had been tried, and though a better crop of
wheat was stated to be the result on the credit side, yet, on the
other hand, this crop was not available “in the spring and early
summer, when sheep meat is most in request;” and upon the
shallow Wold soils we learn that it could not be grown. The
favourite system twenty years ago was, therefore, to take seeds
on only one half of the course, and turnips on the remainder,
On the Eastburn farm a different system has been pursued;
it has been attended with the double advantage of avoiding
clover sickness to any great extent, and of admitting the growth
of both wheat and a certain quantity of barley, a practice which
could not be profitably followed on this farm when worked on
the four-course system. The shift now followed may be
described as an extension of that system to a seven-course shift,
namely (1) wheat, (2) turnips, (3) barley, (4) peas, (5) turnips,
(6) oats, (7) seeds; but, in point of fact, only a small portion of
the farm is annually under the system; the remainder is kept
on the ordinary four-course, the spring corn being oats instead
of barley.
On some Wold farms the relative positions of wheat and oats
in the rotation are reversed, seeds being sown upon wheat after
turnips, and oats following the seeds. This plan is adopted
because it is not safe to grow wheat after seeds on certain cold deep
soils. Although on this particular farm wheat is taken after
seeds, it may be useful to recal attention to the reason given by
Mr. Legard* for the contrary practice, which is followed on
some other farms, as an indication is thereby afforded of the
peculiarities of the soil with which we have to deal.
‘The reason why the earlier mode of wheat after seeds has been abandoned
is this, that on these [the deep Wold] soils, and in this climate, the wheat
plant was found to be very apt to be turned out in the spring if sown on
clover-lea, and that no system of rolling or of treading with sheep could
counteract this tendency. Upon these soils, also, wheat of a finer quality is
obtained after rape or turnips than according to any other method. Upon the
thin Wold soils the very converse of this takes place; wheat after turnips
does not here succeed well; the quantity per acre is invariably found to be
deficient.”
1. Wheat.—On the stronger ]and the seeds are manured in
July, immediately after turnip sowing is finished, with about
* ‘Journal Royal Agricultural Society,’ vol. ix., p. 112.
Eastburn Farm, near Driffield, Yorkshire. 407
three or four ordinary waggonloads to the acre. By this means
the growth of the clover is greatly accelerated, anda good top is
obtained to plough in. This herbage has been proved to be of the
greatest value to the succeeding crop of wheat. About the
middle of October the land is ploughed to a depth of four inches,
a presser with drill attached following the plough, and drilling
about 3 bushels of seed to the acre. The principal kind grown
is the Browick red, about 1 bushel of a white sort being mixed
with 8 bushels of the red. Previous to sowing the seed is
dressed with a strong solution of arsenic dried up with quick-
lime.
All the strong land wheat is got in by the first week in
November, if possible; because, owing to the severe winter
climate of this district, it is most important to secure a strong
plant before the frosts fairly set in, otherwise a very large pro-
portion of it is lost during the winter months.
The light land for wheat is ploughed and pressed earlier than
the strong land, the same quantity of farmyard manure having
been used. It is allowed to remain five or six weeks, and is
then drilled with the same kinds and quantity of seed as the
strong land, athwart the ploughing, wheat sowing being com-
pleted by the second week in November.
In February the light land wheat receives a top-dressing of
guano and salt distributed broadcast, and in the first fine weather
the land is harrowed and Cambridge rolled.
Wheat is cut by a reaper unless it is too much lodged, or the
crop is too heavy. After cutting it is sheafed and immediately
stooked. Mowing with the scythe, whether wheat, barley, or
oats, costs on an average 10s. per acre, including sheafing,
stooking, and raking; and when stacked the thatching is done
at the rate of three-halfpence the square yard, including drawing
the straw from a straw rick and cross-banding.
Leading is done with a pair-horse pole-waggon; and the
corn is stacked in carefully made round ricks, each of which
contains enough for a day’s threshing by a portable steam
engine.
2. Roots——The wheat stubbles are ploughed five or six inches
deep in the autumn, immediately after wheat sowing is finished.
As soon as the land is dry enough in the spring it is cross
ploughed, or “‘quarted.” After the usual amount of dragging and
harrowing, the land, especially that intended for swedes, receives
as much foldyard manure as remains available after manuring for
the wheat crop, being that which is made during the latter part of
the year. It then receives a third and last ploughing—an opera-
tion which is regarded as most essential in the case of swedes.
On the seven-course system there are, as already stated, two
VOL. V.—S. 8. 25
408 Farm Reports.
courses of roots, making in a farm of 1050 acres, 300 acres deyoted
to those crops every year. Of this quantity 20 acres are sown
with rape, one half of the remainder with Skirving’s King of
the Swedes, and the remaining half with green and white globe
turnips. No mangolds are grown. Swede sowing commences
about the last week in May, and is finished during the first week
in June, 2}lbs. of seed being drilled to the acre. Turnip
sowing follows immediately, with about 2 lbs. of seed per acre ;
and rape sowing is finished by about the last week in June.
All roots are sown on the flat, the rows being 26 inches apart.
Ridge-sowing has not been tried, as the land is very loose, and
the plan adopted enables it to retain moisture longer than is
possible when ridge-sowing is practised.
The bulk of the farmyard manure having been used for the
wheat crop, great attention is paid to the compost of artificial
manures, &c., used as a dressing for roots. arly in the year
large quantities of half-inch bones and superphosphate are mixed
together, at the rate of 8 bushels of the former and 4 cwt. of the
latter to every acre of turnips, as well as a certain quantity of
ashes, This mixture is allowed to remain in a heap for a month,
when it is turned, moistened with tank-water, and covered again
with ashes. The liquid manure, besides adding a little to the
strength of the compost, performs the more important function of
assisting in the solution of the half-inch bones, On its addition
to the heap the temperature becomes in a little time very per-
ceptibly raised, and this “ heating” is caused by the combination
of the water with free sulphuric acid. If the water or liquid
manure did not, soon after its application, raise the temperature
of the mass, it would be a tolerably sure indication that this
addition to the heap had ceased to be beneficial, and had begun
to be hurtful. When ready to put on the land the mass yields
about 3 quarters to the acre, the quantity of ashes added having
been about equal in volume to that of the bones and super-
phosphate, and this mixture is drilled with the seed on the whole
of the land for turnips.
The Eastburn crop of swedes last year was the finest in the
neighbourhood, and quite an average crop for the district, where
roots are very difficult to grow; but it should be observed that
the practice of manuring seeds in July is not adopted by all the
farmers in the district, many preferring to apply the farmyard
manure the previous autumn, the argument in favour of this plan
being that it strengthens the young clovers during the winter, and
enables them to carry more stock the following summer. Some
farmers also prefer manuring for the turnip crop instead of for
wheat.
The plan adopted in purchasing superphosphates with a view
Lastburn Farm, near Driffield, Yorkshire. 409
of preventing fraud, and of enabling the farmer to know the
strength of the manure which he is using, appears sufficiently
good and effective to be worthy of record and recommendation.
26 per cent. of soluble phosphate is guaranteed by the maker,
and the amount actually received is ascertained by the purchaser
forwarding to Dr. Voelcker for analysis a sample from the bulk,
taken by himself. Payment is made according to the result of
Dr. Voelcker’s analysis, any deficiency in the percentage of
soluble phosphate imposing on the manufacturer a fine, or
deduction from the standard price, at the rate of 3s. per cent. per
ton, while, on the other hand, any excess in the quantity of
soluble phosphate has to be paid for by the purchaser at a
similar addition to the standard price.
This plan has been found to answer admirably at Eastburn,
and at several other farms in the neighbourhood; but some
farmers still prefer to dissolve the bones themselves, although
there can be little doubt that, provided the superphosphate be good
and pure, it is far more economical to purchase it ready made,
as in most cases there is a great waste of sulphuric acid,—the
modus operandi being somewhat unscientific.
When the turnips are well above ground they are horse-hoed
between the rows, and when the plants are large enough they are
hand-hoed by a man with a 9-inch hoe, and singled by a boy
who follows him; a second horse-hoeing between the rows is then
given, and hand-hoeing and singling are repeated at a cost of
6s. per acre for the hand-operations, All the roots are consumed
by sheep on the land, except about one-tenth, which portion is
carried into the foldyards and eaten by feeding beasts. The
sheep have an allowance of oilcake with the turnips, as will be
described presently.
3. Spring Corn.—Barley follows turnips before peas or tares,
and oats with seeds follow turnips as the general crop of spring
corn. After the roots have been fed off, the land is ploughed
three inches deep, as soon as possible, to get into it what frost
there may be during the winter and early spring, as no tilth is
equal to that produced by frost. In the spring it is harrowed,
and drilled with 3 bushels of Chevalier Barley about the end of
March, or 4% bushels of Black Tartarian Oats in the beginning
of April, A sufficient quantity of each kind is sown every
year in seed-beds, so as to provide true seed for the following
season. The seeds are sown upon oats, and not upon barley,
the latter being considered the best preparation for the suc-
ceeding crop of peas. It is also found on this class of soils
in the Wolds that wheat is liable to “ night-ripen” if it closely
follows a barley-crop. Indeed, so much is this adverse
influence of barley dreaded in this district, that on one Wold
2E2
410 Farm Reports.
farm of about 1000 acres, which we visited, not more than
16 acres of barley were sown this year; and on the Eastburn
farm it cannot be regarded as a general crop, its place being
taken by oats, except, as a rule, on one field every year.
Both barley and oats are mown with the scythe at a cost of
about 10s. per acre, including sheafing, stooking, and raking,
all these operations being found necessary in this northern
climate. The only difference between the harvesting of these
crops and wheat is that they are made into long stacks instead of
round ones.
The quality of the barley grown is very good, and most of it
is sold for malting.
A, Seeds.—The seeds are sown broadcast, about 35 lbs. to the
acre, as soon as possible after the oats have been got in and
the land Cambridge rolled, certainly before the spring corn is
up, so that sowing is generally finished by the end of April.
The mixture of seeds used for the strong land (is the follow-
ing :—14 lbs, trefoil, 114 lbs. White Dutch, 34 Ibs, red clover,
33 lbs. plantain, and 2 lbs. parsley. On the lighter land, which
consists of a very loose light gravel, the mixture consists of
14 lbs. trefoil, 14 lbs. White Dutch, 43 ]bs, plantain, and 24 Ibs.
arsley. On some portions of the farm a certain proportion of
Alsike has been tried in lieu of an equivalent quantity of White
Dutch Clover.
Clover sickness is prevalent not only on this farm but all over
the district, and hitherto the extension of the four-course system
has been the only known antidote. The system adopted, though
it may be termed a seven-course system, is really a four-course,
in which barley, followed by peas, and afterwards turnips, is sub-
stituted for oats and seeds on a certain portion every year. This
portion varies according to circumstances, but the deviation from
the four-course system is not greater than they are compelled to
make in consequence of clover-sickness.
The whole of the seeds are used for grazing purposes.
5. Lares and Peas.—For tares the barley-stubble is ploughed
immediately after harvest, and from 10 to 12 pecks of tares are
drilled to the acre at the same time. For peas the land is ploughed
either late in the autumn or early in the spring; and late in Feb-
ruary or early in March it is harrowed and drilled with about
4 bushels per acre of Early Dun Peas. No farmyard manure is
used for these crops. As soon as the peas are well up they are
hand-hoed once at 4s. per acre, and they are harvested generally
before wheat, in July or early in August, at a cost of about 5s.
per acre, exclusive of leading and stacking.
Tares are mown for the horses as soon as ready, which is
generally early in June.
Eastburn Farm, near Driffield, Yorkshire. 411
Artificial Manures and Oileake.-—The annual expenditure on
linseed cake and other artificial food is about 1600/.; for
fertilizing materials there are annually bought (1) dressing for 300
acres of roots, at, say, two guineas per acre, 630/.; and (2) top-
dressing for corn on the gravelly light land about 2002, making
a total of 24307. In addition to this a large quantity of lime
(the Grimston or Knottingley being preferred) is annually used
at a cost of about 10s. per ton, including leading.
HorsEs.
A rather light active description of cart-horse is employed,
and a sufficient number of horses are bred on the farm to
replace those which annually die off, or become unfit for their
work; but horse-breeding as a source of profit has not been
pursued. About 36 cart-horses are usually kept, and they are
worked in pairs by yoking abreast, being also kept in pairs in
the stables. ‘The Wold carter is easily roused to eloquence on
the subject of the mental and physical advantages of keeping
two horses together.
In winter the fodder consists of chaff with 2 pecks of oats per
day ; and in the spring and autumn seed-times, and when the
work is harder than usual, a small quantity of Indian meal or
split beans is given in addition. During the summer less corn
is given, but tares are allowed to the horses in the foldyards ;
and they are partially kept out on the pastures.
The manual labour connected with the horses is very
methodically arranged. The 36 horses are equally divided
between the Warren and the Eastburn homesteads, and the hind
who lives at each place boards 6 lads who look after their
18 horses, the hind giving out the corn. These lads, during
spring and summer, get up at half-past 4, and in winter at 5,
dio the horses, give them a little corn, anil find employment
in the stable until 20 minutes past 5 ; they then go to breakfast,
which occupies half-an-hour, leaving 10 minutes to enable fem
to get into the fields by 6. At noon they come in with the
horses and get their dinners, being out in the fields again at 1.
Work continues from | until 6, when the horses are brought
into the stable and done up, the lads leaving for supper at a
quarter to 7; and at 8 they return to the stable to finish for
the night.
CATTLE.
The cattle are principally bought in as young short-horn
steers, and kept from 9 to 12 months; but in addition a herd
of about 20 pedigree cows and heifers are kept on the farm.
412 Farm Reports.
The calves are reared by hand in separate boxes, formed by
dividing a stall into 6 compartments by partitions: new milk
is allowed for about 3 weeks. In addition to the young beasts
already mentioned as stocking the pastures, about 80 steers are
fed during the winter in the foldyards. These foldyards
are very large, and they are so arranged and used that the
eattle are moved in rotation from one to the next in order, as
those previously occupying the latter are sold off. The steers
are fed in these yards with sliced turnips and an allowance of
7 lbs. of oilcake per day. No food is steamed or otherwise
cooked. On the average about 80 steers are wintered in this
manner; and, as a rule, 20 go off at Christmas, 20 in March,
20 in May, and 20 in June. As a large quantity of straw is
grown, and none is sold, it becomes an object of great importance
to convert the whole of it into manure. The practice at
Eastburn is to leave this manure in the yards until the middle of
July, when it is taken out and spread over the clover. On an
adjoining farm, however, a different system is practised ; a large
quantity of the straw is there sold to publicans and others in
Driffield, and stable-manure is brought back to the farm.
What manure is made in the foldyards is there carted into the
fields in January, while still long, and made into immense
heaps, in which form it is left until wanted for use.
SHEEP.
The flock consists of 500 Leicester breeding ewes, descended
from Mr. Hall’s, of Scorboro. The wethers are sold fat at
1 year old, and the ewes are kept. In addition to the per-
manent flock it is customary to buy about 300 hoggets in the
autumn, which are put on turnips with artificial food, and sold
in the spring as they become ready. All the sheep are shorn
before they are sent to market, and they are sent alive to
Wakefield and the West Riding. Some few which generally
remain over are sold in the autumn.
The breeding ewes are given a small quantity of turnips on
the grass during the day, just before lambing, and are brought
at night into the foldyards, where they are fed, both before and
after lambing, on chopped oats, linseed cake, and bran. ‘Thev
are lambed in the foldyards, and are afterwards taken on the
grass, where they are again given a few turnips. The lambing
season commences early in March and lasts about five weeks.
The lambs are generally weaned about the middle of July upon
grass freed from the ewes, getting a supply of linseed cake and
bran,—the ewes being at this time on the seeds,
The sheep are usually put on rape in the early part of
Eastburn Farm, near Driffield, Yorkshire. 415
September, and on turnips at Michaelmas. They are stocked
when put to the ram, about the 12th of October, on rape or
turnips, the tups used being pure Leicesters hired for the season
of James Hall, Esq., of Scorboro. About 140 ewes, or rather
more than one-fourth, are annually drafted. About Christmas the
whole of the sheep are put on swedes, which they stock until
the hoggs are sold off and the breeding ewes put on grass.
One man attends to 200 feeding hoggs and cuts for them, the
sheep being folded with nets. The fleeces average 9 lbs. each
for hoggs and 7 lbs. each for ewes. Shearing is done at 2s. 6d.
per day, with meat and two pints of beer in addition.
Sheep-washing is done by the shepherd in a running stream
at a cost of ds. 4d. per 100. The lambs are usually dipped after
weaning, the old sheep are either salved or hand-watered in the
autumn, and the lambs are again dressed at the same time at a
cost of about 25s. per 100, including labour.
‘PIGS.
About 50 pigs are kept on the farm, living on waste materials,
and, as some are sold, others are bought in to supply their places.
The function of the pig here as in many other districts is simply
to utilize what would otherwise be wasted.
LABOUR.
At each homestead is a hind’s cottage constructed with
reference to the system of employing and boarding a certain
number of lads who are engaged by the year. ‘These lads, of
whom there are 7 at each farmstead, are hired at Martinmas,
and are paid from 9/. to 18/. each per annum, according to their
ability, length of service, &c., the average payment being about
131. They live with the hind, who is paid by the occupier of
the farm 8s. 6d. per week each for their board. The hinds get
17s. per week besides a cottage rent free, an allowance of
potatoes for the household, and sundry perquisites for his wife’s
trouble.
The hind’s cottages are designed specially with a view to
prevent the hind and his family being inconvenienced by so
many young men living in the house; and the annexed plans
will show how admirably this has been arranged, the portion
devoted to the hind and his family being almost entirely
isolated from the living and sleeping rooms appropriated to the
lads. The “men’s kitchen,” it will be seen, contains a staircase
leading to the men’s bedroom, which is not accessible from the
main staircase; it also contains a copper, and is in direct
connection with the washhouse and the pantry.
Fig. 2.-—Plans of a Hind’s Cottage at Lastburn, illustrating the arrangement
for boarding lads.
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Aylesby, Riby, aad Rothwell Farms. 415
The ordinary labourer’s wages are 2s. 6d. per diem; but in
harvest-time wages run as high as 18s. per week, with meat in ad-
dition. An allowance of 2 pints of beer per man is also given in
harvest time and on threshing days ; some of the labourers live on
the farm, and others in neighbouring villages; but in either case it
is a characteristic of them that they remain on the same farm
from youth toold age. There are 4 good roomy labourers’ cottages
on the farm, each of which contains a parlour, kitchen, pantry,
and outhouses on the ground floor, with 38 good bedrooms having
separate entrances above, and to each is attached a garden about
half a rood in extent. The rent charged to the farm-labourer for
this accommodation is 1s. 3d. per week.
The average annual expenditure for labour, including harvest
and turnip hoeing, is about 30s. per acre on the whole acreage
of the farm, say 1300 acres.
Farm BuILpDINGs.
At Eastburn the buildings are better adapted for breeding
purposes than those at the Warren, the foldyards being very
much smaller, All the steading is built of brick, and roofed
with slates, this being one of the many improvements carried
out (in 1851) by the late Mr. Jordan. That gentleman also had
a gas apparatus erected, and the carpenter (who is also joiner
and wheelwright, and is employed entirely on the farm) makes a
sufficient quantity of gas every day during the winter months to
light all the farm buildings, including stables, cowhouses, &c.,
as well as the farmhouse. The Warren buildings were also
erected when Mr. Jordan took the farm, and a belt of trees
was planted on the north, east, and west sides of them, the
situation being very much exposed. The whole of the north
side of these buildings consists of a very lofty barn and granaries,
which protect two large foldyards. These yards are shedded
all round, the sheds having cribs beneath them. As the yards
adjoin, the sheds down the centre are placed back to back; and
here we find the turnip and cake houses, and other convenient
offices. Stabling for 18 horses is provided on the outside of
the eastern yard.
3. Aylesby, Riby, and Rothwell Farms, near Grimsby, Lincoln-
shire; in the occupation of Mr. Witu1AM Torr. By H. M.
JENKINS.
Two of the farms now to be described have Jong held, either
collectively or separately, a prominent position in the history of
416 Farm Reports.
British agriculture. Aylesby and Riby, like Skipworth and
Torr, are names which will always be associated with advanced
ideas of good farming and successful breeding.
Aylesby was held successively by the two Skipworths, father
and son, in the days of the Bakewell Ram Club, when Leicester
sheep-breeding was a contest for giants. It consists of 940 acres,
and is held under Mr. T. T. Drake, of Amersham, Bucks, at an
annual rental on a Ladyday entry, with a very liberal tenant-right
agreement, and no out-going crop.
The Riby farm has been in Mr. Torr’s family for about a
century and a half; it measures 720 acres, and is held under
Col. Tomline, M.P. for Grimsby, at an annual rental, on a May-
day entry, with an out-going crop. Rothwell consists of 420
acres, and, being a parsonage farm, is held under the present
rector, who, it is almost unnecessary to say, has only a life-interest
init. Mr. Torr also occupies 200 acres of marsh-land, mostly
his own property, at Immingham and Stallingborough, on the
banks of the Humber. The whole of the land at present in Mr.
Torr’s occupation therefore measures 2280 acres, ‘The propor-
tions of grass and tillage are the following :—
Tillage. Grass. Total.
Aylesby .. .. 700 SIO 240 sneer 940
Riby co Be QUO) aoe 110 wanee 720
Rothwell .. .. 404 Api 16 eotee 420
Marsh-land et 200 Sods 200
1714 566 2280
Aylesby is about five miles west of Great Grimsby, and the
village is situated just on the commencement of the chalky
gravel or rubble which stretches as a kind of fringe along the
foot of the Wolds. North of the village, as may be seen in
the map, lies a mass of clay, which forms the subsoil of the great
portion of the strong land on the farm; and there is an outlier
of the same subsoil south of the road called Barton Street. This
road may be taken as a very convenient, and it is certainly a very
natural, line of division, to assist us in describing the physical
features of the district. It runs along the line of a dry valley,
and divides almost completely the strong land from the light,
the only exception being the outlying patch of clay just men-
tioned, ‘This clay is one of those glacial drift-deposits to which
geologists now give the name of boulder-clay, but which in
former days were known by various names, such as till, erratics,
diluvium, and so forth. It is the same as that termed “ plastic
clay” by Mr. John Algernon Clarke in his prize essay on the
‘Farming of Lincolnshire’ in the 12th volume of this Journal.
The section beneath the map of Aylesby and Riby shows the
&y
ay
we
Cover
Fig. 1.— Geological Map of the Farms occupied by Mr. Torr at
Aylesby, Riby, and Rothwell.
Slingsmere 2
Slingsmere Cover
Barton Street.
Lincolnshire Wolds.
Boulder-clay.
8
8
°
4
ne
1)
¢| Chalk-rubble.
z7msby~
wv
foGri
=n
Leo thwell
Scare—One inch to the mile.
418 Farm Reports.
configuration of the surface on the Aylesby farm. The slope
of the valley from Barton Street towards the clay-land on the
north is seen to be very gradual, while on the south, after the in-
tervention of a narrow plain of chalk, the surface rises somewhat
abruptly and boldly to the true Lincolnshire Wolds.
Most of the gravel, or, as I prefer to call it, chalk-rubble, is
covered with a good depth of from 2 to 4 feet of loam, which is
simply a washing from the clay-land above. The other pecu-
larity to be noticed is the occurrence of a patch of “ silt-loam”
between the principal masses of clay and the outlier, This is
very poor land, and owes its poverty to its geographical position
having formerly contracted the mass of water which washed the
loam from the clay, and thus, by increasing its velocity, prevented
its depositing those coatings of “old warp” to which the rest of
the chalk-rubble now owes its fertility. ‘The clay portion of the
Aylesby farm consists of about 300 acres in a dozen fields. It is
a very cold subsoil, and has a covering of only 6 or 7 inches of
loam; but it has recently been subsoiled by steam-cultivation.
{t is all thoroughly under-drained at a depth of 4 feet. The
chalk portion, or Wold land, consists of 340 acres, and has a top
soil consisting of from 12 to 18 inches of marly loam. The
“ chalk-rubble” and “ silt loam” comprise about 300 acres, 210
of which, having the deep loamy soil just mentioned, are in per-
manent grass,
The Riby farm may be divided into two nearly equal portions,
one of which (the Home Farm) runs for nearly two miles along
the southern side of Barton Street. With the exception of a very
small patch of chalk (marked 4 on the map) it consists entirely
of the same “chalk-rubble” as that at Aylesby, is similarly
covered with from 3 to 4 feet of strong fine loam, and is the best
land farmed by Mr. Torr. The remaining portion, or the Riby
Wold Farm, is a little larger than the Riby Home Farm, and
consists entirely of chalk covered with about 18 inches of marly
soil, It slopes to the east and south, and the harvest here is
about a week earlier than at Rothwell, also a Wold farm, in con-
sequence of its better aspect and lower elevation; but there is
no artificial shelter to increase these natural advantages,
At Rothwell the subsoil is also chalk, which is here covered
with from 16 to 18 inches of a light marly loam. It is situated
at the extreme height of the North Lincolnshire Wolds, and
forms an elevated ‘“ hog’s back.” Formerly, and not many
years ago, it was a rabbit-warren, and a warren sod-wall may
even yet be seen, though it is in process of demolition by the
present occupier, The only bit of pasture on this farm is a
little field of 16 acres, situated, as may be seen on the map,
where the road from the village of Rothwell branches, on the one
Aylesby, Riby, and Rothwell Farms. 419
hand to Grimsby, and on the other to Croxby. It is used prin-
cipally as a “ city of refuge,” a sanatorium, or such like. While
describing this farm, it may be worth mentioning that it is
divided into seven fields, exclusive of the small pasture. One
of these is nearly 100 acres in extent, and the other six are
worked in pairs (of one small and one large field), each pair
making up about the same acreage. The four-field shift at
Rothwell is therefore a very simple matter to arrange.
The only peculiarity of climate which it is necessary to men-
tion is, that the north-east winds from the German Ocean in the
spring very much retard spring-cultivation.
FENCES.
Many of the fences are old quick-hedges, which have
been mended and renovated by planting young quicksets to
fill up gaps; but, after many years’ experience, Mr. Torr con-
siders it cheaper in the end, and every way better, to plant an
entirely new fence than to patch up an old one. A large por-
tion of the fences at Aylesby and Riby have been thus replanted,
considerable care having been taken to insure the production of *
a close dwarf fence with a good bottom. The land is first
trenched in the autumn 24 feet wide and 2 feet deep, and the
trench is filled with either maiden earth or turnip-soil mixed
with foldyard manure and a small quantity of chalk. This
compost is turned over in the winter; and in February 3-year
old quicksets are planted on the level, 3 to 4 in a yard ;—only
the oldest hedges are bordered by ditches, and these in most
cases are small watercourses. The planting is done as day-work
by the ordinary labourers employed on the farm. The quicks
are allowed to grow freely for 3 or 4 years before they are slashed
or cut; after that interval, one side is trimmed, in the autumn,
in a slanting direction upwards and inwards, from the base
towards the centre; when this side has recovered, grown into
form, and become compact by the production of small branches
and spurs,—a process which usually occupies from 3 to 4 years,
—the other side is dealt with in the same manner. By these
means a good compact growth is secured, and the hedge is never
entirely denuded of its small branches. After the effects of the
last operation have been overcome the fence is considered mature,
and it is then trimmed annually as soon as the sap begins to fall
—the trimmers generally commencing in September. The fence
is trimmed ‘to a pyramidal shape, about 4 feet at the base and
43 feet high, at the rate of 3d. per chain for cutting both sides
and cleaning the roots, which also is done every year with great
care, A strong marling has been found very beneficial to old
hedges, as it enables the soil to retain moisture.
420 Farm Reports.
Gates——The gates are all alike, at Aylesby, Riby, and Roth-
well. The pattern was designed and the mode of construction
planned by Mr. Torr thirty years ago. At the Warwick meet-
ing in 1859 Mr. Torr exhibited one of his gates to compete for
the prize offered by the Local Committee for the best farm-gate,
which he duly won, and the prize-gate itself may still be seen
at Riby, looking very little the worse for wear after ten years’
service. The gates are hung on oak-posts, and the fence is pro-
tected on each side by about 4 feet of paling; both posts and
paling are tarred, but the gate is painted straw-colour, a new
coat being given every year. Most of the gates are 10 feet wide,
but where no large instruments pass through them they have of
late years been reduced to 8 feet, and are then made to answer
the purpose of handgates. They are all made on the farm.
As a really good farm-gate, combining strength and durability
with cheapness and neatness, is by no means commonly seen, pro-
bably the following description and illustration will be thought
worth the space they occupy.
Fl 2
Bal
25 oT
bs
ry ©
a $
iL y
3 D
Fi
2.—Warwick Prize Farm-gate, designed by Mr. William Torr.
o
g.
The gate has six bars at unequal distances, from 44 inches
apart below, to 7 inches between the two top ones. It is
strengthened by ‘a diagonal support-bar on one side of the bars,
and by two upright ones on the other.
The bars are inserted into the heads without any tenoning, and
the support-bars are bolted together and to the gate bars, as seen
in the figure. There are three fixed points, on the security
and strength of which depends the durability of the gate; these
are where, the top bar enters the heel, and where the diagonal
support-bar is fixed to those two. The upright support-bars are
of less consequence, being used chiefly to diminish the flexibility,
and increase the rigidity, of the gate in a vertical direction.
The gate is ornamented by a flat cap, of the same size and
thickness as a bar, but with the corners planed off, being
placed flatwise upon the top bar. It is of some little use as a
Aylesby, Riby, and Rothwell Farms. 421
shelter to the gate, and of more as affording an additional means
of securing the diagonal support-bar.
The posts are of oak, and are trimmed to be a little wider at
the bottom than at the top, so as to give a little heel-fall. This
fall is modified by the crooks being inserted into the post a little
obliquely, the lower one being about an inch the nearer to the
opening gate. In consequence of the former arrangement, tMe
gate is made about 14 inches wider at the bottom than at the top,
the obliquity being in the heel. When shutting, the impetus
should never be great enough to make the slam jerk the latch out
of the socket.
The latches generally used are ordinary wooden balance-bar
bolts, hung by a staple and hook. A screw is driven half-way
in on the lower side for convenience of opening, especially when
riding.
DRAINAGE.
At Aylesby about 300 acres of tillage and 100 acres of
grass have been thoroughly drained with 3-inch D-pipes,
at a uniform depth of a little more than 4 feet, the rows
eing from 8 to 9 yards apart, and the outfall-pipes from 44 to
54 inches in diameter. No old ditch has ever been used as
an outfall, but a system of Mr. Torr’s invention has been sub-
stituted for the more general plan. About 20 feet within the
fence a line of outfall-drains has been laid with 44-inch D-pipes ;
a double set, or even three rows, having been used side by side, in
preference to larger pipes, where a more capacious outfall was con-
sidered necessary. ‘These outfall-drains discharge into brickwork
tanks sunk in the lowest part of the field, and covered with a
wooden door. Small tanks of similar construction have also been
placed at the angles of drains, and cap-tiles have been used at the
junctions of ordinary with outfall-drains. The tank-mouths of the
outfall-drains are set in the brickwork of the tanks, which dis-
charge themselves into the main open drains of the estate. The
great merit of this system is the complete control which is insured
over the outfalls, and the facility of access to them.
The landlord supplied the pipes and other materials, and the
tenant found the labour, on a four-years’ purchase tenant-right
agreement. On the tillage-land the draining has always been
done upon seeds, a thin sod being placed round the tiles ; and
where economy of fall was necessary, as much as possible was
reserved for the outfall drains, that being considered the great
secret of successful draining. In proof of the correctness of this
practice, we may state that it has not been necessary to take
up a single yard of pipes.
4292 Farm Reports.
GRASS-LAND.
The permanent pasture consists of about 200 acres of
marsh-land at Immingham and Stallingborough, 300 acres at
Aylesby and Riby, and a small “sanatorium” of 16 acres
at Rothwell. It is all old pasture, except about 60 or 70 acres at
Riby. This was laid down after two successive crops of turnips,
the land (a light gravelly loam) having been well limed previous
to the first crop. The turnips were eaten off by sheep, and a
seedsman’s mixture of small seeds was sown the next year with
barley. This new pasture has been much used for lambing-ewes,
which have eaten on it a large quantity of mangolds, swedes,
corn, and cake; and it is considered that the absence of mosses
is to be attributed chiefly to this treatment.
Some portion of the old pasture is annually top-dressed in
rotation with from five to six loads of compost per acre, mixed
with foldyard manure; and frequently quantities of wheat-chaft
from the threshing-machine are scattered over it. "The marsh-land
is chiefly used for grazing and feeding purposes, oilcake being
frequently given on it. At Aylesby and Riby the pastures are
stocked with the breeding flock. No horses are ever put on grass.
The permanent meadow-land is all old, and consists of from
40 to 50 acres ; it is annually top-dressed with five or six loads of
foldyard manure, or with compost, and it occasionally receives a
dressing of guano, from 2 to 3 cwt. to the acre. Mowing and
haymaking machines are used for getting in the crop; and the hay
is put up in round ricks. All the hay is chopped before used.
Occasionally the mower is put over some portion of the pas-
tures in June, so as to get better grass for lamb-keeping.
ARABLE-LAND.
The shift at Rothwell and Riby is the ordinary four-
course system, with the exception that a small portion of the
earliest fed-off turnip-land at Riby is sown with wheat instead of
barley. At Riby barley is the only spring corn, while at Roth-
well oats are usually grown. At Aylesby the Wold land is
managed similarly to that at Riby; but the strong clay land,
which has been drained and limed, is, as a rule, sown with wheat
every alternate year.
The following tabular statement of the courses of cropping
at the different farms will make the system intelligible at a
glance :—
ROTHWELL, Rrby. AYLEsBy WoLp. AYLESBY CLAY.
Ist year. Wheat. Wheat. Wheat. Wheat.
2nd _,, Turnips. Turnips. Turnips. Roots.
ord ,, Oats or barley. Barley or wheat. Barley or wheat. Wheat.
Ath’ 5; Seeds. eeds, Seeds, Seeds or tares.
Aylesby, Riby, and Rothwell Farms. 423
It will thus be seen that, out of 1714 acres of tillage, about
500 acres are annually devoted to wheat.
1. Wheat—Except on the strong land at Aylesby, the seeds
are always ploughed and pressed early, and the land is left thus
until the end of September or the beginning of October. The
strong-land seeds are generally broken up by the steam-culti-
vator at a cost of about 12s. an acre, and the land is afterwards
ploughed and pressed. Any portion which seemed to require it
would have a dressing of summer-made foldyard manure before
ploughing ; and another portion would probably be top-dressed
with 2 ewt. of guano and 3 cwt. of salt early in the spring.
The seed, after having been dressed with arsenic, or preferably
with blue vitriol, is drilled with an ordinary corn-drill, from 8
pecks on the strong land to 12 on the Wold land being used to the
acre, Oxford Prize (a red wheat) is the kind usually sown.
Sowing commences on the Wold land at the end of September,
and finishes on the strong land in the last week in October, except
on those portions of the farm where wheat succeeds early-fed
turnips, as there it cannot be sown until the end of November or
beginning of December. There also the seed is drilled with
a two-row presser-drill, consisting merely of a common drill
attached to an ordinary two-horse presser. Early sowing is
regarded as of the greatest importance on the higher lands, as it
enables the plant to resist the severe winter frosts of that climate
so much better than it could otherwise do. Spring wheat is
cultivated to a certain extent.
Early in the spring the land is Cambridge-rolled, and the
strong land is well harrowed ; a large portion of the light land is
also gone over with lighter harrows; but hoeing is not much
practised.
At the commencement of harvest a reaping-machine is used ;
and, after a certain portion has been thus cut, the remainder of
the wheat and the whole of the spring corn are cut by the scythe.
The wheat cut by the reaper is harvested as soon as possible, and
every endeavour is afterwards made to keep the harvesters as
close as possible to the scythe. The harvesting of the machine-
cut wheat commences as soon as the scythe begins to be used to
the remainder, and afterwards to the spring corn—harvesting and
mowing proceeding together.
Wheat and barley are sheafed and stooked in the same manner
as on the Wolds; and the former is made into round stacks, each
of which contains about one day’s work for a steam-threshing
machine, or, on the average, from 40 to 50 quarters. The stacks
are placed on raised steddles, which are nearly one foot in height,
and are made of a concrete composed of a mixture of chalk and
sand.
VOL. V.—S. S. 2F
424 Farm Reports.
The prevailing system of payment is at a certain price per
acre for the whole of the white crops on the farm, the prices for
1868 having been 10s. 6d. per acre for Aylesby, 9s. 6d. for Riby,
and 8s. 6d. for Rothwell. These prices include mowing, sheaf-
ing, stooking, raking, &c.; in short, getting ready for the wag-
gons. Threshing is done entirely under a hiring or letting
system, the whole of the corn to be threshed being let out at a
certain price per quarter all round, the man who takes the contract
performing every operation except stacking the straw and carry-
ing the corn into the barn. When an elevator is required the
contractor finds it. The prices paid are 1s, 8d. per quarter for
wheat, and Is. 5d. for barley ; but the whole of the white crops
are generally taken at 1s. 6d. per quarter all round. Grinding
is also done at the same price.
2. Roots.—Immediately after harvest, Glover’s paring plough is
extensively used on the stubbles, as the first operation in the pre-
paration of the land for roots, The strong land stubbles are then
broken up, in the autumn, by the steam-cultivator ; the light land
stubbles are ploughed, a two-horse iron grubber sometimes follow-
ing the plough. On the land intended for swedes and mangolds
half the manure, namely, five or six two-horse loads per acre, is
put on during the winter, and the same quantity in the ridges at the
time of sowing. Upon the stronger land for turnips about 3 ewts.
per acre of guano is drilled in the open ridges upon the dung,
and a smaller quantity than in other cases of superphosphate and
ashes is drilled with the seed. On the lighter soils the principal
artificial manure for swedes and common turnips is dissolved
bones, which are drilled with the seed at the rate of about 4 cwts.
to the acre.
The land for mangolds gets, as already stated, half a dressing
of farmyard-manure ; then from 3 to 4 cwts. of salt, mixed with
2 cwts. of guano and dissolved in water, are put on the ridges by
the liquid-manure drill; afterwards from 3 to 4 ewts. of super-
phosphate is drilled with the seed ; and, finally, the land receives
the remainder of its quota of farmyard-manure. ‘The latitude of
Aylesby is so far north that it would be impossible to grow
mangolds without a deal of encouragement being given them.
Mr. Torr gives all his roots a heavy dressing of manure, as he
does not, as a rule, manure seeds.
In the spring, cultivation is principally performed by strong
Finlayson drags, and another portion of the stubbles is steam-
cultivated. By these means the ordinary ploughing of fallows is
very materially lessened, and, as a system, Mr. Torr much prefers
dragging to ploughing in the spring.
The ridges having been rolled down, root-sowing commences
in April with yellow globe mangolds, of which about 20 acres
Aylesby, Riby, and Rothwell Farms. 425
are grown, 6 lbs. of seed being used to the acre. Following this,
in May, about 120 acres of Skirving’s swedes are sown, as well
as some early rape; and about 20 acres of early white turnips
(grey and tankard whites), about the same time, for early feeding-
off by hoggs. From one-third to one-half of the land devoted
to roots is thus sown by the end of May. Early in June hybrid
turnips follow in succession, namely, brown and green top yel-
lows; and the common white, green, and pink globes, in alternate
double rows, close the season of turnip-sowing by Midsummer
Day. The first week in July about 20 acres of late rape is
sown, to be fed off by drape ewes. The quantity of seed used
is about 3 lbs. per acre, of all kinds of turnips; and all roots are
sown on ridges about 27 inches asunder.
As soon as weeds begin to appear a light two-knived horse-
hoe of home-make is used, the common turnips being set out to
ten inches apart, and the swedes to twelve. The rape is gone
over with a hoe having two 43-inch blades, which prevents its
becoming too thick and getting mildew. The grubber is then
extensively used (two or three times), finishing up with a strong
iron one-horse implement. Hand-hoeing twice, and singling by
a man and a boy, are afterwards done at the rate of 6s. per acre.
The rape sown in May is eaten off by the rams and lambs
in July, and the July-sown rape is used for the drape ewes in
November, If plentiful it is used for the breeding ewes when put
to the ram, as it gives the certainty of a larger flock of lambs.
Towards the end of September the common turnips are begun
to be fed off, and are generally finished before Christmas. All
turnips are sliced by the Banbury cutter, and the original imple-
ment, which took the Royal Agricultural Society’s prize at
Oxford, may still be seen on the Riby Farm. The troughs
are placed in the fold of the previous day, and the cutters are
therefore outside the nets, not within. All kinds of roots are
pulped for stock.
The sheep begin to go on swedes soon after Christmas, and
the later portion, as soon as they begin to show any indication of
running, are taken up and put in small pies on the land, a few
being occasionally put in pies with mangolds. The sheep gene-
rally come off swedes about the middle of April.
The whole of the mangolds are carted off and put into pies,
somewhat late in the season, as so far north it is very difficult to
get them ripe enough to take up early. About one inch of the
top and the whole of the fangs are left on the root, and neither
straw nor thatching is then used in the pies, which are left open
at intervals along the ridge, wisps of straw being used to stop up
the apertures when required. Mangolds mixed with swedes are
given to the stock, commencing in January and continued until
2Fr2
426 Farm Reports.
late in March, when they are given to the ewes in lambing-time,.
for which purpose they are very extensively used. After this
they are pulped for cattle, and sliced with the turnip-cutter for
ram-hoggs as late as July, or until the May-sown rape is ready
for them.
Cabbages.—This crop has hitherto been grown principally for
lambs in September, and for the lambing ewes in the spring, to
be given with mangolds. Its cultivation is now being extended
for earlier keeping and especially for lambs, about 15 acres being
planted this year for summer eating, and about 10 acres for
spring keep. The cabbages are partly raised from seed, but a
large number of plants are also bought, as in the neighbourhood
of Grimsby they are very cheap. The land has a heavy dressing
of dung before the plants are pricked out; and the planter is
attended by a boy who puts into each hole a small handful of
old rotted bones.
The following is the scheme of cabbage cultivation which is
at present pursued by Mr. Torr :—
I. Seed sown end of July or beginning of August :
(a). Planted out in October, in succession.
1. Wheeler’s Imperial ; ready middle of June.
2. Enfield Market; ready end of June.
3. Enfield Market; ready beginning of July.
(6). Planted out in March, in succession.
4. Enfield Market or Late York (first week) ready middle
of July.
5. Sprotboro’s (last week) ; ready middle of August.
(c). Planted out in April,
6. Drumheads (Scotch) ; ready in September.
II. Seed sown end of March or beginning of April :
(d). Planted out end of June.
7. Drumheads (Champions) ; ready in December.
(e). Planted out middle or end of July.
8. Drumheads; ready in January.
9. Thousand-headed Brocoli; ready in March and April.
3. Barley.—After the roots have been fed off, the land is
ploughed and then gone over with a Finlayson drag, afterwards
harrowed, and drilled with 11 pecks of Chevalier barley to the
acre, different varieties being used from time to time. DBarley-
sowing is generally finished by the middle of April, and the
land is then Cambridge-rolled previous to putting in the seeds.
Barley is grown in a very large proportion at Riby, a smaller
quantity at Aylesby, its place being taken by wheat, and a still
smaller quantity at Rothwell, being there replaced by oats.
Barley is mown with the scythe, sheafed, and stooked, and.
Aylesby, Riby, and Rothwell Farms. 427
carried to long stacks, the length of which is gradually increased
as the crop comes in, These stacks have rounded or “ cullis ”
ends, which are thus capable of being thatched, the gables being
consequently avoided. In North Lincolnshire there is a great
objection to gable or square-ended stacks. Al the barley is sold
for malting.
Oats.— As a rule the spring corn at Rothwell consists entirely
of oats, which are consumed by the cart-horses on the different
farms.
Oats are sown about the same time as barley; but, as they do
not suffer so much as the latter from being sown either too late
or too early, the period of sowing has a wider range. In other
respects their cultivation is precisely the same as that of barley.
About 4 bus. of black Tartarian oats are sown to the acre.
The system of harvesting is also the same as already described
above.
4, Seeds—For summer grazing the following quantities, sub-
ject to slight variations, are sown per acre :—16 lbs. white Dutch,
6 lbs. trefoil, 2 lbs. plantain, 2 lbs. parsley, and on the higher
land half-a-peck of rye-grass. At Rothwell more trefoil is
sown, and less white Dutch, the high exposed chalk-land
being considered less favourable for white Dutch clover than
more sheltered and stronger soils. For mowing, 14 lbs. of red
clover are sown with a quarter of a peck of rye-grass. About
one-fourth of the seeds only are sown for mowing, so that red
clover is not grown more than once in 16 years, and clover-
sickness is not prevalent in consequence.
The seeds are drilled across barley, oats, or turnip-land wheat,
the coulters being let down where the land has not been Cam-
bridge-rolled. After sowing the land is lightly harrowed. No
manure is put on the seeds, and occasionally tares are sown in
place of them.
The red clover is mown with the scythe, the mowing-
machine being very little used in consequence of flints and other
stones being so abundant; otherwise it is treated and used
exactly the same as the meadow-grass, and is similarly put
through the chaff-cutter before being used.
Vetches.—F rom 12 to 14 pecks are sown early in the autumn
on wheat-stubble, instead of seeds, with a little wheat or rye to
hold up the crop. Most of them are got as soon as ready, and
used for the cart-horses, after having been put through the chaff-
cutter with a little straw; the remainder are folded off in suc-
cession by sheep during the spring and summer.
Beans and peas are not much grown, but occasionally beans are
grown on the strong land at Aylesby instead of seeds, the drills
being 26 inches apart.
425 Farm Reports.
CATTLE.
The breeding herd consists of about 100 pure-bred Shorthorn
females of all ages—namely, 40 cows put to the bull, 15 heifers
put to at about 22 months old, and an average of about 45
yearling heifers and heifer-calves.
In winter they are kept in loose boxes, or are divided into
small lots (from 6 to 8) in the foldyards, They live on chopped
straw and pulped turnips, the heifers getting in addition a small
allowance of oilcake, generally about 3 lbs. each per diem, In
the summer they are kept on the pastures at Aylesby and Riby,
until about three weeks or a month before calving, when they are
taken into loose boxes, and put upon dry fodder, being given
doses of Epsom salts and treacle twice a week. Independently
of this special treatment it is the general practice on the farm to
give the high-bred females half an ounce of saltpetre in a small
bran mash once a week,
The bulls are kept in loose boxes, and get a liberal allowance
of oilcake and meal, with pulped turnips in winter, and mangolds
and bran in summer, a certain quantity of mangolds being
reserved expressly for them. In addition to the weekly nitre-
mash they occasionally have a gentle dose of Epsom salts and
aloes. Nearly all the bulls are sold when young, generally as
yearlings, more than 200 having been thus disposed of at an
average of about 50/. each.
The calves are all reared by suckling, and, as many pure
shorthorns are not allowed to rear their own offspring, nurse-cows
are bought for the purpose. The calves are generally kept in
loose boxes, and the nurses taken to them twice a day; some,
however, are turned into the pastures, but the former plan is con-
sidered preferable.
Most of the male calves are kept for bulls, sixteen having
been thus reared this year. These bulls are generally sold as
yearlings, and very rarely let for hire. Those at present in
service on the farm are “ British Crown” (21,322), ‘ Breast-
plate” (19,337), “ Fitz-Royal,” and ‘ Governor-General,”—by
“ Commander-in-Chief,” from Mr. Booth’s “ Bride of the Vale,”
which was recently sold for 1000 guineas to go to America.
The present herd dates back nearly thirty years, its foundation
having been laid at Riby in the year 1840, when ‘‘ Golden Beam,”
the ancestress of the celebrated G, tribe, was purchased from the
Caedby herd. This cow, calved in 1831, was got by ‘‘ Prince
Comet ” (1842), dam by “Count” (170). Since then seven or
eight crosses of pure Booth blood have been implanted on this
stock with successful results. The system of breeding commenced
in 1840 with this tribe is simply to get a first-rate female of pure
Ayleshy, Riby, and Rothwell Farms. 429
descent belonging to any good family, and then to use pure
Booth bulls. ‘ Guitar,” one of the representatives of the G.
tribe was sent to Queensland last year; her pedigree included
the following pure Booth bulls :—“ Prince of Warlaby ” (15,107),
“Booth Royal” (15,673), “ British Prince” (14,197), ‘* Van-
guard” (10,994), ‘‘ Crown Prince” (10,087), “ Vanguard ” again,
and “ Baron Warlaby” (7813), as well as ‘“ Londesborough,”
6142 (half Booth).
At Mr. Holdsworth’s sale in 1841, “ Flora of Farnsfield,” got
by “Rinaldo” (4949), out of the celebrated ‘‘ Formosa,” a
descendant of Robert Colling’s ‘‘Sweetbrier,” was purchased as
a member of the Barmpton herd, and became the progenitor of the
“ Flower” tribe. At the present moment, its representatives have
four and five crosses of Booth blood; one of them, ‘* Warlaby
Flower,” went to Canada last year, and recently “ Faunist,” a
yearling bull, has been sold at a high figure.
The matron of the ‘“‘ Waterloo” family, ‘‘ Water Witch,” was
calved in 1843, and bought in 1845, at the Rev. T. Cator’s sale,
She was from the Norfolk cow (‘* Waterloo 3rd”), that used
to be so much less liked by her owner, at Kirklevington, than
by his visitors; she is by ‘‘ Fourth Duke of Northumberland ”
(3649), and is descended, through the “ Waterloo cow,” from
the Waterloos in their best form. ‘Water Witch” produced
to Mr. Torr seven females by Booth bulls; and at present there
are no less than 40 to be seen at Aylesby. Although the first
cross of Bates and Booth was not pleasing, there are now a large
number of handsome animals belonging to this tribe in Mr.
Torr’s possession; but three fine specimens have been recently
disposed of, to go to Canada.
The R. and B. family was next introduced, by the purchase
of ‘*Rennet”’ in 1853, and “ Blanche 2nd,” in 1851, both de-
scendants of “ Rose,” bred by Mr. R. Booth, of Studley.
The Bracelet family, which was introduced by the purchase
of “Sylphide” from Killerby, in 1852, has not been fortunate ;
and at present it has no female descendant left.
Next come the Ladies, or Sylphs, from ‘‘ Lady Mary Bountiful,”
by “ Baron Warlaby,” out of ‘ Lady Bountiful,” and descended
from Lord Spencer's celebrated cow, the ‘“ Woodford Sylph.”
“ Lady Mary Bountiful” was bought in 1860; and “ Lady of
the Manor,” of the same blood, by “ Highflyer (11,576), out of
“Lady Bountiful,” six years previously. A member of this
family, “ Lady’s Prize,” is just going to Kingsfort, where many
of her tribe have found a home for years past.
A specimen of the Telluria family, of Wiseton descent, “ Tel-
luria 2nd,” by “Horatio” (10,335), out of “Taglioni,” was
added in 1862, with a view to perpetuate the fine type of the
430 Farm Reports.
celebrated Mason cows. Two females from her are now at
Aylesby.
The last introduction into the herd, also made in 1862, was
the Cherry family, by the purchase of ‘‘ Cherry Duchess 3rd,”
got by “Second Grand Duke ” (12,961), dam ‘Cherry Duchess
2nd,” and descended direct from Colonel Cradock’s ‘Old
Cherry.” This enabled, perhaps, as good an introduction as
possible of the Booth blood to be made upon the Duchess and
Cherry strains. ‘ Old Cherry” was the dam of ‘ Mussulman,”
the sire of Mr. Booth’s “ Buckingham,” which was out of the
celebrated ‘ Bracelet ;’ while, on the other hand, all the bulls
which have been used at Aylesby have come from Killerby and
Warlaby, and possess a large amount of Buckingham blood. The
Cherry and Duchess blood in their best forms are thus com-
bined, and the progeny, of which about half-a-dozen females
are now at Aylesby, take the name of ‘‘ Cherry Queen.” *
Feeding Beasts—About forty three-year-old steers are grazed
every year, getting an allowance of cake on the grass towards
the end of summer. A similar number of two-year-olds and
yearlings remain after these are gone off, and are similarly treated
in succession.
The steers grazed as three-year-olds are allowed during the
previous winter about 6 lbs. of oilcake per diem in the foldyards,
with a moderate quantity of pulped turnips, straw, and chaff.
The two-year-olds have the same keep, with the exception that
the allowance of oilcake is reduced to 4 lbs.; while the yearlings
get only from 24 to 3 lbs. of cake, but a rather better chop.
About ten cows are fed off on grass every year, in addition to
the nurse-cows, which swell the total to about sixteen or twenty
per annum.
The steers and the young breeding-stock are, in winter, kept
entirely in small foldyards with open sheds, the covered part
occupying from one-fourth to one-third of the total area of the
yard. ‘The main principle kept in view in constructing and
arranging these foldyards is that there shall be “no thoroughfare”
from one to another, each yard being kept quite isolated from the
rest. The sheds are cheaply built, on the north side of the yard,
with a brick-wall at the back and a tiled span-roof, supported in
front by larch props. Each of these yards will hold from eight
to twelve head of cattle, and the sheds in some of them are easily
converted into loose boxes, if required for breeding cows. The
bulls and breeding cows are kept in loose boxes, of which there
are a large number at Aylesby and a few at Riby.
* “Cherry Queen 4th ” obtained the second prize at Manchester, in the Yearling
Heifer Class, and the first at the Lincolnshire Society’s Show at Lincoln.
Aylesby, Riby, and Rothwell Farms. 431
SHEEP.
The flock consists of 1200 breeding ewes, of which 500 are
pure Leicesters, kept entirely at Aylesby. No lean stock is
sent to market, the whole of the lambs being fed on the farms,
as well as some lean ones in addition, which are bought in the
autumn to make up for losses, &c. At Riby the proportion of
gimmers annually introduced into the flock is fully one-third ;
but at Aylesby it is less, as fine breeding ewes are kept on to an
indefinite age. The crop of lambs is about 10 per cent. in excess
of the number of ewes put to the ram,
The sheep are all taken off turnips and swedes by about the
middle of April, when the hoggs, except the smaller “ she-
hoggets,” are sent to the marshes. The latter are fed at Aylesby
and Riby, after the breeding ewes; but these are put on the
pastures earlier, about a fortnight or three weeks previous to
lambing, and have an allowance of mangolds carted to them
daily. The ewes and lambsare kept on seeds, which are entirely
stocked by them, and on the grass lands at Aylesby and Riby,
the ewes with couples having an allowance of oats and peas. The
draft ewes from the lamb-pens are sent to the marshes. A system
of changing the pasture of the sheep is carried out as far as prac-
ticable, and is regarded by Mr. Torr as one of the most essential
points in good sheep-farming. Early in July the lambs are
weaned on May-sown rape and cloyer-eddishes.
The hoggets are put on turnips in September, the Banbury
cutter being kept fully employed in cutting the roots outside the
nets. The troughs are placed in the fold, which was more or less
cleared the previous day, and a small quantity of oilcake is allowed
per head. ‘The shearling ewes are put on turnips next, and before
the older ones, which get a smaller allowance and begin later.
The draft-ewes which stil] remain begin to feed off the July-sown
rape early in November, clearing it, and being all sent to market
before Christmas day.
During the winter months the sheep are killed at home, and
the carcasses are sent to the London market in baskets; but in the
summer they are sent to market alive, chiefly to London.
The majority of the breeding ewes of the Riby flock are placed
in the marshes with the rams after the feeding sheep are gone,
and remain there nearly until Christmas. They then return to
Riby and are put on turnips, as already stated. The remainder
of the Riby breeding ewes and the whole of the pure Leicesters
are put to the ram on the grass lands of Riby and Aylesby re-
respectively, and remain on them until very late in the season.
From 80 to 90 pure Leicester rams are annually bred at
Aylesby, and are annually let by private contract on the first
432 Farm Reports.
Wednesday in September, with the exception of those required
for the farm itself. Until then they are kept on the fat of the
land, namely, red clover, May-sown rape, cabbages, mangolds,
corn, and cake.
Eighty years ago the foundation of this famous flock was laid
by Philip Skipworth, the elder, by the purchase of Dishley ewes.
At the death of this worthy the flock and farm of Aylesby passed
to his son, whose name and reputation were identical with those
of his father. The tups used by these breeders of the olden time
were hired from the Bakewell Ram Club, whose rules, regulations,
and proceedings have already been described by Mr. Dixon in
this Journal.* That Society offered 300 guineas for the use of
“ Aylesby A,” to the elder Philip; and as much as 609 guineas
has been paid for the use of a Leicestershire ram at Aylesby.
Tups were also largely used in succession from the flocks of
Stubbins, Honeyman, and Buckley, as well as from those of the
three Stones and the two Burgesses.
In 1848 Mr. Torr succeeded the younger Philip in the occupa-
tion of Aylesby, and bought the pure Leicestershire flock of 400
ewes for 1500/. Since then the tups used have been almost
entirely hired from Burgess and Sanday ; one or two others, how-
ever, have been obtained from Buckley and Stone. All the new
blood has, therefore, been obtained from the purest flocks of
Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire.
The present flock does not possess quite so much elegance of
form as characterized it during the reign of the two Philips; but
a great improvement has been made in the weight of the wool,
size of the sheep, and hardihood of their constitution. This
result has been attained solely and entirely by successful selection,
strictly influenced by absolute attention to these points only, at
the sacrifice of those which were formerly deemed necessarily
characteristic of the pure Leicester breed. The careful breeding
of twenty years has been occupied in achieving this result; but
it may be carried onwards, or turned into any given direction,
provided that sufficient time and care be devoted to the pursuit.
The letting-books of the last 20 years show how much, and
how widely, Aylesby blood is appreciated. A very large number
of rams have gone to Ireland, some to France, Australia, and
California, and a few even to Jamaica and St. Helena; while
near at home Mr. Torr numbers amongst his cnstomers residents
in Scotland, Wales, and most of the English counties.
From 2400 to 2500 sheep are annually taken to the clipping-
boards, about one-half of them being hoggets. The whole of the
sheep on the farm are washed at the same time,—about seven days
* ¢ Journ, Roy. Agricultural Soc.’ Second Series. Vol. iv. p. 340,
Aylesby, Riby, and Rothwell Farms. 433
before clipping. The system of washing is somewhat elaborate.
A tub is placed in a foldyard and about half sunk in manure to.
get its rim at a convenient height; it is then filled with water at
the rate of three gallons to every sheep to be washed in it,—four
gallons for every ten sheep (or nearly half a gallon per sheep)
being hot water in which has previously been dissolved a certain
quantity of soft soap, the quantity used being about 1 Ib. of soft
soap for every score of sheep. Five men are employed at the tub,
namely, two at each side and one at the end, two more having
their time fully taken up in catching the sheep and boiling the
water. If the work is properly done, at least one score of sheep can
be washed per hour, and the total cost, when carefully calculated,
seems to be ld. per sheep, including soap, the price of which is
dd. per lb. The advantages claimed for this system are that the
ewes are not long from the lambs, and that much wool is saved,
especially from broken fleeces ; then the water having been ren-
dered nearly tepid, the sheep do not chill as they do when washed
ina pond. After washing, the sheep are turned into a foldyard,
and there stroll about until taken back to the pastures. The
expense of washing at the ponds is calculated to be about one-
third less than by this system; but the advantages of the latter
are more than sufficient to counterbalance the additional cost.
Originally this system was applied only to the fat sheep; but it
is now used for the whole of the flock.
The sheep are shorn by a company of clippers, consisting of
ten men, who travel from farm to farm. The price of clipping
is 3s. per score, no beer or any other allowance being given in
addition. Clipping from twenty-five to thirty sheep is considered
to make a day’s work per man. Docking lambs is done by the
same peopleat 3d. per score. The whole of the sheep are clipped
at Riby, and the operation gives six days’ full work to ten men,
1800 sheep being clipped, or thirty sheep per man per day. The
work is done at.two periods, namely, June 2nd, 3rd, and 4th,
for the first half, and June 8th, 9th, and 10th, for the second.
The six or seven hundred remaining sheep, making up the
usual 2400 or 2500, are clipped previously, as they are killed for
the London market. Wool-winding is done at 4d. per score
fleeces. The ‘fleeces of the Aylesby flock average about 7 lbs.
each, and those of the rest about 9 Ibs., or nearly three to the tod.
The lambs are dipped at the end of June or beginning of July,
as soon as they are taken from the ewes, by a travelling dipper,
at a contract price of 1s. 6d. per score ; and the clipped sheep are
washed at 6d. per score.
The hoggs in the marshes are dipped in July, in accordance
with the old plan, namely, 1 1b. arsenic and 2 lbs. soft soap, dis-
solved in 20 gallons of water. After Christmas the lambs and
434 Farm Reports.
hoggs are dipped with the same wash as in summer, or are dressed
with sheep-salve ; but the ewes are neither dipped nor dressed at
this time of year.
Pics.
A few breeding sows of a small white breed are kept; and
store-pigs, as required, are bought for the stubbles and foldyards.
About thirty pigs are fed annually for home consumption, chiefly
for the foremen who lodge the yearly servants. The food consists
of boiled potatoes, with either barleymeal or peameal, generally
commencing with the former and finishing with the latter. The
average weight obtained is 25 stones. Nonearesold. Although
Mr. Torr does not keep pigs as a source of profit, he some years
ago thought enough about them to invent a pig-trough, which
was patented by Messrs. Crosskill, and is well known and exten-
sively used all over England.
CART-HORSES.
At Rothwell eleven horses are kept to work 400 acres of tillage-
land, at Riby nineteen horses to work 610 acres, and at Aylesby
twenty-two horses to work 700 acres; making an average of about
three horses to every hundred acres of tillage. They are a light
active description of cart-horse—the strongest animals being kept
at Aylesby, where the land is heaviest, and the worst at Rothwell,
where the soil is very light.
Horses are never turned out on the pastures, but in summer
they are kept in the foldyards which are used by the cattle in
winter; they are fed on tares, chopped up with oat straw by the
chaff-cutter, and an allowance of 2 bushels of ground corn per
week. Each horse also has 1 lb, of oilcake per day ; this is dis-
solved in the water-cans, and is used in that state to moisten the
chopped food; and whatever other alterations are made in the
food at different times and seasons, the same quantity of oilcake
is always given, and in the same manner.
The corn in summer is crushed oats or barley, mixed with
ground peas or ground Indian corn; but in some years it has
consisted principally of sprouted barley, at the rate of 1 peck of
ordinary barley per day (making 14 peck when sprouted).
During the winter the horses are kept in stables, standing in
pairs in 9-feet stalls, which are furnished with mangers, but no
racks. ‘They are fed upon chaff and the same quantity of corn as
in summer, the only difference being that a larger proportion of
oats is given. The chaff consists of one-fourth clover hay and
three-fourths straw ; it is moistened with dissolved cake, as already
described.
The horses are generally bought for use on the farm as two-
Aylesby, Riby, and Rothwell Farms. 435
year-old colts, to fill up gaps, and they are kept until worn out.
They are never bred, nor are they bought as a source of profit.
The ventilation of the stables is accomplished by means of
double ridge-boards in the roof, the ordinary ridge-tiles being
raised by means of blocks, thus allowing of a complete and equable
ventilation all over the stable, and without any draught.
The stalls are separated by solid divisions, and the mangers
are built of brick, with 2-inch tile bottoms, which are narrowed
by the sides sloping internally. The front of the manger is a
3-inch deal, with an oak cap, The stalls are furnished with
a standing post, at a convenient place for the halter-rings, and the
mangers are divided in the middle, so that each horse has its
own feeding-ground. No racks are ever used.
The horses are yoked in pairs, and always abreast, except in
carting—the same pair of horses being worked together, if pos-
sible, in every operation, and also stabled together all the year
round.
Single horses are not worked ; the carts are all pair-horse, and
ploughing, harrowing, and drilling are all done by a pair of
horses. ‘The drags are worked with either one or two pairs.
Pair-horse waggons are used for general purposes, and corn is
delivered in pair-horse spring waggons of Mr. Torr’s own design
and construction. This waggon has a large turn-table, and both
fore and hind wheels are placed well forward; it will, there-
fore, turn on its own ground. It has low sides and a large
floor, rather high from the ground, as the fore wheels, in turning,
go completely beneath the bed of the waggon to any angle. It is
designed for the delivery of 10 quarters of corn by two horses.
The first waggon of this description, which may still be seen
on the Riby farm, gained the 20/. prize offered by the North
Lincolnshire Agricultural Society, at its show at Gainsborough
in the year 1845,
The number of horses has not been lessened by steam cultiva-
tion so much as was expected; but much more heavy work is
done on the farm by the same number of horses as formerly
employed.
FARMYARD MANURE.
The manure made in the foldyards in the autumn and winter,
up to the beginning of February (Candlemas), is carted out and
used for the root crops, being put in the ridges as already de-
scribed. That made from Candlemas and during the summer,
by the cart-horses and a large number of cattle in boxes and
foldyards, is partly used for such portions of the wheat crop as
may require it, and the remainder is used in the autumn culture
for the root crop, being carted out (except the stable manure)
436 Farm Reports.
and made into heaps in the usual manner, and a good deal of
salt has sometimes been mixed with it. Asa rule, from 6 to 8
two-horse cartloads is the usual dressing for common turnips,
and from 10 to 12 for swedes and mangolds.
ARTIFICIAL MANURES.
These consist chiefly of guano, superphosphate, and salt, and
cost annually about 1300/7. The cake-bill is also nearly as heavy,
the average consumption being 100 tons per annum.
The Wold land was marled from 40 to 60 years ago, and is
now being thoroughly invigorated by that means. The system
of marling now adopted by Mr. Torr is essentially different from
that usually practised. The pits are very numerous, and the
chalk is distributed about the land by means of barrows and
planks, instead of horses and carts, and is afterwards spread over
as usual. The cost is 7d. per cubic yard, and 80 cubic yards
per acre is considered a good dressing.
LABour.
The labour account of a farm measuring nearly 2300 acres is
necessarily a very heavy item in the expenditure, although be-
tween 500 and 600 acres are in permanent pasture and meadow.
Mr. Torr estimated it roughly at about 607. per week; and on
carefully going through his accounts I found that it never falls
below 8000/7. per annum. This seems a large sum for the number
of acres under tillage, and I therefore analysed the accounts
for the several farms, with a view of ascertaining the cause of
so great an expenditure. The tillage-land at Rothwell and Riby
does not cost more than 30s. per acre per annum, the whole
of the additional money being spent at Aylesby. This might
have been, to a certain extent, inferred from the fact that a large
proportion of that farm consists of strong clay land, and that
what appears on our map as chalk rubble is overlain by a thick-
ness of 2 or 3 feet of tenacious loam, which makes it also very
heavy to work. But beyond these facts there is also the very
important one that at Aylesby are kept the valuable breeding
herd of pure Shorthorns, and the scarcely less valuable flock of
pure Leicesters. The large cost of making implements, as well
as the wages of the ordinary carpenter and blacksmith, also come
into the Aylesby account, which, if deducted, would leave the
cost of tillage about 35s. per acre.
The wages given are very good, and generally comparable
with those ruling on the Yorkshire Wolds. The ordinary labourer
gets from 13s. 6d. to 15s. per week in money (according to the
season, and the price of wheat), and he has the privilege of crop-
ping a plot of potato-ground in one of the fields, The superior
Aylesby, Riby, and Rothwell Farms. 437
men are paid equally well in proportion, a part of their emolument,
however, being a good cottage, rent free, which may be valued
at 2s. per week, according to the standard rent for such houses in
the neighbourhood. At Aylesby there are 10 of these cottages,
which are let with the farm. These are occupied by the Aylesby
foremen (two), the head shepherd, head waggoner, groom,
two yardmen, carpenter, and two labourers. Some of these cot-
tages, and some at Riby, have been rebuilt by Mr. Torr, at his
own expense, by a process which he modestly terms “ moving
them,” and which involves not only a change but a considerable
improvement in materials, accommodation, and site. Those at
Aylesby have acquired a great reputation since the visit of
Prince Napoleon in 1862, as his Imperial Highness was so struck
with their many excellent points, that he took away with him
plans and elevations, copies of which we reproduce on the fol-
lowing pages.
Tne following StatEMENT of the WaaGxEs earned by the principal Mmn
employed by Mr. Torr will be more intelligible than any verbal
description.
Foreman, Aylesby : — Lean tds Ls 8G
One year’s wagesinmoney .. .. .. .. « « 389 0 0
Cottage and garden, &c., value aye
£. 8. di.
Oiherprrvileres: Malt) 5."° .. ., <. = 2 10 0
Tipe oc Meee eee tL) Oe 70
: —— 4710 0
Foreman, Riby :—
One.ycars wages in| Moneyon.. eee ee. «682 0" 0
Cottage and garden, &c., value Ep acc oo Mead, ae 0)
Otherprivileges|: Malt};... .. ..) .." «20 0
Riga ts. So Wes Le 0) 10
Poultry rearing ae et es lm: 0
— 5 0 0
—— 42 0 0
Foreman, Rothwell :—
One year’s wagesin money .. .. .. .. « « 32 0 0
Wottageland garden,*&c), value: .... .... «. se) cS) 0} 0
Otherprivilepes;: Malts;.. <. 7.25.2) . 290 10
lai [a eee 1 20,0
Poultry rearing... 110 0
5 0 0
—— 4 00
Shepherd, Aylesby —
One year’s wagesin money .. .. .. .. « « 26 00
eciree and eins &c., value ee 2. 5 0.0
Cowen. SMe nwa MEETENes vas 8. (0.70
Other privileges ay (eee 200
41 0 0
Shepherd, Riby: —
Onekyearsiwagesiinpmoney, &. .. <.. < -. « .22 0 0
Cottage and mba icyrvaltes 62. ee OO
Cow .. = ci katet | aio. ofan ala ticle men am ONO!
Other privileges. Soh Hee UOMO
ee Eh KO)
Fig. 3.—Lront Elevation of a pair of Labourers’ Cottages at Aylesby.
SSS =a SBS >
= WSS SSS SS ez
—
———
Fig. 4.—Plan of Bedroom Floor of Labourers’ Cottages at Aylesby.
Roof of Outbuildings.
SS
ROOM §ROOM®
Fig. 5.—Ground-plan of « pair of Labourers’ Cottages at Aylesby.
HONOUL
‘VOL. vV.—S. Ss.
bo
Q
440 Farm Reports.
Carpenter, Aylesby :— £8. deans
One year’s wages, at 3s. 6d. a day .. we ais, oe, SOR
Extrapaleaper week .< ss cs) (ee) nel acon (ecu een ner a.
—————
Waggoner, Aylesby :—
Qnelyear’s wages in money .. =. 9.. 5.) . <5 82° 0) 0
@otiage and garden) value) \--s0l--Bel-mel cis OUOMNO
The foremen board about 13 youths, who are engaged by the
year at May-day, at wages averaging 12/. each, and for whose
board the foremen are paid as follows for each lad per annum :—
ES Eh Ch
Money PR bon eoo eet tan one tine ea 10),
20 stone baccn, valued at Gs. per stone .. .. 6 0 O
pe@OMe Go. ohy oo on haa 40 sie 4 0 0
6 pecks malt, at 8s. per bushel 012 ©
Pig in foldyard, valued at Lt SORZO
Potato-ground, valued at .. ONSEEO
22 0 0
It may be considered worthy of remark, that no labourer, how-
ever aged or infirm, who has been in constant work on either of
the farms, has ever been sent to a Union. However, the poor- :
rate comes to ls. 103d. at Aylesby, and 1s. 10d. at Riby, the
total rates at the former parish being 3s. 103d. per acre, and
2s. 9d. per acre at Riby.
STEAM CULTIVATION.
Very little need be said under this head, as the system pursued
by Mr. Torr, and the results attained, with all other details, have
already been fully described in this Journal by Mr. J. A. Clarke,
on behalf of one of the Committees on Steam Cultivation ap-
pointed by the Council in 1866. It will therefore be sufficient
to mention that it has hitherto been done entirely by hiring, a
system which is held in great favour by Mr. Torr, and is adopted
by him for both threshing and grinding, as well as ploughing
and cultivating.
The cost of breaking up seeds or strong land stubble the first
time is 12s. per acre; if required a second time, it is done for 9s.
per acre. Fowler’s double set is used, and the arrangements as
to time have hitherto been made without difficulty. No great
saving in the number of horses employed has yet been made by
the use of steam-ploughs. As to the effect of steam cultivation
on different crops, Mr. Torr is strongly of opinion that it is most
beneficial to root-crops, but he does not consider it so well
adapted as some do to the preparation of land for wheat.
Previous to the introduction of steam cultivation, Mr. Torr
Aylesby, Riby, and Rothwell Farms. 441
extensively adopted a system of subsoil ploughing, the subsoil
following the ordinary plough, and thus obtaining a similar result,
but at a very great cost, sometimes as much as 35s. per acre.
The old barns are now used exclusively for cutting straw into
chaff, and as a receptacle for other fodder, the whole of the grain
being threshed as just stated, and corn-houses provided for it,
and for preparing it for market. The same people who do the
threshing also crush and grind the corn for feeding purposes, by
a portable crusher, which is worked by the steam-engine which
drives the threshing-machine, and at the same time.
MeEcHANICAL WorK.
As a head-carpenter and an under-carpenter are kept on the
farms, and a blacksmith is employed at Aylesby three days a
week, it is necessary to glance at their work under a special
heading.
The carpenters make all the farm-gates, on the pattern already
described, and not afew are made for sale to Mr. Torr’s personal
friends; but he does not profess to keep a gate-manufactory.
. The carpenters also do wheelwrights’ repairing work, and they
make all the carts and most of the waggons employed on the
farms. Sometimes, one or two of the spring-waggons already
noticed may be made for one of Mr. Torr’s distinguished friends,
but this is not often done.
There is a blacksmith’s shop at Aylesby, where all the shoeing
for that farm and all repairs are done, and most of the iron work
for machinery is made, by the blacksmith who comes on daily
wages three days every week. All the horse-hoes, light har-
rows, grubbers, and many minor implements, are home-made.
At Riby the horses are shod at a contract price per annum.
Farm ACCOUNTS.
Great pains are taken with the accounts of the different farms.
Mr. Torr is not content with a balance-sheet at the end of the
year showing the general result of the year’s operations, but he
insists upon knowing the effect of each particular farm on the
general exchequer. To get at this result, Rothwell farm sells
oats to Riby or to Aylesby, and so forth, in the same manner as
if they were farmed by different men.
The labourers’ accounts are kept in small books, one of which
is devoted to each man; they are posted fortnightly into tem-
porary sheet-ledgers, and the balances are ascertained every quar-
ter and paid; the accounts are then posted in detail into the
labourers’ cashbook and ledger, and as a total into the Jabour
account in the farm ledger. It will thus be seen that the men
PAE) De
442 Farm Reports.
are not paid exactly what is due to them every week. The sys-
tem is to pay them fortnightly, Aylesby one week and Riby and
Rothwell the next, a little less than is coming to them ; and at
the end of the quarter the accounts are made up,—the labourers
being debited with the cash they have received, and the corn,
mutton, &c., which they have bought (below market price),—and
the balance is paid over to them. The remainder of the book-
keeping is done on an ordinary double-entry system.
In making up the account of profit and loss, great care is taken
to allow for the depreciation in value of horses, implements, &ce.
Horses are credited to profit and loss at the prices paid for them,
and a depreciation-charge of 15 per cent. on these amounts is
placed on the debit side of the account every year. ‘The deprecia-
tion charge on implements is calculated at 20 per cent. annually.
The general tenant-right agreement of the district, with respect
to bones and other artificial manures, is that the outgoing tenant
receives one-half of the last year’s expenditure, and one-third that
of the year before ; and with respect to oilcake he gets one-half of
one year’s expenditure calculated on the average of the last three
years. He is also allowed the whole amount of his new seed bill ;
and the cost of the labour upon all crops left on the farm, besides
the cost of working the winter fallows. Liming is usually done
by the tenant under a 4 years’ tenant-right agreement, and
marling under a 7 years. Mr. Torr’s landlord at Aylesby
allows him a more liberal tenant-right than that usual in the
district.
4, Nottinghamshire Farming.—\l. South Nottingham: Hexgrave
and Leyfields, in the occupation of Mr. Tuomas PARKINSON.
By Henry Hatz Dixon.
Hexgrave, where Mr. Parkinson resides, is about four miles
as the crow flies, through Rufford Park, from Leyfields. He
holds its 740 acres under his brother, Mr. Richard Milward,
along with 360 more in Farnsfield parish. Hexgrave was
originally granted to the Archbishop of York, when he lived at
Southwell, in order to keep a few deer. The soil is half clay
and half sand, and so variable that both may be found in the
same field. Some of the sand-land is worth as much as the
clay, and they are valued one with another at about 30s. an
acre, but part of it is very near the gravel and requres a large
quantity of manure, and then only gives a good crop in a damp
summer. There is also some black peat bog, which is of poor
quality and is soon burnt up in hot weather, and the grass has
Hexgrave and Leyfields. 443
not much goodness in it, if it be late in the season. They
are more certain of good barley on the sand land, and five years
out of six it makes a finer description of malt. ‘The barley is
sent to Fiskerton, Mansfield, and Newark, and the best of it is
generally sold in the shape of malt to Burton, There are 200
acres of old grass, which have been laid down some years, but
the grass land is not equal to that at Leyfields. The fields are
generally from 12 to 25 acres, and one or two range from 50 to
70, “down-fall land.” They have not needed much draining,
but some of the strongest fields have been furrow-drained at the
depth of 2 or 3 feet. There is no lack of water, which comes
under the forest from Derbyshire, and is so soft that nitrate
of silver will not turn colour in it. The quicks grow well even
on the sand if they get a good start, and are protected for one
or two years with brush thorns after planting.
The previous owner and occupier put five quarters of bones
on every acre at Hexgrave as they became fallows, and the effect
was visible for 20 years. The grass land is now dressed with
half-inch bones and dust, three quarters to the acre, or 6 or
7 loads of common manure spread direct from the heap. One
load put on as soon as the crop is taken produces more effect
than two in winter. Much of the grass land is simply dressed
by knocking about the manure left on it with the fork. More
than 10 acres of grass are very seldom hained for hay, but they
rely on red-clover, and generally win about 50 acres a year, and
have also a few vetches for the horses in May and June. They
neyer grow rape, as all the land in course is wanted for turnips.
The mowers begin with their scythes about Waterloo-day, and
the haymaking is generally over by Mansfield fair, July 10th.
From 3s. to 4s. 6d. an acre is paid for cutting grass and clover,
and the hay is all made by hand. The regular labourers do the
mowing both of the hay and the white crops, and the harvest is
got in by Irish or Derbyshire men, who are littered down on
straw in the barn or corn chamber. The bulk falls under the
scythe, but this year Hornsby’s and Bamlett’s reapers were used
with success. Mowers are paid at the rate of 7s. 6d. to 10s.
an acre for wheat, and more if the crop is heavy, 8s. to 9s. or
10s. for barley, and 7s. or 8s. for oats.
The regular men get 10s. for coal money, during harvest, and
with allowance for supper and over-hours a man will earn about
5/. in three weeks, and sometimes more with the help of his
wife and children. At Leyfields the beer is given through the
bailiff, whereas at Hexgrave 5 bushels of malt (four for the year
and one for harvest) are allowed annually, and the labourers brew
at home,
Wheat and oats principally are the first crop on the sand
444 Farm Reports.
land. They plough up the ley 6 inches on this formation, and, as
the soil is very thin upon the light land it does not answer to
bury the turf too deeply. They look to get clean fallows imme-
diately after the harvest, and have the heavy clay land sown
by October 15th, and the rest within the month. On the clay
land wheat is generally sown after beans and oats. The land is
ploughed and then scuffled and cleaned, and then ploughed 8
inches deep for fallows. It is not the practice to sow spring
wheat, and the autumn seed is steeped in a solution of sulphate
of copper. Seven pecks per acre for wheat, 12 for barley, and
16 for oats is the general sowing allowance, Labourers do
not seem to have the hand for the broadcast swing which they
had formerly, and therefore it is always drilled in at 6 inches,
which is not too narrow, as it is not followed by the horse-
hoe. The sheep are not run as a rule over the wheat after
January, and it is rolled in the spring when the land will bear
horses. Ina wet summer the sand land preserves a standing-up
crop, whereas in a dry the clay does best. The clay carries most
straw, but in a wetsummer they getas much barley straw on sand
land as on the clay. In ordinary seasons the crop of straw on
the clay land, as compared with the sand, is very much larger,
and they generally calculate on 2 tons of wheat straw. The
most is obtained from the Essex Rough Chaff. Sheriff's wheat
straw is so fine below the head, that it will not bear a large
roduce.
They do not plough deep for barley, and always make ita
point to plough it dry and sow it dry. If sown wet, it is very
rarely a good crop. As a general rule the barley cannot go in
too dry, while wheat ought to be put in moderately wet. The
Chevalier barley should be sown if possible in March or sooner.
They drill in 12 pecks, and generally grow about 5 quarters per
acre.
The land in course for turnips is manured at the latter end of
the year, and the dung ploughed in where practicable. It is not
touched again except in dry weather and then with light harrows
before sowing time. If there is plenty of manure no phosphate is
used. Sometimes guano has been substituted for the latter with
three quarters of half-inch bones to the acre and a half-dressing
(10 loads) of manure. So far only a few ox cabbages have been
grown. Three-fourths of the turnips are swedes, which are sown
during the last fortnight in May on clay land and up to June
7th on the sand. Thirty tons of them have been grown per acre
on the clay land. The white are eaten by sheep on the sand
land, and 20 tons are thought a good crop. The swedes are drawn
and pulped for cattle all the winter and mixed with chaff. Man-
golds did remarkably well last year, and so did the swedes until
Hexgrave and Leyfields. 445
the middle of August, when they were bit with Aphis vastator
and went back so completely that they had to be resown. The
beans (their best preparation for wheat) are only taken off the clay
land, and are always sown 18 inches apart so as to get in the
horse-hoe.
The old grass land is eaten with bullocks or drape beasts ; they
lie out until October and then the younger store beasts and
sheep go on. Beasts that have been on the seeds, if there is
plenty of straw, are brought into the yards not later than
November, but even then they are out a little by day. Mr.
Parkinson does not breed any cows, but buys those which have
had 1 or 2 calves from the dairies and cottagers, and feeds them
off. Bulls are fed off as well, and occasionally a bull is run
with the cows in order to keep them still during the summer.
Sometimes calves are bought, and reared upon cows which only
give a small quantity of milk, and taken off at the latter end of
the year. They are generally kept till they are two years old,
and caked and setoned as calves for black water. No string is
put into the hole, but uve ursi are inserted with a lump of grease,
which swell the breast, cause a strong discharge, and gradually
rot out. If the cows take kindly to them the calves run with
them on seeds during the summer. After November the drape
cows are kept tied up, or in separate boxes, as they knock each
other about so much in the yards, and the calves are kept in
the yards on pulped turnips, 1 1b. or 1} 1b. of oilcake, barley
straw, oat straw, and wheat chaff with pulp. The drapes are
generally sold out to butchers about May lst.
No pigs are bred, but they are purchased in September from
the cottagers round, kept a year, and finished off on barley flour,
when they make some 28 stone of 14lbs. Palm-nut meal is
used, and they will take to it if they have never tasted barley
flour and see nothing else but wash and green stuff. The meal
costs 16/. 5s. for 2 tons, delivery included, and as 12 pigs eat it,
and are generally worth about 4/. 10s. apiece more when it is
finished, it pays a good percentage. It is steeped in water and
put into troughs like wash,
The flock consists of 170 ewes at Leyfields and 400 at
Hexgrave. They-are bred originally from Burgess and Wiley,
but for 15 years Lincoln tups have been used, and increased
the weight of the fleece not a little. The Lincoln tup is not
a high-priced one, and generally brings in a 14-lbs. fleece the
first season and a 11-lbs. fleece the next. After their second
clip they are always secure of a sale to the Derbyshire coal
country, where quantity is more a consideration than quality
of mutton. The ewes are tupped on young seeds or on grass.
They eat all that wants ploughing up for wheat, and are very
446 Farm Reports.
seldom taken off the grass to fold before Christmas. Sometimes
the wether hoggs have the best of the turnips, and the ewes
follow them, The ewes had oats this year and some rape and
mustard which were sown on wheat stubble as a last resource.
Lambs out of grass last winter cost 4d. a week in corn and cake.
Their fare was also eked out with dried grains from London at
71, lds. a ton with delivery. The shearling hoggs generally
kill at about 18 Ibs. The wool goes to Bradford, and the hogg:
fleeces generally count three to the tod. On the clay at Leyfields.
the ewes clip quite as well as the hoggs, but on the sand they
fall behind them, As a general thing ewes do best at Leyfields
and hoggs at Hexgrave. About 1500 sheep are clipped
annually, and their wool made 1000J. last year, which is 3002.
below what it realised in the previous year. ‘The lambing shed
(with its walk down the middle) is worthy of notice, and very
ingeniously run up with poles, hurdles, and straw. It serves.
for 20 ewes at a time, and is put up at about 6s. expense; the
poles and hurdles will do again, and the straw for thatching.
The horses are of the big Lincolnshire breed, and if well got
up they would sell as dray horses in the London market. There
are ten at Leyfields, and 22 at Hexgrave. The harvest is.
worked with two-horse waggons, and a heavy load of wheat
goes to market with six horses, two a-breast. The heavy
waggons weigh about 35 cwts. Two or one-horse Scotch carts.
are also used, and sometimes three horses to the waggons on the
clay. Since Mr. Rogers of Ranby’s day no bullocks have been.
worked in these parts. During summer the horses are generally
turned into the fields for a few hours after work, and have cut:
clover and beans in the stable. Chopped clover hay is their
principal winter fare. If the pastures are bad during a heavy
turnip sowing 14 bushels of oats a week is the allowance for ten.
When there is no great pressure in summer the hours for the
carters are from 6 to 2. Very few women are employed, and
the rate of labour, which was once 15s., is now lds. 6d. per
week, and poor rates, highway rates, &c., amount to about 2s. 6d.
in the pound. Ploughmen are hired by the year at from 71. to
202., and are boarded with the bailiff.
The farm of Leyfields, which has been in Mr, Thomas Park-
inson’s occupation since his father’s death in 1861, is in the
parish of Rufford, about two miles from the Abbey, and on the
high road between Newark and Worksop. It is held under Mr.
Henry Savile, and comprises 400 acres, of which 110 are in
old pasture. The late Mr. Parkinson entered on it when he was
21, and farmed it for 56 years. His father, who had also a long
term of it, handed it over to him in a very primitive state, as there
was hardly a decent fence upon the place, and not even the sem-
Hexgrave and Leyfields. 447
blance of a bush drain. The rent was i6s. per acre, and the
whole farm would barely keep a score of poor beasts. ‘I'he roads
could only be called such by courtesy, as, if fifteen quarters of
wheat had to be sent to Mansfield, only five could be drawn
from the granary on the waggon, and the rest was carried in
sacks on horses’ backs and piled on the waggon when it reached
the high road; but the new tenant soon altered that, and made
about three miles of good road at his own expense. The farm
is situated on high table-land, sloping away on the south side to
Beesthorpe Valley, which was formerly full of hop-yards, but they
are now all laid down to grass. The late Mr, Parkinson had.
once 11002. worth of hops from 10 acres, and still hop-cultivation
did not pay in the long run, ‘“ North Clays” were duly quoted
in the Borough, but they could not rival the Kentish and Sussex
samples. A good deal of the old pasture at Leyfields, including
some hop-ground, was laid down 40 or 50 years ago, and three
of the meadows of about 12 acres each are flooded at intervals.
It is not done regularly, as the brook is small and it cannot be
turned on at will. Ina lucky season from 30 cwt. to 2 tons of hay
can be got from them. No top-dressing is used beyond merely
forking the dung about. There are about 12 to 14 acres of hay:
at Leyfields, and the same of red clover, which is not sown more
than once in 10 years.
Nearly all the fields are watered by putting down troughs in
the drains, which have always an abundant supply of good
water. Much of the draining on the arable land was done 40
years since; when furrow drains were put in at every 8 or 9
yards, and a quantity of deep drains on the low ground, which
catch the deep water and tap the springs from the hills. The
draining upon about 60 acres of the farm, taken to in the last 20°
years, has been done chiefly by the tenant, the landlord giving the
tiles.
Leyfields is just on the edge of Sherwood Forest, which in 1609
extended from Nottingham to Doncaster, over a tract of some
95,000 acres. Beyond a few oak trees it may be said to be quite
disforested, and, in fact, there is very little timber on it. The
hedges, of blackthorn, have got good hold of the clay, and are
kept high as a shelter to cattle till they form pretty formidable
bullfinches. The fields are from 10 to 16 acres.
The land is suitable for oats, wheat, and barley if the season
be dry and they do not get late on to the ground to sow it. There
are no bare fallows, and the rotation is oats or beans out of pas-
ture, wheat, turnips, barley, seeds two years. If the land is
laid down with red clover for mowing, wheat follows and oats or
beans are omitted,
The turnips are principally Skirving’s purple-tops, with a few
448 Farm Reports.
white. Mangolds are only grown to a very limited extent, and
only one or two acres are annually under potatoes, as the Isle
of Axholme, with its deep black loam, is looked on as the potatoe
garden of the district. Chevalier barley is the only sort sown,
and in dry seasons it will weigh 57|bs. to the bushel. White.
oats have been used, but the Scotch potatoe answers best.
The sand land broken up from seeds, and not strong enough for
wheat, has grown good crops of oats of 12 stones to the sack, or
42 lbs. per bushel, and oats have also followed barley with a good
result where the seeds did not grow. Chidham wheat was used
at first, but it grew tired of the land, and black heads appeared.
The weight and quality remained, but the bulk fell off. Sheriff's
horned wheat answered for a time, but it came at last too
delicate and light in the straw. It retained its quality, and
made 10s. more than good ordinary red wheat, and one lot of it
last year touched 86s. The Essex rough chaff (white) has, how-
ever, been most uniformly successful.
For 12 years during the late Mr. Parkinson’s life Leyfields had
a great name for its herd of pedigreed shorthorns. It was a pur-
suit in which he took great delight, and he, like his son, frequently
judged both at the Royal Agricultural meetings, and those of the
Smithfield Club. Cossack, of the Booth blood, and a calf at the
late Mr. Richard Booth’s Studley sale, and Lord Spencer’s Orator,
which went back to No. 19 at Mason’s sale, were his earliest bulls,
and Cassandra was the most famous matron of the herd. She
was the dam of Cramer, Collard, and Clementi, the former of
which has won the first prize for aged bulls at the Shrewsbury
Royal for Mr. J. B. Stanhope, M.P. Mr. Parkinson took the same
place at Bristol in 1842 with “Sir Thomas Fairfax” (5196), bred
by Mr. Whitaker, and at Northampton in 1846 with that pretty
bull “ Captain Shaftoe” (6883), bred by Mr. Lax. His price was
320 guineas at the Trusthorpe sale, and he was sold at the
Leyfields’ sale in 1847 for 140 guineas. This fall in price was
-owing to his uncertain temper. ‘Fhere were a large number of
Gwynne heifers in the herd, and one of them had twins by
‘Cossack which proved the first and second prize calves at the
Yorkshire Show, and made 135 guineas. ‘The bull trade was
always pretty brisk, and principally with Mons. St. Marie and.
the French Government. ‘ Captain Shaftoe,” who was only in
Mr. Parkinson’s possession for a year, was a red without any
white, rather feminine in the head, and rather short in his hind
quarters, but with good shoulders and fine loins. He was rather
small, and got remarkably compact good heifers, from which
some of Mr. Majoribanks’ prize winners sprang. He had a
remarkable dislike to a black coat, and this peculiarity nearly
cost Mr. Parkinson his life on the sale day.
Hexgrave and Leyfields. 449
GeEoLoay.*
The distribution of the soils on the Hexgrave and Leyfields
farms is shown on the map (p. 450), and the relative positions of
the deposits by the section on p. 451. The uppermost deposit is
the New Red Marl, celebrated agriculturally as being the subsoil
of the great dairy districts. The surface is in this district a good
deal diversified, the hills and valleys having, as a rule, a form
regulated by the dip of the beds; on the west are steep escarp-
ments, and to the east gentle inclinations. Beneath this forma-
tion is the Lower Keuper Sandstone and Marl, the general cha-
racter of which corresponds with that of the New Red Marl,
varying only by reason of the greater or less prevalence of sand-
stone-beds. On the farms in question both these subsoils yield
strong land, and are treated by Mr. Parkinson as true clay soils,
but they are usually characterised by the prevalence of sandstone-
beds, which preponderate more in the upper part of the Lower
Keuper Sandstone, and gradually disappear upwards as we get
well into the New Red Marl. The lower portion of the former
division, however, yields locally a blueish clay of stronger cha-
racter, so that it is impossible with such variations to predict
whether a farm consists of strong land or light merely by
knowing the age of its subsoil.
The remaining division is the most important one for our
purpose ; it is known as the ‘“ Pebble-beds and Conglomerate,”
and it occupies a very large area in the county of Nottingham,
constituting, indeed, the whole of the forest-land of the celebrated
Sherwood. It consists of beds of yellow, brown, and red sand-
stone, varying in structure from hard consolidated beds to loose
sand. But their characteristic feature is the pebbles, sometimes
forming a hard conglomerate, and at others lying loosely mixed
with the unconsolidated sand. With this poor sandy and
gravelly soil it is not surprising that the forest of Sherwood
existed so long, or that so large an area is still retained as wood-
Jand and common. i
On the forest farms which will presently be described, this
formation is the only one represented, with the exception of
occasional patches of drift gravel and sand of very recent
geological date. It is not easy to distinguish this recent super-
ficial formation from the older deposit of sand and pebbles, for
on the surface they are generally mixed together. Owing to the
similarity in the composition of these formations, whence arises
the difficulty, their distinction has very little agricultural import-
ance, for the soil is almost, if not quite, identical over both
* This is for the most part abridged from the ‘Memoirs of the Geological
Survey. Explanation of Sheet 82 SE”—H. M. J.
’
Fig. 1.—Geological Map of Hexgrave and Leyfields.
i YY Keuper Marl. Pebble-bed and Conglomerate.
2 OH. Bunter Sandstone and Marl.
Copied from Sheet 82 S.E. of the Geological Survey Map of Great Britain.
Scarte—One inch to the mile.
Forest Farming. 451
deposits. When drift is thickly spread over a limestone or a
marl, the case is altered ; for the character of the soil is different
from what it would be if the native rock lay close below.
Instead of the wet clay soil natural to the marls, one would meet
with gravelly and sandy land.
The curious water-bearing property of these
alternating porous and impervious rocks is de-
scribed by my colleague, Mr. Dixon, in the
following paragraph :—
“ Edingley, which lies about midway between
Hexgrave and Southwell, is the property of Mr.
Richard Milward, but is retained by him in his
own hand. This farm consists of some 200 acres,
and belonged originally to 14 or 15 holdings.
It cost on the average about 40/. an acre, and 30/.
more in improvements during 10 years. It sorely
needed them, as it barely grew 12 bushels once,
where it now grows 5 quarters. The soil is of
all sorts—white clay, black sand, red gravel, and
red sand, with boulder stones in every field. At
ene time there was no riding over its marsh-land,
and the pedestrian had to jump from hassock to
hassock. Every field has streams through it,
and summer and winter the drains keep up a
constant discharge, which finds its way into the
bed of the Greet. When they drain they find
sand with water boiling up, and if they go down
20 to 30 feet to reach the springs, the water flows
up almost like a geyser. One of these ‘boils’
is specially kept and covered over as a curiosity.”
Leyfields—N.N.E.
3. Pebble-beds and Conglomerate,—the
subsoil of the light Forest-land.
Fig. 2.—Section across Hexgrave and Leyfields,
i Strong Land.
ct
&
— eo
g
o nD
> cs
IJ. Foresr Farmine. By H. M. Jenxrys. & ES
: E BN Bs
The site of the ancient forest of Sherwood fur- 7 = 8.
- s le 2
nishes some of the best examples in England of = ae
successful farming under circumstances of great @ Be
natural difficulty. The subsoil consists of a sandy ma hee
. e rN
conglomerate, and is covered by a very light
sandy loam of poor and hungry character. Little
is yielded by, it alone; and the farmer looks upon it more as a
vehicle whereby he can convey fertilizing materials to his crops,
than as a producer of their natural food. The Forest farms
are therefore notably characterized by the extensive use on them
of cake, bones, and other artificial manures; and they mostly
agree in possessing a very small quantity of permanent grass
land.
452 Farm Reports.
The Forest having been recently enclosed, the fences are very
uniform and neat; they are planted in straight lines on the flat,
and possess an even height of about 43 feet. They measure
4 feet across at the base, and are neatly trimmed to an acute
ridge, reminding one vividly of Eastburn in every particular,
except that they are not so wide across the water-boughs. The
trimming is done by the day, and the system is to dig the roots
whenever the fields that they bound come into fallow.
As examples of Forest farming, I shall give an outline of the
practice pursued by Mr. Enoch Hodgkinson at Morton Grange,
and by Mr. T. Wilkinson at Ranby, both of these farms being
very well known by repute, and the latter especially as the
home of the late Mr. Rogers. In addition to these farms, it will
be interesting to describe the process whereby Mr. Ashton of
Hodsock Lodge has been enabled to get useful grass-land on very
unpromising soil, and to notice the salient points of his system,
although his farm can hardly be said to come within the boun-
daries of the “ Forest.”
Grass-Lanp.
Morton Grange measures 759 acres, only 80 of which are
in permanent grass; and Ranby Green Mile farm measures
550 acres, only 20 of which are in grass, They are fair repre-
sentatives of the “ Forest” farms and system of farming. Of the
small quantity of grass-land at Morton Grange, all but 8 acres
has been laid down by Mr. Hodgkinson. This was done 30 years
ago, the seeds having been sown with barley, and the land after-
wards treated with bones—as much as from 30 to 40 bushels per
acre, in the aggregate, having been put on it. Large quantities
of cake and turnips are eaten on it.
Ranby was very heavily boned by the late Mr. Rogers in the
earliest days of bone-dressing, when bones were cheap. He was
not particular as to size or character, and as to quantity he never
was satisfied. Most of this farm has received as many as 80
bushels per acre ; and even to this day you may pick up at every
other step one of “Mr. Rogers’s bones.” It may be a split
humerus 8 or 9 inches long, or a horse’s tooth, or the mandible
of a sheep; but their abundance at this remote date testifies to
the extraordinary profusion with which they were used.
At Hodsock, Mr. Ashton has recently laid down 30 acres of
grass, the seeds having been sown after turnips without a crop.
After the turnips had been eaten off, the land received a lighter
preparation than it would have done for barley. It was not
ploughed so deep, but was rolled more completely. In April
8 bushels of mixed grass seeds, with 6 or 7 lbs. of white Dutch
clover, and from 4 to 5 Ibs. of rape were sown per acre. The
—— i ee Te
Forest Farming. 453
rape was eaten off by sheep with a good allowance of linseed cake.
No artificial manure was used previous to sowing, but 1 quarter of
bones per acre was given annually for a few years afterwards, and
on 20 acres that quantity was also applied at the time of sowing.
Altogether Mr. Ashton has now more than a hundred acres of
grass on a farm not more than 376 acres in extent; but only the
lighter portion of it is comparable with that on the Forest. This
latter is grazed by home-bred stock, which are usually sold off at
2 years old; but the stronger grass is stocked with older beasts,
fifteen of which are annually bought for the purpose. The sheep
which the seeds will not carry are also turned into the pastures
—generally she-hoggets, draft ewes, and some bought sheep.
The great feature, however, in the management of the grass-land,
is the extensive use of bones, which have been applied to it at
intervals during the last quarter of a century. They are used as
half-inch and dust as they come from the mill, without any pre-
paration whatever. ‘ December and January are considered the
best months for boning pastures, and immediately after mowing
the best time for meadows. The first dose given by Mr. Ashton
was 20 bushels per acre, and in some instances a similar
quantity was given again after an interval of two years; and sub-
sequently, after a greater or less lapse of time, smaller dressings,
of about one quarter per acre, have been given occasionally, in
some cases as often as annually for four or five years together.
After this treatment one can easily credit the statement that the
grass-land now produces more than twice as much as it did
formerly. The quality also is better, white Dutch clover and
plaintain having increased to a very marked extent, while oat-
grass and cocksfoot have diminished in a corresponding degree.
If any farmyard manure can be spared, it is put on in February.
ARABLE LAND.
The Norfolk 4-course shift generally prevails in the Forest,
subject, however, to small variations, owing either to the liability
of the land to become ‘‘turnip-sick,” the roots then getting
anbury and ‘‘finger and toe;” or to the paucity of the grass ; or,
lastly, to some of the land being more adapted to growing wheat
than barley. At Ranby, the first and last of these contingencies
are thus provided for:—(1) wheat, (2) turnips or potatoes, (3)
barley or wheat (a small portion), and (4) seeds. At Morton
Grange the course is exactly the same, but owing to the scarcity of
grass about 30 acres of seeds are kept two years, and on 9 acres
of black peaty gravel nothing is grown, as a rule, except man-
golds, cabbages, and an occasional crop of tares. This practice on
soil of that character appears to be not unusual in and about the
454 Farm Reports.
forest, as we saw the same thing at Hodsock Lodge, and it is
explained by the fact that this black gravel grows mangolds
better than any other crop, and ‘‘mangolds do not tire like
other things.” On some very light gravelly land (about 40
acres) at Hodsock there is still another variation of the 4-
course system, oats being taken after seeds, and wheat after
turnips.
1. Wheat.—The seeds are manured with from 8 to 10 one-horse
loads of farmyard manure,* the practice at Ranby being to put
it on a short time before ploughing, while Mr. Hodgkinson has
become a convert to the practice of putting it on in July; but
the former method is the one typical of the district. This varia-
tion affects the whole subsequent treatment. The seeds having
been manured not more than a fortnight, and sometimes imme-
diately before ploughing, the land is ploughed from 44 to 5
inches deep, pressed, and sown broadcast without delay ; indeed,
at Ranby not more than one field is ploughed at a time, the
seed almost following the plough, as forest land sets quickly.
Sowing is done during the month of October, from 9 to 10
pecks being used per acre; the sort most in vogue is still
Hunter’s White (sometimes called Scotch Brown), as it was
five-and-twenty years ago, when Mr. Corringham wrote his
Prize Essay on the Agriculture of Nottinghamshire. At
Morton Grange, the seeds having been manured in July, the
land is ploughed from 8 to 9 inches deep in October, and sow-
ing commences at the end of the month with 9 or 10 pecks of
Hunter’s White, getting finished off by Martinmas. Turnip-
land wheat is not sown so early, and the quantity of seed used
is larger, being increased as the season advances to about three
bushels at Christmas. ‘“Chidham” is a favourite sort on
turnip-land. A usual top-dressing is 1} cwt. of guano, except
after turnips eaten off by sheep with cake; and from 4 to 5
cwt. of salt is also used in the spring, especially after turnips,
as it prevents canker (poppies) if got in before they strike.
The land is harrowed immediately after salting, and is
always harrowed early in the spring, as soon as it is dry.
Mr. Ashton’s practice nearly corresponds with that of Mr.
Wilkinson, except that he likes to drill his turnip-land wheat,
and is not quite so anxious to sow immediately after ploughing,
the reason being that his land is not so light. Horse and hand
hoeing are either both done by daywork, or the latter is let at
from 2s, to 3s. per acre. It is not usual to hoe more than is
* When manure has run short, Mr. Wilkinson has used 7 bushels of bones as a
substitute; and Mr. Ashton, in such cases, uses either bones or rape-dust on the
seed-land.
Forest Farming. 455
absolutely necessary, but wheat after turnips generally requires
a good deal, as it is liable to canker.
Harvest at Ranby and Morton Grange is earlier than is
general in the district, and in consequence a large number of
Irish and other labourers can be easily obtained. Mr. Hodg-
kinson often puts as many as 90 to 100 men to work at once,
at prices varying, for different crops and in different seasons,
from 7s. to 14s. per acre, including mowing, sheafing, raking,
and cocking the rakings. Carrying is done as day work by
his own men, and thatching is also done by the day, in conse-
quence of the difficulty of getting it well done by the piece.
About six years ago Mr. Hodgkinson bought a reaping machine,
but he has not cut 20 acres with it, in consequence of the
abundance of labour at his harvest-time. Were that time
delayed a fortnight the conditions would be reversed, and labour
almost impossible to obtain.
Both wheat and barley are put in long stacks, measuring about
11 or 12 yards in length, by 4 to 5 in width; they have gable
ends, and hold about 40 quarters of corn, a quantity sufficient
for one day’s threshing by a steam-engine. The stacks are
usually pared, and when thatching is done by the piece, as is
sometimes the case at Ranby, thatching and paring cost from 8s.
to 10s. per stack. Threshing is generally done by means of a
portable steam-engine, which, if hired, costs about 28s. per
stack (= per diem); the farmer finds everything except two men
to drive and feed the engine, and he gives them their victuals.
2. Roots.—In the forest a very large proportion of the roots
consists of swedes, and a correspondingly small breadth of
white turnips is sown. At Ranby, where the land available for
this shift measures 130 acres, not less than 100 will be swedes,
only 10 acres being white turnips, and the remaining 2() potatoes,
At Morton Grange the course is 170 acres in extent; about
110 are generally swedes, 30 potatoes, 18 mangolds, and only
about a dozen white turnips. The system of tillage is to
clean the stubbles by scarifying, as often as may be required,
before wheat sowing commences, and to plough in winter, after
wheat sowing is finished, At Ranby the land is then worked
down by dragging and harrowing, and afterwards it is cross-cut
with the plough. Dragging and harrowing is again resorted to,
and sometimes a third ploughing is given. In the spring the
land is ridged vp, and about 8 loads of farmyard manure, or
bought Sheffield muck per acre is put in the ridges; and after
they have been razed 2 cwt. of guano is sown broadcast. The
ridges are then split, and the seed drilled alone, at the rate of
2 lbs. per acre. A portion of the swedes are annually grown on
the flat, both at Ranby and at Hodsock, in which case the land
VOL. V.—S. 8. 2H
456 Farm Reports.
is manured in the autumn, and the guano is sown broadcast at
the same time as on the ridged land.
At Morton Grange the practice is somewhat different. The
land is share-dragged and got as clean as possible in the autumn,
and left for about a month; after wheat sowing they half-
plough (termed “baulking”), missing every other furrow, and
throwing the furrow ploughed upon the one missed ; by the time
the whole of the 160 or 170 acres are thus done, the first portion
of it is ready for the succeeding operation (known as ‘‘ double
baulking”), which consists of turning it back again, and thus
both sides of the ridges are exposed.* This practice is thought
to keep the land more even than the cross-cutting, as there
must be an inequality of tilth where the furrows cross. In
the spring the land is dragged, harrowed, rolled, and thoroughly
cleaned, being ridged up just before sowing, between May
20th and July 10th. If the land has been manured for wheat,
little or none is given for turnips, but an extra quantity of
artificials is then used, namely, about 3 sacks of bones, and
4 or 5 ewt. of rape-dust. When the land has not been manured
for wheat, from 8 to 10 tons per acre are used for turnips, and
a smaller quantity of rape-dust. 2}]bs. per acre of Skirving’s
swede are sown on ridges 26 inches apart, the plants being set
out to 11 inches.
Hoeing twice and singling are done at Ranby for 6s. per acre,
a lad following the hoe to do the singling; but at Morton
Grange it is done by the day, at increased wages, as it is found
to be more carefully done on this system, which is especially
necessary, on account of the enormous quantity of grubs which
infest the turnips there.
Swedes are principally consumed on the land by sheep with
cake ; but about one-fifth are drawn off for feeding beasts.
The tillage for white turnips is the same as for swedes,
except that rather less seed is used. ‘The kinds most in vogue
are the white globe, red and green round, and grey stone.
For mangolds, which are grown at Morton Grange and
Hodsock, the land is prepared in the same manner as for turnips,
being done a little earlier, and given rather more manure.
From 4 to 5lbs. per acre of a variety of yellow globe mangold
are sown near the middle of April, and the roots are ready to
take up about the end of October or beginning of November.
Mr. Hodgkinson prefers to draw only about one-half of his,
the remainder being eaten off on the land by female sheep,
as he finds this root injurious to rams and wethers, by causing:
renal disease, and finally death. Mr. Ashton, on the contrary,
_* Mr. Ashton also pursues this plan. ,
Forest Farming. 457
takes up the whole of his mangolds, has them topped and tailed,
and put in pies, the roots being covered, first with straw, then
with from 8 to 4 inches of earth immediately, an open space
being left at the top until hard weather begins, Taking up,
topping, tailing, and covering with the tops costs about 8s. per
acre ; the covering is done by women, and one woman will earn
at this work as much as 3s. per day. It is the practice to begin
using them, in small quantities, in September or October, and
they are always thoroughly eleaned before they are given to
the cattle.
Potatoes.—The land is prepared in the same manner as for
mangolds or turnips, but the rape-dust is more liberally applied,
reaching as much as 7 cwt. per acre; and the same quantity of
farmyard manure is given as for mangolds, Planting is done
between the middle and end of March, with about 15 bushels of
whole sets; pink-eyed regents are a favourite sort, though
Scotch rocks and white regents are also used. The ridges are
26 inches apart, as in the case of swedes, and the after-manage-
ment consists of hand-hoeing where necessary, and then ridging
up with the double mould-board plough. At Ranby the potatoes
are forked up and got rid of during the month of July, when
the tops are immediately ploughed in, and mustard sown for early
autumn keeping. At Morton Grange, however, it is not usual
to plough up until October, when the crop is sent to the Man-
chester and Sheffield markets.
3. Barley.—As soon as the turnips are off, the land is either
scarified or lightly ploughed, to keep the manure from being
washed off the surface. Spring ploughing is done from the
middle of March to the first week in April, about 5 inches deep,
and as soon as the land is dry enough it is drilled with from 9
to 10 pecks per acre of Chevalier barley, or “ Poor Man’s Friend”
(at Morton Grange). On some land wheat is sown instead of
barley in this course, as already described. Barley is harvested
in the same manner as wheat, at a little less cost; but on account
of the redundancy of the clover crop in some instances, the
Northumbrian system of setting it in separate sheaves is prac-
tised on some farms. i
4, Seeds.—Formerly seeds were not sown until the barley was
well up; but of late years the practice has been to sow imme-
diately after the corn is in, and even in some cases to sow barle
and seeds together. This last, however, is not thought the best
plan, though sometimes it is the most likely to secure a good
plant. When the barley is up it is by some farmers rolled
lightly if the seeds are in, but, if not, the Cambridge roll is
used, the seeds being sown and lightly rolled immediately after ;
Mr. Hodgkinson, however, seldom rolls barley, and never uses
2 Hn 2
458 Farm Reports.
the Cambridge roller. For pasture the following mixtures are
used :—At Ranby 11 lbs. of white Dutch, 3 lbs. of trefoil, and
} peck of perennial ryegrass; at Morton Grange 8 lbs, of white
Dutch, 2 lbs. of plantain, 1 lb. of alsike, 2 lbs. of parsley, and
1 peck of dwarf ryegrass; while at Hodsock the quantities are
12 lbs, of white Dutch, 4 lbs. of trefoil, and from 1 to 14 peck
of ryegrass.
The proportion of land sown with red clover varies from one-
half of the shift at Ranby to one-sixth at Hodsock, Morton
Grange showing a medium system of from one-fourth to one-
third. As a rule, not more than one-half of the red clover is
mown. ‘The mixture used at Ranby is from 12 to 14 lbs. of red
clover, and + peck of perennial ryegrass ; at Morton Grange it is
8 lbs. of red clover, 2 lbs. of trefoil, and 1 peck of ryegrass ; and
at Hodsock it is 12 lbs. of red clover, 2 lbs. of trefoil, and 4 peclk
of ryegrass.
SHEEP.
The description of sheep generally kept in the Forest is about
half Leicester and half Lincoln, and the number of breeding
ewes kept on farms where there is little or no permanent pasture
must depend entirely on the success with which “ seeds” can he
produced. At Ranby there are 300, from 50 to 70 being
gimmers, and at Morton Grange there are 350. Lambing
begins about the end of February, and the lambs are weaned on
clover eddishes, with cake about the end of June or beginning
of July. Seeds are the only summer food available for the ewes
and lambs, and these are entirely depastured by them and the she-
hoggs required for breeding next year. In the autumn it is the
custom to buy in hoggets for feeding during the winter, and in
the beginning of September they begin to go on white turnips,
which are given sliced with mixed (cotton and linseed) cakes,
and sometimes maltcombs. The quantity of stock to be kept
during the summer is always reduced to the smallest possible
number, and generally by the middle of April or beginning of
May no sheep except breeding ewes and she-hoggs remain on
the farm. At Ranby, during the winter, however, as many as
1000 sheep are kept, the usual weight of the best hoggets being
20 Ibs. per quarter, and the fleeces weighing 10 Ibs each.
CaTTLE.
No bréeding herd is kept at Ranby; but between 20 and 30
yearlings are annually bought to graze off the seeds, and are fed
off in stalls as two-year olds. In the autumn a sufficient number —
of stronger beasts are bought to consume the straw ; 8 Ibs. of oil-
Forest Farming. 459
cake per day is allowed them with other fodder, and they are
sold, as they get fat, in the spring and early part of the summer.
Pulping roots for cattle and chaff-cutting are done by horse-
power.
At Morton Grange a breeding herd of 20 cows is kept, many
of them having a place in the Herd Book. Insummer there will
be from 50 to 60 head of cattle on the farm, and from 80 to 100
in the winter, as the turnips and straw will keep considerably
more stock in winter than the seeds and pasture will in summer ;
thus arises the prevalent practice in the Forest to buy largely
both cattle and sheep in the autumn and sell them in the spring ;
and it is generally preferred to buy rather good shorthorn heifers.
The feeding beasts get cut straw, and sliced or pulped turnips
{though Mr. Hodgkinson does not think pulping worth the
trouble), with from 4 to 12 lbs. (according to circumstances) of
mixed linseed,.cotton, rape cake, and locust beans.
Pras.
About 50 pigs of a small white breed are kept at Ranby, and
from 80 to 120 at Morton Grange. The usual practice is to
sell them off at one year old, weighing over 20 stone, and the
sows after they have had one litter. The food in winter consists
of rotten and small potatoes, supplemented in the summer by
cabbages and mangolds (at Morton Grange), especially if the
potatoes run short, as well as by barley meal, rice meal, and
Indian-corn meal, which are mixed with the steamed potatoes.
HORSES.
The number of horses is not quite 3 per 100 acres; they are
kept all the year round in stables, standing in pairs, except
when they are turned out into the foldyards at night. In winter
they get chopped clover, hay, and straw, with about 1 peck of a
mixture of bean meal, oatmeal, and bran per diem. In the
‘summer they are turned into the foldyards, and get tares as they
are mown, with a little chopped straw, and a smaller quantity
of corn.
LABOUR.
Farm labourers in the Forest get from 13s. to 15s. per week, and,
as a rule, no privileges*; the carpenter receives 3s. per diem,
and the hedge cutters 2s. 9d. ‘The two cottages at Ranby are
inhabited by the shepherd and foreman: the former gets 14s.
per week, a cottage and garden rent free, and, as his garden
* Mr, Hodgkinson allows each of his labourers 7 sacks of potatoes every
autumn.
460 Farm Reports.
is not very large, he gets an additional allowance of potatoes ;
his other emoluments are 1/. for helping in harvest time, 1/7.
for lambing time, 2 bushels of malt per annum, and some
milk from the house every day. The foreman at Ranby boards
four lads, but several farmers on the Forest still adhere to the
old system of having the lads in the house. The foreman gets
his cottage and garden rent free, potatoes found him, and from
15s. to 18s. per week, with 5 bushels of malt, the milk of one cow,
and the privilege of buying 60 stones of bacon at 5s. per stone,
seconds flour at 2s. per stone, and bread flour at 1s. 10d. For
boarding the youths he gets 6s. 6d. per week each in money,
15 stones of bacon, and 5 bushels of malt per lad.
A good many boys are employed at from 8d. to 1s. per day.
ARTIFICIAL MANURES.
The expenditure on artificial manures by most of the Forest
farmers is very great; for instance, Mr. Wilkinson spends at
Ranby, on a farm of 550 acres, between 1000/. and 1200/. per
annum on cake, notwithstanding that his tenant-right claim,
which is the one general in the district, is not more than one-
fourth after the first year, and one-eighth after the second.
Bones are held in great estimation by both landlords and
tenants, and their use is encouraged by a liberal tenant-right
agreement all over the forest, namely, first year the whole
outlay, second year three-fourths of the cost, and third year one-
third.
An ingenious system of dissolving bones is carried out at
Morton Grange, as follows:—About 20 tons of shoddy from
Dewsbury are bought annually, and mixed with the blood of
animals slaughtered on the farm; with this is put 20 qrs.
of half-inch bones, and sulphuric acid is added at the rate of
1 cwt. per qr. The mixture is allowed to remain for two or
three weeks, when another 20 qrs. of bones are added to it and
the whole thoroughly mixed together. It is then used as required
for turnips.
5. The Lodge Farm, Casile Acre, Norfolk, in the occupation of
Mr. Joun Hupson.* By H. M. Jenxins.
This farm consists of 997 acres of land, and was taken by Mr.
Hudson in the year 1822, together with an adjoining farm of 500
* Since this report was written, Mr. Hudson has ceased to hold a place amongst
living English agriculturists, and we have now to mourn the death of one of the
first exponents and chief illustrators of the principles and practice of high farming.
The Lodge Farm, Castle Acre, Norfolk. 461
acres, which now forms part of the occupation of his son, Mr.
Thomas Moore Hudson. The two farms had been refused by
three persons before Mr. Hudson took them. They were both
poor and foul ; and the outgoing crop, which was carried by the
new occupier, amounted to 20 bushels of wheat and 24 bushels
of barley per acre, while the roots did not enable him to winter
more than 10 bullocks. After being cleaned and fertilized by
the liberal use of rape-cake, the land gradually improved ; and
now, after the expenditure for the last 30 years of between 25007.
and 3000/. per annum in oilcakes and other feeding-stuffs, as well
as from 800/. to 1100/. per annum in artificial manures, according
to their price, the 1000 acres will winter from 100 to 140 steers,
according to the root crop.
GEOLOGY AND OTHER PHysIcAL FEATURES.
The Lodge Farm commences at the western edge of the great
block of chalk on which stand the ruins of the castle which
gives its name to the village of Castle Acre. This spot is about
five miles due north of Swaffham, and the farm extends from it ina
north-north-west direction, the extreme northern point being nearly
three miles distant. The south-western boundary of the farm is
nearly coincident with the river Nar, and extends northwards to
a point opposite, and half a mile westward of, West Lexham.
The boundary then runs north-east, along the sole of a valley for
most of the distance, to meet the road from Rougham to Castle
Acre at the point where it crosses the road to Gaytonthorpe.
Here is the sharp angle which forms the extreme northern point
of the farm (see map, p. 462) ; the boundary then turns suddenly
south, along the roadside, for nearly a mile, when it makes a
bend to the west-south-west until it touches the Peddar Way ;
and this road it follows southwards to Castle Acre.
Physically the farm consists chiefly of the spurs of two ranges
of hills, separated by a wide valley which runs from north-west
to south-east, and opens out towards the river Nar in the latter
direction ; it also includes a portion of the valley of the Nar,
and of a\laterai valiey already mentioned in connexion with the
north-eastern boundary of the farm.
The geological features, which are represented on the map,
very closely follow the physical. The summits of both the hill-
spurs are capped with a drift deposit, which is, no doubt, one of
those to which geologists apply the term boulder-clay. One
of these patches is very small; it is semicircular in form, the
flat side being coincident with the Peddar Way. Of course it
extends beyond this farm, and it forms a large portion of the
adjoining ‘* Abbey Farm,” which was formerly occupied by Mr.
Hudson, but which is now farmed by his son, ‘The other patch
Fig. 1.— Geological Map of the Lodge (or Emmanuel) Farm, Castle Acre.
. fo wort
sere
q Brick-earth, or Blue Clay —
1.5 (water-meadows) of the 2 Boulder-clay.
Nar,
Ky <|
ift- t 4. POO) Chalk.
Drift-gravel eg
ScaLtE—T wo inches to the mile.
The Lodge Farm, Castle Acre, Norfolk. 463
is many times larger, and similarly borders the road from
Rougham to Castle Acre. In form it is reniform; but the
portion on the farm has one straight side formed by the road.
The homestead is placed almost in the centre of the southern
lobe of this kidney-shaped patch.
Surrounding and underlying each of these two clay patches is
a belt of chalk, which is broadest in a south-easterly direction.
The smaller and more westerly is again nearly semicircular ; but
the larger is bluntly lobed. ‘There is also another south-easterly
spur from the former of these, which is part of the abruptly-
scarped mass on which most of the village is built, and the ruins
of the castle and the priory stand. ‘The valley between the two
hill-spurs, and most of the remaining land on the farm consists of
sand and gravel, some of it very light indeed, especially that in
the valley. Bordering the chalk at Castle Acre, on both sides
of the Nar, and for a quarter of a mile on the other side of the
road leading to Newton, the subsoil consists of a stiff clay well
known to geologists as the blue clay, or brick-earth, of the Nar.
The features thus briefly described, and delineated on the map,
appear now extremely simple. The hills are capped by clay,
the valley-sides exhibit the outcropping chalk from beneath, and
in the valley-soles the chalk is covered with gravel and sand ;
while the river-flat, in some places, consists of a freshwater
clayey deposit, probably formed by the river itself. But the dis-
tribution of these deposits in relation to the river Nar is not a
little puzzling, until the idea is forced upon one by repeated
failures to understand the distribution of the formations. ‘This
district has never been mapped geologically, and the exact ages
of the drift-deposits are unknown; but that is a matter of very
little consequence from an agricultural point of view. The
remarkable feature is that the gravelly deposit does not follow
the line of the valley of the Nar, but is quite independent of it ;
and further, that where the gravel does meet the Nar, the blue
clay already mentioned seems to be absent. The gravel-holding
valley is dry, that is to say, no stream runs in it; and it hasa
direction roughly at right angles to the valley of the Nar. It is,
in short, what is usually termed a dry lateral valley. On the
other side of the river are two similar valleys, at least one of
which is in gravel, and both of which meet in a spot nearly
epposite to, but a little to the west of, the expanded mouth of
the valley with which we are more particularly concerned. Now
the form of this valley is not regular, and near the mouth are two
hills; one of these projects from the large chalk-escarpment
towards and reaching the Nar in the form of a boot, the sole
bordering the river, and the toe pointing westward. The other
forms a kind of fringe connecting the two other projections of
464 Farm Reports.
chalk near the village, and filling up the indentation between
them. The physical result of this is, that the actual channel of
the valley is thus turned, near its mouth, abruptly westward ;
and therefore joins and meets the mouths of the two valleys on the
opposite side of the river. Whether these gravels and sands were
formed by river action or by glaciers (which still remains a moot
question), one thing is certain, namely, that they were carried
down these lateral valleys either by water or by ice, and have
nothing to do with the Nar or its valley. This explanation
renders the distribution of the gravels perfectly natural, and it
also explains the existence of gravel hills at the valley mouths,
for there would necessarily be a large accumulation of material
where opposing currents met, whether of water or ice. The
valley of the Nar seems to be of altogether later date; and the
blue clay, which is so characteristic of it, is necessarily still more
recent. Where this last-mentioned subsoil exists, the fields bor-
dering the rivers were, at least 60 years ago, for the most part
converted into water-meadows.
The climate of the whole county of Norfolk is usually very
dry ; and it has been observed that if a north wind veers round
by the east to the south or south-west, dry weather accompanies
it even from the last-named quarter; but if the north wind veers
westward to south-west, rain is sure to accompany that change.
DRAINAGE.
The water-meadows, which, as already stated, have a clayey
subsoil, are the only fields which required draining. This was
entirely done by the landlord, who found both pipes and labour,
and charged the tenant 5 per cent. per annum on the out-
lay. The chalk and gravel portions of the farm drain them-
selves ; and even the clay on the hill-tops, though furnished with
drain-pipes, never brings them into use, and seldom into play.
FENCES.
The fences on this farm consist of quick-hedges, which
are planted on banks composed of material obtained by dig-
ging a ditch on its north side, which is frequently filled up
again when the hedge is well grown. The mode of planting
is as follows :—The first spit of earth having been taken out of
the site for the ditch, it is put on the bankside upside down, and
is generally about a foot in height on the ditch side, sloping
down from the ditch to something less. On this foundation of
the bank three-year-old quicksets are laid 6 inches apart to grow
towards the ditch, and upon their roots are laid about 18 inches
more earth, The ditches, therefore, usually attain a depth of
from 22 to 3 feet, and a width of 4 feet at the top, the whole
— ee
a a =£=@&«n“-_ ._ —
—_—_ hh
The Lodge Farm, Castle Acre, Norfolk. 465
of the material got out being used to make the bank. The cost
of making the ditch and bank and planting the quick is usually
_ from 4d. to 5d. per yard. It is usual to place a fence of dead
thorns, or of post and wire on the top of the bank until the hedge
has grown above it; and, if the ditch is on the field-side,
hurdles are required to protect the young quick from the attacks
of sheep. The quicks are allowed to grow about three years, and
are then cut off upwards to within 3 or 4 inches of the stump ; they
are then allowed to grow uninterruptedly for about two years,
after which they are begun to be trimmed into a clipped hedge,
or “haze.” The fences are trimmed to a height of from 2 to
24 feet above the top of the bank, to a width at the base of from
18 inches’ to 2 feet, and tapering off to about 6 inches wide at
the ridge. Hedges are clipped and trimmed, and the banks
cleaned, at odd times just before and after harvest, as day-work.
The banks are held sacred as a covert for partridges, whose nests
are most jealously guarded by farmers, labourers, and everyone
else in the county. Gates are provided by the landlord, the
tenant paying 5s. each for the cost of making them.
Grass-LAND.
The grass-land consists of about 200 acres, all of which is
pasture, and fed principally by sheep. From 40 to 50 acres of
it are irrigated; but even this, although very good as feeding
land, is useless for meadowing. Irrigating is begun in November
after the grass has been eaten off, and the water is shifted in suc-
cession from one part to another, after having remained a few days
on each, until the beginning of March. The cost of cleaning out
drains, the river, and so forth, is about 10s. per acre annually.
Sheep are put on the irrigated pastures by day as soon as there
is good feed for them, generally about the end of March or
beginning of April.
ARABLE LAND.
Five-and-twenty years ago, when this Society offered a prize
for the best Essay on the Agriculture of Norfolk, Mr. Hudson
farmed on the indigenous four-field system, and his modus
operandi was described in some detail by Mr, Barugh Almack,
in his commended Essay, published in the fifth volume of this
‘Journal.’ For some years past Mr. Hudson has farmed on a
five-course system, getting some catch crops in addition, as fol-
lows :—1, wheat; 2, barley, followed by (a) tares and winter-oats,
(d) early peas, or (c) rye for feeding ; 3, turnips; 4, barley; and 5,
seeds. At present, however, Mr. Hudson is gradually getting his
shift back to the ordinary four-course system, as on the whole he
466 Farm Reports.
considers it better adapted to the West Norfolk land. This is
particularly worthy of mention, because about 11 or 12 years ago
the five-course system—taking, however, oats after wheat instead
of barley and no “ catch crops ”»—appeared to be finding fayour
in the eyes of the Norfolk farmers.*
1. Wheat.—The clover-ley is manured with 10 loads of farm-
yard-manure as soon as possible after the cow-grass has been
mown, or the trefoil and white Dutch have been fed off. The
manuring is generally done in July, August, and September.
The land is then ploughed to a depth of about 5 inches, heavily
rolled, sometimes with a Cambridge roller, and harrowed four
times; and afterwards drilled with from 8 pecks of Spalding
wheat at the commencement of the season, to 10 pecks at the end
of the year, the drills being 7 inches apart. It is then harrowed
twice, and rolled with a Cambridge roller. In either February
or March the wheat is hoed either by horse or by hand, and is
top-dressed with 2 cwt. of guano per acre.
Wheat is cut with a Burgess and Key’s reaping-machine just
before it is ripe; it is sheafed by men and women at 3s. per acre,
and is shocked by odd hands, the fields being gone over after-
wards with wood-tined horse-rakes. ‘The sheaves stand about a
week on the shock, and are then put into long stacks on the field
where the crop has been grown. This system of stacking is
pursued with every kind of crop, and thus the necessity of stack-
yards is entirely done away with. The stacks are generally
13 yards long, and 7 yards wide; and the distance from the
eaves to the ridge is about 15 feet. The thatching is done
at 5d. per yard run at the eaves, which is equal to about 1d,
per square yard. Round stacks of 9 feet diameter at the base
were formerly very much in vogue; but they are, comparatively
speaking, rarely made now, certainly by no means so frequently
as in former years. Threshing is done partly by fixed and partly
by portable steam-threshing machines, and the corn is dressed by
hand finishing and winnowing-machines. Previous to sowing,
the wheat is dressed with Down’s Farmer’s Friend.
2. Barley.—After the wheat is harvested the stubbles are
forked over by hand, at a cost of from 6d. to Is, per acre, so
as to thoroughly clean it and get rid of twitch. The land
remains thus until February, when it is ploughed to a depth
of about 44 inches, and dressed with 2 cwt. of guano per acre by
means of Chambers’s manure-distributor, drawn by two horses.
It is then immediately harrowed again, and drilled with three
bushels per acre of Golden Melon barley, Sowing commences
about the middle of February, and is finished as soon as possible.
* See Mr. Clare Sewell Read’s Essay on ‘ Recent Improvements in Norfolk’
ia the nineteenth volume of this Journal, pp. 284 and 285.
The Lodge Farm, Castle Acre, Norfolk. 467
After sowing, the land is harrowed twice over, but seeds are not
sown on the barley in this course. Barley is weeded in June by
women, at from 4d. to 5d. per acre.
The crop is mowed with a Burgess and Key’s machine; it is
collected with gathering-forks, the land being raked between the
heaps; and the corn is afterwards pitched, loaded, and stacked,
barley being neither sheafed nor shocked.
Harvesting white crops is generally done by gangs of men
who engage for the harvest. Mr. Hudson hires twenty-seven men
annually to harvest the white crops, on a farm comprising about
800 acres of arable-land. These men are divided into three
companies of nine men each, namely, two loaders, two forks, and
five at the stacks. These men get about 6/. 10s. each for about
three weeks’ harvest-work, including trimming the stacks, putting
up the implements, and clearing up generally.
Oats are seldom or never grown as a white crop, but their
place in the rotation would be instead of barley in the course
just described.
3. Roots.—The 160 acres devoted to this course are generally
subdivided as follows:—15 acres white tankard turnips, 100
acres swedes, 15 acres green round turnips, and 30 acres man-
golds.
(a.) Turnips and Swedes.—The barley-stubble is forked
over in the same manner as already described in the case of
wheat-stubble. After wheat-sowing is finished it is ploughed
6 inches deep; it lies all the winter, and, as soon as barley-
sowing is finished, it is again ploughed—across the previous
furrows ; subsequently it is scarified and harrowed as may be
required. In May the land is ploughed again, and ridged in the
beginning of June, eight loads of farmyard-manure per acre being
put in the ridges, Just before sowing, a dressing of 34 cwts.
of superphosphate, and 13 ecwt. of ground rape-cake, mixed
together, is drilled on the ridges; and immediately upon this,
4 lbs. per acre of turnip-seed is drilled with a small seed-drill.
All the turnip-seed is sown on the ridge except a small quantity
in the autumn, which is sown on the flat.
White tankard turnips are sown for September and October
feeding, Hudson’s swede (a kind of purple top) for winter use,
and green round turnips are sown in autumn after tares (which
are sown on barley-stubble after wheat) for use in the spring.
As the turnips come up they are first horse-hoed, then cut out
to 11 inches apart, at a cost of 2s. per acre, being singled by
a gang of women at ls. 6d per acre. After singling they are
horse-hoed again, and finally, each plant is hoed round—an
operation which is locally termed “ scouring.”
The swedes are pulled when ready, and six drills of them are
468 Farm Reports.
placed together in a row; a furrow is then ploughed on each side,
so as nearly to cover the roots with earth, and thus protect them
from frost, &c. The white tankards are first fed off, being gene-
rally consumed before the hard weather commences, They are
pulled and sliced for the sheep, to which they are given in
troughs, with an allowance of cut hay, and about half a pound of
linseed-cake each per diem. After these are finished the swedes
are topped and tailed, and thrown into heaps, from which they are
sliced and given to the sheep. The green round turnips are fed
off by ewes and lambs in March and the beginning of April ;
and the land is immediately afterwards sown with barley.
(b.) Catch Crops.—The 15 acres intended for green round turnips
perform another duty previous to being devoted to that crop,
being sown with either tares and winter oats, or early peas.
Rye for feeding is also grown as a catch-crop before green round
turnips,
In the first case, after the barley-stubble has been forked over
to get out twitch, it is manured with ten three-horse loads of
farmyard manure per acre, which is ploughed in 5 inches deep ;
and the land is immediately drilled with 24 bushels of tares, and
half a bushel of winter oats per acre. This crop is generally fit
to mow for the horses about the middle of May, and the land is
immediately afterwards ploughed and cleaned, and soon after the
middle of July sown with green round turnips.
Early peas are sometimes sown on barley-stubble instead of
tares. The land having been forked as before, it is manured
with eight three-horse loads per acre; this is ploughed in
5 inches deep, and 3} bushels of early peas per acre are drilled
in about the end of November or early in December, the rows
being 9 inches apart. When well up they are hand-hoed at 2s.
per acre. Harvesting is done the third week in July, the whole
strength of the farm being employed in cutting and carrying
as quickly as possible. The peas are cut with hooks, and are
immediately carted on to a piece of seeds or hay-stubble to ripen.
They are laid out in beds with paths between them, so that they
may be easily and frequently turned until ripe.
As soon as the peas are carted away the land is cleaned,
ploughed, and drilled with green round turnips, and a dressing
of 34 ewts. of superphosphate, and 1} ecwt. of rape-cake per
acre.
For rye the land receives the same preparation, except that no
manure is applied, and it is sown in September or October, with
3 bushels of Giant rye per acre. This crop comes in for spring
food for the ewes and lambs in April. After the rye is fed off
the land is ploughed 6 inches deep, rolled with a three-horse
roller, and then harrowed. After this treatment it lies for three
The Lodge Farm, Castle Acre, Norfolk. 469
weeks, when it is again ploughed and afterwards sown with green
round turnips, and treated as ordinary turnip-land.
(c.) Mangolds.—The 30 or 40 acres of mangolds usually grown
are sown on the strongest and best land available in the shift.
The land is ploughed and otherwise prepared in the winter, and
ridged about the middle of April, when ten three-horse loads of
farmyard manure per acre are put in the ridges, and covered
with from 2 to 3 cwts. per acre of guano; the ridges are after-
wards closed up by a double-breast plough, and drilled with
7 lbs. per acre, generally of long yellow and long red; globe
mangolds being grown only on the very best land. Since steam-
cultivation has been adopted the land for mangolds has been
tilled in the autumn to the depth of 8 or 9 inches, and the seed
has generally been got in earlier than formerly, from which great
benefit has been derived.
The plants are first horse-hoed, then cut out with a 14-inch
hoe at a cost of 2s. per acre, and singled, in the same manner
as turnips, for 1s, 6d. per acre, after which they are horse-hoed
again,
° The mangolds are taken up the last week in October or the
first week in November, topped, but not tailed, and put into
“clamps” 6 feet wide at the bottom, and coming to a ridge at a
height of 4 feet from the base. They are covered with a thick
gavel of straw, and afterwards with about 4 inches of mould.
The ridge is left open for about a fortnight, after which it is
entirely closed. Pulling, topping, loading, and stacking, cost
altogether from 6s. 6d. to 7s. per acre according to the crop.
Mangolds are chiefly given to the feeding beasts in the fold-
yards, commencing in January or February; these also getting
from 10 to 12 lbs. of cake per day, with cut hay or straw; and a
few are also used in the spring for fat sheep after the swedes are
finished. Mangolds are always sliced with the turnip-cutter.
4. Barley.—After the turnips are fed off the land is ploughed,
and then allowed to remain untouched until the middle of
February, when it is harrowed, ploughed again, and drilled with
three bushels per acre of Golden Melon barley. It is then laid
down with 20 Ibs. per acre of small seeds. The harvesting and
other operations connected with barley have already been
described in treating of barley after wheat.
5. Seeds.—Half the barley of the above course is laid down
with 14 lbs. of trefoil and 6 Ibs. of white Dutch per acre for
summer feeding, and the other half with 20 Ibs. of cow-grass per
acre for mowing. After sowing the land is harrowed, and,
as soon as the barley is sufficiently strong, it is gone over with
a one-horse roller,
The cow-grass, of which there would be about 80 acres, is
470 Farm Reports.
mown with a Burgess and Key’s grass-mowing machine, and
the labour is paid for as day work. The stacks are about
5 yards wide and as long as necessity requires. As soon as the
hay is off, the Jand is manured for wheat as already described.
The remaining half of this course is fed off by sheep during
the summer, and then manured as soon as possible.
CATTLE.
Mr. Hudson does not breed any beasts now. In former years
he had, at different times, herds of various breeds; but now alk
the cattle on the farm, except two or three Alderney cows, are
steers bought in during the autumn and fed off during the
winter and spring. A few are also bought for summer grazing,
but many beasts could not be kept during the summer. From
100 to 140 steers (mostly Shorthorns), according to the root crop,
are bought in every year at from two and a-half to three years
old, at Peterborough fair—which is held in the first week of
October—and any deficiencies are made up at Norwich.
In the winter these steers are kept in lots of about ten or a
dozen in small foldyards, having sheds along about one side and
a half of each. They get about 2 bushels of roots, and from
10 to 12 lbs. of linseed cake each per diem, as well as a bushel
of cut hay (when there is any), or cut straw after the hay is
finished; and the yards are well littered with straw every
morning. ‘They begin to be sold off in January, and they ought
all to be gone by May.
The manure is carted out in January and put into heaps,
being subsequently used for mangolds and swedes; that made
afterwards is put on the land intended for wheat. The heaps.
are made in the following manner :—A bottom of good mould,
about 6 inches thick, is first laid, and the manure is then carried
on by carts, which are drawn on to the heap, tilted, and then
return the same way, being drawn over what has just been
brought. The heaps are from 25 to 30 yards long, from 9 to
10 yards wide, and about 5 feet high.
When nearly the whole of the winter-fed beasts are sold, a
sufficient number are bought to feed off the grass. They go into
the pastures in the middle of May during the daytime, and in
the evening come up to the foldyards, getting then about
7 lbs. of linseed cake each. If the weather is very hot they go
into the pastures by night and remain in the yards all day. The
greater the number of these summer-grazed beasts the fewer are
those bought at Peterborough.
The Lodge Farm, Castle Acre, Norfolk. 471
SHEEP.
There are 400 breeding ewes kept on the farm, These are from
Hampshire Down ewes by a Cotswold ram, and they, again,
put to a Cotswold ram. The ewes are bought-in every year
as ewe-lambs, and the rams are, as a rule, hired. The ewes
are put to the ram on the best keep that may be on the farm.
The lambs, both male and female, are all fed off at from ten to
twelve months old, and go to the London market. In July and
August as many additional lambs are bought as may be required
to feed off the grass and turnips. The hoggets are put on the
water-meadows by day as soon as there is sufficient keep for
them,—about the end of March. The ewes and lambs are kept
on seeds, the ewes having some locust beans, and the lambs
a little cake and lentils, until they are weaned in July, when
they are put on the clover eddishes. When the tankard turnips
are ready to draw, about the latter end of August, some are
thrown to the lambs every day until the turnips are ready to be
folded off. After the lambs are weaned, some of the ewes are put
on the water-meadows, and sold to the butcher as soon as fat.
During the winter the hoggets are kept on cut turnips and
swedes with an allowance of cake, going on rye in the spring as
soon as the turnips are finished; they are drawn for shearing, for
the London market, early in March; and they are generally all
gone by the middle of April, when fresh ones are bought for the
irrigated pastures, rye, &c. Those on the irrigated pastures by
day are removed to the uplands at night. Fleeces range from 7
to 9 lbs. in weight.
The Jambing ewes live on anything they can get until a
fortnight before lambing, when they begin to receive a few
turnips. After lambing, which commences in February, they
get better keep, including more turnips or some mangolds,
The hoggets are washed, from 10 to 14 days before they are
clipped, by the farm labourers in ordinary wash-pits, except
those which go off early in the spring, which are washed in
tepid water from the steam engine. Clipping is done by a kind
of piece-work, which is practically task day-work. The price
paid is 4s. and half a gallon of beer per score, but a man is not
allowed to do more than a score in one day, Soon after the
lambs are weaned, generally towards the end of July, they are
dipped in a solution of “ Allen’s composition.”
In February the hoggets are sometimes watered with a bottle,
using 1 Ib. of arsenic with soft soap and tobacco juice to every
score of sheep. As a rule this is not required if the dipping has
been properly done in the summer.
Great attention is paid to the arrangements for folding sheep.
VOL. V.—S. S. Zin E
472 Farm Reports.
Instead of the ordinary hurdle the sheep-pens are enclosed with
iron “lifts” which run on two pairs of wheels, They are each
12 feet long, 3 feet 6 inches from the ground to the top rail, and
cost about a sovereign; but their durability is proportionate to
their cost, as they last more than twenty years. The great gain
in using them is that there is no need to drive hurdles or
anything else into the ground, when it is hard and dry in
summer, thus effecting a considerable saving in labour.
When the sheep are feeding-off turnips in winter, four-inch-
square mesh-nets are used before and behind them, the iron lifts
being used to divide them into lots of about 300 each. Each
of such lots is attended by a strong lad at about 8s. per week,
a boy at 5s., and another boy at 4s., who top, tail, and cut the
turnips, feed the sheep, move the nets, hurdles, and cribs, and
do anything else that may be required for the 300 sheep. These
cost, therefore, for attendance a little more than 1s. per score
per week.
When the ewes and lambs are together these arrangements are
supplemented by a wooden “ lift-hurdle” or lamb-gate, which
enables the lambs to run out of the pens and get the best of the
feed on the next day’s fold before the ewes are put on it, as well
as their rations of cake and lentils. This lift-hurdle is about
7 feet long, and the usual height ; it is divided into two portions
by a horizontal bar midway between the ground and the top
rail, and the lower half is subdivided by rolling upright bars
19 inches apart, just wide enough to allow the lambs to get
through. The upper half has a sufficient number of uprights to
give the whole the requisite strength,
Horsss.
From 26 to 28 horses, of the Norfolk and Suffolk breeds, are
kept to work 800 acres of tillage, being considerably more than
three horses to every 100 acres of arable land.
Fourteen of these horses are kept in boxes; the remainder are
fed in stalls and turned into the horse-yards at night. From the
beginning of harvest through the winter they get a peck and a
quarter of crushed oats and a quarter of a peck of crushed beans ;
also one bushel of hay, and wheat- or barley-straw, both cut into
chaff. This food is continued until the middle of May; they
then get as much tares and winter oats as they can eat, leaving
off the corn and chaff after they have had green food about a
week. In this way they are kept as long as the tares last,
generally until the middle of July, when the cow-grass is mown,
after which they are turned into the pastures and remain there
until harvest begins, when corn and chaff are given to them, and
their winter treatment recommences.
The Lodge Farm, Castle Acre, Norfolk. 473
Horses are occasionally bred to replace some of those that go
off, but not otherwise ; and as a general rule they are bought as
two-year-old colts, in preference to breeding, for home use.
Hitherto the number of horses employed has not been reduced
by steam cultivation.
The delivery waggons are drawn by four horses in two pairs,
and take 25 sacks of wheat or 30 of barley. With this exception
all the yoking is in a line, the carts being three-horse tumbrils,
and the harvest waggons drawn in the same manner by three
horses in a line.
LABOUR.
After the elaborate and, we may almost say, paternal methods
pursued in the north, the Norfolk system of labour is not very
attractive. There is no such thing as a yearly labourer, no
boarding paid for by the farmer, and, in short, no connection
between master and man except work. on the one hand and
payment on the other. -The bailiff gets a guinea per week, the
yardman 14s, 6d., the engine-driver 3s. per day, and the ordinary
farm labourers from 10s. to 12s. per week. Lads are paid from
8s. to 9s. per week, and boys from 4s. 6d. to 5s., while women
get from 10d. to 1s. per day. All the payments are made in
money, there being no privileges in addition to the wages.
Cottages, with gardens, are paid for by the men at the rate of
from ls, 3d. to 1s, 6d. per week; they are tolerably good, and
the labourers do not often take lodgers.
A considerable amount of field work is paid for by the piece,
as has already been described ; but much of it is done under a
system of ‘‘ gangs,” one or more of which can usually be got at
short notice. These gangs are composed either of men or
women, according to the nature of the work. Women generally
do the weeding and other light work.
.A wheelwright, a carpenter, and a blacksmith, are kept on
the farm, and all the carts and waggons, as well as the harrows,
are home made,
The labour account, including the wages of the bailiff, black-
smith, carpenter, and wheelwright, amounted last year (1868) to
nearly 2000/., or very nearly 2/. per acre on 1000 acres of land,
about 200 of which are in grass,
Steam CULTIVATION.
For the last three years Mr. Hudson has had steam culti-
yating machinery on Fowler’s single-engine direct anchor system ;
the engine is a double cylinder of 10-horse power, and is also
used for the threshing machine and other purposes. The chief
benefit hitherto derived from steam cultivating is in the root
Qe tee
474. Farm Reports.
crops, and more particularly in the crop of mangolds, as pre-
viously mentioned. The use of steam has also tended to the
substitution of cultivating for ploughing under certain circum-
stances; for instance, wheat stubbles are now cultivated twice
and ploughed once, instead of being ploughed three times.
Before Mr. Hudson bought this set he was in the habit of
hiring steam tackle, and paid 8s. per acre for cultivating from
9 to 10 inches deep, besides the cost of coal and of carting
water ; ploughing was done under the same arrangement as to
coal and water, at 7s. 6d. per acre.
6. Pitchill, Tilesford, and the Grove, in the occupation of Mr.
BenJAMIN Bomrorp. By H. M. JENKINS.
These farms comprise altogether about 1360 acres, the greater
portion consisting of very strong clay land, and the whole farmed
by a complete system of steam-cultivation, Of the total acreage,
the, two farms of Tilesford and the Grove, measuring together
about 560 acres, and containing nothing but the strongest land,
have been recently taken by Mr. Bomford, and are now in course
of improvement. The remaining 800 acres constitute his home
farm at Pitchill, and consist of three portions, namely, 200 acres
of grass land, and 300 acres each of strong land and light land
under tillage; this farm, having been in Mr. Bomford’s occupa-
tion for some years, is in a high state of cultivation, and, not-
withstanding the severe course of cropping to which it is
subjected, is cleaner than many gardens,
The Pitchill Farm commences on the high road to Alcester,
about five miles north of Evesham station, and about half a mile
north of the high road called Harvington Leys. It continues
along that road for about two miles and a half, and is situated,
with the exception of a triangular patch at each extremity, entirely
on the western side of it. In a westerly direction it is fenced in
by Bevington Waste, except at its south-western corner, where it
extends as far as Atch Lench.
The soils of this farm are divided into five principal patches,
the northern and southern of which consist of new red marl, the
extreme western and the eastern of light-land drift deposits, and
the central of a strong heavy lias clay, which is fringed, to a
great extent, by a narrow band, consisting of either sandstone or
limestone.
The Tilesford and Grove Farms are contiguous, but distant
from Pitchill about seven miles, along a devious and cross-country
road. They are situated on the banks of a stream, called the
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476 Farm Reports.
Piddle, which, after pursuing a somewhat irregular east and west
route from its rise north of Inkberrow to near Upton Snodsbury,
there turns suddenly southwards and continues that course with
variations until it joins the Avon, near Pershore. Between three
and four miles north of Pershore the southern boundary of the
Tilesford Farm commences on the right-hand bank going up
the stream ; it continues for nearly a mile and a half on the same
side, and the Grove Farm begins just where it terminates, but
on the opposite side of the stream, and continues for nearly a
mile. Reference to the map will show the general topographical
relations of the two farms; and the fact of their situation in refer-
ence to the stream will be sufficient to indicate the nature of their
physical geography. The Tilesford Farm is situated on the
eastern slope of the river valley, and the Grove Farm on the
western; the differences being that the latter extends a little
beyond the boundary of the valley proper, while the former,
though strictly confined to the valley of the stream, is divided
into two unequal portions by a lateral valley, which has a direc-
tion at right angles to its course.
Geologically both of these farms present a monotonous con-
tinuity of lias clay; and the only variation observable in the
soils is that they are somewhat lighter on the hill-tops, and slightly
stronger in the valleys.
DRAINAGE.
The drains at Pitchill were laid many years ago, so that
nothing authentic can be said about them. When Mr. Bomford
took the farm it presented the same appearance as most other
clay-land farms in the district, the surface being regularly undu-
lated with the ridge-and-furrow of the “lands.” At present
nothing of this kind is to be seen, the flat surface of the boulder-
clay plain being as uniform as the rounded contour of the hills
composed of new red marl.
At Tilesford and the Grove the ridge and furrow still rule the
surface, and most of the drainage there has been done under Mr.
Bomford’s supervision during the last few years. The drains, as
a rule, run along the furrows, and are constructed of 2-inch pipes,
main drains consisting of pipes varying from 3 to 6 inches in
diameter, according to the feeders, The outfalls are set in brick-
work, and are furnished with grates as a protection against ver-
min. The distances of the lines of drainage vary “according
to the breadth of the lands, from as little as 6 to. as muchas 12
or 14 yards apart. The cost of draining is, on the average,
about 4/. per acre for both labour and pipes. The Tilesford
drainage has been performed under an agreement with the land-
;_ ea
ee lle
Pitchill, Tilesford, and the Grove. 477
lord, by which he pays for the labour and charges the tenant 5/.
per cent, per annum on the outlay.
FENcES. '
At Pitchill the fields ranged originally from six to twenty
acres in extent, yielding an average, probably, of about ten acres.
But now, on the arable land, nearly the whole of the internal
fences have been taken up to admit of steam-tackle being more
easily and conveniently employed. Eventually the few fences
that still remain will be taken out, and the farm will then be
intersected by steam-roads a quarter of a mile apart, that being
the length of the rope. Indeed, it may as well be mentioned,
once for all, that facilities for steam-cultivation are at Pitchill
held to be of the greatest possible importance. It is essentially
a steam-farm.
Practically we may regard the boundary-fence as the only one
on the Pitchill Farm, and as that is comparatively new, it may
be described as a good example of the fences of the district.
Quicks from four to five years old are planted on the flat ina
single row, about 9 inches apart; they are then allowed to grow
about five or six years, and are then “ platted” and trimmed in
what is known as the Warwickshire fashion, Afterwards they
are trimmed twice a year at a cost of one halfpenny per perch
each time for trimming both sides, and they are gradually trained
to a stack-shape, measuring 3 feet across at the base, being a
little wider at the eaves, and coming to a ridge at a height of
about 44 feet from the base.
The old fences at Tilesford and the Grove are on banks, but
they are gradually being swept away, and eventually the arable
Jand on each of these farms will be simply an enormous field
like that at Pitchill.
GRASS LAND.
The meadow land, consisting of something more than 100 acres
at Tilesford and the Grove, lies alongside of the river, and is
liable to be flooded, Hay-making is done once a year at a cost
of about 3s. per acre and 5 quarts of cider, the practice being to
break the swath by machine and to finish the work by hand as
day-work. The aftermath is grazed with cattle and sheep; but
neither roots nor artificial food is given on it.
The pastures, at Pitchill, are old, and measure about 200 acres,
the fields having an average size of from 10 to 15 acres. The
usual practice is to fold off the first bite with ewes and lambs,
and afterwards to graze with cattle and sheep. A portion of the
pasture land is manured every year with 2 cwt. of guano, 3 cwt.
ei
478 Farm Reports.
of nitrate of soda, and 1 cwt. of superphosphate per acre, put om
by a manure-distributor. Another part also receives a dressing
of mixed soil and lime in the winter.
ARABLE LAND.
Mr. Bomford’s occupation consists of three portions, namely,
the outlying strong clay-land farms at Tilesford and the Grove,
comprising 560 acres, of which 140 are in grass; the Pitchill
(or Home) strong clay-land farm, consisting of 500 acres,
of which 200 are in grass; and the light land at Pitchill,
measuring about 300 acres, all in tillage. We have therefore to
deal with about 720 acres of strong clay-land, and with about
300 acres of light land under tillage. These two descriptions.
of land are farmed on different systems, arranged chiefly with a
view of obtaining as much winter keep for sheep as possible on
the light land portion of the Home, or Pitchill, farm. This is a
matter of absolute necessity, as it is impossible to winter sheep
on the heavy and wet lias clay which forms the strong land on
the three farms.
Commencing with wheat the rotation of crops pursued is im
each case as follows :—
Strong Land (six-course).
. Wheat.
. Pulse (winter and spring beans)*.
. Wheat.
. Green crops, viz. mangolds, cabbages, or vetches, followed
by rape or mustard,
. Barley or wheat.
Hoo hoe
or
6. Seeds.
Light Land (four-course).
1, Wheat.
. |
|
2a. Winter beans, 2b. Early peas,
followed by followed by
rape and turnips. rape and turnips.
3a. Wheat, 3b. Barley,
followed by followed by
vetches and oats. rape and turnips.
4a. Swedes. 4b. ies
|
Returning again to wheat.
* Peas were occasionally taken instead of beans before the land had been got:
into sufficient condition for the latter.
Pitchill, Tilesford, and the Grove. 479
I. Strona Lanp Crors.
1. Wheat.—Wheat is taken (a) after seeds, (b) after beans,
and (c) after half the strong land green crops.
(a.) The seeds have consisted either of broad clover or of rye-
grass. The former is steam-ploughed once about the beginning
of September, and the latter is burst up in July, and steam-
cultivated twice. About the 20th of October wheat sowing
commences, using two of Smyth’s steerage drills, with 7 pecks
per acre, the quantity of seed being increased a little as the
season advances ; the sorts usually sown are Browick Red and
Golden Drop. Although, as a general rule, no manure is used
for wheat after seeds, Mr. Bomford thinks that the results
hitherto obtained by means of steam cultivation on strong land
justify him in the belief that a smaller quantity of seed will
prove sufficient, and he has determined to try the effect of
carrying this idea into practice.
(b.) The land is treated for wheat after beans the same as after
ryegrass, as soon as the crops are harvested.
(c.) As fast as the green crops are cleared off, the land is
ploughed once, and otherwise treated the same as after broad clover.
If the land is clean Mr. Bomford has a decided preference for
ploughing instead of cultivating for wheat. He generally
ploughs rather light for this crop, from 6 to 8 inches deep, but
he does not consider moderately deep ploughing injurious, if the
land is allowed to get firm and stale before sowing. After rye-
grass a thorough cultivating is a matter of necessity.
The after management consists of one harrowing and rolling,
followed by horse and hand hoeing once or twice as may be
required.
Harvesting is done at a cost of from 18s. to 20s. per acre,
including mowing, getting, and thatching ; the price for mowing,
sheafing, and stooking being 11s. per acre and 5 quarts of cider.
Reaping machines are not used, as at this time of year all the
horses on the farm, which have been reduced to a minimum by
steam cultivation, are required for hauling.
2. Beans.—For winter beans the wheat stubble is manured
with 20 one-horse cartloads of foldyard dung, and then steam-
ploughed once. The seed is drilled by the middle of October,
2 bushels being used to an acre. For spring beans the land
receives the same preparation as for winter beans, about
34 bushels of seed per acre being sown in February. The
system of after management is to harrow once, then to horse
and hand hoe the rows twice at about 4s. per acre.
Harvesting is done at the same price as wheat, but beans are
*‘fagged,” instead of being mown with a scythe.
480 Farm Reports.
3. After harvest the stubbles are steam-ploughed, or cultivated
twice, and sown with wheat. Ploughing is preferred if the land
is clean, as it is then left much firmer for wheat.
4. Green Crops.—These consist of (a) mangolds, (5) vetches
followed by rape, and (c) cabbages.
(a.) Mangolds.—The wheat stubble is manured and prepared in
the autumn in the same manner as for beans; in the beginning
of April it is run over witha two-horse skim,* the drill following
with 4 cwt. per acre of Griffin and Morris’s patent mangold
manure, consisting of patent dissolved bones, sulphate of potash,
and sulphate of ammonia. Immediately afterwards yellow globe
mangold, 8lbs. per acre, is drilled on the flat, and as soon as the
plants are visible they are hand-hoed once, and then horse-hoed,
men to single the plants following the horse-hoe, after which
they are horse-hoed two or three times, as may be required.
Hoeing twice and singling mangolds and turnips are done by a
gang of six Irishmen at 10s. per acre. The drills are 24 inches
apart, and the plants are set out to from 16 to 18 inches.
Mangolds are taken up in October, topped and tailed on the
ground if possible, but otherwise as they go into the pits, which
are made long and not very wide. The roots are covered with a
little straw and with mould, vents being left open at intervals on
the ridge, and never stopped. They are not used until the
swedes are finished. Mangolds are got, topped, and tailed at
about 12s. per acre,
(b.) Vetches followed by Rape or Mustard.—The wheat stubbles
are cultivated or ploughed once, and drilled, commencing in Sep-
tember, with 3 bushels of winter vetches per acre, a little arti-
ficial manure being applied in the spring if necessary. They are
eaten off during May on the land, which is then fallowed for
barley or wheat, but the earliest of them are succeeded by rape,
and the next lot by mustard. After one ploughing or cultivating,
4 lbs. of seed and 3 cwt. of superphosphate are drilled per acre ;
the crop is eaten off by sheep, and the land is immediately
ploughed up for wheat.
(c.) Cabbages.—About 20 one-horse cartloads of foldyard
manure per acre are put on the wheat stubble, and steam-
ploughed in during the autumn. The plants are generally grown
at home in seed-beds; but they are put in at from 10d. to 1s.
per thousand, the rows being 2 feet apart, and the plants
15 inches, They are horse and hand hoed, and artificial manure
is applied at the time of hoeing, They are eaten off by lambs
in July and August.
* Fowler's combined plough and subsoiler will in future be used for autumn
cultivation for mangolds and cabbages, and his new steam harrow in the spring.
Pitchill, Tilesford, and the Grove. ° 481
5. Barley or Wheat.—The land for barley is steam-ploughed
in the autumn and left until the beginning of March, when it is
yun over with a two-horse skim, and sown with 3 bushels of
Golden Drop or Chevalier barley per acre. The seed-bed is
rolled as soon as possible, and sown by a seed-barrow with 16 lbs
of broad clover and 4 lbs, of trefoil per acre.
Mowing barley is done at 3s. per acre; it is seldom sheafed,
and carrying and stacking are done by the usual farm labourers
as daywork.
The wheat in this course is treated in the same manner as after
broad clover; but in the spring, after hoeing, it is sown by a
Holmes’s seed-drill with 4 bushel Italian ryegrass, 8 lbs. of white
Dutch clover, and 4 lbs. of trefoil.
6. Seeds.—Broad clover is generally mown about the be-
ginning of June, just as it is coming into bloom; afterwards
the sheep are folded on it with a little corn or cake, and as soon
as it is eaten off, the land is steam-ploughed for wheat.
The ryegrass and seeds are grazed until July, when the land
is prepared for wheat as already stated, it being considered
highly injurious to keep ryegrass on the ground after the Ist of
July.
Broad clover being taken only on half this course, it comes
only once in twelve years, and thus clover-sickness is avoided ;
but Mr. Bomford has never found clover to fail on the few
occasions when he has sown it upon barley which has imme-
diately succeeded wheat.
Il. Ligut Lanp Crops.
1. Wheat.—On the light land wheat is taken :—
a.) After swedes or mangolds drawn off.
(b.) After rape and turnips sown upon winter beans,
(a.) The mangolds are drawn off first, and the swedes soon
after, all the roots being got in by the end of November. The
land is then steam-ploughed immediately, and the wheat sown
as on the strong land previously described. Early in March it
is top-dressed with a mixture of artificial manures, consisting of
i cewt. of guano, ?cwt. of nitrate of soda, and 1 cwt. of super-
phosphate, put on with Smyth’s manure distributor. The after
management and harvesting are for this and the following course
of wheat the same as on strong land.
(6). This belongs to course No. 3 in this shift, but may as
conveniently be disposed of here. The sheep having eaten off
the rape and turnips (receiving on the land two meals of chaff
and a small admixture of pulped roots, as well as some corn or
cake) by about the last week in November, the land is steam
ploughed immediately, and the seed, consisting of 2 bushels
482 Farm Reports.
per acre of Grace’s white wheat, is got in the first week in
December. ‘
2. Winter Beans, or Early Peas, followed by Rape and Turnips.
(a.) Winter Beans—The wheat stubble receives one steam
ploughing soon after harvest, and in the middle of October
2 bushels of seed per acre are sown in double rows, that is to
say, the rows are alternately 10 and 30 inches apart. No fold-
yard manure is given on the light land, as large quantities of
chaff, with pulped roots, are given to the sheep feeding off the
catch-crops; in this manner a large proportion of the straw is
consumed on the land, and thus directly applied to it, instead of
being trodden in the foldyards. Early in spring the wide
furrows get three or four horse-hoeings, the narrow ones being
similarly cleaned by hand at a cost of 4s. per acre for hoeing
twice. The beans are sown in “double rows,” because by that
means it is possible to horse-hoe them longer, and get a better
tilth for the rape and turnips than if done in the ordinary way.
(a) Rape and Turnips upon Winter Beans.—\mmediately
before the last horse-hoeing, namely, about the middle of May,
about 3lbs. of rape and 11b. of green round turnip are sown per
acre with 3 cwt. of superphosphate. These seeds come up, but
make little progress until after the beans are cut, which is
generally about the last week in July, after which they make a
start. About the latter end of August they are hoed once if
labour can be spared ; and about the last week in October they
are begun to be fed off either by lambs or older feeding sheep,
with the chaff and pulped roots as already stated.
(b.) Early Peas.—The land is prepared in precisely the same
manner as for winter beans, and as early as possible in the spring
the seed, consisting of 34 bushels per acre, is drilied in rows
10 inches apart. When ready the peas are hoed twice, either by
horse or, preferably, by hand. ‘They are cut either with the
scythe or the hook at the rate of 4s. 6d. per acre, about the middle
or end of July, when the land is immediately prepared for the
succeeding crop of rape and turnips.
(8) Rape and Turnips after Early Peas——As soon as the
peas are off, the land is steam-cultivated once, and ploughed if
necessary ; and the same mixture of rape, turnips, and manure is
drilled as in the previous case (az), the crop then coming in soon
enough for the sheep to come on it after they have finished («),
the rape and turnips upon winter beans.
3. This course consists either of (2) wheat following rape and
turnips on winter beans, or of (d) barley following rape and
turnips after early peas. The wheat has already been disposed
of, so it will be as well to describe the barley tillage first, and
then the mode of obtaining the catch-crops in this course.
Pitchill, Tilesford, and the Grove. 483
(b.) Barley.—The rape and turnips after peas are begun to be
eaten off by sheep the first week in November, artificial food
being given them upon it. After the green crop is finished, the
land is prepared and sown the same as on the strong land,
except that no seeds are sown on the barley.
(a) Rape and Turnips after Barley.— Barley is generally
harvested early in August, immediately after which the stubbles
are scarified, and the same mixture of rape, turnips, and
manure drilled in as in the previous cases. ‘The crop comes on
in time to be fed off after the rape and turnips which follow
early peas.
(8) Vetches and Winter Oats after Wheat.—'The wheat
stubbles are ploughed once immediately after harvest, and early
in September drilled with 3 bushels of winter vetches and
1 bushel of winter oats. About the end of February the crop
is top-dressed with #cwt. of guano, #cwt. of nitrate of soda,
and 1 ewt. of bones, put on with the manure distributor. It is
eaten off by sheep after they leave the last bit of rape and
turnips, and they get on it an increased quantity of artificial
food.
4, Roots..—This course consists of (a) mangolds after rape and
turnips sown on barley stubble, and (4) swedes after winter oats
and vetches sown on wheat stubble.
(a.) Mangolds.—The sheep are generally cleared off the rape
and turnips by the last week in March, when the land receives,
as quickly as possible, two steam cultivatings crosswise, and one
steam ploughing after. This treatment secures a good seed-bed,
and that great desideratum being obtained, the same system is
pursued as in the case of mangolds after wheat on the strong
land.
(b.) Swedes.—As soon as the winter oats and vetches have been
eaten off, which is generally by the end of May, the land is
cultivated and otherwise prepared and manured in the same
manner as for mangolds, 2 lbs. of seed being sown per acre.
In every respect swedes are treated in the same way as mangolds,
both previous to the crop being ready for use and afterwards.
None of them are fed on the ground, the whole being topped
and tailed, put in “buries,” and drawn to the different home-
steads as required for the stock. The cost of getting, topping,
and tailing swedes is less than for mangolds, being 10s. per acre
instead of 12s.
CATTLE.
About 140 beasts, chiefly shorthorns, are kept for breeding
and feeding, the number bred being usually about 30. The
remainder are bought as they may be required, and worked off
A484 Farm Reports.
gradually during the winter and spring months, being sold
either at fairs or by private contract.
The feeding stock are kept in stalls, and given a liberal
allowance of pulped mangolds, chaff, flour, and oil-cake.
The store stock run in the foldyards during the winter,
living chiefly upon chaff, with a few pulped mangolds, and 4 Ibs,
of cake or flour per day. In May they are turned out for the
summer into the pastures,
SHEEP.
About 400 breeding ewes are kept; they are a cross of Cots-
wolds and Hampshire Downs, and are put to Hampshire Down
rams. About one-fourth are annually drafted, and the crop of
lambs is generally in the proportion of about 1} to each breeding
ewe. About the first or second week in September the ewes are
put to the ram on fresh pastures, about 60 being allotted to each.
After tupping they get very few roots for some time, but a large
quantity of chaff,—roots in any quantity being considered highly
injurious at this time.
Previous to lambing the allowance of roots is gradually
increased, and the ewes are brought at night into the fold-yards,
where they get hay during lambing time. As soon as possible
the ewes and lambs are drafted away to the pastures. In the
winter the sheep are kept entirely on the light land, and eat
off the catch crops. These consist of two kinds, namely, (1)
rape and turnips following (a) winter beans after half the wheat
of the previous course, and (b) early peas of the remaining half,
as well as (c) the barley which follows the rape and turnips after
the early peas of the preceding year; and (2) winter oats and
vetches following the wheat which succeeds the rape and turnips
after winter beans, These are fed off in succession in the order
in which they are given. The rape and turnips on the bean stubble
having been fed off by the last week in November, with the assist-
ance of about } lb. of corn or cake, with hay chaff the first thing
in the morning, and a good meal of chaff and pulped swedes
every evening, the sheep go on to the equivalent crop after peas,
which is eaten off with a similar allowance of artificial food.
The remaining crop of rape and turnips, after barley, is eaten off
in succession after the last, with an increased quantity of corn or
cake, and is generally finished by the last week in March.
As soon as it is finished the sheep are folded on the oats and
vetches after wheat, and the quantity of corn or cake is increased
to about 1]b, each per diem, and the allowance of pulped
mangolds and chaff is similarly augmented. The home-bred
sheep are worked off as shearlings during March and April, and
about 500 teggs are bought in during the spring, and folded on
Pitchill, Tilesford, and the Grove. 485
vetches and other green crops during summer, getting also
a little cake. In the winter they are put on roots at Pitchill, as
just described, and are worked off by about the end of February,
being clipped and either sent to fairs or sold at home.
From 800 to 1000 sheep are kept at Tilesford and the Grove
during the summer, 200 being ewes and lambs, and the remainder
older feeding sheep. They go there as soon as the vetches are
ready, and remain there until the green food is exhausted, when
_ they are taken to their winter quarters at Pitchill.
It will thus be seen that the system of farming pursued by
Mr. Bomford is almost entirely regulated by the necessity of pro-
viding a large quantity of sheep-food on his light land during the
winter. He is enabled to do this without losing any corn crop
by the almost exclusive and very prompt use of steam-cultivating
machinery ; and he makes it a rule to increase the quantity of
artificial food given to his sheep while these ‘caich-crops”
are being fed off as the season advances, so that the less time
he allows to the succeeding crop the more artificial stimulus he
gives to it,
Pigs.
About 60 pigs, of the Yorkshire breed, are annually fed on
pulped and boiled mangolds, mixed with flour in a hot state.
They are usually sold at 12 months old, weighing from 12 to
16 score.
Horses.
Mr. Bomford’s farms being cultivated almost entirely by
steam-power, the number of horses has been reduced to a
minimum, and only a sufficient staff is kept to do the harvesting
work, cart the dung, and so forth. The consequence is that a
large proportion of the stables have been converted into boxes
for feeding beasts,
The number now kept to do the work on 1360 acres, mostly
consisting of the strongest clay land, is thirty, being exactly two-
thirds of what would be required without steam-cultivation.
Mr. Bomford considers, however, that it would be impossible
for any number of horses to do the same work and produce the
same results as the steam-ploughing machinery. In summer the
horses are fed on vetches and clover ; and in winter they have
an allowance each of 200 Ibs. of corn per month, with 3 cwt. of
hay, and an unlimited supply of chaff, &c. They are worked
indifferently in line or abreast as circumstances require.
MANURES.
The manure made in the feeding stalls is spread over that in
the foldyards, so that when drawn the two may be thoroughly
486 Farm Reports.
mixed together. In spring the yards are cleared out, and the
manure is carted to the nearest point where it may be required
for use, the practice being, within certain limits, to use farmyard
manure by preference on the home portions of the farm, and
artificials on the outlying fields, The carts tip the manure,
are drawn over the heap, and return over what they have just
brought, so as to consolidate the heap. Between hay-making
and harvest the manure has one turning ; and immediately after
harvest all the available force on the farm is used to put it on
the stubbles in readiness for steam-ploughing.
LABOUR.
Day labourers get 11s. per week and no privileges; but they
are employed on piece-work about one-half their time; and
boys of different ages are employed at from 4d. to 1s. per
diem,
Shepherds and carters have good cottages and gardens in addi-
tion to their wages; engine-drivers get 1/. 1s. per week.
Seven pairs of these cottages have been built on the Pitchill
Farm, at a cost of about 180/ per pair; they contain good
kitchen and every requisite convenience, some of them have
two and others three bed-rooms,
For the last 20 years six Irishmen have come every spring, and
have been hired for the season, generally remaining until Noyem-
ber or December, the same men coming every year. ‘They do
the hoeing of turnips and other roots at the prices already given,
as well as the harvesting and storing of both white and green
crops, besides dung-carting, and any other work which may be
required, A carpenter and a blacksmith are also continuously
employed on the farm, the latter doing most of the repairs to
the steam-tackle.
STEAM-CULTIVATION.
Mr. Bomford’s use of steam-cultivating machinery was de-
scribed by Mr. John Algernon Clarke in this Journal * more
than two years ago, so that, although this is the prominent
feature of Mr, Bomford’s farming, it is unnecessary to travel
again over ground already so thoroughly explored. All that I
have to do is to mention the points on which Mr. Bomford’s prac-
tice now differs from what it was at the time when that Report
was written.
At the date of that Report Mr. Bomford farmed 1200 acres,
of which 900 were arable; he now occupies 1360 acres, of
which 1020 are arable. He now effects a saving of 20 horses,
* Ond Series, vol. ili., pp. 272-276.
Pitchill, Tilesford, and the Grove. 487
notwithstanding the disadvantageous circumstances attending his
recently acquired holding, in consequence of the extension of
his means of cultivating by steam. In every respect his tillage
operations are more exclusively arranged “ with a view to steam ”
than they were two years and a half ago, Instead of the “ large
enclosures averaging 20 to 40 acres each,” we see the arable
land at Pitchill thrown almost into one great field. At the out-
lying farms also, we see that the fields of 4, 5, or 10 acres each
are gradually undergoing a process of “ dissolution,” and that
they are slowly but surely taking rank, ad eundem gradum, with
Pitchill. These results have been accomplished by Mr. Bom-
ford having carried out the intention which he announced to the
Society’s Committee in 1867. At that time he possessed “a
couple of 12-horse engines,” purchased of Savory and Son, of
Gloucester, in 1864, and respecting this power we read that
‘Mr, Bomford is not satisfied with it, and he intended (so he
told us—not to get rid of it, but—to buy another; not in lieu
of the present machinery, let it be understood, but a second
‘ double-engine set,’ so that he may have two pairs of engines at
work upon his farm at one and the same time!” ‘This quotation
is copied verbatim et literatim, even to the note of admiration at
the end. But what is the fact at the present time? Mr. Bom-
ford possesses two of Fowler’s 14-horse power double sets. One
of these was purchased second-hand, and the other new, the latter
costing him 1460/, which included, besides the two engines,
800 yards of steel wire rope, and a new cultivator.
Many tenant-farmers will ask, How can this expenditure be
rendered remunerative ? Therefore it may be desirable, even
at the risk of some repetition, to give a sketch of Mr. Bomford’s
mode of utilizing so much power, and getting a paying per-
centage on the outlay of so much capital.
To begin, it must be remembered that Mr. Bomford occu-
pies, practically, two farms 7 miles apart, and that he keeps a
double-engine set at each occupation. Almost the whole of
his tillage operations are performed by steam, and whenever he
does not require his steam-tackle on his own farm, he has plenty
of “orders” to execute for his neighbours. Indeed, so great is
now the anxiety to hire his steam-tackle,—a desire produced, no
doubt, by force of example,—that last spring Mr. Bomford in-
formed me that he would soon be obliged to purchase a third
double set! As a matter of fact it may be stated that from
the middle of May until the land becomes too wet, Mr. Bom-
ford’s two double sets have as much work to do for himself and
his neighbours as can possibly be accomplished by them, not-
withstanding that the men make as much as eight days per week,
while the light will allow them to work so much over-time.
VOL. V.—S. S. 2k
488 Farm Reports.
With so many demands, Mr. Bomford has occasionally found
it a little difficult to arrange with the farmers who hire his
tackle respecting their order of precedence; but now he gene-
rally works one district at a time,and leaves all arrangements
to be made with the foreman; but subject to this division of
service for convenience of locality, he adheres strictly to the
rule of “ first come, first served.”
On his own farm, the steam-tackle is brought into use imme-
diately after harvest. For roots he prefers deep ploughing
where no farmyard manure is used, otherwise he restricts it to
a depth of 9 inches. On strong land a four-furrow plough does
from 8 to 10 acres this depth during a day of ten hours; but on
light land a six-furrow plough is used, and gets through from
12 to 15 acres per day. Cultivating is now done with one of
Fowler’s patent turning cultivators. This is a very powerful
implement, and will smash 15 acres per day of strong land, the
first time with seven tynes in; and 20 acres per day of light
land, or crossing the strong land, with 11 tynes in. I saw this
implement at work on a very heavy piece of ground, and it
certainly seemed a wonderful example of deep cultivation under
adverse circumstances, In walking after this implement, one
moment you might be poised on a pinnacle, with barely room
for the toe of your boot, and the next sink down to your knees
in a perfect sea of tilth. No doubt much of this was due to the
power used, two 14-horse-power engines, and the great improve-
ment is due to the introduction of the ‘‘turn-round ” principle.
In steam-cultivation on a clay farm the great desideratum is
to get all the work done as soon as possible, certainly before the
land gets wet; no effort is therefore spared to accomplish this
object, and by the middle of October every stubble has received
its quota of autumn cultivation. The light land, however, is
more tractable, and therefore furnishes a certain amount of work
during the winter for the steam-tackle, which may really be said
to follow the sheep. The spring work does not commence unti]
after the spring green-crops have been eaten off, so that 1t cannot
actually begin until about the first week in April, and it then
progresses slowly until the middle of May.
As tackle will not last for ever, it may be of interest to learn
the calculations of so experienced a man as Mr. Bomford for
wear and tear of machinery, interest of capital, &c. He calcu-
lates on the following scale :—
Interest on capital expended... 5 per cent.
Repairs (on account of wear and tear) 7 per cent.
Redeeming fund:.s5 4 «af! tii .se 4 +e 5 per cent.
The last-named item deducted annually would repay the capital
in fourteen years, which, therefore, subject to the other charges
Pitchill, Tilesford, and the Grove. 489
enumerated, is the length of time which a good set of tackle is
expected to last.
TitEsrorD FARM.
This farm, consisting of 360 acres, of which about 100 are in
permanent pasture, was taken at Michaelmas, 1864, The sub-
soil is a stiff lias clay ; and the state of the drainage, the foulness
of the land, and the poverty of the crops would require the pen
of a “Talpa” to render them picturesque. All that I have
to do is to show by what means such a farm has gradually
been rendered dry, clean, and fertile, without any excessive ex-
penditure, and without the loss of a single year’s crop, except
in a few fields where twitch, onions, or wild oats were unusually
luxuriant. In describing this history, it will be most conducive
to clearness and facility of comprehension if each field be taken
in succession, just as their courses of cropping were described to
Mr, Randell and myself on the ground.*
Grass Land.
Home Ficld—This is a piece of permanent pasture, mea-
suring about 10 acres; the greater portion of it has been very
much improved by draining and folding sheep on it in the
summer, giving them artificial food. The effect of manures has
also been tried, and a mixture, consisting of 4 cwt. of nitrate of
soda, 4 cwt. of guano, and 1 cwt. of superphospate per acre,
which had been spread over one of the lands early in the year
by the manure distributor, as an experiment, had, in April, made
a very conspicuous mark,
The remaining portion was so bad that it seemed necessary to
have recourse to some extremely vigorous means of improving
it. Accordingly, it was broken up and dressed with 100 cubic
yards per acre of burnt clay ; and the next spring it was planted
with swedes, then with mangolds the year after, and again with
mangolds the third year, the usual manures for those crops being
given in each case. When the land is considered clean enough
and good enough it will be laid down again for permanent
pasture.
Long Furlongs.— At present this is a very poor pasture,
measuring about 24 acres; but the land is somewhat lighter
and better than most of that on the farm, so it will be ploughed
up verysoon. Hitherto the improvement of it has been confined
to such matters as a thorough draining and the removal of super-
fluous timber. A regular grove of trees has been removed ; and
three or four hedgerows, besides numberless clumps of gorse and
* The details of the management and improvement of the Tilesford Farm were
communicated to us by Mr. Bomford’s very intelligent foreman, Mr. James,
2 & 2
490 Farm Reports.
brambles, have also been swept away. The function it has per-
formed meanwhile is that of a place of refuge for sheep in wet
weather, and being situated on the summit of a gentle hill, it is
well placed for the purpose. The land is better adapted for
tillage than pasture, and it will probably be turned to that purpose
in the autumn.
Duch Meadow.—This is a small piece of permanent pasture,
measuring about 4 acres. Five years ago it was a swamp, but
it has been thoroughly drained and is now a very useful piece
of grass. The other grass-land was in the same condition in
1864, and has since been treated in the same manner as the
two closes already mentioned, so that it will be unnecessary to
describe them in detail.
Arable Land.
Lower Bushels—At present this field measures about 23
acres, but formerly it consisted of two distinct closes of 7 and
16 acres respectively. Ultimately, it will, like most, if not all
of those to be hereafter described, be thrown into one great field,
crossed only by steam-roads a quarter of a mile apart.
The 7-acre portion was in 1§64 a very bad lot of seeds, which
were ploughed up and sown with beans that autumn, In 1866
it was wheat, in 1867 vetches, in 1868 wheat again, and this
year it 1s peas.
The 16-acre portion was, when the farm came into Mr. Bom-
ford’s possession, a wheat-stubble so foul that it required special
treatment to get it at all clean; and although it was ploughed up
and cleaned in the autumn, it was found necessary to leave ita
bare fallow the next year (1865) to allow of its being got into
decent condition for a crop. After that was accomplished the
following succession of crops was obtained :—Oats in 1866,
seeds in 1867, wheat in 1868; and this year it is partly winter
vetches and partly peas.
Biy Bushels——Twenty acres of land which in 1864 merited
no better description than “old twitch.” In 1865 it was in
vetches, eaten off by sheep ; and in 1866 wheat, manured heavily,
either with about 24 one-horse loads of farmyard manure per
acre previous to ploughing, or with a dressing of guano in the
following spring. Seeds were sown upon the wheat, and as they
failed the land was broken up and fallowed the next year. In
1868 it was wheat, and after harvest the stubbles were ploughed
up and sown with winter oats and vetches.
Oldfield Ground.—This now measures about 34 acres, but in
1864 it consisted of three nearly equal fields, averaging a little
more than 11 acres each. In that year the first part was beans
bestrewed with an abundant crop of wild oats, which necessi-
Pitchill, Tilesford, and the Grove. 491
tated its being Jeft a bare fallow in 1865. In the autumn it was
sown with wheat, and in the spring laid down with seeds, which
were fed off in the summer of 1867. In 1868 it was again
wheat, and this spring it had a very promising crop of winter
beans.
The second portion, which was rather the largest of the three,
was in a somewhat better condition than the rest; and although
the crop of wheat which it bore in 1864 was very poor, it was
possible to carry out something like the usual system, namely,—
beans in 1865, wheat in 1866, beans in 1867, seeds in 1868,* and
this year again wheat,
The third part also bore a wheat-crop in 1864, but the stubble
was so foul that the land was left a bare fallow and thoroughly
cleaned the next year, being sown with wheat in the autumn.
In 1867 it was vetches fed off; in 1868 wheat again, and this
year peas.
These fields comprise the whole of that portion of the arable and
which is situated south of the road called Long Lane, leading
from Throckmorton to Peopleton. Crossing this road we come,
on the western side of the homestead, to an occupation-road,
which has recently been made good by Mr. Bomford at a cost of
1s. per cubic yard for burnt clay, which was spread on it toa
depth of about 1 foot thick, so that 1 cubic yard would suffice
for a running yard on a road 9 feet wide. The cost of the burnt
clay per cubic yard comprised 53d. for coal and 63d. for
burning.
Bordering this road is a large field, termed the Big Ground ;
and the remaining closes, whose descriptions follow, are met
with in succession until the boundary of the farm is reached.
Big Ground.—This field already merits its name by measuring
about fifty-four acres, which were formerly allotted to four fields,
namely, (1) twenty-two acres ; (2) seven acres; (3) thirteen acres ;
and (4) twelve acres.
(1.) Of the 22 acres comprised in this portion, 14 acres
were in peas in 1864, and 8 in winter beans; but neither of
them are worth mentioning, except as an indication of the
general condition of the farm. The former yielded an extremely
bad crop, and the latter, having failed entirely, were sown with
vetches, which, with an additional and spontaneous crop of wild
oats, were fed off by sheep. In the autumn it was drilled with
wheat, upon ‘which seeds were sown the following spring, and
burst up in June, 1866. In 1867 it was wheat again; in 1868
partly mangolds and partly turnips, which proved a failure in con-
sequence of the ravages of a grub; and this year it is again wheat.
—= 2
* Seeds have been sown upon beans on a few other occasions.
492 Farm Reports.
(2.) In 1864 this 7-acre piece was one-year seeds, which
were grazed in the summer and afterwards sown with wheat,
harvested in 1865. The succeeding crop was beans, followed by
wheat sown in the autumn of 1866. In the spring of 1867 this
was top-dressed with 2} cwt. of guano, and after harvest the land
was sown with winter vetches, which were eaten off by sheep in
1868. At the present time it is again wheat.
(3.) Mr. Bomford entered upon the occupation of this in the
spring of 1864, instead of at Michaelmas. He found it a bare
fallow, in so foul a condition that he considered it best to let it
remain so that year and thoroughly clean it. So foul was it that
the first operation was reduced to mowing the twitch and after-
wards burning it; the land was then steam-cultivated, but it was
found necessary to take two legs out of the implement in conse-
quence of the heaviness and foulness of the land, In the spring
of 1865 it was sown with barley, which received a dressing of
guano after it had been laid down with seeds, which were
grazed in 1866, In 1867 it was wheat, in 1868 peas (some
artificial manure haying been given), and this year it is again
wheat.
(4.) This portion, consisting of 12 acres, was vetches in 1864 ;
these were eaten off by sheep and sown with wheat, which
formed the crop.of 1865. The wheat was laid down with seeds
in the spring of that year, and these were grazed in 1866 until
the beginning of July, when they were burst up by the culti-
vator. In 1867 the crop was wheat, in 1868 peas, and this year
is wheat again.
Crookburn Field—This is about 16 acres in extent, and has
required a. great deal of improving. In 1864 it was one-year
old seeds, which were allowed to remain until the next year, when
the field was drained and the seeds ploughed up. In 1866 it
was. peas, in 1867 wheat, in 1868 vetches fed off by sheep, and
this year it is again wheat.
Hill Ground.—At the present time this consists of 80 acres,
but originally it was in five pieces, and some of it so foul that
in 1865 it was-found necessary to burn it, for neither plough nor
cultivator could do anything with it. The result of this burning
has. been so remarkable that Mr. Bomford wishes that he had
been induced to treat more of the farm in the same manner.
The first part of this, comprising 25 acres, was one-year
seeds in 1864, but very foul and bad. At Midsummer, they
were broken up by two steam-cultivatings, in 1865 it was
wheat, in 1866 vetches followed by rape, in 1867 wheat laid
down with. seeds, remaining in 1868 mixed seeds, which were
broken up at Midsummer, and in 1869 it is again wheat.
The second part, about 18 acres in extent, bore a very bad
Pitchill, Tilesford, and the Grove. 493
and foul crop of wheat in 1864, being mixed seeds in 1865.
These were broken up at Midsummer and the land sown with
wheat in the autumn; in 1867 it was peas, and in 1868 was
again wheat, which was top-dressed with the usual mixture of
artificials and produced a wonderful crop. This-year it is barley,
and after harvest it will be manured for vetches.
The third part, measuring about 14 acres, was in 1864 barley,
which had succeeded wheat, and in 1865 was mixed seeds,
treated as usual. Since then it has been cropped as the preceding
portion.
The fourth and fifth parts, comprising 15 and 7 acres re-
spectively, were wheat in 1864, half vetches and half seeds in
1865, and have since been treated in the same manner as parts:
2 and 3.
Holloway. —At present this close measures about 25 acres,
but in 1864 it consisted of two fields of 16 and 9 acres re-
spectively,
The sixteen-acre piece was wheat in 1864 and seeds in 1865.
In 1866 it was sown partly with peas and partly with mangolds,
and the courses of cropping since pursued are the following :—
After Peas, After Mangold.
1867, barley. 1567, wheat.
1868, barley. 1868, barley.
1869, seeds, 1869, seeds.
The seeds will be broken up as usual at Midsummer and sown
with wheat. The cross-cropping ‘just mentioned was caused,
firstly, by the wet summer of 1807, and secondly, by the necessity
of draining.
The other portion of “ Holloway” bore a crop of oats in 1864
and mixed: seeds the next year. These were broken up at Mid-
summer but not cleaned, and succeeded by vetches, which again
were not cleaned; in 1867 the piece was vetches again, which
were fallowed and sown with wheat ; and this year it is in winter-
beans.
THe Grove, 200 AcrzEs.
Mr, Bomford took possession of this farm in February, 1868,
paying for the work which had been done since the previous
Michaelmas, from which date his tenantcy really commences. It
was in a bad state when he took it, and seems up to that time to
have sustained its ancient reputation, which gave to it the appella-
tion of “Starve All,” by which name it is distinguished on
the Ordnance Map. In describing the operations which have
been carried out on this farm, we shall follow the plan pursued
in the case: of. Tilesford, merely calling attention to the fact that
494 Farm Reports.
the processes of draining and cleaning, which are almost finished
at Tilesford, are in full swing here.
Commencing with the arable Jand, we have :—
Grove Ground.—This consisted last year of two fields, of
14 and 5 acres respectively, the former portion of which bore a
crop of wheat in 1867. In the autumn it was horse-ploughed
by the previous occupier, and in the spring it was planted
with vetches by Mr. Bomford. These were eaten off by sheep,
with an allowance of corn; the land was afterwards steam-
ploughed once, and this year is wheat, which looked remarkably
well in the spring.
The remaining portion was last year two year old seeds, chiefly
ryegrass, These were horse-ploughed in the summer, and the
land is now wheat, like the rest. No manure has been applied
to either portion, and the prevalence of coltsfoot in the latter
shows the work which remains for the steam-plough.
Big Ground.—This field now measures 26 acres, of which
15 acres were two year old ryegrass in 1867, allowed to remain
in 1868; in 1868, 4 acres were vetches after these two-year-
old seeds; and 7 acres were wheat, also after the same seeds..
Last autumn the whole piece was sown with wheat, which
received in the spring a top-dressing of 2 cwts. of guano and
1 cwt. of nitrate of soda. This year, therefore, we have :—
1. Wheat after ryegrass.
2. Wheat after vetches.
3. Wheat after wheat.
Of the three, the first portion certainly looked the worst at the
end of Jast April, the other two pieces looking very much alike,
although the vetches had been fed off by sheep, and the wheat
after them might, therefore, be expected to look much better
than after wheat itself; but at the time we saw this field the
third part was certainly the most luxuriant in foliage. What
the result will be in corn Mr. Bomford has promised to let me
know eventually.
Clarke's Field (7 acres) was wheat in 1868, and is now spring
vetches. Grave Ditch (20 acres) was in 1868 beans after oats ;
this year it is mixed seeds, which had been sown in the beans, and:
will be broken up at Midsummer. Smoke Pear Tree (9 acres):
was wheat upon seeds in 1868, and is now peas.
Landman’s Rail.—This piece measures 16 acres, In 1868 it
was barley after wheat, and is now seeds; the barley was dressed
with 3 cwt. of guano and superphosphate, and the seeds with
3 ewt. each of nitrate of soda and guano, From 6 to 7 acres of
the field had been pipe-drained a few years ago at a depth of
Bulbridge and Ugford, near Salisbury. 495
about 24 inches from the bottom of the furrows, and the rest was
drained in 1868, before the barley was sown, at least 1 foot deeper.
The difference in the seeds in the two portions was very pro-
minent, the boundary-line being sharp and distinct, and the
comparison very much in favour of the deeper draining. These
seeds will be eaten off and the land fallowed for wheat.
Woodcoch’s Ground.—At present it comprises 45 acres, but
two years ago it was in four fields. The first portion, mea-
suring 22 acres, is barley following wheat. The second part, a
small piece of 4 acres, is mangolds after wheat, and has been
dressed with 100 yards per acre of burnt soil from the hedge-
rows, as well as with 4 cwt. per acre of artificial manure.
The third part, 12 acres, was a poor pasture, but it has been
broken up, and is this year sown with oats, The fourth por-
tion comprises 7 acres, and has received a special treatment.
The land was very foul, and required a thorough cleaning and
cultivating. The first step taken was to sow it with spring
vetches; these have been dressed with 14 cwt. of guano per acre,
and will be eaten off by sheep. The sheep having eaten off the
crop and well trodden the land, it will be broken up by the steam-
cultivator, and 100 yards of burnt soil per acre will then be put
on. The crop of vetches will not pay for sowing and dressing,
except as a cheap means of enabling the land to be thoroughly
cleaned, as weeds die in the clods that are turned up by the culti-
vator if the ground has been well trodden; and the most important
question here was, how to clean so foul a bit of land.
The Wey Leys and the Five Leys comprise about 14 acres
of poor grass, which have just been drained preparatory to being
broken up and thrown into Woodcock’s Ground.
The Long Ground, of 16 acres, has been in pasture for the
last thirty years; but it will also be broken up and the hedges
stubbed, it has been thoroughly drained this spring, and is now
ready to be cast down by horse-ploughing.
The remainder of the farm is either old pasture or meadow.
7.—Bulbridge and Ugford, near Salisbury ; in the occupation of
Mr. JAMES RAWLENCE.
THEsE farms occupy a strip of land situated on the north and
south slopes of the valley of the Nadder; the sole of the valley,
which consists entirely of water-meadows at this point, forming a
kind of neutral ground between the two. The farms are about 24
miles in length, from north to south, and the greatest width, across
the water-meadows, is about one mile. The eastern boundary is
496 Farm Reports.
four miles from Salisbury, and half a mile from Wilton, and the
western margin is a little more than a mile from Barford St.
Martin. The two farms measure 955 acres, about 750 of which
are arable land, 106 water-meadow, 70 pasture, and the remainder
orchards, &c. The Ugford farm occupies the strip of land on
the northern side of the valley, and consists of 320 acres of
arable land. Bulbridge, on the opposite side of the river, con-
tains 434 acres of land under tillage.
The soils require very brief description, as they rest almost
entirely on chalk; they may, indeed, be regarded as thin chalky
soils, especially thin and chalky on the higher land, and graduat-
ing into deeper and richer soil, of an alluvial character, towards
the water-meadows in the lower ground, At Ugford there are,
however, some exceptional patches of trifling extent, which con-
sist of stronger and better land resting on tertiary outliers, as
shown in the map.
The fences need not be particularly described, for the arable
land is both enclosed and subdivided by hurdles and wattle-
fencing, costing about 60/. per annum for repairs and renewal.
The only live fences on the farm are those which divide and
surround the pastures and meadows.
Out of 750 acres of arable land scarcely more than 400 are
annually devoted entirely to green crops, in addition to the 100
acres of water-meadow and 31 acres of available pasture. The
remaining 36 acres of pasture, being covered with gorse, are of
little use, and need not be considered. On this land Mr. Raw-
lence keeps his flock of 876 breeding ewes, besides a few dry
ones; and last season he wintered 406 teggs (being 386 ewe-
teggs, and 20 ram-teggs) and 15 older rams, making altogether
about 1300 sheep. Last spring at the time of our visit (May) he
had over a thousand lambs. The number of sheep wintered
would be immensely increased, and the whole system of farming
overturned, but for the fact that Mr. Rawlence sells all his
wethers as Jambs in August, and also either sells or lets his ram-
lambs about the same time. With the trifling exceptions just
mentioned, the whole of the sheep wintered on the farm are,
therefore, either breeding ewes or ewe-teggs, In addition to the
sheep, the farm supports a dairy establishment consisting of 35
dairy cows, 22 heifers (2 and 3 years old), and 10 yearlings.
During some portion of the year, however, as we shall presently
see, certain of the sheep are sent to the Downs, and some of the
cattle to a park. In consequence of the large number of sheep
kept on the farms, the white crops are, as a rule, unusually
heavy for the character of the soil, which is by no means remark-
able for its natural fertility.
Fig. 1.—Geological Mup of Bulbridge and Ugford, near Salisbury.
Tertiary.
Alluvium (water-meadows).
ScaLtr—Two inches to a mile,
498 Farm Reports.
BULBRIDGE.
I. Home ARABLE.—S84 acres.
1. Wheat.
2. Barley.
|
3a. Broad clover (mown). 3b. Italian rye-crass,
followed by swedes.
4a. Broad clover (fed), 4b, Mangolds or cabbages.
followed by rape and turnips.
]
Returning again to Wheat.
II. Fretp ARABLE.—316 acres.
1. Wheat.
|
2a. Barley. 2b. Swedes or rape and turnips, the
latter preceded by vetches and
winter oats on the wheat stubble.
|
3a. Sainfoin. 3b, Barley.
4a, Sainfoin. 4b. Seeds (mown).
|
5a. Sainfoin. 5b. Seeds (fed), one-half followed by
rape and turnips.
Returning again to Wheat.
II. Down ARABLE.—54 acres.
This land was broken up out of gorse and brushwood 12 years.
ago. It is too weak for ordinary crops, so it is farmed on a two-
course system, each half being alternately ‘‘ dredge” and
“roots.” The ‘“ dredge”’ consists of 5 bushels of oats, 1 bushel
of barley, $ bushel of beans, and 3 bushel of peas; and the roots.
are one-half mangolds and one-half swedes, drilled after the land
has been steam-cultivated, and dressed with 50 bushels per acre of
road scrapings and town refuse, and 8 bushels of dissolved bones 3.
the mangolds sometimes also getting a top-dressing of 1 cwt. of
guano and 2 cwt. of salt. All the roots are fed off on the land
by sheep, which get at the same time an allowance of corn or
cake,
Bulbridge and Ugford, near Salisbury. 499
Uarorp Farm.—300 acres.
This includes some of the best land farmed by Mr. Rawlence;
200 acres of it are farmed on the same four-course system as the
Home Arable at Bulbridge, and the remainder on the Norfolk
four-course system, certain “ catch crops” being taken previous
to the root-course, and half the barley-land being sown with
mangolds or cabbages instead of seeds. It must, however, be
understood that no particular hundred acres are constantly devoted
to the latter system, but that each portion of land is in turn
farmed on both systems. The Norfolk four-course for this 100
acres may be tabulated as follows :—
la. Wheat and rye-grass. 1b. Wheat followed by
vetches and winter oats.
2a. Italian rye-grass followed 2b. Turnips.
by swedes.
|
3. Barley.
|
4a. Mixed seeds. 4b, Mangolds or cabbages.
Wheat as above.
The remaining 20 acres of arable land on this farm are in five
smal] fields, about one-half the quantity being in roots every year
and the remainder in white crop.
On the whole farm the quantity of land in white crop every
year will, if calculated up, be found to be—
Acres.
1. On the home arable at Bulbridge, one-half the area, viz. 42
2. On the field arable at Bulbridge, two-fifths the area, viz. 128
3. On the down arable at Bulbridge, one-half the area, viz. 17
4, On the Ugford Farm, one-half the area, viz... .. .. 150
5. On the small fields, one-half the area, viz. a 0)
347
GrRass-LAND.
Water-Meadows.—The portion intended for early spring feed-
ing is irrigated in November, the remaining sections being
watered in succession as the water can be spared, and the irriga-
tion of the last meadow commencing about 20th of December ;
irrigation is continued during the winter until a week or ten days
previous to each meadow being stocked in the spring. Shee
begin to feed the first portion of the meadows about March 20th,
and continue to feed off in succession the remaining divisions,
500 Farm Reports.
with the exception of one reserved for the dairy cows. As soon
as the sheep have fed off each section it is again irrigated, and
when ready is mown. The aftermath is invariably fed by the
dairy cows and young stock, as it is not sound for sheep.
The “ drowner,” as the man who looks after the irrigating is
here termed, is paid 5s. 6d. per acre per annum for attending to
the irrigation during the year, and “ taking up ” the carriers and
drains; in other words, cleaning them out. Generally he is
assisted by another man, and between them most of this work
is done as overtime. Mowing costs about 3s. 6d. per acre and
a gallon of cider.
Pastures.—The pasture land is devoted entirely to the dairy
cows and young stock, and is manured with road-scrapings,
compost, and liquid manure.
ARABLE LAND.
1. Wheat.—\mmediately before the seeds are broken up the
land receives a dressing of 15 two-horse loads of farmyard-
manure per acre; but the land after turnips is not manured,
having been manured for the root-crop. Generally | the pre-
paration for wheat is limited to one ploughing, which is done as
soon as possible, commencing about the beginning of October.
Wheat-sowing commences, on the Svesrounees portion of the farm,
in October with 24 bushels of seed per acre, and finishes in
January with about 3 bushels. On the four-field part of the
Bulbridge farm wheat sowing commences with 2 bushels of seed
per acre, generally in October, and ends as in the previous sys-
tem. The earlier sown seed consists of two-thirds Browick red
wheat and one-third of a white sort ; and the later portion in both
systems is sown with Nursery wheat. The seed is drilled in
rows 8 inches apart with a Suffolk drill, and in spring the land
is horse-hoed, the light chalky brows being top-dressed with a
mixture of 14 cwt. of guano, + cwt. of nitrate of soda, and 2 ewt.
of salt.
Harvesting is done partly by machine, and partly by hand.
When done by hand the cost of mowing and sheafing varies from
9s. to 12s. per acre, according to the crop, the men finding their
own beer or cider. Carting and stacking are done by day-work ;
thatching (which includes nothing but the bare operation) is
done at 44d. per square. Threshing is done by steam-machinery,
the men being paid by the day.
2. Barley.—Barley is taken either after wheat or after roots,
and as the modes of treatment in the two cases are somewhat
different, it will be better to notice them separately.
(a) After Wheat.—As soon as the wheat has been carted the
Bulbridge and Ugford, near Salisbury. 501
land is steam-cultivated once or twice, as may be necessary to
thoroughly clean it. About November it is horse-ploughed ;
and as soon as the frost has broken up and the land is dry enough
in the spring, it is lightly scarified either by horse or steam-
power, harrowed and rolled, and drilled with 12 pecks of
Chevalier barley per acre. Generally it is top-dressed with
14 ewt. of guano and 2 cwt. of salt per acre. Mowing is paid
for at the rate of from 2s, or 3s. per acre, and “ pooking ” at the
rate of ls. per acre, the usual allowance of cider being given in
addition. On this farm barley is never sheafed.
(b) After Turnips.—As soon as the turnips have been fed off
the land is ploughed once; and if the weather has been dry
while the sheep have been on the land, it is dressed simply by
harrowing and rolling ; but if wet weather has prevailed, and the
land has been made stiff, it receives a light scarifying in addition
to the other preparation. Twelve pecks of seed per acre are
drilled after turnips, and no top-dressing is given, otherwise the
treatment of barley in this course is identical with that of barley
after wheat.
3. Seeds.—The barley succeeding wheat, and half that succeed-
ing roots on the four-course systems, is horse-hoed once; and then
more than half of it is sown by means of a seed-barrow with
12 lbs. of red clover and 4]bs. of white Dutch per acre; and
the remainder is sown either broadcast or by the barrow, with 2
bushels of Italian: rye-grass. The former is mown the first
year, and the aftermath eaten off; it is fed off the next year by
the 20th of June, the dung-cart following the fold, and the land
ploughed immediately for rape and turnips, to be followed by
wheat. The Italian rye-grass is folded off by sheep trom the
water-meadows, and is got rid of by the 20th of May, when
the land is immediately prepared for swedes.
The barley following roots in the five-course system (32 acres)
is sown with the same mixture of red clover and white Dutch
as that just mentioned, and the seeds are treated in the same
manner, except that one-half of this course, instead of being fed
off by the end of May, and followed by rape and turnips, is not
folded off until the end of October, and is succeeded immediately
by wheat.
The barley following wheat in the five-course system (32 acres)
is laid down with 5 bushels of sainfoin, 6]bs. of trefoil, and
4 lbs. of white Dutch clover per acre. This is lightly fed by ewe
lambs after the barley is cut, and it remains down for the next
three years. As a rule, it is cut two years, and entirely fed
either the first or the third year, but generally the first. In this
case, after being cut in the second year, it would be fed after the
scythe; and the third year it would be cut first, then folded
502 Farm Reports.
twice, and immediately cart-dunged, ploughed, pressed, and
sown with wheat. The cost of mowing either clover or sain-
foin is from 2s. to 3s. per acre, with the usual allowance of
cider,
4. Roots—Under this head we have a very complicated series
of crops to describe, as they form part of somany systems. It will
probably be conducive to clearness if we describe them in the
following order :—
(a.) Rape and Turnips after mixed seeds, fed the second year,
(b.) Swedes after Italian Rye-grass.
(c.) Swedes after Wheat.
(d.) Turnips after Green Crop on a Wheat Stubble.
(e.) Mangolds after Swedes and after Barley.
(f.) Cabbages instead of Mangolds.
(a.) Rape and Turnips after Mixed Seeds.—The two-year seeds
are folded off until about June 20th, and are then cart-dunged
with from 12 to 15 two-horse loads per acre, and ploughed once ;
the land is then harrowed and drilled with about a sack of dis-
solved bones mixed with compost, and with 1 lb. of rape, and
2 lbs. of turnips. When the plants are fit they are horse and
hand-hoed, and the crop is fed off as soon as ready.
(b.) Swedes after Italian Rye-grass——This course occurs in
both the four-course shifts, the rye-grass in one case having
been sown on wheat, and in the other on barley. The sheep
from the water-meadows are folded on the rye-grass, which they
finish by about the 20th of May. The land is immediately
afterwards ploughed once, harrowed, and the seed drilled, with
about one quarter of dissolved bones mixed with about 50
bushels of compost per acre, in ‘drills 194 inches apart, Mr.
Rawlence now drills swedes entirely on the flat, but in former
days he practised the ridge system. When ready the plants
are horse-hoed twice, and they also get two hand-hoeings and
a singling, to about 9 inches apart, at a cost of from 8s. to
10s. per acre, the singling being done by the hoe. Nearly the
whole of this crop is fed off on the land, the exception being
that one-third of the swedes grown on the “Home arable,” at
Bulbridge, are carted off and given to the dairy-stock in the
yards; but this quantity does not amount to more than the
produce of 34 acres per annum.
(c.) Swedes after Wheat.—This crop is taken on nearly 20 acres
every year in the five-field shift on the ‘‘ Field arable” at Bul-
bridge. The autumn cultivation of the land commences in
November, and continues into the winter until the month of
January. During this period the wheat-stubble is steam-culti-
vated once or twice, as may be required, and ploughed once.
Bulbridge and Ugford, near Salisbury. 503
In the spring it is again scarified, either by horse or steam,
according to circumstances, harrowed and drilled, as already
described, for “swedes after Italian rye-grass,” and subsequently
receives the same treatment, the whole of the crop being fed
off on the land.
(d.) Rape and Turnips after Green Crop on a Wheat Stubble.—
Instead of a crop of swedes being obtained in the manner just
described on the whole of the ‘‘ half-course,” available for it on
the five-field shift pursued in the Bulbridge ‘field arable,”
20 acres out of the 40 are sown with vetches and winter oats
soon after the wheat is harvested; and this “catch crop” is
succeeded by turnips, or by rape and turnips, as soon as that is
fed off. The land is ploughed once as soon as possible, and
drilled with 3 lbs. of seed and 4 bushels of dissolved bones mixed
with 50 bushels of compost per acre, being afterwards treated in
the ordinary manner. The same system is pursued on one-half
of the shift in the four-field rotation which constitutes the variety
in the management of one-third of the Ugford farm.
(e.) Mangolds.—This crop is not taken on the five-course
** field arable” at Bulbridge ; but it occupies one-eighth of the
area farmed under the four-course systems, namely, 48 acres,
and one-fourth of the “down arable,” and a portion of the small
fields at Ugford, making together about 10 acres. From this
total of 58 acres, however, we must deduct the portion annually
allotted to cabbages in lieu of mangolds.
The land is manured with 15 two-horse-loads of farmyard
manure in the spring; it is ploughed and pressed as soon as the
swedes are fed off; except the portion after barley, which is
manured in the winter and ploughed immediately, the spring
tillage being the same as on the previous portion. The land
is then harrowed and drilled with one quarter of dissolved bones
and compost, and with 8 lbs. of yellow globe mangold seed per
acre, sowing being usually finished by the middle of May. The
drills are 194 inches apart, and the plants, after frequent hoeings
by horse and by hand, are left from 9 inches to 1 foot asunder
in the rows. About one-third are fed off by sheep in October
on the ground, no preference being given in this matter to any
description of sheep on the farm. The remainder are taken up,
topped, put in long pits with a slight covering of straw under
the earth, leaving the top of the ridge uncovered for a short
time, until there is no chance of heating, when the ridge is
entirely closed by earth. These mangolds are for the most part
reserved for the ewes after lambing, and for the draft-ewes, rams,
and sale-lambs during the months of June and July.
(f.) Cabbages.—Cabbages are invariably planted on a portion of
the Jand which would otherwise be devoted to mangolds, Early
VOL. V.—S. 8. 2 1
504 Farm Reports.
York seed is sown in seed-beds in July, and the plants are
pricked out, partly in November and partly in February, the
land having previously received the same treatment as for
mangolds. The rows are 18 inches apart, and the plants the
same distance from one another in the row. They are planted
opposite one another to allow greater facilities for the two horse-
hoeings which they always ‘receive. Subsequently they are
hand-hoed twice at a cost of 8s. per acre, and the crop is disposed
of by being fed off on the land.
Other Green Crops——Under this head we must mention (a.)
vetches and winter oats (or beans), and (b.) rye and winter oats,
The former description of crop is sown on a wheat-stubble in
the five-field course, to be followed by rape and turnips instead
of swedes, the first sowing being 2 bushels of vetches with
4 bushel of winter oats, and the second the same quantity of
vetches with 4 bushel of winter beans. Rye and winter oats
are grown merely as a makeshift in the event of rye-grass
turning out a failure when sown in its usual place in the four-
course shifts) The land is in that case ploughed once, and
3 bushels each of rye and winter oats are sown per acre.
CATTLE.
Under this head we have to describe only the management of
the dairy stock, which are cross-bred, shorthorn and Alderney,
or shorthorn and Devon. There are 35 dairy cows, and
generally about a dozen each of 2-year-old heifers, yearlings,
and calves. After calving, the cows are fed entirely on cut
hay for about six weeks, when they get in addition a daily allow-
ance of 3 lbs, of cotton and rape cake until about the 20th of
March; they then go into the water-meadows during the day,
being brought up at night and given hay and straw, without
artificial food, in the sheds. From April 20th until the end of
November they are kept entirely in the water-meadows and
pastures. They get the run of 40 acres of spring feed up to
haymaking time, after which the whole of the grass-land is
stocked by them.
Ten 2-year-old heifers are sent to Longleat Park ante bulling,
generally remaining there from May 20th to October 20th, at a
cost of 9s. 6d. each ] per week. The yearlings and calves are kept
on the home grass-land during the summer.
In the winter the in-calf heifers, as well as the 2-year-olds and
yearlings, get 3 lbs. of cotton arid? rape cake with cut straw; but
the calves are fed on linseed cake, getting a daily allowance of
2 lbs. with a mixture of cut hay and tra. About twelve calves
are weaned every year, the remainder being sold as soon as
possible.
Bulbridge and Ugford, near Salisbury. 505
Butter is made twice a week, and skim cheese every day
during the summer.
SHEEP.
Mr. Rawlence is well known as a successful breeder and
exhibitor of Hampshire Down Sheep; and it will have been
observed that the chief object of his system of farming is to
obtain as large a quantity and as continuous a succession of
sheep-food as possible. ’
Nearly 900 ewes ‘are annually put to the ram, the actual
number last year being 876. Mr. Rawlence lost the use, for
that season, of 14 prize shearling ewes which were shown at
Falmouth and Leicester, otherwise his total would have nearly
reached the round hundreds. The number of draft-ewes is about
250 annually, and the crop of lambs averages about 5 per cent.
more than the ewes put to the ram.
Before describing the details of his sheep management, it will
conduce to clearness of comprehension if Mr. Rawlence’s ruling
principle is first brought into relief. It is simply frequent
change of diet. As a general system the sheep are provided all
the year round with a day fold and a night retreat, so that the
appetite is continually whetted by variety.
The ewes are put to the ram in August, either on the after-
math of second-shear clover, or on sainfoin, and at night they are
folded on the rape and turnips before wheat. The same treat-
ment is pursued until the spring, rape and turnips being fed
off in succession, and finally swedes, commencing about the
middle of October and continuing until lambing time. As
soon as wet weather or white frosts begin, cut hay and straw
(about half of each) are given with the roots, and this addition
is continued until lambing time. After lambing the ewes get -
mangolds with hay chaff for about 10 days in the lambing pens;
and in addition to this food, the ewes with tup-lambs or with
couples get either 1 pint of oats or 1 lb. of cake; but unless
roots are scarce the remaining ewes are denied artificial food.
At the expiration of 10 days or a fortnight the ewes and lambs
go on turnips, those with tups or couples getting the same
additional food, and they remain there until March 20th.
About March 20th the ewes and lambs go into the water-
meadows by day, and are folded at night on swedes for the first
fortnight or so, and afterwards on Italian rye-grass, or occa-
sionally on rye and winter oats, which have been sown where
rye-grass has failed. This treatment is continued until the
middle of May, when the lambs are weaned. The tup and
wether lambs get an allowance of corn or cake as soon as they
can eat, which they find access to by means of lamb-gates.
Dine
506 Farm Reports.
These lambs are weaned by folding on sainfoin by day and
vetches at night; the ewe-lambs clear behind them during the
daytime, and run over two-year-old seeds at night, and as a rule
they get no corn, About the first week in June the tup and wether
lambs begin to get mangolds and cabbages cut up and served in
troughs ; the rams and wethers are separated, the former being
followed by ewe-lambs at Ugford, and the latter by draft ewes
at Bulbridge. The details of the management are briefly as
follows :—At 5 o’clock in the morning the ram and wether
lambs get about 6 oz. of corn or cake on their night-fold, and in
half an hour go on to a break of sainfoin; about 11 o'clock they
get cabbages and mangolds cut up in troughs, and at 5 in the
afternoon they are given another 6 oz. of corn or cake, being sent on
vetches for the night half an hourafterwards. About the middle
of July, however, rape or cabbages are substituted for vetches.
The ewe-lambs follow the ram-lambs until the wethers are sold,
after which they run on the aftermath seeds in the daytime, and
at night are folded on rape and turnips preceding wheat. They
get no corn or cake, and are followed according to the system by
the breeding ewes. The draft ewes, when dry, follow the
wether lambs, and get 3 lb. of corn or cake per diem until they
are sold, which is usually in July or August. As a rule the
wether lambs are sold on August 12th, but occasionally earlier.
Their average weight is 16]bs. per quarter, but individual cases
of 20 lbs, have sometimes been recorded ; and the average price
for the last 5 years is 36s. per head.
About 140 ram-lambs and 20 older sheep are sold or let every
year, the average price obtained during a series of years being
11 guineas.
The ewe-teggs not introduced into the breeding flock are
wintered on the thin hill-land at Bulbridge, on mangolds and
swedes, getting } |b. of cotton- or rape-cake per day with hay and
straw chaff; this treatment is continued until the middle of April,
when they are folded in the water-meadows by day, and on
Italian rye-grass behind the couples at night, until May 20th.
From this date until August lst they are kept on a down at a
cost of 2d. each per week, being folded on bare fallow at night.
Sheep are washed in the river, about 10 days before shearing,
by the ordinary farm labourers, who are paid their usual wages,
but get in addition 3 meals a day and an allowance of cider.
Shearing is done by a travelling company at 15s. per hundred,
wool-winders and helpers being found by Mr. Rawlence. No
drink is given, except 1 quart of strong beer per man at night
for supper. The fleeces of teggs weigh about 6 lbs., and of the
ewes about 5 lbs. Sheep are dipped, about the end of August
or beginning of September, in a solution of arsenic and soft soap,
Bulbridge and Ugford, near Salisbury. 507
by a travelling company at a cost of 1s. 8d. per score, including
the materials, helpers being found as for shearing.
Horses.
Notwithstanding the lightness of the land, the adoption of
steam cultivating machinery has left its mark by causing a
considerable reduction in the number of horses kept on the farm.
Formerly 22 horses were found none too many, now 17 can
perform all the work left for horse-power. This reduction is
mearly 25 per cent.; and as the tillage Jand measures 750
acres, it is equal to one horse to every 150 acres. |
In winter each horse has a weekly allowance of 1} bushels of
oats, } bushel of beans or maize, and 1 bushel of bran, with a
certain quantity of wheat chaff, crude straw being at the same
time given in the racks, From the beginning of March until
May the allowance is increased by the addition of 56 lbs, of hay
per horse ; and when green food comes in the quantity of corn
is reduced to one-half. In the summer the horses are turned out
to grass for about a month.
The stables are not subdivided into stalls, but the whole of
the horses stand side by side. They are bought young according
to circumstances, from suckling foals to three-year-olds ; and, as
a general rule, none are bred on the farm.
ARTIFICIAL MANURES.
The artificial manure used for roots for the most part consists
of dissolved bones and compost prepared on the farm. During
the winter, in wet days, when very little other employment can
be found for some of the labourers, they become very busy in
soaking half-inch bones with liquid manure from the tank.
Three heaps of bones are made, each containing 2 quarters;
these are soaked for about 3 days with as much liquid manure as
they will absorb. When thoroughly saturated, one of these
heaps will be put into a cauldron for further treatment, and a
new one is made and saturated to supply its place in rotation.
The oldest heap, therefore, always stands next for treatment in
the cauldron, which is done as follows:—The 2 quarters of
bones are shovelled into an old cauldron, and at the same time
mixed with.about 50 lbs. of sulphuric acid per sack, the acid
being added from time to time as more bones are put in. The
mixture remains for about 24 hours, when it is taken out and
thoroughly mixed, in a heap, with an equal quantity of un-
dissolved half-inch bones. The heap thus remains until about
2 or 3 weeks before it is wanted, when it is mixed with
about 50 bushels of compost per quarter, which quantity then
508 — Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester.
forms the dressing for 1 acre of swedes or mangolds, or for
2 acres of common turnips or rape.
Farmyard manure is put on the land direct from the yards
whenever it is practicable; the remainder is drawn into fields
and carted over.
Lasour.
All the labour on the farm is done by day-work, with the
exceptions of steam-cultivating, harvesting, and turnip-hoeing,
and the total cost of labour on the farm comes to about 30s. per
acre on the whole extent of the occupation.
The wages of ordinary labourers are 10s. per week, with a
free allotment of 10 lug of manured and tilled potato-ground ;
and they are allowed to rent a cottage and garden at Is. per
week, Shepherds and carters get 12s. per week, an extra pay-
ment of 3/. 10s. at Michaelmas, a cottage and garden rent-
free, and the privilege of buying 10 score of bacon per annum
at 2s, 6d. per score below market price. In addition to this the
shepherds are allowed 15 lug each of manured and tilled potato-
ground instead of 10. Under-carters and under-shepherds get
from 7s. to 9s. per week, with lodgings rent-free, and fuel; they
are also paid an additional allowance of about 35s. at Michael-
mas, and they each have an allotment of 6 lug of potato-ground.
The wages of boys vary from 2s. 6d. to 5s. per week, with an
addition of from 5s. to 15s. at Michaelmas. Women are
employed in weeding and other light work at from 8d. to 10d.
per diem, getting 1s. per day at harvest-work.
XVII.—Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester.
By W. WELLs, M.P., Senior Steward.
Tue Exhibition of the Royal Agricultural Society this year
has been most successful, and worthy of the great city where it
was held.
As soon as Manchester, out of several keenly competing
towns, was fixed upon as the scene of action for 1869, it was
felt that every effort must be made to render the visit there a
memorable one. ‘The occasion required it. Not only was it
to be the first visit to the metropolis of the manufacturing
districts, but the Society was to come there with his Royal
Highness the Prince of Wales as its President, while a hope
was entertained, now happily fulfilled, that the Princess of
Wales would graciously consent to be present also.
The efforts of the Society were warmly seconded by the Local
Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester. 509
Committee ; and to the energy and liberality displayed by the
very hard-working members of that Committee, no small measure
of the success of the Exhibition is due.
The financial details of the Meeting will be found elsewhere,
but it may be interesting to compare the numbers of persons
admitted, and the corresponding amount received, at the three
great towns—centres of densely populated districts— Leeds,
Newcastle, and Manchester respectively. They are as follows: —
Amount received.
No. of Admissions. £
TERE S ie cetuwuntly espe esp 140,738 a5 as 9,889
Newcastle ... ... « 144,683 bc As 8,045
Manchester .. .. .. 200,733 oe sod
The entries of Stock at the three towns were as follows :—
Cattle. Horses. Sheep. Pigs. Total.
Leeds RED ee se Oat oto, Fe WD 887
INGWCASHIO O35) vent OUR. de BOL wtOLS) sacks BLODiemae 842
Manchester... .., G00 .. 364, . 464 ... 1dL .. ASsld
This great increase in the number of entries was made up by
a very general addition to the numbers in most of the classes
although the increase was, perhaps, most marked in those o
the horses. Even last year at Leicester, where, as migh
have been expected, the number of horses shown was large
than common, there were only 167 entries against 384 a
Manchester.
Of these 384 it is satisfactory to record that 131, or as many
as were comprised in all the horse classes together at Leeds,
were entries in the agricultural or dray-horse classes.
In the various classes for hunting mares and geldings there
was a keen competition for the very liberal prizes offered
by the Local Committee ; and some of the “‘ Hunters”—a name
little appropriate to not a few of them—were put through
a further ordeal in an enclosure adjoining the Society’s Show-
yard, where other and separate prizes were given by the Local
Committee to the successful competitors in jumping over hurdles
and water.
This performance, to see which a separate entrance was
made, and separate entrance-fee charged, proved to be very
attractive, and was a means by which some of the heavy
expense to which they had been put was recovered by the
Local Committee. é
Notwithstanding, however, the financial success which attende
this exhibition of horse jumping, it is very questionable whether
it is advisable for the Royal Agricultural Society to allow the
same thing another time. It was impossible at Manchester, and
would always be impossible, to make the public understand that
.
D910 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester.
the Society had nothing whatever to do with the proceedings ;
and it leaves the Council open to the charge of encouraging, for
the mere sake of money making, what after all partakes more
of the nature of a circus, than vat any part of an Agricultural
Society’s Show.
Horses entered for the Society's prizes are no longer required
to undergo a preliminary veterinary examination, although it
is competent for the Judges to call for the assistance of the
Veterinary Surgeons if they consider it expedient to have any
horse examined. This alteration of the old rule was not
attended, so far as could be seen, by any disadvantages, but it
will be necessary to watch the effect of it very “narrowly,
especially with respect to stallions and brood mares, as by the
award of prizes and commendations to animals unsound, or
having hereditary diseases, the Society might do irreparable
mischief.
The Reports of the Judges of Stock are given in most cases
at length ; as the opinions of the persons deliberately chosen by
the Society to make their awards are of material importance,
and are read with great interest.
The Judges of horses for agricultural purposes send in very
meagre Reports, hardly, perhaps, doing justice to the importance
of the classes under their adjudication.
The Report of one of the Judges merely says—
In several classes, numbers very short, and not satisfactory. The dray, or
working horse classes very good generally. The first class, of entire horses,
satisfactory.
Another Report says—
Class 1 and Class 2 good, particularly the horses to which the prizes were
awarded.
» 9. Good, but not much competition.
» 6. Only one shown.
» 25 and 26. Tolerably good.
», 28. Passable, but short in numbers.
», 29. Very good indeed.
5, 30. Good, but not much competition.
», ol. Only one shown.
» 02. Well represented.
;, 38. Good, but short in number.
», 84. Only one shown.
» 930. Very good; a pair of the best dray horses I ever saw.
,, 936. Good, especially the first prize animal.
37. All the animals good in this class.
5, 098. The prizes horses very good indeed.
» 29. Very well represented, good animals altogether.
I consider the show at Manchester the best for all sorts of horses I ever
saw.
There were 79 entries, in all, in the agricultural horse classes.
In some, therefore, as there were 20 classes, the entries were
°
Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester. 511
disappointing as regarded number. This was chiefly the case
in the Clydesdale and Suffolk classes. In the former there
were only 14 entries to contend for prizes amounting in the
whole to 130/., and in the latter there were 27 entries, to con-
tend for prizes amounting to an aggregate of 165/.
In the class for agricultural stallions foaled before January,
1867, Mr. Welcher’s first-prize horse, ‘‘ Honest Tom,” was con-
spicuously the best animal, and deserved his honours even more
than he did at Leicester. He has greatly improved since then,
and grown into a fine specimen of a “ Shire” cart-horse stallion.
The Clydesdales only made one think with vain longing for
such another show of their class as we had at Battersea. Many
horses of this breed, belonging to Scotch owners, were probably
kept away for the Edinburgh Show, which followed so closely
upon Manchester ; of which Show a report since published says
—“ The collection of Clydesdale horses here, we have scarcely
ever seen surpassed.”
Among the 14 Suffolks shown, there were a few valuable
animals. The only 2-year-old stallion entry was a beautiful
symmetrical horse; and one of the best, if not the best looking
among the mares and fillies, belonging to Mr. Wilson, of
Baylham Hall, was the only entry, and prize-winner, in class 34.
A supplementary note from the Judges calls attention to the
great excellence of the dray-horses shown; they say—‘ The
dray-horses were wonderful indeed, we do not hesitate to say
they were the best we have ever seen shown.”
Of the classes embracing thorough-bred stallions, mares suit-
able for breeding hunters, heavy-weight and light-weight hunters,
&c., the joint Report of the three Judges is as follows :—
Class 7. Thoroughbred Stallion, suitable for getting Hunters.—This class,
with the exception of four or five horses, we considered but moderate. ‘“‘ Car-
bineer,” “ Motley,” and “ Laughing Stock,” being decidedly the best. Of the
remainder, some were deficient in quality, and some in action or soundness.
Class 11. Mare in Foal, or with Foal at foot, suitable for breeding Hunters.
—aA good class, both in merit and numbers.
Class 12. Hunter (Mare or Gelding) over 4 years old, up to not less than
fourteen stone.—This class we considered of more than average merit, fairly
representing the weight-carrying hunters.
Class 138. Hunter, Gelding ; 4 years old—An excellent class, the first three
of high quality.
Class 14. Hunter Mare, 4 years old.—A very indifferent lot.
Class 15. Hunter (Mare or Gelding), 3 years old.—This class does not
call for any comment, being of average merit.
In conclusion, we would call your attention to the necessity of recommending
breeders of hunters to select sires with quality, soundness, and true action,
whose past history warrants them in believing they will transmit to their
progeny the endurance they themselves possessed, and to reject the heavy,
iumbering sire, whose turf career has been a miserable failure.
It will be remarked that in this joint Report of the Judges,
>
512 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester.
class 16 is not mentioned. In a separate Report, sent in by one
of them, the following remarks on it are made :—
Class 16. Hunter (Mare or Gelding), not less than 4 years old, up to
not less than twelve stones.—There were twenty-eight entries, but not many
first-class animals. ‘ Brian Boru” was far away the most valuable horse; he
is a fine goer, and would have been more properly placed in Class 12.
“Terrona” is a taking looking horse, and has, we hear, been a frequent
winner, but he does not go so well as he looks, and his shoulders are not nicely
placed.
There can be little doubt that the opinion here expressed is
a right one, amply confirmed by the tenour of the remarks made
by the public. The class was a very indifferent one. Where
there was evidence of good breeding, there was a distressing
absence of action, and where there was good action, there was a
deficiency of breeding.
The special prize of 20/1, given by the Manchester Local
Committee to the best hunter in any of the “ hunter” classes, was
awarded to Sir George Cholmley’s chestnut gelding ‘‘ Don Juan,”
the winner of the first prize in class 13. Major Barlow’s brown
gelding, “‘Topstoll,” was second in merit for this prize, in the
opinion of the Judges; and it must have cost them, one would
think, no little trouble in coming to their decision.
It would be right to add that in the separate Report alluded
to above, several points are brought out, which are not contained
in the joint Report of the Judges. For instance, taking the
7th and 11th classes together, it is remarked that, in the opinion
of the writer, the Society has never brought together so many
mares and stallions likely to be of service to the country.
Class 13 is hardly spoken of in as high terms as in the joint
Report, although the winner ‘Don Juan” is warmly praised,
as a ‘‘yery stylish improving colt, nearly, if not quite, thorough-
bred, and likely to make a first-class hunter.” He was placed
second as a 2-year-old at Thirsk, and first as a 3-year-old at
Wetherby.
Of the remaining classes, consisting of stallions for getting
hackneys; stallions for getting coach-horses ; mares for bréeding
hackneys ; roadsters ; harness-horses ; ponies, &c., the following
is the Judges’ Report :—
We commenced our work with Class 8, for hackney stallions, and were soon
able to select three good-looking horses from which to choose the Ist Prize, No.
78. Mr. Tuffit’s “ Fire-away,” though minus an eye from an accident, we
placed first, finding him a more compact horse, and truer in his action, than
No. 75, Mr. Dent’s “ Ambition,” who, though a fine goer, rather fights and
dishes. ‘The rest are only moderate specimens of their class.
Class 9. Stallion for getting Coach-Horses.—No. 97, “ Young Eton,” was
clearly the finest horse as a carriage-horse in the class, and we placed him first.
“Octavian,” No. 89, is also a good coach-horse, and will be better, being only
three years old; and third, but not the most unlikely of the three to get
Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester. 513
good harness horses, the “ Hadji,” No. 95, who, though showing light along-
side the two best horses, has both quality and action.
Class 10, for Pony Stallions, was decidedly inferior, and No. 103, “'Tom
Sayers,” was easily the winner.
Class 17 contained some useful squary sort of Mares, but were all of
them deficient in quality, and would require to be put to a thorough-bred
horse to produce a gentleman’s hack; the first-prize mare was a long way
the best, No. 229, Mr. Cook’s “ British Queen.”
Class 18 had only one pair of carriage-horses, which we thought worthy of
the first prize.
Class 19. One entry, a Mare.—Very irritable, and we did not consider her
entitled to the first prize, and, therefore, presented her with the blue rosette.
Class 20 was only small, but showed us two promising colts, No. 239,
the first-prize horse, being exceedingly handsome, and No. 240 also a very
promising colt.
Class 21 was both a large and a good one, and it took us some time to
place the winner. We found it a difficult matter to decide between Nos.
246 and 250, as they were both excellent goers, but the old maregshowed
both fine quality and superb action, and received the first prize. No. 254,
Mr. Murray’s “ Perfection,” is a remarkably clean-shaped one, and also a
good goer, and has the reserved number.
Class 22 was well represented, but there was nothing of extraordinary
merit. No. 270, the first prize, a neat, strong pony, and No. 275, a clever
chestnut, being in our opinion the best.
Class 28 we found of average quality ; No. 280, “ Maid of All Work,” is a
good pony, and No, 284, “Hill Town Lass,” the picture of a boy’s hunter,
was well ridden in the ring.
Class 24 was a large class, and contained some clever little animals. No.
291, ‘‘ Paddy,” was a strong well-shaped pony, and had good action, and
secured the first prize; No. 293, ‘“‘ Tommy,” a pretty little boy’s pony, with
excellent action, was second, and No. 299, ‘ Taffie,” a pretty grey, but more
suitable for harness than the saddle, was the reserve number. No. 290, Miss
Davies’s “ Lisette,’ was a clever pony, and full of quality, but showed very
hot in the ring.
This class brought our labours to a close, and we consider the classes that
came before us were quite up to the average, though, perhaps, not containing
many animals of extraordinary merit.
The exhibition of horses, as a whole, must be certainly con-
sidered to have been above the average, but still from one cause
or another it is very seldom that the competition among horses
brings out as perfect specimens of the animal as does that
‘among cattle, sheep, or pigs. No one can say that prize-
winners among thorough-bred stallions are as faultless types of
their race as Bates or Booth bulls in the cattle classes, or
Merton or Goodwood Southdowns in the sheep-classes are of
their respective kinds. Horses, however, of great merit are often
shown, and the system of open judging is educating the public
eye to discern those particular defects or merits in an animal
which lose or win for him the honour of a prize.
The Judges report the class of ‘‘ mares in foal, or with foal at
foot, suitable for breeding hunters,” as good; but without ques-
tioning their verdict upon this point, the class can hardly be said
514 = Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester.
to have contained many mares suitable for breeding hunters up
to more than a light weight. Those of them that appeared well-
bred seemed Beaciont i in size, frame, and bone, and it is a serious
question whether the number of mares in the country suitable
for breeding hunters up to anything like 14 stones is not
steadily diminishing. The offer of a handsome prize for mares
calculated to breed heavy-weight hunters might be advan-
tageous.
A letter in the ‘Times,’ of June Ist of this year, to Lord
Zetland from the Speaker, than whom no one is better qualified
to give an opinion on the subject, invites the attention of the
public to the present condition of horse-breeding through the
country, so far as it refers to half-bred stock for the road and the
hunting-field. After imputing the depression of the business
of breeding to the invention of railways, which have caused
thousands of farmers to lay aside their riding-horses, the Speaker
adds—‘ Can anything be done to revive and stimulate this de-
clining interest? The means, to be successful, must be simple.
We must operate through the farmers. The effort should be a
combined effort of proprietors and occupiers. If gentlemen
interested in the subject would meet together, and would form
an association, and would agree, each of them, to place two or
three good mares in the hands of tenants on their estates, in a
few years a great change would be effected, and the foundation
would be laid of a supply of useful and valuable horses. a
Without expressing an opinion as to the suggestion of an
association, which, however, if it could once be set on foot, would
certainly give a start and an impetus in the right direction, there
can be little doubt that it is the want of mares of a good stamp
that is operating adversely to the breed of a certain class of
horses in the country. Much care is taken, and expense gone to,
by farmers and others in seeking out a good sire, while no
corresponding attention is paid to the quality of the mares
sent to him.
Besides the introduction of railways operating adversely
upon the horse-breeding business, it is certain that a formidable
cause of deterioration in the trade exists in the very exten-
sive exportation of mares, which is going on throughout the
country. From the concurrent testimony of many of the largest
wholesale dealers in London and elsewhere, it is shown that
the principal breeding districts of the country are ransacked by
foreign commissioners, who are on the look-out especially for all
the young useful mares they can find. This not only reduces
the actual number of mares to breed from but encourages farmers
to aim at no higher standard than the production of young horses
that will satisfy the foreign demand.
Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester. 515
The bull classes of the shorthorns were excellent, and received
due credit at the hands of the Judges, from whose Report
(signed by two of them) the following are extracts :—
We have before us the large number of 101 bulls, divided into 32 aged,
16 two-year-olds, 28 ye: arlings, and 25 calves. ‘Taken as a whole, they are
the most level lot ever presented before us, and in placing No. 398 first in
the aged class, it will be seen that we did not hesitate to notice an animal
shown in fair working order. ‘The second and third in this class were animals
of great merit.
The two-year-old class, though the smallest in point of numbers, com-
prised some really good animals. ‘The first-prize bull was of good size and
form, whilst his quality and flesh were undeniable. The yearling and calf
classes were both large and good, and assisted very materially in making
this department of the show highly creditable to the exhibitors.
The Report signed by the third Judge contains the following
remarks :—
Class 40.—The largest show of aged bulls I ever saw at any show, many
of extraordinary merit. In going through this class, we found at least a
dozen remarkably fine bulls, good enough for any herd of shorthorns, and
I had some difficulty in agreeing with my colleagues in placing the three
prize bulls.
Class 41-—We had not so much trouble, as though the class was generally
pretty good, there were three or four very superior animals.
Class 42. Yearling Bulls—We found several good young bulls. The class
was highly respectable generally. There were in this class four or five very
promising bulls indeed, particularly those to which the prizes were awarded.
Class 43. Bull Calf, above six, and not exceeding twelve months old.—
Some very nice calves were shown, but as this is an age when it is difficult
to know how the young ones will grow, it is hard to decide.
Altogether I considered the bulls the best I had ever seen at any show.
As awhole, it may be doubted if the show of shorthorn bulls
was eyer equalled. There have been, on the other hand, in
bygone years, occasions, especially in the older classes of bulls,
when the prize animals have stood out more conspicuously among
their fellows than do the winners this year; and it is question-
able whether the ‘Earl of Derby,” “Edgar,” or “ Heir of
Englishman,” will leave their mark in the memory of spectators
and connoisseurs in the way in which some of the old heroes of
the showyard have formerly done.
In the case of the “Earl of Derby” there was certainly an
absence of that comely condition so captivating to the eye of the
beholder, and it reflects credit upon the firmness and nerve of
the Judges that they upheld their opinion as to his intrinsic
merits, though they must have foreseen that they were unlikely
to carry the popular verdict with them.
Most of the important herds of the country were represented,
and the Wexford half-brothers, winning first and second prizes
respectively in the younger bull class, were excellent specimens
of Irish shorthorn breeding ; indeed there seemed to be but one
516 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester.
opinion, that had there been a prize for the best male shorthorn,
‘* Bolivar” must have taken it.
The last appearance of Colonel Towneley’s ‘‘ Royal Butterfly,”
now 12 years old, should be recorded. He did not, and could
not, have been expected to win any honours with all his pride of
youth and even his maturity gone; but his frame is still grand,
and well worthy of careful study.
The Judges’ Report of Female Shorthorns is as follows :—
We do not consider the Cow Class equal to that at Leicester. No. 501,
“Lady Fragrant,” again takes the first prize; No. 492, Lady Pigot’s “ Queen
of Rosalea,” a wealthy good cow, takes second honours. ‘hese prizes were
soon apportioned, but the third was a matter of greater difficulty, and eventu-
ally rested between 496 and 497, the former, Captain R. Tennant’s “ Miss
Farewell,” and the latter, Messrs. W. Hosken and Son’s ‘‘ Rosebud,” a large,
very fat, and tolerably even cow, but she was defeated in the opinion of the
judges by the very superior quality of ‘‘ Miss Farewell.” No. 491, Mr. East-
wood’s cow, was commended, but she was patchy about her rumps, whilst
Colonel Towneley’s, No. 498, was very good about her rumps and hips, but
light about her fore quarters, and deficient in hair.
The three prize Heifers in Class 45,in calf or in milk, were very good. No.
508, Mr. Booth’s “ Patricia,” a very grand heifer, full of hair, and fine quality,
gained first prize; No. 506, Mr. Lynn’s “Queen of Diamonds,” obtained
second. She was a very evenly grown lengthy heifer and six months younger
than No. 503, Mr. How’s “ Lady Anne,” which gained third. “Lady Anne”
was also a very good heifer, her fore flank particularly a good point, although
very fat, she carried her flesh very evenly, but for breeding purposes the
Judges preferred “No. 506. No. 502, the Rev. Leonard Charles Wood’s
“ Miranda 10th,” was the reserved number ; a fine animal, but uneven between
the rumps and hips.
Class 46, Yearling Heifers, was the best class of the female shorthorns.
No. 534, Colonel Towneley’s heifer, the most promising animal in all the
class for propagating a fine race of shorthorns; with two exceptions she
was the youngest in the class, she was a great length, with fine hair and
quality, loins particularly good, rump and hips also, and well filled between
deep ribs; thighs, fore-flank, and chine good. She, of course, came first
on the prize list. No. 536, Mr. Torr’s “Cherry Queen 4th,” obtained
second, being a very nice heifer, but slightly deficient in her fore-flank. No.
521, Mr. Eastwood’s “Double Butterfly 2nd,” a wealthy fine animal, a little
disfigured by being high between her hips, yet good in all other points, and
showing great constitution. No. 514, Mr. Stratton’s “ Ariel,” received the
reserved number; a very thick but small heifer, and not quite right about
her rumps. There were several more promising heifers amongst them. Mr.
Pawlett’s ‘‘ Charmer 11th,” rather over-rumped, which will probably increase
with age. Lord ‘Tredegar’s ‘‘ Star of Gwent” was an animal of some promise.
Colonel 'Towneley also exhibited two heifers in addition to the prize animal,
with very fine fore-quarters and good quality, but deficient in their rumps.
The Rev. R. Edwards Taylor’s “ Margary,” No. 512, although rather upright
in her shoulders, promises to be a breeder of good shorthorns.
Class 47, Heifer Calves, possessed several promising animals; here the first
prize was awarded to the youngest but one in the class, No. 541, Mr. Stratton’s
‘* Blower Girl,” a very stylish calf with fine colour, and not overfed. She had
good rumps and hips, level back and loins, fore-flank and dew-lap good, neck
lengthy and well set into her shoulders, her hair might have been more mossy
with advantage. No. 547, Mr. Hastwood’s “ Red Butterfly,” obtained second ;
Report on the Exhibition of Live Stoch at Manchester, 517
she was a calf of fine quality, with magnificent hind-quarters, hips, rumps,
and thighs, all particularly good; but, although very fat, she was slightly
deficient behind her shoulders, or she would have stood first. No. 5389, Lord
Sudeley’s “ Ceres 4th,” was commended, and from the top of her shoulders to
her tail head she was a perfect model of what a fat calf ought to be, and had
she been judged in that capacity, she must have stood first : her hair and
quality were also fine, but she was very small of her age, and her neck
bad and short, with an inferior head; and for the purpose of breeding a fine
class of shorthorns she could scarcely enter into competition with several
others in the class.
In a separate note by one of the Judges, he remarks of
Class 46 that there was scarcely an inferior animal among the
whole, and after speaking in emphatic terms in praise of Colonel
Towneley’s prize heifer, he concludes by saying—
I may summarise a report of the female classes, by adding that (setting
aside the winners) though there were no animals of extraordinary merit,
there was scarcely an inferior one. It was also satisfactory to notice that
there was not a single instance of over-feeding, and that most of the cows
were in a healthy milking state, which quality, I think, should be taken into
great consideration.
Though the Judges’ verdict is that the cow classes were not
so good as at Leicester yet there were large numbers of cows
and heifers present of first-rate quality, well worthy to support
the credit of this favourite and rapidly increasing breed of cattle.
For every herd that existed five-and-twenty years ago there must
be half a dozen or more now, and the value of certain fashion-
able tribes is marvellously maintained, as shown by the eager
competition for any of their blood on the occasion of public or
private sales.
The Yorkshire Dairy Cows are thus commented on by the
Judges :-—
Class 70.—In this class we had great difficulty in arriving at a decision,
but were chiefly guided in our award by the apparent milking qualities of
the animals. Some of the cows were very large and good.
Classes 71 and 72 require no particular notice.
It is surely most desirable to give every encouragement to
these fine milk-producers—a plentiful supply of milk for the
infant Britisher being even more important than the supply of
beef to the adult. Medical and other evidence points indis-
putably to the facility afforded to the agricultural labourer in
the North of England and in Scotland generally, in respect of a
supply of milk for their families, as one main cause of their
superiority in stature and physical development over the working
classes in towns and manufacturing districts, as well as over the
agricultural labourers in those parts of England where no
adequate supply of milk is easily obtainable by them.
It would be better if the milking qualities of our three most
prominent races of cattle were not, as is too often the case,
518 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester.
overlooked, in the anxious desire to secure every additional
pound of beef.
The Report of the Judges of Hereford cattle makes short
work of them, as they confine themselves to saying—
The Judges regret that so few entries have been made of the Hereford cattle,
and they are unable to speak in very high terms of all the animals brought
under their notice. They consider, however, that the cows and 2-year-old
heifers are excellent representatives of the breed.
Considering that Manchester is not so far removed from the
strongholds of many of the Hereford breeders, a larger show of
these fine animals might have been looked for; but it was
generally admitted that the deficiency in numbers was com-
pensated by the fine character and general excellence of those
present. It must be gratifying to those who take a special
interest in the success of this breed of cattle to see that the
vacancies caused by the recent.death of many well-known
patrons and breeders have been filled up with the names of new
competitors for the honours of the ‘ Prize Ring.”
In the “ Aged Bull Class” Mr. Arkwright won the first
prize with his fine animal ‘‘Sir Hungerford,” winner of the
first prize in his class last year at Leicester, and this year at
Southampton.
In Class 49 Mr. Morris, a new exhibitor, was awarded the
first prize, beating the Queen, and three others. The Yearling
Bull Class, with only three entries, and the Bull Calf Class with
only five entries, do not call for any special remark, unless it be
in favour of Mr. Tudge’s bull calf “ Ostorius,” one of four first
prizes taken by that gentleman in the Hereford classes. ‘The
cows were few—only five—in number, but they were very
good,
In Class 52 Mr. Allen’s ‘Queen of the Lilies” was placed
first; Mr. Tudge’s ‘‘ Lady Adforton” second. They were both
fine specimens of Hereford cows. ¢
In Class 53 Mr. Tudge was first with a beautiful heifer,
**Diadem,” third in her class last year at Leicester; Mr.
Arkwright’s heifer, 579, now taking only the reserved number,
with a high commendation, but having then been first.
In the ‘“‘yearling heifer” and “heifer calf” classes, there
were some extremely promising young animals, and in the case
of these two classes, as indeed of most of the others, there has
perhaps never been a show where there were fewer bad animals ;
although, of course, it would be—as the Judges remark—
impossible to speak in high terms of all.
The report current in the Show Yard, that some considerable
purchases of Herefords had been just made for Australia, as well
as for Ireland, must be encouraging to the admirers of this
Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester. 519
breed, and must tend to put the shorthorn men upon their
mettle.
The show of Devon cattle, like that of the Herefords, was
scarcely as large as might have been expected, even taking into
consideration the distance between Manchester and the places
where they most do congregate. The Judges say :—
The show of Devon cattle at Manchester was not so large as at many former
meetings, nor were there so many animals of superior merit as have been
frequently exhibited.
There were only four bulls in the old class, and it may be described as a fair
one, but scarcely above mediocrity.
In the class for the 2-year-old Bulls, five animals only were exhibited, and
it was decidedly a bad class.
In the Yearling Bull class there were only five entries, and not one superior
animal.
The Bull Calves numbered six. There were several very nice animals, and
it may be considered a good class.
The Old Cow class contained six nice animals, and the first and second
prize cows were good.
The Heifers numbered six, but the class on the whole was inferior.
The Yearling Heifers were much better, and contained some very nice
animals indeed.
There were only five Heifer Calves, but they were all good ones.
There were in all 44 entries.
In the Bull classes Mr. W. Farthing won three first prizes,
and his aged bull, though not specially noticed in the Judges’
Report, appeared a very fleshy and wondrously short-legged
animal. “ Master Arthur,” first at Southampton, was first again
at Manchester in the class of younger bulls.
Mr. Burton’s yearling heifer, “ Daisy,” was perhaps of all the
females the most attractive to the eye.
The Channel Island cattle are thus reported upon :—
A very small show of Channel Island cattle; nothing very good in the:
Bull class. ‘There were a few good animals in the Cow and Heifer classes, but
the Judges suggest that the Guernseys ought not to be exhibited with the-
Alderneys, as it impossible to give satisfaction where the size is so totally
different.
Of the classes embracing Scotch, Welsh, and Kerry, the
Judges conjointly report very favourably, although it is much to
be regretted that the entries were not more numerous.
In the case of the Scotch cattle, especially the polled Angus
and Galloways, this deficiency in numbers may probably have
been caused by the great attractions of the Highland and Agri-
cultural Societies’ Show at Edinburgh, where it appears that
Mr. M‘Combie was, as usual, very successful with his Aber-
deens, and where the show of Ayrshires was one of the largest
ever seen,
VOL. V.—S. 8: 2m
520 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester. —
Class 76. Polled Angus Bulls.—The first prize a high-class animal,
» 77. Pair of Polled Angus Cows.—Very good.
», 79. Polled Galloway Bulls.—AI1 first-class animals.
» 70, 74, 75. Ayrshires.—First and second prizes good of their class.
» 85. Welsh Bull.—First prize, a good animal.
» 88. Kerry Cow.—First prize, a pretty animal.
81. Galloway Heifers—Not first-class.
86. Welsh Cows.—Doubted about giving a first prize.
In a separate note one of the Judges of these classes expresses
his opinion that the show of stock was a fine one, and he
concludes some other remarks by saying—
Allow no animal to compete in any class unless it appears in its
natural state ; therefore, disqualify all animals that have had hair abstracted,
their horns polished, or their milk artificially improved.
There is no denying the desirableness of what is here pointed
out, and the Society has shown its anxiety to give due weight to
the merits of animals shown in a natural condition;* but it
would seem to be almost impossible to lay down such a standard
for this “natural condition” as would ensure a uniform decision
in reference to it by all Judges of Stock.
A very short report from each of the three Judges of Leicester
sheep has been received. Two of them do not consider the
class of shearling rams on the whole as good a class as they
have seen before—one of the writers remarking that some of
the sheep did not appear pure-bred. He considers, however,
the aged rams as a class to have been good, and to have shown
more purity of blood ; while of Class 91 he says :—
Two of the lots of shearling ewes were very good, and appeared pure-bred ;
the other lots were not so good, nor in my judgment so well-bred. He adds: If
I may be allowed a few remarks, [ think it is very desirable that the pure breed
of Leicesters should be more encouraged by giving more and better prizes.
There ought to be a class for 2-year-olds, as they have not a fair chance of
competing with 3-year-olds. I likewise think the Exhibitors should certify
that the sheep shown by them as Leicesters are to the best of their belief pure-
bred, and that judges should be told not to award prizes to any sheep but such
as seemed to them to be pure-bred.
The other Report specifies Mr. Sanday’s first-prize shearling,
as a beautiful sheep, with good head and neck, splendid wool, a
little deficient behind his shoulders, and hardly standing wide
enough on his forelegs. Mr. Borton’s second-prize sheep, as
being small, head and neck not good, but with first-class wool
and mutton. Colonel Inge’s third-prize as a useful sheep, and
likely to get good stock. Of the aged rams it says they are, as
a class, very good.
* See Conditions for Cattle, Nos. 3 and 4, on the Prize-sheet.
Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester. 521
“Mr. Borton’s first-prize, Four-shear Sheep, retaining his form beautifully,
considering his age.” It ends thus: “The shearling ewes, I think, I never saw
better ; the first and second are splendid animals. In the third-prize pen there
is one which quite spoils the lot. Take the whole as a class, they are bad
to equal.”
»*
The third Report specifies no particular sheep, but says of the
respective classes :—
Class 89.—I think there has seldom been a better lot shown for so large
a class.
Class 90.—Very superior throughout for so large a quantity of aged rams.
The class to be commended all through.
Class 91.—This was a very good class, and we had great difficulty in decid-
ing some of the honours.
All lovers of sheep stock, whatever their special fancy may
be, must watch with great interest the well-doing of the pure
Leicester breed of sheep, from which at least two other breeds of
sheep, now classed as distinct, have sprung, and to which, more-
over, though it is often stoutly denied, these later breeds have
occasionally to repair for a fresh infusion of the blue blood of
the older and more aristocratic race; and it is gratifying to
learn that the Judges considered those shown at Manchester
were, generally speaking, excellent examples of their species.
Of Cotswolds and Oxfordshire Downs, the entries were
respectively 25 and 36 in number, Of them one Judge
reports :—
I beg to say a few of the “Cotswolds” were tolerably good, but, on the
whole, the class was not so well represented as heretofore, and besides not
being so good, there was a much smaller entry.
Another writes :—
I beg to say that I consider the show of “Cotswold” shearlings not up
to the standard of former years. There was not a sheep that well repre-
sented the class they were shown in.
In Class 93 there was but a small competition, yet I consider them a fair
average of the “Cotswolds,’’ and had there been more in number, I should
have thought the class a very good one.
In par 94 there was but one entry, and that not calling for any special
remark,
Of the “ Oxfordshire Downs” the first of these writers
says :—
The Oxfordshire Downs were quite the reverse. I considered that it was
a very good class of sheep, both as to numbers and quality. I think the
opinion of the ‘Mark Lane Express’ is good respecting the difference of
ideas that exist as to what an Oxfordshire Down should be. I consider we
want as much flesh as possible, and the reason of those sheep that have been
taking prizes at the local shows being nowhere is, I think, that they have
been travelling so much; they have lost the hand, which was not the case
with Mr. Wallis’s first-prize sheep, who was a noble fellow, and I fear we shall
be a long time before we see the whole class to correspond with him.
2m 2
522 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester.
The other Judge writes :—
Class 98.—This class was well represented, and I thought it as good a
class of shearlings as are often seen together, especially No. 881, bred by
Mr. Wallis, of Old Shifford. This large class deserves commendation.
Class 99.—A good entry. I think this class of older rams very good, and
worthy of very high commendation.
Class 100. Shearling Ewes.—A very good class. Ishould have much liked
to have given another prize in this class, as they were well deserving one,
Taking all the classes in the Oxford Downs, they were very good.
Compared with many previous exhibitions, the number and,
indeed, quality of the Cotswolds show a great falling off. This
is much to be regretted, and is difficult of explanation, as it is
said that they are by no means going out of favour, the report on
the Cotswold hills last winter being that the demand had been
very good for them of late.
In Lincoln and other long-woolled sheep not qualified to
compete as Leicesters or Cotswolds there were 44 entries,
The Judges say :—
Class 95. Shearling Rams.—There were 21 entries in this class. The first
and third prizes were awarded to Messrs. Dudding, and the second to the Hon.
Robert Henley Eden. ‘The first and second prize sheep were very good, com-
bining great size with heavy wool.
Class 96. Rams of any other age-——There were 14 entries in this class.
The first and third prizes were awarded to Mr. W. Marshall, and the second
prize to Messrs. Dudding. 'The above named sheep, with the one highly com-
mended, were good specimens of the Lincoln sheep: great size, and heavy
wool.
Class 97. Shearling Ewes.—There were four entries in this class. The first
and third prizes were awarded to Mr. T. Cartwright, and the second prize to
Mr. John Pears. This was a very good class of sheep, with the exception of
one pen, which was not worthy of commendation.
Owing to the Judges of the Southdown classes differing in
opinion as to what is called by one of them “the most im-
portant features relating to Southdown sheep,” two Reports have
arrived, one signed by two and the other by one of the Judges.
The joint Report says :—
The exhibition of pure Southdowns was smaller than usual, there being only
46 entries; but the specimens from the flocks of the Duke of Richmond, Lord
Walsingham, Lord Sondes, Sir W. Throckmorton, Mr. Rigden, &c., &c., were
especially good.
The three prizes in the class of Shearling Rams were taken by the Merton
flock. he first prize, No. 915, wasan admirable sheep; girth large, level good
back, the tail set on a little too low, the legs good, and the quality of flesh and
wool excellent. Lord Walsingham had eight sheep in this class of very good
character and quality. The Duke of Richmond showed sheep in this class of
fine quality and purity of blood. We thought highly of them, as also of Mr.
Rigden’s 909 and 910. Messrs. Heasman also exhibited some very useful sheep.
In the class of Rams of any other age, Sir W. Throckmorton took first and
second prizes with two very superior animals, showing great purity and per-
fect Down type. Lord Walsingham and Mr. Rigden also had good sheep in ©
Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester, 523
this class, and the Duke of Richmond’s No. 937 was an animal of great merit,
possessing the first quality of mutton and wool, with beautiful character,
dut was not level on the back. Lord Sondes and Mr. Humphrey showed some
good rams also.
There were 11 entries in Class 103 for pens of Shearling Ewes. Some
were exceedingly good. We considered Lord Sondes’s surpassed all the others,
and awarded them the first prize. Sir W. Throckmorton took the second prize
with a pen little inferior to the first. Lord Walsingham exhibited two pens
of very good and useful ewes, showing substance and good breeding. We
thought this class generally good.
The Report ends by an expression of regret on the part of the
writers that they cannot ask their fellow Judge to append his
name, as they differed so materially from him as to the quality
of the Southdown sheep shown, and as he had protested against
their award,
It is, of course, a matter of interest to all lovers of stock-
breeding, and especially to the breeders and admirers of pure
Southdowns, to ascertain the reasons which induced Mr. Ellman
to differ so widely from his fellow Judges in his opinion of the
merits of the sheep of that race exhibited at Manchester. In
his separate report Mr, Ellman says :—
The object of the Royal Agricultural Society is the encouragement of the
breeding and improvement of animals. The distribution of the classes clearly
-shows the intention of the Society to be the encouragement of purity of breed,
without which we should have a heterogeneous mass of animals, involving
the Judges in a labyrinth of difficulty to distinguish breeds. A responsi-
bility is attached to the duties of a Judge, which I endeavoured to meet with
assiduity and honest intention.
We commenced operations by scanning the merits and demerits of the
yearling rams of the Southdown breed, and I regret to announce the conflict-
ing opinions thus early engendered, which were not diminished as we pro-
ceeded. With regard to appearance, who can decide but a breeder of the
animal in its native district ?
Every animal has been bred for some particular purpose, and in many dis-
tricts for different purposes; as, for instance, the Leicester sheep for feeding
on flat and rich soils, while the Southdown sheep have been shaped for work-
ing upon poor and mountainous districts. ‘The wool of the first makes a pro-
fitable investment, the latter a protection against the inclemency of the
weather in exposed districts.
I am particular upon this subject, as thereon hangs the thread of our con-
flicting opinions. I freely admit the merits of the Southdown sheep in general;
and, if no criterion of purity is to be observed, very little difficulty will exist.
In that case it would be only necessary to select the best-formed animal.
Upon first examination of the Southdown yearling rams I was puzzled to
ge upon the predominant feature; so different were the shades, from black
to white.
In this dilemma I could only refer to the prevalent colour of the face, the
quality of the wool, and general appearance of the animal, which constitute
‘a good Southdown sheep, and are generally adopted by native breeders.
With respect to the exhibition of Southdown sheep at this meeting, it did
not meet my expectation, either in the quality of mutton or their general
appearance. A prevalent opinion appears to exist in inland counties that
quality and form should be sacrificed for quantity. This is a heterodox
524 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester.
which I cannot subscribe to. It is diametrically opposed to the teaching of the
Bakewell school.
I will conclude my remarks upon the young Southdown Rams by stating
that the first prize was truly deserved. The second and third prizes were
given to sheep of moderate pretensions, and we had some difficulty in the way
of commendation.
Our attention was next directed to Class 102 (old Rams), where the
character was tolerably uniform. The splendid ram 137 was found upon in-
spection to be deficient in wool. The first-prize Ram, indeed, had ill-formed
hocks and knees, which for working purposes on hilly districts are very
objectionable. ‘he third-prize Ram had his faults as well as merits, and he
was very narrow.
Now came the tug of war in Class 103 for Shearling Ewes. The first and
second prizes were given in this class, according to my opinion, improperly.
The five in each pen represented different flocks in appearance, although no
doubt bred from the same flock. The backs and quality of these ewes were
good, but with such detestable necks and faces that I doubt if any breeder
on the Southdown Hills would retain them for breeding purposes were they
to stray into their flocks.
The third-prize ewes were useful, and with care might be easily improved.
They have plenty of size to spare, depth of flesh, and might easily be reduced
to first-rate quality. Nos. 948 and 950 were meritorious.
After then giving his opinion as to the Hampshire sheep,
which will be alluded to subsequently, Mr. Ellman concludes
by saying—
If in most of the decisions in the skort-wool classes the characteristics of
Southdown sheep were ignored, still upon the whole the show was a success,
and the increased quantity of food compensated for the loss of quality.
Mr. Ellman doubts the necessity of having inspection, if the
Judges are acquainted with their business. He noticed some
sheep which, from having tumours, he thinks should not have
been passed. He thinks too much care cannot be bestowed
upon the selection of Judges, who should be well acquainted
with the stock for which they are appointed, and he asks,
** Should they not be eminent breeders of pure-bred animals ?”
Probably Mr. Ellman’s colleagues would stoutly maintain—
and, if they answered his remarks and arguments at a corre-
sponding length to his own, would undertake to prove—that they
too had, in their decisions, shown a due regard for the main-
tenance of the typical character of the pure Southdown breed.
Still an impression seems certainly to have prevailed among
many in the Show Yard that, with respect to not a few of the
sheep exhibited, there was room for criticism as regarded their
deficiency in uniformity of character, and one cannot but consider
that he who watches over the sources of any of our great national
breeds of stock, with, it may be, even an excess of jealousy, is
fulfilling a useful part in his generation,
Of Hampshire Downs there were only 18 entries, and they
are thus reported on by two of the Judges :—
Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester, 525
Only ‘three exhibitors. The sheep shown were very creditable. Mr. A.
Morrison obtained first and second in Shearling Rams, Mr. Russell first prize
for aged Rams, and Mr. Rawlence first and second prize for Shearling Ewes,
as well as second prize for his aged Ram.
Mr. Ellman says :—
The Hampshire classes were very useful, but I have seen better shown.
The two pens of ewes did much credit to their breeders; they finished a close
race for first prize. ‘The Old Rams of this large breed were not equal to others
on former occasions. ‘The first-prize ram was fitted only for commercial pur-
poses ; the hide and fat are valuable articles in certain markets, the quality
of mutton is nil. ‘he other rams in the same class were not well-formed, but
of good quality both of mutton and wool. The younger rams showed an
improvement; but I cannot*be responsible for the correctness of the awards.
The classes of Shropshire sheep are, as they deserve to be,
very highly spoken of by the Judges, who say :—
Class 104. Shearling Rams.—The entries of rams in this class comprise the
unprecedented number of 74, a large proportion of which possess very con-
siderable merit. The first-prize Ram, No. 979, belongs to Lord Chesham, and
is a very excellent animal, having a good well-covered back, wide loin, good
and well placed dock, large legs of mutton, with a fleece of wool of fair weight
and quality. The colour of the face is of a lighter shade than we like, but
there is not sufficient to complain of to warrant us in passing over this ram,
which we consider the best animal in both ram classes.
The second and third prize Rams, viz. No. 999, the property of Mr. Coxon,
and 990, belonging to Mr. Beach, are also good animals, and excellent speci-
mens of Shropshire Down sheep.
Class 105. Rams of any other age.—The three prize animals possess con-
siderable merit, and reflect credit on their owners. We consider this class
well represented, and superior in many respects to what we have seen at former
exhibitions.
Class 106. Shearling Ewes.—In this class there are 11 entries, and it will
be readily seen what our opinion of them is, when, with one exception, we
specially noticed every pen. ‘The first prize was awarded to No. 1066, the
property of Mr. Nock; the second to 1065, belonging to Lord Chesham; the
third to 1070, the property of Mr. H. Wood, As a whole, the class:is the best
we have seen.
If there were differences of opinion as to whether the type of
the pure Southdown was being preserved in some of our flocks,
as evidenced at Manchester, there could be but one opinion as to
the want of a standard by which to judge of the typical merits
of a Shropshire sheep. Nothing can be more puzzling to the
uninitiated than to attempt to arrive at any conclusion as to what
are the fixed landmarks which should guide him in his selection
of a model sheep of this breed ; and, beautiful as were some of
the animals in these classes, they clearly lacked uniformity
of character, and it seems very desirable that the Shropshire
breeders should settle among themselves, once and for all, the
colour and shape, as well as the quality of wool, of this noble
class of sheep, well described as one of the best rent-paying breed
of sheep in England.
526 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester.
Of the Lonks there were 15 entries, of the Herdwicks 19, of
the Limestones 5, and of the Black-faced Scotch 13.
The Reports of the Judges on these classes are favourable ;
one contains the following remarks :—
Lonxs.
Classes 110 and 111.—I consider these classes well represented.
Class 112.—In this class shearlings were shown in competition with ewes,
which occasions some difficulty in arriving at a satisfactory decision, and I
recommend that in future they be classed separately. ‘This was also a good
class.
HERDWICKS.
Class 118.—The six rams were a fair average of their kind.
Class 114.—A good class: the three prize animals doing great credit to the
exhibitors and breeders, particularly No. 1118, which I think one of the best
Herdwicks I ever saw.
BLACK-FACED ScorTcH.
Class 125.—There was an excellent show in this class. The winner of the
first prize was a splendid sheep, and, indeed, the whole of the rams shown
were particularly good.
Speaking of the Lonks, the Report of the other Judge expresses
the opinion—
That a more numerous entry might have been expected for a class of sheep
which have attained such importance, and which appear so suitable for the
high grounds of Lancashire and Yorkshire. They, however, possessed great
merit, and I could not but remark the improvement made since I had last an
opportunity of judging them, in 1862, at Preston. What struck me was the
improvement in the quality of wool and squareness of frame, embracing hardi-
hood and constitution.
Of the ** Herdwicks’”’ it is remarked—
This peculiarly hardy race of sheep, so well adapted to the high bare hills
of Westmoreland and Cumberland, possessing constitution to weather the
severest storms, must be considered to be well represented here, the rams
showing that wildness and activity so essential in a mountainous district.
It disappointed this writer to see so small an entry for ©
“« Limestones ; ”—
A class of sheep (he adds) said to thrive on ground where no other kind
can live—a matter of great importance. Otherwise this class struck me as
possessing little merit, seeming hard to feed, and carrying little wool.
This Report also speaks very favourably of the way in which
the “Black-faced Scotch” were represented, and especially
alludes to the merits of the first-prize shearling ram.
Though the ‘‘Cheviots and Border Leicesters” come last in
the Catalogue, they are sheep of much importance. The Border
Leicesters, not long ago to be found only in Northumberland
and the Borders, are much appreciated now in other parts of
both England and Scotland, and it is said that there is a con
Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester, 527
siderable exportation of them to Ireland going on at this
moment. They are described by one who knows them well as
of large bone, with great aptitude to fatten, and an excellent
tenant-farmer’s sheep. ‘There were, however, only 31 entries of
them, and only 6 of Cheviots, The same cause, as has been
already alluded to as thinning the entries in the class of Scotch
cattle, namely, the Highland and Agricultural Show at Edin-
burgh following so closely upon the Manchester Meeting, pro-
bably operated to diminish the entries in these two classes.
The Judges’ Report is scanty, and simply says, ‘‘ we found
the animals good, but fewer in number than we expected,”
which they account for in the manner that has been already
alluded to. They think the “Committee should be a little
more particular in their inspection as to clipping.”
None of the prize animals among either the Border Leicesters
or Cheviots are singled out in the Report for commendation or
otherwise, but certainly Mr. Laing’s first-prize Shearling Ram,
1149, and Messrs. Dinning’s first prize, 1155, appeared excellent
specimens of Border Leicester sheep.
The Inspectors of shearing, after calling the attention of the
Stewards to some cases where, in their opinion, the rules of
the Society have not been strictly complied with, remark that
they are happy to say that no “ flagrant” case came under their
notice. This is satisfactory, and there is little doubt that a
great improvement is to be noticed in the shearing of sheep,
especially in those classes which are represented in the Royal
Prize List every year.
The good effects produced by inspection are shown by the
marked contrast, in respect of shearing, between the Manchester
Show of 1869 and that at Worcester in 1863.
Probably the shearing of some of the North country sheep
was open to remark, and it may be as well to provide another
year either for one of the inspectors to be specially conversant
with these northern breeds of sheep, or else for a wholly separate
inspection of them.
This may be an appropriate place for saying that some
improvements may perhaps be made in the arrangements con-
nected with the sheep and pig judging. Under the present
system the Judges are inconveniently pressed upon, and some
better plan‘ of roping off a proper sized space, together with the
help, during the day, of an assistant Steward, seems desirable.
Pigs.—Surely the Judges of this excellent show of pigs must
have found it difficult to follow their instructions, “not to take
into consideration the present value to the butcher of animals
exhibited, but to decide according to their relative merits for
528 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Manchester.
the purpose of breeding.” It would be impossible to see at any
show of fat stock animals in a greater state of obesity than
were the majority of the pigs exhibited at Manchester. There
were some exceptions, however, such as Sir George Wombwell’s
second-prize pigs in Class 140.
The Judges report favourably of the classes generally, and
say that the character of the different breeds was well sustained,
and they point out as worthy of special notice Class 1385 (sows
of a small white breed). They add, ‘‘We were somewhat
perplexed in having to give a prize to an animal with a partial
black skin exhibited as a white pig.”
It is satisfactory to record that, though there were some
disqualifications on account of defective dentition, these were
fewer than usual. The introduction of a Young Boar Class
seems to have been appreciated, and some good young animals
were shown.
There were 132 entries in all, and while Mr. Peter Eden
represented most successfully the local fame of Manchester, Mr.
Duckering, Messrs. Howard, and other well known names,
amply maintained their porcine reputation.
At the Annual Meeting on Wednesday, presided over by the
Prince of Wales, a vote of thanks to the Mayor and Corporation
of Manchester, for their cordial reception of the Society, was
passed unanimously, as was also one to the Local Committee,
when the names of Mr. Davies and Mr. Whitworth were, as
they deserved to be, brought prominently forward, as having
each of them largely contributed, by their unremitting exertions,
to the excellent arrangements made for the Exhibition.
Subsequently M. Edouard Lecouteux, Secrétaire général de la
Société des Agriculteurs de France, accompanied by M. Hervé
Mangon, M. le Comte Diesbach, M. Barral, M. Ronna, and other
eminent French agriculturists, were presented to his Royal
Highness. They expressed their regret that M. Drouyn de
Lhuys had not been able to be present, and they thanked the
Prince for the honour he had done to French agriculture in
consenting to become an Honorary Member of the newly formed
“Société des Agriculteurs de France.”
After the Prince of Wales had vacated the chair, Mr. Duckham
brought under notice some resolutions which he announced as
having been passed at a meeting of breeders and exhibitors of
cattle and sheep that morning. Some points of interest were
contained in the resolutions, and the Duke of Richmond, as
Chairman, undertook that they should be laid before the Council,
and receive every consideration,
Implement Show at Manchester. 529
The warmest thanks of the Society are due to the Rev.
Dudley Hart, Rector of the parish of Stretford, for the very
ready way in which he responded to the request that he would
hold Divine Service in the Show Yard on the two Sundays
which occurred during the period of the Stock being at Man-
chester. The Services, earnestly and impressively performed,
were very fully attended, and evidently much appreciated ; and
with reference to the question of the arrangement which prevents
the Stock getting away before the second Sunday, it is very
doubtful whether the interposition of a perfect day of rest,
between the confusion and wear and tear of the previous week,
and a long and fatiguing journey, is not the best, and a much
needed, preparation for both man and beast.
Whether, then, for the brilliant success of the Show itself, or
for the incidental but all important circumstance connected
with it, of the presence of the Prince and Princess of Wales,
the visit to Manchester will be an ever memorable epoch in the
annals of the Society, and neither the spectacle of the endless
rows of shedding, with all their varied contents, nor that of the
ceaseless stream of human beings, eager in their determination
to see everything, can be readily forgotten.
The Stewards, and other officers of the Society, must always
retain a lively recollection of the kindness and attention, not
only of those with whom they were brought into official con-
nexion, but also of many others, who welcomed them to their
houses in the frank and genial manner which has long made
Manchester hospitality famous.
The writing of this Report, as Senior Steward, gives me, on
leaving office, the opportunity of expressing my warm thanks to
my fellow Stewards for the ready and efficient assistance they
have always given me in the execution of our common duties,
any failure in the due discharge of which, I am fully sensible,
should be laid upon me alone.
Holme Wood, Peterborough.
XVIII.— Report on the Exhibition and Trial of Implements at Man-
chester. By Sir Epwarp Kerrison, Bart., Senior Steward.
Tuer Show-yard at Manchester contained a larger collection of
Implements than has been exhibited at any previous Meeting
of the Royal Agricultural Society. Gradually increasing in
number year by year, no less than 7724 entries appear in the
Catalogue for 1869; exceeding by more than 1300, or nearly
530 Implement Show at Manchester.
twenty-five per cent., those shown in 1868; and by nearly 8000
those shown at Bury St. Edmund’s in 1867, which was almost
exclusively an exhibition of implements. ‘Technical education
must rapidly follow the increased desire for general education, or
agriculturists will be unable fully to appreciate and adopt the
extraordinary efforts and inventions of the English manufac-
turers to cheapen the productions and facilitate the labours of
the farm.
As the flail has of late disappeared from the barns of this
country, and been replaced by machinery, so, after this successful
exhibition, will the scythe and sickle gradually cease to be used
in our fields.
One great feature of the Manchester Meeting was the ex-
ceedingly severe trial of the reaping and mowing machines, Of
the former no less than 84 were selected for trial by the Judges,
and of the latter as many as 52 competed. The prizes were not
adjudged until Tuesday in the week of the Show, in consequence
of the number of implements to be tried and the closeness of the
competition. The trial ground produced a fair crop of rye and
a good crop of grass, and was most conveniently situated for
visitors to the general Show.
A comparison of the report of the trial of implements at
Plymouth, in 1865, with that of this year, will show the great
progress made by the exhibitors in the mowing and reaping
machines; and it required the utmost discrimination in Mr.
Sanday and his brother judges fully to test their various merits.
The greatly increasing competition at all the annual trials is
a proof of the importance attached by the exhibitors to the
possession of a prize. Although many of the same implements
are exhibited at local shows, purchases are often not completed
until after the test has been applied by the Royal Agricultural
Society, and the prizes have been awarded by them.
More work appeared to be thrown on the judges in this
department than, with the best management, they could possibly
achieve before the opening day of the Show. It is obviously to
the advantage of the exhibitors that the trials should be over
before the public are admitted. Every implement intended
for competition ought, therefore, to be so entered that the ground
may be measured and prepared beforehand for trials, The first
day has been annually lost in the selection of implements, which
might thus be utilized. To this plan the exhibitors have hitherto
objected, but the loss to them and to the public who visit the
Show, and perhaps leave before the awards are published, should
induce the manufacturers to meet the wishes of the Society in
every way which may tend to facilitate their arrangements.
Implement Show at Manchester. 534
No doubt more judges than were selected for the Manchester
Show should in future be appointed by the Society, and a
smaller class of implements given to each set of Judges in the
trial yard,
The one-horse mowing machines were found too heavy in
draught for general use, and after this last trial they will pro
bably be scarcely again manufactured in any great number ;:
the most willing horse failing, without frequent rest, to cut any
breadth of grass, and the work evidently straining the animal
beyond what it could bear for any length of time without injury.
A most interested crowd of spectators followed the trials of the
reaping and mowing machines, more so than had been seen in
any previous trial-field. The horse-rakes and _hay-collectors
were placed in separate classes, by special arrangement of the
Council, and the Stewards were therefore unable to allow the
combined implements to be tested in the two classes, for which
they might be equally well adapted.
The trials of carts and waggons weighted with several tons of
iron, and tested by the dynamometer, produced the closest com-
petition. In the miscellaneous classes, the Judges may well in
their Report ask for more classification, where they have to.
wander through upwards of 7000 articles to select seven for medals.
This class has gone beyond even the name it bears. It comprises.
the solid and useful implements of husbandry ; the small and
ingenious contrivances which tend to economize labour and
time; new inventions requiring the encouragement of public
notice, through the means of the Judges, to be brought to per-
fection; and thousands of appliances for comfort, most interest-
ing to all, especially to the agriculturist or the resident in the
country; and it is impossible that one set of Judges should
fully examine, or even fully understand, the merits of all these
articles.
At any rate the classification of these various products of our
mechanical skill should be made more perfect, or much in the
four or five miles of shedding, such as was this year to be seen.
in the Manchester Show-yard, must be passed over without
attracting sufficient attention.
In the report of such a meeting, which was, on the whole,
undoubtedly a great success, it is the more necessary to suggest
such improvement as may in future be made in the arrangement
of the Show.
The presidency of his Royal Highness the Prince of Wales.
contributed largely to the attendance on the two days when he
visited the Show-yard. Indeed, the impetus given by his presence:
at the head of a Society which springs from, and is entirely main-
532 Implement Show at Manchester.
tained by, the voluntary efforts of agriculturists, is felt through
the whole community, interested alike in the increased and
economical supply of all kinds of food for the people.
Thanks to the liberal arrangements made by the local com-
mittee, thousands of visitors were enabled to see their Royal
Highnesses whilst viewing the objects of interest in the Show-
ard.
“ On Wednesday, a deputation from the French Agricultural
Society (unfortunately, at the last moment, deprived of the
presence of Monsieur Drouyn de Lhuys) were received by
his Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, and formed a pleasing
illustration of the common interest which binds together the
kindred Societies of France and England.
Since writing this notice of the meeting at Manchester, the
reports of the Judges of the various classes of implements have
reached me. They confirm substantially the preceding remarks,
and are appended to this report in extenso.
One word more with reference to the staff of officials in the
Show-yard before concluding this necessarily brief Report.
Some experience in office has satisfied me that the most general
desire prevails on the part of those who are actively employed
by the Society, not only to consider, but to invite criticism on
their management, with a view of either hghtening the labour
or diminishing the expenses of exhibitors, for in the discharge
of onerous duties, it is possible that improvements may escape
the notice of those most anxious to observe and report them to
the Council.
REPORTS OF THE JUDGES OF IMPLEMENTS AT MANCHESTER.
1. Report of the Judges on Reaping Machines.
WHEN we consider the importance of the reaping-machine to the agriculture
of the civilized world, it gives us little surprise to report that at the Man-
chester Meeting no less than ninety-eight reaping |and mowing-machines
entered the lists as competitors for the blue riband of the English harvest-
fields.
The opening day of the yard, Monday, July 12th, was spent by the
Judges in inspecting the various reapers at the different stands, in the vast
area only to be found at a Royal Agricultural Society’s Meeting.
After careful examination they selected for trial 84 machines, of which
25 were combined reaping and mowing-machines; 13 were reapers with a
swathe side-delivery ; 18 reaped and delivered in sheaf; 9 were manual deli-
very machines; whilst 19 were one-horse reapers.
It was obvious to the Judges during Monday’s inspection that a great
advance had been made among the exhibitors during the last few years, and
it happened aptly that a machine on Messrs. Hornsby and Sons’ stand was
appropriately called “The Progress,”
Implement Show at Manchester. 533
Now that most of these machines are so equal and so perfect in their cutting
powers, it struck the Judges that the makers had tumed their attention
to the important point of endurance; this has been effected in the case of
Messrs. Hornsby and Sons, Burgess and Key, and Bamlett, by the adoption
of an oil-reservoir inside of the brass bushed crank-axle, by which, with the
aid of cotton waste, continuous lubrication is brought to bear on the fast
motions.‘
Regarding novelties and new inventions at this meeting, we would notice a
combined reversible reaper and mower, No. 42, exhibited by Mr. W, Harkess, of
Lostock Graham, Cheshire. It is made entirely of iron, and cuts either
right or left, has a double finger-bar and knife-blade, the platform swings over
by pulling a chain, and from an arrangement in the machinery, the horses are
turned at the headlands, in the same manner as in the plough, enabling it to
cut up and down, or across the corn, as is the case with “ Bell’s reaper.” Had
this machine been more perfect in construction, it would have taken a place
for a medal, but as the Exhibitor observed to us—‘it is yet in an imperfect
state.”
Perhaps the most ingenious reaper exhibited was “The Star,” claiming to
be a novelty, and belonging to the inventors, Messrs. Foster and Sons, of
Witham, Essex. It has no gearing, the reciprocating motion being gained by
a curved ridge or cam inside the driving-wheel, acting upon steel friction
rollers, connected to the knife by a lever. ‘This motive-power is not a new
one, having been used by the Rev. Patrick Bell, in his original reaper, so far
back as 1850. A useful improvement in this machine is an india-rubber ring,
inserted below the driver’s seat to take away the jar.
Another novelty was exhibited by Mr. William Brenton, of Polbathic, St.
Germans, Cornwall. It consisted of a patent cylinder reaping-machine, fitted
with a galvanised iron roller platform, about 10 inches in diameter, stuck over
with short metal knobs, each 1 inch in length. ‘he roller is placed at the
outer edge of the platform, and is kept asleep (by means of a cogged segment)
while the sheaf is forming on the tilting-board, and put into action simply by
touching a spring with the foot, when the sheaf is ready for delivery ; although
it did its work admirably on some sides of the corn, the Judges did not con-
sider it was yet in a perfect state.
Messrs. Picksley, Sims, and Co., Leigh, near Manchester, showed 12 mowers
and reapers, No. 1974 being a new implement, in which a “Sun and Planet ”
motion is used to get up the speed of the knife; all the machines exhibited
by this Company have an ingenious arrangement for varying the speed of the
knife, and the change of gearing is instantaneous. These machines are all good
looking, and admirably got up.
On Messrs. Hornsbys’ stand the Judges selected 7 out of 17 exhibited, and
these 7 may be regarded as types of the rest. The excellence of the machines
of this firm exists in their having wrought-iron driving-wheels, and open
knife-blades instead of solid ones, which are liable to choke with grass. ‘lhe
delivery of the corn is effected by a rake working without cams on an inclined
axis, the cog-wheel machinery is fixed in the inside of the work, and the
serew-nuts are all secured by counter-sunk split pins.
Mr. Bamlett, of the Vale of Mowbray Works, Yorkshire, showed 22 mowers
and reapers, fitted with oil-reservoirs and patent finger-plates. Mr. Bamlett
was found to have reduced the stroke of his knife from 3 inches to 23; the
consequence of this upon the durability of the machine must be left to
experience.
We found Mr. W. Mattison, of Leemingbar, Bedale, Yorkshire, had in-
ereased his stroke to 54 inches, the cutter-bar clearing two fingers at one throw,
a principle which was tried unsuccessfully by Mr. Wylie in Scotland five
years ago.
534 Implement Show at Manchester.
Messrs. Howard, of Bedford, had a large collection of beautifully built
double-cam improved American machines ; they made good work at first, but
did not keep their place during the trials, evidently from a want of proper
adjustment of the rakes and fans.
The ground set apart for the trial of reaping-machines consisted of two
large enclosures cropped with rye, which was about half ripe; they were
adjoining the showyard and very convenient; they had been drained, levelled,
and specially prepared for the Society, so that a fair and equitable field was
given to all competitors. ‘The crop was a good one for the season, and a little
swung over in both fields, but none of it was laid; this latter state was, how-
ever, effected by the Judges causing a part of it to be well rolled down for
the final trials,—a process which seemed to afford considerable amusement to
the bystanders, as well as to the Exhibitors themselves.
The Judges resolved that the order of proceeding on Tuesday morning
should be a short preliminary trial with each machine, which was then com-
menced, and from the great number of machines to try, and occasional delays.
in procuring men and horses, these preliminary trials were not concluded until
midday on Thursday. Careful notes were taken of the quality of the work
done, the temperature of the bearings, and the apparent strain upon the horses.
During this time a staff of surveyors, under the guidance of Mr. Smith, cut
out the remainder of the fields into #, 3,and 4 acre oblong plots, this was
done by the assistance of the Beverley Company’s pushing machine, the Com-
pany, at the request of the stewards, having furnished their “ Pusher” for
the purpose of cutting out the roads.
These trials were as searching and prolonged as time would admit, and
whilst we gave every consideration to the merits of each machine presented
to our notice, we were most especially attentive to score every point
that could be made for the smaller makers; yet some of their machines,
although excelling in workmanship and lowness of price, when brought under
the dynamometer test, failed entirely ; but we should specially except two.
machines made by Messrs. R. Cuthbert and Co., of Leeming, Bedale, York-
shire, a two-horse machine at 17/., and a one-horse ditto at 14/., Nos. 44 and
45 in the Catalogue, both of which proved very light in draught.
The reaper trials excited much interest, and during the first few days it was
necessary to employ both horse and foot police, and retaining ropes, to: keep
the crowd back.
The weather was dry throughout, and with the exception of one or two days.
it was extremely hot ; by the third and fourth day the Judges had fairly warmed
into their work, and were to be seen conducting operations in a truly workman-
like manner,
The Stewards made renewed efforts to bring forward men and horses, in
order, if possible, to bring the trials to a close by the end of the week, but alk
to no avail; the Judges suggested that it might be better to postpone the
final trials until harvest, but the Stewards, after consulting together, deemed
this course unsatisfactory, and ordered the trials to proceed on the following
week, which was done, and the awards signed at 7 P.M., on Tuesday the 20th,
thus terminating one of the longest contests which ever took place under the
auspices of the Society. The Judges beg to tender their respectful thanks
to the Stewards of Implements, for the attention paid to their comfort. The
Judges would also record the extreme urbanity and patience shown by the
Exhibitors in general during these prolonged trials.
The following list indicates the amount of prize-money offered in the five
different classes of machines tested :—
Implement Show at Manchester. 535
Rearine Macuines—
1, For the class of reaping machines, with self-delivery in sheaf, clear
of the horse-track, 602.
2. For the class of reaping machines, with self-delivery in swathe, clear
of the horse-track, 602.
8. For the class of reaping machines without self-delivery, 30/7.
4, For combined reaping and grass mowing machines, 30/.
5. One-horse reapers, 301,
We shall now proceed with the notes of the preliminary trials, beginning
with Class No. 2, as it was found requisite to take the first machines that
came forward.
SWATHERS.
No. 1799. The Beverley Company’s 3-horse machine, price 42/.—The test
was severe, as the half of the work was leewards—a term which will be
employed throughout this report as meaning on the back of the corn, in the
same direction as the wind at the time.
The stubble made by this pushing machine was high, but the swathe
was neatly delivered, and, as it cuts 15 feet at a bout, much ground was soon
gone over.
The Judges considered this implement as best fitted for large enclosures and
during dry weather. The draught, as given by Mr. Amos, and his assistants
Messrs. Williams and Purder, in the dynamometrical comparative test, is 71°4
against 87°6 of this Company’s 2-horse reaper.
No. 3975. A. C. Bamlett, Vale of Mowbray, Thirsk, Yorkshire, 2-horse
swather, price 36/.—This is Lord Kinnaird’s improvement upon Bell, and it
delivers the corn by means of straps and chains; the length of the connecting-
rod is 12 inches; the fans are driven from an iron pole erected over the
driving wheel and run with pitch-chain on the fan-shaft. The width of the cut
is 6 feet, the length of the strokes 28 inches; the fingers are fitted with
Bamlett’s patent steel finger-plates, which give to the knives, besides the
usual cutting power, the effect of a scissor action. As before noticed, this
machine is fitted with patent oil reservoirs, and from the way in which it did
its work the Judges booked it for a high place. Stubble and swathe were
superb.
No. 410. John G. Rollins, Swan Wharf, London, American sheafer, price
30/.—Is ingenious, but complex ; has five rakes, any number of which can be
set at rest. It was not wanted for further trial.
No. 644. R. Hornsby and Sons, patent governor sheafer, (marked W), price
31l. 10s.—Cuts 5 feet 3 inches wide; connecting-rod 20 inches long; ungears
from the seat; cuts very few heads off, being provided with a head-saver ; has
a skeleton knife, and in an unfavourable crop made excellent work; the driver,
from his seat on the pole, ungears by means of an iron rod which comes along
the pole as far as his foot.
This machine is entirely of iron, the driving-wheel of wrought iron; the
arms of the rakes are made of iron tubes. The appearance of this machine
excited general admiration ; the lubricating arrangements were perfect, and the
earings remained quite cool during the trial. It was set down as A 1 in its
prospects for a place.
No, 3937. Samuelson and Co., self-raking sheafer, price 277. 10s.—Cuts
5 feet wide, and the throw of the knife is 23 inches. Length of the connecting-
rod 22 inches. Ungears with aclutch-bar, and raises the cutters with a winch.
It made capital work, sheaved neatly, and the draught appeared light.
No, 3724. J.and F. Howard, Britannia Works, Bedford, self-raking sheafer,
price 30/.—Has two travelling-wheels, and is drawn by two horses. Made
good work on two sides of the corn, but stuck at a furrow. It appeared a well-
VOL, V.—S. 8. 2N
586 Implement Show at Manchester.
made machine, and the Judges little thought at this time what its future
place in the trials would be.
No. 165. Brigham and Bickerton, Berwick-upon-Tweed, Northumberland,
sheafer, price 30/.—Has two rakes driven by a cam, segment, and quadrant.
The rake did not seem to catch the corn easily, but kept a good hold when it
got one. It made very scattered work. ,
No. 643. R. Hornsby and Sons, “‘ Governor” self-raking sheafer (marked K),
price 31/. 10s. (including a grinder for the knives).—The rakes of this machine
are fitted with wooden arms, and the implement differs only from No. 644
(marked W) in so far as it has its cutter-bar on the opposite side, affording,
with the K machine, facilities for cutting on either side, a great advantage in
some crops. It made capital work, cutting and sheaving well. The draught
seemed light, the bearings kept cool, and it immediately pointed to a high
place in the trials.
No. 188. H. and G. Kearsley, Ripon, Yorkshire, combined sheafer and
swather, price 30/.—This machine made very fair work, but the horses did
not go well, and the cut was narrow.
No. 164. Brigham and Bickerton, Berwick-on-Tweed, two-raked sheafer,
price 33/.—Did not sheave well, but cut fairly.
No. 645. R. Hornsby and Sons, “‘ Progress ” self-raking reaper, price 311. 8s.
(with extras).—Cuts 5 feet wide, and has four rakes driven by an upright
shaft, geared at the cog-wheels. Did not work very satisfactorily, the driving
work appearing to be too low down.
No. 173. A. J. Murray, 181, Albany Road, London, 2-horse pusher, price
50/.—The horses are yoked like “ Bell’s,” but have shafts instead of chains.
From its erratic proceedings this machine may be styled the “ Harvest Veloci-
pede,” as itis steered with a T handle exactly like a bicycle. Mr. Murray, who
took the helm himself, evidently could not steer, and after a few serpentine
attempts he withdrew from the contest.
No. 178. Burgess and Key, Newgate-street, London, 2-horse screw-delivery
swather, price 36/—This machine has been improved to pass through gates ;
it is almost noiseless when at work ; cuts 5 feet 3 inches wide, with a 3-inch
stroke. The fast movements are supplied with oil reservoirs. The cutting of
this machine was very good, and the draught appeared light; but the swathe
was slightly imperfect.
No. 646. R. Hornsby and Sons, the Plymouth prize swather, price 317. 10s.
—tThe driver sits on an iron seat on the pole between the horses, which he has
to leave on gearing. It made fair work on a light crop.
No. 52. Thomas Read, New Malton, Yorkshire, swather, price 25/.—Has a
skeleton platform of wrought-iron, and a wheel running inside the parting-
iron. Is simple, and ungears from the seat, but the swathing was bad.
No. 647. R. Hornsby and Sons, swather, price 31/7. 10s.—Delivery aided by
aroller driven by Weston’s pulleys. The cutting was good, but the swathe
not perfect.
No. 3938. Samuelson and Co., self-raker, price 25/—Cuts 5 feet wide;
throw of knife 22 inches; length of connecting-rod 1 foot. This 2-horse
machine cuts from the left-hand side, and delivers the corn by revolving rakes,
which can be altered into a back-delivery action it required. It made good
work, sheaved neatly, and was evidently booked for a place.
No. 177. McCormack’s Burgess and Key’s self-deliverer in sheaf, price 337.
—Has a 9-inch connecting-rod and a 5-feet cut. Did not sheaf well at all, and
looked heavy in draught, caused doubtless by the sagging action of its extra-
broad raker.
No. 176. Burgess and Key’s reaper, 30/.—Made rather better work than
No. 177.
No. 3722.—J. and F. Howard, Bedford, combined mower and reaper, price
Implement Show at Manchester. 537
307. and 37/—Has improved oil fittings, and made good work in a heavy
crop.
No. 4760. W.S. Underhill, Newport, Salop, 1-horse reaper, price 187. 10s.
—Has a sparred platform, seemed light in draught, and the sheaves were well
delivered.
No. 411. Johnston’s combined American reaper and mower, price 25/,—
Worked with four rakes, and made very bad work. The machine was stopped
and two rakes taken off without better success, and it failed entirely in the
last round.
No. 3727. J. and F. Howard, Bedford, 2-horse reaping machine without
self-delivery, price (with one knife-bar) 187.—Has a tipping platform. It
choked shortly after it started, and also got out of gear at the corner. The
second round was very much better, no stoppages being required, and the
sheaves, in a heavy crop, neatly made except when working leewards.
No. 1975. Picksley, Sims and Co., 2-horse reaper, price 187.—Has a sparred
platform and pole—This machine, like all others exhibited by this firm,
seemed very compact and well built, chiefly of iron. It did very well the first
and second round, but the platform was then altered, after which the cutting
was only moderately good, the horses going very badly.
No. 3940. Samuelson and Co., combined self-raker, price 367—Made very
good work, but cut off a few heads owing to the way in which the crop was
swung; a head-saver was put on, but still a few heads were cut. The sheafing
was superior even to manual work.
No. 3721. J. and F. Howard, Bedford, combined 2-wheel reaper and mower,
price (with one knife) 237.—The frame-work of this machine is of iron, and
solid; the gearing is simple and compact, has a sparred tipping platform,
and carries a spare knife-bar very neatly on the pole. The work was superb
on all except the lee side. ‘The change to a mower is very simple.’
No. 470. J. and F. Young, Ayr, N.B., 2-horse double road-wheel manual
delivery reaper, price 307.—This machine cut no ears off, but failed entirely to
work leewards, which the exhibitor frankly confessed he never attempted
to do with this machine. It seemed, however, a thoroughly well-made
implement.
No. 42. William Harkes, Knutsford, Cheshire—a new implement, as de-
scribed in the introduction to this report—It is made to cut either, right or
left, to suit the way the corn is lying. The width of cut is 4 feet\3 inches.
Price 257. The cutting was moderately good when going against the lie of
the corn, but the reverse cutting leewards.
No. 1977. Picksley, Sims and Co., 1-horse combined reaper and mower,
price (with three knives) 207—Fitted with a pole for two light horses; cut
and delivered well in a thin crop. A well-made machine.
No. 482. Walter A. Wood, 77, Upper Thames Street, London, E.C., com-
bined mowing and reaping machine, with side-delivery, price (with two knives
and all extras) 227—This machine, chiefly constructed of wood, has two
wheels, only one driving, cutter-bar jointed for grass, rigid for corn; smooth
knife for grass, serrated for corn.
The appearance of this machine, in the midst of a large crowd of people,
excited universal attention; it was drawn by a pair of light thoroughbred
horses adorned with carriage harness and small American and English flags at
the horses’ ears; the driver was the picture of an American athlete, and the
entire tumm-out seemed as if it would “whip creation.” Mr. Griffin, repre-
senting Mr. Wood, of New York State, was evidently disappointed at the
difficulty he experienced in attempting to cut and deliver this half-ripe rye.
The machine was stopped and a rake taken off, after which it worked a little
better. The opinion of the Judges, however, was, that whatever eminence
Mr. Wood’s machine has attained on the other side of the Atlantic, it has
2n 2
538 Implement Show at Manchester.
to be greatly altered before it can cut English crops to perfection. Mr.
Griffin, seeing that he was beaten, returned to the charge almost immediately
with No. 479, improved 2-horse mowing machine, having a reaper attach-
ment, which made much better work during a short trial.
No. 43. R. Cuthbert and Co., Bedale, 2-horse Hussey’s reaper, price (with
1 knife-bar) 177—The driving-wheel of this machine is boxed-up and the
horses worked tandem; the sheaves are pushed off by hand. Both cutting
and sheafing were perfect.
No. 3939. Samuelson and Co., manual delivery 2-horse reaper, price 177. 10s.,
—Delivers the sheaf by hand from a drop-platform ; it made splendid work,
and was very noiseless. The Judges ordered it to cut a piece of corn into two
where no road was made for it, which it accomplished without a check.
No. 192. H. and G. Kearsley, Ripon, Yorkshire, 2-horse combined machine,
price 24/., has all its working parts encased in iron, with jointed finger-beam.
The cut was only 4 feet, but both it and the sheafing were remarkably good.
No. 48. W. Wray and Son, Bedale, 2-horse manual reaper, without self-
delivery, price (with 2 knives) 177.—This machine has a sparred drop-plat-
form ; the sheafing was capital.
R. Hornsby and Sons, combined reaper and mower, price 217.—A beautiful
machine, and made excellent work.
No. 191. H. and G. Kearsley, Ripon, 2-horse combined reaper and mower,
price 30/.—Cuts 4 feet 6 inches; good both in cutting and sheafing.
No. 1711. Beverley Company’s 1-horse manual reaper, price 147. 10s.—Cut
badly to leewards, otherwise worked very well.
No. 4308.—William Mattison, Leamingbar, Bedale, new left-hand reaper,
price 127. 10s. (as referred to in our Introduction).—Made very good work
indeed.
No. 45. R. Cuthbert and Co., 1-horse Hussey reaper, price 147.—Made very
fair work, and the draught appeared light.
No. 189.—H. and G. Kearsley, Ripon, 1-horse manual reaper, price 167.—
Mounted on an iron frame; made capital work in every way.
No. 59.—W. Brenton, Cornwall, patent cylinder reaper, price 207. (as
referred to in the Introduction)—Made really good work at this trial.
No. 304. Fosters and Son, Essex, new implement, price 16/7. (as referred to
in the Introduction).—Made very inferior work in every respect; at the same
time the construction is very simple, but the friction is great.
No. 649. R. Hornsby and Sons, “ The Paragon” combined reaper and mower,
price 227.—Is a right-handed machine, which the crop favoured, and it made
capital work.
No. 4807. William Mattison, Bedale, right-hand 1-horse reaper, price
127. 10s. (with 2 knives)—Cuts 4 feet 9 inches; did not work well to
leewards.
No. 1974. Picksley, Sims, and Co., 1-horse reaper, price (with tool-box
and 2 knives) 15/. 15s.-This is a superior machine, and the work (iron) all
well covered in; worked well.
No. 1536. Hunt and Pickering, of Leicester, 1-horse reaper (with 2 knives),
price 187—Has a sparred platform, worked with a spiral spring, and Bamlett’s
finger-plates. Did not work well.
No. 60. William Brenton, Cornwall, machine similar to No. 59, but lighter.
—tThe roller worked well on one side, but did not appear to any advantage
working leewards.
No. 3943. Samuelson and Co., Banbury, 1-horse reaper, price 15/. 10s.—
Arranged with shafts and drop-platform for manual back delivery ; made most
perfect work, and looked light in draught. It has a swathing attachment,
price 17. extra.
No. 653. R. Hornsby and Sons, “ Premier” 1-horse back delivery reaper,
Implement Show at Manchester. 539
price (with 1 knife) 147. 10s—The appearance of this machine, as formerly
alluded to, is almost unequalled. 'The platform is a drop sparred one, and the
width of cut is 4 feet 6 inches. It made superb work. Messrs. Hornsby’s
rake was certainly better handled than many others in the field.
No. 165. Brigham and Bickerton, combined reaper and mower, price 210.
and 267.—Has a zine platform, and cuts 5 feet 3 inches; made very good
work, but was evidently much indebted to an expert hand at the rake.
No. 471. J. and I’, Young, Ayr, manual reaper, price 21/——Has an open
platform, and cuts 4 feet 3 inches; cutting was good, but sheaves not well
delivered.
No. 58. William Brenton, Cornwall, 2-horse machine, price 25/.—Cut well,
but delivered badly.
No. 46. Cuthbert and Co., 1-horse Hussey’s reaper, with wooden frame,
price 147.—Made superb work.
No. 3726. J. and I’. Howard, Bedford, 1-horse back delivery reaper, price
167. 10s.—Stopped after going thirty yards, and went badly to leewards, the
grain lodging on the platform.
No. 648. R. Hornsby and Sons, “ Premier” 2-horse back delivery reaper,
price 15/.—Width of cut 5 feet. A most perfect implement and beautifully
handled, making some of the best work seen at the trials.
No. 1976. Picksley, Sims, and Co., 2-horse combined mower and reaper,
price 247.—Did not deliver well going leewards, and sheafed badly.
No. 1712. Beverley Compary’s 1-horse reaper, with semi-manual sheaf-
delivery, price 167. 10s.—Choked, and would not work. The arrangements in
the machinery of this implement would require the crop never to vary in
thickness,
No. 488. Wood’s improved 1-horse reaper, price (with 1 knife) 147. 14s.—
One driving and one idle wheel; cut well, but sheafed badly.
No. 8941. Samuelson and Co., combined 2-horse reaper and mower, price
217. 10s.—Made very good work, both against the wind and with it.
No. 179. Burgess and Key, combined 2-horse reaper, price 22/.—The crank
is on a level with the knife, and the oiling arrangements are perfect ; it cut
well, but delivered badly.
No. 50. William Wray and Son, Bedale, 1-horse reaping-machine, without
self-delivery, price (with 2 knives) 107—This machine has a wooden frame ;
it stopped once, and went very coarsely. This was the cheapest machine in
the Catalogue.
No. 167. Brigham and Bickerton, 2-horse manual reaper, price 207.—This
machine cut well, but the draught looked very heavy.
No. 654. R. Hornsby and Sons, 1-horse reaper, price 17/7. 10s.—This machine
has an iron platform, and worked well on three sides.
This was the last of the preliminary trials, as it was found impossible to
continue them any longer. It was resolved to begin the measured plots. The
following tables show the class of machines, the time taken, and the dyna-
eae ical test of comparative excellence, as likewise the final trials and
awards.
Our Awards are given at length with those of the other Judges of Imple-
ments (p. Ixxy.).
Wm. SADLER.
Wm. SanpaY.
JOHN HIcKEN,
540
Implement Show at Manchester.
DynamomeTER TRIALS oF REAPERS.
SHEAF Denivery.—Cuass I.
+ | 1707 | 0 58
; Ss ae Mean | Width | | Com-
Name of Firm. alee Time. | pray ght.| Cut. ae
Ibs.
Hornsby and Sons 644 | 1 27 | 284°2 | 4 9] 59°8
Ditto 642 | 0 57 | 295°4| 5 0 59°08
Samuelson aoe kad 5938 | 1 40 | 308°0 | 5 O|} 61°6
Hornsby and Sons 643 | 1 23 | 303°8 | 5 0} 61°76
Samuelson .. 3937 | 1 18 | 311°6 | 4 6 69°2
Hornsby and Sons . 645 | 0 55 | 238°8 | 4 3] 55:0
Burgess and Key .. .. 176 | 119 || 88774. 4 6) 7429
Brigham and Bickerton .. 164 |} 1 23 | 306°6 | 4 9] 64:5
SwatHEe DeLivery.—Curass II.
Bamlett . s075 | 0 50 | 330°4] 5 8 59°0
Burgess and Key 178 | 0 45 | 336:°0| 5 3] 64:0
Hornsby . . | 646/'1 0| 334°0| 410] 69-1
Beverley Iron Company. | 1709 | O 52 | 536°2 | 7 6 | 71:4 | For Shorses.
Ditto 452°2 | 5 2 87 6
Two-Horsz, Manuat Drtivery.—Cuass ILI.
Hornsby andSons .. .. 648
Bamlett .. ae 3981
‘Samuelson... .. «- 3939
Cuthbert 43
J. and F, Howard 3727
Picksley and Sims . 1975
Brenton’ te. 50 59
|
0 +8 |
50 | 213-0 |
0 | 176°4
12 | 245°0
5 | 1932
4 39°7
5 39°3
0 44°1
4 56°9
: Not sent for
On) Abts { final trial.
s list.
47°83
Oxxr-Horsz, Manuan Detivery.—Cuass Y.
Bamlett .. . 3980
Hornsby and Sons 653
Cuthbert .. .. 45
Brenton J). as 60
J. and F. Howard 3726
Samuelson.. . tas 3943
Picksley and Sims .. 197
Bamlett F 3987
Wood 483
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
N
53 | 172+2
10 | 179*2
59 | 182°0
54 | 235°2
5& | 260°4
55 | 214°2
1 | 274°4
2 | 231°0
ot in Mr,
Pe Pe PPP OF
Amos
33°8
42-1
43°7
58°8
,
1
3
2
0
0
2
1
]
sli
1st,
——_—_——————
Implement Show at Manchester. 541
The following Tables show the time occupied by each machine in cutting a
measured quantity of rye; but we did not consider this a very important
element in making our awards :—
Crass I.
Quantity cut, 4 acre.
Number. Name. Time.
Min. Sec
644. Hornsby and Sons.. .. .. 26 10
642 Ditto Ae Saar ne 30 60
3938 SAMUCISON G- Icch a» eo 26 O
645 Hornsby and Sons.. .. .. 24 0
643 Ditto re eS RS 21 30
3987 SAMIVEIRON toy ce lutse) ee 29 0
176 Burgess and Key .. .. .. rae (0
Cuass IT.
Quantity cut, } acre.
3975 TESATEM EU i Stl oe ice wesc OM erin 18 30
178 Burgess and Key .. .. .- Zeek
646 Hornsby and Sons.. .. 23:10 !
Beverley Iron Company,} i
17? { 3-horse,Zacre .. .. « 24 i
1707 Ditto ye OO ate 22 50
Cuass ITT.
Quantity cut, + acre.
648 Hornsby and Sons.. .. .. ee)
3981 Lothar rabeces PnOO.8 MCA OOM c 10) 5
3939 Samuelson .. ses DK)
1975 Picksley and TT gee ier 13 35
43 (CHUTE ce peemacce atte Gr 13° 0
Crass V.
Quantity cut, + acre.
3980 Bamlett .. .. 2oyheed 10D 0
653 Hornsby and Sons. eS 13 10
45 Wathbert soy sm) a8 re. 12-15
3943 MaUeIsOnieee.. 13.08 SR, Oe. Lie tO
1974 Picksley and Binme pode! «i Laon 0
483 WUCOdSe em es. Gueen ee sree 17 30
3987 IRAMG tim otug Mr ateatet. mcimey a oe ll 45
542 Implement Show at Manchester.
2. Report of the Judges on Mowing-Machines.
WE have to report on aclass of implements which has now become quite
a necessity in ordinary farm practice, and it is a pleasant duty to describe
machines which, in a comparatively short time, have attained a degree of
practical efficiency equal to that of any other agricultural implement, and
which supply a real want of the British farmer. A comparison of the present
entries with those at Plymouth in 1865, when similar machines were tested,
gives the following result :—
Two-horse Mowers. One-horse Mowers. Combined Machines.
Machines Machines Machines.
Exhibitors. | sent to | Exhibitors.| sent to | Exhibitors.| sent to
Trial. Trial. Trial.
Plymouth, 1865 .. 2 13 *. oe or 8
Manchester, 1869 17 23 9 9 {1 20
We commenced our duties on Monday, July 12th. Furnished with a list:
of the Exhibitors who were desirous of competing, we started on a voyage of
discovery, or, more correctly, a tour of inspection. In some cases no information
was procurable, owing to the absence of the representative. In others the
Exhibitors being “at home,” would press their claims strongly to send two
or three implements in the same class, upon the ground of often trivial dif-
ferences in construction. The whole of the first day, with the exception of am
hour, spent in viewing the trial fields, and giving orders to the surveyor, was
thus, as we venture to submit, wholly and unnecessarily wasted, and we beg
respectfully to confirm the opinion expressed by the Judges at Plymouth, and
suggest the necessity for some more systematic plan being adopted in the
future. A shed in the trial field, or in close proximity to it, in which the
machines intended for trial might be arranged in classes before the Judges
commenced their inspection, appears to us to be an arrangement that would
lighten the work alike of Judges, Exhibitors, and all connected with the
trials.
Two-Horsz Mowers.
On Tuesday morning, on our arrival at the trial field, on Mr. Cookson’s farm,
we proceeded at once to draw lots for plots, and the trials commenced at 10
o’clock. ‘Time was taken of the start and finish of every machine, and of
stoppages, with notes of their causes, our object being to reduce the large
collection to a manageable form, by getting rid thus early of the less perfect
machines. ‘he grass selected for this preliminary trial, was apparently an
old pasture recently renovated, the young grasses growing to a good height,
but without that closeness at the bottom which generally characterizes old
pastures. It was a fair crop, and, perhaps, proved quite as difficult to cut as.
it looked, for while some machines went through with ease, others soon got
into difficulties. This field was set out in half-acre plots; and it was evident
that our object would be attained, as the character of the work done, and the
construction of the machines, were sufficiently manifest to enable us on this.
trial to reduce the list from 23 to 11. Many of the rejected were very useful
machines, but wanted the finish and perfection of detail which characterized
their more successful opponents, most of whom had the advantage of a more:
lengthened experience. We trust that the unsuccessful may have gained expe-
rience by the trials. Defects are often invisible at home; and we believe
Implement Show at Manchester. 543
that not the least benefited are the unsuccessful candidates, if only they are
sufficiently open to learn a lesson. As a detailed description of these rejected
machines would unnecessarily lengthen this Report, we will content ourselves.
by giving an account of the working of the 11 machines selected for second
trial; a list of which we here subjoin, with a table of the dynamometer-trials.
(See next page).
In consequence of the remaining uncut grass on Mr. Cookson’s farm being
light, and not sufficiently difficult of cutting to test the capabilities of these:
best machines, we were obliged to apply to the Stewards for assistance ; and
we have to thank those gentlemen, and the Local Committee, for at once sup-
plying our wants, by securing and placing at our disposal a large field of old
grass, on Mr. Bannister’s farm, which perfectly answered our purpose. We
must also thank Mr. Bannister for the prompt manner in which he had our
wishes carried out.
We again set out half-acre plots for the 11 machines, and lots were drawn
as before for places; and in order to test them more fully, a heavy roller was-
drawn twice across the plots at either end.
Plot 1 fell to Messrs. Samuelson’s No. 3934 (new implement).—One of the
objects aimed at in this machine is to take the weight off the horses. This itis
proposed to effect by attaching the whiffle-trees to a bar placed below the pole,
and connected to it by a sliding-attachment. ‘To the bar a draft-chain is
made fast, this chain passes over a pulley fixed to the under side of the pole,
then under another pulley carried by the framing, and the chain is fixed to a
pendent-arm formed on the framework, by which the pole is carried; by these
means the draft tends to raise the pole. The draft of the horses would also.
have a tendency to raise the knife in the event of its coming in contact with
any inequalities in the field. This machine went through its first trial in
good form, cutting low, level, and well. In the second trial an accident occurred.
to it, through a piece of iron being caught in the knife, breaking a section,
and at the same time causing the hinge-cup of the main-shoe to be forced from
its socket. This was replaced, and the machine was at work after four minutes”
delay. It went through its trial in a satisfactory manner, and we have every
reason to speak in praise, both of its mechanical construction, and also of its
practical working.
Messrs. Hunt and Pickering, No. 1833.—The framing of this machine was
of wrought-iron, principally rivetted together, but some parts were bolted on
The shafts and the connecting-rod are stated to be made of steel, and generally
the machine was well made. This machine took the next plot, but its work
done here was not equal to that in the first trial. The cutting was uneven:
and too high, and the inferiority of the work was still more apparent where
the grass had been rolled. ‘he cutter-bar has moveable steel bits, placed on
malleable cast-iron fingers. The knife works in these bits clear of the bar.
The bits can be exchanged when required, so as to retain sharpness in the
cutting parts.
Mr. A. C. Bamlett, No. 3971.—The framing of this machine is very simple,.
and there is an arrangement of a pair of levers, by which the frame that carries
the knife can be readily raised, lowered, or canted. This machine made good.
and level work in its preliminary trial. In the second trial on more difficult
ground it worked steadily, but the cutting was not sufficiently low to test its
powers of working on unlevel surfaces, nevertheless, we consider this to be a
good serviceable machine, with many good points in its mechanism.
Messrs. Hornsby and Sons, Patent Paragon Mower, No. 636.—The framing
of this machine is principally of cast-iron, as are the rims and bosses of the
bearing wheels. The spckes of these wheels, however, are of wrought-iron.
The various nuts in the machine are made with a simple locking arrange-
ment to prevent them from becoming loose.
Implement Show at Manchester.
544
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When the machine is merely travelling and not working, the first pinion
can be thrown clean out of gear from the spur-wheel, so that there is not any
gearing whatever running at such times. ‘The knives are not only secured to
the knife-bar, but are locked one to another by projections and recesses.
The end of the finger-bar is supported on a wheel, which can be adjusted.
by a species of face-clutch arrangement, such as is used in adjusting the
height of hay-making machines. The draft is taken by a draft-rod attached
to the machine, in such a position as to counteract the tendency to side-way
pressure on the bosses, caused by the resistance due to the passage of the
knife through its work.
In the first trial this machine hada short plot which involved much turning,
but the work was, nevertheless, done in a masterly style. Again, in the second
trial, the most unlevel and worst cutting piece in the field fell to its lot, but
the knife adapted itself to the uneven surface, cutting the grass in the most
perfect manner. In the working of this machine the gearing follows the
previous track of the swathing-board, and the knife will work at any angle,*
the hinge of the cutter-bar being in a line with the crank-axle. The
swathing-board can be altered toany angle required. It is altogether a splen-
didly constructed machine.
Mr. W. A. Wood, No. 478.—All the working parts appear to be well
designed and well manufactured ; the framing of the machine is of wood. This
is undoubtedly a valuable machine. It went through its trials in excellent
style, making level and good cutting, and the draught is also exceedingly
light. This machine by chance fell into light and easy plots; for which
reason we had it taken to some unlevel ground by the side of Messrs. Hornsby’s
plot, in order to test its capabilities in more difficult work. Here again the
eutting was remarkably well done, the machine showing great adaptation to
uneven surfaces. In this machine a peculiar slipper-shaped finger was used,
which we think gave it an advantage in these trials, as it admitted of a lower
eut being made without the danger of the points penetrating the ground.
Mr. W. A. Wood’s Imperial Mower, No. 480.— The framework of this
machine is of cast-iron, the bearing-wheels are of large diameter, and a
great novelty in it is that the bearing-wheel next the knife has not any
arms or spokes, but is a mere ring; this ring is bored out to run on three
friction rollers, carried at the extremities of three arms of a casting fixed to the
framework, and resembling very much the arms of the Isle of Man; advantage
is taken of this arrangement to bring the connecting rod for working the knife,
and also to bring the attachment for the knife and finger-bar, through the
bearing-wheel itself. The idea is ingenious, and most certainly, so far as
the mere dynamometrical test goes, successful ; for this machine exhibited, both
at work and when tried with the knife running idle, the lowest draft of any
machine tested. The draft, however, when running idle was only 1:1 lbs.
less than Hornsby’s 638. The draft when cutting was extremely low. It
is a matter yet to be ascertained how far the friction rollers on which the
bearing-wheel is supported will stand constant usage and the introduction of
grit or other foreign substances. In this machine there was a very ready
arrangement for altering the height of the knife at either end, so as to adjust
it to the variations in the ground. Notwithstanding its merits in these
respects, we were not favourably impressed with it.’ The cutting not being so
low as that of many others may account in some measure for lightness
of draught.
' Messrs. J. and F, Howard’s British Mower, No. 3719.—This machine went
through its trials satisfactorily so far as regards cutting. We could not but
* Literally at any angle; for it can be made to trim the side of a ditch, or to
clip a hedge,
546 Implement Show at Manchester.
notice the great vibration and noise in some parts of the gearing during work.
Messrs, Howard’s machine chancing to come on light plots for trial, was after-
wards put on some unlevel ground where it made fair work, but did not adapt
itself well to the inequalities of the ground.
Messrs. Picksley, Sims, & Co., No. 1967.—This is a strong machine, with
working parts well protected. It made good cutting in its first trial, but being
unable to adapt itself to ridge and furrow, the ground was sometimes ploughed
in its second trial where the land was unlevel. The dynamometer test also
proved the draught to be heavy.
Messrs. Burgess and Key, No. 174.—When this machine is merely travel-
ling, a clutch lever, which operates in both directions, throws out the gearing,
so that there is nothing running but the bearing-wheels. The pinions are
secured on to their shafts by the plan of cutting in each pinion-boss a thread,
so as to make the boss act as a nut to screw on to its shaft, which is formed
with a thread to receive the boss. It is said that this plan answers perfectly
well, that the threads do not gull nor the wheels become loose, and no doubt it
has the advantage claimed for it by the exhibitor, that the least skilful of
farm labourers in mechanical matters can unscrew one wheel if broken, and
replace it by another. The swathing board is made in two parts in its height,
and can be adjusted to varying altitudes as may be required. Generally the
construction of this machine is good, the gearing is placed outside the wheel,
and follows in the track of the swathing board. The connecting-rod is short,
and on a level with the knife. The brackets, holding gear, spindles, crank-
shaft, and gearing are all duplicated; and the whole can be replaced for 21., so
that in cases of accident or injury occurring to any one of these parts, it can
be replaced at a cost of a few shillings. This machine did its work level
and well, perhaps not cutting so low as some others (more especially in the
dynamometer tests, when all attempts to lower it failed), but working with
uniformity and steadiness throughout. The plan adopted for keeping the
machine constantly lubricated by means of small bottles of oil, protected by
iron cases and placed over the bearings, appears to be good.
Messrs. Hornsby and Sons’ New Manchester Mower, No. 688.—This machine
had the wrought spoke bearing-wheels, the nut-locking arrangement, and the
draft attachment of No. 686. It has not, however, the short connecting rod
and corresponding position of hinged joint which that machine has, and the
knife therefore of 638 can only be worked within the ordinary range of angle
up or down at which the generality of machine knives can work, but the
machine is as thoroughly excellent as regards the workmanship as the machine
No. 636. The draft, especially in the trial when the friction of the machine
alone was taken, was extremely small. ‘lhe machine works remarkably well,
but the near wheel runs continually on the swathe last cut. The horse also
walks on the grass more or less. ‘This we consider to be objectionable.
Mr. A. C. Bamlett, No. 8968.—This is a strong serviceable machine, suitable
to any crops. ‘The large swivel-wheel in front takes the weight from the
horses’ shoulders, and there is a compensating action by which the position of
the knife-bar may he altered during progression, ‘The fingers are made so as
when fixed to leave side by side openings below the knife-bar. ‘his is stated
to obviate any risk of choking. ‘There is also a good arrangement for oiling
the crank and the knife bearings. This machine made level and good work,
and taking into consideration its strength and cutting capabilities, and the
good arrangements for raising the knife-bar, and altogether its adaptation to
unlevel fields and heavy crops, we cannot but speak of it in favourable terms,
notwithstanding its heavy draught.
Our awards in this class were as under :—
Richard Hornsby and Sons, No. 636, Prize of 200.
Walter A. Wood, No. 478, Prize of 177.
Implement Show at Manchester. 547
Burgess and Key, No. 174, Prize of 131.
Samuelson & Co., No. 3934, highly commended.
A. C. Bamlett, No. 3968, commended.
Onr-Horse Mowers.
In this class nine competitors came into the trial-field and went through
their trials; but the only point we shall allude to in regard to the working of
these machines is the draught. Although the grass upon which they were
tried was light and easy to cut, being composed of rye-grass and other stemmy
grasses, the distress of the powerful horses working the machines became such,
in the space of ten or fifteen minutes, as to be apparent to the most casual
observer. Among all the machines, Mr. Wood’s worked with the greatest
ease and probably with the lightest draught. But even this in ordinary grass
mowing would prove too much for a single horse to work sufficiently long at
one time to be practically useful.
What we have above stated will be more readily understood when it is
explained that for half the horse-power reduced the cutter-bar is only shortened
about one-sixth ; and in many cases the substitution of this one-sixth shorter
knife-bar, with a shorter finger and section, is the only alteration made in con-
verting a two-horse into a one-horse mower. We can only repeat what we
stated in the Show-yard at the time of making our awards, “ that we are of
opinion that all the machines exhibited under the title of one-horse mowers
are far too heavy in draught to be worked by one horse; and we therefore,
under Clause 3 of our instructions, withheld the sum assigned for prizes in
this class.”
ComMBINED REAPING AND Mowrxa Macuines.
As the machines which competed in this class were in principle almost the
same as those exhibited by the same makers as two-horse mowers, and in
many cases were, in fact, the same machines, we need not here enter again
into details of their working as mowers.
As combined machines, they were, on the whole, useful implements, working
satisfactorily both in the grass and in the rye. In some instances the machines
were worked as reapers by one horse only, but in every case two horses were
used for grass cutting. It may be easily understood that although the draught
of a mower cutting 3 feet 9 inches in width of grass (which requires to be cut
low, and is thick at the bottom) may be too heavy for one horse, yet a reaper
cutting a moderate width, and from 3 to 4 inches from the ground, with the
speed of knife reduced 25 per cent., may he easily worked by one. We pre-
sume that these combined machines are intended to economize farm capital,
and also to supply small occupiers, at a moderate cost, with a convertible
implement adapted to cut both his grass and his corn. But it appears to us
doubtful if in general farm practice there would be much economy in pur-
chasing one of these, seeing that for an outlay of about 25 per cent. more
money two separate and perfect machines may be had. Undoubtedly, there
are many occupiers of small or medium-sized farms, who would gladly avail
themselves of a machine which would accomplish both mowing and reaping at
a saving in outlay of 97. or 10/., and there are seasons when a large breadth of
corn requires to be cut in haste, and a machine of this kind might be brought
into requisition on large occupations.
In making our awards we considered that one of the principal ends of
machinery is the saving of manual labour, and we therefore gave the first
place to the most perfect machine in the class, namely, to Messrs. Samuelson’s
No. 3940, a combined self-raking side-delivery in-sheaf machine. This
worked exceedingly well, both in the grass and in the corn, and delivered the
sheaf clear of the horse-track. The second place we gave to Messrs. Hornsby’s
Implement Show at Manchester.
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yeduced toa minimum. No architect can govern the cost of materials, which
differs with local circumstances; and the only influence he can really have is in
the selection of the best and cheapest which different neighbourhoods afford. To
make, therefore, a fair comparison of competitive designs of cottages, it is neces-
sary to assume that all are built of the same materials, that each description of
material is paid for, and at the same rate, and further, that the carriage of all
the materials is either fairly valued or paid for. When this is done, it will be
surprising how very limited is the power to reduce the:cost of cottages. This
statement will be better understood when the dimensions and particulars of the
three designs for which prizes have been given are compared (see next page).
The design, No. 2480, of Mr, Edwin Clarke, of No. 30, Monk’s Road, Lincoln,,
is for a very compact pair of cottages with living-room, scullery, pantry, and
fuel-store on the ground-floor, within a quadrangular base, the pantry and
coal-store being a lean-to within the quadrangle. The three bedrooms are
all above. The privy and ashpit are detached.
The plan No. 6844, of the Central Cottage Improvement Society, of Arundel
Street, London, is that known as the Kirtlington Cottage, designed. and
erected by Captain Dashwood, in which one bedroom is placed on the ground
floor, and two above—the scullery, pantry, and fuel-store forming a lean-to at
the back, and running the whole breadth of the cottage. Considerable advan-
tage attends the arrangement of one bedroom on the ground floor; it allows
the parents when they get old to live with a married son or daughter. _There
is no copper in the scullery; this it is designed to put in the outbuildings with.
the privy and ashpit. The living room and scullery are slightly deficient in
space; the bedrooms, however, are larger than necessary.
The design No. 6855, of Mr. James Martin, of Wainfleet, is very compact,
with accommodation arranged in a somewhat similar way to that of Mr.
Clarke... The rooms, however, are smaller, and there is only one door, and
that at the back, which is objected to by some persons, though it has the
recommendation of saving a little money, and of making the dwelling warmer.
The objection to the arrangement rests on the ground that itis opposed to
cleanliness and comfort, and though it prevents a draught, it discourages
ventilation.
It will be observed that, between the first (No. 2430) and'second (No. 6844),
there is a difference of 613 cubic feet only (see Table, next page); and as the
extent of accommodation is very similar, and there certainly is no: feature
making the second cheaper in construction, any difference in cost will be due
to this difference in cubical contents. It will be seen, however, that the
estimate in the second case (the “ Kirtlington Cottage”) is only 175d. the pair,,
including the carriage of materials, which, as nothing is’ said to the contrary,
we are led to infer is covered by the estimate ; while that in the first is; 2307.
the pair, excluding the carriage of materials, showing a difference of 80/. if the
carriage of materials is-put at the ordinary cost of 25/7. per pair, although the
difference of space (618 cubic feet), if taken at 3d. per cubic foot, would'amount'
to only 8/.2s. 6d. ‘The competitors’ estimates, therefore, cannot be taken as any”
guide to the public. In the third case, the estimate of cost approaches nearer’
the amount which -general experience will confirm. The cubical content of this:
design is less than either of the others, though the estimate is 220/., exclusive:
‘of the carriage of materials, which, at 257. per pair of cottages, will raise the:
cost fo 2457. General experience has decided that, if all materials with the:
carriage are paid for at the average prevailing cost, and labour is performed:
at a price yielding a fair profit te a contracting builder, with interest upon
the money: he employs, the price cannot be: taken at less than 34d. per
cubic foot, including outbuildings, having regard to such cottages as are
described in the present conditions. ‘The actual price will vary from 34d. to
4d. per foot. In some instances, where certain materials-used- are-produced or
Implement Show at Manchester.
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Implement Show at Manchester. 567
made on the estates, and are supplied by the owners at the cost of raising or
making only, or where the carriage of materials is done without charge
by the tenantry, or where the labour is performed by estate journeymen to the
saving of the tradesman’s profit, the cost may be less than 34d. per foot, and
may approach the figures quoted by exhibitors, though at the same time such
instances form no criterion of the cost ordinarily prevailing. If 34d. per cubic
foot be admitted to be the average eost throughout the country, the three
designs for which prizes have been given, taken in the order in which they
stand in the catalogue, will cost as follows :—
Ge PkSY Ole ee
No. 2430 .. .. .. 284 7 6 instead of 230 per pair.
, ING GSaa sa Oe ee 67 215 6 Es 75°
INONGS5D). ees. R -265RISM 0 . on0e tS
These figures are given in order that it may not be supposed that the judges
have been influenced by the prices stated by competitors, nor that they would
mislead the public by appearing to confirm sums which do not represent the
general average cost. ‘his remark has been particularly called forth by
observing amongst the plans entered for competition one pair of cottages giving
extraordinary large accommodation, the cost of which is estimated at 185/.,
which, upon close examination of the detail figures given, the judges were of
opinion could not be erected under ordinary circumstances for so little as the
highest priced pair of cottages for which a prize was given.
Hay and Corn Sheds, and Covered Sheds for Storing Manure.—The number
of competitors for the prizes offered for these objects was even less than in the
case of labourers’ cottages, and as the competition was limited to the covering
of hay, corn, and manure without reference to stock or connection with the
homestead the duties of the Judges were limited simply to the consideration
of the suitability of proposed materials, their durability, and cost.
Mr. Jackson of Tattenhall Hall, near Chester, exhibited a well-executed
model of his existing homestead, which provides for the storing of hay and corn
in sheaf under slate roofs. It was the only exhibit of roofing of this material,
and although the arrangement of the homestead was in some particulars such
as the Judges could not approve, they considered that, having regard to economy
and convenience, the character of covering previded by Mr. Jackson was such
as to deserve the first prize. In this commendation they especially refer to
the Dutch barns erected in connection with the homestead for stacking corn
in sheaf at harvest time, and which would also serve for storing hay and straw.
They unanimously disapproved of the arrangement of placing hay in the loft
over the cows in the shippon, though the exhibitor has made special provision
for ventilation by a shaft through the hay and roof from the shippon below, as
well as by perforations in the walls just under the loft.
Several specimens and models were exhibited of other descriptions of roofing,
both of iron and felt. The corrugated iron roofing shown by Messrs. Morton
and Co. of Liverpool was excellent in its character, and afforded a very good
means of comparing its special advantages with those of felt, when properly
laid with boards upon light lattice girders or principals. In the case of corru-
gated iron the nature and form of the covering materials call for very little
additional support of ties and principals, while in the case of felt the covering
material being light in itself admits of the principals being also light and
comparatively cheap. The durability of the corrugated iron roofing compared
with that of felt will probably be in the proportion of 3 to 1, and this com-
parison is only admissible on the assumption that the iron is painted every
third year, and the felt tarred every other year.
The first prize of 10/. being awarded to Mr. Jackson for the model of his
existing slate roofing on timber framing, it is desirable that that description of
VOL. V.—S. 8. aE
568: Implement Show at Manchester.
covering should be compared as to durability and cost with that of iron and
felt, in order to explain the grounds of the adjudication of the second prize of
51. to the felt roofing in preference to that of iron. Slate roofing being familiar
to all persons, it is unnecessary to describe the mode of construction adopted
by Mr. Jackson, which professes no specialty. The cost per square of ground
covered (10 feet by 10 feet) may be taken at 5/. Os. 10d., or rather over Is. per
foot. Messrs. Morton’s example of galvanized corrugated curved iron roofing on
wrought iron framing was tied together by the ordinary wrought iron rods
with king-post-rod and key. The cost per square of ground covered is stated
to be 3/. 18s., or nearly 93d. per foot, including wall-plates. The felt roofing of
Messrs. Mc'l'ear and Co. of Belfast, was in the form of an arc of a circle, of
which they state the pitch should be 14 inch per foot, preserved in its shape
by a girder formed of “ bows and strings,” with lattice work between them
tied by a solid web of timber equal to one-fifth of the span, to give extra
strength to the bearings. These lattice girders are from 8 to 10 feet apart ;
on these are purlins 22 inches apart, covered with a sheeting of half-inch
boards in long lengths, and from 9 to 15 inches broad, upon which is laid the
felt, which is again covered with tar or varnish properly prepared. Messrs.
McTear and Co. state that they have covered spaces 75 feet in width with
perfect satisfaction, and will undertake to cover a width of 100 feet without any
intermediate supports. The cost per,square of ground covered, including wall
plates, is stated to be 17. 12s., or nearly 4d. per foot. The period of durability of
slate roofing may be stated to be at least fifty years, that of iron twenty-two
years, and that of felt eight years; the first requiring no other act of mainte-
nance than ordinary repairs, the second requiring strict attention in painting
to preserve it from the corroding effects of uprising vapours, and the third, in
addition to repairs, requiring a coat of tar or prepared varnish every other year
to preserve it from the effects of the sun and weather, ‘The question of
economy is not therefore determined by the first cost, but must have special
reference to the periods of duration of each description of material; for as the
roof will require to be replaced at the termination of each period, it is necessary
that the principal money first expended should be repaid within such periods.
The true state of the case as respects economy will be understood, therefore,
by comparing the annual amounts per square of ground covered, which must
be gained to repay the cost within the periods mentioned, and calculating the
value of money at 5 per cent. interest they are as follows :—
8. de
RUS Ge An on OB
Iron... .. ~~ 5 10 with painting once in 3 years,
Felt «» «+» 411 with tarring once in 2 years.
Each is liable to ordinary repairs, iron and slate requiring very little indeed,
and felt requiring more.
Thatch-substitute——Messrs. Morton and Co. exhibited a very ingenious
arrangement for the use of galvanized corrugated iron for covering hay and corn
stacks, which they have named the “Thatch Substitute.” The corrugated cover-
ing is made in sheets of different lencths and widths, the width varying from 2
to 2% feet, and the length according to the size of the stacks in ordinary use,
two lengths extending from ridge to eave. It is intended that all the sheets
required for the covering of a stack should be of one size, and capable of being
packed in a box and stored away. They are connected together by twisted-
iron lashing-cords threaded through eye-bolts, which connect the sheets with
longitudinal strips of wood, which are laid on the stack where the covering-
sheets join. Along the ridge there is galvanized capping, which is connected
also by the same eye-bolts through which the cord runs. The cords are long
enough to reach to the ground on each side of the stack, where they are
fastened to anchored winders, which strain the cords and keep the whole tied
Implement Show at Manchester. 569
together. These winders are placed 10 feet apart at the foot of the stack on
each side. ‘The strips at the junction of the plates through which the eye-
bolts pass occupy the place of rafters on the stack roof, and, if made deep
enough, allow of any heat from the stack to pass between the hay or corn and
the covering, though, if this was doubtful, larger pieces of wood of the character
of purlins might run longitudinally along the stack, and so keep the covering
away from the hay or corn.
The cost of the ‘Thatch Substitute” for a stack 18 feet wide is 9s. per foot
run, or 6d. per foot of ground covered, exclusive of the cost of frequently
painting the iron, which must be necessarily done.
Assuming that the “'Thatch Substitute” with the extra wear and tear con-
sequent upon frequent shiftings and carelessness in treatment by labourers will
not last more than twelve years, the cost to a purchaser who must charge
himself with repayment of the original outlay within that period will be quite
double the cost of ordinary thatching when everything is considered. The
advantage of the invention will therefore not be due to any saving on this head,
but to the readiness and quickness with which a stack may be covered by any
labourer unacquainted with thatching, which will commend it to many prac-
tical men.
With the approval of the Stewards, a silver medal was given for this
invention,
JOHN CoLEMAN.
J.S. Watson.
J. Batury Denton,
7. Report of the Judges of Miscellaneous Implements.
We consider the show of implements in this department of extreme interest
to the members of the Society. ‘The number of entries in the catalogue was
larger than at any other meeting of the Society, amounting to 7724, and of a
most varied character. We were much struck with the exquisite finish of
many agricultural machines, showing that the manufacturers are fully alive to
the necessity of fitting agricultural machinery with as much nicety as the most
important machines for manufactures. We observed that many of the most
noted houses in the trade have come to the determination to simplify every
movement, so that it may be well understood, and easily rectified by an ordi-
nary farm labourer—who, we may remark in passing, whatever may have been
said. to the contrary, has generally shown an extraordinary appreciation of good
implements, and a desire to use them efficiently. Had we not been requested
by the stewards to leave unnoticed implements which were placed under other
classes, we should have felt it our duty to make some remarks on them. Still
there were some points which we could not pass over, and we would suggest
that, in future, Judges in the Miscellaneous Class should be left comparatively
unfettered, as there are oftentimes special portions of implements, not perfectly
efficient in: themselves, but which might be adapted to other implements, and
thus be made of great value to the agriculturist.
Great latitude must necessarily be given to us, as the immense variety of
utensils, implements, and machines requires great discrimination in making the
awards, We would respectfully suggest, therefore, that some classification be
made in future, so that the duties of the Judges may be somewhat lightened.
When it is understood that the length of shedding was over four miles, and
that all this was positively filled with implements, some conception may be
formed of the labour undergone in selecting implements and inventions for
notice; and we sincerely hope that our heavy duties may be pleaded as some
excuse for the imperfections that we have doubtless been guilty of, and that we
may be judged leniently by the Society, the exhibitors, and the public at
2P2
570 Implement Show at Manchester.
large. Our object has been to reward improvements in agricultural imple-
ments, and, at the same time, to encourage the production of machinery and
inventions which bear on the general improvement of the land.
We were empowered to award 10 silver medals, but three of them had been
specially requested by Judges in other departments, and we proceed to state in
detail the awards we made of the seven medals retained by us.
We gave a medal to Richard Winder, of Farningham, Dartford, Kent,
No, 21 36, Stand 101, described as * Machine for folding sheep, where netting
is used;” invented, improved, and manufactured by ‘the exhibitor. Price,
with 1 roller, 5l.; wrought-iron corner-posts, 10s.; extra rollers, 15s. each;
netting, 6d. per lineal yard. ‘The netting is unwound from the roller when
making the fold, and wound on it to remove the fold; all is done quickly and
easily by one man. We think this a most useful implement for sheep-farming
on a large scale.
Another was awarded to Richmond and Chandler, Saltford, for No. 885,
Stand 56, for “ One-Horse gear.” Price 110. 10s.; especially adapted for driving
small machines. This is a light useful implement for small occupations. A
medal was given to Messrs. McKenzie and Sons, of Dublin, Belfast, and Cork,
for a new implement, No. 2400, Stand 107, “a Patent 2-row 'urnip and
Mangold Sower.” Price 7/.7s. A brass roller, with several grooves for different
seeds, is made to revolve against the bottom of the hopper, the seed is delivered
continuously, and is very simple in construction. A medal was awarded also
to a most useful weighing-macbine for farmsteads, and for other purposes,
exhibited by Messrs. Pooley, of Liverpool and Manchester, No. 6166, Stand 268.
It can be erected by a labourer, requires no foundations, and can at once be
converted into a cattle-weighing machine. The price, 27/, 10s., puts it within
the reach of most farmers ; and it would be of the greatest use for weighing coal,
artificial manures, oilcake, and the manure drawn from the farmyard.
Another medal was awarded to an Harth-Boring Machine, exhibited by Messrs.
Mather and Platt, of Manchester, No. 7608, Stand 877. This machine may
not strictly be called one for agricultural purposes, but it was doing some
extraordinary work, smashing through a hard bed of rock and gravel, and
pumping up the debris in a wonderful manner; it will be of invaluable assist-
ance to gentlemen who have large estates with a deficient supply of water, as it
will bore through any stratum, “and sink a well of lar ge capacity. During a
period of drought like last year, to many farms and villages it would be of great
importance. "A medal was also given to Aveling and Porter, of Rochester,
for their “ Improved Steam Road-Rol ler,” No. 4301, Stand 184. This weighs
15 tons, and rolls 6 feet in width. It turns in its own length; the front rollers
are so contrived as to adjust themselves to the inequalities of the road. As
good roads are an important element in agricultural advancement, we con-
sidered we were justified in rewarding this extremely clever and useful
invention,
We conclude stating the awards of Medals by specially noticing the “ Eureka
Smut and Separating Machine,” invented by S. Howes of New York, exhibited
by Messrs. Nell, Harrison, and Co., of Aldermanbury, London, No. 6514,
Stand 292. 'This was so excellent in its work, and of such value to farmers
and corn-dealers, that we laid its merits before the Council, and recommended
it for a Gold Medal, and we are happy to record that they unanimously
supported us; and this was the only special gold medal given at the Show.
The price of the machine is 30/.; and when the amazing power of it is con-
sidered, and the splendid work it achieved, the above price is very moderate—
the separation of the dust, smut, and other impurities being perfect.
Amongst the High Commendations we must not omit to mention a Horse
Pitchfork, invented by E, Z. Walker, of the United States, for lifting hay or
loose corn off carts or waggons, and depositing it on the stack or in the barn.
Implement Show at Manchester. o71
With some simplification of the pulleys, we believe this little insument will
be made of great use when ricks have arrived at a height where the hay, &c.,
has to be raised overhead. The price is 22. 2s, only, and it was exhibited by
Messrs. Coleman and Morton, of Chelmsford, No. 594, Stand 42.
Another of the High Commendations we must specially notice, No. 6161,
Stand 268, exhibited by Messrs. Pooley, of Liver pool—“‘ a Patent Automatic
Grain-weighing and Registering Machine.” ‘This is a most ingenious con-
trivance, and will be of great use to corn merchants, maltsters, ‘and on very
large occupations. It weighs, records, and discharges by the sole momentum of
the grain in the process of being weighed. Another High Commendation was
given to Mr. Love, of Northampton, for an excellent sheep crib, No. 1395,
Stand 85, It is a self-regulating feeder, and isa very useful article for all sheep
and cattle feeders. A thatch- -sewing machine was ingenious; but as the day is
not far distant when we hope ranges of shedding will be erected on most farm-
steadings for storing corn, its necessity may not be so important.
We ought to mention the glass-hottle lubricators for mowing-machines, used
by Messrs. Burgess and Key, and which are great acquisitions, especially in
the saving of oil. Then we noticed the new patent knife-bar of Hunt and
Pickering’s mowing machines, exhibited to show the new bottom-knife fixed in
each finger by the aid of screws, and easily replaced.
We must also speak of the powerful work done by the direct-acting steam-
pump, No, 6448, Stand 288. Neither must we forget the iron framing for
threshing-machines, used by Messrs. Roby, and also by the Messrs. Clayton
and Shuttleworth.
The Stand No. 52 of A. Ransome and Co., of Chelsea, deserved our visit, for
the saw-benches, &. ., acted with the oreatest precision, and we think will effect
what is greatly needed, namely, well-made machinery at a moderate cost, for
fitting up doors, windows, &c., at a cheaper rate than those now made by
hand. Lawn hurdles can also be produced very cheaply.
We were requested, in addition to our other duties, to judge the Dairy Uten-
sils, with two local gentlemen appointed by the Manchester Local Committee.
Some difficulty was experienced by us, as there was no perfectly complete col-
lection both for cheese and butter, and the Stewards determined to give a prize
of 3/. for a collection, and 5/. to be divided into a first prize of 27. for the best
churn, and three other prizes of 1/. each to the three next best churns. ‘The 287.
was awarded to Messrs. Hawkes, of Knutsford, and the 2/7. for a churn to Mr.
Thomas Bradford, for his Counter Current Churn, No. 2964, Stand 129. This
was worked by a very simple movement of a treadle and lever, and did its work
well. On removing the churn, and placing a block in its place, it could be
used as 2 mincer, and meat-chopper. The other three prizes were given to
Messrs. Johnston, No. 2924; Waide, No. 2603; and Taylor, No. 2297. There
was nothing novel about these churns. A trial was invited of churns in action,
and ten competitors met on Friday morning. The trials were of peculiar inte-
rest, and we regret that, as we were unable to properly make up the butter for
market, we cannot report satisfactorily to the Council, but we would earnestly
suggest that a complete trial should be made next year under proper regula-
tions. We are convinced it would be watched with ereat interest, and would
be of the greatest importance to dairy farmers and ‘to the public generally.
With our best thanks to the Stewards of our Department for their unwearied
assistance and kindness, we subscribe ourselves,
Joun Kerstry Fowter,
H. B. Canpwetr,
F. Suerzorn,
( 572 )
Sratistics or tHE Country Mrrtines rrom 1864 ro 1869 rncLusIvE.
NEWCASTLE, 1864.
Prices of Admission. Days of Admission, | Persons, Amount Received. eee”
|
| &.. eae Baws, a:
Trial Yard, 5s... .. | Saturday, July 16 | 66 165s 0G 914 0
Implement and Cattle »
ion h Monday, ,, 18 81 865 0 0 95 18 0
Ditto, 2s. 6d. .. | Tuesday, ai 19a llO:,228: 1279 10 9 203 17 0O
Ditto, 2s. 6d. Wednesday, ,, 20 15,949) 1995138 4 | 196 0 O
Ditto, sie. 5 weenie UNSC ays sete eel mnie 2846 16 11 168 19 O
Ditto, ls... .. | Friday, EDI ORS U! 1542 6 1 nor 1s.6
is Ze |
| 114,683 | 8045 12 7 |-724 9 6
TOTAL: Namie of Persons . 114,683
Amount received for ‘Admissions’: an
PLYMOUTH, 1865.
£8,045 12 7
Prices of Admission. Days of Admission. Persons. | Amount Received. Meeieucas
Bia (8x is hoes, ds
Trial Yard, 5s.. Saturday, July 15 25 6) -by0 2A *O)
Implement and Cattle) | Monday, ,, 17| 1,063 265 16 0 59 6 0
ards; 58. 0.4.
Ditto, 2s. 6d. Tuesday, Ag ils) 4,767 Ey yay bs ia 0) 89 14 0
Ditto, 2s, 6d... | Wednesday, ,, 19] 17,269 2159 6 0) | AS 1G
Ditto, 1s. | Thursday, >>, 20] 42,948 2147 14 10 58 16 6
Ditto, 1s. . | Friday, »> 21 | 21,969 1099 12 7 20 4 0
| 88 8,036 | 6274 0 8 | 34218 O
Torai: Number of Persons .. . 88,036
Amount received for Adwnissions. ; a
BURY ST. EDMUNDS, 1867.
£6,274 0 3
Received for
Amount Received. Catalogues.
noe tbs" (Oe
COOmM Oo CooOos
|
Prices of Admission. | Days of Admission. Persons.
hay caeeday: July 10 | 37
. Thursday ripen 87
Trial Yard, 5s... «+4, Friday, ? aris 105
Saturday, Diet le 88 |
ee Cattle st Monday, » ips 910
Ditto, Qs. 6d. | Tuesday, 59. UG 4,465
Ditto, 28.6d. .. | Wednesday, ,, 17 7,886 |
Ditto, ls. .. .. | Thursday, »» 18 | 885126
Ditto; le. vases Friday, AG NY 15,188 |
61,837
a Oe ee
Toraut: Number of Persons... . oc
Amount received for Admissions a3
se Meche INS 3
£4,254 9 6
Statistics of Country Meetings. 573
LEICESTER, 1868,
Prices of Admission. Days of Admission. Persons. | Amount Received. | sors
— a)
we 8) Ge & 8 de
Trial Yard, 5s.. Wednesday, July 15 102 25 10 0 710 0
Implement ‘and Cattle ; »
Yaris, bes. ot Mharsday,, | sul 3,096 774 18 0 141) 90
Ditto, 2s. 6d. .. | Friday, tT ee Osa a7 1312 2 9 159 1 O
Ditto, 2s. 6d... Saturday, Bey ee 6,088 768 18 2 bo 7 0
Ditto; is: 2. .. | Monday, Ay UE PSB) 2647 7 10 105 10 O
Dito ls. fe Tuesday, ee 24,566 1227 18 8 88 12 0
97,138 677 OF 508 19 O
Torat: Number of Persons... .. Se. Wane we OW 18S
Amount received for ‘Admissions wa eGeel: (00 p
MANCHESTER, 1869,
Prices of Admission. Days of Admission, Persons, | Amount Received. yeaa :
Sse rose 104 bp Some
Friday, July A
Implement Yard, 28.60. ory, ty 1,588 198 9 6 29006
ee cai Monday, ,, 19| 2,343 B86 306 | wee 6
Ditto, 5s. .. .- | Tuesday, 37. 20 12,960 | 38,242 14 8 190 0 O
Ditto, 2s. 6s. .. | Wednesday, ,, 21 | 39,405] 4,953 1 1 291 1 6
Ditto, levees) .- ||) Chursday, rippeee 57,129 | 2,863 7 11 20. L2G
IDittos tess °s Friday, me 8 39,285 i966 7 2 Vii glee 3)
Ditto, 1s, .. .. | Saturday, ,, 24] 36,392] 1,817.0 5 10917 7
. Season tickets from
3 2 2
Ditto, 10s. 6d. . { Ca an, } 11,631 | 1,432 2 0
|
200,733 | U75;059 5 10 1055 2. 4
eee
ToraL: Number of Persons .. .. ae A 200,733
Amount received for Admissions rs L73059) 5) 10
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Ropal Aqricultural Society of Englanv.
1869.
President.
H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES.
Trustees.
Actanp, Sir Tuomas Dyke, Bart., Killerton Park, Exeter, Devonshire.
Brrners, Lord, Keythorpe Hall, Leicester.
Bramston, Tuomas WiLur1AM, Shreens, Chelmsford, Essex.
CHALLONER, Colonel, Portnall Parl, Staines, Middlesex.
CuesHam, Lord, Latimer, Chesham, Bucks.
Mar.eoroven, Duke of, K.G., Blenhe’m Park, Oxford.
Portman, Lord, Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset.
Powis, Earl of, Powis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.
Rutianpd, Duke of, K.G., Belvoir Castle, Grantham, Leicestershire.
Sprraker, The Rt. Hon. the, Ossington, Newark-on-Trent, Notts.
Tuompson, Harry Steruen, Kirby Hall, York.
Trepucanr, Lord, Tredegar Park, Newport, Monmouthshire.
Pice-PrestVents.
Briprort, Viscount, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, Berkshire.
Carucart, Earl, Thornton-le-Street, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
Curcnester, Earl of, Stanmer Park, Lewes, Sussex.
Eemont, Earl of, Cowdray Park, Petworth, Sussex.
Everstey, Viscount, Heclfield Place, Winchfield, Hants.
Hitt, Viscount, Hawhkstone Park, Salop.
Jonas, Samury, Chrishall Grange, Saffron Walden, Essex.
Kerrison, Sir Epwarp C., Bart., Brome Hall, Scole, Suffolk.
Mies, Sir Wit1aM, Bart., Leigh Court, Bristol, Somersetshire.
Ricumonp, Duke of, K.G., Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex.
WatstncHam, Lord, Merton Hail, Thetford, Norfolk.
Other Members of Council.
*ACLAND, Tuomas Dyxu, M.P., Sprydoncote, Exeter, Devonshire.
Amos, Cartes Epwarps, 5, Cedars Road, Clapham Common, Surrey.
*BaLpwiy, Joun, Luddington, Stratford-on-Avon, Warwickshire.
* BARNETT, CHARLES, Stratton Park, Biggleswade, Bedfordshire.
Barruropr, NATHANIEL Grorce, Hacheston, Wickham Market, Suffolk.
Boorn, Tuomas CuristoruEer, Warlaby, Northallerton, Yorkshire.
Bow ty, Epwarp, Siddington House, Cirencester.
*CANTRELL, Cuanues S., Riding Court, Datchet, Bucks.
*CLAYDEN, JouN, Littlebury, Saffron Walden, Essex.
* Those Members of the Council whose names are prefixed by an asterisk retire
by rotation in July, but are eligible for re-election in May.
VOT Vem—S. 1S. a
il List of Officers.
Cuivn, Guoren, M.P., Pernystone, Ross, Herefordshire.
Davis, Davin Rrynoups, Mere Old Hall, Knutsford, Cheshire.
*Dent, J. D., M.P., Ribston Hall, Wetherby, Yorkshire. “
Dervonsurre, Duke of, K.G., Holker Hall, Lancashire.
Drvcn, Joseru, Lynsham, Oxford.
Epmonps, WILL1AM Joun, Southrop, Lechlade, Gloucestershire.
Ginss, B. T. Branpreru, Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, London, W.
Hassauy, Witr1am, Bubney, Whitchurch, Salop.
Hotuanp, Epwarp, Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, Gloucestershire.
Hornspy, Ricuarp, Spittle Gate, Grantham, Lincolnshire.
Hoskyns, CHANDos Wren, Harewood, Moss, Herefordshire.
Hourron, WituiAm, Gate Burton, Gainsboro’, Lincolnshire.
Kestrven, Lord, Caswick, Stamford, Lincolnshire.
*Kinascorg, Colonel, M.P., Kingscote, Wootton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
Lawes, Joun Bennet, Ttothamsted, St. Albans, Herts.
Licuriecp, Earl of, Shugborough, Staffordshire.
*LIDDELL, Hon. Henry Grorcr, M.P., Ravensworth Castle, Durham.
*Loprs, Sir Massry, Bart., M.P., Maristow, Rolorough, Devon.
Macponatp, Sir AncutpaLp Kepret, Bart., Woolmer Lodge, Liphook, Hanis.
*Mitwarp, Rrcwarp, Thurgarton Priory, Southwell, Notts.
*Pain, Tuomas, Ugford Cottage, Salisbury, Wilts.
Ranpetz, Cuariys, Chadbury, Evesham, Worcestershire.
*Ransome, Ropurr Caarues, Ipswich, Suffolk.
*RIGDEN, WILLIAM, Hove, Brighton, Sussex.
Sanpay, Wiu1Am, Holmepierrepont, Notts.
SuutrrLeworra, Joseru, Hartsholme Hall, Lincoln.
*Stonn, N. CHAMBERLAIN, Aylestone Hall, Leicester.
*Torr, WILLIAM, Aylesby Manor, Great Grimsby, Lincolnshire.
*Tourner, Grorcn, Brampford Speke, Exeter, Devonshire.
*V ANE, Sir Henry Rawpu, Bart., Hutton Hall, Penrith, Cumberland.
*Vernon, Lord, Sudbury Hall, Derby.
*WALLIS, OWEN, Overstone Grange, Northampton.
*Wess, James, Spring Hill, Fladbury, Pershore, Worcestershire.
Weiis, Witiram, M.P., Holmewood, Peterborough, Northamptonshire.
*Werstrrn, Sir Tuomas B., Bart., Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Pssex.
*Wison, Major Futter Marrnanp, Stowlangtoft Hall, Bury St. Edmund's, Suffolk.
*Witson, Jacoz, Woodhorn Manor, Morpeth, Northumberland.
*Wison, Professor, Iver, Uxbridge, Buciis.
*“WYNN, Sir WATKIN WitLiAms, Bart, M.P., Wynnstay, Rhwabon, Denbighshire.
Secretary anv Evttor.
H. M. JENKINS, 12, Hanover Square, London, W.
. ————
Consulting Chemist—Dr. Auctsrus VoricKer, 11, Salisbury Square, B.C.
Veterinary Inspector—JameEs Brarr Suronvs, Joyal Veterinary College, N.W.
Consulting Engineer—JAmeES HWaston, or C. HE. Amos, Grove, Southwark, S.B.
Seedsmen—Tuomas Gisss and Co., Corner of Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, W.
Publisher—Joun Murray, 50, Albemarle Street, W.
Bankers—Tue Boe AND WESTMINSTER Bank, St. James's Square Braments S.W.
* Those Menben s of the Council whose names are prefixed by an oe sie
by rotation in July, but are cligible for re-election in May.
STANDING COMMITTEES FOR 1869.
Finance Committee.
Briprortr, Viscount, Chairman.
Branston, T. W.
Kryescore, Colonel, M.P.
RANDELL, CHARLES.
Torr, WILLIAM.
Pouse Committec.
THe PRESIDENT.
CHAIRMAN of Finance Committee.
Cursyam, Lord.
Bramusron, T. W.
Cuattoner, Colonel.
Gisrs, B. T. BRanpRevs.
Torr, WILLIAM.
Sournal Conumittec.
Txompson, H. §., Chairman.
Catucanrt, Harl, Vice-Chairman.
Spnakun, The Rt. Hon. the.
Korrison, Sir 5. C., Bt.
Actanp, T. Dyxr, M.P.
Dent, J. D., M.P.
Hovanp, Ep.
Hoskyns, C. Wren.
Mitwarp, RicHarp.
Witson, Jacos.
Chemical Committee.
We ts, Wittram, M.P., Chairman.
Carucanrt, Earl.
Vernon, Lord.
Kerrison, Sir E. C., Bt.
Lorrs, Sir Massry, Bt., MP.
Vang, Sir H., Bt.
Acuann, T. Dyxu, M.P.
Davins, D. R.
Dent, J. D., M.P.
Hoiianp, Ep.
Hosxyns, C. Wren.
Hextasie. Ven. Archdeacon.
Lawes, J. B.
Txomrson, H. §&.
Wiuson, Jacos.
Peterinary Committe.
Briprort, Viscount, Chairman.
Lippe:t, Hon. H. G., M.P.
VANE, Sir H.; Bt.
CHALLONER, Colonel.
Dent, J. D., M.P.
Gisss, B. 'T. BRANDRETH.
Stock-Prises Committee.
Brwprort, Viscount.
Cursuam, Lord.
Kestrven, Lord.
WatsincHam, Lord.
Lippetz, Hon. H. G., MP.
BALpwiy, Joun.
Barnerr, Cxanvns.
Barruropr, NATHANIEL G.
Booru, T. C.
Bowty, Epwanrp.
CLAYDEN, JOHN.
Davies, D. R.
Dent, J. D., NLP.
Drvce, JosErn.
Paty, Tos.
Sronps, Professor.
Spooner, Professor.
VARNELL, Professor.
Wetzs, Witttam, M.P.
Winson, Jacoz.
\
Gipss, B. 'T. BraNDRETH.
Hassati, Wii.
Hoiiann, Mp,
Jonas, SAMUEL.
Minwarp, Ricwarp.
Paty, Tuomas.
RANDELL, CHAs.
RiagpEN, Wm.
Sanpay, WM. —
Torr, WILLIAM.
Turner, GrorGE.
Wess, JAMES,
Witson, J acon.
The Stewards of Live Stock.
a2
Implement Committee.
Cuaxioner, Col., Chair-
man.
Carucarr, Earl.
Briprorr, Viscount.
Vernon, Lord.
Kerrison, Sir EF. C., Bt.
Macponap, Sir A. K.,
Bart.
Amos, C. E.
CANTRELL, Cus. 8.
Drwce, JOSEPH.
Gisps, B. T. BRANDRETH.
Horuanp, Ep.
Hornspy, RicHanp.
Hosxkyns, C. Wren.
RANDELL, CHARLES.
Ransome, R. C,
Standing Committees for 1869.
SANDAY, WILLIAM.
SHUTTLEWORTH, JOSEPH.
Tuompson, H. 8.
Torr, WILLIAM.
Wixson, Professor.
Witson, J Aco.
- The Stewards of Imple-
ments.
General {Manchester Committee.
Ricumonp, Duke
Chairman.
Rurianp, Duke of.
Licurieip, Earl of,
Powis, Earl of.
Bripport, Viscount.
CursHam, Lord.
Kesteven, Lord.
Porrman, Lord.
TrepreGar, Lord.
Vernon, Lord.
WaALsincHam, Lord.
Lmpett, Hon. H.G.,M.P.
HeskeEtH, Sir T., Bt., M.P.
Kerrrison, Sir E. C., Bt.
Vanz, Sir H. R., Bt.
of.
?
Wynn, Sm W. WILiiams,
Bt, MOP?
Amos, C. E.
BaRNEtT, CHARLES.
Bow.y, Epwarp.
CANTRELL, CHARLES S.
CHALLONER, Colonel.
CLAYDEN, JOHN.
Davies, D. R.
Dent, J. D., M.P.
Gipss, B. T. BRANDRETH,
Houianp, Ep.
Hornspy, RicHarp,
Hoskyns, C. WREN.
Mancuester, The Mayor
of,
Mitwarp, RicHarp.
Paty, THOMAS.
RANDELL, CHARLES.
Ransome, R. C.
Sanpay, WILLIAM.
SHUTTLEWORTH, JOSEPH.
StTarrer, THos.
Stone, N. C.
Tuomrson, H. S.
Torr, WILLIAM.
Wess, JAMES.
We tts, Wiii1am, M.P.
WuitwortH, Henry.
Witson, Major.
Wison, JAcos.
The Stewards.
Show-Dary Contracts Committee.
RANDELL, Cuarues, Chairman,
Catucart, Earl.
Briprorr, Viscount.
Vernon, Lord.
Amos, C. E.
Gress, B. T. BRANDRETH.
Comuntttee of Selectton.
Ricumonp, Duke of.
Carucanrt, Earl.
Powrs, Earl of.
Bripport, Viscount.
WaALSINGHAM, Lord.
Speaker, Right Hon. the.
CLAYDEN, JOHN.
Dent, J. D., M.P.
Evucatton Committee.
Licurr.p, Earl of.
Powis, Earl of.
Brioporr, Viscount.
AcuLAND, T. Dyxr, M.P.
Dent, J. D., M.P.
Hotianp, Ep.
Hornspy, RicHarp.
Mitwarp, RIcHArD.
Sanpay, WILLIAM.
SHUTTLEWORTH, JOSEPH.
Tuompson, H. 8.
Torr, WILLIAM.
Drvce, Joseru.
Epmonps, W. J.
Hoiuann, Ep.
Minwarp, R.
RANDELL, CHARLES.
Tuomeson, H. S.
Torr, WILLIAM.
We ts, Witiram, M.P.
Hosxryns, C. Wren.
Kunescorr, Col., M.P.
WELLs, WititAm., M.P.
Wixson, Professor.
VoELCcKER, Dr.
Cattle Plaque Committee.
THE WHOLE CoUNCIL.
** The Present, Trustens, and Vicr-Presments are Members ex officio
of all Committees.
Ropal Agricultural Society of England.
GENERAL MEETING,
‘ 12, Hanover SquaRE, WEDNESDAY, December 9, 1868.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
Srnce the last General Meeting in May, 2 Governors and 38
Members have died, and 3 Governors and 237 new Members
have been elected, so that the Society now consists of
75 Life Govemors,
75 Annual Governors,
1400 Life Members,
3947 Annual Members, and
14 Honorary Members,
making a total of 5511, being an increase of 49 names.
His Grace the Duke of Richmond, K.G., has been elected a
Vice-President in the room of the late Marquis of Downshire,
and the Earl of Lichfield a Member of Council in the room of
the Jate Earl of Shrewsbury and Talbot.
The half-yearly statement of accounts to the 80th June, 1868,
has been examined and approved by the Auditor and Account-
ants of the Society, and has been furnished to all Members in the
last number of the ‘Journal.’ The funded capital stands at
16,0277. 19s. 7d. in the New Three per Cents. The collection
of the arrears of subscription has been steadily progressing, the
amount now due, inclusive of those in arrear for the current year,
being 10502.
In consequence of the lamented death of Mr. Frere, the late
Editor, it has been necessary to make temporary provision for
carrying on the ‘ Journal’ work, and the Council are glad to have
secured the services of Mr, Goodwin, the Secretary of the Bath
and West of England Society, to bring out the last and the next
numbers. The arrangements connected with filling up the vacant
post of Editor having been the subject of much discussion, it was
vi Report to the General Meeting.
finally resolved that after the 1st January, 1869, the offices of
ditor and Secretary should be held by the same gentleman.
An advertisement was therefore issued inviting candidates, and
from forty-six names the Council have selected Mr. H. M.
Jenkins, F.G.S., to fill the post of Editor and Secretary of the
Society, from the 1st January next, at a salary of 6002. per
annum, with residence in the House of the Society. Mr.
Jenkins is at present discharging the duties of Assistant-Secre-
tary, Curator, and Librarian of the Geological Society of London,
and of Editor of the ‘ Quarterly Journal’ of that Society, and Sub-
Editor of the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Science.’
The Council have resolved, that on the termination of their
engagement with Mr. Henry Hall Dare, he be presented with
6002. They have recorded their sense of the ability and in-
tegrity he has displayed in carrying out the duties of his office,
and their regret that a change in the arrangements of the Society
has necessitated his retirement.
The Leicester Mecting was in every way eminently successful,
and the number of visitors who thronged the Show-yard gave
evident proof that the interest taken in the Society’s Country
Meetings remains unabated, while the enormous entry of Imple-
ments appears a satisfactory indication that the present quin-
quennial classification for trial and prizes in no way interfered
with the variety and general excellence of the Exhibition. The
trial of Steam-ploughs proved a source of great attraction, both
on account of the extraordinary character of the work done, and.
the handsome offer of a gold cup by his Highness the Viceroy of
Egypt, which was ultimately awarded to Messrs. Fowler.
The Mayor and Corporation of Leicester, and the Local Com-
mittee, used every exertion to forward the wishes of the Society
during the preparations for the Meeting, and the period of hold-
ing it. The Council have also to acknowledge the courtesy of
the County Magistrates in giving the use of the Judges’ Lodgings
for the use of the Stewards of the Society during their stay in
Leicester. On the Sunday during which the stock was in the
yard, Divine Service for the servants and men employed was
performed by the Vicar of the parish.
The grant of 200/. for the Improvement of Agricultural Edu-
cation has been continued for the ensuing year. The scheme of
the present year will be adopted in 1869, with some amendments
Report to the General Meetiny. vil
in the details. Candidates must send in their names on or
before the 18th March, and the Examinations will take place
in the Society’s house in the week commencing Monday, 12th
April.
The Country Meeting at Manchester will be held in the week
commencing Monday the 19th July, and will close on Saturday
the 24th. Prizes to the amount of 2930/. are offered by the
Society for Live Stock, and 1546/. has been added by the Man-
chester Local Committee, including Classes for heavy and light
weight carrying Hunters ; for leaping over hurdles and water ;
for Cleveland, Dray, Carriage, and Cart Horses; for Roadsters
and Ponies; for the Yorkshire dairy cross, Ayrshire, polled
Angus or Aberdeen, polled Galloway, West Highland, Welsh,
and Kerry breeds of Cattle; for Cheviot, Limestone, Border
- Leicester, and Black-faced Scotch Sheep; and for both British
and Foreign Cheese and Butter.
The Prize Sheet for Implements for trial at Manchester in
1869, which was issued in July last, comprising mowing, reap-
ing, and hay-making machines, hay-collectors, ‘horse-rakes, carts,
waggons, and liquid manure-carts, has been supplemented by
the additiom of prizes forthe class of carriages with low body
adapted for moving stock, implements, &c., on a farm, in the
most convenient form, and for the class of sheaf-binding machines.
A. Gold Medal has also been offered for the best system of drying
Corn and Hay in wet weather, sufficiently economical for prac-
tical purposes. The Manchester Local Committee also offer
prizes for the best broad-cast distributor of guano or other
manure, to be worked by one or two horses ; for the best machine
for potato-getting; for the best plans or models of labourers’
cottages, of hay or corn sheds, and of covered sheds for storing
manure ; for dairy utensils; for harness for a pair of horses for
agricultural purposes; and for the best illustration of the prin-
ciple of shoeing.
The Council have ordered a Schedule. of the Members of
Council, showing in proper form the Districts (from A to H),
and fhe. number of Members they oes to be inserted in
the current number of the ‘ Journal.’
By order of the Council,
H. Haut Dare, Secretary.
(viii
)
Roval Agricultural Society of England.
FEBRuary, 1869.
DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY AND OF MEMBERS
OF COUNCIL.
DISsTRICTs.
—
A.
COUNTIES,
DurHaM .. A
NORTHUMBERLAND ..
YorkKSHIRE — Sead
AND East RIpInGs
CUMBERLAND ..
LANCASHIRE .. .«.
WESTMORELAND
YORKSHIRE — Wrst
RIDING en ee
DERBYSHIRE
| LEICESTERSHIRE
LINCOLNSHIRE a6
NorTHAMPTONSHIRE
NorriInGHAMSHIRE .. |
RUTLANDSHIRE
| WARWICKSHIRE
BEDFORDSHIRE ee
CAMBRIDGESHIRE ..
IFISSEXM ose | visst dears
HERTFORDSHIRE
HUNTINGDONSHIRE ..
NORFOLK... ..
SUFFOLK ..
95
174
| 141
NuMBER
OF
MEMBERS.
376 |
| NuMBER
IN
CounciL.
| No ll ool
oe
bo
14
MemMBers OF CounciL.
Hon. H. Liddell.
Jacob Wilson.
|(Earl Cathcart,
{ Booth.
mC.
V.P.;
Sir H. Vane.
|(Duke of Devonshire ;
Hesketh; T. Statter.
Son.
H. 8. Thompson, v. ;
J. D. Dent.
Lord Vernon.
| eae Berners, T.; Duke of
Rutland, r.; N. C. Stone.
las Hornsby ; W. Hutton; Lord
| Kesteven; J. Shuttleworth;
| W. Torr.
O. Wallis.
| ee Speaker, r.; R. Milward ;
iL W. Sanday.
|
| J. Baldwin.
| C. Barnett.
|
|
T. W. Bramston, 7. ;
8. Jonas, v.p; J. Clayden;
|\{ Sir T. Western.
| J. B. Lawes.
| W. Wells.
| Lord Walsingham, y.p.
| (Sir E. Kerrison, v.p.;
| N. Barthropp; R. C. Ran-
\L some; Major Wilson.
Distribution of Members of the Society. ix
DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY—continued. '
NuMBER NUMBER |
Disrricrs, COUNTIES, 7 Or a IN | MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.
| EMBERS. | OUNCIL,
BERKSHIRE .. | pL fl iL Viscount Bridport, v.r.
a 3 De e ‘fLord Chesham, v.; C. 8.
BUCEINGHAMBHIRE {)" ae OPA Eg { Cantrell; Professor Wilson.
a | +0 9 j Viscount Eversley, VPs;
HAnesHine | ao ‘(| Sir A. Macdonald.
| Kenr San weew ees 211.
E, | | Mippnesex .. .- | 280 . ] B. T. Brandreth Gibbs.
} | OXFORDSHIRE .. LOM = 2 Oe oe ae
b Colonel Challoner, 1. ;
SURBEY c. =. 142 2, I Cn Gis
Earl of Chichester, v.r.; Earl
Sussex .. .. {| a deeay 4 | of Egmont, v.r.; Duke of
| 1163 | — 15 | Richmond, V.P. ; W. Rigden.
| | |
CoRNWALL.. | 55 | |
2 |(Sir T. Acland, t.; T.D. Acland;
= 9 pg tes . >
F DEVONSHIRE a | # ta Sir M. Lopes; G. Turner.
: DoRsETSHIRE .. Yi) 28 1 | Lord Portman, '.
SoMERSETSHRE .. | 116 .. 1 | Sir W. Miles, v.r.
WittsHinm Secrest 90... |) 1 | TI’. Pain.
| 471 | — 7
[seen as |(E. Bowly; W. J. Edmonds,
| GLOUCESTERSAIRE .. | 157 4 | BE. Holland: Col. Kingscote.’
: | = sar acai ee 2 | &: eee: Wren Hoskyns.
. ONMOUTHSHIRE é 1 | Lord Tredegar, Tt.
Oem i ee | C. Randell : James Webb.
ouTH WALES.. 5
934 — 98 |
|
| CHESHIRE S 1 cass SE) woe peg! | D. R. Davies.
H eae ne : 2 ea Hill, v.r.; W. Hassall.
TAFFORDSHIRE 52g 1 | Earl of Lichfield.
| NortH WALES 50 88 Ps ] 2 Karl of Powis, v.; Sir W. Wynn.
—~o — 6 |
SCOTLAND .. se) | 36D |
TRELAND 3 Bren ie a
CHANNEL ISLANDS Atoll tage!
Foreign Counrrins .. as 52
- MEMBERS WITHOUT ADDRESSES | 55
x ROYAL AGRICULTURAL
Dr. HALF-YEARLY Caso ACCOUNT
To Balance in hand, Ist July, 1868 :— | Le) hse Ee a) Semele
Bankers wie, nie) ielerieg corm alens wee “csterdll) allo sa Cm
Secretanyais. sa een Cen 16 3 38
1,386.13 0
To Deposit withdrawn .. 2 - 2,000 0 0
To Income :— | |
Dividends on Stock.. soll} 234 8 2)
Interest on Deposit .. Bs 2: 18 15 10 |
Subscriptions :— E.G E
Governors’ Life-Compositions .. 9090 O:.
Governors Annual .. .. .. 15) (0) 0
Members’ Life-Compositions .. 259 0 0°
Members’ Annuali =. -.. .. 629 2 0O|
Journal :—
Sales by Miamay s,s ee - LOH Ge 0%}
Advertisements .. .. .. «. 27 KON 164 |
1387 17 41
To Country Meetings :— — 1,364 3 4
Welcester¥. ies) oc. os hues) w eh Ost Re aera Sot ied 7,095 138 6
£1,2096 14 4
oe
BALANCE-SHEET,
nee 7 ss
To Capital :— cian: Estee Ly he G
Surplus, 30th June, 1868 wet Meee de) Toler bic er et ) 2haOng ior
Less Surplus of Expenditure over Income during
the Half-year :—
Expenditure ST ROC Nida i edciemheae tic 2,663 19 10
VGN sc Go be CS 1,364 3 4 |
—- BP =r “h, 2aP Ie 1G
To Leicester Meeting :— | 20,677 I6 7
Difference between Receipts and Expenditure, 592 12 9
the former exceeding the latter by } As cea,
—
1
[£21,270 9 42 4
BRIDPORT, Chairman of Finance Committee.
QUILTER, BALL, & Co.
A. H. JOHNSON,
; HENRY CANTRELL,
FRANCIS SHERBORN,
Examined, audited, and found correct, this 9th day of February, 1869.
SOCIETY, OF ENGLAND. xi
From Ist Juty To 3lst DecemeeERr, 1868. Cr.
By Expenditure :-— oe Syemae £55 A WCE Soh Gs GE
Establishment—
Official Salaries and Wages... .. 354418 0 |
House Expenses, Rent, ‘Taxes, &e. 350 14 7 |
SSS 69a evi
Journal :— |
Printing, Maps, &c. 526 7 0
Stitching (two Numbers) . N50) ol 6.)
Postage and Delivery .. 140 10 0
Prize Essays - 45 0 0
Other Contributions i we 1OT 10)
GICOVSHIP! Ss se sip) els 8h @ 16
——._ 1,054 10° 0
Chemical :—
Consulting Chemist’s Salary .. .. «. «- | 150 0 0
Postage and Carriage «29 ws s2 -+50 oe oe | 18 12 9
Advertisements. .. . eo Bene ot 387.13 6)
Subscription paid in error, :, returned os Seca pace Ee LO:
Gratuity to Mr. Hail Dare on leavi in = hee Crag 600 0 0
Country Meeting Plant .. .. . Py 106 10 0 |
: | 2,663 19 10
By Country Meetings :— |
Leicester .. .. Fab. ee, (eS Goo Baad qe | eae eee cS
Manchester) 3, 8 os se) cm cme ee ae 73 16 3
——| 8,415 if @
By Balance in hand, 31st December, 1868:— |
Hpaniensi sae ac sce ee een OUGm GRO
SUSU Ae eee re In Cee ee a 10-0 8
| Olek 1G
| —____
| £12,096 14 4
sist DecEMBER, 1868.
as Sa hes Sd,
By Cash in hand oe eee are Se ree 1,016 17 6
By New 3 per Cent. Stock 16, 0271. 19s. 6d. cost* aa, eee 15,379 15 7
By Books and Furniture in Society’s House -. .. .. . 2,000 0 O
By Country Meeting Plant .. .. reer ee : 2,800 0 0
By Manchester Meeting, preliminary expenses Male nei a ere Amjaiveg |
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“TUN LIGNAd X “SLAIIGOU YT,
(eS: de)
MEMORANDA.
Appress oF Lerrers.—The Society’s office being situated in the postal district
designated by the letter YW, members, m their correspondence with the
Secretary, are requested to subjoin that letter to the usual address.
GeNERAL Meretrine in London, May 22nd, 1869, at Twelve o'clock.
MEETING at Manchester, in July, 1869.
GENERAL MEETING in London, in December, 1869.
Monruty Counctt (for transaction of business), at 12 o’clock on the first Wed-
nesday in every month, excepting January, September, and October: open
only to Members of Council and Governors of the Society.
Wernty Councrt (for practical communications), at 12 o'clock on all Wednesdays
in February, March, April, May, June, July. and November, excepting the
first Wednesday in each of those months, and during adjournment: open to
all Members of the Society, who are particularly invited by the Council to
avail themselves of this privilege. :
ApgJoURNMENTS.—The Council adjourn over Passion and Easter weeks, when
those weeks do not include the first Wednesday of the month; from the first
Wednesday in August to the first Wednesday in November; and from the
first Wednesday in December to the first Wednesday in February.
Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs.—Members have the privilege of applying to
the Veterinary Committee of the Society; and of sending animals to the
Royal Veterinary College, on the same terms as if they were subscribers to
the College.—(A statement of these privileges will be found in the present
Appendix. )
CuemicaL AnAtysts.—The privileges of Chemical Analysis enjoyed by Members
of the Society will be found stated in the Appendix of the present volume.
Loca Curques.—Members are particularly requested not to forward Country
Cheques for payment in London; but London Cheques, or Post-ofiice
Orders on Vere-street (payable to H. M. Jenxins), in lieu of them. All
Cheques are required to bear upon them a penny draft or receipt stamp,
which must be cancelled in each case by the initials of the drawer. They
may also conveniently transmit their Subscriptions to the Society, by re-
questing their Country Bankers to pay (through their London Agents) the
amount at the Society’s Office (No. 12, Hanover Square, London), between
the hours of ten and four, when official receipts, signed by the Secretary,
will be given for such payments.
New Mrmsers.—Every candidate for admission into the Society must be pro-
posed by a Member; the proposer to specifiy in writing the full name, usual
place of residence, and post-town, of the candidate, either at a Council meet-
ing, or by letter addressed to the Secretary.
Packets py Post.—Packets not exceeding two feet in length, width, or depth,
consisting of written or printed matter (but not containing letters sealed or
open), if sent without envelopes, or enclosed in envelopes open at each end,
may be forwarded by the inland post, if stamped, at the following rates :—
One Penny for every quarter of a pound or fraction of a quarter of a pound.
*.* Members may obtain on application to the Secretary copies of an Abstract of the Charter
and Bye-Laws, of a Statement of the General Objects, &c., of the Society, of Chemical
and Veterinary Privileges, and ef other printed papers connected with special depari-
ments of the Society’s business.
Manchester Meeting, 1869:
ON MONDAY THE 19tnH OF JULY, AND FOLLOWING DAYS.
SCHEDULE OF PRIZES.
I.—Liver-Srock Prizms OFFERED BY THE SOCLETY.
Special Prizes offered by the Manchester Tocal Committee are mmmx‘ked thus*,
Reference First
d Second
Number in ‘Prize Prize.
Certificates. HORSES. ;
Class. ' = Ee |
1 Agricultural Stallion, foaled before Ist Jan. 1867,
not qualified to compete as ‘Clydesdale or Suffolk | ‘25 15
2 Agricultural Stallion, foaled in the year 1867,
not qualified to-compete as Clydesdale or Suffolk | 20 | 10
3 Clydesdale Stallion, foaled before the lst Jan. 1867 | 25 | 15
4 Clydesdale Stallion, foaled m the year 1867 = 20 | 10 |
5 Suffolk Stallion, foaled before the Ist of Jan. 1867 | 25 15 |
6
ij
8
Suffolk Stallion, foaled-‘n the year 1867 .. Sk, 20 | 10 |
Thorough-bred Stallion, suitable for gettme hunters| 100 | 25
Stallion, not less than 14 hands 2 inches, nor
exceeding 15 hands 2 inches, suitable for getting
Hackneys s a5 OF pee) 15
9 Stallion, suitable for setting Coach “horses endl Ga 15
10 Pony Stallion, under 14 hands 2 inches. | 120 10
il Mare, in foal, or with foal at foot, suitable for
breeding Hunters a ‘25 15
“12 Hunter, Mare or Gelding, over four years 0 ald, up
to not less than 14 gkones eer ae - | *3O) 10)
18 Hunter, Gelding, foursyearsiold .. .).. .. | *20 | *10 |
14 Hunter, Mare, four years old a a ee te 1) |
15 Hunter, Mare or Gelding, three years old .. is #15 | *10
16 Hunter, Mare or Gelding, not less than four a
old, up to not less than 12 stones
“To the best Hunter in any of the este
classes, in addition to the prize, a Special Prize
of 30/., or plate to that value.
*Six Silver Cups, value 107. each, will be given
for competition by Hunters, which shall be
decided to be the best performers over hurdles
| No Third Prize will be given unless at least Six
animals be exhibited, except on the special re-
commendation of the Judy ges. . { |
Third
Prize.
£.
Cu
Ooreoer oe
bet
Cr erst
ot
Xvl
Prizes for Live Stock.
Reference |
Number in
Certificates
Class.
fu
~~
HORSES—continued.
and water, in a paddock adjoining the Show-
yard, in the following order, viz. :—
Three Silver cups value 101. each, on the Mon-
day, Wednesday, and Friday of the week of
Show, to the best of the heavy weight car-
rying Hunters; and Three Silver Cups of
same value, on the Tuesday, Thursday, and
Saturday, for the best of the light weight
carrying Hunters.
Mare, not less than 14 hands 1 inch, nor exceeding
15 hands 1 inch, in foal, or with foal at foot,
suitable for breeding Hackneys
Pair of Carriage Horses, Mares or Geldings, ‘to be
shown in harness if required by the J udges
Brougham Horse, Mare or Gelding, to be shown in
harness if required by the J udges
| Colt, Gelding or Filly, likely to “make a Carriage
Horse, foaled in 1866 ..
Roadster, Mare or Gelding, not exceeding 15 hands
1 inch, four years old and upwards .
Roadster, Mare or Gelding, not exceeeding 15 hands,
above four years old .. co ca
Pony Mare, not exceeding 14 hands
Pony, Mare or Gelding, not exceeding 13 hands
2 inches
Agricultural Mare and Foal, not qualified to compete
as Clydesdale or Suffolk Si co) oe
Clydesdale Mareand Foal .. .. .. ..
SuttolkMiareyand) Hoa (> i.) seen eres
Brood Mare, Cleveland breed.. ..
Agricultural Filly, three years old, not qualified t to
‘to compete as Clydesdale or Suffolk Sess
Clydesdale Filly, three years old .
Suffolk Filly, three years old 3
Agricultural Filly, two years old, wot qualified to
‘compete as Clydesdale or Suffolk ae :
Clydesdale Filly, two yeareold .. ..
Suffolk Filly, two yearsold .. .
Pair of Heavy Dray Horses, Mares or " Geldings,
belonging to one person or ‘frm...
Pair of “Horses, Mares or Geldings, not less than
16 hands, suitable for Brewers’ ‘Drays aor
[The Prizes in this Class are given by the Brewers
of the district. |
Dray Horse, Mare or Gelding, of the heavy breed
Pair of Horses, Mares or Geldings, for Agricul-
tural purposes
Horse, Mare or Gelding, for Agricultural purposes
No Third Prize will be given unless at least Six
animals be exhibited, except on the special re-
commendation of the Judges.
First
Prize.
rc
Second
Prize.
£.
Third
Prize.
£.
oe
oe
: C1919
Reference
Number in
‘Certificates,
——.
Class,
|
Prizes for Live Stock.
CATTLE.
(Att AGES CALCULATED To JuLy Isr, 1869).
SHORTHORN.
Bull, above three years old
Bull, above two and not exceeding ‘three years old
|
Yearling Bull, above one and not exceeding two |
years “old
Bull- Calf, above six and not exceeding twelve
months old . if
Cow, above three years old :
Heifer, in-milk or in-calf,. not. exceeding ‘three
years old 5
Yearling Heifer, above one cand not exceeding two |
years fold. <<
Heifer-Calf, above six cand under twelve months old
HEREFORD.
Bull, above three years old
Bull, above two and not exceeding ‘three years old
Yearling Bull, above one and not exceeding two
years old . a
Bull-Calf, above six < and not exceeding twelve
months old . : pete
Cow, above three years old .
Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, ‘not exceeding ‘three
years old
Yearling Heifer, above one e-and not. exceeding wo
years old Be
Heifer-Calf, above six ‘and under tw élve months old
Devon.
Bull, above three years old ..
Bull, above two and not exceeding three years old
Yearling Bull, above one and not exceeding two
years vol ne
Bull-Calf, above six - and not exceeding twelve
months old . :
Cow, above three years old
Heifer, in-milk or in-calf not exceeding “three
years old...
Yearling Heifer, above one and not exceeding two
years old
Heifer-Calf, above six and under twelve months old
No Third Prize will be given in Classes 40 to 63
unless at least Six animals be exhibited, except
on the special recommendation of the Judges.
VOL. V.—S. S.
First
Prize.
}
|
|
|
xvii
Second | Third
Prize.
Prize.
£.
Xvi Prizes for Live Stock.
Reference A Thi
Number in CATT LE—continued. Prise, | ‘Prize, | Bree.
Class. CHANNEL IsLANDs. fe g #.
64 Bull, above one year old Oe ese ven so voce lf dls 10 4
65 Cow, above three years old 4 15 10 :
66 Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding ‘three
yearsOld), (ide wigiir tyes) ctaydl yee mips eR tee 15 10 ws
|
| Orner Hsrasiisnep Breeps.
Not inciuding the Shorthorn, Hereford, Devon,
or Channel Islands Breeds.
67 Bull, above one yearold 2... tee 15 10 .
68 Cow, above three years old .. .. 15 10
69 Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding “three
yearstold |", sc nee ee ms 15 10 .
No Second Prize will be given in eros 64 to 69
, unless at least Six animals be exhibited, except
on the special recommendation of the Tuilyes.
‘ Yorxsuire Dairy Cross.
70 Pair of Cows, above three years old, in-milk or in-
CONE ek eteh ede nyoncase.y deny beats dey oyiep a ae
Ti Pair of Heifers, above two and not exceeding three
years old, in-milk or in-calf .. .. *10 *5 de
72 Pen of Three Rearing Calves, calved within the
YOarases. 2: cs \es Von) ey Slamaleon cepa gies .
AYRSHIRE.
73 Bull, two years old and upwards .... *15 | *10
74 Pair of Cows, three sa and upwards, in-milk or (ee
P in-calf .. .. "15° | (9) :
%e Pair of Heifers, two years old and under three a
years, in-milk orin-calf .. s. “i .. ‘s. | "16 | “10 *
PottED ANGUS OR ABERDEEN, |
76 Bull, two years old and upwards .. *15 10
A Pair of Cows, three ae old and upw ards, in-milk |
or in-calf “Sj, AO “
58 Pair of Heifers, two years old and under ‘three |
years, in-milk or in-calf |». sot Pihewabr (iowa. 5) oswgd,f Ky pa gt oe |
PoLLtEeD GALLOWAY. |
|
79 Bull, two years old and upwards... “i. \| 710 v
80 Pair “of Cows, three rere old and upwards, in-milk
orin-calf .. od Sel ie 3?
81 | Pair of Heifers, two years old and under “three “ie
*15
years, i in-milk or in-calf .. we
Prizes for Live Stock. xix
| hibited, except on the special recommendation of
the Judges.
Reference . First. | Second Third
Oe peat CATTLE— continued. es
Cae: Wesr HicHuanp. eo | ae
82 Bull, two years old and upwards .. HBS a XO) we
83 Pair of Cows, three ane old and upwe ards, in-milk
orin-calf .. 15 | *10 ac
84 Pair of Heifers, two years old and under three
years, in-milior in-calt) “<2 sees gecmeeenieelomn 20 +
WELSH.
85 Bull, two years old and upwards... "Ib. | "40 on
86 Pair of Cows, three years old and et ds, in-milk |
orin-calf ..., "aD | "20 aD.
Consultation by letter .. 3 os Be an i
Consultation necessitating the writing of three or more letters. 10s.
Post-mortem examination, and report thereon.. % oo 10s,
A retwm of the number of applications during each half-year being required
from the Veterinary Inspector.
IV.—Apmisston or Disrasep ANIMALS TO THE VETERINARY COLLEGE;
Investigations, Lecrurns, AND REports,
No. 1. All Members of the Society have the privilege of sending cattle,
sheep, and pigs to the Infirmary of the Royal Veterinary College, on the same
terms as if they were Members of the College; viz., by paying for the keep
and treatment of cattle 10s. 6d. per week each animal, and for sheep and
pigs “a small proportionate charge to be fixed by the Principal according to
circumstances.”
No. 2. The College has also undertaken to investigate such particular classes
of disease, or special subjects connected with the application of the Veterinary
art to cattle, sheep, and pigs, as may be directed by the Council.
No. 3. In addition to the increased number of lectures now given by
Professor Simonds—the Lecturer on Cattle Pathology—to the pupils in the
Royal Veterinary College, he will also deliver such lectures before the Members
of the Society, at their house in Hanover Square, as the Council shall decide.
No. 4. The Royal Veterinary College will from time to time furnish to
the Council a detailed Report of the cases of cattle, sheep, and pigs treated
in the Infirmary.
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