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THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND.

SECOND SERIES.

VOLUME THE FIRST.

PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.

LIBRARY

MEW YORK

LONDON:
JOHN MUREAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

18G5.

^0

Stf^vfiA

These EXPERI5£E^TS, it is true, auk xot easy; still THi!r are in the i-owek of every

TIITXKING HDSBANDMAK. HE VTHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT O.NE, OF HOWEVER LIMITED APl'LICATION, AND
TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRACTICE
OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND OP THOSE
WHO CMIE AFTER. TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST ES'DIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT
BE EXPECTED. THE Flr.ST CARE OP ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OP OUR SCIENCE
SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FOPJIS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTPJBDTE THE EXECUTION OP
THESE AMONG THEIR MEMBERS.

Von Thaee, Principles of Agriculture.

LO.MWN: PIUKTED by WJLLIAM CLOWES and sons, duke STREET, STAMFORD STREET.
AND CHARING CROSS.

^

CONTENTS OF VOL. I.— Second Series.

Statistics : — page ^

Meteorology, for the six months ending Docembei- 31, lSC-1 .. i
Public Health ditto ditto .. .. v

Price of Provisions ditto ditto .. .. vir

AVeekly Average Price of Wlieat via

Vital Statistics for the six nionths ending June oO, ISfJG .. .. ix;
Meteorology ditto ditto .. .. xii
British AVlieat sold, and Imports of Corn, &c. ditto .. .. xv
Price of Provisions ditto .. .. xvi\
Pauperism xviii

ARTICLE PAGE

I.— Eoyal Agricultural College of Cirencester. P>y C, Lawrekck 1
11.— On Breaking up Pastures. By C. Belcher. Prize Essay .. 10
III. — On the Planting, liaising, and After-Management of Orchards,
and their Various Kinds of Fruits, for Culinary and other
\!scs, considered as jMarketable Productions of a Farm
adapted to the Counties of Worcester, Hereford, and Glou-
cester. By Clement Cadle. Worcester Prize Essay .. .. 18
r^. — Observations on Parasites aud Parasitic Diseases as affecting
Domesticated Animals. By James Beart Simonds, Professor

of Cattle Pathology, Pioyal Veterinary College o'3

V. — Lois-Weedon Wheat-Growing with Horse (or Steam) Tillage.

By John Algernon Clarke 'iS

VI. — Covered Cattle-yards. By W. J. Moscrop SS

VII.— Tea Years of East Lothian Farming. By R. Scot Skirving 90
' VIII. — Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. By Dr. Voclckcr .. 113

IX. — On Stockipg Land. By the llev. J. L. Brereton 130

X. — Professor Voelcker's Annual Report 1-il

XT. — On Cross-Dreeding in Horses. By W^. C. Spooncr .. .. 148

XII. — IJeport on the Royal Veterinary College ]'j6

XIII.— Statistics of I-ive Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption in

the Metropolis. By Robert Herbert 1~2

Xn\ — On the Composition and Nutritive Value of Palm-nut Kernel

Meal aud Cake. By Dr. Voelcker 1"G-

XV. — On the Cultivation and Proper Management of Flax. By the

Rev. Nathaniel M. Brown. Prize Essay IBl

XVT.— Flax-Cultivation in the County of Suffolk. By H. Wells .. 194
XVII. — Remarks on the General Aspects of Flax-Culture in England

and Ireland. By P. H. Frere 197

XVIII. — A Description of the Newcastle Dynamometer. By C. E. Amos 204:
X!X. — 'I'hc ^Tanagement of Sheep Stock on Heavy and Light Land.

By John Coleman. Prize Essay 239

XX. — The Reproductive Powers of Domesticated Animals. By
Henry Tanner, jNI.R.A.C, Professor of Pairal Economy,

Queen's College, Birmingham 2G2

XXL— Water-Supply. By the liev. J. Clutterbuck. Prize Essay 271
XXII. — On a New Form of Disease among Lambs. By R. S. Rey-
nolds, M.R.C.V.S.Eng., Alfreton, Derbyshire 288

XXIII.— Functions of Soda-Salts in Agriculture. By Dr. Voelcker .. 298
XXIV. — Rise and Progress of Shorthorns. By H. H. Dixon. Prize Essay 317

XXV.— On Sheep. By H. Evershed 329

XXVI. — The Comparative Profit from Making Cheese or Butter, Selling

Milk, or Grazing. By W. H. Heywood. Prize Essay .. 338

CONTENTS,

ARTICLE. ■ 'page

XXVII.— On Dairy-Farminp;. By W. T. Carnngton 344

XXVIII.— Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, &c. By B. Herbert 334
XXIX. — Growtli of Lucerne on Thin Light Soils and Chalky Loams .. 359
XXX. — Beport on the Exhibition of Live Stock at the BIymouth

Meeting. By John Dent Dent, M.B., Senioi- Steward .. 3G0
XXXI. — General Beport on the Exhibition of Implements at the
BIymouth Meeting. By John Coleman and F. A. Baget,
C.E., Cor. Mem. of the Franklin Institute, &c., &c 373

Miscellaneous Commuxications and Xotices:

1. Experiments with Beruvian Guano mixed witli a small

quantity of Suli)huric Acid. By J. B. Lawes, F.H.S., F.C.S. 213

2. Experiments on the Artificial Fecundation of Wheat. B}'

J. B. Lawes, F.B.S., F.C.S 215

3. KohlBabi. By Charles Lawrence 219

4. Comparative Experiment on the Use of Wheat-meal and of

Linseed-cake for Fatting Sheep. By B. li. Frere 220

5. Letter on Covered Yards. By H, S. Thompson, M.B 222

Adstract Beport oe Agricultural Discussions :

On Town Sewage, By J. B. Lawes "*" 220

The Breeding and Management of Sheep. By T. l''llmaii . .. 40G

Natural Deposits of Botash in Germany. By Dr. Voelcker .. ,, 412

Flax Cnlturc. By Beale Browne 421

Agricultural Education. By J. Chalmers ^lortou 43()

Irrigation. B>v Brofessor Voelcker 404

Typhoid Fever in Bigs. By Dr. W. Budd 472

APPENDIX.

PAGE

List of Officers of the Boyal Agricultural Society of England, 13G5-G6 i, xxix

Standing Committees for 18G5-6(5 iii, xxxi

lleport of the Council to the General Meetin'z, December 8, 1804 ,, vi
Cash Account and Balance-sheets, from 1st July to December, 31, 18G4 x — xii

Country Meeting Account, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 18(!4 xiii

Schedule of Brizes : Devonport and BIymouth Meeting, 18G5 ,, xiv — xxv

Essays and Bcjiorts — Award for 18G4-G5 xxvi, Ixiii

Members' Chemical Analysis and Veterinarv Brivileges ,, xxvii, Ixxvii

Beport of the Council to the General Meeting, May 22, 1805.. .. xxxiii

Cash Account and l^alauce-slieets, from 1st Jan. to Jmie30, 1805 xxxvi, xxxvii

Memoranda of Meetingj, Baymeut of Subscription, I'tc xxxviii

List of Stewards, Judges, &-C., at the BIymouth Meeting ., .. xxxix

Award of Brizes : Devonport and Plymouth Meeting, i8(;5 .. .. Ix — Ixxii
Prizes for Essays and Beports for 18G0 ., ,. Ixxiv

General Index, Vols. I. — XXV.

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

The BinJpr is desired to collect togptlicr all the Appendix nuitter, with Uoman numeral folios, and
7)lace it at the end of each voluino of the Jouni.il, exccpiin;; Titles and Contents, and Sutistics
kc, which are in all (■a.s".-i to be placed at the beginning of the Volume: the lettering at tneback to
include a statement of the year as well as the volume; the first volume belonging to I83y-40, the
eccond to 1S41, the third to 18J2, tlie fourth to 13 13, and so on.

In Reprints of tli- Journal all Appendix matter and, in one instance, an Article in the body of
the .lournal (which at th • time had become obsolete), were omitted; the Roman numeral folios,
however (lor con venience of referetice), were reprinted without alteration in the Appendix matter
retainr'd.

CONTENTS OF PART I., YOL. I.

Second Series.

Statistics : — pagk

Meteorology, for the six months ending December 31, 18G4 .. ii
rublic Health ditto ditto .. .. VI
Price of Provisions ditto ditto .. .. vil
Weekly Average Price of Wheat viii

AETICLE PAGE

I. — The Pioyal Agricultural College of Cirencester. By C.

Lawrence 1

II. — On Breaking up Pastures. By C. Belcher. Prize Essay . . 10

III, — On the Planting, Raising, and After-Management of Orchards,
and their Various Kinds of Fruits, for Culinary and other
uses, considered as Marketable Productions of a Farm
adapted to the Counties of Worcester, Hereford, and Glou-
cester. By Clement Cadle. Worcester Prize Essay .. .. 18

IV. — Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases as affecting
Domesticated Animals. By James Heart Simonds, Professor
of Cattle Pathology, Pioyal Veterinary College 33

V. — Lois-Weedon Wheat-Growing with Horse (or Steam) Tillage.

By John Algernon Clarke 73

VL— Covered Cattle-yards. By W. J. Moscrop 88

VII. — Ten Years of East Lothian Farming. By R. Scot Skirving 99

VIII. — On some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. By Dr. Au-
gustus Voelcker 113

IX.— On Stocking Laud. By the Eev. J. L. Brereton 130

X. — Professor Voelcker's Annual Report 141

XI. — On Cross-Breeding in Horses. By W. C. Spooner ... .. 148

XII. — Report on the Royal Veterinary College 1G6

XIII. — Statistics of liive Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption in

the Metropolis. By Robert Herbert 172

XIV. — On the Composition and Nutritive Value of Palm-nut Kernel

Meal and Cake. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker 176

XV. — On the Cultivation and Proper Management of Flax. By the

Rev. Nathaniel M. Brown. Prize Essay 181

XVI.— Flax-Cultivation in the County of Suffolk. By II. Wells .. 194

XVII. — Remarks on the General Aspects of Flax-Culture in England

and Ireland. By P. H. Frere 197

XVIII. — A Description of the Newcastle Dynamometer. By C. E. Amos 204

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Miscellaneous CoMMtrNicATiONs and Notices :

1. Experiments with Peruvian Guano mixed with a small

quantity of Sulphuric Acid. By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S. 213

2. Experiments on the Artificial Fecundation of Wheat. By

J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S 215

3. Kohl Rabi. By Charles Lawrence 219

4. Comparative Experiment on the Use of Wheat-meal and of

Linseed-cake for Fatting Sheep. By P. H. Frere 220

5. Letter on Covered Yards. By H. S. Thompson, M.P 222

Abstract Eefort of Agricultural Discussions :

Lecture and Discussion on Town Sewage. By J. B. Lawes .. 226

APPENDIX.

PAGE

List of Officers of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, 1865 ., i

Standing Committees for 1865 iii

Memoranda of Meetings, Payment of Subscription, &c v

Pieport of the Council to the General Meeting, December 8, 1864 .. .. vi
Cash Account and Balance-sheets, from 1st July to December 31, 1864 x — xii

Country Meeting Account, Newcastle on Tyne, 1864 xiii

Schedule of Prizes : Devonport and Plymouth Meeting, 1865 .. xiv — xxv

Essays and Eeports— Award xxvi

Members' Chemical Analysis and Veterinary Privileges .. xxvii, xxviii

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

The Binder is desired to collect together all the Appendix matter, with Roman numeral folios, and
place it at the aid of each volume- of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Statistics
&c., which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Volume : the lettering at the back to
include a statement of the year as well as the volmne; the first volimie belonging to 1839-40, the
second to 1841, the tliird to 1842, the fourth to 1843, and so on.

In Preprints of the Journal all Appendix matter and, in one instance, an Article in the body of
the Journal (which at the time had become obsolete), were omitted ; the Roman numeral folios,
however (fur convenience of reference), were reprinted without alteration in the Appendix matter
retained.

tf J^

STATISTICS

THE WEATHER, PUBLIC HEALTH, PRICE OF
PROVISIONS, &c., &c.,

FOR THE SIX MONTHS ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1864.

Chiefly extracted from the Quarterly RejiOrts of the Reg Istrar- General . —
The Corn Returns and Diagram are prepared from Official Documents
expressly for this Journal.

VOL. I. — S. S.

(11)

ON

THE METEOKOLOGY OF ENGLAND

DUKING

THE QUARTER ENDING SEPTEMUER 30, 1864.
By JAMES GLAISHEE, Esq., F.K.S.,

SEC. OF THE BBITISH METKOKOLOOICAL SOCIETY.

For a period of 39 days preceding the close of the last quarter
there was an average daily deficiency of 2i° of temperature, and
the present quarter opened with a continuation of the same weather,
with somewhat increased intensity ; the deficiency of temperature
to the middle of July being as large as 3° daily on the average.
On the 17th July a warm period set in and continued for 25 days,
and the daily temperature was in excess to 3^°; this was succeeded
by 20 dajs of very cold weather, viz., from 9th August to 28th
August, whose average daily temperature was 4° in defect ; and it
is remarkable that this deficiency of temperature fell on the nights
only, the days were of their average warmth but the nights were
very cold, causing the extremes of temperature to range from great
heat by day to almost frost at night, and quite to frost on vegeta-
tion. A period of 12 days followed of warmth, the average daily
temperature being 2f° in excess ; then the 10 days from September
10th to 20th, the temperature of the air was daily 2° below the
average value, and the last 10 days of the quarter were in excess
to li° daily.

The mean high day temperatures in the months of July, August,
and September were 75°-3, 72°-8, and 67°-3, being l°-7 above in
July, and of the same values as the average in August and Sep-
tember.

The mean low night temperatures in the months of July, August,
and September were 51°-2, 48°-5, and 49°-l, being l°-7 below in
July, 4°-8 below in August, and 0°-3 above in September.

The mean temperatures of the dew-point were 2°' I, 6°*3, and
l°-2 below their respective average. That in August was 47°-8.
The lowest before recorded was 51°-8 on two or three occasions.

The fall of rain was in defect in July and August, and slightly
in excess in September. It was 0-3 in. in July, being 2-4 in. in
defect; 1-4 in. in August, being 1-0 in. deficient; and 2-8 in. in
September, being 0-4 in. in excess.

The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich in the three
months ending August, constituting the three summer months, was
59°-6, being 0°-5 below the average of the preceding 93 years.

( 111 )

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( IV )
ON

THE METEOKOLOGY OF ENGLAND

DURING

THE QUARTER ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1864.

By JAMES G L A I S H E E, Esq., F.E.S.,

8EC. OF THE BRITISH METEOROLOGICAL SOC'IETT.

The "weather at the "beginning of the quarter was cold, and the
average deficiency of daily temperature amounted to 2°. From the
12th October to the 29th the period was warm; an excess of
temperature of 2|° on the average of those days took place. A
bitter cold period succeeded, continuing till the 12th November,
during which a daily deficiency was experienced of no less than
6i°. From the 13th November to the 13th December the weather
was generally warm, but there were cold periods of two and three
days together ; but upon the whole there was an excess of tempe-
rature averaging 2^° daily. From the 14th December to the end
of the quarter the weather was changeable. On the 17th the defi-
ciency of temperature was as large as 15|°, and on the 20th there
was an excess of 3°, followed again by a considerable deficiency,
which generally prevailed ; and the average defect of temperature
from the 14th to the end of the month was nearly 4° daily.

The mean high day temperatures in the months of October,
November, and December were 68°*2, 48°-5, and 42°'5, being
0°*5, 0°"6, and 2°-8 respectively below their averages.

The mean low night temperatures in the months of October,
November, and December were 44°-l, 35°-5, and 33°-7, being of the
same value as the average in October, and below their averages to
the amount of 2° in the remaining two months.

The mean temperatures of the dew-point were 2°-7, 2°-l, and 2°-7
below their respective averages.

The fall of rain was in defect to the amount of 1 '7 in. in October,
slightly above the average in November, and showed a deficiency of
1*3 in. in December. The amounts fallen were respectively 1*1 in.,
2'6 in., and 0'6 in.

The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich in the three
months ending November, constituting the three autumn months,
was 49°'8, being 0°'3 above the average of the preceding 93 years.

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( VI )

STATE OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH.

1st Quarter. — The total nnmber of deaths in the quarter was
112,133 against 112,384 in the previous summer quarter, but con-
siderably more than in the same quarter of 1862. The annual rate
of mortality in the quarter was 2-139 per cent, of the population,
against the summer average of 2*000 per cent. In the country dis-
tricts the mortality was 1*831 (the average being 1*713) ; whilst in
urban populations it was 2*374: (the average being 2-253).

2nd Quarter. — The number of deaths in the three months ending
31st December was 123,458, the highest number ever registered in
this quarter. The death-rate was 2*349 per cent, (against an
average of 2*180). No higher death-rate has been observed in
England in this quarter, excepting in 1847, 1848, and 1858.
495,520 deaths were registered in the year, the mortality being at
the rate of 2*385 per cent, against 2-214, the average of the previous
ten years.

PKICE OF PEOVISIONS.

Ist Quarter. — Tlio average price of wheat was 425. 3c?. per quarter,
which is less than in the September quarter of last year ; while in the
corresponding quarter of 1862 the price was 56s. 10c/. The average
of the highest and lowest prices of beef at Leadenhall and Newgate
Markets was hhd. per lb., and of mutton Qi\d. Best potatoes ranged
from 80s. to 120s. per ton at the Waterside Market, South wark.

2nd Quarter. — Wheat sold at decreasing prices, the average for
the three months being 38s. bd. per quarter against 40s. Qd. in the
corresponding period of 1863, and 48s. 2d. in 1862. The high price
of meat is a matter of daily experience with all consumers ; in the
last quarter of 1863 beef sold on an average at Ad. to 6 id per lb.
(by the carcase) at Leadenhall and Newgate Markets, but in the
quarter ending 31st December last the price ranged from A^d. to Id.,
according to quality. The wholesale price of mutton was bd. to 7c?.
in the last quarter of 1863, and it was bid. to l^d. in the same
period of 1864. The dry summer was prejudicial to the crop of
potatoes, and the price was 25 per cent, higher than in the autumn
of 1863 ; the wholesale price of the best qualities was 60s. to 80s.
in the last quarter of 1863, and rose to an average of 80s. to 95s. in
the same quarter of 1864.

( VII )

THE PKICE OF PKOVISIONS.

The AVEUACE PaicEs of Consols, of Wheat, Meat, and Potatoes ; also the average
Quantity of Wheat sold and imported weekly, in each of the Nine Quarters
ending December 31, 18G4.

Wheat sold
in the 290
Cities and
Towns in
England and
Wales making
Returns.*

Wheat and

Wheat Flour

entered for

Home

Consumption

at Chief Ports

of Great

Britain.*

Average Trices of

Quarters
ending

Average

Price

of

Consols
(for

Money).

Average

Price of

Wheat per

Quarter

ill
England

and
Wales.

Meat per lb. at Leadeuhall

and Newgate Markets

(by the Carcase).

Best

I'olatoes '

per Ton

at Waterside

Market,

Average number of
(Quarters weekly.

Beef.

Mutton.

South walk.

1862
Dec. 31

1863
Mar. 31

June 30

Sept. 30

Dec. 31

1864
Mar. 31

June 30

Sept. 30

Dec. 31

£.
93 i

921
93J
93

r-l

91

91a
89J

89i

S. d.

48 2

46 7

46 2

45 7
40 6

40 4
39 7

42 3
38 5

85,522

75.819

82,458

73,920

113,397

99,0^3
92,569

85,234
100,833

258,095

139,429
106,633
157,582
M5,823

138,523

100,102

351,079

454,436

4d.—6id.
Mean ^^d.

4d.—eid.
Mean 5^^.

4ld.-6^d.
Mean 5frf.

4^d.-eid.
Mean 5^^.

4d.—Hd.
Mean ^{d.

4hd.—Hd.
Mean ^^d.

4\d.—Gld.
Mean c,ld.

4id.—eid.
Mean 5^^.

4hd.-7d.
Mean std.

sid.-eid.

Mean bd.

^d.-td.
Mean td.

4\d.—bld.
Mean 5f </.

4fc/.— 6|d.
Mean 5|<f.

^d.--jd.
Mean dd.

^Id.-id.
Mean i)\d.

Sld.--jd.
Mean G^d.

iid.-ld.
Mean byt.

b\d.--]\d.
Mean b\d.

90s. 1 1 OS.

Mean loos.

1 20s. — 1 3 OS.
Mean 125s.

iios. — 130S.
Mean 120s.

70s. — 105s.
Mean 87s. bd.

60s. — 80s.
Mean 70s,

55s.— 70s.
Mean 62s. bd.

40s.— 60s.
Mean 50s.

Bos. — 1 2 OS.
Mean loos.

Bos. — 95s.
Mean B7S. bd.

Col.

I

2

3

4

5

6

7

* Note. — The total number of quarters of wheat sold in England and Wales for the 13 weeks
ending December 31st, 1862, 1,111,787; for tlie 13 weeks ending March 31st, 1863, 985,649;
for the 13 weeks ending June 30th, 1863, 1,073,126; for the 13 weeks ending September
30th, 1863, 960,956; for the 13 weeks ending December 31st, 1863, 1,474,160; for the 13
weeks ending March 31st, 1864, 1,287,171; for the 13 weeks ending June 30th, 1864,
1,203,406; for the 13 weeks ending September 30th, 1864, 1,108,051; and for the quarter
ending December 31st, 1864 (14 weeks), 1,411,663. The total number of quarters entered
for Home Consumption iu the same period was respectively, 3,355,239; 1,812,585; 1,386,233 ;
2,048,568; 1,895,705; 1,800,806; 1,301,323; 4,564,027; and 6,362,103.

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ii

VITAL STATISTICS ; METEOROLOaY ; BRITISH
WHEAT SOLD; IMPORTATIONS OF CORN;
PRICES OF FOOD ; PAUPERISM.

The matter is selected from the lieports of the riEOisTKAn-GENERAL ; from
Mr. GiiAisiiEu's Meteorological T^ihlcs, and Not?s on the Weather ; and
from Returns ff the Board of Tkade.

Births and Df;ATns ix the First Six Months of 1865 in
England and AVales.

In the frst qnarter the number of births was 104,287. The birth-
rate per annum, or proportion of children born to 100 persons
living, was o'768, against an average of 3-627. The birth-rate was
high beyond any example furnished by the forty quarters of the ten
years 1855-64.

In the second quarter the births woi-e 192,921. The annual birth-
rate for the quarter was 3*691 per cent, against an average of 3-603.
It was remarkably high. In London, the birth-rate of the same
three months was 3-515 per cent. ; in Manchester, 3-624: ; in Livei--
pool, 4-173; in Leeds, 4-497. In Glasgow it was as high as 4-604.

In the Jirst quarter the number of deaths in England and Wales
was 140,646, being less than in the same period of 1864, when it
was 143,030, but much greater than in that of 1863, when it was
128,096. In the March quarter of four years, 1859-62, the number
varied little from 122,000.

The annual rate of mortality (viz., deaths of the quarter x 4 to
100 persons living) was 2-728, against an average in ten March
quarters of 2-522. Since the March quarter of 1855, the returas
suppl}' no example of as higli a death-rate, with the exception of
the death-rate of the same quarter in last year, which was 2-773 per
cent. Bronchitis and pneumonia, scarlatina, fever, and small-pox,
prevailed both in town and countiy. The death-rate in the Welsh
division rose to 2-951, under the influence of small-pox, scarlatina,

VOL. I.— S. H. A 2

( X )

or otiier zymotic disease, which ravaged Cardiff, Llantriisaint,
Merthyr Tydfil, Aherdare, Neath, Swansea, &c.

In the second quarter the nnmher of deaths was 110,006 against
118,121 and 110,899 in the same three months of 1863 and 1864
respectively. The returns of London in the last three springs dis-
covered, as regards absolute numbers, a near approach to identity ;
but those of the kingdom generally showed a decrease in the spring
of 1865 ; Wales, and some northern parts of England, where
epidemic diseases have been rife, or active industrial operations
have attracted population, being the only important exceptions.
The singularly fine weather exercised a beneficial influence on the
l^ublic health; and the effect would doubtless have been more
marked in the death registers if the preceding March had been less
cold and ungenial. The winter months, and especially March, were
as remarkable for cold as the late spring season was for heat ; and
many bronchial affections, which the former period transmitted, ran
their course to a fatal termination after the propitious change of
■weather had begun. The following counties may be mentioned
amongst those which exhibited a decrease of deaths : Hampshire,
Berkshire, Hertfordshire, Oxfordshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridge-
shire, Suffolk, Wiltshire, Cornwall, Staffordshire, Worcestershire,
Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Eutlandshiro, Cheshire, the East and
North Piidings of Yorkshire, Cumberland, and Westmoreland. In
Lancashire the deaths in the spring quarter of 1803 and 1864 were
16,541 and 16,415 ; in last quarter 16,806. In the West Eiding of
Yorkshire they were in the same periods 10,469, 9991, and 10,431.
In South Wales they were 3871, 4056, 4779.

In England the annual rate of mortality for the June quarter was
2*220 per cent, (deaths to a hundred persons living) against an
average of 2*191 for the corresponding quarter in ten previous years.
In 1803 and 1804 the rate was 2-308 and 2-200 per cent.

The South-eastern Division, embracing Surrey, Kent, Sussex,
Hampshire, and Berkshire, was the most healthy ; for in it the rate
of mortality was only 1*882 per cent. The next in degree of health
was that which contains the Sotith Midland Counties, where the
mortality was 2-002. In four other divisions, viz., the Eastern,
South AVestern, West Midland, and North Midland Counties, it did
not rise as high as 2*1 per cent. In the North-western Counties
(Cheshire and Lancashire), in Y'orkshire, and Wales, it was but
little under 2-5 per cent. The Eegistrars of Welsh districts, as in
the previous quarter, reported measles, scarlatina, and small-pox as
diseases that had been prevalent and fatal.

( XI )

TopuLATiox ; Births and Dkatiis ; Annual Birth and Dputii Eaths in
Teu large Towns, in the First Two Quarters of 18G5.

First Quarter.

Cities, &c. I

Total of 10 large towns

London

Liverpool (Borough) ..
Manchester (City;
Salford (Borough)
Birmingham (Borougli)
Leeds (Borough)
Bristol (City) .. ..
Edinburgh ( City)
Glasgow (City)'.. ..
Dublin (City) .. ..

Kstimated

I'opulatioii

in tlie Middle

of the Year

1865.

;;,5-4,oi2

,015,
476,
354,
1 10,

327.
224,
161,

174,
423,
254,

494
363
930
833

809
180

7-3

8o3

in
13 ^yeeks

ending

1st April,

1SC5.

53,io5

23,059

5 .cox

5.341
1,099

3.213
•-•5 79
1.453
J. 559
4,738
2,064

];eatlis

in

13 Weeks

ending

1st April,

IStiS.

,563

,018

.723
,019

772
,299
,738

,134
,317
,115
,173

Annnal Hate to '

1000 living during '

the 13 Weelcs ending

1st April, 1S65. ;,.

Births

38-59

37-35

42-14
36-92
39-80
39*34

46 '21
36-04
35-92
44-88
32-51

Deaths.

30-78
27-98

39-79
34-14
27-96
28-74
32-03
28-13

30-35
38-98

34-31

Second Quarter.

Cities, &c.

Total of 10 large to -ivns ..

London

Liverpool ^Borough)

Manchester (City)

Salford (Borough)

Birmingham (Borough) ..

Leeds (Borough)

Bristol (City)

Edinburgh (City)

Glasgow (City)

Dublin (City and some suburbs)

i Kstimated
I Population
' in the Middle
I of the Year
[ 1S65.

Births

iu

13 Week!

ending

1st July,

1SC5.

Deaths

iu

13 Weeks

ending

1st July,

ISliS.

5,586,870 I 51,550

6,4c8

4,953
3.205
1,082
3,195
2,510
1,379
1,646
4,860

,Cls ,404
476,363
354,930
110,833
327,842
224,025
161 ,809
174,180

423.723
317,666

34,653

17,367

3,709

2,592

697

1,651

1,515

869

1,148

3,236

1.874

Annual Rate to

lUOO living dnring

the 13 Weeks ending

1st July, 18C5.

iiirlhs. Deaths.

37-03

35-15
41-73
36-24
39-18
39-12

44-97
34-21

37-93
46-04
29-21

24-90

23- 16

31-25
29-31
25-24

20*21

27-14
21-56

26-45
30.65

21-68

NoTF.. — It will be observed that (he above Tables tliow the rates to icoo living. For rates per
cent., remove the decimal point ouf place to the left. In the second quarter the raie of mortality in
districts comprising the chief towns was 2'iJ9 per cent.

In districts consisting of small towns and country parishes it was 2'0|9 per cent.

In the town districts of Scotland it was in the same quarter 2'6i per cent.

In the rural districts of Scotland i-68 per cent.

The mort^ility of the aggregate population of Scotland was 2-17 .".g.iinst 2-22 in Kngland. ' ,.J

( XII )

METEOROLOGY.

January began with cold frosty weather ; a warm time set in on
the 4th day and continued till the IGth, during which period,
though the weather was mild, the sky was cloudy, and the wind
blowing a gale. From the 17th January to the end of the quarter,
with the exception of short intervals at the beginning and end of
February, the weather was cold for the season, sometimes to an
unpleasant degree. In a cold period in January the temperature of
the air was as low as 20° at many places ; in February from 13° to
20° in many places, and as low as 8° at Birmingham ; and in March
at the equinox it was as low as 23°. In January and February
snowstorms were frequent, and extended all over England and
Scotland. At the end of February the weather was extremely wild
and stormy; and March was cold and ungcnial throughout. The
mean temperature of January at Greenwich was 36-3° ; that of
February and also that of March 80-6°, each being below the average
of the corresponding periods in twenty-four years, and the mean
temperature of March being as much as 5"4° below the average-
Usually Februar}^ is 2° and I\Iarch 5° warmer than January ; but
this year the increase was not obtained. To find a March equally
cold, it is necessary to go back to 1845, 1837, and 1814, when the
mean temperature was above 3o° and below 3G°. In 1785 it was
33 "9°. Towards the end of last century that month was oftener
remarkable for extreme coldness than it has been in later times.

The unusually severe weather of !March interrupted agricultural
operations and checked vegetation ; on 5th April this wintiy weather
ceased suddenly ; and till 1 0th June, during a period of sixty-seven
days, the temperature was, with few exceptions, above the average,
the average daily excess being nearly 5°; and the quarter was
closed by a period of twenty days in which intervals of cold and
warm weather succeeded each other, but with a predominance of
cold. The high summer temperature of April urged vegetation to
rapid growth, and soon efiaced the traces of a backward season.
Eain, which had been much needed, fell early in May, and in the
second week of that month over the whole of the British islands.
The mean temperature was above the average in each month,
remarkably above it in April and Ma}^ The mean temperature of
the quarter was 56*2 at Greenwich ; and there is no record of any
previous instance in which it was so high in the same period of the
year. There was 7*2 in. of rain. The fall Avas deficient in April ;
above the average in May and June. The air was unusually dry;
for though there was a great deal of rain in May, it fell in showers
which were heavy, but of short duration.

( XIII )

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( XV )

WHEAT, BAELEY, AXD OATS : SALES, IMPOETS, &c.

Wheat was in flower on lOtli May at Cardington; on the 22nd
at Grantham ; and on the 23rd at Silloth ; on IJJth June at Oxford ;
and on the 21st at Guernsey.

Wheat was in ear on 27th i\Iay at Ilurstpicrpoint ; on the 7th at
Abington; on the. 1-1 th at Grantham; on the loth at Cockermouth
and Aspley; on the 17th at Silloth; on the 18th at Penketh and
Kingsley ; and on the 25th at Bywell.

Barley was in flower on 17th May at Cardington ; on 11th June
at Aspley.

Barley was in car on 19th ]May at Marlborough; on 5th Juno at
Cardington ; on 15th at Abington and Bywell ; on IGth at Grantham ;
on 17th at Aspley ; and on the 20th at Cockermouth.

Oats were in ear on 21st fJune at Penketh; and on the 27th at
Cockermouth.

Quantities of British Wheat Sold in the Towns from wlucli Returns are
received under the Act of the 27th and 28th Victoria, cap. 87; and their
Aver.vgp: Prices: in each of the first Six Months of the Yeara 1861-G5.

QuAxirnrs ix Quap.ters.

1861.

1863.

1863.

1864.

1865.

Four weeks, ending Jan. 28
Four weeks, ending Feb. 25
Five weeks, ending Apr. i
Four weeks, ending Apr. 29
Four weeks, ending May 27
Five weeks, ending July i

quarters.

262,527
197,236
253,620
201,551
214,432
220,608

quarters.
220,266
242,229
277,410

173,174
185,356
208 , 042

quarters.
262,923
239,882
281,405
243,552
267,587
302,897

quarters.
344,930
306,713

350,974
285,286
284,601
333,201

quarters.

300,816

298,271

373,069

7.61,501

327,694

283,523

Average Prices

PER QtJABTER.

1861.

186.8.

1863.

1864.

1865.

s.

d.

s. d.

s.

d.

s. d.

s. d.

Four weeks, ending Jan. 28

?7

0

6r 4

47

5

40 7

38 6

Four weeks, ending Feb. 25

54

4

60 0

47

3

40 8

38 3

Five weeks, ending Apr. i

54

>

59 3

45

8

40 I

38 6

Four weeks, ending Apr. 29

5'>

5

58 0

45

7

40 0

39 8

Four weeks, ending May 27

55

0

58 0

46

4

39 2

41 0

Five weeks, ending July i

53

5

54 7

40

8

39 «

41 5

Average Prices per Quarter of Wiii:at, Parley and Oats in the First and
Second Quarters of 1865.

Barley.

■Wheat.
d.

First quarter 3^ 5

Second quarter .. ,. 40 9

d.
2B 9
29 o

Oats.

19 ir

( XVI )

Quantities of Wheat, Wheatmeal jind Flour, Barley and Oats,
Imported into the United Kingdom in cacli of the first Six Months.

1865.

^Vbeat. l^^-ttf ^-^^y

Oats.

First Quarter.

Four -weeks, ending Jan. 28
Four weeks, ending Feb. 25
Five weeks, ending Apr. i ..

Second Quarter.

Four weeks, ending Apr. 29
Four weeks, ending May 27
Five weeks, ending July i ..

cwts.
517.75'^
539,5f>o

874,187

616,883

2,506,790
2,469,187

cwts.

165,270

258,166
281,094

278,403

277,701
305,424

cwts.
480,450

544,360

765.758

500,899

1,144,939

754,494

cwts.
300,322
235,500
229,064

527.324
901,305

879,473

Total in twenty-six weeks . .

7,524,363*, 1,566,058*, 4,190,900

3,072,988

The average weekly importation of wheat was in the first quarter 148,5 77 cwts. ;
in the second quarter it was 430,220 cwts.

Importations of Wheat for Six Months ended June 30 : Amounts and

I'roportions sent by diH'erent States.

1863.

Cwts.
Total importation 10,788,059

From

Russia

Prussia

Denniaik

Schleswig

Mecklenburg

Hanse Towns

France

Turkey and Wallachia and Moldavia

Egypt

United States

]?ritish North America

Other countries

Per Cent.
14

2

15

35

1864.

Cwts.
10,047, 102
I'cr Cent.
12
23
4
I5
3

3i
4*
2i

4
38
il

2i

1865.

Cwts.

,462,268"
Per Cent.

36

30

3

4
3

6
5

3

oi

Flour.

Total importation ..

From

Hanse Towns

France

United States

British Noith America

Other countries ..

1863.

1864.

1865.

Cwts.

Cwts.

Cwls.

425,255

2,774.751

1,562,375*'

Por Cent.

Per Cent.

Percent.

7

6

8

27

.. 48

79

57

..40

7

6

4

r

3

2

5 .

* The totals in the two Tables slightly differ. One embraces a period of 182
days; the other, 181 days. The odd bushels in the weekly returns of wheat sold
arc not included in the summary.

( XVII )

Imports of Animals aud certain Animal aud Vegetable Sccstances in the
Six Months ending 30th June, 18G3-4-5.

1863.

1864.

1865.

Oxen, Bulls, Cows No.

Calves , ,

Sheep and Ijambs , ,

Swine and Hogs ,,

Bacon and Hams cwts.

Salt Beef ,

Salt Pork ,,

Butter , ,

Cheese

Eggs No.

Lard cwts.

Potatoes , ,

Indian Corn or Maize . . . . , ,

Peas , ,

Beans , ,

Kice (not in husk) ,,

Hops , ,

Flax and Tow ,,

Wool* lbs.

Kaw Cotton cwts.

Oilseed Cakes tons

Guano , ,

Bones (burnt or not burnt ;|
animal charcoal) ,. .. / "

24,108

11,147

110,636

982

1,303,199

187,505

115,661

366,341

199,016

143,300,640

318,818

837,150

5.175,163

635,404

1,001,456

792,849

66,742

466,564

70,684,679

2,134,230

38.173

127,007

47,966
15,928

129.350

18,802

815,965

224,187
134,134

409 , 203

234.176

:72,458,ooo

101,616

235,334

1,063,916

598,169

481,208

571.678

59>5i4

878,674

69,935.204

3,546,968

36,914

48,628

30,715

74.392

18,785
250,212

38,706
403,449
131,471

95.560

455.752

240,503

195,218,160

76,000
411,789
2,076,918
218,068
436,033
299,090

38,031

439,656

87,470,008

3,108,853

40,971
106,243

23.505

'■' Not including alpaca wool.

PRICE OF PEOVISIOKS.

First Quarter. — The price of wlieat, 38s. id. per quarter, was less
by 26'. tlum in the first three months of 18G4, and less by 8s. od. than
in the same period of 18(33. Both beef and mutton were dear. The
average price of the best potatoes at the Waterside Market, South-
"wark, was 9 Is. per ton. In the March quarter of 18G3 it was 125s. ;
in that of 18G4 it was 62s. Od.

Second Quarter. — The average price of wheat was 40s. Gd. per
quarter ; a shilling higher than it was in the June quarter of last
year, but Gs. less than it was in the same period of 1863. Beef by
the carcase at Xewgate and Leadenhall Markets was on an average
bid. per lb., and was a halfpenny dearer than in the two previous
June quarters. Mutton was 7jr/. per lb. ; it was lid. dearer than
in the same period of 18G4, and nearly 2d. dearer than in that of
1863. The average price of best potatoes at the Waterside Market,
Southwark, was 102s. Gd. per ton, being about double the price of
the June quarter of 1864, but less than that of 18G3.

VOL. r. — s. ,s. A 3

( XVIII )

The AVEBAGE Pkices of Consols, of Wheat, of Meat, aiul of rotaiocw ; aIt>o tlie-
AVERAGE Number of Paupers relieved on the luKt dny cf each Week ; and
tlie ?iIean TE;irERA.TURE ; in each of the Nine Quarters ending June 30th, 1S65.

AviCnAGK PRICEt-.

PAri'Fnrs5r.

Quarters
ending

Consols

(for
Money).

AVheat

per
Quarter

ill
Englund
and .
Wales.

Meat per lb. at Tyeadenhall

and Newgate Wavketa

(by the Carcase).

Best
Potatoes
per Ton

at Waterside
Market,

Soulhwark.

Quarterly Average of the
Number uf I'aupcrs re-
lieved on the /(!>< day of
each week.

Mean
Tempe-
rature.

Beef. 1 Mutton.

In-door.

Out-door.

1863

£.

s. d.

1

0

June 30

93^

46 2

A\d.—bld. Ald.-bld.
Mean 5 \d. Mean ^^d.

lies. — 1 3 OS.
Mean 1 20s.

127,852

879,241

53-0

Sept. 30

93

45 7

Ald.—b\d.
Mean ^\d.

A\d.—bld.
Mean 5|J.

70s. — 105 s.
Mean 8-s. bd.

120,189

819,795

58-8

Dec. 31

1864

9^4

40 6

Ad.—b\d.
Mean <^\d.

^d.-id.
Mean bd.

bos. — 80s.
Mean yes.

130,072

804,941

46-8

Mar. 31

91

40 4

Ald.—b\d.
Mean 5^^.

Sid.-7d.
Mean 6|rf.

55s.— 70s.
Mean 62s. bd.

i39,r)0G

855.728

37-9

June 30

91^

39 7

A\d.-b\d.
Mean 5|rf.

Mean 6i«/.

40s.— 6 OS.
Mean 50s,

1-2,717

785,825

53-1

Sept. 30

89^

42 3

AU.-bld.
Mean 5Jc/.

bid.- Id.
Mean 6j(/.

80s. — 1 20s.
Mean loos.

115,698

739,341

59'4

Dec. 31

1865

89i

38 5

4^.-7^.
Mean 5f</.

5i'/.-7i^.
Mean 6^t/.

80s. — 95 s.
Mean 87s. bd.

128,322

771,879

43 • 7

Mar. 31

89i

38 4

A\d.~id.
Mean 5 ft/.

bid.-iid.
Mean 65;/.

85 s.— 97s.
Mean 91s.

142,329

813,371

36-5

June 30

90«

40 6

Mean 5^^.

6irf.— 8|rf.
Mean ild.

90s. — 115s.
Mean 102s. 6c?.

125,846

776,016

56-2

PAUPERISM.

The average numloer of paupers relieved in door on the hist day
of each week in April, May, and June, was 125,846, which is rather
more than in the spring of last year, less than in that of 18G3;
the number relieved out-door was 770,016, exhibiting a small
decrease on the pauperism of 1864, and a very great decrease on that
of the same quarter in the previous year, when the number of
persons who received relief was gi-eater than in the present year by
100,000.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAO.

I. — The Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester.

In the useful and masterly survey of the progress of agriculture,
in a late number of our Journal, written in continuation of
a similar review taken by the late Mr. Pusey at an earlier date,
Mr. Thompson observes : — " The commencement of the Society
took place during one of those recovering fits of associative
activity to which Englishmen are periodically prone." He then
explains that the Yorkshire Society was formed in 1837 ; the
Royal Agricultural Society in 1838 ; and the Royal Irish
Improvement in 1841. To these we venture to add the Royal
Agricultural College at Cirencester, organized in 1842, and
incorporated by charter in 1845. The Council of the Royal
Agricultural Society having recently appointed a committee to
consider and report on the actual state of agricultural education,
we propose to give a brief history of this Institution.

Only the elder members of our Society who are familiar with
the state of the agriculture in England some thirty years ago, are
able thoroughly to appreciate the progress and the improvement
which have taken place in the interval. — We speak of the
general condition of the kingdom, without ignoring that there
existed at that day many skilful and successful cultivators of
the soil and breeders of stock — men in advance of their age. —
But others who bear in mind the success of the annual meetings
of our Society, which, visiting every district of the kingdom,
has exhibited to a class of men not generally given to migrate
far from home, the best stock of every description, with a
wonderful display of implements — demonstrations far more in-
fluential on the minds of farmers generally than any descriptions
in print — and who further duly estimate the worth of the inves-
tigations and experiments of our agricultural chemists, and other
scientific men recorded in the Society's Journal — will readily
concede that the signs of prcjgress are manifest, and that these
are in great measure attributable to the exertions and influence
of this Society.

VOL. XXVI. B

2 Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester,

The Council has, nevertheless, been recently reminded that
it has hitherto neglected one important duty of those enumerated
in our charter, namely, " to take measures for the improvement
of the education of those who depend on the cultivation of the
soil for their support."

While in connection with nearly all other arts, educational
training appears to have become more or less systematised, we
are not aware of the existence of any institution in England
especially devoted to the instruction of those who require that
knowledge and experience which improved agriculture calls for,
with one exception.

It is remarkable that while public schools of agriculture
exist in nearly every other country of Europe, the only institution
of the kind in England, viz., the Agricultural College of Ciren-
cester, should have originated in a small local farmer's club.

A brief history, then, of the origin, progress, and actual state
of this establishment may be acceptable to the readers of this
Journal.

This College originated in an address made by the late Mr.
Robert Jeffries Brown to a meeting of the Cirencester and Fair-
ford Farmers' Club, held in November, 1842, " On the Advan-
tages of a Specific Education for Agricultural Pursuits."

At a subsequent meeting of the Club, held on the 29th De-
cember, 1842, at which Mr. Edward Bowly, a member of the
present Council of the Royal Agricultural Society, presided, a
public address was agreed on, from which the following are
extracts : —

" We, constituting the Cirencester and Fairford Fai'mers' Club, having fully
discussed and maturely considered the subject brought before us by Mr. E. J.
Brown, feel that we cannot too highly estimate the importance of a specific
education for those engaged in agricultural pursuits ; and the great value to
them of a knowledge of those sciences that are in constant operation in the
cultivation of the soil, the growth of crops, and the rearing and feeding of
domestic animals ; and we think it most essential that the study of these
sciences should be united with practical experience. The advantages of an
institution of this kind to the landowner, as well as to the occupier, are too
obvious to require comment ; and we confidently rely on their cordial co-opera-
tion and support."

A deputation, appointed by the Club, having obtained the
patronage of Earl Bathurst and other noblemen, and the principal
gentlemen in the neighbourhood, attended meetings convened for
the purpose at various market towns, in order to procure the sup-
port of the tenantry. The late Mr. R. J. Brown devoted nearly the
whole of the following year to the task of explaining the object
iu view to landowners and occupiers in various parts of the
kingdom, with considerable success. A public meeting was held
in Cirencester, under the presidency of Earl Bathurst, in April,

Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester. 3

1844, at which it was resolved, on the motion of the late Earl
Ducie, seconded by Mi*. Kearsey, a tenant-farmer, " That it is
expedient to provide an institution in which the rising generation
of farmers may receive instruction at a moderate expense, in
those sciences, a knowledge of which is essential to successful
cultivation ; and that a farm form part of such institution." A
committee was then formed to determine on a plan for such an
institution, and on the best means of carrying it into effect.

A further meeting was held on the 1st July, 1844, at which it
was reported that Lord Bathurst had offered a farm of upwards
of 400 acres for a long term of years, and adjacent to it a site for
the erection of the College, with some pasture-land, on a lease
for ninety-nine years. The Society was then definitely formed ;
a president, vice-president, and trustees were appointed, and it
was resolved that a Charter of Incorporation should be applied
for.

The annual meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England was about to be held at Southampton in the course of
that month, and a deputation, consisting of Earl Ducie, Mr.
Holland, Dr. Daubeny, Mr. Edward Bowly, and several tenant-
farmers was appointed to attend the meeting at Southampton,
with the view of obtaining the sanction of the Council for a
public meeting, which it was proposed to hold under the
patronage of the Society, while agriculturists from all parts of
the kingdom were assembled. This sanction, however, not
having been given, the deputation ultimately resolved to hold an
independent meeting. The late Mr. Pusey presided, and it
was attended by the late Duke of Richmond, Earl Spencer,
Dr. Buckland, Mr. Sotheron Estcourt, Dr. Lyon Playfair, and
many others distinguished by their scientific and practical
knowledge of agriculture. The views of the promoters of the
College having been explained, resolutions were proposed and
carried, to the effect that the institution was deserving of public
encouragement and support.

By the persevering efforts of Mr. Brown and others, amongst
the nobility and landowners in various parts of the kingdom,
a subscription of 12,000/. was raised, the full amount of the
capital required according to the original proposal.

A charter was obtained in March, 1845, incorporating the
governors, proprietors, and donors, under the title of the " Agri-
cultural College for teaching the science of Agriculture and the
various sciences connected therewith, and the practical applica-
tion thereof to the cultivation of the soil, and the rearing and
management of stock."

This sum of 12,000/., however, was soon found to be inade-
quate to the completion of the projected College, iiTespective of

B 2

4 Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester.

adequate farm-buildings, and other essential adjuncts. It was
therefore provided by the Deed of Settlement, that the capital
should be increased to 24,000/. ; but after every exertion it was
found impracticable to extend the subscriptions and donations
beyond the amount of 20,320/. The expression of opinion in
favour of an institution of this kind was so strong and general
as to render the earlier administrators of its funds somewhat
over-sanguine as to success. This led to a premature extension
of the College by the immediate erection of some buildings,
which it had been originally intended to leave till time should
show what amount of accommodation was necessary. The day of
reckoning, when it arrived, presented a result in conformity with
general experience in such cases — the buildings, with all the
incidents essential to the actual occupation, had involved an
outlay considerably beyond the estimates.

There having existed no precedent in this country as a guide
to the Committee of Management, mistakes of one kind and
another were unavoidable, and admitted of correction only in
the expensive school of experience. The providing of com-
petent professors and of the domestic staff for such an institution
involved an immediate annual outlay, while an adequate income
from students was only prospective. The fee first fixed for the
board and instruction of students was 30/. per annum only : a
sum which about met the demands caused by the keen appetites
of youngsters spending the greater part of the day in the in-
vigorating air of the Cotswolds, leaving the interest on capital,
and the cost of professors, &:c., unprovided for. In the year
1848, the account at the bankers was found to be overdrawn to
the extent of 10,000/. A meeting of the promoters of the
College was convened to consider its financial condition. There
appeared to be no alternative but the closing the Institution at
the end of the actual session, for want of adequate support.
Before that resolution was finally passed, Mr. Holland, who was
in attendance as vice-president, expressed his strong and un-
altered opinion of the necessity of such a school of agriculture,
and his confidence in its ultimate success, adding that he would
take on himself the responsibility for the existing debt. The
meeting was then adjourned for further deliberation. At the
adjourned meeting, the late Earl Ducie, attended, and not only
supported Mr. Holland's views, but, with his characteristic
liberality, stated that much more would be requisite than a mere
provision against the existing debt, and that there ought to be at
least an equal amount in the banker's hands to meet further outlay,
without which the establishment would be too imperfect to com-
mand success. His Lordship added that he could not allow the
burden to rest on Mr. Holland's shoulders alone ; and ultimately

Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester. 5

the support of the institution, with all its liabilities, actual and
prospective, was undertaken jointly by himself, Earl Bathurst,
Mr. Sotheron Estcourt, and the late Mr. Lans^ston, in con-
nection with Mr. Holland. Upwards of 30,000/. were thus
added to the orig-inal subscriptions and donations, on the per-
sonal security of those gentlemen.

Under these circumstances, a general meeting of the original
subscribers and donors was convened in London, to consider and
determine on the future management of the institution. It became
necessary to apply for a supplemental charter, in order to vest the
management of the College in those gentlemen during the con-
tinuance of their liabilities, and to give them such security for
their advances as the very limited means of the institution
admitted of. This further charter was granted in July, 1849,
whcreljy the corporation was empowered to obtain in the usual
mode an additional capital of 20,000?. (making in all. 44,000/.),
with power in the meantime to raise funds to that amount
by a mortgage of the property and effects of the College. The
guarantors were thereby also appointed a committee to manage
the affairs of the College as the ordinary council of the College
had been authorized to do by the original charter.

The Buildings.

Of these the principal is the College itself, erected in an
elevated and healthy spot facing Lord Bathurst's beautiful park,
to which the students have access, while the south front com-
mands extensive views over Wiltshire. Within the walls accom-
modation is provided for the residence of eighty-five students :
there is a commodious dining-hall ; a museum of the same
dimensions, rich in specimens illustrative of the lectures on
veterinary surgery and practice, geology, mineralogy, and botany ;
and a theatre for the delivery of lectures. Various alterations in,
and additions to the College in the shape of private studies, &c.,
have been made, for the accommodation of a class of students
resorting to the College willing to engage them.

Contiguous to the College, but in a distinct building, has been
formed, out of an old barn, one of the best laljoratories in
England. A portion of this has been fitted up with all requisite
stoves and other appliances for the special use of the Chemical
Professor and his assistants ; the remainder is adapted for the
use of students. In the former division, our late Piofessors,
Mr. Way and Dr. Voclcker, have performed a large proportion
of those analyses which have enriched the pages of nearly every
number of this Journal.

A chapel has of late been erected at the back of the College,
affording ample accommodation for the students, and the entire

6 Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester.

establishment of the College, in which morning' and evening
prayers are read daily by the Principal, besides the usual services
on Sundays. The inore ornamental portions of the chapel have
been executed by private subscription.

The farm-buildings are on a large scale, and stand about a
quarter of a mile from the College. Adjoining a well-arranged
rickyard is an ample barn, with granary, a fixed steam-engine,
thrashing, chaff-cutting, grinding, and other machinery attached ;
and at one end of this pile of building is the dwelling-house of
the farm manager. At the other end are the implement and cart
sheds. To the east are the carpenters' and smiths' shops, slaughter-
house, and weighing-machine for cattle. The next row of build-
ings is devoted to the stables, harness-house, «Scc., with piggeries
on the west side ; and a third comprises a double row of cattle-
boxes, on the west of which are two yards for store cattle, sur-
rounded by covered sheds.

Adjoining the turnpike-road from Oxford to Bath, which
intersects the farm, is a Veterinary Hospital, under the manage-
ment of the Veterinary Professor, fitted up for the reception of
all animals requiring operations, or treatment for disease, acci-
dent, or other ailments. The public are invited to send animals
so circumstanced, which are treated at a moderate charge, in
order that the Students may have the advantage of ocular
demonstration of disease and its treatment, by the Professor in
aid of his lectures in the theatre.

In the cultivation of the farm are employed Mr. Fowler's
steam-engine, plough and cultiA^ator attached, besides an assort-
ment of all the most improved implements.

The permanent establishment of the College, under the general
superintendence of the Council, consists of the Principal, a Cler-
gyman of the Church of England ; the Farm Manager and
Demonstrator ; the Chemical Professor and his assistant ; and
Professors of Botany, Veterinary Surgery, Mathematics, and Sur-
veying, all resident ; and a Drawing Master. Gentlemen dis-
tinguished for their ability in the respective sciences connected
with agriculture are secured to give occasional courses of Lec-
tures, in addition to those of the resident staff.*

There are four Sessions in the year, in each of which a com-
plete course of lectures is given in each department of science
taught at the College. The programme for each week comprises
instruction in practical agriculture, on the farm daily, commencing
6*30 A.M. Lectures are distributed over the remainder of the

* Among these the names of Dr. Anderson, Professor Gamgee, Mr. Bailey
Denton, Mr. J. C. Morton, Mr. T. Duckham, Mr. J. T. Davy, Mr. R. S. Burn, Mr.
Hewitt Davis, Mr. Thornhill Harris, Mr. Algernon Clarke, Mr. Baldwin, and Pro-
fessor Morris, may be mentioned.

Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester. 7

day, excepting Saturday, on the following^ subjects : — Cliemistry,
applied, or2:anic and inor<2:anic ; l)otany ; veterinary surgery,
anatomy, and pathology ; therapeutics ; mechanics, mensuration,
surveying, and drawing to those who desire such instruction.

Such is an outline ol this Institution and its establishment,
provided by the disinterested contributions and munificent sup-
plemental support we have described, for the advantage of the
rising generations of agriculturists, at a cost exceeding 50,000/.

To say one word on Professors. The Council in early days
fortunately enlisted in the cause of agriculture the services of
Professor Way, though these were lost to the College on his
promotion to the post of Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agri-
cultural Society, and subsequently were transferred to more
advantageous employment for the public at large. His successor
Dr. Voelcker until very recently held the two appointments con-
jointly, with mutual advantage to each Society. The Council
have since been fortunate enough to engage the services of Mr.
Church, a gentleman of considerable eminence as a chemist, who
is now resident at the College.

Happih", both the late Mr. Haygarth and his successor, the
present Principal, had eminently qualified themselves for this
post, by cultivating a natural taste for general science to an extent
unusual in members of their profession. Mr. Constable not only
fulfills with zeal and energy the duties which strictly belong to
his appointment, but is competent and anxious to assist students
in the general course of their studies, especially those connected
with practical agriculture. In furtherance of this object, he has
lately prepared and published an excellent Manual, entitled ' A
Guide to the College-Farm and Cultivation-Book, for the use of
Students.'

There is no greater mistake than the too prevalent notion that
any member of a family who has not sufficient capacity for more
intellectual avocations may, with very little previous instruction,
become a successful agriculturist ; and that whilst most handi-
crafts require a seven years' apprenticeship, residence with a
farmer or at this College for a year or two is an all-sufficieut
preparation for undertaking a farm. Our own observation would
lead us to recommend any youth resolving on agriculture as his
occupation in life to place himself with a tenant-farmer for a
year, to acquire what may be called the Grammar of Agricul-
ture ; with this preparation he would be in a position to derive
greater advantage from a two years' course of instruction at the
College ; after this, two years' residence with a skilful farmer,
with careful daily observation and the study of the most approved
agricultural literature, would form a reasonably safe foundation
to work upon.

8 Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester.

As evidence of the value of the system of training pursued in
the Collegfe, we venture to make a few extracts from the con-
eluding observations of a course of lectures delivered by Mr.
Robert Russell, the Editor of the ' Highland Society's Journal *
and an examiner of candidates for the diploma of that Society,
which have already appeared in print. Mr. Russell observed t©
the students : —

" 1 trust you will accept this imperfect sketch of the principles on which a
rotation of crops is founded, as a token of my good will towards the success of
this Institution. I am only sorry that my business prevents me from entering
more minutely into the subject. I am glad, however, that I have had the
opportunit}^ of visiting the College, and examining its workings. It is a great
privilege, I consider, that you enjoy in being educated where you can learn all
that literature or science has as yet done for the art of cultivation. The
greater ptart of the knowledge at present available can, I am persuaded, be
picked up here with less expenditure of time and labour than in any other
institution, where anything bearing upon agriculture must be taught in a very
indefinite way." ..." Having had the opportunity of seeing the character
and completeness of the education given at Cirencester, I confess that I have
envied the privileges of its recipients. As one of the Examiners for the High-
land Society's diploma, I, along with some of my coadjutors, have been struck
with the rare proficiency of some of our diploma holders who were educated
here. This fact so far satisfied me that this institution is effectually answering
the end its supporters have in- view. For my own part, I do not see any
reason why you should not yearly turn out diploma holders by the dozen^
instead of, as at present, in ones or twos ; nor why many more of you shoiild
not take the Higliland Society's diploma, were it to secure no other end than
to show your parents or guardians that a good use has been made of golden^
opportunities. There never was so great a thirst or desire for agricultural
knowledge as there is in the present day, and I do not know where it can be
satisfied as at this Institution. Any honorary distinction, which you have the
means of acquiring here, will certainly be looked upon as a good omen or
promise of your future success in life, as it will afford a strong presumption
that you will display the same diligence in business as you have done aS
College. ..." I am very glad, indeed, that I have snatched a little time
from business to visit this Institution. It has given me much pleasure to
observe the order and discipline which j^revails, and I have no doubt that, in
after years, this will form one of tiie most pleasant and profitable aspects
in which you will view your residence here. You have the best opportunity
of acquiring the most liberal education ; and from personal observation and
examination since I came here, I am glad to find so many students far advanced
in the knowledge of what relates to tlie Art of Agriculture."

Having received from Mr. Baldwin, the Professor of Agricul-
ture at the Glasnevin Institution, near Dublin, written answers
to an inquiry wuich we hastily addressed to him as he was about
to enter the train after the conclusion of a course of lectures
delivered to the students, we venture to make the following-
extracts. After stating the opportunities for daily personal inter-
course with the students and Professors afforded by a residence
for the delivery of two courses of Lectures in 1863 and 1864,
Mr. Baldwin writes : —

" My own habits of thought and action induced me to give the fullest

Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester. 9

consideration I was able to the intei'nal discipline and general arrangements
of the College. After fourteen years' experience of agricultural education
at Glasnevin, it was natural that the College arrangements should interest
me. I was anxious to study the system pursued here, not only for its own
sake, but for the purpose of assisting my judgment whenever my employers
should think fit to consult me regarding the Glasnevin establishment. Under
these circumstances, I have no hesitation in expressing my conviction of what
a student may do at the College. I say advisedly what a student inay do ;
because you can judge an institution of this kind fairly only by its attentive
and assiduous students. It is unfair to the Royal Agricultural College to
judge it bj' the careless and inattentive student. Every man of experience
knows there are some men whom you cannot by possibility induce 'to study.
So it must have been,' and so it must continue to be at Cirencester. But a
student who is bent on acquiring a thorough knowledge of his profession, who
is determined to use his best eftbrts to gain a good position amongst his brotlier
farmers, who has a laudable amount of ambition to excel, who, in short, is
anxious to use such' abilities as the Almighty has endowed him with for his
own advantage, could spend a couple of years at this College more profitably
than at any place of which I have any knowledge. Apart from the scientific
knowledge to be acquired at Cirencester, and the invigorating influence exerted
by its class-discipline on the mind, the students acquire thus a vast amount
of practical agricultural knowledge. I am unwilling to mention individual
students by name, as I might omit others of equal merit, but I may add that I
was invited to examine several for the College diploma in November last, I
examined them on the form for several weeks. I bad an opportunity of testing
their knowledge of farming acquired in the College class-rooms and on the fanii.
It is due to the College, and to those by whom they were instructed, to state
that I have never met with young men who, during the time, had acquired so
large a mass of scientific and practical agi'icultural knowledge. I do not believe
it possible that they could in the same time have stored their minds with the
same amount of knowledge of principles and practical details on the farm of
any private individual. In making this remark I have no desire to undervalue
the private farm as a school for practical instruction. Some of the students at
the College struck me as possessing a better knowledge of the theory and
practice of modern farming than any men of their age I ever met with. They
will never regret the time tliej^ spent at the College ; and the time will come
when students of their stamp will take their place in the current of agricul-
tural progix'ss, and be living witnesses of the value of a sound agricultural
education. "It only remains for me to express a hope that the College will
prosper, and fully realize the aspirations of its founders."

We have been Induced to add these influential testimonies to
the general efficiency of this Institution for the purposes of its
foundation, not as forming part of its history, but as being
highly creditable to the Principal and the regular staff of
Professors.

Charles Lawrence.

Cirencester, July 27th, 1864.

( 10 )

II. — On Breaking up Pastures. By C. Belchee.

Prize Essay.

In treating of breaking up of pasture and its subsequent
management as arable land I venture to offer my own ideas.
I do not presume to think that I shall be able to lay down
any new rules, or recommend any course that will be applicable
to every case that may arise. All that I can do is to state the
results of my experience and observation, with some informa-
tion which has been kindly given to me by friends engaged,
as I am, in farming. I shall also avoid the use of scientific
geological terms, in referring to the various soils I may have
occasion to mention, and merely describe them as they are
spoken of by farmers and their labourers, believing that state-
ments easily understood, and clearly given, and directions of a
plain and practical character, best accord with the object of this
Journal and the wishes of its Directors. Classing various soils
under three heads, viz., Heavy, Medium, and Light Land, I pro-
pose to describe in this order different modes of breaking up and
cropping, which I consider most advantageous in ordinary cases.
Peculiar circumstances sometimes exist which render ordinary
rules inapplicable : unless these receive special consideration the
promise of success will often result in loss and disappointment.

In all cases I shall presume that, as a preliminary, the land has
been well and wisely drained. Although some practical farmers
still hold that grass-land as such may possibly be injured by
draining, no such doubt applies to arable, except on the score of
excessive outlay.

Clay Land. — The first case we have to consider is the break-
ing up of grass on clay or stony loam. On such land the her-
bage is generally of a coarse character, with here and there tufts
and patches of rough grass which cattle will seldom eat, and
never thrive upon. Occasionally the turf is thin, and there is an
absence of the long coarse grass.

Towards the end of February the breast-plough should be set
vigorously to work on the turf, that the drying winds of March
may make it ready for the fire. Harrowing must precede the
burning ; twice over will generally suffice. Let the fires be
made at equal distances, and not very far apart. The burners
Avill, for their own convenience, generally attend to these points,
especially if the work is done, as it should be, by measure
and contract.* As soon as the heaps are charred through, let

* Breast-ploughing and burning usually costs from twenty to twenty-five
shillings per acre ; this price includes spreading the ashes.

Mreaking up Pastures. 11

the ashes be spread evenly on the land : if you wait until they
are cold, combustion will have gone too far, and the ashes will
not prove so beneficial as when a great portion of the vegetable
matter is merely charred. The black ashes are better than those
of a red colour. In burning, much depends upon good judgment
and management ; the fiies burn much inore slowly, and require
more attention, when the weather is damp ; but better ashes are
then made than in the dry windy weather that frequently prevails
in the month of March. As soon as the ashes are spread, horse-
plough them in with a very narrow and shallow furrow. It is
scarcely possible to plough the land too lightly ; for ashes have
always a tendency to work downwards, and it is desirable to
keep them as near to the top as possible. Another horse-ploughing
across the first furrows will sometimes be required, with harrow-
ing, rolling, and the usual operations for reducing the soil to a
fine tilth.

When the proper season for turnip-sowing arrives, begin by
drilling swedes, turnips, rape, or a mixture of rape and turnips :
either of these crops would be likely to succeed, especially with
an allowance of artificial manure. Part of the ashes made from
the burned turf should be reserved for drilling with the turnip-
crop, unless it has been determined to use the liquid-manure-
drill.

Sometimes newly-broken land does not get sufficiently pul-
verised to allow the drill to work freely at first. In such cases
it will be better to adopt the old-fashioned plan of sowing broad-
cast ; so that the small seeds may fall into the crevices, and be
covered by the use of a chain-harrow, or the common bush-
harrow ; the ground should finally be made firm with an iron
roller, Cambridge presser, or clod-crusher, and a good crop may
then be reasonably expected.

We now come to the consumption of the first root-crop ; and
I would strongly advise that this should be done with sheep as
early in the season as is practicable, especial care being taken
that the crop be equably consumed over every part of the
field. The first turnip-crop is frequently patchy, even where
great care and labour have been bestowed upon it : in one spot it
may be superabundant, while in another it has almost failed. In
such cases a little expense in carting roots to these Dare places
would be repaid twentyfold. This may appear like " robbing
Peter to pay Paul ;" but as the two will work together in part-
nership for the future, it is desirable that their powers should be
equalised. The addition of cake or corn to the food of the
sheep when on the turnips will, of course, increase the prospects
of an abundant corn-crop in the following season.

Before any horse-ploughing is commenced it will be advisable

12 Breaking up Pastures.

to determine in which direction the " lands " or furrows should
be, with a twofold object, — 1st, for convenience in ploughing,
so as to avoid crooked furrows and short turnings ; and, 2ndly,
for the ready escape of the surface-water. I am aware that the
mention of Avater running down furrows may be objected to by
some who think it possible in all cases to dispense with water-
furrows ; still, on some of the strong clays, although drained
effectually, surface-water will sometimes be seen ; as for instance
when a rapid thaw sets in, after a deep fall of snow on hard
frozen ground : therefore I would say, be on the safe side, and
prepare for an exceptional case, by making water-furrows, or
you may suffer loss and vexation when the rain is descending-
and the floods come.

In horse-ploughing for the first corn-crop experience teaches
us that the; furrows should be shallow ; the manure from the
sheep and the ashes from the burned turf will then be kept near
the surface. Oats are generally preferred for the first corn-crop
on newly-broken land ; wheat is occasionally grown ; but taking
the average of cases it is best to start with the oat. With the
oats sow a mixture of clover-seed and rye-grass, to be once
mown, then depastured with sheep, and ploughed in the autumn
for wheat ; or it may be a better course to let the clover and rye-
grass remain two seasons before ploughing for the second corn-
crop.

On breaking up some poor grass-fields (clay soils and sub-
soil) in the Vale of White Horse, in Berkshire, the following
plan was adopted : the turf was merely horse-ploughed and
planted with vetches, and an excellent crop was the result. After
the vetches had been eaten by sheep the land was again horse-
ploughed, and wheat was planted, which produced an abundant
crop ; then the land came into the regular farm-course. In an-
other field of similar quality the occupier adopted the plan of
breast-ploughing and burning ; oats were planted, then wheat
Avas tried, then swedes : yet all the crops for the first few
seasons were either partially or wholly lost, through the ravages
of wire-worms. This is the only case within my knowledge
Avhere horse-ploughing has proved better than breast-ploughing
for the coi:\^'ersion of clay-land pasture into arable ; and I mention
it as an exceptional instance.

Strong Loams and deep Stone-Brash. — Strong loams and deep
stone-brash lands may be classed together, because they should
have similar treatment, during the first few years of cropping as
arable.

As far as I have been able to ascertain, their treatment will
differ from that of clay-land only on these points : that barley
may sometimes be substituted for oats as the first corn-crop, and

Breaking up Pastures. 13

that wheat had better be taken after the seeds have stood for one
year. All new arable land lias a tendency to become hollow and
spongy ; and if the ground is loose, wire-worms, where these
abound, can more readily carry on their destructive operations.
Measures should, therefore, always be adopted to keep the soil
firm when under crop of any kind, I have omitted to mention
beans as a crop suitable to a clay soil, because on new land they
are an uncertain crop. When so planted they frequently look
well at the commencement of their giowth ; but as the summer
advances they become weak and sickly, the blossoms fall oft,
and at harvest, although there may be a fair c[uantity of haulm,
but very few corn-pods appear on the stalks; still beans* may
in some situations be advantageously substituted for clover after
the first corn-crop.

Chalk. — In this branch of my subject I shall have chiefly to
speak of those Down pastures that once exclusively occupied the
long ranges of our English chalk-hills, to which of late the opera-
tion of breaking up has been most extensively applied. Friends
who occupy large tracts of such soil concur with me in opinion
that here also the breast-plough and fire are the best agents that
can be used ; and that to adopt any other course is to invite
failure. One approved plan is the following : — Pare the turf as
thin as possible, burn it when sufficiently dry, and, when the
ashes are spread, " rafter "f the land with the horse-plough; in
the autumn " rafter " a^ain, across the first work, and plant
wheat as the first crop : a turnip-crop follows, and then the field
enters into the regular farm-culture. Some good cultivators,
after paring and burning in the same season, plant swedes or
rape and turnips, to be followed by wheat or oats. Where there
is a fair chance of success, the gain of a turnip-crop, with its
attendant benefits, is not to be neglected. But the judicious
farmer, like the skilful physician, must have regard to every
feature in the ])atient's case.

Gravel on Chalk. — 'Some of the chalk-hills, such as those in
the neighbourhood of Henley, in Oxfordshire, have a surface-soil
of gravel and flints. In breaking up such lands as these, both
the author and some of his acquaintance have taken the following

* It may not be generally known that o7/? beans nscd as seed frequently produce
a much better crop tlian m-w seed-beans. Tlie writer could mention many remark-
able instances of the kind, and is so fully impressed M-ith tlie advantage of planting
old beans, that he seldom uses any other except for experiment.

t Kaftering. — This is frequently done by taking off the "ground wrest" and
" tumfurrow " from an ordinary plough, and substituting a bit of wood (about
6 or 8 inches long, and 3 inches in depth) for the " turnfurrow." With the plough
so prepared, alternate strips between each furrow are left unploughed, and the
furrow slices are laid on tliis firm unmoved ground, so that only half the land is
actually moved; the work can also be done with an unaltered plough.

14 Breaking up Pastures.

course : — The ordinary horse-plough was followed by a " Land
Presser," which forced the grassy edge of the furrow-slice to the
bottom of the furrow, and at the same time made deep channels
and a firm bed for the seed-corn. This "presser" consists of
two heavy iron wheels, about one yard each in diameter, and a
light guide -wheel, all fixed into a frame connected with shafts.
One horse draws the presser after two plough-teams, and each
heavy wheel works between two furrow-slices ; the guide-wheel
runs on the unploughed ground about one yard from the furrow.
In the cases referred to, oats were sown for the first crop, and
they answered well. After the oats, it was invariably found that
the turf had decayed, and was reduced to vegetable mould, which
was easily pulverized by ordinary methods. These gravelly soils
on chalk appear to possess the property of causing vegetable
matter to decay in a short time, and, where such rapid decay
takes place, burning turf would be a wasteful process.

Sandy Soils.- — Sandy soils never make rich pasture-land, but
poor pasture on a deep sandy soil frequently makes profitable
arable-land when broken up, and in bringing such into cultiva-
tion the plough and presser may sometimes be used with advan-
tage. But here, again, the paring and burning process is the
safer course to adopt. If the land has not been burnt, a deeper
furrovv must be given than when ashes are ploughed in, other-
wise there will not be sufficient soil to pulverize for the covering
of the seed-corn, if corn be the first crop. But here, again, I
would advise that a turnip-crop be first grown, and consumed on
the land with sheep, and then there will be almost a certainty of
a good corn-crop. The treading of the sheep, apart from their
manure, is generally thought to be very beneficial on fresh-broken
land ; the fibrous turf-roots are parted and torn to pieces by the
feet of the sheep, so that they decay more rapidly, and become
food for succeeding crops.

Thin Stone-Brash. — On the poor pastures of a thin stone-brash
soil there is not sufficient mould to produce a thick turf; coarse
patches of the worthless carnation-grass are here frequently found,
the tough roots of which resist decay for a long period if ploughed
down ; therefore burning should be resorted to in breaking up
such land. When the paring and burning has been finished and
the ashes spread, a second breast-ploughing, to be followed by
harrowing to separate the tough fibres, will frequently be found
cheaper and better than horse-ploughing ; even if a third breast-
ploughing be given before the turnips are sown, the extra labour
and expense will be amply repaid by the abundance of the crop.
The barley which should follow this turnip-crop may either be
drilled after a shallow horse-ploughing, or it may be sown after
the sheep have been removed, and merely breast-ploughed in.

Breaking up Pastures. 15

There a mixture of seeds should always be the third crop taken, —
it is useless to expect a poor thin stone-brash soil to yield a large
or profitable return, unless it receive liberal treatment,

Featy Soils. — These lands never afford good pastures, and the
hay taken from them is always of a light and poor character ;
as their culture is not diflicult or expensive, the occupier has
always strong inducement to convert them into arable. Such
lands are never so easily, cheaply, or successfully brought hito
cultivation, as by paring and burning. Whilst gravelly soils
appear to hasten the decay of vegetable substances, peaty lands
seem to possess an opposite quality.

I once broke up a field of sixteen acres of well-drained peaty
land with a clay subsoil, the owner of which at that time held
the theory that burning vegetable matter of any kind was a
wasteful process, and that the fire destroyed much matter that
would be valuable if reduced to decay by natural decomposition.
The turf was therefore pared off, and drawn together into large
heaps ; then the land was dug about five inches deep during the
winter ; at spring there appeared to be an excellent seed-bed ;
oats were drilled in, but the ravages of the wire- worm com-
menced as soon as the oats were planted, and the kernels from a
large portion of the seed were eaten before they had time to
sprout. The few plants that survived were fed off on the field by
sheep ; the land was worked with ploughs and harrows during
autumn, and in the following spring oats were tried again ; and
again the crop was nearly destroyed by the wire-worms. Yet,
after a while, this field showed its productive powers by growing
very full crops. This case of failure may act as a warning to
those who may have occasion to convert peaty pasture-land to
arable. To such persons I would say, breast-plough and burn
for the first turnip-crop, and then horse-plough as shallow as
possible, and plant oats ; after the first oat-crop turnips or swedes ,
again (if a full crop, a portion of these roots may with advantage
be removed to other land or yards) ; then oats again, with clover
and rye-grass seeds ; then let the land take its regular course on
the farm, unless wheat should be considered hazardous, as it is
very liable to blight and mildew on such land. Perhaps for the
first few years no safer or more profitable plan could be adopted
than the following, which has stood the test of experience on land
such as that described : — 1. Turnips ; 2. Oats ; 3. Grass, to be
mown or fed, then (in the next year) breast-plough and burn for
turnips, and so on.

General Remarks. — It may be objected by some readers, that in
treating of the subject of the conversion of grass-land to arable, 1
have merely raised a cry of Fire ! fire ! It is true that I have
recommended burning as the safest, cheapest, and best mode, that

16 Brealiwg up Pastures.

can be adopted ; and I do so because experience, observation,
and extensive inquiry over a large district, confirm my opinion
on this point. Many persons have endeavoured to prove, and
perhaps have clearly show^n by experiment, that nearly all vege-
table matter loses some of its A'aluable properties when subjected
to fire, and that a greater amount of manure is produced by
gradual decay. Still, it must not be forgotten that by burning
turf, time is gained, and a strong stimulant is secured in the first
year for the fundamental crop of turnips, which, being forced to
early maturity and great bulk, will probably give back to the
land as manure a far greater amount of valuable matter than can
have been dissipated by the burning. Ashes also act mechanic-
ally, and on strong clay-soils cause an advantageous separation of
the earthy particles, and also make the soil more dry and healthy
for sheep Avhen folded thereon.

Let me suggest to clay-land farmers an inexpensive experi-
ment— that in breaking up pasture on a strong clay-soil they
should take the opportunity of clod-burning, as practised in some
parts of Worcestershire * with marked success. The dried
turf would, I believe, with the addition of a small quantity of
coal, provide sufficient fuel to burn very large quantities of clay,
and thus secure the benefit of a heavy dose of burned soil, with
comparatively slight increase of cost.

I will now endeavour to meet the objections that I anticipate
Avill be raised against my proposals for cropping newly-broken
land.

It may be said that new land will yield many corQ-crops in
succession, and therefore to plant the less profitable green crops
at first would be to reject a benefit Avhen within our reach.
Unfortunately for much land in England, and I think I may add
unfortunately for many tenants also, the exhaustive system of
cropping is too well known and too frequently practised to render
"it necessary for me to give any instruction on that head. The
plans for cropping suggested by me are such as I consider likely
to raise the fertility of the various soils, instead of lowering them ;
and I cannot believe that any system that has a tendency to
reduce the standard of fertility, can possibly work for the benefit
of any class for a lengthened period. Surely the farming of
England cannot be right, unless year by year English land is
increasing in fruitfulness. There has been, and there still is,
a strong prejudice on the part of owners against breaking up
pasture ; and if we may judge by what has been done with newly
broken-up land in many places, the objectors have full and

* 'Journal of Royal Agricultural Society,' Vol. v. p. 113 ; also Vol. xxiv. part
2, page 540.

Breaking vp Pastures. 17

sufficient reason for their opposition. Nearly every Airmer could
point to fields that he once knew as poor pasture ; then as heavy
corn-bearing^ land for a few years, and later and ever since as
poor, very poor arable land, and " he knows the reason why."
Surely, then, it is time that exhaustive systems were abandoned,
and more liberal and renovating- methods established in their stead.

The question of breaking up pasture, in its broader bearings,
not only affects the interests of the landlord, the tenant, and the
labourer, but enters so deeply into the general supply of food, and
field for the employment of labour, that it more or less con-
cerns the whole community. He who recognizes the wisdom of
him who wrote that "The profit of the earth is for all : the king
himself is served by the field,"* will feel the national importance
of this subject.

No one, however, would advise the indiscriminate breaking
up of pasture-land ; there is much rich grazing-ground and
whole districts in the dairy counties that ought to continue as
they are ; but, on the other hand, there is much grass-land that
has always been unsuited for pasture, its character being such
that it could not by ordinary means be made very productive either
to the dairyman or grazier. This inferior land (unless rendered
unfit by climate, altitude, heaviness of soil, or other peculiarity)
would, if brought into cultivation, under fair restrictions and
a well-regulated course of cropping, be more profitable to all
parties concerned than it is at present.

On the other hand, there is much old cultivated land that
would be benefited and renovated if laid to grass for a few years ;
so that on many farms for every field broken up another of equal
extent might be devoted to pasture. Our root-crops would at
all events be benefited by the exchange if, as seems likely, the
difficulty which has arisen of late years of securing a good growth
of turnips has been caused by the repetition of these crops on the
same land. Two fields in my o\Vn occupation which once grew
immense crops of swedes, now, Avith more liberal treatment in
manure, tScc,, are most precarious in their yield. The swedes
when planted make a good start, and a stranger would suppose
them to be quite secure ; but, as the summer advances, decay
begins at the roots, the leaves droop, and the plants become
entirely rotten when they have reached the size of a hen's egg.
Would not new land be a remedy for these and innumerable
other cases of a similar kind ?

Little Coxwell, Faringdon.

* Eccles. V. 9.

VOL. XXVI.

X 18 )

III, — On the Planting, Raising, and After - Management of
Orchards, and their various Kinds of Fruits, for Culinary
and other uses, considered as Marketable Productions of a Farm
adapted to the Counties of Worcester, Hereford, and Gloucester.
Bj Clement Cable.

Worcester Prize Essay.

In travelling through the cider districts every observant person
will be struck with the fact that in the management of our
orchards thei'e is a great want of system, and that in many
respects there is room for improvement ; and the occasion of
the Royal Agricultural Society's visit to Worcester is an
opportune moment for directing special attention to such
defects. Instead of the pleasing sight of a well-regulated
orchard, in which every tree is in its place, the rows coming
in line whichever way you look at them, the branches being
trained to a good height and kept well pruned, our visitors
will remark many specimens planted without order, very seldom
pruned, and oftentimes allowed to become so thick, that they
get covered with moss and lose their bearing properties many
years sooner than they would under proper management.

In the following remarks it will be my endeavour to carry out
the division of the subject proposed in the announcement of the
prize : —

1. The planting of the seed.

2. Raising the young stock.

3. The soil, aspect, and circumstances which attend

successful cultivation.

4. The after-management, — including planting out, graft-

ing, pruning. &c.
5". The various sorts of trees, with general remarks
attending the subject.

1. Planting the Seed.

There are almost as many ways of rearing young stocks for
an orchard as there are people who attempt it; for, with the
exception of nurserymen who make a business of it, you seldom
find two men doing it alike.

The common way amongst farmers is to transplant the young
plants that come on the must (or refuse-heap left from the last
year's cider-making) to some corner or out-of-the-way plot of
ground, where but little attention is bestowed upon them, and
they are left to take their chance. Some of the plants make
good stocks, but the greater proportion grow into short stunted

Management of Orcliards. 19

trees of little value ; and when these joung trees are planted
out, without a proper selection being made, their after-growth
exhibits great irregularity, and this accounts for the diversity to
be found in our orchards, in which many of the trees never
attain a sufficient height for being grafted.

It may be taken as an established rule that the wild apple, or
crab, is the best stock to graft upon, alike for the formation of
the tree, and also for the keeping properties of the cider. The
proper way is to take some crab-apples, such as are used for
making vinegar, and partially grind them in a mill, taking care
not to crush the kernels ; the juice should then be pressed out
and the pulp spread out to dry, either in a granary or loft ; or
if the weather is fine, it may be dried in the open air. It is
important to select such crab-apples as are ripe, so as to secure
the proper germinati(m of the seed.

After the pulp is well dried it should be stored in some dry
place till required for planting, care being taken to preserve it
from mice, which are very fond of the sweet kernels.

Some persons prefer picking the kernels out of the crabs or
apples without the crushing : this is not material, so long as care
is taken to get ripe fruit selected, then to get the keinels dry,
and keep them from damp, or other injury.

During the months of February, March, or April, some ground
should be prepared for the seed by being well cleaned and
manured. A sheltered plot in a garden is a good place, but a
piece of old turf which has been trenched up early in the winter
is far better. Upon the seed-bed thus prepared the kernels
should be strewed in drills 1 foot or 18 inches apart, and just
covered with earth ; when the must-refuse is used, it should be
well rubbed in the hand before being sown.

2. Raising the Young Stock.

Another plot of ground, either broken up pasture, as before
described, or land dressed with rotten farmyard-manure, should be
well prepared, and in open weather, soon after the leaves fall, the
young plants should lie removed to this plot, being placed in
rows 30 inches apart, and 12 inches between the plants, so that
the ground may be kept clean, and the young stocks attended to.
It is very important that this be done in open weather, for frost
is very injurious to the roots : any straggling roots may then be
trimmed, but it is better not to prune the top at this stage of the
growth, for, as the leaves are the lungs of the plant, every leaf is
now of consequence. After being thus planted out they should
be left till Midsummer, when the whole of the stocks should be
gone over, and any straggling branches or side-shoots should have
the end pinched off them : this will divert the sap up the main

c 2

20 Management of Orchards.

stem during the Midsummer shoot, and the plant will have the
benefit of the leaves till the following winter. These shoots
should then be removed with a sharp knife, care being taken to
make a smooth up cut. The importance of removing all branches,
and roots likewise, by a smooth iip cut, the edge of the knife being
kept away from the tree, cannot be too strongly urged ; for if the
branch be left bruised or ragged, it holds the wet, decay ensues,
and the energy of the young plant is most undesirably taxed to
heal and cover the sore ; whereas a smooth cut heals at once with
a slight scar, and apparently little effort, nature having provided
the tree with a curative power proportional to the injury received.
Whether the tree should be again removed before toeing planted
in the orchard is a much contested point ; many- affirm that by
moving the stock every year it is in the nursery, you get a
hardier and better rooted plant, but I think if the land is of good
quality and kept clean they need not be transplanted more than
once.

If the young stocks are to be grafted in the nursery (a plan
which I do not recommend, for reasons to be noticed hereafter),
it should be done in the third or fourth year of their growth.
After the stock is 1|- to 2 inches in diameter, or 5 or 6 inches in
circumference, it is fit for planting out into the orchard : to
attain this size under proper management on good land will
take five years, but sometimes six or seven are required.

Other ways of rearing young trees, by suckers, or layers, or
cuttings, may be just mentioned, but they are not to be recom-
mended for the establishment of an orchard.

3. The Soil, Aspect, and other Circumstances attending
successful Cultivation.

The best soils for the growth of apples are the strong loams
and clays on the old red sandstone in Herefordshire, Devonshire,
parts of Gloucestershire and of Somersetshire, and the alluvial
deposits resting thereon ; but some fine fruit is produced on
the new red sandstone and blue lias. Pears flourish more on the
new red sandstone than on any other soils, as we have abundant
proof in Worcestershire.

As a general rule wherever hops are successfully grown
orchards flourish, and either a good luscious cider is produced,
or excellent table-fruit. The London clay produces good fruit,
but it is more suitable for culinary and table purposes than for
making cider, and this is generally true with the drier climate
of the Eastern counties ; the moist climate of the Western coun-
ties being requisite to produce that juicy fruit which is suitable
for making cider.

Although the presence of lime in the soil is generally desirable

Management of Orchards. 21

for the hoaltliy growth of fruit, yet the apple-tree does not flourish
on limestone formations : hence you seldom see any orchards in
the centre of England, on the oolitic and chalk formations ; and
where apples are grown on a limestone soil, the cider is pale in
colour and of inferior quality.

A good depth of soil is of first importance : its texture should
be sufficiently tenacious to retain moisture, and not so stiff as to
prevent the free passage of water and air ; but where the ground is
very stiff, a judicious system of drainage will be valuable. The
alluvial deposits on the banks of rivers (where the stream is not
too rapid to« allow a due proportion of clay to be left) are often
very valuable for orchards, of which examples may be seen in the
vales of the rivers Severn, Wye, Lugg, and Froome. I know of
an instance or two in the parish of Westbury-upon-Severn where
COZ. and 101. have been made in one season by the sale of plums
grown on less than an acre of land of this description.

For the counties of Worcester, Flereford, and Gloucester, a
southern aspect is the best ; for, amongst other reasons, it is very
important for the trees and fruit to get the full power of the
sun all day. The sweetness of the fruit is in a great measure
dependent upon its starch being changed into sugar, and the
influence of the sun in ripening the young wood must not be
overlooked.

The next best aspect is the western, its chief disadvantage
being the strong winds prevalent in the autumn when the trees
are covered with fruit ; but if their force is broken by surrounding
hills, this aspect is nearly as good as the southern.

In an eastern aspect the trees are more subject to blight,
which generally is accompanied by east winds. I know this to
be the case in my own neighbourhood, but I cannot account for
it unless the cold east winds check the healthy action of the
juices near the bark, and thus favour the production of the aphis,
which is the acknowledged blight.

Frost seldom hurts the trees, unless it comes after rain when the
trees are in bloom ; the destruction of the wet blossoms is then
certain. Orchards planted on high ground suffer less, because
they dry faster than those on the lower lands, which are specially
subject to spring frosts.

4. The After- Management, including Planting Out, Grafting,
Pruning, ^'c.

Having fixed on a field for an orchard, either for making
cider or sales at market, and attended to the rules before-
mentioned with regard to draining, &.C., take a cross-staff and
set out in a field a large square, or rectangle, the sides being
divisible by the number of yards you intend to have between
your trees ; place a stake to mark the place of each tree in the

22

3Ianagement of Orchards.

two outer rows, and then fill in the centre with stakes, showing
where each tree is to stand ; by this means you will get the
trees in rows every way, as below. The outer lines show the

boundary of the field. The broad line shows the rectangle,
144 yards x 60 yards. The dotted lines show the line of sight,
so that, from whatever point you look at the orchard, the trees
appear in rows. The portion of the field outside the rectangle
can be afterwards planted on the same scheme. If you begin
planting on one side, you will to a certainty fail in getting the
last trees into their proper places ; for if one be set but an inch
out^of line, it throws the next still farther out.

In planting, if the subsoil is stiff and of bad quality, the holes
should be made larger and deeper than usual, the top soil being
placed under the roots ; but in a good loamy soil it is sufficient
to make them 2 feet square, taking care to have the centre 2 or
3 inches higher than the outsides. The roots of the young trees
should now be examined, and any rough, straggling portions cut
off; an assistant should hold the tree in its proper position whilst
some good mould is shaken amongst the roots. After it has
been further covered with 5 or 6 inches of loose mould, the stock
should be taken with both hands, about a foot from the ground,
and slightly shaken up and down, that the loose earth may settle
round the roots, care being taken not to raise it high enough for
the roots to get doubled up.

It is very important to avoid the common mistake of planting

the stock too deep. On stiff soils the previous depth in the nursery

on loose soils it is advisable to go, say 1 to

In this, as in all other agricultural operations,

will exercise his judgment. Many planters

burnt ashes and other manure be thrown into

is sufficient ; but
2 inches deeper,
the good farmer
recommend that

the hole before planting the stock ; but if the land is good, the
change of soil is sufficient, under ordinary circumstances, for

Mana/jement of Orchards. 23

some years. Any manure applied will do more good by being
spread on the surface, and washed into the roots, than if placed
under the tree, where the rain would carry it still deeper down,
and waste its virtues. Neither is it advisable to place farmyard-
dung or other rank manure under the roots.

Before the stock is planted the top should be cut back to
within 12 or 18 inches of the fork, as this will induce the tree
to throw out fresh roots. The distance to be adopted between
the trees is an important but disputed point. It should be our
aim that no two trees, when full grown, should touch each other,
so that the distance in a great measure depends on sort, soil, &:c. :
about 12 yards is the average interval, and it should never be less
than 10 yards. This may seem wide to those vS^xo have been in the
habit of planting at 6 or 7 yards. The effects of close planting are
to be seen in almost every parish : the boughs run into each other,
and the trees become like a wood, and covered with moss ; for want
of ^lir the herbage is destroyed, and the trees leave off bearing, and
have all the symptoms of age, when they would have been most pro-
ductive had the distance between them been sufficient. I can men-
tion an instance in which the same man who, when young, assisted
to plant an orchard, was employed, before he was sixty years of
age, to cut down some of the same trees in consequence of their
being so thick that they killed the grass under them. I was
present myself, and saw that many of the boughs were interlaced
one with the other for two or three yards. The fruit grown on
these thick trees is only fit for making sour cider, as a great pro-
portion of it never properly ripens.

This thin planting is no new theory. I have in my possession
a book 210 years old, called ' Country Contentments,' by Jervase
Markham. The author says, after writing upon small, evil-
thriving, sour fruit, galls, wounds, diseases, and short life to
trees — " To prevent which discommodity, one of the best remedies
is the sufficient and fit distance of trees. Therefore at the
setting of your plants you must have such respect that the dis-
tance of them be such that every tree be not an annoyance but
a help to his fellows ; for trees (as all other things of the same
kind) should shroud and not hurt one another ; and assure yourself
that every touch of trees (as well under as above) is hurtful!.
Therefore this must be a general rule in this art, that no tree in
an orchard well ordered, nor no bough, nor cyon drop upon or
touch his fellows." He afterwards says — " And herein I am of
a contrary opinion to all them which practise or teach the plant-
ing of trees that ever yet I knew, read, or heard of, for the
common space between tree and tree is ten foot ; if twenty foot,
it is thought very much. But I suppose 20 yards distance is small
enough betwixt tree and tree, or rather too too little. For the dis-

24 Management of Orchards.

tance must needs be as far as two trees are well able to over-
spread and fill, so thej touch not by one yard at least."

When the stocks are all planted, they should at once be pro-
tected from cattle and sheep, either by a triangular guard formed
with three stakes and cross-bars, for which hurdle-materials are
stout enough, or else with furze or bushes, bound round the tree
by a withe or two, if more convenient to the farmer. The
objection to the latter guard is, that in a year or so it is rubbed
off by cattle, and its repair is overlooked until the young tree is
peeled. Another plan is to use galvanized wire lattice-work,
which can be had at Ad. per tree. Good stocks vary in price
from Is. to 2^. Q>d. each : if you buy, get good stocks, and never
mind the price ; awd be sure they are between 6 and 7 feet
high.

As to the cost of planting, an orchard set out at 12 yards be-
tween each tree will take nearly thirty-four trees per acre ; and
as good stocks, 6 to 7 feet between root and branches, alld
2 inches in diameter, will cost, say 2s. 6t?. each, the expense
will be as under : —

£. s. d.

34 trees, at 2s, 6fZ 4 5 0

Planting, at 6(i. eacli 0 17 0

Protecting with timber at j

Is., or with bushes at od. 8s. Qd. > 1 14 0
Galvanized hattice wire, at 4rZ. lis. Aid.)

Grafting, at 1 5 (Z 0 3 8 or with food, IcZ.

Pruning for first 8 years 0 17 0

£7 16 8

If the trees be planted at 10 yards' distance, the price would be
very much increased, as 48 trees would then be required, which,
at the same rate, would cost 11/. \s. 2d. A tenant-farmer, unless
he has a lease, or a thorough confidence in his landlord, may well
hesitate about making such an outlay as this, for which his
prospect of return or compensation is precarious. Yet I have
never met with any mention of tenant-right with respect to the
planting an orchard, except that recorded by Professor Tanner,
in his Report on the Agriculture of Shropshire, vol. xli, ' Royal
Agricultural Society's Journal.' He there writes — " Where
orchards are planted by the tenant, if he leaves the farm within
eight years, the cost of the trees and interest are paid to him in
full ; but the compensation subsequently decreases one-eighth
every year." I should strongly recommend that a clause to this
effect should be adopted in the counties of Hereford or Wor-
cester ; for it would much benefit estates, and tend to their being
well stocked with fruit-trees. When in an old orchard the trees
are worn out, I should not recommend its being replanted, at least

Management of Orchards. 25

with the same khid of fruit-tree. It will be better to select a new
field, and fresh, unexhausted soil.

For the grafting, it will be well to employ a practised
and careful hand ; many such may be readily found. The
general price is \d. per graft, and food. For general orchard
purposes I recommend cleft-grafting, after the trees are planted
out. Nurserymen generally get a better price for a grafted
than for an ungrafted stock, and they prefer saddle and other
kinds of grafting, which is done while the tree is young. If you
have the grafting done after the planting-out, you can choose
your own sorts ; and the trees always make better heads ; they
come better together, and match better in the orchard. The
grafting should be done either the first or the third 3ear after
planting, and not in the second year. The reason for this is,
that in the first year you cut the top back to favour the growth
of the roots ; and although in the second year there would be
energy enough left to support the grafts, still they are not found
to do so well (perhaps in consequence of the young roots taking
too much of the nourishment) as if you wait till the third year,
when the tree is well established.

In the third year the top should be sawn off in the month of
February to keep the sap back ; and at the time of grafting, in
March or April, should be cut off another inch or so below the
first cut ; then, with the saw, make a slanting cut into the stock,
and with a sharp knife cut a wedge-shaped opening into it ; then
take the graft, reduced to about 9 inches in length, and cut the
lower end so that it just fits the cleft in the stock, and so adjust
it that the graft and stock fit perfectly all the way up, keeping
the tissues or inner rind of the graft exactly opposite those in the
stock ; it should then be gently tapped on the top with a small
mallet to drive it firmly in its place ; and then covered with
a composition of chopped hay and clay, well tempered together,
forming a ball, in the shape of an e^^, round the junction of the
graft and stock. This will remain for a twelvemonth ; but if it
does not fall off in eighteen months, it should be removed.

It is an excellent plan to have some wicker-baskets made for
enclosing the graft, which, being bound to the stock below the
graft, protect it from blows or gales : they can be had at a cost
of about Qd. each. In choosing the grafts it is very important not
to cut them from cankered, diseased, or even old trees ; the l)est
are taken from good bearers, about one-third grown. These
may be cut as early as February, and may be kept in a damp
cellar, or any moist place, or they may be pushed into the soil
3 or 4 inches deep in any piece of garden-ground. The grafts
should be cut before the sap commences its spring movement.

It will very much improve the orchard if, as far as the choice

26

Manafjement of Orcliards.

of varieties permits, the trees are grafted in rows, so that one
row be assigned to a wide-spreading sort, and the next to one
of more upright growth.

1. The Graft.

2, The Stock. 3. The Graft covered with clay.

4. The Guard.

On the early pruning of young apple-trees their future growth
depends. Great care is requisite to secure a well-formed head ;
neglect at this time is irreparable. There are generally three or
four buds left on the graft, and from these the careful pruner
forms his tree. These, in the second winter after grafting,
should be looked over, and any branches not growing right should
be removed, and also any side-shoots on the stock, and which
may be diverting the sap from the graft.

Every winter, as soon as the leaves are fallen, or not later
than January, the young trees should be gone over, and all cross-
branches cut out ; for these branches are the future limbs of the
tree, and, to produce a wide-spreading head, these must radiate
and spread outwards ; every branch that rubs against another
should also be removed. If the object be to grow table-fruit
of a large size, it will be the more essential to keep the boughs
thin and open, and you must not expect to get both quantity and
quality. Great care is requisite in the removal of useless wood
which does not bear. Pruning is too commonly either over-

Management of Orchards. 27

done, so that the trees are weakened by too much being' cut at
once, or else it is neglected, and the orchard left quite to itself.
Many of those who profess to understand it — and even some who
have followed it for years — are unable to state any rule for their
practice, it being with them quite haphazard work where to cut,
and where not.

The chief object of the pruner is to keep up a supply of
bearing wood in its most productive stage of growth. I have
conversed with some who, as in the case of vines, advocate mid-
summer pruning, with the object of throwing the sap, which
would otherwise be expended on the branches to be removed,
into those which are left, and thus make the fruit grown much
finer. As I have not seen the system in operation, I merely call
attention to it Avithout further comment.

The main rule in pruning is to prune every year whilst the
trees are young, and in after years never to exceed three years
between each pruning. When a large quantity of cider is the
chief object, much pruning is not desirable ; but if quality be of
importance, then the trees should be so pruned that nearly every
apple may get sufficient sun to ripen it. If the fruit is required
for table use, or for sale, the same pruning must be effected, and
care must also be taken that the fruit be not left too thick on the
tree. This is never much attended to in orchards ; but what
would become of wall-fruit if the trees were not properly
thinned ?

The Sorts of Fruit* — It is almost impossible to give satis-
factory information on this head, because the same sort is not
only known by different names in different localities, but also
it assumes a widely different character under the influence of
broad distinctions of soil and climate, and this is more frequently
the case with pears and apples. In a tour I made last autumn in
the south of Devonshire, I visited several farms in the neighbour-
hood of Totnes and Paignton, and amongst a great number of
sorts that I there saw, I could in no instance recognise either an
apple or tree as being like those I had seen before in Hereford-
shire, Gloucestershire, or Worcestershire ; but as this Essay only
applies to these counties, the matter is very much simplified.
For these reasons the choice of sorts must be left in great measure
to local inquiry, those which suit best one district being often in
no repute in another.

But in selecting trees for producing cider or perry, it is very
important not only to get those kinds which suit the district,

* Professor Johnson, in his ' Chemistry of Common Life,' vol. i. p. 314, says, —
" In Normandy not less than 5(i(i() differently named varieties of the acid or bitter
apple are known, and grown for the manufacture of cider."

28 Management of Orchards.

but to get a variety in their character, especially for making
good cider. Thus, some of the apples should be sour, others
sweet, bitter-sweet, tart, and harsh, as much of the keeping cha-
racter of the cider depends upon this mixture, which also makes
it fine down well. It may be remarked, that sweet or eating
sorts of pears seldom make perry that will keep any length of
time, or that fines well.

There is another peculiar feature in regard to sorts of fruit,
viz., that each variety has its day, then gradually dies out — the
trees become non-bearers, and their places are filled with new
sorts. This is especially the case with the Hagloe Crab, Fox-
whelp, and Skyrme's Kernel, which seldom bear or grow well
now, and are nearly gone out.

List op Pears.

Barland — Produce great ; imtil last few years in great demand for

early drinking.
Oldfield — Produce moderate ; easily fined, and of great value for

bottling.
Moorcroft — Produce moderate ; very strong, making nearly the

strongest perry we have.
Longland — Produce great ; perry of a very high colour.
Eed pear — Produce gi-eat ; much used for bottling ; valuable sort.
Blakeney Bed pear — Produce great ; quantity of liquor great.
Trump pear — Produce great ; perry strong and large in quantity,

but bad to keep.
Pine pear — Produce great ; perry large in quantity, but not very

good in quality.
Huffcap — Produce variable ; in some districts good and used for

bottling.
Holmore pear — Produce large and of good quahty in some dis-
tricts.
Taynton Squash — Produce middling ; the most valuable sort for

bottling.
Thorn pear — Produce large ; perry not very good, and will not

keep.
Honey pear — Produce large, but a very small pear.
And numerous other sorts having local names, such as the Dadnor

pear, Ingestone pear, &c.

List of Apples.

Tliose marked with (A) are good for hoardinfj, and those with f are good
for boiling.

■ Skyrme's Kernel — Tart ; good for cider.

Boyal Wilding — Bitter sweet ; good for cider.
Black Foxwhelp — Moderately tart ; good for cider.
fEed Foxwhelp (A) — Moderately tart ; good for cider.
Cowan Eed — Sweet ; good for cider.

Management of Orchards. 29

|Dymock Eed [A) — Very sweet ; good for cider.

White Normau — Bitter sweet ; good for cider.

Eed Normau — Bitter sweet ; good for cider.

Hagloe Crab — Tart ; good for cider.

Pawson — Tart ; good for cider.
fRedstreak — Sweet ; good for cider.

Yellow Styre — Sweet ; good for cider.
jHooper's Kernel (J.) — moderately sweet ; good for cider.
JHill Barn Kernel {A) — Sweet ; good for cider.
jRibston Pippin {A) — Sweet ; good for table and keeping.

Golden Harvey {A) — Sweet ; good for table and for cider.

Siberian Harvey — Sweet ; good for cider.

Farewell Blossom — Tart and bitter ; large bearer.

Upright French — Bitter sweet ; largo bearer.

Black or Red French — Bitter sweet.

Knotted Kernel — Tart.

Leather Apple — Hardly any taste.

Ironsides {A) — Hardly any taste ; good for keeping.
jCats'-heads {A) — Sweet ; good for cider.

Pigs'-eyes — Sweet.

Downton Pippin [A) — Sweet ; table and eating.
fCodlings {A) — Sweet ; good as boilers and for cider.
JMay Blooms {A) — Sweet ; good for cider, boiling, and keeping.

Rough Coat {A) — Dry and sweet ; good keepers.

Brandy Apple {A) — Very sweet ; makes strong cider.
fCowarne Quinine {A) — Sweet ; good for cider,
f Blenheim Orange \A) — -Very sweet ; good for table,
f Golden Pipi)in (J.) — Very sweet ; good for table.

Old Pearmain (yl)— Very sweet ; -good for table.
\ Brown Crests — Very sweet.

Under Leaves — Sweet ; large bearer.

Eed Kernel — Sweet ; good for cider.
■{•Reynolds's Kernel (J.)— Sweet ; large pot-fruit.

Newland Kernel — Bitter sweet ; good for cider.

Jackson's Kernel — Tart.
tSam's Crab— Tart,
f Bridgewater Pippin [A) — Sweet.
jSpice Apple {A) — Sweet.

White Beach — Bitter sweet ; good for cider.

Handsome Mandy — Bitter sweet ; good for cider.

Golden Rennet {A) — Sweet.

Pin Apple — Moderately tart ; wood cankers.
fStoke Pippin (.1) — Sweet: good bearers j pot-fruit and for cider,
and numerous others.

Among the Devonshire sorts I noted the Cockafjee, Styer,
Royal Redstreak, Dulllinif, Thousand-pound-ap])le, Fourpennj-
apple, Sheep-nose, Pocket-apple, «Scc. Perhaps the most general
favourite with us is the Upright French, especially on sandy

30 3fanagement of Orchards.

soils, and where quantity rather than quality is desired, in con-
sequence of the certainty of getting a crop every other year.
Many of the sorts here mentioned have three or four different
names in different districts ; and some of these are the same sort
only changed in name, form, and character by change of district.
The finest class of fruit-trees I have ever met with are in the
parish of Monkland, near Leominster, where it is quite the
exception to be able to reach the fork, or part where the branches
leave the trunk, and the trees attain a " large size. Near the
Rectory is a remarkably fine pear-tree orchard ; indeed through-
out the parish the fruit-trees are very large, kind, and healthy.
But although each sort has its own characteristics of growth and
stature, the size of the tree depends more on the nature and
quality of the soil than on these peculiarities. The orchards
in Worcestershire seem to get better attention than those in
Herefordshire ; and, from the climate being drier, they are not so
much covered with moss. I was surprised to see how well they
were pruned between Worcester and the parish of Rock, and also
in several other places in that county which 1 have had occasion
to visit ; but I suppose the less fruit there is grown, the more it
is appreciated, and therefore attended to.

I have not given any account of the diseases of trees, as I do
not think there is any cure : prevention is the surest plan. Be
sure not to graft from cankered wood ; and the better to insure
this, cut the grafts yourself, or see them cut. The blight is not
under the control of the farmer ; nor do I pretend to investigate
its origin. As it is acknowledged to be the Aphis, or plant-louse,
it is certain little can be done in the way of prevention ; for
in a few days after an east wind has reached us, the trees are
covered with myriads, although in some seasons we are quite
free.*

The growth of moss on the orchard-trees is more under our
control, as it is favoured by damp and the want of a free circu-
lation of air : draining and good pruning will do much to correct
this evil ; but it is also a good plan to wash the body and limbs
of the tree with a mixture of lime and coAv-dung every two or
three years.

I am fully convinced, that if more attention were paid to the

* Ou the subject of blight Mr. Belfield states (in the ' Bath and West of England
Journal,' New Series, vol. iii. p. 196) that the blight is the I'esultof a check in the
sap caused by a sudden change in the atmosphere. My own observation tends
to confirm this view rather than that of Mr. Tyrrell, who, in vol. v. p. 325, of the
same Joiirnal, states that it is not always the aphis, but sometimes a black grub,
then a green one, at other times a striped one, that infests the trees. But these
grubs do not generally come till after the leaves are on the trees, consequently the
damage is not so wholesale.

Management of Orchards.

31

cultivation of apples of a large size, there would be a good sale
for them to go to the manufacturing districts. In the neighbour-
hood of Gloucester and Worcester, many farmers make a large
profit by the sale of fruit, some years getting 55. to G.v. per pot
for them. When apples are abundant they are sometimes pur-
chased for use as a dyeing material ; but the demand is not large
or important.

The following analyses show the composition of apples and
pears : —

Apples according to Berard.
Water 86-28

Sugar . .

Ligneous luatter

Gum

Malic acid

Albumen

Chlorophylc ..

Lime

0-45
3-80
3-17
•11
•08
•08
•03

Tears according to Berard,
Water 8G^25

Sugar

Vegetable fibre

Gum

Malic acid

Albumen

Chloropliyle ..

Lime

G-45
3^80
3^17
•14
•08
•08
•03

Apples contain 0'27 per cent, of ash, and pears 0'41, the com-
position of which, according to Richardson, is as follows : —

Apples.

Potash 35-68

Soda 26-09

Lime 4-08

Magnesia 8-75

Sulphuric acid 6-09

Silicic acid 4*32

Phosphoric acid 12'34

Phosphate of sesquioxide of

iron 2-65

100-00

Pears.

Potash 54-69

Soda 8-69

Lime 7-98

Magnesia 5-22

Sulphuric acid 5-69

Silicic acid 1*49

Phosphoric acid 14-28

Phosphate of sesquioxide of

iron 1-96

Chloride of sodium . . . . trace

100-00

An examination of these analyses suggests an explanation of
a variety of facts well known amongst practical men. Thus,
pears contain more lime and potash, but less silica and soda
than is found in apples ; hence pears are better adapted to some
situations, and apples to others. Some pear-trees bear a ton
every year ; and in a ton of pears there would be upwards of
4^ lbs. of potash : thirty such crops would remove jnore than
1 cwt. of potash from the soil traversed by the roots of the tree ;
hence it is not desirable to plant pear-trees in land deficient in
potash. Apples contain a less quantity of potash, but three
times as much silicic acid, and also more magnesia ; and thus
we see one reason why we sometimes find one fruit flourish so
much better than the other.

32 Management of Orchards.

The resemblance between the ashes of the hop-plant* and
those of apples may perhaps explain the fact previously named,
that good cider is produced in the same districts where good hops
are grown. Trees, when in a state of nature, prevail on soils
adapted to their special requirements ; for instance, when one
generation dies out it is mostly replaced by another kind of tree,
as is often seen in American and other forests. Chemistry has ex-
plained that this change arises from the partial exhaustion of some
particular constituent in the soil ; and it also warns us, in our cul-
tivated lands, not to persist, except under special circumstances,
in the cultivation of the same plant.

Orchards should be manured once in five or six years, or at
farthest six to eight years ; the stronger the soil the larger may
be the quantity, and the greater the interval ; as the lighter the
soil, the more readily is the manure washed into the porous rocks
below. The following would, I think, be found a good dressing
for orchards, viz., a mixture of carbonate of potash, common
salt, nitrate of soda, and either partially dissolved bone, bone
superphosphate, or fine bone, mixed together, the bone manures
being varied according to the nature of the soil. If it be light,
bones may be used ; if very stiff, superphosphate. A compost
should also be made every year of the must or refu.se-heap left
from the cider-making. This is usually considered of no account
because of the acetic and lactic acids present ; but I have found
from experience, that if hot lime is mixed with it, these acids
are neutralized, and a good compost obtained by the following
winter. It should be applied to the trees 2 yards beyond the
extending branches, and to within 2 yards of the trunk, and not
thrown close round the trunk, as is commonly done.

I have not taken any account of cherries, plums, and other
fruits, which, in the counties . specified, are not among the
marketable productions of the farm, but generally confined to
gardens. Many of the same rules apply to these fruits as to
apples and pears.

Ballingliam Hall, Boss,
Herefordshire.

* Hop ashes contain 19-41 per cent, of potash, 17"88 of silicic acid, 14*15 of lime,
5-34 of magnesia, and scarcely any soda at all.

i

( 33 )

IV. — Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases as
affecting Domesticated Animals. By James Beart Simonds,
Professor of Cattle Pathology, Royal Veterinary College.

Investigations of the lower forms of animal life are among
those which most interest and instruct the student of Natural
History ; but when they have for their more immediate object
-an elucidation of the causes of disease they acquire an import-
ance not otherwise belonging to them.

The study of those creatures known as parasitic has of late
years been rewarded by most unexpected discoveries, and we
are now enabled to understand much of that which before was
mysterious and hidden. Nor is this all, for to a great extent,
also, we have been furnished with the means of preventing
many of the diseases which are known to be connected with the
presence of parasites both in man and animals. Each diligent
investigator has in his turn contributed something to our former
knowledge, but yet much remains to be done. A rich harvest
still awaits him who labours in this field of science.

In the following pages we purpose to speak of the parasites
affecting domesticated animals in particular ; to describe their
structure and habits, and to deal practically with the means of
either effecting their removal from the bodies of their hosts, or
of counteracting their morbific influences. It may be truly said
that no part of the organism is exempt from their indwelling,
and that to reach their habitat many of them undergo strange
jnigrations, and still stranger transformations, the particulars of
which Avill, however, best appear as each creature is passed in
review.

Parasites are usually divided into three classes : those which
infest the skin in particular, and being upon an animal have
hence been termed Epizoa ; those which occupy for a given
time only, while undergoing a metamorphosis, either the ex-
ternal, or some internal part of the body with which there is a
direct communication — the Ectozoa ; and those which inhabit
the internal organs and are met with at times in every tissue
of the frame — the Entozoa. In our description we purpose to
deal with the different individuals belonging to these several
classes, in the order in which they have been named.

Epizoa.
Palex. — The Flea.

The flea is too well known to require a special description
either of its structure or form. It is a creature remarkable for
VOL. I. D

34 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

its agility and strength, being capable, according to computation,
of leaping fully two hundred times its own length, and of moving
a weight which many times exceeds that of its body.

Fleas infest various mammals and also birds, but are rarely met
with on any domesticated animal, excepting the pig, the dog, and
the cat. Poultry and pigeons are likewise subject to fleas, and
occasionally they are present in very large numbers in old straw
or thatch, and are thus brought into the cattle-sheds and pig-
cotes of the farm, or even into the house itself. In a case which
came under our notice some years since, we were enabled to trace
their presence to the erection of some pigsties with old building-
materials, and the thatching of them with old straw. They
were erected in a meadow near to the premises, and proved
to be so infested with fleas that the proprietor at last wisely
determined not only on pulling them down, but on setting fire to
the whole of the materials. By these means alone he succeeded
in freeing his dwelling-house, and also that of a neighbour, from
these troublesome parasites.

Besides instances of this kind, it has not unfrequently hap-
pened that extraordinary visitations of fleas have taken place in
particular districts, the origin of which could not be traced. We
were recently informed of such a case ; too late, however, even
for an examination of specimens to determine the variety to
which the fleas belonged. The visitation assumed such propor-
tions that not only the yards and buildings but the adjacent fields
also swarmed with these troublesome insects. After remaining
for three or four weeks, to the great discomfort of the family as
well as of the animals on the farm, they gradually disappeared,
without any means for their eradication having been adopted.

Naturalists place the flea in the order Diptera, sub-order
Aphaniptera — sheath-winged and hopping diptera — and family
Pulicida, of which it constitutes the only genus, although the
varieties are numerous, amounting, according to some authors,
to as many as twenty-five. The insect undergoes a complete
metamorphosis, analogous in every respect to that of moths or
butterflies. The female flea of man — Pulex irritans — is said to
lay about a dozen eggs at a time, which are ovoid in form and
comparatively large, bearing a strong resemblance in these par-
ticulars to the egg of the dog-flea. At first the eggs are of a
whitish colour, but they soon acquire a dark hue.

The egg of the dog-flea, see Fig. 1, A., which may be taken
as a type of the class, gives birth after a very short period
to a larva, which is long and slender, somewhat resembling
a worm in its form, and differing in no essential particular
from the larva of the Pulex irritans. The larva. Fig. 1, B,
as will be observed in the illustration, consists of fourteen

I

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 35

segments, including the liead. These gradually increase in
size towards the caudal extremity of the creature, reaching
their fullest dimensions at about the tenth segment, from
which thoy again diminish. Although the larva is not fur-
nished with legs, it is nevertheless remarkably active in its
movements, which are crawling or worm-like. The head is
surmounted by two very small antennae. The mandibles are
well developed, but their precise arrangement does not admit
of being clearly defined. No eyes can be detected. Each seg-
ment below the head is beset with a few stiff hairs, the number
and size of which also increase towards the caudal end ot the
larva. On the edge of the last segment but one the hairs are so
long and thickly set as to form a kind of fringe, which often'^pro-
jects beyond the booklets that are here developed. A similar
arrangement of them is also to be observed, but in a less degree,
upon the last four or five segments. Besides this peculiarity,
the extreme end of the last segment is furnished with a tuft of
very fine hair, and it gives origin also to the two small booklets
previously alluded to.

Fig. 1.

Ovum and Larva of Dog-Flea. Magnified.

It is thought by some naturalists that the larva of each variety of
flea, besides inhabiting the skin of the animal to which it especially
belongs, often travels to other mammals or birds, obtaining from
them a supply of food suited to its rapid growth and development.
According to Rymer Jones, the larva of the Pulex irritans attains
its full size in about twelve days subsequently to quitting the eg^.,
when it forms for itself a small cocoon, after the manner of the
silk-worm, and changes into a pupa. Whatever the fact may be
with reference to the larva of this flea, we can take upon our-
selves to say that the larva of the Pulex Canis often lives double
this time before the change is effected. The period Avhich
elapses before the imarjo bursts forth is said by Newman
and others to range from eleven to sixteen days, a statement
which our observations tend to confirm.

The Pulex Canis. — Firstly, it is necessary to remark, that as
the form of the flea is modified in each individual animal whose
body it inhabits, the flea of the dog can be easily distinguished
from any other by a microscopical examination. The chief

D 2

36 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

points of difference between it and the Ptdex irritans consist in
the lower part of its head, and the upper and lateral parts of
its protothorax being provided with a comb-like fringe. The
use of this is not very apparent, but probably by the pectinate
edge of the protothorax the creature is enabled to keep a firmer
hold of the hairs when travelling over the body of the dog,
while by that of the lower part of the head it can the more
easily push aside the downy hairs so as to insert its lancets and
suctorial organ into the skin to obtain its food. When located
on the body, even in small numbers, dog-fleas cause considerable
and persistent irritation, but do not give rise to any special
form of eruption, although the dog will occasionally rub him-
self quite bare in places in his attempt to rid himself of their
presence.

All the metamorphoses which the creature passes through
are frequently completed on the skin of the dog, and hence
many dogs suffer considerably from fleas for months together.
A remarkable instance of this kind was brought under our notice
a few years since by Mr. Austin, M.R.C.V.S., of Exeter, in which
a dog had been for six months the subject of excessive cutaneous
irritation. The case will be found recorded at p. 335 of ' The
Veterinai'ian ' for 1855.

Mr. Austin stated in his communication, that although the
itching had existed so long, and was always very considerable,
still, when the animal was brought under his care, no eruption
was to be observed. On making a close examination, however,
he says, " 1 discovered a number of little animals, unlike any I
had ever seen before, upon nearly every part of the dog's body.
I succeeded in getting some of these alive, mixed, however, with
much dirt and scales of cuticle. I send them by a friend, and
hope they will reach you before they are dead or dried up."

In commenting on this case, in the Journal alluded to, we
observed, " that more than a month had elapsed before the
small jar containing the parasites came to hand, and conse-
quently we despaired of finding any of them alive. To our
surprise, however, we found three or four still living among
the mass of dirt and cuticle. A slight examination Avas sufh-
cient to show that these were the larvce of some insect,
and the microscope at once decided that they were the
larvae of the dog-flea. Further search showed that there were
numerous dead larvae and exuvia? present, and therefore, to
facilitate our future examination, the whole mass was placed
in a phial with some diluted spirit, that the organisms might
be freed from the dirt, and be the more readily selected after
their imbibition of the fluid. By this means we obtained speci-
mens which rendered the history of the dog-flea perfect and com-

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 37

plete. Thus we have in our possession ova, showins^ more or
less perfectly the formation of larva> within them ; ova-cases,
from which the larvae had escaped ; larva', in different stages of
growth ; exuvioi, as cast oft' from time to time from the growing
larva* ; pupa;, in their various stages of change into the perfect
insect ; and insects themselves just brought into active life." *

Tliis extract, in addition to our other remarks, so fully
explains everything connected with the habitat and effects of
the dog-flea, that we may proceed tf) speak of the means at our
command to rid the animal of this troublesome parasite.

Blaine, in his ' Canine Pathology,' thus writes : —

" Washing the body ■well with soap-suds and directly afterwards combing it
with a small-toothed comb are the most ready means of dislodging those nimble
gentry. But it must be remembered that the previous washing is only to
enable the comb more readily to overtake them ; the water does not destroy
them, for dogs who swim every day are still found to have fleas. These insects
are very tenacious of life, and soon recover this temporary drowning ; the
comb, therefore, is principally to be depended on for their ca])ture before they
recover. But as washing is not, in many instances, a salutary practice ; and
as, iu many others, it is a very inconvenient one, so it becomes a matter worthy
of consideration how to be enabled to destroy them without these means.

" Sopping the skin with tobacco-water has been recommended; but it has
only a momentary effect, and it not unfrequently poisons the dog. Innumer-
able other means I have tried to drive away fleas, but the onlj' tolerably
certain one 1 have discovered, is to make dogs sleep on fresh yellow deal
shavings. These shavings may be made so fine as to be as soft as a feather-
bed, and, if changed every week or fortnight, they make the most cleanly and
Avholesome one that a dog can rest on ; and the turpentine in them is very
obnoxious to the fleas. But, where it is absolutely impracticable to employ
deal shavings, it will be found useful to rub or dredge the dog's hide, once or
twice a week, with very finely-powdered resin; if simply rubV)cd in, add some
bran." f

Besides the means recommended by Blaine, our experience
in the use of a watery solution of the sulphide of potassium
in the destruction of fleas and their larv<r, warrants us in
strongly recommending this agent. Let the dog be sponged
over with the solution, freshly made by adding 2 ozs, of the
sulphide to a pint of water. The whole body should be
covered at a time, and the sponging be repeated two or three
days in succession, after which the skin should be thoroughly
cleansed with soap and water.

It should be remembered, however, that where dogs are sleep-
ing in kennels out of doors the most effectual means of ridding
them of fleas will often fail for want of a complete cleansing of the
kennels. These should not only be well washed, but thoroughly
purified with lime-water, and it may even be necessary to do
this two or three times in succession. The same care should

'Veterinarian,' 1855, p. 335. f 'Canine Pathology,' p. 281.

38 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

be taken also to cleanse all sleeping-places and everything con-
tiguous to them, where these parasites, either in their perfect
form or in one or other of their metamorphoses, are likely to
exist. Similar means are to be employed in ridding pigs, and
pig-cotes of fleas, and especially should all the old litter be
destroyed.

Pulex penetrans. — The Sand-Flea, Chigger, Chique,
Chigue, &c.

Another of the family of Pulicidce is the Pulex penetrans, a
variety from which this country is fortunately exempt. It has
been said, however, to exist in the feet of sheep, and to be the
means by which "foot-rot" extends in a flock, even in this country.
The late Mr. Youatt, who was himself a believer in the contagious-
ness of this disease, thus writes : — " Some persons have imagined
that foot-rot is propagated by means of animalculae which are bred
in the virus of the part, and falling on the pasture attack the feet
of other sheep. They have gone so far as to describe this insect,
and to give it a name — the Pulex penetrans. The author of this
work has often sought for it in vain ; and the sources of con-
tagion are numerous, and satisfactory enough without any gra-
tuitous supposition of the kind." *

W ith the question of foot-rot being viewed as a contagious
disease we have not now to do ; nevertheless we ought not to
allow this opportunity to pass without stating that we are no
converts to such a doctrine, knowing full well that the spread of
the disorder in a flock depends entirely upon common causes.

Dr. Stephenson, in his ' Medical Zoology,' thus speaks of the
Pulex penetrans : — " One of the most troublesome and noxious
insects of the low regions of South America and the West India
Islands is the Chegoe, a small species of flea, with a rostrum as
long as the body, which often introduces itself into the skin of
the inhabitants, usually under the nails of the toes, where it
deposits its eggs, and produces malignant and occasionally fatal
ulcers. It is a very minute insect, being one-fourth the size of
the common flea, pale reddish-brown, semi-transparent or shining,
with the legs of a pale blueish or lead colour. According to
Ulloa, and his opinion is confirmed by Jussieu, there are two
South American species of this insect. It is described as gene-
rally attacking the feet and legs ; but, according to Capt. Han-
cock, it will penetrate any exposed part of the body. At first
it occasions no farther uneasiness than a slight itching and heat ;
in process of time, however, a small bladder or membranous
sac is formed, containing the nits or ova, which speedily multiply

* ' Sheep : their Breeds and Management,' p. 534.

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 39

to such a dcg^ree as to be attended by the most fatal consequences,
rendering amputation necessary, and sometimes causin^^ death."*

In Kiichenmeister's work on animal parasites, it is stated that,
*' according to most authors, the Pulex penetrans only lives as far as
29^ of south latitude in the hot countries of South America, espe-
cially in Brazil ; whilst Goudot found it even in the cold region
of New Granada as far as Bogota, According to the journals
of Count Gortz, besides sand, the flea likes to dwell in the
crevices and joints of ''pig-sties." Again, " Martiny gives the
following notes upon it from Dobritzhofer. This animal is so
small that it can only be seen by sharp eyes with a good light, '
for which reason the seeking for the flea after its immigration is
generally left to children. It perforates the skin down to the
flesh, and, concealed in its little canal, swells up into a white,
globular vesicle, which in a few days may become as large as a
pea, the pain constantly increasing ; this is the abdomen of the
female filled with eggs, or, more correctly, with larvae. Neglect
of the disorder or careless rupture of the vesicle, that is, the
abdomen, by which the young are scattered in the wound, where
they then mine fresh passages, leads to bad sores, to inflamma-
tion of the glands of the groin, to mortification, and, in conse-
quence, to amputation or mutilation of the limbs, or even to
death. The toes are especially attacked by the flea, although
other parts of the body are also visited."

Alluding to the treatment of cases of this kind, Kiichen-
meister says, " When the animal has once made an entrance,
the orifice of the canal, which is marked by a red point, may
be sought, the passage widened with a needle, and the flea drawn
out, but without tearing it. With fresh punctures it is best to
wait a day, until the occurrence of the white vesicle, that is to
say, the swelling of the abdomen with the brood, allows the
animal to be more readily detected. Here also I should think
that touching this vesicle with oil of anise would be beneficial
and kill the flea (because the. respiratory stigmata are situated
upon the abdomen) or compel it to wander out. The cavity
remaining after extraction is treated like a simple wound. In
Brazil they fill it with oil, snuff, or ashes." t

Ixodes Ricinus. — The Tick.

The tick is a true blood-sucking parasite, belonging to the
family Ixodida, the class Arachnida, and order Acarina. The
species or varieties are very numerous, both here and in most
other countries.

* ' Medical Zoology,' p. 193.

t Kiichenmeister's ' Animal Parasites,' vol. ii., p. 92.

40 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

Although ticks are met with upon every variety of domesti-
cated animal, as well as upon several wild ones, still the IxodeS'
Ricinus, dog-tick, the Ixodes reduvius and the Ixodes plumheiis
— sheep and cattle ticks — are best known in this country.

These parasites exist in most localities, but they especiallj
abound in light, sandy, and warm districts, where brushwood,
thickets, and plantations prevail. In such situations they remain
secure from injury, and comparatively at rest during the intervals
which elapse between the times of their obtaining a full supply
of blood from the animals they attack. Prompted by hunger^
however, the tick becomes more active, and will then fasten
itself upon almost any animal which may come in its way. To'
effect this it plunges its rostrum — sucking proboscis — deeply
into the skin, and thus fixed it will hang on for dajs together
sucking the blood, until its body becomes distended to eight or
ten times the original size. When filled to repletion it quits its
hold, and again seeks the security of its hiding-places.

It is by no means an unfi'equent occurrence for horses in such
localities, while at exercise at early morn in summer, to be attacked
b}' ticks, and consequently to return to the stables with several
of the parasites upon their legs. Besides animals ticks will fre-
quently attack birds, and they have been also known to occa-
sionally fix themselves on man to obtain a supply of blood. It
is, however, only in very rare instances, and these chiefly in
dogs, that ticks exist in sufficient numbers to give rise to much
irritation or suffering. Dogs taken out for sporting will often
return with a large number of them fixed to their skin. This is.
especially the case with dogs used for rabbit-catching in the
autumnal period of the year, more particularly when Avarm weather
prevails. Ferrets, also, which are employed to drive the rabbits
from their burrows, will be attacked in a similar manner.
Rabbits when killed are frequently found to have several of the
parasites upon them ; and so also, but more rarely, are hares. Not
only is this the case, but weasels and stoats are so generally affected
with ticks, most of Avhich are so small and young, that some
persons have supposed that the parasites are originally bred upon
these and similar wild carnivora by the parent tick depositing its.
ova on different parts of their bodies. It is a somewhat singular
circumstance that ticks, which do not seem as a rule to show any
preference for one part of the body over another, are said to
congregate inside the ears and between the toes of weasels and
stoats. It is supposed by some that these places are selected
by the young ticks, as the animals cannot easily dislodge them
from thence ; while by others it is thought that the ova of the parent
tick were deposited in these sites.

A few years since we met with a large number of young^

as affecting Domesticated Animals.

41

ticks adhering; to the head and face of a horse sent to the College
for examination as to soundness. The animal had been forwarded
from the country to a gentleman in town a few days before, and
the parasites had not been detected until seen by ourselves,
probably in consequence of their small size and brown hue,
which pretty nearly approached the colour of the horse. We
were enabled to obtain many specimens with their rostrum
— sucking proboscis — entire, always a difiicuit thing to effect, in
consequence of the peculiarity of its formation, and its firm
insertion in the skin.

We here insert an illustration of one of these ticks, drawn on
an enlarged scale from a
specimen still in our pos-
session. (See Fig. 2.)

The chief points of in-
terest in the structure of the
tick are well represented in
the preceding illustration.
The barbed or serrated
rostrum, by means of -p^ |^
which, as the barbs point
backwards, the parasite is
enabled, almost without
muscular effort, to retain its
hold of the skin, is clearly
depicted. The externally
barbed rostrum is found to
sheath the mandibles, two
in number. These are three-jointed, " the basal joint being inter-
nal, the second external and long, and the third short and denticu-
late." * The palpi, situated close to the rostrum, one on either side,
are broad and large, and in some specimens would seem from their
near approximation to the rostrum to be capable of emljracing it.
The abdomen, or body of the parasite, is formed of an exceed-
ingly extensile membrane, whereby the creature is enabled to
receive, without inconvenience, a large quantity of blood into
its digestive system to be husbanded for its future wants. The
legs are eight in number, and are attached to the under part of
the body at its anterior half, having their places of attachment
very near each other. They are of nearlv equal size and length,
and are furnished with seven joints. At their free extremities
they are tipped Avith two recurved hooks, having a fan-like
expansion of membrane between them. On the back of the
creature, immediately behind the palpi, a cuticular shield-like

Ixodes Riciiuis. JLiirnified.

* ' Micrographic Dictionary,' Article Ixodes.

42 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

plate, much darker in colour than the rest of the skin, is placed
evidently to give streng'th to this part of the frame. On the
under surface of the abdomen, just behind the last pair of legs,
a circular-shaped respiratory organ exists on either side ; and
a little further backwards a similarly-shaped body centrally
placed, having a slit in its middle, is also present. The latter
named opening is the excretory outlet to both the digestive and
reproductive systems (See Fig. 2).

Although, as has been stated, these parasites are comparatively
harmless in this country, still, in many parts of South America
they attack animals in such great numbers as to give rise to
serious consequences, and often indeed to cause death. At a
meeting of the Microscopical Society in 1842, Professor Busk
exhibited some living ticks which had been sent him from Rio
Janeiro as specimens of the parasite, called by the Brazilians the
CarafQto, which had been from sixty to seventy days on their
passage. At a subsequent meeting of the same Society, Mr.
Busk read an interesting Paper, containing much practical in-
formation, on the subject, from which we make the following
extracts : —

" 1. The name of Carpato or Carapat is given to the insect, in consequence
of its resemblance to the seed of the Eicinus, which has that name in
Portuguese.

" 2. It is common in all parts of South America, where cattle abound,

" 3. It infests cattle, horses, dogs, and sheep.

" 4. It is not found on plants ; and cattle generally become infested with it
when feeding in open and exposed pastures, where the sun's heat is great ; and
it increases most in dry seasons. It is generally supposed that the insect was
not seen in the Brazils previously to an excessively hot and dry summer about
1824 or 1825, since which it has multiplied amazingly. It is remarkable that
cattle feeding in shady pastures and coppices are frequently quite free from the
carpato, but will acquire it by infection from others.

" 5. The mode in which it appears to cause destruction to the animal infested
by it, is by the incessant irritation which prevents the animal feeding or rest-
ing, and in consequence it becomes worn out.

" 6. They first appear on those parts of the skin imcovered by hair, and are
then not larger than a pin's head, but make the part quite black by their
numbers. They adhere so closely, that scraping them off would tear up the
skin. In a short time they increase to the size of a bean, or common tick, as
seen in dogs, and fix themselves promiscuously on all parts of the hide where
covered with hair.

" 7. The same species appears to insinuate itself, in its incipient state, upon
the human body ; but is not known to assume the tick form there. They
adhere tenaciously to the skin, and are believed to introduce themselves below
it. They are very harrassing, and even create soreness and inflammation.
They generally affect persons who have been passing through woods, but are
not known to be ever seen or found on trees or plants.

" 8. Many thousand head of cattle are annually carried off by the carpatoes,
and frequently a scarcity is thus caused." *

* ' Microscopical Transactions,' vol. i., p. S8.

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 43

The means at our disposal for getting- rid of ticks are simple
and efficacious. They should not, however, be pulled off, unless
existing in twos or threes, for by such means the rostrum will be
left fixed in the skin, and may give rise to untoward results. Mr.
Blaine, in his ' Canine Pathology,' recommends that the parasites
be clipped asunder with a pair of scissors, when they will, he
says, immediately retract their sucking organ and fall off.

Sponging the skin with a decoction of tobacco, saturated with
salt, will generally cause them to quit their hold. A mixture also
of linseed-oil and creasote, made with one oz. of the latter to
four of the former, rubbed in with the point of the finger around
the part where the ticks are placed, will be effectual for their
removal. They are likewise very easily destroyed by touching
them with oil of turpentine, but it generally happens that they
still retain their hold ; this, however, is a matter of little im-
portance, because after death they can readily be detached, by the
slightest friction, and will then be found to come away entire.

Melophagus Ovimis. — Sheep-Tick.

Although commonly called a tick, this well-known parasite
belongs to a very different order of insects. Its natural history
is so replete with interest that it may be affirmed the scientific
investigator feels an ardour in his researches which is only sur-
passed by the desire of the practical agriculturist to rid his flock
of this troublesome visitor.

The natural history and mode of development of the Melo-
])hagus agree with those of the Hippohoscites, a variety of the
Diptera, although, like many other genera, the Melophagus is
entirely devoid of wings. Its metamorphosis is perfect, but
not completed in the same visible and well understood manner
as in most insects which undergo this change. Thus the larva is
produced from the ovum icithin the body of the parent^ and
changed likewise into the ■pupa before being expelled from her
uterus. Insects undergoing a metamorphosis of this kind are
iGTvaed j)uj,iparous, in contradistinction to oviparo7is and viviparous
creatures, as well as to those which pass thi'ough an ordinarv
series of metamorphoses. A single ovum at a time is transformed
in the manner described, so that Melophagi multiply only by a
series of single births. When first expelled, the pupa is of
a yellowish colour, and easily compressible, but it soon acquires
a brown hue and considerable hardness. It adheres to the wool
very slightly, and principally by the sebaceous secretion of the
skin of the sheep. Fig. 3 gives a magnified view of a pupa, by
which it will be seen that in its general form it is egg-sliaped,
haying, however, one of its ends truncated.

44 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

The sides of the pupa are somewhat flattened, and are marked
Avith twelve distinct depressions, arranged in two parallel lines.
„ ^ Occasionally these depressions are more

strongly developed on one side of the pupa
than on the other. They are described
as being connected with minute apertures
for the transmission of air to the growing
embryo ; but we have never been able to
satisfy ourselves by an examination of the
pupa cases, either before or after the escape
PupaoftheMelophagus. ^^ ^he young Melophagi, that they had
Magnified. ^"J such connection, or indeed that there

is any opening whatever. From the cen-
tral part of the truncated extremity of the pupa a small pro-
jection rises (see fig.), which has a well developed spiracle on
each side of it. These openings would appear to be the chief,
if not the only means by which air can reach the embryo.

In an early stage of the development of the pupa, a similar
projection is to be noticed at the rounded extremity, giving
attachment to a slight membranous thread — the umbilical cord
— by means of which the pupa is connected to the oviduct. In
some pupae this projection remains long after their expulsion by
the parent, but it rarely persists for so long a time as the one at the
opposite end. The young Melophagus when perfected makes
its escape at the rounded extremity of the pupa case by raising
it as an operculum at the place marked by a line in the figure.

The time which is occupied in maturing a pupa within the
body of the parent seems not to have been ascertained ; but seeing
the rapidity with which Melophagi increase during the summer
months, we conjecture that it cannot be very long. Repeated
experiments enable us to express our belief that about fourteen
days elapse between the birth of the pupa and the perfecting
and escape of the young Melophagus from it. We cannot,
however, speak with absolute certainty upon this point, in con-
sequence of the difficulties in the way of its correct solution.
It seems to be necessary for the development of the embryo
that the pupa be kept not only warm, but protected to a con-
siderable extent from the drying effects of the air, conditions
which are provided for by its lying near to the roots of the
wool, and being smeared over with the sebaceous secretion
of the skin of the sheep. When pupae are removed from
the wool for experimental purposes, and kept at about the
same natural temperature, the nearly perfected embryos will
often make their escape in four or five days. After this time,
under ordinary circumstances, the embryos mostly die, so that the
shepherd has it^in his power to destroy many Melophagi by

as affecting Domesticated Animals.

45

simply picking off the pupae and casting tliem away, as 'vvell
as by crushing them with his fingers.

The best account of the structural peculiarities of the jNIelo-
phagus we have yet seen is from the pen of Mr. L. Lane Clarke, in
the January number (1864) of 'The Intellectual Observer.' It
enters, however, into many details of little interest to the general
reader, and therefore we content ourselves by reproducing a
shorter description of the parasite from the pages of the ' Micro-
graphic Dictionary.'

" Melophagus Ovis : antenna* small, sunk in an eye-like cavity
of the head ; eyes small, oval, resembling two groups of ocelli ;
setae three, enclosed in two sheath-like, hairy, unjointed organs
(labial jjalpi), resembling otherwise those of pulex, and arising
from the sides of a triangular labium. Legs robust ; tarsi with
two stout serrated claws, each having at its base a blunt process ;
accompanying the claws is an elegant feathery tarsal brush, and
on the under side of the last tarsal joint is a bilobed pectinate
organ. *

Figure 4, which we here insert, gives a good representation
of the Melophagus when magnified, and shows many of the
peculiarities just referred to.

Fig. 4.

Melophagus Ovinus. Miignifietl.

Article Meluphila.

46 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

Melophagi inconvenience sheep considerably ; but we have
never observed any special disease of the skin to be produced
by them. It is, however, imperatively necessary that they be got
rid of, not only for the comfort of the animal, but for the saving
of wool. During the winter few " ticks " are to be seen, but on
the approach of spring they begin to procreate with great rapidity,
so that by shearing-time many sheep, and especially hoggets, will
often swarm with them. They are somewhat erratic in their
habits, and will not only quickly travel from sheep to sheep, but
likewise on to shepherds and others who have the handling of
the animals. They, however, are never found to inflict any
injury on such persons, but merely to produce a good deal of
tickling of the skin over which they roam. Their instinct often
leads them to seek a hiding-place among the hairs of the head,
but even here they do not rest very long, not finding their proper
habitat.

" Dipping" of sheep is the only effectual means of destroying
these parasites, and the earlier in the spring, weather permitting,
hoggets are dipped the better. By this means the destruc-
tion of a numerous progeny by the death of the parent Me-
lophagi is secured, and a corresponding advantage obtained both
for the comfort of the animal and the interest of the flock-master.
Not only are " ticks " and many pupae thus got rid of, but also
lice and acari, the latter of which are the immediate cause of the
disease known as scab. Various mixtures, more or less destructive
to parasites, are employed as baths for sheep, some of which can
scarcely be used with safety. Before, however, we speak of
these mixtures, we purpose to add some remarks on the louse
of the sheep, a parasite by no means so well known as the
" tick."

Trichodectes Ovis. — Louse of the Sheep.

This parasite is common in some districts but very rare
in others. Some very extensive flock-masters seem, indeed, to
be hardly aware of its existence, and in answer to our inquiries
have said that they had neither seen nor heard of it. It prevails
chiefly where periodical dipping is not adopted, and hence it is
often present in mountain-sheep and also in sheep imported
from Ireland. In many parts of the western counties of England
the Trichodectes is by no means rare, and farmers are in the
habit of using sulphuretted oil, and similar agents, two or three
times a year for its destruction. It is known in these districts
as the red louse of sheep ; its head and thorax being of an iron
colour, and its body a pale yellow, marked with dark bands.

Denny, in his ' Anoplurorum Britannia?,' describes its chief
characteristics to be — " head, nearly orbicular ; clypeus rugulose

as affecting Domesticated Animals.

47

Fig, 5.

and ciliated, with stiff hairs ; third joint of the antennjie the
longest, and clavate ; . . . . eyes very small ; . . . . prothorax
sub-conical, truncate before and behind, nearly as wide as the
head ; metathorax transverse, the width of the head ; . . . .
abdomen oblong-; .... legs fulvous, rather thick; tibia* ab-
ruptly clavate and toothed ; tarsi long ; ungues nearly straight."
He also adds, " the only specimen of the species which I have
seen was forwarded by the Rev. L. Jenyns, who took it from
a sheep."

We have been more fortunate in meeting with the Trichodectes,
and have many specimens in our possession, by which we are
enabled to give the subjoined representation of it (see Fig. 5).
The parasite is small, and hence the illustra-
tion is greatly magnified, and thus shows most
of the characteristics mentioned by Denny.

In some cases which have come under our
observation these lice have been present in
very large numbers. They appear to show a
preference for the inner part of the thighs,
and arms, and sides of the neck of the sheep.
Their location in the latter situation often in-
duces the animal to thrust its head between
the bars of gates and horizontal rails to seek
relief from the irritation by rubbing, a cir-
cumstance which occasionally has led to its
becoming fixed and strangled. If the wool
be broken, or short, and detached in places,
and if the sheep nibbles its flanks and other
parts of its body, and scratches its elbows
with the hind feet, as in scab, an examination
should be made, which will often be rewarded by a discovery of
the parasites.

Sulphuretted oil will be found efficacious in destroying these
lice, besides which the use of an agent of this kind during the
winter months is more prudent, as sheep cannot now be safely
dipped. In-lamh eices must also be freed from the parasites in
the same manner. Some persons add an eighth, or even a sixtli,
part of mercurial ointment to the oil, which is, however, ob-
jectionable when much of the surface of the body has to be
dressed over. The increased efficacy of the mixture does not
compensate for the risk which is incurred. Many other agents
might be named for the destruction of these lice, but it is not
necessary to do so ; the utility of sulphuretted oil being so well
established.

Trichodectes Ovis.
Magnified.

48 Ohsei'vations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

Sheep-Dipping.

The benefits arising from the clipping of sheep are universally
admitted by flock-owners, not only for the destruction of parasites,
but for the general health and comfort of the animal, as also for
its beneficial effect upon the growth of wool.

Baths for sheep-dipping may be classed under four principal
heads, viz. : — Vegetable decoctions — Arsenical solutions — Sul-
phuretted mixtures, and those, the antiparasitic properties of
which are chiefly due to Alkaline carbolates in combination with
tarry matters. Two, or sometimes more, of these compounds are,
however, not unfrequently mixed together, both by farmers and
manufacturers.

Vef/etable Decoctions. — These preparations are multitudinous,
and also variously combined. The principal agent, however, in
most of them is tobacco, with Avhich decoctions of some one or
other of the following narcotic vegetables, as being the most active,
are mixed in different proportions, viz. : — henbane, monkshood,
figwort, hellebore, foxglove, stavesacre, Sec. As a rule, vegetable
decoctions are safe applications, if not too much concentrated,
and they may consequently be used under circumstances un-
favourable to the employment of arsenical solutions. Notwith-
standing this, they are not in great request in England ; but in
Western Australia reliance is placed almost entirely on a decoc-
tion of tobacco mixed with sulphur, both for the destruction of
ticks and lice, and also as a cure for scab — a disease which often
causes immense losses in that country. The number of sheep to
be dipped in Australia in a day, amounting frequently to several
hundreds, calls for economy of time and labour, and hence
various expedients, quite foreign to us, are necessarily had re-
course to for getting over the work. The following extract from
an article on sheep-dipping in that country by Mr. J. Annand,
who had had considerable experience in the matter, is taken from
the 'Veterinarian' for June, 1862 : —

" A bath is made which contains 1 lb. of tobacco and 1 lb. of sulphur to
every 5 gallons of water, and into this the animals are plunged. The mixture
is always kept as warm as the animals canbtr^r it, avoiding of course extremes.
Coppers are erected to boil the tobacco, after which the decoction is placed in a
large dip or receptacle, and the sulphur is then added. These dips are constructed
of various sizes, and sunk in the ground. The heat of the mixture is kept up
by the addition of hot liquor, and partly by the bodies of the sheep themselves.
The dips should not be too large, as there is then a greater difficulty in keeping
up the temperature of the fluid. If too small, however, there is a danger of
the sheep striking on the bottom, when precipitated into the receptacle from
the pen above. A good size is that which will hold ten or a dozen sheep com-
fortably at one time.

" I enclose a sketch of the dip, yards, &c., which will assist your readers in
understanding the method of using the bath.

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 49

" Havinp; filled the batli, the first lot of sheep are sometimes thrown in one
by one until it is full ; but mostly they are precipitated from the pen situated
above it by ti[)piug the floor. INIen are placed around the bath, who keep the
sheep moving about, and occasionally, by means of crutches with which they
are furnished, they pusli the heads of the sheep under the water. The sheep
are thoroughly soaked in three or four minutes.

"The door communicating with the 'run' is then lifted up, and the
sheep pushed through it into this passage. On the door being again let down
the dip is ready for anotiier lot. The sheep find their way from the ' run ' into
the draining-yards, whicli are paved and slightly inclined. These yards being
two, the upper one is first filled, and tiie gate then shut. The lower one is
next filled, and when this is done the slieep in the upper yard are allowed to
go away, those in the lower one taking their place. By this plan we ensure the
sheep being thoroughly drained, and also save a good deal ol' the dipping mixture.

"It is necessarj'' to add fresh liquor from time to time, to keep up both the
heat and proper strength, and also to supply the place of that which has been
used. The amount required will depend very much upon the length of the
animal's wool. The sulphur is kept floating in the bath b}' the agitation of
the fluid, by which means it settles in the wool, acting, I have no doubt, as
the chief preventive of scab. When this disease exists it is usual to dip the
sheep again at the end of a fortnight ; but in my opinion one thoroiKjh soaking
is sufiicient, if done in Itot liquor. The tobacco is best boiled in bags, as it is
then easily removed from the copper when its strength has been extracted,
ieo/" tobacco is, I think, the best ; but all the common sorts are used. Many
of the settlers grow their own tobacco, but rather more of this is required, it
not being very strong."

Our experience in clipping sheep would have led to the con-
clusion that by such a summary process as here described many
of the animals would be destroyed ; but we are assured that such
is not the case. Doubtless some are sacrificed, but the numljer
cannot be considerable, or the plan would soon be abandoned.
Indeed, we have been informed that in several parts of Australia
even less care is taken than is mentioned by Mr. Annand, and that
the animals are forced so hastily in small lots into pits which are
sunk in the ground and filled with decoctions of tobacco, that they
often plung-e completely under the fluid. One thing at least we may
learn from these proceedings, namely, that sheep may be totally
immersed in a tolerably strong decoction of tobacco with but little
risk to their lives. We are not, however, to conclude that a bath
of the strength named could be safely employed, supposing it to
be made with prepared tobacco of commerce. Australian leaf
tobacco is employed, and the quantity used would appear to show
that it is not very strong. With the shag tobacco of commerce
we have rarely ventured, in making a bath, to use more than an
ounce to an ounce and a half to the gallon of water. Tobacco,
as is well known, varies greatly in strength, and hence it is
always " better to err on the safe side." For these reasons farmers
should always make their own tobacco-water, and never pur-
chase it of the tobacco manufacturers. It frequently happens
that such water is valueless, or nearly so, although it is so dark
coloured as to mislead the purchaser.

VOL. I. — S. S. ■ E

50

Observations on Parasites and Parasitic D

iseases

The annexed wood-engravings— Figs. 6 and 7— are illustrative
ol the dippnig bath and pens referred to by Mr. Annand. They
will be found to materially assist in explaining the details of the
process.

(S^

Fig. 6 shows a side-view of the yards, " dip," &c.
iA. Yards into which the sheep are first brouo-ht

B. The "dipping pen." This is furnished with a moveable floor, e,
secured by a bolt, which being withdrawn causes the floor to tilt, and
precipitate the sheep into the bath beneath.

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 51

c. " Decoy pen," into which 2 or 3 sheep are placed to induce the others to
go forwards.

F. The dip or batli containinu; the mixture.

G. The sliding-door, communicating with " the race."
H. Chain-puUe}' and weiglit for raising the door.

1. 1. The race leading to tlie draining-yards.

Fig. 7 ; ground plan.
The references are the same from " a" to "i" as in Fig. G.
J. The lower draining-yard.
K. Upper draining-yard.

L. A channel to receive the superabundant fluid, and carry it hack into
the bath.

Not only in Australia, but likewise in America, tobacco-baths
are in much rec [uest. A few years since an attempt was made to
introduce into this country an " extract of tobacco," manufactured
by the " Southdown Company " of Boston, Mass., and patented by
Mr. Jaques, for the making of " sheep-dips." It met, however,
with little encouragement. The samples of the " extract " which
we saw were nicely manufactured ; but the article could not
compete in price with our common sorts of the drug, especially
when the quantity to be used — an ounce to the gallon — was taken
into consideration. The " extract " is, we are told, much used
in America, and with the best results.

Arsenical Solutions. — The cheapness and efficacy of these
compounds have led to their very general use by flock-masters.
When properly prepared and rightly used, although containing
a deadly poison, they are nevertheless safe even for the dipping
of lambs as Avell as aged sheep. Great improvements have been
made in these compounds of late years, and few of them now
contain arsenic, excepting in the form of an arsenite of potash.
This preparation is equally as destructive to parasites as arsenic
itself, but less likely to be injurious to the sheep, as its greater
solubility prevents its subsiding to the bottom of the dipping tub,
thus to be brought in contact with the skin of those which are
dipped when the fluid is nearly consumed.

So many accidents have occurred from the careless manner
in which arsenical solutions are dealt with on the premises of
farmers, that it is a serious question whether they ought not
to be entirely superseded by non-poisoning compounds. A little
more than a year ago ten persons were poisoned at a farm
at Ashby St. Ledgers, near Rugby, from a cause of this kind,
and one of them, a labourer, died. Some of the arsenic, in an
unexplained manner, got mixed in a pudding made by the
mistress of the house for herself, family, and servants, she having
on the morning of the same day assisted her son in preparing the
sheep-dipping compound.

Numerous instances are also recorded of the poisoning of

E 2

52 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

animals from a want of clue care in disposing of the superfluous or
unused quantity of the mixture after the dipping is finished. As an
example we may mention that an influential member of the Royal
Agricultural Society lost twenty-two pigs in the summer of 1859^
from the shepherd emptying the spare liquor into a yard, where the
pigs were kept. The Aveather at the time was very hot, and the
animals, driven by extreme thirst, drank some of the fluid, and
soon fell a sacrifice to its poisonous effects. We have alsO'
known of cases where nearly all the ducks on a farm have been
killed by the superfluous " sheep wash " being emptied into a
muddy-ditch to which the birds resorted. It is likewise no
uncommon thing for fish to be poisoned, if it be thrown into
a pond, or even into a running stream.

Another serious drawback to the employment of arsenical
solutions is the injurious effects which are produced on the hands
and arms of the men engaged in the dipping. The nails of many
of them are almost destroyed thereby, Avhilst in some unhealthy
sores and ulcers of the arms follow the day's work. The men
also are far too careless in protecting the lower parts of their
persons from the action of the poison, often neglecting to put on
an additional covering so as to keep their clothes from being
soaked thi'ough with the fluid. Such serious ill-consequences
have now and then resulted from this, as even to endanger life.

jNIuch more might be said against the use of arsenical solutions
for the dipping of sheep, but in an essay of this kind it is
unnecessary to add to these instances of the danger which is
incurred.

A useful formula for the making of an arsenical bath is as
follows : Take of arsenic h lb., soft soap ^ lb,, carbonate of
potash 4 ozs., and water 20 gallons ; boil the arsenic and the
potash together in one half of the water, and dissolve the soap in
the other half; afterwards mix together for use. This will make
a bath sufficient for 20 sheep. It should be used moderately
warm, as it will then be found to be more efficacious in the
destruction of parasites, and less hurtful to the sheep, than
plunging them into the fluid when cold.

Sulj)lnu'etted 3Iixtures. — These mixtures in their simple form
being free from any deleterious agents find favour Avith many-
farmers, for the dipping of ewes while suckling their lambs.
They should hot, however, be depended upon for the destruction
of ticks, unless combined with a narcotic vegetable decoction ;
that of tobacco being probably the best. The advocates of their use
contend that it is only necessary to keep the sheep in the sulphur
bath rather longer than the ordinary time, to have its full Ijenefit
produced, and that any failure which may arise is due to a Avant
of precaution. We have often used a simple sulphuretted mix-

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 53

tore, and have very rarely found it productive of sufficient amount
of good to warrant our recommendation of it. It is true that if
the sheep are examined directly after coming out of the bath, the
ticks, from their half-drowned condition, will appear to be dead
or nearly so ; but on the drying of the wool most o'f them will
i^vive and become as active as ever.

A common sulphur bath is generally composed of soft soap,
\^ lb. ; carbonate of potash, ^ lb. ; and sulphur vivum, 2^ lbs. ;
boiled together for about half an hour in 20 gallons of water.
A small portion of the sulphur is dissolved by this process, but
nearly the whole of it is still suspended in the fluid. The un-
dissolved portion quickly sinks to the bottom, and consequently
a mixture of this kind requires to be often stirred up. The
quantity named will be sufficient for 20 sheep.

As before stated, it is absolutely necessary that the sheep be
kept in the bath for four or five minutes, which makes the pro-
cess a very tedious one Avhere many have to be dipped in the day.
It is also important that the mixture be used warm, or it will be
even less effective. A sulphuretted bath is valuable, however, in
long existing cases of scab, as it cleanses the skin, tends to break
up the crusts which exist, and also to destroy some of the acari.
Nevertheless, even under these circumstances, it is to be regarded
as preparatory to the employment of more potent remedies for
the cure of this affection. The addition of sulphur to an arsenical
compound may be an advantage in some exceptional cases of
parasites, but as a rule the arsenical preparation is sufficiently
powerful of itself not to need any addition of the kind.

Carbolic Acid Compounds. — Baths for sheep-dipping, in which
alkaline carbolates with tarry matters form the chief anti-
parasitic agents, are of modern introduction. These compounds,
although they may not so quickly destroy ticks as some of the
arsenical mixtures, bid fair, nevertheless, to supersede them, and
also many others of the older preparations, for the reason that
they are innocuous to the sheep themselves, and at the same time
very efficacious in the destruction of parasites in general. Some
<jf the carbolic acid compounds possess a value also far beyond
better known and more common agents, viz., that of protecting the
sheep for a considerable time against the attack of flesh-flies.
This prophylactic power depends chiefly on the peculiarity of
their odour, which is similar to that of tar, and is long retained
in the wool. Sheep dipped in these mixtures will be found to
be feeding, and resting in comfort ; while others, not so treated,
will be incessantly tormented with flies : an advantage so obvious
that it would alone suffice to recommend these compositions
to the favourable notice of the flock-master. Some persons
take objection to them in consequence of the tarry matter im-

54 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

parting a brownish colour to the wool. This, however, is only a
temporary evil, if one at all, as the stain is easily removed by
washing- ; indeed, it will be found to^ fade away of itself after a
few weeks exposure to the ordinary changes of weather. The
best of these compounds usually consist of carbolate of soda
with tarry matters. They mix easily with Avater, and do no
injury to the hands and arms of the sheep-dippers.

We refrain from giving any special formulae for the making
of carbolic acid compounds, because we lack practical expe-
rience of their relative value when mixed in varying proportions
of their several ingredients. Besides it is far more to the
advantage of the farmer to purchase from a respectable manu-
facturer than to attempt the making of them himself. Both
the value and safety of very many sheep-dipping compositions
depend on the proper mixing and preparing of their several
ingredients ; and the appliances at the disposal of the farmer are
too often unequal to such an undertaking.

Having thus epitomized the subject of sheep-dipping mixtures,
we pass on to make some observations on the proper period for
dipping sheej:), and also on the occasional ill-consequences which
arise therefrom. The proper time for dipping will very much
depend on the kind of sheep which are kept, and also on the
system of sheep-husbandry which is carried out on the farm —
things which are in a measure regulated by locality and soil. In
some districts almost of necessity " breeding sheep " are kept,
and " fatting sheep " in others. Besides this, all breeding flocks
are not managed alike, any more than the same system, of
fatting is observed by all feeders of sheep.

In some parts of the country ewes are kept for breeding until
they are quite worn out by age. In others about a third of the
flock is changed every year by the bringing in of the ewe lambs,
and letting out a corresponding number of the old and less
valuable ewes ; while in many the entire flock is changed every
year by first fatting and disposing of the lambs, and afterwards
of the ewes. It is therefore apparent that no one time can be
fixed upon as being suitable to meet the requirements of each
of these cases.

Where the system of buying-in ewes every year is adopted,
we prefer to dip them just before their being put to the ram j
say in September, This not only frees them from ticks, but also
from acari, and thus affords security, to a great extent, against
the scab during the succeeding winter months. Ewes kept
on the farm year after year are perhaps best dipped subse-
quent to weaning time, in July. If, however, from the multi-
plicity of parasites it becomes ahsolutchj necessary to dip them
while suckling their lambs, care should be taken not to use an

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 55

arsenical compound. In the latter case, tlie lambs also must be
dipped at the same time, or little or no good Avill result, for the
ticks will soon travel from the lambs back to the ewes, and infest
them as badly as before. The dipping of lambs is mostly deferred
until they are weaned ; but the late Lord Spencer tritely remarked
in his comments on this practice, as recommended by Mr. Cleeve
in an essay on " Diseases of Sheep," published in the first
volume of the Society's Journal, that " It is better to dip the
lambs immediately after the ewes are shorn, than after weaning.
The shearing the ewes destroys or removes the ticks which were
upon them, and the dipping destroys those which were upon the
lambs ; whereas, if it is postponed till the lambs are Aveaned, the
wool of the ewes will then have grown long enough to shelter
ticks which have come upon them from the lambs after the time
of shearing." *

Sheep intended to be fatted during the winter on turnips, &c.,
are best dipped in the autumn or latter part of the summer ; but
hoggets, which had been dipped as lambs, and which are to be
grass-fed during the succeeding summer, should be dipped the
second time in the spring after coming from their winter keep.
A neglect of this frequently causes much loss of wool, and not
unfrequently attacks of scab.

Persons who in the spring of the year purchase sheep of different
kinds, and in various quantities for summer grazing, should always,
if possible, dip each lot directly the animals arrive on the farm, cer-
tainly before they are mixed with the former lots. If this be not
done the loss, both in wool and mutton, may prove a serious matter
from an attack of scab, it being well known that this disease
frequently breaks out among sheep thus brought together.
Farmers who merely breed, feed, and sell out from their own
flocks have fewer difficulties to contend with, and hence, as a
general rule, they content themselves by dipping their sheep after
shearing time, when the wool is somewhat grown ; a practice
which may suit their peculiar case, and theirs alone.

Whatever time is selected, and this must necessarily vary in
almost every individual instance, care should always be taken to
avoid extreme hot and dry, as well as showery weather.

As can be easily understood, sheep are very liable to be
destroyed by the use of poisonous dipping mixtures, from the
deleterious agents being absorl)ed into their systems from the
general surface of the skin. In many instances we are ready to
admit that absorption is the cause of death ; but after several
years' experience in the matter, we are persuaded it is far less
frequent than is generally supposed.

* ' Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society,' vol. i., p. 329.

56 Ohservations on Parasites and. Parasitic Diseases

Mischief results more often from liasty dipping, and the neglect
of proper precautions subseqv;ent thereto, than from absorption of
the poisonous compound. When sheep are placed in the bath,
and are necessarily held in an unnatural and restrained position to
prevent their splashing the mixture about, the greatest care should
be taken that their heads are not thrust under the fluid. Without
due caution, it often happens that the animal, while struggling
to overcome the restraint to which it is subjected, involuntarily
and almost momentarily swallows a portion of the fluid. Hence,
there are many instances where death results from asphyxia very
shortly after the sheep are set at liberty ; a portion of the fluid
having entered the larynx. Such animals usually retire a short
distance, lie down, have a distressing cough, breathe heavily, and
quickly die. Occasionally, also, it is found that several of the
sheep die a day or two subsequently to their having been dipped,
from the local effects of the fluid upon their throat and fauces.
In these cases, the corrosive action of the arsenical solution
forbids all hope of cure. In a far greater number of instances,
however, the poisonous draught enters the stomach, and destroys
the animal by its action on the svstem.

A more frequent cause of death, however, is that of imperfectly
squeezing the superfluous fluid from their fleeces, and allowing
the animals to go almost at once on to a piece of pasture land,
where they not only stand and drip, but often lie down, and thus
leave a considerable portion of the arsenical mixture on the grass.
Nor will the sheep refuse to eat such grass, but rather show
a preference for it while it is wet, more especially in very hot
and dry weather. In such a way as this, scores of sheep are
often poisoned.

Sheep have also been poisoned now and then from sucking
their own or each other's fleeces while still wet from the bath.
This, likewise, occurs generally in hot and dry weather, when
they have not been supplied with water, although unable to
obtain any perhaps for many days before, in consequence of the
particular position of the fields in which they had been kept.

Very fatal results have also followed from the sheep being
overtaken by a drenching rain within a few hours of being
dipped. In this way the dipping compound has been washed
out of their fleeces and poisoned the entire herbage on which
they were feeding. All these things may be easily guarded
against by proper luanagement. Their prevention is so obvious
that it need not be specially mentioned in a paper of this kind ;
it being sufficient for our present purpose that we draw attention,
in a concise manner, to the several causes which are likely to lead
to a loss of sheep from dipping.

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 57

Pediculi ; Anoplura (Denny). — Lice,

Under the generic term of Pediculi we recognise those Epizoa
commonly known as lico. These parasites constitute the order
Anoplura of Denny, being unarmed and without wings. From
their great variety they are necessarily divided into several
families, genera and sub-genera.

The primary division of the Anoplura is into the Haustellata
(suckers) and the Mandihidata (masticators), of which we have
examples in the genus Hamatopinus and Trichodectes which
affect domesticated animals. The former of these is easily
distinguished by its elongated and narrow head and retractile
sucker ; and the latter by its broad and short head and strong
mandibles. (See Figs. 8, 10 and 9), which represent the Jhcma-
topinns of the horse and the pig, and the Trichodectes of the ox.

The chief characteristics of lice are that they do not undergo a
metamorphosis, have six legs, are without wings, and often also
without eyes, or possess two only, which are of simple construc-
tion in comparison with those of other insects.

Although lice do not pass through a regular metamorphosis,
nevertheless, in the progress of development from the em-
bryo to the perfect insect, they are found to cast their skin,
and often more than once, acquiring each time a more com-
plete form of the body, and especially of the limbs. In these
particulars these epizoa agree with fleas and some other parasitic
insects. Kiichenmeister says that " the males are fewer in number
than the females ; their last abdominal segment is proininent and
rounded off, and furnished on its dorsal surface with a valvular
opening, beset with an abundance of asperities, which serves at
the same time as an anal opening and poms (jenitalisy

^' Tlie females, which are more numerous and larger, appear
deeply notched at the apex of the last abdominal segment, and,
as it were, with two lobes, between which is the anal aperture,
Avhich is surrounded with numerous hairs."*

The two genera, Hcematopinus and Trichodectes, which we
have described, not only exist separately, but often together on
the same animal ; but hitherto we have only found the Hanna-
topinns Suis on the pig, and the Trichodectes Oris on the sheep ;
nor does Denny, in his ' Monographia Anoplurorum Britannia*,'
allude to any other louse as being met with on either of these
animals.

Whether the pig and the sheep are entirely exempt from
all other varieties of lice, we do not take upon ourselves to
decide. Asa rule, however, each distinct species of animal has

* Kiichenmeister on Animal Parasites, vol. ii., p. 77.

58 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

its own particular variety of louse ; and it is a singular fact that
the parasite shows little or no disposition to leave the body of its
host for that of any other. By long cohaljitation, however, the
louse of one animal Avill occasionally travel to another of a
totally different species, and not only live upon its new victim, but
speedily propagate, and thus produce an attack of phthiriasis.
The introduction of a lousy animal among a number of healthy
ones of the same species is sure to be followed by all of them
becoming sooner or later affected. The rapidity with which
this sometimes takes place is very remarkable ; but it appears
to be always accomplished much more slowly during the winter
than the summer months. This circumstance is easily accounted
for, as the parasites are less active in the winter, both in their
ordinary wanderings from animal to animal, and also in their
powers of reproduction. It is also not improbable that some
kinds of lice leave the body of one animal for that of another
much earlier than others, and this under precisely the same
circumstances.

" No man, perhaps," — writes Denny, — " ever carried his researches on the
habits of the louse to a greater height tlian Lceuwenhoek, who allowed his
zeal for science to overcome the disgust which such creatures generally produce.
In order to ascertain the rapidity with which a louse can propagate its species,
he tried the following experiment which I shall give in his own words : —

" ' The louse is so prolific an animal that it is a common vulgar saying
that it will be grandfather in the space of 24 hours. Tliis I could never believe
to be the fact, but rather that it would require nearly a month for the offspring
of a louse to be capable of producing young of its kind; and in order to make
proof of it by experiment, 1 at first proposed to hire -some poor child to wear a
clean stocking for a week, with 2 or 3 female lice in it, and well-tied or secured
at the garter, in order to see how many young ones woirld be produced in that
space of time ; but I afterwards considered that I could make the experiment
wdth much more certainty on my own person, at the expense only of enduring
in one leg what most j^oor people are obliged to suffer in their whole bodies
during all their lives. Hereupon I put on one leg, instead of a white stocking
I usually wear, a fine black stocking, choosing that colour because I considered
that the eggs and the young lice thence proceeding would be more easily dis-
tinguished upon it. Into tiiis stocking I put 2 large female lice, and cutting
another black stocking into long slips, I bound it over the first, above the knee
to prevent their escaping. After wearing this stocking six days I took it off,
and found one of the lice had laid 50 eggs, and the other about 40. I opened
the one which had laid the 50 eggs, and found in its body at least 50 more,
and who knows how many eggs it had laid before 1 put it into the stocking,
and how many more eggs it might have in its body which my sight could not
reach ? Havins; w^orn tlie stocking ten days longer, I found in it at least 25
lice of three different sizes, some of which I judged were 2 days old, others a
day old, and the rest newly come out of the egg.'

" To give a clearer conception of the great increase of these animals, let us
suppose a person to have about his body 2 male lice and as many females, and
that the females in 12 days' time lay 200 eggs ; and that 6 days afterwards, out
of those eggs, are produced 100 males and 100 females ; and that this young
brood in 18 days' time are grown to a size to propagate their kind, and that
each of these young females in the space of 12 days more lays 100 eggs, and

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 59

from which in G days' time, other young lice arc produced : upon this su])po-
sition the number of lice springing from 2 females will amount to 10,000.
Thus it appears that the 2 females may in 8 weeks' time he grandmothers, and
see 10,000 lice of their own offspring, which unless reduced to actual demon-
stration would seem incredible ; and who can tell whether in the heat of sum-
mer these creatures may not breed in half the time I have mentioned? "

Whetter these hypotliescs with regard to the reproductive
powers of the louse be absolutely correct or not, we see quite suffi-
cient in the experiment itself to explain the fact of one lousj
animal quickly contaminating another, and often an entire herd.
Leeuwenhoek's experiments being made with lice of the human
subject, the parasites found in him a proper host, and consequently
his conclusions with reference to the deposit of eggs, and the time
necessary for the production of the^?'s^ hatch, would be correct.
Whether similar experiments, of transposing lice of the horse or
ox, to other horses or oxen, as proper hosts, would give a result con-
firmatory of Leeuwenhoek's suppositions of the rate of increase,
remains to be proved. As yet we have had no opportunity of
testing this by direct experiment. We have, however, very fre-
quently collected the ova of the different kinds of lice, and
adopted means of keeping them under daily observation, and at
a temperature equal to that of the animal body, so as to deter-
mine the period of incubation. The results seem to show that
the time Avhich elapses between the deposit of the ova of the
IIcBmatopiiiiis Bovis, for example, by the parent louse, and the
birth of the young ones, is about twelve or fourteen days. We
have frequently known a hatching to take place as late as the
fourteenth day, but never after that time. On obtaining ova
from the bodies of animals for a purpose of this kind, it is found
that some of the young will be hatched even on the first or second
day afterwards, and others at different intervals up to the date
named. This variation in the time is due to the circumstance
that the ova when taken are not all of the same age, and conse-
((uently the young lice are in different stages of development.
It is almost impossiljle to distinguish the fresh-laid eggs from
the older ones, so that correct conclusions as to the period of
incubation can only be arrived at from the Jatest births, the ova
yielding these young lice having been laid by the parent pro-
bably on the very day they were procured.

The matured ova are expelled singly from the uterus of the
parent, and each one in succession is attached by a glutinous
material, which is voided with it, to the lower part of a hair,
near to its root. Sometimes three or four ova will be found
adhering to the same hair ; but generally only one is met with.
Each c^^ is so fixed as to leave the larger end free, which is always
directed towards the point of the hair. The a^'g is also attached

60

Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

Fig. 8.

to the hair in such a manner as to form a very acute angle with it,
leaving just sufficient space to allow of the young louse grasping
the hair with its claws as it maks its escape from the e^^ by raising
the operculum at the larger end, thus securing its safety against
falling off and being lost. The empty ova-cases will remain
in sitit for a considei-able time after the birth of the young lice,
and sometimes lead to an incorrect conclusion that the animal
is still covered with "nits." They are, however, easily distin-
guished from perfect eggs on a slight examination.

Lice of the Horse.

It has already been explained that two varieties of the louse
are common to the horse — the Hcematopinus and the Trichodectes.
The former of these is much the larger. It is 'also darker in
colour and has a longer body and head than the other. Fig. 8
gives a very faithful representation of this louse, and shows the chief
peculiarities of its conformation, which will be the more apparent
if the figure be compared with that of the Trichodectes of the ox,
inserted at p. 63. The H(Bmatoj)inus Equi more frequently locates

itself among the stiff hairs of the
tail and mane than the Trichodectes,
but it will nevertheless be often dis-
tributed over the entire body of the
animal. It is not easily dislodged
from its location in consequence of
its sucking -organ being inserted
into the skin for the purpose of ob-
taining its food. For this reason
Hoimatopini produce considerable
and persistent irritation ; and the
horse will rub himself so violently
to get rid of his tormentors as very
frequently to produce extensive ex-
coriations of the skin. From the
same cause his health will soon
suffer, and he will quickly fall away
in condition. Horses which are
neglected as to grooming and feed-
ing, or such as are suffering from
ill health, are, as is well known,
A'ery susceptible to attacks of lice.
Heematopini, however, are often met
with under the opposite circumstances ; and hence search should
be made for them in obscure cases of cutaneous irritation. We
have frequently found these lice on horses which were at the time

Hocmatopinus Equi. Magnified.

as affecting Domesticated Animals. (Jl

in good condition, and under the best stable management, and
consequently not suspected to be lousy.

Trickodectes Equi. — The broad-headed louse of the horse shows
a preference for the body, and, unless present in very large
numbers, seldom locates itself in the hair of the mane or tail.
Its pale colour, small size, and square form, at once distin-
guish it from the Hceynatojmms. Being a mas"ticator, it is
unprovided with any sucking-organ, and consequently it does not
fix itself to the skin although it lies in close contact therewith. It
feeds upon the desquamating epidermis, and also upon the increased
exudations that come from the skin as the result of the irritation it
produces. Being fond of warmth, the Trickodectes rarely quits the
surface of the integument during cold weather, so as to become
visible by travelling up the hairs. If, however, the affected
animal be placed in the sun for only a tew minutes, these lice
will speedily scale the hairs and appear on the surface, often in
such numbers as to surprise the groom or carter. Horses
affected to this extent are sure to be in impoverished condition,
besides suffering considerable cutaneous irritation.

Poverty, exposure to inclement v»^eather, innutritions food, a
dirty state of skin, and similar causes, predispose animals to an
attack of these lice ; and consequently they are often present on
horses which are turned out during the winter months. Colts
whose health is impaired, and especially if they are the subjects
of chronic disease, are, however, even more susceptible to them.
Confirmatory of this we give the following case which has recently
come under our notice.

A thorough-bred filly, between two and three years of age, was
admitted into the Infirmary of the Royal Veterinary College in
consequence of a diseased state of the absorbent system, which had
existed for several months. Being unbroken she had not been
I'egularly stabled, but had had the run of a paddock in which a shed
was placed. It had been noticed that of late she had suffered from
cutaneous irritation, but the true cause of this was not suspected.
Very shortly after her admission an examination of the skin
showed that she was literally covered from head to foot with lice.
Although diligent search was made, not one of the Hccmato/nni
could be found ; the epizoa all being of the genus Trickodectes.
The care and attention which this filly had received were suf-
ficient to make it more than probable that it was not from neglect,
but solely from impaired health that she had been attacked with
these parasites.

The destruction of lice is not difficult ; but to efTectually free
an animal of them it is necessary that their ova — the "nits" —
be killed as well as the parasites themselves. For this purpose the
antiparasitic agent must be again applied to the skin after an in-

62 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

terval of five or six days, and in some instances even a third
application of it will be required after a similar lapse of time.
Oleaginous preparations are very effective for the purpose, espe-
cially if mixed with sulphur and oil of turpentine, but they are
sometimes objectionable on the score of cleanliness, if used upon
our better bred horses. A good mixture of the kind is composed
of pure neat's-foot oil, ten parts, oil of turpentine, five parts, and
sulphur, two parts. In using this compound care should be taken
that the animal be dressed from head to foot with it, or many of
the parasites will escape unharmed.

Decoction of tobacco made by boiling from two to three ounces
of strong shag-tobacco in a gallon of water, and when cold, satu-
rating it with common salt by adding about three pounds of this
agent to the gallon is a clean, safe, and very effective remedy
when properly applied. The same may also be said of a satu-
rated solution of the sulphide of potassium, which should, however,
be applied to the skin as soon as made.

Mercurial and arsenical preparations ought never to be used
upon the horse, so large a quantity being required to cover his
skin. They possess no advantages over more simple and less
dangerous agents in the destruction of lice, while they have often
been known to produce serious ill-consequences, both by their
local action and by their being absorbed into the system.

Both varieties of the louse of the horse are also common to the
ass. They are by no means unfrequent dwellers on this animal,
as may be inferred from the great privations he has so often to
endure, and the sad neglect to which he is exposed. If well fed,
however, and kept only moderately clean, the ass does not appear
to be more susceptible to these parasites than the horse, if indeed
he be so much so.

Lice of the Ox.

Both Hcematopinus and Trichodectes are met with on the
ox ; the former perhaps more frequently than on any other
domesticated animal. The Hwmatopinus, however, chiefly in-
habits the furrows of the skin on the upper part of the neck and
shoulders, to which it is often confined for many weeks together.
Its existence here is not necessarily connected Avith ill-health,
nor with lowness of condition ; on the contrary, it is met with on
cattle that are gaining flesh, and going on perfectly satisfactorily.
Especially is this the case during the winter, when the cattle are
in the fodder-yards. So common, indeed, are these lice at this
time, that specimens may be procured from nearly every herd
Avhich is examined ; both young and old animals being equally
affected. During this time of year, also, the lice are very inactive,
and show but little disposition either to leave their favourite spot,

as affectuu) Domesticated Animals. G3

or to travel from one animal to another. Hence we find that some
animals will be affected and others not, although they are all herd-
ing together, and are necessarily fed and managed the same. On
the approach of spring, however, the ejnzoa lose their inactivity,
become more prolific, travel to other parts of the body, and pass
freely from one animal to another. Evidence of this changed
state of things is soon afforded by the irritation which they pro-
duce, leading the cattle to rub themselves bare in many places,
particularly about their shoulders and buttocks. This nude state
of skin is not unfrequently the first thing to attract the attention
of the owner, and lead him to a knowledge of the fact that the
animal is lous}'.

The Hcematopinus Boris is larger than his congener of the
horse, and darker in colour, being usually of a deep brown hue.
The depth of its colour will, however, depend very much on the
amount of blood it contains. It remains firmly fixed by the
insertion of its sucker into the skin for so long a time together,
thfit it would appear to use this organ for the purpose of holding
on, even after its digestive system is filled with blood.

Trichodectes Bovis. — We here give an illustration of this louse,
not only to show its peculiar form, but as
a type of the genus as occurring among
domesticated animals. Its broad head and
pale or yellowish colour at once serve to
distinguish the parasite, no matter upon
what part of the body, or upon what ani- . x

mal it may exist. ^i-v^' \

We have met with these lice in great 04%
abundance upon young cattle — yearlings \

in particular — and especially those that

had been badly kept after being weaned. i^

Such animals are generally low in flesh, 1^?-

and have a most unhealthy appearance. . i3

They suffer much cutaneous irritation, and 1

are so unthrifty that all the food given
them seems to be of no avail in improving ^r

their condition. It is also during the win- , - ^,

ter half of the year that these lice abound ; Trichlkctes Bovis.

and it is usually in the spring, from their Mao-nified.

rapid increase, that attention is given to

rid the animals of them. No part of the .body is exempt from
their attack, and very often an animal will be covered all over
with the parasites, causing him to rub and lick himself so con-
tinuously as to produce extensive excoriations of the skin.

When these lice are present in no very large numbers,
some persons trust to the shedding of the coat as the spring

64 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

advances for freeing the animals from them, it being well known
that with the fall of the hair many of them, together with the " nits,"
will be cast off. This fact is due to the circumstance, before
explained, that these lice live among the hair, feeding upon the
desquamating epidermis, and not upon the blood of the animal,
and hence they are not fixed to the skin. It is not an un-
frequent remark of such persons, " Oh ! a few lice wont do any
harm, they'll soon be gone when the bullocks get to grass."
Dependence, however, should never be placed on the fall of the
hair, for it often happens that the animals will continue to be
lousy throughout the whole summer, and come back in this
state to the yards in the following autumn or winter very little
improved in condition.

In the application of remedies for the destruction of lice on
cattle, even a greater necessity exists for avoiding all arsenical or
mercurial compounds when they are present on the horse. Cattle,
as is well known, are in the habit of licMnrj themselves wherever
their tongue can reach, and not only so, but they will also freely
lick each other. In this way scores of animals have been poisoned
when dressed with these and similar deleterious agents. One
notable case came, many years since, under our immediate obser-
vation, in which no less than eleven yearlings were killed out
of thirteen by their owner having used upon them an arsenical
compound which he had procured from a druggist.

In the ' Tiansactions of the Veterinary Medical Association '
for 1841-2, a case is recorded by Mr. H. Hutchinson, M.R.C.V.S.,
East Retford, in which fifteen bullocks were poisoned, one of
which died, in consequence of being dressed with "a solution of
arsenic and soft soap." In the ' Veterinarian ' for 1843, Mr. C.
Lauder, M.R.C.V.S., Dumfries, relates an instance of thirty-two
animals being washed with an arsenical sheep-dip, eight of which
died. An allied case is published in the ' Veterinary Record,'
for 1846, by Mr. E. Musgrave, M.R.V.S., Hereford, in which
two deaths occurred out of " twenty-eight cows, yearlings, and
calves " that were dressed for lice.

Many other instances of the kind might be mentioned, as
scarcely a year passes without similar mishaps. We will, how-
ever, content ourselves by giving one other which is replete
with information and somewhat of a singular character. The
case is related on the authority of Mr, R. Bowles, M.R.C.V.S,,
Abergavenny, who furnished us with the particulars a few years
since. It appears that a notion prevails in many parts of Wales
that when cattle are affected with lice, it is only necessary to
smear the base of their horns Avitli strong mercurial ointment, and
the parasites will quickly disappear. Acting on this vulgar error,
a farmer obtained some ointment and used it pretty freely upon

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 65

the liorns of his cattle — some fifteen or sixteen in numlK-r. On
the following day the greater part of them were found to be
seriously ill, and the assistance of Mr. Bowles was sought. On
investigating the case, !Mr. Bowles found that the animals were
poisoned with the mercurial ointment, ivhich they had cleanly
liched from off each other s liorns. Notwithstanding all the care
which was given to the cases, nearly one-half of them proved
fatal, and the rest of the animals were saved with very great
difficulty.

Having said sufficient, we trust, by way of caution in the use
of these poisonous compounds, we shall conclude our remarks by
stating that the same remedies which have been recommended
for the destruction of lice on the horse are equally efficacious
when applied to the ox. They should be used in the same
manner, and at the same intervals of time. For cattle, how-
ever, which have to be dressed all over, the oleaginous com-
pound, mentioned at p. 62, is often to be preferred to any other.

Lice of the Calf.

As an addendum to the preceding remarks on the lice of the
ox, we may state that Denny has described a variety of the
Hamatopinus as existing on the calf, which differs in several
respects, but particularly in the length of its abdomen and the
thickness of its limbs from the louse of the older animal. He
says " that the only two examples of this species which I have
examined were kindly forwarded to me by Rev. L. Jenyns, who
found them upon a calf. Mr. Jenyns named them vituli, and I
have no doubt they are the species so named by Linnaeus and
Fabricius. It may appear somewhat strange that a young animal
should have a distinct species of parasite, which is not found
upon its parents ; but as far as I am able to judge, such is the
fact."*

In the course of our investigations we have often sought for
this louse, but hitherto without success. We have also had
numerous specimens of lice obtained from calves sent us from
different parts of the country, and these have always proved to
be of the kind common to the older animals.

Louse of the Sheep.

We insert this heading in this place for the sake of complete--
ness, as we have in another pait of this essay fully described the
kind of louse met with on the sheep. The Ilccniafopinus, as .has
been stated, is unknown as being parasitic to this animal, while
the Tricltodectes is also rare, excepting in particular localities.

* ' Monograpliia Anoplurorum Britannia',' p. 32.
VOL. I. — S. S. F

66

Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

Our description of the Trichodectes Ovis will be found at page
46 et scq., and also an illustration of the epizoon, to which we
beg to refer the reader.

Louse of the Pig.

One variety only of the two kinds of lice, so frequently alluded
to in these pages, is met with on the pig, viz. the Hamatopinus
Suis. Subjoined is a magnified illustration of this epizoon, which
will help to convey an idea of its formidable appearance.
Its great size, broad and flat body, thick ungues, and dark brown
colour at once suffice to distinguish the HcBmatopinus of the
pig from that of any other animal. Most of these peculiarities
will be observable if the figure be compared with Fig. 8, which
represents its congener of the horse, both being drawn to the
same scale.

Fig. 10.

HcEinatopinns Suis. Magnified.

On many farms these parasites are but rarely seen, while on
others they are of rather frequent occurrence. The cause of their
absence seems not to be well understood, as it does not appear
to depend on greater cleanliness nor on a better system of manage-
ment. Store pigs are mostly affected, but we have seen the lice
at times on fat ones. The use of barley-straw for bedding, as well
as its almost exclusive employment in the fodder-yard, is gene-
rally thought to encourage their attack. This idea is not impro-

as affecting Domesticated Animah. 67

bable, for it is an admitted fact that pigs, and especially young
ones, do not thrive satisfactorily if made to sleep on barley-straw,
and any cause which will impair tlie health of an animal will at
the same time predispose it to an attack of parasites.

Denny, in his remarks on this louse, says that it " is found in
great numbers on swine, but it does not appear so generally
spread as might be expected from the dirty habits of these
animals. It most frequently occurs on those fresh imported
from the sister isle. It was many months before I could obtain
a single example. I had applied to both farmers and pig-
butchers, neither of whom seemed to approve of the idea which
I had conceived of their pigs being lousy., but referred me to
those of the Emerald Isle as being sure to gratify my wishes —
forgetting, I suspect, that Irish pigs come to this market to meet
English buyers. I accordingly visited a colony just arrived,
when I most certainly met with a ready supply, but here they
were confined almost entirely to lean animals, and wherever I
found a pig fat or healthy, no game were to be seen.

" In walking this species uses the claw and tibial tooth with
great facility — which act as a finger and thumb — in taking hold
of a single hair. The male is smaller than the female, with the
abdomen shorter, sub-orbicular, and the segments lobate. The
e^g^ or nit, is three-fourths of a line in length, of a cream-
colour, and elegantly shagreened, oblong, and slightly acumi-
nated, surrounded by a lid, which, when the young insect is
ready to emerge, splits circularly." *

The Hcematopinus Suis shows a preference for the upper por-^
tion of the neck, and the parts behind the ears, and also those
between the fore-legs, where the skin is comparatively thin ;
being less frequently met with on the sides and hind-quarters
of the animal, except when present in large numbers. It
will generally be found firmly fixed to the skin, drawing its
supply of blood by its haustellum, which organ is conical in
shape and very prominent in this species. The irritation
produced by the parasite is considerable, and cracks and sores
of the skin often result from its presence ; but the pig seems to
regard this much less than many other animals. As a rule,
however, even when existing in great abundance, Htcmatopini
would appear to cause an unthrifty state of the animal rather
than simple cutaneous disease. Like the Hcematopini of the ox
these lice are very often seen on pigs during the winter months
when they are confined to the fodder-yard, disappearing on the
approach of warm weather when the. animals have a greater
range and can " wallow in the mire."

' Auopluvonuu Uritivnniiic,' p. -35.

F 2

(38 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

The frequent existence of Hccmatojnni in association with an
inflamed and sore state of skin, led, in the days of ignorance and
superstition, to the belief that the parasites buried themselves
beneath the integument, and after a time made their exit from
the body through the various organs. Thus Youatt remarks in
his work on "The Pig," that "Eric Viborg states that these
vermin sometimes burrow their way into the flesh, and come
out through the eyes, nostrils, or mouth, or have even been known
to be voided in the urine." *

It is not difficult to rid pigs of lice, but, for the reasons before
advanced, it is necessary to repeat the anti-parasitic agent two
or three times. The sulphur liniment mentioned at page 62 is
to be preferred for use on the pig, and besides this none other is
likely to be required. Although the epizoa may be apparently
confined to one part of the bod}-, it is better to dress the animal
all over, to make sure of the ova being destroyed, as well as the
parasites themselves.

Lice of the Dog and Cat.

Varieties of the Hannatopinus and Trichodectes are the only lice,
so far as we are aware, which have yet been found on either of
these animals, the former being more rare than the latter. Dogs
affected with lice suffer a sfood deal of itching of the skin,
rhey usually fall away in condition, and have a very un-
healthy appearance both of the skin and hair. Young dogs
are, upon the whole, more often affected, and not unfrequently
they become so when suffering from distemper, or when just
recovering from this disease. We have, however, frequently
met with lice on dogs which were in the most healthy state,
and receiving the greatest care and attention as to feeding
and management. Indeed, the pet dog of the drawing-room
will now and then be attacked by these parasites ; although
more frequently it is the cur, which is made to inhabit dirty
sleeping-places and is neglected in every possible Avay, that suffers
from them. The irritation produced by lice often gives rise to
the notion, among persons who are not very conversant with the
diseases of the dog, that he is the subject of mange. A very slight
examination, however, by leading to a detectiem of the parasites,
will suffice to show the true cause of this irritation.

These same remarks are equally applicable to the cat, except-
ing perhaps that this animal is less frequently affected with lice
than the dog.

The means which are employed for ridding other animals of
lice will be found effective with these, but for many years we have

* ' The rig,' p. D'J.

as affecting Domesticated Animals. GO

ailoptfd .1 very simple oxpoclient for the purpose, wliich lias
generally proved most successful. It consists of dusting the
skin over with common snufT, and two or three days afterwards
well washing the animal with soap and water, and, as soon as
the skin is dry, re])eatiiig the application. A second or third
dressing of this kind will suffice to kill all the parasites and also
their embryos, if adopted with due regard to the period of
incubation of the ova. Attention must likewise be given to
a restoration of the animal's health, from whatever cause it may
have suffered, or he will be exceedingly liable to bo again
attacked by these loathsome parasites.

Acarus Folliculorum — Animalcule of the Hair Follicle.

This parasitic animalcule belongs to the class Arachnida, and
represents, according to Professor Owen, " the lowest organized
form of the class." It has received various names both here and
on the continent, the chief among which are Demodcx FoUicn-
lorum, OwEX ; Entozoon, afterwards Steatozoon Follicnloriaii,
A\'iLSON ; 3Iacrogaster Flatyims, Miescher ; Acarus Follicu-
lorum, Simon and Siebold ; and Simonea Folliculorum, Ger-
VAIS, the last name being given in compliment to Dr. Simon of
Berlin, who discovered it, in 1842, in his investigations of the
disease known as Acne in man. Kiichenmeister states that it
was found by Henle at about the same time in the hair follicles
of the external ear, but that Henle in describing it mistook " the
tail for the head, and the feet for sucking discs composed of
pads."

In 1843-4 Mr. Erasmus Wilson fully investigated the structure
and habits of the entozoon, which led to his ultimately giving
to the world the best account of it which we possess. He
thus prefaces his description : — " After perusing the account
of the Steatozoon Folliculorum, as given by its discoverer. Dr.
Simon, I determined to proceed to a verification oi his dis-
coveries, and being provided with an instrument probably
superior to that employed by Dr. Simon, I have succeeded in
making out certain points of structure that had escaped his
observations. I was not long in obtaining subjects; almost
every face I met with supplied me with abundance, and the
difficulty seems to be, not to find the creature, but to find any
individual, with the exception, according to Dr. Simon, of newly-
l)orn children, in whom these animalcules do not exist." *

In the course of his researches Mr. Wilson discovered several
of these parasites, seemingly identical in every respect with those
of man, in the secretion of the Meibomian glands of the eyelid of

* ' Skin Disease?,' p. 728, 4th edit.

70 Ohservafions on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

a horse which had been furnished him by my late colleague, Pro-
fessor Morton. Kiichenmeister also records that " Oschatz found
a similar Acarus in the glands of the eyelids of a sheep. It
was, however, broader generally, and especially in front." *

Besides these instances, we are not aware that the animalcule
has yet been met with in any other domesticated animal, ex-
cepting the dog, in whom, however, it is not uncommon. In the
latter part of 1843 Mr. Topping — a preparer of objects for
the microscope — led by the publicity given to this question,
sought for the entozoon in^the dog, and found it in great abun-
dance. The dog belonged to himself, and had long been the sub-
ject of a " pustular affection " of the skin.f Mr. Topping attributed
the disease to presence of the animalcules, an opinion which
was, however, combated by Mr. Wilson.

Since 1843 the parasite has been very frequently found in the
dog; and in 1849 M, Leblanc, ' Medecin Veterinaire,' Paris,
described a disease of this animal ending in marasmus, and de-
stroying the dog, in about two months, which he attributed chiefly
to the existence of these creatures in immense numbers in the
folli'cles of the skin.

In 1851 we also obtained a large number of these parasites
from a dog affected with skin disease, which was accompanied
by extensive desquamation of hair and cuticle, and a discharge
of a dark-coloured unctuous fluid from the follicles. It was sin-
gular, however, that in this instance the dog showed little or no
disposition to scratch himself, as is ordinarily the case in skin
diseases. We preserved several of the parasites at the time,
and give the subjoined illustration of the entozoon from speci-
mens still in our possession.

Compared with the fully developed Aca-
rus FoUiculorum of man, the body of that
of the dog is scarcely more than half as
long. This shorter length, however, does
not seem to be due to immaturity, for in all
the specimens which we have examined we
have not met with a single deviation from
this rule. With the exception of this
diminished length of body, there is so close
an identity in these acari that a description
of one applies equally to the other. Accord-
Acarus FoUiculorum.— Dog. ing to Erasmus Wilson the acarus of man
MaguifieJ. varies in its entire length from l-64th to

1-1 35th of an inch, and in the length of

* ' Kiichenmeister,' vol. ii. p. 17.

t A paper relating to this discovery vras read before the Microscopical Society,
Dec. 20th, 1843, by Mr. A. Tulk. See ' Physiological Jourual,' 1843-4, p. 124.

as affectinfi Domesticated Animals. 71

its abdomen from l-88th to l-227tli, while in both extremes
the width of the thorax is the same, viz. l-555th of an inch.

" The animal is divisible into a head, thorax, and abdomen, the whole of
tliese imrts being well and distinctly marked. The head represents in form a
truncated cone flattened from above downwards, and directed obliquely down-
wards from the anterior part of the trunk. It is composed of 2 large lateral
organs, termed by Simon, ' maxillary palpi,' and of an intermediate triangular
organ." . , . "The thorax, which is the broadest and tliickest part of the
animal, and somewhat tun-shaped, is flattened on its nnder surface. It is
composed of four broad segments, wliich are free, and joined by a connecting
membrane on the dorsum and sides of the creature, but are continuous inte-
riorly with the broad and strong plastron which covers the whole inferior
surface of the thorax. The segments are somewhat convex in their antero-
lX)sterior diameter, particularly at the upper part, so that the outline of the
chest in this situation has the a])pearauce of being slightly fluted." . . . "The
segmented structure of the thorax permits of a certain degree of movement iu
this part of the creature. The legs, which are eight in number, are connected
with the sides of the plasti-on ; each segment of the thorax sustaining one pair
of these organs. They are conical in figure, the base of the cone being broad,
and its apex obtusely truncated, and furnished with 3 finger-like claws. P]ach
leg is composed of 3 segments." ..." The legs are all of the same size." . . .

" The aidoinen is somewhat variable in point of length. It is flattened on
its under surface, and convex above, and tapers gradually from its base to its
extremity, where it terminates iu a rounded ])oint. It is composed of a series
of extremely narrow annular segments, which overlap each other from before
backwards." ..." The annulated structure of the abdomen, which is here
described, permits it to move with considerable freedom and to curve in any
direction."

Mr. Wilson closes his elaborate description of the anatomy of
the Acarus by remarking, " In the abdomen I have traced the
outline of an alimentary canal, and have seen it terminate by an
infundibulifonn extremity at the anus. The transparent cell-
like organs seen in the abdomen of the perfect animal I regard
as dilatations or convolutions of the alimentary canal ; and a
dark-brownish mass in the commencement of the abdomen I
consider to be the liver. I have been unable to discover any
sexual differences in the numerous examples which I have exa-
mined." *

The existence of these parasites in connexion with a dis-
eased condition of the skin seems not to be admitted in the
case of man ; but it is a vexed question among comparative
pathologists as to whether they do not give rise to a diseased
state of the skin of the dog. It is well known that the dog is
remarkably prone to skin diseases, several of which have but few
features in common ; and our experience — as has been shown —
would go to prove that one at least of these affections may depend
upon these parasites. Gruby has even stated that the Acari of
man will induce disease of the skin if transferred to the dog ;
and that having once succeeded in so transferring them, he

* Wilson on ' Skin Diseases,' 4th edit., p. 729, et teq.

72 Ohscrvations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases, S\-c.

found that, " in the course of two years, they had increased so
enormously that they occupied every cutaneous follicle, and the
dog^ became in consequence quite naked." The correctness of
these deductions has, however, been doubted by both 'Simon
and Neal.

Professor Weiss, of the Veterinary School of Stuttgart, holds
opinions in accordance with our own, i.e., that disease of the
skin of the dog is occasionally induced by these parasites. He
relates cases in point, and says that the Acari ultimately destroy
the hair-producing organ, so that hairs do not again grow on the
bald places. It appears also that he considers it just possible
that the Acari may travel after long habitation from a diseased
to a healthy animal ; still, as he observes, it is easy to deny the
contagiousness of the affection induced by their presence. He
adds, that in Haubner's experimental attempts to propagate the
malady by transmission of the animalcula*, a failure occurred in
both instances.

In concluding our remarks on the Acarus Folliculorum, we
may state that the destruction of the parasite is effected with
great difficulty, arising chiefly from the circumstance of its being
enabled so easily to make its way to the extieme ends of the
hair follicles and sebaceous glands. Success in destroying the
Acari depends very much more on the manner in which medicinal
agents are used than on the agents themselves. The most potent
destroyers of their life may prove perfectly inert unless pro-
perly applied. Nothing short of a thorough rubbing in of whatever
be used will suffice ; and not only so, but it is necessary for the
agent to be applied again and again. An ointment made with half
a pound of lard, two ounces of tar, and four ounces of sulphur
should be well rubbed in before the fire, or in the sun to assist its
penetration into the follicles of the skin. The unguent should
also be allowed to remain on the skin for two or three days, and
more fi'iction applied daily. When washed off, some carbonate
of potash should be used with the soap and water so as to
thoroughly cleanse the animal. The skin should then be dried,
and recourse had again to the unguent. This treatment must be
repeated for at least three or four times.

Beyond topical applications none are absolutely required, as
success depends exclusively upon the destruction of the Acari
and their ova. It should, however, be borne in mind that many
of the parasites may survive and yet no evidence of their existence
be observed perhaps for several weeks. For this reason the treat-
ment should be repeated at certain short intervals, even in those
cases where the dog appears to have recovered.

(To he continued.')

( 73 )

V. — Lois-Weedon JF/icaf-Growinr/ icifh Ilorsc (or Sfeavi) TilJaf/e.
By John Algernon Clarke.

First of all, let me state the results of " Lois-Weedon wheat-
growing " icith the spade. And I would premise, that no one
personally acquainted with the Rev. Samuel Smith, Vicar of
Lois-Weedon (near Towcester, Northamptonshire), no one who
has visited the spot, inspected the crops, and examined the soil
(as I have done more than once), doubts U)V a moment the abso-
lute truthfulness of all Mr. Smith's published statements of cost
and produce. So that my account may be received without the
least suspicion of high-colouring or suppression of unfavourable
facts.

The experimental " clay piece," 3 acres in extent, had for the
most part a staple only 5 inches deep, resting upon an impervious
yellow and blue clay of the oolite formation. There is nothing
peculiar in the aspect, situation, proximity of woodland, and so
on, to render this plot an unfair sample of the land in that neigh-
bourhood ; and judging from the surrounding district, which con-
tains hundi'eds of acres of apparentlv precisely similar soil (much
of it with even a deeper staple), a fair rental for it would be about
27s. per acre. Twenty years ago, it was vmder old pasture, the
turf of which was pared and taken off the land. The ground
was ploughed the full depth of the 5-inch staple for oats, followed
by vetches. After this came the first " Lois-Weedon " wheat,
sown in triple rows, with wide fallow spaces between. These
intervals were dug by hand, one spit deep, so as to bring up to
the surface only a few inches of the raw clay. The second year,
these well-stirred and horse-hoed fallow intervals bore the three-
row stripes of wheat, and the stubble-row stripes were dug in ;
and so on, fallow intervals and wheat rows succeeding one another
in alternate years. In the third and fourth years the spade went
down a little deeper, and so, gradually and regularly for four
years more, till a depth of IG to 18 inches was reached. Mr.
Smith then cultivated for the next four years with oidi/ a sinyle-
spit digging ; and, in 1858, again returned to the trenching two
spits deep, with a fresh inch or so of clay. At the present date
(1865), the digging has not yet reached "1 feet in depth ; a great
portion is from ]8 to 20 inches deep, little more than it was ten
years ago. So that Mr. Smith has not been compelled to go
deeper for each succeeding cro]) ; and not a grain of any species
of manure, animal, vegetable, or mineral, has ever been given to
the land.

The average produce of the first eight years, beginning with
the harvest of 1847, was fully 34 bushels per acre — the whole

74 Lois-Weedon Wheat- Growing

space witliin the bounds of the field, whether fallow or cropped,
being' included in the measurement ; for the next four years
(1855-1858), the yield averaged 38|^ bushels per acre ; and in
the next four years (1859-1862) the average was 33 bushels per
acre. The crop of 1863 gave no less than 40 bushels per acre —
the same great yield as in 1855, and again in 1858 ; and the last
harvest (1864) has produced 32 bushels per acre, this being the
eighteenth wheat-crop in annual succession. The average yield
of the last ten years has been 35f bushels per acre, just If
bushel in advance of the average for the previous eight years.
Mr. Smith reports that in the present month, January, 1865, all
is going on well with the triple rows, " never better."

As to quality, Mr. Smith has usually made the price of the
best red-wheat in his market ; and the quality of his latter crops
has surpassed that of the earlier.

The effect on the land after all this annual corn-bearing, is that
a good brown heavy loam, to a depth of 1^^ to nearly 2 feet, has
taken the place of the 5-inch staple and raw clay subsoil ; so
that the field was pronounced by the Deputation from the London
Farmers' Club in 1860, to be " as fine wheat-land as any man could
possibly desire," and to be " worth 45^. per acre." The owner
says it is now worth "at least 60s." So far from "exhaustion"
being within view, the ground has become ameliorated and
amazingly enhanced in value.

Mr. Smith's yearly profit upon his outlay has also been large,
though he reckons the grain at a low market-price, and sets a
very moderate figure upon the straw, which is all carried away
and applied as manure to other land.

With such protracted and astonishing results before their
eyes, English agriculturists will surely be unworthy of their
reputation if they allow the system to die without a thorough
testing, in different districts, and on a broader scale. Not that
they should slavishly copy the Lois-Weedon manipulation ; for
though the spade and fork have been employed in establishing a
principle, the magic power lies in the tillage, not in the tools ;
and on the great scale, horse or steam power must perform the
labour of cultivation. If Mr. Smith's principle be sound, the
farmer has only to modify Mr. Smith's particular practice,
adapting it to the means and requirements of ordinary business.

The jmnciple developed by the Lois-Weedon experiment is,
that " intercultural tillage " (that is, the pulverization and aeration
of the ground between the rows of a growing crop) promotes the
growth of the crop. In this lies the essential difference between
bare-fallowing half the area of a field in narrow stripes, dis-
tributed at intervals between wheat-bearing stripes, which col-
lectively occupy the other half, and bare-fallowing one-half part

mth Horse (or Sfea77i) Tillage. 75

of a field, while the other half grows wheat. The fact being-
established that at Lois-VVeedon the deep and perfect husbandry
of hand-tools and horse-tools together has produced, upon this
principle, most profitable crops for eighteen years in succession
it remains for the farmer to ascertain whether a less perfect
culture by traction-implements only, will afford results, smaller
of course, but of proportionate value, when the smaller expense
is taken into account.

I for one resolved to find out whether the Lois- Weedon "prin-
ciple"— as distinct from the Lois-Weed on "practice" — would
retain its virtue out of its own neighbourhood, and on another
soil ; and I am of opinion that my conclusi(m on the point has not
attracted that attention which it deserves.

My district — the South Lincolnshire " marsh " country — is
noted for its fine crops as well as rich pastures ; but the particular
field of my experiment is by no nneans peculiarly fertile. The
soil is an alluvial loam, rather adhesive, but readily ploughed at
6 inches depth by a pair of horses. This staple rests at 1 to 2-^
feet depth, upon raw " silt " or muddy sand anciently deposited
by the tides ; but which, on most of the farm in cjuestion,
possesses none of the exuberant fertility of some marine warps.
Low-lying, flat, and naturally wet, it is partially relieved of
excessive moisture by a few thorn under-drains — which are
resorted to in this "dead level" tract, devoid of the "fall"
necessary for scouring out permanent pipe-drains. This piece, of
ten acres in extent, is considered about the worst bit of ground
on the farm ; average yields of wheat on this occupation —
under liberal management, with well-manured root and spring-
corn crops and cake-fed clovers — have varied from less than 30
up to 40 imperial bushels per acre, according as the harvests
may have been meagre or abundant.

Such is the nature of the land. But I must call attention also
to its condition at the time of commencing operations. The
" Ash-tree piece " (though trees are few there) was under the
plough before 1 was born ; and had been last fallowed with
a turnip-crop in 1850. Its latest dose of any species of manure
whatever Avas 12 cartloads per acre of farmyard-dung, applied
for beans in 1854. A good wheat-crop followed in 1855;
succeeded by barley (not a heavy crop) in 1856. Nobody in
our neighbourhood would have expected to get a crop of wheat
directly after this barley — unmanured barley, which itself had
followed unmanured wheat, on ground not naturally very prolific
or in high condition. If the new culture could raise one decent
yield upon such a piece as this, the " principle " would clearly
be established ; and, accordingly, my first year's experimental
wheat was g-rown here in 1857. But this is not all : other dis-

76 Lois-fJ'eef/on WItcat-Grmoinp

advantages combined to enliance the severity of my test. One-
third of the field was foul with couch, all of it was much pestered
with buttercups ; and beginning operations too late in the season,

1 had no time to clean it. Such was the weather, that the barley-
stubble, ploughed and harrowed, gave me only a seed-bed of
hard clods ; yet, as it was now the end of October, and thin-
seeders enjoin sowing in September, I could not wait for rain,
and roughly drilled my wheat-rows so thinly that the drill-man
said " sowing like that was mocking the land."

Details of my husbandry shall be given by and by : what I
wish to show first is, that the method adopted DID pkoduce

PAYING CROPS UNDER CIRCUMSTANCES WHICH PRECLUDED THE
GROWTH OF PAYING CROPS BY ORDINARY MANAGEMENT. In May

the wheat was of a good colour, but nearly two of the ten acres
showed a wretchedly thin and bad plant ; while everywhere the
hoe encountered plenty of thistles, sow-thistles, and buttercups.
An early harvest (1857) brought me a light, poor crop, with very
short straw ; but the ears were exceedingly good, some having
(J4, and a few 75 grains each. The vield (of red " Rattling
Jack ") was a trifle over 30 quarters, or 24 bushels per acre, and

2 pecks of light tail — the natural weight of the best being (JO lbs.
per bushel. The head-corn was sold at 505. a quarter ; and
deducting the merchant's charges of " porterage and discount," I
received for the grain exactly 11. 65. lO^f/. per acre. No manure
being returned to the land, of course the straw must be included
as a portion of the produce ; and to be within the mark, I valued
it at only 5^. per acre, making my total receipts 11. Ws. \0^d.
per acre. The total expenses for every operation by hand, horse,
or machine, for seed, rent, tithe, rates, and income-tax, amounted
to 6/. 4^. 2d. ; thus leaving me a profit, even on that bad crop, of
1/. 7.?. 8^fZ. per acre.

If the ground had not been " exhausted " before, it certainly
must be in a low condition now : dare I try wheat again, as a
fourth cereal crop on the same ordinary land, without an ounce
of any manurial dressing ? I could certainly put in my seed-
corn in more reasonable style ; but as a set-off against this, I
could scarcely hope for another good wheat-season like that of
1857. Any way, a crop worth reaping, raised after such a
flogging course, would thoroughly prove the potency of my in-
tercultural tillage.

Well ; after cleaning outmost of the couch, " goose-grass," and
butter-cups, 1 sowed (as before) 31 pecks on the same 10-acre
field, in the beginning of October. This seeding was at the
rate of 3 pecks per acre ; but as from the fallow intervals left,
there were only half the usual number of wheat-rows, the seed
lay in each row with the thickness of 6 pecks per acre.

u-itit Horse (or Stann) Tillage. 77

February and JNIarcli broug^lit the longest dry time that liad l)con
known for manv years; and rolling- and pressing were diligently
followed up on all tlie wlieats of the farm, except my unlucky
experimental portion — this proved a great disadvantage. In
April, however, my wheat was very forward and luxuriant,
though chickenweed made much work for the hoe, and in the
latter part of May, I actually had to "top" one considerable
portion of the crop with the scythe, because there the stalks and
broad flags were too high, rank, and heavv. In June, the wheat
Avas elbow high, the flag an inch broad : and at harvest, the
straw was 5 to 5^ feet long, many 6-feet straws also being found.
The ears were small : it was a " bad yielding year " in the whole
of this district, whatever it may have been in other parts of
England ; yet my crop gave exactly 30 bushels per acre of
dressed corn (head and tail), with nearly a bushel of light tailing
besides. The head corn, "Browick red," weighing 60 lbs. per
bushel, was sold at 395. per quarter ; my receipts for grain being
11. 4^. 9c?. per acre. Not wishing to make out a profit by
attaching a factitious value to the straw (which, in this neigh-
bourhood we may not sell) I put down \0s. per acre for it ;
bringing up my total receipts to 11. 14.s'. Or/, per acre. The total
expenses of every sort came to 6/. Ws. \0d. ; leaving the balance
of profit, 1/. 2.S. llf/. per acre.

Still there had been no manurial application whatever : and to
demonstrate yet further that my new management had something
in it, I again sowed as before the same 10-acre field in October,
1858. This was the fifth white-straw crop in yearly succession,
without manure ; yet in June, my memorandum was, " wheat
looks beautiful, never so well before; all standing, except here
and there near the ash-trees, where it is very heavy." At
harvest the straw was 5 to 6 feet long, but the ears not quite so
fine as in the year before. From the bulk of the stack, the yield
was estimated at 4 quarters per acre; but the thrashing-machine
told a different tale, the produce was a little over 30^^ quarters,
or 24i bushels per acre of head-corn and tail, with l-^- bushel
of light tail. My tillage had fully answered ; because the land
had produced a croj) heavier than any of its predecessors.
But the terribly adverse season of 1859 had refused to developo
and ripen the ears as was expected : in fact, so bad and defective
in quantity, weight and ([uality were all the wheats in my
district — both light and heavy-strawed crops — that 24 to 28
bushels an acre were usual if not average yields. The head-corn
(" Browick red)," weighing 60 lbs. per bushel, was sold at 386'.
a quarter; my receipts for grain being 5/. 18.?. 4^r/. The straw,
estimated at 2 tons per acre, 1 valued at \2s., making my total

78 Lois-Weedon WlLeat-growing

proceeds 6/. IO5. 4i(/. per acre. The total expenses were
5Z. I85. 04c?. ; leaving me a profit of 125. 4f/. per acre.

Hoping- for a more fortunate summer, I again drilled my
experimental field. In May, with a singularly backward spring,
the plant was thin and much nipped by frosts and winds, but
it tillered very much, and was more forward than any other
wheat on the farm. Hand-hoeing, when the ground was very
hard, injured the wheat ; and another operation with the horse-
cultivator buried such long portions of the green rows that I
anticipated, from this cause, a loss of at least a couple of bushels
an acre. In June, after long I'ains and cold winds (a hurricane
had much damaged all the wheats), my wheat was 40 to 45
inches high, with stout stems, broad flags, and many ears out,
some of them very large. I considered the crop a fair one,
though not heavy, and looked for " say 30 bushels per acre if
the wheat ripen well." Such was the entry then made in my
book. In the latter part of July, after great rains, the wheat was
5 to 5^ feet high ; the ears long and large, many of them 6 or
6| inches in length, with "twelve sets" of spikelets. Owing
to very cold weather, deluges of rain, stormy winds, and ex-
tremely cold nights, the wheats of the district ripened late and
very imperfectly ; and I was doomed to suffer the disadvantage
of another specially bad season for my experiment. Light
though lengthy ears betokened what the yield would be ; and
the thrashing-day gave me but 22 bushels per acre of dressed
corn, and 2^ pecks of tail. Though " Emperor " red, it was of
such mean quality as to weigh only 55 lbs. per bushel, and was
sold at 445. 6^. per quarter.

The grain realized 6/. 85. Id. per acre ; the crop, however,
was so bulky that the straw was estimated at 2 tons (as in the
previous year), and valued at 125., making the total receipts
6/. 155. Id. per acre. Deducting the total expenses, bl. IO5. 2hd.,
I had left a profit of 11. 5s. 4:^d. per acre, even for this unlucky
crop of 1860. Remembering that this was the sixth cereal crop
in annual succession, and the seventh amiual corn-crop since the
land had been manured, I considered the experiment conclusive
in favour of the Lois-Weedon principle. Undertaken with land
in an improper condition, begun at a wrong time, and unfortunate
in meeting with two most disastrous seasons (locally, whatever
they may have been in other parts of the kingdom) " the stripe
wheat " had nevertheless brought me a profit, owing to the loxc
cost of cultivation j)ertaining to the sy stein.

My average yield for the four years had been 25| bushels
of dressed corn, and 3J pecks of light tail per acre ; and, sold at
an average of 425. lOifZ. per quaiter, it had left mc a fair profit.

loitk Horse {or Steam) Tillat/c. 79

Had I taken the 10 acres in hand after the mamired beans instead
of when iclicat, and the harleij followinrj that, had lowered the con-
dition of the soil — so that, in ordinary course, it would liavo come
in for a replenishing manured root-crop — it is self-evident that I
must have reaped far better crops, even with the same; unfortu-
nate seasons. But if my four crops had not only enjoyed this
advantage, but had also been smiled upon by fair average
summers, I should indubitably have boasted of my 32 to 3(5,
perhaps 40 bushels per acre, instead of the pitiful average of 25;}.
No reasonable mind will reject this conclusion ; for my second
crop, in spite of its place in the rotation and the unpropitious
nature of the season, did yield 30 bushels per acre. It is
demonstrated, then, that I could have grown three or four wheat-
crops in annual succession that would have improved my " fair
profit " into something handsome ; or, in case markets had been
much lower than they were, would still have rewarded me with
that " fair profit."

It is possible that hand-trenching by the spade to a depth of
18 or 20 inches, would enable my field to produce good wheat-
crops in perpetuity ; but as my horse tillage extended only to a
depth of 9 or 10 inches, and effected but a rough pulverization
compared with that of the fork, I did not expect a long series of
crops. My experiment simply proves that several paying

WHEAT-CROPS CAN BE GROWN, ONE AFTER THE OTHER, WITHOUT
ANY MANURE, PROVIDED THE LAND BE IN FAIR WHEAT-GROWING

ORDER AT THE BEGINNING. How this lesson Can be best
applied in farm practice, I shall consider presently.

To test the endurance of the system still further, I ventured
upon another sowing ; but not being able to get to work before
November, I drilled rather more seed. However, the terrible
frost of that winter (1860-1), killed most of the plant on half the
field, so that it had to be ploughed up — too late, however, for
the attempted crop of mixed peas and oats ; while the remainder
was so thinned, that the crop, though left till harvest, was not
thought worth measuring separately. Such was the termination
of the experiment ; but the land was not by any means " beggared-
up " by my drafts upon its fecundity. For, fallowed and manured
for turnips in 1862, it bore a heavy and splendid crop — which
was, for the most part, eaten on the ground. A couple of acres
stood for seed in 1863 ; while the rest produced a good crop of
oats. These were seeded down with red clover ; the turnip-seed
plot was sown with winter tares ; and both clover and tares were
mown in 1864, yielding a very heavy crop of hay, in spite of the
unprecedented drought. The clover-lea is now lying unbroken
till the coming spring, as it may be wanted a second year to

80

Lois- IVeedon Wheat-Growinfi

supplement the deficiencies of the almost dried-out young
" seeds."

I will now describe the modus operandi and verify my " totals
of expenses." The wheat is drilled in triple rows, the " spaces "
(A A A A Fig. 1) being 10 inches each, and the " intervals"
(B B) 40 inches each ; so that from the middle of one wheat-
stripe to the middle of the next is 5 feet. While the crop is
growing, the intervals are subjected to a fallow culture ; and the
second year's wheat-rows are sown on what Avere the fallowed
intervals of the first, as represented by the waved lines in the
figure.

First
Crop.

yecoud
Crop.

A A

A A

A A

It has been said by objectors to this "stripe system " of wheat-
growing, that, as the rows do not follow upon the identical places
occupied by last year's stubble, the course of cropping is not
really one of " wheat after wheat," but alternate " dead-fallow and
wheat." Then why not sow one continuous half of your field
wheat, and bare fallow the other half alternately ? Because
5 acres in that case would have to yield as much produce as
10 acres on my method. My 10-acre field did yield in 1858
30 bushels per acre, measuring wheat-rows and fallow spaces
together. If you choose to maintain that the wheat really
occupied only half the area, then my yield was 60 bushels per
acre. The fair inference from my experience is, that with the
land in anything like reasonable condition at starting, several
successive crops much heavier than that would have been raised,
still without any manure. I should have reaped 45 to 50 qviarters
of corn off that 10 acres, for a number of years together : is there
the slightest probability that anything like this produce could have
been reaped from that field, year after year, if it had lain as 5 acres
of wheat and 5 acres of fallow, — that is, that the 5 acres would
have yielded at the rate of 9 to 10 quarters per acre ? Whatever
may be the scientific explanation, my practice affords substantial
proof that tillage processes in close proximity to the growing

ivith Horse {or Steam) Tillac/e.

81

plants, and tbp free admission of air and liglit amono^st the g^reon
and flag-g-y stems, do wonderfully stimulate and develope the crop,
at the same time strengthening the straw and saving the grain
from the damage inflicted by "lodging." l""or while over-heavy
crops sown on the ordinary plan come up a mass of flaccid stems,
too weak at bottom to spring up against the weight of rains and
violent winds, the stalks of a "strip(>"' crop are stout, green, and
strong, bearing aloft th(> ears to ripen and grow plump and heavy
in the sunlight; and 1 l)elieve it is only after late sowing that the
vigorous healthy straw would be specially liable to disease from
atmospheric changes.

The system is just an adaptation to grain-crops of the inter-
cultural horse-hoeing and deep stirring which bring your 40 tons
of mangold per acre, your fortune-making potato-crops, and your
pre])osterous prize swedes and cabbages.

The details of management are exceedingly simple : —

1. After harvest, fork out couch from the closely-mown stubble-
stripes.

2. Broadshare or scarify the fallow intervals, to keep down the
annual weeds.

3. Shortly before seed-time again scarify and harrow, taking
care to set the harrows so as to miss the stubble-rows.

4. Drill as follows : — Arrange the drill with four coulters, as
in Fig. 2 ; the outside coulters A A' 5 feet apart, and the inside
ones B B 40 inches apart, leaving the spaces A B and B A' each,
of course, 10 inches wide. Set the shafts in the middle of the
drill, so that the horses walk upon the old stubble-rows C. The
drill turns short at each end of the field, and the forward coulter
(that next to the unsown ground) is used as a " marker," without
sowing any seed. Thus the coulter A' has the seed shut off; but
on the return course of the drill (as shown by the dotted lines,
the horses walking along the stubble-roAvs D), it traverses in the
same track as before, l)ut with the seed running — the coulter A
(that was sowing last time) being now in the position E, with its
seed shut off.

Fig. 2.

'I

■i(

•f"-'7

5. Sow three pecks per acre ; that Is, employ the same cogwheel
on the barrel that would sow six pecks per acre if the rows had
VOL. I. — S. S. G

82 Lois-Weedon Wheat-Groioing

been 10 inches apart over the whole ground instead of averaging
20 inches apart, as they do. Thus the wheat will not be thin in
the rows ; the small quantity of seed per acre, arising from the
fewness of the rows to be sown.

6. Be sure to get the wheat in early, because of this compara-
tively spare seeding, and of the effect of the after-tillage in pro-
longing the summer growth of the crop.

7. When the wheat is well up, take a plough (with two horses
*'in length") once along each interval, the coulter running within
6 inches of the wheat on the " near " side, and the furrow-slice
covering up the old stubble. The furrow may be 5 inches deep,
without the upturned earth falling upon the wheat on the other
side of the interval.

8. A subsoiler, drawn by say three horses in length, must im-
mediately follow ; breaking up the furrow bottom to a depth of
5 inches more, making a total depth of 10 inches. The fallow
interval thus treated is represented at A, Fig. 3.

9. In spring, say in February or as soon as the land is dry
enough after a time of frost, perform the same double operation
of ploughing and subsoiling along the opposite side of the interval,
as at B,

10. In March or April hand-hoe the wheat-rows.

11. In April, when the upturned furrow-slices are in a crumb-
ling state, tear them down by passing a narrow harrow along the
intervals.

12. Directly afterwards stir deeply with a good grubber, set
to take a width of about 26 to 28 inches, the horses walking in
length. This stage of the fallowing process is represented at C.

13. It- will be necessary to go over the field with a hand-rake,
to pull off any clods that may have fallen upon and buried the
plants in the outside wheat-rows.

14. Horse-hoe the fallow intervals deeply, at least twice during
the summer.

15. Hand- weed the wheat Avhen requisite.

16. When the ears are fully out and in bloom, take a double-
mouldboard-plough or ridge-plough up the intervals, so as to
slightly or partially mould up the wheat on each side : this will
prevent many stalks from being blown down by winds, or borne
down by heavy rains.

Fig. 3.

17. A subsoil-plough should break up the bottom of the furrow

with Horse {or Steam) Tillaf/e. 83

left open in the middle of each interval ; the state of the interval
now being indicated at D.

18. The crop may be mown or bag-ged close to the ground;
but bear in mind not to obliterate the lines of stubble by har-
rowing or otherwise, because these form the " guideways " for
the next sowing.

In some cases, as when the ground is cloddy, it may be ad-
visable to omit operations 16 and 17 : and on the other hand, if
the moulding-up has been deeply done, it may be necessary, in
preparing the intervals for the next sowing, to gather the soil .
again into the centre of the interval, say by a " pony-plough."

As the subsoiled furrows A, B, and D, lie open to the weather
for many weeks, the whole breadth of the interval, when autumn
arrives, has been exposed and pulverised to a depth of 10 inches
— without a raw subsoil having been laid over a buried staple —
forming an uncommonly fine dead-fallowed seed-bed for the next
crop.

As far as cleanliness is concerned, my operations do not give
root-weeds much chance of making themselves obnoxious. In
my field the couch decreased, so as to give little or no trouble ;
although on these alluvial soils, with moist light bottom, this
pestilent plant naturally runs and mats with wonderful vigour
and pertinacity. The buttercups and thistles followed suit ; and
though annual weeds were annoying aud expensive, owing to the
unusual access of air and light into every portion of the crop, yet
they required less and less attention every year. Indeed, Mr.
Smith, of Woolston, claims to have established this point, that
non-inversion husbandry will ultimately wear out the whole brood
of smothering plants which taxes the incessant hoe and spud. It
is a fact that, alter bearing all my successive corn-crops, my field
was comparatively free from weeds, excepting those obstinate
buttercups and strong-hearted thistles ; that no fallowing what-
ever was needful for the peas and oats which came after the frost-
killed stripe-wheat ; and the existing clover-lea (barring a few
foreign importations in the seed) will bear without shame the
critical scrutiny of a botanical agriculturist.

Before tabulating the several items of expenditure averaged
from all the years of my experiment, I must offer one or two
explanatory remarks. For " ploughing and subsoiling " an acre of
land, 3a'. 6f/. appears an absurdly small charge ; but it is thus
light, because only one furrow in each " interval," — that is, one-
sixth of the area of the field is thus tilled and paid for. Other
items appear in like proportion. I am not in a district notc^d for
low wages. During two out of the four years of my stripe; wheat-
growing, I paid 12^. per week, and in the other two years l(J.s\

a 2

84 Lois-JVeedon Wlicut-Groinnrj

and 10.s\ 6r/. per week to men, and Gr/. to M. to boys. Women
were not engaged in tlie field at all. In harvest the work was
done by the piece (the general farm-crops being mown or reaped
at from 10s. to 14^. per acre), and some of the hands that worked
on my tillage operations were the hired team-men, each at I65.
a week. I think I have not undercharged the horse labour. For
every horse I put down 2s. Gd. per day (including use of imple-
ment), which should be enough, seeing that it is equivalent to
30Z. a year for 240 working days. The men working the horses
. were, of course, paid for in addition. Then as to public expenses :
my tithe rent-charge on arable land is about Ss. per acre, and the
rates of all sorts and direct (assessed and income) taxes I set
down at 7s. per acre. The proper rent for this particular field I
could only average from the rents of the immediate neighbourhood,
putting it at obs. ; though from the unfavourable reputation of
the piece for many years, it is hardly fair to value it at so much.
The account is as follows : —

Expenses per Acre.

£. s. (7.

August .. .. Rcarifj'iug fallow intervals 0 1 G

September.. .. Forking-out couch 0 3 0

Scarifying and twice Larrowing intervals .. 0 2 0

October .. .. Drilling and harrowing 0 2 f)

Seed, 3 pecks (at, say 5s. per bushel) . . . . 0 3 0

December .. .. Ploughing and subsoiling 0 3 G

Feb. and March I'loughiug and subsoiling, and removing clods) „ 0 1-

oft' wheat ) '^ *

A]ir. and May .. Hand-hoeing the wheat 0 1 G

Plarrowiug and scuffling the intervals . . . . 0 14

May Hand-weeding the wheat 0 0!)

Horse-hoeing the intervals 0 0 10

June .. .. Horse-hoeing the intervals, second time .. .. O 1 0

Jloulding-up wheat 0 0 8

Subsoiling 0 2 0

Hand-weeding wheat 0 0 4

August .. .. Mowing and harvesting, &c 1 1 0

Threshing and marketing O 10 0

Working expenses per acre 2 19 2

Add for rent, say 35s.; tithe, 8s.; rates and direct (assessed) o -ia a
and income) taxes, 7s. ; making together j ""

The total outlay per acre being .. .. 5 0 2

Doubtless a skilful application of the wire-rope and steam-
driven implements would materially lower the expense as well
as increase the efficiency of processes performed in my case by
horses, two or three drawing in a line " tandem " fashion. Cer-
tainly, I lost produce by the kneading of so many hoofs at times

ii'ifk Horse {or Steam) Tillarjc. 85

wlien the ground was too wet and spongy for proj)er working,
and by the teams trampling up the wheat in turning at both ends
of the field.

I will add here that my 10-acre plot was by no means favoured
with attention, so as to have eaeh operation done in the most
suitable weather, no matter what might be the demands of otlier
fields upon the farm. Instead of that, it unfortunately had to
take its turn when the horses could be best spared from other
labours ; and, in consequence, the entries in my memorandum-
book complain of the muddy ploughings, mauly subsoilings, and
scarify ings, and uj)rooted or plastered-down portions of wheat.

And now for the practical recommendation arisiiuj out of this
experience. Not necessarily to grow four or more wheat-crops in
yearly succession on the same land ; for in my experiment you
see a principle tried to an extremity, just for the sake of j)roving
the productive power of intercultural tillage. Not to introduce a
rotation like mine as a pattern to be followed on a large scale.
Suppose we take but A couple of wheat-crops together in a
THREE-FIELD COURSE, that is, two years wheat, and the third
year spring-corn, green crops, or what you please, the straw being
returned to the land as manure in this third year. On my field,
the produce on this system (as I have shown from what actually
was raised on the comparatively exhausted ground) would be,
with every degree of probability, 36 to 40 bushels per acre in an
average season. Take a low market, say at o^s. per quarter.
Then 30 bushels per acre give a return of 8/. 2.9. ; and deducting
the low total cost of the crop, hi. 10s., Ave have a balance of
21. 12s. per acre for profit and interest of capital. A yield of
40 bushels an acre, at the same price, would give a surplus
of 3/. lO.y. per acre over the total expenditure. If you reckon
upon the more reasonable market-price of 40i'. per c[uarter, the
yield of 3(J bushels leaves a profit of 3/. IOa". per acre ; and the
yield of 40 bushels leaves a ])rofit of 4/. IQs. per acre. On 300
acres arable we should have 200 acres under wheat, producing a
nett annual income of 520/., 700/., or 900/., according to which-
ever yield and market we met with. No manure being wanted
by either year's whcat-c-rop, all the wheat-straw, enriched it
you please with cake and corn feeding, would go to manure
the remaining 100 acres of crops, — spring -corn, green food,
and roots ; and if it is really more profitable to grow food for
live-stock than to sow large breadths of bread-corn, under the
common mode of management, there can be no doubt that this
100-acre portion (with 200 acres of straw manuring it) would
account for itself without any heavy deficit of expenditure over
proceeds. But this manuring is not all that Avould be in favour
of the 100 acres of cropping. Not only is the second year's wheat-

86

L(jis- Wccdon Wheat- Groiciru,

crop produced at a total outlay of 5/. 10s, per acre, but the land
is siniultaiicouslij fallowed and cleaned in readiness for the third
years mixed cropping. The stripe-wlieat relieves the green crop
of its old burdensome duty of cleaning the land for succeeding
crops ; and no part of the 100 acres will have to undergo the
usual long processes of winter and spring fallowing. Hence
the expenses on such a crop of roots would be far less heavy than
in the common way.

An illustration of the proposed system is afforded by the
following diagrams : —

First Year.

Second Year.

Third Year.

VT

B'

V/2

S

O'

V/2

M

W"

W2

P

W

W2

Bi

W2

VT

Oi

W2

S

W

W2

M

w

W2

P

V/2

VT

BI

V/z

S

O'

V/z

M

W"

W2

P

w

The parallelogram represents 300 acres, divided into twelve
fields of 25 acres each. Suppose that the miscellaneous cropping
occupies the four fields in column a for the first year, in column
c for the second year, and in column h for the third year, the
rotation travelling over the farm from right to left, V T may be
25 acres of vetches followed by turnips ; S will be 25 acres of
swedes ; M, 25 acres of mangold ; and P, 25 acres of pulse-corn.
The turnips may be succeeded by B\ barley ; and the swedes by
O', oats, both these crops to be sown in 3-row stripes (taking the
place of wheat, for the first two years of stripe-culture). The
mangold and peas or beans may be followed by stripe-wheat W^
In the third year these four fields (B\ 0\ W, W) will bear the
second stripe-crop of wheat, W'-^, W^, W^, W^. There will thus
be 150 acres of wheat and 50 acres of oats and barley each year.
This plan admits of winter-fed roots and early vetches, but makes
no provision for a clover layer. I do not know what great ob-
jection there may be to the scheme (of course on proper wheat-
land, having a due proportion of clay in its composition), for if
the part under stripe-corn can bring the occupier such a hand-
some income as I anticipate, he need not be much concerned
about any larger store of forage for animals.

One important question, of course, is the practicability of exe-
cuting the tillage required by such an arrangement : What would
be the distribution of horse-labour throughout the year ? The
references in my memorandum-book relating to the 10 acres will

(i'ith Ilur.sc {or Steam) TiUar/e.

61

enable me to givt; an answer. The horse-labour rccjuired lor
200 acres of wheat, oats, and barley would be as follows : —

Number

Number

Jlonth.

Operation.

of llorst'S

of Days

engaged.

occupied.

Aug. ..

Scarifying intervals of 100 acres

!)

5

Sept. . .

Scarifying ditto, 2nd time, and twice harrowing

10

G

Oct. ..

Ploughing and harrowing 50 acres (after)

10

U

mangolds and pulse-corn) |

Drilling and harrowing 150 acres

10

l.'ii

Dec. ..

First ploughing and subsoiling 100 acres

JO

10

Ploughing 25 acres (for barlev)

10

5

Fol ). and

Second ploughing and subsoiling lUO acres ,.

10

10

Mar.

Ploughing 25 acres (for oats)

JO

5

Drilling and harrowing 50 acres (barley and)

10

7

oats) j

Apr. and

Harrowing intervals, 100 acres .. .. • ..

2

5

]\Iay.

Scarifying intervals, 200 acres

10

12

May ..

First horse-hoeing or stirring intervals, 2001
acres j

5

G

Juue ..

Second ditto, 200 acres

5

(>

Moulding-up wheat, 200 acres

5

G

Subsoiling intervals, 200 acres

10

G

Leading the corn in harvest, and delivery at market must be
added.

The total number of days' work for one horse is just 1000.
Now 12 horses are not an excessive force upon oOO acres arable,
and at 240 days' work each, they do 2880 days' work in a year ;
so that the stripe-cropping^ would occupy a normal force of horses
little more than a third of their time throughout a year. Looking
at the various months, it appears that the stripe-croj)ping would
demand team-labour for only 5 days in August, during half of
September and October, half of ])ecember, one-third of February
and March, a third of April and May, and half of June. This
would leave ample time for the tillage of the various crops upon
the 100 acres ; seeing, moreover, that these crops would take
much less labour than if ordinary fallowing and cleaning had to
be pursued in preparing secd-l)eds for them.

As I have supposed barley and oats in stripes to be substituted
for the first year's wheat on portions of the land, I will justify
my expectation that this would answer as well as the wheat. jMr.
Smith is growing these crops on the stripe principle at Lois-
Weedon, the triple rows standing at every 5 feet (as the wheat-
rows do), but the spaces reduced to i) inches each, leaving 42
inches for the fallow interval. After highly-manured carrots and

88 Covered Catlle-ijanls.

mangold drawn off the land, the yield of barley has been no less
than 72 bushels per acre ; and of oats, just the same, namel}',
Avithin a fraction of 9 quarters per acre, weighing 46 lbs. per
bushel.

In conclusion, I ask for a practical testing of Lois-Weedon
wheat-growing as adapted to traction tillage. Not for a rash
adoption of a speculative " three-course rotation :" Ijut first of
all, for a trial on one field or plot of suitable wheat-soil. Let
that field be managed as if it were under the three-course hus-
bandry ; take stripe-wheat (with a portion of oats, or barley if you
like) lor the first year ; again, stripe-wheat for the second year ;
and then plough up and manure for other crops in the third
year ; after which, of course, two stripe-crops as before. With
accounts properly kept, this would soon show what merit exists
in the principle, and — do homage to the genius of Jethro Tull.
I know that it is difficult to move the mind of a practical man
out of its habit of settling things from general considerations. I
shall be told that an extension of wheat-culture is not advisable,
because roots, clover, and cattle-crops have, of late years,
answered better. But what can the wheat-crops that don't pay
possibly have to do with my wheat-crops which ivill pay ? The
entire case rests upon the low cost of production by my

METHOD, IN COMPARISON WITH THE COST OF A WHEAT-CROP IN

ORDINARY FARMING. I raise two good wheat-crops in succession
lor 5/. 10s. per acre each (every source of outlay included), and
at the same time and for the selfsame money, I am fallowing and
cleansing the ground in readiness for roots or other of the third
year s crops. Can any other system show an economy of expen-
diture like this?

; Long Sutton, Lincolnshire, Januanj, 18G5.

VI. — Covered Cattle-yards. By W. J. Mosckop.

Although the design of this short contribution to the ' Journal
of the Royal Agricultural Society ' is less to discuss the merits of
covered cattle-yards, than to call attention to a peculiar mode of
constructing them, yet a brief recapitulation of the advantages
which practically we have found to arise from their use will not
be out of place, more especially as the fact is undoubted, that
among the great body of farmers they have not yet attained the
popularity, or even met with that appreciation which they
assuredly deserve.

Whether an inquiry into the cause of this supineness would be
attended Avith any useful result is doubtful ; therefore, without

Covered Cdttlc-ijards. 89

encleavourinu^ to trace it further, Ave will quote from one whose
experience in the erection of covered yards is second to non(> in
the kingdom.*

" As a general rule," he says, '' 1 have fountl much jucjudice
against covered homesteads when first proposed, l)ut I do not
recollect one instance of dissatisfaction after they had been in
use for one year." This oilers a key for the solution of th(;
enigma, and points to this conclusion, viz., — that prejudice arises
from inexperience.

Assuming then that we have a covered yard constructed as
per plan annexed, we will point out the advantages which it
offers in respect of shelter, warmth, comfort — securing the health
and economical maintenance of the cattle ; the })eriect conser-
vation of the manure ; and ct>nse(|uently its economical supply
for the benefit of the soil.

Ecoiwndcal Fccdimj and preservation of the Health of Cattle kept
in Covered Yards.

In the theory of fattening there is a well-known axiom, that
" warmth is e([uivalent to food," and this has been practically
endorsed by many who have adopted the covered-yard system of
feeding cattle.

The food which all animals consume — " burn in the lungs" —
for the maintenance of vital heat, is here restricted to a minimum.
Moreover, they have a dry lair, and are comfortable. They do
not range uneasily about, or witli staring coats, shivering, stand
exposed to the " pelting of the pitiless storm," like their less
fortunate fellows in the o])en yard, but with comfort eat their
food, in comfort rest ; and for such comforts show their gratitude
to their owners by their rapid development.

In an experimental trial we proved that, under cover, animals,
each of which had a separate hox, gained as much weight, witli
something under J th less food, as others fed with the same descrip-
tion of food, but kept in the common form of court and shed,
where the open j>art bore to the shedding the proportion of 4
to 1. The gain was nearly 1^. per head per week, which was
entirely attributable to the superior warmth, comfort, and repose
enjoyed by the cattle under cover.

But besides fattening on less food, animals enjoy better health
and are less liable to disease under cover than when exposed in
open or partially covered yards to the rigour and changes of our
variable climate.

* Mr. F. Chancellor, Clifluisfoid.

90 Coccrcd Cattk-ijdids.

We feel we are here treading on tender ground, as many hold
an opinion directly the converse of this. Their grand mistake
appears to lie in the very common supposition that covered yards
necessarily involve either a close and vitiated atmosphere or a pre-
valence of draughts. Instances, no doubt, may be pointed out
where the golden mean has not been hit, and where one or other
ol the above especial evils exists in a high degree ; but such are the
results of faulty design or bad construction, and the reasoning
is manifestly unjust that condemns the principle in consequence
of errors in the execution.

In a 3'ard constructed as shown by the annexed plans, while
the cattle are sheltered and comfortable, they enjoy perfect im-
munity alike from tliorough draughts and from a vitiated
atmosphere. The fluctuations of temperature in our island are
Irequent and wide ; but the tendency of such a yard is to equalise
and control that temperature, and within its precincts winter's
bitter blasts and summer's intense heats are alike unknown.

The great importance of this in the economy of animal life
will be readily seen. For whence comes that fatal train of
maladies, coughs, catarrhs, inflammations, consumptions, but
from exposure to sudden variations of temperature ? — We catch
cold. Granted that animals are not so sensitive as man : never-
theless, even to them, alternations of warmth, wet, and cold arc
most productive of disease.

That cattle kept in covered yards enjoy better health than
others kept where the cover is only partial is established by
abundant evidence.

In support of this view, we quote the following from a com-
munication with which we have been favoured from Mr. J. G.
Marriage, of Ham Farm, lied Hill : — " Our buildings are 130
leet by 1U3 feet, and afford accommodation for 100 head of stock ;
and to give you an idea of the health they enjoy, I may state that
lor the last seven years the farrier's bill has not averaged 206'.
per year."

But there is yet another class of opponents to the covered-yard
system, who, while admitting the general well-doing of the cattle
kept in them during the winter, argue that what is then gained
is lost in early summer, when the animals are turned to grass,
from their great susceptibility on exposure to cold. The writer's
own experience, and also that of many others whom he has
addressed on this matter, is dead against this view. With much
more apparent justice might it be inferred that milch-cows,
which are usually kept in a much closer, warmer atmosphere,
would catch cold when turned to grass ; yet, as a general rule,
such is not the case.

Covered Cutttc-i/anh 91

Superiority of the Manure made in Coccred Yards.

15y I'ar the s^ieatcr jjiopoition of oidinaiy fannyard-inanure
consists ol straw and water, the rciiiauider being the excrements
of the cattle. Under cover about 20 lbs. of straw per diem is
found litter sufficient for one animal ; in open yards, more than
twice that quantity is required ; and if, as is generally supposed,
the excrements give the tone and character to the manure, it will
be readily seen, why that made under cover is normally much
superior to that made in the open air. We say " normally,"
because in the one case the original value is maintained, but in
the other k)st by drainage and waste.

It would be superfluous to dwell on the deteriorating influence
exercised by rain-water falling on manure, or the great loss in-
curred by exposure to its washings. The curious in this matter
will find ample information by referring to the researches of
Way, Voelcker, and other modern writers on chemistry ; the
practical man, we opine, will be more gratified by a reference to
results. From dressings of equal quantities of manure made
under the same conditions as to the food and age of the animals,
but in one case under cover and in the other in open yards. Lord
Kinnaird obtained the following results : * —

Uncovered Diukj.

Per Acre.

1st year. Potatoos 7 tons 12 cwts.
2nd year. Wheat 42 bushels.
„ Straw do. 15G stones.

Covered Dung.

Per Acre.
1st year. Potatoes 11 tons 5 cwts.
2nd year. AVhcat 5-1 bushels.
Straw do. 215 stones.

Mr. Akers, of Black Bourton, Oxon, in a communication to
the writer, says : —

" You arc aware that I liave at my I'arin an open yard as well as my larvae
covered yard, and Avhcn I first used the manure made in the latter I was
startled to find my crops for which it had been applied so lodged as to be
almost worthless. Since then I have sometimes been at considerable expense
to have that made under cover and in the open cither mixed or api)lied con-
jointly, so as to insure an eciuable cro]) ; or when the covered-}'ard manure
is used separately, the quantity is invariably reduced, so as to guard against
my previous misfortime. I usually manage my covered manure so that it
will "spit" out with the shovel when required for use, so that 1 have no
need to haul it into a field-heap, and I consequently save the usual labour of
twice filling, carting, and emptying."

Mr. J. C. Garth, of Haine's Hill, Berks, in reference to the
covered yard of his home-farm, writes : —

" The manure is first-rate, but as I have not made an actual trial, I cannot
decidedly say how much it is better than that made in open yards ; but
perhaps one of the principal advantages of covered yards is the great supe-
riority of the manure. The cattle should be littered every day, or every

* Trans. Ilighluiul Agricultural Society.

92 Covered Caitlc-ijards.

other day ; llic liquid i.s llicii all alisovLcd by the straw. 'J'hc dung is good
and short, and fit to be drawn on to the land witliout the expense and waste of
making dunghcaps.

" I consider this system of manure-making is also more healthy for the
cattle, as in open yards tlie liquid runs about emitting effluvia and tainting
the soil, whereas in covered yards it is all taken up by the straw."

Mr. Chancellor says : —

" The late Mr. James Beadel always stated, as the result of his lengthened
experience (and he might be considered as one of the pioneers of the system),
tliat one load of covered-yard manure was worth, moi-e than two loads of open-
yard manure.

"Its tendency to get dried and heated has always been advanced as an
argument against covered yards by those who have not tried them, but I
never heard it used by any one who had. The truth is, it keeps infinitely
moister than in open yards in a dry season. I have often seen the manure
when being emptied come out like ' black butter,' and, with perhaps the
exceiJtion of the top layer, quite fit to put on the land,"

Mr. H. S. Thompson, says : —

" When first I began to use manure made in a covered yard, it was put on
for white turnips in the usual quantity, and they were stimidated by it to
an imnaturally rapid growth and excessive size, which- were very prejudicial
to their keeping qualities. This taught me the lesson, which has since been
abundantly confirmed, that manure made under cover is fully one-tliird
stronger than that which has been exposed to the rains of winter in open
yards. Before trial it might be sujiposed that manure made under cover
would turn out drj^ and mo\ild}% but if the quantity of straw used is in reason-
able i)roportion to the numjber of live-stock kept, it will be invariably found
that the manure turns out in first-rate condition. The explanation is easy,
the most common cause of damage to manure being that the fertilising salts
it contains arc washed out by rain as last as they are formed by the decom-
position of the heap; and when tliese salts are all retained, the moisture will
be retained also." *

The writer's experience fully bears out the above statements.
In the case of animals, alike in age and fed alike, but kept in
open or in covered yards, it is clear that the difference of value
of the manures they make will in a great measure vary Avith the
amount of rainfall, which not only, by its repeated washings,
deteriorates the quality, but also entails the necessity for large
additions of litter ; but on the whole, and under average circum-
stances, we believe Mr. Thomson's estimate of one-third increased
value will bet' ound to be a fair one.

In a trial made on some meadow-land thoroughly exhausted
by many consecutive years of mowing, the following results were
obtained Irom the separate application of manure made in covered
and open yards :-—

Uncovered Biukj.

15 loads per acre produced lU cwts.
hay.

Covered- Yard Ditiiij.

15 loads per acre produced 25 cwts.
hay.

* Trans. Yorkshire Agricultural Society, No. 24.

Covered Ciiftlo-jiards. 93

A portion loft nninanurod l)aio]v pioducod 10 cwts, por aero.

Owing to poculiar circumstances, the difference in this case
was greater than on an average can be reckoned on ; but this
and many other similar comparative instances witliin the range
of the writer's experience, clearly prove that the advantage
arising from the superiority of the manure made in covered
yards is in itself sufficiently important to warrant their very
extensive adoption.

Superior Economy in the Application of Manure.

Owing to the lesser cjuantity of litter used, the excrements of
the cattle bear a greater jn-oportion to the whole mass when
manure is made in covered yards, and after lying some little
time turns out quite fit for direct application for any description
of crop, whereby a very material saving of labour is effected.
The quality is still further enhanced, and consccjuently the
fjuantity rorpiired is further reduced, by the avoidance of the waste
of soluble salts attendant on drainage and leakage after rainfall.

Assuming 20 tons of ordinary open-yard manure to be a fair
dressing per acre, and that lo tons of covered-yard manure would
be quite as effective, we in this respect save the cost of the appli-
cation of 7 tons per acre, which on an average is certainly not
less than 3.9. Qd. And besides, in ordinary practice, the open-
yard manure would be carted to the fields to ferment in a heap
previous to its application, and the labour involved in refilling,
carting, and emptying, may be put as Ad. per ton, or 6a'. 8r/. per
acre, showing in the aggregate a saving of 10.9. per acre; and this
we believe to be a very moderate calculation. Moreover the
straw which is saved in the litter becomes available for food ;
and if there is any truth in estimates which set the feeding value
of straw at 35.s-., and the manurial value of straw at 12.9. Cul. per
ton, the gain in this respect must be considerable.

Among the advocates for open yards, on the ground of the great
facilities they afford for rotting down the straw, was the late Mr.
Pusey ; but undoul^tedly his usual sagacity was at fault here. If,
as he seems to make out, rain-water is indispensable in the con-
version of straw into manure, the rotting process might ])ossibly be
effected with more economy by leaving in the fields all the straw
not required for the cattle ; its haulage to the yard, and rehaulage,
plus 70 per cent, of water, to the field, would at least be saved.*

* In Mr. Pusey's excellent review of the ' Progress of Agricultural Knowledge
during tlie last eight years,' he states tliey "were obliged to use a fire-engine to
moisten the latter which was growing white and mouldy for want of moisture."
In covered yards no sucli want is ever felt. See Mr. Thompson's explanation, in
foregoing paper, of the reason wliy. Mr. Pusey, in the siinic article, states,
" When it rains here in winter our labourers say, ' This is fine weather for
making dung.' "

94 Covered Cattle-yards.

Reverting to the plan for covered yards before us (p. 97), it
must be understood that the writer claims no merit for the concep-
tion of the design, that being most justly due to another. Having
been strongly impressed with the great advantages attendant on
the use of covered yards, he has for some years advocated their
extension ; but neither in his own designs nor in those of others
had he seen the essentials perfectly attained until the summer of
1863, when business led him to the home-farm of Mr. H. S.
Thompson, at Kirby Hall, Yorkshire. Previous to this he had
inspected some yards of a very costly description, but with
imperfect ventilation, and others where the ventilation was suffi-
cient, but the accompaniment of draughts proved that it was
obtained on a wrong principle. Among the latter may be
classed a design of his own, constructed in Berks, in which the
end to the south was left open ; this with plenty of height secured
a pure atmosphere, and all went well in calm weather, but a
wind from the south, south-east, or south-west, created a great
and most unpleasant draught, which was very prejudicial to the
comfort and health of the stock.

The great merit of Mr. Thompson's covered yard (which was
designed by himself) consists in its simplicity, which enables
it, at a minimum cost, to afford shelter and warmth, with perfect
ventilation and freedom from draughts — combining, in short, all
the advantages which the most complicated structure can, and
which so few of them do, practically afford.

This to the writer was so apparent that, when a homestead was
to be reconstructed on this estate, it was decided, with the sanction
of the proprietors, to adopt in principle Mr. Thompson's plan.
That yard, the plans of which we give, has now been in use
upwards of fifteen months, fulfilling our most sanguine anticipa-
tions, so that with the most perfect confidence we can recommend
the mode and principle of its construction to the attention of all
interested in this subject.

The leading feature in the plan is that the ventilation is ob-
tained entirely from the roof. At 9 feet above the level of the
paved causeway, and between the outer and middle roofs, there
is an open space of about 6 inches, running all round the
yard. This ensures an ample supply of fresh air, but in prac-
tice does not produce any perceptible draught. At 8 feet
higher, or about 17 feet from the causeway, between the highest
central roof and the two middle roofs, we have another venti-
lating space of 15 inches continued round the yard, through
which there is a continuous draught, but so much above the
level of the cattle as not to be in the least felt ; here it acts only
so as to draw off (as it does most effectually) the tainted air
from the yard. The supply at the 9-feet level maintains the

Covered Cattle-yards. 95

equilibrium, and it is essential that this lower opening should
not be too large in proportion to the upper one ; the result
is the thorough ventilation of the yard. And this, it will be
seen, is effected by very simple and inexpensive means. The
brickwork on which rests the tiebeam of the middle por-
tion of the roof, is carried a few inches higher than the walls
or beam supporting the roof of the outside range of buildings.
This gives the open space for ventilation, and at the same
time, as it carries the middle roof higher, affords opportunity
for the water to Ije discharged from the middle to the outer
roof, which in the ordinary course is received and carried away
by cast-iron spouting ; the central high roof also throws its
water on to this middle roof, whence it is likewise carried on to
the outer roof. The spouting of the outer roofs therefore carries
off the whole of the water that falls on the yard. It will thus be
seen that no expensive lead-gutters are required, and that the
space which in ordinary constructions is usually occupied by
them is utilised to give ventilation. The 15-inch space between
the middle and the highest central roofs is protected by the pro-
jection of the latter to the extent of 18 inches ; thus while light
and air are freely admitted, the ingress of rain is prevented ; and
as no louvres are required, a material saving is effected.

The stable, cowhouse, &c., are also well ventilated by the
following simple, inexpensive, and, we believe, novel plan.
The spars, instead of being laid at one length, are divided ; one
part being laid from the eaves to the purlin, to which it is firmly
spiked. The other part is spiked on the former, and extends from
the purlin to the ridge ; and as this is done on both sides of the
roof, and for its entire length, it leaves a ventilating space equal
in width to the depth of the spars. The tiles have sufficient
overlap to prevent the rain from beating in. The ventilation is
excellent, and the use of the common wooden ventilators on the
ridge of the roof becomes altogether unnecessary.

The divisions between the yards and stable, cowhouse, 6cc.,
are dwarf walls 2 ft. high, finished with rails, piers being carried
up to support the roofs. On the south side the walls are carried
up the full height, to enclose the shops and loose boxes intended
for sick animals. If thought preferable, posts could be substi-
tuted in whole or in part lor the internal walls, and in that case
the external walls enclosing the entire yard would alone be
necessary. The posts carrying the roof are timber, and are set
in ston^, 18 in. base and 2 feet high. In our case the posts are
oak, 16 feet long, which square about 7 inches. If larch is used
no squaring is necessary, but care should be taken to select
straight poles. The roof is covered with tiles, unpointed except-

96 Covered Cattle-yarch.

ing two courses round the bottom of the high roof. Light is
obtained by the spaces left for ventilation, and by glass tiles in
the roof. The arrangement of the offices are as follows : —

1. Calves-house.
m. Piggeries,

n. Poultry-house.

0. Store for pig-ibod, with space

for boiler.
^). Boxes for sick animals, &c.

'/. Turnip-house i'or yards.

q. Carpenter's shop.

r. Blacksmith's shop.

s. Harness and tool house.

tttt. Yards sufficient to accom-
modate 32 head of cattle, allow-
ing each animal 200 square feet
of s})ace.

a. On tlie plan represents 10-stalled

stable.
h. Hay-house.

c. Corn-bin connected by spout with

granary.

d. Cart and implement shed with

granary over.

e. Chaff-house ; chaff-cutter being

on the floor above.
/. Straw-barn.
g. Corn-barn.

h. Fatting-house for 12 beasts.
i. Turnip-house,
y. Cow-house for 10 cows.
1c. Hay-house for ditto.

A satisfactory mode of cover being obtained, the internal
arrangements may be varied according to requirements ; but on
a farm where breeding, rearing, and fattening is carried on, we
believe the arrangements of this plan will be found suitable for a
farm-yard. The first essential is a provision for the maintenance
of the health and comfort of the stock ; second, economy of labour
in feeding ; third, facility for the removal of the manure ; fourth,
economy in the construction. In all these respects this yard
will bear examination.

Notwithstanding all our refinements in cattle-feeding, straw
and roots are, and are likely to remain, their staple food. This
being so, provision is made for the supply of these articles with
the least possible expenditure of labour. With a root-house at
one end of the passage, from which the cattle in the four yards
are fed, and straw at the other, the labour of feeding is reduced
to a minimum. The same arrangement is carried out in the
fatting-house. The stable and cow-house, requiring straw in
less quantities, are placed further from it, but still conveniently
near, while their respective hay-houses are placed close at hand.
The corner root-house also supplies roots to the cow-house. The
removal of the manure is easily effected. That from the stable
and other houses placed around is daily thrown into the yards,
to which carts have free access for its final removal. Accom-
modation is afforded for sixty head of cattle and ten horses,
besides the piggeries and various offices.

The cost of such a structure will vary Avith the price of labour
and material ; but in this neighbourhood, where both are as high
as in any part of the kingdom, it could be substantially completed
for considerably under 1000/.

Under

Covered Cattle-t/ards.
PLAN OF FAini BUILDINGS.

97

TIIAVSVEUSE SKCTION — A. R.

LOKGITUDINAL SECTIOX — C. V.

VOL. I. S. S,

Scale 32 ft. to an inch.
H

98 Covered Cattle-] /ards.

Under existing circumstances, the foregoing communication
should prove opportune matter in the ' Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society.' The low price of grain and the high
price of meat will naturally induce farmers to curtail the pro-
duction of the one and increase that of the other ; and the great
outcry for seeding-down land to grass shows that the tide has
already set that way. An increase in the number of cattle will
entail the necessity for enlarged buildings, and how this can be
most economically obtained, whether by utilising the old or
adding new, is a problem which ere long landowners will have
practically to solve.

As a cheap and efficient mode of increasing the comfort, as
well as the extent of the accommodation, the system of roofing
over existing open yards may be safely recommended. In no
other way will so large an amount of accommodation be obtained
at so small a cost.

Given the familiar open yard enclosed on three or four sides
by barn, stables, and other offices, having a capacity for accom-
modating stock dependent less upon its size than on the extent
of the adjoining shelter-sheds — any landowner, by applying the
principles which we advocate, may, with the thinnings of his
plantations and the labour of his carpenter, double the amount
of cattle-accommodation, and convert this uninviting, litter-
wasting, labour-wasting, food-wasting, manure-wasting, cattle-
starving space into a comfortable, well-ventilated covered yard.

Two yards of the above description on the home-farm of the
Earl of Zetland, at Upleatham, have just been so utilised by
being roofed over on Mr. Thompson's principle, from designs of
the writer, and a third is now in hand ; and we have his Lordship's
permission to say that he is much pleased with the change, and
highly approves of the piinciple cm which it has been effected.

To assist my readers in forming an approximate estimate of
the cost of such improvements, I will add a statement of the
quantities of work executed in covering the smaller of Lord
Zetland's two yards, and of the prices at which, by contract, I-
can in this district get such work done.

The yard being enclosed by existing buildings on four sides, no
outlay on outside walls was required. Its length is 55 feet,
width 53 feet. The roofs are carried on 10 oak posts set in stone
blocks ; the ends of the tiebeams of the side roofs being let
into the walls. The covering is of pantiles, unpointed, excepting
the two lowermost courses of the main roof.

This calculation is based on the assumption of foreign timber
being used in the construction of the roof, and a reduction to the
extent of nearly 10 per cent, on the above sum may be effected
by landowners using their own home-grown timber.

Ten Years of East LotJiian Farmiiu/. 99

Approximately, the quantities are as follows, viz. : —

£. s. d.

35 squares roof, at 21s 36 15 0

38 „ tiling, at 15.S 28 10 0

3 „ tiles, pointed 0 12 0

10 base stones and foundations 2 10 0

200 ft. ridge stone, at 7(7 5 IG 8

50glasstilcs 2 10 0

£. s. d.

216 ft. 6.-in, spouting 5 8 0

Less value of l-in. spout removed .. 2 14 0

2 14 0

IS ft. down pipes and heads 110

1 GO ft. lin. oak posts, at lOtZ 6 13 4

iron (bolts screw) for posts 0 10 0

Cutting holes iu walls for beam cuds .. .. 0 5 0

£87 17 0

At 6.\ per cent, the interest on the above amounts to 5/. 145. 2d.
per annum, being a charge of 75. Id. per head on the 15 cattle
which, since the yard was covered, it is found it will amply
accommodate. Few practical men will doubt that, apart from
other concomitant advantages, the benefit accruing to the animals
from superior comfort will fully repay this cost.

Kirhleathain, Bedcar, Yorkshire,
December 7, 1864.

VII. — Te7i Years of East Lothian Farmim/.
By E. Scot Skirving.

We can well imagine that a southern Englishman, travelling
for the first time to the north by the East Coast line of railway,
may experience something like surprise upon passing into Scot-
land. He may not be of those whose conception of Caledonia
is that of a region entirely covered with heather, and shrouded
in mist, a land whose unbreeched inhabitants subsist upon
oatmeal and whisky, and stone all those who " gather sticks "
upon the Sabbath-day. A et our trayeller may have some pre-
conceived ideas which are likely to Ije disturbed when he sees
around him a district as dry, as thoroughly cultivated, and
frequently as level, as his own. This surprise is likely to be
heightened by the fact that, as he approached the northern
extremity of England, he found himself passing through a cold,
dreary, ungenial tract of country, which seemed a for(»taste of
worse things to come. Berwickshire and the Lothians have,
however, no claim to represent "the land of brown heath and
shaggy wood ;" and their fields have long been ploughed by

H 2

100 Ten Years of East Lothian Farming.

Saxon cultivators, avIio liavo as little in common with the Gael,
or even with the Western Celt, as the soil has with Strath Canon,
or the hills of Aro^ylshire. Yet, in spite of expanses covered
with wheat or barley, with beans or potatoes, which may bear
some comparison with those of the south, differences would soon
be discernible in the trees and plants which indicate less of
summer warmth than Kent or Sussex enjoy. No hops would be
seen ; and although the sweet chestnut, the walnut, and the
acacia might appear as thriving trees, the two former here fail
to ripen their fruit, and the latter can seldom boast of its flowers.
Summer never hears the song of the nightingale ; and though
Christmas sees the holly bright with berries, no misletoe ever
clings to the oak. As regards crops, perhaps the most marked
difference is the almost total absence of the mangold, the place of
Avhich is, however, amply supplied by turnips of various kinds.*

We propose in the present paper to give some account of the
fortunes of agriculture as connected with East Lothian, a portion
of the above-named district, during the last decade.

Rather more than ten years ago an able article, entitled
" Farming in East Lothian," appeared in this Journal, written by
Mr. Charles Stevenson, editor of ' The North British Agriculturist.'
That paper gave so complete an account of the system of agri-
culture then practised in Haddingtonshire, that the reader may
safely be referred to it as the foundation and the starting-point
of this paper.l Some minor changes in management have of
course since taken place ; and experience, or the change of times,
has set aside one or two of the opinions expressed in 1853.

* It is true the mangold is cultivated to some extent in the east, and still more
in the west of Scotland, but it occupies a small and a diminishing space as com-
pared to other root-crops. In warm seasons it often produces largely, but it is
extremely uncertain, and is verj' prone to " shoot," and run prematurely to seed.
It is also found a troublesome crop to secure in autumn.

We may mention the following as a rather singular illustration of our personal
experience of a crop of mangold. In 1860, we had been induced to cultivate
it to a considerable extent ; a field of 35 acres was sown, and produced a very
fine crop ; continued rain in November and beginning of December prevented its
being secured in proper time, and on the 19tli of the latter month it was sud-
denly covered by an unusually heavy fall of snow, which put an end to all hope
of carrying it. It remained unlified during the whole winter, which was one of the
most severe on record, the thermometer being for some time several degrees below
zero, and the mangolds of course were frozen into stone. Upon being ultimately
carted in spring, the roots were blackened masses of soft pulp, which we at first
imagined were as useless as turnips when in the same condition. To our surprise
we found that cattle ate them with avidity, giving them a decided preference to
sound roots that had been properly secured from frost, and the animals throve
well and fattened satisfactorily upon them. Probably the same chemical result
may be shown by the analysis of a nearly decomposed mangold as is exhibited
in the case of a rotten turnip, which looks better in the chemist's figures than
the sound one ; but the turnip when decayed is nauseous and uneatable, while
the mangold, it would appear, becomes more inviting to bovine taste.

t See vol. xiv., No. xxxii., IS.*).'!.

Ten Years of Emt Lothian Farmiiuj. 101

Since then more manure has been purchased, and more artificial
food consumed by stock ; new and important implements have
been introduced, and agriculture has progressed in various direc-
tions ; whilst, on the other hand, it cannot be denied that in
some points it has retrograded. But the chief features of change
are the absolute, as well as the relative, value of cattle and corn ;
and, aljove all, the position and prospects of the occupiers of the
soil. We envy the writer of liSOo his pleasing task. He was
enabled, with perfect accuracy, to write as follows : — •

" Never since the close of the war (1815) has the agricultural
interest been in a more prosperous state in this country tlian at
present. There is, we believe, less deduction from the rent
covenanted for, than has ever been previously known. Perhaps
there are not ten farmers in the county who are not paying the
rent originally agreed on. We believe, also, that there is less of
arrears than has been at any period, certainly since 181G."

This prosperity, which continued for some years after 1853,
owed its origin in a great degree to the rebound which followed
the panic caused by the loss of the protective duties, but it was
subsequently maintained by more substantial causes. There
were several good harvests, that of 1852 being undoubtedly the
best ever reaped, the nearest approach to it being that of 1835,
whilst the crop of 1852 commanded a high price, wheat averaging
755. V^d. per quarter in Haddington market. Then followed,
the stimulating influence of the Crimean war, and the potato
trade (which may be said not to have existed in East Lothian
before 1850) reached its height, dealers purchasing the crop as
it grew, with all risks, and the expense of lifting, at 30/. to 40/.
an acre, and paying to individual farmers from 1000/. to 4000/.
or even 5000/. Land rose prodigiously in value, and rents pro-
bably reached their culminating point about 1855, when farms
were let at an increase which ranged from twenty to a hundred
per cent.

Then the tide began to turn, and the reverse side of the
picture appeared in sad contrast ^to the brightness of the other.
Farmers starting with leases of that date, and saddled with rents
which experience has proved to be from 20 to 30 per cent, too
high, are certainly in no enviable position ; and generally the
evidence lately taken l^efore a Koyal Commission on the subject
of Hypothec (law of distress), shows that for several years, most
farmers have been annually losing from half a rent to a whole
one.

In addition to over-rent, the farmer has had to contend with
a sequence of Inid seasons. The harvests of 185G and 1857 were
to a great extent destroyed by rain, and since then many minor
misfortunes have befallen the cro])s. Those of 185*J and 18G4

102 Ten Years of East Lothian Farmiufj.

were damag-ed by drought, whilst in 1861 a great portion of
the potato crop was lost by disease. Of the price of grain it
is unnecessary to speak ; and potatoes, which at one time pro-
mised to be the farmer's sheet anchor, were almost unsaleable in
1863, and were given in large quantities to cattle. The London
market, to Avhich the bulk of the crop had hitherto been sent,
was over-supplied, and the prices obtaineol would not pay freight
and other expenses. One farmer on opening his agent's account
of a truck sent to King's Cross, found, when all charges were
made out, a balance of 2^. iHd. against him.

In spite of all this the struggle for land, which has sensibly
slackened in other parts of Scotland, is but little diminished in
East Lothian. Cold clay lands, ill-drained and in bad condition,
have indeed ceased to attract ; but for all good, well-cultivated
farms there is still a competition sufficient to drive the occupy-
ing tenant from the field, unless in rare instances when he is
specially favoured by the landlord. It is difficult to suggest any
satisfactory explanation of this strange phenomenon. Hope, con-
ceit, ignorance, disgust of some other trade, and the absence of
any professional education, or the memory of former profits, may
induce those who have little to lose, to risk their all ; but among
this crowd of adventurers are mingled men of capital and prac-
tical experience, and these, though never the highest bidders, are
sometimes chosen by judicious landlords. Time will do much
to correct, but probably not to remove this anomaly, which the
apparent ease, wealth, and independence of rural life, the crowded
state of all professions, and the limited area of our soil, all tend
to maintain.

Purchased Food and Manures.

In spite of bad times, agriculture has in many respects made
material progress since 1853. It is true there are iew " model "
farmers now-a-days. Hedges are not so regularly pruned, walls
are kept in worse repair, weeds are less carefully eradicated, and
fields in general may have a less tidy appearance ; but the great
essentials of deep and thorough cultivation and liberal manuring
have not been neglected. The quantity of purchased manure
has largely increased. In the article of 1853, a leading farmer,
Mr. Hope, of Fentonbarns, is quoted as purchasing 1/. worth of
manure for every acre he farmed ; but noAv, besides a large
increase of artificial food consumed by stock, the manure-bill
has risen upon all the best managed farms to nearly 21. per acre.
In the evidence before the Royal Commission already alluded
to, Mr, Henderson, of Longniddry, stated that on 750 acres he
expended from 1200Z. to 1400Z. on portable manure, and 1000/.
on feeding stuffs, being together from 2400/. to 2500/.

Ten Years of Juist Lothian FarDihuj. 103

One iTianuiv-clc\il(>r told the Commission that he sold 190,000/.
worth of manuies every year to farmers in the three Lothians ;
and in llatldingtonshire, the arable area of which little exceeds
100,000 acres, more than 100,000/. are annually expended.*

Peruvian guano and bones, either dissolved or simply crushed,
constitute the great bulk of this portable manure. Farmers in
Scotland are very reluctant to buy anv manufactured article,
whether manure or feeding stuff, abovit the composition of which
there is any mystery, (^uack medicines, special sheep-dips,
condiments, concentrated manures, and nostrums of all descrip-
tions, are rejected for articles that tell what they are. The
proportion in which the guano and bones are mixed varies
according to the nature of the soil or the fancy of the farmer ;
but ecpial weights of each, or one-third guano and two-thirds
bones, are common mixtures. vYs a top-dressing for young
grass, nitrate of soda, from its recent comparative cheapness, has
become a favourite ; and for autumnal-sown wheat, rape-cake
has long been considered an excellent manure.

War/es.

Increased cultivation has also involved a large additional
expense under the head of labour since 1853, or if we look
back to 1843 the amount will be found to be nearly doubled.
By a carefully prepared statement recently published by several
leading farmers in the country, it appears that the cost of labour,
including the accounts of smiths, wrights, 6cc,, is 2/. per acre.

Upon I'arms where, say 15 years ago, the monthly account for
female and casual labour amounted to 10/. the charge may now
be safely estimated at 30/.

Seed- Corn.

In the varieties of grain cultivated there are several changes to
note since 1853. Hunter's and Fenton still hold their ground as
favourite white wheats, and the variety known as Mongoswell's
or Hall's is also in request. Red wheats are much used : many of
these, brouglit from the south of England, succeed admirably the
first season, but are found to degenerate on being repeated.
Hopetoun, once a favourite, has nearly disappeared, and the
variety for late sowing known as " April " has given place to
barley, as indeed all wheat has done to some extent.

Mr. Patrick Shirriff of Haddington, a veteran agriculturist,
who has the merit of having formerly introduced the Mongoswell's

* When statistios are given the reader is reminded of the very limited area of
East Lothian, which is rather less than that of Middlesex, and only a little larger
than that of tlie Isle of Wight.

104 Ten Years of East Lothian Farniiiuj.

and Hopetoun wheat, as well as the Hopetoun oat, has for several
years devoted most of his attention to experiments in wheat. In
nursery fashion, he grows annually not less than a hundred
varieties, including' every species known to the British Islands.
The practical result of this labour is the introduction of two new
varieties which have already taken their place in the wheat-fields
of the county. One of these is a red, the other a white wheat;
both are bearded, and bear the name of the propagator.

Of barley, which is cultivated to an increasing extent, there is
but one variety used, the Chevalier ; whilst the oat is represented
by the Potato, the Angus, the Hopetoun, the Sandy, and to a
small extent, by the Black Tartarian. Of these the Potato-oat
is the favourite in rich deep soils, whilst the Sandy has the
merit of being least easily shaken by the wind, which frequently
causes great losses in East Lothian. Hailstorms of a destructive
character are, on the other hand, all but unknown ; one instance
only being on record, which occurred a few years ago, when the
crops in several parishes were almost destroyed.

Root-Croys.

The turnip-crop has always been an important one in East
Lothian, but formerly that importance rested in a great mea-
sure upon the fact that it formed the surest foundation for a
remunerative grain-crop, whilst now the roots, grown for their
own sakes, form the chief object of the agriculturist. Of the
softer turnips the white globe occupies the largest space, but it
has been to some extent displaced by the Greystone, a species
recently introduced, which produces the heaviest crop of any
variety. Being very soft and liable to injury from frost, its use
is restricted to the early part of the season — a circumstance which
must always tend to circumscribe the extent of its cultivation.

Skirving's purple-top succeeds the earlier turnips, whilst green
and yellow varieties follow as the food of the farm till Christ-
mas, when the swede becomes the reliance of the farmer, for all
animals save breeding-ewes, for which white or yellow turnips
are reserved.

An annual sweepstakes, which is held under the auspices of
the local agricultural society, shows the following as the highest
weights on the best five acres of turnips of different sorts : —
Swedes, 31 tons 18 cwt. ; yellow, 36 tons 10 cwt. ; white, 45
tons per acre.

While the turnip-crop is thus increasing in importance, the
potato has, during the last decade, created almost a revolution in
the agriculture of the country, has largely contributed to the rise
in the value of land, has brought very considerable sums into
the district, and has attracted to it a population special! v devoted

Ten Years of East Lothian FanniiKj. 105

to its cultivation, an Irish iminijjration having followed the
cherished root of the sister kingdom. One variety of the potato,
the " Regent," occupies probably nine-tenths of the whole space
devoted to the cultivation of the plant. Till lately Orkney
Reds were much used, but as coloured varieties cannot now
be sold so long as white are to be had, the fiat of the con-
sumers has regulated the proceedings of the grower. Flukes,
which command the highest price in the London markets, and
are largely produced in Yorkshire, cannot be profitably grown in
Scotland.

In early localities, and particularly in sandy districts near the
sea, the Delmahoy Early takes the place of the Regent. This
potato is planted in E'^ebruary or March, and sold for consump-
tion in summer, when the ground is immediately sown with
a " stolen " crop of rape upon Avhich sheep are pastured in
winter or spring. The potato is a chief cause of the largely
increased bill for manures, as it receives 5 or 6 cwt. of guano
and bones per acre, besides taking the lion's share of the home-
made dung, thus leaving to the manure-merchant the task of
making good the deficiency to other crops. The potato, how-
ever, can be profitably cultivated upon good soils without dung
by using a liberal supply, say from 8 to 10 cwts. per acre, oi
judiciously mixed portable? manures ; and this fact has recently
formed a subject of judicial inc^uiry in a protracted law-suit,
which has considerably agitated, and very much divided, the
agricultural mind in this county.

Stock - Fa rtn ing.

Recent ill-success in husbandry has made the farmer turn an
anxious eye to see if flocks and herds will restore the Ijalance
of his accounts, and certainly if hope is to be found in any
quarter it must Ije in beef, mutton, and wool. It is, however,
found almost impossible in East Lothian to lay down land in
permanent pasture, as the (juality'of the turf rapidly deteriorates,
and grass Is therefore ploughed down In one or two years. Thus,
though a marked increase is becoming apparent In the number
of sheep kept, the additional food consists of roots, vetches, cak{>,
and corn, and the question therefore to be solved is, whether
arable land, rented at 2/. to 4/. per acre can be adapted to stock-
farming, an occupation which has hitherto been carried on upon
a class of farms much less heavily rented.

In reference to artificial food, the Report of 1858 says: —
"Ten years ago cake and corn Avere used \\\ considerable (juan-
tities ; sounder views, however, on the profitableness ol the
em})loyment of cake and corn are rapidly extending. Sonu; ol
the best feeders in the count v now nwike use ol little cnkc or

lOG Ten Years af East Lutldau Fanviiuj.

corn, having been convinced that payment for the cake is not
obtained, and that manure can be had cheaper in the form of
guano."

It is almost unnecessary to say that this opinion is no longer
held. It is, in fact, absolutely reversed. Corn has recently been
given to stock in large quantities because it is cheap ; but cake is
still more universally a staple article of food, the manure pro-
duced by it being more valuable than that resulting from grain.
Whilst cattle are now allowed more artificial food than formerly,
it is also liberally supplied to sheep, whether folded on turnips
during winter or on grass in summer. Several farmers now
expend ol. per acre for extra food on grass depastured by sheep.
In one recent instance a flock-master fed 11 sheep per acre on 24
acres of young grass, at an expense for cake of 80/. The sheep
paid for their keep, and he was enabled to continue the field in
grass a second year, which without this artificial aid would have
been impossible. Foreign oil-cake is more in use than home-
made, which is not considered to possess superiority equivalent
to its greater price ; whilst we have the authority of Professor
Anderson for saying that is more frequently adulterated than
sea-borne cake.

Hardly any cattle are bred in the county, the north of England
supplying the great majority of the oxen fed in it. They arc
brought by English dealers to our autumnal fairs at all ages,
from calves to 3-year olds ; a large proportion of them, and
nearly all the heaviest, again cross the border, being carried back
fat in spring to the manufacturing districts of Yorkshire and Lan-
cashire. It is rather singular that while Scotch farmers look to
the south for their supply of lean cattle, the black polled bullocks
of Dumfries and Galloway are nearly all sent to England, many
going to Norfolk and the Eastern counties. Thus Englishmen
and Scots seem mutually to prefer animals bred at a distance,
which must add considerably to their respective prices.

Breeds of Stock.

Since 1853 a weekly sale by auction for fat stock has been
established in Haddington, which is found very convenient both
for buyers and sellers and a great boon to local butchers, whilst
a fair for store cattle in October has been instituted with great
success at Linton, the whole supply of oxen being brought from
England.

In the Lothians, Galloways are thought to be slow feeders, but
a cross between the kindred race of Aberdeen and the shorthorn
is highly esteemed ; though it can very seldom be got, as the north-
eastern counties are unable fully to supply their local wants.

Much discussion has recently taken place as to whether any of

Ten Years of Ea.st Lothian Fannimj. 107

the English breetls of sheep might with advantage he introduced
into East Lothian.

Southdowns have long been bred ^ in the county, several flocks
having been carefully cultivated for half a century ; but though
Avell adapted to the -soil and climate, they are not on the increase,
and the rams are chiefly used to propagate cross-bred lambs for
spring consumption. Lincolns, which were tried to a small
extent, have been abandoned ; butCotswolds in limited numbers
may be said to have made good their footing, whilst several
farmers have resolved to try the handsome Down sheep of Shrop-
shire. Last autumn, tempted by a temporary cheapness caused
by drought in the south, several flock-masters brought 300 or 400
Hampshire Downs to East Lothian, in order to try their merits.
As regards the ewes, the experiment is still in progress ; but the
wethers have been sold at a fair profit. Being strcjng sheep, they
fetch large prices ; but their appetite seems quite in propf)rtion
to their bulk, and their personal appearance is certainly not
prepossessing. It is, indeed, difiicult to imagine how this breed
could establish itself in countries so near the home of the South-
down, of which it seems but an uncouth imitation.

The sheep most prevalent in East Lothian are Cheviots and
half-breds. The former are chiefly fed during winter, being pur-
chased in autumn from mountain districts. The half-bred (the
produce of a Cheviot ewe by a Leicester ram) is the sheep which
dots the summer pastures, and supplies the chief part of the ewes
bought for breeding, though pure Cheviots are also used. Pure
Leicester flocks are kept in considerable and increasing numbers,
the rams of which are readily sold by auction, though at prices
much below those obtained by fashionable breeders in other
counties. Leicester sheep, fat for the butcher, are almost unsale-
able at home, and are sent to Newcastle, where the colliers do
not object to a little tallow. It is the general opinion of farmers
that no stationarv breeding-stock will pay unless the males can be
sold for rams. Half-bred ewes are bought each September and
October for about 40.f. from breeders in pastoral districts who
have already reared crops of lambs from them, and are sold fat
during the following summer, leaving generally a shilling or two
of profit for their keep, as well as their fleeces and lambs. The
profit from feeding sheep during the present winter is large ;
Cheviots folded on turnips, with an allowance of cake or corn,
leaving about l^-., and in some instances Is. Ad. per week.

Implements.

Scotland, in all that pertains to its agricultural implements,
the cerealia arma of the husbandman, is thoroughly utilitarian ;
and as a rule the machines of the farm are simpler and cheaper,

108 Ten Years of East Lutliian Farming.

though not always so perfect, as those which surprise the spec-
tator from their ingenuity, and ahnost perplex him by their
numbers, at the Royal Agricultural Shows,

The fixed steam threshing-mill is a marked, and all but uni-
versal feature in every farm — the ubiquitous chimney-stalk being
to the " toon " what the church-spire is to the country village ;
but in addition to these we have to some extent borrowed from
England the locomotive threshing-mill, several of which now
ply for hire, and are often found convenient.

In several important respects the furnishings of Scottish home-
steads are much inferior to those of the best specimens of
English farms. Apparatus for steaming food, light and useful
locomotive-engines driving pulpers or chaff-cutters, mills lor
grinding corn, (5cc., are all much more common in England than
in Scotland, where cattle and sheep are still for the most part led
on roots and straw given separately, frequently without the
addition of corn and cake ; moreover, great establishments lor
the manufacture of agricultural implements like those of the
Croskills, Ransomes, and Howards, have no counterparts beyond
the Tweed. Nevertheless, one very important implement is, we
imagine, much more universally in use in the Lothians than
in England, since, practically speaking, the whole corn-crop
and even a portion of the bean-crop is now cut by the reaping-
machine. The paper of 1853 marks the turning-point in the
history of this great invention, which, after long neglect, has at
length become indispensable in our harvest-field.

"The crops in East Lothian," says the writer of the former
account, " are cut principally by the sickle, occasional fields
only being cut by the scythe. Last season a considerable number
of Bell's reapers were in use, but comparatively little was cut by
them."

It is with something like regret that we have to record that
Bell's machine — the parent of all really useful reapers — is
now almost a thing of the past, and its posterity bear very
little resemblance to their progenitor. One gentleman farmer,
indeed, clings to " Bell " with true British tenacity, and with half-
a-dozen of these implements reaps the crop of four large farms,
containing fields which in some counties would be called moun-
tainous. The large machines of Burgess and Key, acting on the
screw principle, next occupied the farmer's attention ; but these
in their turn have been superseded, and, with Croskill's "Bell,"
they now rot in corners, looking, in comparison to modern reapers,
like skeletons of the Mammoth and the Mastodon among recent
animals.

During the harvest of 1860, a competition of reapers was held
in East Lothian, under the auspices of the local Agricultural

Ten Years of J'Msf Lothian Farming. 109

Society, when the pre-eminent utility of the smaller and simpler
machines, founded on Hussey's principle, was at once and con-
clusively established. Since then, practical experience, as well
as subse([uent competitions, have thoroughly established the
light and handy reaper, as the machine by which the crop
of the county is to be cut. There are one or two farmers
who still reap their crop with the sickle, and they are likely to
continue to do so. No improvement was ever accepted with
absolute uniformity by an existing generation. It is not long
since we saw an old gentleman (a good shot and a good sports-
man he was too), who, despising percussion-caps, adhered man-
fully to the " flint-and-steel " of his early days.

With rare exceptions, however, each farm is now furnished
with a reaper, and several of the more extensive have three or four.
They are all 2-horse machines ; and it Is found expedient that
the driver sliould drive from a seat, and not ride, as was usual
at first.

All these reapers act upon the principle of manual delivery ;
but, though not yet in general use, we expect soon to see a
" self-deliverer" added to the implements of every large farm.
In a county such as East Lothian, where labour In harvest is
often scarce, and where destructive winds are only too com-
mon, it Is of great consequence to be able to send a single man
with a pair of horses into a large field of standing corn, and have
it cut down whilst the labourers are at work in other parts of
the farm. This we have repeatedly seen done with one of
M'Cormack's reapers.

By reaping-machines the work is much better as well as more
cheaply done than by manual labour, and the sheaves are sooner
fit to he carried, since the pipes of the straw, not being bruised
and crushed together as they are by the grasp of the labourer,
allow the air to enter much more freely into the shock. The
great majority of the reaping-machines are the work of local
makers ; who, besides producing as efficient Implements as any
in the world, are on tlie spot to rectify whatever may go wrong, and
to stand surety for their workmanship.

Steam Cultivation.

While the reaping-machine has thus pushed the reaping-hook
aside, a still more important agent, steam-power, has offered its
giant assistance for the upheaving and disintegration of the soil.
Passing over two earlier, l)ut Inedcctual attempts to introduce the
steam-plough into the county, we must assign to Mr. Saddler, of
Ferrygate, the merit of first establishing this mode of cultivation
in l']ast Lothian, Five sets of steam-apparatus are now at work,
the property of tenant farmers, and, singularly enough, while

110 Ten Years of East Lofhiau Farvniifj.

three different systems — Fowler's, Howard's and Coleman's — are
represented, tliey may all be seen at work from one spot, being
used on adjacent farms. The five owners of these ploughs are
all equally satisfied with their investments, and if, after hearing
what each has to say, we are asked which system is best, we are
inclined to reply, with Sir Roger de Coverley, that " a great
deal may be said on both sides."

While the progress of steam-cultivation may be considered as
certain, it has of course its difficulties to contend with, and several
of these are not common to both divisions of Great Britain. In
many parts of England the smallness of the fields, the nature of
the fences, and probably the want of leases — obstacles unknown
in East Lothian, may interpose, whilst with us the chief impedi-
ment is the number of boulder-stones which underlie the surface
of the soil. These have been for the most part already removed
froin the share of the ordinary plough ; but just as the Great
Eastern found in the Atlantic rocks unknown to ships of lighter
draft, so the steam-plough falls foul of a new crop of earth-fast
stones, the fertile source of breakage and delay. Then in that
important item, the saving of horse-power, the northern farmer
has less to gain than his brother in the south, because he has been
accustomed to work his land with fewer horses ; one pair to each
70 acres being the usual provision.

The distance too of the steam-plough manufactories is another,
though a minor, drawback, involving a cost of from 30/. to GO/,
for the conveyance by rail of a steam-apparatus, and, besides,
causing much delay Avhenever any breakage takes place.

Plans for joint ownership in steam-ploughs, or for letting
them out for hire, have not stood the test of practical experience.
No one will go to the expense of preparing his land for the
occasional use of steam, and thus, if the hired plough makes its
appearance it is broken by stones ; and, besides, each farmer
wishes to have his land cultivated at about the same time.

The benefits conferred by the steam-plough have not, however,
been confined to its direct operation. The results of its powerful
and thorough cultivation have led to an inquiry into the whole
subject, which has given a great impulse to deep cultivation
generally. Subsoil-ploughs of various forms have been brought
into requisition, and stones have been dug up till fields have
been so covered with the disinterred blocks, that, for the time,
they looked like churchyards.

The whole theoi-y upon which ploughing-matches used to be
conducted has been knocked on the head. Formerly the suc-
cessful ploughman was he who sliced the soil into the neatest
ridges, and who turned it over most compactly. The subsoil
being jnessed and consolidated below by the weight of the

Ten Year X of East Lotliian Farminr/. Ill

plough, tlie further object seemed to be to render the surface as
impervious as possible to the influence of the atmosphere, and the
pattern of the whole work was apparently taken from the plough-
man's own corded breeches. All this is now changed ; and if
the earth is but sufficiently torn, tossed, tumbled about, and, if
possible, tunnelled into, it matters not how rough the work may
seem.

Leases and Covenants.

While agriculture is thus advancing with the times, it presents
one aspect in which little or no change has been effected for cen-
turies. Scotland boasts, and with reason, of its system of leases,
assuring, as they do, to the tenant, the possession of his i'arm for
19 or 21 years, and thus giving him time to reap the benefit of the
large outlay which is generally made during the first half of his
occupancy ; and there can be little doubt that, but for such leases,
it could never have emerged from its original barrenness. And
yet, if these leases are the boast of Scottish agriculture, they are
also its shame, betraying, by their lengthiness, their vexatious
enactments, their not unfrequent inapplicability to the lands
demised, and their general ignorance of agriculture, that they
originated in a lawyer's office.

Their rigid prescription not only of the acreage to be assigned
to each crop, but of the amount of seed to be sown, without even
any allowance for the casual failure of a crop ; their imdue
restrictions on the sale of produce, besides annoyances chiefly
connected with the preservation of game, too often give them
the character of the fifteenth, rather than of the nineteenth cen-
tury.

How comes it, then, that such documents are tolerated by
a practical and not too sul^missive people ? Simply because they
are looked upon alike by landlord and tenant as a dead letter.
Still they are not altogether innoxious ; they are the skeleton in
the farmer's cupboard, and if he should be so unfortunate as to
give offence by asserting his rights in one direction, he may
always be hit in another by the enforcement of penalties incurred
under the lease.

OtJier Chavf/es.

Among the men connected with the soil of East Lothian, whether
as owners, occupiers, or labourers, many changes have taken
place since 1853. Death has removed, amongst others, those
excellent, considerate landlords, the Earl of lladtlington, and Mr.
Hope of Luffiiess ; the latter of whom, not long before his death,
gave strong proof of his fairness by ordering the; ground-game
which abcHinded on his estate to be reduced Avithin perfectly

112 Ten Years of Ecut Lothian Farminq.

harmless limits. Mr. Aitcliison of Alderston has also passed
away, an able man who, with great success, farmed his own
property. For fully 40 years he kept a flock of Southdown sheep,
frequently refreshing the blood from the Babraham stock, and
gaining many prizes in agricultural shows. Mr. Brodie of
Abbeymain, the leading farmer of his day, an account of whose
system of management is given in the 'Journal' of 1853, has
also gone from among us, and his farm is not now occupied by
his family.

The competition for land has, however, been the great cause
of change among the occupants of farms, the old tenants at the
end of a lease being almost always outbid by strangers. Descend-
ing in the scale, we find that a still greater change is taking
place among the labouring population. In former times, when
son succeeded father in the occupancy of a farm, the "hinds"
were as stationary as their masters, but the ties that bound them
together are now nearly broken. New masters employ new men,
and the old scattered cottages in which old ploughmen used to
end their days are all cleared away, and the failing " hind " has
to find a refuge in the town or the village, where he must live
by the poor-rate and not by occasional country work, \oung
ploughmen seem now to seek change for the sake of change, and
the hiring-market — a foul blot in the agricultural escutcheon — is
every year more and more crowded by a thoughtless mob, of
whom their fathers would have been ashamed.

Comparatively few East Lothian ploughmen have as yet
availed themselves of the legal relief afforded to age or infirmity
when combined with poverty, but the number is on the increase ;
and, in consequence of this, much lamentation is made over what
is called a sad change in the character of the Scottish peasant.
The change, we maintain, is caused by circumstances over
which the ploughmen have no control whatever, and of all classes
of society they are perhaps the least to blame in the matter.
The fierce competition for land, and the consequent rise in the
rents of farms, have driven farmers to buy labour in the cheapest
market ; and the landowner, pressed by the tenant for buildings
to shelter horse and ox, has reduced to a minimum the dwelling-
houses on his property.

Let us see the effect of this. Suppose that, there were standing
on a farm somewhat dilapidated cottages, inhabited by ten families,
and that the heads of some of these were past their prime. The
farm is re-let, and the old occupant gives place to a new tenant at
an advanced rent. New cottages are built, but in place of the ten
old tenements pulled down, seven only are erected. The oldest
" hinds " are dismissed, and labourers from a distance, chiefly
Lish, do their work. Formerly the three extruded sexagenarians

Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. 113

would have ended tlieir days in the country, working as they
were able, their wages, supplemented by such aid as tlieir rela-
tions could afford, sufficing to maintain them in comp.arativo
comfort ; whereas now, thoy have no alternative but to shrink
into a town, where no fitting work is to be found, and where
they must of necessity become paupers.

VVe have thus endeavoured to sketch the history and the
fortunes of East Lothian farming during the last ten years, the
scene closing upon a tenantry struggling in days of low-priced
grain with over-rented arable land. Their position has been to
some extent caused by their own imprudence, but probably still
more by a combination of circumstances beyond their control.
Whilst certainly grave, if not desponding, farmers have not given
way to despair, but are endeavouring as far as possible to adapt
the agriculture of the county to the altered times ; in proverbial
language, ^^ tlicy set a stont heart to a stay hracT

At the same time, however, many men who now farm because
in youth they followed the profession which for generations had
been that of their fathers, are resolved that no son of theirs shall
be brought up to spend his life in a struggle which offers a
poorer prospect of success, and a worse return for thought and
capital, than any other trade or profession.

Camptoion, Drem.

VIII. — On some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. By Dr,
Augustus Voelckeu.

In an uncivilised, thinly populated country, or in a colony where
the backwoodman's axe has to clear the ground before anything
else can be done, the agricultural settler has little or no opportunity
for turning to account the knowledge of agricultural chemistry
which he may chance to possess. The case is different in a highly
civilized and densely-peopled country like England, where oppor-
tunities arise for the useful application of chemical principles,
physiology, botany, and other branches of natural science,
just in proportion as agriculture is advancing in conjunction with
Avealth and population. Therefore we need not wonder that
many eminent and successful practical farmers should be anxious
to provide a better general education for their sons than they
themselves enjoyed, and to afford them instruction in the rudi-
ments of the particular sciences which bear upon agriculture.

Fully admitting that, even in a highly civilised country,
scientific attainments confer far less material benefits upon the
cultivator of the soil than acquaintance with the practice of suc-
cessful farmers and the possession of good business habits, we

VOL. I. — s. S. I

114 SoiJie Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils.

may yet assert that neglect of chemical principles frequently leads
to practical mistakes. Such mistakes are often unconsciously
committed by excellent farmers, on whose authority good, as well
as bad practices are handed on from one generation to another.

The causes of barrenness or unproductiveness of soils are
numerous : some depending more obviously on the imperfect
chemical constitution of the land, may be conveniently termed
chemical causes of barrenness ; others, like those manifesting
themselves in too close or too loose, or otherwise faulty a texture,
may be termed physical or mechanical causes of unproductiveness.
It is not easy to separate the one class from the other ; for in reality
the imperfect chemical constitution of land frequently is but the
result of its bad physical condition. Thus, undrained, unmiti-
gated clay soil, does not yield to the growing plant a sufficiency
of available potash, phosphoric acid, lime, &c., and may be said
to be unproductive as much on account of its lack of available
plant-food, as on account of its bad physical condition.

A recognition of the cause of sterility in land often enables the
intelligent agriculturist to apply the proper means of restoration.
Barrenness and comparative unproductiveness may be due to a
variety of causes : sometimes it arises from a deficiency in the soil
of something essential to the healthy growth of plants ; in another
soil it is the result of the presence of something injurious to vegeta-
tion ; and in a third case it is the impervious character of the land
which causes it to be unproductive. Any defect must be dis-
covered before it can be supplied, and the remedy against any
injurious substance present in the land is not likely to be found
so long as its precise chemical composition is unknown.

It is not a little amusing to find agricultural writers speaking
of the bad chemical composition, or the poor physical cha-
racter of the land as the cause of its unproductiveness. What
the chemical composition of the land really is, or what is the
precise nature of its poor physical character, for obvious reasons,
we are not told. No wonder that plain and intelligent men
lightly esteem the chemical theories and the physical explanations
by which attempts are made to enlighten the agricultural mind
as to the causes of barrenness of soils.

The present paper only professes to treat of certain of the
causes of barrenness, which I have myself investigated more
particularly.

In reviewing the inquiries purposely instituted by me, and the
cases with which I became incidentally acquainted, soils appear
to be barren, or more or less unproductive, —

1. When they contain something inimical to vegetation.

2. When they are deficient in one or more important con-
stituents which enter into the organization of the living plant.

Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. 115

3. When they contain too larg^c a preponderance even of a
valuable ingredient, such as organic matter, sand, lime, and even
clay.

4. When there is but a thin layer of soil resting on the bare
rock.

5. When the land is thin and rests on an impervious and
very thick clay subsoil, or on subsoils containing something in-
jurious to vegetation.

6. When they are badly drained. '

7. When they are affected by a bad climate.

Under these seven divisions, I purpose to treat the subject of
the present communication.

1. Soils are barren or unproductive when they contain something
injurious to vegetation.

There is a very ready test for ascertaining whether a soil is
likely to contain an injurious constituent. All that is necessary is
to put a strip of litmus-paper in contact with wet soil ; if the blue
colour of the test-paper turns rapidly red, the soil is certain to
contain something injurious to plant-life. All good and fertile
soils either have no effect upon red or blue litmus-paper, or show
a slight alkaline reaction ; that is to say, in a wet condition they
restore the blue colour to reddened litmus-paper.

The acid reaction which some barren or unproductive soils
exhibit, I find is caused, —

a. Either by an excess of organic acids (humic acids),

b. Or by the presence of small quantities of sulphate of iron
— green vitriol.

Another substance which occurs in some barren soils is bi-
sulphide of iron or iron pyrites, a compound of 2 equivalents of
sulphur and 1 of iron. It is generally found in soils in which
the presence of green vitriol is readily detected, and, like the
latter, is a most undesirable soil-constituent. The simultaneous
occurrence of these two compounds is explained by the fact that
green vitriol is the result of the oxydation of iron pyrites in con-
tact with air and moisture, the iron of the iron pyrites becomes
converted into protoxide of iron, and the sulphur into sulphuric
acid, which, combining together, produce sulphate of iron or
green vitriol. Even as small a proportion as ^ per cent, of green
vitriol renders a soil almost barren ; and on land containing
little more than 1 per cent, nothing whatever can grow.

In many unproductive soils I have found protoxide of iron
in considerable quantities, and scarcely any red peroxides — a
sure indication of poor cultivation. This, however, in many
instances, may be greatly improved by better drainage, sub-
soiling, grubbing, and other mechanical operations tending to

I 2

116 Some Causes of Uiqjrodactweness in Soils.

admit the air more freely into the soil. Protoxide of iron mani-
fests itself by the bluish-grey or dark-green colour which may be
noticed in many clay subsoils and stiff tenacious soils improperly
cultivated. A change of colour from blue to reddish-brown is
justly regarded as a sure sign of improved condition, for it indi-
cates the transformation of protoxide into peroxide of iron, and
tells of the free admission of air into the land.

Protoxide of iron being as insoluble in water as peroxide, can
hardly be regarded in itself as a plant-poison ; it is rather a test
of the absence of atmospheric oxygen from the soil. The readi-
ness with which protoxide of iron unites with more oxygen and
produces red oxide, is seen in the rapid change of colour which
blue clay dug out of a drain assumes superficially within a few
hours on exposure to the air. Protoxide of iron, indeed, is one
of the most delicate tests for oxygen, and thus, though it is not
injurious to plants in the same sense as green vitriol, which is
readily soluble in water, nevertheless, its presence implies a
complete exclusion of the air, without which vegetation cannot
remain in a healthy state for any length of time.

Chloride of sodium, or ct)mmon salt, generally occurs in an
injurious proportion in land recently reclaimed from the sea, or
in soils inundated by the sea. It is true, that some grasses and
maritime plants grow well enough on such spots ; but cereals, roots,
clover, and other forage crops, do not grow well on land con-
stantly kept in a very wet state, and do not ripen unless the heat
of the sun during the summer months has had a fair chance of
penetrating the surface-soil, tand expelling any superabundance of
moisture. Soils recently reclaimed from the sea, or land acci-
dentally saturated with sea-water exhibit in dry weather white
cfllorescences, which consist mainly of common salt, as may be
readily ascertained by the taste. Although the soil originally is
impregnated with but a dilute solution of salt, the evaporation
from the surface in dry weather causes the liquid brought
upwards by capillary attraction to become by degrees charged
with salt to such an extent, that portions crystallize out in the
shape of a white saline efflorescence which is injurious to vegeta-
tion. I am acquainted with land which, irrigated purposely
with sea-water, under the mistaken idea of improving it, has been
rendered unproductive for several seasons in succession.

In some soils in India and Hungary nitrates of potash and
soda, two very valuable salts, occur in proportions injurious to
vegetation. Like solutions of common salt, nitrates give rise to
saline efflorescences, which invariably indicate an unhealthy
condition of the land, and frequently destroy vegetation altogether.
Common salt, nitrates of soda and potash, it is Avell known, are
used as manuring agents ; nevertheless they are injurious when

Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. 117

their proportion in a soil is such as to produce white saline
efflorescences.

Lest it should be thought that the preceding remarks apply more
to imaginary cases than to real ones, I may be permitted to give
some illustrations representing instances of barren soils which
have been actually brought under my notice.

Soils abounding in organic (humic) acids are very common
in all peaty districts. From a large number of analyses of such
soils, 1 will select only one, from Meare near Bridgewater : —

Analysis of Feat Land.

Dried at 212°.

*''Organic matter (abounding in humic acids) .. i)7'760

Oxides of iron and alumina •536

Carbonate of lime "855

Magnesia •144:

Potash -131

Soda •065

Phosphoric acid '053

Sulphuric acid *051

Silica -405

100-000
*Contaiuing nitrogen 1*428

In its natural state this soil contained no less than 88 per cent, of
water. The percentage of mineral matter, and more especially
that of phosphoric acid, is very trifling, and the excess of organic
acids is incompatible with a healthy vegetation. Lime and marl,
as is well known, have the power of neutralising the humic acids
in such peaty soils. They add, moreover, to the mineral matter
of the soil, and certainly are the best means of improving it.
I will next place before the reader

An Anali/sis of iSoil from the Haarlem Lake, in Holland,

Dried at 212° F.

*Organic matter and water of combination 14'71

Oxides of iron and alumina 9'27

Sulphate of protoxide of iron (green vitriol) '74

Bi-snlphide of iron (iron pyrites) "71

Sulphuric acid united with oxide of iron as basic sulphate) -. .|,„

of iron J

Sulphate of lime 1"72

Magnesia -73

Phosphoric acid '27

Potash -53

Soda ^32

Chloride of sodium "Oi*

Insoluble siliceous matter (clay) G9"83

lOO^OO

^Containing nitrogen '52

Equal to amnioniLi '63

118 Some Causes of Unjirodtictiveness in Soils.

This soil abounds in all the mineral elements which enter into
the composition of the ashes of plants, and is especially rich in
phosphoric acid ; it moreover contains a considerable proportion
of organic matter capable of yielding on decomposition rather
more than ^ per cent of ammonia, but unfortunately it is impreg-
nated with sulphate of iron, which neutralises all its useful pro-
perties, rendering it unproductive.

An interesting circumstance may be mentioned in connection
with the field from which this soil was taken. Before it came
into the hands of its present proprietor, the land was only slightly
scratched on the surface as a preparation for the next crop, and
then produced scanty but still remunerative crops. Not satisfied
with that yield, Mr. Wilson, an enterprising Englishman, the
present owner of th(> land, ploughed deep, and, to his astonish-
ment, found this attempt to improve its productiveness result in
a complete failure of his corn-crop. A heavy dressing of farm-
yard-manure proved e(|ually unsuccessful, or rather aggravated
the evil ; for after the application of the dung even the deeper-
rooting weeds were affected, and nothing but surface weeds would
grow. This curious circumstance led to a chemical examina-
tion, which was committed to me.

The preliminary examination showed at once that there was
present some injurious substance, for the wetted soil strongly
discoloured the blue litmus-paper. The acid reaction I found
was caused by sulphate of iron, and I also succeeded in detecting
sulphide of iron, or iron pyrites. As long as the land was
left unploughed, the latter constituent was not brought to the
surface, and most of the iron existing there originally was no
doubt gradually removed into the subsoil by the rain, which
accounts for the better crops when the subsoil was unstirred. By
deep cultivation the sulphide of iron was turned up, and air
admitted into the soil more freely, which had the effect of
oxydizing the iron pyrites, and changing it into green vitriol. As
the available mineral elements and soluble salts in the land were
already rather in excess of the amount which is beneficial, the
dressing of farmyard-manure, containing a good deal of soluble
matter, could only aggravate the evil.

The proper remedy for such a state of things is a heavy dressing
of lime, marl, or chalk ; for quicklime, or the lime in marl or
chalk, decomposes sulphate of iron, and uniting with the liberated
sulphuric acid, gives rise to gypsum — a useful fertiliser — and to
oxide of iron, which occurs in all fertile soils. In the case
before us, my recommendation to apply a heavy dressing of lime
was adopted with complete success.

Since green vitriol, as well as iron pyrites, sometimes occur in
subsoils, care should be taken to test the subsoil, before the opera-

Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. 119

tion of subsoil ploughing is commenced, for such injurious matters,
which it is better not to bring to the surface.

The particulars here related afford a complete answer to those
who maintain that chemical analyses of soils are of no use what-
ever to the farmer.

The following analysis shows the

Composition of a Soil reclaimed from the Sea on the Hampshire Coast.

Water 5-45

Organic matter and water of combination ., ,. 9'93

Oxides of iron and alumina 7'18

Sulpliate of protoxide of iron (green vitriol) .. .. 1"39

Bi-sulpliide of iron (iron pyrites) '78

Sulj^liate of lime -34

Magnesia '51

Chloride of sodium '04

Potash and soda '83

Insoluble siliceous matter 73'55

. 100-00
The constitution of this soil is very similar to that reclaimed
from the Haarlem Lake ; the remarks on the preceding analysis,
therefore, apply with equal force to this, which is given as an
example of the occurrence of land in England poisoned by green
vitriol.

More recently I had an opportunity of inspecting a field near
Sandy in Bedfordshire, a portion of which was so completely
sterile, that not a weed nor a single blade of grass could be seen
on it. The following is its analysis : —

Composition of a completely Barren Soil from Sandy, in Bedfordshire.

Dried at 212=' F.

Organic matter and water of combination .. .. 4*27

Oxides of iron and alumina 3*84

Phosphoric acid '09

Sulphate of lime '85

Magnesia -96

Potash and soda -47

Sulphate of iron (green vitriol) 1-05

Sulphide of iron (iron pyrites) '50

Insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly sand) 87'91

100-00
Here again we find sulphate as well as sulphide of iron in appre-
ciable quantities. Tested with litmus-paper, this soil showed
a strong acid reaction, and [when heatecl in a platinum capsule
gave off pungent fumes of sulphurous acid. Soils in a healthy
condition, it may be remarked, when heated, do not give off
pungent vapours, smelling like those of a lighted sulphur match.
This is in itself a tolerably sure sign of the presence of injurious
iron compounds.

120 Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils.

^ The colour of this soil was dark grey, almost black, and yet it
will be seen the proportion of organic matter in it is not large.
The dark colour was therefore due not so much to organic
matter as to finely divided sulphide of iron. In such a state of
division, very little of it imparts a dark grey colour, and par-
ticularly obnoxious properties, to a large mass of soil.

Where such dark soils occur, the air in the neighbourhood
at times is charged with foetid vapours, smelling faintly like
rotten eggs. This smell is produced by the action of the car-
bonic acid of the air upon the black sulphide of iron in the soil.
Acids, not excepting the weak carbonic acid, in the diluted state
in which it occurs in the atmosphere, on the point of mixture
disengages from sulphide of iron sulphuretted hydrogen, a gas
highly injurious to vegetable as well as animal life. Chemical
reactions are generally intensified bv elevation of temperature,
and thus the emission of sulphuretted hydrogen from land im-
pregnated with black sulphide of iron, is greater in summer than
in winter. In my opinion, suljihuretted hydrogen does more
mischief than even green vitriol, for direct experiments made by
I3r. Christison and others have shown that, even in a highly
diluted state, sulphuretted hydrogen is injurious to vegetation,
and, in a more concentrated state, is capable of destroying vege-
table life as readily as that of animals.

All saline matters which are very soluble in water, as noticed
above, are injurious to vegetation when they occur in the soil in
too large a proportion. Tlie practical question is. What is too
large a proportion ? An answer has been given lately to this
question in the highly interesting scientific experiments on the
nutrition of plants by Professor Kncjp of Leipsig, who found that
solutions containing in all not more than 1 part of soluble mineral
matter to 1000 parts of water are fully as strong as liquids should
be from which plants are to derive food and grow luxuriantly.
In solutions stronger than this, plants either grow languidly or die
altogether, although the same mineral substances are employed
Avhich, in a highly diluted state, are most active promoters of
vegetation. If such be the case with solutions, my own experi-
ence leads me to infer that the soil itself should not contain more
than iVth per cent, of such soluble substances, and therefore that
soils which contain several per cent, of common salt, nitrate of
lime, or chloride of potassium, are unfit to maintain vegetable
life in a healthy state.

I have met with several extraordinary soils, upon which nothing
would grow, evidently because they were overcharged with
soluble saline matters. An example of that kind is given in the
subjoined analysis : —

Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. 121

Composition of a Soil impregnated with Salt and Nitrates.

Moisture 10-86

"Organic matter 4-84

Oxides of iron and alumina 11'28

')•?.

ul)

Phosphoric acid

Equal to bone-earth (5-08)

Carbonate of lime ['r21

Nitrate oflimo 2-32

Containing nitric acid (1-52G)

Chloride of sodium 11-61

Chloride of potassium 2-31

Insoluble siliceous matter 49-22

100-00

*Coutaiuing nitrogen -24

Equal to ammonia -29

We have here a large proportion of common salt, and also
chloride of potassium and nitrate of lime, two salts still more
soluble in water than chloride of sodium. The nitrate of lime is
evidently a product of the oxydation of animal matter, the
presence of which in this curious soil, is distinctly evidenced by
the simultaneous occurrence of phosphate of lime (bone-earth) in
considerable quantities. We have here presented to us a true
nitre-eai'th, which, valuable as it is unquestionably when applied
as a manure, is far too rich in saline constituents to be cultivated
like an ordinary soil.

In concluding this section of the subject, it may be well again
to mention briefly the various matters and conditions which render
some soils barren or unproductive. They are the following : —

a. Superabundance of organic (humic) acids.

b. Sulphate of iron (green vitriol), even when present in the

soil in small quantities.

c. Sulphide of iron (iron pyrites), and especially finely

divided black sulphide of iron, which, in the smallest
proportions, is most pernicious to plants.

d. Abundance of protoxide of iron, and absence of peroxide,

indicating a bad physical condition of the land.
€. Chloride of sodium (common salt) in proportions of iVth

per cent, and upwards.
f. Nitrates and all soluble saline matter, in quantities exceed-
ing small fractions of 1 per cent, of the whole mass of soil.

2. Soils are unproductive wheri they are defcient in one or more
constituents found in the ashes of our cultivated plants.

By far the greatest number of soils, as we find them in this and
other countries, are poor in phosphoric acid ; for which reason
phosphates in an available condition are generally useful as fer-
tilisers. In some soils this deficit is very marked. Thus in the
following analyses we have merely traces of phosphoric acid : —

122 Some Causes of iinprodiictiveness in Soils.

Composition of Soils deficient in Phosphoric Acid.

Sandy Soil.

Clay Soils.

Moisture

,. 10-OG

.. .. 12-37

Oro;,anic mntter

3-02 .. .

7-09

fr07

Oxides of iron and alumina

4-34 .. .

,. 13-3G

.... 14-45

Phosphoric acid

•07 .. .

•04

•01

Sulpliate of lime

•10 .. .

•17

•14

Carbonate of lime

•17 ...

•24

.... none

Potash and soda

•20 .. ,

1-G5

.. .. 1^21

Magnesia

•41 .. .

•46

•37

Insoluble siliceous matter

9V63 .. .

. G6-33

.... G3-38

100-00 100-00 100-00

I have selected for illustration one sandy and two clay soils, in
order to show that the same defect may exist in soils of dia-
metrically opposite physical characters.

Those who pretend to form a just estimate of the agricultural
capabilities of soils by mere classification and examination of
their mechanical condition make as great a mistake as men who
hastily form an opinion of the quality of a sample of guano or
superphosphate by handling and smelling it.

Experience, indeed, shows that there are poor clays as well as
poor sands, and on the other hand rich clay soils and very fertile
sands. If we examine carefully these differences in the only way
in which they can be examined with certainty, that is, by
chemical analysis, we often find the relative productiveness of
different soils to be intimately connected either with an abund-
ance or a deficiency of phosphoric acid.

Another substance which sometimes only exhibits traces, and
often occurs in too small a proportion, is lime. The practice of
liming and marling which prevails in many districts of England
is a proof of the want of lime in many light as well as heavy
soils. In the following Table I have incorporated the analyses
of various kinds of soils which are all benefited by the direct
application of lime or chalk : —

Composition of Soils deficient in Lime.

No. 1. Xo. 2. Xo. 3. No. 4.

Sandy soil
from Kent.

Moisture

Organic matter 3-62

Oxides of iron and alumina 7-50

Phosphoric acid -13

Sulphuric acid

Lime -43

Magnesia '49

Potash and soda -48

Insoluble siliceous matter .. 87-35

100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00

Stiff Pasture

Clay soil

Peaty land

from

from

from Kenmoor,

Somersetshire.

Demarara.

7-03

Somersetshire.

lG-80

12-58

55-32

16^08

11-10

13^08

-48

-06

..

•11

1-20

•75

•13

-97

1-56

•33

•54

•45

•52

1-02

64-36

6?72

27-81

Some Causes of Unjiroductiveness in Soils. 123 •

This list might have been much extended, but the preceding
examples will suffice in illustration of the deficiency of lime in
peaty, clay, sandy, and pasture soils.

The want of alkalies, more especially of potash, is, I believe, a
far more common cause of the comparative sterility which cha-
racterises some land than is generally believed to be the case.
If we look at the composition of the ashes of all farm-produce,
Ave shall find that a very large proportion of their ashes consists
of potash. This constituent, of course, must be supplied either
by the soil or in the manure with which the latter is dressed.
Root-crops especially leave ashes rich in potash ; and as turnips
are often grown on land naturally poor in alkalies, with purely
mineral superphosphate of lime, and nothing else, and the
produce is sometimes sold off the land, or not consumed entirely
upon it, the land may thus become drained of its available
potash to an injurious extent. Perhaps the failure of roots on
land which formerly produced good crops may have something
to do with the gradual exhaustion of their available alkalies.

At any rate it is well to remember that many soils are very
poor in alkalies, and that in all fertile soils the amount of potash
and soda is always considerable.

It is a prevailing idea that light sandy land alone is likely to
be deficient in potash ; and it is true that this want does not so
frequently affect clay land ; but at the same time it is no less a
fact that some clays are almost as poor in alkalies as the worst
kinds of sandy soils. In proof of this 1 may give the sub-
joined recent analyses of mine of a strong clay and a light sandy
soil : —

Composition of a Strong Clay and a Sandy Soil.

strong Light

Clay Soil. ' Sandy Soil.

Moisture 4-01 .. ..

Organic matter and water of combination 8'51 .... (5"92

Oxides of iron and alumina 11*24 .... 64o

Phosphoric acid '06 .... "ll

Sulphuric acid "19

Lime none .... '65

Magnesia '46 .. .. -39

Alkalies (potash and soda) "45 .. .. "So

Insoluble siliceous matter 75"08 .... 85"17

Chiefly (clay) .. .. (sand)

100-00 100-00

In these two soils potash and soda are evidently deficient ; at
the same time it will be noticed that both are poor in phosphoric
acid, that there is no lime in the clay, and but little in the sandy
soil.

Unproductive soils are seldom deficient in one substance only :

124 So)nc Cai/scs of Unproductireness in Soils.

for this reason many cannot be made fertile by the application of
manures which, like lime, supply only one material. Sandy soils,
more especially, often stand as much in need of lime as of phos-
phoric acid or of potash. Tlieir general deficiency in all these
important elements of fertility is clearly seen in the following
analysis, showing the

Composition of a Poor Sandi/ Soil.

Moisture 4"78

Organic matter .. .. 1'03

Oxides of ifoii and alumina 1'72

Lime -19

Magnesia "10

Potasli -23

Soda none

Pliosphoric acid "04

Sulphuric acid '12

Carbonic acid and chlorine traces

Insoluble siliceous matter '.)1,T'J

Consisting of:

Siiicii 89-32

Alumina TSl

Lime none

!Nragnesia 'Sfi

Potash -L"*

Soda -15

100-00
It will be seen at a glance that tliis is a hungry soil, which
requires lime as well as phosphoric acid and alkalies. As long
as we do not possess a cheap source of potash, well made yard-
dung, liberally applied, seems to be our only generally available
resource for maintaining or increasing the productiveness of
soils as poor and defective as this. It is upon soils of that
character that town-sewage produces the best economical result,
when applied in large quantities.

We have seen in this section that soils often are unproductive
because they are deficient

a. In lime.

b. In phosphoric acid.

c. In potash, or,

d. In two or more of these important ash-constituents of

plants.

3. Soils are barren or unproductive token they contain a large pre-
ponderance of organic matter, or of .mnd, livie, or even of pure
clay.

The most fertile soils, such as alluvial-deposit or warp land,
may be regarded as intimate mechanical mixtures of clay, lime,
sand, and organic matter, in which no one of these essential com-

Some Causes of Unproducticcncss in Soils. 125

ponents preponderates, so as to give the mixture the character
of a clay or sandy soil, or to show in too marked degree the
properties of lime or organic matter.

On the other hand, sterility or comparative unproductiveness is
often caused by such a preponderance in the soil of one of these.
Each of these ingredients of all fertile soils possesses special
chemical and physical properties conducive to the development
of plants, and it will be readily understood how essential to
luxuriance of growth is their intimate and nicely-proportioned
mixture, such as we find it in alluvial soils.

The following Table illustrates the composition of soils which
are unproductive on account of the preponderance of one of the
four chief materials of all soils : —

Composition of unproductive Peat-land, Clay, Calcareous and Sandy Soils.

Xo. 1. No. '2. No. 3. No. 4.

Calcareous Soil. Santly Soil. Clay Soil. Peaty Soli.

Moisture 2-65

Organic matter and water of com-) .^q r.ai 49-(r

bination j "

Oxides of iron and alumina .. .. -780 5-93 10-95 10-8S

Carbonate of lime 73-807 -39 -86 2-29

Magnesia -825) .. -26 -75

Potash and soda traces f -28 -39 '90

Phosphoric acid -242 .. -10 -OG

Sulphuric acid 1-546 .. -30 1-04

Silica 16-710) 86-19

Insoluble siliceous matter (fine clay) 6-090 j .. 79-20 35-01

100-000 100-00 100-00 100-00

4. Soils are unproductive to/ien a thin layer rests on the bare rock.

I am acquainted with several localities Avhere the soil is of
excellent quality, but too near to the rock to be productive. We
should bear this in mind in discussing the state of agriculture in
different counties or districts, as this obstacle will baffle the utmost
skill of the agriculturist though he might fertilise the barren
sand or reclaim the unhealthy swamp.

5. Soils are unproductive ichen they rest on impervious or extensive
clay subsoils, ivhich are not easily drained efficiently.

A good deal of clay land. I believe, is unproductive solely
because it rests on impervious stiff clay, probably 30 or 40 feet
in thickness. Ordinary drainage, I fear, although it improves
the character of such clay land to some extent, does not make
sufficient impression upon its physical condition. Clay soils of
that description occur in the lias formation, where they are known
as scouring-land, on account of the tendency of the herbage to
scour sheep and cattle. Some time ago I made an analysis of

126 Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils.

notoriously bad land from Shepton-Mallet, Somersetshire. The
soil contained in 100 parts : —

Moisture 4-54

Organic matter aud water of combiuatiou 14-40

Oxides of iron and ahimina and phosplioric acid .. 14*45

Sulphate of lime '26

Carbonate of lime 14'80

Magnesia '9(5

Totash and soda "93

Insoluble siliceous matter (cliidly clay) 49'GG

100-00

This soil had rather a dark colour which was due partly to
protoxide of iron, partly to the large proportion of organic matter,
which enters into its composition. Although not injurious in
itself, an excess of organic matter, as well as of protoxide of iron,
indicates a condition of the land which is unfavourable to the
healthy growth of plants. In a porous, well-cultivated soil, freely
penetrated bv the atmosphere, the accumulation of organic matter
never becomes excessive, nor does such a soil contain much
protoxide of iron. The presence of the latter in considerable
proportions always shows that the soil is not sufficiently aerated
to produce a healthy and nutritious herbage.

Chemically considered this soil contains an abundance of all
the mineral elements which enter into the composition of the
ashes of plants, and it is found in practice that farmyard-manure
does not produce any marked effect upon it, which shows plainly
that it is not the want of plant-food that renders it unproductive.
These lias lands rest upon a clay bed of great depth which
approaches very near to the surface.

In many instances, therefore, under-drainage, besides taking off
the surface water, produces little alteration in the condition of
the surface soil, for the simple reason that it is too thin, and the
clay sub-soil bed too tenacious and too deep to be penetrated
to any extent by the ameliorating influence of the atmosphere.
These tenacious soils are consequently damaged by excess of water
and coldness, which retard vegetation and make it very gradual
during the early months of the year.

5. Soils are unproductive when the Drainage is defective.
Under this head 1 need not offer any observations, for it is
now perfectly well known that bad drainage is a frequent source
of sterility in land, which has only to be thoroughly drained in
order to become permanently improved.

6. Soils are unproductive ichen their pliysical characters are had.
An actual case lately brought under my notice will best

Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. 127

illustrate this part of my subject. A correspondent wrote to me
last spring from Churchdown, near Gloucester.

" Sir, — I have this day forwai'ded to you a bottle of earth for
analysis. The land has been laid down to permanent pasture
five years, the first year or two it grew luxuriant crops, but now
it is almost worthless, although it has been dressed with different
kinds of compost. With the analysis, please to give me your
opinion what sort of manure would be most likely to bring it to
a state of fertility."

On analysis the soil yielded the following results : —

Moisture 4-04

Organic matter and water of combination .. .. 11"6G

Oxides of iron and alumina and phosphoric acid .. in-G7

Carbonate of hme 10"03

Magnesia 1'38

Potash and soda I'Ol

Insoluble siliceous matter (clay) 55"21

100-00

The soil ought to yield good crops, for it contains all the
elements of food required by plants. It certainly is not unpro-
ductive because it is deficient in any one element of vegetable
food, but I believe, because its physical condition is such as not
to allow the plants to avail themselves of the food which is
unquestionably present in the soil. It contains, it will be seen,
a good deal of organic matter, and is a very stiff and retentive
soil, difficult to drain. Surface water is removed readily enough
by drainage from such land : this is one thing ; but to make it
sufficiently porous by draining to allow the water and after it the
air to pass through the soil, is quite another matter. The soil
appears to have grown luxuriant crops a year or two after
it was laid down in permanent grass, and then to have become
almost worthless. I can readily understand this, and have no
doubt, if the land were again broken up, its previous fertility
would be restored without the addition of any manure. Reten-
tive clay-soils having a composition like this do not require
manure, but must be penetrated by air, which is freely admitted
when land is broken up. In the course of a year or two, however,
the pores of such land again became closed up ; and in conse-
quence of the exclusion of the air, and not for want of mineral
food, vegetation becomes languid in growth.

On land like this it is only waste to apply manures, especially
if the season should be dry. Artificials, such as guano or
ammoniacal salts, then do positive harm ; and in wet but warm
seasons, water itself is the best means of developing, so to speak,
the natural resources of the land and encouraging the growth of

128 Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils.

the herbage. It is not for mc to say whether it is profitable to
put such land down in permanent pasture or to break it up and
adopt upon it a rotation suited to heavy clay land ; but of this I
am quite certain, that the steam-cultivator would do wonders on
these cold, stiff clays, for they contain, practically speaking, an
inexhaustible store of mineral food of plants, which, however,
has to be unlocked as it were by the air. The more roughly stiff
clavs are broken up the better ; the less the farmer meddles with
the land when once broken up, the more effectually the air will
find access into the land. No imjdement can possibly pulverise
clays so effectually as air and irost, if time be allowed.

Having spoken at some length of a variety of conditions
which appear to me to affect the fertility of land, my subject
perhaps may be usefully brought to a close by a brief statement
of what in my opinion the chemical analysis of soils can de-
termine, and what it necessarily must leave undecided.

In the first place I would remark, that the chemical analyses of
soils can give very decided answers to the following questions :

1. Whether or not barrenness is caused by the presence of an
injurious substance, such as sulphate of iron or sulphide of iron?

2. Whether soils contain common salt, nitrates, or other
soluble salts, that are useful when highly diluted, but injurious
when they occur too abundantly ?

3. Whether or not barrenness is caused by the preponderance
of—

Organic matter, or
Lime, or
Sand, or
Pure clay ?

4. Whether sterility is caused by the absence or deficiency
of—

a. Lime.

h. Phosphoric acid.

c. Alkalies, especially potash.

d. Or available mineral (ash-constituents) matters generally ?

5. Whether clays are fertile or barren ?

G. Whether or not clays are usefully burnt and used in that
state as manure?

7. Whether or not land will be improved by liming?

8. Whether it is better to apply lime or marl or clay on a
particular soil ?

9. Whether special manures, such as superphosphate or ammo-
niacal salts, can be used (of course discreetlv) without permanently
injuring the land, or whether the farmer should rather depend
upon the liberal application of farmyard-manure that he may
restore to the land all the elements of fertility removed in the crops?

Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. 129

10. What kind of artificial manures are best suited to soils of
various composition ?

11. Whether deep-ploughing or steam-cultivation is likely to
be useful as a means of developing the natural stores of plant-
food in the soil ?

12. Whether the food of plants in the soil exists in an avail-
able or inert condition ?

On all these points, chemical analysis can give reliable in-
formation, provided the results are rightly interpreted. The
best answer to a question does not necessarily convey useful
information to him who puts it : in the same way the most
careful analysis of a soil does not always give a satisfactory
•answer even on points which a chemist can pronounce with some
degree of assurance. A knowledge of chemistry does not put
the analyst of a soil into possession of that amount of acquaint-
ance with practical agriculture which is necessary to enable
him to interpret analytical results, and to recognise their bearing
upon purely practical matters. In the hands of a chemist per-
fectly ignorant of the first rudiments of practical agriculture,
soil-analyses, it appears to me, are about as useful as, without
comment, they are to a farmer who does not know the difference
between phosphate and sulphate of lime, or between potash and
soda.

There was a time when I thought, with many other young
chemists, that soil-analyses would do everything for the farmer ;
three or four years of further experience and hard study rather
inclined me to side with those men who consider that they are of
no practical utility whatever ; and now, after eighteen years of
continued occupation with chemico-agricultural pursuits and, I
"trust, with more matured judgment, I have come to the conclusion
that there is hardly any subject so full of practical interest to the
farmer as that of the chemistry of soils, — the longer and more
sminutely soil-investigations are' carried on by competent men,
the greater, I am convinced, will be their practical utility.

As pointed out in the preceding brief summary, already a
g^ood many practical questions may be put to the agricultural
chemist with propriety, which I should have hesitated or alto-
gether refused to answer three or four years ago.

It remains for me now to mention briefly some points relating
to barrenness of soils on which chemical analysis cannot supply
any definite information.

It cannot decide, amongst others : —

1. Whether barrenness is caused by defective drainage.

2. To what extent sterility is affected by a bad physical con-
dition of the land.

VOL. I. — S.S. K

130 Stocking Land.

3. How far unproductiveness is connected with the climate,
aspect, and elevation of the land in question.

4. That a soil is barren simply because there is too little of
it, or

5. That it is unproductive simply because a thin surface soil
rests on a stiff clay-subsoil of great depth.

6. What is the relative productiveness of different soils.
There are other matters in connection with this subject on

Avhich soil-analyses cannot possibly j^ive any information. It is
well to bear in mind that some matters affecting the fertility of
land can be most positively decided by analysis, and others not;
for if this is neglected the agriculturist will not reap the practical
benefit which the chemical examination of soils is well calculated
to confer in most cases.

12, Sdlishury Square,

London, E.C, Jan. 18G5.

IX. — On Stocking Land. By the Rev. J. L. Breeeton.

jNIy deae Me. Feeee, —

In complying with your request that I would send you
some account of my farm, I must ask you to make allowance for
the unprofessional character of my statement. It is, however, to
the best of my knowledge, correct ; and the valuations have been
revised and approved by men of experience and repute as prac-
tical farmers. Though I do not profess to be an adept in the
art of farming, I have for some years followed it as a pursuit of
much interest ; and if I have not realised a profit equivalent to
the cost and trouble bestowed, I think I have learnt some of the
conditions under which farming in England may be hopefully
carried on, as not only a pleasant but a remunerative occupation.
An opinion seems now to be rapidly spreading through England,
that the plants which the farmer grows will not yield him so much
profit as the animals he feeds. Whilst free trade and cheapened
transport have greatly affected the value of corn, animal produc-
tions— such as fresh meat, milk, butter, and wool — command a
sale that justifies the use of even the more costly grain in pro-
viding them. The moist climate of North Devon had led me
for some years to anticipate this opinion, and to think that my
neighbours were wrong in making corn the principal object of
their industrious efforts ; a gradual impoverishment of them-
selves and their land seemed to me too probable a result from

Stocking Land. 131

persisting in their system. I was aware how much, in my native
county of Norfolk, under the four-course system, the growth of
corn had been increased by interposing a large growth of food
for stock, and how this multiplication of the stock had been still
further promoted by the purchase of food grown elsewhere, espe-
cially oil-cake. But I believed that the time Avas coming when,
even in Norfolk, the stock would be found to be most remu-
nerative, and that, consequently, the farmer would only grow corn
so far as it harmonises with the profitable keeping of stock.
Under such management much valuable manure would be made,
which would indefinitely increase the productive powers of the
land ; and (unless prices changed) the increased production,
whether ripened into straw or used in a green state, would still
further increase the amount of the stock reared or fed. But
under these circumstances a total change would take place In the
relations of capital and land. Hitherto the question has been,
How many acres can be most profitably cultivated by a limited
capital ? Henceforth it will rather be, How much capital can
be profitably expended on a limited area ?

1 have no doubt that these and similar questions have sug-
gested themselves to you and many others. For myself, they
have guided my course for the last few years, and have led to
the following result, which, if you think it of any value, you are
very welcome to publish.

My glebe consists of about 30 acres of grass-land, which used
to let at a rent of 55/. I have farmed it for some years in
connection with various parcels of land which I have temporarily
rented in the neighbourhood. The general result has been that
from keeping an extra quantity of stock, and particularly from
folding sheep with corn upon my grass, its value has been con-
siderably increased.* It would be perhaps a fair account of pre-
vious improvement to value Its gross rent for the present year at
about 3/. per acre, or 100/. In order to make myself as free as
possible of tillage farming, I have for some time used sea-sand

* The sheep are all Long-wools. We have in Devonshire a class of these
valuable sheep known as " Notts." There are two if not three divisions of this
old breed : the " Bampton," the " South Ham," and perhaps the hornless " Dart-
moor." They have, of course, been much intermixed with the Leicesters ever since
Mr. Bakewell gave to that particular class of the English Long-wools their supe-
riority and notoriety. But the greater delicacy or " fineness " of the Leicesters
has made many of the Devonshire flock-masters cling to the old breed, which have
better constitutions. I have, for some years, taken pains to procure good ewes of
the old stock, and have put to them some of the best Cotswold and Lincoln
rams. The result has been very satisfactory, and you will see from my accounts
that the thirty rams I sold last year averaged more than &l. each. As they
were all sold to farmers in the neighbourhood, these were not fancy prices ; and
I am told that my ''JSew Devons " are thought likely to make a very valuable
flock.

K 2

132 Stocking Land.

instead of straw as bedding for cattle. I have also used a com-
pound meal (the ingredients of which 1 subjoin*) as the principal
accessory to the grass and hay. The turnips I have purchased
were all used for the sheep ; none for the bullocks and horses.
The oats and straw bought were for the stables. My practice
has been to charge the whole cost (including labour) of the stables
to the farm, and to credit the farm with 125. per week for every
horse used for riding or carriage. In order to increase my hay-
crop, I hired some other grass-land, the rent for which is included
in the charge for fodder.

Statement of Farm Accounts on the Glebe, West BucMand ; from Oct 1st,
1863, to Oct. 1st, 1864.

A. Cost of Stock.

By Valuation Oct. 1863 :—

Bullocks,

£. s. d. £. s. d. £. s. d.

2 Kerry cows in-calf 10 0 0

4 Devons 40 0 0

3 Yearlings 19 10 0

1 Calf 3 0 0

78 10 0

Jlwses.

2 Brood-mares 62 0 0

2 Cobs, 4 and 5 years .. .. 66 0 0

2 Carriage-iwnies 40 0 0

1 4-ycar-old filly 25 0 0

3 3-year-old fillies 76 0 0

2 2-year-old (colt and filly) .. 30 0 0

2 Yearling colts 20 0 0

5 Sundry ponies 37 0 0

350 0 0

Sheep.

45 Ewes, at 59s 132 15 0

32 Old ewes, at 50s 80 0 0

41 Ewe-lambs, at 35s 71 15 0

40 Ram-lambs, at 60s 120 0 0

3 Rams, at 100s 15 0 0

419 10 0

848 0 0

By rurchase during the year : —

BidlocJcs.

7 Dairy cows and 4 calves 113 2 6

Carryforward £961 2 6

* Cattle-food.—l have for four or five years been in the habit of buying linseed,
■wheat, peas, beans, maize, barley, and oats, and grinding them in about equal
proportions with one cwt. per ton of aniseed and fenugreek. The present cost of
my mixture is about 11/. per ton.

Stocking Land. 133

£. s. d. £. s. d.
Brought forward .... 961 2 6

Horses.

1 Pony 12 0 0

Sheep.

4 Kentish ewes, at 40s.
77 Devon Nott. ewes, at 49s.
80 „ 50s.

30 „ 57s.

1 Cots wold ram, at 25?.

1 Lincoln „ 25/.

1 „ „ hired 30Z.

Journeys and expenses for rams) ry . o q

" 586 3 0

£1547 5 6
B. Expenditure during the Year.

Eent and taxes 100 0 0

Labour 251 6 10

Manures : —

Sea-sand for bedding 57 17 11

Other manures 26 16 0

84 13 11

Purchased Food : —

Hay by valuation Oct. 1863 .. 90 0 0

Cattle-food 300 0 0

Roots 100 0 0

Straw, oats and hired keep .. 167 4 7

657 4 7

Tradesmen's bills 36 6 9

1129 12 1
. Hay and turnips in stock, Oct. 1st 1864, by) oac q q
valuation /

824 12 1

2371 17 7

C. Sales and Valuation.
Sales : —

Bidlocks.

4 Bullocks and 1 calf .. .. 77 17 6
Milk at IM. per gallon .. .. 140 1 0

217 18 6

Horses.
Brood-mare and 2 cobs .. ..130 0 0

2 Ponies 17 0 0

Keep of 3 stable-horses, at 12s.'l gg ,r) q
per week /

243 12 0

461 10 6

Carry forward £461 10 6

134 Stocking Land.

£. s. d. £. s. d.
'^ Brought forward .. .. 461 10 6

Sheep.

31 Kams by auction 184 17 6

64 Draft ewes 149 19 6

yheep killed for the house , . .. 21 3 0

356 0 0

Valuation : —

Bidlochs,

12 Cows, 1 yearling and 4 calves .. .. 193 16 0

Horses.

1 Brood-maro 25

2 Carriage- ponies 30

1 5-year-old marc . . . . . . 35

3 4-year-old mares 150

2 3-year-old „ 50

2 2-ycar-old , 40

4 sundry ponies 47

817 10 6

0 0

Sheep.
210 Ewes, at 63s.
21 Fat sheep, at 50s.
37 Ewe lambs, at 45s,
32 Ram „ at 80s,
1 Cotswold ram, 25?.
1 Lincoln „ 2ol. ' ■"'.

4 " New Devon " rams, 20Z.
Wool IbOl.

1144 15 0

1715 11 0
£2533 1 6

Farm— Creditor 2533 1 6

„ —Debtor 2371 17 7

Balance £161 3 11

Showing a profit of 1617. 3s. llcf., in addition to the manure, which is valued
at " not less than 2007,"

I am aware that the above statement is open to many challenges ;
but being an accurate account of transactions recorded and classi-
fied for my own satisfaction, and not for publication, it may
perhaps be the most suggestive form in which to put before your
readers the gross result of farming on the principle of purchasing
corn, &c., to feed stock. I will add a few explanations in antici-
pation of some of the queries that may be raised.

Stocking Land. 135

The Valuations. — The first of these was made by myself and
my bailiff, towards the end of 1863. It was afterwards revised,
item by item, by the late Mr, George Burden of Kerscott, who
was esteemed as one of the best farmers, and I must add, in
memory of his recent death, one of the best men in North Devon.
The second valuation was made by Mr. Mortimore of VVarkleigh,
whose judgment and experience both as a farmer and valuer are
recognised with great confidence throughout the district. The
standard of the two valuations is not, I believe, very different.
I mean that the excess of the later valuation is not to be attributed
to any exceptional rise in prices, but to the increased value of the
animals themselves, owing in the sheep to careful drafting, and
in horses, sheep, and bullocks, to the growth of young stock,
and to their generally improved condition in consequence of the
liberal expenditure on food and attendance.

The Labour. — This item will appear less exceptionally high
if viewed in reference to the capital rather than the acreage with
which it is connected. It represents the whole expense of super-
vision, attendance on the stock, cartage of manure, haymaking,
&c. I have, it is true, paid higher wages than the neighbour-
hood, but have, I think, had a proportionate return of cheerful
work. In attendance upon stock, it is of course possible to reduce
the cost of labour very much by organisation and regularity.
In this I acknowledge that I see how very great improvement
might be made on my farm ; but I have been much occupied
in other matters myself, and the importance of these things is not
always perceived, and very seldom enforced by subordinates. It
is the coachman only who is likely to see that all the harness
is adjusted to the team. The uninterrupted attention required
to ensure economy either in a small or large farm is generally the
secret of the real farmer's success and the amateur's failures ; in
my own case, if I do not quite acknowledge failure, I can see
daily that my affairs might have been much more economically
managed ; but my only means of controlling waste has been a
steady adherence to certain principles. I have thought that the
true economy of labour was to be found, not in lower wages, but
in a higher quality of workmen.

The following analysis of my labour-bills may give some
explanation of the amount incurred : —

£. £. s. d.

I Stables (approximately).. .. 36]
Scks-.: :: :: :: :: i lesisn
Steam-engine, hay and manure 64 j

Supervision 40 0 0

Horse-labour (hired) 43 12 9

Sand. — Passing to the next item of expenditure, the principal

136 Stocking Land.

manure purchased has been sea-sand. This has been used as
bedding for bullocks, horses, and sheep, instead of straw. It cost.
me Qs. Sd. per ton, as I have to draw it 8 miles. Speaking
roughly, I think that for bedding purposes the ton of sand goes
as far as the ton of straw, while the latter costs me 30s. per ton„
Except in the stables, 1 do not like to see any straw used for litter,
though it has not been easy to break through the feeling of the
attendants that the comfort of the animals required its use. The
economy, however, of converting straw into food instead of litter
seems so great, that 1 have persevered in the use of the sand ; and
I think my bailiff and men would generally now give it the pre-
ference. The effect of the manure has been very striking : in the
last very dry summer, 22 acres yielded fully 45 tons of hay ;
the quick action of the sand-manure has been noticed much by
the neighbouring farmers ; it has also been found that the sheep
can be pastured upon the ground very much sooner alter the sand,
than after straw-manure. This distinction may depend upon
the salt which it contains. The remarkable healthiness of my
stock, in spite of the number kept to the acre, may perhaps be
attributed to the free use of this sand ; though something is due
to the high situation on the borders of Exmoor, and much to the
healthy action of the slaty subsoil.

Quantity of Stock to the Acre. — The balance-sheet does not of
itself explain the number of stock kept on the 30 acres, because it
does not give the dates of all the purchases, or the quantity of extra
land, the temporary hire of which is included in the general
charge for purchased food. But I think I can say with certainty
that the average number of sheep kept during the year upon the
30 acres has been 150. For a few weeks there were less than
this number, in order to favour the hay-crop ; but after the hay
season there were, for some weeks, as many as 300 on the glebe.

As a general rule, the ewes have a range of about 6 acres to
80 head. During the winter they have chaff, turnips, and a
little meal. The present allowance (the highest in the year) is,
for 80 ewes on the glebe, —

s. d.

2 lb. of meal each, at lj(7 4 2 a day.

, i ton of roots, 14 lbs. a-piecc, at 12s. .. 6 0,,

90 lbs. of chaff (f hay, at 4?. 10s.,) „ n.
i straw, at 30s.) ^ o u „

13 2 or 2(1. a day for each ewe.
Another lot of ewes in better condition, and having a better
range of pasture, are receiving only ^ lb. of meal and 5 lbs. of
roots, without any chaff. During the summer months the ewes
graze in large folds, frequently changed, so as to allow the grass
to freshen behind them. According to the weather, they will lie in

Stocking Land. 137

the same plot from six days to three weeks. Mj own judgment
is, that by constantly interchanging the fold and the scythe, the
necessary range, even of breeding-ewes, may be very much lessened.
In wet weather, we have trouble with their feet if they are allowed
to tread the ground overmuch. But I am gradually forming yards
to be asphalted, in which I propose to have them always fed in very
wet weather, allowing them the open pasture at other times. I
think the scythe or mowing-machine should be constantly at
work ; during the past year I was cutting grass with the machine
from the beginning of May to the middle of November. In the
spring and autumn the mown grass has been further cut into
chaff, with straw for the bullocks and horses ; but the sheep have
had it carried to their troughs fresh cut.

The 70 lambs were with their mothers to the beginning of June ;
I then hired a piece of clover for them for one month. On the
1st of July they came back to the glebe, and have ever since been
upon it in two pens, 38 ewes and 32 rams. Since the 1st of July, the
ewe lambs have been over about 10 acres of ground, in part twice
(the scythe intervening), in folds of i to i of an acre : the ram
lambs have been kept rather closer. The ewe lambs had about
I" lb. of meal each from June to October, then i lb., and since
Christmas ^ lb., the maximum allowed to ewes. The rams
began with the same quantity, but were pushed forward more
quickly, and from October to the present time have been getting
rather more than 1 lb. each. On the day I write (Jan. 21st), I
have ascertained that the following are the actual allowances : —

32 ram hogs : — s. d.

5 cwts. of roots, at 12s 3 0 a day.

36 lbs. meal, at lie? 3 9 „

15 lbs. chaff 0 6 „

7 3 or 2f d per sheep a day.
37 ewe hogs : — s. d.

.5 cwts. of roots 3 0 a day.

18 lbs. meal 1 lOi „

15 lbs. chaff 0 6

Attendance on —
80 ewes.
32 ram hogs.
37 ewe hogs.

5 43 or IfcZ. per sheep a day.

149 sheep. One man's wages, 12s. a week, or Id. a week per sheep.
These allowances represent the highest cost of keep during the
year ; and I find that they correspond very nearly with the allow-
ance at the corresponding period of last year. The bullocks are
having 10 lbs. of the mixed food, and the horses 4 lbs., with hay
and straw chaff, but no roots.

138 Stocking Land.

The following memorandum of the consumption of food on the
14th of October will represent very nearly the average consumption
of meal in the year : —

- lbs.

' 20 fatting ewes 28

32 ram lambs 36

38 ewe lambs 12

6 bullocks 60

2 ditto 9

5 horses 20

165

Milh. — The charge for milk, 1 \d. per gallon, is I am told higher
than the average price of new milk. I have found that in buying
or selling new milk in small (juantities in this village, the price has
been generally 'dd. a quart ; but as the greater part was used or
converted into butter in my own family, and the skim-milk con-
sumed by lambs, colts, &c,, was charged to the farm at od. a gallon,
the price of l\d. may perhaps be higher than the average, and so
represent on my balance sheet an unreasonable profit. But if so,
it explains itself.

The cows have generally been bought fresh-calved, and
milked so long as their milk seemed to pay for their food, and
then fatted. We have thought that, fed upon meal, they lay
on more fat while milking than when fed on roots. In one
case I fatted a cow and some sheep on meal and water alone, but
without very accurately noting the comparative cost. The cow,
however, was considered to have done remarkably well, and the
beef was unusually juicy. Her allowance was 12 lbs. of food,
with water ad libitum. I mean to repeat this experiment, and
have ordered two cows just dry to be put on the same allowance ;
their cost would be 15rf. per day, besides attendance. My bailiff
thinks they require a small quantity of chaff in addition to the
meal, in order to assist them in raising the cud ; but not for the
sake of bulk, which is sufhciently supplied by water — as nutriment
is by the various ingredients of the meal.

Roots. — The turnips purchased during the year have cost about
125, Qd. per ton, and about 150 tons have been consumed on the
glebe. This quantity had been thought by my bailiff necessary
both for the ewes, and more especially for the rams he was pre-
paring for sale, but I think that the same money expended in meal
would have gone further: I have not, however, wished to depart
too abruptly from the track of experience ; though it is clear that
the circumstances of the case are so altered by the relative cheap-
ness of corn and dearness of cattle that the cautious observers of
precedents may be more likely to mislead than the more adven-
turous.

Stocking Land. 139

Thus much I think I can assert as to the result of some perse-
vering- experiments in the new direction : —

1. That it is quite possible to feed animals on purchased food
alone.

2. That a mixture of the common grains and pulse, e.g. linseed,
pease, beans, wheat, &c., may be made for 10/. per ton, which
will fatten any animal.

3. That the addition of seasoning (aniseed and fenugreek are
those that I have used for five years) at an additional cost of 1/.
per ton appears to pay well in the added relish and the improved
condition of the animals.*

4. That doubling the quantity of linseed, though raising the
price, probably gives quite a proportionate increase to the value
of the mixture.

5. That by the use of this meal the farmer may fearlessly
increase his stock without adding to his acres ; and yet, by that
increase of stock, must greatly increase the productiveness of his
farm. This consideration both suggested and replied to the
following exclamation of a neighbouring farmer : " Mr. Brereton,
if you'm doing all this on 30 acres, I'm thinking what's to become
of the landlords."

6. That the use of sea-sand as bedding will enable the farmer
either to dispense with straw, or to use it more profitably as food ;
and that besides possessing, according to its quality, manurial
properties, the sand acts as a purifier of the land, and seems to
allow of a closer herding of stock than might be otherwise safe.

7. That sheep may be folded on grass with great advantage, if
some shelter and dry treading is provided in adjacent yards
during excessively wet weather ; but the bullocks and horses do
best in yards and sheds, the grass grown after the fold being cut
by the scythe and carried to them.

The success of such stock-farming as I have advocated must
evidently turn upon the acquirement of good judgment in the
selection of stock — a faculty which will henceforth assume
increased importance in the training of the young farmer. I
should like therefore to append to this statement a few words
on the subject of agricultural education, in which you know I am
much interested. Without for one moment wishing to decide
the question, adhuc sub judice, of the advantage of combining
special learning with general — of preparing a boy at once for the
duties of manhood and for those of his own calling — I cannot
help protesting against the summary manner in which this ques-

* Two years ago, when I was at some pains to test the value of fenugreek on
two lots of six bullocks, the fenugreek appeared to do good ; but the weigli-bridge
did not justify this appearance, which probably rested on a keener appetite and
greater consumption of straw-chafiF. — P. H. F.

140 Stocking Land.

tion is sometimes disposed of. On the one hand we have men of
high authority pronouncing it as a dictum, if not an axiom, that
only general education can be given by teachers in public insti-
tutions ; but that special education (except in the case of the
learned professions) must be " picked up " in actual life. On
the other hand the requirements of this actual life are deemed so
urgent, that others are disposed to force youths into it before they
can possibly have obtained anything like a complete general edu-
cation. If a plan can be suggested whereby the preparation for
business could be combined for a year or two with the general
education, surely the advocates of the latter ought to encourage
it. But it is said that special education, except in contact with
actual business, is often found to be delusive and mischievous.
Why not then maintain or even enforce that contact ? By actual
business is meant profit and loss in hondjide transactions. There
is, at least, as much to be learnt by losing as by winning, and it is
commonly said that a man must burn his fingers who would learn
to handle the difliculties of life successfully. It is not necessary,
therefore, that a farm or a workshop should pay in order to be
instructive, but it is necessary that profit should be aimed it, and
the causes of failure be honestlv ascertained and publicly avowed.
If live stock are at present the principal source of profit and loss
to the farmer, it is clear that a thorough knowledge of its value is
a most important part of his training. This value varies, 1st,
Avith the age, development, and quality of the animal ; 2nd, with
the state of the market. It is one thing to know what the current
price of meat or wool is, and this is in our days easily ascertained
without any actual intercourse with a market ; it is another
thing to know what, according to this market price, is the value
at any time of several animals, singly or in lots.

That this knowledge may be better learned upon a farm
stocked and conducted for the purpose of giving this instruction,
than picked up in actual life even under favourable circum-
stances, seems to me, at least, a reasonable anticipation, till it
shall have been disproved by experience. I am, therefore,
taking into considerati(m how this element of instruction may
best be introduced into our proposed county college, which will
aim at teaching so much of farming as a youth just over sixteen
years of age may learn without giving up his general studies.

There can, I think, be no greater difficulty about exercising
a class of young men in estimating the weight of animals, than
in training a squad of riflemen to judge distances. If the pur-
chase of lean stock and the public sale of fat stock be part of the
system pursued, it will not be hard further to exercise the judg-
ment as to the capabilities of animals, and these two considera-
tions— weight and capabilities — determine value. Apart from

Annual Report. 141

the superior judgment of the experienced instructor, estimates of
value would be tested by actual purchases and sales, and would
be verified to a considerable extent by the weighbridge, and the
measuring-tape, when placed in skilful hands.

Appropriate prizes may be given so as to excite the spirit of
emulation as far as is desirable, or even forms of sweepstakes
might be devised which would give to each student a keener
interest in a particular animal, and bring him directly into
contact with profit or loss dependant on judgment in stock.
Thus in one branch of his practical education, which is of
great and growing importance, the agricultural student while
still at college might obtain valuable training, and one of the
objections of practical men to general education, as being a
disqualification for special business, might be lessened. At least
that contempt for trade, or shame of shop, which 1 think the
public-school education in England has too much promoted,
might be broken through if a knowledge of some of the arts and
sciences necessary to an honest livelihood were combined with
those that are essential to an honourable life.

I am yours truly,

J. L. Breketon.

Mectory, West BucMand, South Molton,
Devon.

X. — Peofessor Voelcker's Annual Report.

During the past season I had the honour of delivering before
the members of the Royal Agricultural Society two lectures : —

1. On atmospheric food of plants.

2. On the chemical composition and properties of water.

In consequence of the interest which was thus excited, I have
since received a larger number of specimens of water for analysis
than at any previous time.

Amongst the samples examined by me several were found to
be quite unfit for drinking.

I find that the drinking-water supplied in towns is generally much
better than that used in the country, a difference which is attri-
butable to the prevalence of surface wells, and to defective drainage.

Water which smells in the least degree disagreeably, or which
holds in suspension light floculant matter, or does not become
perfectly bright on standing for 6 hours, or which is distinctly
yellow in appearance, should at any rate be regarded with sus-
picion, and should be carefully examined before it is employed
for domestic use.

1 42 Annual Eeport.

The pollution of our rivers by sewage not only entails a waste
of fertilizing matter, but likewise disseminates the germs of
disease along their banks.

Whether the sewage of towns can be profitably applied to the
land or not, is a question to which a general answer cannot be
given ; for much depends on local circumstances, such as the posi-
tion and chemical character of the land, &c. It is clear, however,
to my own mind that the sewage of towns must not be allowed to
find its Avay into our rivers, and that the soil is its natural and
most effectual deodorizer.

The streams in the neighbourhood of lead and copper mines
often contain in suspension fine particles of ores, and by their over-
flow cause serious mischief to the land by the deposit of metali-
ferous mud. An instance of great injury caused to horses and
cattle by the sediment of a stream in a mining district was brought
under my notice some time ago. On examining this sediment
I found in it not only lead, but likewise a considerable quantity
of copper and arsenic.

Whilst speaking of accidental poisoning, I may say that two
cases of lambs poisoned by wheat steeped in arscnious acid were
the subject of examination in the past season.

A good many suspected poisoning cases were referred to me,
but with the exception just named, in no instance could poison
be detected.

It is worthy of notice that most of my correspondents attributed
the cause of the loss of their live stock to the linseed and cotton
cake which they used. In the last twelve months a considerable
number of feeding-cakes have been sent me by members of the
Society, and my attention has been especially called to an un-
usually large mortality in lambs, in certain districts. Many cakes
were found to be largely adulterated with cheap refuse, such as
rice-dust, pollard, oat-dust, and other mill-refuse. But w^hilst it
is quite possible that in some cases the suspected cakes may
have really done mischief, I am bound to say that in most cases
the mortality alluded to could not be referred to the bad condition
or poisonous character of the cake upon which the lambs were
fed.

At the same time, the experience of the past year has greatly
strengthened the opinion which I expressed some time ago,
namely, that stale and mould?/ cakes frequently act as rank
poisons, even w^hen given to stock in moderate quantities.

On the subject of the effects of mould or fungi in cakes, corn,
and feeding materials generally, we have as yet but very little
precise information. As this is a subject admitting of positive
experimental proof, I venture to recommend it to the considera-
tion of the Veterinary Committee.

Annual Report. 143

It is very desirable to ascertain more definitely the physiolo-
gical effect of mouldy feeding substances upon the health of
animals, and the precise chemical character of the feeding ma-
terials which have had a prejudicial effect on sheep, horses, and
cattle, by experiments specially devised by your Veterinary and
Chemical Committees, with this object.

At the request of the Chemical Committee, I have carried out
the following field-experiments : —

a. On the Efficacy of Salt as a Fertilizer.

A series of experiments with salt upon mangolds was tried in
Oxfordshire. The same series was repeated in Bedfordshire.

The unusually dry summer, I regret tosay, completely spoiled
the experiments in both instances.

The effects of salt were also tried upon oats, barley, and clover-
seeds, but without any marked results.

b. Manuring Experiments upon Sicedes and Turnip.

A series of field-experiments upon swedes and turnips with a
variety of artificial manures, carried out on light land in Bed-
fordshire, was, I regret to say, completely spoiled^by the failure
of the root-crop.

c. Field Experiments on Clover-seeds.

The following manures were tried upon clover and seeds
during the past season : —

1. Nitrate of soda, applied at the rate of 4 cwt. per acre.

2. Sulphate of ammonia „ „

3. Mineral superphosphate „ „

4. Common salt „ „

5. No manure „ ,,

6. Muriate of potash „ „

7. Sulphate of potash „ „

8. Sulphate of lime „ 20 cwt. per acre,
g (Mineral superpliosphatc „ 41^^^ . ^^^^_

\ and nitrate of soda „ 4j ^

-.-. rMineral superphosphate „ 4\

\ and muriate of potash „ 4/ "

These were tried on two farms in Shropshire, also in Bed-
fordshire, and in Northumberland.

In the three first-mentioned localities the clover-crop was
scarcely worth making into hay, and the experiments conse-
quently were a complete failure.

The last-mentioned series, undertaken under my direction by
Mr. Jacob Wilson, of Woodharn Manor-house, Morpeth, were more
successful, I am happy to say. The results wlh be published in a
future separate paper in the Journal, but I may mention that super-

144 Annual Report.

phosphate of lime, in conformity with Mr. Lawes's experience,
decidedly favoured the development of the clover-plant, whilst
nitrate of soda and sulphate encouraged in a marked degree the
growth of the grasses in the mixed clover and grass-seeds. Sul-
phate of lime also showed a beneficial effect in this case, probably
on account of the deficiency of lime in the field in which the
experiment was tried.

Neither sulphate nor muriate of potash produced any great
effect upon seeds, but in conjunction with superphosphate, mu-
riate of potash gave a very considerable increase.

A different set of experiments were tried upon a clover-field
in Bedfordshire.

This field was in high condition, and the clover-plant upon it
was uniformly and unusually strong.

The manures which were used were : —

1. Nitrate of soda applied at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre.

2. „ 1 J cwt. per acre and 4 cwt. of sui)erphosphate.

3. Common salt, (^ cwt. per acre.

4. „ 3

5. No miuuire.
0.

The two unmanured portions of this clover-field produced the
large crop of 2 tons 10 cwt. 80 lbs. and 2 tons 11 cwt. and 8 lbs,
of clover-hav respectively.

3 cwt. of salt had no effect ; f! cwt. of salt slightly diminished
the produce ; and the nitrate of soda alone and the mixture of
nitrate of soda and superphosphate gave only a very inconsi-
derable increase in the produce.

It follows from these experiments that the land was in too
high a condition for experimental purposes, and that beyond a
certain maximum produce, determined by season, climate, and
the presence of an ample supply of all the elements of fertility
required for the perfection of the crop, we cannot increase it by
the administration of an additional quantity of manuring matter.

d. Experiments on Top-dressings upon Oats and Barley.

A number of experiments were made, under my directions, by
Mr. Pocock, of VVanston Manor, Micheldover, Hampshire. Their
results confirm mv belief in the beneficial effect of nitrate of
soda and superphosphate on the barley-crop grown on chalky
soils.

Probably Mr. Pocock will prepare a paper on the subject, to
be read on one of the weekly meetings of the Society.

For the forihcoming volume of the Journal I have in prepara-
tion papers on the following subjects ; —

Annual Report. 145

1. On the composition of mangolds grown with different quan-
tities of salt.

2. On some causes of sterility in soils.

3. Experiments on top-dressings for wheat.

4. On the variations in the composition of palm-nut kernel
meal and cake.

Supphj of Potash- Salts.

The discovery of a new and comparatively-speaking cheap
source of potash, at Strassfurt, in Saxony, induced me to order
a quantity of crude potash-salts from Germany, for experimental
purposes. These salts contain about 20 per cent, of sulphate
of potash, and are likely to prove of considerable service for
turnips and clover on light land.

The dry season unfortunately spoiled the experiments with
these potash-salts, which I instituted in several places during the
past season.

In consideration of the great practical importance and the
scientific interest connected with this discovery of an abundant
source of potash, I lately visited Strassfurt, and inspected its
extensive salt-mines in which the potash-salts occur.

The manufacture of potash began at Strassfurt about three
years ago, and brought about 14,000 workmen to the place.
At the time of my visit I found no less than fourteen potash-
works in operation at Strassfurt, amongst thein one belonging to
an English firm. In the adjoining county of Anhalt, which I
did not visit, I was told there are six or eight such manufactoi'ies.

Should potash be found to have a decidedly beneficial effect
upon some of our crops, which I think is likely to be the case
under particular circumstances, I have no doubt that these exten-
siv^e deposits will supply potash in a crude form in abundance
at a cheap rate.

Experiments on the effects of potash on light sandy soils,
usually deficient in that alkali, can alone decide whether or not
potash can be, economically used as a manuring agent.

The inquiries which I made in Germany respecting the ex-
perience of farmers who tried the crude potash-salts of Strassfurt
do not enable me to say positively that they had a decidedly
beneficial or contrary effect. The fact is that as yet our expe-
rience is far too scanty for deciding this question.

Night-Soil and Seioage of Foreign Toicns.

On the occasion of my recent visit to Germany I took an
opportunity of inquiring into the disposal of human excrements
on the Continent, and found that their utilization is attended with
pecuniary loss to the towns of Germany and Flanders. All

VOL. I. — S.S. L

14G Annual Report.

attempts to convert them profitably into marketable fertilizers have
proved abortive ; the townspeople at Frankfort, Dresden, Leip-
zig, Antwerp, Brussels^ and Berlin have to pay for the removal
of the contents of the cesspools ; and the question how to dispose
of these economically, without creating^ a nuisance, is as much
agitated in Germany as it is in England at the present time.

The Cattle-Melon.

The failure of the turnip-crop has brought into greater promi-
nence the cultivation of the cattle-melon. A specimen of this
new vegetable yielded on analysis the following results : —

Composition of Cattle-melon.

AVater 90-66

*Albuminons compounds (flesh-forming matters) .. 1'66

Su^ar, miicila?;© and digestible fibre 5-74

"Woody fibre (cellulose) 1'17

Mineral matters (ash) "TT

100-00
♦Containing nitrogen .. .. '265

It has been supposed that the cattle-melon is equal in nutri-
tive properties to mangolds, but this is a mistake, as will be seen
by comparing the composition of another specimen of cattle-
melon, analysed by me some time ago, with that of yellow globe
mangolds.

Composition of a specimen of Cattle-melon and of Yellow Globe Mangold-

wurzel.

1. General Composition.

Cattle-melon. ™wGlobe

Water 92-030 88-450

Organic matters 7-350 10-524

Mineral matters (ash) -620 1-026

100-000 100-000

2. Detailed Composition.

Water 92-030 88-450

^Soluble albuminous compounds -619 -887

flnsoluble albuminous compounds -156 "104

Sugar and mucilage 4-661 7'538

Woody fibre (cruile) 1-914 1-995

Soluble mineral matters -540 -952

Insoluble mineral matters '080 '074

100-000 100-000

♦Containing nitrogen '099 '142

fContaining nitrogen -025 -017

Total nitrogen -124 -159

Equal to albuminous compounds (flesh-\ _». ,„„,

tbrming matters) j '

Annual Report. 147

The proportion of water in the cattle-melon, as in other succu-
lent vegetable productions, is subject to considerable variations ; as
far as my experience goes, it is much larger than in mangolds,
approaching more nearly to the character of white turnips.

Analyses.

The number of analyses made for members of the Society
during the past season was a full average. Amongst the analyses
the following are of interest to the feeder of stock.

Composition of Pea-shells.

Moisture 13-68

Oil 1-09

*Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . . 7*12

'. Mucilage, starch and digestible fibre 21-65

Woody fibre (cellulose) .. .. 53-71

Mineral matters (ash) 2-75

100-00
*Containing nitrogen I'H

The nutritive value of pea-shells is not great ; still, it will be
seen, that they contain some starch, a little oil, and 7 per cent, of
flesh-forming matters, and as this is a cheap food, it may be given
to cattle in time of scarcity with advantage.

Composition of Locust-meal.

A sample of locust-meal, on analysis, gave the following

results : —

Moisture 12-61

Oil 1-08

Albuminous compounds (flesh- forming matters) .. 5-87

Sugar 44-30 '

Tectin, mucilage and digestible fibre 26-13 |

"Woody fibre (cellulose) 7-14 ;

Mineral matters (ash) 2-87

100-00

Locust-beans, as will be seen, are very rich in sugar, and con-
sequently very sweet and fat-producing ; in the shape of meal
they may be added with great advantage to other less palatable
nutritious food, such as palm-nut kernel meal.

Biscuit-meal.

Under this name a meal is now sold by the Metropolitan
Farina Company, at the price of 9/. a ton.

L 2

148 Annual Report.

t

A sample of biscuit-meal analysed by me liad the following
composition :

Moisture 8-70

Oil 1-61

Albuminous compounds (flesli-forming matters) .. 10*12

Starch, dcctrinc and sugar 76'90

Cellulose (woody fibre) -58

Mineral matters (ash) 2-09

100-00
Jiice-meal.

Rice-meal varies much in composition, for the commercial
article sold under that name contains variable, and often large
proportions of the husk of rice, which possesses little or no nutri-
tive properties.

A sample of rice-dust lately analvsed by me had the following

composition : —

Moisture 8-83

Oil and fatty matters 9-50

*Albuminous comjounds (llcsh-forming matters) .. 12'75

Starch, mucilage and digestible fibre />0*fi9

AVoody libre (cellulose) 10-14

fMineral matters (ash) 8-09

100-00

*Contaiiiing nitrogen 2-0+

fCoutaiuiug silica 3- 17

Rice-dust contains a good deal of a nicely-tasting yellow oil,
which no doubt adds much to the fattening properties of rice-
meal ; but the price at which this meal is usually sold in the
market, in comparison with the more nutritious barley-meal, is
far too high.

Augustus Voelcker.

12, Hanover Square, London,
December, 18G-1.

XI. — On Cross-Breeding in Horses. By W. C. Spooner.

It is now nearly five years since I discussed the subject of
cross-breeding in the pages of this Journal, vol. xx., with
more particular reference to the breeding of sheep ; my paper
excited some little attention, and I had no reason to complain
of the criticism it received. In the mean time, I have seen
no cause to doubt the truth of the principles then advocated,
or the facts adduced in their support. I propose, therefore, at
the present time, to show the applicability of those principles to

Cross-Brccding in Horses. 149

tlie horse, more particularly the saddle-horse, and I hope to illus-
trate this branch of the subject with equally strong examples,
Among-st the points I sought to establish were the following : —
That the influence of the male or female parent is not capri-
cious ; but yet not always alike : in the majority of instances
the male parent governs the size and external shape of the
offspring (particularly in the back and hind-quarters), whilst the
female influences the constitution, the nervous system, and often
the head and fore-quarters— the case being, however, occasionally
reversed. That this combination, which may be more of a
mechanical than a chemical union, by no means implies such
an equal division of influence, as the mingling of two fluids, in
which case the offspring would be unlike either parent, but a

juste milieu between the two, and there could be no handing
down of type from one generation to another. It is rather such
a fusion of two bodies into one that both defects and high quali-
fications are passed on from parent to offspring with a sort of
regular irregularity, resembling the waves of the sea — each parent
having the remarkable power of propagating ancestral pecu-
liarities, though latent in itself. Thus it is that strong cha-
racteristics are handed from one generation to another ; so that
if we seek by careful selection to remove a defect or propagate
a good qualit}', we may calculate that a large number, perhaps
the majority of the offspring, will meet our wishes, and by weed-
ing out the remainder and pursuing this course for several gene-
rations we may accomplish our design. This view will further
explain how it is that defects not seen in the first cross, being
kept down as it were by the superior influence of the improving
parent, re-appear in the next generation, and serve to deter timid
breeders from continuing the experiment, or arm the opponents
of crossing with strong but fallacious arguments against going
beyond the first cross.

I pointed out that, owing to the superior influence of the

. male parent, the effect of the first cross in sheep was very con-
siderable, bringing greater size, often longer wool, earlier matu-
rity, and a propensity to fatten ; or, in other cases, superior
quality of mutton. Many persons who go thus far are deterred
from going any farther by the very numerous failures which
result from pairing together animals of the first cross, and con-
sider that pure breeds only should be perpetuated ; I adduced,
however, various examples to show that crossing might be carried
much farther, even to the extent of establishing altogether a new
breed, possessing qualifications which, although derived from
them, yet neither of the parent breeds alone exhibited. I
instanced the cases of the Improved Hampshire, the New Oxford-
shire, and the Shropshire, and more particularly the flocks of

150 Cross-Breeding in Horses.

Mr. Humphreys, as affording- successful illustrations of the
practice.

Special reference was made to Mr. Humphreys, Avho, starting
with two of Mr. Jonas Webb's best prize Southdown rams, kept
steadily to sires of his own stock, occasionally purchasing fresh
Hampshire ewes, until in the course of 20 years he had esta-
blished a first-rate breed, all of which were descended on one
side from Mr. Jonas Webb's Southdowns. This example, as
well as that of Mr. Rawlence of Wilton, who now scarcely ranks
second to Mr. Humphreys, seems to show that the use of males
and females possessing a similar amount of breeding is much
more to be depended on than the system pursued by others who
cross with- the Sussex when their sheep are getting too strong or
coarse, and with the old Hampshire when they are getting too
small.

I now further propose to inquire whether this system, which
is so successful with sheep, is one altogether to be condemned
with horses ; always assuming that cross-breeding, to be suc-
cessful, must be undertaken with a distinct and defined object,
and assigning the highest praise and the first rank to those who
maintain intact the purity of our best established breeds.

An opinion is very commonly entertained that there are only
two pure breeds of horses in this country (ponies excepted),
viz., the thorough-bred and the heavy cart-horse, — all the rest
being but modifications of these races in various degrees. It is,
however, probable, that long before either of these extremes
were known among us there existed a native breed of a very
useful kind, pure examples of which are now scarcely to be met
with. The ^;ocA-horse with his drooping hind-quarters, good
shoulders, strong fore-legs, and sure action, existed in Eng-
land for centuries before the Barb and the Arab were imported
for the chase or the race-course by the Stuarts, or the intro-
duction of carriages had led to the use of Flanders mares
brought from the neighbouring continent ; these heavy horses,
with their high action, slow but sure and staunch, being natu-
rally much prized for helping the ponderous coach out of
the deep ruts of the high roads or along the miry lanes. The
heaviest of the race were greatly in demand not only for tilling
the strong lands but for drawing the cumbrous road-waggon
before even the six-mile-an-hour luggage-van was introduced as
a novelty and an innovation. I have before me one of Morland's
striking sketches which reminds me forcibly of my boyish days,
when the slow but sure approach of one of these ponderous
vehicles with its eight or twelve ton load, heralded perhaps by a
cloud of dust ever stirred up by the heavy feet of the ten or
twelve massive animals that moved it onward at the rate of some

Cross-Breeding in Horses. 151

two miles an hour, never failed to command attention. It was a
sight to behold these leviathans settle into their work after a
short respite in the midst of a steep hill ; the burly waggoner,
too heavy to Avalk, and scorning to ride in his waggon, was
mounted on one of those strong sure-footed ponies, usually white
or pie-bald, which have long since disappeared. A crack from
his long whip would send in to the collar with a 20-horse
power the ten hairy-legged but powerful brutes whose broad
backs were rendered still broader in appearance by the absence
of tails, for each horse was docked nlose to the stump, under the
absurd idea that their strength would thereby be increased.

It is difficult to imagine that this waggon, which seemed to the
people of the day to be one of the institutions of the country, was
itself formerly looked on as a newfangled novelty, which super-
seded the once universal, now well-nigh forgotten pack-horse.

There are but few specimens remaining of the pure pack-horse
breed which has been quite neglected and overlooked by agri-
cultural societies ; and, consequently, whilst the mares have for a
while proved valuable for breeding half-bred hunters with the
thorough-bred horse, the males have been gelded and used up.
This original or ancient race has no doubt been modified con-
siderably in size, according to the fertility of the soil on which
it might be raised ; being sometimes developed into the strong
upstanding harness-horse, and at others dwindling down to the
plain but useful galloway, as seen in many remote districts, and
particularly in the little horses used in the Irish cars. The Welsh
pony and the Clydesdale cart-horse, the latter enlarged by rich
pasturage and perhaps a cross, probably represent the opposite
extremes of this same breed.

In less civilised ages the most useful horse was that which
could most readily be adapted to all purposes ; and there is no
good reason why, even in modern days, the more ancient breed,
equally pure and more serviceable than the blood-horse or dray-
horse, should be altogether neglected, not only by our sporting
men, but by the patrons of our agricultural societies ; particularly
since magnificent hunters have been the result of the cross
between the thorough-bred horse and the old pack-horse mare.
It will be useful to point out the peculiarities which distinguish
the two breeds, with a few explanatory remarks on the component
parts of the animal which by their varying proportions constitute
those peculiarities.

The skeleton is formed of bone, which owes its solidity to the
fact that it is composed of one- half or upwards of earthy matter,
so deposited in cartilaginous cells as to render the bones strong
and resisting, and adapted not only to support the weight of the
animal, and to protect from injury the vital organs, but to serve

152 Cross-Breeding in Horses.

as a framework for the attachment of muscles, sinews, and liga-
ments. The bones of the limbs are for the most part cylindrical,
and motion is effected by means of joints at the extremities of
the bones, which are secured by powerful non-elastic ligaments.
The bones are much smaller in the thorough-bred than in the
cart and intermediate breeds, though generally more compact,
and the joints also are by no means so wide, but admit of more
longitudinal moti(m. With this diminished size there is, of
course, less surface to sustain the weight of the body.

The sinews resemble the ligaments in appearance, and like
them are non-elastic ; they are attached to the bones, and serv'e to
communicate motion to them from the muscles to which they are
joined or from which they appear to spring. Both ligaments
and sinews are smaller in the thorough-bred than in other horses.
The muscles and the flesh are the same, and are the seat of the
motive power, motion being produced by the contraction of the
fibres of which the muscles are composed. The strength is the
result both of the size and the number of fibres, whilst the
extent of motion depends on the length of the muscles and their
fibres. Of course the length of the bones corresponds to that of
the muscles, and althougli the joints 'in the thorough-bred have
less surface, they admit of more motion.

The pack-horse mav be thus described: — The prevailing
colours of the breed were bay and brown, which, with the usual
accompaniments of black legs, denoted a good and hardy consti-
tution, vet other colours, such as greys and blacks, were to be found
occasionally. Among the chief peculiarities were the good and
flat fore-leg with its well developed back sinew or flexor tendon,
the good and sound foot, and capital shoulders and forehand.
The neck muscular, but not thick and heavy, was fairly arched,
and the head, of moderate size, was well set on. This form was
accompanied, as we might expect, with good and safe action in
the walk and trot ; the horse rarely stumbled, and only fell from
overwork and exhaustion. Whilst the heavier and coarser speci-
men of this breed was capable of carrying his five-hundredweight
load throughout a long journey, the lighter and more active was
used as the ordinary saddle-horse or even as the hunter of the
day. Many of these animals were extraordinary Irotters, and, as
good trotters are generallv good walkers likewise, the quality was
greatly prized and encouraged ; and thus a race of trotters was
bred which, no doubt, were the ancestors of the celebrated Ame-
rican trotting-horses, such as the " Tom Thumbs " of later days.
Although these horses were deep in the chest and ribs, the hind-
quarters were comparatively inferior, the hips were often ragged,
the tail set on low, and sometimes the hocks were rather too
straight. The celebrated trotting-horses of Norfolk were evidently

Cross-Breeding in Horses. 153

not true pack-horses, although perhaps allied to them : they had,
no doubt, a touch of Spanish blood and possibly of the Thorough-
bred.

Let us now, as a contrast, glance at the peculiarities of the
thorough-bred horse. Racing, no doubt, existed in this country
long before, but received a new impetus from the introduction of
the Barb, the Arabian, and the Turk. The sires which were at
first imported, quickly established the great superiority of the
Eastern blood as regards speed, and when mares followed at a
later date in smaller numbers, they no doubt still further added
to the speed of the English racehorse.

The modern blood-horse is of much greater average size
than the Arab or the Barb either of the present or the past ;
and a doubt exists whether this is entirely due to selection and
nurture, or in part to the early crossing with the native mare ;
in any case, it cannot be denied that every thorough-bred horse
in the kingdom, from the highest to the lowest, is to the extent
of more than nineteen-twentieths descended from the Eastern
horse. This foreign influence was not, however, derived from
one strain only, for the pedigree of ' Eclipse ' himself shows
that besides his descent from the Darby Arabian and Godolphin
Barb, he had five or six crosses of the Turk ; and we have a
strong conviction that the improved native horse, made up of the
ancient British, the Spanish, and the Barb, is entitled to some share
in the honours of his parentage. Be this as it may, the present
English thorough-bred horse has proved himself faster than any
of the breeds from which he is sprung; and although many
doubts have been cast of late on his powers of endurance in com-
parison with the smaller horse of some fifty years ago, and the
practice of training and racing has been severely criticised, yet
there is good reason to suppose that our first-class winnei's are as
stout as most of those which have preceded them.

The thorough-bred English horse, in common with the Arabian,
possesses no doubt more muscular vigour, as well as nervous
energy, than any other kind of horse.* In addition to this he

* From time to time it has been suggested, •with the view of improving our
breed of thoi'ough-bred horses, and particularly their staying qualities, to resort
again to the original or parent breeds ; but not to mention the ill-success of
such attempts when made, it must be evident that the tendency of this cross
"would be to diminish the size and to shorten the stride, and probably to render
the action too high; we can therefore scarcely expect breeders for the turf to
adopt the advice. At the same time it must be acknowledged that the Arab has
been more successful with half-bred and under-bred mares than the third-class
cast-off racer, inasmuch as with undeniable bottom there has been a hardier con-
stitution, better fore-legs, and higher action from this cross. Where the dam has
been of sufficient bone and size, many good hunters and handsome harness-horses
have been so bred, and still more frequently capital ponies and galloways; indeed,
this is one of the best modes of improving the breed of ponies. Arabs have, in

154 Cross-Breeding in Horses.

has a deep chest capable of admitting' the large amount of air
which the demands of the system require under severe exertion.
By natural conformation and by artificial training all superfluous
weight is removed, and thus he is capable of covering more
ground in his stride, and of repeating these strides more fre-
quently than any other horse, as well as of continuing his extreme
efforts for a longer period without tiring. The heart and the
brain of such a horse are comparatively larger than in other breeds,
the bones, though smaller, are more compact, the skin of a thinner
and finer texture, and the blood-vessels more developed. These
advantages, however, are not without certain diawbacks. The
delicacy of the skin causes the animal to be extremely susceptible
of cold, he is consequently less hardy and requires more food to
keep up the animal tcm])eraturc, so that it is difficult to keep
flesh on a thorough-bred horse unless he is kept warm ; moreover,
the carcass being smaller, the stomach and intestines are not so
large, and consequently the food must be more concentrated and
nutritious to keep up this supply of warmth.

The difference as respects hardiness is strikingly shown between
the foal of the cart-mare and the thorough-bred. Whilst the
former is strong, sturdy, and fleshy, the latter is comparatively
puny, thin, and susceptible of the least cold ; the former, by
means of the dam's milk, can be kept in first-rate order, whilst
the latter requires artificial assistance as soon as it can be ren-
dered. The fact is that the digestive apparatus is more powerful
in the one than in the other — it can assimilate more nutriment
from nutritious food, and subsist on rough diet on which the
other would starve. This it is which renders it so expensive to
rear the blood-colt, and this distinction prevails throughout life,
and extends in a lesser degree to the half-bred, as compared with
the cart-horse. The thorough-bred has yet other faults ; as a
rule, he is slighter and weaker in the fore-legs, he goes closer
to the ground, is often a bad walker, and an indifferent trotter,
and is more liable to stumble and fall than the coarse-bred horse.
How can it he otherwise ? He is bred to win a race, from parents
who have been winners ; the elevated and rounded action that
makes a good hack or charger, would shorten his stride and
impair his chances ; although if he has good^egs^and sufficient
size and substance, the very fact of his being too slow for racing
ought to be rather a recommendation as a hunting-stallion than
otherwise, yet Avho would give him credit for stoutness if he had
never been fortunate enough to win a race ; or what chance would
he have for a prize at our agricultural shows when judged by

proportion to their size and -weight, larger bone and sinew than the majority of
our thorough-breds, and I have often observed their beneficial inilueuce in the
second and third generation both with hunters and other horses.

Cross-Breeding in Horses. 155

those who can recognise at a glance a Derby favourite, or the
winner of the St. Leger ?

The term stoutness in racing phraseology means endurance
connected with speed ; it has nothing to do with size and weight,
as a tyro might suppose : a great horse is often speedy but a
craven at heart, whilst most of the stoutest race-horses of the last
century were little more than galloways in size, and such too are
the untiring Arabs of the Desert. No judge, therefore, can tell
a stout horse by his appearance — it is necessary to know his
performances before this can be determined ; for, however perfect
the symmetry and powerful the frame, if he is only good for a
mile he is not stout.

The improvement effected in the size and probably in the
speed of the thorough-bred horse is no doubt very great, and
every year produces some wonderful examples of first-class
winners ; yet I will venture to say that nowhere else through-
out Nature where the same care and vigilance is bestowed on
the rearing of animals, are the blanks so many and the prizes
so few. To justify this perhaps startling assertion, let us
endeavour to trace the career of the, say, fifteen hundred or
more thorough-bred foals which are annually dropped. These
foals are reared from mares of undeniable pedigree, and for the
most part of good size, very many among them being winners.
The majority are begotten by first-class horses, who have either
been great winners themselves or have beat great winners before
they have themselves broken down, or, better still, have proved
themselves the sires of great winners as well as winners them-
selves. Both care and expense are lavishly bestowed on the
fifty or sixty sires, the two thousand brood-mares, and also on
the foals themselves as soon as they are dropped. The dam's
milk is sustained with the most nutritious food, and the foal
is fed with the best as soon as it can masticate. It is an
error to suppose that either the mare or the foal is pampered
or enervated by undue care ; the well-kept paddock affords every
facility for taking exercise, and those who have witnessed the
sprightly and incessant gambols of the young animal will
acknowledge that the muscles and sinews of the thorough-bred
foal are called into play much more than those of the cart-horse.
Yet, with all this care, what becomes of these costly toys ? The
greater number go into training at two years old or earlier, no
small percentage having previously disappeared from disease
or accident, and very many succumb to the numerous mala-
dies and mishaps that occur in the training-stable. After this
ordeal the trials begin ; and then some are condemned as too
slow and others as too small, some are mercifully shot out of
the way, others submitted to the auctioneer's hammer, and many

156 Cross-Breeding in Horses.

a colt that has cost 200/. to rear is sold for less than 10/., and
perhaps is dear at the price. The majority thus sold are colts
and fillies that have never raced, many have given way in the
joints or sinews, whilst some are rejected for their shortcomings
in the actual race as two-year-olds, although many a horse which
was unsuccessful at that age has proved a prize-winner after-
wards. It is difficult to say how many of those foaled actually
make their appearance on the race-course, but the difference in
numbers between the entries and the starters for the Derby will
afford some slight criterion. At all events, a little reflection will
satisfy us that the number of first-class, or even second-class,
horses annually brought to maturity is very small, and justify
our assertion that the blanks far outnumber the prizes.

How can we explain such a falling off, that the offspring pro-
bably to the extent of 70 per cent., should prove inferior to both
the sire and dam ? The answer may be found in the fact that
although our first-class race-horses are large and powerful
animals, yet they are descended from ancestors considerably
smaller than themselves, and Nature makes a constant effort to
return to the original type. But for this natural law there is no
telling what size our thorough-bred horses might reach, for the
constant effort of the breeder is to raise large colts, and it is
almost an axiom with many men that although a good little horse
is all very well, a good big horse is a great deal better. In fact,
the little horses, which are sometimes greater winners, are rather
low than small, and usually have considerable length of muscle
as well as depth of chest and substance, to compensate for their
want of height. When, therefore, there are such constant efforts
to outstep Nature, we cannot wonder that failure should be so
frequent a result.

There is a striking contrast between Derby horses and their
numerous relations who figure at country races, and when
the short racing-career of these large colts is over and they
are devoted to the stud it is astonishing how large they become
and how much they girth.* They look the very incarna-

* Although as a rule half-bred and threeparts-bred horses have more bone, and

are larger iu the girth than thorough-breils, yet the latter increase surprisingly
in girth when thrown out of training and devoted to the stud. My friend
Mr. Barrow, Veterinary Surgeon, of Newmarket, has kindly furnished me with
the measurements of a number of lirst-class stud-horses now under his care at
Newmarket. Amongst others "Longbow," " Toxopholite," Thunderbolt," and
"Muscovite," all of whom were upwards of 16 hands, and exceeded 6 feet
in girth, and measured ou the average 8 inches round between the knee and
the fetlock. The chest of the thorough-bred is always comparatively deep and
capacious, Mr. Barrow considers that the capacitj- of the chest increases after
serving mares and from wearing no rollers, or anything to interfere with the
proper expansion of the chest. It must be borne in mind that the horses here
mentioned are peers of their order.

Cross-Bi'ceding in Horses. 157

tion of vigour and of strength, and it is probably their look
that induces so many breeders to think that from such a sire
any amount of substance can be secured which can reasonably
be expected in the weight-carrying hunter. They forget, how-
ever, how large a percentage of their progeny are but " weeds,"
even when these sires are put to picked thorough-bred mares ; and
how very rarely the services of a horse of this stamp can be
secured for half-bred mares. The great bulk of travelling
thorough-bred stallions must necessarily be third-class horses,
long in the carcass, long in the legs, weak in the sinews, unfit
for any other purpose than the stud ; and such are the horses
that assist in deteriorating our breed of saddle-horses, and render
horse-bi'eeding so frequently unprofitable.

Let it not, however, be supposed that I undervalue the im-
portance of " blood " in the hunter, the hack, and the harness-
horse ; I only dispute the doctrine that we should rely mainly
or solely on the sire for its introduction, and then only for the
first cross. It is a well-established fact, that the Eastern blood
amalgamates with the native breeds of the country extremely
well ; it can be traced in the form, and still more in the courage
and endurance, even in the third and fourth generation.

I must now recall attention to the general principles of cross-
breeding, viz., that while the male governs the size (not mere
height), the vital functions and the nervous system are influenced
most by the female. If there be any truth in this doctrine, it
must be as essential to attend to the pedigree of the mares as to
that of the sire. But here all is left to chance ; and whether
she is taken from the plough-tail, the van, or the omnibus, no
matter, so long as the sire is thorough-bred. Let us consider how
the system works on some of our best mares. A farmer has a
valuable mare that has been tested by many an arduous run.
She is by a thorough- bred horse out of a half-bred mare, and,
valuable as she is, she is a shade too light, or, at any rate, would
be Avorth more money if she were equal to a little inore weight.
He is induced to put her to a thorough-bred horse, and the
jnogeny is, of coui'se, seven-eighths thorough-bred, but, according
to my experience, mostly an unprofitable weed. We might
go a step further back, to the stronger half-bred mare, and trace
the process of deterioration farther ; but the final issue is the
same — the propagation of a race of weeds. This is the real
root of the evil which is affecting our breeds of horses, — an
evil not to be remedied by the abolition of two or three year old
races, or by the substitution of longer distances, or by any of the
many suggestions with which, when political intelligence flags,
our daily papers teem. Races for two-year-olds may be objec-
tionable or otherwise, and eight-mile gallops may be excellent or

158 Cross-Breeding in Horses.

cruel; but, so long as racing is supported by the public as a
pastime, the former will not be abolished nor the latter restored.*

Do away with the excitement of the struggle, and by greatly
lengthening the race render its finish the slowest part of the
contest, and people will be contented to read the result in the
newspapers at home. Let us suppose that the racing of two-
year-olds was altogether abolished, and that the Derby was con-
tended for by four-year-olds, what would be the result? The
expense of keeping racehorses would be enormously increased,
perhaps to the extent of 100,000/. per annum. And after all,
even if these innovations could be introduced, they would alto-
gether fail in their professed object — that of improving the
stoutness of the thorough-bred horse.t

We frequentlv hear of horses that are very speedy for a mile, but
fail altogether in a longer race. Now, on what does this want
of stamina or stoutness depend? and, secondly, can it be dis-
covered or ascertained by the external conformation of the
animal ? The speed of the horse depends on the length of the
stride, and the frequency or rapidity with which these strides
can be repeated, and in proportion to these efforts is the demand
made on the organs of respiration and circulation and on the
nervous system. Excessive speed is, therefore, in itself one cause
of its short duration, inasmuch as it exhausts the vital powers.
In many cases the locomotive and vital powers may not be well
balanced : the former may be those of a first-class, and the latter
those of a second-class animal. To a certain extent this want of
bottom can be ascertained by the conformation, but to a certain
extent only. If the horse is very leggy, light in the carcass, and
narrow or deficient in depth of chest, the probability is that he
is speedy, but not enduring. Sometimes, however,^ an animal
shows none of these faults of form, and yet, though speedy for a

* The system of racing at two years old, -whilst it is always trying and often
fatal to the fore-legs and joints of the young animals, does not appear to be
injurious to the constitution ; for we have numerous instances of famous stud-
horses living to a good age, although they have raced thus early. That stout and
successful sire the " British Yeoman," tlie winner of the first prize at the Koyal
Agricultural Society's show at Chelmsford in 1856, fourteen years previously had
-won four large stakes as a two-year-old, and the following year ran fourth for
the Derby.

t If some of our stoutest thorough-breds have been discarded in consequence of
their not being speedy enough to win short races, what has become of these
horses, -whose services would have been so valuable for half-bred mares ? I
rather believe that speed and stoutness are mostly combined in great winners, as
in " Eclipse " and " King Herod " of old, and, at the present day, in " Stockwell "
and " Blair Athol," the latter of whom unquestionably won his great races by
his stoutness, for he was probably equalled in speed for half the race by several of
his competitors. Surely the St. Leger, and other still longer races, must in nine
years out of ten be -won by stout horses, and as such horses are always used for
the stud afterwards, they must have handed down to their posterity their
stoutness as well as their speed.

Cross-Breeding in Horses. 159

mile, is unable to " stay." The cause is here, no doubt, beyond
our ken ; though it is, no doubt, due to deficiencies in the vital
and nervous systems, and especially to the latter. To discover
its existence, we presume, is the object of the advisers of four
and eight mile races.

In the absence of proof, we much question whether the first-
class racehorses of the present are inferior in endurance to those
of former days. Why should they be so ? They are descended
from the best mares and the best horses, which have no doubt
handed down with their speed that endurance and strength of
constitution which contributes so much to make a winner. Want
of endurance is not the defect of this race ; put a feather-weight
on the back of a weed, and in a light country he will probably
beat the most valuable half-bred hunter, even in a long run ;
and yet with all this he is nearly valueless.

Next to the very first-class racehorses — the twenty prizes
amongst a thousand blanks — there is no kind of horse of which
this country has such reason to be proud as the half-bred, three-
parts, and seven-eighths bred hunters, the highest combination
in nature of strength and speed. Deriving speed and courage
from their Eastern progenitors, bone and substance from their
northern ancestors, and action in all their paces from the blending
of the two races, they are nearly perfect and decidedly most
generally useful.

When a breed of sheep or of bullocks has reached this point,
we seek to perpetuate their excellences by consorting parents who
on both sides possess them, avoiding, of course, too great con-
sanguinity. We do not resort, as a rule, again and again to the
original breeds from whence the improvement has been built up.
Why, then, should horses be an exception to this rule ? Why,
although the mares of this stamp are considered well adapted for
breeding, are the males condemned to be castrated, as unfit for
that purpose ? By such practice we not only lose the services
of the males in transmitting their good qualities, but deprive
one-half the mares of the opportunity of breeding animals as
strong and valuable as themselves. The practice is, no doubt,
in many respects a matter of convenience ; for weight-carrying
hunters are more tractable, and always, as geldings, command
good prices ; whilst it is hard to compete with the constant
supply of ready-made stallions — good, bad, and indifferent — from
racing stables, so long as their friends and owners can persuade
breeders of horses and agricultural authorities that the goodness
of the fore-legs is of little account, or that a bad thorough-bred
stallion is better than a good half-bred.

Referring again to the general principles which have been
laid down respecting the influence of either parent on the off"-

]60 Cross-Breeding in Horses.

spring, and considering that the temper, nervous system, vital
powers, and constitution, usually follow the dam, if the question
be put, " Given a certain amount of breeding, which side
would you prefer it to come from ? " we unhesitatingly say, if
it cannot be had from both sides, by all means let us have
it from that of the dam, that her courage, nervous system, and
vital powers may be, if possible, joined with the great bone and
sinew of the coarser sire. If this system were more frequently
pursued, we might breed weight-carrying horses from well-bred
though rather light mares, and sometimes even from the best of
the three and four year old mares cast out of the racing stable as
not being good enough. By such means our cavalry would be
far better mounted than at present, and we might, without
difficulty, retain just as much breed as is requisite and desirable.*
1 do not, however, recommend such violent crosses as that of
the cart-stallion with the thorough-bred mare, though not un-
frequently successful ; or the reverse case, which, with a few
noted exceptions, produces more failures.

As examples are always more telling than precepts, I propose
to adduce a few instances of successful breeding with half-bred
horses and well-ljred marcs.

To begin with my own experience. I rode a mare for some
twelve years without her making a mistake ; she was good in all
her paces, a fair hunter, an excellent jumper, and a capital hack.
She was bred by my father out of a threeparts-bred mare (a
good hunter) by a voung half-bred horse, pedigree unknown or
forgotten. Her dam afterwards bred three other colts by
thorough-bred sires, none of which proved of any value. They
could not carry weight, and none of them paid the expense of
breeding.

2. A rather heavy but active and useful cart-mare, belonging
to the same owner, bred two colts by thorough-ljred horses, neither
of which repaid expenses : they had the bodies of the dam and
the legs of their sires.

3. One of my friends had, some years since, a splendid trotting
mare that he justly regarded as a pearl of great price, for she had

* An inspection of our cavalry regiments will strikingly illustrate the evils
of the present system. I had an opportunity a twelvemonth since of looking
over a rather large number of cast cavalry-horses offered for sale by auction in
a garrison town, and found that nineteen out of twenty were extremely faulty.
In most, although the carcasses were sufficient, the legs were totally unfit to carry
the weight a cavalry horse is called upon to sustain. Crooked legs, weak
sinews, deficient bone, small joints, sickle hocks, the evident result of the union
of the two bodies of a thorough-bred horse and a coarse or cart mare, was
almost the universal rule; and they presented a strong contrast to the animals
that in my experience used to be cast some thirty years ago when half-bred stallions
were far more numerous than at present, and horses were bred from parents pos-
sessing on both sides the qualificatious sought to be perpetuated.

Cross-Breeding in Horses. 161

substance, showed plenty of breed, and was good in all her other
paces as well as the trot. After some years she was devoted to
the stud, and bred five foals, the first by a good half-bred horse
and the others by different thorough-bred horses. Her first foal
showed much more substance than any of the others, made a good
price, and is a valuable animal at the present day. Not one of
the others repaid expenses ; one proved a clever animal for a
light weight, but none possessed sufficient substance to be any-
thing like as valuable as the mare,

4. Another of my acquaintance some years since had a small
but very neat mare almost thorough-bred. He put her to a large
Yorkshire trotting stallion, and sold the produce at three years
old for sixty pounds ; when afterwards he put her to thorough-
bred stallions the stock were all deficient in substance, and con-
sequently unprofitable.

5. A farming friend had a capital fast mare, somewhat small,
and rather more than half-bred ; he put her to the last-named
stallion, about onefourth-bred : the produce, a mare now in my
possession, is very clever and somewhat larger than her dam.
Though too hot for the hounds, she is a capital hack as well as an
invaluable harness-mare. 1 consider this to be a successful example
of breeding from two parents, both well, but neither thorough-
bred. The dam of my mare was next put to a thorough-bred
horse, and produced a foal which had not nearly the value of the
first, gave out in the fore-legs, and was last seen in a London
cab. The sire referred to invariably got good animals when put
to well-bred mares, and useful ones when coarser mares were
employed.*

6. Another of my acquaintance some years since gave 50Z. for
a mare apparently threeparts-bred, which now in her old age is
such a model of symmetry that she attracted my special attention
when recently exhibited at a local show. She proved to be a
good hunter for an average weight, but before she could establish
her character, became lame, was devoted to the stud, and has
bred many colts. One of these, by a thorough-bred horse, became
a very clever and valuable hunter for a moderate weight ; the
other colts were mostly by a light and rather leggy but very active

* This horse was the son of " Performer," and the grandson of " Old Pretender,"
by " Fireaway " (celebrated trotting stallions of their day), out of a threeparts-bred
mare, having the strains of " Forester" and " Hambletonian." " Old Pretender",
trotted 15 miles "within the hour, with 15 stone on his back, whilst "Fireaway''
did 2 miles in 5 minutes. It is matter of very great regret tliat this breed of horses
has not been kept up in all its integrity, and that trotting-matches have been
allowed to sink into disreputable and low hands. Probably the cruelty that
was often connected with these time-matches, in which the same horse was backed
to go, say, from London to York, or to Exeter, in some short time, led to their
being discountenanced by the more respectable lovers of the horse.
VOL. I. — S. S. M

162 Cross- Breeding ill Horses.

Suffolk cart-horse, with good flat fore-legs and good feet. The
oldest of these, which promised to be a capital jumper and a
good weight-carrying hunter, was bought bv a farmer (a heavy
weight in the hunting-field) for 50/., and after exhibiting his
qualifications in a good run, was resold for lOOZ. on the same
day. The new owner, hearing afterwards that he was got by
a cart-horse, felt somewhat disgusted and parted with the horse
for 80/. to a dealer, who very soon disposed of him for double
this sum. The other two colts by the same horse are very pro-
mising. Although such a strong cross as this is not to be
recommended, it is worthy of note as an example of the powers
of the marc to transmit her qualities of speed and endurance
to her offspring, so as to render them good hunters.

7. A late master of hounds in a neighbouring county rode for
some years a threeparts-bred stallion, that besides being a first-
rate hunter was also used somewhat extensively as a stud-horse.
His stock was almost universally good and remunerative to the
breeders.

8. To these examples may l)e added some strong cases, kindly
communicated to me by Mr. H. Overman, of Weasenham, Nor-
folk :—

" H. K. S , Esq., of W , Norfolk, had two horses of

extraordinary good qualities as weight-carrying hunters ; they had
great pace and endurance, and were good performers. He rode
them in Norfolk, Northamptonshire, and Leicestershire, and
refused 700 guineas for the two. Their dam was a thorough-
bred mare that ran well in the Oaks, and their sire was a half-
bred cart-horse and hackney, with fine shoulders, good action,
strong loin, deep girth, and good thighs and legs."

9. JVIr, Overman adds : " 1 used the same horse to two mares
of my own, one a well-bred Irish mare. She threw a filly, which
I sold for 100 guineas, and has since made nearly 200. The
other mare was threequarter-bred, and she threw a colt which
turned out one of the best performers I ever saw. I sold him to

H. B , Esq., of Norwich, for his brother in Surrey for 130

guineas, and 400 guineas have since been refused for him.

10. " One of the best horses now in Lord H 's hunting-
stables was by a Norfolk hackney out of a half-bred hunting-
dam. We find in Norfolk if we put our Norfolk hackney to a
well-bred mare with size, she is sure to throw a good animal.

* Tom Moody,' the property of Mr. J , of Hopton, was not

thorough-bred, neither was Mr. Goold's ' Shackaback ;' and these
two horses are the sires of scores of good and valuable horses in
this county."

He adds : " The late Mr. Theobald, of Stockwell, in Surrey,
always said that it was much better to put the hackney horse to

Cross- Breeding in Horses. 163

the blood mare than to adopt the reverse plan ; the former course
being almost sure to bring a good animal. A blood mare, the
property of an uncle of mine, bred seven foals by hackney and
cross-bred horses, and all proved animals worth a good deal of
money."

My purpose in adducing these examples is to show that useful
horses almost always, and valuable ones very frequently, can be
bred as hack, hunters, and carriage-horses by using the half or
threeparts-bred stallion with well-bred mares, so as to secure a
sufficient amount of substance to carry weight. Not that Ave can
thus breed horses of greater value than by using the thorough-
bred stallion with suitable mares, for we can scarcely have too
much breed, provided we have sufficient substance ; but by
following the system recommended, if we do not succeed in
getting higher prices, we shall at any rate have fewer failures.

We have seen that with regard to sheep at least three dif-
ferent and valuable breeds have been inaugurated by cross-
breeding, careful selection, and constant weeding ; and the
prevailing opinion is, that these possess certain desirable quali-
fications which render them more profitable than their parent
races. Still there are those who deny this, and contend that
there are pure breeds of sheep that can supply every requi-
site. Be that as it may, the case is much stronger with regard
to the horse ; for there is no one who would contend that the
qualifications of a first-class weight-carrying hunter can be met
Avith in any one pure or original breed, or that it can be other-
wise secured than by the well-assorted alliance of blood and bone.
Surely, then, if with sheep we can succeed in the course of twenty
years in establishing a distinct breed, we can with equal or
greater ease establish a breed of horses that will support with
ease a six-foot guardsman with his heavy accoutrements, and
dash into the charge with all the speed and spirit induced by
the influence of a full equivalent of blood derived from both
parents. The French are already trying this system ; and if we
are remiss, Avill in a few years surpass our cavalry in its most
essential characteristic. There can be no reason why the defects
Avhich crop out after the first cross should not be as readily
extinguished in the horse as in the sheep.

It is as well to notice, that valuable as is the Norfolk trotting
stallion, when put to well-bred mares for breeding hacks, he is
as a rule too deficient in size to get dragoon-horses, or those
v/eight-carrying hunters which have been the glory of our land.

One argument adduced by the advocates of the universal em-
ployment of the full-blood sire is somewhat plausible, and has not
perhaps been sufficiently disposed of. They say, it is desirable
to have a pure-blood on one side at least, so that defects apper-

M 2

164 Ctoss- Breeding in Horses.

taining to tlie progenitors, but not apparent in tlie parents, may
not, as in mixed pedigree, reappear in the offspring. This
argument is good to a certain extent, but it applies equally to
each parent, and if it can be dispensed with in the case of
the mare in order to secure size and boHe, it may also be given
up for ec[ual advantages in that of the sire, who would not
have been devoted to the stud unless in addition to his pure
lineage on one side, he had derived from the other some rare
hunting qualifications and sterling merits which it would be most
desirable to perpetuate.

Conclusions.

We have endeavoured in our preceding remarks to establish
the correctness of the following points : —

(a) That the use of the thorough-bred horse or mare has
greatly improved the coarser bred in speed and in bottom. That
the blood has amalgamated exceedingly well Avith other breeds,
and that the good results of even one cross only has been seen in
various degrees and for several generations.

(b) That the effect of crossing with the thorough-bred is to
increase the supremacy of the nervous and the muscular systems,
and is more particularly shown in the fuller development of the
thighs, the hind-quarters, and the elongation of the muscles
generally. But that with these advantages the bones, joints,
ligaments, and sinews are smaller and less powerful, and the
action, although quickened, is rendered lower and less safe.
The ability for jumping and for carrying heavy weights without
injury to the joints and sinews, is greatly diminished. The skin
is also rendered thinner and more liable to abrasion, the carcass
smaller, and there is a diminished capability for putting on
flesh.

(c) That so long as suitable mares with sufficient substance
can be procured, the breeder of hunters should, on the rare
occasions when they are offered, avail himself of the services of a
first-class thorough-bred stallion, or even one of the second class,
provided he has hunting qualifications, — good substance, or good
high action in the trot or walk.

(d) If, going a step further in the same direction, the breeder
seeks to put the female progeny to the blood-horse, he will most
frequently fail ; the offspring becoming too light ; whilst if he
had availed himself of the half-bred or threeparts-bred stallion
(the grandson of a great racehorse), his stock having the same
amount of breeding as the dam, would have afforded him a fair
chance of realising a high price, and failing this, a compara-
tive certainty of a fair sale for the cavalry, or for the general
market.

Cross-B reeding in Horses. 165

(e) Having duly recognised the claims of thorough-bred horses
of the first and second class, we can only advise, with regard to
the third and inferior classes, that their services be altogether
dispensed with, their place being taken by three-fourths, or half-
bred stallions, possessing bone, substance, and good hunting
qualifications. And it is such animals as these that deserve
encouragement from our great Agricultural Societies,
i For the encouragement of horses of this stamp we should be
glad to see prizes offered for the best seven-eighths, three-fourths,
and half-bred stallions, so that the owners of promising horses
might be induced to delay the operation of castration until the
animals had undergone the ordeal of the show-yard, and the
prize-winners might be launched into the world with the Society's
approval. Some of the prizes for ponies might well be dispensed
with to provide money, if it be wanting, for this more important
purpose. At any rate, it may be hoped that the Council of the
Royal Agricultural Society will remove the impediments which
shut out such a horse as " British Statesman," the first-prize
winner at Battersea, and the second at Leeds, from competing at
Newcastle among the stallions for breeding-hunters. The flaw
in his pedigree, one-eighth, gave him, no doubt, more bone,
sinew, and substance generally, and rendered him fit to carry an
extra stone in weight, qualifications which doubtless gained him
the prize of 20Z., offered by the gentlemen hunting the North
Staffordshire hounds, for the best stallion for hunting horses.

This suggestion is not meant to imply that prizes for thorough-
bred stallions should be dispensed with : on the contrary, if the
state of the Society's funds permit, separate prizes should be
offered for thorough-bred sires, adapted —

1. For getting Hunters ;

2. For Carriage Horses;

3. For Park Horses, Chargers, or Hacks.

Prizes in each of these classes would then be assigned to
animals differing much in character, but no longer, as at present,
to the best racehorse, or according to the rather puzzling and
peculiar condition of the prize-sheet, "to the horse best calculated
to perpetuate the breed of the sound and the stout thorough-
bred horse for general stud-purposes." Such a horse must un-
questionably be neither more nor less than the sire of the greatest
racehorses of the day.

But if this is too wide range for an Agricultural Society, the
Managers of the Islington horse show may take this hint into
consideration.

Those of our readers who Avere present at the splendid ex-
hibition of thorough-bred stallions in the Agricultural Hall last
summer, must have been struck with the great variety that

166 Cross-Breeding in Horses.

obtains in the shape and action of the thorough-breds then
exhibited, and miijht, without any assistance from the judges,
point out the particular horses with suitable characteristics for
each of the several purposes above mentioned, " Caractacus " and
" Nutborne " may be taken as correct examples of the true race-
horse. The sprightly " Neville," with his splendid knee-action,
may be regarded as the proper' sire of the charger and the park-
hack, whilst the powerful " Warlike," with his compact frame, is
the very type of a weight-carrving hunter, so far as a blood-horse
can be one. "Newcastle,"' the favourite of the judges, might
put in a claim either as a hunting-sire for a moderate weight,
or, with his fine action and good legs, as the sire of a charger or
park-hack ; and he probably gained his honours because he was
tliought to combine best in his own person the several and
diverse qualifications required bv the conditions of the prize-
sheet. There were also some fine showy animals, with long
arching necks and grand action, that might properly be con-
sidered as suitable sires for hiffh-bred carriage-horses.

XII. — Report on the Royal Veterinanj College.

The Governors of the Royal Veterinary College have the
pleasure of transmitting to the Council of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society the Annual Report for the past year.

The Governors can assure the Council that the same means
which they have hitherto found effective for imparting to the
students in the College scientific information upon the diseases
and treatment of cattle, sheep, and pigs, as part of the regular
education that the College affords, have been perseveringly and
successfully carried out.

Four lectures per week, in addition to demonstrations and
practical instruction, have been delivered by the Professor of
Cattle Pathology. The arrangement pursued in these lectures
is scientific, and, as far as the means at the disposal of the Pro-
fessor permit, practical and demonstrative.

The Governors have sought further opportunities for illus-
trating disease, and would willingly connect the education
afforded by the College more closely with the practical teaching
of Cattle Pathology, which can be obtained only in the country ;
hitherto the Governors have been compelled to rest satisfied
with the inculcation of scientific knowledge illustrated as far as
the opportunities of the College would admit, but to leave the
general application of this knowledge to be more largely studied
elsewhere.

Report on the Royal Veterinary College. 167

In order to test tlie advancement made by tlie pupils in their
studies, examinations are held from time to time rather upon
the tutorial than the professorial system, and at the close of the
sessional course of lectures a more searching and general exami-
nation is hold.

At the end of the second sessional course of lectures — that is,
in the second year of the pupils' studies — an examination, called
the final examination, takes place, which if not passed to the
satisfaction of the Professors, the student does not receive his
certificate, entitling him to present himself before the Court of
Examiners of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, the
possession of whose diploma constitutes him a legally qualified
member of the profession.

By the rules of the College it is provided that every student
so presenting himself shall be examined in the anatomy, phy-
siology, and pathology of the ox, sheep, and pig, as well as of
the horse and dog, for the same space of time as in the other
divisions of his studies ; and his rejection or otherwise is inade
to depend equally on his answers to the questions propounded
in this section as in the others.

In order to stimulate the students, and to encourage their
ready concurrence in the discipline of the College, the Governors
have of late years revised the terms of competition for the
*' Coleman Medal," with which are connected first and second
prizes, and a certificate of merit, as well as a third piize for the
three students who shall pass the best examination at the close
of their studies, conducted by the Professors. Hence it will be
seen that due care has been taken that the pathology of cattle
shall receive the same degree of attention in this examination
as the other branches of instruction.

The number of students who entered the College during the
year was fifty — this being the average number ; thirty-nine
students presented themselves before the Court of Examiners of
the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons ; thirty-seven passed,
and two only were rejected.

The Governors trust that the Council of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society will perceive from this statement that the system
of education in the College is well calculated to provide the
agricultural community with veterinary surgeons competent to
treat the diseases of their cattle on the established principles of
medical science, whereby great losses are averted.

The Governors, having observed the increase of diseases
among cattle and sheep, arising from attacks of parasites, espe-
cially the entozoa, have afforded every facility to Professor
Simonds for pursuing an intricate and important inquiry on this
subject ; and they learn with satisfaction that, in addition to the

168 Report on the Royal Veterinary College.

lecture given by him last year before the Society, he is prepared
to furnish the agricultural community with further information
through the pages of the Society's Journal.

The Governors have also observed with satisfaction that the
Lecture which the Professor recently delivered before the Society
on the smallpox in sheep was duly appreciated ; and they trust
that his exertions may assist in the prevention of this fatal
malady, and thus render an important service both to agricul-
turists and the public generally. The report of the Vaccination
of Sheep, alluded to last year by the Governors, has been sent in
to the Government. In making this remark, the Governors
would observe, that they have been informed that neither of the
Commissioners, Mr. Marson, resident surgeon of the Smallpox
Hospital, nor Professor Simonds, antlci])ated other than a nega-
tive result from their experiments, and that this opinion was
communicated to the Government prior to the commencement
of the investigation. For fuller information of the proceedings
of the Commission, the Governors Avould direct the attention of
the Council to the Report which has very recently been published
by the Government.

During the past year a more satisfactory supply of morbid
specimens, illustrative of various diseases, has been received
from veterinary surgeons, and also from agriculturists ; but so
strong is the sense of the Governors of the necessity for illus-
tration, that they have placed 50/. in the hands of the Principal
for the purpose of procuring additional specimens for the in-
structi(m of the students in cattle pathology.

The number of patients which has been admitted into the
College Infirmary during the year has somewhat exceeded the
average. Among the cases of interest may be enumerated the
following. A young Hereford bull, affected with umbilical
rupture, complicated with a fungoid growth from the navel,
the result of injury to the cord at the time of birth. The animal
was operated upon with success, and after his recovery was re-
turned to his owner with every indication of his becoming useful
for stock purposes.

Two sheep, subject to the disease known in Sussex by the
vulgar term of " goggles," a name probably given from a
peculiar expression of the eye of the animal, especially in an
advanced state of the disease, have also been received. The
affection proved fatal in both instances after the animals had
been about a month in the infirmary ; and although a most
searching post-mortem examination was instituted in both cases,
the precise nature of this singular disease remains to be ascer-
tained. The term " goggles " has been used as synonymous with
vertigo^ the malady in which an hydatid exists in the brain of

Report on the Royal Veterinary College. 169

the animal : the cause of the vertigo, however, is patent, but
that of the other disease is still hidden. Many practical agri-
culturists assert that the disease is hereditary, and, if once intro-
duced into a flock, can never be eradicated except by the destruc-
tion of the whole flock ; they also hold the opinion that the
disease occasionally passes by the immediate offspring, but
shows itself in the second or third generation. These facts and
opinions prove the necessity of further research ; but this cannot
be carried on successfully without the co-operation of flock-
masters, since a long-continued series of experiments and obser-
vations may be requisite ; the Governors therefore would be glad
to invite, through the intervention of the Council, the attention
of sheep-owners to this subject, in the hope that some may be
found who will afford the requisite facilities for investigation.

Among the animals which afforded most valuable informa-
tion for the pupils, mention may also be made of a cow affected
with scrofula. The animal was only three years of age, and the
disease had evidently been inherited from her parents. The
Governors are informed that a few years ago this disease was by
no means unfrequent among even the purest bred cattle which
were exhibited at the Society's Shows ; but that, owing to the
inspection conducted by their Professors, and the disqualifica-
tion of the infected animals, few instances of the disease now
occur.

A bull also, which died in the infirmary, afforded the students
the opportunity of seeing an original case of abscess in the liver,
in which nature made an effort to discharge the pus through the
medium of the lungs ; the progress of the disease, and the imme-
diate cause of the death of the animal, were thus practically
illustrated.

Another instructive case was that of a cow affected with a
large abscess in the chest, associated with the absorption of a
considerable portion of the bones of the sternum.
' In a practical as well as a medical point of view cases such
as are here mentioned are of great importance in the education
of the student, as they not only afford the Professor an oppor-
tunity of making clinical remarks upon their nature and conse-
quences, but also upon the modifications and the progress of
disease in different animals.

During the year a large number of the members of the Society
have sought advice from the College on various subjects con-
nected with the health of their cattle, sheep, and pigs ; such
advice has been promptly rendered and acknowledged in most
instances, as having been of great value. Investigations also
have been made by Professor Simonds on various farms, which

170 Report on the Royal Veterinary College.

have been attended with beneficial results in checking the progress
of disease.

Notwithstanding the great public excitement which has existed
with regard to epizootic diseases among cattle, the Governors
are assured that both pleuro-pneumonla, and also the mouth and
foot disease, have been less rife than in many former years, and
that the first-named malady has been brought far more under
control. In several instances pleuro-pneumonia has, the Governors
hope and believe, been effectually clu'cked in its progress by the
adoption of the advice tendered by their Professor.

Although what may be called the established epizootics have
been less prevalent, a peculiar disease of the nature of diphtheria
has affected pigs in several parts of the country. This disease,
however, has apparently passed its climax, and seems now to be
on the decline. The sanitary measures recommended by the
Professors were attended with marked benefit by keeping the
malady in check ; but further investigations into its pathology
are required, and in this, as in other analogous cases, the
Governors invite the co-operation of the Society.

Notwithstanding the advance which the science of cattle
pathology is making under the svstcm of co-operation which
exists between the Royal Agricultural Society and the Royal
Veterinary College, the Governors have had under consideration
the question of rendering the College — if possible — even more
effective ; and thev entertain hopes of being able hereafter to
adopt still more effectual measures for the promotion of the
common objects of the College and the Society. In order, how-
ever, to effect the objects which the Governors have contem-
plated, it is necessary that they should engage the co-operation,
consult with, and in great measure be guided by the opinions
of the veterinary profession generally, which can only be obtained
by private communication with the leading members of that
body, many of whom have been educated at the College.

The Governors of the College, who are also members of the
Council of the Agricultural Society, will be able to inform the
Council, that at no period since the system of co-operation
between the two bodies was established have the Governors paid
more attention to the advancement of their common objects than
during the present vear, or have made greater exertions in this
sense.

The Governors desire, in conclusion, to draw the attention of
the Members of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society
to the substance of several standing orders which they have
adopted. One of these orders is to the effect : That at the
commencement of each session some special subject of cattle-

Report on the Royal Veterinary College. \ 171

pathology, for investigation by the Professors, be determined upon
by the Governors of the College ; and that suggestions upon
this subject be invited from the Veterinary Committee of the
Royal Agricultural Society, and that these subjects be treated in
the Annual Reports of the Royal Veterinary College to the
Royal Agricultural Society.

By another standing order the Governors have directed that
a prize medal be given annually to the student who shall pass
the best examination on cattle-pathology.

The Governors have already mentioned, in connexion with
this subject, that the sum of 50Z. out of the funds of the College
will be annually appropriated for the purchase of diseased
animals.

Not satisfied, however, with this arrangement, and conscious
that without the voluntary co-operation of stock-masters it must
prove inadequate, the Governors have further resolved upon
tendering to the public the advantages which the following reso-
lution conveys, viz. : —

That diseased cattle, sheep, or pigs, although the property of
a non- subscriber, may, at the direction of the Principal, be
admitted to the Infirmary of the College for treatment, free of all
cost, except for their keep, at the rate of Is. per night each for
cattle, and 6<f. per night each for sheep and pigs ; provided that
authority shall be given, in writing, by the owner to the Principal,
at the time of admission, to have destroyed or to sell any such
animal in the event of its not being taken from the College after
two days' notice to the owner for its removal.

In order to provide adequate accommodation for the increase
of patients to the Infirmary under these regulations, the
Governors have erected several new boxes and sheds for diseased
cattle and sheep at considerable cost to the funds of the College.

The Governors of the Royal Veterinary College trust that the
substance of this Report, as explained — if explanation is necessary
— by the Members of the Council, who are also Governors of
the College, will satisfy the Royal Agricultural Society that the
Governors are pursuing the objects common to the two bodies
with unabated attention and increased vigour.

C. N. Newdegate, Chairman.

Edward Kerrison.

Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, Sept. 1864.

( 172 )

XIII. — Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption
in the Metropolis. By Robert Herbert.

Although the Metropolitan Cattle Market was extensively
supplied with most breeds of beasts during the last six months
of 18G4, there was a great deficiency in the weight of meat
disposed of — indeed, fully half of the stock on offer was beneath
the middle quality. The severe drought experienced during the
summer months, and the consequent want of grass, and the serious
deficiency in the turnip-crop over the whole of our grazing
districts, compelled the graziers to purchase large additional
quantities of linseed and cake, and had great influence upon
prices. At one period really prime Scots and crosses produced as
much as G.s. per 8 lbs. ; and even the more general range in their
value was 5.s-. Gd. and 5s. Sd. per 8 lbs. These high rates fully
justified our anticipations. From the circumstance that beasts
have fattened slowly during the last three or four months, and
that the numbers in the stalls in our leading counties are very
moderate for the time of year, it is evident that there is little or
no prospect of any important decline in current rates between
this and the close of the Norfolk " season." During the six
months only 60,350 beasts arrived in the Metropolitan Market
from Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, and Northamptonshire, against
66,510 head in 1863, and 74,570 in 1862. The deficiency in
the arrivals from the above districts was not confined to numbers
only, since fully one-third of them were only fit for second and
third class consumption. From the eastern districts an increased
number of beasts was reported ; but the comparative excess in
the supply arose solely from many of the graziers being com-
pelled to dispose of a portion of their stock much earlier than
usual. Other parts of England furnished a very middling show
of stock, both as to number and quality. From Scotland, how-
ever, the arrivals were a full average, and in wonderfully fine
condition ; indeed, scarcely an inferior bullock arrived from that
quarter. The drought in Scotland was much less severely felt
than in England ; the turnip and potato crops have turned out
well, and of good quality; and stock generally has fattened quite
as rapidly as in the most favoured seasons. Ireland furnished
only 7079 beasts, against 11,280 in 1863, and 14,820 in 1862.
As the Irish stock has shown no improvement, sales have pro-
gressed slowly, at moderate rates.

The annexed return shows the quarters from whence the
supplies of beasts were derived in the last six months of the last
five years ; —

Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, Sfc.
District Bulloch Arrivals.

173

Last half of year.

Northern
Districts.

Eastern
Districts.

Other parts of
England.

Scotland.

Ireland.

1860 .. ..

1861 .. ..

1862 .. ..

1863 .. ..

1864 .. ..

66,140
71,450
74,570
66,510
60,350

9500
2500
5050
3850
8400

20,500
9,700
19,620
21,250
19,400

1151
4586
3307
3213
3625

7,852
14,340
14,820
11,280

7,079

This is certainly a most unsatisfactory statement as a whole.
The consumption in London is increasing every year ; prices
have continued to improve ; and even the excessive importations
from the Continent have failed to affect the value of English
stock. The question, therefore, of an adequate supply of food
has become a serious one, more especially as the foreign arrivals,
with very few exceptions, are still very deficient in quality.
The foreign sheep have shown very little improvement, although
some few of them have sold as high as 785. and even SOs. each.
They still continue, however, to carry a large quantity of internal
fat. Foreign calves, which now form three-fourths of the sup-
plies, have sold steadily ; and fair prices have been made for
pigs, although the importations exceeded all previous years.
The arrivals into London were shipped from the under-mentioned
ports : —

Imports of Foreign StocJc into London during the last Six Months of 1864.

From

Beasts.

Sheep.

Lambs.

Calves.

Pigs.

Amsterdam .

372

1,473

2

61

Antwerp

122

32

..

754

369

Boulogne "' .

152

15

..

175

4,675

Bremen ..

5,386

1,890

172

1

..

Cadiz

139

..

^^

Calais . .

..

60

88

1,433

Dordt . . .

2,990

15,467

3,333

51

18

Dunkirk

127

157

2,579

Gibraltar

605

..

, ,

Hamburg

1,829

25,406

154

44

3,415

Harlingen

9,900

26,912

1,491

2,437

10,324

Havre . .

1

.,

..

, .

Lyston . .

20

..

..

..

, ,

Medemblik .

2,393

30,628

1

228

4

Nieu Dieppe .

249

2,140

,.

258

8

Oporto ..

392

Ostend . .

632

503

31

515

575

Kotterdam .

22,198

92,849

3,177

12,021

7,403

Tonning

28,898

29,342

3,043

3

, ,

Vigo .. .

587

••

Total .

76,992

226,657

11,464

16,793

30,803

174

Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat

Here we have a total supply from abroad of no less than
362,709 head, an increase of 23,630 head on 1863. It will be
perceived that nearly 29,000 beasts were shipped from Tonning-,
but of this large number about 20,000 were only fit for grazing
purposes. Rotterdam comes next in importance. The Dutch
stock, however, was very inferior in quality to that imported in
1862 and 1863. The same remark may be applied to the
arrivals from most other quarters ; consequently, the addition to
our supply of animal food was comparatively small. Rather a
large business has been passing in foreign pigs. For the most
part they have arrived in fair condition, but the prices realised
for them have been very low, viz. from 3^. Sd. to 4^. 2d. per 8 lbs.
The imports of foreign stock into the United Kingdom during
the last six months of the under-mentioned years were : —

Imports into the United Kingdom.

Last half of year.

Beasts.

1803
1862

leci

1800

61 ,435
57,350
.59,049
59,817

Sheep
and l^nil>s.

241,209
250,140
266,249
243,804

Calves.

17,497
19,610
19,715
19,594

rigs.

18,936
17,279
25,919
21,510

The aggregate supplies of each kind of stock cxliibited in
the great Metropolitan Cattle Market in the last six months
were : —

Head.

Beasts 177,944

Cows 3,221

Sheep and lambs 769,814

Calves 17,967

Pigs 19,306

In the four previous seasons, ending with 1863, the show of
stock was as follows : —

Total Supplies of Stocic Exhibited.

Last half of year. ,

Beasts.

Cows.

Sheep and Lambs.

Calves.

Pigs.

1860 .. ..

1861 .. ..

1862 .. ..

1863 .. ..

145,420
149,7.50
159.450
168,232

3015
3187
3148
3127

762 , 740
774,260
759,671
761,070

15,766
12,441
12,579
14,822

15,470
20,116
18,220
17,550

The lowest average value of inferior beasts in 1864 was 3^. 6d. ;
of middling stock, 4^. Qd. ; and prime, 55. Qd. per 8 lbs. The
heavy arrivals from the Continent prevented any rise of moment
in the former quotation ; but in the latter there was an advance

for Consumption in the Metropolis.

175

of 6c?. per 8 lbs. Sheep were the turn clearer. Lambs sold at
from 5^. &d. to 85. ; calves, As. to 5^. lOd. ; and pigs, 3;?. 6f/. to
55. per 8 lbs., to sink the offal. The following selection from
the six months' averages will illustrate the recent rise in prices : —

Average Prices of Beef and Mutton.

Per 8 lbs., to sink the Offal.
Beef.

Inferior

Middling

Prime

1860.

1861.

1862.

1863.

1864.

s. d.

s. d.

s. d.

s. d.

s. d.

2 8

3 0

3 2

3 4

3 6

4 0

4 0

4 0

4 2

4 6

5 4

5 0

4 10

5 0

5 6

Mutton'.

Inferior

Middling

Prime

1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864

s. d.

3 2

4 6

5 10

s. c?.

3 2

4 6

5 8

s. d

3 8

4 8

5 6

s. d.

4 0

5 0
5 10

s. d.

4 2

5 2
5 10

Although the supply of rough fat has been very moderate, the
demand for it has been heavy at 2s. l\d, and 2s. Id. per 8 lbs.
The great falling off in the exports of tallow from St. Petersburg,
as well as from Australia, the Cape, &c., has had very little
influence upon the value of fat. That article has consequently
ceased to be of much profit to the butchers.

Fair average supplies of meat have been on sale in Newgate
and Leadenhall Markets. Generally speaking, the trade has
ruled steady, at comparatively high rates. Beef has realised
2s. 10<:Z. to 5^. ; mutton, Si'. 6c?. to 5^. ; lamb, 5^. to Is. 4c?. ;
veal, 3^. 8f?. to 55. 4f/. ; pork, 35. Ad. to 55. per 8 lbs. by the
carcase.

Letters from Holland and Germany state that unusually heavy
shipments of stock will be made to England in 1865. The
want of adequate supplies of food in both countries does not
favour the impression entertained in some quarters, that these
supplies will reach us in imjiroved condition. It may therefore
be safely assumed that we shall have high rates for both beasts
and sheep for several months. The few shorn sheep disposed of
in the metropolis have sold at Is. 2d. per 8 lbs. below those in
the wool. This wide difference must be attributed to the
scarcity of wool in the country, notwithstanding that the arrivals

176

Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, ^'c.

from our colonies and foreign ports in 1864 were on a very
extensive scale. The three years' importations were : —

1862. 1863. 1864.

Colouial
Foreign

•Bales.

345,G05
222,063

Bales.

375,010
' 220,316

Bales.

430,395
240,512

Total

. .. 567,668 595,326 670,907

The exports to the Continent were only moderate, consequently
the bulk of the importations passed into consumption in this
country. It may be remarked, however, that, whilst foreign and
colonial wools have receded in value, owing to the high rates
prevalent in the discount market, English qualities have been
on the advance, with more than usual activity in the demand.
The quotations for home-grown wool in the metropolis at the
close of the last two years were : —

1863. 1864.

Fleeces : —

South Down boggetts

Half-bred boggetts

Kent fleeces

South Down ewes and wethers

Leicester ditto

Sorts : —

Clothing picklock

Prime and picklock

Choice

Super

Combing : —

Wether matching

Picklock

Common

; Hog matching

Picklock matching

Super ditto

rer lb.

s. d. s, d.

1 loi to 1 Hi

Oi

Hi

9

lOi

d.

Per lb.

0
11

8
9i

to 2
to 1
to 1
to 1

1 9i to 1 10

1 8i to 1 9

1 7 to 1 8

1 6 to 1 6i

1 11

1 9

1

2

1

1

to 1

to 1

5 to 1

Oi to 2
8i to 1
5i to 1

Hi
9i
6
li
9
6i

2 0 to 2 li

2 5 to 2 6

2 2 to 2 2i

1 11 to 2 0

2 1 to 2 2

2 0 to 2 Oi

1 10 to 1 lOi

1 9 to 1 9i

1 6 to 1 6i

li to

0 to

8 to

2 to

0 to

8 to

2

Oh
10
3
2

10

The high prices still demanded for cotton are calculated to
give considerable support to the value of wool, even though the
present year's clip may turn out equal to that of last season.

XIV. — On the Composition and Nutritive Value of Palm-nut
Kernel Meal and Cake. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker.

This, comparatively speaking, new feeding-material is the
residue obtained on submitting to strong pressure the oleaginous
kernels of the palm-nut. These kernels are encased in a thick
brown shell of woody matter, and this is surrounded by a deep

Nutritive Value of Palm-nut Kernal Meal and Cake. 177

orange-coloured pulp, from wliicli the palm-oil of commerce is
produced by gentle pressure.

The bulk of palm-nut kernels, which is nearly white, is
covered by a thin brownish layer of woody fibre, and in conse-
quence of which palm-nut meal has a light brown or dirt-coloured
appearance.

The size of these kernels varies from that of a hazel-nut to that of
a small pigeon-egg ; they are very hard, nearly inodorous, rather
insipid to the taste, and very rich in fatty matters, possessing
the consistency of butter, and useful property of not readily
turning rancid. The extraction of the fatty matters neces-
sitates the reduction of the kernels into a tolerably fine powder,
and the application of powerful crushing-machinery and gentle
heat. Notwithstanding these means, the cake or meal left in the
presses contains usually a larger proportion of fat than is found in
linseed, rape, and most other kinds of oil-cakes.

I first became acquainted with this meal in the spring of
1861, when a sample was sent to me for analysis by Messrs.
Alexander Smith, and Co., Kent Street Oil-mills, Liverpool.

The analysis furnished the following results : —

Moisture 7'49

Fatty matters 26-57

*Albuminous compounds (tlesh-formiug matters) ,. 15'75

Starch, mucilage, sugar and digestible fibre .. .. 37"89

Woody fibre (cellulose) 8'4:0 ,

Mineral matters (ash) 3-90

100-00
*Coiitaining nitrogen 2*52

It appears from these results, —

1. That this meal was very rich in ready-made fat. In the
best linseed-cake the percentage of oil rarely amounts to 12 per
cent., and 10 per cent, may be taken as a fair average. The
palm-kernel meal analysed by me thus contained more than twice
as much fatty matter, and theoretically is much superior to oil-
cake as a direct supplier of fat.

2. The proportion of flesh-forming (nitrogenous) matters is
fully as large as in the best barley-meal, but much less than in
linseed- rape- or cotton-cake ; nor is it equal to that found in
peas, lentils, and other leguminous seeds.

3. The amount of indigestible woody fibre is but small.

4. It contains about as much mineral matter as cereal grains,
and thus is not particularly noted for bone-producing qualities.

From these remarks it may be gathered that palm-nut-kernel
meal is not so well adapted for the rearing of young stock as for
VOL. I. — S. S. N

178 Composition and Nutritive Value of

fattening animals, and that it surpasses almost all other articles of
food in its theoretical value as a fat-producer. The proximate
composition of articles of food unquestionably affords useful indi-
cations of their properties ; but such indications are insufficient
to determine with certainty the real nutritive value of food.
Analysis may point out the existence of a large amount of oil or
fat in a substance, but it does not decide whether these matters,
as in the castor-oil beans or croton beans, possess medicinal pro-
perties, or whether, like linseed- or rape-oil, they are available
in the animal economy for the production of fat. On these and
other points that readily suggest themselves to feeders of stock
desirous of using a hitherto untried food, practical experience has
to be appealed to for a final decision. Fully impressed with the
propriety of submitting palm-nut meal to a sufliciently decisive
experimental test before giving a definite opinion of its economical
value, I procured a supply from Messrs. Smith, which I placed
in the hands of Mr. Coleman, the late manager of the farm
attached to the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. 1 ex-
pected in the course of three or four months to have reported on
the result ; however, more than a year elapsed before the feeding
experiments could be said to have been fairly concluded.

Well-fed animals, liberally supplied with succulent, sweet roots,
good linseed-cake, hay, and other palatable food, it is well known,
do not relish a change, if the substituted food happens to be less
palatable than that to which they have been accustomed. Palm-
nut meal is certainly not so nice to the taste as linseed-cake or
swedes and hay ; some difficulty consequently was experienced in
inducing animals to eat it, and neither the cow-man nor the
person in charge of the pigs possessed the requisite patience to
give the meal a fair trial, and both declared it to be little better
than sawdust. After repeated attempts to overcome the prejudice
of the cow- and pig-man, the meal was consigned to the granary,
where it remained for nearly ten months. By that time the store
of oil-cake was almost consumed, the supply of roots ran short,
and the price of all feeding-materials was very high. Under
these circumstances an application for a fresh supply of oil-cake
for the use of the sheep was not very favourably received by Mr.
Coleman, who gave the shepherd lil^erty to use the despised palm-
nut meal. Probably somewhat stinted in food, the sheep took to
the palm-meal at once, and after a few days ate it up greedily,
and, what is more, throve upon it remarkably well. All who had
seen the sheep before they had received palm-nut meal, and after
they were fed upon it for onlv a short time, were unanimous in
attaching a very high value to this meal. The shepherd, indeed,
soon learned to prefer it to the best linseed-cake, and had the

Palm-nut Kernel Meal and Cahe.

179

satisfaction of s^ettino^ the first prize for fat sheep at the Glouces-
tershire Agricultural Society's Show.

The success in the sheep-feed paved the way to a more favour-
able reception of the palm-nut meal than it received on the outset
from the part of our cow-man, who now found that 3 to 4 lbs.
a day not only increased the quantity of milk, but likewise greatly
enriched its quality. I need hardly say that, in consequence of
this favourable experience, large quantities of palm-nut meal were
subsequently consumed on the College-farm.

By degrees this meal found its way amongst agriculturists ; and
all who have given it a fair trial speak in the highest terms of its
fat- and milk-producing properties.

During the last year a good many samples were sent to me for
examination from various parts of the country. The following
Table shows the composition of 6 samples of

Palm-ntjt Kernel Meal.

No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

No. 5.

No. 6.

Moisture

Fatty matters
^Albuminous compounds'!

(flesh-forming matters) /
Mucilage, starch, sugar |

and digestible fibre . . /
Woody fibre (cellulose)
Mineral matters (ash) . .

7-49
26-57

15-75

37-89

8-40
3-90

6-91
26-50

14-93

31-20

16-13
4-33

6-69
23-92

15-25

40-62

10-40
3-12

7-52
22-68

16-75

32-14

17-49
3-42

7-02
19-95

17-01

33-76

18-70
3-56

7-21
22-79

15-56

36-24

14-90
3-30

*Contaimng nitrogen . .

100-00
2-52

100-00
2-39

100-00
2-44

100-00
2-68

100-00
2-72

100-00
2-49

It will be seen that all 6 samples are very rich in fatty matter,
which accounts for the marked effect which the meal has upon the
production of a rich milk ; moreover, the fatty matter has about
the same consistency as butter, and hardly any smell, which
probably explains why a good tasting and sufficiently hard butter
is produced from the milk of cows fed upon it.

The two first-mentioned samples contained no less than 26J per
cent., and the other four from 20 to 24 per cent, of ready-made fat.

This is a very large percentage of the most valuable of all
food-constituents in an economical point of view. If it be borne
in mind that 1 part of ready-made fat or oil is equivalent to 2^
parts of starch, and that good wheat or barley seldom contains
more than 60 to 65 per cent, of starch and analogous heat- and fat-
producing constituents, the superiority of palm-meal as a fattening
food will clearly be recognised.

Taking 24 per cent, as the average proportion of fat, and mul-

N 2

180 Nutritive Value of PaJm-nut Kernel Meal and Cake.

tiplying this by 2^, we obtain GO per cent, as tlie starch-equivalent
for the fat in palm-kernel meal. Add to this 35 per cent, in
round numbers of other heat- and fat-giving' matters, such as sugar,
gum, mucilage, »S:c., and we shall get that which is equivalent to
95 per cent, of fat-producers against 65 in wheat or barley.

Neither is this meal deficient in flesh-forming matters ; and
although for young growing stock, the admixture in an equal
proportion of beans, peas, or other leguminous food rich in
nitrogenous matters, is advisable, for fattening stock, the ] 5 or 16
per cent of flesh-forming matters occurring in palm-meal are quite
sufficient for carrying on the fattening process successfully.

At the present time palm-nut meal sells at 6/. a ton, in quan-
tities of 2 tons and upwards, delivered at Liverpool, or at 6Z. 17a'.
per ton or upwards delivered by rail in London, and is produced
in England, as far as 1 know, only bv Messrs. Alexander Smith
and Co., Kent Street Oil-mills, Liverpool. Palm-kernels appear
also to be crushed at Ilamljurg, from whence the residue left in
the presses is occasionally imported into England in the shape of
cake and of meal.

All the samples of foreign palm-kernel meal and cake which I
had occasion to analyse I found greatly inferior to the Liv'erpool
meal, as will appear from the following analysis, showing the

Composition of Foreion (IIambukg) Palm-nut Cake and Meal.

No.l.

No. 2.

No.l.

No. 2.

Moisture

Fatty matters

♦Albuminous matters (flesh-formiug sub-)
stances) /

Mucilage, starch, sugar and digestible^
fibre /;

Woody fibre (cellulose;

Miueral matters ash;

^Containing nitrogen

12-91
9-48

18-25

39-16

16-90
3-30

8*84
11-27

17-93

40-79

10-85
4-32

10-77
13-79

13-75

42-67

15-17
3-85

100-00
2-92

100-00
2-87

100-00
2-20

10-84
12-49

14-06

40 -56

15-32
3-73

100-00
2-25

The chief difference between the English-made and imported
samples ot" palm-nut meal consists in the very much larger pro-
portion of fatty matter that occurs in the former samples.

Foreign palm-nut meal sells at a lower price than English,
but will generally be found the dearer of the tw o if the quality be
duly taken into account. The Hamburg meal has lately been
the subject of feeding-experiments in Germany, by Professor
Stockhard of Tharandt, who gives a most favourable report of its

Cultivation and Proper Blanagement of Flax. 181

fattening- properties. This distinguished Agricultural chemist
also speaks highly of it as a food for milch-cows.

The experience of English and continental feeders thus confirms
the opinion which I first expressed on the strength of an analysis
with some degree of diffidence, and leaves no doubt of the fact
that in palm-kernel meal we possess a most valuable and
economical addition to the list of feeding- stuffs.

11, Salisbury Square, Fleet Street, E.C.

XV. — On the Cultivation and Proper Manarjement of Flax. By the
Rev. Nathaniel M. Beown,

Prize Essay.

The climate of Great Britain and Ireland is very variable, and a
superabundance of rain in both countries often renders the
labours of the husbandman unremunerative. In Ireland, particu-
larly, the four years ending with 1863, were almost continuously
wet, and, as a natural consequence, the white-crop harvests have
been very deficient both in quantity and quality. The dampness
of our atmosphere arising from our insular position (a feature
in the climate which is supposed to be latterly on the increase)
has long ago convinced us in Ireland that we cannot compete suc-
cessfully with dryer and warmer countries in the production of
cereals, and especially wheat ; and has frequently induced the
inquiry, Would it not be wiser for the farmers to restrict the
growth of wheat, and try a larger annual acreage of those crops
which are better adapted to our climate ? Within the last few years
this question has not only often been put, but an affirmative
answer has been given, and straightway acted upon. To such a
climate, Flax has been found to be remarkably well adapted ;
and the farmers of the north of Ireland have more than com-
pensated themselves for the recent failure of their cereals in this
respect, by the extensive cultivation of this valuable crop. In
Ireland alone, during the year 1863, it has been computed that
no less thanybjtr millions sterlinr/ have been raised by the growth
of flax ; a ready sale at good prices having been obtained in all
the market towns of Ulster. From the growing demand occa-
sioned both by the scarcity of cotton (which is likely to be felt
for years to come), and the preference now given to linen, it is
more than probable that high prices may long continue. For
some years past, no crop in Great Britain or Ireland has given as

182 Cultivation and Froiiev Management of Flax.

large a return per acre as flax, the produce in money being from
20/. to 30Z., and occasionally even as high as 40/. No wonder
that statesmen, landed proprietors, and enterprising merchants
have exerted themselves to secure by flax-culture the same
advantages for the south and west of Ireland which have hitherto
enriched the north. That the farmers of England and Scotland
should also share in this source of wealth is neither impossible nor
improbable. Vast quantities of i\hve are still imported from the
continent to keep our mills going ; and if our I'riends at home
could only be induced to raise a sufliciency of the article, they
might put into their own pockets millions of pounds which are
now sent out of the country. Knowing that the soil of England
and Scotland is as well suited to the produce of flax as that of the
most of Ireland, I am encouraged to call the attention of the
Roval Agricultural Society of l'h)gland to the proper cultivation
anil management of the plant, in the hope that its influence may
induce the farmers of Great Britain to give a full and fair trial
to the crop that has so largely benefited Ireland.

Soil. — The soil best adapted to the growth of flax is a free and
friable loam on a clay bottom. Clay land that has been well and
deeply cultivated for years will suit well also ; and if favoured with
light rains shortly after the seed is sown, so that the hraird is
brought forward evoihj, will, generally speaking, yield a heavier
and more remunerative crop than loam. On no soil is the fibre
as tough and the yield as great as on clay ; but the drawback is
that the plant misses oftener than on loam. Clay ground is not
easily pulverised after the second week in April ; and if the seed
be cast among hard clods, it will lie there without germinating for
weeks, whereas a warm kindly soil, highly pulverised, will start
it into vegetation within six or seven days. One great point to
be secured is to get the seed all struck at once. If parts of the
field get into hraird before others have even got into hud, the
crop will come forward in different lengths — it will not ripen
evenly ; and if the green and the ripe be taken up at the same
time, the one must be sacrificed to the other, both in the water
and in the mill. The late growth will have run up to its height
so rapidly during the heat of the latter part of the season, that
it will not have tenacity and stamina to stand the strain ot
working with the earlier growth.

Since the best lands for flax are those which have a retentive
subsoil, they are apt to hold water ; therefore, to insure a crop, they
should be thoroughly drained. Flax can, from the very first, bear
anv amount of rain that mav fall upon it, if the water get freely
away ; but it will not bear without injury, even for a day, stagnant
water gathered round its stems.

Cultivation and Proper Management of Flax. 183

A sub-soil of sand, red "till,"* or sharp g^ravel, is about the
worst suited to this plant of all that could be named. Upon a
sharp " croft,"* 1 have occasionally seen a, r/ood crop, and frequentl?/
a fair crop, especially if it has had a long^ previous 7^est ; but lor
the most part it is not a favourable, soil for a full return.

Run-out bog', having- a kindly gray top, with a good clay
well-drained bottom, will produce a good crop, but it should not
be too poor. It would be well for it to have passed through two
manurings at the least. The older the ground the better, if it has
been laid out in good condition ; especially if it has never borne
flax before — or at least for a considerable number of years.

During the spring and summer months the weather in Ireland
is for the most part showery, so that the strongest and heaviest
clays are seldom left to bake and harden to such a degree that
vegetation is thereby destroyed. This, however, is not the case
in some of the counties in the South and East of England. There
drought frequently injures not only the flax-crop, but all the staple
products of the husbandman. In such circumstances it is wisest
to avoid all labour in wet weather. The flax-grower should not
allow the foot of either man or horse to be set upon his clay-
g-round Avhilst it is saturated with rain. He should plough in
the autumn, and only once, but with a deep and heavy furrow.
The furrow-slices of the stifFest clay will be " mannered " and.
mellowed by the influences of winter ; and when the genial spring
weather has brought up the soil to the happy medium between
the " wet " and the " dry," then without delay let the ground be
thoroughly pulverised. A second ploughing is not to be recom-
mended ; the gruhher will much more safely and advantageously
do the work, driven at right angles and diagonally through the
furrow-slices of the previous autumn. On no account must the
cool damp bottom be opened up to the parching winds of March,
and yet the furrow-slices must not remain unbroken, lest " inter-
stices " remain beneath the seed. Upon all such spots drought
would at once seize and check the growth of the plant. The two
things most desirable in a clay soil, or indeed in any soil, are
pulverisation and consolidation. The clay lands of those counties
that are most exposed to drought should be extra-rich with
manure that is assimilated with the soil. Such ground soon
clothes itself with the braird, so as to resist the effects of drought,
and even in the dryest seasons is apt to force the crop when well

* " Croft" land is a light pebbly loam, generally found in an elevated position ;
it is sharp, warm ground, that requires much manure, and often has a subsoil of
sand to the depth of 3 or 4 feet ; of late years it has answered best for the potato-
crop. "Till " is reddish brown earth, having the appearance of sand, but having
no sharp or gritty substances in it ; it is soft, dull, und unproductive when raised^
and often forms the impervious " pan " beneath the vegetable mould.

184 Cultivation and Proper Management of Flax.

started, in spite of all adverse influences, up to tlie desired length.
Tough and tenacious clay may be advantageously " cut " and
opened by an application of shells, marl, lime, or even common
sharp sand ; but such an application should precede the sowing
of flax by at least a couple of years.

Many of the farmers in the North of France irrigate their flax
in its early and medium stages ; but the practicability and benefit
of such a process are very doubtful. Hand-labour could not
accomplish the work recjuired after sunset (the best time for irri-
gation), and the crushing of wheels and horse-hoofs would be
detrimental to the plant at any stage. On parched clay the water
would not sink so as to reach the flax-roots, but would be carried
off by evaporation in the course of a few hours. Let the land (if
clay) be worked when dry, kept close and cool in the bottom, be
thoroughly j)u]verised and consolidated, sown ere the natural
moisture has escaped, and closed in over the seed with a heavy
roller, and the neetl of irrigation will not be felt either in England
or Ireland.

Condition of the Soil — The condition of the soil is most favour-
able when one white crop has been taken off either old lea or
manured ground. Capital flax is often grown on whcat-stubble,
the previous crop having been either })otatoes or turnips, the
former being preferable. But the heaviest yield and the finest
sample is always expected after an oat-crop that has been grown
on a rich and very old lea. The crop which follows wheat and
manuring may look as well upon the foot, and perhaps better, for
it is generally more bulky ; but the other, following the oats or
wheat on the old lea, will tell best in the mill, and will prove the
most satisfactory' in the market.

JVIany hand-manures are spoken of as useful for strengthening
the crop, but such top-dressings render very doubtful service.
They may no doubt, at a certain stage, accelerate the growth,
but such forcing seldom or never gives satisfaction in the mill.
Any sudden and unmatured growth is apt to be carried away
among the shoves. Lime, though condemned in some quarters,
will not do harm, but good, if incorporated with the soil for a
3ear previously; and salt applied a month before sowing will
keep up the crop till it be thoroughly ripened.

In some counties of England farmers are in the habit of
ploughing in manure at the close of autumn, when a flax-crop
is to follow. In Ireland this is seldom or never done ; it has
been tried in some instances, but never with marked success.
The new manure is not sufficiently rotted and incorporated with
the soil, and such management is apt to occasion a " cloudy "
and uneven crop, the flax being rank and green where there is a
lump of manure, but light and yellow where there is none.

Cultivation and Prober Management of Flax. 185

Ashes are the only manure that can be safely ploughed in, the
same season with the crop, and that at least three months before
the sowing. Flax demands that all manure should be assimilated
with the soil.

Pi'ejmration of the Soil. — In ordinary friable lands — such
as loams or crofts — there are two modes of preparing the soil
that are about equally approved of: 1st., to plough in No-
vember across the ridges as if for green crop. This ploughing
should be very deep and heavy. Then about the 1st of March
when the ground has been mellowed with the frost, to harrow
well and plough again in the direction of the permanent ridges.
This ploughing should be very shallow. It is merely to secure
a fine mould for the seed. After the second ploughing a month
will elapse before sowing, during which time the seeds of
annuals will have germinated and budded, so that they can be
killed afterwards by the action of the harrow. During the
second ploughing is the time to sow salt, if it be deemed neces-
sary to prevent the crop fi'om lodging. The 2nd plan is to
plough but once, and that about the middle of January. Then
at sowing-time to cross the furrows with a grubber, and harrow
well before the seed is cast in. In either case the ground should
be thoroughly picked and cleaned ; for no crop abhors weeds
more than flax. Little narrow ridges and inequalities in the
surface should, as a general rule, be avoided. The harrow pulls
the hard clods into these furrows, and from among these an
aftershot or late growth is sure to spring up, which never comes
to be of any value. Flats or lands 16 feet wide, or where the
soil is well drained, of 21 feet, will be the most suitable, and
will afford but few receptacles for the dry clods or coarse mould.
In every case the roller is an indispensable implement, and the
heavier the better. Some condemn the two ploughings because
they open up the bottom too much, which should always be kept
close and cool. But a heavy roller consolidates the ground
sufficiently, and at the same time renders the top fine and even.
For greater exactness in sowing a good ploughman should mark or
score off the different flats so that they are all of the same breadth
before the last turn of the harrow, and the last round of the
roller. Then the ground is ready for the seed.

Deep cultivation is advisable for the following reasons : —

1. The prevalent opinion that the roots of flax are very shallow
is a mistake. It has a very fine and minute tap-root that pene-
trates the soil to a considerable depth, but which is invariably
broken at pulling-time.

2. If the cultivation were not deep, the disintegrating influences
of the winter frost would benefit nothing but the mere surface.

3. Shallow cultivation is the very worst for both very wet, and

186 Cultivation and Proper Management of Flax.

very dry weather. In very wet weather, the extra rain does not
get away from the roots of the plant ; and in very dry, the soil,
touched by the tap-root, becomes baked like a brick. Deep
cultivation allows the extra rain to pass down from the roots at
once, as through a filter, and in drought enables the plant to be
fed by capillary attraction from the moisture that lies below the
baking influence of a strong sun.

Seed. — The seed most sought after in Ireland for many years
past is that Irom Riga. It has been found to be well adapted to
almost all classes of flax-growing soil. It is supposed also to
produce a longer croj) than other kinds of seed upon ground
of only medium strength. English seed, however, of the first
year, carefully reared from Riga seed, is much cheaper, and for
many years past has proved most satisfactory. American seed,
though once in repute, is little sought after now, and consequently
is hardly to be procured. Dutch seed is excellent for some
kinds of land, and if sown upon suitable ground, will produce a
heavier yield than any other. It requires the strongest and richest
soil, for poor or even medium ground will not bring it up to the
desired length. On fat land it is in less danger of " lodging," and
even though it does go down for a few days before the pulling,
it is less liable to be injured than Riga or any other kind.

Soioivff. — According to the nature of the soil the seed may be
advantageously committed to the ground from the second week
in April to the second or third week in May. In the southern
counties of England it may be sown a fortnight or three weeks
earlier. With this as with almost any crop, other things being
equal, earlv sowing is ever the best. The moderate heat which
will then attend upon the young and tender growth of the plant
will permit it to mature and " make," as it gradually gains in
length ; whereas if it be late sown, the great heat during its early
stages brings it precociously forward, makes it spring up too
rapidly to its height, and thereby renders it less productive in the
mill. jNIoreover, the earlv sown will be first ready for the mill and
for the market ; no small consideration where so many are usually
contending for their " room " in scutching, and where the opening
prices of the season are not unfrequently the best. A week's delay
in sowing may throw a man a fortnight behind in pulling and
steeping ; and during these two weeks so many of his neighbours
may forestall him in the mill, that he may be a couple of months
behind time in reaching the market. Such delay is a serious
inconvenience to small farmers of limited capital who require
money for their jN ovember ])avments. On the other hand early
sowing is not unattended with danger. If the " braird " have
risen before the spring frosts are all past, it may become so
effectually nipped that it will never recover. All things con-

Cultivation and Proper Manageinent of Flax. 187

sidered, the second and third weeks in April may be regarded
as about the safest and most advantageous time for sowing-.

To sow flax-seed well requires a practised hand. Many a
man who can sow grain well will here utterly fail. Cloudy
sowing is most objectionable. On the thin spots the plant will
grow longer, coarser, and more branchy at the top ; on the thick
spots shorter and finer and liable to ripen earlier, so that there
will be two qualities of flax which will not work together with
any advantage. Thin sowing has its advocates and so has thick ;
but an extreme on either side should be carefully avoided. A
medium "cast" evenly scattered is most to be recommended.
If the seed be sown too thick it will not grow the desirable
length ; and if to draw it up to a full height, you put it upon,
very strong land, you are likely to have it lodged before it is
ripe — the greatest evil that can befal this crop. On the other
hand, if it be sown too thin it will spring up coarse in the stalk
and fibre, forked in the top, and will be laden with bolls.

After many experiments, the quantity of seed that is most
approved by the best growers is about nine pecks to the English
acre, or a Riga barrel to the Irish acre. In some of the English
counties the seed is drilled. Such a process is never attempted
in Ireland, nor would it be considered advisable. The centre
and sides of each drill are liable to grow two different qualities
of flax — coarse and fine, and very frequently also long and short.
All that is gained by superior cleanliness, either by hoeing between
the drills or otherwise, is a minor consideration ; and to secure
a crop of uniform length and quality, there is no method of sowing
to be compared with the old " broadcast."

The ground should be rolled flat and smooth before sowing, to
prevent the little drills cast up by the "tines" of the harrow,
casting the seed off into the adjoining little furrows. In a fall of
rain and while the ground is wet the seed should never be com-
mitted to the soil, for the feet of the horses will " poach" the
ground, and the harrow will carry off the seed and deposit it in
lumps upon the head ridges and foot ridges. Moreover, a clay
soil harrowed in rain invariably forms a crust when it gets the
sun, which is most detrimental to the brairding of flax. Very
dry weather, on the other hand, while the soil is parched, is also
to be avoided for sowing. In the finer mould the seed would
germinate ; in the coarser it would wait for the rain, and thus
the dreaded evil of different lengths would present itself from
the first. A condition of soil sufficiently dry for pulverisation,
and sufficiently damp to produce vegetation in an oily seed, is
the best conjuncture for sowing. If a genial shower should fall
a couple of days or so after sowing it would generally prove

188 Cultivation and Proper Management of Flax.

highly beneficial, as it insures a simultaneous " strike " of the
seed.

Weeding. — Flax must be carefully tended from first to last.
Neglect at any stage will ruin the crop. All kinds of weeds
should be removed before the crop passes 6 inches in height.
After that the stem becomes hard and retains the bend or " set "
it may get from being trodden upon. Weeders should face the
Avind, and tread upon the plant with hare feet only ; and thus
treated it will soon rise again from the ground and show no sign
that a foot has been set upon its neck. Of all weeds 1 know of
none more injuricjus than " spurrev." With its merciless
tendrils it clasps every stalk, and chokes them almost to death.
Worse still, it bids defiance to all weeding.

Pulli/ig and Rij)])ling. — The time to pull flax is before it is
absolutely and completely ripe. Some, however, act foolishly
in taking it up whilst it is yet green — thinking that the sample
of dressed llax is more silky and oily. By this they lose much
more in quantity than they gain in quality. It is well to allow
the under leaves of the stalk to ha withered, two-thirds of the
stalk to be yellowed and bare, and the caj)sules to be changed to
a light brown before pulling. Then the crop will be most
remunerative both in fibre and seed. Eight active hands will be
sufficient to pull a Cunningham acre (equal to 1^ imperial acre)
in a day. They should place the handfuls slightly across each
other, and separate in the sheaves, to make it the more easy to
handle them at the rippling.

In several counties of the North of Ireland farmers ripple
none of their flax. They affirm that the process injures the
ends of the " strick," and renders the dressed flax dry and bristly.
In other counties, however, they ripple all, save vast quantities
of precious seed for crushing and feeding — and look upon their
flax after all as but little impaired. The climate of Ulster being
very damp and changeable, the farmers of that flax-growing
province have never upon a large scale attempted to rear flax-seed
for solving purposes. For a-usking and feeding only have they
taken off the bolls. By rippling the flax at the time of pulling,
the bolls can be conveniently had for these objects, and thus the
crop, without being stacked, is ready for the dam or rettory at
once.

Where seed for sowing is not the object, the following details
as to the speediest and cheapest method of taking off the bolls
or capsules may not be uninteresting : — The best rippling-comb is
made of round iron \ of an inch in diameter. The teeth should
be at least 16 inches long, blunt in the point, \ of an inch
asunder, and set in a row 18 inches long. The following direc-

Cultivation and Proper Management of Flax. 189

tions for placing or fixing' tlie comb for use may be serviceable.
Take a cart to the field when the flax is being pulled ; take off
the wheels, and lay the body flat upon the ground ; let the comb
be fixed to a strong piece of wood like a short plank, bind this
plank hard and fast across the box, tying down each end to the
arm of the axle that is lying on the ground ; then one man can
take up his place between the shafts, and another facing him
behind, and they can pull their handfuls alternately through the
same comb. Twice through is enough for anv handful. The
seed drops into the box, which can be emptied when full into
sacks, and the balls carted into the open " shed" or " winning"
loft. After being rippled the flax should be carted at once to
the steeping-dam. If it be allowed to stand for any length of
time, the wounded tops will blacken in the stook, and the fibre
will be more or less injured. Whether rippled or not, it is a
mistake to allow the pulled flax to remain for days in the stook.
If it were possible it would be all the better to have the whole
crop taken up on the same day, and in a few hours rippled and
committed to the water. The bolls should be deposited in a dry,
airy place, and frequently turned. When dry they can be broken
and the seed separated from the husks, which with the refuse
seed, make capital food for almost all the animals of the
farmyard. If there be no convenient way of drying the bolls
they can be taken at once to a common kiln, dryed and ground
in a mill, husks and seed together ; and in that way though the
seed is lost either for sowing or crushing, yet the very best kind
of provender is secured.

In some parts of England the farmers dry or " win " their
pulled flax for some days in the field, in the same manner almost
as a white crop, and then put it for a time into narrow stacks,
that the seed before being taken off may ripen and mature upon
the stalks or straw. Where the quality of the seed is a matter of
great importance (as it always is in seed for sowing), this mode
of managing the flax when pulled is to be highly commended.
It is the only method in which first-class seed can be secured ;
and although it is the opinion of some that the quality of the
fibre is much impaired by allowing the seed to ripen thus upon
the straw, yet it will be found, after sufficient experience, that
this is a mistake.

Many again consider that the farmer should go no farther than
the pulling of the flax ; that at that stage his skill generally ends,
and that then the factor, spinner, or manufacturer, should step in,
purchase the flax when pulled, if not on the foot, and carry through
the remainder of its management by his skilled labour. This is
an admirable theory, and if it could be got to work satisfactorily,
would no doubt be advantageous to all parties. But in Ireland it

190 Cultivation and Proper Management of Flax.

has been tried and has utterly failed, the merchants who made the
attempt having' been obliged to give it up. Two crops, as similar
as possible on the foot, may be very dissimilar in their yield. Say
one is grown upon a very old pasture, or upon ground that never
produced flax previously ; the other upon strong well-tilled land,
that carried a similar crop some four or five years before. To
the eye both seem much alike. The best judge perhaps could
not tell which is the better crop, and the proprietor of the one
might expect as high a price from the manufacturer as the owner
of the other. Yet in reality the crop grown on the ground that
till a year ago had been an old pasture, is likely to turn out to
be twice as valuable as the other. This one stumbling-block was
fatal to the whole scheme.

Moreover the expense of carting flax-straw to dams or rettories
at a great distance, and the difficulty of getting sufficient spread-
ing ground or drying apparatus for great quantities of steeped flax
in any one spot, are additional impediments that stand in the
way of the application of the theory.

Steepint/. — Pits lor steeping should always have a clay Ijottom ;
all spa-water should be avoided, also water that comes off any
kind of mineral ore. Bog-water, if it comes from a clay bottom
and has no taint from decaying timber (which might discolour the
flax) is unobjectionable. This water makes the fibre what is
called blae in the north of Ireland, a colour that is highly prized
by the buyers and spinners. It is all the better if the dam be
filled with water several weeks before the flax is put in. The
action of the atmosphere softens the Avater, and the heat of the sun
warms it. This mellowed and almost tepid water acts rapidly
upon the woody stalk, and renders the fibre silky and oily. Cold
spring-water will take double the time, and after all will fail to
do the work anything like as well. No definite time can be
specified for watering. Much depends on the heat of the
weather, and much on the quality of the water. From D to 14
days is the average length of time. To take it out of the water
just at the nick of time is the nicest and most important piece of
management connected with the whole crop. The following is a
good test : lift a " beet " out of the middle of the dam, open it,
take up 5 or 6 stalks with both hands ; bend them as if to break
them across ; if they break freely, break them in tivo places about
6 inches apart, and try to pull out the wood from the centre of
the fibre ; if the wood comes away easily and clean, the flax is
watered ; if it still clings to the fibre with some degree of tena-
city, it will require to remain some time longer. Dams should
neither be too deep nor too broad. They are deep enough if
they receive one row of " beets " inserted on their butt-end at an
angle of 45 degrees, and hold a sufficiency of water to cover

Cultivation and Proyer Management of Flax. 191

the flax well, when it is weighted down with tough sods or
smooth stones ; and they are inconveniently broad if a man
cannot throw out the watered flax from the centre to either side.
Too much of the water should not be run off the dam before
casting the flax out, for if it has been covered with sods, the
earthy and sandy particles must be carefully washed off every
beet before it leaves the water. If these be left, they would
adhere to the fibre, and perhaps eventually eat it through. The
watered flax, moreover, cannot be too tenderly handled ; lifting
it rudely, pulling it over hard substances, standing upon it,
tossing it about with forks and " grapes," are all excessively
injurious, and must by all means be strictly avoided.

Some years ago, in many parts of Ulster, flax was steeped in
teipid water. The process was highly spoken of at the time ; but,
somehow or other, it has latterly been discontinued. In our flax-
growing province at present rettories are all but unknown. This
is no proof, however, that tepid water is not the best for steeping
flax. The expense of getting up rettories has largely militated
against their use. The wonderfully successful application of hot
water of medium and equable temperature, both in Belgium and
England, is presumptive evidence that Ireland, though she may
stand well on the score oi groicing flax, is nevertheless behind the
age in her cold-water mode of " steeping." One of the most
important agricultural problems of the day, in the solution of
which the farmers of both England and Ireland are concerned, is.
How can the farmers of these countries continue to steep their
own flax, and yet do so at moderate expense in tepid water, ac-
cording to the method adopted by the most approved rettories of
Belgium ?

Spreading. — When the flax is thrown out of the water it
should not be allowed to remain any length of time in the heap.
One day in the heap is more trying to it than two in the water.
As many hands should be got together as will spread the whole lot
the day it leaves the water. The carters should lift it gently,
and lay it down in single beets behind the spreaders at easy
distances. A careful person should loose the beets and lay them
close up to the spreaders' hands. The layer of flax on the grass
should not be thick, and should be well shaken asunder with a
very gentle hand. The butts and tops should be kept level, and
none of it should be broken or left lying across the rest. The
field on which it is spread should be a soft close pasture if
possible, but if that is not to be had, any other field that is clean
and level in its surface will suit the purpose. Should the flax
have been taken out of the water somewhat hard, a short time
longer on the grass will be a compensation ; but if it has got too

192 Cultivation and Propei' Management of Flax.

much of the water, it must only remain on the grass till it is
fully dry.

Lifting and drying. — Let a dry, sunny, and, if possible, a
breezv day be selected for taking up the flax off the grass. If it
be taken up damp, it will occasion a world of trouble afterwards.
If perfectly dry, it may be bound in beets at once, and in the
evening put into a long " rack." The "rack" is constructed by
setting a long range of beets up perpendicularly on their butt
ends, making the range about 5 or 6 beets broad, and on the top
of these buildinjr other beets slantina: down on either side like
the roof of a house. If a little damp, the flax may be set up for
some hours in " gaits," i.e., loose sheaves spread out very wide
at the base, and held together by a band at the very top. After-
wards it can be properly tied up and put into the " rack." In
this form it might stand safely for weeks, if carefully watched
and kept up. Moreover it is important to get it thoroughly
crisp and dry, for otherwise the fibre will be largely cut down
and carried away in the mill. No artificial drying process, on
liilns or otherwise, has ever answered the purpose ; and therefore
these are never resorted to now by experienced persons. The
fibre has been frequently injured thereby to the extent of one-
fourth of its value. If the mill is not ready to take up the parcel
when it is perfectly dry, it is better to shift it from the " rack "
and put it into a round stack, thatching and roping it carefully.
It can stand then safely for any length of time, and in all
weathers ; and the stacking is a process that is generally sup-
posed to improve the quality of the fibre.

Dressing or milling. — This last process, with which the farmer
is concerned, is carried out sometimes by the hand and some-
times by machinery. Hand-scutching is supposed to get more
weight out of the same quantity of raw material ; but flax thus
dressed never commands so high a price as that cleaned by
machinery. Among mills the farmer should select one driven
by light water. Such machinery is easy upon the fibre, and
carries away little but the " shoves." On the other hand, where
there is a large number of scutchers, and where heavy water is
required to give sufficient impetus to a vast array of " scutching-
handles," much of the good flax is " hagged " down and cast off
among the tow, especially if the beets have any dampness about
them. The system of cleaning flax by what is called "half-
labour," is sometimes not very profitable to the farmer. The pro-
prietor of the mill gets the one-half of the price of scutching for
the use of machinery, and the scutchers get the other half for their
labour. This drives the working-men sometimes to pass over
the flax without cleaning it out thoroughly, that by the greater

Cultivation and Proper Management of Flax. 193

weight they may earn the more wages. Competition, however,
rectifies this abuse ; for the mill-proprietor knows full well that
if he fail in discharging his duty faithfully, honestly, and satis-
factorily to the public, the public will soon hand over its custom
to others.

It has long been the opinion of machinists and scientific men
that our common old-fashioned scutch-mills might be improved,
and ought to be improved. Several patents have been taken out
within the last few yeai's for flax-cleaning machines on a new
principle. The North of Ireland has not been behind in these
laudable efforts ; none of the new patents, however, has yet had
complete success. What their ingenious and enterprising in-
ventors (who deserve to succeed) may bring them to in the end it is
hard to say ; but up to the present time the old simple " scutching
handles " seem to be in the highest favour both with millers and
farmers, and even with the merchants themselves.

Owing to the extra growth of flax in Ireland during the last
two or three years, many new mills were erected. These had in
some instances to be " manned " with inexperienced hands.
Hence the outcry that has been raised among the merchants in
some districts about ill-cleaned flax ; and hence the losses that
farmers have met with in many cases from poor prices and from
inferior yield.

The yield of flax to the acre is very variable, according
to circumstances. The Riga barrel of seed (the safest for all
but very stroiig land), which is sufficient to sow an Irish acre,*
will commonly give a return of from 5 cwt. to 10 cwt. on
ground well cleaned and cultivated. Such weight at IQs. or
8O5. per cwt., the present range of prices for good scutched flax,
pays well, and forms a sufficiently strong inducement not only
to the farmers of the south and west of Ireland, but also to
the farmers of England and Scotland, to review their systems
and rotations, and consider whether (like the men of Ulster)
they could not, with profit to themselves and to the com-
munity, introduce a crop in its order, that is easy upon the
soil, thoroughly adapted to our variable climate, and is more
remunerative by 100 per cent, than any other crop that the
Irish farmer can raise.

Fairy Fort, Limavady, Derry.

* 3 Irish = 5 English acres nearly.

VOL. I. — S. S.

( 19i )

XVI. — Flax- Cultivation in the County of Suffolk Bj H. Wells.

There is no doubt that, with few exceptions, tlie heavy clay-
lands of Suffolk, when clean and in good condition, are capable
of growing crops of flax of a very good and strong fibre, such as
are remunerative but not exhausting to the land ; but the bad
farmer, whose farm is not well up to the mark, will do himself
no good by the attempt, since the preparation of the land is of as
much importance as its character.

Soil. — The soil best adapted for flax is of a loamy nature, of
good staple, and rather adhesive than otherwise, but not too
strong ; lands calculated to produce a redundancy of straw in
white-straw crt)j)s, such as newly broken pastures after they are
well cultivated and in good tilth, are particularly well suited for
its growth, as you need not be afraid of getting the flax-crop too
stout ; it is, therefore, the most certain crop on all lands of this
description, particularlv in wet seasons, which frequently prove
most injurious to cereal crops. Nearly all soils, however, that
will produce good beans and good wheat, will unquestionablv
grow good flax if properly prepared for it ; light and sandy
lands, or any soil not calculated to yield a gcxjd crop of straw,
must be avoided.

Course (if Cropping. — Our experience has taught us that,
taking an average of seasons, flax can be grown to a greater
profit after clover-land wheat, which had been well manured for
the wheat-crop, than in any other course. The land then has
the chance of being well cultivated as soon as the wheat-crop is
harvested, or at the first convenient moment, and since the flax-
crop rarely remains on the land more than four months, every
chance is afforded for a second cultivation at the season best
suited for cleansing and enriching the soil. It is an indisputable
fact that flax is the best possible preparation for barley, which
Avill thus vield not only a larger quantity, but a superior quality
also ; whilst by tliis arrangement the farm is not deprived of a
crop of straw. Flax grown in this course pays the farmer so
well, that he can afford to lay out a fair share of the returns in
the purchase of artificial food for feeding cattle, or use the flax-
seed to such an extent as to keep the land in first-rate condition.
Good flax can also be grown after barley or oats in lieu of a bean-
crop, and it is a good preparation for wheat, since the flax gene-
rally leaves the land in good tilth ; care must then be taken not
to sow so much seed-wheat per acre as you would usually do.
No one should attempt to grow an over-large breadth of flax,
neither should it be grown on the same land more than once in
eight vears ; if it be grown on the fallow-shift, as a general rule

Flax- Cultivation in the Count ij of Suffolk. 195

one-fourth of that shift woukl be as much as could profitably be
spared from farms that are properly stocked.

Preparation of the Soil. — If flax is grown instead of beans or
peas, the land may be treated in like manner as for those crops ;
that is to say, if your barley-stubble be as clean as land ought to
])e which has borne but one crop after a fallow. But if more be
required, run some sort of a broadshare or skim-plough through
the land about two inches deep, in September ; harrow it well
and burn the stubble on small heaps, as the ashes are very bene-
ficial to the growth of flax, then take the first chance of getting
on the manure in September, or early in October, when it will
go on well ; good crops of flax can, however, be grown after
barley without any skim-ploughing or breaking the stubble, if
the land is clean. Simply plough in the manure as early as
November, at a depth of four to five inches, this will be quite
sufficient for any barley-stubble which had been properly tilled
in the previous year.

When flax is grown after wheat in lieu of a root-crop, or long-
fallow, if the wheat-stubble is clean, plough it up as early as
possible in September, not less than seven inches deep, and in
October or early in November, plough it back at the same depth ;
no more tillage will be required till the time of sowing, and then
the use of the harrows will probably be sufficient. But if the
zcheat-stuhbles require cleaning, and the weather is fine, a Biddell
scarifier or a like implement may be used ; then when the field
has been well harrowed and clod-burnt to a moderate extent only,
plough in the ashes at once about three inches deep, and in the
month of October or not later than November, give a second
ploughing about five inches deep ; the ashes will then be in a
proper position when the seed is sown. In no case should the
last ploughing be given later than December, as a fine surface,
resulting from winter-moulds, is most beneficial to this crop, or
indeed indispensable in dry seasons, as you have no fear about
securing a plant on lands in this condition. In any case, whether
the following season be wet or dry, you are by this plan better
prepared than by any other. It is not essential to have a great
depth of mould at the time of sowing, a fine surface with suf-
ficient moisture being inuch preferable to lands worked about
late in the spring, and exposed to sharp drying days in February
and March,

Seed. — The best Riga barrel-seed, once grown in England,
will provide the best seed for sowing and general pui'poses, and
its use may be continued as far as the third or even the fourth
year. Eight pecks per acre is sufficient if drilled in rows ; or
nine pecks if sown broadcast ; during the last two seasons the
small turnip-flies have done so much harm to the plants when

0 2

196 Flax- Cultivation in the County of Suffolk.

young, that to guard against their ravages it is found best in all
cases where practicable to drill it in rows six inches apart on
the flat, using every endeavour to get the land perfectly level
before drilling, in order that the seed may all be deposited at
the same depth, and may germinate all at the same time, so as
to prevent the two growths which may frequently be seen. It
has been found much easier and cheaper to keep the flax-crop
clean when in rows than by the broadcast system. The time of
planting ranges from the third week in March till the end of the
first week in April.

Harvesting. — The best time to commence pulling is when the
stems begin to present a golden colour halfway up, and the small
leaves brush off; the seed is then beginning to turn brown. The
cost of pulling varies from Ss. to IDs. per acre ; if the sheaves
are tied up in a uniform size, and the weather fine, they do not
require many days' groundage before they are fit to be put on
narrow stacks ; a long groundage and exposure to wet after
pulling is very injurious to both grower and consumer. The
farmer suffers by the loss of weight, the manufacturer by that of
strength and colour.

Ripplimi. — In Ireland a process is adopted called rippling,
which detaches the seed-bolls from the stalk in a half-green state,
thus rendering the grain in man}' cases unfit to be used as seed
or even stored. In Suffolk we find it best to stack the crop for a
time before taking the seed off; it has then a value of from G/. to
11. per acre — no inconsiderable addition to the return made by the
flax-crop. The chief part of our seed goes to Ireland for sowing,
and the buyers there at all times request us not to send them
seed thrashed immediately after the harvest. I believe it is the
general opinion in Ireland that if the seed is allowed to ripen in
the straw it will greatly injure the quality of the fibre. In this
county experience has shown us that such is not the case, a con-
clusion which is fully borne out by the ' Belfast Linen Circular,'
which reports that the price of Irish flax ranges from 325. to 80^.
per cwt., while the present value of English flax is from 58^. to
80.?. per cwt., none being worth less than 58^. per cwt., and that
is what is called drawings, or rather the loose refuse-flax.

Steeping. — The Irish plan of steeping flax in cold water has
been found after a thorough trial to be quite unsuited to this
country ; it was in some instances a signal failure where farmers
have undertaken to steep their own straw — a dry and hard
fibre was produced, with very little spinning quality. If the
same straw had been steeped in tepid water of even temperature,
according to the practice of the largest rettories in the county of
Suffolk, there is no doubt that the quality would have been such
as to bear an improved value of from 10/. to 15/. per ton. The

Flax'Culturc in England and Ireland. 197

prejudice wliicli once existed against steeping- in tepid water is
now quite removed, as the money value obtained plainly shows
its advantages. A considerable outlay is indeed required for
providing the plant, «Scc., in the first instance, but our manufac-
turers have been quickly reimbursed from the superior quality
of the flax Avhich by this process they are enabled to produce.

XVII. — Remarks on the General Aspects of Flax-Culture in
England and Ireland. By P. H. Feere.

Various circumstances have contributed of late to recall our
attention to the culture and management of flax, a subject which
in 1851 excited an interest that the rising prices of corn sub-
sequently diminished. At that time the late Sir James Graham,
Mr. (now Sir Edward) Kerrison, Messrs. Marshall, and others,
actively promoted the growth of this crop, which was brought
under the notice of our Society by Mr. Druce, who has steadily
continued its culture on a moderate scale up to the present time.
The establishment of associations was then discussed in many
neighbourhoods, but the then existing law of partnership opposed
serious obstacles to such enterprises.

The prices of corn have now fallen back to their former low
level, flax is more in demand, and fetches higher prices than
ever ; and if the root or bean crop which it would displace be
now of increased importance, from the advanced prices of meat,
we have more land in a high condition, and consequently able
to bear a flax-crop without injury, even though, as seems de-
sirable, it receive no direct application of manure for the crop.

If the English farmer turns his thoughts in the direction of
flax-growing, the preceding papers will readily give him the
general information which he may require as to soil, climate,
and cultivation, <5cc., but they will disclose some discrepancies
between English and Irish practice, which may depend chiefly
on physical, but partly on social distinctions.

If he be a man of energy and skill, he may possibly, acting
alone, grow, rett, and scutch his own flax on the Irish plan, and
reap a manufacturer's profit from his venture if he be happy
enough to turn out first-rate fibre ; and he may convey his
produce — some 5 or 6 cwt. per acre — to a distant market at no
very great cost. But he will have to call in the aid of skilled
labour, which will be costly ; his risk will be great ; he will
socially, if not legally, become a nuisance by tainting the air
and the streams around, and his attention will be unduly turned
away from his general duties on his farm.

19^ Flax- Culture in England and Ireland.

Apart from this, following Mr. Druce as a guide, he may
grow a few acres yearly, though he has to send his straw some
30 miles to a rettory ; and, under such circumstances, he will
naturally pay particular regard to the seed. According to Mr.
Druce, he may then hope to realise these returns : —

£ s. d.

For seed, say 20 bushels, at 9,s. 9 0 0

,, 2 bushels inferior, at (is 0 12 0

Straw, li ton, at 3?. 10s 5 5 0

U 17 0

But if this isolated course of proceeding be not inviting, the
alternative must be joint action of one of two kinds : either
owners and occupiers of the soil must act in concert with manu-
facturers and capitalists, or those interested in the land may
associate themselves together to undertake the whole venture.

Any manufacturer and capitalist acting by himself would find
some difficulties in his path. 1st. Because he will want some-
guarantee that flax will continuously be grown to his hand.
2ndly. He Avill require a large supply of water, some of which
must be soft water. 3rdly. He will wish for a considerable extent
of drying meadows, even if he adopt modern processes. Lastly,
he will have to purify his refuse-water before it is returned to
our rivers, an obligation which the public will not pass lightly
over at the present moment.

On these grounds it is almost indispensable that the manufac-
turer should secure the co-operation of a large landowner, who
may provide the site (and buildings), have the control of a supply
of water, and provide an outlet for it upon the land, when
tainted ; furnish the meadows required, and so regulate the-
tenure of the adjacent farms, that the occupiers may be in a
position to supply the works with flax.

So far as mv inquiries have at present extended, I believe that
the best specimen of concerted action of this kind will be found
at Eye, in Suffolk, on the estate of our President, Sir E. C.
Kerrison, who, as we have seen, was among the first promoters
of the flax-movement in 1851.

At that time an association was formed around Eye, in which
the late Sir Edward Kerrison, as well as his son, took a leading
part, with the special object of giving employment to a redundant
population. The clergy, the leading townsmen, and the farmers,
around joined in the work, the necessary buildings were erected,
and a gradually extending supply of flax was secured. By degrees
the management came into the hands of the Messrs. Chase, two
of the original associates, who now buy the flax of the growers,
and manage the entire industrial enterprise. About a year ago

Flax-Culture in Encjland and Ireland. 199

their old works were burnt down, and the difficulties which
thereon arose were only surmounted by the offer ot Sir E.
Kerrison to erect new works at his own cost on a more eligible
site, which he provided at the distance of half a mile from the
town. These new works, which I have lately visited, are
approaching their completion, the buildings being finished, and
the machinery at work in the scutching department, though some
of the arrangements connected with the retting have still to be
organised.

I have little doubt, though I cannot speak with authority, that
the fire, though disastrous in itself, will have served to provide us
Avith a good model for imitation in these works, in which the
lessons derived from past experience will be embodied ; and,
although a detailed account may well await their completion,
still a slight survey of their geneial aspect may be of immediate
use to those who possibly are looking around, and considering
Avhether they can adopt a similar course.

These first-class works can turn out 10 tons of fine flax-fibre
per week, or 500 in the course of the year, and would conse-
C[uently require a supply of about 3000 tons of flax-straw, the
produce of, say, 2000 acres of land.

They require a constant daily water-supply of 3000 barrels of
36 gallons each, a small portion of which should be soft water.

It will be desirable that 40 or 50 acres of meadow-land should
be available for drying the flax.

It is also important that some sandy land at a lower level
should be at hand, to receive and purify the refuse-water before
it is returned to adjacent streams. The cost of the requisite
buildings and vats will amount to about 2500Z. The machinery
and plant will probably cost about 2000Z.

The following is the course pursued by the Messrs. Chase : —
After the flax has been pulled and stacked by the farmer, and
continued in the stack until it is thoroughly dry, they purchase
both seed and straw, and furnish a machine and attendants to
strip off the seed at the farm for the charge of 8^. per acre. The
average crop is said to be \^ ton of straw, worth 4/. lOs. per
ton, and 4^ stacks of seed, worth 33^. per sack. The average
return to the farmer is therefore about 14/. per acre.

The flax-straw on its arrival at the works is weighed on a
Aveigh-bridge, and then stacked, to await its turn in the vats.
The latter will not be in use during the winter months, and
should therefore have sufficient power to furnish in six months a
year's supply for the scutching department.

Warm water, derived from the condensed steam, being used in
the vats, the process of steeping is complete in four days, instead
of occupying two or three weeks. The straw when steeped passes

200 Flax -Culture in Enjland and Ireland.

throug'h a system of heav}- rollers, wliile a current of fresh water
is playing upon it, by which means the glutinous matter is sepa-
rated from the fibre. This operation creates the chief demand
for water, which need not be soft. In ten minutes the rollers
have done their work, and the straw is laid on grass simply to
dry ; as soon as this is effected it is stored in a dry chamber.
From thence it is taken as required, and passed under heavy
ribbed rollers, to break the woody fibre. It is then slightly
cleansed, and tied up in convenient handfuls by girls, called
" strikers," as preparatory to passing into the scutcher's hands.
Seventy girls in the strikers' room prepare the supply for 56
scutching-mills.

The arrangement of the " scutch ing-room " (188 feet long, by
31 feet broad) deserves more particular description.

A long shaft, actuated by the steam-engine, runs the whole
length of the room, and sets in motion the mills, which revolve,
like windmills, at right angles to the shaft, the end of their^arms
])eing furnished with wooden beaters, which in form resemljle the
blade of a razor.

An iron partition runs lengthways down the room, so placed
that the ends of the beaters as they revolve pass through vertical
openings left in this partition. On the one side of the partition
we have the axis and chief j)art of each of the mill-wheels, and
on the floor the shives, or shoves, which are carried away by the
beaters. On the other side, in a scries of three-sided iron boxes,
stand the scutchers, with a long wooden table and a passage
lipyond them. The beaters belonging to each compartment are
further boxed off by a low false partition, almost in contact with
them, having a horizontal slit at a convenient height. Through
this slit the scutcher inserts his handful of flax, and by dexterous
manipulation often repeated, secures the removal of every particle
of the wot)dy covering from the flax fd^re. The men generally
work in pairs, the less experienced hand giving a preparatory
dressing, the other finishing the work.

An accurate record is kept every week of the work which each
hand turns out, and of the amount of material which he consumes
to produce a given quantity of fine fibre.

A certain standard is assumed, sav, that from the flax already
shrunk by retting, drying, and breaking, one-fifth of fine fibre
should be produced ; shortcomings or improvements on this
standard are then recorded.

A good hand will turn out 40 stone per week, inferior hands
about 30, novices less than that. When both quantity and
quality of workmanship are taken into account it is evident that
wages inust assume a wide range, and the skilful and careful
workman meet with much encouraffement.

Flax-Culture in England and Iiehind. 201

Recent improvements have added materially to the value of
the. refuse derived from this first operation.

It is now taken to tlie " carding-room," and passed round a
large carding-drum begirt with lesser carding-wheels working
one into the other. These teazers, bristling with short metal
pegs, which interlace as they revolve, sever most of the re-
maining fibre from the wood, so that by the aid of two such sets
of wheels a second-class fibre is produced, worth 20/. per ton.

The refuse from this second operation undergoes yet a third
process, which produces a material which paper-makers purchase
at 6/. per ton.

The residue is simply shives, or shoves, but these have virtue
enough in them to furnish all the fuel required by the boiler of
an engine capable of working up to 90 horse-power ; they con-
stitute about two-third of the flax-straw as originally delivered.

We thus see that in Suffolk there is a well-established system
of flax management, under which the farmer is content to harvest
his flax and [sell it in the straw in the autumn. Yet Mr. Brown,
according to Irish experience, characterises such a system as im-
practicable.

The climate of Ireland probably offers an impediment to such a
course, to which Mr. Brown has not adverted. In our drier dis-
tricts, the straw stands in the stack for two or three months, and
dries and improves the while ; in a more rainy and damp
country it is desirable to get it into steep as quickly as possible,
for it might blacken if stacked. Here, then, we see a physical
ground of difference which will not be easily surmounted.

But Mr. Brown rests his case chiefly on the extreme difficulty
of rightly estimating the value of the produce in its raw state,
and consequently of maintaining a good understanding between
the buyer and the seller, if the produce is marketed in such a
form. This objection cannot be disposed of at once, and
suggests several points for investigation, and much matter for
reflection.

In the first place, might not the farmer, without meddling with
the bulk of his crop, I'ett a sample, and sell according to that
sample, legulating his own demands and guiding the merchant's
judgment by its apparent quality? for otherwise he is as much
or even more in the dark, than when he buys or sells a crop of
corn standing.

Next let us consider in the rough how the position of the
Suffolk farmer, who, on an average, sells his ton and a half of
flax-straw, the produce of an acre, to the works for 6Z. 155., differs
from that of a successful Irish grower who carries his produce
throuffh the first stag-e of manufacture. Assumine" that the latter

202 Flax-Culture in Enr/land and Ireland.

also gets 1^ ton of straw per acre, it would seem that he may make
from it, sav, 4^ cwt. of fine fibre, which at 70^. per cwt, would bring-
him 15/. 155. Now, if his extra expenses are roughly set at 1/. per
cwt, he will realise 11/. 5^. by his fibre, apart from the value of
the tow and shoves, that is to say, he would apparently make
a very good trade profit by the trading risk which he incurs.

The above statement has no pretensions to accuracy, its aim
being simply to avoid an over-statement of the produce, or an
under-estimate of the cost of labour required.

According to a recent Irish account, published in the ' Gar-
dener's Chronicle' of Dec. 31, 1864, the dressing of flax costs Is.
per stone, or 8.s". per cwt. This charge probably does not include
steeping, which may nearly double the expense, and still leave a
good margin for our estimate of 1/. per cwt.

Again, in the instance quoted, the fine fibre, yielding 6 cwt.
per English acre, was sold at SO.v. per cwL I have only assumed
a yield of 4^ cwt. of fine filjre, and a price of 10s. per cwt, and
have left out of account the inferior flax and tow, the value of
which, in that case, was fully one-fourth of that of the fine flax ;
yet we still get the diflbrence between 11/. 5^. and 6/. 15^. as
extra profit for the more adventurous farmer.

These expenses moreover, are here calculated on a basis
adapted to hand-labour, whilst the introduction of machinery
uniformly cheapens the process, if it somewhat impairs the
value of the produce. The Suffolk flax-fibre seems to make
as good a price in the market as the best Irish produce,
and it is therefore a question whether the machinery there
employed is wasteful, or the straw, as there grown, less
yielding. In the flax-crop, as it would seem, the difference in
the value of the raw material is far greater and far less evident
than in any other produce with which the farmer has hitherto
dealt ; and this difference is connected with various and diverse
causes, — the soil itself, its management, climate, the rotation
adopted, the maturity given to the seed, «Scc. &:c. So that while
Mr. Druce, an able and experienced farmer, gets only 3/. XOs. or
3/. 15.9. per ton for his straw, and the Suffolk farmers average
4/. IO5., the best agriculturists in Flanders make 11. \0s. and 8/.
of their crop of straw, and grow from 2 to 2h tons per acre ;
securing, it must be admitted, only half as much seed as is
harvested in Enofland, but that of a first-rate quality.*

Mr. Arthur oMarshall, of Leeds, informs me that in Yorkshire
5 cwt. per acre is reckoned above an average yield, and 406-.

* These details are derived from the elaborate reports on the Prize Farm in
the French Department " Le Nord," published in the ' Journal d'Agriculture
Pratique.'

Flax-Culture in England and Ireland. 203

per cwt. a good price, present prices being exceptional in con-
sequence of the dearth of cotton. He further states that the
practice of buying crops in the straw is regularly established in
Yorkshire, and answers very well. " No doubt," he writes, " the
purchaser runs some risk from the flax not turning out as well
as he expects, but such variations are more due to different seasons
than to different growths."*

If the English farmer turns to growing flax, it may take him
some time to ^et a thorousfh insight into the bearinsj-s of this new
branch of his business : 1st, to ascertain the actual value of his
straw, and, so long as he is eclipsed by Flemish competitors,
to make out Avhy it is inferior ; and 2ndly, to get for it, with
all its variations, and uncertainties, a fair market-price. Such
considerations naturally indicate the importance of a healthy
competition in the market for raw flax, a point which it may
not be so easy to secure in this as in other branches of
trade.

If English farmers should find that the Irish system of
selling the fine flax rather than the straw is more remunerative
in the long-run, but that individual action has many draw-
backs, they may be tempted to fonn associations among them-
selves for carrying on the flax through its first stage of manu-
facture ; and the success of two modern enterprises in their hands,
viz., the Blood-manure Company and the Islington Hall Com-
pany, would give some encouragement to such a scheme. A flax-
retting Company would, however, in one important respect stand
in a different relation to agricultural shareholders from that occu-
pied by a Manure Company ; for it would have to buy raw pro-
duce of them, not sell to them the manufactured article. Now,
whilst sales to shareholders are beneficial, and have a tendency to
keep up the quality of the goods sold, purchases from them pre-
sent a more doubtful aspect, and speaking with a recollection
of the surprise I have felt at the prices made by the barley
grown on the home-farm of a large brewer, I confess I should
not envy the Manager who had to buy an inferior crop from
an influential Director.

Apart from such warnings as these, it is but natural that
English farmers, with modern facilities, and the modern spirit of
enterprise, should form associations to secure to themselves the
full value of their flax, in the fibre, if not in the straw, and at the
same time to fathom and prove their shortcomings as growers,

* Mr. Marshall adds that they vise a sort of clover-drill which distributes the
seed very evenly ; for broad-cast sowing does not answer except the sower is
accustomed to sowing linseed.

204 Description of the Neiccastle Dynanometer.

by the light of Flemish experience, with a view to their gradual
removal.

Under any circumstances, it is highly satisfactory to find that
mutual confidence can subsist in England between the buyers
and sellers of flax-straw, under which j)rices are realised by the
grower, which, if they do not realise our highest aspirations, are
at present undoubtedly remunerative.

XVIII. — A Description of the Neiccastle Dynamometer.
By C. E. Amos.

The annexed engraving represents a photographic view of the
Newcastle Dynamometer, used for testing the force required to
work the steam-plough exhibited at the Newcastle Meeting of
this Society.

On page 409, Part II., \'()1. xxv., tlie necessity for an instru-
ment of the kind is shown, and the following description is there
given. "The instrument consists of a strong wooden frame
mounted upon carriage-wheels, having on its centre a strong
vertical cast-iron socket. A cast-iron screw column, fitted with
a fly-nut, drops into this socket, and moves freely in it, and the
column can be raised or lowered by the fly-nut. To the top of
the column is fitted a long arm of wood, by a joint at the centre,
so that either end can be raised or depressed. The arm thus
possesses a movement both horizontal and vertical, like that of a
transit instrument. At each extremity of the arm a pulley is
placed, which turns freely on vertical pins, the centres of these
pulleys being 18 feet apart. At the centre of the arm is a cen-
tral pulley Avith a vertical spindle, carried by two strong springs.
These springs are so placed that they deflect the central pulley
12 inches out of a straight line Ijctween the other two. The
rope passes over the end ])ulleys and under the central one, so
that the deflexitni of the unloaded rope is 12 inches. The instru-
ment being fixed in a position between the engine and the
cultivator, the tractive force on the rope is shown by the deflexion
of the middle pullev becoming less. The greater the tractive
force the less the deflexion of the rope."

I will endeavour to explain the construction and principle of
action of this machine somewhat in detail by the aid of the
following diagrams : —

In diagram Fig. 2, A and B represent two pulleys placed 18
feet apart. M is also a pulley placed between them, the distance
My being 12 inches. P is a standaid carrving a strong spring,
S, the extreme end of which carries the pullev M.

The

1

jUM^'ii:^-

206

Description of the Newcastle Dynamometer.

The spring S in the position shown exerts no force, but is
capable of being urged forward until the pulley ]M would arrive
at e ; and if in the latter position it exerted a force, say of 100 lbs.,
at a its force would be 20 lbs,, at h 40 lbs., at c 60 lbs., and at
d 80 lbs.

We will suppose that a wire-rope attached to a steam-'engine
passes partly round the pulleys A, JNI, and B, dragging a plough
or other implement attached to the end of the rope beyond B. It
will be at once perceived that the force of the engine and the re-
sistance of the implement, acting in opposite directions, will cause
the spring S to be deflected towards J", and when the force of the
engine, the resistance of the implement, and the resistance of the
spring S are in ecjuilibrium, then the slightest further addition to
the force employed will cause the implement to move, the spring
to yield, antl the pulley j\I to move in the direction M y". For
any assigned position of the pulley M, the amount of the forces
of traction and resistance may be ascertained by the formula

a/ 17} " I 7/ "

' X ^ = F. Where m = the distance A/ (Fig. 2),

71 = the distance between M and J', at whatever point M may be
found ; t = the resistance of the spring S at that point ; and F
= the forces of traction and resistance equal the strain on the
wire-rope. For example, if M assumes the position c (Fig. 2),
in which case the resistance of the spring is GO lbs., then MJ' =

Then^lQf +/ X00 =
2x6

540*8 lbs. ^ F = the strain on the rope ; and similarly for other
positions of M. The following Tabic exhiljits the different magni-
tudes ol the strain or tension of the rope corresponding to the
various positions a, b, c, d, c.

6 inches, and Af = 108 inches.

lV.--ition.

Kesistaiicc
in lbs.

strain nn Hope
in lbs.

a

20

108-4

h

40

270-7

c

60

540-8

d

80

1080-7

c

100

2 700 -.5

It is important to observe that the strain of the rope does not
Aary proportionally to the distance of ]M from its original posi-
tion, or, what is the same thing, proportionally to the resistance
of the spring. If a scale of numljers were inserted instead of the
letters a, h, c, d, e,f, and an index placed on the spring at JVI, the

strain

20S Description of the Newcastle Dijnamometer.

strain on the rope might be read off at any time. In passing, it
may be mentioned that no force on the rope would ever raise the
pulley M to /*, or place the three pulleys A, M, and. B in a
straight line. Such are the leading principles in the dyna-
mometer shown in the engraving.

In experimenting upon the force required to work field-imple-
ments, it is found that from numerous causes the resistance is
ever-varying, and the observer has much difficulty in determining
the average or mean force employed, because an index placed as
at the pulley M continually shifts with the resistance. To over-
come this difficulty, contrivances have been resorted to, most of
Avhich have obtained the results in too complicated a manner for
general use in our experiments.

To our French ncighl)ours we are indebted for an invention
called the " Totalisateur," a machine which enables us to obtain,
in a simple manner, answers and results which before its intro-
duction involved tedious and lengthy calculations.

The princij)le of the invention mav be thus briefly explained.
The machine may be said to consist of two parts ; the first has
a progressive motion imparted to it corresponding in some exact
ratio with the progression of the implement on trial, and it is
provided with a counter which affords the means of recording
the exact distance which the implement has travelled ; and so
far is simply a " perambulator " for measuring distances. One
of the principal features in this part is a " disc-plate," having a
plane surface, and to that " disc-plate " the motion before spoken
of is given.

The second part consists of arrangements for determining the
resistance caused by the implement, and this is effected by a
small " disc-icheel " carried on centres, as will be hereafter
fxplained (Fig. 4). The edge of it is placed lightly in contact
with the plane face of the "disc-plate" before-mentioned, and
thus by means of rolling friction, the revolution of the plate will
cause the ''^ disc-tckecV to turn, except when the edge of the
'■^ disc-ioheel" is in the centre of the "disc-plate." The adjust-
ment is such that the disc-wheel occupies this latter position
when there is no resistance from the implement ; but as resist-
ance takes place, the " disc-irheel " is moved from the centre
towards the periphery of the " disc-plate," to a distance which
increases with that resistance ; as the resistance decreases, the
wheel returns again towards the centre, and whatever position
the " disc-wheel " may be in when removed from the centre, a cir-
cular motion will be imparted to it by the "disc-plate," with a
velocity depending upon its then distance from the centre of that
plate : hence it will be seen that the velocity of the " disc-wheel "
will correspond with the amount of resistance of the implement.

Description of the Neiccastle Dynamometer. 209

The operation of the whole will perhaps be more clearly ex-
plained by a numerical example. Suppose the disc-plate to
make one revolution while the implement travels over 100 feet,
and that the resistance of the implement, when equal to 100 lbs.,
causes the '^ disc^ioheel" to be drawn from the centre towards
the periphery of the disc-plate a distance equal to its own radius,
then it will revolve in the same time as the " disc-plate ;" and
in that case 100 lbs. x 100 feet = 10,000 units of power
(10,000 lbs, raised 1 foot high), will represent the force ex-
pended in moving the implement 100 feet.*

Again, if the resistance of the implement be 200 lbs. the disc-
wheel will be drawn from the centre of the disc-plate a distance
equal twice the radius of that wheel, and it will make two revo-
lutions while the disc-plate makes one revolution, that is to say,
while the implement moves through 100 feet. The power
expended is now 2 x 100 X 100 = 20,000 units, or 20,000 lbs.
raised 1 foot high ; hence each revolution of the " disc-ioheel "
represents 10,000 units of power expended or work done, and it
will be so, lohether the resistance be constant or variable. The
instrument is provided with dials and indices, whereby the
number of revolutions made by the '•'■ disc-iuheeV in any given
time is shown, and the power expended during that time can be
ascertained.

For example, we will suppose that an experiment occupying
ten minutes has been made with a field-implement, and at its
close the number of revolutions made by the disc-ivheel is shown
by the dial-plates of its counter to be 530*5.

Then let 530"5 = the revolutions of disc-wheel during the
experiment.
10,000 =z units of power represented by one revolu-
tion of the " disc- wheel."
10 = the minutes occupied in the experiment,
and 33,000 = units of power, which are equal to 1 horse-
power.

T^u .1. u -11 1. 530-5 X 10,000 T. ,

Ihen the result will be, '-—^ = lb horse-power

00,000 X I'J
nearly,

* This results from the mathematical truth that the circumferences of circles
are proportional to their radii. If, therefore, the disc-wheel move a distance
equal to its radius, as from i to e, and remain there in contact with the revolving
plate, each point in its circumference will in that position consecutively be brought
into contact with a point in the inner dotted circle on the disc-plate as the latter
revolves ; and since the circumference of this dotted circle and the disc-wheel are
equal, the revolutions of the plate and wheel will occupy the same time. If the
disc-wheel moves to /, where i f= 2 i e, the circumference of the outer dotted line
is double that of the disc-wheel, which, consequently, revolves twice for one
revolution of the disc-plate. — P. H. F.

VOL. I. — S, S. P

210

Description of the Newcastle Dynamometer,

The following diagram (Fig. 3) will perhaps assist the fore-
going description of the " Totalisateur."

Fig. J.

G The tlial-plivte, which is in constant rotary motion, its velocity being in
some given ratio with the velocity of the implement. 'J'his plate has
generally a counter connected with it, to show the space which the imple-
ment has traversed.

F The disc-wheel, in contact -nnth the face of the disc-plate G : the resistance
of the implement, by suitable arrangements, causes the wheel, F, to move
from i towards/ on the face of the plate G.

E The counter, with its dial-plates : by these the revolutions of the disc- wheel
are recorded.

It would appear an easy matter to apply the instrument just
described to the dynamometer under consideration, as rotation
niight be given to the disc-plate (G, Fig. 3) by communicating-
machinery from the pulley A, Fig. 2 ; and a modified force of
resistance might be imparted to the disc-wheel F, Fig. 3, from
the end of the spring S, Fig. 2, in such a manner that as the
resistance increased the wheel would be carried from the centre
of the disc-plate towards its periphery, and thus fulfil the con-
ditions required.

Such would be the case if equal increments of strain on the
rope round the pulleys A, ]\I, B, Fig. 2, caused equal deflexions
It is evident, however, from the table given on

page

of the spring S.

Description of the Newcastle Dynamometer. 211

i>2

212 Description of the Newcastle Dynamometer.

page 206, that such is not the case, but that the increments of
strain on the rope become continually larger for equal increments
of deflexion of the spring as it approaches y. It is obvious, then^
that some device must be adopted to compensate for this irregu-
laritv, and to make the disc-wheel F move over the disc-plate
G, Fig. 3, through spaces proportional to the increasing strains-
on the rope. The diagram, Fig. 4, will show how this adapta-
tion of the " Totalisateur "' has been oflfected.

In Fig. 4, G represents the disc-plate, A A represent
parts of the framing for carrying the instrument, to which are
fixed two bearing-blocks, b h, through which the bar c slides,
freely, on this bar are keyed two arms d d, and through the ends,
of each of these a screw is passed, the pivot-points of which carry
the spindle upon which the disc-wheel F and the index of the
counter E are fastened ; while a spring s, upon the bar, retains
the whole in position with the disc-wheel F at the centre of the
disc-plate G, when all is in a state of rest.

M is the central pulley of the dynamometer, which for per-
spicuity is shown with the resisting spring (S, Fig. "1) removed.
J is a plain block-wheel revolving on a fixed j)in, and to tlu?
edge of that wheel a thin riband of steel, L, is fastened, partly
round it and from it to the crossbar N, which is connected by
rods with the centre of the pulley M. K is a cam, fastened to
the block-wheel, and revolving with it upon its centre.

It will be seen that the end of the bar c, now in a state of rest,
presses upon the inferior diameter of the cam K. and when the
strain is put on the wire-rope, the pulley M is deflected in the
direction of the arrow on its left, the block- wheel J, and the cam
K, are turned round by the action of the riband L, and the
superior diameter of the cam K, continually increasing, com-
presses the spring *•, and forces the bar c, with its adjuncts,
towards X, and the disc-wheel F, is carried onwards from i
towards^', on the surface of the disc-plate G.

The cam K is constructed in such a manner that its ordinates
increase in a manner corresponding to the decreasing deflexions
of the spring S (Fig. 2) when approaching f, so that the disc-
wheel F is moved by the action of the cam over the surface of the
disc-plate G, with velocities which are in exact accordance with
the increasing or decreasing strain on the wire-rope. Hence the
results may be read on the counter, E, in the manner before
described.

( 213 )

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS AND
NOTICES.

1. — On Experiments ivith Pernvian Guano mixed with a small
quantity of Sulphuric Acid. By J. B, Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S.

In Vol. XXV., Part 1, of the ' Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society' (1864), Professor Voelcker published a very valuable
paper on Peruvian Guano, and concluded with some practical
suggestions for increasing its efficacy by rendering soluble a con-
siderable portion of the nitrogenous matter and phosphates which,
in its natural state, exist in it in an insoluble condition. Every
■farmer of the present day is well acquainted with the importance of
Peruvian guano as a manure, and knows what a high price he is
required to pay for it ; and as there is but little probability of a
reduction in its cost, any suggestions for economising its use are
deserving of careful consideration, and of being put to the test of
■careful experiment, more especially so since the present agents
■of the Peruvian Government have removed the restrictions which
were formerly imposed upon the dealers in guano, and now permit
them to employ it in the manufacture of compound manures.

Professor Voelcker's suggestion is to render soluble a larger
amount of the phosphoric acid and nitrogenous matter of the
guano, by mixing with it about 5 per cent, of its weight of sul-
phuric acid. During the past season I made some experiments
upon swedes with Peruvian guano so prepared ; and although the
season of 1864 was very unfavourable for roots, and the produce
was not more than half a good crop, the results obtained are not
without interest.

Four experiments, making two pairs of two each, were made.
In each case 8 tons of farmyard-manure were employed per acre.
In the first experiment 200 lbs. of Peruvian guano, in its natural
state, and in the second the same amount mixed with a small
■quantity of sulphuric acid, were used in addition. The third and
fourth experiments were, respectively, exactly the same as the first
*ind second, excepting that to each of them there was a further
addition of 2 cwts. of superphosphate of lime per acre. 200 lbs,
of Peruvian guano were employed per acre in each case. The
guano was finely sifted, and that which was to be artificially
prepared was well mixed with 20 lbs. of sawdust, which had been
previously saturated with a mixture of 12 lbs. of sulphuric acid

2V

Experiments icith Peruvian Guano.

and 10 lbs., or 1 gallon, of water. The guano, or guano-mixture,
as the case might be, was sown by hand on the top of the dung
before it was ridged in, and the seed was drilled on the ridges,
alone in experiments 1 and 2, and with the superphosphate of lime
in experiments 3 and 4.

Table I. shows the results of experiments 1 and 2, without the
superphosphate.

Table I.

Plots.

Number

I'roduce per Acre.

per Acre.

Roots.

Leaf.

Total,

1

2

8 tons Farmyard-Manure
200 lbs. Peruvian Guano . . j

8 tons Farmyard-Manure
200 lbs. Peruvian Guano,
mixed with 12 lbs. Sul-
phuric Acid diluted with
1 gallon of Water, and
absorbed by 20 lbs. Saw-
dust

Difference

14,397
' 1.3,092

Tons. cuts. qn. lbs.
9 114

1

8 2 2 7

Tons, cirts. qr«. lbs.
1 3 3 18

1 3 1 12

Tons. cwts. qra. lbs.

10 5 0 22
9 5 3 19

1,305

0 18 2 25

0 0 2 6

0 19 1 3

It is seen that there wore about 18,^ cwts. more root, and about
•^ cwt. more leaf with the guano without, than with the guano with
sulj)huric arid. There were also about 1300 more roots per acre
Avithout, than with the acid. The season was, as already said,
very unfavourable for growth, and the difference of the produce
in the two cases is comparatively smalj ; but, such as it is,
it certainly does not show any beneficial effect from the use of
the acid.

Table II. shows the results of two experiments parallel in
every respect with the two former, excepting that with the dung
and guano of the one, and with the dung and prepared guano of
the other, superphosphate of lime was also employed.

In this experiment the result is almost exactly as much in
favour of the prepared guano as it was against it in the former
case. Taking the one set of experiments against the other, there-
fore, it would appear that in the particular season in question the
effect of .a given amount of guano was about the same with and
without the addition of the sulphuric acid.

It may be noticed, in passing, that the beneficial effects of
superphospate of lime in preserving the plant in a bad season,
are very apparent in the much greater number of plants grown
per acre when it was used.

Experiments with Peruvian Guano.
Table II.

215

Plots.

Number
of Roots
per Acre.

14,818
15,932

[ Produce per Acre.

iu.iuuiei, pel jiLie.

1

i Roots.

Leaf.

Total.

3

4

8 tons Farmyard-Manure
200 lbs. Peruvian Guano
2 cwts. Superphosphate of
Lime ,

8 tons Farmyard-Manure
200 lbs. Peruvian Guano,
mixed with 12 lbs. Sul-
phuric Acid diluted with
1 gallon of Water, and
absorbed by 20 lbs. Saw-
dust. 2 cwts. Superphos-
phate of Lime

Difference

1 ToD3. crtts. qrs. lbs.

8 7 3 2

9 5 3 2

Tons, cu-ts. qrs. lbs.

12 10
1 3 0 14

Tons. cwts. qrs. lbs.

9 10 0 2
10 8 3 16

1,114

0 18 0 0 1 0 0 3 14 '

1

0 18 3 14

Although the results so far obtained do not show any beneficial
effect from the admixture of the sulphuric acid with the guano I
propose to repeat the experiments with roots again this year, and
to extend the trial to other crops.

Taking into consideration both the cost of the acid and the ex-
penses of mixing, the preparation of Peruvian guano, as above
described, would probably add nearly 20 per cent, to the cost of
the nitrogen and phosphates it contains. Unless, therefore, the
process be found to augment the efficacy of the guano in more
than that proportion, there would be no gain to the farmer in
using the mixture instead of the guano in its natural condition.
It is obviously very important, therefore, to give the matter a fair
and careful trial.

Rothamsted, February, 1865.

2. — Ex-periments on the Artificial Fecundation of Wheat.
By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S.

In Part I. of the ' Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society '
for 18G4; (p. 258) there is an abstract of an account given in
the ' Journal d'Agriculture Pratique,' of methods proposed by
M. D. Hooibrenk for increasing the produce both of corn and
fruit-trees by means of a process of artificial fecundation. The
value of M. Hooibrenk's discovery is said to have been verified
by a Commission appointed by the Minister of Agriculture of
France. The increase recorded as due to the process was (if

216 Experiments on the Artificial Fecundation of Wheat.

reduced to English standards of quantity), in one experiment,
from 34 to 4G, and in another from 3G to 39 bushels of wheat-
grain per acre ; and, what is more extraordinary, as the result
of a process applied so late in the period of growth as that of
flowering, the recorded increase in the produce of straw was in
the one case as much as from 1848 to 2728 lbs., and in the other
from 2059 to 2240 lbs, per acre. A process which involves no
outlay for manure, is so simple and easy of application, and the
results of which were vouched for by such high authority, seemed,
at any rate, worth a careful trial, and I therefore submitted it to
one in the course of last summer.

Before, however, describing the experiments and their results,
it may be well to make a few remarks on the conditions essential
to the attainment of successful and reliable results in field experi-
ments generally, and upon the state of the plots selected for the
tiials with M. Hooibrenk's process.

If the object of an experiment be to compare the cfTecls of
different manures, or of any other means of increasing the crop,
the general condition of the soil, its evenness, and the characters
of the season in which the experiment is made, must each and
all be taken into account. The land may be in too high or in
too low a condition for the pur])ose ; the plots may appear to be
j)retty uniform both in quality and condition, and ^et if they
were all treated in the same manner, instead of differently, they
would probably give very different amounts of produce over
equal areas ; or the season may be much more favourable, or
unfavourable, for the effects of one of the modes of treatment that
is to be compared with others, than would be the case taking the
average of a number of years.

It is seldom that the opportunity occurs of selecting duplicate
plots for a comparative experiment, the history of which for
many years past is accurately recorded, and the evenness of
which or otherwise can therefore be accuratclv ascertained. Such
an opportunity was, however, at command for the purposes of
the trial of Mr. Hooibrenk's process. Plots were selected from
among those on whit h wheat had been grown at Kothamsted
for many years in succession by the use of the same manure
applied year after year on the same land. By reference to the
report on the experiments in question, published in the last two
Numbers of this Journal, it will be found that, in most cases,
duplicate experiments were made with the same manure, the
duplicate plots being designated "a" and "i" respectively.
Three pairs of these plots were selected, namely, 12a and h, 13a
and b, and 14a and b ; and in order to show how far the duplicate
plots were in equal condition, and, therefore, properly comparable
with one another, the average produce of wheat per at re per

Experiments on the Artificial Fecundation of Wheat. 217

annum on each over 12 years, 1852-1863, is given in the
following Table (I.) : —

Table I.

Average Produce of Wheat per Acre per Annum on Duplicate Tlots.
Over 12 Years, 1852-1863.

Dressod Com.

Offal
Com.

Total
Com.

Straw

(and

Chaff).

Total

riots, &c.

Quantity.

Weight

per
Bushel.

(Coin

and

Straw).

12a

126 (duplicate of 12a)

Bush. Pks.
35 Of
35 Of

lbs.
58-2
58-3

lbs.

146

156

lbs.
2194
2207

lbs.
3932
3962

lbs.
6126
6169

DiflFerence

13a

136 (duplicate of 13a)

34 U
34 3i

0-1

58-6
58-6

10

154
159

13

2165
2203

30

3945
4033

43

6110
6236

Difference . .

14a

146 (duplicate of 14a)

0 2i

34 31

35 Of

58-3

58-4

5

161
150

38

2191
2205

88

3983
4019

126

6174
6224

Difference

0 IJ

0-1

11 14

36

50

Thus, taking the average over 12 years, the duplicates, in
each case, give almost identical results. It is true that in indi-
vidual years the difference was sometimes much greater. For
instance, to take the most extreme case which the 12 years afford,
in 1855 the difference between the plots a and h amounted in each
case to about 3J bushels of dressed corn, and from oh to 4 cwts.
of straw per acre, the advantage always being with the plot b ;
and for several years afterwards the plots a gave in their turn
the higher produce, until the inequality had been in a great
degree compensated. From these facts it is evident that even
Avhen the greatest care is taken there may sometimes be a con-
siderable difference in the produce of plots treated as far as
possible in the same manner, arising from circumstances of the
season over which we have no control. It will, at the same time,
be admitted that the plots a and h were, upon the whole, in a
very uniform condition, and well suited, therefore, for the pur-
poses of an exact comparative experiment.

The duplicates being again manured exactly alike as in former
years, plots 12a, 13a, and 14a were submitted to M. Hooibrenk's
process ; whilst plots 12Z', lob, and ]4Z» were not so treated. In
accordance with the directions given, the mode of proceeding
was as follows : — To a rope long enough to stretch across the
plot to be operated upon, pieces of woollen twist 2 feet in length

218 Experiments on the Artificial Fecundatioii of Wheat.

were attached so close as to toucli each other, thus forming a
sort of fringe 2 feet in depth,. Before use the wool was smeared
with honey, and the rope, thus prepared, was stretched across the
plot and trailed over the growing crop when in bloom in still
weather. It was thus drawn up each of the plots to be operated
upon on July 2n(.l, down on July 4th, and up again on July 6th.
Table II. gives the produce obtained with, and Avithout the
jirocess of artificial fecundation.

Table II.

Produce of "Wheat per Acre on Duplicate Plots, one Artificially Fecundated
and the other not.

Harvest 1864.

Dressed Com.

Offal
Com.

Total
Com.

Straw

(and

Cliall).

Total

Plots, &c.

Quantity.

Weight

per
Bushel.

(Corn

and

Straw).

12a Artificially Fecundated
12?j Not ,,

Rush.

44
44

PkK.
If

3

lbs.
62-6
62-4

lbs.
99
93

Ills.
2881
2882

lbs.
4315
4356

lbs.
7196
7238

Difference ..

13a Artificially Fecundated
1 3t Not ■ , ,

U

42
43

n

0-2

63-2
63-4

6

88
111

1

2786
2882

41

4480
4620

42

7266
7502

Difference . .

14rt Artificially Fecundated
146 Not ,,

41
41

u

3^

0-2

63-1
62-8

23

149
110

96

2740
2745

140

4003

4107

236

6743
6852

Difference ..

0

H

0-3

39

5

104

109

It is seen that in neither of the three trials was any increase of
produce obtained by means of the fecundating process. Indeed,
there was in each case rather more without it, though the differ-
ence was so slight that it might arise from causes unconnected
with the treatment.

It may, perhaps, be said that, as the season was one of much
more than average productiveness and the crops were all unusually
large, it was unfavourable for such an experiment. In answer to
this objection, it mav be stated that the land is capable of
growing more produce still, and that all of these plots did grow
considerably larger crops in the previous year, 1863, as may be
seen by reference to the report in a former Number of the
Journal, as above referred to.

In conclusion, it may .be remarked that it would seem our

Kolil Rahi. 219

neighbours, the Frencli agriculturists, are now going through a
stage which in this country was passed through some few years
ago. The artificial application of electricity, seed-steeping, and
other marvels, which were to double the produce of our fields at
little cost, have had their day with us ; but the British farmer is
still toiling on as formerly, earning his bread by the sweat of his
brow and the liberal use of manure, without which he does not
find his crops increase.

3. — Kohl Rahi. — By Chas. Laweence.

Though avc found this root useful and a favourite food of all
stock we discontinued growing it three or four years ago, in con-
sequence of the hands required for setting it out at a busy season
of the year. In consequence of the then cost of the seed it was
treated like cabbage, sown in a seed-bed and planted out. Inas-
much as it required only half the distance between the plants as
compared with cabbage, planting several acres occupied too
much time. The cost of the seed having been considerably
reduced, in contemplation of the possible fulfilment of the prog-
nostics of a dry, hot summer, and dried-up pastures in the
autumn, we drilled three acres with two pounds of seed per
acre. We sowed early, and had an abundant plant, which was cut
out, leaving plants 18 inches apart. The crop was nearly station-
ary for three months during the unusual drought ; but it was never
touched by the fly, which entirely destroyed two successive sow-
ings of swedes ; more remarkable still, it was not attacked by
the grub, which was so destructive during the past season to all
other root-crops, and which was abundant over the entire surface of
the farm. The bulk of the crop was greatly checked by the ab-
sence of rain during the most efl^ective period of growth. We put
on it, in fold, 143 young sheep the end of August. After they had
been on the ground three weeks and five days, we added sixty
more, making: 203. These finished off the three acres in five weeks
and three days, the crop thus lasting nine weeks. The plants
were eaten off without pulling, and were perfectly consumed, even
to the sucking the juices from the tops of the stems. The sheep
had some mixed chaff to run back on. Our shepherd reported
that he had never known young stock thrive so well, both in flesh
and wool.

The freedom from all attack by the insect-tribe during such a
summer as the last is so material a consideration that we have
thought it desirable to communicate that fact to our brother
farmers, and to recommend their sowing a few acres of this seed

220 Experiments of Sheep-Feeding.

any time in March or the beginning of April, as a very useful
refuge from dried-up pastures late in the summer and autumn.

Cirencester, Dec. 17 tli, 1865.

Note. — In 1860 I advocated the drilling of kohl rabi, and
stated how well the crop then resisted the tcet season, yielding
about 15 tons per acre on light land.

It has never failed me since, and is, in this drt/ season, as
good or better than ever. My crop is designed for ewes and
lambs in February and March ; and my eleven acres are my
sheet-anchor for some 300 ewes, and probably 430 lambs. It was
sown between May the 19th and the middle of June : less than
2 lbs. of seed per acre was used. I have only one new hint to
give, — that rather a coarse green variety, which will carry a good
deal of top, is to be preferred for winter use. I shall certainly
act on Mr. Lawrence's suggestion, and have an early sowing
likewise for use in August. '^

P. H. Freke.

4. — Comparative Experiment on the Use of Wlteat-meal and oj
JJnseed-cahc for Fatting Sheep. 13y P. H. Freiie.

The consideration of the relative value of corn and of cake at
the present moment, induced me to trv the following experiment.
By having duplicate pens, one of Shearlings and one of Hoggetts,
I have been enabled to compare the merits of sheep of different
ages and breeds, as well as to check the results obtained. The
Hoggetts employed were improved Eastdowns of my own
breeding; the Shearlings (the produce of Southdown ewes by
Westdown rams) were bought from olf Ilsley Down on the
I9th of November last, at 42^. per head.

Two good even pens of five were selected from each breed,
neither the largest nor the smallest in the flock being taken.
One lot both of Hoggetts and Shearlings received 1 lb. of linseed-
cake per head per day; the other two lots had IJlb. of wheat-
meal and \ lb. of cotton-cake. All four lots received 1 lb. per
head per day of cut clover-hay, and as much of green food or roots
as they would eat ; at first they had drum-head cabbage ; at the
end of December weeks swedes were given instead ; and since
January 28 they have had mangold. I was surprised to find
that at first both the two pens fed with cake ate more green food
than the others, the 5 sheep consuming daily 6 stone instead of
4 stone. This difference continued till swedes were substituted
for cabbage, since which time the cousumption has been very

Experiments of Sheep- Feeding. 221

nearly equal, the Shearlings more uniformly cleaning- out their
trough than the Hoggetts. I may remark that valuable as the
cabbage is for milk, we did not think it equal even to inferior
swedes or mangold for grazing purposes.

The linseed-cake cost 10/. \0s. per ton, or l^d. per head
per week, the same amount as the wheat-meal if reckoned at \s.
per stone. The cotton-cake made an extra cost of Id. per head
per week.

When brought home from the field, each pen was weighed
together on a weigh-brldge, with the following result: —

cwts. qrs. lbs.

Cake Shearliugs 6 1 0

„ Hoggetts G 0 0

Corn Shearlings fi 1 0

„ Lambs 6 0 G

The Shearlings at this time were not fit to kill ; at the present
time it is reckoned that the sheep are nearly equally good ; that the
Hoggetts have the advantage over the Shearlings, but that there
Is no perceptible difference between the lots on corn and those on
cake. The sheep were rather disturbed by removal into new
quarters, to make room for the ewe flock, about the 24th of
January ; this slightly affected their weights on the 6th February.
The following Tables will speak for themselves : —

Sheep fed on Linseed-cake.
Shearlings.

Number.

December 26,

January 9,

January 23,

February 6,

February 20,

Total

Total Weight.

Gain.

Gain.

Gain.

Gain.

Increase.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

11)S.

lbs.

lbs.

1

141

0

Ih

4

8

21J

2

123

0

8

2

4*

14J

3

1261

OJ

10

9

3

22^

4

1351

(-1*)

5

14

1

20

5

1331

0

8

5-1-

7

201

2J

38^

34J

23J

99

Hoggetts.

1

133

51

6*

12

4h

m

2

114

3

bh

8i

6

24

3

11.5

1

7

3

5

16

4

1371

01

7

8

51

2i

5

123

1

6^

H

5J

181

11

33J

37

2Gh

108

222

Experiments of SUeep-Feeding.

SllEEl' FED ox "WUEAT-MEAL.

Shearlinsfs.

Number.

December 26,
Total Weight.

January 9, January 23, i February C, . February 20,
Gain. Gain. j Gain. 1 tiain.

Total
Increase.

1
2
3
4
5

129:V

129i
132i
124
132

3^

0

5

(-li)
3

9
6
Gi

lu

8

3^
3i

(-3)
9*

6
5
71

4
n

22

22I

23

Hi

39.^

20

29^

100^

Hoggetts.

1

121

2*

H

6

5|

20J

2

120

8i

u

1

7i

18.^

3

127

12

5

3

8§

28J

4

119

7

5

5

5;V

22J

5

134

(-1)

0

G

7|

16J

30

21

21

34^

106J

The fatting flock in the field receive 1^ lb. of wheat and
barley meal mixed half and half, and ^ lb. of cotton-cake; on
the other hand they have barley-straw chaff instead of clover-
hay. In my experiment I introduced the use of clover-hay to
adapt my proceedings to Mr. Lawes' standard diet for sheep ;
I also refrained from mixing wheat and barley, because mixtures
are as objectionable when definite results are sought for by expe-
riment, as they are beneficial in general farming practice. This
antagonism between the requirements of scientific investigation
and of approved practice is one of the difficulties that beset the
path of agricultural progress.

I am, on the whole, satisfied with my success in converting
my own produce into meat and manure, neither hoarding my
corn nor increasing the glut of a depressed market.

5. — Letter on Covered Yards. By H. S. Tho3IPSON, M.P.

To The Editob.

" My dear Sir, — You ask my opinion of covered farmyards,
especially with reference to the question of cost. I send you, by
way of reply, the following remarks, partly extracted from a
paper I wrote for the Yorkshire Agricultural Society on this

Letter on Covered Yards. 223

subject, purposely avoidins^ all details of construction, which
have been so well handled by Mr. Moscrop.

" The arguments in favour of covered yards may be stated
under the following heads : — •

"1. Health and condition of live stock,

" 2. Goodness of manure.

" 3. Economy of management.

" Under the first head it may be confidently stated that the
experience of those who have tried covered yards is uniformly in
their favour, if properly constructed. The roofs of farmyards
ought to be high, and provided with means of thorough ventila-
tion, so that the temperature within cannot rise much above that
of the outer air. Where this is the case, the stock are sheltered
but not tendered; and after several years experience of both
systems, I can speak positively to the fact that: the same kind of
stock, with the same allowance of food, are decidedly healthier,
and turn out in spring in much better condition from covered
than from open yards.

" The second head is, however, the one on which I would lay
the most stress. No farmer will dispute the assertion that
' manure is the mainstay of good farming ; ' and it is equally
undeniable, that tlie very best of manure, if exposed long enough
to the washing of rain, becomes perfectly useless for the nutrition
of plants. But it is difficult to measure the actual loss expe-
rienced during a few months of rainy weather ; and no calcula-
tion can be so satisfactory as actual trial. When first I began
to use manure made in a covered yard, it was put on for white
turnips in the usual quantity, and they were stimulated by it to
an unnaturally rapid growth and excessive size, which were very
prejudicial to their keeping qualities ; and taught me the lesson,
which has since been abundantly confirmed, that manure made
under cover is fully one-third stronger than that which has been
exposed to the rains of winter in open yards. Before trial, it
might be supposed that manure made under cover would turn
out dry and mouldy ; but if the quantity of straw used is in
reasonable proportion to the number of live stock kept, it will be
invariably found that the manure turns out in first-rate condition.
The explanation is easy, the most common cause of damage to
manure beins: that the fertilizing salts it contains are washed out
by rain as fast as they are formed by the decomposition of the
heap, and when these salts are all retained, the moisture will be
retained also.

" The only case where the advantage of covering yards is
questionable, is on a large sheep-farm to which little grazing-
land is attached. On the Wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire
such farms are numerous, and the quantity of straw grown is out

224 Letter on Covered Yards.

of all proportion to the horned stock kept. The few cattle
wintered have, therefore, to trample mountains of straw into the
semblance of manure, and without the assistance of snow or rain
it could not be accomplished, But even in these extreme cases
it may be doubted whether wintering- more cattle, and thus im-
provinof the quality of the home-made tillage, might not be more
profitable in the long run, than carting out hundreds of loads of
wetted straw, and laying out large sums in the purchase of bones,
guano, et hoc r/emis omne.

"The third head to be mentioned is the improved ec(momy of
management. In covered yards the manure is so much richer in
qualitv, and so free from weak outsides, that there is no necessity
for carting it into heaps in order to ferment it down to a uniform
mass. It is ready for use when wanted in the field ; and being
protected from sun, wind, and rain, it is safe until xcanted. All
the expense, therefore, of carting to the heap, unloading at the
lieap, and turning in the heap is entirely saved.

" The (pu'stion of cost remains to be considered. This will
vary to some extent with tlie kind of roof adopted. 1 have
ascertained by trial that a substantial roof, covered with ordinary
roofing-tiles, may be erected for 5^. per superficial yard of ground
roofed over. Each superficial yard of covered space will, on a
well-stocked farm, produce annually a cubic yard of well-made
manure, worth, if the animals be well-fed, at least 5s. ; conse-
quently, if manure made under cover be one-third better than
that made in the open air, the outlay of every 55. in roof will
produce Is. Sd. per annum, — in other words, will bear interest
at the rate of 33 per cent,, independently of the improved condi-
tion of the stock and the saving in the cartage of manure. The
accuracv of this result depends on the soundness of the assump-
tion that manure made under cover is improved in value one-
third, which is, of course, an approximation only ; and though I
am convinced of its truth in my own case, it remains to be
proved whether it will hold good when applied generally.
But whether on more extensive trial the percentage of im-
provement be found to be 20 or 30 per cent, there can be no
doubt that the improved value is sufficient to make the subject
one of great interest to both owners and occupiers of land,

"The above-mentioned cost of 5*. per square yard of area
enclosed will only hold good in those cases where the yard to be
covered is entirely surrounded by buildings, and where, conse-
quently, no new brickwork is required. On the other hand, when
a new set of buildings has to be made, the cost of the covered yard
(calculated as above) will not be all additional expense, as there
will be a considerable set-ofF in the reduced extent of the other
buildings. No open sheds for the yard-stock will now be neces-
sary, and by good management the whole ' quadrilateral ' may be

Letter on Covered Yards. 225

reduced in size. In lately erecting a new set of buildings for
a farm of about 230 acres I found that co veering a farmyard
of 90 ft. by 55 ft. enabled me so to alter the arrangement of
the other buildings that, whilst giving entire satisfaction to
the tenant, the cost of the whole building was not sensibly
increased.

" The chief value of my plan for roofing farmyards (described
by Mr. Moscrop) consists in the mode of obtaining a large pro-
portion of light without windows, ventilation without draught,
and both one and the other without expense. The principle of
ventilation is an entirely new one, and opposed to the general
theory on the subject. It is to admit the bulk of the ventilation
from above instead of below, and to secure a sufficient change of
air by having an uniform width of opening all round the upper
roof, so that there is always a current across the upper part of the
building though unfelt below. A small but sufficient opening
is left just above the heads of the animals to prevent any stagna-
tion taking place there. To any one who will take the trouble
of visiting one of my yards so constructed, I will undertake to
prove that this principle secures to its occupants complete
shelter without draught or smell, and a temperature scarcely
above that of the external air, which, until better informed, I
shall venture to call perfect ventilation.

"I am, my dear Sir, yours faithfully,

" H. S, Thompson.

« Kirhy Hall, Feb., 1865."

VOL. I. — S. S.

( 226 )

ABSTRACT REPORT OF AGRICULTURAL
DISCUSSIONS.

Meeting of Weelchj Council, Wednesday, February 15///. The Presi-
dcut, Sir E. Keiuuson, M.P., in the Chair. Mr. J. B. Lawes, of
Eotliamsted, St. Albans, delivered a Lcctui'c on the suly'ect of Town
Sewage, considered with reference to its ai^idicability and value for
agricultural pui-poses.

Lecturk and Discussion on Town Sewage.

Mr. Lawes said : The utilisation of sewage has of late occupied a
large share of public attention. During the last two sessions of Par-
liament two Committees have sat, and they have reported very volumi-
nously oil the subject. There lias also been a great deal of discussion
in newspapers ; and very recently Baron Liebig and Mr. Morton have
favoui'cd us with their views, one in a report addressed to the Lord
Mayor of London, the other in a paper read before the Society of
Ai'ts, the latter being followed by a discussion which extended over
two nights. Looking at the whole question of sewage, we cannot be
surprised at so much interest being taken in it by the population of
the towns generally, and more csjiecially by the inhabitants of London.
Immense sewage-works have lately been carried on, and as the expense
has pressed rather heavily on the ratepayers, it is not astonishing that
they shoidd listen with rather credulous ears to those who tell them
that in the sewage they possess a mine of wealth, which, if properly
worked, will repay them for all the outlay they have incurred.

Now, ten years ago I read a paper before the Society of Arts on the
composition and the utilization of the sewage of London, and it was
followed by a discussion of great interest. The question then was
whether sewage should be used in a solid or a liquid form. The
advocates for its use in a solid form were there represented, and sup-
ported their views ; but I think I may say that nearly all those who
had paid any close practical attention to' the subject of manm-es, felt
quite satisfied that the manufactm-e of a solid manure could not be
profitably carried out by a process which, while it preserved the
least valuable parts of sewage, allowed the most valuable to escape.
It required the cxpenditm-e of something like 60,000Z., at Leicester, to
prove that those who took the latter view were correct. At the
present time we have no advocates for a solid manure from sewage ;
the battle still rages, but it is whether the liquid sewage shall be
appKed in large quantities, and chiefly to grass ; or in small quantities
to arable land and to all crops '?

In a discussion of this kind, the first question that arises is
"What is sewage "? or rather, What is the composition of sewage ? If
the Eoyal Commission, of which I have been a member for some years,

Town Seicage.

227

lias done no otlier service, it has at all events rendered some benefit to
tlie country, by carefully gauging tbe sewage of Eugby. For nearly
three years the sewage of that town, which is collected in a large reser-
voir tank, has been sampled, and samples of it have been transmitted
almost weekly to Professor Way for analysis, and in a table before
you you see some of the results. The composition of sewage is,
for convenience sake, estimated by chemists according to the number
of grains of ammonia per gallon which it contains. If you look at
Table I. you will observe that in 18G1, 1862, and 1863 the composition

Table I.

Variation in the Composition of the Eugby Sewage at different times.

Ammonia.

Total Solid Matter.

!

Grains
per Gallon.

Lbs. per

1000 Tons.

Grains
per Gallon.

Lbs. per
1000 Tons.

(1 Highest

1861 1 Lowest

( Mean of 24 analyses . .

f Highest

1861-2] Lowest

( Mean of 34 analyses . .

I Highest

1862-3<| Lowest

(j Mean of 35 analyses ..

15-64
2-99
6-39

11-38
2-55
5-95

12-81
3-14

7-08

500-5

95-7

204-5

364-2

81-6

190-4

409-9
100-5
226-5

216-5
37-6
75-1

129-3
50-5
80-3

269-9

62-2

103-2

6928
1203
2405

4138
1616
2570 1

8637
1989
3302

varies very much indeed at different periods of the year, and also somewhat
in different years, the highest amount of ammonia in 1861 being 15^
grains, and the lowest about 3 ; the highest in 1862 about 11^, and the
lowest about 2^; and the highest in 1863, 12f, and the lowest 3 ; but
taking the mean of the three years, you will find that the variation is not
very great, the amounts being respectively about 5^, 6, and 7 grains. In
1862, which was the year when the amount of ammonia was lowest,
there was the greatest amount of rain; and I should observe that
Bugby is a town which has been sewered upon the modern principles.
In Table II. (p. 228) you will find that with 60 tons of water per head
per annum the sewage-water is estimated to contain 6^ grains of
ammonia per gallon ; this is the quantity which is found in the
Rugby sewage, and the water supply and rainfall are there estimated
at about 60 tons per head per annum. Further on you will see the
calculated quantity of ammonia in each gallon of sewage, where the
rainfall and water-supply amount to 70, 80, 90, and 100 tons per head
per annum. I believe the average sewage of the metropolis will
approach the latter amount.

And now comes the question. How are we to apply this sewage to
grass, or to arable land ? The authorities on the subject, those, I mean,
who have ^^Titten or spoken with any acquaintance with it, and whose
opinions may therefore be regarded as having some weight, have

Q 2

-^28 Abstract Report of Arjricultural Disci/ssjous.

almost all declared that in their oinnion the difficulties attending" tho
systematic application of sewage to arable land are so great that it is
only ajiplicable on any comprehensive scale to grass.

Table II.

Ammoxia per Gallon, and estimated Y:iluc of the Coxstituexts in one Ton of
Sewage at dillerent Dilutions, reckoning 12i- lbs. of Ammonia per Hiad
per Annum from all Sources.

Ammonia f- . n^

per Gallon. , ^ "l"e per Ton.

If CO tons of fluid per head per annum

70 ,, ,, .,

80 ,, ,, ,,

90 ,, ,, ,,

100 ,, ,, ,,

Ilofmann and Witt — mixed sample of dry weather"!

sewage from Savoj'-street sewer /

The same if diluted witli two-thirds its volume of) A-n-^

rainfall and subsoil water J, '^

Grains. ' d.

6-51 1-67

5-58
4-S8
4-34
3-91

8-21

1-43
1-25
1-11
1-00

2-11
1'27

Baron Licbig has, indeed, expressed a different oi)inion, and I ^^^ll
give you his exact words, because I am going to niake some remarks
on his views. Baron Liebig is a great chemical authority, he is a very
great man, and his words deserve careful attention. Ho says, " Tho
full value of sewage and of its sei)arate constituents can only be got at
when it is employed on arable land." He then goes on to show why
sewage cannot be applied jiropcrly on grass-land. He assumes first of
all that on sandy soils, such soils as it is projiosed should receive the
sewage of London — I mean the Maplin Sands — you would require
to jiut on twelve times as much of the constituents in sewage as you
coiild take off in a crop ; for example, that if you wanted to get a crop
of 4 tons of hay, you must put on the land the ingredients of 48 tons
of hay ; after which, he says, that in order to take off 4 tons of hay
annually, you must put on the land 2430 tons of sewage per acre. This
being the quantity which he considers will contain the ingredients
removed annually by the 4 tons of hay. Now, I should like to ask
any agriculturist present whether if you put on the ingredients of a
crop you can take them all oft' in this way V For instance, if you apply
1 cwt. of guano, can you at once take off 11 bushels of wheat and
its proportion of straw ? The manfacturers of ai'tificial manures will
siipi:)ly you with tlie ingredients of a bu.shel of wheat, including
ammonia, for a shilling. If you could take off a bushel of wheat
directly the ingredients were applied, fanning would indeed be a very
good business, and the farmer would then have no difficulty in selling
wheat for 5s. per bushel ; but on this point theory says one thing and
practice another.

I am not surprised that the Lord Mayor of London, and the Com,
Coal, and Finance Committee of the City should be pleased at the value
placed upon this sewage by Baron Liebig. They say, " We are losing

Town Seioage. 229

a very valuable property ;" but tbey forget that it is tbe agricultui'ist
who bas to decide wbat is its value. This is not a question of science
merely ; it is a question of practice with science ; and a man of science
cannot ensure that if you aj^ply certain ingredients to tbe soil, you
will be able to take off tbe anticipated crop. At Eugby we seldom
got more tban 1 ton of bay from 1000 tons of sewage, and according
to tbis we sbould require 4000 tons of tbe Eugby sewage to produce
4 tons of bay Of tbe London sewage, if it is found to be as diluted as
I estimate it to be, 6800 tons would be required for tbe same purpose,
altbougb Baron Liebig says tbat 2430 tons would be sufficient.

Let us now consider for a moment tbe application of sewage on
arable land. Baron Liebig's view is tbis : " You agriculturists are,"
be says, " great robbers ; you laiow notbing about yoiu- own business ;
you get oil-cakes and manures from all parts of tbe world, robbing
other soils, and at the same time you let all tbe sewage of London run
into tbe sea ; while robbing other soils you are impoverishing your
own ;" and, he goes on to say, " if you will only mix the sewage of the
metropolis daily with 275 tons of superphosphate of lime, or nearly
100,000 tons a year, you will have a manure just suited to arable land,
because on arable land you only take off part of the produce of tbe
soil ; while in the case of grass land, when you make yoiu" hay you take
it all away." In theory it may be all very well to say that you
sbould apply the sewage to arable land in such quantities as will
compensate the exhaustion due to tbe removal of corn ; but in practice
the thing is impossible. Examine the question with regard to phos-
phoric acid — one of tbe most important constituents to retm-n to the
soil — I estimate that if you were cultivating a farm on the foiu'-
course system, and removed from it 30 bushels of wheat and 35
bushels of barley per acre, and were to consume all the other crops
on the land, not purchasing cake or artificial maniu'cs, the waste thus
caused might be supplied by tbe application of 7 lbs. of pbosiDhoric
acid per acre per annum ; if you were to distribute tbe sewage of
London so as to balance such waste, you must distribute it over
eleven million acres, or about tbe whole quantity of arable land of
England.

I believe tbe Corn and Coal Committee think tbat tbe sewage
of London sbould be distributed over an area of five or six bim-
tlred thousand acres. I do not know why tbat quantity has been
chosen ; but it would supply between foiu' and five hundred tons per
acre, which is not a very large dressing. To distribute even tbat
amount would require an enormous capital, and the thing would not
answer unless agriculturists could afford to pay 2cl. per ton. The
advocates of these schemes always speak of the price at which they
could afford to sell, instead of wbat the farmer could afford to give.
Now, tbe question is, could agricultiuists afford to give 2d. a ton for
sewage ?

I know there are some who say tbat the Eugby experiments are
a complete failiu-e. Tbey say tbat we have converted the Eugby
land into a comj)lete swamp, though we have only used 3000 tons of
sewage in some places, GOOO in others, and 9000 in others. But it is

230

Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

impossible to please these gentlemen unless we take off the land in a
single crop all the ingredients we put on in sewage. That this is quite
impossible is clearly shown both by common experience and by the
results of careful experiments made at Eothamstcd with both natural
and artificial manures, and the whole question of profit tiu'ns upon
that. At Eugby the tenants of the land were quite willing to supply
us \\ath sewage at rates Avhich averaged Id. per ton the year roimd;
as they found by experience that they could not get a penny out
of it.

Table III.

Sewage applied, and Green Grass obtained, per Acre per Aumira, in Experi-
ments made at Kugby.

Skasoxs 18G1, 18G2, and 1863.

Season.

i'Lor 1.
Unsewagcd.

Plot 2.
3000 Tons Sewage.

Ploi 3.'
6000 Tons Sewage.

I'Lor 4.
9000 Tons Sewage.

AveraRe

Five-Acre Field.

Tons.

cwH.

qni. lb».

Tons.

cwto.

qre. lbs.

Tons. CK-ts

qrs.

lb«.

Tons.

cwta.

qr».

lbs.

1861

9

5

3 5

14

16

3 8

27 1

0

10

32

16

3

8

18G2

8

3

1 10

27

18

0 18

84 10

0

19

.•J2

9

2

22

lS(i3

4

18

3 13

22

5

0 11

34 18

1

27

37

0

2

5

Average

7

9

1 9

21

13

1 12

32 3

1

0

34

2

1

12

Ten-Acre Field.

1861

1802
18G3

8
16

8

18 0 l.-) 1.5 IG 3 2 22 15

10 0 2.5 27 11 0 20 32 2

0 3 19 25 .5 1 8 30 11

2

1

2

12
14
12

26
31
34

13

12
19

3

1
1

12
20
21

11

3 0 10 I 22 17 3 1

28 9 3 13 31 1 3 1&

Average of the Two Fields.

1861, G2, & 63

9 6 0 24

22 5 2

30 6 2 6

32 12 0 IS

Season 1864 (without Sewage).

Five-Acre Field.

1864

1 14 3 26 2 17 2 20 5 12 0 18 5 13 3 20

Ten-Acre Field.

1864

12 0

12 1 15 7 4 0 9 G 11 0 11

Toivn Sewage, 231

If you look at Table III. yon vnW. see wliat was tlie average amount
of produce wliich we got in three years. Wlien we put on tlie land
3000 tons of sewage, we obtained about 2 If tons of produce in one
case, and in another nearly 23 tons ; from 6000 tons of sewage we
got in one case 32 x tons of produce, and in another 285- ; and from
9000 tons of sewage we got only 34 tons of produce in one case, and
only 31 in another. As we increased the amount of scAvage, the
amount of produce did not increase in equal proportion. In refer-
ence to all kind of manming, two and two do not make four, or
anything like it.

If 5000 tons of sewage were used on the acre, the grass, when
converted into milk, shoidd produce, at %d. per gallon, from 30Z. to
35Z. per acre. I think it possible, therefore, taking the Rugby sewage
as the standard of quality, that a farmer who gave something like
a halfpenny per ton might obtain a profit, though I should hesitate
to affirm that he would do so if he gave much more.

There are some places in the immediate vicinity of large towns
where the land is very favourably situated for the application of
sewage, and such cases are of course favourable as regards the ques-
tion of a profitable return to the towns. Taking the average of
conditions, I don't think a farmer could do very wrong in giving a
halfpenny per ton ; but he would do very wrong if he were to give
2d., or even a Id. the year roimd, because the experience of all those
who have used sewage is against its being worth any such sum.

As regards the question whether sewage can be profitably applied
on arable land, I would observe that it has been more or less a faihu-e
wherever it has been so used. At Alnwick, Eugby, and Watford,
those who applied it for that purpose have almost ceased doing so on
account of the difficulties and expense to which they have been sub-
jected. It cannot be applied to arable land except by the hose, and
the wear and tear of the hose, and the cost of labour, have proved to
be very serious.

In conclusion, I would advise that sewage to be used by open nms
for grass land in quantities of four or five thousand tons per acre,
and as far as practicable to produce milk. Under such circumstances
I repeat that I do not think a farmer could suffer much harm if
he gave a halfpenny a ton for it ; but I should not advise him to give
more. (Hear, hear.)

Dr. VoELCKER said the views of Mr. Lawes on this subject appeared
to him perfectly sound, and in accordance with agricultiu'al experience.
That gentleman alluded to the fact that it was vain to hope to recover
at once all the manuring constituents which were put in the land
through the medium of sewage. Sewage did not stand alone in that
respect ; every other kind of manure presented the same peculiarity.
Whether they used the most concentrated artificial manures, such as
guano or superphosphates, or whether they used common stable-dung,
in order to get a remunerative crop they must in some cases put in the
land five times, in others ten times, in others even a hundred times as
much as they took out of it. If a farmer were to put not more manure
on his land than is taken out of it in a crop of wheat or roots, he would

232 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

soon be ruined. It had been asserted that soils had a certain fixed
power of absorbing sewage manure ; but he contended that the power
was not fixed, but depended on a gi-eat variety of cii'cumstances, and,
amongst others, on the concentration of the liquid. If, for instance,
they were to express the absorptive power of a particular soil of known
composition by a symbol, the value of that symbol would alter for every
degi-ee of dilution. The concentration of the liquid, therefore, affected
the absorption. Generally sjjcaking, soils took up more fertilizing
matter from concentrated than from dilute liquids ; and a highly dilute
liquid would take out of some soils more of certain constituents — for
example, potash — than it brought upon them. This he proved in the
case of Alderman Mechi's heavy clay-land. He thought experience
was in favour of applying large doses of sewage to sandy soils, or soils
which were very poor in fertilizing substances. For a long time he
maintained that sandy soils were grateful for any kind of maniu'c, and
for any quantity of sewage. If a small quantity were put on them,
they felt the cfiect ; if a larger quantity Avcre applied, the result was
better ; while what many might consider an excessive dose yielded the
most rem\merative crop. When the soil had been thoroughly soaked,
a large store of fertilizing matters was brouglit by degrees to the sur-
face, and with a growing grass-crop was put into circulation. Large
quantities of water were tlirown off by the grass leaves, a circulation
of the liquid took place through capillary attraction, and the sewage
was brought from a considerable depth to the sui-face to strengthen
and nom'ish the plant. Hence it was that grass-crops were so ma-
terially benefited by the use of dilute liquid-manui-es like sewage. As
regarded arable land, he was confident that farmers could not, except
under very special circiunstances, ai)ply sewage beneficially. There
might be exceptional cases ; for instance, for the growth of mangold-
wui'zel, in large quantities liquid-manm-e in the shape of sewage might
in very warm and dry summers be used with advantage. The soaking
of poor soils in very dry springs might also be of use for corn-crops,
not excepting wheat. I3ut when they had to deal with such a largo
bulk of liquid manm'C, they must not regard exceptional cases, but
make provision for ordinary ones ; and he was quite confident that
sewage would never be largely used for arable soils or as a manure
like farmyard-manure. He woidd only add, that if farmers wished to
use supcrphosj^hate, they should put it on the soil and leave the rain
to wash it in, and not put it fii'st into the sewage, and then apply both
together to that land.

The Earl of Longford said : Mr. Lawcshad observed that he thought
farmers might afford to give a halfpenny per ton for sewage. He
should like to know whether he thought that sewage could be delivered
at that rate ?

Mr. J. C. Morton said he had within a few days received letters on
this subject from thi-ce correspondents. One was from Mr. Campbell,
of Eugby, saying that in the paper which he had lately read before
the Society of Arts justice had hardly been done to Mr. Lawes's sewage
experiments at Eugby, and declaring his entire confidence in those
experiments, and his j^ersonal knowledge of the fitness of the methods

Tovm Sewage. 233

used, both agriculturally and chemically, for arriving at a trustworthy
result. Again, Mr. Crockford, farming in Sussex, had pointed out to
him an inaccuracy of Baron Liebig's, inasmuch as in his recent esti-
mate he had taken credit for the full ammonia power of urea in the
sewage, while in the case of guano ho had not allowed the ui-ea any
agricultural value whatever. That was clearly an inconsistency, and
one which struck a damaging blow at the conclusions of the Baron.
Another correspondent had told him that during the past year he had
applied in a garden 300 gallons of diluted blood every week, and that
he had seen no effect whatever, except when he had first mixed the
blood with a dung-heap and left it to ferment. That seemed to show
that sewage-manure should be applied in the state in which it would
already contain food for plants, and not left to decompose in the soil.
All the evidence on this subject showed that sewage shotdd be applied
to sandy land, and applied in such large quantities that plants would
be able to take whatever they required ; and he thought the result of
the application of blood-manure which he mentioned suj^ported that
view.

Dr. Ckisp thought that we were very much in the dark on this sub-
ject, not having sufficient statistics for oiu- guidance. He believed
that the investigation was yet in its infancy, and that hereafter all the
sewage, by proper combinations, would be made available for agricul-
tm'al purposes. He thought that it w^as a matter of common sense,
for all animals, without exception, derived their nourishment directly
or indirectly from the vegetable kingdom, and it was intended that
their excreta, as well as their bodies in various forms of matter, should
return to the earth. The first speaker said that sewage could not be
applied to arable land, and yet he told them that sandy land would
bear any amount of it, which appeared to him an inconsistency.
There was in England a vast quantity of sandy land ; he knew vast
districts where, as was sometimes said, " the seed of one field was blown
into another," and he apprehended that on such land sewage would be
very beneficial. As a medical man, he wished to say a word or two upon
the bearing of the sewage question on piiblic health. He did not go the
same length as his friend Dr. Cobbold, who supposed that the germs of
entozoa would be disseminated to a fearful degree, and who apprehended
dire results if human excreta were spread over the land ; he ventru'ed
to say that one worm prevailed to a great extent ; he alluded to the
oxyuris vermicularis. That worm directly it left the human body
emitted its eggs by tens of thousands, and it might not be long before
those eggs found their way into the animal system. It might be
impossible to tell precisely what effect the distribution of sewage
would have on the public health, but the question was certainly one
of vast importance to the community at large, and he hoped that it
would not be overlooked. The eggs of this worm (the oxyuris) differed
materially from those of the worm in the lungs and windpipe of sheep
{strongylus filaria), for in the latter the young worms generally escaped
from the egg at the time of extrusion, or soon after, but in the worm
in question (the human entozoon) the eggs were immature, and it was
a long time before they attained the vermiform state.

234 Abstract Report of Atjricultural Discussions.

Mr. Fbere said that farmyards were not exempt from dangers of
the same kind as those which had just been mentioned. He shoukl
like to know whether Dr. Crisp apprehended some new danger ; and
whether the eggs in question were destructible by fermentation ? *

Dr. Crisp replied that the eggs to which he alluded never entered
farmyard-manm-e, and that he had no data to guide him mth respect
to the action of fei'mentation upon them.

The Chaiuman said : Being obliged to leave the meeting to attend
a deputation, he wished to say one or two words before doing so. He
thought great value was to be attached to the discussions which took
place on that imjiortant subject. The lecture of Mr. Lawcs, and one
which had lately been delivered on the same subject by Mr. Morton,
were of great interest, tending as tliey did to prevent exaggerated
notions from being taken up, either on the one side or on the other, by
ratepayers, who might be led to expect immense returns from the sale
of their sewage, or by farmers, who might expect enormous profits
from the use of sewage. It had just been remarked that they
were still much in the dark about this question. To a certain
extent that might be the case ; but still important and careful
experiments, extending over two or thi-ee years, had been made at
Kugby and elsewhere. He himself had seen the Edinburgh meadows,
and he could bear out the testimony of Mr. Morton, that so far as they
had proceeded, nothing could liave been more successfid, 350 acres of
land having proved sufficient to feed 2000 cows. It appeared to him
that there were very good reasons why the Edinburgh experiments
should have been more successful than some others. The soil was
peculiarly fitted for the experiments, being of a lightish character;
and the circumstance of the ground sloping as it did was strongly in
its favour, inasmuch as that prevented the sewage from remaining on
any spot long enough to sour the herbage on that spot. Any person
who had a manure-di'ain opening into a field must have observed that
the grass was more apt to become rank just at the outlet of the drain
than in any other part ; and an overdose of manm-e remaining in a
place where it was stagnant was almost sure to have a bad effect on the
quality of the grass. The question had been mooted, whether ploughed
land might generally be brought under the influence of sewage. He
did not think Mr. Lawes said it could not. He merely quoted Baron
Liebig's authority on the matter, and said, in opposition to it, what he
(the Chairman) believed was true, that, generally speaking, grass-land
Avould most benefit by sewage. In Belgium he had seen clovers on
light land brought forward extremely well through the application of
sewage ; and he had seen an enormous quantity of potatoes produced
by the same means on land of that description. It was possible that
sewage might by degrees be applied with advantage on some of the
sandy ploughed soils of this country ; but on the whole, he thought it

* The Chinese use human excreta to a gi-eat extent. The Belgians, too, use
the sewage largely as a manure, but I am not aware that either of these people are
more troubled with entozoa than their neighbours ; but I speak guardedly upon
this subject. The worm spoken of [oxijurk] does not directly affect human life,
but there were others of greater import. — Dr. C.

Toicn Sewage. 235

most probable tliat the view entertained by those who Lad paid most
attention to tlie subject, namely, that sewage was most adapted for grass-
lands, wbuld ultimately prevail. Perhaps one great advantage of that
discussion would be that it might lead those who now insisted so much
on the great value of sewage to make arrangements for lowering the
price, so that experiments might be made on a large scale.

Mr. AcLAND, M.P., thought that the experience gained in water-
meadows might be turned to good account in discussing this question
of sewage, and expressed a hope that, with a view to tlie enlargement
of that experience, the Council would direct that further experiments
be made, to be recorded in the Journal. In the West of England,
farmers were at present quite in the dark as to whether the benefit of
the irrigation of their meadows was due to solid manure or liquid
manure, or indeed any manm-e at all, contained in the water. So far
as his own experience went, it tended in the direction pointed out by
Mr. Lawes. A tenant of his father's applied sewage in an elaborate
manner to his mangold-wurzel and his swedes, but he did not think the
results were very encouraging ; and certainly the general experience
of farmers in the West of England showed that anything like a dilu-
tion of farmyard-manure was useful on grass, and not on arable land.
The exjieriments of Mr. Huxtable led to the conclusion that sewage
should be aj)plied chiefly by gravitation, and that if it were applied
by any more expensive process, it v/as extremely doubtful whether a
jienny or a halfjDcnny j)er ton could be got back.

Sir John Johnstone, MP., said he understood Mr. Lawes to contend
that sewage was especially applicable for rye-grass and other strong
feeders, and on that j)oint he quite agreed with him. In the case of a
large lunatic asylum in the vicinity of York — he himself was chairman
of the visiting committee — the superintendent had endeavoured to
utilise the sewage on the arable part of the grounds attached to the
institution. The land in question was under spade cultivation to the
extent of 24 acres, and the soil was a rather sandy one. The sewage
was not exactly liquid, everything in the shajje of deposits being care-
fully preserved and afterwards applied with hose to the soil. On
that land there had been grown an abundance of mangold-wurzel,
potatoes, cabbages, and strawberries. No doubt the successful appli-
cation of liquid manure in that case resulted in a great degree from
constant care, spade-cultivation, and patient laboiu". There are about
550 persons residing in the establishment, and 25,000 gallons of spring-
water, from the kitchen, the washhouse, the bath, &c., are daily finding
their exit. A large portion of the sewage is put on other land — old
grass — for the hay-crop.

Ml-. Thos. Scott said he was well acqixainted with the efiects of
sewage irrigation in England, Ireland, and Scotland, and had made many
experiments himself, and — in common, he believed, with all practical
men— he had arrived at the conclusion that flooding was the only pro-
fitable mode of ap^jlying sewage. Nothing, he believed, had done so
much to mislead the Corporation of London, on this subject, as the
being furnished with mere analyses of the constituents of sewage.
Some years ago, having the management of an estate of 1000 acres

238 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

at Wimbledon, including a lake of upwards of 20 acres, lie laid
down pipes for 6 acres of gi-ass-land, which lie " sperged " with lake-
water, and at the same time he applied the same process to 6 acres of
grass-land in another part, with sewage-water, his object being to see
what would be the difierencc between the two ; and the result was that
the lake-water produced as much eiFect as the liquid sewage. (Hear,
hear.) The laboiu* of applying the sewage, including interest on
plant, was about 38s. per acre per annum, and the extra value of the
produce was estimated at only 32s. The whole sewage was now
applied profitably to about 10 acres, by flooding, instead of to 125
acres, to which it was originally intended to apply it by a contoui-
channel, which he had foi-med upwards of a mile long. The original
intention of this irrigation was simply to intercept the sewage of
Wimbledon from an ornamental lake on a residential estate, as we now
desire to divert it from all our rivers and streams, and even from our
ditches ; and, by double draining, even the stiflest soils can always be
made a filtering medium for this i)urpose, sometimes with a profit, and
invariably with a successful sanitary result.

Ml". Fawcett said : Having some years ago incurred considerable
expense in constructing tanks for the purpose of saving the liquid
manure of his farmyard, and having afterwards iipjilied it, especially
on grass-land, he wished to give the results. When he ajiplied that
liquid manure during wet weather to a reasonable extent on grass-laud,
he foimd it very beneficial ; but wlien he put it on grass-land in dry
weather, and particularly if the weather were hot, it bm-nt and destroyed
the gi'ass, and inflicted great loss. Even taking into account the
nmnber of wet days that they had in this climate from the beginning
of the year to the end, there was a very considerable period during
which liquid manm-o coidd not be applied to grass-land. On that
point he spoke from experience, and not from any theoretic ideas.
They could not possibly api)ly sewage in hot diy weather without doing
serious injury to the grass.

Lord Feveusham (who had succeeded Sir E, Kerrison in the chair
after his retirement) said he believed it was well known that liquid
manure should always be applied in di-ipping weather.

Mr. Fawcett said he found that the number of days on which he could
apply liquid manure was comparatively few, and the result was that he
gave up applying it because he found it unprofitable. A gentleman
had remarked that he thought it might be applied to sandy soils to
any extent beneficially. He had tried that, and had found that such
was not the case ; for where his men ajiplied it to mangold-wm-zel or
turnips, or any yoimg plants, it killed them. It is also an important
point to observe that if liquid manure be applied to a very large
extent on grass-land, even in wet weather, the gi'ass produced is of
so coarse a character that neither cattle nor sheep ■wall readily eat it.
In short, there are many practical reasons why the use of sewage is
improfitable. The farm to which he had alluded is his o\vn property,
situate in Westmoreland, where there is a fair quantity of rain ; he
mixed some of the sewage with once or tmce its bulk, of water, and
having tried it with various kinds of grass, and imder various circum-

Toion Sewage. 237

stances, he never found any benefit unless it were put on the land in
wet weather.

Mr. Blackburn said his experience with regard to liquid farmyard-
manure was entirely opposed to that of Mr. Fawcett. He had found
that the warmer the weather was when it was applied, the greater was
the amount of the crop. He had selected such grasses as were most
suited for the application of liquid manui-e ; as regarded warm
weather, it was a mere question of dilution.

Mr. Fawcett observed that he had been speaking of ordinary mea-
dow-grasses.

Mr. Blackburn said ordinary meadow-grasses did not appear to him
adapted for irrigation, on account of the enormous waste. They do
not grow upright, and consequently the lower leaves are excluded from
the air, and became yellow; whereas, upright-growing grasses allow
the air to get underneath. In Mr. Scott's distribution of sewage at
Wimbledon by hose and jet, the mode he adopted of driving it through
the air in a thin jet would be the most effectual means of creating smell,
wasting the ammonia, and losing power. He woidd be glad to hear
from Mr. Lawes whether the value of the sewage rises as the pro-
portion of water diminishes.

Mr. Lawes : Yes.

Mr. Blackburn : If a given quantity of sewage contained only
twenty tons of water, would it bo three times as valuable as if it con-
tained sixty ?

Mr. Lawes : More than that.

Mr. Blackburn said, that being so, it would be well for towns to
take some measure for preventing the present excessive waste of water,
and to turn all the surface water and subsoil drainage from the sewers
into the natural channels.

Mr. Lawes : That is a question for the towns, not for agriculturists.

On the motion of Lord Feversham, seconded by Mr. Scott, a vote of
thanks was given to Mr. Lawes for his lecture.

Mr. Lawes, after acknowledging the vote, proceeded to reply briefly
to some of the remarks made in the course of the discussion. He said :
Of course, in discussing the subject of sewage, they must take the
sewage as they found it, and also assume that it was to be used con-
tinuously, summer and winter, day and night. Under other circum-
stances they might put a totally different value upon it. In the case
of water-meadows — a subject referred to by Mr. Acland — there ^^'as a
clear liquid ; but if they analysed it, they would find the kind of in-
gredients which were beneficial to jilants. One gentleman seemed to
think that some day there would bo found some means of using sewage
more profitably on arable land. It had been tried and tried and tried,
without any good residt. Lord Essex, after using it largely upon
arable land, had ceased to use it. Lord Robert Montagu and other
gentlemen had spent a good deal of time in declaring, before the Society
of Arts, that the Eugby experiments were a failure. It was all very
well to say that ; but he could affirm that the produce obtained at
Rugby from a given amount of sewage was very much greater than that
obtained at Edinbui'gh. He was satisfied that the produce from 1000

238 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

tons of sewage far exceeded that obtained from tlie same quantity of
sewage at Ediubm-gli ; and if tliose gentlemen wlio proposed to take
the London sewage to the Maplin Sands calculated upon getting more
than was got at Kugby, in some of the most favourable exj)eriments they
might find themselves mistaken. He did not deny that it would
be quite possible, by means of a hose and jet, to have obtained a
greater produce of grass, and more milk from a given weight of grass
if every particle of grass had been cut the moment it was ready, re-
gardless of all practical considerations ; but such a result would only
mislead agricultm-ists. The object of the Rugby experiments was to
obtain scientific acciu-acy in all that related to the gauging and analysis
of the sewage, the weights of the grass 'and milk, and a practical
result in that part which related to the cutting and consumption of the
food.

Mr. AcLAND, M.P., said he should be sorry if it went forth on Mr.
Lawcs's authority that there was nothiug more to be learnt by a care-
ful study of the phenomena of irrigation. He for one was by no means
prepared to admit that ; and he believed that the effect of irrigation was
not exactly in proj)ortion to the amount of manui'ial matter contained
in the water. Mr. Pusey's opinion was that in many cases the eft'ect
of ii'rigation was chiefly due, not to the maniirial matter contained in
water, but to temperatm-c ; Mr. Eobcrt Smith's opinion tended in tlie
same direction ; and there was a great deal of difiiculty floating in
men's minds on that subject, which could only be removed by investi-
gation on the part of the authorities in such matters. Some time ago
Mr. Lawes told liim tliat he intended to investigate the subject.

Mr. Lawes said he had intended to do so, but imfortunately he lived
25 miles from London ; and one effect of the Artesian system was to
dry up the springs in his neighbourhood. He believed, however, it
would be found that the action of water was due princijially to the in-
gredients contained in it, though the enormous amount of water used
was apt to make one fancy that that was not the case. But he agreed
with Mr. Acland, that it is very desirable that the subject should be
further investigated.

( 239 )

XIX. — The Management of Sheep Stock on Heavy and Light Land.
By John Coleman.

Peize Essay.

This Is certainly a most important subject at a moment when,
from the low price of corn, it is evident that the English farmer
must increase his live-stock, and look for profit rather from
this source than from his grain. This country, with its humid
climate and great variety of soils, seems peculiarly adapted for
the growth of wool and mutton — the meat best suited to the taste
of the English people, and less subject to foreign competition
than beef — while the prospects of our trade encourage us to
anticipate high prices in meat of all kinds. It is, therefore, of
the highest importance for every one of us to examiiie into, and
compare his own management with that of others, so as to ascer-
tain whether he is pushing this part of his business to the utmost,
whether his practice is scientific and economical, and whether
he is making the most of the opportunities at command ; or, to
enter more into details, he must see that he breeds the sheep
which are best suited to the climate and soil, that the food and
treatment they receive are calculated to bring the highest return,
and that as many are kept as is consistent with profit. We have
only to look around us to feel satisfied that there is great variety
of practice even under very similar conditions, and that there
frequently exists a lamentable ignorance of those natural laws
which cannot be outraged with impunity.

In discussing this subject I propose to treat first of the manage-
ment of sheep on light soils, because these may be considered
their natural habitat ; and as many points to be described will
apply equally to sheep on heavy or light soils, I shall not repeat
such matter when speaking of the second part of the subject.

Kind of Sheep.

This is a question so dependent upon local circumstances, that
it cannot be decided without reference to special localities.
Generally speaking the native sheep of a district have points
of adaptation, the result of acclimatizing influences, that render
them more suitable, when improved by care and judgment (and
sometimes when crossed), than any totally different race would
prove ; hence we find in all the great sheep districts a tolerably
distinct type of sheep, and these are only blended together in
what may be called border counties. However imperfect such
flocks may appear, considered simply as specimens of sheep,
they possess qualifications which render them of infinite value

VOL. I. — S. S. K

240 The Management of Sheep Stoch

in the peculiai' country they inhabit. Sheep bred upon the
Romney Marshes, are an example of this : crosses with more
refined breeds have been repeatedly tried, but have been aban-
doned, since the produce invariably lost somewhat of the hardy
character which renders them so peculiarly suitable to that exposed
country.

At the present day our aim is to combine plenty of wool,
weight of carcase, aptitude to feed, and good quality of flesh —
points that are not united in any of the old distinct breeds.
Thus, wool and carcase are found in such long-woolled breeds
as Leicesters, Lincolns, and Cotswolds, but the quality of the
flesh is so inferior as to limit the chief demand for such mutton
to our manufacturing districts. The Southdown gives us the
perfection of quality, but the frame is small and the fleece light,
and such animals, except in a limited district, are not profitable
farmer's stock. For the production of mutton and wool on soils
favourable for sheep culture, breeds derived from a cross of the
Long and Short-wools — such as the Shropshire, the Oxfordshire,
and the Down Leicester sheep — will generally prove most pro-
fitable. Care and judgment is, however, required to maintain
the form and character of breeds so comparatively recent ; still,
under good management, they will probaljly continue to increase.

The Shropshire sheep are peculiarly valuable in the West
Midland Counties, and are rapidly increasing over that con-
siderable area ; they follow the Down rather than the Long-
wool in character, possessing a moderately heavy fleece, of a
close, thick texture, admirably adapted to protect them from
the weather; they are very hardy, prolific, and produce a fine
quality of mutton. The Oxfordshire sheep exhibit more of the
Long-wool character, with less symmetry ; they are larger, with
fatter backs, and more open and longer wool ; they are hardy,
and moderately prolific; and are well suited to the arable soils
of Oxfordshire and the adjoining counties ; these sheep were
originally derived from a cross of the Cotswold and Hamp-
shire Down ; they come to maturity early, and, when well
done from birth, come out at from 12 to 14 months old,
weighing 20 lbs. a quarter, and cutting 7 to 8 lbs. of wool.

In the drier climate, and in the lighter soils of the Eastern
Counties, we find a great varietv of cross-bred sheep, many of
which trace back to the old Norfolk black-faced sheep. To quote
from a recent writer in the ' ]Mark-lane Express,' " Though the
pure-bred Norfolks are never seen, traces of the old blood are to be
found in more than half the flocks of the county. The rem<ain-
ing qualities of the breed which are perpetuated are not to be
despised. They impart a great frame, hardihood, and strength
of constitution, and wonderful milking properties." When we

on Heavy and Light Land. 241

add to the above the early maturity and heavy jacket resulting
from the influence of Long-wool blood — not pure Leicester, but
Cotswold or improved Lincoln — we have, as might be expected,
a very selling description of sheep. The Down Leicesters are in
some instances preferred ; their great aptitude for fattening
renders them valuable, but they have not the size, hardy charac-
ter, or weight of wool which cause the cross-bred sheep above
described to find such general favour with the tenant-farmers
of Norfolk. In the Lothians the first cross between the Cheviot
and Leicester is generally considered to pay better than any-
thing else.

Since no general rule can be laid down where so much must
depend upon soil, climate, &c., we may remark generally
that, other things being equal, that sheep will pay best that
grows the greatest amount of flesh on a given quantity of food,
and comes to maturity in the shortest time ; but it must be
remembered that in proportion as the kindly qualities of an
animal are developed, its strength of constitution and ability to
stand hard treatment is lessened, and therefore the amount of
cultivation of our sheep in any district must depend in great
measure upon the care and attention which we can bestow upon
them.

A Breeding Flock.

Light arable farms, or mixed arable and grass-land farms, are
most suitable for a breeding flock, whether kept alone, or together
Avith a feeding flock. It is needless to prove that a breeding
flock must here pay better than working dry stock, because a
review of the prices of store stock, both sheep and cattle, during
the last few years, will show that, too often, the breeder comes in
for the lion's share of the profits. Even if at the present moment
the two courses were equally profitable, it would still be our duty
and interest to practise breeding on suitable land, if we duly
regard the rapidly increasing wants of the country. Unfor-
tunately we have no statistics to refer to as to the actual number of
breeding sheep kept in the country, and their comparative increase
from year to year, and, in the absence of such tests, we are met
by most conflicting evidence. The probability is that we have
slowly increased, especially during the last few years, in conse-
quence of the great improvements in Highland farming ; but that
this increase has not been at all proportionate to our wants, and
that in many instances a much heavier stock may be kept with
advantage, is beyond question.

Hitherto farmers have supposed that a bellyful of turnips was
necessary for a breeding animal, and have based their calcu-
lations on their stock of roots that were to be thus wasted.

R 2

242 The Management of Sheep Stock

The past winter has taught us to give these roots in a healthier
form, eking out the supply by a nice admixture of other food
supplied in a palatable form. I have lately inspected a flock
of Hampshire Down ewes that did not have a root before
lambing. They ran on grass land during the day, being hurdled
at night, so as to dress and improve the pasture. Morning and
night they got trough-food, consisting of straw and hay-chafF,
two-thirds of the former to one-third of the latter; bruised oats,
and palm-nut meal ; the cost of the artificial food amounted to
2|rf. a head weekly ; not one ewe died during the winter, and I
never saw animals in a more promising state for lambing. This
subject will be more fully entered upon when discussing the
management of the ewe.

A flock kept for breeding fat stock should be closely culled,
so as to be always young; 3 or 4 lambs from each ewe is suffi-
cient. The draft ewes are thus always good in the mouth, and
vigorous, and will readily feed, and come out at little expense,
equal in value to the young ewes that take their place, instead of
being got rid of at a sort of casualty price, when old and broken-
mouthed. Then, again, a young flock will stand trying circum-
stances much better than old crones. The lambs will come
stronger, and grow lustier; indeed, there is every reason in
favour of this system. The only exception is in favour of very
valuable animals kept for breeding males. In such cases a
favourite ewe is often put to the ram as long as she can keep life
together ; and no doubt this is right, as some ewes prove them-
selves wonderful mothers. In a flock of 200 we should introduce
50 to 60 shearling ewes annually, to re])lacc the regular draft and
any unsound or barren animals. Great care should be exercised
in examining the flock to see that all the ewes that have win-
tered badly, and not done their lambs well, be withdrawn.

Choice of Sires.

There are many points connected with ram-breeding which
would be out of place in this essay, which treats of ordinary
flocks ; yet, even for these, the importance of procuring good
males to secure symmetrical form and quality of flesh, is un-
doubted. The recent high price of long wool has tempted
some flockmasters to neglect the form, in their eagerness to
secure a heavy jacket. Let us remember that the greatest
master of the art of sheep-breeding built up the beautiful
Dishley sheep out of the coarse, ill-formed Leicester, principally,
if not entirely, by selecting those animals that exhibited quality
and symmetry. We must look, therefore, that we have the neat,
well-shaped head, moderately full neck, oblique shoulders, wide
chest, straight back, springing ribs, good fore and hind flank,

071 Heavy and Light Land. 243

meaty twist, «Scc. &c. On such a frame Ave must have a springing
pelt and a good jacket. To obtain this we must not grudge
15 or 20 guineas for a shearling ram to be used in a pure flock,
though for cross-breeding well-shaped males may be had for
less money. Such rams should be sought for from those who do
not overfeed for shows or sale, or disappointment and loss will
ensue. The difficulty of reducing over-fed rams to a working
condition is very great, and they are very liable to be carried off
by inflammatory attacks ; at the best, delicacy of constitution is
propagated.

Before proceeding to the general management of the ewes, it
may be well for us to consider how far we can modify our cropping
with a view to increase our sheep stock.

Cropping.

Many will, of course, suggest the laying down of land to
grass. But though mutton is, perhaps, never so economically
produced as on rich pastures or even on moderate clay lands
laid down to grass in a moist climate, still dry and light soils
are not generally suitable for permanent sward ; and in such dis-
tricts mutton may be more economically, as well as more exten-
sively, produced by alternate cropping with the aid of the
plough. Even under the old four-course shift, the clovers and
root-crops have been known to carry from 2 to 3 sheep per acre
over the course ; and some changes may be suggested that will
secure a larger proportion of sheep food. One of the most
obvious is to leave our seeds down for two, or perhaps three
years. Wherever we can grow clover with tolerable success, a
good mixture of seeds carefully selected and properly sown, will
yield much valuable sheep food for at any rate two years ; espe-
cially if we fold them with sheep eating oilcake or other artificial
food rich in potash, and apply a light coat of farmyard manure
either the first or the second winter. Not only may we thus
secure a large amount of food, but, by reducing the acreage
under the plough, we can lessen our teams, a most desirable
saving of expense.

In the north and north-west of England, and in many parts of
Scotland, the climate is peculiarly favourable for the growth
of artificial grasses, and this practice is largely on the increase.
In the southern and eastern counties, however, especially on the
thinner soils, there is often difficulty in keeping the clover-root
beyond the first year. According to Baron Liebig's view, it has
exhausted all the potash within reach, and accordingly dies
away. What remains — rye-grass, a little hop trefoil, and Dutch
clover — often make but a patchy crop, which is hardly worth
retaining for a second year. In such cases, I should advise

244 The Management of Sheep Stock

eatinji^ off all the spring growth, then ploughing the land, and
planting a crop of rape, spring vetches, or early turnips, apply-
ing artificial manures liberally, and being careful to secure a
fine and tolerably firm seed-bed. I have known this to be
carried out with success, a considerable increase of sheep-keep
over the old four-course rotation being obtained, inasmuch as
the seeds afford much keep for the ewes in a mild autumn, and
a fair fold in spring, whilst the land is made ready for wheat
with very little preparation. We have generally plenty of time
for operations, since the rape, turnips, «S:c., do not require to
be sown until the middle of June. The wheat, on light land
in good condition, may go in any time before Christmas. The
wheat may be followed by the root-break, if we do not care
about corn, or we may now sow barley, supposing the land to
be in thorough condition. We will, for the sake of illustration,
take roots next. A considerable portion of the land, if clean, as
it shouhl be, may be manured as soon as the wheat is off, and
worked for vetches, of which a succession of crops should be
sown, with a little winter barley or winter oats, to help make
up a crop. The practice of sowing winter barley, if this crop is
grown, eating down bare in spring, and then leaving for a corn
crop, has been successfully tried in some cases; and it might
follow the wheat, or at any rate a portion of it. The success of
such a plan has not been sufhciently established for us to speak
with any certainty about it.

Where the climate is not very severe, a icw acres of the
cleanest portion of the stubble may be sown with Trifolium
incarnatum, which only requires to be lightly harrowed in,
and affords very useful keep for ten days or a fortnight before
the vetches are ready. Rye may also be sown, but it is not
a favourite crop of mine, as it soon gets coarse, and is never
very nourishing.* I would not put any spring vetches on this
break, as they would occupy too valuable space. As soon as
the winter crops are consumed, the land is well cultivated ;
the vetch roots, &;c., collected and burnt ; and either swedes,
hybrids, or hardy turnips sown. On light soils I have seen
famous crops of swedes after A-etches.

Our mangold land will be taken in this course ; for this crop
good deep winter cultivation is necessary, and no expense should
be spared to secure a heavy crop. The fifth crop will be either

* lu the bleak and dry Eastern Counties, rye is almost indispensable for the
large flock-master. It stands drought well, can be fed twice, and yet leave ample
time to prepare for a turnip or rape crop, Avhich then succeeds best on a stale
furrow, A new cultivator, by Headley of Cambridge, breaks up this and rye-
grass land very well for roots. A high authority on sheep remarks, " It is the
dock-master's fault if the rye gets coarse." — P. H. F.

on Heavy and Light Land. 245

oats or barley, according to soil and climate, with seeds, which
need hardly extend over the whole of this break, but may be use-
fully supplemented by pulse crops. The course reduced to a
tabulated form, stands thus : —

1. Vetclies, roots, &c., &c.

2. Oats or bcarley, part seeded down,

o ("Seeds, mown and fed, or fed entirely,

IPnlse crops,
A J Seeds fed, then rape, or late turnips, &c,

(After pulse, vetches and supplementary forage crops.
5. Wheat,

If it is desired to have more corn, we may take a barley crop
after the wheat, and thus make a six years' course. The
farmyard manure would, if possible, be divided between the
roots and seeds, or possibly all applied to the seeds, the soil
being- enriched by artificial food consumed on seeds, vetches,
and root crops.

General Management of Eioes.

We now come to the very pith of our subject. The precise
period at which the ram should be put to the ewes depends
upon climate, nature of the soil, and supply of spring food. In
exposed and late districts it is a mistake to have the lamb early,
as there it is easier and cheaper to keep the lamb inside than
out of the ewe. At the time of going to the ram the ewes
should be in good and rather mending condition ; the strength
of the lambs and the proportion of doubles depends greatly
upon this. At the same time the soil, as affecting the quality
of the food, enters into this question. I remember a circumstance
that may be cited in confirmation of this. A Berkshire farmer,
dissatisfied with the produce of his Hampshire Down ewes, pur-
chased a score of Shropshire ewes from a farm where the average
produce was always an excess of fifty per cent. He wintered
them well, and was disappointed when they only produced one
lamb each : evidently the nature of his food was unfavourable to
the production of doubles. If the ewes are poor and are suddenly
put upon very forcing food, blood is made too rapidly and the
ewes are likely to turn from the ram. Rape is said to have this
effect, although when the ewes are strong and healthy a moderate
amount of such food, as a change, is very beneficial. The plan of
using "teasers" is good when the males are very valuable and
the feeding-grounds lie adjacent to the homestead. The rams are
also sometimes kept from the ewes during the day and turned
together at night ; but this is hardly to be recommended, as ewes
may possibly be missed. As a general rule the ram may remain
with the ewes, having 1 or 2 lbs. of oilcake daily, or a handful

246 The Management of Sheep Stock

of beans. A night fold of rape, rape and mustard, or early turnips,
affords a capital change after the ewes have range over the stubbles,
seed-grounds, and pastures during the day, and may be safely
used to enable the farm to carry a larger breeding flock.

As winter comes on the ewes may be kept in thriving condi-
tion on a little dry food, hay, or straw, in addition to a very
moderate quantity of roots. The practice formerly so common
of stuffing breeding ewes with roots is most extravagant, most
unnatural, and most unhealthy. A good turnip year in Nor-
folk was invariably followed by a bad lambing season. The
great secret of management, and one of the simplest means of
increasing our sheep stock, is to do with the minimum of roots
and the maximum of dry food, as straw, chaff, »S:c., making the
latter palatable, if necessary, with a small (juantity of artificial
food. It is stated in Morton's ' Cvclopirdia of Agriculture' that
a ewe will consume daily from one-tlilrd to one-fourth of its live
weight of roots, when supplied with these alone, i. e. from 25 to
30 lbs. daily. Of this bulk of food nine-tenths is water ; the
temperature of which water, in the winter, is seldom many degrees
above the freezing point. How much of the food of the animal
must be burned away, so to speak, in order to raise this mass to
the temperature of the body? If, moreover, the animal is lying
or standing on wet ground, which can hardly be avoided, the body
becomes so chilled externally as well as internally that the foetus
is starved : a number of dead, or pot-bellied, and weakly lambs
is the result, especially from shearling ewes. The only wonder
should be that any escape. An interesting proof of the chilling
effects of large quantities of roots Avas given by Lord Berners
during a discussion on the management of sheep at Hanover-
square. He said : " One day I found in a yard twenty or thirty
bullocks tied up and shivering dreadfully. I asked the man in
attendance what Avas the cause of this? And he replied, 'Oh
yes, they always be so after eating so many turnips.' I at once
ordered the quantity of turnips to be reduced and gave the
animals dry food, and there was no more shivering afterwards."

The object of this essay is to point out the best means of in-
creasing sheep stock. Here, then, is one way : we must make
one acre of turnips keep twice as many sheep as hitherto, in a far
more healthy condition. Last winter in too many cases the diffi-
culty was to find any roots at all ; but great and lasting good may
be anticipated from the evil then felt. I saw many flocks during
the past winter living on damp chaff, with a little artificial food,
and doing as well as could be wished, with every prospect of a
healthy produce and plenty of milk. I have long desired to see
an economical plan of pulping roots devised, as the animal might
then be induced to eat a large quantity of straw-chaff, rendered

on Heavy and Light Land. 247

palatable and nutritious by a small addition of artificial food. Nor
would such a system be so extravagant as at first it might appear.
Let us assume, by way of example, that our crop of turnips equals
15 tons per acre, and that, instead of 20 lbs. per head, we give
10 lbs. (amply sufficient), with 1 lb. of straw-chaff, and \ lb. a day
each of artificial food, and it follows that 100 sheep will consume
an acre in 33 days, and 7 cwt. of extra food will be spent on each
acre, besides 1^ ton of straw ; so as considerably to increase our
produce of corn, besides the chief object of keeping a heavier
stock of breeding sheep in a healthy state.

That ewes will do well upon a very moderate supply of roots and
well-harvested straw, even without any extra help, may be gathered
from both experience and analogy. In-calf cows can be kept in
good condition, when dry, upon 25 to 30 lbs. of roots with straw-
chaff. A cow is ten times as heavy as a sheep, and consequently,
were the digestive apparatus precisely similar, about 3 lbs. ol roots
would suffice ; but Mr. Lawes has recently shown, in his valuable
lecture before the Dublin Society, that in consequence of a differ-
ence subsisting in the proportion of intestines and stomachs, cattle
can consume a coarser and more bulky food than sheep, whilst
sheep again may be fed with a less nutritious food than pigs. He
shows that for 100 lbs. weight, the ox has 11^ lbs. stomach and
only 2 J lbs. of intestines ; the sheep 7^ lbs. of stomach and 3^ lbs.
intestines ; whilst the pig has only lA lb. stomach to 6'2 lbs. of
intestines. Thus the ox is enabled to take a larger proportion
of woody fibre in his food than sheep, and sheep than pigs. The
latter again ^^ feeds principally upon starch or allied materials,
known to be acted upon by the secretions of the intestines. The
sheep, again, requires more starchy food than the ox, as is evi-
denced by its having a larger proportion of intestine ; therefore,
in dealing with oxen and sheep, we must modify our proportions
of food. If we double the roots and halve the straw, we shall have
a mixture that the digestive system can act upon. I should, there-
fore, propose 6 to 8 lbs. of roots and 1 to lA^ lbs. of straw per
diem ; and if these materials could be united as pulp and chaff, I
believe they would be readily eaten and supply the animal with
a good wholesome food.

We are now, however, discussing the management of sheep
on light land, when it must be remembered that the sheep will
be folded on the land. The fields being generally large, and
often removed from the farm buildings, the system of pulp-
ing would often be attended with inconvenience and expense,
and therefore impracticable. Here, then, we may assume that
the old system of folding and gnawing is to be followed. We
may still advantageously limit the consumption of roots, though
hardly to the same extent. I have known the following plan

248 The Mana/jement of Sheep Stock

answer well, particularly on limestone soils, where the surface
often becomes dirty in moist weather. In a sheltered corner
of the turnip-field, a straw-yard is constructed with hurdles.
When portable steam-thrashing machinery is employed, it
will save labour if we put a good barley or oat rick here.
Thrash out early. Stack and thatch the straw so as to form
a shelter wall on the most exposed side. The pen being well
littered, and a sufficient nuinber of racks supplied, the ewes
are driven in every night, so that whatever the weather may
be, a comparatively dry and warm lair is secured. The racks
arc filled up with sweet straw, of which the remains are used
next morning to litter the pen. The most .sceptical would
be convinced that there is something good in well-har-
vested straw, if he saw the way in which the ewes will Avait
to be admitted, and then charge straight for the racks, where
they soon bury their heads, and are eagerly engaged in con-
suming the tenderer portions of the straw, leaving little but the
coarser lower stems. When filled, they will lie down comj)letely
satisfied, and in a much happier, healthier state than if out on
the wet land digesting a bellyfull of turnips.

Here, as elsewhere, success depends upon good manage-
ment. The straw must be carefully " made." The corn cut
before it is dead ripe (as far as is practicable), and supplied
at different seasons with reference to its feeding value and the
condition of the ewe. Thus barley-straw, as least valuable,
may be used first ; if it has any seeds in it, so much the better.
We may here remark that barley not intended for malting,
may advantageously be cut before becoming so dead ripe ; in
the condition known as red streak, both grain and straw would
be more valuable. Barley straw will do until near Christ-
mas ; then oats and bean-straw, if grown, may be substituted ;
the latter, Avith the pods on, being otten very nutritious, and par-
ticularly suitable for very severe weather ; and lastly, towards
lambing, sweet pea-straw will prove as valuable as much of the
seed hay, which often consists of little else than over-ripe bents.
When the forward ewes are within a fortnight of lambing,
some good hay may be used in equal quantities with the pea-
straw. It is not absolutely necessary — indeed, we can easily
replace it by artificial food — but if we can spare a little hay,
sheep will now pay well for it. If we grow mangolds — and,
climate permitting, we ought always to do so — the tops spread on
the land will form a good change of food for a few hours daily,
if they are well withered before being eaten. If exposed to
a frost or two, so much the better. I have repeatedly heard of
losses from scour when ewes were put on mangold-tops, which
I attribute to want of care in providing that the leaves are

on Heavy and Light Land.

249

well -withered, and that plenty of straw and rock-salt are
supplied.

I advocate the use of a small quantity of artificial food, espe-
cially for the shearling ewes ; it may not be necessary or desirable
to begin this too soon in the winter; if the lambing- com-
mences towards the middle or end of February, we may do very
well until Christmas Avithout extra help ; after which it will often
prove most beneficial and remunerative from increase in the
wool, finer condition of produce, and manure left on the land.
Now too that the price of grain is so low, it is especially desirable
to make our crops walk to market, if we can only do so profitably.
A mixture of beans or peas, barley, wheat, or oats, and palm-nut
meal, would answer the purpose admirably. I here subjoin the
analj'sis of each : —

;Pea9.

Barley.

Palm Nut
Meal.

Moisture

Oil and fatty matters

Flesh-formers

Starch, gum, sugar, &c

AVoody fibre

Ash

14-1

23-4

50-0

10-0

2-5

14-0
2-0-
14-0
54-0
14-0
2-0

7-21

22-79
15-56
36-24
14-90
3-30

100-00

100-00

300-00

Many other mixtures might be named, which would possess
equal feeding properties. Some may object to the barley as
being of too heating a nature ; but, used in the small proportions
I propose, it would cause no injury. I have named the above
as an illustration of the sort of combination that is desirable, and
also as being very cheap. The Lincolnshire flockmasters fi'e-
quently give their ewes from ^ to 1 lb. of linseed cake daily
during winter, and, although the cost is considerable, they con-
sider they are repaid in the wool, healthy condition, and in-
creased value of manure.

It may be argued that whilst home-grown produce is so low,
foreign materials should not be bought; but the advantage of the
mixtui'e consists in the large amount of ready-made fat, which is
not to be found in hoine-gi-own food ; and Mr. Lawes, in the same
lecture from which I have quoted, states that he considers fat or
oil possesses about 2h times the value of starch for the purposes
of respiration, or the storing up of fat in the body. Used in the
small proportion I propose, the large percentage of fatty matter
in the palm-nut meal will warm the animal and keep it healthy.

250 The Management of Sheep Stock

The present cost of the three articles is as follows : —

£. s. d.

Peas 08 0 per cwt.

Barley 0 6 G „

Palm-nut meal • 0 G G „

110= 7s. per cwt.

Calculating: a quarter of a pound a day to each ewe from Christ-
mas to April Ist, when we may transfer such food to the lamb,
the cost will only amount to l.v. 7(1. a head ; and if we double
the amount, and allow half a pound a head, probably a more
judicious as well as more liberal allowance, it will only amount
to 3s. 4d. a head, a sum that will be amply repaid us in the
improved condition of ewe and lamb, whilst the value of the
manure will remain as clear profit.

Whatever rules we mav lay down on paper, success only
attends on ji^ood management ; thus the result of the lambing
will depend on the care, attention, and judgment displayed
in tending the flock. We hear of great losses both in ewes
and lambs ; and the thoughtless expression of good and bad
luck is commonly used as settling the matter. We may not
always be able to trace the cause, and at times it may be alto-
gether beyond our control, and unavoidable ; otherwise we
should find that at some time or other during pregnancy, the
ewe had been subjected to very unfavourable conditions, and the
seeds of disease laid which spring out into activity as soon as
the lamb is born. Thus shortness of food and wet lair may lay
the foundation of consumption long before its fatal effects are
visible ; and it should alwavs be remembered that the most
cultivated animals are those which suffer most severely from bad
treatment.

I pass over the operations of lambing with very few remarks.
The value of a faithful, active, and experienced shepherd, will
then be clearly seen. The farmer must make every exertion to
provide all that is desirable in the way of food and shelter on
arable iarms. I prefer a moveable ewe-pen, intended for the
ewe and produce, to be made in a sheltered part of the field where
the food is growing. The lambs should not be made deli-
cate by too close confinement ; accordingly after the third day it
is well, weather permitting, to turn them out for an hour or two,
and thus gradually harden them off. The shepherd should be
provided with simple remedies, and Nature left to herself as
much as possible.

* Palm-nut meal, as manufactured by Alexander M. Smith and Co., Liver-
pool, is sold at 6?. a ton, and lOs. may be taken as representing the average cost
of carriage.

on Heavy and Light Land. 251

Mr. Wood, in his valuable lecture before the Wayland
Society, gives several recipes for the treatment of inflamma-
tion, garget, &c., very good no doubt; but every intelligent
shepherd who acts under an educated master, will be ready
with simple medicines to treat such cases. I have found con-
siderable benefit from the use of aconite in cases of inflam-
mation— 2 to 3 drops in half a pint of water, repeated every
3 hours. Opium, again, is a valuable medicine when pro-
perly used ; good gruc], and a little stimulant, such as warm
ale or gin, will be found useful in cases of exhaustion. The
ewe should always have access to water. Though to a thought-
ful man this may appear self-evident, shepherds will sometimes
neglect this point, and the consequences are very serious. The
supply of roots should be moderate, that of dry food plentiful.
Stuffing now will not make up for bad feeding at an earlier
period ; indeed, overloading the stomach only makes the ewe
uncomfortable, and prevents an easy birth.

But enough on this subject. Take care to have a good honest
shepherd who is fond of his sheep ; and, if he knows his business,
let him have his own way, and do not work him off his legs for
want of a little extra help ; many a man has neglected his lambs
from sheer exhaustion ; sleepless nights soon tell upon the frame ;
and, if a man is overworked, how can we expect that constant
attention which is so important at such a time? The master's eye
must be continually open ; and especially must he insist upon a
rational mode of treatment, and not allow any ignorant preju-
dices to interfere with success. Unfortunately, shepherds too often
get their own way, and are allowed to indulge their superstitious
fancies because the master is not practically acquainted with his
business, and has no knowledge of physiology and pathology,
two most useful studies. This is a forcible illustration of the ne-
cessity for a thorough education, both in principles and practice.

For the first month the lamb depends entirely upon its mother
for support, and hence it is of the utmost importance that the
ewe should possess a good flow of healthy milk. As soon as she
is well recovered from lambing, generous food may be supplied
in increasing quantity as the lamb grows. A small quantity of
mangold will now be a help to the milk. By the end of the
month the lamb is able to pick a little, and we may therefore
proceed to consider the management of the lamb.

Whatever be the ultimate destination of the lamb, whether for
breeding or feeding, it should be kept constantly thriving, that
is, always supplied with a sufficiency of suitable food to develop
the frame. At first this must be done through the mother;
hence the importance of having the ewe in a sound and healthy
condition ; if the ewe is poor, forcing food will often cause the

252 The Manafjement of Sheep Stock

lamb to scour. Constant attention is required to ascertain that
the lamb thrives, for great evil results if it goes wrong only
for a day or two. The lambs, now some weeks old, may lie out
at nights during fair weather ; but if it is very rough and wet,
some shelter is most desirable. A few thatched hurdles properly
fixed will form a useful shelter.* There cannot be a more insane
policy than underfeeding ewes and lambs ; if, therefore, our
natural produce run short, we must increase the quantity of
artificial food. Bruised oats and bran, when cheap, are excellent
materials to add to the mixture already named. As soon as the
lamb can eat, it shoukl be allowed to run through lamb hurdles,
and nibble the turnip-tops, or have the first pick at the natural
grass, rye, or whatever food we are consuming, and at the same
time be introduced to artificial food. A mixture of dust oilcake,
nut-mea], bran, and bruised oats will be very suitable, to which
we might add a small percentage of ground locust-beans, malt,
or coarse sugar.

The troughs should be so made that, whilst the lamb can freely
feed, it cannot get into the troughs. I have effected this by nailing
round spars from the side to a middle rail, at such distances as
to allow the head only to enter. The (juantity of such food at first
consumed will l)e very small, but the animal soon learns to eat;
and this knowledge is a solac{> when the milk lalls off, or when
the critical period of weaning has arrived. Before that time has
come we may safely let them have as much artificial food as they
can consume, taking care to have plenty of trough room.

It is desirable that the ewes and lambs should have a
change of food. On an arable farm we should have rye, or,
perhaps, Italian rye-grass, Trifolium incarnatum, mixed seeds,
and the earlier crops of winter vetches, to be followed by spring
turnips. With all these crops a feed of mangold may be advan-
tageously used.

Weaning may take place when the ewes and lambs are on
winter vetches. Early weaning is best for both ewe and lamb.
If the lambs at three months old can cat corn, and we have a
prospect of supplying suitable food, then wean. But rules are
useless, as different breeds require diffierent treatment, and we can
only state what we believe to be generally true. Castration should
take place before this. I prefer searing at about eight or ten
weeks, as a safer and more humane practice than drawing. The
success of the latter process is much influenced by weather ; when
the wind sets in very cold losses are common ; whereas, whatever
the weather, I have never lost a lamb from searing. Another

* An old Avaggon, half loaded with straw, forms a useful addition to these
shelter hurdles.— P. H. F.

on Heavy and Light Land. 253

point is, that in drawing-, a considerable quantity of blood is often
lost which must weaken the lamb ; the lamb is stronger for
being cut late, and the purse more developed, shows better.* In
Wiltshire, Hants, and other places, it is a regular business, and
the operator aj)pears on the farm at a fixed date, taking you in
his rounds, and emasculates, not only lambs, but any animal on
the farm that may be condemned, with an amount of skill, and
an almost certainty of success, that few veterinary surgeons could
exceed, or even attain to. Weaning may be done in a variety of
ways. The Hampshire plan is the simplest. The lambs are
shut forward, a double row of hurdles being used for thi'ee or four
days, after which both ewe and lamb become reconciled to the
change. If the plan of complete separation is decided on, the
ewes should be removed rather than the lambs, as the latter are
accustomed to their food, and likely to do best if left undisturbed.
Now comes a question of great importance, especially as influ-
encing the number of sheep we can keep. I refer to oj)en feeding
or close folding. In many of the best sheep districts — Lincoln-
shire, Hants, Wilts, &c. — the latter practice is adopted, and can
be strongly recommended in all cases Avhere we keep sheep for
the butcher. But if we want to grow large animals — an object
with ram-breeders — we must stock light, give great range and
frequent change, bringing other stock to finish up the bulk of the
produce, and, I need hardly add that, with the best management,
much food is wasted. The ordinaiy stock-farmer cares not for
extraordinary size, indeed it is often a positive objection ; he
must keep as many as his land will rear, and must try to grow
them even, and this can best be done by a system of close folding.
The folding system has many advantages. The land gets evenly
manured, the food is made the most of, and in the case of mixed
crops — the artificial grasses, for example — the stock can be made
to eat everything. The animals get a regular supply daily,
Avhich can be increased or decreased according to the state of the
weather and the Avants of the flock. The lambs are not at one
time gorged with luxuriant feed, and at another pining in com-
parative scarcity. By keeping the lambs in hurdles the shepherd
has them much more under his control, and if he finds that they
are not doing as they ought, an alteration is easy. The crop,

* A high authority on sheep-breeding -writes to me — "I am as much opposed
to this process as can be ; I believe the drawing process at two or three -weelis old
to be the safest and least painful to the lamb. We once tried the searing, and it
was done by a very skilful man, yet we lost a great number of lambs. We never
lost a lamb from drawing last year, nor have we this, although the season was so
unfavourable, and some of the lambs were five weeks old before they were cut."

My own experience of drawing agrees with this statement. Easterly winds
must of course be avoided. I have, however, successfully seared " culls " from
the lot of ram lambs. — P. H. F.

254 The Management of Sheep Stock

rapidly passed over, grows up again without check, and is not
liable, as in the open system, to be nibbled down as soon as it
shoots. This, in the case of clover, is very injurious, often
destroying the plant, whilst at the same time such food is very
unhealthy, causing scour, «Scc.

The folding system answers best where a variety and con-
stant succession of crops are grown. Some of the best sheep-
masters recommend two, and even three, changes a day. Thus
from vetches to seeds makes an admirable change, or, where
it is grown, to sainfoin. We need not despair, however, if
we are unable to secure so much change, as by care and atten-
tion lambs may be done very well on vetches, provided they are
eaten off when about eight or nine inches high, and when com-
paratively young, the lambs being supplied with a moderate
quantity of artificial food, and a constant supply of water and
rock-salt. If there is good sound grass-land, a change to this
will be very desirable.

Water-meadows, which have been much extolled, are of
doubtful value, especially after wet-growing springs ; lambs
frecjuently scour very much on such food, the grass being in
an unripe condition. A few acres of water-meadow are very
useful, if the subsoil is] porous, as a run for the ewes and
lambs ; but we should be careful to give plenty of dry food,
to correct the too laxative effect of the raw grass. The first
two months after weaning will settle the question as to the
sort of mutton we shall turn out ; if we can keep the lambs
thriving during this period we have little afterwards to fear. It
is a most critical time, and we must not grudge pains and
vigilance. The fold must be changed twice a day, if necessary.
Shepherds who have been accustomed to the open-field system
often object on account of the trouble it entails ; but it is worth
all this, and all the extra expense. We have the choice of nets
or hurdles. The former are cheaper and more easily shifted, but
not so suitable for small folds. The large folds common in
Lincolnshire, where we often see one or two acres hitched off, are
wasteful, as much food is trodden down, and the land cannot be
evenly manured.

Mangolds kept late into spring are now often invaluable, and
never in the way — they are as good as corn.

Feeding off the seeds, instead of laying them for hay, affords
much useful keep, and lambs generally do well when eating off
the first crop. The second crop is not always so healthy. But
this again is often caused by want of management. On the
chalk soils a mixture of hop trefoil and Dutch clover has been
found very useful, and on such food the lambs are said to thrive
better when eating the second crop than the first, probably

on Heavy and Light Land. 255

because tte Dutch clover, which is a comparatively slow-grow-
ing- plant, is more abundant and more matured. A small area of
Trifolium incarnatum is worth planting where soil and climate is
suitable, as it affords good keep for a few days, but, being of a
stalky nature, should be eaten young. Winter barley makes
a useful change, as described before. Vetches sown in suc-
cession are most valuable — two sowings in autumn, one early in
September, the second in October ; and two in spring, beginning
in February, if possible ; they will thus last from the middle of
May to the middle of July. A few acres of cabbages will
now be found most useful, and should be secured at any cost.
Rape and vetches sown together Avill introduce the lamb to a
new food, and avoid a sudden change, which is bad. Then rape,
afterwards rape and turnips mixed, and so on to turnips and
swedes, which latter should form the main winter crop. It will
be found very desirable to introduce the lamb gradually to new
food ; hence the advantage of mixing rape with the last breadth
of vetches, turnips with rape, and swedes with the turnips.
Kohl-rabi has been much approved in some quarters, but its
thick rind and woody stein are not in its favour ; and where we
can grow good turnips and swedes I should prefer them, as being
more useful and less costly.

Perhaps my ideas will be better explained by supposing a
farm of 400 acres of arable land growing 100 acres of roots, and
carrying 300 ewes and as many lambs, all to be fed out. Twenty
acres of vetches, sown at four different periods, with the folding
of about 40 to 50 acres of good seeds, will supply food from May
till the miiddle of July for the lambs after weaning, the ewes
cleaning up behind : 4 to 5 acres of cabbage, part to be consumed
by cattle, will make a good change ; 8 to 10 acres of rape and
vetches — 1 bushel of vetches, and 2 to 3 lbs. of rape — will form a
good mixture. These should be sown at twice, with an interval
of, about a fortnight, and will supply food for a month or more.
A few acres of rape and turnips mixed, in addition, would carry
the lambs through September, provided we give a fold of seeds
in the morning and the rape, &c., at night. At this time we
may introduce more chaff; chopped hay and straw will do well if
cut fine and perfectly sweet : 10 to 12 acres of good turnips will
carry the lambs to December, when swedes may be commenced.

It is difficult to estimate the quantity of swedes required
for tegs: a crop of 16 tons per acre will last 300 tegs a week,
according to the ordinary plan of cutting ; but probably ten to
twelve days if they were pulped. If the use of the pulper is to
be recommended for store sheep, much more do we believe in it
for the young fatting animal. It may be necessary to use a larger
proportion of roots ; but there will still be a great saving over the

VOL. I. — S. S. S

256 The Management of Sheep Stock

system of slicing, though it must be granted that this is an
immense advance on the old system of making tegs, with their
shelling-teeth, gnaw their victuals. This (question is one of great
importance. Tlie value of mutton is high ; the cost of growing
roots is increasing. We must do our utmost to make the most
of such expensive food. Sheep will readily eat pulped roots : the
labour part of the question is the great difficulty. On a large
scale horse-power may be economically employed, as I have
before pointed out.

Very serious losses sometimes occvu' when sheep are first put
on swedes : especially is this the case if the roots are in a growing
condition. The explanation is simple : they are unripe, and
consequently deficient in sugar, whilst the nitrogenous matter,
probably combined in an unhealthy form, irritates the bowels.
A strong evidence of the correctness of this view was given at a
recent discussion before the Maidstone Farmers' Club, Avhen it
was shown that locust-beans — a food very rich in sugar — had
stopped this dangerous scour. This leads us to very important
practical considerations. Root-crops should never be consumed
until fully matured ; and hence it follows that early-planted well-
grown turnips will do animals better at a certain period than
swedes. Swedes and mangolds will, as a rule, be greatly im-
proved by storing for a few weeks, as the ripening process then
goes on more rapidly, and there is a considerable increase of
sugar and soluble materials.

When soil and climate are favourable, it will generally pay to
keep our produce until ready for the butcher ; and the better in
reason we can feed from l^irth the sooner will they be matured
and the greater our return, because less will have been wasted in
respiration. It is the nimble ninepence we have most of us to
look to in these days of expensive farming. If the climate is cold
and the land much exposed, as is the case on the West Country
downs, we cannot make much of winter feeding in the field, and
shall do well to push our lambs as much as possible through the
summer, and sell to more lowland farmers at the autumn fairs.
In this way lambs have been sold at ASs. to 50^. and upwards.
A heavy stock of ewes can be kept, as there is abundance of
winter food. The Wiltshire and Hampshire management of
lambs is excellent, though perhaps in some instances they are
forced more than is for the interest of those who purpose wintering
them.

The last point of importance to which I would here call attention
is the keeping the skin and wool clean and healthy. Too often
the first dipping of the lamb is left till late in the summer, and
the vermin that more or less infest their bodies are allowed to
worry them for months. The first dipping should take place

071 Heavy and Ligld Land. 257

soon after weanino;; the second towards autumn. Numerous
dressings are employed. Those that contain arsenic, mercury,
&c., are objectionable, since it is well known that such materials
absorbed by the skin into the system are not beneficial ; putting
out of the question the possibility of a serious accident, if the men
are not careful. Again, a strong alkali is combined with arsenic
to cause the latter to become soluble, or rather to mix with the
water, which dries up the wool. Lately a valuable addition
has been made to our to list in ' Cliff's antiseptic fluid,' a prepara-
tion of carbolic acid. It has been tried largely for scab, with as
great success as the mercury and tobacco-washes, which are de-
pended upon in the colonies, and is much cheaper and easier to use.
As an antiseptic it is very powerful. A number of sheep badly
affected with scab were placed upon a small island, and four healthy
sheep, once dipped in this fluid, turned amongst them. Unpro-
tected, they must have become scabbed in three or four days ; but
so powerful was the dressing as an antiseptic, that it was ten
weeks before they became affected ; by this time the protective
power was dissipated. This experiment was tried by Professor
Brown, and is so important that I do not apologise for inserting
it here.

Management of Sheep on Strong Land.

Mr. Alfred Hughes, in his lecture before the Society in Hanover-
square, endeavoured to show that by adopting a certain rotation
of crops, sheep might be wintered on an arable farm of strong
land. I do not think he proved his point. In the comparatively dry
climate in which his experience had been gained it might be pos-
sible; but, generally speaking, I believe sheep stock cannot be profit-
ably kept on strong land, if it be all arable. The crops may be so
arranged that the treading of the sheep does not destroy all chance
of the next crop ; but the animals standing so much on a damp
soil cannot thrive : therefore, in considering this question, I shall
assume that a considerable portion, at least one-third, of the strong-
land farm is grass. The rotation of crops suggested by Mr.
Hughes is in many respects a very judicious one. The plan of
growing first two corn-crops and then two roots in succession is
undoubtedly wise, whether we feed the crops on the land or draw
them off. Seeds are sown down in oats and are followed by roots.
The ley is not ploughed till spring, and affords a dry surface
during winter, besides a good deal of useful autumn keep.
Moreover, on such soils wheat is seldom to be depended upon
after clover ; the land is often so hard that it cannot be properly
ploughed.

The first point that must be attended to is thorough drainage ;
sheep will not thrive if there is stagnant water in the soil. Both

s 2

258 The Management of Sheep Stock

the grass land and the arable must be thoroughly drained.
Supposing this is done, and the land well worked and exposed
to the action of the air, the growth of a large breadth of summer
and autumn forage-crops will be desirable, so that the lambs may
have a good succession of food, and plenty of change. Clay land
in summer, in good condition, will do for sheep extremely well.
The growth of a good breadth of mangolds and some swedes, to
be carted off and stored for winter use, is also advisable. During
winter the breeding ewes should live on the grass land chiefly,
running at large during the day, and being either folded at night,
and fed with some corn-chalF, and a few roots, if such can be
spared, or, which is to be preferred for tlie sake of the sheep,
lying in a strawyard, and thus making valuable manure. The
alternative to be adopted depends upon circumstances, such as
the severity of the climate ; amount of natural shelter in our grass
grounds ; the condition of the grass land, which, if out of condi-
tion, will be much improved by sheep-folding; the kind of sheep
wc keep, and our resources as to litter, which is often a scarce
article on farms of which a considerable proportion is pasture.
Care should be taken to leave some autumn grass; and this there
will be an opportunity of doing, if we have a good acreage
of fodder-crops, rape, early turnips, «Scc., on the ploughed land to
help carry the sheep. The plan of pulping a few roots, and
mixing with straw-chaff, will help the ewes very much, and, if
there is a little grass left for them to gnaw, they will keep in
good condition. Much, of course, depends upon the quality of
the land and the nature of the sheep. The Romney Marsh land
carries the hardy sheep of that country through the winter without
any extra food, and they keep in good condition ; but such grass
land is the exception.

The strawyard at night recommends itself for many reasons.
Animals lying warm will not consume so much food ; they are
kept in when the ground is frosty, and prevented eating the
frozen grass, which sometimes causes scour, and, as mentioned
before, a good deal of straw is thus trodden into manure.
Standing flocks are not so common on clay farms as on light
soils. Under bad management, and especially if the soil is
undrained or imperfectly drained, sheep are very liable to
diseases, especially that of rot in the liver, which has often
proved very fatal ; consequently if sheep are kept at all, the ewes
are brought in, every fall, and dam and lamb fed out the follow-
ing summer. This course of proceeding, from which we can
seldom realise the maximum profits, is faulty ; it is also unneces-
sary if we manage well. I recommend a breeding flock as the
most remunerative. The question as to the kind of sheep to be
kept is one that must be left to experience to decide. The Hamp-

on Heavij and Light Land. 259

shire Down ewes are very hardy, and, if we want marketable
tegs, we can get them by using a Long-woolled ram, Cotswold,
or Lincohi ; and such lambs can be either wintered or sold in the
autumn, Avhen they will prove very attractive to the light-land
farmer, who will bid high for such wool-growing, mutton-
making tegs. Some cross of this kind will often prove more
profitable than breeding pure stock. Of course this necessitates
our going to the breeding country for our stock ewes ; but there
are generally those who have spare ewes to dispose of, and, if we
take two lambs, and then feed, it will be as good a system as any
we know of.

The way to increase our sheep stock on strong land is to
grow a greater breadth of summer forage, improve the quality
.of the grass by thorough drainage and manuring, so as to de-
velope a mixed herbage, and use a moderate quantity of artificial
food with chaff of hay and straw.

I cannot concur with those who imagine that sheep cannot be
kept in a healthy condition on strong land. No doubt dry
upland will grow them faster, but they will do well on strong
soils, if properly managed. The question of selling our lambs,
either fat or in store condition in the autumn, or else of wintering
them, must depend on the proportion of arable land, and its
ability to grow good swedes and mangolds ; and also on the exist-
ence of suitable sheds and yards, with a sufficiency of straw. If
lambs are well summered it will answer to finish them off in the
house or yards, provided we have food ; but often the horned
stock will require all we can spare, and we must provide liberally
for the ewes during and after lambing. Clay land is often slow
in making a start, and we cannot feed vetches, &c., till near
June ; we have thus a long spring to tide over.

There can be no question that under careful management sheep
will thrive faster in yards, than even on dry, light land, and con-
sume considerably less food. Mr. Alfred Huston, who has for
years thus wintered large numbers of sheep, believes that sheep
will pay better than beasts. He found that 6 tegs would tread as
much straw into manure as a bullock, and eat as many roots as a
store beast worth 12/. 10^. to 14Z. ; and that 1 acre of mangolds
(amount of crop not mentioned) kept 25 sheep from December 1st
to April 15, and that he made his mangolds pay 12/. lis. 3|rf.
per acre, and the hay and straw 3^. per head. Many people are
prejudiced against wintering sheep in fold-yards, on account of
their liability to foot-rot. If the feet are neglected there will be
lameness, which must seriously interfere with the animal's pro-
gress. The outer walls of the hoof constantly growing, and being
subject to no wearing action, will curl inwards, and lameness is
inevitable ; but if the feet are carefully pared close down when

260 The Management of Sheep Stock

the sheep go into the yards, and looked at every three weeks or
a month, I am satisfied, from my own experience, that there need
not be more lameness, if so much, as the same sheep would
undergo if folded on the land ; for wet, soft soil gets between the
claws, becomes dry and hard, and is a fruitful source of lameness.
In addition to this care of the hoof, the supply of litter is most
important. In confirmation of this I quote from Mr. W. Delf,
of Great Bentley Hall, near Colchester, who, in a letter to Mr.
Ruston, says, " It will be supposed that the foot disease is the
great difficulty to contend with. To combat this enemy, it will
be necessary to pare every foot closely before placing the sheep
in the yar<l, and again at intervals of time not greater than three
weeks, accomplishing with the knife what under other cir-
cumstances would be effected by the wear of the horn on the
land." Again, Mr. Fryer, who has constantly yarded sheep,
says: "I ought to refer to a difficulty I had on two occasions
with foot-disease. Once I attributed it to a deficiency of litter,
allowing the sheep's feet to come too closely in contact with the
heating manure ; and the other time, to sending out the sheep for
an hour or two in the middle of the day for a run over a stubble-
field. 1 found that small clods and stubble frequently got
between the claws, and, drying hard on the warm manure, occa-
sioned lameness," Mr. Alfred Ruston, in his lecture before the
Central Farmers' Club, from which the above extracts are
taken, says : " During the whole of last winter (1860) I don't
suppose I had more than a dozen lame sheep (out of 400)
whilst they were in the yards. This winter I have had more, as
many of them came lame into the yard, in consequence, I
suppose, of the wetness of last summer, I may, however, say
there have been much fewer cases in the yards than occurred
previously to their coming in, I find it is very essential to keep
a thin layer of dry straw over the yard. In wet days we litter
twice a day, and in fine days once ; but we only use a small
quantity at a time, so as just to keep the heat of the manure
from rising to injure their feet, and to prevent them treading on
wet straw during the day,"

This evidence is, I think, conclusive that with proper care
sheep may be successfully wintered in yards. Nor is it necessary,
or even in all cases desirable, that the sheep should be placed in
walled yards ; indeed, it has been found that close yards do not
answer very well, as the manure is apt to ferment. Folds may
be made at any dry sheltered spot near to where the food is pro-
duced. Seeds not to be broken up until spring, or dry grass land,
afford a good site. The straw may be carted at any convenient
time, and used to form two sides of the yard where most exposed,
the opposite sides being left open. A yard 10 yards by 20 yards

on Heavy and Light Land. 261

would be a suitable size, as it would hold about 50 sheep, so as to
allow each animal about 4 square yards. Strong extra-sized
hurdles will be required. The chaff and corn may be prepared
at the buildings, and brought twice a day by a donkey-cart and
boy, the roots being prepared on the spot. A great quantity of
manure may thus be made, probably very near its destination ;
it will require turning once or twice, and will then be found in
excellent order for applying the following autumn.

Pulping will be found a great improvement over slicing, and
with yard-fed sheep it will be unattended by such difficulties as
we have noticed with regard to the open field.

There is one point to which allusion has not hitherto been
made, and that is, increasing the proportion of pasture on strong
land, especially in a moist climate. Under such circumstances
a considerable proportion is desirable, though half at least of
the farm should be arable, as otherwise we cannot provide straw
and roots for winter keep. If grass is properly drained and
well treated ; if periodically dressed with manure, compost,
and possibly artificials ; and if during summer sheep graze,
eating artificial food, it is astonishing how much good winter
keep such land will produce for the ewes. The utter neglect
of our grass land which we too often see is a sad blot upon
English agriculture, and in the present day such neglect is
ruinous, for nothing will pay so well for capital properly laid
out. I am aware that practical difficulties often exist. It is a
work of time to secure a sward, and during a portion of that
time a very unremunerative produce is returned ; so that the
farmer who has no lease, and no help from his landlord, may well
hesitate about laying down land to grass ; but he need not doubt
about the advantage of treating the old land liberally.

I believe that the principal means of increasing sheep stock
on strong land, is to so arrange the cropping as to secure a large
surface and succession of summer green food, such as vetches,
rape, early turnips, and cabbage, — the latter being particularly
adapted lor strong soils, — and to provide for the winter by the
judicious use of mangolds (climate permitting), or swedes, with
plenty of dry food. The breeding ewes may be kept in a healthy
state on the grass land during winter ; whilst the fatting stock
(tegs), if kept on, may best be fed in strawyards.

( 262 )

XX. — The Reproductive Poioers of Domesticated Animals. By
Henry Tannee, M.R.A.C, Professor of Rural Economy,
Queen's College, Birmingham.

Various circumstances concur at the present time to invest the
rearing of farm stock with especial interest, more particularly
when we consider the diflicultics associated with breeding from
pedigree animals. Although hut imperfect explanations can be
given of many of the points involved, an examination of the
subject may serve to diminish these difficulties, and open up for
consideration certain modifications of practice which will enable
the breeder to meet them without fear.

The natural lia])its()f animals are Avell adapted for the presei'va-
tion and perpetuation of each species. Those which are weakened
l)y disease or enfeebled by age are displaced by younger and more
healthy rivals, and the result is that each species is perpetuated in
its greatest vigour, and with healthy constitutions. Local circum-
stances— such as the quality of the soil and the peculiarities of
climate — influence the development of these animals ; and thereby
Ave have local breeds established especially suited to certain dis-
tricts. The variations which thus naturally arise are perfectly
consistent with, or rather are conducive to, healthy growth ;
and within certain limits nature permits, and even favours, a
deviation from typical forms, to meet the varying peculiarities of
soil and climat(\ Thus, where the soil is luxuriant we have large
native breeds ; where the land is hillv, we have smaller and
more active animals ; where the climate is severe the more hardy
varieties are found, the animals attaining that kind and degree
of development and vigour which is best suited to the circum-
stances under which they are placed.

Under domestication Ave take these animals under our control,
and modify their character to suit our requirements. Instead of
the active roaming life which they naturally lead, accompanied
with a slow growth, but large muscular development, we require
animals capable of rapid growth to luxuriate upon our richer
pastures, or consume our more abundant crops, and to supply an
increased growth of those parts most valuable for food. In short,
Ave produce unnatural developments to meet our special require-
ments. No doubt they are most desirable modifications, but it
must be remembered that they are unnatural ; and in proportion
as Ave depart from the natural type, in the same degree do Ave
find difficulties arising to check our onward course. The skill of
the breeder is thus constantly tested, and the highest proof of suc-
cess is the attainment of the peculiar dcA'elopment required Avith
the least sacrifice of constitutional strength. But the natural
character remains throughout, struggling to regain the ascendancy,

Tlie Reproductive Forcers of Domesticated Animals. 263

and if any want of judgment should be shown in the management,
the race gradually reverts towards its original character.

The improver of any local breed naturally directs his attention
to the attainment of that symmetry of form which is indicative
of an increased aptitude for fattening — a deep, broad chest, well-
arched ribs, a broad and level back, with well-formed muscles of
the fore and hind quarters, and a soft and mellow skin.

Modern improvements — such as draining, farm-buildings, and
fences — by limiting the influence of climate, have extended the
range within which special breeds can be successfully and econo-
mically reared ; nevertheless there are still many neighbourhoods
to which the improved local breeds are better adapted than the
more celebrated stock of other districts. We cannot look upon
these improved breeds as possessing any permanent character, for
so powerful are the influences of soil and climate, that, with the
most judicious management, it is impossible in some cases to
maintain the character of the flock or herd, without going back
to the original district for fresh blood.

In a previous communication * I have discussed at some length
the accumulation of hereditary power which takes place in pedi-
gree stock, but we must clearly distinguish between such a con-
centration of hereditary power and the exercise of the breeding
faculty. In numerous instances animals distinguished for their
symmetry, and possessing every peculiarity which is desirable
for the production of meat, and moreover by their line of descent
possessing great fixity of type, are valueless for breeding purposes,
because of their inability to exercise their reproductive powers.
These animals are like a machine of beautiful construction,
capable of turning out the finest products with the greatest
economy, but that a motive power is wanting to render it avail-
able. Such is the position of many of our most valuable pedigree
animals, and it will be interesting to inquire how far the difficulty
may be overcome.

Unfortunately excellence has been attained in too many cases by
a great sacrifice of constitutional strength, which renders these
animals an easy prey to various forms of scrofula, affections of
the lungs and digestive organs, which are too often accompanied
or closely followed by a deficiency in the supply and quality
of the milk, and finally by weakened and imperfect breeding
powers.

The free exercise of the body exerts a most important influence
upon the functions of life. Muscular growth is almost as
dependent upon exercise as it is upon the nutriment from which
it is produced. Nature has implanted in all young animals a

' Journal of Royal Agricultural Society,' First Series, vol, xxii. p. 1.

264 The Reproductive Powers of Domesticated Animals.

strong desire for that exercise of the body by which their growth
can be best promoted ; and this is particularly shown by the
uncontrolled delight which they manifest when liberated from a
bondage against which nature rebels. The advantages which
arise from variations of the surface, and especially in the change
from level to hilly land, are great ; for they give a breadth to the
chest, and strength to the lungs, which is not otherwise obtainable.
The invigorating atmosphere of hilly land has also a very bene-
ficial influence upon the health. If we notice the vigorous
health possessed by our mountain breeds of cattle and sheep, we
see what it is that we require engrafted into our improved stock
to bring them to their highest point of value. In our mountain
stock we have muscular development, a rich juicy meat, vital
energy to protect the system against disease, and enable its
various functions to be performed in the most healthy manner.
In our improved breeds we have symmetry, and an aptitude for
fattening which renders them economical to the farmer. Can we
not amalgamate these qualities more completely than we have
done, and by giving to well-bred stock greater freedom for exer-
cise, a modified diet, and a purer atmosphere, rear them in a
manner calculated to promote their healthy growth and con-
stitutional strength ?

The winter management of pedigree stock also demands our
attention, for it is more than probable that in this particular
serious injury is occasioned. The varying seasons of the year
are not without their influence upon animal life. The system
requires the invigorating action of cold to brace up the body
against the enervating influence of the heat by which it is suc-
ceeded. In how many cases are our best animals wintered in
buildings which favour their ripening condition and blooming
appearance, but at the same time enfeeble the system, and thereby
undermine the health and predispose to disease, especially of the
lungs, the animals being unfitted for being turned out to graze
in the spring. When shelter is provided, available at the
option of the animal, and accompanied by liberal feeding, the
healthy condition of the stock in the spring will offer a marked
contrast to that of animals which have had too much protection,
and have lived in a less pure atmosphere. I consider that much
of the delicacy of constitution and predisposition to disease,
which is complained of in high-bred stock, may be traced to
such injudicious management.

An enfeebled condition of the breeding organs is one of the
first sources of trouble for the breeder. It seldom precedes, but
often accompanies, that delicacy of constitution to which reference
has been made. Instead of the females breeding in a regular
manner, we find them come into season again and again, after

The Reproductive Poicers of Domesticated Animals. 265

most irregular intervals. This results from one of the following
causes : either the female does not become impregnated, or else
the embryo is imperfectly developed. The non-impregnation of
the female may generally be traced to an excessive fatness in one
or both of the animals, and an absence of constitutional vigour.
The breeding powers are most energetic when the animals are in
moderate condition, uninfluenced either by extreme fatness or
leanness. The impregnation of the female is in some cases pre-
vented by natural defect or malformation ; but I am strongly
inclined to believe that such cases are comparatively rare.

Many animals are condemned as barren which are only
temporarily so, in consequence of injudicious feeding and
management, or relatively so, in consequence of the male
being unsuited, from too close proximity of blood, or from both
animals being deficient in constitutional vigour. Examples of
each of these cases are frequent. Some very well-bred heifers
which had been condemned as barren, because, after very
persevering trials with various bulls, they failed to breed, I
placed for four Or fi^ve months upon poor hilly pastures,
to bring them down in condition, and immediately after this
they bred without difficulty. Captain J. T. Davy has com-
municated to me some similar instances in which most hopeless
cases of barrenness were overcome by turning the heifers upon
poor common land with a young bull. He states that in other
cases the same result has been attained by working the heifers in
the plough, like oxen, after which there has been no trouble
in getting them to breed. I am also informed by Mr. Strafford
of another instance in which apparent sterility has been success-
fully overcome. The late Mr. Jonas Webb purchased a valuable
cow from the herd of the late Lord Spencer for a moderate sum
of money, in consequence of her being condemned as barren.
After the purchase she was driven from Wiseton to Babraham, a
distance of between 100 and 120 miles, and within a short
time she bred. ' Dodona,' the cow in question, when a
heifer, produced twin-calves, and subsequently she produced
another calf, but, as she then ceased to breed, she was sold. A
change of climate, however, brought her again into breeding
condition, and at the time of her decease no less than 160
valuable animals could be traced to this cow, which had been
sold on two occasions as barren. Mr. Webb had an almost
parallel case in 'Cella,' which, under somewhat similar treatment,
after being condemned as barren, had a progeny of over 180 traced
to her at the time of her death. These results were all gained by
somewhat severe treatment, whereby unhealthy accumulations of
fatty matter, previously existing in the body and impeding
generation, were taken up into the system for the support of life.

266 The Reproductive Powers of Domesticated Animals.

I have known cases in which heifers which could not breed were
exercised daily, by being led about for a certain length of time ;
but this treatment is seldom sufficient to reduce those accumula-
tions which impede generation. Highly satisfactory results
have been gained by a thorough change of climate, when the
stock were sent to hilly districts where the air is bracing, and
they have to take plenty of exercise.

Barrenness may also be traced to too close relationship, or a
similarity of temperament. This is, however, a qualified bar-
renness, to be overcome by proper selection on the part of the
breeder. The fat condition of the male animal, and his want of
constitutional vigour, are frecjuontlv the chief causes of difficulty.
I have known of bulls, which had become valueless for breeding
purposes, being worked upon the land in carts, and thereby
rendered serviceable.

I Ijelieve that we have the condition of successful repro-
duction very much under our own control, and that the cases
of legitimate barrenness, either on the part of the male or female,
are much more rare than we imagine. I know that animals
which are naturally capable of breeding can be rendered in-
competent by adopting a special course of treatment ; and I
consider that in our usual system of management we very much
retard and interfere with the healthy performance of this natural
function of animal life.

For the purpose of more fully investigating the causes of
barrenness, I have examined* the ovaries of several heifers which
were, after very careful trial, condemned and killed as barreners ;
and I have every reason to believe that by far the larger pro-
portion were naturally quite competent for breeding, and that in
the majoritv of cases nonimpregnation arose from the seminal
fluid never reaching the ovum, which was ready for fertilisation,
or from that fluid not being of a healthy character. In some cases
in which the ova were to all appearance perfectly healthy, the
tubes — whereby the seminal fluid should have been conveyed —
were so overcharged with fatty matter that impregnation was ren-
dered impossible. In other cases the ovaries were in an unhealthy
condition, either one or both having to a great extent wasted
away. Sometimes one of the ovaries had been suffering from
atrophy, and the other in such an irritable and sensitive con-
dition that it might be almost described as inflamed ; and under
such circumstances the formation of a healthy ovum could
scarcely be expected. In other instances the ovaries had become
considerably enlarged, in consequence of a fatty degeneration of

* In the prosecution of this examination, I have received great assistance from
Dr. Atchley of Bristol, to whom my best thanks are due.

The Reproductive Poicers of Domesticated Animals. 267

these organs having taken place. I have not sufficient data
before me to trace these several results to their respective causes,
except in some of those cases in which a fatty degeneration ot
the ovaries had taken place.

Through the kind help of Mr. Reece, of Ross, and Mr. Thos.
Duckham, of Bajsham Court, near Hereford, this fatty degenera-
tion of the ovaries has been traced to the use of food rich in sugar.
I have every reason to believe that the action of sugar, in its
various forms, is most important in its influence upon the genera-
tive system ; and I think there is just cause for considering that
any animal may by its use be rendered incompetent for propa-
gating its species. Since my attention has been drawn to this
fact, numerous instances have come under my observation,
tending to confirm this opinion. From among the cases which
I could mention it will probably be sufficient for me to state
that of a breeder of some eminence, who, with a view to an
improvement in the condition of his herd, added molasses to the
dry food he gave to his stock. It certainly produced the result
he anticipated, for their improvement in appearance and general
condition was most satisfactory; but this was accompanied by an
influence he had never expected ; for his stock, which had
always realised high prices as breeding stock, now, with very
few exceptions, proved to be valueless for that object, male and
female being alike sterile. As soon as this was discovered the
supply of molasses was stopped. But whilst the animals which had
not been under its influence maintained the original character of
the herd, as being good breeding-stock, it is very doubtful if any
of the stock which had been fed for any length of time upon food
mixed with molasses ever regained their breeding powers. It
is more than probable that a fatty degeneration of the ovaries
took place, from which they would but slowly recover under any
ordinary treatment.

In another case in which molasses had been used for some
heifers which were fattening, it had the effect of suppressing
those periodical returns of restlessness which prevent heifers feed-
ing as well as steers ; and it kept them so steadily progressing
during the whole period of their fattening, that the result was
highly satisfactory. If, therefore, upon further trial, we find
sugar influential in checking the reproductive functions, we can
at any rate exercise a proper discretion in its use ; and whilst
avoiding it for breeding animals, we may encourage its employ-
ment when cows or heifers have to be fattened.

The action of sugar upon the human system is very similar.
The negroes in the sugar-plantations are said to lose all power oi
reproduction during the sugar-harvest, and are permanently influ-
enced, although in a lesser degree, by the juice of the cane, which

268 The Reproductive Poicers of Domesticated Animals.

they are so fond of chewing ; there is also reason to believe that
the negroes have become relatively more productive with the
diminished growth of sugar. It is also probable that the French
and Turks, by their excessive use of sugar and sweetmeats,
render themselves far less prolific than they otherwise Avould be.
I have also reason to believe that some of those who have adopted
the Banting system will find that the decreased use of sugar,
whilst it will lessen their personal weight, will at the same time
have a tendency to increase their parental responsibilities. Until
my attention had been drawn to this action of sugar upon the
reproductive powers, I was not aware that its influence had been
previously acknowledged ; but I find that this has been observed
by Continental physiologists, of whom it will be sufficient for
me to mention Moleschott and Provencal.

It would be premature for me to attempt any explanation of
the manner in which sugar exerts this powerful influence upon
the animal system. We shall probably find that it has a twofold
action, it may not only produce a fatty degeneration of the ovaries
in the female ; but by the glandular excitement it causes, it may
also favour a re-absorption, of the seminal fluid of the male, and
thereby the desire for breeding be diminished, if not finally de-
stroyed. That sugar has a powerful influence upon the repro-
ductive powers scarcely admits of a doubt ; but it is most important
that we should bo more fully acquainted with its action. We shall,
however, find that other agencies produce a somewhat similar
tendency to fatty degeneration, if not in the ovaries, at least in
the surrounding parts, whereby the healthy ova of females fail to
be fertilised in a natural manner ; or when they have been ferti-
lised they are, from the same cause, subsequently aborted. It is
also probable that in some cases in which the female possesses
healthy ovaries, and yet in consequence of the defective powers
of the male fails to breed, a very unnatural excitement takes
place in her that induces an irritability which is fatal to im-
pregnation. In these, and similar cases, the removal of the
clitoris of the vulva (as spoken of by Air. E, Bowly, of Sid-
dington, in vol. xix. of this Society's Journal, page 151) would
allay this excitement, and thereby favour successful bleeding.
This is, however, a practice which few Avould be disposed to re-
commend ; and Mr. Bowly rather mentions the fact of the opera-
tion than advises its adoption.

The moderate use of salt is also stated to have a powerful effect
upon the breeding powers of animals. Moleschott states that
the favourable effect of common salt upon the formation of blood
and upon nutrition, also produces an influence upon sexual life.
Boussingault found that bulls which in their food receive a large
addition of common salt show a greater inclination to cover : and

The Reproductive Powers of Domesticated Animals. 269

Roulin states that tlie females of our domestic animals are rendered
less productive by want of salt. No evidence as to this action of
salt has come under my own observation, still I think it probable
that we shall find the more general use of salt very important and
beneficial in its action upon breeding-stock. When salt is used for
any animal producing milk, care must be exercised not to allow
it to be taken in such quantity as to check the production of
milk ; for a free supply would speedily stop this secretion.

The general system of diet must also be looked upon as taking
its share in influencing the reproductive functions. When the
fall of rain has been small, and the herbage more than usually
parched, we find unusual difficulty in getting ordinary farm-
stock to breed. A dry dietary is very unfavourable for breeding-
animals, and very much retards successful impregnation. On the
other hand, rich, juicy, and succulent vegetation is very gene-
rally favourable to breeding. Apart, therefore, from the direct
influence of the food given, it is certain that the condition in
which it is consumed materially influences the breeding powers
of stock.

Little is as yet definitely known as to the comparative influ-
ence of different kinds of food upon breeding-animals ; but
the information we possess leads us to desire farther evidence.
We know that the healthy semen of male animals, with few (if
any) exceptions, contains a large proportion of albuminous matter,
in the form of vitellin and albuminate of soda ; and it follows as
a natural consequence, that unless these bodies are present in the
food, although they may for a time be supplied by exhausting
the animal system, still his career cannot long be maintained
without prejudice to the animal, and disappointment to the
breeder. The presence of phosphorus is also essential ; and
it has been observed that food rich in phosphorus, such as
the leguminous seeds — peas, beans, vetches, &c. — are espe-
cially valuable in promoting the fertility of breeding-animals.
It may also be stated that although a moderate supply of fatty
matter is desirable in the food, still it should be limited, so as to
prevent any unhealthy accumulations of fat in or about the breed-
ing organs ; and it should always be accompanied by food rich
in albuminous matter.

The influence of climate upon the health of our domesticated
animals has never received that attention Avhich it merits, I
have already made some reference to the effect of a change of
climate upon the breeding powers ; and I may add that the bene-
ficial influence extends both to male and female. The results
which have attended the importation of English stock which had
been exported to other climates, or their immediate descendants,
show that considerable advantage is often realised in this manner,

270 The Reproductive Powers of Domesticated Animals.

and the practice is probably capable of extension. It is, how-
ever, well worthy of an inquiry, whether we do not possess in
our own country sufficient variation of climate and district to
accomplish the desired results at less cost. There is undoubted
evidence to show that we may thus engraft upon our stock greater
constitutional strength.

The formation of milk is intimately connected with the repro-
ductive powers. The secretion of milk is dependent upon the
activity of the mammary glands ; and these are either under the
direct influence of the breeding organs, or else they sympathise
very closely with them. Those animals which breed with the
least difficulty yield the best supplies of milk, and produce
the most healthy and vigorous offspring. Now, it must be
admitted, that, however much we have improved the symmetry
and fceding-jiowcr of stock, we have suffered them to deteriorate
in value as breeding animals, by the decrease of their milking
<aj)aljillties. In proportion as we adopt a more natural system
of management, for the purpose of kee])ing stock in a healthy
and vigorous breeding condition, so shall we reap the indirect
benefit of a better supply of milk. It is true that a deficiency in
the yield of milk may be met by other resources, but since a short
supply of milk is indicative of, and associated with, enfeebled
breeding powers, every care should be taken to obviate this
defect.

There are few subjects connected with agricultural literature
which offer such a scope for inquiry and research as that which
1 have now discussed ; for whether we look upon the repro-
ductive powers of domesticated animals from a practical point
of view or as a scientific inquiry, we have very strong induce-
ments to investigate the subject more completely. The varying
circumstances under which barrenness can be produced or re-
moved ; the influence of various kinds of food upon the breeding
capabilities, and also upon the production of milk ; the circum-
stances which favour or check abortion ; the conditions which
regulate the sex of the offspring, — these, and many kindred sub-
jects, demand careful consideration. There is a vast amount of
valuable information upon these points diffused amongst the
members of the Royal Agricultural Society, which, if collected,
would open up an important field for scientific research. This
can only be accomplished by a co-operative movement ; and it is
with the hope of promoting such a result that I have brought this
subject under consideration. May I add that I shall be pleased
to receive any communications, or register any well-authenticated
facts bearing upon these subjects, which may be forwarded to
me, addressed as below. I shall be glad to hear of any instances
of barrenness which have been, or still are, under special treat-

JVater Suppbj. 271

ment, Avhether such proceeding's have been successful or otherwise,
and especiall}' where the animals may on some future occasion
offer the opportunity for an examination.

Clifton, Gloucestershire.

XXI. — Water- Supply. By the Rev. J. Clutterbuci;.
Prize Essay.

All water-supply, whether surface or subterranean, whether
naturally issuing aboveground from springs, or artificially reached
by wells or shafts, is derived from the raintall. Therefore, in
treating of the possibility of improving the water-supply in rural
parishes for agricultural and domestic purposes, the question
resolves itself into the economical use or application of quantities
which vaiy, but of which the amount may to a certain extent be
ascertained. The amount and distribution of rainfall yearly
attracts more attention, and many sources of information are open
to the public. The tables of Mr. Glaisher and Mr. Symons
show an increase of rainfall with the longitude westward, the
influence of altitude, and other physical features ; so that in
some localities there is such an abundant and continuous rainfall
as to exclude them from the scope of such an inquiry as this.

Though rainfall is reduced to, and treated with reference to,
averages, the economical increase of water-supply has rather
respect to a minimum, or to quantities, in excess at certain sea-
sons, to be made available when the ordinary average supply falls
short. Taking Mr. Symons's published averages of rainfall in
England at 30 inch* s, by excluding all above 30 inches as
beyond the limit of this inquiry the average is reduced to about
25 inches, the minimum at any place being 16'91 inches.

These facts should Ije noted, though the variations in the
C|uantity that falls at any given season make it difficult to base
any calculation on the gross quantity falling during the year.
Subterranean water depends on the quantity percolating below a
certain depth ; the gross rainfall has a greater influence on
surface supply. The difficulty alluded to is shown in a remark-
able manner by the records of Dalton's gauge, kept by Mr.
Dickinson, which registers the water percolating 3 feet below
the surface. The average rainfall at the same place for 29 years
was 22"5, the percolation 7-5 ; the 10 years ending 1863 gave
25-8 total fall, percolation only 5 "9 ; showing that in the longer
period the average summer rainfall was in arrear and that in
winter was in excess, while in the shorter period the case was
reversed.

VQIj, J,— S. S. T

272 Water Supply.

It will be necessary to notice separately surface and subter-
ranean water, The former comprehends all water retained in
ponds whether natural or artificial, that received or collected
from roofs of buildings, stored in tanks and the like, or water
thrown from the surface of the soil ; subterranean water, all
that sinks below the surface, accumulates in permeable strata,
and thence issues in springs where vent is given to it.

Surface-Water.

First, as to water collected from the roofs of buildings. This
is obviously a simple process, requiring good and well-arranged
spouting, with sufficient tank-storage. In the construction of
farm-buildings where this supply is needed, it may repay the
outlay to increase the area of water-catch beyond the absolutely
necessary extent of roofing, and to adopt the covering from which
rain-water is most readily and copiously thrown. Thatched roofs
are beyond the scope of any calculation. Zinc, iron, lead, or
any metal, slates, hard-burned Staffordshire tiles, will throw off
the 'greater portion of all rainfall. Ordinary tiles, when dry,
absorb a considerable amount of water : a shower represented by
3-lOOths of an inch would be thrown from the surface of the first-
named substances and absorbed by a tile. This would be
repeated on the falling of every summer shower ; and a calcula-
tion based on the known daily rainfall of the summer of 1864,
allowing for only one shower on the days when rain was noted,
gives for the 5 months from June to October inclusive, an
aggregate loss of 1 inch of rain by the absorption of tiles, or about
25 gallons for every 100 square feet of roofing.

If we take the Flemish Farm at Windsor — which is covered
with tiles — as an instance, the roofing may be estimated at
15,000 square feet ; there Avould then be a loss of 7500 gallons
of water, filling a tank 12 feet square by S feet deep. This may
seem a trifling quantity, but it would be of great value in some
places in seasons such as 1864.

In retentive soils, tanks for cottages may be made at a small
cost by sinking casks into the ground, though brick-built tanks
will necessarily be cheapest in the end ; this is one of the im-
provements in cottage homes which never should be omitted,
even where well water is abundant. Open ponds, sunk into a
clay subsoil, will, at certain seasons, receive the soakage from
the surrounding soil ; even those which are artificially puddled
retain their water in a way difficult to explain when the natural
evaporation and artificial exhaustion by cattle and other uses is
taken into account. This phenomenon, for such it may be called,
is very remarkably illustrated by surface ponds on the highest
ridges of the chalk downs, known as dew-ponds.

Water Supply. 273

Deio-Ponds.

These ponds are chiefly constructed on the highest ridges of
the chalk range, whether in down or under arable cultivation,
for the purpose of supplying water to the sheep stock during the
summer months. In a known instance, the increase of these
ponds on an extensive farm, high on the chalk range, has been
made the subject of arrangement between a landlord and an
incoming tenant, with a view to the introduction of steam-culti-
vation. Though careful and wide-spread inquiry, with repeated
personal observation, have failed to clear up the difficulties pre-
sented by the sustained supply of water in these ponds, notwith-
standing the drain on them by the daily demands of sheep and
other stock, the following facts may be relied on, and will tend
to show their great value to the flockmasters of a district where
many breeding flocks are sustained during the summer months,
when a good supply of water is essential to their well-being.
Natural springs, as supplies, are out of the question on the
summit of the chalk range, since the chalk water-level lies from
100 to 400 feet beneath these ponds.

The site selected is generally at the highest elevation on the
ridges or spurs of the chalk hills, where they can receive no run
of surface-water, though instances may be found where they are
placed near roads on hill-sides, and so receive the run after heavy
rains ; of the former alone here it is proposed to speak, as they
present phenomena not easily accounted for by recognised phy-
sical causes.

These ponds are constructed by persons of experience and
skill. At the spot selected an excavation is made in the sur-
face of the chalk, either round or rectangular, from 30 to 40 feet
or more in diameter, from 4 to 6 feet deep. The bottom, of a
basin shape, is covered in portions with clay carefully tempered,
mixed with a considerably quantity of lime to prevent the work-
ing of the earth worms. As the portions are finished they are
protected from the action of the sun and atmosphere by a covering
of straw ; when the Avhole bottom of the pond is so covered with
an efficient and impermeable coating or puddle, a layer of broken
chalk is placed upon it to prevent its injury by cattle or other
means. Their cost varies from 30/. to 50/. When all is finished,
water is introduced by artificial means. If there is a fall of snow,
this is collected and piled up in the pond, as the readiest and
least expensive method of accomplishing the object. During the
falling of the snow in January, 1865, with a strong wind blowing,
flaked or wattled hurdles we're so placed that the drifting snow
accumulating against them readily filled a pond on one of the
highest ridges of the chalk range of hills, Ponds so constructed

T 2

274 TFatei' Supph/.

and filled have been known for periods of twenty or tlilrty years
never to become dry; the summer of 18(J4 was a notable excep-
tion, in which, during the months of April, May, June, July,
and August, a less quantity of rain fell in the neighbourhood in
question than for the thirty years preceding, and dew was noted
deficient. A calculation, based on carefully obtained facts,
shows that in 40 days, ending Julv 14th, 1864, a pond lost (by
measurement of its surface and depth) 13,500 gallons of Avater ;
adding the known rainfall, 0"9, on the slopes and surface of the
pond — 1800 gallons — we have a total of 15,300. Calculating the
consumption of a flock of sheep, 500, at ^ gallon per head
per day; the Cjuantity used by cottagers at GOO gallons; the
evaporation, as tested by experiments, at 9000 ; the sum stands
thus ; —

"Water lost bv iioiul l-'i-oOO ) ,- oaa

Jiaiuiall 1,<SU0 j '

Consumed by Slieep ] 0,000 )

Cottaiics COO [ I9,r>00

Evaporation 11,000 )

Xot accoiuited for 4,300

' It is believed that -?,- a gallon per dav does not represent suffi-
cient water for each sheep's consumption. It was found that a
flock of ewes on dry food consumed 10 pints, or 1|- gallon per
day, in the winter of 1864-5. Taking only f of a gallon, the
consumption would be e([ual to the whole loss. The concurrent
testlmonv of manv shepherds bears out this supposition.

Apart from all such calculations, shepherds say that they see
vapours gathering over the ponds ; and a person of undoubted
intelligence assured the writer that he has seen the vapours
drawn to the ponds, as to a centre, when unmoved by Avind. It
is readily acknowledged that this subject requires further inves-
tigation ; but, as a fact, the value and endurance of the supply to
these ponds can hardly be denied. In many parts of the chalk
range — especiallv where partially covered with Avoodlands — these
ponds are not known, and here they might be profitably intro-
duced ; and it is believed that they would be found valuable on
all high and exposed districts where summer supplies of water
are needed.

The collection of surface-water from drains in a clay subsoil,
even where the contour of the ground favours such an arrange-
ment, must be precarious. These drains do not run except after
heavy rainfalls ; ponds which retain their water during a long
period might be filled by these means, but, in the absence of
supply from land or other springs, the quantities so stored would
be likelv to j'ail,

Wafer Suppli/. 275

Pumping water from a stream would seem to be too obvious
a remedy to need much notice ; yet I may state that a large
mansion, tenanted by several families in succession, lost its
tenants for lack of good water-supply : until at length, under
the advice of the writer, an effectual remedy was found by raising
a supply through filtering-beds into a tank from an adjacent and
frequently turbid stream.

Land- Springs.

Land-spring is a term generally applied to sources of water
Avhich are found in or flow from superficial beds of gravel or
drift, lying on an impervious substratum. Since many districts
throughout England are entirely dependent on such sources for
their supply of water they require further notice. .Very many ot
our most ancient towns and other places of early habitation are
placed on drift-gravel, probably from the facility with which
water is thence obtained. The older part of London, and the
city of Oxford, on different geological formations, are noteworthy
examples of towns so supplied, until they were extended beyond
their ancient limits, or until these sources, as is often the case,
became tainted by infiltration from sewers, cesspools, and the
like. Most of the higher ground on the London clay, such as
Hampstead, Highgate, Harrow, Bushey Heath, and the Bagshot
district — where a better-defined formation overlies the London
clay — are examples of this kind of supply. In the Bagshot
sands, in consequence of their great depth and wide develop-
ment, by taking advantage of the levels at which water is thrown
out by bands of clay alternating with the sand-beds and by
turning to account the undulations of surface, large lakes or
ponds are formed, such as Virginia Water. At Bear Wood, a
dam being thrown across a valley, the water collected in an
ornamental lake serves to drive the agricultural and other ma-
chinery of the Home Farm, — an example of economising waste
water Avhich is worthy of especial notice. In the London and
Hampshire Basins this character of supply is not entirely con-
fined to the limits of the London clay in situ, but extends to the
higher ridges of the chalk, Avhich are frequently capped with
traces of the tertiary formations, so that water is frequently
retained in gravels by which they are covered or upheld in sur-
face-ponds. The chalk district is, therefore, marked by the
gathering of the population either on these higher levels or else
in the valleys in which run the streams which issue from the
subjacent chalk stratum. In the former of these a rigid economy
in the use of water is forced on the agricultural and other popu-
lation, as, on the failing of the supply, no resource is left but
the streams in the vallevs, or very deep wells, from which water

276 JVater Supply.

is necessarily raised with great labour. No districts suffered
more from lack of water to man and beast, during the summer of
1864, than the higher ranges of the chalk, from the failing of
the dew-ponds on the downs and all other surface supplies. The
failure being due to the quantities actually drawn from them
suggests an increase in the number of these ponds, or their
adoption in localities where they have not been tried, especially
where they would be easily formed in the tenacious soils found
on the upper levels. There is sometimes a Avaste of water in
these localities where it might be turned to good account. The
beds of sand or gravel and the clay on which they rest, are fre-
quently drained by means of shafts or dumb-wells, sunk through
them to the surface of the chalk, into which the water freely
sinks from the drains which converge to them as a central out-
fall. Necessary as draining is, this water might often be stored
in ponds sunk through the gravel into the clay, with an arrange-
ment of pipes to prevent its rising above a certain level, or sub-
terranean tanks might be formed where the clay is of sufficient
thickness below the gravel. Where the beds of gravel are deep
and extensive, it is obvious that water may be led away from a
hill-side and form a perennial stream of the greatest value.

This is well illustrated on the well-known Tiptree Hall Farm.
When first occupied by Mr. Alderman Mechi, land-springs
issued from the slightly-rising ground to the north of the
house, the weepings of which generated a peat-bed. Deep
drains were driven into the hill-side, cutting through the margin
of the gravel into the clay beneath, v.hence so large a quantity
of water was gathered into one head as to supply all the ordinary
wants of the homestead, and furnish a volume sufficient to caiTy
out at all seasons the system of irrigation coextensive with the
farm, whilst its overplus carries health and comfort to a once
fever-stricken district in its course below. As the utilization of
this water is instructive, so in the source Avhence it flows a
lesson may be learned as to the geological and physical con-
ditions under wliich a like supply may be turned to good account
elsewhere.

The village of Tiptree stands on an extensive bed of drift-
gravel and sand, resting on the tertiary clay, naturally drained by
streamlets which flow down the shallow valleys or depressions
by which it is flanked or intersected. As in all such cases, the
subterranean water is upheld in the soil at an angle above its
outfall, varying with, and dependent on the closeness of the sand
or gravel in which it lies. The water in the village wells stood,
in the autumn of 1864, 16 or 18 feet above the artificial and
ever-flowing vent given to it by Mr, Mechi's drains. It is on
record that, when these drains were first dug, many, if not all,

WaterlSupply. 27?

the wells in the village were more or less affected. If the supply
were less, and it was necessary for the sake of Tiptree farm
and establishment to economise the supply (and this may serve
as a general illustration), a well (call it of depression) on a large
scale might be sunk near the centre of the gravel-bed, whence
the greatest body of water might be raised by artificial means, or
allowed to pass by gravitation from the well to the lower levels
by some simple contrivance providing for the shutting off the
water at pleasure. Such sources of water, when practically
perennial, are often said to yield an undeviating volume ; a
periodical gauging would show that the quantity is in the ratio
of the natural exhaustion and replenishment by rainfall.

It should be noted that sands and gravels are speedily re-
plenished ; as gravelly soils, from their silicious and stony character,
preclude such an absorption of water as takes place in loams, chalk,
and other substances after a period of drought. Careful observa-
tion and frequent measurements have shown that wells in sand
and gravel are replenished by a heavy summer shower ; whereas
it requires from 2 to 3 inches of continuous autumn rainfall to
replace the evaporation of the summer in the soils of a more
tenacious character.

No general rules can be laid down for dealing economically
with sources or supplies of water held in drifts or gravels which
flow aboveground as landsprings, unless they are founded on the
ascertained geological condition, whether of the gravel-beds them-
selves or of the surface of the clay on which they rest.

The gault, Kimmeridge, Oxford, lias, and other clays — which
are of the character of marls, as in the new red sandstone — pre-
sent, when their surface is exposed, a corrugated character. The
Keythorpe system of drainage is based on this fact ; if we may
judge by the present river action on the gault in the valley of
the Thames, this condition has probably a fluviatile origin. Be
that as it may, the cutting through one of these subterranean
stanks or ridges will often lay a large tract immediately dry.
This was the case in the city of Oxford, when a system of deep
sewer-drainage was attempted, by which the house-wells were
laid dry through a considerable district, till the stank of clay cut
through was restored by artificial means, when the water was
restored also. The section, A (see next page), made at the time,
is given as a good illustration. When, under such circumstances
the water-level has been affected, the wells have been sunk into
the subjacent clay ; but the water held in the clay is often so sur-
charged with mineral substances as to render it unfit for use. If
the water is not too much reduced in the drift, the bottom of the
well should be enlarged, as a sort of subterranean tank, rather
than pierce the clay under any circumstances. The surface, or

278

Wate7- Svpphj.

o 5

o ^

Watei' Suppli/. 270

rather landspring, supplies of water are olten undervalued, and
great expense is incurred in sinking to deeper sources.

Artesian Wells.

Dr. Buckland, in his ' Bridgewater Treatise,' defines artesian
wells as " pei'petually flowing fountains, obtained by boring a
small hole through strata that are destitute of water into lower
strata loaded with subterranean sheets of this important fluid,
which ascends by hydrostatic pressure through pipes let down to
conduct it to the surface." As there are very many cases in which
the water does not attain the surface of the ground, the name
artesiod has been applied to such, because they do not present
all the conditions in the above definition ; besides which, their
construction so far differs, that a shaft, as of an ordinary well,
must be sunk below the level attained by the water, from which
it must be raised by artificial means. All the deep wells in
London are of this character.

There is a very common impression that water may be ob-
tained in any locality by boring, if it be carried to a sufficient
depth. Immense sums of money have been thrown away in such
attempts, and in other cases the quality of the water when
obtained renders it unfit for use. These wells should never be sunk
without a knowledge of the local geological conditions on Avhich
their success depends. The most experienced geologists may be
deceived by anomalous conditions of the substrata, which cannot
be foreseen. It may be useful to mention some localities and
strata where boring for water is most likely to succeed or to fail.

It has been ascertained that water naturally rises in these wells
to the mean level between the highest source of supply and the
ultimate natural outfall. This is exemplified in the London and
Paris basins ; the one outfall being the River Thames below
London, the other the sea at or about Havre. Under Lcmdon
the level has been depressed to the amount of 60 feet ; at Pai'is
the famous artesian fountain of Grenelle has been slightly aflected
by the newly-bored well at Pass}'. In illustration of the former,
a section, B, is given of the ascertained height to which water rises
in artesian or artesiod wells on a certain line in the London basin,
which, with certain modifications, will show the way in' which
water will rise in other localities ; though, for all ordinary prac-
tical purposes, the best guide will be the known height to which
water will rise in such wells where the experiment has been made.
In the absence of such a guide, this may be calculated on the
principle illustrated by the section. The water will be found to
rise to the surface wherever the level of the surface falls below
the angle described by the subterranean water-level. This, not-
withstanding the unnatural depression caused by London pumping,

280 Water Supply.

is the case at Tottenham, Tooting-, Uxbridge, and other places.
The depth to which the borings must be carried varies con-
siderably. The subterranean geology of London and its immediate
environs, as an example of the condition of the London basin
extending from Essex to Hampshire, will be best understood by
plans and sections published by Mr. R. W. Mylne, C.E.

Water will rise in artesian or artesiod wells throughout the
London basin, where the chalk is covered by the London or
plastic clays. Though ruled by various outfalls, and disturbed
in some cases by faults, the height it will attain may be made a
matter of calculation : the great difficulty is the thickness of the
upper strata, especially where the surface of the clays rises in hills
and ridges, or where they are covered by the Bagshot sands. If,
by way of example, a line from Basingstoke to Colchester be
taken, where at the former place the water in the chalk stands
240 feet above Trinity high-water mark ; at Strathfieldsaye,
G^ miles distant, in a well sunk by the late Duke of Wellington
for the use of the villagers, 300 feet down to the chalk, the water
rises to within 15 or 20 feet of the surface, which may be 150 feet
above Trinity high-water mark ; at Boar Wood 350 feet to the
chalk, the water stands about 120 feet above Trinity high-water
mark ; at Cricklewood, where this line intersects that of the section
given, the water is 60 feet above Trinity high-water mark and
270 feet to the chalk ; at Tottenham 70 feet above Trinity high-
water mark, and 140 to the chalk ; at Witham (the outlay here
was 150/.), 306 feet to the chalk, water within a few feet of the
surface, about 120 feet above Trinity high-water mark ; at Col-
chester, 143 feet to the chalk, water about 5 feet above high-
Avater mark.

In the Hampshire basin, though geologically the same as that
of London, the condition of the chalk, probably from greater dis-
turbance, cannot be relied on as a source of supply for artesian
wells. A well dug on Southampton Common to a great depth
was a gigantic failure. Again, at Portsmouth Dockyard the chalk
was reached at 400 feet, and pierced an additional 500 feet without
success. But here considerable quantities of water are obtained
for the supply of the Dockyard by boring into the beds overlying
the tertiaries, a district too small to come within the scope of our
subject as connected with the interests of agriculture.

Following our inquiry into the supplies to be procured by
boring, according to the geological series, the next in order is the
gault clay, which occupies a rather narrow slip of country, more
or less, from Dorsetshire to the Wash. It is also developed in
the Isle of Wight, under the Sussex Downs, and in Yorkshire.
The artesian wells at Cambridge, sunk through the gault into
the lower greensand, are a notable instance of success. The

Water Supply. 281

water, once flowing' to the surface, does not now attain that level
by a few feet; their depth is said to be from 130 to 140 feet.
The water from wells sunk through the gault is slightly ferruginous,
as mig'ht be expected from the nature of the gi-eensand, whence
it rises. At Grenelle, where there are the same geological con-
ditions, the water is often used for hospital purposes, and it is a
practice to place glass vessels in the flowing water, where they
acquire a yellow tint. As the water in the lower greensand has
no defined outfall, and as the depth of the gault clay varies, no
rule can be laid down. The greensand will g'enerally be reached
under 150 feet, the water will seldom rise to the surface, therefore
shafts must usually be sunk, into which the water will rise. This
is the case at Hinxworth, near Baldock, and many other places
where the geological conditions are the same. Care must be
taken not to sink for water where the lower greensand is absent,
as in many parts of Oxfordshire and the Vale of White Horse.
Instances of failure have occurred at Tetsworth, where the gault
rests on the Kimmeridge clay.

As the gault clay underlies the escarpment of the upper green-
sand, or chalk, the most obvious source of Avater-supply to the
surface of the gault is from the springs which flow from, or generally
above the junction of these strata. Reservoirs might easily be
formed for whole districts by the common and united action ot
landowners to secure water of the best quality. Water rises by
gravitation from such a source to the top of Adwell House, near
Tetsworth. The town of Aylesbury is now seeking such a supply
from the chalk range near Tring. These valuable waters, which
might in many places be far more profitably used, now run into
the Ouse or the Thames.

Next in order is the Kimmeridge clay. The same hindrance
as arises from the absence of the greensand below the gault is
found where the Kimmeridge rests on the Oxford clay. It was
by overlooking this fact that at least 2000/. was needlessly ex-
pended in boring a well, over 500 feet deep, at the Lunatic Asylum
near Aylesbury. At Abingdon there is an instance of water
obtained by boring through the Kimmeridge clay into the coral ine
oolite, the whole depth, partly into the latter stratum, being about
60 feet. The water is slightly impregnated with sulphuretted
hvdrog-en and iron, which it is believed is the case elsewhere.
It supplies a drinking-fountain in one of the back-streets of
Abingdon.

No really successful instance of an artesian well in the Oxford
clay has fallen under my immediate observation. Its widely-
extended surface and position on the lower oolitic strata are
physical features which point to it as lacking good water, and as
likely to derive a supply by boring through it to the oolitic rock

282 IFater Supply.

beneath. If the well or boring were carried deep into the sub-
jacent rock and were perpetually flowini^, the water might be
cleansed of its impurities ; but those specimens which I have met
with and tested have been hopelessly impure.

Lower in the oolitic series there are instances ot successlul
artesian borings. Thus at Bourn, in Lincolnshire, a large supply
has been obtained from borings through the Forest marble and
Bradford clays, to a depth of about 90 feet, whence the water
overflows the surface. The distribution and presence of these
day-beds and the fre([uent faults in the oolitic strata are so
complicated, that it is imj)ossible to lav down any rules for
guidance.

The same may be said of the lias clays which underlie the
oolitic rocks. The marlstone, generally charged with water,
which intervenes between the upper and lower lias clays, would
seldom yield its water except to wells sunk in the ordinary v/ay.
At Chipping Norton the h)wer lias clav was pierced to the depth
of 500 feet, in the hope of obtaining water from the underlying
new red sandstone formation : the attempt was abandoned at that
depth. Again, much the same may be said of the red sandstone
formation, which forms so large a part of the surface of western
England, though it may and often does yield its subterranean
water when deeply pierced. At York water so raised was too
much charged with iron and other mineral substances to be of
any real value. The well-known salt and other mineral springs
in this formation point to the ])robabilitv of their existence else-
where.

As artesian wells derive their supply from deep-seated or main-
springs, the existence of such sources of water has, to a certain
extent, been anticipated, though it is quite necessary to speak
separately of main-springs.

Maix-sppjngs,

As the term land-spring is usually applied to sources of water
flowing from superficial beds of drift, sand, or gravel, resting on
impervious substrata, the term main-spring usually indicates those
deep-seated supplies found in the recognised geological forma-
tions, such as the chalk, greensands, oolitic, some beds of lias,
new red sandstone, and any other stratum into Avhich the water,
falling on its surface, will freely sink through cracks or crevices,
forming beds of water which rise in these strata till they find
vent in valleys and depressions, and so Ibrm the natural perennial
sources of rivers, or hidden supplies, which are reached by sinking
shafts or wells, whence water is raised by artificial means.

To advance our knowledge of the presence oi these supplies,
the localities and depths at which they may be found, tlieir eco-

Water Supply. 283

nomical use, and the means which Avill afford increased facilities
in obtaining them, is the chief object of this communication.

The water-bearinof formations above the chalk are g-enerally of
so superficial a character, and so complicated in their g-eolog-ical
structure, that no definite rule can be laid down as to the water
they contain. The elaborate Reports published by the General
Board ot Health on the proposed supply of water to London from
the Bagshot sands in 1850, are a sufficient guide to those who
wish to investigate that question. Though these sands in some
localities are of considerable thickness, and from the alternation
of the sands with clay beds throw out water at various levels,
they very often represent sources of land-springs.

The chalk formation occupies a large surface of the east and
.south of England, and may be said (if we include the tertiary-
beds by which it is partially covered) to extend from the Chiltern
range to the German Ocean. This is the chief source of the
water supplied to the Thames and many other rivers. The water
falling on its surface where exposed, or where covered with
pervious beds of gravel, sinks into this stratum and forms a sub-
terranean bed of water, the surface of which has been called the
chalk-water level. The depth at which water may be reached
in the chalk may be made a matter of calculation. Take the
level of any known spring or outfall, and then allow for an incli-
nation of 10 feet per mile at least as the inclination of the water-
line, it will be found that the surface-line of the subterranean
water dips towards its nearest vent, the angle of inclination being
ruled by the friction or resistance encountered by the water in its
passage through the stratum. As the subterranean supply is
replenished, this line will rise at an angle increasing with its
distance from the vent.

A section, C (see next page), based upon absolute measurement
and frequent observation, through a long period, is given to illus-
trate this phenomenon. If the level of water in two wells situate
in a line to the outfall be ascertained, the water will be reached in
a well to be made midway between them at the mean depth of the
two ; and this will be true of all wells sunk in any water-bearing
stratum at all like the chalk. The raising of water from the
chalk in the upper levels, where the water-level lies 300 or more
feet below the surface, must be laborious and expensive. An
Indian magnate, the Maha Rajah of Benares, intrusted to my
friend, Mr. E. A. Reade, C.B., a sum of money to be employed
for the benefit of the poor, on an object not of a religious cha-
racter. He expended it on a well in the chalk, 358 feet deep,
furnished with simple but most serviceable machinery for raisino-
the water — large buckets, chains passing over iron sheaves,
wound up by a winch and flywheel. Contrivances, such as a

284

Water Supply.

li

s ^

S 13

Water Supply. 285

donkey-wheel, as shown at Carisbrook, are often used ; but for a
common well the simpler the machinery the better. Boring from
the bottom of a chalk- well is sometimes resorted to with success ;
but it must be remembered that the water will not rise higher
than the level at which it stands already in the well, though the
bore-hole will quicken the supply. It is better, if the well has
been made sufficiently deep, to enlarge the bottom in a bell-shape,
or if a great quantity of water is required, to drive adits, if there
seems no local reason to the contrary, in a direction from the
known outfall of the water.

The upper greensand immediately underlies the chalk or chalk-
marl. Its development is very irregular ; in some places it attains
the thickness of 140 feet ; in other localities it is scarcely to be
traced. Like the chalk, it freely absorbs the water falling on its
surface : its water-bed is ruled as that in the chalk, but it is far
more accessible ; indeed there is no stratum where water is more
regularly distributed or purer in quality. In sinking wells in
this stratum care must be taken not to pierce the gault clay below,
lest the quality of the water should be affected. The lower green-
sand is separated from the upper by the impermeable bed of gault
clay : the lower greensand is permeable to water. Though the
beds of which it consists vary considerably in their condition and
in their capacity of absorption, sometimes a continuous water-
level may be traced. It is often necessary to enlarge the bottom
of the well to secure sufficient subterranean storage, as the wells,
when exhausted, are slowly replenished. Very great care must
be taken not, under any circumstances, to pierce the underlying
Kimmeridge clay. If the Portland oolite underlies the green-
sand, and should the supply from the latter be insufficient, water
may be sought in the oolite below, though the water of the green-
sand is usually of better and purer quality. When the Portland
oolite overlies the Kimmeridge clay, the same caution will apply.
Under no circumstances should the surface of the clay be pierced.
There is a great similarity in all the oolitic strata as regards the
supply of water, yet no strata present more difficulties and ano-
malies in the quantities yielded. This is to be attributed to the
unequal thickness of the limestone and oolitic seams of rock,
interlaced by beds of clay of most variable thickness and power
of upholding water.

The Portland and coralline oolite are limited to a small area,
and in many places consist merely of isolated patches, capping
the surface of the Kimmeridge or Oxford clay. In such case the
spot fixed on may materially influence the supply. In a known
case it was desired to obtain water for a farmstead : a well was sunk
to suit the convenience of the site, on which the buildings were
to be erected ; the water-supply was insufficient. It was pointed

286 Water Supphj.

out that the surface of the clay dipped in a certain direction, and
that the well should be sunk near the margin of the oolitic rock
in the direction of the dip. This was done, and water was
obtained in abundance. This principle sliould be kept in view
in seekinof a supply of water throughout the oolitic range and the
upper beds of the lias, where permeable beds rest on clay whose
surface dips in a known direction. The presence of water under
such circumstances is marked by the springs which issue from
the hill-sides at the junction of these beds. The lower oolitic
series, separated from the middle or coralline by the Oxford clay,
which overlies the lias, is one of the principal water-bearing
formations of England. 1/iko the chalk, its surface is furrowed
by frequent valleys, dtnvn which its waters find vent in perennial
streams ; though, unlike the chalk, its substance is interlaced
with bands of clay of varying thickness, which throw out the
water at every variety of level. These bands, besides the faults
caused bv disturbance, make it exceedingly difhcult to determine
the supply of water, and conse([uently the means which will afi'ord
the greatest facilities for obtaining it. It often happens that in
one locality there are several distinct beds of water, either to be
traced in wells, or to be seen, as indicated by springs issuing from
the hill-sides. Such, for instance, is the case at Stonesfield, in
Oxfordshire, where three distinct beds of water are found at
various levels, at about 15, 50, and 100 feet from the surface
respectively ; none, except the lowest, which rests on the lias clay,
vielding a large amount of water, but each sufficient for ordinary
domestic purposes. The only obvious way of increasing the
supply to the iipper wells is the enlargement of the lower chamber,
care being taken to avoid the hazard of sinking Ijelow the surface
of the clay at the bottom. Agricultural drainage often decreases
the subterranean supply to these strata ; yet water running from
the surface of the clays, which often cover large tracts, sometimes
sinks by natural swallow or swill v holes into the jiermeable rock
beneath, at the margin of the clay. These natural features might
be assisted by simple artificial means to the increase of the supply
to those strata.

Many of the valleys of this formation rest on upper lias clay.
If, as in some cases, the base of the valley is the lower lias, the
intervening marlstone, usually charged with water, adds another
source of water to the district. Such valleys are well fitted for
the storage of water, such as in the reservoirs which supply the
summit-levels of the Oxford Canal, which have never yet failed.
From the marlstone, as from the partings of clay in the oolite
above, springs issue at so high a level above the foot of valleys,
as to enable farmsteads, other establishments, and villages, to be
supplied with water by gravitation, delivered through pipes or

IVater Supplf/. 287

open cuttings into troughs or tanks. Moreover the fall of water
facilitates the use of hydraulic rams, by which reservoirs and
whole establishments, as at Blenheim, Cornbury Park, Sarsden,
and other places, are supplied with water at comparatively small
cost. The delivery of water throughout the oolitic series favours
the extension of this practice in a district where sinking for water
through limestone and other rocks is an expensive process. It
has been said that the marlstone intervenes between the upper and
lower lias clays. This, if the lower beds of limestone or lias lime
are excepted, is the only deep-seated source of water in the lias
formation.

The new red sandstone, beneath the lias, which forms so large
a portion of the surface of England to the west, contains large
quantities of water ; but much of it is excluded from ordinary
uses by the mineral salts and impurities with which it is charged.
The levels at which it is found in the upper marls or in the
substance of the extensive sand-rock varies very much : in some
cases the underground passage of the water is very free, in others
very much confined. The exhaustion by mines is also a cause of
disturbance to the supply. Though very many towns are supplied
from deep wells in this stratum, where large quantities are re-
(juired, as at Liverpool, recourse is had to storage at higher levels
in the older formations, where rainfall is in excess and the physical
features of the country favour this arrangement. The variable
quantities and quality of the water, as ruled by the local geolo-
gical condition of the new red sandstone, make it impossible to
point out any rules except those which are suggested by local
experience for increasing such supplies for agricultural or domestic
purposes.

The increased rainfall, as well as the geological condition
of the older formations, place the district to the west of the
new red sandstone (as was suggested in the opening remarks)
beyond the limit of this inquiry.

The writer, in revising the foregoing pages, finds that what
he has said on a subject which has long engaged his attention
has assumed the character of an essay on the water-supply ol a
great part of England rather than the specific point on which
information was required ; nevertheless, feeling the importance
of the whole question, he has determined to submit this notice
to the judgment of the Royal Agricultural Society,

Long WlttenJiam^ Aliiigdoii.

VOL. I.— S. S.

( 288 )

XXII. — On aNeio Form of Disease among Lambs.

By R. S. Keynolds, M.R.C.V.S.Eng., Alfreton, Derbyshire.

A NEW form of disease has appeared of late among the lambs
near Mansfield, and also in this district (nine miles apart),
and some other neighbourhoods, to "which I will not presume
to give a name. Its increasing prevalence and the serious losses
which it has occasioned during the last four or five years have
induced me to make its pathology my study, the results of which
I now place at the service of the agricultural public.

The flocks I have been called upon to attend are principally
of the Lincoln and Leicester breeds : those consisting of the
improved Shropshire, with a trace of the old forest sheep of this
locality — a hardier race — though not thoroughly exempt, are
much less susceptible than the long-woolled sheep. I have seen
the malady upon the limestones of Derbyshire, and also upon
the forest sand-land of this neighbourhood. It chiefly occurs
amongst farmers who keep their stock well, and force their
lambs upon dry food, in addition to the natural and artificial
grasses, from the time they are separated from the ewes.

Wherever this disease has occurred, I find that the manage-
ment of the lambs has corresponded in its general features, and been
pretty nearly as follows : — From weaning-time they are pastured
in dry upland situations ; if the summer is dry they are removed
every three or four days from one pasture to another, on account
of the slow growth of the herbage. They have a daily allowance
of one quarter to one-third of a pound of dry food, which consists of
crushed barley, linseed-cake, oats, and pods of locust-bean — some
flocks being supplied with one of these constituents, some with
another, and some with a combination of all, in which the two
first named always preponderate. It has never occurred when
cake has been given alone.* The crisis of the disease is always
brought about by the fall of the autumnal rains, the most espe-
cially marked effects arising if the rain has been accompanied by
a warm genial atmosphere, producing a " flush of grass." A
change to turnips is also frequently followed by an outbreak of
the malady. In a day or two after the fall of rain, or the removal
on to turnips, several of the lambs are seen to purge, but they
do not appear seriously ill until the diarrhoea has lasted from
three to six days, when they gradually sink and die, apparently
exhausted.

If the owner is a good practical farmer he is confident that the

* I liave this week been to see a flock of lambs suffering from this disease,
■which has had a liberal allowance of linseed and cotton-cakes mixed (the first I
have known to be aifected when supplied with cake alone). Aug. 5th, 1865.

Disease among Lambs. 289

diarrhoea, which his opiates and cordials have had no effect in
checking-, is something- more than common " skit," or diarrhoea,
and he now calls in the aid of a veterinary surgeon, who is
informed that from weaning-time to about a week, ten days, or it
may be a month prior to the first indications of illness, the flock
was considered to be in excellent health, but that latterly they have
gone off in condition. The veterinary surgeon Avill find several of
the lambs which have been more recently attacked still suffering
from diarrhoea. This is the leading symptom, the evacuations
which run from the lambs in a frequent and copious stream con-
sisting of a watery fluid tinged green by particles of undigested food.
To a casual observer the flock does not appear to ail very much ;
but when quietly watched they manifest an air of listlessness, per-
vading the whole flock, and many are seen to be troubled with a
short " pecking " cough. Those that purge are dull and dispirited,
but still continue to eat, and in them thirst is so great that they
greedily lick up any moisture they can find in ruts and other
hollows. The remaining constitutional symptoms presented by
those in the first stage of disease are a dry muzzle, hot mouth,
quick, weak, and thready pulse, respirations accelerated, urine of
a light colour, voided frequently and in large quantities, the
visible mucous membranes somewhat pallid, but having their
larger vessels injected ; the appetite does not utterly fail, nor is
the function of rumination totally suspended. All the symptoms
become aggravated as the last stage approaches ; the wool is
easily detached from its follicles, separation from the flock pre-
cedes uncertainty of movement and semicoma, then death shortly
supervenes.

I have made many post-mortem examinations, and observed that
the appearances found in any one case are common to all. When I
slaughtered for that purpose animals in the last stage of the disease,
I noticed, first, the small quantity of blood which flowed from the
wound ; next, the rapidity with which it formed a soft ana?mic
coagulum ; then that death shortly followed, with scarcely an
expiratory struggle. The carcase at first sight appears to be
pretty well nourished, but a closer inspection shows that this
apparent condition is due to the disposal of a very fair quantity
of fat in the usual subcutaneous situations, whilst the muscular
tissues are remarkable for their pallid appearance and evident
atrophy. In the thoracic cavity the lungs are found blanched,
the heart contains soft coagula, but both organs are structurally
healthij. There is no evidence of filaria (thread-worms) in the
trachea or bronchial tubes. The contents of the abdominal cavity
are remarkably pale, the pallor being due to atrophy of the coats
of their involuntary muscles ; indeed so attenuated are the walls
of the intestines that a very slight amount of force is sufficient to

u 2

290 Disease amowj Lanchs.

rend them, their mucous lining membrane being so structurally
disinteg-rated as to separate at the slightest touch. The pallid
liver is solt, pulpy, and of large size from congestion ; its substance
can be broken down by the finger with the greatest ease. In the
stomach is a quantity of semi-fluid ingesta, whilst the intestines
contain a large quantity of green-coloured fluid, mixed with par-
ticles of undigested food. The kidneys are found congested, but
surrounded by a {|uantity of fat ; the omentum also contains a
fair amount of fat. The coats of the bladder are extremely thin ;
indeed so attenuated do they become, that in several instances
rupture has taken place either before death or very soon after :
this, as well as the biliary cyst, are usually found full of abnor-
mally light-coloured secretion.

Considering the age and breed of the animals, the season of
the year, the general juanagement of the flocks, the symptoms
presented, and the post-mortem examination, the practical con-
clusion at which I arrived was, that the malady chiefly depends
on a defect in the nitrogenous element of nutrition, arising either
Irom the insufhciency of supply or the incapacity of the young
animal to assimilate the flesh-forming elements in the condition
in which they are given. In order to be clearly understood, 1
must make a few general remarks on Food.

Food may be theoretically regarded as consisting of two prin-
ciples or elements having a two-fold operation to perform. The
one, the hydro-carbonaceous or heat-forming material, of which
nitrogen forms no part, is necessary to maintain, by its combina-
tion with oxygen in the system, the natural standard of animal
heat: this principle, if supplied in excess, is stored up in the
form of fat, to be employed in the generation of animal heat if
the supply from external sources should at any future time fail.
The other, the nitrogenous or tissue-forming principle, is required
to build up the growing organism as its development advances,
and also to replace tissues disintegrated by the natural molecular
waste oi the body or the results of extraordinary exertion. The
operation of this principle is sometimes distinctively called
" nourishment." If the supply of this principle exceeds the
immediate requirements of the system it is not stored up for
future use (except the small amount available for increasing the
richness of the blood), but passes out with the excretions and is
the chief source of ammonia in them. On the proper balance
of these two elements in the food, the health and well-being of
every animal depends. This balance, however, must be variously
adjusted to suit it, not only to animals of different ages, but also
of different breeds. We have reason to think that a greater pro-
portion of the nitrogenous principle is required in the suckling
than in the adult, and (from the enfeebling influence of a delicate

Disease amonrf Lamhs. 291

constitution on the digestive orcrans) in the improved breed than
in the wikler and hardier races. It is also essential that these
principles should be given in such a condition that they can be
assimilated by the nutritive organs of the animal to which they
are supplied according to its requirements; and the capacity lor
assimilating food will further vary at different ages and in dif-
ferent breeds. It is then, I repeat, to some defect in the nitro-
genous element supplied in the food that I attribute the enormous
losses sometimes sustained among lambs in the autumn season.

In proof that a good supply of nitrogen is essential to animals,
especially during their growth, it may be shown that all parts oi
the body which possess a decided shape contain nitrogen ; hence
we may infer that this element has to perform certain important
functions in reference both to the formation and nutrition of the
tissues. The most convincing experiments and observations have
proved that this nitrogen can be derived from no other source
than the food ; consequently a larger supply is needed in youth,
when the frame has to be built up, than in mature age, when the
existing organism has only to be maintained. If we refer to
the constitution of milk, the natural provision for the young
animal, we find that in it the hydro-carbonaceous principle bears
to the nitrogenous principle the proportion of only two to one,
whereas in the food of adults it generally bears the proportion of
six to one ;. and thus, whilst on the one hand science has led us to
the conclusion that more than an average supply of nitrogen is
required to build up the frame, on the other it indicates that a
larger supply is provided by nature for that end.

Breed has some effect also in the production of this disease.
Short-woolled sheep will thrive upon dry arid pastures, exposed
to the inclemency of winter and the drought of summer ; but the
sheep principally kept upon the forest land of this neighbourhood,
though originally of this class, have, for the sake of improving
the clip of wool, been so repeatedly crossed with Leicesters or
Lincolns, that they require a better supply of food than the hardier
and purer original breed. Leicester sheep have a greater develop-
ment of lax, extensible cellular tissue in the soft solids ; their
vascular and nervous systems are more sluggish and inactive; they
have also a greater tendency to fatten, but are incapable of bearing
exposure or hardship.

Mr. Karkeek, in his ' Essay on Fat and Muscle,' says, " that
in proportion as an animal increases in fat will the organs of
nutrition become diminished in size ; it follows that by pursuing
the system of breeding from fatted animals, or those having a
tendency to iaXien^ function must react upon organisation, and at
last those qualities become not only increased but fixed in the
race." Therefore, in the continued endeavours to produce a breed

292 Disease among Lambs.

of sheep possessing a disposition to accumulate fat, the early
arrival at maturity is increased, and the animals are earlier ready
for the market; but all this takes place at the expense of robust
health, and the improved breeds are far more susceptible to the
effects of inclement weather and deficiency of a proper supply of
food. I am of opinion that in sheep of such improved breeds
the disposition to accumulate fat is evinced before the animals
arrive at maturity, and a diminution of the nutritive organs takes
place before the tissues are thoroughly developed. It is necessary
for the proper nutrition of the muscular structures, especially
during their development, that they should be subjected to exer-
tion ; but the improved breeds of sheep, whose temperament is
sluggish, are inactive and averse to motion, and their tissues do
not attain that degree of firmness which is characteristic of robust
health.

I also conclude that the herbage indigenous to the fertile
pastures of Lincolnshire and Leicestershire is richer in flesh-
forming substances than that upon the cold and comparatively
poor land of Derbyshire, and the sheep, therefore, are necessitated
to endeavour to attain the natural standard of their race upon
food which, considering their powers of assimilation, is not rich
enough in nitrogenous matter to enable the blood to meet the
demands of the system.

The occurrence of the disease in the autumn of the year is also
an argument in favour of my theory. Dry summer weather is
very unfavourable to the fresh growth of herbage, and animals at
pasture are obliged to eat old dry innutritious grass from hedge-
rows or any other places where they can find it, after cropping
the small amount of fresh nutriment afforded by their scanty
pastures ; their supply of flesh-forming materials is thus again
decreased. I have the authority of Boussingault and Voelcker
for stating, that when vegetables have matured their seeds the
nitrogen they contain is diminished, and when they are dried it
is reduced to its minimum. Since the outbreak of the disease
quickly follows upon abundant rains and genial weather, or upon
the removal to turnips, we are led further to infer that the blood,
already attenuated by containing a small amount of fibrin and
albumen, on being further diluted by the introduction of a large
quantity of moisture taken up in quickly-grown succulent herbage
and roots, becomes of too small specific gravity, and the elimina-
tion of the superabundant water by the mucous membrane of the
alimentary canal is one of nature's efforts to restore the vital fluid
to a normal consistency.

As regards the general management of the flock, it is well
known that imperfect nourishment quickly embarrasses the diges-
tive functions, producing loss of tone in those organs. The object

Disease among Lambs. 293

of good feeding should be not to fatten young animals, but to give
strength and tone to the vital forces, w^hich, established during
the growing period of life, enable the anim-al to withstand many
external agencies that tend to alter the form, structure, and compo-
sition of the tissues, and predispose to disease.

Let us see whether these indications have been complied with
in the management of the flocks in question. The farmers of this
locality who breed and rear Lincoln and Leicester sheep, know
that in order to make up for the inferiority of their home pastures
the lambs must be supplied with dry food from the time of wean-
ing. Is then the dry food, generally so provided, capable of
supplying the deficiency, without becoming in some measure pro-
ductive of disease ? I am of opinion that wherever the disease
in question has occurred, the dry food contained too great an
amount of hydro-carbonaceous material, whilst the constituents
necessary for building up and replacing the other tissues have been
insufficiently furnished. The dry food chiefly consisting of about
equal parts of crushed barley and linseed-cake, of good quality,
from one-fourth to one-third of a pound of the mixture being
allowed per sheep per diem, calculated roughly, we may say that
in addition to the quantity of tissue-forming substances obtained
from innutritions grass, each sheep daily receives into its system,
by the supply of dry food, about one-fifteenth of a pound of nitro-
genous principle. Should oats be substituted for either of the
other articles of food, the percentage of flesh-producing aliment
would not be materially affected, but if locust-pods were used
it would be considerably diminished. It would require a far
greater physiologist than I am to determine theoretically whether
the nutritive elements introduced from every source are adequate
to repair the natural waste of the body and build up the growing
organism. In my opinion, which is based upon a careful con-
sideration of the symptoms and post-mortem appearances, if due
regard be paid to the quality as well as the quantity of the
supply — they are not.

The leading symptom of the disease, excessive diarrhoea, can
only be due to one of two causes — either to irritation in some
part of the alimentary canal, or it is an effort of nature to
throw off from the blood some material detrimental to the
normal qualitative or quantitative condition of that fluid,
whereby it is rendered unfit to serve its proper purpose in
the animal economy. The post-mortem examinations did not
disclose evidence of irritation in any part of the intestinal tube,
therefore there remains but the inference that the blood is not
in a condition fitted to supply the demands of the system upon
it. The specific gravity of the blood may be lessened if the
constituents supplied to it by the food are insufficient to repair

294 Disease aviomj Lambs.

the waste and build up new structures ; and the introduction of
quickly-grown succulent herbage or roots throws a large quantity
of water into the blood, so as to dilute that fluid, then, since
the blood is in every way subservient to the requirements of the
organism, nature is called upon to discharge the superabundance
and endeavour to sustain it at a gravity compatible with its tole-
ration in the vessels, by evacuating some of the watery constituents
through the medium of the intestinal mucous membranes. The
uncertain staggering gait is a sign that the nervous system is
not being supplied with blood of proper quality, or, in the last
stage, of sheer debility and exhaustion. The continuance of
the appetite until near the approach of death is due to the demands
of nature seeking to restore the blood to its normal standard.
The excessive thirst which onlv occurs in the animals violently
purged is, no doubt, an effort to restore the quantity of the circu-
lating fluid, diminished by the copious fluid evacuations and
increased renal secretion, as these eliminations are themselves
endeavours of nature to restore the quality of the blood.

The post-mortem aj)])earances also separately establish the fact
of an abnormal condition of the vital fluid. The small ([uantity
of Ijlood which flowed when one of the affected animals was
slaughtered, it is fair to suppose, bore some relation to that con-
tained in the body, diminished by evacuation of the more watery
parts ; the easv death indicated general emaciation, as the soft
(juicklv-formed an:rmic coagulum did the small proportion of
flbrine. The presence of a fair quantitv of subcutaneous and
intervisceral fat is proof that death does not result from absence
of the essential elements for the generation of animal heat. The
pale, emaciated, and atrophied condition not only of the muscles,
both voluntarv and involuntary, l)ut also of all the tissues that
derive their materials of formation and regeneration from the
albuminoid constituents of the blood, shows how inadequate has
been the supply of " nourishment '' derived from the food to
compensate for the wear and tear of the system. They further
show that nature endeavours to meet the exigency by supplying
the blood with material previously stored up in the form of
muscular and other proteinoid tissues, or, in other words, by
internal nutrition. If anv reader entertain doubts with regard
to this process of nutrition from within, I must refer him to the
translations of Mr. Ernes, published in the ' Veterinarian ' for
1863, pp. 573 and 636, where he will find convincing proofs of
the soundness of this theory, I attribute the cough to partial
atrophy of the involuntary muscles of respiration. The de-
generated state of the tissues of the alimentary mucous mem-
branes is attributable to the want of proper nutrition, coupled
with the increased amount of exertion to which they had been

Disease among Lambs. 295

subjected in eliminating the superabundant moisture from the
blood.

The light-coloured pulpy congested condition of the liver arises,
as I conceive, from structural disease, supervening on functional
derangement ; such derangement being caused by the undue
exertion of the liver in its assimilating action upon the nitro-
genous substances of food, especially if supplied in a condition ill-
adapted to the requirements of the young animal. Also when the
liver by disease has become incompetent to act upon the imper-
fect albumen, which is the immediate product of the digestive
process, this albumen is not fitted for its introduction into the
blood, and a great part of it is evacuated in the urine. ( Vide
Carpenter's ' Manual of Physiology,' pp. 306, 307.) The dete-
riorated state of the blood supplied to the organ for the nourish-
ment of its own tissues, would also further tend to its disinte-
gration.

Such are my grounds for believing that a deficiency in the
supply of tissue-forming material has been one great cause in
the production of this disease.

We will now consider more in detail whether the condition in
which that material was supplied may not also have exerted a
bad influence. Unquestionably the healthy growing animal has
the power of assimilating as much of the albuminous principle as
is requisite, provided it be given in a suitable form. But how-
ever plentiful may be the supply, unless it is duly acted upon by
the assimilative power of several glandular organs (of which
the liver is one) it is not rendered fit to be a component of the
blood, and consequently being of no use in the economy, is
cast out in the urine as effete material. I maintain that the liver
of a growing lamb at the time of weaning has not arrived at its
full power of action, and that this defect is especially manifested
in reference to its function of preparing albuminous materials to
become constituents of the blood, unless these are supplied in a
certain condition, of which the caseine of milk is the best example.
The immature organ, in endeavouring to exert its specific action
upon albumen supplied in a condition fitted only for the require-
ments of an adult sheep, is overtaxed, derangement in its function
succeeds, which in turn gives place to structural disease, and in
a short time the organ is incapacitated from performing this
assimilative action upon any part of the albumen of the food.

By practical experience many shepherds and farmers know that
when it is necessary to supply lambs with dry food from the time
of weaning, they do better upon peas or beans than upon any other
kind of diet, a small quantity of linseed-cake being generally com-
bined with those leguminous seeds, on account of its greater fat-
forming qualities, and proportionately increased as the lambs

296 Disease among Lambs.

advance in size and strength. I have never heard or known of a
flock of lambs being attacked with the disease in question when
they have had a supply of beans or peas, whether combined or
not with other articles of food. This fact I consider very greatly
favours my theory ; for by reference to the table given below it
will be seen that beans and peas contain a greater percentage of
albuminous or nutritive material, in proportion to hydro-carbon-
aceous matter, than any other article of food usually given to stock.*
But further, chemists tell us that the seeds of leguminous plants,
such as beans, peas, and lentils, contain a nutritive material called
vegetable caseine, which, although it has the same composition as
vegetable albumen and gluten obtained from the cereal grains,
grasses, &c., differs from those substances in chemical properties.
Vegetable caseine is so called because of its analogy to the
caseine of milk, from which the sucking animal has to derive
the whole of its flesh-forming nourishment, and the existence of
such analogy obviously points to such seeds as proper food for
animals when first weaned.

I have stated that if there is a greater preponderance of the fat,
over the flesh-forming constituents in the food than is compatible
with the age and strength, it tends to tlie production of disease.
Many farmers in this neighbourhood, though their land is com-
paratively poor, do not force their lambs by giving any dry nutri-
ment until they are put upon turnips, and their flocks are not so
liable to this disease as those of their neighbours, who are better
keepers. It may be argued that this makes against my theory,
since a small quantity of dry nitrogenous food must be better than
none at all. In answer I must say that, as a rule, those same
small farmers who do not force their lambs, keep flocks which
are not of so improved a breed, and therefore do not require the
same amount of nutriment for their proper growth and develop-
ment ; that moreover their lambs will probably have not been run
so thickly together, and thereby will have had a better chance of
obtaining nutriment from the herbage, besides other advantages
consequent on a less artificial mode of life.

Whenever lambs kept in a more artificial state are supplied

* Table showing the quantity of nitrogenous and heat-producing matters in
several articles of food : —

Parts per cent, of Dry Parts per cent of Heat-
Albuminous Substances. producing Substances.

Lentils 25-00 46-75

Beans 23-30 .... 48*48

Peas 23-40 .... 50-07

Linseed cake 51-40 .... 66*00

Oats 13*60 55*48

Barley 13*21 56-14

Eye 13-81 .. .. 61'03

Meadow Hay 8*01 .... 66-48

Swede turnips 1'62 .... 10*35

Disease among Lambs. 297

with dry food, that food, unless it is composed principally of
beans or peas, is liable to disturb the equilibrium which should
subsist between the fat-producing elements and those which form
the tissues of the frame, and a tendency to disease is the result.
If it be remarked that linseed-cake is as rich in either principle
as leguminous seeds, and the question be raised why lambs cannot
do equally well upon that alone, I can only say that shepherds tell
me that, given by itself, it is too forcing — why, I cannot tell,
unless it is that legumes contain their nutritive elements in a
form more susceptible of being assimilated by young lambs.

As regards treatment, curative means are of little avail after
diarrhcea has fully set in. To the animals purged as well as to
those apparently well, stimulants should be given ; for if my theory
is at all correct, the vital powers of the animal must be kept up by
artificial means long enough for the introduction and assimilation
of nutritive aliment. For a long time subsequent to a thorough
change in the diet and to medicinal treatment deaths will occur
among some of the animals, at first apparently well : this cannot
cause very great surprise, when the weakened condition of the
whole of the digestive and assimilative organs in all or most of
the sheep exposed to such influences is borne in mind. As regards
diet, unquestionably the introduction of some easily-digestible
nitrogenous matter is the first consideration. Peas or beans, with
bran and a small proportion of linseed-cake, I conceive to be the
best mixture of dry food for the affected lambs. They may either
be turned upon old pasture land, or upon a large turnip break —
and in either case be supplied with a limited quantity of chopped
turnip-roots, and good sweet hay ad libitum ; the latter, though it
contains more heat-forming than nitrogenous elements, I deem the
best vehicle for supplying the amount of fibre essential for the
digestion of a ruminant. I also find that it is very beneficial to
protect them from the inclemencies of the cold, rainy, autumnal
nights, for there is always a greater mortality after exposure to
such weather. Of course it is essential to keep them from water.
I have known instances where, having had access to a pond, they
have gone in and drank until they died upon the spot.

The fearful mortality that occurs when once the disease has
commenced, in spite of all modes of treatment, shows that medi-
cine and nutritious food are then but of little avail, because the
assimilative organs are become so diseased as to have little or no
action on the aliment, and life hangs on so slender a thread that
a little extra exposure or increase of debility is fatal. Prevention,
therefore, rather than cure, must be our aim ; and for this our
best reliance is in a fair supply of easily-digestible nitrogenous
food from weaning-time to the following spring. I do not
speak confidently, but several shepherds and farmers have con-

298 Soda- Salts in Agriculture.

firmed my opinion by stating that when their lambs have been
supplied with beans or peas, combined with cake and bran, their
Hocks have enjoyed immunity from this disease ; whereas, when
the cereal grains have been substituted for the leguminous seeds,
the flocks upon the same farms have been aflfected. But in all
cases a veterinary surgeon should be consulted, as only a scientific
man and one thoroughly conversant with disease can properly
judge what medicinal and dietary treatment can be most advan-
tageously employed in the different stages of the disease.

In conclusion, may I be permitted to remark, that if the agri-
culturist has sometimes occasion to complain of the incompetence
of the veterinary surgeon when called upon to treat his sheep, the
farmer himself is chiefly to blame, for he does not employ the
professional man to treat the common run of diseases whicli affect
his flock, and consequently does not enable him to obtain a
general knowledge of their constitution. Only when disease in
an unusual form devastates the flock are his services required,
and then he is expected to treat promptly, scientifically, and suc-
cessfully animals with which he is so little acquainted. Even
then his aid is not sought till the nostrums of the shepherd and
the empirical cordials of the druggist have been exhausted, and
many of the survivors in the diminished flock are beyond the
reach of medical treatment.

Alfreton, Derbyshire.

XXIII. — On the Functions of Soda- Salts in Affriculture.

By Dr. Augustus Yoelcker.

Ty an agricultural point of view soda and its salts ai'e far less
important fertilising agents than potash and its saline combina-
tions.

The published ash-analyses of every variety of agricultural
produce show that all cultivated plants without exception con-
tain much more potash than soda. This is not due merely to
accident, or, as might be supposed, to a wider and more abundant
distribution of potash than of soda in the mineral kingdom,
for the rule holds good even when plants are grown on soils in
which the proportion of soda greatly exceeds that of potash.
It matters not what the composition of the soil is on which a
crop of wheat, oats, turnips, &c., is raised ; invariably the
amount of soda in the ashes of these and other plants will be
found to be quite insignificant in relation to that of potash.

Plants appear to have not only the power of taking up potash

Soda-Salts in Agriculture. 299

from the soil, but also of retaining' this alkali and using it for
building up the living organs of the plant.

Soda and its saline combinations unquestionably are also taken
up by plants from the soil and circulated throughout the vege-
table organism, but it is questionable whether soda, like potash, is
ever transformed in conjunction with carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
and other elements, into a living organ, in which the properties of
the alkali are no longer recognisable, but are as completely
changed as those of hydrogen, or carbon, or oxygen when enter-
ing into chemical combination with each other.

It is true we find soda-salts, more especially common salt,
in almost every kind of agricultural produce, and their pre-
sence is commonly regarded as a proof that they are absolutely
necessary for the very life and growth of our cereal and forage
crops. The mere presence of certain constituents in plants does
not, however, prove that these constituents are indispensable. Such
a conclusion is only established when the withdrawal of one or more
elements of nutrition, or the substitution of others in their place,
is marked uniformly by an unhealthy growth and final failure.
Thus we know positively that no plant can grow healthily with-
out phosphoric acid or potash, since numerous attempts to find
a substitute for them have all been totally unsuccessful. Hence
our present state of knowledge entitles us to consider these two
substances to be essential ash-constituents of all plants.

On the other hand, the fact that mangolds, or grass, contain
a good deal of common salt when the soil on which they are
grown is naturally rich in salt, or has received a good dressing of
it, does not by any means prove that salt is necessary ; or even
that it is, or may be, a useful manure for these crops.

Like other soluble substances common salt and most other
soda-salts are readily absorbed by the rootlets of plants and con-
veyed into their sap, where they probably have important func-
tions to perform in the living plant. What these special functions
are we have yet to learn ; all we know is that salt is taken up
by plants, and under certain conditions which require yet to be
more clearly defined, has a remarkably good effect upon vegeta-
tion. Notwithstanding the large increase in the produce of
corn or roots which has in many cases been realised by the use
of salt, and its general presence in almost all plants, its base — the
soda — cannot be regarded as essential to the luxuriant growth
and maturity of plants. In many ash-analyses, made by our best
and most trustworthy analytical chemists, soda is not mentioned
at all, and merely traces of chloride of sodium are given. Ash-
analyses in which soda does not occur are not isolated or excep-
tional cases, but may be readily found on looking over a list of
such analyses endorsed by the names of Boussingault, Fresenius,

300 Soda- Salts in Agriculture.

Way, and other chemical authorities, Avho have failed to find
soda in the ashes of some crops and only insignificant quantities
in others.

It is further worthy of notice that whilst the amount of phos-
phoric acid or potash in our crops within certain limits varies
but little, the proportion of common salt in green crops and
grass, and cereals in an unripe condition, appears to be regulated
entirely by accidental circumstances and to vary greatly. Thus
in land like the salt-marshes the herbage is richer in this con-
stituent than in upland districts, and on this account more
relished by cattle than ordinary herbage. Again, mangolds that
have received a heavy dressing of salt invariably contain a good
deal of salt, more especially in their leaves, whilst roots grown
without salt are comparatively poor in it.

The difference between potash and soda in this respect is
striking. No plant as yet has been found in which potash was
entirely absent, and though a soil may contain but little of this
alkali, plants have the power of extracting it and assimilating it
— that is, using it for the building up of their own organism. Soda
and its combinations, on the other hand, when present, occur in
variable proportions in the sap of plants. Soda compounds do
not appear to enter into such intimate organic combinations with
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and other elements, as potash and its
combination. It is worthy of notice that common salt never
occurs in perfectly ripe seeds, such as the grain of wheat, barley,
oats, even when the land upon which they are grown has been
heavily top-dressed with common salt, and the analysis of the
whole plant, root, stem, leaves, and unripe seed, shows its pre-
sence in considerable quantities. Common salt, and soda-salts in
general, as it would appear, circulate in the plant, assisting, in all
probability, the assimilation of other inorganic or soil consti-
tuents without becoming themselves integral parts of the living
plant.

It may further be mentioned that Professor Knop of Leipzig
has succeeded in growing and maturing peas, beans, Indian
corn, oats, barley, wheat, and other plants, in watery solutions
from which he excluded all salts of soda. Lastly, it is well
known to every practical agriculturist that soda compounds as a
class certainly do not belong to our most efficacious manures ;
and it is certain that the beneficial effects which nitrate of soda
and a few other soda-salts produce are mainly due to their acid,
and not to their basic constituents.

In the preceding remarks I have sufficiently stated the reasons
which induce me to regard soda as a non-essential ash-constituent
of plants. I have dwelt rather longer on this matter than
may be deemed necessary, because I think the time has arrived

Soda-Salts in Agriculture. 301

when attention should be prominently directed to the dis-
tinction between essential and non-essential ash-constituents
which I have been in the habit of drawing; for more than eig-ht
years. The development of the doctrine of vegetable nutrition
demands that such a distinction should be made, both in a
qualitative and quantitative sense — that is to say, it is desirable
that we should know positively not only what soil-constituents
are absolutely necessary for the growth of our cultivated crops,
but also what is the amount of each ash-constituent that has
to be regarded as indispensable for bringing our various crops to
maturity, and what is the amount which may be considered as
superfluous or accidental.

Although I do not look upon chloride of sodium and soda-
salts in general as essential ash-constituents of plants, I am far
from denying the beneficial effect which salt is capable of pro-
ducing in particular cases. Indeed, my own experience leads
me to admit that salt is a useful and cheap manure, which,
judiciously applied, frequently yields a large increase of corn,
roots, or hay, and seldom does any harm.

On porous sandy soils, roots, especially when the season
happens to be dry, are apt to pass so rapidly through all the
stages of growth that their leaves begin to drop before they have
had time enough on the one hand to collect atmospheric food,
and on the other to accumulate mineral matter from the soil in
sufficient quantity for the development of an abundant crop of
bulbs. On such soils the application of 3 or 4 cwt. has given
me a large increase in roots, and 7, 8, or even 9 cwt,, so far from
doing any harm, increased the produce of mangolds by 2|- to 4
tons per acre. On the other hand, it does mischief when it is
applied in excessive doses (and such I consider all quantities
exceeding 5 cwts. per acre), to stiff, wet, clay soils, and soils gene-
rally which are cold, and which bring their grain, root, and
grass crops slowly to maturity, for salt has a remarkable tendency
to prolong the period of vegetation, and delay the arrival of
maturity, and consequently, when it is misapplied, the crude
juices circulating in the unripe leaves are not sufficiently elabo-
rated or ripened, within the period during which the roots can
be left in the field, for the production of a large and heavy crop.

As common salt certainly has the power of prolonging the
period during which our cultivated crops can be kept growing in
the field, much advantage can be derived from its use by the
intelligent agriculturist, who, bearing in mind the circumstances
under which it is desirable to prolong the life of plants, will
chiefly employ it as a top-dressing or otherwise when he has to
do with light, porous, and naturally dry soils.

This useful property of common salt is probably common to

302 Soda-Salts in Aginculture.

all very soluble salts that are not positively poisonous, but none
is so cheap and so innoccuous as this, and therefore so well cal-
culated to discharge this important function.

', It will be seen that the value of a fertilizing agent does not
always depend upon the fact that it is an essential element of
nutrition ; the substance which we apply to the land with a view
of increasing our crops may have no value whatever as a direct
fertilizer, and may, as is the case with chloride of sodium, not
even make its appearance in our grain-crops, and yet it may be
instrumental in materially raising the produce of wheat.

Again, such non-essential salts in general may nevertheless
play an important part in tlie nutrition of plants l)y assisting the
solution and uniform distribution of fertilizing constituents which
occur in the soil in a sparingly soluble or insoluble condition.
It is well known to chemists that chloride of sodium exercises
such a dissolving action upon several bodies, and thus it is not
too great a stretch of fancv to assume that it will act beneficially
in the field by dissolving and rendering available earthy fer-
tilizing constituents Avhicli without its aid will remain in an
inert condition for a long time.

The remarkable changes Avhich solutions of salts of j^otash
undergo in passing through different soils naturally leads us to
suspect that similar changes take place when dilute solutions of
soda-salts are filtered through a soil.

We know, indeed, that soda to some extent, though, in com-
parison with potash, only to a small extent, is absorbed by most
soils, and that its absorption, like that of ammonia, potash, phos-
phoric acid, &c,, is mainly due to chemical action, and not merely
to physical attraction.

All soils possess a wonderful capacity of adapting or convert-
ing crude fertilizing substances into combinations fitted to support
the process of nutrition of plants. The changes which soluble
fertilizers undergo in contact with soils of various characters are
frequently quite unexpected. Tlie results of titration experiments
are very much influenced by the comj)osition of each individual
soil operated upon, and by the strength and even the quantity
of the saline solution brought into contact with it. We must,
therefore, be careful how we attempt to deduce from the results
of special experiments an universal or natural law of husbandry.
The results of such experiments are not without value ; they hold
good, however, only under the particular conditions under which
they were performed in the laboratory, and probably many more
years of hard study and conscientious self-denying work on
many intelligent practical observers will still be required, before
our knowledge of the mysterious process of vegetable nutrition
will be much advanced.

Soda-Snifs in Af/riculfure. 303

Absorption of Soda.

With a view of throwing-, if possible, further light on the
functions of soda-salts, and more especially of common salt, in
relation to the soil and the crops grown upon it, I have made some
experiments similar to those recorded in my paper on the ' Ab-
sorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition,' and have
now the pleasure of laying before the Society a further instalment
of soil studies, similar to those which will be found in previous
volumes of this Journal.

Experiments with a solution of Chloride of Sodium.

In the following four experiments ^ lb. (3500 grains) of soil
were in each case introduced into a glass-stoppered bottle, four
deci-gallons of water containing in solution 41*52 grains of
chemically pure chloride of sodium were then poured upon the
soil and left in contact with it for four days, during which
time this mixture was shaken up at intervals and then allowed
to settle. The clear liquid was then syphoned off and passed
through fine filtering-paper. In separate portions of the per-
fectly clear filtered solution the following substances were then
determined by well-known and approved analytical processes
that need not be described here in detail : —

Soluble silica ; oxides of iron and alumina (together) ; lime ;
magnesia ; potash ; soda ; sulphuric acid ; phosphoric acid, and
chlorine.

The amount of sulphuric acid found in the analysis was com-
bined with its equivalent proportion of lime, and calculated for the
whole four deci-gallons. The chlorine found was combined with
the magnesium, potassium, sodium, and with the remainder of
the lime found in each analysis.

Experiment No. 1. — With a solution of Chloride of Sodium, on
a Calcareous Soil.
The soil employed in this experiment was a chalk-marl, con-
taining carbonate of lime in a greatly preponderating proportion,
with but little clay and organic matter, as will be seen by the
following analysis, which gave in 100 parts : —

Moisture 3-62

Organic matter 4'23

Carbonate of lime 67"50

Oxides of iron and alumina 7"54

Magnesia "44

Potash and soda ''•79

Insoluble silicious matter 15'88

Clilovine and pliosplioric acid traces

100-00
, VOI^. I. — S. S. X

304 Soda-Salts in Agricultw-e.

The salt-solution, as already stated, originally contained, in
four deci-gallons, 41*52 grains of pure chloride of sodium. The
liquid, which had been left for four days in contact with the soil,
contained, after filtration, in four deci-gallons : —

Grains.

Soluble silica '36

Oxides of iron and alumina -IS

Chloride of sodium 36-24

Chloride of potassium 1"04

Chloride of map;nesium '30

Chloride of calcium G'04:

Sulphate of lime 7"55

Phosphoric acid traces

51-G9

The chlorine contained in the solution used in the experiment
amounts to 25*16, and the chlorine found in the filtered soil-
solution amounts to 20*57, and is distributed amongst the various
constituents as follows : —

Grains.

Chlorine united with sodium 21"99

Chlorine imited with magnesium '23

Chlorine united with potassium *49

Chlorine united with calcium 3-8G

Total chlorine found 26*57

Consequently no absorption of chlorine whatever took place ; the
filtered liquid contained 1*41 of chlorine in excess over the
quantity contained in the salt-solution before filtration, which
slight excess no doubt is due to the small quantities of chlorides
which occurred in the soil.

It Avill be seen that whilst the whole amount of chlorine passed
through the soil in combination with magnesium, potassium, and
calcium, some soda was retained by it. The amount of soda
fixed by the soil is but small, for

Chloride of s^

boQium.

Before the experiment the salt solution contained .. 41*52 = 22*00
After contact with soil 36*24 = 19*20

Difference 5*28 = 2*80

Thus 3500 grains of this calcareous soil absorbed only 2*8 grains
of soda contained in 5*28 grains of chloride of sodium, or 1000
grains absorbed onlv 0*8 of a grain of soda.

If we compare this result with the action of arable soils upon
potash-salts, we find that the soil has far less attraction for soda
than for potash. For instance, this same calcareous soil, of
which 1000 grains in the preceding experiment absorbed only
0*8 of a grain of soda, in a similar filtration experiment made

Soda-Salfs in Agriculture. 305

with cliloiide of potassium, absorbed 3*578 grains of potash per
1000 of soil. This, no doubt, is one of the reasons why soda-
saks as a class are far less energetic manures than their corres-
ponding potash-salts. If a soil is manured with common salt
and by the action of rain a dilute solution of salt is produced, a
good deal of the salt will remain undecomposed in the ground.
In the moist soil the salt exercises but a weak influence, which,
however, produces a sufficiently marked effect upon the produce
in the long run.

Experiment No. 2. — With a Stiff Clay Soil.

This soil was poor in lime, and contained but little sand,
capable of being separated by washing and decantation. It
furnished, on analysis, the following results : —

Mechanical Analysis.

Moisture 3-91

Organic matter and water of combination .. .. 4*80

Clay 78-13

Lime 2-19

Sand 10-97

100-00
Chemical Analysis.

Moisture 3-91

Organic matter and water of combination . . . . 4-80

Oxides of iron and alumina 7*85

Phosphoric acid '04

Carbonate of lime 2-08

Sulphate of lime -15

Magnesia ,

.09
Alkalies and loss '' "^

Insoluble silicious matter 80-85

\

100-00

Four deci-gallons of the salt-solution, after four days' contact
with the soil, contained : —

Grains.

Soluble silica -36

Oxides of iron and alumina -28

Chloride of sodium 34*88

Chloride of potassium 1*80

Chloride of magnesium 1-35

Chloride of calcium 3-80

Sulphate of lime 1-36

Phosphoric acid -08

43-91

The total amount of chlorine found in the liquid after filtration

X 2

30G Soda-Salts in AfiricuUurc.

through the soil is 25-42, which is divided amongst the four
chlorides as follows : —

Chlorine in union with sodium 21-13

Chlorine in union with niaiinesium TOl

Chlorine in luiion with jjotassium "Si's

Chlorine in union with calciiun 2-43

25-42

This corresponds almost exactly with 25*16 — that is, the quantit}'
of chlorine in the 42-51 {grains of salt contained in four deci-
<2^allons of the solution employed in these experiments.

In this case a little more soda was absorbed than in the pre-
ceding experiment : —

OhloriJe of g^

Sodium.

Before the experiment the salt-sohition contained .. 41-52 = 22-00

After contact with soil 34-88 = 18-48

Dinerenco C.-Cl = 3-52

1000 grains of soil consequently absorbed 1-057 grain of
soda.

Experiment No. ?y. — On a fertile Sandy Loam.

This soil on analysis yielded the following results: —

Moisture 2-05

Organic matter and water of combination . . . . OTo

Oxides of iron and alumina fi-lO

Carbonate of lime 1-22

Alkalies and magnesium 1-20

Insoluble siliceous matter (sand and clay) .. .. 82-22

100-44

The qualitative analysis of this soil showed, moreover, that it
contained distinct traces of chloride of sodium.

3500 grains of soil and four deci-gallons of salt-solution were
tivated as before with the following results : —

The clear fdtrate after contact with the soil contained : —

<Jrains.

Soluble silica -12

Oxides of iron and alumina "20

Chloride of sodium 37-36

Chloride of potassium 1-72

Chloride of magnesium "30

Chloride of calcium 4-60

Sniphate of lime -06

riidsphoric aciil traces

45-26

Tlio fjltmt'' con|;iined, in ronforinity with Experiment No. 1,

Soda-Salts in Af/riculture. o07

a slight excess of chlorine, amounting to I'-IU grain, again
showing that, whilst soda is retained in the soil, the whole of the
chlorine of the salt-solution passes through it.

The actual (juantity of chlorine found in the liquid atter
contact with the soil amounted to 26*65 grains, which were
divided amongst the four chlorides as follows : —

Chlurine ill combination with sodiiun
Chlorine in combination witli magnesium
Chlorine in combination with potassium
Chlorine in combination with calcium

26-65

Chloride of
Sodium.

Soda.

IJel'ore the experiment the salt solution contained .. 4].*52 = 22'00
After contact with soil 37'36 = lO'TU

Difference 4-lG = 2-21

1000 grains of the sandy fertile loam consequently absorbed only
0*62 of a grain of soda.

Experiment No. 4. — On Pasture Land.

The analysis of this soil yielded the following results : — ■

Moisture 2-420

Organic matter ll'TOO

Oxides of iron and alumina ll-8()0

Carbonate of lime 1'240

Sulphate of lime '306

Pliosphoric acid '080

Chloride of sodium •112

Potash (soluble in acid) '910

Soluble sihca 4-090

Insoluble siliceous matter G7-530

100-248

The experiment was in this instance carried out in precisely the
same manner as before.

The clear filtrated solution, after contact with soil, on analysis,
gave the following results : —

Grailis.

Soluble silica •]2

Oxides of iron and alumina -28

Chloride of sodium 34-92

Chloride of potassium -72

Chloride of magnesium .. .. -47

Chloride of calcium 5-30

Sulphate of lime '41

Phosphoric acid traces

42-22

308 Soda-Salts in Agriculture.

The chlorine in 41 "52 of salt contained in four deci-gullons of
salt-solution amounts to 25*16 grains.

Chlorine found after contact with soil, 25"27 ; that is almost
precisely the same quantity originally present in the solution.

The chlorine in the filtered liquid occurs as follows : —

Chlorine in combination with sodium 21'19

Chlorine in combination with potassium . . . . 'Si

Chlorine in combination with mauncsium .. .. '35

Chlorine in combination with calcium 3"39

25-27

Chloride of
Sodium.

Soda.

Before contact with soil the salt-solution contained .. 41-02 = 22-00
After contact with soil 34-92 = 18-50

Difference ti-OO = 3-50

Thus 1000 grains of pasture-land absorbed in this experiment
exactly 1 grain of soda — the same quantity as was taken up by
the soil in Experiment No. 2.

Experiment No. 5. — Abaorption of' Chloride of Sodium on a

Marly Soil.

In this experiment a stifiish clay-marl was used. It was found
on analysis to contain in 100 parts : —

Moisture 4-72

Organic matter and water of combination . . . . 11-03

Oxides of iron 9-98

Alumina G-06

Carbonate of lime 12-10

Sulphate of lime -75

Majinesia and alkalies 1-43

Soluble sihca (soluble in caustic potash) .. .. 17-93

Insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly clay) .. .. 3(J-00

100-00

The salt-solution used in this experiment slightly differed in
strength from that employed before, and contained, in four deci-
gallons, 40-32 grains of chemically pure chloride of sodium,

3500 grains of soil, and four deci-gallons of salt-solution,
were employed, and the experiments carried out precisely as
before.

In the four preceding analyses of the salt-solution left in
contact with soil, the determination of the organic matter was not
attempted. In this and the next experiment a separate portion
(one deci-gallon) of the clear liquid was evaporated, and the
residue carefully dried at 300^ Fahr. until it ceased to lose its

Soda-Salts in Agriculture. 309

weight. The organic matter was then destroyed by heat aiad the
residue analysed in the usual manner.

Calculated for four deci-gallons, the salt-solution after con-
tact with soil contained : —

Organic matter 2*520

Soluble silica -100

Oxides of iron and alumina '080

Sulphate of lime 1-428

Carbonate of lime 2'172

Chloride of sodium 33'642

Chloride of potassium 'SSS

Chloride of magnesium '460

Chloride of calcium 5'758

Phosphoric acid '038

46-736

One deci-gallon evaporated to dryness gave 11 -625 grains of
residue dried at 300°; this gives 46*500 grains for the whole
salt-solution, and agrees very well with the sum-total of the
constituents found in the detailed analysis.

The chlorine, I may observe, was determined in a separate
portion, and not in the residue left on evaporation.

Calculated for four deci-gallons,

The amount of chlorine found was 24-696

Chlorine in the 40-32 of chloride of sodium contained) 04.4.^7
in 4 deci-gallons of solution J

Difference -229

No chlorine whatever it will be seen was absorbed, and the
amounts found in the solution, before and after the experiment,
were almost identical.

The chlorine was thus distributed amongst the different basic
substances dissolved by the salt-solution from the soil : —

Chlorine in combination with sodium .. .. 20*413

Chlorine in combination with potassium . . . . *256

Chlorine in combination with magnesium .. .. "344

Chlorine in combination with calcium 3*683

Total chlorine found 24-696

Absorption of soda by the mai'ly soil took place as follows : —

Chloride of
Sodium.

Soda.

Before contact with 3500 grains of soil, 4 deci-) aq-s^O — '^l-SCC '

gallons of salt-solution contained . . . . J "" ~ ""

After contact 33*642 = 17-878

Difference 6*678 = 3*488

1000 grains of soil accordingly absorbed 0*996 of a grain of soda,
or very nearly 1 per mille.

310 Soda- Salts in Agriculture.

Experiment No. 6. — On a Sterile Ferruginous Saudi/ Soil.

The last experiment with chloride of sodium was tried upon a
soil distinguished from the others by its sterile character ; it
contained an excessive proportion of oxide of iron, much quartz —
sand, little clay, and mere traces of lime.

The analysis yielded the following results : —

Moisture l-IO

*()ruanic matter o'lVJ

Oxides of iron and alununa 12'1(!

Carbonate of lime '15

Alkalies and magnesia '40

Insoluble siliceous matter 82*41

Sulphuric and phosphoric acid traces

100-00

' ^Containing nitrogen .. .. '21

Equal to ammonia '25

The salt-solution, containing' 4()'320 grains of pure chloride of
sodium, left in contact with the soil for four days, gave the
following results : —

Organic matter 2'180

Soluble silica "100

Oxides ot'iron and alumina '122

Chloride of sodiimi aC"222

Chloride of potassium "818

Chloride of magnesium '304

Chloride of calcium "608

Sulphate of lime 1"070

Phosphoric acid '040

Chloride of
Sodium.

41-524

Before the experiment, 4 dcci-gallons of salt-) aq-qou — oi-^rr

solution contained f ~ — -

After contact with 3500 grains of soil .. 36-222 = 19-193

4-098 2-173

1000 grains of this soil consequently absorbed 0-62 of a grain of
soda.

A separate deci-gallon, on evaporation, left 10-33 grains of
residue dried at 3()0^ Fahr., which gives 41-320 grains per four
deci-gallons, a result which agrees as closely as can l^e expected
with the results obtained in the above detailed analysis.

If we calculate the amount of chlorine in the four chlorides
mentioned in the analvsis of the liquid after contact with soil, we
find :—

Soda- Salts in Agriculture. 311

Chlorine combined with sodium 21"y76

Chlorine combined with ] >otassium '386

Chlorine combined with magncsimu "228

Chlorine combined with calcium '388

Total chlorine found in fixed salts .. .. 22*978

The chlorine contained in the original 40'32 grains of chloride
of sodium dissolved in four deci-gallons of water amounted to
24"467, and as 22-98 grains of chlorine only were recovered in
the heated residue from four deci-gallons of salt-solution, it might
appear that 3*487 of chlorine had become absorbed by this soil.
This, however, was not the case ; for a direct determination ot
chlorine in a portion of the salt-solution not evaporated to dryness,
gave 24*402 of chlorine for four deci-gallons, or almost the
identical quantity present in the original salt-solution.

No chlorine, therefore, whatever became fixed in the soil ; and
the question arises what had become of the missing 3*487 grains
of chlorine. No bases were left in the residue obtained on
evaporation with which the chlorine could have been xinited, and
the examination readily showed that this amount of chlorine did
not exist in a free or uncombined state.

A minute investigation of this curious dissipation of chlorine,
which gradually took place during the evaporation of the liquid
by heating the residue to redness, showed that a portion of the
chlorine in the filtered salt-solution was combined with ammonia,
Avhich of course must have long been present in the soil under
experiment.

A direct ammonia determination fully verified this supposition,
for, on distilling this soil with a solution of caustic potash, I
found that it contained 'lOS per cent, of free ammonia. For the
filtration experiment 3*500 grains of soil were used ; this quantity
consequently contained 3*605 grains of ammonia, which is more
than sufficient to combine with the chlorine not recovered in the
heated residue. The 3*487 grains of chlorine which remained
over and above the quantities united with sodium, potassium,
magnesium, and calcium, correspond to 5*255 grains of chloride
of ammonia, containing 1*669 of ammonia.

Action of Salt on Peruvian Guano,

A distinct proof is here given that common salt has the power
of liberating ammonia from soils that have been highly manured
with rotten dung, Peruvian guano, and other ammoniacal manures,
which in sandy soils especially exist in feeble combinations,
that readily undergo decomposition when brought in contact
with a solution of salt. In the case before us, a portion of chloride
of sodium acted upon these feeble ammonia combinations, pro-

312 Soda- Salts in Agriculture.

ducing on the one hand soda, which became fixed in the soil ;
and on the other, chloride of ammonia, which passed into solu-
tion.

This analytical result throws light on the function of salt in
agriculture. It is well known that salt is most beneficially
applied to light land, after a good dressing with farmyard-manure,
alone or in conjunction with Peruvian guano, and that its appli-
cation under these circumstances is particulai'ly useful to wheat
and grain crops in general. Practical experiments on a large
scale have shown, indeed, that by salt alone a large increase of
grain was produced on land in good heart — that is, that had
been previously well manured. In this case the application of
salt evidently has the effect of liberating ammonia and rendering
it available for the immediate use of our cereal crops, which we
know from experience are much benefited by it.

On land out of condition, salt must not be expected to produce
such a favourable effect, and as this manure no doubt is some-
times put upon land exhausted by previous cropping, in which,
therefore, it does not find ammoniacal compounds upon which
it can act, one reason becomes evident why salt is inefficacious
as a manure in some cases, whilst in others its beneficial effects
are unmistakcable.

Peruvian guano and salt is a favourite dressing with many
farmers, and justly so. It has been supposed by agricultural
writers that the benefits resulting from this mixture are due to
the property of salt to fix ammonia ; I have shown, however,
elsewhere, that good Peruvian guano does not contain any
appreciable quantity of free ammonia, and, moreover, that salt
does not fix ammonia.

Whilst theory has erred in ascribing to salt a power which it
does not possess, the practice of mixing guano with salt is one
which can be confidently recommended. So far from fixing
ammonia, salt rather tends to liberate and disseminate through
the soil the ammonia contained in the Peruvian guano applied to
the land, which then becomes fixed by the soil.

It is worthy of notice that the soil employed in Experiment
No. G, received a liberal dressing of Peruvian guano in the pre-
ceding year, and retained, as shown by analysis, an appreciable,
though small amount of ammonia in a loose state of combina-
tion. On the addition of a solution of salt, a portion of the
ammonia entered into union with an equivalent proportion of
chlorine of the chloride of sodium and passed into solution, whilst
the soda of the decomposed chloride of sodium became fixed in
the soil. The admixture of salt to Peruvian guano thus increases
the efficacy of the latter, and on this account proves economical
in practice, especially on light land.

Soda-Salts in Agriculture. 313

The soils used in this series of experiments absorbed the
following quantities of soda by 1000 grains : —

Soda.
(No. of Grains.)

1. Calcareous soil '800

2. Stiff clay 1-057

3. Fertile sandy loam '620

4. Pasture land I'OOO

5. Marly soil '996

6. Sterile ferruginous sand '620

Compared with the amount of potash which the same soils
removed from solutions of chloride of potassium, these quantities
are small, since, speaking generally, they are not more than one-
third or one-fourth as large.* In every instance, however, an
appreciable quantity of chloride of sodium was decomposed, and
gave rise to soluble chlorides of potassium, magnesium, and
calcium ; and in the case of the ferruginous sand, chloride of
ammonium was formed in addition and passed into solution.

My experiments agree with those of other observers, and prove
that common salt is certainly an effectual means of eliminating
mineral food from the soil and placing it at the disposal of the
growing plant.

Experiments with Sulphate of Soda.

1. Oh a Marly Soil.

The same soil which was used in the Experiment No. 5, with
chloride of sodium, was tested to ascertain its power of removing
soda from its sulphate. 3500 grains of the marly soil were put
into a stoppered bottle and mixed with four deci-gallons of a
solution containing 44'93 grains of anhydrous sulphate of soda.
The greater portion of the liquid, after standing upon the soil
for four days, was drawn off, filtered, and subsequently
analysed.

Two deci-gallons of the clear solution, when evaporated to
dryness, gave a residue, weighing 25*650 grains, dried at
300° Fahr.

The total solution accordingly gave 51'30 grains of solid
matter.

The residue left, on evaporation, was analysed, and deter-

* 1000 grains of soil removed from solutions of chloride of potassium, the
following quantities of potash : —

Potash in grains.

1. Calcareous soil 3*578

2. Clay soil 3' 970

3. Fertile sandy loam 2'626

4. Pastvxre land 3-758

5. Marly soil 3'373

C. Sterile sand 1*465

314 Soda-Salts in A(jricullarc.

minations of sulphuric acid and clilorine made in separate portions
of the filtered liquid.

The total solution with this marly soil was found to con-
tain : —

Organic matter •■140

Sohible silica -180

Oxides of iron and ahnuina and traces of phosplioric acid '080

Carbonate ot" lime 2'764

Sulphate of lime 8'506

Carbonate of magnesia •27(5

Carbonate of potash •252

Chloride of sodium 1*2()()

Sulphate of soda 30-874

50-038

llefore the experiment, the solution contained 44-030 = 19-C17
After contact with soil oG-874 = 13-283

8-056 = 0-334

1000 grains of marly soil accordingly absorbed 1*809 grain of
soda.

In this experiment a portion of sulphate of soda acted upon
the carbonate of lime in the soil, and produced, in the first place,
sulphate of lime, a combination sufficiently soluble in water to
pass into solution, and carbonate of soda. The silicates in the
soil, or other combinations for which soda has affinity, act upon
the carbonate of soda and fix its base. This marly soil con-
tained an appreciable ([uantity of sulphate of lime, which
augments slightly the quantity produced by the sulphuric acid of
the decomposed sulphate of potash, as will be seen by the
following results : —

Suliihui'ic Acid.

The sulphate of soda in 4 dcci-gallons of solution contains 25-312
The total solution after contact with soil contained .. .. 25*770

Excess -458

This slight excess corresponds to 0-778 grain of sulphate of
lime. In conformity with other experiments, no absorption what-
ever of sulphuric acid took place. It will be seen also that Avith
this soil, containing 12 per cent, of carbonate of lime, the absorp-
tion of soda is greater when sulphate of soda is brought in con-
tact with it than when chloride of sodium is used.

2. Experiment xcitJi Sulphate of Soda on Sterile Sandij Soil.

In this experiment a solution of sulphate of soda was used of
the same strength as before. The soil was the same as that upon
which the filtration experiment with chloride of sodium was tried ;

Soda-Salfs in A(jricidlurc. 315

3500 grains of soil, and four deci-gallons of solution of sulphate
of soda were left in contact for four days, and the experiment
carried out precisely as before.

The analysis of the filtered liquid, after contact with soil,
calculated for four deci-gallons, gave the following results : —

Organic matter 3-240

Soluble silica -120

Oxides of iron and alumina and traces of pliosplioric acid -lOO

Sulphate of lime 1*714

Sulphate of magnesia -042

Sulphate of potash -812

Chloride of sodium -GHO

Sulphate of soda 39-696

47-004
By direct evaporation of two deci-gallons of the clear solution,

23*45 grains of solid residue, dried at 300° Fahr., were obtained ;

this gives 46*90 for the total solution, and agrees very closely

with the sum-total of the constituents found in the analysis of

the dried residue.

This soil, under precisely similar conditions, absorbed less

soda than the marly soil : —

Sulphate of „ i

Soda. •^"'''^- .

Before the experiment, 4 deci-gallons of liquid) .. r,nr^ -in ^i-

contained .. f ^^''^''^ = ^^'^'^'

After contact with 3500 grains of soil .. .. 39-696 = 17-329

Difference 5-234 = 2-288

Accordingly 1000 grains of this sandy sterile soil absorbed only
0-653 of soda.

The sulphuric acid in the liquid after filtration through the soil
is distributed as follows : —

22-364 grains arc united with soda
*373 „ ,, potash

•421 „ „ magnesia

1*008 „ „ lime

24-166 grains of sulphuric acid altogether.

Before filtration the solution contained 25*312 grains of
sulphuric acid; consequently 1*146 grain was not recovered in
the fixed and heated residue.

I have pointed out already that this soil contained ammonia in
a state of combination, which enabled me to expel readily an
appreciable quantity by distillation with caustic potash, A
portion of sulphuric acid, originally united with soda, evidently
passed into the filtered liquid in combination with ammonia. As
sulphate of ammonia, like all salts of ammonia, is volatile at a
high temperature, none could lie retained in the strongly-heated

316 Soda- Salts in Agriculture.

residue of the filtered liquid ; this residue consequently con-
tained less sulphuric acid than the liquid from which it was
obtained.

This view is sanctioned by the result of a direct sulphuric
acid determination made in the filtered liquid after contact with
the soil. Calculated for four deci-<;allons, 1 found 25*552 grains
of sulphuric acid ; and as but 24'1G() of this quantity were united
with lime, potash, soda, magnesium and soda, 1'386 grain of
sulphuric acid remained over which could only have been united
with ammonia.

Like a solution of common salt, though in a minor degree, a
solution of sulphate of soda had the power of separating from
this soil, and rendering soluble, an appreciable amount of
ammonia.

Experiment with Nitrate of Soda on Marly Soil.

In my last experiment I employed a solution of nitrate of soda
and the same marly soil that was used in several preceding
experiments,

1750 grains of this soil were shaken up in a bottle with
one deci-gallon of a solution containing 24"92 grains of nitrate of
soda. After standing three daj-s the liquid was filtered off, and
in it the proportions of lime, potash and soda, and of nitric acid,
were accuratelv determined ; the first three by the usual methods
of analysis, the last l)y Pugh's process. Two separate nitric acid
determinations gave closely-agreeing results.

The following results were obtained in this analysis : —

Before Filtration, After Filtration,

the Solution contained the Solution contained

Nitric acid 15-82 .. ., 15-715

Soda 9-10 .. ,, 9-569

Potash ,. ., -420

Lime .. .. 2-408

24-92 28-112

This soil yielded to water alone small quantities of chloride of
sodium, of potash, and of carbonate of lime, Avhich accounts for
a little more soda being found in the liquid after contact with
soil than occurred in the original solution of nitrate of soda.

Within a small fraction, the proportions of nitric acid in the
original solution and the liquid after filtration through the soil
are identical.

It appears thus, that in this experiment neither nitric acid nor
soda were absorbed.

11, Salisbury-Square, Fleet-street, London, E.G.

( 317 )

XXIV. — Rise and Progress of Shorthorns. By Henry H. Dixon.

Prize Essay.

A quiet day with Bakewell and the Longhorns — The Hohlerness cows —
Tlie Teeswaters — Earhest bulls in the Shorthorn Herd-Book — Original
Durliam breeders — Tlie Maynards' bullocks — The Brothers Colling —
Tlie Durham ox — The BaiTupton and Ketton sales — Diftusion of short-
horns — Bates — • Mason — Whitaker — Sir C. Knightley — The Cherry
Cross — The Booths — Indirect causes of Shorthorn progress — Progress in
England — Neglect of milking qualities — Progress in Scotland — Eesult
of crosses with its native breeds — Aberdeenshire " cross-breds " — Effect
on Falkirk trade — Progress in Ireland, on the Continent, in the Colonies
— Fancy prices — ■ Conclusion.

Modern history has been much too sparing of its prose pictures
of pastoral life. A great general or statesman has never lacked
the love of a biographer ; but the thoughts and labours of men
who lived " remote from cities," and silently built up an im-
proved race of sheep or cattle, whose influence was to be felt in
every market, have had no adequate record. One slight sketch
is nearly all that remains to us. We can go back, through its
guidance, to the days when Bakewell was a living name, and
Dishley the head-quarters to which all the best breeders of farm-
stock made resort. The scene rises up through the dim vista of
more than a hundred years. There are the willow clumps which
were cut on a seven years' rotation ; the water-meadows, which
grew four grass-crops in the season ; the mimic Dutch canal,
which supplied the sluices and carried boats laden with produce
and manure between different parts of the farm, and on whose
sluggish stream turnips were floated down to the stock, and
washed in the course of their sail ! ' Two-Pounder ' is brought
out by the shepherd, with all the respect due to such a patriarch
of the long-wools. Will Peet is on parade with the black cart-
stallion ; and John Breeder and Will Arnold, hazel-wand in
hand, have gathered the herd into a corner of the Long Pasture,
and listen eagerly for any word that may be dropped about their
favourites. In the business-room there are not only skeletons
but pickled carcases of sheep, whose points Avere most after their
breeder's heart ; but he shows with no less relish some beef
joints, the relics of his " Old Comely," which died at twenty-six,
and the outside fat of a sirloin fully four inches thick.

The latter were his longhorn trophies, and no man could boast
of a herd with deeper flesh and lighter offal. In his eyes, the
breed was fated to represent the roast beef of Old England for
ever and aye ; and the thought that the very glory of their heads
would be objected to as taking up too much room in the straw-

318 J?/> and Pror/rcss of SI i or f harm.

yards, and that a race with shortov horns and earlier maturity
from " the banks of the stately Tees " would ruthlessly push
them from their place and reduce them to a mere fraction in the
Midlands, never vexed his soul. Their hold of public favour
had been long and sure, and their greatest triumph was to come.
If " Two-Pounder " had then the rejiutation of earning 800
guineas in one season and serving some picked home ewes as
well, the Dishley bull "Two Penny "was fated to make the herd
of Fowler of Rollright, and swell its sale average to 81/. 145. "dd.
for fifty-one !

Longhorns of some kind or another, and generally with good
milk-marks and the faculty of fattening at a great age, were at
this ])eri()d the farmers' friends. They excited the admiration of
Dr. Johnson in Derbyshire, and led him to note that his host,
" whose talk is of bullocks,'' sold one of them for 100 guineas.
As good prices were obtained for the armcnta fronte lata, — those
blacks with white backs which Sir A. Ramsay took to Scotland
as a cross for the Aberdeenshire, and whose horn practice in
Garstang market was duly felt and recorded by Pennant as he
journeyed towards the Hebrides. l^'arther north, the Lortons
liad such wide-spreading horns that they were taught from calves
to incline their heads at an angle on entering the byre. Tlie Lake
district could also boast of the white Lysicks, " whose horns and
lofty carriage made them suitable for topping the Yorkshire
dealers' lots ;" and their neighbours, the Lamplugh Hawkies,
bore a strong afhnitv, both in colour and look, to the white and
mottle-faced Here fords.

The Holderness, a fine, large-framed breed, with good^backs,
long quarters, remarkably clean, straight legs, and well-developed
udders, grazed in the district north of the Humber. Many of
them were white, with blue or bay flecks : but the largest number
were dark mouse and white, and, as was natural from their
proximity to Hull and their genenil appearance, they were
thought to be of Dutch origin. Milk was their specialty, and
Mr. Curwen was wont to value the dairy produce of his twenty
at 25/. a year. Under the local name of " Teeswaters," the
shorthorns, to which the Holderness seemed to bear most affinity
in character, had got a strong hold in Durham several years
before the close of the century; but still it was not until "The
Durham Ox" commenced his six years of caravan life in 1801
that the doom of the longhorns was virtually sealed.

The Teeswater were cattle of great substance, but somewhat
ungainly in form, and were thought to give less but richer milk
than the Holderness. The fragments of history on Avhich their
origin rests are somewhat shadowy and uncertain. Some contend
there from that they must be of Dutch origin, and only another

Rise and Pfogrcss of SJiortltoriis. 319

V ersion oi' the Holdcrness ; and others, with equal zeal, that their
tap-root is to be found in the West Highlands, or that the earlier
breeders always fell back on its bulls for a cross if they thought
that their herd was losing constitution. There is certainly some
confirmation of this opinion in the peculiarly sharp horns and
ink-black noses which will appear at intervals. The admirers
of the ' Princesses ' make good " the claims of long descent " as
far back as 1739, on Stephenson's farm at Ketton ; and it is also '
said that the ancestress of the ' Duchesses ' roamed in Stanwick
Park two hundred years ago, and that none of the tribe had
been out of the Northumberland family until Charles Colling
bought them. Be this as it may, the Teeswaters' capability of
development, which the St. Quintin, the Pennyman, and the
Milbank families were among the first to recognise, had sug-
gested itself to many a longheaded Durham farmer as Avell as
the Brothers Colling ; but private herdbooks were hardly in
vogue, and the patient pilgrimage of Coates, through sunshine
and shower, with his grey pony and saddlebags, has not had the
effect of tracing the breed farther back than four crosses beyond
"Hubback" (319), who Avas calved in '77.

If the red and white Studley bull (626), bred by Sharter of
Chilton, and the founder of the Gwynne or "Princess" tribe,
may claim to be the " Abraham of shorthorns," James Brown's
red bull (97), and Jolly's bull (337), are very early names on
the roll. Seventeen or eighteen ci'osses separate the " Duchesses "
from the one, and the Maynard and Mason tribes are in direct
descent from the other. The Herdbook bull numbers, we may
here observe, run through fifteen volumes, from " Abelard " (1)
to " Zinc " (21,135).* Only 710 bulls were registered in the first
volume, which was published in 1822 ; but the fifteenth, which
brings the registration up to the close of 18G2, shows an acces-
sion of 1959 in two years, and also contains about 2700 cows
and as many heifer calves, the Avhole of which are contributed by
832 Ijreeders.

The germ of this wonderful array must have been considered
an " improved " county breed as far liack as 1787. Hutchinson
of Sockburn had then a cow good enough to be modelled for
the cathedral vane, and had also beaten Rol^ert (jelling in a bull
class. Other Durham breeders stood proudly on their family
tribes. The " Lizzies " were with Charge of Newton, and
Rose's and Fisher's stock can be traced to Cornforth of Barforth.
Robert Colling had set his seal to Hill of Blackwell's herd, and
nearly all the best men were dipping into the blood of Milbank

* The sixteenth volume, wliich has just been published, brings the numbers up
to " Zealous' (23,252).

VOL. I. S. S. Y

320 Rise and Progress of Shorthorns.

of Barningham. It was from his sort that there sprang the " okl
yellow cow by 'Punch,'" which was grand-dam of " the white
heifer that travelled." The Maynards were also in the front
rank, and it became their sound family custom to pitch eight
bullocks and as many heifers in Darlington market, on the first
Monday of March, as a sample of the Eryholme pastures. The
bullocks were from four to five years old, with fine, wide horns,
good bone, and very deep flesh; and they were keenly looked
out for, year after year, on the pavement opposite the King's
Head. Maynard's " Favourite " tribe was very early in repute,
and Charles Colling (who had previously picked up his " Cherry "
or " Peeress " tribe in Yarm market) never rested till he had
bought the cow and her calf, " Young Strawberry," by Charge's
" Dalton Duke" (188). He then changed the cow's name to
" Lady Maynard," and it was upon her tribe that he used the
Galloway or "alloy blood," through grandson of " Bolingbroke,"
(280), which made the highest average in its hour of trial at
Ketton. Her descendants were also crossed most successfully
with " Foljambe " (263), the sire of " Phcenix," the dam of the
bull " Favourite " (252), who was in his turn the sire of the
thousand-guinea " Comet" (155). " Hubback " (319) has always
been considered the great regenerator of Shorthorns ; but he did
not do Charles Colling so much good as " Foljambe," who was
from a " Hubback " cow, and he was parted with at the end of
two seasons.

The aim of the Brothers Colling was to reduce the size and
improve the general symmetry and flesh-points of their beasts.
"Beauty," sister to "Punch" (531), had spread their fame
beyond the county ; and in 179U " the Durham Ox," by " Fa-
vourite " (252) came out first at Darlington with his half-sister
of the " Duchess " tribe. The latter was quite as great a wonder
in her way, and confirmed Mr. Bates's fancy for the sort which
was hereafter to be linked with his name. The subsequent
travels of the Ox brought a large bull trade to Ketton and
Barmpton. It would have been strange if they had not, as his
live-weight was 216 stones of 14 lbs., and that not got by un-
wieldly bulk, but by the ripeness of all his points. He ulti-
mately dislocated his hip and was slaughtered, and, curiously
enough, his show career ended at Oxford, where, nearly a third
of a century later, that of the Royal Agricultural Society began.

Even at the Ketton sale in 1810 the taste for shorthorns
was confined within a narrow compass, as Durham, \orkshire,
Lincolnshire, Northumberland, and Westmoreland were the
only counties which purchased. Some of the few survivors of
the assembly on that day still speak of " Comet " as the most
symmetrical bull the}' have ever seen. He was not very large,

Rise and Progress of Shorthorns. 321

but with that infallible sign of constitution, a good wide scorp
or frontlet, a fine placid eye, a well-filled twist, and an undeni-
able back. His price caused breeders everywhere to prick up
their ears. They had already heard of Fowler refusing 1000
guineas for a longhorn bull and three cows, as well as for a cow
and her produce of eight seasons ; but never of one bull achieving
that sum. The spirit south of the Humber was fairly roused at
last, and when, eight years after, the Barmpton herd came to the
hammer, the representatives of four or five more counties were
found at the ring-side. The Rev. Thomas Harrison and Mr.
Edmonds of Boughton had often talked to Lord Althorp, Sir
Charles Knightley, and Mr. Arbuthnot, in the Pytchley Club
or woodlands, of the great day at Ketton, and his lordship
sent a commission to Barmpton for three heifers and a bull ;
while a Nottinghamshire and a Leicestershire man joined in the
highest-priced lot, " Lancaster " (621 guineas), which had some
five crosses of " Favourite " (252) in his veins.

For many years previous to this sale Mr. Bates had been
breeding shorthorns by the Tyne side, and bringing his beasts,
as Sir Hugh Smythson had done before him, to periodical scale-
tests. Still he does not seem to have struck out any especial
herd-line for himself till he took up his fancy for the " Duchess "
tribe. Charles Colling assured him that the cow which he
bought in 1784 out of Stanwick Park was the best he ever had
or ever saw, and sold him her great-granddaughter " Duchess,"
by " Daisy Bull " (186). She was the prelude to Mr. Bates's
purchase of "Duchess 1st," by "Comet" (155), the only
" Duchess " at the Ketton sale, and a very cheap lot at 186
guineas, as, independently of her produce, her new owner left it
on record that she gave 14 lbs. of butter (21 oz. to the lb.) per
week for six weeks after calving.

"Belvedere" (1706), of the "Princess" tribe, was the bull
Avhich Mr. Bates selected to " bring out the ' Duchesses.' " He
was small and plain, and with rather rough shoulders, but as
soft as a mole in his touch. The Brothers Colling had a most
faithful disciple in the Kirklevington philosopher, as his cele-
brated show bull " Duke of Northumberland " (1940) was by
" Belvedere," dam by " Belvedere ;" and was thus bred on
precisely the same principle as four of their leading animals,
"Comet" and "The Ox," "Punch" and "Broken Horn,"—
rather an instructive comment on the popular timidity which
eschews even an approach to in-breeding. Mr. Bates led the
shorthorn ranks of the Royal Agricultural Society both at
Oxford and Cambridge, and it was his lot to breed the second
one thousand guinea bull, and to fashion the model of the moulds
in which such cows as " Second Grand Duchess," " Oxford 15th,"

Y 2

322 ' Rise and Piw/rcss of Shorthorns.

and "Ducliess 7 7 th," were duly cast and quickened. Still no
one contributed more towards shorthorn progress than Mason of
Chilton, who got rid of the open shoulders and improved the
forequarters generally. His sale in 1820 was to breeders quite
a season of refreshing after a long and dreary drought. Earl
Spencer took heart of grace, and bought a bull and sixteen cows
and heifers; and Captain Barclay (who began in 1822) laid a
still more solid foundation with " Lot 20, ' Lady Sarah.' " The
fame of Kearney's bull (4114) in Ireland, which was well known
to be of this stock, although he went over without a pedigree,
brought buvers across the Channel. Mr. Latouche would not
leave "Monarch" (2324) at 270 guineas; Mr. Robert Holmes,
of county Meath, raised his best tribes from Lots 1 and 8,
" Victoria," own sister to " jNIonarch," and " Britannia " by
"Monarch;" while the stock of "Highflyer" (210 guineas)
marked the commencement of a zealous novitiate in Kent.

Whitaker of Burlev held his first sale soon after. He had
always gone for milking tribes in his (juiet \ orkshire valley,
and laid much stress upon the purchase of " Magdalena," by
" Comet " (155), the only cow which was kept out of the Ketton
sale catalogue. The Americans, and more especially Colonel
Powell and the Ohio Company, had heard of her and her 32
(|uarts a-dav in their repeated visits to Burley. They generally
left Yorkshire with tlu; brlief that " a man might ride four hacks
to death in the North, and not find twenty such cows as Mr.
Whitaker's ;" and they were among his best customers for a
series of years.

Sir Charles Knightley gradually became quite a Whitaker to
the Midlands, when he gave up hounds about 1818, and laid
himself in with the "Rosy" antl "Ruby" tribes, and his friend
Arbuthnot's bulls. He always said that it was "([uite an
acquired taste," but he took to it with singular heartiness. He
strove to put shoulders on his cattle as perfect as those of his
own hunters, " Benvolio " and "Sir Marinel," Beautiful fore-
quarters, gav carriage, general elegance, and a strong family
likeness distinguished his tribes, and their fine milking powers
placed them (like "Cold Cream" and " Alix," at the Royal
Home Farm) at the head of many a dairy. "A Fawsley fill-
pail " soon passed into a herd proverb ; and a dip into the blood
of the " Earl of Dublin " (10,178), and the " Friars "—White or
Grey — was pretty sure to make one.

The " Old Cherry," by "Pirate" (2430), tribe, which came
originally from William Colling of Stapleton, was in high force
when " Gainford " (2044) had spread those hind-quarters among
the Cumberland fair lots, which the graziers told at a glance,
and valued at a good pound more, and when Mr. Crofton had

Rise and Prorjress of Shorthorns, 323

taken such rare prize heifers by him and " The Provost " (4846)
to the Highland Society and other shows. Colonel Cradock
liked the sort for their size and milk, and they " nicked " well
both with the Booth and the Bates blood. Crossed with " Grand
Duke " (10,284), they founded the " Cherry Dukes," and
"Duchesses;" and it was to " Mussulman " (4525) that John
Booth sent his celebrated "Bracelet," and had "Buckingham"
(3239) for his reward.

The Booth family began at Studley, about 1790, with Tees-
waters and "Twin Brother to Ben " (660) ; and lengthening the
hind-quarters, filling up the fore-flank, and breeding with a view
to that fine deep flesh and constitution which bears any amount
of forcing, have been their especial aim. It was the late Mr.
Richard Booth's opinion that no bull had done his herd so much
good as " Albion " (14), of " the alloy blood," and Mr. Whitaker
and Mr. Wetherell were quite with him on the point. It may
be said that shorthorns generally have grown smaller in frame,
and that there is perhaps not that rich coat and uniformity of
character which marked some of the earlier herds ; but still
those who can make the comparison from memory are fain to
allow that, in their flesh-points and general weights, the breed
knows no decay. What the Brothers Colling were in earlier
days, the Brothers Booth have been in later. If the elder could
boast of " Necklace," with the wondrous crops, and " Bracelet,"
in whom none could find a fault, save a trifling deficiency in the
fore-rib, it was left to the younger to keep up the type with the
beautiful " Charity," whose twist and hind-legs might have been
modelled from, and to follow it up with " Plum Blossom,"
" Nectarine Blossom," " Queen of the Ocean," and " Queen of
the May." Richard Booth and Crofton might be said to have
initiated the modern plan of keeping beasts far more in the
house, and preparing them specially with a view to shows. No
blood has been more widely spread than that of " Warlaby " and
" Killerby " throughout the United Kingdom, or commanded
a finer bull-hiring trade ; and it was from " Buttercup," a
daughter of " Barmpton Rose," and crossed witli Booth's
" Jeweller " (10,354) that " Butterfly " sprang, the chief found-
ress, with "Frederick (11,489), of the Towneley herd, whose
victories in the store and fat shows combined are wholly without
parallel.

Such are a few of the leading points of the shorthorn history of
more than seventy years. Herefordshire has held stoutly by its
native breed ; North Devonshire and North Wales are true in
the main to their little reds, and their massive runts ; the Polls,
the West Highlanders, and the Ayrshires are in possession of
many old Scottish strongholds, but still the shorthorns have been

324 Rise and Pror/ress of Shorthorns.

spread broadcast, and wherever they have gone they have
generally superseded the native breed, or gradually improved it
away. Jobbers began at first to buy large lots in Durham and
Yorkshire, and to drive them south on speculation. They were
so eagerly looked for at the different fairs, or picked up by
farmers on the road, that before they had been many days on
march their owners often found themselves like generals without
an army, or with only the culls in their ranks. Railroads also
helped to bring out sales, and gave facilities to bull hirers and
bull and heifer buyers ; while the periodical publication of the
'Herd Ijook' has also tended in no slight degree to establish
an exchange of minds among breeders, and to concentrate atten-
tion on to different sorts of blood. With such a stimulus it is
not wonderful that the shorthorns have fairly outflanked the
Devons on the south side of their county and invested the greater
part of Cornwall, whose breeders have been fond of them, more
or less, since Mason's sale, and consider that they have "quite
stolen a year" by their use. Crossed with the Devon, they have
won a Smithfield gold medal ; they are gradually encroaching on
the county limits of the Sussex, and on the "blood-red dairies" of
Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk ; in the cheese districts of Cheshire,
Gloucestershire, and Wilts, scarcely any other breed is used ;
and it is calculated by experienced Smithfield salesmen that
rather more than two-thirds of the average number of beasts
(331,164) which came to the London market in 1863-64, were
either pure shorthorns or shorthorn crosses. In reference to this
increase, an old English breeder writes : " When I began, there
was no pure bred shorthorn bull within seventeen miles of me,
whereas now there is one in every parish."

It is nevertheless very generally considered that beef-making
has been reduced to a science with pure shorthorns, and that milk-
yielding has been neglected. Attention has also been drawn to
the fact that many of the London dairymen are using Dutch cows.
It may, however, be urged in reply, that the largest Scottish
dairyman regularly uses shorthorn bulls to cross his Ayrshires and
other cows, and that Dutch cows newly imported can be bought
at about half the price of common dairy cows. Still, good milk-
ing pedigrees do not command an extra price, and, in fact, any
allusion to them in a sale catalogue is rather regarded as an
apology for doubtful or unfashionable blood. " Something to give
milk for the house" is too often spoken of as a mere humble
adjunct, and "not worth dwelling upon," at the end of a row
of high-bred cows and heifers, many of which are systematically
dried off to keep them in bloom for shows or visitors, while
their calves are provided with a nurse. A young heifer is
selected with a view to well-covered flesh-points, early maturity,

Rise and Progress of Shorthorns. 325

and fine mellow handling ; and there is none of that Ayrshire
acumen at work which gives laws for the exact shape of a
"milking vessel," which likes a peculiar feather extending from
that "vessel" up the twist, and large veins from it under the
belly, and which will even reject "a dairy bull" if his false teats
are not of the proper shape and exactly in position. This test
may have been carried to an extreme, and cows with badly
formed "vessels" may have sometimes turned out good milkers ;
but still it is this strict attention to milking-points (which among
shorthorn men generally stops short at a light neck and a big
udder) combined with bean-meal, which makes the Ayrshire cow
such a perfect fill-pail for her size ; whereas, on this side of the
Border, we virtually make sure of the shambles, and too often
play at " hit or miss " with the dairy.

Scotland also furnishes a most remarkable example of short-
horn beef development. Mr. Robertson, of Ladykirk, was
perhaps the earliest patron of the breed, when he bought "Broad-
hooks" from Robert Colling, and "Ladykirk" (355) from Charge.
General Simson established a small herd in Fife, — principally
by Charles Colling's "North Star" (458),— but sold it off the
week before the Barmpton sale, almost entirely to bidders from
the Border counties. Mr. Rennie, of Phantassie, also took a deci-
sive lead when the fine arable expanses of East Lothian were only
whin and heather. In 1810 he spoke of the breed as " wider
and thicker in their form, and therefore yielding the most weight
and the greatest quantity of tallow." Mr. Stirling, of Keir, and
Mr. Boswell, of Kingcausie, were also great improvers, and none
did more in the North of Scotland than Captain Barclay, with
his "shorthorns, not shorthorned," as he always made a point of
explaining. Cows and bulls were imported direct from Holland
to Banffshire very early in the century, and Mr. Rennie's white
bull, "Jerry," was turned to still better account in the Ellon
district. In 1830 some of the North Llighland farmers did not
even know a shorthorn by sight, whereas now no less than four
first-prize Royal English bulls are to be found between Caithness
and Stirling, and a small farmer within those limits, only
occupying a second-class farm of 130 acres, has been known to
give 75 guineas for an eight or nine months' bull-calf. Scottish
shorthorns have crossed the Border to some purpose in their turn.
The "Queens" and the "Roses" of Athelstaneford were often
foremost among the best at the shows of the Royal Agricultural
Society; and out of only 26 Scottish entries in the 167 at New-
castle, there came one third, four second, and three first prizes,
besides one high and two ordinary commendations.

Wedded as the Scotch once were to the West Highlanders and
"the heavy blacks" of Angus and Galloway, it is to the short-

326 Bise and Progress of' Shortho7'ns.

horn that they now look for at least seven- eighths of the great
beef supplies, which are poured by the cattle and dead-meat
trains, as well as by the steamers, from Aberdeenshire, Banffshire,
and Morayshire, into the Eng-lish markets.

Even the traveller in " the wind-swept Orcades " and the
Shetland Isles can trace the conquest of " the red, white, and
roan." The Shetland cow, which after a long course of the finest
lowland pasture is thought to " die well " at 2^- cwt. neat, will
respond with a calf which looks nearly as big as herself at five
months, and will fetch its 11 guineas at sixteen. So highly
is this cross valued, that at present an endeavour is l)eing made
(such as is said to have answered siil) rosd with the " Angus") to
j)ermanently enlarge the Shetland cattle liy letting the heifer
receive her first impregnation from a shorthorn. Jn some of
the islands the latter is fast driving out the native breed on all
the better farms ; and in the Orkneys, where the farmers were
working on a mixed foundation of West Highland, Devon, and
original Orknov, the price of yearling crosses has been raised by
its use nearly 400 per cent. In Caithness " cross-bred " cows
have quite superseded the old cows of the country, and thanks
to the introduction of shorthorns more than thirty years ago by
the late Mr. William Home and " Shirra Traill," and the most
scientific and careful rearing, the high keepers can all reckon on
1/. a month for their vearlings at Georgemas fair time. In
Morayshire also there was once not "a s])otted beast " to be found,
whereas now more than three-fourths of the cattle at the Elgin
monthly market are shorthorn crosses, and it is, in fact, now
almost impossible to execute an extensive commission for the
" old Morayshire horned breed." The Forglen breed in Banff-
shire is quite "crossed out" by them, and in Aberdeenshire
nearly every " cross-bred " cow has more strains of pure blood
than would satisfy the ' Herd Book.' The breadth of turnips
has increased enormouslv throughout the three "beef counties,"
and although McCombie's black beasts from the Alford district
have no equals in the Smithfield Christmas market, Buchan has
disowned its original blacks and brindles, and has quite fallen
into the fashion. Many of the leading Aberdeenshire breeders
will now finish ofl' from forty to seventy, where they were once
content with half-a-dozen, and geneially sell them off at rather
more than two-and-a-half years old for 30/. Apart from any
prize-winning prestige, exceptional specimens a year older will fetch
their 50/., and a two-year-old steer has recently reached 94/. 10s.
by auction. Many of the Scottish feeders breed as well as buy,
and in Aberdeenshire thev have a wide choice, as one herd
owner alone has fifty or sixty pure shorthorn bull-calves for sale
in the course of the season.

Rise and Progress of Shorthorns. 327

The bulls are used principally to " cross-bred," but also to
West Highland and polled cows. With the latter they make a
very beautiful cross, and correct th'e sluggish maturity of the
Galloway blood ; and an ox of this kind recently beat everything
for the Cup at Birmingham, and was the second best ox or steer
at Islington, when the winners were drawn out for the Gold
Medal. The Shorthorn West-Highland cross is also becoming
very popular. As yearlings, the produce are nearly as big as
their dams, and quite as hardy, but (unlike the shorthorn-poll)
the second cross is apt to fall off both in flesh and milk. The
best beast in the yard at Liverpool last Christmas was a four-
year-old bullock thus bred, and it produced 1,641 lbs. of beef
and tallow.

Shorthorn crosses are creeping up the hill-sides in the North,
where it was once thought impossible for any beast but a West
Highlander or " Hieland Humley " to live. Even in the shire of
Angus, which Hugh Watson, of Keillor, made for more than
thirty years the great rallying ground of the polls, the farmers,
as in Morayshire, are very largely supplied with store calves and
yearlings each autumn from the milk valleys of Yorkshire and
Lancashire. Fifeshire cattle have retreated before them, and
lost their classes at the Highland Society, and the Lothian farmers
no longer look out keenly for the polls at Falkirk, whose two
autumn trysts furnish the surest evidence of shorthorn progress.
The polls have nearly disappeared from the Muir ; and the short-
horn crosses which form the staple of the supplies are bought up
to go north ; while the West Highlanders are sent south as
" fancy cattle " to the English parks.

Falkirk is very largely supplied, not only with Yorkshire
calves, but capital shorthorn crosses from Ireland. Lord Ross,
of County Longford, imported Teeswaters into that country,
even before the Brothers Colling had made themselves a name.
The Chilton sale was, as we have shown, the great Irish starting-
point, but a few years before that Mr. Fitzgerald and Mr. Arch-
bold had purchased several animals from Mr. Champion, of
Blyth, and thus introduced for the first time pedigreed shorthorns
into the country. Now nearly 180 shorthorn bulls, and more
than half of them yearlings, may be seen at the Dublin Easter
show. The greater part of them are of Booth blood. This is
not to be wondered at, as for more than twenty years the best
Killerby and Warlaby bulls have been over there for a season,
until at last the English breeders, when the home supply fails or
is priceless, are fain to go over themselves in search of a " pure
Booth."

France has been more or less a customer for several years, and
the breed has had no stouter champion than Mons. St. Marie.
The late king sent commissions to Burley, Ley fields, Wiseton,

328 Rise and Progress of Shorthorns.

and elsewhere ; and the Emperor has not only hired bulls from
Warlaby, but purchased thirty females a few years since at
upwards of a hundred guineas each. Bulls have taeen gradually
distributed into many departments of France ; and no one could
walk down the Poissy rows in 1862 and fail to note how, in a
land devoted to boiling-beef parts, they had asserted the British
sirloin, and how no native breed, save the massive white or
cream-coloured Charolais, could hold its own against them in the
crosses. Germany has not given such high prices, and has cared
less for blood. The King of Wurtemburg's agents were in the
market as far back as 1824, and the Emperors of Russia and
Austria in later years. Sweden came out more spiritedly last
season than she had ever done before ; and Spain has bought some
bulls to put better points on the Andalusian cattle. The King
of Sardinia has also been a purchaser, and so has the King of
Holland, whose agents went more especially for bulls from York-
shire.

Still it is to America that breeders have generally looked for their
most spirited customers. As far back as 171)7 a Favourite (252)
cow was sent over, and returning at the end of thirteen years,
became the foundress of the "Cambridge Roses;" and Stephen-
son's "Princess" tribe also struck root in Cayuga County, New-
York. The Ohio Company followed in the steps of the Illinois,
and Colonel Powell, and purchased rather with a view to milk
than beef, a feeling which has always made America incline
more especially to the Bates blood.

■ The society of Shakers did not grudge four hundred guineas
for " Captain Balco " (12,546), and the "Grand Dukes " 1st and
2nd, each crossed the Atlantic with 1000 guineas on their heads.
Messrs. Becar and Morris, and Tliorne, by their daring rivalry,
gave such a fillip to the Ducie sale in 1853, that although there
were fifteen more lots, the average only fell 8^. short of the
Ketton, which reached 151/. 85. for forty-seven. It was here that
Captain Gunter bought the cow and calf, 67th and 70th, which
restored the Duchess blood to Yorkshire. Here, too, the
Americans threw all previous speculation into the shade by
giving 700 guineas for "Duchess 66th," and an average of 516
guineas for those six lots, Avhose bull-produce have come over
twice since then, and have been bought up so eagerly in England
and Wales. Our own colonies have not been laggards, but still
Canada has caught but little of the American spirit, and Van
Diemen's Land was the first spot which gave shorthorns a
welcome at the antipodes, when it imported bulls in 1831. The
Boldens introduced them at Port Phillip nine years later, and
Geelong in 1858 was the scene of the death of the unbeaten
1200 guinea bull, " jMaster Butterfly," on his way under a hot
sun to a cattle-show.

SheeiJ. 329 •

Prices may at times have been wild and fanciful, and 250
guineas may seem an extravagant bull-hire, but still buying good
Ijeasts and holding to approved tribes, even at a large outlay, is
the most profitable policy in the long run. There is some
method in the " madness ' which would give 125 guineas for
" Oxford 11th " as a calf, 250 guineas for her as a three-year-old,
and 500 guineas for her as a cow, on the only three occasions
that this dam of " Fifth Duke of Oxford," — the first-prize aged
bull at Chester, and a 300 guinea purchase at six-months-old, — •
was brought into the sale-ring. When we look back to the calm
foresight of the Brothers Colling ; the courageous confidence of
Mason, the Rev. Henry Berry, and Whitaker ; " Tommy Bates,"
and all his animated lectures on touch and form in his pastures,
or on the show-ground ; " A quiet day at Wiseton ;" the dashing
cow and heifer contests between Towneley, Booth, and Douglas ;
the victories of " Duchess 77th " and " The Twins ;" the
dispersion of the late Jonas Webb's herd at the steady, paying
average of 55/. 10s. for 145 ; the brilliant gathering which
appraised the "Butterflies"; the 8180/, at Willis's Rooms for
seventeen Grand Dukes and Duchesses ; and then scan the result
in so many fairs and pastures, we may well feel that shorthorns
have repaid all the money, thought, and labour which have been
expended upon them. Still, in one way only can their supremacy
be made permanent, — by always keeping in mind the rule by
which our first breeders have been guided, that "a good beast
must be a good beast, however it has come ; but that it is to
pedigrees alone that we can trust for succession."

10, Kensington Square, W.

XXV.— On Sheep. By H. Eveeshed.

Owing to the drought of 1864, the root-crop was deficient
everywhere, and especially on the dry soils of the southern chalk
district, where the scarcity of the roots so alarmed breeders that
at the great autumnal fairs the prices of store lambs, compared
with recent years, showed a reduction amounting to 30 per cent,
and there was almost an equal fall in the price of breeding
ewes — and this, with mutton at 5^. to 6s. per stone, and wool at
2s. to 2s. Qd. per lb.

Lambs therefore paid unusually well for wintering, although
the market for them in the spring of 1865 was seriously affected
by the unfavourable weather and by a panic in the wool-trade.
The following shows that " well bought is half sold,"

200 lambs, which cost 22s. Qd. on September 12th, were kept
on leas and stubble until November 3rd, then on turnips until
December 19th, when 50 of them were drafted to another flock

330 Sheep.

getting a little cotton-cake. On the 3rd February fatting- com-
menced with linseod-cake in addition and cut swedes. On the
7th of April the 50 tegs were put on rye with mangolds, and
they were sold on the 4th of May at 61.9. each.

The remaining 150 lambs were wintered as stores at little
cost, on inferior turnips uncut ; they were put on rye from March
8th till May 4th, when they were valued at 48^. each.

The district just referred to became so exhausted of its stock
that at some of the later fairs the number of lambs and of ewes
exhibited was less than one-fourth of the average. But in Essex,
on six adjoining farms, including that from which I write, the
number of sheep wintered has been greater than these heavy lands
ever carried before. This has been effected by the extension of
a system of management often practised on heavy land, that
of eking out a scanty supply of green food by a liberal
allowance of straw, chaff, and grain; which happily were good
in (|uality, as well as plentiful and low in price in 1864.

By these means we were enabled last winter to keep 1500
sheep on about 650 acres of arable, and 350 acres of dry upland
pasture — chief! v park surrounding a mansion. The arable land
does not very well Ijcar folding in winter, as a preparation for
spring corn. Neither climate nor soil are favourable to turnips,
and notwithstanding our efforts in assisting nature, our crops of
turnips, rape, or swedes, are never first-rate, and sometimes very
bad. Strong stubbles, good beans, clover-seed, and mangold, are
the specialties of the locality, and they indicate heavy land, corn-
growing, and yard-feeding. Sheep have been generally " con-
spicuous by their absence," though even the heavy-land farmer is
glad to winter a yard of them, instead of cattle, that he may keep
some at least of the stock that pays best.

In the autumn of 1864 our root-crops consisted of some white
turnips and rape, eaten by the ewes in September, and of a very
bad crop of mangold, the whole of which was reserved for
the ewes at lambing-time. In this predicament we wintered
about 1000 half-bred lambs, more than 400 ewes, and some
fatting sheep. All, except the fatting sheep, were folded on the
stubbles, and allowed a daily run on the park of about an hour
for each flock. The freshest grass was reserved for the ewes, and
a very meagre bite remained for the lambs ; in fact, except for a
few weeks in autumn, the parks afforded them little or nothing
except exercise and water.

The flocks were divided between three separate farms, and
their food was prepared at the respective homesteads. The
treatment was in every respect similar ; we shall therefore only
notice in detail the management at one farm.

The following details are taken from our ' Live Stock
Book ' :—

Sheep

331

September 2dt/i. — 352 lambs in the Parks, on a little cotton-
cake and some oats, until November 4tli, when they were folded
on a wheat-stubble. Gave them 5 bushels of meal daily, mixed
with 468 lbs. of straw-chaff. Cost 3of/. each per week for meal.
December 20th. — Increased the food to Q^ bushels of meal and
1 bushel of oil-cake.

JDecember ISth : — lbs.

2|- bushels of maize crushed and boiled 143

41 busliels of mixed meal 200

1 bushels of oil-cake 50

393

Cost 5^(1. per week for corn and cake ; chaff 2^ lbs. each,
between these and the ewes, the lambs eating rather less than
2 lbs. each.

Eight pounds of rock-salt licked up by the 352 lambs per week.

January 2ord. — The food was increased to 7i bushels of meal,
2 bushels oil-cake, 2 bushels rape-cake.

Cost per stone (14 lbs.)-

Mixture of Corn.

Wheat 4 parts

Barley 4 „

Oats 2 „

Maize 4 „

d.

Wheat 1 0

Barley 0 10

Oats 10

Maize 0 10

Oilcake 1 4i

liape-cake 0 9

Extracts from Stock-book.
Lamhs.

Payments.

Remarks.

Nov. ith, 1864.

352 lambs, cost at date, oQs. 9kl.)
each /

Cost of l^eei)lng 24 iveelis to Ajiril
21st, 1SG5.

Corn and cake, as per granary"!

book /

Cutting 25 tons of chaff, at 6s.
Grinding 96 qrs. 6 bush. of|

corn, at 9d j

Attendance, at 19s. 10(Z. per week
Horse-labour, at Gs. per week
Coal, 3s. 2d. per week ..
Use of 21 troughs, at 3d. each!

per month j

Use of 180 hurdles, at \d. each"!

per month /

1 5 cwt. of rock-salt

£. s. d.
.542 2 3

245 16 9

7 13 0

3 12 6

23 16 0
7 4 0

3 16 0

1 11 6

4 10 0
0 4 6

Total cost of keeping 352 lambs
for 24 weeks, 2dSl. 4s. 3d.

Cost per head, 16s. \\d.

Cost, food only, 14s. l\d.

"Value of the manure reckoned at
one-fifth tlie cost of the corn
and cake, 49/. 3s. 4d.

Cost of the lambs, per head,
2/. 7s. Sd.

"Value of manure per head,
2s. lOti

No charge made for tlie straw-
chati' eaten on the land.

840 6 6

332 Sheep.

The tegs would probably have been sold at a profit in April ;
they were, however, put in grass and clover, and were fattened
in the summer.

Good wheat, barley, oat, and bean straw, was cut into fine chaff
and sifted by a steam-power chaff-cutting machine made by
Maynard, of Whittlesford. The chaff dressed from the grain
was also used.

The main points in the preparation of the food are to use sweet
straw cut fine and sifted, and to soften, without wetting it too
much, by using a sufiicient quantity of boiling liquid. One-
fourth to one-half of the meal should be boiled (or steamed) into
soup, thrown on the chaff, and the heap chopped over and well
mixed with a wooden rake. Then stir and mix in the remainder
of the meal and ground cake, and round up the heap. If properly
prepared, the chaff becomes exceedinglv sweet and palatable. It
should be free from lumps of meal, or pudding, and equally
moistened and cooked by proper mixture of the boiling liquor
throughout the heap.

Maize-meal makes the best soup ; barlev-meal makes a sticking
paste that does not mix well with the chaff.

With Riche's and Watts's American grist-mill we grind from
30 to 40 qrs. of corn a day, as fine as it is needed for sheep or
cattle, reducing the grinding account to a comparatively small sum.

The proportions of the different kinds of grain were varied,
from time to time, for the sake of that change of diet which is so
conducive to health.

Linseed-cake, though relatively dear food, was probably a
wholesome addition. Rape-cake, at 6/. per ton, was the cheapest
ingredient ; it was crushed fine and added dry. The sheep ate
their food as usual, in spite of this rather bitter addition.

Oat-meal was relatively dear, but it is easy of digestion and
wholesome. Wheat-meal was at first used sparingly, but the
proportion was gradually increased, because, though costing more
per stone than barley or maize, we became aware that, in
nutritive value, it was decidedly superior.

Maize should not form more than one-fourth of the mixture of
corn and cake, and it should be boiled ; dry maize-meal induces
a feverish condition, unless used very sparingly.

A continuance of low prices for grain will oblige the English
farmer to modify his system of feeding, and the preparation and
use of his own produce on his own farm, will become an
important branch of his business.

Under the system we have detailed the health of the sheep was
very satisfactory. In two flocks of 300 lambs each the first loss
that occurred was at the end of January, when a lamb tumbled
into the drinking-pond and was drowned.

Sheep. 333

With regard to the ewes, they had the same mixture of food as
the lambs. As long- as the pastures afforded them anything, they
received \ lb. to f lb. of meal and cake. After Christmas they
had 1 lb. of corn and cake daily, and about 2|^lbs. of straw-chafF.

On January 7th they were removed from the arable land to the
pastures, and housed in a well-littered yard at night. We then
made a slight change to less stimulating food, substituting for
1 bushel of meal 4 bushels of pollard and a load of mangold daily.
We were careful to let the ewes have access to water at all times :
without this precaution there would have been risk of abortion,
from their drinking to excess. The lambs began to drop the first
week in February.

The judicious use of corn and dry food in feeding ewes is
generally followed by a good crop of lambs — as was the case in
the present instance. When roots are plentiful we give about
6 lbs. a head daily to the ewes, and ^ lb. of corn and cake with
straw-chafF.

In the case of a te^, weighing about 8 stones, it is easier to
fatten him on 12 lbs. of roots daily, and 1 lb. of corn and cake
with chaff, than on 1^ lb. of the latter without the roots.

The use of dry food alone is costly and trying to the con-
stitution of young or weakly animals. A teg, out of condition,
would not bear it, while a sheep in good health and appetite
would thrive. A yard of culled ewes, fed on dry food only, with-
out succulent vegetables, fattened rapidly and paid for their food,

I do not record this example of sheep-farming for its general
economy, but as an instance of reliance on dry food in a case of
emergency ; proving that a sheep-farmer is not without resource
under a failure of roots, while he has stacks of good straw on his
farm.

To complete this picture of exceptional management, it should
be stated that some of the stubbles folded last winter had been
badly farmed, and were very much out of condition. The crops
that followed, including peas, beans, oats, rape, and roots, were
all strikingly benefited by the fold. Those who have experienced
the slow and expensive routine of bringing an exhausted farm
into good cultivation and condition, will understand the advantage
of saving time in the process. Artificial manure is not the right
remedy for this land. The manure-cart travels slowly, and cannot
easily be set in motion at all without roots. The sheep-fold in
such a case can hardly cost too much.

This narrative may be supplemented by a few remarks on the
general economy of sheep-farming.

For the maintenance of an ewe flock during the whole year,
some modification of the usual four-course rotation is required in
order to provide summer food.

334 Sheep.

Throughout the southern chalk district ol" England, which is
essentially a breeding district, the summer run for ewes is either
found on the native Downs or is provided artificially by sainfoin
layers, by tares and clover, and in some instances by water-
meadows. On the lightest soil the produce of artificial grasses
is not great in hot summers, but the run even of inferior pasturage,
if water is provided, enables you to keep an ewe flock through the
summer. By laying up less of the "seeds" to a hay-crop, and
on suitable soils, by laying down grasses for two or three years'
layer, a considerable addition might be made to the number of
breeding flocks.

Where the rain-fall exceeds an average, an increase in the
extent of pasture-land is desirable ; but on other soils and
climates arable farming is much more productive, and probably
yields a larger balance of profit.

No greater benefit could be conferred on the light-land farmer
than the introduction of some forage-plant, which would be to the
sands what sainfoin is to the chalk. We have seen lucerne
hanging on the side of a steep sand-hill in Surrey, green and
luxuriant when other vegetation was scorched into hay, its deep
roots finding their way into a subsoil moist from the drainage of
higher land. This plant affects a warm free soil, and is only
productive under liberal feeding.*

Other crops which help to bridge over the awkward summer
months are, on heavv land, early turnips and rape, sown at intervals
in May ; and the cabbage, which by successional planting, will
produce food at all periods of the year. It is especially adapted
to dry climates, l)ecause though a great water-drinker, it draws a
large supply from the subsoil. The crop may be obtained at
almost anv period of the year that it may be required. On farms
•where food is scarce in July, August, and September, I recom-
mend the following system : — Sow the first week of August,
re-set the plants in October, plant out in March.

Early varieties, as the early York, may be sown in March in
seed-beds, or even drilled in the field, and will be fit for use
in autumn and winter. If cabbages are removed, instead of being
eaten on the land, the stalks will produce sprouts in spring, useful
for ewes and lambs. The large Drumhead, however, does not
sprout well.

At the present date (July 17th) my fatting ewes are doing very
well on winter beans, cut for them by a chaff"-cutter in the field ;
and as the land needs the fold, this summary way of disposing of
the crop may possibly pay as well as harvesting it.

The following example of fast-cropping on warm land in an

* See Mr. Clayden's Letter on Lucerne — the last paper. — P. H. F.

Sheep. 335

early district presents the most rapid succession of crops that has
come under my personal observation. All the green crops were
folded off' by sheep fed on cake or corn ; they were kept clean by
constant hoeing, and the seasons were favourable : —

1854. Wheat, stubble ploughed once and sown with rye.
o . (1855. Eye, followed by turnips after three ploughings.
b crops ljg^g_ Canadian oats, stulible ploughed once and sown with turnips,
m wur<^gg^_ p^^g^ followed by turnips,
yeaib. [j^gsg^ Wheat, stubble ploughed once and sown with rye.

1859. Swedish turnips, after one ploughing.

These crops were quite successful.

Heavy-land farmers say it is cheaper to buy corn for stock than
to grow roots for them. But under liberal farming the cost per
ton is reduced, because the expenses are not increased in the
same proportion as the crop, and land kept in high order will
bear the removal of a crop of roots without the injury to the
succeeding crop of corn which occurs on land in bad heart.
Corn may have been formerly grown at a profit without what is
now called high farming, which is, however, indispensable to
the successful cultivation of green crops. Nothing can be more
evident than the immense and cumulative advantages derived
from keeping the land in high condition and employing a large
capital ; not only do we secure increased production, but greater
economy in the means of production.

Age at ivhich Sheep should be slaur/htered.

Both the producer and the consumer have a common interest
in the growth of the greatest weight of mutton at the least expense
of food and time. This can only be done by skill in feeding
animals that come early to maturity. Putting an animal into
good condition is like filling a tub with a hole in it. It is neces-
sary to pour in faster than the contents run out, and the quicker
this is done the less the waste. The first office of food, after
building up the body, is to support the wear and tear of life. It
is only when food is supplied in excess of what is required for
that purpose that the animal begins to fatten. The earlier the
process of fattening commences and the sooner it is over the
greater is the economy in the use of food, because the least pos-
sible quantity of it has been used for the support of the body.
This is true as a general principle ; but rapid feeding implies
rich and expensive food, and it may suit the general management
and economy of some farmers to bring the animal to a certain
age and growth on cheap food. This is the case on poor pas-
turage and in breeding districts; though rapid feeding with corn
is also resorted to as a means of improving poor land. There is
positive loss l>oth to producer and consumer when sheep are

VOL. I. S. S. 7,

336 Sheep.

slaughtered before they are fully fat, which happens when food
is scarce or mutton unusually dear.

The following is a contribution from an able pen on a subject
which has attracted popular notice in these times of dear meat : —

" The consumption of lamb is not so wasteful as might at first
sight appear, because the young animal, if highly fed, is ripe for
the butcher before it has received any check in its development
by those constitutional changes which form breaks in the progress
of all animals towards maturity. The season of the year is also
then generally favourable for obtaining good economical results
from a liberal use of the richest food. But neither the seasons
nor the constitution of the sheep allow us to maintain continuously,
with profit, such a high rate of feeding. Rich food, therefore,
would not be so liberally used but for the trade in lamb, and our
store of mutton-making materials would be so far diminished.
Fewer breeding ewes would probably be kept if a larger portion
of their produce had to be supported for a longer period, so that
if the butcher had heavier carcases on the average, their numbers
would be diminished.

"If wo admit that the lamb at birth is chargeable with nearly
two-thirds of the cost of feeding .a ewe for a year (the wool
paying the balance), and that this cliavf/e falls twice as heavily
on a carcase of 40 lbs. as on one of 80 lbs., still wa should bear
in mind that the ewe (except so far as she is dohu/ her lam))) is a
handy and thrifty animal, and sustains life much more eco-
nomical Iv than a hoggett, when first encountering the cold and
wet of autumn.

" The question, therefore, practically resolves itself into this.
Is it more economical, on the Avhole, to keep for a year, say from
June 1, a larger number of lambs, to be sold fat the following
year, or to keep nearly a like number of ewes in excess, in order
to produce fat lambs ? Which requires most food for a year's
keep, a hoggett, or a ewe with her lamb ? Which gives the best
return?"

This seems to me to be a correct and logical view of a subject
which is Avorthy of further illustration and discussion in detail.

Assuming that a lamb costs IO5. at its birth, whether it is to
be killed as lamb at 5 stones, or as mutton at 10 stones, then the
incidence of what we may call this poll-tax is 2s. per stone on
lamb, and only l.s\ per stone on mutton. The chief item of the
extra cost of lamb is food ; and it appears to be a rather popular
notion that by giving up the wasteful process of making fat
Iamb, we should necessarily have food on hand for the growth of
heavier carcases, saving the extra Is. per stone, or rather spending
it in the production of mutton.

On this view it must be concluded that the community is

Sheep. 337

indebted to those feeders who abstain from killing Iambs that are
fit for the knife, preferring- to bring them to a greater weight as
tegs. But this is not a sound conclusion. It would, in fact,
benefit the community by increasing the supply of meat, if these
feeders killed their lambs and bought for "finishing" some of
the half-fat tegs that are slaughtered for want of food to complete
their fattening. Bringing sheep to the knife prematurely as
regards condition is wasteful ; and on the other hand killing them
young, after rapid feeding, is in many respects economical.

It was a national gain when an improved system of feeding
brought " tegs " to market at almost the same weight as had pre-
viously been reached when a year older. The same principle
applies, as already shown, to the fattening of lambs, which by
rapid and economical feeding (which could not be profitably
continued if they lived longer) are brought to a weight of 5 stones
in five months ; while Down or half-bred sheep, under any ordinary
and economical system of feeding, are not fattened to more than
10 or 11 stones in fourteen or fifteen months.

It may also be observed that many ewes which would be
killed half-fat, after rearing store lambs, are now kept on to breed
fat lambs, and are then fattened, with their lambs, to a greater
weight, with richer food than would otherwise have fallen to their
share ; so that fat lambs, which on a superficial view appear to
diminish the supply of meat, are found really to increase it.

It is obvious that the high price paid for lamb is aia encourage-
ment to the feeder and breeder, without which he would not use
the same quantity of cake, oats, white peas, pollard, &c. To
expect more mutton by giving up lamb, would be as fruitless as
to expect to get more grapes, at the natural season, by giving up
those that are forced.

The supply of meat depends on the number and condition of
the animals brought to market, and this is ultimately regulated
by the ability of farmers to find food for them. The stock of
sheep, though not so large as the increasing population requires,
is already sufficient to overtax the present food-supply, and in
adverse seasons, especially in dry springs and summers, it becomes
necessary to lessen the number of mouths by sending sheep to
market half-fat.

To increase the head of sheep-stock is a matter of no practical
difficulty. The present emergency arises from a scarcity of
materiel. The problem to be solved is how to enlarge the supply
of vegetable food by increasing the amount of capital employed
in farming.*

* A comprehensive paper, by Mr. Morton, 'On Increasing the Supplies of
Animal Food,' was published in the tenth volume of the First Series of this .Journal,
Part II.

Z 2

338 Comparative Profit of Cheese and Bulter-Maldng, Sfc.

In close connection with the subject of early maturity, and
inseparable from it, is that of breed ; for unless the animal is of
the right temperament and constitution, much of the food given
to it is thrown away. However thoroughly this may be under-
stood in theory, it cannot be said to have received on all sides
practical recognition, while we see at every fair and market so
many animals of inferior breeds.

I remember no other such instance of perfect indisposition to
fatten as in a little flock of ornamental sheep from the Hebrides. It
is perhaps worth quoting as an example of the influence of breed.
They and their progeny have lived for ten years in our pastures,
while ten generations of other sheep have in turn become mutton.
But the native wildness of the little hill-sheep does not abate.
Fifty times a day thev are scared into frantic flight by some
imaginary danger, flying in close ranks and facing round at last
to watch the supposed foe with their gleaming eyes. The wear
and tear of their little lives must be excessive.

From this wild temper to the placid disposition of the mutton-
making Leicester there is a long gradation. Observing the
extremes, it would be well to remember by what successive steps
they are connected, and to avoid every drop of ungentle blood.

But there are other characteristics of greater importance than
a mere disposition to fatten, such as constitution, rapid growth,
fertility, suckling qualities, wool, 6cc. And it is because these
qualities are so essential to profit, that we find many shrewd
breeders preferring what may be termed the " homely virtues,"
even at some small sacrifice of those points which constitute the
highest standard of form.

Gosfield IlaU, Hahted

XXVI. — The Comparative Projit from Mailing Cheese or Butter,
Selling Milk, or Grazing. By \V. H. Heywood.

Prize Essay.
On a little consideration of this subject it will appear that the
comparative profits of these methods of farming must necessarily
depend, in a great measure, on the nature of the soil, as well as
the situation, &c., of the respective farms to be compared ;
therefore it is obvious that it will be the fairest test to deal with
cases that are somewhat analogous as regards the quality of the
soil, and are also on a par as regards other advantages.

With this view I propose to state approximately the actual
results on several farms of equal size of the same description of
soil, and situate in the same locality, but farmed in the three several
ways, namely, cheese and butter making, milk-selling and grazt
ing, rather than to write an essay not based on actual practice.

Comparative Profit of Cheese and Bittter-MaMivj, &,■€. 339

In the first place, I may explain that, as butter-making forms
the chief feature on comparatively few farms of any size, and as
the expenses, stock kept, risks, and general results are, so far
as my experience goes, very similar to those of chcesemaking, in
both instances the skill of the daii'ymaid having much to do with
the profits, I have represented butter and cheese making by one
case of the latter, and have added a case of milk-selling, which
is now becoming a much more extended system of farming than
it formerly was, especially since our towns have grown so large,
and railways have made them so easy of access for produce
requiring a quick despatch. Before their introduction, milk had
of necessity to be produced in the vicinity of its consumption ;
but, as the market is now thrown open, a system of farming is
now practicable in almost any part of the country, that equals,
if it does not surpass, in profit any other kind of management.

I propose at the same time to show the respective merits of
the clifferent methods as regards their effects upon the land upon
which they are practised ; this, I consider, is an item of as much
importance as the immediate pecuniary return.

The land in question is of a mixed kind, varying from a strong
soil upon a clay subsoil to a dry friable loam on sand and red
sandstone. The rents average from obs. to 40^. per statute acre ;
the tithes and parish-rates being about the customary average,
say, respectively, os. per acre, and 2?. 'ocl. in the pound on the
assessment.

I will first take the case of the cheese-farm, 200 acres, upon
which the stock is 50 milk-cows, 50 ewes (which, with their
lambs, are fed off fat), 5 horses, 30 pigs, reared up and fattened,
and 12 to 15 young horned-cattle, consisting of calves, yearlings,
and two-year-olds. The farm is self-supplying as regards all
food for stock, having sufficient land under plough, viz., 45 acres
in 15-acre shifts — ley-oats, turnips, and wheat — to grow the oats,
turnips, and straw required, in addition to the old meadow-hay.
The value of the produce of this farm is considerably over the
average, on account of the superior quality of the cheese made,
which has sold at prices varying from 756'. to 85a\ per cwt., the
quantity made being also large.

The financial results of this farm have been as follows : —

Produce.

£. s. d.

9 tons 7 cwts. 2 qrs. of clieesc, at 80s. per cwt 750 0 0

70 lambs, at 27s. 6r^ 9G 5 0

Profit on 50 ewes and wool, at 15s 37 10 0

15 acres of wheat, at 12Z 180 0 0

Profit on 30 pigs, at 5? 150 0 0

£1213 15 0

340 Comparative Profit of Cheese and Butter- Mahiiuj, Sfc.

Expemes. £. g. ^^

Eent, 200 acres, at 40s 400 0 0

Tithes, at 3s. per acre ; rates 2s. 6c?. on assessment .. .. 58 15 0

Wages.— 5 men, at 40? £200

2 lads, at 20? 40

Extra men 26

Harvestincc .. .. 30

296 0 0

Tradesmen's bills, 52?. 10s. ; grass-seeds, 22?. 10s. ; other) c\~ a a

seeds 20? ^ Jo u u

Paid on improvement account, including draining, 40?. ;( ^^r- a a

boning, 60?. ; and rejiairs, 25? |- -o

Contingent expenses 50 0 0

1024 15 0

Trofit £189 0 0

For the object of comparing the relative profits of cheese or
butter making with those derived from milk-selling, I fortunately
am enabled to select a farm — the one last described — on which
both methods have been practised by the same tenant, who is an
excellent Jarmcr. It was managed as a cheese-farm up to four
years ago with the results stated above : since that time, in con-
sequence of the advantage of a railway-station within one mile
of the farm, and twelve miles from the market-town, the tenant
has. sold his milk, delivered at tlie station, at \s. lOr/. per dozen
quarts, keeping the management of the farm in other respects pre-
cisely as before, the stock and expenses remaining also the same,
except that reduction in the number of pigs fattened is reduced.

The result, under the system of milk-selling, is as follows : —

Produce. £. g. d.

*Milk of 50 cows, at Is. 10(?. i)er dozen quarts 10(55 0 0

70 lambs, at 27s. 6r? 96 5 0

rrofit on 50 ewes and wool, at 15s 37 10 0

15 acres of wheat, at 12? 180 0 0

Profit on 10 pigs, at 5? 50 0 0

£1428 15 0

Expenses. £. g. d.

As per statement in cheese-making accoimt 1024 15 0

Add cost of exchanging cows to keep up supply of milk) -.^q q q

at certain seasons (

1124 15 0

Profit £304 0 0

On the grazing-farm referred to the stock is 60 cows, 100 ewes
(whose lambs are fed off fat), 4 horses.

* More milk is produced per cow in consequence of the supply being kept up
throughout the year by exchange of cows and artificial feeding.

Compai'ative Profit of Cheese and Butter- Making, Sfc. 341

The result is as follows : —

Produce.

£. s. d.

Profit on 60 cows, at 12?. 720 0 0'

140 lambs, at 27s. G(Z 192 10 0

Profit on 100 ewes and wool, at 15s. 75 0 0

15 acres of wheat, at 12/ 180 0 0

1167 10 0
Expenses.

£. s. d.

Rent, 200 acres, at 40s ." 400 0 0

Tithes, 15Z. ; rates, 43?. 15s 58 15 0

Wages. — 4 men, at 40? £160

1 man, at 20? 20

Extra man 13

Harvesting 20

213 0 0

Tradesmen's bills, 32?. 10s. ; grass-seeds, 22?. 10s. ; other) „^ ^ „

seeds, 20? .. .. .. _ .. ..] ^"^

Paid on account of improvements, including draining, 40?. ;! -.or. a a

boning, 60?. ; and repairs, 25? |

Paid for oil-cake 50 0 0

Contingent expenses 30 0 0

951 15 0

Profit £215 15 0

The three systems will therefore stand as follows : —

Receipts. Expenses. Profits.

£. s. d. £. s. d. £. s. d.

Cheese or butter making .. 1213 15 0 1024 15 0 189 0 0

Grazing " .. 1167 10 0 951 15 0 215 15 0

Milk-seUing 1428 15 0 1124 15 0 304 0 0

It thus appears that the experience of this district is decidedly
in favour of milk-selling ; but before coming to a definite con-
clusion on the subject, the strain put upon the land by the two
systems — milk-producing and fattening — has to be taken into
account.

I feel that the grazing account may require some little ex-
planation to some whose experience may be somewhat different.
The profit of 12/. per head on the cows may be thought excessive.
I can, however, but state that such is the annual average profit
realised by a number of graziers in this immediate neighbour-
hood, who buy in lean but healthy short-horns, at an average of
10/, to 12/. per head, in the first two months of the year. They
then fi'eshen them on straw, turnips, and a little cake, putting
them out a little each day — weather permitting — until spring,
by which time they have fairly begun to grow ; and when a flush
of grass comes they do not, like cows newly bought, lose time in
making a start. They are then grazed through the summer, tied

342 Comparatire ProjU of Cheese cuid Butter- Making, cVe,

up in October to turnips, ground-oats, oil-cake, and straw, and sold
from the middle of December to the middle of January at 22/.
to 24/. per head. The extent of land may also seem small for
the number of beasts and sheep kept ; but this is accounted for by
the circumstance that all the grass-land is available for pasture,
only a small quantity of hay being recjuired for the horses.
Again, the practice is to l)reak up a frcsli turf-field every year for
ley-oats, to be succeeded by turnips, which, aided by the moist
climate of the district, is always a very heavy crop, averaging
from 33 to 38 tons per statute acre ; hence the large amount of
winter-kocp from so small an extent of arable land.

The item of .")()/. for cake may also appear small, but I may
state that cake is not used as the chief article for fattening beasts,
but rather as conducive to their health and as an aid to the corn
and turnips, which are mainly relied upon for fattening them.
The sheep and lambs get no cake.

1 may also further state that of the (50 cows grazed, not more
than 50 are tied up in the autumn, as the remainder either go out
from grass or as calvers, of which there are always a few, and
wliich pay e(|ually well, regard being paid at tlie time of pur-
chasing that they arc right in their milking-organs.

Rut I should hardly do justice to the merits of this system of
grazing by siniplv giving the practical results of my own neigh-
bourliood, and comparing them fniancially Avlth those of cheese
or butter making and milk-selling. Grazing has collateral
advantages in many forms that do not siiow themselves in such
a comparison, but which assume so large an amount in the aggre-
gate, that though milk-selling excels it in direct profit by, say
88/. 5.f. per annum on a farm of 200 acres, I yet consider that
in the main grazing is the preferable system, as I will endeavour
to show.

In the first place, I consider that the apparent margin in favour
of milk-selling may fairly be reduced somewhat on account of
the extra risks attending the system from the more general ten-
dencv to delicacy and sickness of milking as compared with
fattening cows. Again, we must not overlook the risk of
making bad debts with the milk-dealers, who, as a body in the
large towns, are not the best of payers. In saying this I do but
speak the experience of milk-producers. Again, under the system
of grazing, the farm w ill regularly increase in fertility, as a much
greater portion of the nutriment, either extracted from the
ground or artificially supplied, is then returned to it again by
the animal, than under the system either of cheese-making or
milk-selling. If, then, we suppose a tenant to have a lease for,
say twenty-one years, at a fixed rent, the progressive improvement
of his farm under grazing will yearly increase his crops of beef,

Comparative Projit of Cheese and B utter-Mali iii</, S^-c. 343

mutton, and corn ; and with improved condition ot land corners
deci-ease of expense in cultivation ; and thus his profit will yearly
go on increasing, the ultimate result being most beneficial alike
to himself and his landlord.

As regards the laljour attending the practice of these systems
of farming, that of grazing has a decided advantage over the
others, not only in out-door labour, as shown in the accounts of
expenditure, but also in the labour and responsibility saved
in-doors, since the care and management of milk in any way
entails much of both, and requires an amount of skill that has
often to be remunerated at a very high rate.

One of the best indications of the progressive improvement
attendant on this system of grazing is obtained by one simply
observing the very great difference in the quality of the dung-
heaps collected under the respective systems, the comparatively
cold, aqueous appearance of that produced from milking-stock
contrasting remarkably with the fermenting, oily nature of
that collected from fattening-beasts. The effect of this differ-
ence upon the farm must be obvious to any one. In fact, I
have myself watched its progressive effect under good manage-
ment with extreme satisfaction, seeing the ordinary condition
of the farm rise gradually to that of high cultivation ; the
weeds disappearing as the crops become stronger, and the land
being more easily worked as it becomes more disintegrated
by the more luxuriant growth of the herbage upon it. Here
I cannot but state the particular attention paid by the farmers
of this district (North Cheshire) to the mode of seeding down
their pastures, which, coupled with the clean fallow or green
croji, is undoubtedly, after draining, the foundation of all
good farming, and the secret of success in the cases now under
my notice. By attention to this particular, a sod is obtained by
the aid of bones, which, after a few years' growth, is equal to
that produced in the ordinary way by twenty years' ley ; and ex-
perience shows me that a good sod that breaks up oily and mellow
through the action of the fibres of luxuriant herbage, conduces
more to a good and inexpensive course of crops than any manure
that can possibly be applied artificially, to say nothing of the
economy of restricting the need for such manures ; for, after all,
artificial manures are but a defective substitute for the elements
as naturally combined in a virgin soil.

Holding these views, and considering the present scarcity and
consequent high price of beef and mutton, 1 cannot commend
too strongly a system so conducive to the mutual advantage of
both tenant and landlord as that of grazing.

Dunham Massey, Altricham.

. ( 344 )

XXVII.— On Dainj-Farming. By W. T. Cakeington.

The importance of the question how pasture-land may be turned
to the best account, encourages me to state the results of my
experience and observation as a dairy-farmer resident in the
Midland Counties.

Practically speaking there are many circumstances, natural
or social, which guide and limit the farmer's choice.

For dairying generally it is necessary that the pasture-land be
well supplied with good water, free from garlic or other strongly-
flavoured herbs, and contiguous to the homestead ; further, it is
imperative that there be a properly-constructed dairy, and a
store-room for cheese, if it be made.

It is highly desirable that part of the farm should he arable,
to supply roots and straw for the cows in winter, though with
strong land in a damp climate that portion should not exceed
one-third of the whole. For such tillage, however, thorough
drainage is an indispensable preliminary.

If roots are not grown, the cows must either be wintered on
hay, which is very expensive, or else they must be sold, at a
probable reduction of 5/., every autumn ; and cows which are
changed every year are rarely found to do well.

Farms which are all in grass are generally small, and in the
hands of needy unenterprising tenants, the fields being small and
intermixed, the fences objectionably wide and irregular, though
a high fence, affording shelter from sun, wind, and rain, is
preferable on a dairy farm to the close-cropped hedge which suits
corn-fields.

If the object in view is to make cheese, the pasture must
further be capable of making it good, for low-priced cheese cannot
be remunerative.

There are some districts in England which are especially
renowned for their cheeses, and douljtless those which produce
peculiarly fine cheese enjoy certain natural advantages. I believe,
however, that the quality of the cheese is generally much more
dependent upon its making and keeping than on soil, &c., and
that with proper management, good, if not fine cheese may be
made on land of almost every description.

Another theory is often advanced, that improving the pasture-
land by draining, and the application of bones, lime, or guano,
spoils the quality of the cheese.

This view may suit the purpose of those who are not disposed
to lay out their money in improving their pastures, but experience
shows that it is a mischievous fallacy. In support of this opinion
I may mention that at the Royal Agricultural Society's meeting,
held at Chester in 1858, all the principal prize-takers stated that

On Dairy- Farming. 345

they had used bones to a very large extent on their pastures.
In every district the best cheesemakers are generally those who
expend the most in improving their grass. Wheie artificial
manures are extensively used, the cheese may require a different
system, and more care in its management, but its quality will be
superior.

There is an immense drain upon the mineral resources of the
land entailed by any system which turns upon the sale of milk,
either in its natural or manufactured form ; so that where two
adjoining fields of equal quality are grazed, the one with dairy
stock and the other with feeding stock, the difference in condition
will in a few years be quite apparent ; therefore, unless the dairy-
pastures are liberally dressed with manures, they will soon
become perceptibly poorer. This objection to dairying has,
however, lost much of its importance since modern science has
placed the mineral stores of the earth so largely within our
reach.

A large proportion of our dairy-pastures is very much in need
of a judicious outlay for both draining and manures. There
is little use in applying manures to wet pastures on which the
water stagnates ; and, again, drainage is not of much utility,
unless followed up by a liberal outlay in manures, to effect a
thorough change in the herbage ; otherwise, the aquatic plants
and grasses struggle on, though deprived of their food by drainage,
and in some cases the produce is actually lessened.

It is much to be regretted that from ignorance and supineness,
want of capital, or insecurity of tenure, our pastures are so much
neglected ; for it is my decided opinion that money judiciously
laid out on the grass-land brings in a more certain, if a less quick,
return than when expended in the growth of corn.

Annual Yield of Milk.

Before a comparison can be made between the results of
different systems of management, the annual yield of milk must
be estimated ; and this is so variable, so dependent on the class
of cows kept, and still more so on their treatment, that it is
difficult to give a correct average.

The yield per cow per annum ranges from 400 to 600 gallons ;
though in particular instances, under liberal treatment, even the
latter quantity may be considerably exceeded. If, however, we
make allowance for the number of heifers which a large dairy
always includes, for the home consumption of which no account
is taken, take the case of moderate pastures — the proper basis for
all general calculations — and 535 gallons may be considered a
fair average. This agrees with the account given by Mr.

346 On Dainj-Fanniiit/.

Harrison, of Frocester Court, oi his seven years' experience from
a dairy of fifty to eighty tows, and 1 do not consider this a high
return.

KvLE OF Milk.

If the farm is so situated that the milk can be disposed of
without extra expense at '6(1. per gallon, th(>re can be no (piestion
that this is the most profitable way of dealing with it: this
would give a return of nearly lb/, per cow, the labour and
expense attendant upon cheese and butter making being avoided ;
although, on the other hand, to keep up a continuous supply of
milk, more costly food would have to be provided in winter, and
cows occasionally exchanged at a loss.

ClIEESE-MAKINO.

If the milk be made into whole-milk cheese, the .535 gallons
of milk would jirobably produce 4i cwts. o{ cheese, Ix'ing at the
rate of rather more than a gallon of milk to a pound of cheese.
4-i cwts. of cheese, at 05.v. per cwt., would produce 14/. l.s-., to
which may be added for whey-butter and bacon, 2/. more, giving
a total return of 1(1/, Is., or rather more than 7|-r/. p(>r gallon.
In the low average taken, allowance is made for that jiortion of
th{> milk which is usuallv devoted to the feeding and rearing of
calves at the early part of the season. The price of Qbs. per
cwt., about Id. per lb., is no more than a fair average price, such
as good cheese at three months' old has for some years readily
commanded.

Mr. llarriscm realised between 6^(7. and Id. per gallon, or 15/.
per milking-cow, without including the value of the calf. This
return can certainly be exceeded on the best-managed farms in
good dairy districts.

In the Statistics of dairv practice, recorded by Mr. Egcrton
Harding, of Old Springs, Alarket Drayton,* the average weight
of cheese produced from a dairy of cows, during eleven vears, is
given at rather less than 4 cwts. each ; but a considerable
quantity of milk and milk-butter were sold each year.

The average value of the produce of each milking-cow is given
at 15/. nearh', but the price of whole-milk cheese is quoted
excessively lf)w, the average price during the whole period being
only 5id. per lb., whilst during the last two years of the experi-
ment, 1861 and 1862, the prices obtained were only 4f/. and 4^r/.
per lb. Fine dairies of cheese, in those two years, fetched more
than 2d. per lb. in excess of that price.

I have suggested the making of whole-milk cheese because it

* See Vol. XXIV., Part II., First Series.

On Daii'y- Farming, 347

is by producing everything of the best quality that the British
fanner is best enabled to meet foreign competition. I do not
mean to say that some cream may not be occasionally taken off
at the latter end of the year, or when the milk is very rich from
high feeding, but a very great deal of cheese is made of which
the value is greatly lessened by its being robbed of a portion of
its butter.

In a former volume of this journal, Dr. Voelcker has stated, as
the result of his experiments, that the highest profit may be
obtained by making all the cream into butter, skim-milk cheese
being made from the residue. The price, however, which he puts
upon such cheese, 50^. per cwt., is much higher than can be com-
monly obtained ; indeed I much doubt whether, in competition
with American cheese, even ?>d. per lb. could always be obtained.
This point, however, is especially connected with making butter.

Much larger results than those here assumed may, however,
occasionally be realised by cheese-making when skilfully carried
out. At the large cheese-fair held annually at Leicester, early
in October, Mr. Nuttal, of South Croxton, pitched last year 12
tons of cheese, of first-rate quality, which was sold altogether
at over 8d per pound. This was that portion (about two-thirds)
of his yearly make, from some 85 cows, which was ripe at the
beginning of October. He attributed his large make of cheese,
in that unfavourable season, in a great measure, to the use of
30 tons of palm-nut meal, of which he spoke very highly. I
have myself used a quantity of this food for dairy cows ; the
large proportion of oil which it contains renders it peculiarly
adapted for producing rich milk. It has been growing into
favour since it was noticed by Dr. Voelcker in this Journal two
years ago.

The Production of Butter.

If, as before, we take 535 gallons as the average yield of milk,
with ordinary keep we may reckon on 200 lbs. of butter per cow,
being at the rate of nearly 22 pints of milk to 1 lb. of butter. A
less quantity of milk would be required if the cows were liberally
supplied with rich food, as in the experiments recorded by
Mr. Horsfall, or where a breed especially adapted for butter-
making was kept. But the quantity I have named is a good
average weight. 200 lbs. of I)utter, at l.s-. Id. per lb., would
amount to 10/. 10^. ^d.

The skim-milk may be either made into cheese, when it would
produce about 300 lbs. weight, or it may be used in rearing calves
or fattening pigs. In either case, as it is fairly valued at 4/. 4a-.,
which, added to 10/. 16.9. 8fZ. the value of the butter, would give
a total return of 15/., or about 6|f/. per gallon.

There are however many dairy-farms, situated within easy

348 On Dairy-Farming.

reach of large towns, where, fro in the daily demand for fresh
butter, \bd. to l(Sd. per lb. may be obtained, and each extra penny
in the price of the pound of butter adds 16.s'. Sd. to our estimate
of the annual return.

Of Slimmer stall-feeding I will only remark that where the
farm consists jirincipally of arable land, or meadows irrigated
by sewage, it will probably be the most profitable way of keeping
dairy cows ; but the milk should either be sold or made into
butter. Where there is a great demand for milk the arable land
under special treatment may be made to produce an immense
amount of succulent green food, but the soiling system will not,
I believe, be generally adopted.

Fatting Stock.

On some farms a quantity of dairy cows are kept for the
purpose of feeding calves for the butcher ; under good manage-
ment a return of from 5c?. to 6<^. per gallon may be obtained by
this way of disposing of the milk, without incurring the chief
expense of a dairy.

Again, in some districts, many farms are devoted to the
rearing of young stock, which are allowed to suck their dains for
some months. Though by this method the first-class Ilcrefords,
Devons, and Short-horns are reared, the actual profit is lar below
that which might be derived from dairying where the farm is
well adapted for it. It is, however, difficult to introduce a new
system into any neighbourhood, where its management is not
thoroughly understood, and it is difficult to obtain servants with
a knowledge of either milking or cheese-making.

Grazing.

We have yet to notice the rich first-class feeding pastures.

Arthur Young, writing more than fifty years ago, estimated
that the best grazing land would feed a large ox and a Lincoln-
shire sheep per acre ; there is, I believe, but little of such land
now to be found. Whilst the produce obtained from arable land
has, since the last century, been nearly doubled, the grass-land
has from neglect too often absolutely deteriorated.

To fatten a large beast and a sheep, one acre and a quarter
would now be generally required, and such land as this is readily
let for 3Z. per acre. A large Short-horn or Hereford will here
fatten without the aid of artificial food, and will pay hi. for the
four months' keep from April to August. A second lot of
feeders will then be procured, and, with the aid of some extra
food, be made moderately fat at the latter end of the year.
Including the profit derived from feeding sheep, a gross return
of 6^. to 11. per acre may thus be realised.

On Dairy- Farming. 349

Large cart-horses, suited to the London and Manchester
markets, are also commonly reared on land of this description,
which grows them rapidly, and brings them to the required size
and strength.

There is a great deal of pasture-land which might be made of
excellent feeding quality by the spirited application of manures.
We should, however, rather compare the pastures which yield a
moderate average of cheese or butter with second-class feeding
land on which the grass must be supplemented with oilcake,
at a cost from 30^. to 40.9. per head, to make it fatten an ox.

It will be found that a dairy-cow requires one-third more
grass-land to run upon when she is in full milk, than she would
require if feeding only. On a moderately good dairy-farm, a
fair proportion of which is in tillage, it takes full three acres of
grass to maintain a dairy-cow through the year. On second-
class dairy-land four acres would be required. When the dairy-
pastures consist of rich feeding-land, a much less quantity would
suffice. The gross returns of dairy-produce, taken at 16/. per cow,
would therefore come, in the first case, to nearly 5/,, in the second
case, to 4:1. per acre ; and on rich feeding-land, as much as 6/. or
11. per acre ; though, to obtain these results, a considerable outlay
in artificial food and manures would generally be necessary.

Some upland districts are rendered quite unsuitable for tillage
by the wildness of the climate, yet when they are in pasture the
great cost of keeping the stock through a long winter, and other
drawbacks, make dairying a questionable course to adopt. A
quantity of yearling and two-year-old heifers should here be
bought for summer grazing, and sold in autumn ; if it be not
found more profitable to keep a large breeding-stock of long-
Avoolled sheep, selling off the wedder lambs and draft ewes every
autumn.

Management of a Staffordshiee Farm.

1 can best explain my views by describing somewhat in detail
the system of management with which I am most familiar, taking
the case of a farm of cold strong land, situated in the Midland
Counties, containing 300 acres, let for about 30^. per acre, of which
two-thirds are pasture and meadow, and the remainder arable.
The land is not well adapted to sheep, and the pastures are not
sufficiently rich to fatten cows or bullocks, without the aid of a
considerable quantit}^ of artificial food. I think I can show that
by far the most profitable mode of occupying such a farm (pro-
vided that the ordinary requirements are supplied) will be by
keeping a large dairy of cows, and endeavouring to make whole-
milk cheese of first-rate quality. If the arable land be thoroughly
drained, it will provide straw and roots for the winter's keep of

350 On Dairy- Farming,

tho dairy cattle, and clover, Italian ryegrass, vetches, and cabbage,
for tlieir use in summer and autumn. Without such drainage
cold clay-land cannot be cultivated in an efficient manner.

The 200 acres of turf-land may be divided as follows : — 120
acres, in convenient enclosures, and well supplied with good
water, shade, and shelter, as the regular summer pasture for the
dairy cows ; 30 acres as permanent meadow, to be manured every
year, and mown for hay ; the remaining 50 acres, least con-
veniently situated, and least adapted for dairying, will provide a
summer's run for the yearling and two-year-old heifers, and farm-
horses, and for a moderate (juantity of sheep. By the use of cake
and crushed corn to the value of, say, 100/., fifty dairy-cows
would be well kept, besides rcarimj from twelve to twcntij heifer-
calves ever I J year.

I lay particular stress upon this point in consequence of the
serious losses to which dairymen have been of late years subject
from infectious disease — a consideration which has acquired
additional force since the outbreak of the cattle murrain. The
foot and mouth complaint, which is very prevalent amongst drift
cattle everv spring, and highly contagious, is a very serious com-
plaint when it attacks cows in full milk ; and should the owner
be so I'ortunate as to escape the loss of any of the animals affected,
it still entails a great diminution in the yield of milk, even if the
animals are not lost. Again, from pleuro-pneumonia the dairy-
farmer has much more to fear than the grazier, because his
cattle are necessarilv congregated together, and they cannot l)e so
readilv disposed of to the butcher. When this disease attacks a
dairvman's herd, it is not uncommon for him at once to send
all tho apparently healthy animals for sale to a distant market,
and thus the disease is spread.

JNIy father and myself have for manv years had upwards of
one hundred dairy-cows, l)ut by adopting the plan of rearing
a sufiicient number of heifer-cahes, and scarcely ever buying
stock in the market, we have been most fortunate in escaping
infectious disease. One or two partial attacks of the foot and
mouth complaint have occasioned us slight losses, but from more
serious disease we have altogether escaped. The spread of con-
tagious disease is greatly due to the filthy state of the trucks
used in the conveyance of cattle by railway. I regret that the
Cattle Diseases l^ill, introduced last session of Parliament, was
not allowed to become law.

The greater portion of the cows calve in March and April.
The best and earliest of the heifer-calves are reared; they will
require their mothers' milk for two or three weeks at least, and
may then be fed either with skim-milk and oatmeal, or sweet
whey and wheaten or rice flour, with what hay and oilcake they

On Dairy -Farming. 351

will eat. Care should be taken to keep the calf-houses clean and
well ventilated. As soon as the weather becomes warm, the
calves should be allowed to run in a sheltered paddock ; at three
months old the suckling may be discontinued, but they should
still have an allowance of 1 lb. to 1 lb. of linseed-cake per day.
If they ai'e kept healthy and growing from birth, as they may be
by a judicious use of linseed-cake, the best of them will be big
enough to come into the dairy at two years and two months old.
If kept uniformly well, they will then be as good as those a year
older in ordinary condition, and will prove more profitable to the
dairyman. A few of the calves, at the commencement of the
season, which are not wanted for rearing, may be fattened ; but,
when cheese-making is in full operation, all the remainder of the
calves will be sold as soon as dropped, at about 1^, each.

The cows, after they have calved, should have a daily allow-
ance of four or five pounds of crushed corn or cake, with hay
and roots or grains, until there is an abundant supply of grass for
them. They will then have the run of the 120 acres of pasture,
but they should be divided into at least two herds. Dairy
cows do much better in not very large herds ; they tread the
ground less, and the weaker ones are not so much knocked
about. Should they require it, they will be supplied with mown
clover, rape, and vetches, or other green food, in the summer and
autumn, until the middle of September, when the cabbage will be
ready for use.* This is a most valuable food for dairy-cows, and
by its aid a large quantity of cheese may be made in the last
three months of the year, when otherwise the cows would be
almost dry. The cabbage grown from autumn-sown plants will
generally be best for early consumption in the months of Sep-
tember and October, after that time it will be over-ripe, and its
quality will be deteriorated. Autumn-sown plants should be
planted nearly a yaid apart every way. Where cabbage is
spring-sown, those kinds should be selected which are of early
maturity. The Swedenburgh cabbage I consider the best for
this purpose. The seed should be sown on a warm border early
in March : 1 lb. of seed will produce plants enough to set out two
acres. The plants should be planted, about two feet apart, in the
latter^ end of Mayor beginning of June, damp Aveather being
chosen for this purpose. If the winter be mild, cabbage will
keep till February or March, but exposure to severe frost damages
its quality very much. Cabbage is a gross feeder, and will
repay a dressing of 4 cwts. per acre of Peruvian guano, in addi-

* The danger of " hoove " from grazing clover with dairy cows is so great,
that it should be mown cither for hay or for immediate consumption. It may be
grazed by young ptock if it stands for a second year ; tlie alsikc is especially
adapted to tliis purpose.

VOL. I. — S. S. 2 A

352 On Dairy- Farming.

tion to a fair coat of farm-manure. Where the land is perfectly
sound, I prefer planting on the flat, the crop is less liable to
suffer from drought.

Six shifts of 16 acres each, distributed as follows, will meet
these requirements : —

Acres.

(1.) 16 Wheat.

■ (2\ \ ^ Cabbage.

'^ ■' ( 10 Turnips, swedes and mangold.

(3.) 10 Oats or wbcat, Avith seeds.

(A\S ^ Italian ryegrass, mown or fed.

^ '^ ( 8 lied clover, &c., twice mown.

(5.) 16 Oats.

(n\S ^ ^^^^ ^"*^ vetches, for green fodder in July and August.

^ '^ \ 8 IJaj^e and vetches, for gi-oen fodder in August and September.

The cows are allowed to go dry soon after Christmas, a rest
from milking of two or three months being indispensable. They
will then be fed principally on straw, with roots. Should the
supply of roots be scanty, the deficiency may be supplied by the
use of brewers' grains, cake, or corn, in addition if required.
I do not recommend cooked food for store cattle, it is unnatural,
and weakens the digestive powers, so that the stock do not thrive
so well afterwards when turned out to grass. Where the supply
of good straw and roots is abundant, the extra expense entailed
in the chopping straw for dairy-stock is not always repaid.
If besides whole roots twice a day, plenty of straw be given them
in the racks, they will pick out the best of the straw, and the
stumps will be available for litter. In exceptional seasons, like
that of 1864, and when the utmost economy had to be exercised
in the use of fodder, the benefit of chopping was undoubted.

The extra expense entailed by milking dairy-cattle must not
be overlooked. Five or six effective milkers will be required for
fifty cows ; and it is important that all should milk quickly and
thoroughly well, otherwise the cows become dry much sooner,
and great loss is occasioned. The master's superintendence is
necessary to see that this is properly carried out. This expense
cannot be put at less than 30?., or bl, for each effective milker.
It is an operation that must be performed with regularity, and
every other farm-work must give place to it. The milking-
machines yet brought out, however ingenious, have at present,
I regret to say, entirely failed to achieve the desirable result of
lessening the labour of this process. When an equable tempera-
ture of from 60'' to 70"^ is required in the Dairy and Store-room,
this can best be maintained by the use of warm-water pipes
placed round the walls, communicating with a boiler at the back
of the kitchen fire. Where this cannot be conveniently arranged,
a separate boiler may be set up for the purpose of heating the

On Dairy -Farming. 353

water. The first cost of the pipes is somewhat heavy ; but
when, as in many cases, the water can be heated without extra
fires, the advantage is very great, the dust, trouble, and ex-
penditure of fuel, from a stove, being avoided. These remarks,
however, apply rather to making butter than cheese.

Skilled dairy - servants readily and deservedly obtain high
wages ; their cost, including board, &c., on the farm in ques-
tion, would not be less than 50?. per annum. This, with a
charge of 30/. for milking, of 20/. for wear and tear of dairy-
utensils, heating-apparatus, «&c., would bring the extra expense
attendant upon dairying on this farm to 100/. per year, or 2/. per
cow. I have taken the average yield on such a farm at 4^ cwts.
per cow, or 16/. per head per annum, although where a very
superior quality of cheese is made, an increased return would be
obtained, with some aid furnished by the arable land, «Scc. The
amount realised farm Cow-stock alone on this farm would there-
fore be — £

Produce of 50 cows, at 16?. each 800

Sale of 35 young calves, at 1?. each .. .. 35

15 cows sold every year, at IIZ. each 165

£1000
Deduct extra expenses of dairymg .. .. 100

or 18?. per cow. £900

Summary. — 1. It appears that on very first-rate pasture, worth
upwards of 3/. per acre, \\ acre will graze a bullock and a sheep,
besides making a second lot moderately fat before Christmas,
with the aid of oilcake. It will give a gross return of 6/. or 11.
per acre.

2. If acre of such land would, if it suited, keep a milch-cow,
and give a gross return of 9/. per acre, with an extra cost of 1/.
to 2/. for dairy expenses, and some aid in fodder and roots from
arable land or by purchase.

3. On ordinary pasture, worth 30^. to 40^. per acre, 3 to 4
acres will be required to keep a milch-cow, so as to yield, on an
average, 535 gallons of milk per annum.

4. If the milk can be sold at 8f/. per gallon, that will be the
best means of disposing of it. The dairy expenses will then be
diminished, but the cost of keep, &;c., increased. The gross
annual return would be 18/. per cow, besides the calf.

5. If whole-milk cheese be successfully made (4^- cwt. at 65^.),
a return of Id. to l^d. per gallon, or 16/. to 17/. per cow, may be
obtained.

6. From 535 gallons of milk, about 200 lbs. of butter may
commonly be made ; worth, at 13(/. per lb., 10/. 16^. ^d. By

2 A 2

354 Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, and Wool.

rearinj^ calvos, fattins: pigs, or making cliecse with the skim-milk,
a further sum of 4/, 4s. per cow may possihhj be secured. This
makes 15/. per cow, or about 6fc?. per gallon. Every extra
penny in the price per lb. of the butter, adds I65. 8(/, to the
yearly return.

7. By fatting calves for the butcher, hd. to ^d. per gallon may
b(^ realised with less outlay and trouble.

8. The profits made I)y rearing first-class Herefords for the
butcher (cow and offspring, after running together, being sold fat)
are probably far below those derived from dairying.

1). The exhaustion of the soil by the sale of cheese or milk is
not to be overlooked ; l)ut neither are our modern resources for
the enrichment of our pastures by artificial means to be for-
gotten.

10. Dairy expenses vary between 1/. to 2/. per cow.

11. Supplementary food to the value of 4().v. nmst generally
be given to the cow to secure a first-rate return of produce.

Hollington, Uttoxeter.

XXVIIl. — Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, and JFooL
By Robert Herbert.

Compared with several previous years, the supplies of English
beasts on sale in the great metropolitan market have been limited,
and the condition but middling. The foreign imports, however,
have continued to increase ; hence the total is very little below
that of the corresponding period in 1864. The want of con-
dition in nearly all breeds, and the great consumption going on,
have considerably inlluenced prices. At one time the best Scots
and crosses could not be purchased under .l.v. Ad., and even 5a-. i)d.
per 8 lbs., and it is now pretty certain that those special breeds
have not seen their highest range. The great abundance of
pasturage food, and the prospect of a very large growth of roots,
may add considerably to the weight and quality of the stock
brought forward during the remainder of the year. Nevertheless,
when we consider the inroads that of late years have been made
upon our stock of cattle in the United Kingdom, more especially
in England, it seems difficult to determine at what point the
upward movement in prices will be arrested.

Fortunately, very few losses have been sustained by disease in
any of our leading grazing-districts, but we understand that just
at the end of June a kind of gastric fever broke out amongst the
cows and heifers in various parts of the ccjuntry, which, unless
speedily checked, is likely to lessen our supplies materially.

Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, and Wool. 355

In the six months, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and Cambrido;eshire
furnished 7,710 head of beasts less than in 1864. The falling off
fi-om other parts of England amounted to 2,410, but from
Scotland there was an increase equal to 1,879 head. The receipts
from Ireland showed a deficiency of 223 head. The Scotch
bullocks have made their appearance in wonderfully fine con-
dition ; indeed, in many instances the buyers have described
them as "too good." The Irish beasts, on the contrary, have not
exhibited the slightest improvement in quality. A few well
made-up beasts have arrived from Holland and France, as
well as from Prussia, but the actual weight of meat has been
small in comparison with the large numbers of stock imported.
The result is that even increased importations have had very
little influence upon prices, and our impression is that even much
larger arrivals from the continent would not prevent a further
advance.

Notwithstanding that our 114,000 head were derived from
abroad, the supplies of sheep during the six months were very
moderate, viz., 614,766 head, against 622,330 in the corre-
sponding period in 1864. If we deduct the foreign supplies, the
actual quantity of English sheep disposed of did not exceed
500,630 head. In other words, the deficiency in the arrivals
from our own districts is equal to nearly 500,000 per annum !
Need we feel surprised, then, that prices have ruled very high,
or that the flockmasters are holding back a portion of their
supplies to consume the immense growth of turnips, swedes, &c.
In many parts of the country more turnips will be grown this
year than can possibly be consumed.

Prime sheep, from their great scarcity, have sold briskly from
C)s. to 65. 6(/. per 8 lbs. In numerous instances, even much
higher currencies have been realised by the salesmen. Inferior
breeds have risen considerably in price, and even the German
sheep have sold at from 22s. to 44.<;. each. The foreign sheep,
as a whole, have shown very little improvement in quality.

There has been a moderate, but by no means active, inquiry
for lambs. In the early part of the season, the best lambs sold at
8.9,, but at the close of June the rates ranged from Qs. to Is. 4d.
per 8 lbs. As regards quality the season may be considered a
favourable one.

Scarcely any English calves have been brought forward, but
nearly 10,000, received chiefly from Holland, have been exhibited
in good condition. The veal trade was steady, at rates varying
from 4^, 2d. to 5^, 4f/. per 8 lbs. The foreign calves continue
great favourites with the butchers, as they " die " remarkably
well.

Pigs have sold somewhat freely, at steady rates, although

356 Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, and Wool.

32,582 head have been imported from abroad. This is the
largest number ever received from the continent in six months.

The beasts hitherto received from Lincolnshire, Leicestershire,
and Northamptonshire have been in fair condition. The
numbers now in the pastures in those districts are not equal to
last season, consequently, future arrivals will be only on a
moderate scale. Possibly, however, as the supply of natural
food is abundant, the quality of the beasts may show a steady
improvement.

The following return shows the ports from which stock was
shipped to London in the six months : —

Imports in the first Six 3Ionths.

From

Beasts.

Sheep.

lAITlbs.

Calves.

Pigs.

Aalborg

1,160

, ,

, ,

.,

Aarhuns

562

.,

,,

44

Amsterdam . .

46

.,

,.

21

Antwerp

413

2,034

784

663

Boulogne

2,255

5,948

8,919

Bremen

398

4,878

9

113

..

Cadiz

886

Calais

78

1,469

61

1,497

Carril

100

Copenhagen ..

20

..

Corunua

429

Dordt

339

2,608

599

19

2

Dunkirk

482

5,412

3,557

Gluckstadt .. ..

23

659

Gothenburg ..

128

4

16

Hamburg

3,313

38,825

..

4,627

Harburg

150

1,458

64

120

418

Harliugen

9,165

4,463

210

223

231

Oporto

5G0

_

..

..

..

Ostend

999

6,212

12

525

413

Kotterdam . .

18,951

40,166

7,549

8,111

12,211

Vigo

444

••

Total . . . .

40,921

114,136

8,443

9,993

32,582

We here find a total import equal to 206,075 head. This
enormous supply, be it observed, represents the total importations
into London onl}'. In the corresponding period in the previous
six years the annexed supplies were imported : —

Last half of year.

1855
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864

Beasts.

18,526
17,193
22,045
11,462
16,701
29,460

Sheep
and Lambs.

19,930
76,415
46,674
49,332
91,206
85,920

Calves.

8,872
7,965
6,187
9,459
11,445
10,392

Pigs.

409
2,492
4,309

883

1,229

14,212

Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, and Wool. 357

The aggregate supplies of stock exhibited and disposed of in
the metropolitan market were : —

Total Supplies of Stock Exhibited.

Last half of year. ,

Beasts.

Cows.

Sheep and Lambs.

Calves.

Pigs,

1861 .. .. 109,812

1862 ,. .. 116,735

1863 .. .. 120,045

1864 .. .. 131,694
1865 130,977

3005
3054
3005
3014
3086

604,650
631,672
628,072
622,330
614,766

6,560
8,259

10,449
9,935

12,189

15,952
17,407
16,435
17,679
16,028

The following return shows the extent of the arrivals of
English, Irish, and Scotch beasts into London during the half-
year :—

District Bullock Arrivals.

Last half of year.

Northern
Districts.

Eastern
Districts.

Other parts of
England.

Scotland.

Ireland.

1860 .. ..

4000

68,520

21,420

5,033

1477

1861 .. ..

4700

64,060

17,700

8,712

256

1862 .. ..

400

68,420

29,290

9,794

2545

1863 .. ..

470

66,940

16,. 330

9,610

1664

1864 .. ..

62,170

19,980

9,918

2740

1865 .. ..

1000

54,460

17,570

11,797

2517

Average Prices of Beef and Mutton.

Per 8 lbs., to sink the Ofifal.
Beef.

1855.

1860.

1861.

1862.

1863.

1864.

1865.

Inferior
Middling ..
Prime

s. d.

3 4

4 4

5 0

s. d.

3 6

4 6

5 6

s. d.

3 4

4 4

5 0

s. d.

3 0

4 0

. 4 8

s. d.

3 4

4 4

5 0

s. d.

3 6

4 6

5 0

s. d.

3 10

4 8

5 2

Mutton.

1855.

1860.

1861.

1862.

1863.

1864.

1865.

Inferior . .
Middling ..
Prime

s. d.

3 6

4 4

5 0

.. d.
3 10

5 2

6 2

s. d.
3 8
5 0
5 10

s. d.

3 6

4 6

5 4

s. d.

3 10

4 8

5 6

s. d.

3 8

4 6

5 2

s. d.
4 4

4 10

5 10

Newgate and Leadenhall have been but moderately supplied
with each kind of meat. The trade has been far from active, yet

358 Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, and Wool.

prices have continued to advance. Beef has sold at from os. Gd.
to 4.S. KM; mutton, 4.v. 4d. to Gs.; lamb, ~)s.Sd. to 7s.; veal, 45.
to bs.; and pork, It-s-. 4^/. to ^)s. Ad. per 8 lbs. by the carcase.

Considering- the enormous importations from our colonies, the
wool-trade has been moderately active. At the last public sales,
nearly 150,000 bales were disposed of, at slisjhtly reduced rates;
and in August, 120,000 bales will be submitted for competition.
English wools, though in short supplv, have receded in value
about jyd. per lb. The five months' importatitms in the present
and two previous vears were : —

11 IS.

1803 r.o,70o,f;or)

Tl

lSf;i

is(;r>

.. (;i,(;7(;,4]7

le exports

in the same period

were : —

1863.

1864.

1865.

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

(.'olonial

.. .. ir),3S7,4or>

12,3rj(i,090

21,283,840

Foreign

.. .. (i,i(;rvj04

3,01*2,000

2r),75S,7(;()

Total .. 21,552,909 15,308,099 25,758,700

It will be perceived that whilst the imports this year have
considerably increased, the demand on Continental account has
been very active. Home-grown wools are selling as follows: —

Per Pack of 240 Ib.s.

Fleeces : — £. s. £■ s.

South Down hocgetts 20 0 to 21 10

llaU-bredhoggetts 23 0 to 24 10

Kent fleeces 22 0 to 24 0

Sontli Down ewes and wclhcr.s .. .. 20 0 to 21 0

Leicester ditto 22 0 to 22 10

Sorts :—

Clothing picklock 22 0 to 23 0

Piime and picklock 20 0 to 20 10

Choice 19 0 to 19 10

Suix;r 18 0 to 18 10

Combing : —

Wether matching 23 0 to 24 0

Picklock .. ' 18 10 to 19 10

Common 17 0 to ,18 0

Hog matching 23 0 to 24 0

Picklock matching 18 10 to 19 10

Super ditto 17 0 to 19 0

( 359 )

XXIX. — On the Grmoth of Lucerne on Thin Liglit Soils and
Chalky Loams. — Letter to the Editor.

My dear Sir, — As you were pleased with the crops of lucerne
which you saw growing' on my thin chalky land, and ask for
some account of their management, I have much pleasure in
complying with your request.

My practice is to -sow this crop after the land has been
thoroughly well fallowed, highly manured, and sown witli
turnips, which are consumed on the land by sheep eating corn
or cake ; the land is then ploughed two or three times in the
spring, thoroughly pulverised, and the growth of small weeds
(if there are any) encouraged. The lucerne is then sown about
the second week in May without any corn; 25 lbs. per acre will
generally insure a good plant, which is very important : 20 lbs.
of this is drilled at about 7 inches apart, and the remainder,
that which is emptied from the drill, is sown broadcast on the
marks made by the drill-coulters, before the land is harrowed ;
by this means the ground is well covered, and the small annual
weeds are kept under by the crop. If the season is favourable,
the field will give a nice cut for the scythe at the end of August
or beginning of September, or else it may be fed with sheep
or cattle ; but it should not be depastured too closely. During
the ensuing winter the lucerne should receive a good dressing
of rich farmyard- manure, and in the spring some artificial
manure would be very serviceable. In the second season a good
fair produce may be expected, but the plant will not be in per-
fection till the following year. It requires a good dressing every
year, and nothing pays better for it, as it will last six or eight
years, and every year give three good cuttings. The first, even
in our backward eastern climate, is ready for the scythe by the
middle of May, and will yield 8 or 10 tons of excellent green
food, equivalent to 2 tons of hay. From its roots searching very
deep for their sustenance, it is not so much affected by drought
as the generality of plants, and shoots up almost immediately
after the scythe, yielding, in about eight or ten weeks, another
cutting of nearly two-thirds the weight of the first ; and again,
after a like interval of time, another cutting. This, of course,
will not be so productive as either of the two former ; but it
may be confidently expected that the produce of the second
and third cuttings will together equal the first crop. The crop
is chiefly consumed by horses, the first cutting being much
relished by them ; and, with the exception of sainfoin, it is the
most hearty and nutritious green food that can be given. Horses
are not so fond of the second or third cuttings as of the first, but
still it is very valuable food, considering the difficulty of finding

360 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Plymouth.

green food for stock in a dry season, and the certainty which
a field of lucerne gives you of securing a good second and
third cutting, however dry the season may be.

It is generally supposed that lucerne should be well hoed
every year — a very expensive process ; but if care be taken that
the land is well prepared, and thus a full plant be got, and
supplied every year with a good dressing of manure, hoeing may
be dispensed with, and success ensured. After good crops have
been cut consecutively for six or eight years, if the land be
ploughed to a f/ood depth, a skim-coulter being used to bury the
grass from the edge of tlie furrow, no fear of a good crop of
oats need be entertained ; in fact, after such a rest from corn
as the land has had, two good crops may be taken in succession,
should this be convenient for bringing the lucerne-land into
the same course of cropping with the remainder of the field.

I may sum up my letter by saying, that in my opinion no
farmer sliould be without a plot of lucerne in due proportion to
the size of his farm, and that 1 am sure no person who has ever
hiid doion a piece proper 1 1/ will ever again be without it.
I am, my dear Sir, yours very truly,

John Clayden.

Littlehury, June 19, 18G5.

XXX. — Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at the Plymouth
Meeting. By John Dent Dent, M.P., Senior Steward.

In writing the Report on the Live Stock exhibited at the
Society's Show at Plymouth, I am bound to record with satisfac-
tion the gracious visit to the Show-yard which was paid by their
Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales upon
Wednesday, the 19th of July. By the Members of the Society
who were present, and by the officials in charge of the Yard,
and by thousands of the loyal population of the West country,
the honour of this visit was fully appreciated ; and we all grate-
fully acknowledge the public recognition of the services of the
Society thus made by the heir-apparent to the throne. Indeed,
I feel sure that nothing will more gratify the farmers of Great
Britain than to find His Royal Highness following the footsteps
. of his father, and bringing to bear upon agricultural pursuits a
similar degree of care and judgment.

There were many, in and out of the Council, who said that
the Show at Plymouth must be a failure ; that a single line of
railroad and an inaccessible locality would prevent the breeders
of stock from putting in their usual appearance, and that the

Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Plymouth. 361

funds of the Society would most likely suffer from the thin
attendance of spectators. I am happy to report that these gentle-
men were mistaken, and that the Meeting was not only one of
the most successful in a pecuniary sense, but also one of the
pleasantest ever held by the Society. It was worth a long journey
to enjoy the lovely views from the Show-Ground itself. We
could see the French and English iron-clad ships lying side by
side under the shelter of the Breakwater ; Mount Edgecumbe,
with its verdant slopes, and other pleasant hill-sides, dotted with
handsome houses, and shaded by green woods. We had, too,
a glorious week of summer weather, and a goodly muster of
the beauties of Devon and Cornwall round the rings. Those
who cared not for the beauties of scenery, and were only intent
upon agricultural pursuits, found in the Yard an unequalled show
of the Devon and Channel Island breeds, and every other class
of cattle, sheep, and pigs, at least adequately represented.

I may mention as one of the pleasantest features of the New-
castle and Plymouth Meetings, the service held on Sunday
morning in the Cattle-Yard. In each case the contractor for first-
class refreshments kindly placed his tent at our disposal, and the
room was filled with an attentive, and, as far as outward appear-
ance could indicate, a reverent and devout congregation, com-
posed of herdsmen, shepherds, London police, and officers of the
Society, gathered from every part of the kingdom. The service
this year was short, and admirably selected, the sermon plain,
practical, and well adapted to the occasion ; and the only draw-
back was the want of printed copies of the service for the use of
the congregation. I know that I am expressing the feelings of
my brother stewards as well as my own, when I say that it is
our hope that this service, so happily commenced, may form a
permanent portion of the week's proceedings.

In reviewing the cattle exhibited I propose to take the classes
in the order of the catalogue, and, wherever I can, I shall give the
opinions of the Judges in preference to my own; but in certain
cases I have not received from them any reports, and have merely
the award of prizes to guide me.

Shorthokns.

Mr. Drewry, Mr. Robinson, and Mr. Thompson, of Anlaby,
were judges of the Shorthorns, which numbered 92 entries, as
compared with 175 last year. We missed that grand class of old
bulls, which was one of the most attractive features of the New-
castle Show, for at Plymouth this class and that of the two-year-
olds was but poorly represented. A red and white bull belonging
to Mr. Sharpe, and bred by the late Jonas Webb, was first in the

362 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Plymoutli.

aged class ; whilst in the two-year-olds another red and white
bull, bred in Devon, held the same place. The Judges thus com-
ment upon the latter bull : — "The bull to which we awarded the
first prize was a very true-made animal, but not quite so good in
([uality as we could have wished." The Yearling Bull Class was
decidedly better than the older bulls. In this and the next class
Mr. Fawkes, of Farnley, took the first prizes Avith two bulls, own
brothers, being by " Lord Cobham," a JjuU bred by Lord Zet-
land, out of " Fatima," very handsome in colour, and firm in
flesh. The judges s.ay of the yearlings, "We had some very
superior animals in this class. The bull which we placed first
was very far before any of the others. 'V\\o one placed second,
]\lr. Booth's 'Commander-in-Chief,' from his age and condition,
is not calculated to please the multitude, who are not in the habit
of seeing animals in store condition. The third," a bull belong-
ing to Mr. Walker, of Birmingham, " Battersea First Fruits,"
and of .Jonas Webl) blood, "was a very good one. We com-
mended several in this class."

I may here say that, whatever be the dlfTerence of oplnicm as
to the merits of the animals, Mr. Booth and his late uncle deserve
credit for showing "Commander-in-Chief" at this Show, and
" Prince of Battersea " at Newcastle in useful working condition,
and not overlaid and disguised with fat ; and some courage on
the part of Judges is recjuired to recognise the merits of an animal
which is only in useful, not in show ccmdition.

Class IV., with the exception of the first and second animals,
belonging respectively to Mr. Fawkes and Sir A. de Rothschild,
and the reserve, a roan calf of Mr. Garner, the Judges did not
consider a good lot.

The female Shorthorns were better than the males, and the
Cow Class was not inferior to that shown at j\ ewcastle. The
Judges describe it as "a very good one, in which we had great
ditticulty in arriving at a decision." And indeed, out of ten
animals shown, seven are mentioned in the award. \ork shire
Avas well represented by the first-prize cow, " Corinne," belonging
to INIr. Wood, and by " Frederick's Farewell," from the Towneley
herd, belonging to Mr. Tennant. Mr. Stratton was second with
"Diadem," and commended with "Maid of Honour;" and
Mr. Sharpe, the owner of the prize aged bull, was third with
"Elegant." Lady Pigot held the reserve number with "Per-
fume," a white cow, also from the Towneley Herd.

In Class VI., " Lady Fragrant," ]\Ir. Booth's heifer, which
takes the first prize, has grown into a great beauty, and, to my
mind, was the most stylish Shorthorn exhibited.* The Judges

* Since the above report wasVritten, the Judges at the Yorkshire and Durham
Coimty Shows have adjudged " Lady Fragrant " the prizes for the best Short-
horn exhibited.

Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Phjmoutli. o(^o

report that the Yearling Heifers were a very superior class, and
the commendations speak for themselves. Several of the com-
petitors appeared in the Calf Class at Newcastle, and have
certainly grown into beautiful heifers. Lord Feversham's
" Princess," Mr. Wood's red twins, Sir Anthony de Rothschild's
roan and red, were all distinguished as calves at Newcastle, and
again carry (jflf honours here, in company with a beautiful red and
white of Mr. Tcnnant's, also from the Towneley herd, but going
back on the father's side to Captain Gunter's " Duchess " blood.
There was not much to remark upon in the Heifcr-Calf Class,

Herefokds.

I was accused of not doing justice to the Herefords shown at
Newcastle. I acknowledge, however, that those exhibited at
Plymouth were not surpassed by any other breed. The only fault
1 find is that the older bulls were over-fed and inactive. Indeed,
from their great weight and want of exercise, it was difficult to
get them exhibited in the ring ; and the men in charge did not
like the parade twice a day. The Aged Bulls were a very grand
class. The Judges, Messrs. Druce, Yeomans, and Pye, describe
this as " A very good class of animals, the first prize, Mr.
Read's 'Peremptorily,' l^eing compact, with perfect symmetry
and heavy flesh ; the third prize, Mr. Baldwin's ' Battersea,'
was much out of condition." The classes generally of bulls
were good ; massive in form and firm in flesh, and well sus-
taining the character of rent-paying animals. Indeed, I should
say that the Herefords and Mr, Stratton's Shorthorns look more
like farmers' cattle than any stock exhibited in the classes of
Shorthorns, Herefords, or Devons. The Hereford cows have
a tendency to grow patch}-, and lose their shape, which the
Shorthorn and Devon inen seem to have corrected in their
breeds of cattle. The Judges, however, describe this class as
a " good one, containing superior specimens in size, quality,
and character." The Two-year-old Heifers contained three very
superior animals, which obtained the prizes : Mr. Baldwin's
" Miss Hastings ;" the second, Mr. Pitt's heifer ; and Major-
General Hood's " Crown Princess." In fact, each class of
Herefords contained many excellent animals. The Yearling
Heifers were described by the Judges as " an extraordinarily
good class, giving us some difficulty to decide, the animals
being strong in numbers, of great size, and good in character."
And as a proof of their excellence, I may mention that every
animal in the class was noticed l)y the judges ; and the same
honour was paid to the class of Calves. The Hereford entries
numbered 52, as against 42 at Newcastle ; and there is no doubt

864 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Plymouth.

that in the number exhibited there were few inferior animals,
and many of the very highest quality, reflecting the greatest
credit on their exhibitors.

Devons.

There can be no question that the show of Devons was the
feature of this year's exhibition. The gay, lively-headed bulls,
so full of grace, so active in their movements, and full of wild
spirit, which more than once led to an upset of bull, herdsman,
and spectators — the cows, heifers, and calves so full of quality,
so perfect in their backs and ribs, so clean in the head, so short
of offal, and altogether so aristocratic in their mould, made the
Devon ring a constant source of attraction. 1 could find no
fault but one, and that was want of size ; and this is a deficiency,
which in these days of dear meat is not easily condoned on the
plea of superior quality or purity of breed. The beef, no doubt,
is excellent ; but there is not enough of it.

There were in all 89 entered for the Society's prizes, and 34
for the Local ; and the best names amongst the Devon breeders
carried off the prizes ; the Davys, the Quartleys, the Turners,
the Farthings, and the Royal Farm, being all represented. Perhaps
the pairs of cows and heifers, and the grand old bull " Viscount,'
with the cow and calf in his company, were the most striking
part of the Devon show. But 1 shall not venture on individual
criticism, and only remark that it was worth a journey to Ply-
mouth to see so many beautiful cattle, and so many Devon
exhibitors satisfied with the awards.

I regret much that I have not a report from the Judges
mentioning more particularly the merits of the animals exhi-
bited ; Mr. Franklin, the only one from whom I have heard,
merely writing in general terms that they " were more in
number and better in quality than at any previous meeting of
the Society, and decidedly the best classes in the yard at Ply-
mouth." But as a proof of this general excellence, the Judges
commended all the animals in the classes of two-year old bulls,
cows, yearling heifers, and heifer calves, showing that it was not
singular, but general merit which pervaded the Devon classes.

Sussex and other Breeds of Cattle.

Although the Sussex cattle were much better here than at
Newcastle, and though amongst the " other breeds " were some
good specimens of the Suffolk polled, and a grand old Long-
horn bull from Warwickshire, himself one of the greatest
curiosities of the show, I must still question the advisability of
giving prizes to the amount of 100/. for Sussex cattle so far
from home, where only 12 animals were exhibited by three

Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Plymouth. 365

exLiibitors ; or 125/. amongst the various breeds, for 11 animals,
shown by four persons. I may quote from the Report of the
Judges (the same gentleman who acted for Herefords), that the
Sussex cattle, " though short in number, were good in size,
symmetry, and quality." Of the various breeds they say : "A-
poor collection of animals, short in numbers, various and diversi-
fied in breed, character, and quality."

In this class the President, Sir E. Kerrison, M.P., deserves
thanks for sending several of the Suffolk polled cattle, a very
useful breed, to the improvement of which he has devoted much
attention.

Channel Island Breeds.

1 believe we should have done better to have left out the
Sussex-, or " the other breeds," and to have given prizes separate
for Jersey and for Guernsey cattle, instead of placing them both
in the same class. My view is confirmed by the Report of the
Judges, Messrs. Dumbrell and Le Cornu, who write, —

" These classes, representing the two breeds of Jersey and Guernsey, arc
well filled; and generally tlie animals exhibited display a marked improve-
ment on those shown on former occasions. The aged bulls are of no mean
merit, some animals showing unquestionable form and character. The
younger bulls are, with few exceptions, only moderate, and not in any way
equal to the former class. There are some excellent cows and heifers of botla
breeds, and the comjjetition is very severe, showing the great improvement
resulting from the efforts which the Channel Islanders have of late years
been making to combine beauty of form, with the quality for which the breeds
are so remarkable, viz., richness of dairy-produce. But, if either of the classes
has a claim to special notice, it is the Heifer Class. We do not hesitate to
express it as oiir opinion that the first prize is taken by as good a specimen
of the Jersey breed (Mr. Eli Nicoll's ' Browny,' 2 years and 5 months-old), as
any which ever came under our notice.

" In closing these remarks, we would beg to draw the attention of the Council
to the difficulty which exists in awarding prizes in a mixed class ; for although
the Channel Islands are very closely allied as regards locality, their breeds of
cattle are totally different ; and we would respectfully suggest that should the
entries, in future, be as numerous as on the present occasion, some distinction
should be made in the classification so as to encourage separate competition for
each breed."

I cordially concur in these remarks, and I trust that the
Council may follow out this suggestion whenever the show is
held within reach of the Channel Islands exhibitors. The
Americans now buy so freely of these cattle, that the prices are
very much raised, and the value placed upon them by their
owners seems justified by the ready sale of many of the cattle
exhibited.

I have only to mention one other breed of cattle which was
brought under our notice bv the prizes given by the Local Com-
mittee— the South Hams. The cows and heifers exhibited in

366 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Plymouth.

these classes were somewhat coarse and capable of improvement
in quality, but possess great frames, and are apparently good
milkers. If the bullocks are easily fattened, as 1 am informed,
the breed would appear to be a useful farmers' stock, and more
likely to pay rent than the elegant Devons. I am sorry that
the Society had not oHered thi- prizes for this breed of cattle,
which possesses so many good points, rather than for the " other
established breeds."

Before closing my remarks upon the Cattle Classes, I must
again enter my protest against the mistake made by our breeders
of fashionable stock, in so entirely neglecting the milking pro-
jKTtles of their cattle. Amongst the Shorthorn, Hereford, and
Devon Classes, we had perfect models of female symmetry in
c\ery point but one, — that which provides sustenance for the
offspring. The feminine character is lost, and we are year by
year showing mere cylinders of beef. What a contrast were
the graceful well-formed udders of the Jersey and Guernsey cows
to the malformations which disgraced some of the prize cattle in
the fashionable classes.

The Channel Islanders obtain early maturity for their j)urposc ;
the beautiful prize heifer, but 2 years and 5 months-old, had
borne a calf, and her udder was as gracefully and truly formed
as any nature ever made. In the fashionable breeds we are
losing fast the most l)eautlful characteristic of the sex, and, as I
believe, from nothing but over-forcing and carelessness on the part
of the breeder. Our shows Avould gain in interest if the bulls
could step out easily and majestically ; and if our cows and
heifers were indeed the milky mothers of the herd. But now,
amongst the aged bulls, to walk as far as the ring is a matter of
serious diflicultv, and to parade once or twice round it a painful
task, for they resemble some gouty specimens of the human race,
whose tempers and figures are alike destroyed by over-feeding,
and the sufl'erings consequent thereupon. But serious as are these
difhculties, it would be a yet harder task to get a pail of milk
from a whole class of cows !

HOESES.

The weakest department of the Plymouth Show was that
assigned to Horses. One stallion only appeared for the 100/.
prize given for the best Thoroughbred horse, and this was
"Motley," by "Touchstone," now 14 years old, and although a
nice animal, not a horse of the highest (juality or style. The
Pony Classes also, which it had been hoped would have formed
a feature of the W^estern Show, were filled with a curious mix-
ture of animals, creating but little interest, and not much d(>sire
to possess them ; indeed, amongst the riding-horses geneially, the

Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Plymouth. 3G7

want of merit was conspicuous, Mr. Parrington writes to me on
behalf of himself and the other Judges : —

" The horse most like a stallion to get hunters was a roarer, and disqualified ;
and we were obliged to award tlic prize to a very light airy horse, not a weight-
carrier himself, or likelj' to get horses up to weight ; the second prize to an
inferior horse ; and ^^'e could not find a third worthy of a prize. The winning
hunter brood-mare was a good animal, the rest moderate, and the foals particu-
larly light and bad. All the jiouics exhibited were very moderate, with one
exception, and that a mare-pony, the prize taken in Class CXXI. In the
Four-year-old Hunter Class were nine entries, but only six competitors ; there
were three good animals, two horses and one mare, the others weeds. We awarded
the prize to the mare (No. 414), the second prize to a brown horse, and highly
commended No. 417, a very good horse, but approaching rather too near the
stamp of a harness-horse. In the Five-year-old Class only one horse was shown,
and that a very good one. Of the roadsters exhibited two were disqualified,
being over the height named in the condition. The class was very poor."

The three prize-taking hunters exhibited by Mr, Battams, and
the highly commended 4-year-old, belonging to the Rev. A, C.
Thynne, were all by " Kingmaker ;" and I should think the
Devonians must regret having allowed so good a stock-getter to
go out to Australia ; for there can be no question that the horses
got by him were the best worth notice in the Yard. Some diffi-
culty arose about the chesnut mare-pony mentioned by the
Judges ; she was entered in the Exmoor Class, and being by a
thoroughbred horse out of a pony, an Exmoor exhibitor protested
against her ; but the Stewards did not feel that they had sufficient
evidence to prevent their confirming the decision of the Judges.

The entries for Agricultural Horses were more numerous, and
of greater merit : the Class of Aged Stallions was tolerably well
fdled, and there were some fine powerful horses, especially
amongst the Clydesdales. The younger class was not remark-
able. One or two useful horses were shown amongst the stallions
suited to a hilly district, and the prize-horse, which came from
the county of Durham, found a new owner in an Australian.
There were some good Suffolk horses in an entry numerically
poor ; I would suggest that we should allow the Suffolks to com-
pete with other horses, except in their own particular districts ;
and then offer more prizes, dividing the agricultural stallions into
classes for 2, 3, 4-years, and aged horses. The prize cai't-mare
exhibited had twin living foals sucking her, an unusual sight in
a Show-yard, There were some very fine young mares, though
the entries were few.

Professor Varnell thus reports as to the soundness of the horses
shown : —

To the Steivarth of the Horse Department of the Boyal Agricultural Show,
Plymouth, July, 1865.

Gektlemen,

I beg to hand you a brief Eeport of the comparative amoimt of disease
of an hereditary nature, affecting the horses exhibited at the lloyal Agrictd-
VOL. I. — S. S. 2 B

368 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Plymouth.

tural Society's Show, riymouth. The number, inchitliiig all classes, is, I
believe, ninety-two ; of these, thi-ee only were affected in the wind, two of which
belonged to the Class for Agricultural Stallions and one to the Class for Ilmitcr
Stallions. It is gratifying to observe that no disease of an hereditary nature
was observed in the eyes of any of the horses exhibited : but disease of the
hocks is more prevalent, including what is termed bone and bag spavins, and
curbs. These cases amount to about 7 per cent., which must be looked upon as
a large percentage. Shelly, flat, and brittle hoofs were by no means numerous.
I observed these in four instances only, viz., two in the Suffolk Stallions, and
two in the Class of Agricultural Stallions shown for the local prizes.

I am, Gentlemen,

Your obedient servant,

George Varnell.

I may here call the attention of the Council to the question of
disqualification. Ought we not in justice to our Judges and to
the public, whom we profess to protect by our veterinary exami-
nation, to post up the disqualification and the cause of it over the
horse discpialified? No doubt the severity of our veterinary
examination keeps many horses from the Show-yard, and renders
the show less attractive than it would be, were we not so strict ;
but, on the other hand, we profess to protect the public against
hereditary disease, and I believe that though our Show-yard
may not have as many horses as some others, yet that we have
steadily lessened the number of diseased horses exhibited. To
label a stallion as a roarer, or affected with hereditary disease,
must of course seriously depreciate his money value, and so far
inflict a pecuniary loss upon his owner — which is not the case in
a dis([ualification of pigs shown over age, or sheep improperly
shorn, where the money value of the animal remains unaltered,
although the character of the owner may suffer. The question
is a difficult one, and, although it perhaps would have been
right to post up the disqualifications, yet I did not like to do it
without the express sanction of the Council, and I believe it is
a matter to which their attention should be called. There is no
doubt that the veterinary examination is a great obstacle with ex-
hibitors ; I am sure that it is carried out carefully and prudently
by Professor Varnell, and I should be sorry to see it discon-
tinued, because I think it is the duty of the Society to discourage
unsound animals, rather than to bring together a great show of
horses. At present the Horse-show is the least successful part of
our undertaking ; the expense of railway travelling, and the
length of time during which valuable horses are detained, and,
above all, the fear of the veterinary examination, rendering owners
of thoroughbred stallions or of first-class hunters unwilling to
exhibit.

It was hinted that the boxes for horses were capable of
improvement, but no suggestions on the subject were made ; on
this question, and that of the payment to be made for boxes, the
Council will always be ready to listen to any opinion expressed

Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Plymouth. 369

by exhibitors. The men in charge of the horses were very civil
and attentive, and Thomas Gilby, the head man in the Horse-
department, kept all in good order, especially on the day when
the Prince and Princess visited the Show-yard.

Sheep.

Amongst the Sheep the Leicesters made a very good show, —
there being 76 rams and 8 pens of ewes, as against 60 rams and
5 pens of ewes at Newcastle. Some excellent sheep were
shown in all classes, and the blood of Mr, Sanday was very suc-
cessful, although the prize-shearling was descended on both sides
from the much-esteemed flock of the late Sir Tatton Sykes. The
West-country farmers are fond of Leicester blood, and took no
inconsiderable part in the competition, showing some good sheep,
although the prizes went to the old-established flocks of Mr.
Borton, Mr. Creswell, Colonel Inge, Mr. Stamper, and a new
name, Mr. Dabbs, who showed a sheep bred by Mr. Sanday.
The general impression was that the Leicesters exhibited were
quite up to the mark, and even superior to those exhibited at
of former shows.

The Cotswolds were numerically weak, and few good sheep
were exhibited, though they had the honour of attracting Her
Royal Highness the Princess of Wales's attention, by their beau-
tifully clean white fleeces. Mr. Aylmer, one of the Judges,
writes of them : —

" The Cotswokls as a class were the worst I ever saw, all the hest breeders
being absent — snch men as William Hewer, R. Game, AV. Game, William
Lane, &c. — the rule for clipping the sheep naked in the first week in April
having frightened them all out of the market. I did not consider one sheep in
the lot worth the amount of the prize."

Lincoln sheep never come out at the Royal Show in such
number or form as to show their real character. The Lincoln
flockmasters think the prices obtained for their rams a sufficient
test of their excellence, and they know that a Lincoln sheep does
not show well without his fleece. Lincoln breeders say, " if you
wish to see our sheep, come to Lincoln April fair." The ewes
shown were a very indifferent, ill-matched lot. Mr. Aylmer
says : —

" The Lincoln and other Long Wools were a very mixed lot. Mr. Sym had
some very useful sheep, a shearling very good indeed, but he should have been
in the Leicester Class. Mr. Marshall's were a plain lot of Lincoln sheep, but
useful, with their Lincoln character about them ; some of his old rams were
thick-fleshed useful sheep."

Mr. Clarke, another judge, says much the same of the rams,
and finds great fault with the ewes.

2b2

370 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Phjmonth.

Of the Oxfordshire Downs, the Judges, Messrs. Horley and
Gough, say : —

" The numbers arc comparatively small, but there are some very good speci-
mens of the breed, which possess qualit}' and aptitude to fatten, rendering them
most desirable for those flockmasters who make size and early maturity their
leading principle ; but, while they ]iossess great size and mutton-giving pro-
perties, they lack the imiformity which should be apparent in each distinctive
breed."

Of Shropshlrcs the same Judges say : —

" This is one of the largest and most imiwrtant classes in the Yard, the
number of entries being

" Shearling rams 43

" Aged ditto 19

" Yearling ewes 10

" This, upon reference, will be found to exceed the number of entries in
1864 by 7 ])ens. The breed is well represented by many of the sjiecimens
shown, which exhibit the best characteristics that have brought this breed into
notoriety. The character and type on the whole is good, but there are a few
exceptions, and breeders will best servo the interests of this class of slicep by
paying all the attention jxissiblc to uniformity, which is the attriliute most
calculated to assist their natural good qualities, and render them still more
attractive to flockmasters generally. The Class of Aged liams was particu-
larly good."

There can be no doubt that in the last-named classes of sheep
there is some want of agreement as to type among different
breeders, and this want of uniformity appears to Ije the weak point
in Ijrceds, which, to an unprejudiced eye, apjicar most vakiable
as producers of both mutton and wool.

When we go to the Southdown pens we are struck with their
uniformity, although there is some difference and improvement
as to size. Lord Walsingham, who, with the shepherd, seems
also to have inherited tlie mantle of Mr. Jonas Webb, is again
very successful amongst the rams in both classes. His sheep are
very handsome and big, and are shown in the perfection of con-
dition. Mr. Waters, ^Ir. Rigden, and Sir Thomas Lennard
exhibited good sheep, and the Judges, Messrs. Fookes and Turner,
considered all the classes to be well represented. The ewes
shown by the Duke of Richmond were perhaps the most beautiful
pen of sheep in the Show-yard. There was an air of refinement
and of purity of breed about them unsurpassed by any other ani-
mals, unless, perhaps, by some of the females in the Devon
Classes.

The same Judges took the Hampshire Down Classes, and
report on them : —

" A very decided improvement, ]\Ir. Eawlence taking the first and third
prizes, with sheep of wonderful size and quality, and good wool ; IMr. Arnold
taking the second prize. Amongst the Aged I'ams, Mr. Eawlence again takes
the fust prize with a very good sheep of the true character of the Hampshire
breed ; while the Shearling Ewes were well lepresentcd by some pens of extra-

Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Plijmouth. 371

ordinary sheep, of iinmensc size, and very closely shorn in every part, from the
same flock ; Mr. Canning taking the third prize with a very nice pen."

If tlie Southtlowns are the aristocracy of the South country
sheep, the Hampshire Downs well represent the thriving yeoman
or farmer. They were certainly amongst the best and most pro-
fitable looking of all the sheep shown, and, under the careful
management of their present breeders, bid fair to shine in quality
quite as much as in usefulness. Size, substance, hardihood, and
quality are what flockmasters require in these days of dear
mutton, and the Hampshire Downs, as shown at Plymouth, seem
very likely sheep to furnish what is needed.

Those who delight in curiosities must have been rewarded
by a sight of some of the local breeds of sheep ; the Exmoor
and Dorset horned rams, with their curling horns, were quite
magnificent. The Dartmoors were shown in the wool, strange
long-sided animals without horns, with inottled or white faces,
and unwashed fleeces like door-mats. But if the rams really
clip from 21 to 28 lbs. of wool each, and the shearling ewes
14 lbs., and these fleeces are obtained when they are running on
the moors, I do not know that the farmers there could find a
more useful breed. The three breeds of Dartmoor, Dorset, and
Exmoor were well represented, and certainly very interesting.
But by far the worst sheep shown were the South Hams ; they
were diverse, one pen like very bad Cotswolds, another like
thin-skinned bad bred Leicesters ; and the 2 rams were worse
than the ewes. I hope the South Ham farmers will have learned
something from the show, and that when we visit the West country
again, we may see more of their useful cows and none of their
bad sheep.

The Stewards suggest that the date of clipping sheep should
be altered to " after the 1st of May," rather than the 1st April.
The growth of wool on highly-kept sheep in these months is so
great, that there is much difficulty in arriving at a conclusion
whether sheep have been fairly shorn. At present the duties of
the inspectors of shearing are attended with much difficulty, and
though the glaring cases which attracted attention at Worcester
have been checked, still we feel that we have not yet arrived at a
satisfactory position. I have good reason to believe that very
nearly all the sheep in one class had a good share of wool taken
off their flanks and other points, one evening after the inspectors
had seen them and proposed to pay them another visit. Indeed,
the marks of the shears and the different shade of wool were very
visible even to an unpractised eye.

PIGS.

The show of pigs was generally acknowledged to be a very
good one, the entries numbering 119 as against 13G at Newcastle,

372 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Phjmouth.

I was sorry to see several notices of disqualification affixed to
pens in this department.

Mr. Squarey, one of the Judges, reports to me as follows : —

" The animals exhibited were on the -wiiolc of superior qualitj-, and without
surpassing, certainly maintained the distinctive excellences of the various
breeds, as indicated at former exhibitions of the Socictj'.

" From the locality of the show it followed that the number of animals
exhibited was generally not large. Classes LXXXVIII., XCIIL, and XCIV^
Averc, however, well represented. The absence of competition was specialjj
apparent in the local classes.

" The animals which iiarticularly called for attention were No. 828, CI
LXXXVIII. (to which the lirst ]irizc was awarded) ; Xo. 800, Class XCj
and No. 807, Class XCIV. The Judges remarked that the characteristio
the large and small breeds w'cre in many cases scarcely sufficiently define|

" Ten pens of animals were disqualified by the veterinary surgeon on ac
of their being older than described."

In concluding my Report 1 think I may fairly congratulate the
Society on its Annual Show. Financially', Plymouth stands
fourth on the list, and the success of the meeting presents another
argument against the centralisation of our Shows, and in favour
of their peripatetic character. The men of the West have still a
good deal to learn, although the excellence of their stock in several
departments took us l)y surprise. There did not appear to be the
same hearty interest taken in the Show itself, that was evinced last
year at Newcastle. The people who came on the shilling-days
made a pleasant holiday, but did not carefully go over the lists of
stock exhibited, as the North countrymen did last year ; and we may
suppose from the deficiency in the sale of catalogues (the money
received at Plymouth l)eing 342/. as against 724/. at Newcastle,
and 510/. at Worcester), either that the education of the working
classes in the Western is inferior to that in the Northern and West
Midland districts, or that the love of agricultural pursuits is not
so fully developed. At the same time all the officers of the
Society felt deeply grateful for the kindness and hospitality they
received from the authorities and inhabitants of the three towns ;
and to the Local Committee we feel bound to tender our best
thanks for the admirable Show-yard provided, and for the readi-
ness with which they met all our suggestions.

I cannot close my Report and resign my office as Steward of
Stock, without an expression of regret that the time has passed
so quickly by ; and 1 shall always look back with pleasure to the
pleasant weeks at Worcester, Newcastle, and Plymouth, and think
gratefully of the friendships made there.

Ribston Hall, July 29, 1865. i

( 373 )

XXXI. — General Report on the Exhibition of Imj)lements at the
Phjmoxith Meeting. By JoHN Coleman and F. A. Paget, C.E.

The reports of Judges on the different classes of implements,
for which prizes were offered at this meeting, may well be
accompanied by a few general remarks, for the information of
those who were not present. The Show-yard, enclosing 35 acres
30 poles, was situated at Pennycomequick, on a site close to,
ai^d on the right of the Saltash-road, and about one mile
fr^m the railway stations of Plymouth and Devonport. The
situation was not only commodious and convenient, but com-
manded an exquisite panorama of the town and bay. Mount
Edgecumbe, and the undulating country around. The ground
occupied by the ShoAV-yard was originally in six fields ; but
the hedges had been carefully grubbed and levelled, and
a broad road, 200 yards long, so laid down as to secure an
entrance in the centre of the southern boundary. A siding from
the Cornwall Railway, constructed for the occasion, landed
visitors, stock, and implements, within a few yards of the
entrances. The visitor, after passing the Post-office, the Secretary's
office, and other official buildings, found himself in a large open
space of gently-rising green sward, commanding a view on the
right of the machinery in motion — not so large a display as it will
be next year, but still presenting a respectable appearance, whilst
to the left his eye would range over a succession of implement-
sheds ; and if he walked forward he found a broad avenue with,
first, implement-sheds on either hand, then departments for
stock, and at the extreme end the extensive ring, surrounded
on three sides by horse-boxes. If the eye became dazed, and
the head distressed with the multitude and variety of the objects
close at hand, he had but to turn and gaze upon a landscape
which can find few rivals, and has perhaps never been equalled
at a previous gathering of the Royal Agricultural Society.

In accordance with the programme of the Society, the same
classes of implements that competed at Leeds came round for
trial at Plymouth. These were drills, manure -distributors,
horse-hoes, mowing and reaping machines, hay-machines, and
horse-rakes, and carts and waggons. The land selected for the
trials comprised about 70 acres, part of the Woodford Farm,
belonging to the Earl of Morley, and tenanted by Mr. Cork,
situated on the road to Plympton, about 3 J miles from the Show-
yard. It was approached by road and rail, a temporary station
having been erected at Marsh Mills, on the Plymouth and
Tavistock line, within sight of the grounds, which consisted of
three arable fields and one meadow. The largest, 20 acres in

374 General Report on the Exhibition of Implements

extent, had been prepared for the reapers, half with rye after
oats — a good upstanding crop ; the remainder Avas in oats after
clover, a remarkably heavy crop much laid and twisted. This
field was tolerably square, but rather too much on a slope, and
altogether insufficient for the trial of so large an entry of
machines. A second field of 19 acres was partly in clover —
an over-ripe crop, much beaten down, which was reserved for
trying the mowers — and partly ploughed and harrowed in readi-
ness for the drills, distributors, 6cc. A third field was drilled
with roots for the trial of horse-hoes, grubbers, tS:c. The
meadow was at some little distance on the other side of the
line, and nearer to the Marsh Mill Station ; there, in a low
Avet spot, subject to flooding, and called the Marsh, were reserved
15 acres of heavy grass, with a very rough bottom, containing a
considerable quantity of dead grass, bad to cut, and likely to
afford an excellent opportunity for a severe trial.

A comparison of the number of entries at Leeds and Plymouth
will show that manufacturers have not been idle, and that a lively
demand for the home and foreign trade is kept up.

As nearly as we can gather from the reports of the Leeds
trials, the two lists of entries may thus be contrasted : —

Leeds. I'lymouth.

Drills of various kinds 33 .... 66

Water-drills 2 .... 3

])rill-]n"esscs 4 .... 4

Dr}' manure distributors 8 .... 8

Liquid ditto 3 .... G?

Horse-hoes _ .. .. 29 .. .. 42

llorse-hoes for tliinning turnips .. 2 .... 1

]\Iowin'j;-machines (not stated) .... 13

Combined machines (not stated) .... 8

Reaping-machines, manual .. .. 9 .... 25

Eeaping-machines, self side-delivery 8 .... 10

It will thus be seen that the Judges had a heavy task before
them ; and in consequence of unavoidable delay from one day
being thoroughly wet, and a further loss of valuable time in
selecting implements (with regard to which a suggestion is
made in the Report on Mowers and Reapers, which deserves
attention), the awards were not made until the Tuesday in the
Show week.

This Report, which embraces a short description of the
more prominent machines, renders it unnecessary for us to
do more than allude to the general position of this important
branch of agricultural mechanics, and to the progress which
has been made since Leeds. In many respects this has
been considerable. The gearing has been simplified, friction
and draught have been much reduced, and weight and size

at the Plymouth Meeting. 375

brought within a reasonable compass. In the class of reaping-
machines with self side-delivery, this improvement is most
marked, and we are disposed to believe that eventually a
modification of this principle will to a great extent supersede the
manual machines. The tendency of all improvements in agri-
cultural machinery is to relieve the labourer of the heavier
drudgery of his calling ; and to rake off in a heavy crop is
probably almost as hard as to work the treadmill. Since Leeds,
the sheaf-delivery has been invented, and the better machines of
this sort are admirably adapted for crops of medium bulk. Some
objection has been urged against this system on the ground that
those crops which require to lie for a time before being tied up
are better in swarth. But this advantage is more apparent than
real, as the sheaf is laid so lightly and fanned out so nicely that
the sun and air can penetrate almost, if not quite, as well as if
the corn lay in swarth. A more valid objection exists in the
irregular size of the sheaf in variable crops. One maker has
attempted to obviate this by making the rake controllable by the
driver, but at present the attempt has not proved very successful.
The mowing trials were principally carried out on Friday, the
14th July, a lovely day, and the exertions of the Stewards, Judges,
and other officials, to secure a full, fair, and satisfactory contest
were rewarded with success. Thirteen machines were brought
into competition, most of them possessing great merit, and many
noticeable for very ingenious mechanism. The chief alterations
since Leeds appear to consist in devices of various kinds to
render the knife-bar flexible, and give it, so to speak, an inde-
pendent power of adapting itself to irregularities of surface, ridge,
and furrow, as also to enable the driver, either by hand or foot,
to raise the whole or either end of the knife ; and in one case to
alter the angle of the knives without lifting the bar. With all
these thoughtful appliances the weight has been decreased, until
in some case it appeared almost as though the implements were too
light to face and stick to heavy work. It should be remembered by
the makers that, although a racer prepared for trial may possibly
win, unless a machine can earn a good character for durability,
the public will not endorse the decision of the Judges. It was
perhaps fortunate for both public and Judges that the trials were
so severe, that only the machines with staying powers had any
chance of a place ; at the same time it may be well to explain
that, in all these trials both of mowers and reapers, the Judges
very properly did not regard the quantity of work done in a given
time, nor pit one machine against another : had they done so,
the merits of horses and driver must have had to do with the
result, and the size of the cutter-bar. The dynamometer trials
afforded most of the data required.

376 General Report on the Exhibition of Implements

A mowing-machine, with a 4 ft. to 4 ft. 6 in. knife, will do
plenty of work in a day if well driven and horsed ; the question
is, which machine will do the best work? It is satisfactory to
be able to state that the work of all the mowers was infinitely
superior to manual work, and effected, as we shall see by the
following calculation, at a considerable saving per acre : —

Cost of machine 207. : —

Interest according to acreage to be mown, from

Horse-labour ,,

Oil „

Manual laboiu- „

2 0 t(3 3 0

Per Acre.

s.

d. s.

d.

1

0 to 1

G

1

0 1

0

0
0

3 0
6 0

3
(5

Report of the Judges on Drills, Manure-distributors, fforse-Jwes, Ilay-
mahng Machines, and Horse-rakes.

When selecting for trial the various Implements exhibited at Pl^-mouth, vre
were agreeably surprised at their numbers. The workmanship of most of them
was of a very superior description, and the work in the fields during the trials
generally very good.

The principal novelty that came under our notice was the application of
springs to the Drill and Horse-hoe levers, patented by Mr. Sainty, and nianu-
I'actured by Messrs. Garrett and Sons, which obviates the necessity of weight.s,
and more efficiently eflects the object of keeping the coulters to their work.
Tlie raising and lowering the levers is also accomplished more simply by a
hand-bar, which also acts as a press-bar, thus dispensing entirely with weights,
chains, ordinary press-bar, rachet-gear, and hind-roller, to carry the levers.
The action of the spring was considered by us a very great improvement on
the ordinary method, as upon the coulter coming in contact with a stone, &c.,
the spring would chock the tendency to jump, and cause it to resume its proper
place more quickly. The draught of the Implement was, in our opinion
reduced very considerabl}' bj' this novel arrangement — say from one-fourth to
one-third — which is a verj- important feature.

We had several small Hay-making Machines, which we believe will prove
very useful and efficient Implements, and at about two-thirds of former
prices.

We commenced with the trials of Drills for general piirposes, of which we
had nine — a very good class : but while we praise these Drills and their perform-
ance, we do not ajiprove of the combination which is found necessary, as their
cost is about equal to that of both a corn-drill and a manure-distributor, and
they are not nearly so convenient, or light and portable. We think that for
the future the prize in this class might very properly be dispensed with.

Of ordinary Corn-Drills we tried fourteen, and most of them were good and
efficient implements.

Of Corn-Drills for small occupations we tried fourteen. This was also
a very good class.

Of Drills for hillside delivery we only tried two (which were very good),
but nearly all the corn and small occupation drills were adapted for drilling
up and down hill, the seed being regulated by the use of a small wheel in
the barrel in ascending, and a larger one in descending.

Of Drills for Turnips and other Boots on the flat we tried fifteen implements.
This was a very good class.

at the Plymouth Meeting.

377

Of Turnip-Drills on the ridge we tried eight implements, and found this
a useful class, but with great variation in price, viz., from 211. 10s. down to 51.

We had only three Water-Drills. All worked tolerably well. We gave
each a prize in proportion to its merits.

Of Drills for small seeds we tried four, of which three were very efficient
implements.

Of Drill-Pressers four were set to work, but the soil was not in a proper
state for the trial of these implements, being merely a loose fallow fresh
ploughed. The test was, nevertheless, equally fair for all.

Of Distributors for dry manure we tried eight. This we found a very good
and efficient class. We considered that Mr. Chambers's barrel delivered the
manure in the best and most regular manner. Mr. Sainty has improved liis
implement by the introduction of a barrel of mixed metal, manufactured by
Messrs. Garrett and Sons, which is not liable to rust and corrode.

In the class of Horse-Hoes for general purposes we tried nine implements on
the growing rye, and six of them on turnips. This we also found a very good
class. Some of them hoed the turnips very well, but the trials were not so
satisfactory among the corn, as it was badly drilled.

Eighteen single-row Horse-Hoes were tried, and the operation being so very
simpte, we found considerable difficulty in selecting the best from so large
a number ; but considering that, as in the work, so in the implement, sim-
plicity, combined with strength, good workmanship, and cost, were the merits
to be desired, we have awarded the prizes to those implements that appeared
to us to combine these qualities in the highest degree.

Of single-roAV Grubbers we tried nine, finding some of them really very
good and efficient implements. The remarks on single-row horse-hoes apply
equally to this class.

AVe had only one Horse-Hoe for thinning turnips brought to tiie trial-field —
that exhibited by Messrs. Eaton and Sons ; there being no competition, we
awarded to it half the amount placed at our disposal.

Of Hay-making Machines we tried sixteen on hay or grass in the same
state in which it was left by the mowing-machines. Their mode of working
was very varied, but, on the whole, this class has been much improved since
the trial at Leeds, particularly by the introduction, by some of the manu-
facturers, of smaller, lighter implements, at considerably lower prices, which
are very useful, and work without any material diminution of the breadth of
ground taken. After having tried the whole of this class, we selected four of
the best machines, giving as much ground as we could to each ; we then changed
their positions and worked them side by side rmtil the field was finished, when
we divided the amount at our disposal according to their respective merits.

Of Horse-Eakes we tried eighteen, on the same land where we tried the
hay-makers, and so thoroughly satisfied were we Avith one trial, that we had
no difficulty in deciding which were the best implements.

General Purpose Drills.

Article.

Stand.

1069

86

1887

120

378*\
379t;

26

1070

86

380

26

622

46

Name of E.xhibitor.

Priest and Woolnough
Hornsby and Sons..

James Coultas, junior

Priest and Woolnough
James Coultas, junior
R. and J. Reeves . .

Price.

£. s. d.

41 10 0

38 15 0

39 10 0

27 10 0

27 10 0

37 5 0

Award.

£. s.

10 0

8 0

7 0

Highly Commended.
Commended.
Commended.

* Drill.

t Steerage.

378 General Report on the Exhihition of Implements

Corn-Drills.

Article.

Stand.

Name of Exhibitor.

Price.

Award.

1379

1071

382

1888

718

719

108
86
26

120
52
52

John Sainty ..
Priest and Woolnough
James Coultas, junior
Hornsby and Sons . .
A. W. Gower and Sons
A. W. Gower and Sons

£. s. d.

28 10 0

28 14 0

32 10 0

29 15 0

33 0 0

30 10 0

X.. s.

8 0

7 0

5 0
Highly Commended.
Commended.
Commended.

Small Occttpation-Dbills.

1380

108

1072

8G

1889

120

955

78

2256

131

384

26

John Sainty 16 10 0

Priest and Woolnough . . .. i 16 10 0

Hornsby and Sons ^ 17 10 0

George Lewis 17 10 0

Holmes and Sons 17 U) 0

James Coultas, junior .. .. i 20 10 0

6 0

5 0

4 0
Highly Commended.
Higlily Commended.
Commended.

386
2257

HiLLsiDK Delivery.

26
131

James Coultas, Junior
Holmes and Sons . .

TUBNIPS AND OTHER KoOTS ON THE FlAT.

1073

86

387

26

1891

120

668

46

Priest and Woolnough
James Coultas, junior
Hornsby and Sons ..
E. and J. Keeves ..

8 0
7 0
5 0
Highly Commended.

Turnips and otheb Roots on the Eidge.

724

52

1074

86

726

52

670

45

A. W. Gower and Son . .
Priest and Woolnough . .
A. W. Gower and Son . .
R. and J. Keeves . .

11

19

0
0
5 0
12 10

8 0
7 0
5 0
Highly Commended.

Wateb-Dbills.

671

46

R. and J. Reeves . .

.. 36

0

0

8

0

672

46

R. and J. Reeves . .

.. , 26

10

0

7

0

389

26

James Coultas, junior ..

.. 28

0

0

5

0

DlSTBIBtJTORS OF LiQUID-MaNUEE.

The only liquid-manure drill or cart that had an efficient stirrer attached.

at the Pli/mouth Meetiiuj.
Drills for Small Seeds.

379

Article.

Stand.

Name of Exhibitor.

Price.

Award.

1893

1075

390

120
86
26

Hornsby and Sons

Priest and Wooluough ..
James Coultas, junior ..

£. s. d.
26 10 0
24 0 0
26 0 0

£. s.
6 0
4 0
Highly Commended.

Drill-Pressers.

732
1135

A . W. Gower and Sons . .
William Gerrans . .

Dry-Manure Distributors.

1382

1076

1895

391

108
86

120
26

John Sainty . .
Priest and Woolnough
Hornsby and Sons
James Coultas, junior

16 10

0

8 0

16 10

0

7 0

13 0

0

Highly Commended

14 0

0

Conmiended.

Horse-Hoes for General Purposes.

1381

1077

95

108
86

7

John Sainty • .
Priest and Woolnough
William Smith

16 0

0

23 10

0

8 10

0

6 0
5 0
4 0

Single Eow Horse-Hoes for PiIdge and Flat.

286

21

751

56

96

7

709

51

848

G3

1101

89

Carson and Toone
E. Page and Co.
William Smith
John Davey . .
James Bowden
Robert Tinkler

4 10

3 0

2 10
Highly Commended,
Highly Commended.
Commended.

Single Eow Grubbers.

286 I 21
1101 89

848 63

Carson and Toone .
Robert Tinkler
James Bowden

3 10

0

6 0

3 10

0

4 0

2 10

0

Highly Commended

Horse -Hoe for Thinning Turnips.

380

General Report on the Exhibition of Implements

Haymaking-Macuines.

Article.

Stand.

Name of Exhibitor.

Price.

Awara.

4S1

478

1593

1793

176

32

32

112

116
12

J. and F. Howard

J. and F. Howard

Robert Boby

W. N. Nicholson

A. and T. Fry

£. s. d.
11 11 0
16 10 0
14 15 0
16 7 6
14 0 0

£. s.
6 0
5 0
4 0
Highly Commended.
Commended.

Horse-Rakes.

483

32

7.')3

56

713

51

3189

170

J. and F. Howard
F-. Page and Co.
John Davey ..
Thomas Alcock

6 0
4 0
Highly Commended.
Commended.

Joiix IIlCKKN.
A. H. JoilN'SON.

Francis Sherborn,
John Thompson.
Robert Dyson.

As some further particulars respectin<2: the principal implements
that received the j)rizes may be interesting to the reader, we may
note that Mr. John Sainty, ot Burnham, Norfolk, bears off the honour
of novelty in drills as Messrs. Hornsby do in reapers. The
light and clever arrangement of springs, by which we get rid of
the heavy, inconvenient press-bar and weights, iScc, may be con-
sidered an important constructive detail. It has already been
adopted by several of the large farmers in Norfolk, and is capable
of being fitted to any ordinary corn-drill at a small cost. One
of the great advantages in this application is that if the coulters
are thrown up from any disturbing cause — a stone, hard ground,
&.C., — they settle to their proper depth again much more raj)idly
than if merely weighted. The springs act on each lever with a
pressure varying from 1 to 12 lbs. The drill is considerably
lightened, and the raising or lowering the coulters can be
effected more readily than by the old system. Messrs. Garrett
manufactured for ]Mr. Sainty, and accordingly the working parts
of these implements were excellent.

The principal improvements in Priest and Woolnough's drills
and hoes, which have received nine prizes, may be shortlv noticed,
as consisting in the use of tin funnels of uniform diameter,
instead of the old tins and chains for conducting the seed, which
have a side-play by means of a novel ball-and-socket joint. In
order to obtain uniform pressure on each coulter the levers are
mounted on horizontal bars ; the front coulters being attached to
the foremost bar, and the back coulters to the hinder bar. The

at the Plymouth Meeting. 381

parts are made to a uniform gauge and weight to get an equal
pressure. On light and mixed soils weights are not required.
In the trial at Pljmpton the drill went to work Avithout any
weights whatever. The patent shoes of chilled cast-iron, secured
to the coulter by a peg, may next be mentioned. It is claimed
that they do away with the necessity for removing the coulters,
as they are easily renewed ; they are made of different shapes,
to spread the seed more or less as required.

In order to take up the coulters, multiplying wheels are used,
by means of which the levers of the largest drills may be lifted
up with ease. An important addition is made to the ordinary
fore-steerage, by which the guide-man obtains a greatly-increased
leverage on rough and strong soils. A chain is fastened to the
steerage at either end, having the other end wound round a sheaf-
pulley. On the shaft of this pulley is fixed a handle, by which
the man steers, and by this arrangement it is calculated that six
times as much purchase is gained as by the ordinary front-handle
plan.

In the horse-hoe, for which this firm obtained the second
prize, is the same arrangement of levers, on two bars instead
of one, as formerly ; the greater leverage causes the hoes to
penetrate hard ground more easily. There was certainly room
for this improvement, as in the old horse-hoes the knives
would only enter, and stand against strong weeds when the soil
was already well pulverised. Sainty's springs, however, form
the most efficient levers, and the hoes were steadier in their work
than most of the other large hoes.

Hornsby and Sons, so well known as makers of drills, on this
occasion did not rise to the first place in any of the classes
except in the case of small-seed drills. The general-purpose
drill may be noticed, although, as the Judges very properly
remark, two distinct implements, to do the different operations
are often preferable, and not more costly. These machines
consist of so many parts that a careless man may not easily
find them when wanted ; there is also a saving of horse-
draught by having two implements. In Hornsby 's drill the
coulter-bars are raised or lowered by screw and bridle at each
end, whereby more or less pitch can be given them for light,
strong, or hard land. The levers have cast-iron coulters with a
separate chilled point, which can be easily replaced. The
coulters, &:c., are raised by means of a worm and wheel, which
fix themselves in any position, rendering it easier for the man to
take up the drill than before. By one lever both manure-box and
coulters are thrown in or out of work at the same moment.
There are two jacks for raising the box to change the speed-
wheels, and an indicator showing the exact position at which the

382 General Report on the Exhibition of Implements

wheels should be set ; which last forms a valuable feature for
many situations. The manure-barrel delivers evenly, keeps
clean, and will of course sow a large or small quantity ; and
lastly, the levers have improved joints to fasten them to the drill,
and one set screw releases them for change of position or taking
off, in place of a set screw and bolt, as hitherto in use.

James Coultas, jun., first came into notice at the Leeds
meeting as exhibiting a good drill, which has been since
much improved. He is mentioned several times, and stands
first for a very useful drill for hill-side delivery, which without
any alteration, is ecpially suitable for the flat. The seed-box is
so cushioned that its contents cannot escape, and the receiver,
taking the seed from the cup, is provided with a wing to catch
any corns which might otherwise fall through. The manure-
delivery pipes are of copper to prevent corrosion, and the toothed
wheels are protected by shields, as are also the outer coulters.
The manure is kept moving bv a sliding stirrer in the narrowest
part of the l)ox, whore it would otherwise be likely to choke.
The 'wheels run on patent hooded arms. The fore steerage is
very simple, and all the motions run in brasses.

Robert and John Reeves maintain their reputation for Liquid
Drills and Distributors, taking the two first prizes for water-
drills, on T, Cliandler's system, improved by Ijeing fitted with
a patent cylinder, in which the cups are not merely attached
to the cylinders, but made a part of them, and are thus not
broken off when passing the bottom, as formerly was sometimes
the case. The first machine can be used as a simple licjuid-
distributor, and in this form received the only prize awarded for
that class.

The competition in Horse-hoes was considerable, and in
the single-row class, large. IVIessrs. Carson and Toone keep up
the position they gained at Leeds with the implement, which
can be used without alteration both as a hoe and grubber. This
hoe is steady in its work, and will not easilv clog. At the same
time the arrangement of broad cutting-knives and tines with
merely points, ensures everything being cut, and the surface
thoroughly disturbed. The three knives can be replaced with
grubbing-tines, that may be worked to stir the soil between the
rows of roots late in the season, and often with great effect.

The two Hay-making Machines exhibited by Messrs. Howards
made superior work, and are strong, clever implements. The
relative position of the fork barrels to themselves and the wheels
remains the same in whichever direction the teeth revolve. The
alteration of the gear for the forward and backward action is
effected by a simple eccentric movement, similar to the back
action in Whitworth's lathe, the screw-key being used as a

at the Plymouth Meeting. 383

lever. This backward action requires that the teeth shoukl be
some 1^ inch nearer the ground ; and this is effected by the
back eccentric movement, which at once drops the fork barrels
to the increased distance required. The axle in these machines
is a solid bar of steel, which is found to be strong, and not liable
to bend. In the 1st Prize Machine the gearing can be cleaned
without removing the wheels ; two split pins being taken out,
each fork barrel can be made to slide forv/ard. The form of the
tines is good. The forward action effects a complete separation
of the grass, and the back action leaves the crop light and loose.
We believe the merits of these two machines were pretty equal.
The Judges approved of the smaller and cheaper one as more
generally useful.

Boby's Machine, to which the 3rd Prize was awarded, is a
very useful implement, strong in make, of simple construction,
and at a reasonable price. No experiments were made as to the
comparative draught of these machines.

The entry of Horse-rakes was large ; but Messrs. Howards'
were so manifestly superior, that the decision as to the 1st Prize
was a very simple business. This rake has been considerably
improved since Leeds, The central axle of solid steel, which
carries the wheels, and affords attachment to the shafts, also acts
as a fulcrum, on which the teeth, when raised, are balanced : in
fact the front part becomes a counterbalance as soon as the act of
raising commences, the pointed ends of the teeth become per-
pendicular, and thus empty easier and more rapidly than if the
fulcrum were not changed. By a simple arrangement of the
patent leverage, the teeth when in work are raised above the cen-
tral axle, and can thus adapt themselves to irregularities of
surface ; at the same time the front part of the rake, on which
the teeth are suspended, is held in position by a self-acting move-
ment of the lever. This is an ingenious and novel arrangement.
The teeth are curved, or sickle-formed, made of steel and tapered,
and combine strength and lightness. The second prize goes to
the same locality, being awarded to Messrs. Page, for a strong,
useful rake. The leverage is easy. The teeth are of oval steel,
and very strong.

Several implements were exhibited with a seat for the driver ;
but as the draught appeared to be sensibly increased, and the
man cannot empty a heavy crop nearly so well, it does not
appear that this arrangement is satisfactory.

The Judges^ Report on Mowing and Reaping Ifachines.

Wo commenced our dntios on Wednesday, July 12tli, liy selecting from the
tli(Tevent stands in tlie fShow-yard such macliiuos as tlie exhibitors had cntercil
YOL, I,— s, s. 2 c

384 General Report on the Exhibition of Implements

for competition, allowing tliem to send everything they wished, provided only
that two machines of precisely similar construction were not exhibited by the
same firm. Much valuable time was consumed in looking over some 200
stands, and it w^as quite the afternoon before we reached the trial grounds.
"We beg to suggest, for the consideration of the Council, that in future this
part of the programme be altered, and that all implements entered for compe-
tition be taken from the yard to the trial grounds, and collected in classes the
day before tlie Judges commence work, so that they can at once examine the
collection, select those qualified for trial, and arrange their work to the best
advantage.

The importance of the class of implements ujion which we were to pass
sentence, and the growth of their manufacture since the Society's trials at
Leeds, may be judged of from the fact that we had 35 reaping machines,
8 combined mowers and reapers, and 13 mowing machines sent to the field
for comi)etition ; and, with a few exceptions, all were well-made, eflicient
im])lements, tliat can be recommended with confidence, varying considerably
in details, and adapted for different conditions of crops, according to tlie i^ecu-
liari tics of the district for which each was specially intended. We wish par-
ticularly to state that our awards are not to be considered as condemning all
tile unsuccessful machines as useless ; but that, under the circumstances of
tlie trial, and, as far as we could judge generally of the implements as brought
before us, we considered that the machines to whicli we awarded the prizes
and commendations were on the whole the best.

Competition and experience have in many instances brought the merits
of difterent implements very much on a par. Manj' a really good machine
was unavoidably passed over because superseded in matters of detail, although
such machine in its own district might be the best for the farmer to purchase,
inasmuch as its fittings could be easily renewed, and serious delays iu the case
of accidents avoided.

Having selected and classified the implements, we took a survey of the
gi'ound ; and a first glance convinced us that whilst the 15 acres of meadow,
and the considerable area of clover, would afford a severe and satisfactory trial
for the mowers, and combined machines working as mowers, the 20 acres of
oats and rye on the hill side were insufficient for such a prolonged test of the
reapers as this important class demanded. The Inspectors appointed by
the Society have, doubtless, done their best, arable land being quite the excep-
tion in the county of Devonshire. The fields are also generally small and
irregular.

The oats were very bulky, long, and much laid and twisted. It was at once
evident that the cutting of such a crop would be a severe trial, and that the
macliine that could make respectable work here would do anywhere.

The reapers were divided into the following classes : —

Value of Prizes.
£.

1st. Machines with self side-delivery 40

2nd. Machines without self side-delivery (f. e. Manual's) 20

3rd. For combined reaping and grass mowing 20

4th. One-horse reapers 20

In order to make a selection of the better implements, it was deteiTained to
give the entries in each class a preliminary trial round two sides of the oats ;
and as the machines with manual delivery (1 and 2-horse) were the most
we took them first.

Considering the very difficult nature of the cutting, and that many of the
machines, having the platforrp on the left side of the pole, were obliged to cut

at the Plymouth Meeting. 385

up the hill, wliich was wrong for the lay of the crop, the work was generally
better than could have been expected. None attempted a full cut, for though
the knife could have severed the straw, the attendant could not rake off the
crop ; even when, on the average, only from one-half to two-thirds of the
full width was taken, the labour was fearfully severe ; moreover, the corn was
left in irregular quantities, and much scattered.

The inferiority of the manual reapers, as compared with those having self-
delivery, was very apparent. The severe and incessant labour of the
attendant ; the fact that the corn was in many cases unavoidably thrown
against the standing crop, thereby knocking down portions, the heads of
which would be cut off at the next round of the machine ; the necessity for at
once tjnng up the crop, whatever its condition — all prove that these machines,
though more largely employed than any others, on account of their low cost,
are not, in their present condition, to be recommended.

The modifications introduced by Messrs. Hornsby, whereby the man's
labour is greatly hghtened by a self-acting delivery-platform, leaving the
sheaf at the side and clear of the horses, showed to great advantage in this
tangled crop, and was generally admired. The tipping j^latforms, which wo
believe to be new since Leeds, demand a passing notice. Some of these, as in
Messrs. Samuelson's Eclipse Reaper, are fixed ujion an axis near the centre of
the platform, and are tipped by the man's foot raising the front ; this leaves an
opening, and in a heavy-laid crop, the straw forces itself between the Itnife-bar,
and the under side of the platform when thus raised, and tends to clog the
machine. In a light standing crop such tipping platforms materially assist
the workman ; but in such a case as that before us, they are better fixed at a
moderate angle ; therefore it is desirable that they should be made both to tip
or remain fixed. The " slatted " platforms of Wood and of Hornsby, which
are attached to the knife-bar frame, by a hinge, and are lifted by the man's
foot when required, made better work ; whilst Cuthbert, with a fixed plat-
form and a revolving roller behind, made very good work ; and he was per-
sonally commendable for the extraordinary skill with which he used the
rake.

After the " Manual " machines had thus been drafted, the combined reapers
and mowers went through a similar process. Eight of these competed ; their
work, with some exceptions, was unsatisfactory ; and although they are
decidedly improved since Leeds, especially when used as mowers (as hereafter
will be shown), we are inclined to endorse and re-echo the doubt then expressed
by the Judges, " whether the object sought for by this combination has as yet
been economically obtained." We would not discourage farmers from purchasing
the best of these machines, provided their work is principally mowing grass, for
which they are excellently adapted ; but when there is also a large acreage
of corn to be cut, we believe it will answer better to have independent
machines.

Ten self side-delivering machines put in an appearance. Mr. HcUard was
the only thoroughly unsuccessful performer ; he exhibited a two and a three-
horse machine, similar in principle, combining a reel and fans, which knocked
out the corn, a fixed platform and a large revolving roller, intended to assist
the corn from the knife on to a travelling web, but which, in reality, formed a
complete obstacle, and caused the machine to block up, and roll down the
corn. We trust this exhibitor will turn his attention to the simplifying of his
apparatus.

The preliminary trials being concluded, the remainder of the oats and the
rye were divided into 30 lots, of about half an acre each, and the final trials
were made. Eight machines were tried in : —

2c2

386 General Report on the ExMUtion of Implements

Class I.
Macliines tvith Self Side-Delivery.

Name of Exhibitor.

Description.

Number in
Catalogue.

Trice of
Machine.

Samuelson and Co.
Samuelson and Co.
llornsby and Sons
Beverley Iron Works ..
Beverley Iron Works ..
W.A.Wood

Burgess and Key . .
Burgess and Key . .

Sheaf-delivery (new implement)..

Very similar to above, but stronger

Swathe-delivery

3-liorse swathe-delivefy

2-horse swathe-delivery

Sheaf-delivery

McCormack's Automaton, sheaf-'
delivery \

McCormaek's Automaton, sheaf- j
delivery, improved by exhi-[
biters J

1

2

1901

315

31 G

44

2020
2021

£.
30
35
34
42
37
28

34
34

Our award is given below, loo;cthor with the tables ]irc]iared by Mr. Amos,
(See 'J'ablcs A and ]>), showin;,!; the comparative draught of tln-ee of tlie
machines ; and we proceed to give a short description of each in their order of
merit.

No. 1901, li. Ilornshy and Sons. — May be described as a Swathe self-acting;
side-delivery lleaper, with a revolving reel adjustable up or down, backwards
or forwards to suit tlic nature of the crop. The delivery is eflectcd by three
endless chains, set with steel forks, travelling on a slanting ]ilatform, at the
end of which are pulleys jilaced in a diagonal position. The SA\athe was
fairly laid clear of the horses' track, the heads generally all one Avay. The
lieiglit of the cut is adjusted by means of a toothed quadrant ; the driving-
crank pin being globular can act freely although the knife-bar may be altered
in position ; the pinion of the first motion can be thrown out of gear, so that
when travelling no gearing whatever is at work. The draft of this machine
Avas considerable ; tlie work both in the oats and rye was excellent.

The comparative advantage of a swathe or sheaf delivery is a question that
will greatly depend upon the condition of the crop — tying is easier from a
well laid sheaf — but where, as in the case of oats, or barley with seeds,
the crop requires to lie for some time, the swathe, as delivered b}^ this
machine, certainly leaves the grain in a preferable condition for drying, and
less likely to be injured by rain than when in sheaf,

Samuelson'' s and Co. No. 1 Self-Raking Reaper, is somewhat lighter in
draft than the old reaper No. 2, and made capital work, laying a regular
sheaf. In cases where the oats lay away from the machine or were much
twisted, the heads, falling over the upper part of the rake-fan, were occasion-
ally carried upwards as the rake was elevated by the cam ; but considering
the condition of the crop, the work was well done ; the rakes travel at a
moderate sjioed, and collect and deliver the corn from the platform without
violence. The draft is moderate, and the construction simple and good. We
preferred this machine to No. 2, as making rather better work, and costing 5?.
less. The chief novelty in these machines consist in the mode of delivering
the cut grain, which is cftected by means of 2 rakes pivoted to a vertical
shaft, having a slow rotary motion imparted to it by suitable gearing, the
platform has the shape of a quadrant ; its radius being the length of the
cutting bar, and its centre the same point as that of the vertical shaft on
which the rakes are hung. The modus operandi is as follows : — As the
reaper advances the revolving; rakes dip alternately into the standing crop and
first incline the grain towards the cutters, then sweep it round the quadrant-

at the Fiijmoutli Meeting. 387

.sliapcd plallurni, and leave the slicaf lying' cm tlie ground removed some 5 feet
I'rom the standing grain. These rakes arc timed iu such a way as to make a
sheaf for every 11 feet 0 inches advance of machine ; but this speed, and con-
sequently the size of sheai", can be altered. To assist the operation of laying
the grain towards the cutters, and also, pcrha^JS, to add steadiness to the revo-
lution, two reel arms are also pivoted to the vertical shaft at right angles to
the rakes. These revolve with the rakes, but are set some 12 inches above
the platibrm, so as not to remove the sheaf from it, but merely lay the grain
towards the knife. In very heavy crops these reel arms may be replaced by
rakes, when a sheaf will be thrown out at every 5 feet 9 inches advance of the
machine, in which case they will lie almost touching, and thus secure to a
certain extent -whatever advantages may be claimed for swathe-delivery ;
while iu very light crops one rake only may be used, and the sheaves will
tlien be 23 feet apart, centre to centre. The knife work's on the " double
throw" principle, that is to say, it runs through two fmgers instead of one at
each revolution of the crank. The object being simply to halve tlie speed of
the shafts, and so decrease wear and tear in the bearings. The smooth rotary
motion of the delivery apparatus and the manner in which rakes and reel
arms enter into the corn is commendable.

Nos. 315 and 316, The Machines exhibited hy the Beverley Iron D^orls, arc
upon the same principle, tliough considerably improved, as Crosskill's Leeds
I'rize Reaper. The horses work behind, and the machines charge into the
crop, laying the swathe right or left. These machines are much liked in their
own district. The platform is fixed at a lower angle than formerly, and there
arc alterations in the reel and driving gear. We preferred the 2-horse
machine as more manageable, considering that an 8-feet cut leaves too large
a swathe. The stubble was not cut close or evenly, and the front travelling
wheel which supports the platform clogged occasionally. We noticed that
the reel knocked out some of the oats. These machines were not tried with
the dynamometer, but the draft was evidently considerable, and the work,
though on the whole well done, was inferior to that of Hornsby's machine.

Messrs. Burgess and Key exhibited Nos. 2020 and 2021 , the former being
the original M'Cormack's Automaton Eeaper, first introduced into this country
in 18G2. We will confine our remarks to 2021, as it was an improvement on
2020, the weight and size being reduced, and the machine being made more
manageable, so as to work easily Avith 2 horses. The size of the sheaves can be
regulated by change wheels. This machine cut well, but delivered badly,
the rake sweeping off the corn with a jerk, owing to its too great velocity ; it
was noticealvle that a sensible check Avas given to the machine each time the
rake came on to the platform ; where the coi*n was laid badly, portions of the
sheaf were elevated by the rake. There is considerable merit in this reaper,
and we ]i(.)pe to see it improved in those points to which we have alluded — it
certainly appears to us a better machine than 2020.

No. 44, W. A. Wood's ^ea^jcr, though an ingenious iiiece of mechanism, did
not work satisfactorily. This is a sheaf-laying machine, working somewhat
in the same way as the Automaton licaper. It is furnished with a revolving
rake and reel acting independently of eacli other. The former in its revolu-
tion comes unpleasantly near the driver, and serious accidents are to be appre-
hended. The driver can control the rake, and thus regulate the size of the
sheaves, a matter of considerable importance in a variable crop. The draught
of this machine is moderate and the price reasonable.

Our award in this class was as follows : —

To Messrs. Hornsby and Sons, No. 1901 ..
To Samuelson and Co., No. 1

'rize of
Ditto

£. s. d.
25 0 0
15 0 0

40 0 0

388 General Report on the Exhibition of Implements

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at the Plymouth Meeting.

389

Class II.
Machines loithout Self Side-Delivery.
Seven machines were selected for this trial, viz : —

Name of Exhibitor.

Bowhay

Cuthbert's

W. Brenton

Dicker

Picksley, Sims and Co

Hornsby and Sons' semi-manual
Hornsby and Sons' manual machine

Number iu
Catalogue.

260
377
608
852
1662
1903
1904

Price.

£. S.

24 0

24 0

23 0

22 0

22 10

23 0
18 0

Messrs. Ilornslys, No. 1903, described as a semi-mam;al side-sheaf delivery
reaper, is the fjrcat novelty of the class ; first exhibited at the Hereford meeting of
the Bath and West of Eni^land Society in June, and considerably altered and im-
])roved since, it made capital work, and proved its superiority over all " Manual "
]!ea]jers, and its capacity for dealing with every variety of crop. Eeference to
Table B will show that these advantages arc gained at the cost of considerable
draft, but the saving of labour to the man, the increased opportunities given him
for collecting the coi'n, the delivery of an even sheaf, clear of the horses' track,
are all points of great importance.

In districts where the crops arc as a rule heavy and laid, manual machines
are difficult to work, and self-acting machines, as hitherto constructed, cannot
be adapted to the variations of the crop ; this combination of Hornsby's meets
the difficulty. We believe that the makers will be able to effect considerable
improvements, and possibly so construct a machine that it will deliver either a
swathe or sheaf as required. We can only say that, in the trials of Plymouth,
this machine distanced all competitors, and was very much admired by the
public. It may best be described as a combination of the grated drop-sheaf
delivery platform, with the steel-forked endless chains already described. The
workman, pressing a treadle, raises the grated platform to receive the corn ;
when sufficient is cut he allows the platform to drop, the endless-chains travelling
in an oblique direction enter between the slats of the platform and carry oft"
the sheaf to the side whilst the man is collecting a fresh portion of the crop.
The raker can regulate the size of the sheaves, and does his work with com-
parative case. The gearing and cutting parts are precisely similar to No. 1901
already described. Possibly the endless-chains jerk the corn along rather
more than is absolutely necessary — all such matters of detail will be improved
upon.

Messrs. Hornshy's, No. 1904, is a purely manual reaper, furnished with the
open-slatted tipping platform Avorking with a hinge. The dividing-board is
broad, and projects backwards over the platform. By this arrangement the
corn is collected more easily and left well clear of the standing corn, a point of
considerable importance. The advantage of the open-slatted platform consists
in its lightness, and the fact that the stubble catches the sheaf, and thus assists
in the delivery, so that the man can quickly raise the grating to receive the
next sheaf. Tlie corn is also delivered without a jerk. The draft of this
machine was considerable.

Messrs. Picksley and Sims, No. 1662, is a light well-made machine, with a
" pendulum" sling to lessen the friction of the connecting-rod, a main driving-
wheel of large dimensions, and a balance-platform, the backward half of which
tips from the weight of the sheaf, and regains its position by a counterpoise.

390

General Report on the Exldhition of Implements

In the heavy oats this did not act well, the weight being vertical, and therefore
possessing little power at the point when the platform having tipped requires
to be brought Ijack.

In a light cro[) we have no doubt this well-made machine would prove very
successful. We can only repeat here that in such heavy crops tipping platforms
are im]jracticable.

Cutlihert's, No. 377, appears to be a strong and simple machine, an improved
form of the old Husscy reaper, with a rigid platform fixed at a low angle, at
the back of which is placed a small roller, intended to assist the raker in
pushing olF the sheaf. The friction of the knife-bar is reduced by a long
pendulum sling. The sheaves were well laid.

Altliough, as above stated, we consider that tipping platforms are useless
in a heavy crop, nevertheless, we arc of opinion tliat a jirovision should be
made lor tijipiug, as in all moderate crops such an arrangement is a gi'eat
improvement.

W. JJrenton's, No, G08, was another improvement on llussey's invention.
The peculiarity in this machine consists in a revolving roller, 8 inches in
diameter, which is put in motion by a foot-lever raising one end and pressing
together two smooth wooden riggers. Tliis roller is intended to help the corn
from the knife on to a fixed platform. In the laid crops of oats it was of little
use, and appeared to be ]ilaccd too higli.

JJoivJiciT/, ]^o. -(JO, with 5 ft. G in. knife, has the i)]atforni in two parts;
the front part is raised by the foot, the hind portion by a lever worked ofl' the
front ; the arrangement is ingenious. The knives are peculiar, and remind us
of the old Bell's machine, having no finger-points. The lower knil'e-bar being
fixed, the upper one oscillating over it and kept down close to the fixed bar by
screws. The cutting was well done.

Lastly, J)icJi-cr''s licapcr. No. 852, with a spring ]ilatforn), made fair work,
cutting and delivering well. Here, again, the knife-bar works by a pendulum
instead of a slide-bar.

Our award in this Class was as follows : —

£. s. d.
To Messrs. Ilornsby and Sons, No. I'JO.'I .. .. Prize of 10 0 0
To Messrs. Hornsby and Sons, No, loot .. .. Ditto .'5 0 0

To Messrs. Picksley, Sims and Co., No. 1GG2 .. Ditto C) 0 <)

Highly Commended, Cuthbert, No, 37G.,

Class III.
Combined liecqnnf/ and Moiving Macldnes.

The trial of combined machines appears next on the list ; but, as wc
tihall have to s[)eak more fully of this class as mowers, it will only be
necessary here to briefly note their performances as rea^Kirs, Out of the eight
machines entered, the Judges selected only five as worthy of a second trial,
viz., Messrs. Hornsby's, Wood's, Kcarsley's," liamlett's, and Barber's ; Burgess
and Key's machine, though it mowed very creditably, was so defectiAe
as a reaper in the preliminary trial that it did not again appear, and Messrs.
8amuelson's machine did not distinguish itself in either capacity. Both
Hornsby and Wood made good work ; the latter with much the smallest draft.

BumleWs, No. 688, is a^strong well-made machine very steady in its work,
cutting well, and leaving a good sheaf. The driver can, as in the mower,
instantly regulate the cutting height of the knife, raising either end inde-
pendently of the other — a very riscful arrangement for ridge-and-furrow land;
this alteration can be made without stopping the machine. The height of the
tilting platform can be adjusted for either laid or standing corn, or set so level
that the sheaf can be delivered without tilting, and the risk of choking from

at the Fhjmoidh Meeting. 391

the com getting in between the platform and knife thus avoided. The gearing
is shielded to prevent dirt falling in ; the position of the draft-pole is readily
altered for mowing or reaping, and the machine is generally well made.

In Messrs. I[ornshy''s, No. 1905, the alterations for reajjing consist in the
insertion of a slow-speed pinion, a seat more convenient for the raker, a fresh
dividing-board, very similar to that used in their manual reapers, and the drop-
sheaf grated platform already described. The cutting-bar can be i)rojected
G inches, so as to give room for the horses to walk clear, and yet allow the
knife a full cut ; and thus we see that in all respects it is a very excellent
combination capable of making good work of either kind.

11 oo(/'s Macltine, No. 45, is worked with one horse in shafts ; but we think
that, for practical purposes, a pole and pair of horses would be preferable. The
machine is light and well made, and though, as a reaper, it made inferior
work as com] lared with the manual machines of this firm, yet, as a combination,
we consider it very creditable.

Barher's, No. 6'J2. This machine, which may be considered as an assisted
" manual," was provided with a reel with the object of assisting in bringing the
corn to the knife, thus lightening the la])our of thcAvorkman and enabling him
to devote more of his attention to the delivery of the sheaf from the platform.
The reel was not xcvy successful in the laid corn, but no doubt was of some
nsc, and the machine made fair work.

Class IV.
One-Horse Beapers,

A large entry, including several machines that were evidently much too
large and heavy for one horse. We think that some reduction as to tlic
length of the knife bar might be introduced for this class. In awarding the
prizes we selected those machines that did good work, and were really of light
draft. It will be seen that we passed over IMessrs. Hornsby's, 1906, which is
similar in construction to 1903, and made excellent work, simply on the
ground that it was not a suitable machine for one horse. Nine machines
competed, Messrs. Hornsby (2), AVood, Samueleon, Cuthbert, Ticksley and
Sims, K. Page, J. Wright, and Bamlett. (See Table C).

Wood's, No. 40. — Properly came under the head of a one-horse Picaper,
being a very light machine of easy draft, which cut and laid the sheaf well.
The open-slatted platform is veiy similar to that emploj'ed by Messrs. Hornsby,
only rather lighter, and the working parts are remarkably well proportioned
and well put together.

Samudson's, No. 7 Eclipse Eeaper, with a tilting platform, is a simple and
efficient machine, principally noticeable for the peculiar adaptation of the
" double throw " jwinciple. In this machine advantage is taken of the slow-
speeded crank-shaft to raise the motion with one pair of wheels only, viz., the
driving wheel and a pinion. By this arrangement the framework, which is
wholly iron, is greatly reduced and simplified. The cut in this reaper is 5 feet
wide and the grain is caught on and delivered from the tipping or tilting
platform ; the weight is under 6 cwt. We regret that time did not allow of our
testing this machine with the dynamometer, as the simplicity of its gearing
and its easy motion lead us to anticii)ate light draft and little friction.

Mcss7's. Jlornshfs, No. 1907, to which we awarded the 3rd prize is very
similar to Wood's machine as to the tipping platform, but requires more power
to do the same work ; it is on exactly the same principle as 1904, only smaller.

11. Pages, No. 1058, made good work, but consiuned too much power.

II. Cuthberfs, No. 376, a heavy machine, too much for one horse, made
very creditable work. The sheaf being left very even,

BamleWs, No. 690, a strong useful machine, too heavy for one horse, made
fair work.

392 General Report on the Exhibition of implements

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at the Plymouth Meeting. 393

Our award in this Class was as follows : —

To Messrs. W. A. Wood, No. 46 Prize of

To Messrs. Samuelson and Co., No. 7 . . .
To Messrs. Hornsby and Sons, No. 1907 . .

Highly commended : Cuthbert, No. 376.

Mowing Machines.

The trials in this class were divided into those for simple mowers and those
for combined machines, as mowers. The crop was of a character calculated
to prove the efficiency of different implements imder difficulties, being heavy,
with an uneven bottom, and a quantity of dead bottom grass. The ground
had not been mown for some years, and no care had been exercised to prepare
the surfticc by rolling, &c. Lots were drawn, and the ground marked out into
strips ; as the heaviest and worst cutting portions fell to the lowest numbers,
the selected machines were afterwards worked on the same ground, so that a
fair comparison could be made. The plan adopted was for each machine to
cut twice round its plot, and then to be tested once round by the dynamometer.
Thirteen machines competed as mowers. (See Tables D and E).

A. (J. Bumlett of Tlmsk, No. 681, a strong useful mower, furnished with a
largo front travelling wheel which appeared to give steadiness to the frame,
and enabled the machine to bo backed readily. The cutting was very even
though hardly low enough, and the points occasionally clogged. Knife
cuts 4 ft.

Burgess and Key, No. 2016, a new implement, which contains several
improvements, the most noticeable being that the connecting rod is neai'ly in
a line with the knife ; this arrangement is rendered possible by having all the
gear work, the crank shaft, and the connecting-rod packed up in a small
compass, and placed very near the ground, so as to traverse the narrow track
cleared by the track-board during the preceding bout. Generally speaking it
is necessary in order to prevent clogging to place the crank shaft considerably
higher than the knife, and the angiilar thrust of the connecting rod is attended
with some friction. The knife bar is flexible, the machine is very light, and,
as will be seen, the draft moderate. The work was defective for two reasons,
the finger points were too short and thick, so that the dead grass continually
caught on these points and blocked the knife, and the whole machine appeared
deficient in rigidity. The knife rose and jumped in its work and left an
uneven bottom. We commend this machine for its ingenuity, and moderate
price, but we much fear that in heavy difficult crops it is too light to do well.
We may notice that the low position of the crank shaft, &c., did not once
cause the machine to clog, and that this arrangement may be regarded as good.

Saviuelsoii's, No, 3, a new implement, was not successful. As with the
last, the dead grass continually choked the knife. It is a well-made machine,
somewhat novel in arrangement and construction. The frame is of iron, so
arranged that the bearings carrying each of the shafts form a part of the frame,
and are not bolted on in the usual manner. By this means the shaking loose of
bolts and nuts is avoided; but, on the other hand, there is an increased
risk that, through the breakage of some insignificant part, a large portion of
the machine may be damaged. The cutting-bar is hinged for cutting on side-
ling ground, and attached to the frame in front of the driving-wheels. The
apparatus for lifting the cutting-bar is simple and ingenious, consisting of a
lever, standing uj) in front of the driver's foot, to be pressed if necessary.
Similarly the machine is put in and out of gear by a movement of the foot,
and the mower is thus under perfect control, whilst the attention of the driver
is not taken from his horses. A strong spring fixed to the pole eases the

394 General Report on the ExIiibUion of Inqihmcnts

cutler-bar when passing over inequalities of surfaee. The cut is -1 feet wide,
and the draft, as tested by the dyuamouicter, extremely li;4ht for two horses.
The grass was not cut very low or oven, and it appeared to us that the
machine was not heavy enough to stand to its work, though in a moderate
crop it would, doubtless, have made good cutting. The finger-points were
rather short.

L'urher^s Macliiui-, Xo. G91, also claims to be a novelty. The finger-bar is
flexible, and can be raised at either end, independently of the other, or the
whole knife can be raised to pass over ciit grass, or again can be brought into
an upright position for travelling. The track-board separates the cut from the
standing grass, and leaves the former light. It cut fairly, but clogged
repeatedly. Trice 221.

J. and W. Dicker, No. 853, The working parts of the machine arc too near
to the ground, and clogged when going over the cut grass. The draft also was
very considerable. Trice 32/.

" ChiliVs American Clipper Macliiue,'''' No. 9-15. By means of a lever con-
nected with the inside shoe, the workman can change the direction of the
fingers and knives from a level cut to one at an angle of 30°. This is very
ingenious. The work was, however, inferior, the bottom left uneven and high.

tSamuehoii's, No. 5, made better work than No. 3. The cutter-bar is ]ilaced
behind the driving-wheel, but, as will be seen by the Table, the draft was
great.

JI. Kcarsloj exhibited a strong, well-made machine, No. 458, which made
good work, cutting evenly and tolerably low. We were much pleased with
the steady motion of this mower.

I'ickslcy and tiims, with No. IGGO, cut badly at first, but imin'oved the
second round, and left off creditably.

BuinUtf, No. (i82. This, his second machine, is very similar to No. 681,
only the framework is of iron, and the fore-wheel is dispensed with, and the
machine is somewhat lighter. An accident occurred to this machine, whicli,
though repaired, may probably have afl'ected the work, which was hardly equal
to his first trial.

ir. ^1. Wood, No. 41. A Well-made machine; light, both as to weight and
draught. This maker adheres to the Avooden frame, believing that it renders
the machine more elastic than those made entirely of iron. The knife-bar is
attached to the frame by a joint, it is supported and carried by a strong spring
and a slotted brace running backwards and clasping the main axle of the
machine. The freedom which this arrangement allows to the cutter-bar
enables it to adai)t itself to inequalities of ground. The knife can be raised by
a double-lever action, so as to clear mown-grass, or can be set upright for
travelling, and kejit in that position without su)>plemcntary attachment. Out-
side the shoe is a small graduating wheel, which ngulates the distance of the
knife-bar from the ground, ^^'e connnend this wheel, as it tends to reduce
friction. By reference to the subjoined 'I'ables it will be seen that this machine
cut with a very moderate expenditure of power — a fiict due, we believe, in
great measure, to the attention bestowed upon the projortiuns of the various
parts of the machine.

11'. A. Wood's, No. 42, is the old machine Ihat gained the prize at Leeds,
and differs from the last by having the knife-bar rigid, and by the absence of
the graduating wheel. It appears to be a strong, useful machine, but did not
cut so close or even as No. 41, and consumed more power. The finger-points
in both machines are long, tapering, and .sharp at the points.

Bur(jess and Key's oht machine. No. 2015, with rigid knife-bar, that must
be removed when travelling. Here we had weight and steadiness, and, conse-
quently, very good work was accomplished. The gi'ound was not cut quite so
close as by one or two others, but the work was veiy even and creditable.

at the Plymouth Meclhuj.

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at the Plymouth Meeting. 397

Eornsly, Xo. 1900, a strong, heavy macliine, which made splendid worl^,
cutting very low and even, and leaving the cut grass well separated from the
standing crop. The peculiar features in Hornsby's machines consist in the
finger-bar being connected to the main frame by a ball and socket, or uni-
versal joint, allowing the cutter-bar to be carried up and down by a front
castor-wheel over the undulations of the land. The height of cut is also
altered by the setting of this front castor-wheel. The dividing board is so
arranged that it leaves a clear track 18 to 20 inches wide next the standing
grass, along which the horses and the driving-wheels pass at the next round.
It is also provided with a sledge block, to press the swathe gently down and
prevent its being blown about ; this is more useful in clover than in grass.
The draught of this machine was very much greater than that of Wood's
machine. It was not easy to determine the reason for this. No doubt the
difference in weight would have some slight effect, but the various parts of
the machine can hardly be properly adjusted to each other. We are inclined
to consider that too much stress should not be laid upon the question of draught ;
slight differences in this respect may be overlooked provided we have an
efficient machine ; but when, as in our case, we found two machines cutting
equally well, with such a great difference in draft, this necessarily influenced
our decision. Wood carries liis finger-bar partly ofi" the ground by a small
friction-wheel, whereas the whole weight of Hornsby's heavy bar presses on
the ground.

As the Society's prize list specifies that the machines are to be "for natural
and artificial grasses," it w^as determined to test in the clover the four machines
that had distinguished themselves in the grass. This clover Avas old and
much twisted. The results of this second trial appear in Table E. The
cutting was considerably easier, and all the machines did creditably. The draft,
however, stood much in the same proportion as before.

Our award was as follows : —

£. s. d.
To Messrs. W. A. Wood, No. 41 .. .. Prize of 10 0 0
To Messrs. Hornsby and Sons, No. 1900 .. Ditto 8 0 0
To Messrs. H. Kearsley, No. 458 . . . . Ditto 7 0 0

25 0 0
Highly commended : Burgess and Key, 2015.

Combined Mowers and Reapers tried as Mowers.

Eight machines competed in this class, and the trial was very successful ;
better work was made by some of these than by the mowers, which can only
be explained by the fact that the combined implements are heavier, more
rigid, and steadier in their work ; and we are more and more convinced that
strength of parts is of more importance than lightness. Lots were drawn as
before ; we remark as follows : —

Samuelson and Co.^s, No. 4, precisely similar in construction to the mower,
No. 3. The work was not perfect, the grass was cut unevenly and left in ridges.

Bamlett, No. G87. Much the same as No. 681. Made good work ; the
grass cut off evenly ; rather more left than was desirable.

Kearsleifs, No. 459. Made good work, but grass not cut quite so close as it
might have been.

W. A. Wood^s, No. 45. Made excellent work, cutting very close and even, and
leaving a well-cleared track, not so wide as Hornsby, but sufficient to allow
the imjilement to work clear of the cut grass.

Barbers, No. 692. Made very creditable work. The finger-bar is flexible,
and adapts itself to inequalities of surface. The alteration to a reaper is
simple. As a mower this machine appeared to advantage.

Bamlett's second machine, No. 688, which corresponds closely with the grass
mower. No. 682, made very good work.

398 General Report on the Exhibition of Implements

In No. 2023, Burgess and Key exhibited a capital macbiue ; the cutting
was very clean ; but the grass left nearly over the whole surface is i^)erhaps
not so well as if it were put together, and a clean track left.

Ilornshy and >Sons, No. 1905, again made capital work. Apart from draft,
the only slight defect in this machine appeared to bo that the shoe is rather
too wide, and pushes down the grass, so that a sort of narrow ridge is left at
the next bout. Tliis was so slight that it was hardly noticeable, and in every
other respect this machine made splendid work. In construction, it is pre-
cisely similar to their mower, Ko. 1900. We gave Hornsby, Wood, and the
Burgess and Key a second trial, making the machines follow each other ; the
work of the two first was so good that it was difficult to decide between them
whicli was tlie best ; Burgess and Key cutting well, but not so perfectly
true. W^e may say tliat the work of all the machines in tliis class as mowers
was highly commendable. (See '1 able F.)

It is right to add a word of explanation. We gave Messrs. llornsbys' machine
the first place, not because we approve of its heavy draft, but because as a com-
bined machine, both as mower ond reaper, it made the best work, and because
it is strong and well-made, and likely to stand its work well ; but we par-
ticularly wish to draw attention to the comparison of its draught witli that
of Wood and Bamlett's. Either llornsbys' machine is not propirly jiroportioned,
or tlie working parts must be bound, the mere weight of the macliine can liave
but little to do with the draft, and our experiments with mowers showed us
that drawn along out uf work, with the knife going, the diflcrence between
Hornsby and ^\'ood was very slight.

Our award was as follows : —

To Messrs. Hornsby and Sous, No. 1905
To Messrs. W. A. Wood, No. 45
To Messrs. A. C. Bamlett, No. 688

20 0 0
Highly commended : H. Kearsley, 459. Commended : H. D. Barber, 692.

We cannot conclude our Beport without expressing our satisfaction at the
progi'css wliich has been made towards i>erfecting mowers and reapers, a class
of machines likely to prove of great advantage to the farmer, as labour becomes
scarce.

We should have liked a more extended trial of the Beapers, as various points
of interest might have been elicited ; at the same time we liad sufBcient oppor-
tunity to enable us to satisfy ourselves as to the comparative merits of the
difTorent machines, and we cannot but feel that the severity of the trials will do
good by exposing tbe mistake of employing too light a construction. We beg
to oiXvY our best thanks to the Stewards for their courtesy and jirompt attention
to all our requirements.

H. B. Cai.dwkll.

EdWD. W0RTr>EY.

GiLSON Mautin.
F. J. Bramwell.
John Coleman.

!_■_

s.

</.

Prize of

s

0

0

Ditto

7

0

0

Ditto

.')

0

0

Report on Carts and Waggons.

The competition in Carts and Waggons was very considerable, and their
general construction was simple and good. There was little of novelty to
notice. Several exhibitors from Devonshire, amongst whom we specially
mention T. ^Tilford and Son, George Milford, and Frank P. Milford, sliowed
a class of carts and waggons well suited to the hilly country as regards
size, position of the body, balance, &c. ; and we regret that the Local Com-

at the Plymouth Meetinr/. 399

mittce omitted to encourage these exhibitors by offering a prize, as tlieir
carts, thoucfh admirably suited for local ]uirposes, are under great disad-
vantages when they compete against those designed for general use.

Class VIII. (Waggons) was divided into two divisions, viz., Pair-horse and
other waggons. In the former, the Prize of 20/. was divided between the
Beverley Iron and Waggon Company, W. Ball and Son, and Thomas Milford
and Son, in the proportion of lOZ., 6/., and 4Z. The Beverley Waggon is
extremely strong and light, turns in a short space, and is provided with a
double break ; a well-made, useful implement. That of Ball and Son is
strong, well made ; and the Devonshire Waggon had a strong plank side and a
good break ; George Milford was commended for a strong and cheap waggon
in this class.

In the second division we awarded to Messrs. Hayes and Son the whole of
the money, 10/., for their light, well-made waggon, with a wide and roomy
body, constructed with a strong foundation of English oak and elm-plank
sides, and fitted with fixed sideboards. It has curved head ami tail ladders
for carrying loose hay and corn, easil}' removed when not required. The
front wheels back under the body, and the waggon turns in the room it stands
upon. The hind wheels are large, and the construction ensures lightness of
draught, A powerful break can be ajiplied to both hind wheels without stopping
the horses. Price, complete, 30/. 10s.

The Yorkshire Prize Waggon, with loose side and end boards (318), exhi-
bited by the Beverley Company, wc highly commended, considering it a strong,
well-made waggon, fitted with oak soles, red deal sides, and patent wheels.
Price, complete, 34/. This waggon is fitted with drag-chain and shoe.

The competition in carts was very good. This Class consisted of four
divisions, viz., 1, Single-horse Carts ; 2, Two-horse Carts ; 3, Harvest Carts ;
and 4, Market Carts on springs ; 10/. being allotted to each.

Division 1 (Single -horse Carts) contained numerous entries. Messrs.
Hayes were again in the front rank, receiving a prize of 4/. 10s. for No. 551 ;
a good cart, constructed with strong oak frame and elm-plank sides. The
harvest-raves are in three parts, and the sideboards loose. The tipping-lever
is on a good principle, not liable to get out of order. The wheels are high,
with patent iron stocks, and solid iron axle throughout. Price, 14/. AVe
assigned a prize of 3/. to Messrs. W^oods and Cocksedge for No. 415, a light
cart, smaller than the last, but well made, and reasonable in price (10/. 10s.).
Ball and Son came in for a third prize of 21. 10s. for No. 924. Price 15/.
A strong, well-built cart. The Beverley Company were highly commended
for article 322,

Division 2 (Two-horse Carts). Of this kind of cart, which is suitable for
hilly countries, but not so generally useful as the last, there were several
exliibitors. Messrs. Hayes again took the first prize of 4/. 10s. for No. 552, of
similar construction to 551, only larger and stronger. Price 15?. 15s. It has
fixed sideboards, plated with iron, which we think an improvement, inasmuch
as loose sideboards are seldom to be found when wanted, and are apt to warp
and get out of form. This cart has head and tail ladders, in place of raves,
strong wheels with 4J-inch tires, and iron axles throughout. A prize of 3/.
was awarded to 2270, Messrs. Milford's entry, a strong, useful cart, well
suited to a hilly country, having high wheels and a good tipping apparatus.
Price, with harvest ladder, 16/. The Beverley Company exhibited a strong,
durable cart (323). Price, complete, with harvest frame, 18/. — rather dearer
than is desirable — to this we awarded the third prize of 2/. 10s. To Frank P.
Milford, for No. 562 — a strong, durable cart, we gave a high commendation,
AVe also commended No. 578, exhibited by George Milford, as a good cart.

In Class III. (Flarvest Carts) the Beverley Company maintained their
reputation for producing a capital cart of this description, which enables the
VOL. T. — S, S. 2d

400 General Report on the Exhibition of Implements

farmer to carry loose gi'ain as readily and oconomically as with a ■\vnp;p;on, and
is most useful on a fai'm. This cart (325) has a large, light, and low body.
Price 16/. We awarded it a prize of 4Z. 10«. The remainder of the money
was divided between Hayes and Son, for No. 553 ; and A. and T. Fry, No.
187, in the proportion of Zl. to the former, and 21. 10s. to the latter. Both
are useful carts ; that of Messrs. Hayes being the cheaper, and in some respects
preferable.

Class IV. (Market Carts). We preferred Messrs. Tickerings' cart (2150),
although the more costly, as a strong, well-made, serviceable cart. This is
the same cart that took the first i)rize at Leeds. Cost 21/. ; prize, G/. The
Beverley Company came second, with No. 32G ; a remarkably cheap cart. 13/.
And are highly commended for 328, very similar to the last, but larger.

A novelty was exhibited by Frank P. ^lilford, in a two-horse tipping-
waggon (No. 957) ; the fore part being wound up by means of a screw. This
was ingenious, and apjieared to answer well ; but for the general purposes
of the farm it would be of doubtful advantage, though it might be of use in
carting coals.

Waogoxs.

Number

of
Article.

Name of Exhibitor.

Description.

Prize.

317

921

2275

.540

318

.'-.75
2276

Beverley Iron and Waggon"!

Company j

William Ball and Son ..
Thomas Milford and Son

Hayes and Son

Beverley Iron and Waggon"!

Company /

George Milford Pair-horse Waggon

Thomas Milford and Son . . Other Waggons

Pair-horse Waggon

Ditto

Ditto

Other Waggons

Ditto

£. s. (/.

10 0 0

6 0 0

4 0 0

10 0 0

Highly

Commended.

Commended.

Commended.

Cabts.

551
415
924
.'552
2279
323

325
553
187
2150
326

322

962
328

2278
578

Hayes and Son

Woods and Cocksedge . . . . j

Ball and Son j

Hayes and Son

Thomas Milford and Son .. '<
Beverley Iron and Waggon"!

Company j

Ditto i

Hayes and Son |

A. and T. Fry j

Kobert Puckering and Co. ..
Beverley Iron and Waggon"! I

Company J.

Ditto

Single-horse Cart

Ditto

Ditto .. ..

Two-horse Cart

Ditto . . . .

Ditto .. ..

Harvest Cart

Ditto

Ditto

Market Cart on springs

Ditto

Frank P. Milford 1

Beverley Iron and Waggon"!'

Company /

Thomas Milford and Son
George Milford

Single-horse Carts . .

Two-horse Carts . ,

Market Cart on springs

Single-horse Cart . .
. Two-horse Cart

4 10 0

3 0 0

2 10 0

4 10 0

3 0 0

2 10 0

4 10 0

3 0 0
2 10 0
6 0 0

4 0 0

( Highly
\ Commended.
I Ditto.

Ditto.

Commended.
' Ditto.

at the Plymouth Meeting. 401

There were several peculiarities in the arrangements of the leverage for
tipping carts ; some of these were acted upon by spring bolts, and were
decidedly clever, but liable to get out of order. A plan for putting the tail-
board out of the way under the cart by a spring catch was also clover, but
open to the same objection, as being sure to get wrong in careless hands.

In all agricultural implements, and especially in a class so liable as this to
rough work and careless handling, simplicity of construction, strength of
parts, and durability of material, are the chief points that merit the attention
of Judges.

John Thompson. ,
Jacob Wilson.

Report on Miscellaneous Implements.

The Show of Implements was large. The Catalogue numbering 4023
articles, and our principal makers were well represented. Of the 256 exhi-
bitors, Devon contributed 37, Cornwall 7, and Somersetshire 6. AVe were
directed to confine our attention to such novelties as do not come into the
diSerent classes for which prizes are given by the Society. Formerly any
implement that appeared decidedly meritorious was open to the award of a
Medal or Commendation. In our awards we have endeavoured to act up to
our instructions as nearly as possible. We think that the Show as compared
with Newcastle was rather conspicuous for novelties. We proceed to describe
the different articles to which we awarded Medals and Commendations.

A Broadcast Seed Madtine (No. 734), invented and manufactured by
A. W. Gower and Son, provides for the separate sowing of the clover and
ryegrass seeds at the same time, and by the same motion. It is 4 yards
wide and consists of 2 separate boxes, with false bottoms to regulate the pro-
portions of seed. This is likely to prove a valuable implement, as the great
difference in the bulk and weight of the clover and rye-grass prevents even
distribution from the same box. Price 5?. 15s.

Fugh's Patent Cheese-making Macldne (No. 879), manufactured by Francis
Mellard of Uttoxeter, for cutting, gathering, pressing, and vatting of curds, is
a most ingenious apparatus, displaying much thought in its construction, and
calculated materially to economise labour in cheese-making. A short de-
scription will not be out of place. The apparatus consists of a circular pan,
made of tin, copper, brass, or any suitable material, with improved taps in the
side for drawing off the whey at intervals as required. This pan, mounted on
an iron frame, turns on an axis, and may be tilted at jjleasure to cause the
whey to run off quickly. Above the pan and supported by 2 iron uprights
and a cross beam an improved and effective system of leverage is i)rovided,
which gives pressure to a vertical rod or rack to which is attached the per-
forated pressing-plate or sinker. This sinker is lowered into or raised out of
the pan by means of a chain and ball of equal weight with the vertical bar or
sinker, which act precisely like the weights attached to a sash window. To
enable the dairyman to get at the curd more readily, the pressing-plate when
raised may be placed in a perpendicular, horizontal, or inclined position, by
means of a novel and self-acting movement. It is also made to revolve, that
it may be more easily cleaned. The machine is mounted on rollers and can
be readily moved about ; by removing the pan, which is done in a few seconds,
it can be made to pass through a 30-inch doorway. The knives for cutting
up the curd are novel and ingenious, somewhat resembling the screw of a
steamship. They revolve upon a centre in the pan, and such is their con-
struction that whilst one half of the knives are cutting the curd downwards,
the other half are cutting it upwards, and by reversing the motion a contrary
action is obtained. The objections to revolving knives are in this arrangement
entirely removed. After the whey has been expelled — forced up through the

2 D 2

402 General Report on the Exhibition of Implements

perforations of the presser — the pressor is made use of to press the curd into
the vat : the cheese-making is thus completed in one vessel, which, we hclieve,
has never before been attempted. The machine is simple and easily managed
by a dairymaid — wheels, cogs, and complicated machinery being avoided ;
it occupies less space, is more portable, and requires less labour than any
other. The pressure upon the curd (increasing as it descends) is perfectly self-
acting, and can be regulated from 1 cwt. upwards, so tliat the dairymaid can
attend to other duties whilst the curd is gathered by the machine. It is said,
but we liad no means of proving tlie statement, that more curd and of a riclier
quality is obtained, than under the old process of clieese-making. That this
macliiue will economise labour is apparent, and that all the operations are
.simple and cleanly. The curd is not touched by the liands till it leaves
the apparatus in the form of cheese. The machines are made in different
sizes, and sold at prices within the reach of any dairy-farmer.

A,Tuhular Churn, invented by Tiiumas A. J ebb of lUilfalo, New York, and
manufactured by I. G. Avery, of 135, Kegent Street, is a decided novelty, and
likely to prove very valuable. During the ])rocess a current of air is intro-
duced, which helps the separation of the fatty globules, and the temperature
can be regulated according to the season by tubes for hot or cold water. The
churn consists of a tub, through the cover of wliich are inserted two water-
tubes closed at the bottom, and an air-tube open throughout. These tubes
are jilaced near the sides of the tub, but do not reach the bottom. The
vertical s])indle is armed with dashers, the upper blades of which revolve in
the space between the water and air tubes, whilst the lower blades extend to
near the sides of the vessel and revolve imder the bottom of the tubes. The
dasiiers are bevelled, and are finest at upper edge; an arrangement that helps
to kee]3 tlie butter rising and prevents its being smeared at the bottom of the
tub. Motion is given to the shaft by means of a crank handle and bevel
wheels. A fly-wheel fixed on the top of the sjnndle, steadies the motion and
assists the operation. Butter can be churned from either sweet cream or new
milk. In the trial that we witnessed, a sample of beautifully granulated
butter was produced in four minutes from sweet cream. The buttermilk was
completely removed at one washing, and the churn is readily cleaned, being
very simple, all the working parts being readily removed. Churn No. 1, to
produce from 1 to 20 lbs. of butter, costs 4/. 4s. ; larger sizes are more expen-
sive. According to the evidence of Dr. Voelcker who has jiaid much attention
to this subject, this churn produces the butter entirely by mechanical means —
a manifest advantage. Butter that forms in that perfect granulated condition
is likely to keep well. Altogether we highly ajiprove of Jebb's Tubular Churn.

Semicircular Pomeltrees, invented by E. Edmunds of Rugby, and ex-
hibited by Eansom and Sims. This is a newly-invented f)omeltree or main
draught bar for applying the draught of horses, &c., to ploughs, harrows,
cultivators, and other implements. It is made of wrought iron, and consists
of a semicircular bar of iron, at each end of which is a hook for attaching the
ordinary whipjjletrecs. This bar is strutted with a tubular rod through which
a bolt passes and keeps it firm.

On the semicircle a wheel or pulley travels, and to this pulley a hook is
attached for forming the connexion with the implement. Owing to this
arrangement tlie draught is always regular ; and the draught line always passes
through the centre of the circle, whatever position the pomeltrees may take,
owing to one horse being in advance of the other, their leverage remaining
equal. On turning at the land's end, the pomeltree clears the horses' legs, as one
end follows the outside horse, and the other end draws away from the inside
horse : they thus never tread on it, or get entangled in the traces. Another
advantage is that any irregularity in the draught does not immediately aflect
the steady motion of the implement, as the point of attachment is not rigid,
the pulley allowing of slight sideway motion without moving the implement.

at the Plymouth Meetiufj. 403

This is especially importaut in setting out iilougliing and in laying tlie tops or
crowns of ridges. Such is a short description of this simple attachment, which
we believe will prove very useful. We did not see the pomeltree at work,
but were informed by Mr. Eansome that they employ them at all their
jiloughing comjietitions, as the men decidedly prefer them to the ordinary
whippletree. Price 12s. M.

A Combined Flax-break in cj and SadcJdnr/ Machine (No. 883), invented and
manufactured by George Parsons for the West of England Engineering and
Coker Canvas Company, appeared to us a combination deserving notice ;
simple, strong, portable, and not unreasomible in price, viz. 631. Should the
growth of flax ever again find favour witli the English farmers, and there are
sound arguments to recommend it, a portable machine to travel from farm to
farm during the winter and prepai'e the flax, leaving all the woody matter or
rather its ashes — for the refuse from the scutching mills goes a long way to
fuel the engine — on the land, would be a decided boon. The machine may be
described as consisting of a rectangular framework, on which, through the
centre and running from end to end, is a strong spindle, which carries four
scutching mills, and a jiair of fluted rollers for breaking the flax, the latter
preparing as fast as the mills can clear. Five men or women and one boy
would work the machine, and 4 cwt. of fibre can be dressed in a day. Three
to four-horse power is required to drive all the mills.

Sketddey's Universal Joiner (No. 1957), exhibited by W. S. Underbill, is
likely to prove valuable on large estates, as it is capable of efficiently per-
forming the various operations of sawing, planing, moulding, tenoning, and
boring, and is so steady in its work that the table may be placed on the
ground without beina; fixed in any way. The saw table-frame is very strong
and fitted with a 2|-inch spindle and fast and loose pulley. The table top
has a rising and falling power of 9 inches, and the fence required in planing
or moulding runs the whole length of the table, moves back 11 inches, and
can be set to any angle. Attached and working on the fence is a slide clamp
for tenoning with adjusting screw, which will take in wood of any size up
to 11 inches by 8, and slide over the top of the saws.

The planing disc— which is most ingenious — is 30 inches diameter, and cari'ics
G planes, which work when the wood is moved both backwards and forwards ;
it has been lately improved by the insertion of gouges to carry away super-
fluous wood. This disc replaces tlie largest saw, and the table and fence are
so adjustible that boards up to 11 inches wide and any thickness, from i to 11
inches, can be planed with the greatest nicety.

The drunken saw, wliich works on the opposite end of the spindle, is
most useful ; for by a single operation, grooves can be made from \ to 2^
inches wide, and 3 inches deep. The large saw will cut up to 12 inches.
The whole apparatus is' adapted for working up planks, into doors, window-
frames, floor-boards, &c. The planing was beautifully done, and with great
rapidity. We should perhaps notice that this machine is not entirely novel,
as it was exhibited at XewcKistle last year, but did not obtain the notice of the
Judges. We therefore considered ourselves justified in awarding a medal.

Alfred E. Fierce — Stand No. 95 — exhibited such a variety of novelties
(24 in all), many of them somewhat crude, but displaying a considerable
ingenuity, that we were glad to be able to award a silver medal for his
collection of galvanised and japanned cattle-troughs, which were strongly
made and moderate in price, as well as handy to move about. Amongst
other curiosities was a Shepherd's House or Portable Granary (1174), con-
structed of self-supporting and bending corrugated galvanised wrought-iron.
The lap of the iron on the roof wanted a little alteration, otherwise this appears
a rather useful shepherd's house for the lambing season. In summer time
such a shed would get fearfully hot. Price 18?.

404 General Report on the Exhibition of Implements

The last medal in this Class was awarded to Messrs. Holmes and Son, for
article 2268, described as a Eotary Harrow or Twitch Extirpator, invented by
T, Everett of Stoley, improved and niannfacturcd by the exhibitors. Perhaps
neither this nor the churn came within the strict letter of our instruc-
tions ; but as we saw the implement at work, and were greatly pleased with
its performances, and as the whole body of our colleagues expressed a
strong opinion in its favour, we could not pass it over imnoticed. Its con-
struction and gearing are very similar to that of a haymaker, only it covers
much less ground, and is more strongly made. It consists of .a [series
of rings, on the circumference of which are attached, at rather close intervals,
strong cross-bars of iron carrying 3 tines about G inches long ; the teeth,
slight!}' curved forwards, resemble the tines of a dung-fork. The bite of
the wheel is ensured by fixing a number of sharp points which project
about ,4 inches from the tire, these are easily removed when the machine
is required to travel on the road. It is adapted to i)ass over the surface
of liglit land after the plough and drag, in order thoroughly to comminute
the surface and bring up the disturbed couch without breaking it. It works
with a back action, and leaves the weeds on the toii and thoroughly separated
from the soil. The forks being driven fast the soil is completely dis-
turbed. It is not adapted to stony or stiff soils, as the tines would bend,
and we could not secure that open condition that would allow of comjilete
pulverisation at one operation, and the couchgrass would be broken. This
machine was easily worked by 2 horses. Trice 10/. AVc commend it to the
consideration of light-land farmers who are bothered with running weeds.

The Earth Closet Apparatus, price 1/. 5,s. invented and manufactured by
AVhite and Co., of 29, Bedford Street, Strand, London, being the working parts
of a closet (on Moule's system of deodorising and utilising excrementitious
matter by means of dry earth), adapted for labourers and others living in the
country, we considered a valuable novelty deserving of a high commendation.
The working parts of a closet being obtained, a country carpenter can fit it up
at the same cost as an ordinary privj-. The seat is made self-acting, pressure
causes a suflicient quantity of mould or ashes to be let. down from the store
into the first receptacle, and when that pressure is removed the same is dis-
charged, covering up the fa?ces and preventing smell or loss of any kind. The
box may be emptied once a week. It is urged by some that cottagers are so
dirty in their habits that they would not take the necessary trouble to supply
the earth and remove the soil ; but self-interest will dictate the advantage of
looking after such valuable manure, and a little oversight c^ the part of the
landlord is all that is necessary. In a sanatory point of view this is a most
important question.

Futent tStecl Cranlc Shield, invented by Messrs. Ashby and Jeffery, we
commended as likely to prove serviceable for encasing weak or worn cranks.
They are case hardened and durable. Price 12s. Gd. to Ifis. each.

Commendations were awarded to George P. Dodge for India-rubber Vul-
canised Driving-bands, and to Welb and Sons for Leather Machine-bands.

"We must not omit to notice a noveltj' exhibited by Messrs. Garrett and
Son, and described as a ]\Iachine for Bruising and reducing AVhcat and other
Straw to fodder. The object being to crush and smash all the shell knots
and entire straw of both cereal and leguminous crops. The straw is fed in to
a drum, and carried round between the surface of the drum and iron projec-
tions which come close down, and in passing the smashing takes place at a
great expenditure of power. Any invention that has for its object the more
complete preparation of straw, is at any rate interesting. Our restrictions
prevent us from doing more than thus briefly alluding to this machine.

We append a tabular Hst of articles, to which avc awarded Medals and
Commendations.

at the Plymouth Meeting.

405

No. of
Art.

Description of Implement.

Price.

734
879
38
637

883

1957

1151

22G8

2840

143

2654

2796

A. W. Gower and Son .

Francis Mellard . <

J. G. Avery ....

Ransomes and Sims <

(West of England Coker
( Canvas Company

W. S. Underhill . J

Alfred E. Pierce
Holmes and Sons
White and Co. .
Ashby and Jeffery

George P. Dodge

Webb and Sous

Broadcast Seed Distributor . .
" Pngh's" Patent Cheese-making)

Machine 3

" Jebb's " Tubular Chum . . .
"Edmunds's" Semicircular Po-)

meltrees 5

Flax-brealdng and Scutching )

Machine i

" Sketch ley 's " combined Sawing, j

Planing, Moulding, and Bormg >

Machine J

Improved Cattle-troughs . . .

Rotary Harrow

Earth Closet Apparatus . . .
Steel Crank Shield ....
India-rubber Vulcanised Driving-')

bands j

Leather Machine-hands . . .

£ s. (
5 15

13 15

4 4

0 12

63 0 0

Silver Medal.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Highly Commended.

Commended.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Jacob Wilson.
John Colemak.

The Judges desire to take this opportunity of expressing their
acknowledgments to the Council lor the liberal arrangements
made for their comfort and convenience during the Show, This
Report would be incomplete if we omitted to notice the great,
and, upon the whole, successful exertions of the Railway Com-
panies, and especially the South Devon Line, to facilitate and
carry out the arrangements of the Society. The transit of Imple-
ments and Stock to the Show was well and punctually effected,
and, considering the capabilities of the line, we believe that
the passenger-traffic was well arranged.

The exertions of Mr. Elphick, Field-manager, and of the
Messrs. Moon, in carrying out the details of the field-trials,
merit acknowledgment, as they enabled the Judges to make the
best of the scanty means at command.

It is to be hoped that when these important classes of imple-
ments again come before the Society in competition, such
arrangements may be possible as will ensure a trial on a more
extended scale. It would have been more satisfactory in the
present case if, in the decisive trials (we speak now only of the
Mowing and Reaping Classes), each machine could have been
put to do a fair day's work ; the driver drawing his lot and set-
ting to work with his pair of horses, just as he would on a farm,
and cutting down his plot the best way he could, but without
any assistance. It is true that for this purpose a larger area,
unavoidably attended with increased expense, would be neces-
sary. But so great are the interests at stake — from the influence
of the awards both on exhibitors and the public — that it becomes
of the utmost importance that the trials should be thoroughly
exhaustive and conclusive.

( 406 )

ABSTRACT REPORT OF AGRICULTURAL
DISCUSSIONS.

3Ieet!n{j of Weelchj Council, March 22nd, 1865. The President,
Siu E. Keuuison, Bart., M.P., in the Chair.

The Breeding and Management op Sheep.
Mr. T. Ellman said : Allow mc in the first place to express my
regret that I luive not before been an attendant at these meetings.
The best proof I can give of the interest which I liave taken in them
is my willingness to introduce this subject for discussion when invited
to do so. I ^vill not attemjit to treat of other breeds of sheep than the
Southdown, because the range of a farmer's exi)erieuce hardly allows
him oi)portimity for becoming familiar with the habits of all, and even
many kinds of sheep. I hojie that other members present will tako
up the subject where I leave it. The training, the cliaraeter, and
history of any race of animals, the influence that situation, climate,
and soil, as well as management, exert on the appearance, constitu-
tion, and disposition must not bo overlooked. So treacherous are
these agencies, that experience gained in one comity may be of
little avail in another ; the Norfolk man, when transferred to the
Southdown hills, becoming, as it were, a child again ; and the
Southdown man being equally at sea if removed to Leicestershire.
Such diftcrences would soon have become apparent if the flock of the
late Mr. Jonas Webb had travelled to the Southdown, or my flock to
Babraham. And here let me pause to express my high respect for the
late Mr. Jonas Webb, between whom and myself no spark of jealousy
ever arose, but the best of feeling ever subsisted. So great, indeed,
is the eflect of climate and soil, that tlie fine flavoiu' of the Southdown
mutton may be changed in time to the coarse, tallo^^y meat of the
Leicester or other long-woollcd sheep. Nor will the flesh alone be
interfered with, but the wool and every other feature will become assi-
milated to those of the natives of the dificrent localities. Whatever
advantages may accrue to Southdowns from their removal to inland
counties, the increase of size will be accompanied by some falling oif
in the quality of the meat, and if theii- fattening projierties are brought
into greater activity, their appetites, perhaps, are also awakened by
just looking over the hedge and seeing how their neighbours, the
Leiccsters, feed in the adjoining field. It should not be inferred,
however, that Southdown sheep when fed on rich pastm-es cannot
retain the properties which recommend them for general purposes,
but unless fresh blood from the Sussex Downs is frequently introduced
into those breeding flocks which are removed into other districts, both
the shape and the quality of mutton and wool will be changed, and the
hardiness of the animal interfered with.

A remai'kable case in j^oint occurred in France some years ago,
when I sent some Leicester sheep to a French farmer. The ewes,

The Breediiu/ and Manrnjement of Sheep. 407

60 in uumber, were pui'chased of Mr. Golding, of Beddingtou, the
rams, 4 yearlings, from Sir C. Knightley. The wool of these sheep
was enormously heavy, the ewes cut 1( ) lbs. each, the rams, 14 lb. each.
These sheep being managed after the fashion of the Normans, the
wool grew less every year, that of their progeny still lighter. In six
years they clipped only 3 lbs. of very bad wool ; the foiirth generation
became long-legged, their bodies differing from the original stock, but
resembling the native-bred Norman sheep, with which they had had no
relationship. After this failure a Southdown ram was used, and the
stock improved. Yet they soon mingled with the common flocks of
the country, it being found impossible to maintain these Leicester
sheep upon poor soils with bad management.

Let me further quote a remark of a London sheep salesman, who
looked over the pens of fat sheep with me at the Smithfield Club
meeting in 1858. The trimming and jockeying was so cleverly done
that we could not but admire the skill displayed ; the fatness and
weight of each sheep was marvellous, considering that they were
called Downs ; but what most astonished the salesman was that they
possessed no more quality as mutton than the Leicesters which were
by their side; nay, that they were equally unfit for food.

A statement made to me by Mr. Thomas, the eminent butcher of
Charing Cross, will further illustrate these remarks, who, contrasting
a sheej) of mine with a fat Leicester, observed that when he had sold
the Leicester haunches, which themselves were not of the best quality,
the other three-fourths of the carcase were put into the tallow tub,
whilst of my sheep every inch was sold as the best quality.

And here let me quote, as a witness to the importance of keeping
Southdowns pure, the high authority of Mr. Anderson, late manager
for the Duke of Bedford, at Oakley. This gentleman was so successfid
in infusing Cotswold blood into his Leicesters, that he won the prize
of a gold medal at Smithfield Show with some animals which I was dis-
posed to regard as the best Leicesters I ever saw. He considered that
this cross improved the constitution of his flock ; but on the other hand,
when speaking of Southdowns, for which he had a great partiality,
he said I cannot touch them with any cross without rendering them
unfit for their purpose, and one important pm*pose of the breed is
to secure a hardy sheep, capable of eating up parings, sheep which, if
put for a while upon short commons, will not give way in flesh.

For the butcher, no doubt a cross between the Southdown and
Leicester will always be serviceable, and will pay the farmer well
when wool is making a long price ; indeed, the whole question often
turns upon the price of wool. The improved Lincoln affords, on the
whole, the most valuable cross with the Southdown.

Apart from the Southdo^vn, where can we look for jiiu-ity of breed ?
where shall we find a so-called established breed that has not an ad-
mixture of Southdown blood ? With respect to the Cotswolds, we
have it it on the authority of Mr. Jones, the agent of the late Duke
of Norfolk, that they were originally crossed with the Downs :
the Oxford Down is a usefid, but confessedly cross-bred sheep.
What again shall we say of the Shropshires? At the Canterbury

408 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

sliow it was forcibly recalled to my recollection that thirty years ago
I had sent some Down tups to Mr. Whitmore, in Shropshire, when I
came across some of his sheep there exhibited. I then expressed some
of my misgiving to my companion, who exclaimed, " What ! do you
doubt the purity of Mr. Whitmore's breed '?" To which I could only
say that I did not know whether he had lately made a change, but
if not, I knew of an admixture in the blood.

It is said, I know, tliat by careful breeding a new type and character
may be established ; my objection to tliis is that life is not long enough
to effect or test this design, and though various crosses may be useful
for a time, it is impossible in the long run to make the impm'e pure.

If we attempt to trace the origin of the Southdown breed of
sheep, their natm-al character at once indicates that they are a moun-
tain race, and well adapted for the Southdown hills ; and we may
fairly infer, in the absence of any authentic statement, that they
hardly existed in tliis island before the Eoman invasion. In
fact, but little was heard of them before the Norman Conquest ;
but from the earliest times the Southdown hills, with their short
fragrant pastiu'uge, and dry and healthy situation, must liavo been the
most natiu-al home for these sheep. The first distinct record concerning
this breed relates that abt)ut 200 years ago sundry flocks feeding on
these Downs were annihilated by a disease called smallpox, which was
imported from Holland. From this date more attention was paid
to avoid mixing this breed, and pains were bestowed on its improve-
ment.

Mr. Arthur Yoxmg, in speaking of the Southdown sheep, in 1788,
much admired their hardy constitution, their usefulness in inamu'ing
the land, and the fine flavour of the mutton. In 1794, when con-
tinuing those essays which all the world have admired, he speaks
of the Southdo\\'n sheep as natives, which for many ages had existed
upon these Southdo\Mi slopes. It was not, however, until my father
tm'ued his attention to their improvement that any remai'kable features
developed themselves, cither in symmetry of carcase or general cha-
racter. They were described thus early as speckle-faced by Arthur
Young, and as ill-shaped by my father, who thus had a most dif-
ficidt task set before him, that of producing good form, aptitude to
fatten, and a fixed general character.

His enterprising spirit, encouraged by the patronage of the leading
agriculturists of the day — the lords of Woburn, Holkham, Ashbridge, and
Beechwood, &c., and further sustained by a strong sense of duty, enabled
him to overcome every obstacle, and to merit the eulogy so feelingly
expressed by the Duke of Kichmond at the Smithfield Club meeting,
in 1832, just after his death. In several points my father's aim
diftcred from that of his distinguished contemporary, Bakewell, the
founder of the improved Leicesters. It was Bakewell's desire to
obtain the maximmu of mutton with the minimum of bone ; he dis-
regarded wool in comparison with mutton, and was an advocate for
rapid developments. My father, on the other hand, objected to forcing
the yoimg stock, and was anxious to maintain strength of constitution,
and though in the onset he was di-iven to a little in-breeding, from the

The Breeding and Management of Sheep. 409

difficulty of obtaining good animals from other flocks, yet as the work
of improvement advanced, lie acted otherwise.

By such means my father succeeded in rearing a breed of sheep
which I believe will never require to be crossed with any other race
for the sake of improvement, which from its hardy constitution and
activity is adapted to very thin mountain-land, which from the wool
fitting tight and close to the back is able to resist cold and wet ; is
unrivalled in the quality of the meat, and may be recommended with-
out hesitation for exportation to any clime or soil, from the tropics
to the snowy regions of the North, if obtained from one of the
Sussex hills.*

Such being the merits of the Southdowns, they have become
favoiu-Ites in the Midland Counties, and having Increased in size on
good rich pastures, have been found highly profitable, and have be-
come naturalised in almost every district. Still, when confined to
flat and feeding soils their character is gradually altered, and the
deterioration of the mutton follows as a natural consequence ; results
which can only be prevented by continual renovation by fresh blood.

I have no wish to disparage any other breed of sheep, but I may
remark without oifence that the long-wools Interfere Avith the grazing
of bidlocks, whilst the Southdowns live where the ox would scarcely
exist. Even the addition of 5 sheep per acre on a good ox-pasture
materially interferes with the grazier's success, for the nibbling sheep
picks out all the best of the keep, and, if I may use the comparison,
gets all the meat out of the pudding. In Sussex no sheep arc allowed
to feed with grazing bullocks.

The Management op Sheep in Sussex.

There is so much that is peculiar in our district, that a Midland, or
even a Hampshire farmer, would be puzzled how to manage for the
best. One great point Is that the Down must be close fed, otherwise
the herbage will become coarse.

In summer the sheep are kept upon the Downs with the aid of
a fold of tares or rape, the rape being sown at intervals, beginning
from the 1st of May. This cropping Is found a good preparation for
wheat on our arable land, and to the growth of wheat we still adhere,
in spite of present prices, for we cannot alter our system. Artificial
manures are found to be a desirable supplement in the growth of green
crops.

For weaning purposes vetches and rape are preferred, seeds being
considered " doubtful " food. The wether lambs are commonly sold
off" at Lewes fair, and are pushed on for the market on sainfoin, to
which a moderate allowance of oilcake or oats may well be added,
the buyer being duly informed of the keep to which the lamb has
been accustomed. Our lambs are brought out into the field at a very
early age, it being a common saying with our shepherds : " Don't
tender the lamb, they do best in the open."

* It may be stated, tliat in Scotland Mr. Watson experienced fewer casualties
with Southdowns than with Cheviots.

410 Abstract Report of Afjncultural Discussions.

In tlic selection of rams there is much room for jutlgment and
discretion, although they commonly run in the flock indiscriminately
to the nrnuber of 6 or 7. Discrimination should be used in selecting
rams, that we may obArdatc slujht defects in particular ewes ; but if any
one be decidedly faulty, she should be at once discarded ; neither
should the shei)herd be listened to for a moment, if, after she has got
rather fresh, he wants to put her back intg the flock.

With respect to the buying or hiring of rams, my experience
prompts me to make this suggestion. Let a farmer go to a show to
select a breeder, but not a rain. Prize-getting and stock-getting (I say
it without wishing to find fault with this or any other Society), appear
unhappily to bo not easily reconcilable. Once, at a show, I ventiu'cd
to ask the late Mr. Webb : " Did you ever know the best sheep get tho
jirize, because I never did?" and he rc})lied, with his quiet smile,
" The Judges, no doubt, know better than we do."

Farmers are too often stingy about securing good rams, to their o\vn
injiuy. Cases have occurred in my own district in which I have been
enabled to be of some little service to some of my neighboiu's who
were fresh comers, and from want of skill in selection were owners
of very indittercnt flocks. I ventured to say to them, "Will you
allow me to take your flocks in hand, with the understanding that I
shall be paid for any outlay I make only according to the rcsidts ob-
tained y" In one case, when my offer was accepted, I at once drafted
the ewes of a flock of 370, and sent some rams of my own. The
residt I obtained was an increase in tlic prcjcceds above the former
season of 300/., with an outlay of 80/. for cake, or a clear gain
of 220/.

I will now add a few hints on the autumn management of ewes.
Ilape is one of om- most available crops, but if given in a wet season,
without the addition of dry food, its use is apt to bring on inflamma-
tion of the uterus; the liver is, in the first instance, atfccted, general
debility follows, and the liver complaint soon extends its influence to
the region of the stomach, and is conveyed to the uterus. In such
cases opium is the best remedy, or a preparation called " the Shep-
herd's Friend," but the use of common salts is to be avoided, as
they irritate the bowels. The danger from fever after partiu-ition
is much increased by confinement; so much so, that a question
arises whether this fever is not contagious. I had 16 ewes taken
ill one morning in a barn, of which six died before noon. I then
ordered them to be removed into an open yard, and the veterinary
surgeon, when he came, said that but for this I should probably
have lost them all.

Hoggets should be well kept in winter, 1 pint of oats being a useful
addition to their common fare. In the late trying season I have kept
them successfully %^-ithout any roots on cut wheat-straw, slightly salted,
and wheat-meal, at a cost of 6d. per week.

In conclusion, let me observe that the flockmaster must make his
choice between avooI and mutton. One or other must be to some extent
sacrificed, for generally the sheep which have most wool have tho
least flesh, and vice versa.

The Breeding and Management of Sheep, 41 1

If the present exceptional price of wool continues, no doubt tlie
long-woolled breeds will be mucli run after ; but when the market
readjusts itself, those breeds which afford mutton of the first quality
will again be in the ascendant.

Professor Coleman (late of Cirencester), expressed his regret that the
name and reputation of Mr. Ellman had not secured a larger attendance
at that meeting. There were some points in the excellent address
which they had just heard with which he did not quite agree : for in-
stance, the extreme importance assigned to purity of breed. In his
opinion fixity of type might in time be imparted to a breed of mixed
origin by careful rejection of unfavourable specimens. The Shroj)shire
sheej) is an instance of success in such arrangement, for no doubt
originally some Southdo^vn blood had been infused into the breed.
The Southdown s themselves had imi:)roved of late, as they lost some-
what of their roving character. The Hampshire again, another oftshoot
of the Southdown, have acquired a valuable character, and combine
purity both of mutton and wool. With respect to the keep of sheep,
it is important that the lamb should live well for the fii'st 3 months,
and be supplied with a variety of food, tlie changes which are made
in its diet being effected gradually. Winter-barley and winter-oats,
combined with vetches, are very useful as early keep. These may be
followed by spring vetches, sown with an admixture of rape ; then
next in succession rape sown alone, and later rape with an admixture
of tiu-nips. These succulent crops may all be used in conjunction
with seeds. Judgment should be shown in the management by sup-
plying the mown food a little at a time, instead of gorging the racks ;
besides this green food the lamb should receive some trough food.
From the time it is 1 month old a mixture of oats, peas, linseed-
cake, and bran, may be recommended. Many farmers show ill-j)laced
stinginess in feeding their flocks — not that forcing is to be recom-
mended— a course which, as pm-sucd by ram-breeders, has been a
curse to flockmasters ; but a generous diet should be given from
the first, and maintained without a check, any check being specially
injui'ious to long-woolled sheep, though all breeds suffer. A question
has arisen whether swede-turnips are suitable for ewes when in lamb,
and, in his opinion, they may properly be given 6 weeks before
lambing ; but not only these, but all roots should be used in moderation,
and may advantageously be pulped and given together with cut
straw. If liberality and discretion were more generally combined in
the management of sheep, we should hear much less of good and
bad luck.

Colonel Challoner remarked that he had bought 100 ewes and
2 rams from Mr. Ellman, sen., from which he had bred in-and-in, and
found that in 3 generations the produce became more like a roe deer
than the original sheep. He inquired of Mr. Ellman whether in his
judgment swedes could be recommended for ewes after lambing ; and,
secondly, as the was in he habit of buying Welsh sheep, how sheep
should be kept going t;p to the age of 2 or 3 years, so as to secure
mutton of prime quality.

Mr. Elljian, in reply, observed that breeding in-and-in gives

412 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

quality, but that new blood must be got to maintain size. He considered
the use of swedes for ewes just after lambing to be a dangerous
practice. They should not be had recourse to until the whites are
done. It is good management to give these turnips on grass, and to
let them " welt," or become dry from exposure to the sim and air ;
indeed, but for the game, he should hardly ever put roots into " pics,"
for he had known large uncovered heaps of white turnips keep good
till April. He would make no other suggestion in reply to Colonel
Challoner's second inquiry, but that cako and corn must be used in
moderation.

Meeting of Weeldy Council, Wednesday, March 29///. The President,
Sir E. Kerrison, M.P., in the chair. A Lectiiro was delivered by
Dr. VoELCKER on

Natural Deposits of Potash in Germaxt.

Dr. VoELCKER said : Next to phosphoric acid, potash is unques-
tionably the most important mineral constituent of the ashes of plants.
It is important for a variety of reasons. First, because it is found in
a preponderating quantity in all such ashes. Next, because it facili-
tates the assimilation of a variety of other mineral matters which aro
carried into the vegetable organism in the shape of potash salts — a
class of salts which is not distinguished, generally speaking, by great
solubility. We have strong reason to believe that, in the shape of
silicate of potash, silica, so largely required by all cereals, is carried
into the vegetable organism.

Hitherto potash has been obtained mainly from the ashes of plants,
Russia and North America having furnished our supplies. Potash, or
rather carbonate of potash, is kno\ATi by the name of vegetable alkali ;
and the very name implies that it enters very largely into the com-
position of all vegetable substances. Recently however — that is,
within the last five years — new sources of potash have been discovered
in Germany, in an extensive salt-mine explored about 1851. The salt-
mines to which I now refer are of great national importance to Prussia ;
they occur in the neighbourhood of Stassfurth, a place about ten
English miles from Magdeburg, and are so extensive, that persons who
are well entitled to express an opinion on the subject, describe the
mines of Stassfurth as vicing in importance with the celebrated
salt-mines of Galicia, those of Bohemia, and those of Wieliczka, which
are of such great national importance to Austria. Now, it is in these
salt-mines that the natm-al deposits to which I allude, in the shape of
a variety of crude salts of potash, are foimd.

On account of the agricultural importance of these potash-salts, I
visited, last autiimn, in company ^^•ith Dr. Gilbert, the salt-mines of
Stassfurth. I descended them, so as to obtain an idea of the
extent of the natural deposits, and I was highly impressed with their
importance, as well as charmed with the appearance of the enormous
masses of almost chemically-pure rock-salt.

The salt there, as in so many other places, occurs in the new red
sandstone formation. The surface consists of alluvial deposits, which

Natural Deposits of Potash in Germamj. 413

are followed by red marls and variegated or mottled marls and clays,
to the depth of about 100 feet. Then comes an extensive bed, or
rather a series of beds, of anhydrite and gypsum. On descending
further we came to a number of beds of saliferous marl or clay, strongly
impregnated with salt ; and iimncdiately below these beds of marl we
met with layers or beds, about 200 feet in extent, containing a variety
of salts, some of which are remarkably beautiful in appearance, shining
and glistening in some parts, dull in others, but always distinguished
by a peculiarly bitter taste.

These are the potash deposits ; from them at present a very large
quantity of potash is manufactm-ed, both for agricultural purposes and
for the guni^owder manufactories ; for maniifacturers of gunpowder
now use German potash-salts, decomposing them with Chilian nitrate
of soda, and thus obtaining by a double decomposition chloride
of sodium, or common salt, and nitrate of potash, which is in every
respect equal to the Indian nitre. The variegated or mottled salts
containing potash are called, in Germany, skim-salts, because they
have to be skimmed off, or removed from above the extensive salt
deposit of almost pui-e rock-salt.

Below these 200 feet of potash deposits, or crude potash-salts, occur
a number of beds of impm-e rock-salt, the impurities being chiefly
gypsum and anhydrite in veins, in some places passing through the
rock-salt, and in others interspersed with it, giving it a somewhat dirty
colour. Then we find a deep and as yet unfathomed layer of almost
pure rock-salt. The first experiment in boring was made in 1839,
and the trial continued till 1851, when a depth of 1851 feet was reached
without getting to the bottom of the rock-salt, which was discovered at
the depth of 760 feet below the surface. Thus the pure rock-salt is at
least 1000 feet in thickness.

A specimen which I picked up will give you some idea of the purity
of the salt. You will observe that it is perfectly transparent ; it does
not attract moistm'e, even on a very damp day, and this is due to its
great pm-ity. The analysis made by Professor Eammelsberg of Berlin
gives 97|- per cent, of chemically -pure chloride of sodium, and no
chloride of magnesium, which causes ordinary salt, including some
varieties of table-salt, to become damp on exposure to the air.

Since 1855 the mines of Stassfurth have been in full operation, and
liave furnished annually above 50,000 tons of pure salt, besides a large
quantity of impure salt, which is used for agricultui-al purposes, and in
giving cattle a relish with their food.

These mines of potash-dejposit have a peculiar interest for agricul-
ture, but they have likewise been a perfect mine of discovery to the
scientific chemist, presenting well-defined chemical compounds pre-
viously unknown to the mineralogist. I refer here more especially to
one salt — a natural salt here found in very large masses — which has
been called carnallite, after Mr. Von Carnall, the director of some
Prussian mines. It is from this combination, which is distinguished
by a different form of crystallization from ordinary rock-salt, that
potash is chiefly obtained. It occurs sometimes in beautiful white
crystals, which look almost like sugar-candy. This carnallite is a

414 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

combination of cliloride of potassium, or muriate of potasli, as it is
called in commerce, with chloride of magnesium and water. Its
composition is as follows : —

Chloride of magnesium 31'4()

Chloride of potassium 2-i'27

Chloride ot sodium ij'lO

Chloride of calcium 2'62

Srdphate of lime 0-84

Oxide of iron 0"14

AVater 35-57

100-00

It is a definite chemical combination of 1 equivalent of chloride of
j)()tassium, 2 equivalents of chloride of magnesium, and 12 of water.
In some layers this caruallitc is of a beautiful rose colour ; in others
it is of an intensely blood-red colour.

Besides the caruallite, we have several otlier minerals in the salt
deposits. One of a yellowish colour is a salt which, (m exposure to
the air, runs at once into a liquid. On this account it has been called
tachhydrite. This is a comldnation of chloride of calcium with chloride
of magnesium and water. Then we liave another description, which is
of a wliite appearance — boracitc, containing l)oracic acid. These salts
are of great scientific interest, because they throw light on the manner
in which these extensive salt-mines — mines which are believed to extend
over a surface of at least 18 geographical miles, and perhaps to connect
some of the salt-deposits in Wurtemberg ^\-ith tliose of Prussia — were
deposited.

I have before me a highly interesting work on these salt-mines
by Dr. Eeichardt, Professor of Mineralogy and Chemistry in the
University of Jena, in which he points out that these salt-deposits
are identical with the salts in the motherlays of ordinary sea-water.
After the ordinary pure commtm salt has been separated fi-om these
lays, there remains a liquid wliich crystallizes only on the appli-
cation of a large amount of heat ; and this liquid contains the identical
salts which are here deposited above tlie pure rock-salt. We also find
in these crude salt-deposits bromine, which is a well-kno'mi constituent
of sea-water. Indeed, these salts smell of sea-water — so much so, as
to make you fancy that you ai-e in the neighbourhood of the sea-shore.

I now pass on, in order to bring more prominently before youi" view
tlic agricultm-al bearing of the products which are now manufactured
at Stassfm-th from these skim-salts. For several years after the mines
were discovered, the skim-salts were throANTi aside, no use having
l)cen found for them. They, however, interested the scientific inquirer,
who was struck with the large, though varying j^roportion of potash
found in them. I have here two analyses to which I will now merely
allude, my object being that you may see the variations in the amount
of salt-deposits, and more especially in the amovmt of i)otash. Sufiice
it to say, that the chloride of potassium amounts on the average to
IS per cent. There is mixed with this 22 per cent, of chloride of
magnesium, 10 per cent, of sulphate of magnesia, 3 per cent, of

Natural Deposits of Potash in Germany. 415

common salt, and no less than 24 per cent, of water, which chloride of
magnesium readily attracts from the atmosphere. For five years
nothing was done with these salts, but they were considered a great
nuisance to the neighbom-hood, poisoning the streams and the land.
At length the attention of manufactiu-ers was directed to them.

Wherever there is a refuse of which nobody else can make anything,
it generally falls into the hands of the agriculturist, who is fond
of buying what is cheap, and often fancies that he obtains a good
result because he spends little money on his purchase. The trials
made of the crude potash-salts were unfavourable in every instance — a
fact for which we can readily account if we look at their constitution.
Chloride of magnesium is a highly deliquescent salt; it is very strong
and pungent ; it destroys vegetable matter, and, like many other very
soluble salts which cannot be fixed in the soil, is vmquestionably inju-
rious to vegetation.

It was not until thi-ee or fom" years ago that a German chemist,
Dr. Frank, succeeded in obtaining much purer salts of potash from
these crude skim-salts. By a pecvdiar process of crystallization, Dr.
Frank succeeded in producing muriate of potash containing from 20
to upwards of 80 per cent, of pure chloride of potassium. At the
l)resent time there are four principal varieties of salts of potash manu-
factured at Stassfurth. The first quality contains from 80 to 85
per cent, of chloride of potassium, and last autumn it was sold in
Germany at 12?. a ton; the second quality contains 60 per cent., and
is sold at about 11. a ton ; the third quality, containing from 40 to 50
per cent, makes (SI. a ton ; the foiu-th and last quality contains from
20 to 24 per cent, of sulphate of potassium — not chloride of potassium
— and is at the present time sold in Germany at 3Z. a ton. Nos. 1 and
2, the first and second qualities, are sent almost entirely to England,
and used for producing nitrate of potash by a double decomposition
already referred to. The chloride of sodium remains in solution, and
this is afterwards evaporated and disposed of to the neighbouring
farmers. There is always a little nitrate left in the crude salt, obtained
from the gunpowder manufactories which make their own nitrate. I
would recommend this matter to the consideration of agriculturists
living in the neighbom-hood of such manufactories. Niunbers 3 and
4 arc used chiefly for agricultural purposes ; and perhaps the fourth
quality more especially deserves the notice of the agriculturist,
inasmuch as the third is too dear, at any rate at the present time, and
also contains chloride of potassium, which absorbs moisture, and cannot
be kept dry for any length of time, nor be spread out evenly with
the hand or sown by the maniu'c-drill. In the fom'th quality potash
occui's as sulphate of potash, and the salt is consequently dry, and
better suited for agricultm-al purposes. Crude salts of sulphate of
potash, containing from 20 to 24 per cent, of pm-e sulphate, as a dry
powder, can now be obtained in a tolerably fine condition ; for lately
German manufacturers have dried the salt hard, and passed it through
millstones. I have before me an analysis of good sulphate of potash ;
and I have made one myself of a sample which, for experimental pur-
poses, I obtained last year. My analysis does not coincide with that

VOL. I. — S. S. 2 E

416 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

whicli has been published by Dr. Frank : I found rather more potash,
but also a larger proportion of chloride of magnesium than is given in
Dr. Frank's analysis. Hence it is possible that the salts which wo
had last year for experimental purposes were not so dry as they
unquestionably arc when prepared like the sample which Dr. Frank
analyzed.

When I saw these salt-mines, I also paid a visit to the potash-works,
and I was not a little surprised to find no less than 14 separate esta-
blishments in active operation, making potash as fast as they could
from these skim-salts. Among them I found one belonging to a manu-
factm'cr from Glasgow, who was competing mth the German manu-
facturers, I was told, quite successfully. In the neighbouring Duchy
of Anhalt a similar deposit of salt occurs, and there we have already
six potash works in full o])eration. Stassfurth alone produced about
250 tons of crude potash-salts daily. I have not been told what
quantity is fiu-nishcd by the mines of Anhalt, but there can be no ques-
tion that the deposit there is very large, and that it will bo rendered
available as soon as there is really a demand for potash in agricul-
ture; and that demand will sxircly be made as soon as it can bo
shown to the farmer that he can realise a profit by its use as a manm-e.

In visiting several agriculturists of eminence in the neighbourhood
of these salt-mines — and there are some very largo faiTners in the
vicinity of Magdeburg, cultivating their thousands of acres, chiefly for
the purpose of supplying beetroot to the sugar manufactories abounding
in tlic district — I was very anxious to ascertain with what degree of
practical success these potash-salts have been applied ; but I failed to
get anything like definite rcsidts. Some were highly pleased with
them ; others had obtained no residt ; others, again, thought they
might have done good. Indeed, as in the case of many other imtried
manm'ing substances, I met with a variety of oinnions, but on the whole
they were favom-able. I resolved then to try some of the potash-
salts on a larger scale this year ; and I hope, on a futm-e occasion,
to have to report to the Society on some experiments which I think
will be more successful than those which were undertaken last year by
myscK, by Mr. Frcre, and by several of my friends, but failed in
consequence of the dryness of the season. I hold in my hand a paper
which gives the results of the application of potash to beetroot ; also
the results of the application of potash iu conjunction with superphos-
phate, and the results of the application of guano, and a variety of other
manm-es. The inference which the manufacturer draws from these
results is, that sulphate of potash has produced a highly favourable
effect, even when used in so small a quantity as 2 cwt. per acre. In
looking over the results, however, with a critical eye, I cannot draw
the same inference from them. There were two experiments without
manure in which the variations of the soil on the two plots were
greater than the excess produced by the apj)lication of sulphate of
potash over the unmanured portion producing the smallest quantity of
roots. I draw the natm-al inference, that the variations of the soil
in the different parts of the field might account for the excess attributed
to the application of siilphate of potash. I am, however, still deeply

Natural Deposits of Potash in Germany. 411

impressed with tlie iraportauce of potash-salts in agriculture ; and
for this reason I speak quite as frankly of the uncertainty attaching
to the subject as I would gladly speak of any definite result.

What we require for the present is an extensive series of experi-
ments with these potash-salts on the croj)S most likely to be
benefited by them — grown upon soils which do not, like clay, con-
tain, as a rule, a good deal of potash. I would suggest for practical
experiment the following crops, — turnips and swedes, and then potatoes
and clover. I would especially recommend potash-salts for light,
sandy soils. Those soils are generally deficient in potash ; and I am
not at all sure that a good deal of the disease in turnips, and root-crops
generally, is not due, in a measure at least, to the almost exclusive use
of superphosphate of lime as a manure on light land. The disease in
tm-nips is far less conspicuous in light land when only half a dressing
of superphosphate is used, and half a dressing of common farmyard
manure. In farmyard dung, and in liquid manure, we have a consider-
able quantity of j)otash ; and in light soils I believe potash must
be supplied in one way or other. It is on soils of that character
that clover frequently fails. I am not prepared to say that clover
sickness is in every instance caused by the absence of potash ; but
certain it is that potash must be present in the soil, or the crop will
not grow luxuriantly, Potatoes likewise require a considerable addi-
tion of potash on sandy soils. There is a greater chance of potash
being removed under the cultivation of potatoes than when corn-crops
are grown.

In looking at the results which potash-salts have produced, I was
struck with some analyses of Dr. Grouven of Salzmunde, the director
of an agricultural experiment station, as we call establishments in
Germany similar to that of Mr. Lawes in England. Dr. Grouven
analysed, some years ago, the ash of sound clover and of diseased
clover. In 100 parts of the ash of sound clover he fomid potash 35'5,
or 35 T, and of soda 7 ; in 100 parts of the ash of diseased clover he
found 3'32— that is, in round numbers, only one-tenth as much potash
— and of soda 8"7. He likewise analysed the ash of sound, of partly
decayed, and of very rotten beetroot. In 100 parts of the ash of
sound beetroot he found 30-5 of potash, 2-23 of soda, and 1-76 of
magnesia : in the ash of that partly decayed he found 26'78 of potash,
•73 of soda, and 43 of magnesia. The ash of the diseased roots con-
tained only 19 per cent, of potash. Now from these interesting
analyses I think we may derive the useful lesson that, unless there
is potash present in the soil, our roots arc liable to get diseased:
and for this reason it is that I would especially suggest extensive trials
with potash-salts for root-crops.

These, then, are the principal points which I intended to bring
under your notice to-day. I may observe, in conclusion, that some of
the crude salts are now on their way to England; and Mr. Frere
will no doubt, in due time, report upon the results which he hopes
to obtain from a number of experiments that he is about to try. I,
too, have instituted some experiments that I shall report upon at a
future time.

'2 E 2

418 Abstract Report of Arjricultural Discussions.

There is only one other point to ^^•hich I may refer, it is the in-
creasing favour with which these salts are regarded by agriculturists
in Germany. A few days ago I received a letter informing me that
orders had been procui'ed by Dr. Frank, who was the first to establish
potash works, for upwards of 3,000 tons of crude potash-salts. Thus,
at any rate, should there ever be a real deficiency of potash, we have in
these extensive mines of Germany a supply which will make up the
deficiency, and Ave need not be afiaid therefore that the land of England
may become exhausted of its jiotash. Phosphoric acid has been sup-
l)lied, and can be supplied in still larger quantity if there is really the
demand ; and I have no doubt that potash, should it be required, can
be supplied from the mineral deposits of Germany, and probably of
other countries where they Anil be discovered on fui-ther search. It
is not a little remarkable that, just as a demand increases, om- national
sources of supply also increase, and, for aught I know, we may have
here in England these very skim-salts which we now import from
Germany. At any rate, the new red sandstone formation — the same
formation in which the salt-mines of Germany occm* — is the spot in
which to look for these potash-salts.

Mr. P. H. FitKiiE wished to be informed whether in the iorm of
chloride of potassium tlie salt would be objectionable.

Dr. VoELCKEH did not think it would be objectionable ; but sulphate
of potash v.ould be better, because it dissolved more gradually, and
supplied the 2>hints with sulphuric acid, Avhich was a great advantage.

Professor Wilson observed that the meeting must be of one mind
in reference to the subject introduced by Di*. Voelcker — that it is one
of vast importance to agriculturists. He would not attempt to speak
dogmatically as to the principles that ought to guide them in manuring,
they must all admit that the true princijile of manuring was to supply
to the soil those substances which they knew to be necessary for the
gi'owth of their crojis. And if they trusted to analyses of ashes of
plants, they must be struck with tlie very large proi)ortion in which
potash existed in all cultivated plants. Potash Avas essentially the
alkali of vegetable life, as soda was the alkali of animal life. For
many years past, hoAAever, it aiq)eared to him that tliey had been
going u2)ou rather a Avrong system in manm-iug ; they had been giving
very large doses of one necessary ingredient, but either totally omit-
ting or else applying very small doses of another ingi'edient that Avas
equally necessary, as he believed potash to be. Consequently their
results had fallen short of those Avhich might have been obtained by
an outlay of the same amount of money more judiciously applied.
The produce of the soil AAas determined rather by that constituent
which AAas in defect than by that of Avhich the supply Avas largest.
If a soil is analysed there is as gi-eat difficulty in detecting the potash,
as in detecting the phosphoric acid, for they exist in about the same
proportion in soils ; and yet they had been going on the system of
adding considerable doses of phosphoric acid to the soil, and small
doses of jiotash. There had been a difficulty in obtaining sufficient
potash, and giving it in such j)roportions as farm-crops required. A
search after potash in different countries had been prosecuted for many

Natural Deposits of Potasli in Germany. 419

years past, but liitlierto without any very great amount of success ; and
the occurrence of potash in the salt-formations of Prussia appeared
to him to be a matter of vast importance in two ways : lirst of all, it
insured a certain supply of potash for our fields at a moderate price ;
and secondly, it appeared to him to offer very great inducements and
encouragement to continue the search for potash at home.

In this country we possessed dcjposits of salt in immense quantities.
They were to be found in three districts. In Worcestershire they pre-
sented themselves in the shape of brine-springs. In Cheshire they had
been worked for centuries as rock-salt ; and within the last twenty
years they had been found largely deposited on the shores of the Lough
of Belfast, at Carrickfergus. Now, all these deposits in the British
islands occurred in exactly the same geological formation as the
deposits at Magdeburg. That being the case, he had great faith that
if carefully sought for similar deposits would be found in this country.
No doubt all these deposits of salt had originated in the water of the
sea, which, it is pretty well known, always contains about the same
constituents. He was firmly impressed with the idea, therefore, that
the same salts of potash would be found in the salt-deposits in England
as had been discovered in Prussia. So strongly had the necessity
of obtaining fresh sources for the supply of potash been felt, that
in the year 1851 a very eminent French chemist, who happily for
science was still alive — he referred to M. Balard — brought before the
Juries of the Great Exhibition of Hyde-park his process for obtaining
these salts from the mother-liquor {eau mere) of sea-water. On the
coast line of the Mediterranean, salt was obtained by the evaporation
of sea-water, the chloride of sodimn crystalising out of it, when it was
evaporated to a certain density. Then the mother-liquor, which
was of a bitter character, was usually thrown away, just as those sub-
stances were formerly thrown away in Prussia. M. Balard, thinking-
it ought not to be so treated, investigated the subject, and brought
before the Council a beautiful and simple process for extracting the
potash from the waste liquor, then regarded as a noxious product.
The proposal was deemed by the members of the Jury (Class 2) to
whom it was submitted, to be of such importance that they presented
to M. Balard one of the few Council medals that were given at that
Exhibition. The manufacture has been conducted since then only to
a limited extent, but that was owing to the fact that the evaporation
could not be carried on so extensively as to satisfy the requirements
of the manufacturers and agriculturists. Here, however, they found
the article prepared to their hands. Nature had herself done on
a large scale what M. Balard's process could only do on a small one ;
and we may look forward to having our fields fertilised by the addition
of potash, as we had been for many years past endeavouring, to enrich
them by the addition of phosphoric acid.

With regard to the difference in quality in these substances, he
agreed with Dr. Voelcker, that the low-priced salt would probably be
best fitted for agricultural purposes. We did not want to pay for
manipulation or for any special purity, provided there was nothing
noxious in it to counteract its good effect. He had only one remark

420 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

to make in regard to tlie low-priced article containing the sulphate of
potash. He observed that it also contained 60 per cent, of chlorides ;
and these would keep it pretty well as moist as the chloride of
potassium itself would do. Of coiu'se the percentage of potash was
that which should determine our choice.

Further, he concurred in what Dr. Voelcker had said respecting the
probable causes of a great many of the diseases of plants. The failure
of our crops, especially tm-nip and clover crops, was in many instances,
no doubt, materially due to the absence of that proper equilibrium in
the food supplied to them which was necessary for their healthy deve-
lopment. And with reference to the experiments that had been tried,
before we could rely absolutely upon any of tlicm, we ought to take
rather more precautions in satisfying ourselves that all the conditions
under which the experiments had been made were equal. For, first,
we had the character of the soil to consider : secondly, the nature
of the climate ; thirdly, the sort of crops to be grown ; and, fourthly,
the materials used. And rarely were all these conditions satisfactorily
fiUfillcd.

Mr. Frere wished to take the opportunity of mentioning, for the
information of potato-growers, the one point that came out in the dry
season of last year, from his ovni small experiment. The exact record
of that experiment had unfortunately been lost, in consequence of the
death of his farm-manager ; but this point came out in a very marked
way — that the only plot, besides that maiiured with formyard dmig,
that could resist the di-ought at all, was the one which had received
a dressing of superphosphate, and probably also a similar di-essing of
those alkaline salts, salts of potash. Where potatoes were gromi on
a sandy soil, therefore, and farmyard manure ran short, he would
recommend a mixture of superphosphate and those crude potash-salts,
he should say, under correction of Professor Voelcker, at the rate of
four or five cwt. per acre of each.

Dr. Voelcker was desirous of supplying an omission which he had
inadvertently made in the concluding portion of his lecture. He
recommended the follomng formula for experiment, with crude
potash-salts, upon light soils, for turnips, potatoes, and clover : — 1st,
use the salts alone at the rate of three cwt. per acre ; 2nd, apply three
cwt. of common salt per acre, in order to ascertain how much was due
to the common salt, and how much to the potash contained in the
German salts ; 3rd, use thi-ee cwt. of crude potash-salts, with three
cwt. of superphosi^hate ; 4th, use three cwt. of common salt and three
cwi;. of superphosphate. The reason he suggested the use of super-
phosphate in conjunction ^^-ith salts of potash was because these were
known to be very important materials, and also because the only trial
which last year gave him a good result upon clover was made with
a mixture of sulphate of potash and superphosphate. Indeed, the two
together — sulphate of potash and superphos^^hate — produced a very
material increase in the clover-crop.

Colonel Challoner proposed a vote of thanks to Dr. Voelcker for
his very lucid and useful lecture.

The Hon. A. Vernon, in seconding the motion, observed that not

[' Flax Culture. 421

only the members of the Eoyal Agricultural Society, but the whole
agricultiu'al world, must derive great benefit from the services rendered
by Dr. Voelcker, in whom were so singularly united all the qualities
required for scientific investigation.

Meeting of Weekli/ Council, May 11th. Sir Edward Keerison, Bart.,
M.P., President, in the Chair. Mr. Beale Browne introduced the
subject of

Flax Culture.

Mr. Browne said : This is a small congregation to preach to ; but I
believe the remarks which are made here go forth to find a largo
circulation in the agricultural world. I shall endeavour to treat this
subject, not scientifically, but in a j)iu-ely practical and, I trust,
j3opular manner. I propose then first, to show the nature of soils
suited for flax, and next to make some observations upon the seed
of flax, its growth and manipulation.

My experience of flax, which now extends over a good many years,
has satisfied me that land which is deficient in lime is far better
ada2)ted to its cultivation for the fibre than land that is rich in lime.
For example, on the Cotswold Hills, Vv'here we are on a limestone — the
oolite — we grow magnificent seed, but a very inferior fibre ; and you
will invariably find that v\^here you grow the best fibre you grow the
worst seed. I have grown three-quarters of flax-seed to the English
acre in Gloucestershire, and a very, very fine seed it was — but such a
crop, however, cannot be safely reckoned on by any man. In Ireland,
on the other hand, my produce has never exceeded 12 bushels, and the
seed has not been nearly so good. In Gloucestershire, again, the
straw is almost like a stick, whilst in Ireland the stalk is pliant,
and the fibre is of a beautifully silky nature, and is quite delightful
to handle. We have in Ireland, especially in the south and west, a
great deal of land that is deficient in lime ; in fact, we can do but
little with it until it has been limed. Flax therefore offers special
advantages in that part of the kingdom, because you can thus j)roduco
a profitable croiJ, or even two in succession, ui^on land that would
produce nothing else. In addressing a large meeting lately held at
Tralee I dwelt u2)on this point, referring to the beautiful crop produced
last year on such lands, and to the equally fine prospect for the
present year. I limed the land in question after taking oft* the flax,
and it will now be ready for nearly any crop. The soil is alluvial, and
nearly barren, so that when we have cut off the grass and ploughed,
we are not troubled with weeds ; therefore its management is wholly
different from that of ordinary lands.

On lands that have been in cultivation I have generally found that
flax does better after wheat than any other crop. Besides ploughing
in autumn, we just move an inch or two of the surface by means of a
skim-plough previous to sowing the seed; and when that has been
done I have never experienced any trouble whatever in weeding the
crop, which grows so rapidly that it completely overcomes the weedfi.

422 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

If, however, you sow it in ordinaiy stale ground the weeds get a
start, the flax is overpowered, and no power on earth can weed it
afterwards.

The next matter to be considered is the kind of seed ; and I may
observe that a good deal of nonsense has been sjioken and written about
Riga seed. I have tried it often, and think that, after having been
sown a few years in England or Ireland, it is far, very far superior
to the seed you get direct from Russia. Then, with regard to the
pulling of the flax. In Ireland tliey make a great mistake by sacrificing
the seed. They pull it when it is in a green state, and water it at
once. Now it is obviously impossible for all flax-growers to pursue
this plan ; moreover, if everybody watered the flax directly it was
pidled, how would you bo able to keep yom- stafi" of hands on all the
year ? We therefore, as they do in Belgimu, pull our flax with the seed
in it, stack it, thrash out the seed in the winter, next proceed to retting
the plant, and scutching it, and thus we keep our hands steadily em-
ployed for the whole year.

The flax-instructors in Ireland are a class of men who arc very
highly paid, and, I am sorry to add, very ill-taught, for in many
instances they are teaching the farmers the old-fashioned and erroneous
plan of treating the flax. First of all, they recommend the pulling of
it without saving the seed, and where they do save the seed they
recommend that most absurd and ridiculous method of rippling. I
need hardly say to you that tlie ripi»ling-machine merely takes off the
pods, and that you have the trouble of getting the seed out of the pod
afterwards. They have a machine provided with conical rollers, A^ith
which they get out the seed ; but in using it there is a danger of
crushing the seed. I have no doubt that the safest and best plan is
to lay doAMi the flax in small bundles and beat out the seed with a bat
— a simple piece of wood about 15 inclics long and 2 or 3 inches
wide.

With respect to machines for scutching flax, I am unable to discover
that a single improvement has been effected during the past ten years.
I am using the old scutching-stocks, and my friend, Mr. Arthur
Marshall, is using the same. He has twenty-eight of them running at
tliis time. The only improvement I observe in the manipulation of
flax, in the course of ten years, is that now adopted at Patrington,
which my friend, Mr. Marshall, has kindly permitted me to mention.
I allude to the wet-roller. Instead of jiutting the flax on the grass
and watering it, as soon as it comes from the pits — and whether it be
the hot or the cold water system it is the same — it is passed through
very powerful rollers, which squeeze out all the water. They never
grass it now ; but a quantity of little stakes are put into the gi-ound,
round which the flax is t^yined, and when it becomes dry it is tied
again in bundles and taken to the mill to be broken and scutched, or
it may be ricked at your convenience.

My object being, not to give a set lecture, but simply to throw out
a few hints that may cKcit discussion, I may mention that some years
ago I myself invented a machine designed to jierform the whole of
these processes of flax-dressing — to break up the flax without the

Flax Culture. 423

liuman hand, to scutcli it, and even to liaclde it ready for the spinner,
all in one operation, I so far succeeded that I could do it with a well-
chosen piece of flax ; but before our mechanists are reproached with
lagging behind in the machinery applied to flax, it should be re-
membered that flax varies much in length and in strength. Con-
sequently, though I found that with one piece I could carry the
operation out by the machine very fairly, another piece not so strong
would be torn all to pieces, whilst one that was much stronger was
hardly acted upon at all. The difliculty is, that you rarely find two
pieces of flax that are of exactly the same description. My machine
did not answer, and I had to give it up.

I may here mention that I have a letter from my manager, who
has visited Mr. Marshall's works at Patrington, where he was kindly
allowed to remain for three days to get all the information he could
gather. He tells me that they are employing not less than IGO people
at the flax-mills there, and have twenty-eight scutching-stocks rimning.
But to show you how flax varies, and that you cannot lay do\vn any
exact data, though you may strike an average, let me state that it
appears that whilst one man at Patrington produced llS^lbs. of clean
flax in one day's work of ten hom'S — a quantity such as I never heard
of before, showing that the flax was extraordinarily good — another man
could only produce 351bs. in the same time.

To speak of the cultivation of flax as the panacea for the ills of
Ireland, is in my opinion the greatest nonsense in the world ; and it
is very hard fairly to draw a line with regard to the profits on flax-
growing so as not to mislead the public. I find one writer — I hope
not from interested motives — stating the profits to be enormous. On
the other hand, there was a leader in the ' Evening Standard ' a few
days ago, which showed that the growth of flax was a dead loss. How
can we reconcile such conflicting statements ?

I consider 5 cwts. of clean flax to the English acre to be a good yield,
such as we do not often grow. The profit after all depends on careful
manipulation ; because the same flax that, badly handled, may not be
worth more than 35Z. a-ton, makes GO?., if properly liandled.

With regard to the market for flax, the poor, imfortunate flaxgrowcr
finds himself very much in the liands of the local merchant — a circum-
stance that has much retarded the cultivation of flax in the county of
Limerick, The people were encouraged by the proprietors to grow
flax, when there was only one person there who had a flax-mill. I
myself grew in Tipperary, a few years ago, as fine a description of flax
as was ever raised ; and I sent it a distance of twenty miles to this
mill. It was fairly worth 3?. a ton ; yet I was oftered 1/. a ton for it.
It was worth more than that to thatch my ricks with. I hesitate not
to say that this firm has done more than anybody else to stop the
growth of flax in that country, for the growers are entirely at their
mercy. On the other hand, many farmers grow flax very imperfectly.
They hear what others obtain for flax which has been properly treated,
and then feel aggrieved because thoy cannot realise the same price.
]My experience in tlie growth of flax ls, that grown after wheat, on the
average of years, it will pay better than the crop of wheat. In Glouces-

424 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

tersWre, I am perfectly satisfied tliis year to pixt a hundred acres into
flax, simply for the seed, using the straw for the thatching of sheds
and buildings. It will pay me fifty per cent, better than any wheat
that I grew either last year or the year before.

Mr. Hall Dare has placed in my hands a letter which he has received
from a gentleman of my own name at Limavady, in the county of
Kerry. Ho has become a member of this Society, and seems to take a
warm interest in the growth of flax. What he says entirely corroborates
my statement — that last year the yield of flax was very short in tho
North of Ireland, and the crop inferior, owing to the dry season. He
states that the farmers were in many instances without water for
steeping a good crop ; and this difficulty must arise, mider tho
process they adopt there. If they followed our plan of carrying
it over to the next season they would avoid the inconvenience, and
have an ample supply of water during the winter and spring months.
He speaks of the way in which merchants have been blamed for con-
spiring to keep down prices : " Knowing that the farmers had a double
quantity in some cases on hand, and that they must sell, I have reason
to believe that the buyers in many places, if not the merchants, were
not above suspicion." He further states that there is nearly a third
less seed sown this year. Now, it is one of the drawbacks to tho
growth of flax that they have been growing it in districts where there
is not an open market, and that they have been at the mercy of one or
two biiyers. The fact is they ought to send their prodiice to Leeds,
or some other English market. I, for my part, should not dream of
selling my flax in Ireland, unless it be in Belfast. But these men do
not know where the great marlicts are. They therefore dispose of
their produce in their own localities, and there is no doubt they are
excessively robbed.

The writer of this letter also speaks disparagingly of the quality of
the Eiga flax-seed, which he says is worse than it has been for the last
ten years. Now, they arc almost mad about this seed in Ireland,
and will hardly sow anything else. It is all very well for a change,
but I would rather use the seed after it has been grown for two or
three years in England.

I do not know that I have any more hints to throw out; but I
shall be happy to answer any questions, as far as I am able.''

Professor Voelcker inquired on what ground Mr. Browne rested
the assertion, that a deficiency of lime in soils was favourable to the
growth of flax ?

Mr. Beale Browne : Upon the experience of ten years. He was
no chemist, but for that period he had found that upon the oolite soils
of Gloucestershire he could not grow a good quality of flax ; whereas
upon lands in Ireland — in the counties of Tipperary, Limerick, and
Kerry — which were wholly deficient in lime, but lay upon the sand-
stone, he grew an inferior seed, but a magnificent silky fibre.

Professor Voelcker said he knew by observation that the soils on
the Cotswold Hills contained lime, but at the same time a large pro-
portion of clay. They were heavy soils, and he was rather inclined
to think that it was the excess of clay, not the presence of lime, which

Flax Culture. 425

was injurious to tlio growth of flax. Flax, it is well known, deliglits
in light silicious soils, and such soils are very generally de-
ficient in lime. He could hardly venture to say, therefore, that the
deficiency in lime, in the case of light soils, was favourable to the
growth of flax : nor, on the other hand, that the presence of lime in
calcareous clays on the Cotswold Hills was injurious. He was rather
inclined to think that a moderate quantity of lime would be favour-
able to the growth of flax, if otherwise the mechanical condition of
the land was such as would enable the plants to draw their noiu'ish-
ment from the land, so that an occasional dressing of lime would have
a beneficial effect upon the lightest soils on which flax is grown.
He admitted the advantage of growing flax upon some land which
happens to be deficient in lime.

Mr. Beale Bkowne : Upon the soils in Ireland, of which I have
been speaking, nothing else could be grown without the application
of lime. They would not even get the seed back again. He considered
it a great advantage, then, that in this part of Ireland, where there was
a deficiency of lime, they could grow remunerative crops of flax when
they could grow nothing else.

Professor Voelckee : If that be the fact, it is a very important one,
and worth keeping in mind.

Mr. Feere inquired whether, in the western part of the county of
Limerick, the soil was not rather of a clayey than of a light nature,
whilst it had the character of being very deficient in lime. If
that were so, its suitability for flax could not arise from its sandy
character.

Mr. Beale Beowne observed that the land to which he alluded in
Kerry, Limerick, and Tipperary was almost in a wild state — in fact, it
was nearly peat. To a depth of 6 or 8 inches, it was composed almost
entirely of roots, while underneath there was clay, but wholly deficient
in lime. His difficulty in breaking up this barren land was to get
sufficient tilth to put in the seed. The j^oint he wished to imjiress
upon gentlemen was, that a crop of flax, and that of a very high
quality, could be raised upon land where nothing else could be
grown.

Professor Coleman said, that however interesting it might be to
hear of what was done in Ireland, yet in this Society it was more
important to draw attention to the practicability of introducing flax
into this country in the place of a cereal crop. Mr. Beale Brown had
stated that the value of the fibre varied from 35Z. to 60Z. a ton,
according to the management ; that it required the most careful and
delicate manipulation ; and that the processes connected with the
dressing of the fibre, removing the woody matter, &c., were best
carried out by hand-labour. There were two great difficulties in
the way of the tenant-farmers in this country. They could never
hope, with their numerous other duties on the farm, to be able to give
that attention to the manufacture of flax which would result in pro-
ducing the best fibre. Then the question was, whether it was likely
to prove sufficiently remunerative to induce capitalists to establish
mills. He had very little experience of his own on the subject ; but

426 Abstract Report of Agricidtiiral Discussions.

lie had tlie advantage of the experience of a gentleman living in the
neighbourhood of Oalne, who had been scutching flax for the last ten
years, and who summed it up shoi'tly by saying, that if he had known
as much when he began as he did now, he would never have had any-
thing to do with it, for to him it had been anything but a profitable
speculation. He would like to know how far the experience of others
tallied with this report ; and whether, supposing the cultivation of flax
was taken up by tlie farmers on the lighter soils of England, it was
likely that mills would be established. With regard to the difference
in quality of the fibre of the flax grown on the Cotswold Hills and in
Ireland, might not that be attributable rather to the difterence in the
climate than to the difference in the character of the soils ? On
the eastern coasts of England, wlicru the soils are more favourable to
the culture of flax, being of a liglit loamy nature, would not the much
drier climate materially influence the equality of the fibre ?

Mr. Bealk BiiowNE : Of course flax delights in moisture, and the
more moist the climate the better the fibre, and the greater its length.
Still I have no doubt whatever that the quality of the fibre dei)ends
upon the soil. A greater length of fibre was to be got in a moist,
than in a dry climate. Last year, being a dry season in the north of
Ireland, tlie flax was much shorter than in the south, and that was
entirely owing to the drouglit. I'lax is a very thirsty plant, but it
may be grown in an inch of soil ujion a turnpike-road, if only the
power of watering it daily is provided. The eastern coast, being
peculiarly dr}"-, would not be so suitable for flax in ordinary years as
the western coast where there is much more moisture.

Mr. Maguikk, M.P. for Dungarvtm, said that he had some personal
knowledge in reference to the growtli of flax in the south of Ireland ;
that he believed it was of the utmost importance to establish factories
in tliat part of the country, and that they must try to render the three
provinces of Connaught, Leinster, and Munster, independent of grain-
crops, or they would be constantly coming to Parliament and appealing
ad misericord I am for aid. Entertaining a strong feeling on this subject,
he, with some other gentlemen in Cork, had established a company
for the spinning and weaving of flax, and they had erected a large
spinning-mill, which would contain on the 1st of January next 12,000
sjjindles. They were also establishing a weaving-factory. To give
indirect encouragement to the growth of flax, they last year arranged
that a portion of their fmids siiould be applied in the folio w-ing
ruanner. Having erected a scutching-mill, they induced the agi-i-
cultural body of the city and county of Cork to establish a market for
flax, and they scarcely ever allowed a single load of flax to go out of
the market without purchasing it. So that in the course of about
five months they purchased from 2,000Z. to 3,000/. worth of flax.
This was brought to them in every conceivable state. Some of it was
scutched, and that very badly ; and some again was in the straw.

He could give no scientific opinion with regard to the particular soil
that would grow flax the best, but he had heard from the buyers, the
farmers, and other persons with whom he had been in com-
munication on the subject, that last year good flax was grown

Flax Culture. 4^7

in every j)art of Ireland, and on every description of soil ; but that
there was a failure to a certain extent in the quality of the fibre, not
because it was badly grown, but because it was badly handled. There
was a great want of moisture last year in Ireland.

The farmers had comjiletely lost the knowledge of the growth of
flax in many parts ; and the machinery for their education or training
in the matter was very imjoerfect indeed. The Government j)romiscd
o,000Z. for establishing inspectors, but they acted so clumsily that the
training or teaching had not reached the farmers as a body. Some of
the farmers were very ignorant, whilst many of those whom the
instructors endeavoured to teach were obstinate, and woidd have their
own way. They did not understand the process of steeping, and the
result was that in many instances flax which was admirably grown,
and, if properly steeped, would have produced a large i)rice, realised
a very small sum. Indeed, the manager of his company had informed
him that it would be little more difficult to make a fibre out of copjjer
wire than out of some of the flax ^^'hich was brought to the mill. So
badly was it steeped, that it was fit for nothing but the manufacture of
coarse bags.

He believed that in Ireland there was a wonderfully wide field
for the growers of flax. For the j^^^rpose of obtaining informa-
tion to guide him in the formation of the company at Cork, he had
visited Belfast and the north of Ireland. At Belfast the price of
flax had ranged from 50Z. to 250Z. a ton, but the latter price was never
reached by flax grown in Ireland ; it was for that produced in France
and Belgium, where the cultivation Avas carried on as a perfect science.
The groimd was jireparcd with the most wonderful care, especially in
the weeding, and by this means flax had become in those coimtries one
of the most valuable articles they produced. He saw several bags in
the stores of the millowners, which were worth 250Z. a ton. The Irish
farmer would be pleased if he could get 60/. a ton ; but he had seen
in the manufactories of the north of Ireland native-grown flax that
realised 101. and 80Z. a ton ; and he was told that flax of that kind
came from all parts of the country. He was sorry to say that the dis-
ajDpointment caused by the circumstance to which he had referred v/as
likely to check the growth of flax in Ireland this year. The Govern-
ment wex'e again bungling, for their insi^ectors did not receive their
dijilomas until a week after the last day on which flax should be sown.
A number of farmers who, in consequence of want of experience and
causes over which they had no control, were unsuccessful last year,
would not grow flax again this year. Others, however, who had
succeeded, or who had watched the successful experiments of their
neighbours, would devote themselves to its cultivation ; and in future
he believed that flax-growing in the south of Ireland would be on a far
better basis than heretofore.

One word with regard to the north of Ireland. Even there they
had much yet to learn. At this moment there was not only an over-
growth of flax in that district, but a recldess sacrifice of that which
should be returned to the land, namely, what the plant itself had
extracted from the ground. The steep-water was all thrown away ;

428 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

thus one of the most valuable means of restoring the fertilizing pro-
perties of the soil was utterly lost.

Mr. J. G. Marshall, of Leeds, was extremely glad to hear from
Mr. Beale Browne his opinion from experience that flax could be
grown as a profitable crop. His owai experience, both as a consumer
of flax imported from various coimtries, and as being concerned in
the growth of flax in the north-eastern part of England, led him to
conclude that there was no country better adapted than this to the
growth of flax. With respect to the influence of climate, his im-
l)ression was that the climate of Flanders was suited to the produc-
tion of the finest descrijitions of flax, and it was from there he got
the finest descriptions. Its climate was di'ier than that of England ;
and this exposed it to the inconvenience of frequent hisses arising
from the long continuance of dry weather in tlic spring. That
was the case at the present moment in both Holland and Belgimn.
Ireland had a very moist climate, and produced flax abundantly;
but it was not so fine as the Belgian flax. English flax seemed to
occupy a middle position between the two. It was not so fine as
the Belgian, but superior in quality to the Irish ; and, taking the
two circumstances of quality and quantity of produce into account,
he should say there was no country better, or, perhaps, so well
adapted for the growth of flax as England. Again, flax could be
produced in this country close to the best markets, with the best
means of communication, with all the advantages of a ready appli-
cation of capital and skill to the improvement of the processes of
the manufacture, and there appeared to be no reason why the culture
of flax should not be carried much farther. It appears to have gone
quite out of cultivation of late years. It used to be grown amongst
us by the small farmers ; but when the large-farm system came into
general adoption it fell ofi", and perhaf)s it would now be impossible
to introduce it extensively upon the same plan as in Ireland, where
it was carried on individually by the small farmers. English
farmers would not probably give that time and attention by which
alone the requisite skill can be attained. We had therefore to fall
back upon the flax-rettery system. The whole operation of steei)ing
and cleaning the fibre was perfonned in the rettery. Although
some trials of that sort had not been successful in England, others
were now progressing satisfactorily, and he saw no reason why the
system should not be largely extended. Judging from experience,
if we could produce and bring to market a fair crop of flax-straw, at
about 10/. or 127. an acre, he thought a flax-rettery would be a good
imdertaking. An intermediate agency had been introduced in a
part of Yorkshire, where the small flax-merchant would pm-chase
30 or 40 acres of flax, and apply the labour of his family to it in
the winter ; and that in some districts would be practicable and
profitable. Considering what had been said with regard to the very
great variations in the value of flax, owing to the mode of handling it,
he thought they might fairly hope that some improvement applicable
to the treatment of flax, analogous to that which had been effected by
the cotton-gin in that manufactiu-e, might be adopted, so as at once to

Flax Culture. 429

greatly dimluisli tlie waste in tlie processes, and to increase the value
of tlie produce.

The Pkesident said, considering the great importance of this sub-
ject, and knowing Mr. Beale Browne has had great experience relating
to it, I had hoped that he would have entered more minutely than he
has done into the general question of the cultui'e and management of
flax, which I believe is very little understood in England, He has
mentioned the kinds of soil upon which flax mostly succeeds the best.
My experience in the matter, which is now of some duration — and I
have as large a rettery, perhaps, upon my property as any in England
— is that, putting aside alluvial soils, flax generally flourishes best
upon loamy soils with a clay subsoil ; certainly not upon the lighter
soils. But I think, upon the whole, that climate has much less influ-
ence than soil on the growth of flax. I am not saying that a certain
amount of moisture is not necessary ; for this year, in the eastern part
of England, the flax will probably have to be ploughed up in conse-
quence of the extreme drought. Still, as a rule, with a small amount
of rainfall, upon a loamy soil capable of growing wheat and beans,
flax may be grown in England almost as well as in Ireland, where the
quantity of rain is so much greater. In Ireland, as Mr, Maguire has
mentioned, considerable interest has for some time been manifested in
the growth of flax. The fibre of flax grown there is, I believe, in a
general way, of a finer texture than the fibre of much that is produced
in this country. With regard to seed, however, we know that in Ire-
land they cannot grow so large an amount per acre as we can upon
GUI' drier English soils. The reason that in Ireland flax fetches so
variable a price, as has been mentioned by Mr, Maguire, is very evi-
dent. The management is principally in the hands of the smaller
farmers, who ret and scutch their own flax, and, in many cases, do not
half ret or scutch it. They put it in ponds, ditches, and places of that
description, where only part of it is properly steeped. They have
little or no capital, consequently they do not possess the means of
perfecting the retting process, and when prices are not good they are
obliged to sell their flax whatever its state may happen to be. In my
opinion it is impossible for flax to be grown profitably to any great
extent over a country — whether in England or Ireland — unless there
be in the neighbourhood where it is grown, retteries or manufactories
of some description capable of receiving and preparing it. I do not
agree with what Mr. Beale Browne says, " that machinery is not ap-
plicable for the preparation of flax-straw." I consider that very great
improvements have of late years been eff'ected in the machinery em-
ployed in the manufacture of flax ; and I think that it is preferable to
steep the plant in warm water rather than in cold, imless it be in par-
ticular streams.

Anyone who is acquainted with Belgium must be aware that the.
chief reason why flax is so exceedingly valuable there, is the extra-
ordinary excellence of the water in the river Lys, and some other
streams in which the retting process is carried on. They are very par-
ticular in Belgium on this head. They ret the flax twice over, in order

430 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

to make it"'as perfect as possible ; and, tlirouglioiit, the greatest care is
taken in the operation. If, then, yon conhl take the flax to a rettery
conveniently situated, where it would be retted carefully, by being put
through the warm-water process, and thoroughly steeped, a great deal
more profit would be realised than by individuals taking it up in a
small way and attempting to do that which they have neither time
nor knowledge sufficient to enable them successfully to accomplish.

The conclusion I arrive at is, that flax is a valuable part of our
cropijing. The time has gone by when people talked of the land
being ruined by this or that particular crop. I believe that flax is not
an exliausting crop — at all events that it is not more exhausting in
itself than other crops. It should be taken after clover-ley, wheat, oi*
l)arley stubble ; but no indolent or bad farmer can gi'ow flax profitably,
for the mere fact of his land being imperfectly cultivated, or not in
good tilth, would prevent his growing it with success. In Belgium it
has been found that if they grow it oftener than once in 7 or 8 years,
although they inmidate the soil with fresh maum-e, they arc unable to
produce the same length of straw. I hope that many of the restric-
tions provided against the cultm'C of flax will, by degrees, and by
means of discussions such as the present, be removed by the lamllords
who are now most opposed to it ; for I am satisfied it will form, and
indeed docs form, a portion of the cropping, which is very valuable
in some places ; and I quite agree with Mr. Beale Browne that in
certain seasons, with wheat at a certain price, the flax-crop would be
infinitely more remunerative than wheat.

In the com-sc of this discussion reference lias been made to Calne,
and a gentleman there has been sjioken of as having engaged unsuc-
cessfully in the scutching of flax. Well, I have received a letter from
a company at Calne, and they say that the acreage of flax-cultivation,
within a circle of GO miles around Calne, increased tlu-ecfold between
18(33 and 1864 ; that they are giving from 121. to 17/. an acre for flax ;
tliat from 1^ to 2 tons of straw to the acre is about the ixsual quantity
gro\\'n, with 16 bushels of seed per acre, or sometimes in that locality
from 20 to 24. Tliey also mention the cm-ious fact that during last
year, when a Avant of rain, and consequent absence of tm-nips, was nmch
felt, and it was a difficult thing to keep a flock of sheep, that a flock
of 300 breeding-ewes was kept for 13 weeks, in fii'st-rate condition,
upon a bushel of linseed steeped and a bushel of meal daily, mixed
with straw cut into chaff, and they had neither roots nor hay during
that period. The seed I look upon as possessing most valuable feeding
properties, and, when mixed with bean-meal, I think it is preferable to
cake. The farmer who gi-ew flax would have the seed at his hand un-
adulterated ; and, if he chose to sell it, he would obtain the means of
purchasing a great deal more artificial manure than his wheat-crop, if
sold at last year's j)rice, would enable him to do.

In the eastern part of England, and especially in Suffolk, where I
reside, the sm-face of flax-cultivation has increased in 17 years from
5 acres to 3000 acres ; and apparently it is increasing still at an equal
rate. That increase is attributable to the influence of the mills which
are established there. We are fortunate in having no monopoly in

Flax Culture. 431

tliat respect ; and I believe that if tiie \)V\cq paid, at the mills ceased
to be reimmerative, that moment the farmers would stop the growth of
flax. In our district the grower has no scutchers to keep on hand ; a
comparatively small outlay is required ; the crop occupies only four
months on the land, which can be immediately afterwards cleared and
cidtivated, and you can put a crop of turnij^s into it. Therefore it is
one of those crops which all who are interested in the better cultivation
of the land are boimd to try, if possible, or at any rate induce persons
in different neighbourhoods to make the experiment. On no account,
however, would I reconuuend any one to do that, unless he is so situ-
ated that he has a regular and certain market at hand to which to send
his flax. It is far too bulky an article to send long distances, and for
want of a mill at a convenient distance it might be kept until it is not
worth more than 11. per ton. In England hand-scutchers are very rare
indeed ; in fact, it is almost impossible to get them.

I have to thank Mr. Maguire for his attendance on this occasion ;
we are all glad to see him here, as well as so experienced a man in the
manufacture of flax as Mr. Marshall.

Mr. Beale Browne could not agi-ee with Sir E. Kerrison when he
stated that the machinery for flax-dressing had been improved. Hot-
water retting did not employ machinery, and that system he had tried,
and given it up. He wished to impress upon them, that the finest
quality of flax produced in the world was that which was grown in the
neighbom-hood and retted in the waters of the Lys. Being about to
move his flax-mills from Gloucestershire to Kerry, and to erect them
on a larger and more extensive scale, he had gone down to Patrington,
simply to ascertain whether the new pieces of machinery that were
talked of were worth having, and he was informed by Mr. Ai'thur
Marshall that they were not, and that he was increasing his old stocks.
Consequently, the flax-mills which he began to work with ten years ago
were those which he was moving from Gloucestershire to Kerry, where
they would be erected without the slightest alteration, under the
auspices of Mr. Marshall, of Patrington. He mentioned this lest
people might be induced to purchase machinery which would turn out
after all to be worthless. With regard to the feeding of cattle, his
experience was that flax-seed mixed with peas, beans, or barley fed an
animal quicker than anything else. He agreed, therefore, in the
importance of having the seed as a cheap and nutritious food for
cattle.

Professor Wilson, of Edinbui-gh, alluding to the question of soils,
said there was good evidence to show that almost every class of soil,
supposing it to be properly tilled, was suitable for flax, but he agreed
■with Sir Edward Kerrison, that soils known as loams, containing a cer-
tain mixture of clay and sand, were those which, under proper tillage,
would give the best crops of flax ; as indeed they would of most other
cultivated plants. He admitted that wheat was probably the best
preparation for a flax-crop ; but he could not go with Mr. Browne,
when he said that they should not plough deeply, but use a skim-
plough to move two or three inches of the surface. This was contrary
k> all good cultivation.

YOL. I. — S. S. 2 F

432 Abstract Report of Ayricultiiral Discussions.

Mr. Beale Browne explained tliat the ground slioiild be ploughed
previous to the skimming.

Professor Wilson : With regard to the action of the soil upon the
fibre of the plant, he believed that the fibre depended more upon
the technical treatment which it received, than upon the soil in which
it was grown ; and this view was confii-med by what Mr. Maguire had
stated as the result of liis observation in Ii-eland. Climate had, of
course, a certain effect upon flax. Still, here again, he thought the
technical treatment had much more to do with the fibre than the
mere difference in the quality of the plants. Mr. Brown had told
them that flax was a thirsty plant, and would therefore necessarily
grow better in a moist than a diy climate. That he (Professor Wilson)
could not admit. On the contrary, he should say that of all oui* culti-
vated plants flax was the least thirsty. If the flax-plant were examined,
it Avould be seen to exhibit, when well developed, a large amount of
fibrous roots, which penetrated the soil in all directions, and sucked
in as much moisture as was required. But it was the smallest-leafed
plant that we cultivated ; and if it absorbed moistui'C, it must also get
rid of the moistiire somehow, and it could only do that by means
of its leaves.

Professor Coleman : And by its stems.

Professor Wilson : Perhaps ; though the functions of the bark are
very different from those of the leaves. Still it had as small an
evaporating surface as any plant that we grow on our farms. In Bel-
gium, where the best descri2)tions of flax were grown, the climate was
even drier than in oui- own eastern coimties. It was a dry climate,
and flax was a plant that was indigenous to dry soils, not to soils charged
with moistui'C. Again, he might observe that flax gi-ew better upon
the east than on the west coast of Ireland, that is to say, in the drier
parts than in the very moist parts.

Passing on to the subject of the preparations for gathering in
the crops, he thought a great improvement might be made in the
mode of harvesting. Old Eomau writers, of 2000 years ago, de-
scribed the processes for cidtivating, harvesting, and preparing
flax as almost substantially the same as those now practised in
Ireland ; there had not been any practical improvement during the
last 2000 years. Upon looking at a flax-plant, it would be seen
that the fibre, which was the thing sought after, reached from the
crown of the root to the extreme point of the plant itself: and the
whole of that fibre, in its extreme length, and in as unbroken a state
as possible, was what they wanted to obtain. The present process of
hand-pulling was a very tedious, difiicult operation, especially in dis-
tricts where the cultivation of flax had been newly introduced. People
were sent into the fields to pull it up in handfuls, and lay it down to
dry. • Why should the flax-crop be pulled up by the roots when no
other crop was so treated ? It was then taken in that state, and
steeped for a certain period ; next it underwent the process of scutching,
the object of which was to separate it into two pai'ts — the fibre of the
plant and the woody centre, or " boon." In knocking off' the roots
the fibre itseK v\'as always more or less injured ; then it required more

Flax Culture. 433

space, and was more expensive to manipulate : the steeping process
was longer and less certain than if the roots liad been removed by-
mowing. He saw no reason, tben, wby flax sbould not be mown.
If tbe ground were well tilled, as it might bo, kept well weeded,
and a roller passed over it after the seed was in, tbcy would get
a perfectly smooth surface, and at the right time for gathering
he would mow it ; he would even put on a mowing-machine, and
cut it as close to the ground as he could. By doing this the roots
would be left in the soil. Thus, too, by a better agency than that of
the scutching-machine, the fibre would be separated from the useless
Y/oody part of the root, and when the plant was put into the steep
it would have an oi^ening aLi*eady cut, by means of which moisture
could be absorbed, and the juices washed out more thoroughly than
by the process now resorted to. The effect would be to accelerate
the whole process, and save something like 15s. or 20s. an acre.

A further advantage would be that the plant would steep much
more equably ; for what was now wanted was power to regulate the
steeps better. With regard to steeping itself, he quite agreed with
Sir Edward Kerrison, that a regular temperature which was under
control was desirable, and he was of opinion that the hot-water system
of steeping was infinitely preferable to the cold-water system. In
Ireland it was impossible to grow flax profitably or well under the
system there adopted, because the steeping could never be equable. It
was well known, and Professor Voelcker would confirm him in this,
that in the process of fermentation, large masses could be controlled
much more easily than small. A large steep like the river Lys
was much more equable in its tempei-ature than the little pits which
were dug all around the country in different parts of Ireland in all
descriptions of soils, and into which water from the bottom, the sides,
and the top, found its way, so that it was really impossible to steep
the flax in those districts in a proper manner : for one part was not
retted, but rotted, and absolutely destroyed, whilst another part would
not be retted at all. He believed the operation v/ould never be scien-
tifically and properly conducted until the steeps were regulated just as
the fermenting-tuns were in breweries and distilleries. Flax, as they
were aware, was a bundle of minute fibres bound together by an
albuminous mucilaginous substance — that is to say, a vegetable
substance containing nitrogenised matter; and all they had to do, if
they wanted to get a fine sample of flax, was to destroy this, or
wash it out. He held that washing or dissolving it was better than
destroying it, because they could control the former operation, and
not the latter. If they did this they would have as fine samples in
England as there were in Belgium.

The river Lys was a large body of water that was almost equable
in its temperature, and very soft in quality. There the greatest atten-
tion was paid to the business of flax-dressing, and was amply repaid
by the superior article they tm-ned out, and the credit it had acquired
in the markets of the world. The people were well instructed, and
knew perfectly what they were about, whilst our poor fellows were
lacking in these advantages.

2r2

434 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

Again, he saw no reason why seed should not be grown at the same
time as the fibre. lie believed the matured librc was better oj)erated
upou than the immatured fibre. Mr. Bro'mi had sjioken of the
ripj)ling process. That, lie believed, was pretty well exploded ; but
he would suggest whether rollers could not be used profitably to take
the boll ofi'the stem. He would, however, use jdaiu, not toothed rollers.

Linseed no doubt was a capital substance for feeding pur2)oses, but
he coilld not helj) thinking that it would be bad policy to use it in that
way. Linseed contained 30 per cent, of oil, worth from 25Z. to 30/. a
tun. Would it not, therefore, be much preferable to squeeze out the
oil, and use the cake, than give their cattle an article which they
could sell at 30/. a tun '? An equivalent for oil could be given in
the shape of hydi'o-carbons and starchy substances, which would have
the same eflcct at a less cost. Therefore, he thought they should
press their linseed, sell the oil, and use the cake with some substance
tliat was as rich in hydro-carbons as the oil which they had expressed
from the seed.

IMr. Frere asked what Mr. Browne tliought might be the feeding
vahie of the bolls V

Mr. BeaIjE Browne rejdied that, so far as liis experience went, the
chaff of the fiax-plant was not of much value. He mixed it with straw
and hay, but it was of such little value that, even in Ireland, he was
using it as common litter for his cattle.

Professor Wilson : The bolls contain a considerable i>ortion of
nitrogenous compounds.

Mr. Beale Browne : In pulling the flax they got a good deal of
dirt with it, and that is one rc^ason why I do not use tlie bolls.

The President : With reference to the suggestion that the flax
should be mown, the objection to that is that three-fourths of the seed
would probably be lost.

Mr. Beale Browne : In noticing the various processes in vogue,
I have omitted to touch upon one topic- — the influence of chemical
science. Chemistry will probably by-and-by do more for the jiroper
manipulation of flax than any machinery, lie had had leading chemists
with him at various times carrying out exjwriment upon experiment ;
and it was to Dr. Voclcker, and men of science like him, that he
looked for the accomplishing of this object rather than to all the
machine-makers put together.

Sir Walter Stirling felt at a loss to conclude, from the observa-
tions of the several speakers, whether the growth of flax in England
was to be condemned or recommended. It had been shown how-
advantageous in many points of view, and amongst them in the
feeding of cattle, was the flax-crop ; but the conclusion at which Sir
Edward Kerrison had arrived seemed to indicate what he had always
heard really constituted the impediment to the cidtivation of flax in
this country — namely, that there were neither convenient markets nor
mills. It would seem, therefore, to be utterly useless to enter into
the consideration of the best mode of steeping or scutching, or any of
the other technical modes of treatment that were best known to the
manufactm-crs, if the growers of flax could not reach the manufao-

Fiax Culture. 435

tiirers, and there were no mills ready at hand for its proper treatment.
In the course of last summer a speech was delivered by Lord John
Manners, in Leicestershire, which placed the culture of flax in so
pleasing a light in respect of profit, that one would have supposed that
English farmers would take to the growth of flax to such an extent
that it would supersede the wheat-crop. But liow did it turn out V
In the county of Kent, where he resided, several attempts were made
on a small scale. For example, on a neighbouring estate to his own,
a gentleman grew suflicient flax to make a table-cloth, and being high
sheriflt' of the county he sent it for the dinner-table of the Grand Jiuy
at the assizes. Well, they had had these curiosities. But the general
answer which he had received on the subject was just that with which
Sir E. Kerrison had closed his able remarks. If the culture of flax
could be practically adopted for the benefit of the farmers ; if it could
be recommended as ensuring a fair return of profit for their capital,
skill, and labour, v/ell and good. But if it could not, then they might
say of the flax-crop what the medical man observed respecting the
cucumber : the best mode of dressing the cucumber, said he, is to
employ so much oil, so much pejiper, so much vinegar, &c., and then,
when the i)rocess is finished, the whole should be thrown out of
window ! He hoped, however, that they were not coming to such a
conclusion as that on the present occasion ; though he should like to
know in what direction it was advisable to go ; whether they were to
advance, or hold their hand and wait until things were in a better
position with regard to mills, markets, and manufocturers.

Mr. Maguire, M.P., said : A scutching-mill established in any locality
would be a complete protection for the farmer ; for when once the flax
Vv'as converted into a marketable article it was of such small bulk that
it could be sent to any part of the country at very little cost. In
Cork they could say to the farmers, " We do not ask you to grow flax,
we are independent of you ; " for they could get dovvii from Ulster
a ton of flax worth 60/. or 70/., at a cost of 25s. only for carriage.
And if they did nothing more with the produce than make it into yarn
they coidd send a bale of it of the value of 300/. or 400/. up to Belfast,
the seat of the manufacture, for 25s. a ton by the steamer. If the
farmer were within a distance of 10 or 12 miles fi'om a scutching-mill
he would be perfectly independent. Flax was a good and paying
crop, but not unless they could convert the straw into a portable
manufactm-ed article.

The President : Before a vote of thanks is proposed to Mr. Beale
Browne, I think I may say generally that it is the opinion of those
who are interested in the cultivation of flax in England, and this has
been ably put by Mr. Maguire, that neither in this country nor in
Ireland do we recommend farmers to grow flax unless they have
markets for it, and there are companies or individual manufacturers
near at hand who would undertake the scutching, dressing, and pre-
paration of the fibre.

On the motion of Mr. Wells, seconded by Mr. H. Wilson, a vote of
thanks was passed to Mr. Beale Browne.

436 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

Meeting of Weeldy Couvcil, May VJtl. Tlie President, Sii' E. C.
Kerrison, Bart., M.P., in tlie Chair. Mr. J. Chalmers Morton read a
Paper on

Agricultural Education.

The paper to be read this morning is, I fear, of a very diflferent
order from those which generally and most worthily engage attention
at the weekly meetings of this Society, for I have no unusual agri-
cultiu-al experience to relate, nor any new facts or observations to
describe. It is indeed an argument rather than a history which I
have ventured upon — one, too, which is, I believe, liable to be con-
sidered, either, on the one hand, as too general and discursive for an
audience of practical agricultiu-ists ; or, on the other, as too pointedly
levelled at the recent resolutions of the Council on its subject, to bo
within the competence of a mere ordinary member of the Society at
any except oiu* annual general meetings. On this point, however, I
must at once declare that it has not been my wish to discuss this
subject controversially at all, and that I shall make no reference
whatever to what the Council have, after their ample and prolonged
discussion of it, thought it right to do.

I hope, indeed, that I may be allowed at the close of my statement
to point out where aud how, as it seems to me, the influence of the
Eoyal Agricultural Society in the promotion of agricultural education
may be most usefidly applied, but this I shall do with no reference
whatever to the plan v/hich has been already adopted, and no desire
to bring that plan under discussion now. The object of this paper
principally has been to deterniino and place in the order of their
relative importance the elements of a good agricultural education ; and
especially to ascertain and indicate where it is that the existing agi'i-
cultui'al education thus appears to be deficient. The plan of the
paper accordingly has been — 1st, so to describe the business of the
farmer as to illustrate the abilities and qualities he must possess and
exercise during its successful prosecution ; 2nd, to consider the educa-
tional process by which these abilities and qualities may be best
acquu'cd ; 3rd, to give such illustrations as I have been able to collect
of the progress and existing state of agi-icultural education among us ;
and, 4th, to consider what may be practicable or desirable in the
further promotion of it.

The Occupation of the Farmer.

1. First, then, of the Occupation of the Farmer. — Agriculture is an
art or manufacture. It is also a business or a trade. And people
have of late years got into the habit of calling it a science. By this
last designation it can however of course be meant only that the facts
which make up the experience of the farmer — like those indeed of
every other experience whatsoever — are recognised by men of science
as in perfect keeping with the kno^-n laws of Nature. There is
nothing in the field or feeding-house of which a thousand examples
in other departments of observation have not been studied and
recorded. To the physiologist, the chemist, the botanist, and cntomo-

Agricultural Education. 437

legist, the ''mystery" of agriculture, thus, has disappeared. Every-
thing is the illustration or fulfilment of a general law, of which
examples are seen everywhere. Agriculture, though not a science,
has thus at length become a museum, as it were, of facts, and
instances, and specimens, in the classification of which students of all
the sciences have been successfully at work, so that every part has
now the light upon it of well-defined relationship with scientific
truth.

If this be a correct account of agriculture as a so-called science,
how is it with agricultm-e as a trade '? There is here an even more
complete explosion of the idea of anything exceptional or mysterious.
The relationship of the farmer to him of whom he hires the land,
which is his manufactory — to those of whom he purchases the labour
he directs — to those who are his customers — and to those of whom he
is the customer ^is of the ordinary kind, dependent for its establish-
ment and maintenance on the ordinary principles of human nature,
and requiring only such protection from without as an equitable
administration of the law secures for it. There is no longer any idea
that, beyond the mere administration of justice between man and man,
the Commonwealth requires any other protection of this or any other
industry than Nature has afforded it, whether in the soil, the climate
and position of the country, or in the energy, the conscience, and the
self-interest of its inhabitants. The differences, however, between
agriculture and other trades, though they may be only matters of
detail, are very considerable indeed. They are dependent mainly on
the fact that to the farmer harvest comes but once a year ; that,
indeed, several years are generally needed before the full retui-n from
many agricultural investments can be realised ; that landlord, tenant,
and labourer live here in closer conscious neiglihour-\\oodi, than land-
lord, tenant, and labom'er in the case of any other industry; and
generally, that the business is territorial, dealing with the whole
surface of the country, and often the sole provision for its inhabitants.
The perishable natm'e of agricultural products is another circumstance
impressing some degree of peculiarity on the trade in them. But
apart from, and indeed in spite of all these peculiarities, the fact
remains that the business relations of the farmer are and ought to be
similar to those of all other tradesmen, and that he depends for his
success in his dealings with his customers uj^on the very same qualities
of industry, honesty, good judgment, resolution and promptitude,
which secure success elsewhere.

But agi'iculture is especially a manufacture and an art, dependent
on professional intelligence and skill ; and here, of course, we come
upon the essential features which distinguish it. I believe that I am
right in saying that its chief and ruling characteristics have arisen
from the fact that throughout it has to do with Life. A great deal
hinges upon this. A higher than any merely material force is indeed
thus wielded by the farmer, but in effect it rather limits and defines
his powers than widens them. He is not an artist or a mahufacturer,
the only limit to whose handiwork is his fancy or his will. He is
hedged about by forces which are beyond him to resist; many of

438 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussion.".

them Leyoud him to control or even guide. All that he can do is to
prepare, and watch, and help. Nature outside pursues her course — ■
rain and sunshine, heat and cold come and go — regardless of his
pui'pose. The seeds of weeds, of parasites, of disease, of mischiefs of
all sorts, are everywhere ; and alwaj-s ready for a fitting seed-bed,
where they will grow to his great injury or even ruin. His seeds,
and the j^lauts and animals he breeds from them, are not only tlie
prey of all these mischiefs— not only subject to all the influences of
our ever-changing climate, but they themselves are living creatm-cs
independent of him, possessing as species and even as individuals,
characters and tendencies which ai"e realised and carried out, one mp^y
say, in spite of him. All indeed that seems to remain his own is his
power of choice — the power of selecting the objects he shall cultivate
— the power of choosing the times and seasons of the various opera-
tions by which, after long experience of theLr natural history, he finds
that he can promote their growth. Tliis perhaps is rather understat-
ing his ability, but the distinguishing featui-es of his occupation
certainly are those which I have named. It has to do with living
things, having tendencies, and characters, and wills, as you may
almost say, of their own ; fed, too, not only artificially, but by Nature,
responding sensitively to natural as wcdl as artificial influences, and
thus susceptible, not only of injury, but of nourisluncnt, recovery, and
cure, through circumstances and forces which the farmer cannot guide,
for which indeed he does little more than make ready, watch and
"wait.

To be a good and successful agriculturist, therefore, needs not
only familiarity with the ordinary routine of farm practice, and both
industry and promptitude in its direction; it needs especially (1), the
quality of patience by which her full share of the farm work is given
to Nature to accomplish ; and it needs especially (2) the exercise of
quick-sighted observation, by Avhich the earliest natural indications
of what is going on, the earliest intimations of the natui'al tendency
and movement, whether to the good or bad, are detected in the living
creatures witli which the farmer has to deal. Intelligence, activity, and
promptitude in carrying out the routine of operations are necessary
in every other business as vrell as that of farming ; but none other,
imless it too have equally to do with life, so needs the exercise of
quick-sighted, careful, habitual observation for its successful prosecu-
tion ; and in none other is there so much need of patience — I do
not mean contentment, but a willingness to wait for the full eftect
of the costless influences of Natui'e. A quick and watchful eye,
and prompt activity at the proper time, have to be united with the
faculty of Viaiting till the proper time, in order to good agri-
cidture.

Many an example, both mere incidents and whole lives, could be
quoted in illustration of the need of both these qualities. Many of us
have, I daresay, seen men of strong will (of com-se not bred to the
business, or experience would have taught them better) tearing reso-
lutely on in pursuit of the object which they had set themselves,
regardless of weather, prejudices, habits ; enforcing the material

Agricultural Education. 439

result by steam it horses would not do, by imported bands if tbe bomo-
bred labourers were insufficient — in tbe end correcting at great cost
tbeir bhmders, and confessing tbat tbe knot bad been generally cut
ratber tban imtied — tbat difficulties bad been swept out of tbe way
ratber tban overcome — tbat tbe mere enemy, so to speak, and not tbe
enmity, bad been conquered, and tbat tbe natural metbod by wbicb
men as well as mere material are converted, and by wbicb tbings of
tbemselves come round, binging satisfactorily on tbe new element
wbicb may be introduced, is not only tbe cbeapest, but tbe most
efficient in tbe end. On tbe otber band, of course it must be confessed
tbat every neigbbourbood will furnish instances enough, and those,
too, of men who have been bred to tbe business, where the natural
metbod, as I have called it, has tended to listlessnes and idleness, and
ended in Natui'e not being used at all, but left almost altogether to
herself.

These remarks have indicated and suggested rather than described
tbe well-educated agriculturist. He needs, first, such a perfect and
detailed acquaintance with tbe treatment of tbe soils, tbe plants, the
animals which be cultivates, as experience, and in fact apprenticeship,
can alone confer. And when you consider how many agencies he
employs — working-cattle, steam-power, labourers — what a magazine
of mechanism there now is in agricultm-al machinery — on what a
variety of soils, under what a variety of climates in this country be is
placed — of bow many plants and animals he needs to know tbe culti-
vation— bow quickly in order to their successful management be needs
to recognise and act on every aspect wbicb they severally present
under every variety of condition as to disease or health — bow patiently,
moreover, he has to deal with the living creatures wbicb he thus has
xmder bis care, it must be plain to you tbat long and habitual practice
and experience can alone confer the ability, or ratber aptitude, which
as a practical agricultiu'ist be needs.

Then, as to tbe business arrangements which he has to conduct ; —
there is, as I have said, bis relationship to be defined with tbe owner
of the land, by which tbe returns for investments, bearing fruit often
many years after the expenditure, may be secured to him ; and there
is tbe relationship to be maintained with tbe labourer, so tbat willing
and intelligent services on one side may be secured by reasonable,
firm, and friendly bearing on the otber; and there is the market skill,
by which especially tbe right articles for purchase are selected, and
also by which they are fairly bought and sold ; and thus in the
business of the farmer there is ample scope for judgment and resolu-
tion, for both decision and kindliness of character, and for a skill and
promptitude wbicb are to be acquired of course in full only by
experience, but which are needed from the very beginning of bis
career.

Lastly, there is the light of science, in tbe midst of wbicb be ought
to walk — no longer a slave to mere routine, but a freed man, acting
intelligently within tbe known limits imposed by Nature's laws — per-
ceiving tbe scope and tendency of every act tbat he dii-ects — able
therefore himself to suggest the improvements of which his art is

440 Abstract Report of Arjricultural Discussions.

capable, or at any rate to judge aright of tliose helps and alterations
which others may oflfer or suggest.

It is, however, undoubtedly significant — partly perhaps of the exist-
ing educational status prevalent amongst farmers — certainly of the fact
that barely a single generation has yet passed away since the labours of
so many scientific men in the field of agriciilture commenced, and cer-
tainly also of the paramoimt importance of technical and commercial
ability, that is of skill and shrewdness for success in farming — that
while we have amongst us maxims which insist on the importance of
knowing the details of the business both in the field and in the market,
there are none that I know of which urge the value of scientific
knowledge.

I have heard often enough that there is a " rent " difference between
the words " go " and " come " in agriculture, so that the farmer hiring
land who can show and teach his labourers how to do it, is as well off
as the yeoman owning the land he cultivates, who depends upon a
bailift". And we often hear, too, of the rent of a farm being " picked
up outside the fences," i. c, made by marlvct ability. But there is no
such maxim in assci-tion of the commercial value of an acquaintance
with the agi'icultural relations of the sciences. The tendency is still
the other way. More than once, for instance, I have overheard that
" a farmer with a chemical head is sure to have an empty pocket." Of
course such an idea has arisen from examples where the failure has
been owing, not to a knowledge of chemistry, but to an ignorance of
agriculture— examples, too, most probably where there has not been
much greater knowledge of science than of practice.

If this part of my paper be concluded by a reference to an example
illustrative of what has been set forth, it may be said that no one
has more perfectly exemplified the attitude of the well-educated agri-
cultui'ist in the midst of the natural and artificial aids and difiiculties
aroimd him than the late Jonas Webb, of Babraham. No one knew
better than he the limits imposed by Nature on the agriculturist, and
few accomplished more within those limits, or did it better. The con-
dition both of his farm and of his stock bore ample witness here. A
wonderfully quick, almost instinctive insight, as it seemed, guided
him in the management of both ; and the energy of his character and
tenacity of his resolution — by which it was that Babraham, neither a
pastoral nor a grazing farm by nature, nevertheless became celebrated
for its flock? and herds — were tempered by kindliness and wisdom, the
fruit both of natural cordiality and of experience. I may refer to him
too as an example of success not only in the art of agricultiu'c, but in
the business of farming. No one ever commanded more willing ser-
vice from his laboui-ers, and no one could ever have received more
cordial co-operation from his neighbours — and power to engage the
sympathies of others in this way is of fijst-ratc importance in the pro-
fessional character of the agriculturist. And I will add that his intel-
ligent and cordial admiration of the successful efiforts of men of
science to throw light on the experience of the farmer was not only
of direct advantage to him by the freedom from prejudice which it
conferred ; but this, together v/ith his genial manly bearing — also the

Agricultural Education. 441

fritit of education — gave him a weight and influence with others which
is certainly one of the most vahiable educational results that can be
named, and one from the want of which farmers have suffered perhaps
more than any other class.

The Educational Peocess.

2. Agricultural Education. — We come now, in the second part of this
paper, to consider the educational process by which the agriculturist
is to be qualified for his profession. How can those faculties be best
educated, that knowledge best conferred, that skill best acquired,
which the farmer needs V This is the question for consideration. It
must, hovv-ever, be confessed that notwithstanding the attempt just
made to define in a systematic manner the equipment which the farmer
needs, no sooner do we begin to consider the way in which it is
to be obtained than speculation fails us, and we are fain to fall back
on actual experience as offering the only safe guidance to the answer
which is sought. — Of course the boy must go to school, v/hatever may
be his future occupation ; and, no doubt, the discipline, both of school
life and of school work — the habits, on the one hand, of obedience and
regularity, and on the other of j)erseverance and resolution which thus
arise — together with the actual knowledge and ability acquired —
remain v/ith him through life to his great advantage, whether he is to
be a farmer or not. I do not pretend to discuss the relative merits in
these respects of the various plans of scholastic training which have
been advocated. Their bearing on a future good manhood is, of
course, a far higher subject than the one which occupies us now. I
presume, however, that in this room we have to do not with good
manhood, but with the much himibler subject of good agriculture ; and
the elementary schooling of the boy can have but little direct or
special relationship to the ultimate profession of the farmer. But, even
if this were otherwise, I should not suppose schools, designed especially
for farmers' sons, or for those of their sons who are to be farmers, to
be at all desirable. There surely is some advantage in boys of town
and country origin commingling in school life. Eather than have the
sons of farmers educated as a class, it would be better they should go
where the peculiarities and self-conceit of home life may be rubbed
off, and some knowledge be acquired, from the beginning, that good
sense and agi-eeable companionship exist in other professions as well
as agriculture.

Neither ought we to forget that agriculturists are a very various
body, socially. The so-called class of tenant-farmers does, indeed,
include differences almost as gi-eat in their way in regard to social
position as the so-called " class " of landowners, which includes in
its lower ranks 40s. freeholders. The school education, therefore, of
the boy who is to be a farmer, which, of course, ought always to be as
good and liberal as is compatible with the necessities of after life,
is necessarily extremely various, according to the wealth and position
of his parents, and the consequent social position, wealth, and leisure,
which he himself may ultimately command.

On all these grounds it appears to me that elementary, general, and

442 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

so-called middle-class education, is i?carcely an agricultural subject at
all ; and the only remark I shall venture to make upon it, where it is
intended as an introduction to the agricultural profession, is that good
training in an ordinary school affords perhaps less scope for encou-
raging habits of observation than is desirable in the education of a boy
intended to be a farmer ; and also (to put it solely on professi(mal
grounds), considering the international relations which now obtain
amongst agriculturists, there is probably less attention generally paid
to learning French and German than tlierc ought to be. As to the
former point, I think it would be a useful sujiplcmeut to the ordinary
school exercises, if the study of Botany and Entomology were encou-
raged and directed from a pretty early ugc, and the practice of draw-
ing from Nature taught. A boy who, besides acqiiiring a certain
acquaiutance with the features, the history, the habits, and relations,
of certain plants and insects, has actually produced a series of draw-
ings of both from Nature in every stage of growth, from seed and egg
respectively, must have gone througli a verj^ useful— agriculturally
useful — training of his powers of observation.

I leave, however, the subject of mere school training and come to
the question before us. And the first remark to be made is that agri-
cultural education to bo perfect must begin early on a fai*m. Let me
here say, by the way, that while there is doubtless some good done by
a discussion of this subject on a public occasion of tliis kind, yet I
believe it to be good chiefly as influencing the two or three per cent. —
a mere leaven, but still no doubt a leaven — who enter agricultm-e as a
profession from other walks of life. And, indeed, in my humble
opinion, the influence of the Royal Agricultural Society over this great
subject, as a whole, is most likely altogether overestimated. It will
certainly bo greater, Ibr example, in the case of the intelligent and
well-educated tenant than in that of the " smock-frock " farmer of fifty
ftcrcs, who is little more than a labourer ; but, taking the former
case, let us ask oiu'selves whether such a man, with the fourteen or
sixteen years' experience of what is necessary for agricultural
success, which he has had since his marriage, is likely to ask for
guidance or advice from any one whatever as to the education (I am
speaking now strictly of agricultm'al education) which lie shall get or
give his son whom he destines to succeed him, and whose require-
ments for such a position he must believe himself to know so much
better than any other person.

The fact is, that in agriculture, far more than in any other trade or
occupation, the present generation of practitioners has been bred and
educated by the last, and is engaged in the education of the next.
There are more now probably than ever who are entering agriculture
as the business of their life from other ranks and occupations, but it
still is true, and probably will be always true, that the bulk of farmers
have been bred by farmers ; and whatever faults there may be in the
consequent upbringing of so large a portion of the middle-class popu-
lation in this country, I must confess my belief that it is a fortunate
thing for all who are dependent on the cultivation of the land for their
support that this is so. I would, indeed, state it as the keynote of

Afjricnitural Education. 443

pretty nearly all I iiave to say upon this subject, that I believe it to be
a fortunate thing for landowners, a fortunate thing for labourers, and a
fortunate thing for the next generation of tenant-farmers, that the
education of farmers from childhood upwards is almost entirely in
the hands of farmers — that is, under their direction.

There is, perhaps, no one who would hesitate — certainly none who
would hesitate less than I sliould — to accept the picture which any
large-hearted public-spirited owner of, say, half a county, might dravN^
to himself of a model body of tenantry — I say few would hesitate to
accept such a pictui'e drawn by such a man as truly representing the
chief end and goal of real agricultural progress ; but even for him and
for the accomplishment of his benevolent desires I believe it to be a
fortunate thing that the education of the futui-e generation of his
tenantry, who are to be so many steps onwards in the progress to that
goal, is directed and determined not by himself, but by the present
generation of his tenantry, whom he may believe to be still far short
of the goal in question. For, before all things, it is necessary that
whatever education be adopted for them, it should, as its result, confer
professional ability and skill. The ediication he might desire for them
might turn out unselfish gentlemen, able, intelligent, courageous ; but
in addition to all this it must turn out farmers who can pay their rent,
and make their business answer also for themselves and for their
laboui'crs, or the whole thing will be a failure. And I, therefore, feel
certain that it is well that the education of the next generation of
farmers is almost entirely in the hands of, /. e., determined by, men
who must know better than any other class Mhat is needed for pro-
fessional success. It is of such men certainly that I would in the lii'st
place talce counsel in reference to the professional education of any
son of mine whom I destined for a farmer. It is their judgment that
should determine the time when he must close his school life and
begin his life upon a farm ; and all I should contend for (if necessary
against them, though I believe they would heartily acquiesce) would
be, first, such an arrangement of his school life as should, with a
certain degree of educational completeness (on the importance of
which Mr. Dyke Acland has rightly insisted), turn to the best account
the school term allowed him ; and, secondly, such an arrangement of
lis life upon the farm as should, without interfering with his acquire-
ment of habits of practical skill and judgment, leave room and time
for his acquirement of that larger, more liberal, and, in fact, scientific
mastery of the various subjects included in farm practice v/liich will
lift him from the rank of a mere jom-neyman cultivator to that of
a Master Agriculturist.

It is to the second of these points that I have now to confine myself;
and, as I said, the life upon a farm needs to begin early in order to
perfect agricultm'al education. I do not attempt to prove this by an
induction of examples — for it is impossible to collect the 10,000
instances which woidd be necessary for this purpose — but the opinions
of experienced men are the result of just such an induction, however
unconsciously they may have been arrived at. And some such
opinions I proceed to quote. The It^te John Smith, of Bowidown

444 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

Farm, near Tetbury, in Gloucestershire, farmed between 1760 and
1800. His annual journals and letters, wbicb I have seen, jirove him
to have been a shrewd, intelligent, and leading man among the agri-
culturists of that time, and he enjoyed a correspondence with men in
ranks much higher than his own. In a letter of his to Major Ogilvie,
of Forfarshire, there occurs the following passage, which, however
extravagantly worded, is, I think, worth quoting on this subject. He
says simply enough : —

" I never knew a learued man who was a good farmer, and therefore I never
lamented the want of an education, The time of life to make men scholars, is
the time for observation in the farming line; and it rarely happens that a man
can be a proficient in that business unless he be trained to it from his youth."

This was wTitten, let us recollect, long before the agricultural rela-
tions of the sciences had been worked out. He even adds : —

"I would take a man that can neither read nor write, to make a liirmer,
sooner than I would the most learued man. The former has no knowledge but
what comes from Nature, and of good natural parts. The latter prides himself
upon his reading and his education, by which he thinks of pulling Nature out
of her course, and so of outdoing everybody."

This is quoted as the utterance of a shrewd, intelligent, and suc-
cessful farmer, notwithstanding the xittcr absm-dity and fully of which
many will pronoimce it guilty, simply because of the trustworthy good
sound sense which I contend that it also displays. If I were address-
ing agricultm-al students, or felt in any degree rcsiionsible for their
success in after life, as, if their teacher, I should be, I would not utter
one word in praise of scientific instruction, if they v.'cre to infer from
it that it could in any degi-ee dispense with the absolute and paramoimt
necessity of practical knowledge and skill, and of that long-continued
patient observation of Nature and of practice from early yeai's by
which they can be best secm-cd. But it is plain that the old farmer,
however right he was to insist upon the need of a knowledge " that
comes from Nature," could have kno^Mi little of science, whicli he
here refers to under the words " learning " and " education," if he
supposed that its tendency was to make men try to put Natm'e out of
its com'se, and so outdo everybody. Science, which teaches us the
limits imposed by Nature, is, on the contrary, the guarantee of true
modesty and humility.

I quote now a more modern example of a judgment on the point
imder discussion. The following story was told me long ago by the
Rev.. J. C. Clutterbuck, of Abingdon, and it has always seemed to me
fxill of useful truth on the subject of agricultural education. It is
some years since I fii'st put it into print, and it then immediately
went the round of the papers ; nevertheless, I tell it once more :

" A young man fresh from the University, who had taken cordially to the
position of a country gentleman — and, among other occupations, had adopted
that of agriculturist — was riding roimd his land one morning with a neighbour
of long experience and well-proved practical ability and judgment as a farmer,
lie bstened with docility and good-will to the instruction and advice that were
given to him ; and, struck by the wisdom and good sense of his companion's
discourse, he at length exclaimed, ' Ah, Mr. , I wish I knew as much as

Agricultural Education. 445

you do.' — ' Make yourself jjerfectly easy on that score, my dear fellow,' was
the reply ; * you never will.' — The one was fresh from the schools, and the
other had spent all his life in the fields, and yet there was neither mock
modesty in the speech of the one, nor arrogance in the answer of the other.

Mr. did not finish his reply : — ' I have been accustomed,' he might have

said, ' to be amongst plants and animals, constantly riding and walking on the
soil which supports them both, since I was a child. Ever since I can remember
I have had to do with the tillage of the land, the cultivation of crops, the
management of live stock. There is not an aspect of weather, land, or life, so
far as the live stock of the farm are concerned, which I have not habitually
witnessed, realised, and studied. That of Avhich instances and striking cases
may be observed by you is foreseen or recognised by me in its first be-
ginnings almost as if by instinct. Long familiarity witli the details of xaj
occupation, beginning, too, with the mind of a child which has hardly any
other impression on it to weaken the sensitiveness with which its early know-
ledge is received, gives me, almost unconsciously, and without the effort of any
special attention such as you must exercise, those intimations of fitness or of
unfitness, of quality and condition, whether of soil, or crop, or animal, on

"which the right direction of our business of course depends.' Mr. was

perfectly correct ; it is an immense advantage to an agriculturist, as to the
follower of any other occupation, to learn that occupation young."

' Take now the recently declared opinions on this subject of living
men. One of the most intelligent and successful farmers in the
West of England tells me :

" I left school myself before 1 was fourteen, and went at once to assist in
eveiy operation that might be going on, taking the milking-pail morning and
evening, seeing the cattle foddered properly, and lending a helping hand. I
have never found a boy in the way after leaving school, and should quite
despair of his making a man of business unless he had to mix with everything
that moved before he was sixteen or seventeen."

A North Lincolnshire correspondent, with forty years' experience
of the life of a tenant-farmer, who is well known and respected in his
county, says : —

" I attribute my success, imdcr the good providence of God, in the first
place, to getting to know the practical part of farming in my youth, and fol-
lowing that up with tolerably industrious habits."

A leading Norfolk farmer says : —

" I have not been unsuccessful, but I attribute that success in a great
measure to the thorough practical knowledge obtained during apprenticeship."

An experienced Kentish farmer writes : — ■

" My experience confirms the opinion that boys who begin early to learn the
practical part of farming, have great advantages over those even who are
sixteen or seventeen before they leave school."

He adds : — ■

" I invariably answer [requests for advice about the education of a boy who
is to be a farmer] by saying: — Send the lad as near as you can to the place you
think he is likely to settle in as a farmer — select the man who has the character of
being the best farmer in his locality; and, if you can find such a thing as a
money-making farmer in the present day, get him to take him and treat him as
one of his family."

446 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

Lastly, Mr. Clare Sewcll Read, t\-liosc name is well known in this
room, says : —

" My individual cxpcnence is sinijily this: I was sent for six years to a
common commercial school at Norl'olk, and when I was just fifteen I left
school, and passed the next live years in learning; farming at home. From
twenty to twenty- eight, I was engaged in managing farms and estates in
various parts of the country, and 1 fancy in those ei<:ht years 1 gained more
information, and a better knowledge of practical agriculture, than 1 should if 1
had passed my whole life in Norfolk."

And similar testimony to any extent could be quoted from every
county in the kingdom ; but, indeed, it is not wanted, for sui-ely it
must be easy to convince a man that a sound agricultural education
not only includes, but is instruction in tlie art and business of agri-
culture.

Of course this is not all that is desirable, but it is the thing that is
required. And if there be auy displeasure at my occujiying the time
of this meeting with the assertion of a truth so obvious as tliis, I must
say that, obvious as it is, it has seemed to me as if it were sometimes
in danger of being forgotten. I ventiu'c therefore to submit to those
who arc interested in this subject of agricultural education, that the
young men whom tlicy are anxious to equip aright for their agri-
cultural career have to gain their living by it ; and that therefore the-
aim and end of agricultural education must be professional ability.
I picture tu myself the case of a young man with the 2000/, or 3000/.
on which he is to depend as a farmer, well educated — guaranteed as
such by all the distinctions that the Universities can award him, a
proficient even in the various sciences vn^h which agriculture is
directly connected : — He must be uj^wards of twenty years of age, but he
is not yet a farmer, and taking him, as for tlio purposes of this argu-
ment I am entitled to do, to be an average specimen of human nature,
I venture with some confidence to tell him that a thorough good
farmer he never will be. For agricultui'C is an art and not a science,
and the years he has spent till now on schooling, chemistry, and
botany, ought most of them to have been devoted to his apprenticeship
to the business by which his 3000/. arc to maintain him and his future
family. A large and liberal education is, doubtless, an immcasm-able
benefit to any man ; but it is simply mischievous and cruel — and will
ultimately come to be so judged by the young man whose case I have
suj)posed — to attach to the words " agi'icultural education," as a pro-
fessional guidance for him and such as he is, any other than the
simply professional meaning which they bear. I entirely agree, there-
fore, -with the authorities already quoted, in insisting on tJic need of
an early apprenticeship to fiirming, as being the essential substanc3
of an agricultural education.

The testimonies I have quoted ai*e, however, mere extracts from
fuller statements, and the writers would, I believe, all agree with mc
in adding a good deal to the bare assertion of such a truism as this ;
and perhajis the best way of making such additions will be to point out
the difference between the Norfolk and the Kentish correspondents last
quoted. The latter would send his boy into the district where, he is

Agricultural Education. 447

ultimately to ftirm ; Mr. Scwcll Read would send him to a distance
from home, and lie attributes the chief advantage of his o\nx agricul-
tural education to its having been obtained in many different parts of the
country. I believe in the latter statement, and the advice which it
conveys, as the safer and the better of the two. And seeing that it is
generally impossible to obtain in this way that Avider experience which
is desirable, it becomes the more necessary that the agricultural
student should learn the inner truth which underlies the varying
iiarticulars and shades of agricultural and all other experience, so that
the essence of every act that he directs, and of every fact that he
observes, may be understood apart from the wrapping of mere circum-
stances which disguises it. This inner truth is the subject matter of
scientiiic teaching. The sciences of dead and living matter — chemistry,
botany, physiologj^, and others— these certainly arc part of a sound
agricultural education, because they include and classify, and thus
truly represent the facts with which the farmer daily has to do. Any
agriculturist who is also to a certain extent a botanist, a chemist, a
physiologist, has his mind as well as his mere hands and eyes occupied
with his business, and his judgment is surer, safer, and more confident
in unusual or imtried circumstances, not only because it acts upon
this inner truth which circumstances disguise to the mere outward
eye — but also because by larger exercise and freedom it has thus
itself become an instrument of greater aptitude and power.

I ought perhaps to beg pardon for occupying time with truisms of this
kind, and I \,i.\\ therefore conclude this part of my statement with a
short reference to the way in which the practical and scientific parts
of a complete agricultural education may be best obtained. It is the
desirableness of uniting the two that makes institutions of the class
of the Eoyal Agricultural College so valuable. Such institutions
should, in my opinion, be not scientific but agricultural colleges.
Their purpose, aim, and end, are to turn out agricultiu-ists ; their
business is to teach agricuitm'c — agriculture, certainly, and therefore
anything that will throw light on agriculture also. It is, however,
difficult, and perhaps impossible, to give this preponderating im-
j)ortance to instruction in farm practice in any scheme for thearrange-
ment of the time of sixty or eighty young men at an institution of
this kind, and therefore I am inclined to think that the best result
will be obtained where such colleges receive young men after three or
four years' residence upon a farm at home or elsewhere. They would
at the College have for a year or two opportunities of becoming
acquainted with the sciences, and their relations to the art and business
of the farmer, while at the same time the routine of work upon the
College farm would keep fresh their familiarity already acquired with
the practical details of farming. Failing this, the alternative is that
such institutions as the Cirencester College should be placed in
districts such as Norfolk and East Lothian, which are full of young-
men learning farming, and where perhaps Mr. Paget's half-time
system might be brought to bear, so that a certain portion of time
being devoted to practical work upon the several farms, a remainder
would be available diu'ing which students of agriculture could
VOL. I. — S. S. 2 G

448 Abstract Report of Afjricultaral Discussions.

assemble from all the farms around as students of the several sciences
taught at one central institution for the purpose.

I may mention that in Scotland it is not imcommon, and it is
desirable everywhere, for young men liaving become acquainted by
several years' practice \\"ith the work of the farm, to enter the office of
an accountant at lulinburgh for a year or more, where they also liave
opportiinities of attending scientific classes at the University and else-
where— thus imiting the two most influential additions that can be
made to the equipment of a thoroughly accomplished agriculturist.

I am well aware this is but scanty treatment of my subject ; but,
indeed, no other is possible within the time allowed mo ; and I have
accordingly done little more than aim at a certain degree oi fairness
in my discussion of it, by giving that same prominence here, in the
scheme for the education of the farmer, to the imjiortance of prac-
tical instruction and skill, which it most assuredly has in the actual
experience of life. Had there been time I could have m-ged at greater
length, and of course with much gi-eatcr force, the professional advan-
tages, both direct and indirect — i. <?., both as actually affecting the
operations of the farm, and as giving a higher social and professional
influence and standing to the farmer — of that more liberal and scien-
tific knowledge of agriculture which can be obtained only by a union
of scientific v>'ith practical instruction. To this point, especially,
though no doubt, also to the correction of other faults and imper-
fections in this paper, the discussion following it will in all probability
be directed ; all therefore that I shall at present add is the following
conclusion, to which I think a full consideration of the subject
leads.

A young man of twenty-one or twenty-two about to enter on a farm
is unusually well qualified both to make his business answer for
himself, and to make it respectable in the eyes of others, if, having
up till fifteen or sixteen been well educated at school, he has since
that time been resident on a farm, or, what is better, resident on
more than one farm, obtaining a practical acquaintance both in the
field and in the market-place with all that the farmer orders and his
labourers do ; and who during the last year or two has been at such
a college as Cirencester ; especially if during all this time upon these
farms he has been taking some interest in those sciences taught at
college to which agriculture is especially related, — and especially, I will
add also, if all along he has also taken a reasonable degree of interest
in all the social as well as strictly professional duties, occupations,
and enjoyments of country life.

Perhaps even now he had better pass a year with a salesman,
accountant, or other professional man, and learn by practice the order,
economy, and j^imctuality of a well-conducted business before he enters
on business for himself And I do not doubt that, supposing a
young man to have no more than 2500/. or 2600/. at his disposal, it
will have, nevertheless, ultimately well answered his pm-pose, though
so much as 500/. or 600/. has been spent by him if necessary in this
way, and his capital thus diminished to this extent.

Agricultural Education. 44't>

The Existing State op AaracuLTUKAL Educatiox.-

3. Our tMrd subject is the existing state of agriciiltui-al education
in tliis country. If tliis is to be measured by results, a great advance
may be generally claimed as baving been achieved diu'ing tbe past
thirty or forty years. No doubt there are exceptional poor cJay-land
districts of small farms in the country, whence neither landlord,
tenant, nor labourer — neither producer nor consumer — get much more
per acre than they did half a century ago. But it is impossible for
any agricultural historian to avoid the conclusion that on the whole
the productiveness and fertility of the country have largely increased
within living memory. And accordingly the pictures which om"
agricultm-al historians — Mr. Thom2)Son and the late Mr. Pusey — have
drawn, are suf&ciently indicative of the fact that more bread and meat
are now grown annixally in England than it has ever before yielded.

By v/ay of datum line for comparison, I may here give a short
account of what might be called, from all I have heard of it, one of
the example farms of Europe— the Wilhelmina Polder, in the province
of Zeeland, Holland, which includes 3000 acres, and was enclosed
from the sea nearly sixty years ago. Mr. van den Bosch — a share-
holder in that property from the beginning, and all the time the
resident manager of it, who is himself both a highly-educated gentle-
man and a good practical farmer — has all along kept accurate
accounts of this thoroughly well-organised estate. The land is
alluvial, and nearly all more or less clayey ; it is all arable, and is
cultivated in six farms upon the jilan of a long and carefully observed
rotation of croj), in which, besides our annual English crops, madder
occupies an important place. Fi'om the decennial averages which
have been struck, it appears that the proj)erty is gradually increasing
in fertility. Thus, comparing the 10 years, 1821-30, with the 10
years, 1851-60, 80 years asimder, I am told that the average produce
of wheat per acre has increased from 31 to 36 bushels ; of rye, from
31'to 35 ; of oats, from 61 to 62 ; of barley, from 50 to 55 bushels ;
while the returns of beans and peas have been stationary. It is,
perhaps necessary to add that some considerable additions of rather
poorer soil have been made to the original area during the interval,
so that the average increase of the same soil ought properly to be
put somewhat higher than these figm'cs represent. It must be ad-
mitted also that an alluvial soil, natui'ally fertile, is not the best on
which to look for increased rctm-ns ; nevertheless, I am inclined to
think that there are few districts in this country, though generally
managed in a much less systematic manner, where, owing to land-
drainage, guano, artificial manm-es, and purchased cattle-food, the
increased fertility is not much greater than it has been observed to bo
on this, one of the largest and best managed farms upon the Con-
tinent. If, for example, the Cotswold district be taken for compari-
son— where we have a comparatively poor thin soil, benefited but
little by land-drainage, which is undoubtedly the greatest fertiliser of
all — there is ample evidence to prove that the wheat-crop, for instance,
which in the early part of this century did not exceed 2 quarters an

2 G 2

450 Abstract Report of Ajricidtural Discussions.

acre, is now more nearly 3^ over tlio whole area : autl Mr. Bowley
states that the produce of miittou in tliat district is double what it
used to be, the sheep being brought out at a year old, weighing as
much as they used to do at two years old. So much for produce.
Eents, on the other hand, have doubled within fifty years; and the
expenditure on labour, taking for example a fairly characteristic
farm of GOO acres wthin the district, of which I have the figures
since 1774, has increased foui-fold. On this farm it was <Ss. an
acre up to 1787, 10s. 6d. an acre up to 1791, I'ds. an aero up to
1800, and between 1853 and 18G3 it has averaged 30s. an acre, besides
beer.

This is but a scanty illustration of a gTeat subject ; but I do not
tliink it is necessary to lead a laboured i)roof by collecting the multi-
tude of examples which would easily be forth.coniing to show the in-
creased productiveness of English agriculture during the present
century. Tliis will be easily admitted by every one ; and if profes-
sional agricultural education is to be measui'cd by results of this kind,
we may fairly put in a claim for considerably increased professional
ability during the period in question. Unfortunately, however, for
the optimists, it is extremely difficult to draw with accurate discrimi-
nation the i^roper inference on this jioint from the facts before us.
We have had land-drainago very extensively adopted as a fertiliser,
and we have had some millions of tons of guano added to the soil,
jvnd some millions also, I jjixsume, of artificial manures a2)i)lied during
the period under review. There can be little doubt that experience
has, during this period, taught farmers the policy of gi'cater liberality
and outlay in the treatment of the land tlian used to be considered
the safe and proper thing ; but the increased jiroduce thus obtained
cannot be put down altogether to increased professional ability or to
better agricultural education.

For there are three things contributing to this result : — 1st, the
natural quality of the land ; 2nd, the character of the machinery and
material available for its jiroper cultivation ; and 3rd, the quality and
character of the judgment, skill, and mind brought to bear on the
management of the whole. The quality of the land, notwithstanding
Liebig's warnings, may be safely pronounced at least as good as ever
it has been. The machinery and material available for its cidtivation
have wonderfully increased in cfiiciency and value, and this alone
would account for the increased produce obtained, even though the
professional ability of the tenant-famiers of the present day should be
pronounced no higher than that of their immediate in-edecessors. I
therefore leave any attemjit at determining the point under discussion
by reference to results, and fall back on testimony. And I submit it,
as at least deserving the serious consideration of all who are interested
in improved agricultural education, that v.-hile the testimony of expe-
rienced men, many of whom can speak from personal knowledge of
two preceding generations, is quite unanimous and clear as to the
immense strides made by the general body of farm tenantry in general
education, intelligence, and social position, there is not by any means
such certainty or unanimity as to tlieir standing in respect of pro-

Agricultural Education. 451

fessloual cducatiou and ability — in short, as to wlicther the sons are
better farmers than their fathers. The general impression among
those whom I have consulted is that the professional and technical
ability when much inferior means were at the disposal of the farmer
Avas at least as great in days gone by as it is now.

I have been in the habit, for twenty years and more, of troubling
those who arc known to be the leading agi'iculturists and the leading
agricultural authorities in every coimty in the kingdom, with circular
qjiestions on pretty nearly every agricultural subject, whether of
annual or or^ly occasional interest, that has arisen during that period ;
and tlic question of agricultural education has been the subject of
a corres2)ondence of this kind during the past few weeks — so that I
am able to speak with some confidence of the existing status, on the
scale both of general cducatiou and of 2)rofessional ability, of the great
body of English agriculturists, according to the best men among
themselves. And I repeat it — the universal testimony is, that while
there are large districts in this coimtry where the tenantry have long
been well-educated men, yet over the whole country the general
advance of the tenantry, on the score of general intelligence, educa-
tion, and social standing, has been very great during the past two
generations. The following are examples of the replies which have
been received.

Mr. Fewstcr, of Nailsworth, Gloucestershire, whom I have known
all my life both as a public-spirited philanthropist and as a man in
constant business relations with the Cotswold farmers, says : —

" Looking back from my point of view, embracing a retrospect of two gene-
rations, the advance of the agriculturist in education, in general intelligence,
and in social standing, is enormous, and the advance is still progressive. Com-
XJaring the present generation with their fathers, the mental and moral improve-
ment is very striking."

In the same district another, himself a tenant-farmer, says : —

" I consider the present tenant-farmer, in point of education, social standing,
and real intelligence, to be far superior to the past generation of farmers ; of
unassuming mannei's and little exterior show, he is too often looked down on
with slight and contempt by his professional or mercantile and trading neigh-
bour, who himself, perhaps, possesses but a very small share of the other's
sound sense and real intelligence, and employs less than one-eiglith of the capital
in his calling."

From Kent I hear : —

" The present generation of farmers is far superior in education (but net in
wealth) to the last. Most of our Poor-law Unions in this part of Kent have
I'armers as chairmen and vice-chairmen of the Eoards of (iuardians. The
same may be said of the different Highway Boards, and we cannot be said
to be purely an agricultural district. These lacts will show yoii, better tiiaa
an opinion, that the education of farmers has kept pace with that of other
classes."

Mr. Spearing, of Oxford, says : —

"There is no doubt, I think, but tluit the farmers of the present generation
are better educated, and more alive to the advantages of a good education, than
the last."

4:52 Abstract Rejiort of Agricultural Discussions.

Mr. Biu'bery, of Kenilwortli, says : —

" 1 believe the past generation of farmers gave their sons greater educational
advantat^es than they had had the benefit of themselves ; and I observe farmers
of the present day who have the means, are desirous of giving their sons a
useful general education."

In Warwicksliire, Mr. Adkins, of Milcote, says : —
" There arp countless instances where the son's intelligence or social bearing
is in uo degree superior to his parent's ; but, speaking generally, the present
generation of farmers is far in advance of tlic last generation in education, and
therefore in intelligence."

In Norfolk, Mr. Clare Scwcll Ecad declares : —

" There can be little doubt that, as far as education and general intelligence
are concerned, farmers of the present day arc greatly in advance of the past
generation."

From North LincolnsHrc I hear : —

"No doubt the present generation are much better educated than any
former, particularly the smaller farmers, though many of the more respectable
class of the last generation were well-educated men, and their social standing
has not so much altered as in some counties."

In Yorkshire, Mr. Stevenson, of Thirsk, writes : —

"]\Iy opinion is that the f:irmers of tlie present generation are considerably

superior to tliosc of the ])ast — more intelligent, better educated, and occupying

a higher social position."

And Mr. Outhwaite, of BainessCj Catterick, says : — ■
"The present generation of farmers in this neighbourhood are both far better
educated, and much more anxious for general information than the last. Forty
years ago the tenant-farmers could read very imperfectly, kept very inaccurate
accounts, and never left their homes except to market. Now, every farmer of
50 or more acres of land takes at least one newspaper weekly, attends some
club or reading-room, and is ready to take part in any discussion that may
arise at the market dinner-table on agricultural subjects. I remember the
time when any order, however absurd, sent from the landlord or his steward,
would be implicitly obeyed. Now, it would be read over, considered, and dis-
cussed, and, if found injurious to the tenant-farmer, petitioned against, and
published in newspapers."

Lastly, I quote Mr. Dods and Mr. Grey, of Dilston, as to Northumber-
land. The former says : —

" The present generation of farmers are better educated, are more alive to the
benefits of education, and have better opportunities of conferring these advan-
tages OQ their sons than any previous generation."

And Mr. Grey, of Dilston, than whom no one in this country is
better entitled to the respectful regards of English agriculturists for
his long and honoiu-ablc agricultm-al career, speaking of the Hexham
Fai-mers' Club, v/hich he many years ago established, says : —

" The existence of such a club in a rural distiict, comprising 221 members,
with a library of 489 volumes, besides several agricultural periodicals, is a
strong fact in proof of the better education and increased knowledge of the
present generation : —

' We've fallen on better times ; men read and think ;
Our good forefathers used to fight and drink.'

Ayricultural Education. 453

At least so it was with the dwellers on the Borders, the cultivation of whose
fields and stock is now thought to he somewhat exemplary."

Veiy many more testimonies of equal authority raitl identical cha-
racter cciild be quoted to jjrove that the farmers of this country have
put, and still i^lace, the greatest value upon a good school education,
and want no guidance or incentive on that point at all. Only let their
business be profitable, enabling them to obtain for their sons the
education they would gladly give them, and the next generation of
tenant-farmers will be still better educated than the present, without
any external help. It is for this reason that I believe the owner of
any large estate has the best secui'ity for the character of the next
generation of his tenantry, both for general intelligence and for pro-
fessional ability, in the fact that their education is in general almost
entirely in the hands of the present generation of his tenantry, who
know better than anybody else what is best for the circumstances in
which they are placed. And it is for this reason, too, that I firmly
believe the promotion of good general and liberal j)reliminary educa-
tion for farmers' sons to be best served by those who are m-ging
increased attention to that professional agricultural education on
which farm profits depend. Make these certain, and there need be no
fear of a school-bill being grudged.

If, however, there is ample testimony to the fact that the general
education of the present generation of farmers and their sons is higher
than that of the preceding generation, there is no such universal
belief that professional education is being equally attended to. On
the contrary, it would appear that there is a great and growing lack of
practical and professional knowledge in young farmers or young men
who are to become farmers. They are very apt to take to their horse,
and dog, and gun, and to the pleasures of a country life, and shirk the
practical apprenticeship to it which used to be more generally in-
sisted on,

■■ Thus Mr. Dudding, of Wragby, Lincolnshire, who believes in the
superior intelligence of the present generation, adds : —

" That the practical part of the business of a farmer is in advance, I do not
believe. The young men of ray fother's time, forty or fifty years ago, Avere
accustomed to ploughing, grooming their own horse, and attending to a certain
quantity of stock — in fact, taking part in any of the practical work on the
farm. Now this is very different : not one in ten of the higher class of farmers
would he capable upon commencing business, of directing from his own prac-
tical experience the various operations on his farm."

Mr. Euston, of Chatteris, Cambridgeshire, says : —
"As far as my own observation enables me to form an opinion, I should say
farmers' sons are far better versed in mathematics, in mental and moral
philosophy, and the higher departments of a good general education, than they
are in the scientific branches of agriculture. I consider the requirement of the
present day is professional education, and it needs to be thorough. A farmer
ought to have an intelligent reason I'or everything he does, and not, as is often
the case, ' leap in the dark.' To possess this he must be educated accord-
ingly."

Mr. Clare Sev/ell Read, of Norfolk, comparing the younger of the
present generation with the past, says : —

454 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

" As sound practical farmers, I ilou't think they are much improved ; but,
of course, their knowledge of the iirinciples and science of agriculture must be
greater."

And in Sussex Mr. Ellman says :—

" I believe that the present race of farmers are not so well informed upon
the general working of the land as the last generation, but we possess many
appliances which formerly were UTiicnown."

He adds : —

" I may say that I know of no young man in this neighbourhood, of the age
of twenty-two, w1k> is capable uf conducting a large farm to advantage luiless
entirely trusting to an experienced bailitl'. Even at a maturcr age, few who
are liberally educated can manage of themselves. I am quite, prepared to
prove my assertion, that any education wliich entices the mind from the
avocations of a farm must inevitably weakt'u the object, and midead the prac-
titioner into a labyrinth of difliculties."

It thus appears to be tlic general opinion tliat the present generation
of young men among the tenantry, to whom, on the score of general
intelligence, every body concedes a much higher social position than
their fathers had, possess no such superiority as regards that pro-
fessional ability or skill to wliich one is at first disposed to attribute
the advance which English agi'iculture has imdoubtedly of late years
exhibited.

Agkiculturat. Socikties.

Two other indices occur to me as likely to point out the truth
on this subject. The one is the statistics of agricultural societies
in this country, which, however, have but a doubtful relationship
to it ;2and the other is the amount of sales which jjublishers have
obtained for agricultural works. Of the first, connected with which
I have collected a lot of information, which, however, is still lui-
fortuuately incomplete, I will here only say that the gi'cat niuuber
and success of local agricultural societies, and especially of the
discnssional Farmers' Clubs, is to be taken as an indication rather
of the interest in, and anxiety for, professional information which
prevails, tlian as a proof that there is nothing more to be desired or
required in the professional education of the farmer. I see, for
example, that Dr. Voelcker and Professor Coleman, Professor Buck-
man, too, and others, are frequently applied to by local clubs for
lectures on various departments of agricultural science and practice.
Professor Church, of the Agricultural College, has, I see, undertaken
to teach a class of members of the Kingscote Farmers' Club, who have
sought his help, so much of the science of chemistry as exj)laius agi'i-
cultural experience. Of course one soon learns that these clubs arc
very often the result of jiublic-spirited effort on the part of compara-
tively few individuals in each county ; yet, even so, their existence
proves that there is already sjn'ead over the country an agency which
this Society may, if it chooses, use in any effort it may make for the
prosecution of professional agi-icultural education. For this reason an
attempt has been made during the last few weeks to collect information
regarding these societies. Information has been received about 120
such societies in England — not one-third, probably, however, of the

Agricultural Education. 455

existing numLcr — and I will endeavour to make tlie list complete
before sending it to Mr. Hall Dare, in case for this or any otlier
purpose of communication ■\vitli the great body of English farmers it
should be found useful here.

Sales of Books.

Of the question of the sale of agricultural books — which, of course,
affects the question of general education quite as much as it does that
of professional education — -(and I hardly need say that while esjiecially
anxious that this Society should do what it can to promote pro-
fessional agricultural education, I have sought for information at
large, and simply in order to ascertain the truth, being most cordially
willing to learn the lessons which it teaches, whatever they may be) —
on the question of agricultural book-sales, I have information from
Messrs. Black, of Edinburgh ; Blackie, of Glasgow ; Fullarton, of
Edinburgh ; Longmans, Eidgway, and Routledge, of London. I also
applied for information to Messrs. Blackwood, of London and Edin-
burgh, who are the publishers of Mi". Henry Stejihens's valuable agri-
cultural works, and I am very sorry, indeed, that there is no information
on this subject from them, because I cannot add to my list Mr. Stephens's
' Book of the Farm,' which is one of our standard agricultural works,
and has doubtless as large a sale as any book of its class.

I also aj)plied to Mr. Churchill, one of the leading publishers of
medical works, for information on the sales of professional works to
the members of a thoroughly well-educated profession, that there
might bo some standard of comparison by which to estimate the indi-
cation aftbrded by the figures of the agricultural publishers. Twenty
years ago Mr. Churchill brought out a set of jjrofessional manuals on
Anatomy, Surgery, Chemistry, Physiology, Materia Medica, &c., by
such men as Golding Bird, Erasmus Wilson, Ferguson, Taylor,
Fownes, Carpenter, and Eoyle. The number in the Census-tables
connected with the medical profession in England and Wales in
18G1 was about 36,000, of whom, however, only 15,000, or there-
aboiits, are doctors, surgeons, and apothecaries. The sale of Mr.
Churchill's seven manuals up to the present time has been in all
103,500, or on an average 14,800 of each. They were all designed
for the medical student. This is the only fact which needs to be
quoted in illustration of the relation of the publisher to a thoroughly
well-educated profession. I doubt not the experience of Messrs.
Churchill is paralleled by that of other publishers of medical books.

But compare this with the experience of the publishers of agri-
cultural books, who have so much larger a constituency. First,
however, what is their public ? There were 30,000 landowners,
250,000 farmers, 16,000 farm-bailiffs, and 500 (so-called) agricultural
students in England and Wales in 1861. But many landlords fill
public offices, under which they are returned, and so the tabular
number is in this case declared defective. It is probable, however,
that there may be some of the class who might be better described
as small farmers cultivating their own land, and this would, perhaps,
diminish the number of the class on whom the agricultural publisher
would depend. Take, therefore, 30,000 as the true number. As to

456

Abstract Report of Agricultural DUciissiom.

farms — of every 1000 lioldiugs in ten English counties, there were
only 220 over 100 acres each. I take, therefore, only 20 per cent,
of the whole number in the Census returns to be available as pur-
chasers of agricultural boolis. To 30,000 landowners, therefore,
add 50,000 farmers, and some 10,000 farm-bailiffs and agricultural
students, and you have 90,000 altogether. If to this there be
added the corresponding numbers in Scotland and Ireland, we may
assume that the " jiublic " of an agricultui'al publisher in this country
nomibers at least 120,000 i)crsons.

Now, what are the sales of agi'icultural books ? Messrs. Longman
have sold about 9000 copies of Loudon's ' Cyclopaedia of Agi-iculture,'
since 1825. Fullarton has sold 9500 copies of his ' Rural Cyclo-
pa3dia,' published 1848-52, in four vols., at 20s. each: and 5500 of his
' Farmers' Cyclopaedia,' jjublished in 1853-5G, price 40&\ Blackie has
sold 8500 copies of the ' Agricultiu-al Cyclopaedia,' imblished in 1856,
in two vols., for 3/. IGs. Of Professor Low's excellent book on
' Practical Agriculture,' the first edition of which was published in
Edinbm-gh, Longmans have since sold 5091 copies up to Jimc, 18G4.

Of other books I add the following list : —

Mesm-s. A. & C. Blacl:
Mr. Wilson's Bi-itisli Fanning

Messn. Blachie tt Co.

Webb's Farmers' Guide

The Agriculturist's Calculator

Professor Wilson's Farm Crops

New Farmer's Almanac

Messrs. Fullarton.
Fanner's Cash-book

Messrs. Lonrjinan.

Handbook of Dairy Husbandry

, , Farm Labour

Low's Domesticated Animals

, , Landed Property

, , Breeds of Domesticated Animals . .
The remainder of the Editions of Professor

Low's work have been disposed of to Bohn.

Messrs. Bidrju-aij.
Mr. C. W, Johnson on Fertilisers

Eev. S. Smith's books on Lois-Wcedon Husbandry

Squarey's Agricultural Chemistry

Main's Farmer's Manual

Morton on Soils

Cottage Farmer's Assistant

Johnson and Shaw's Farmer's Almanac during
>^ twenty-four years, 373,000 ; averaging

Agricultural Education.

L57

Me&srs. Boutledge.

Sibson's Agricultural Chemistry ..
The Sheep, the Pig, and Cattle (each)
The Horse, by Cecil and Youatt ..
Small Farms, by Martin Doyle
Feeding and Manures, by C. Sibson

The Horse, by Stonehenge j 18

Mr. Mechi's How to Fann Profitably . .

Young Farmer's Calendar ; 10

Trice.

Annual

Sale.

S. d.

1 6

430

1 0

750

1 0

15(J0

GOO

! 1 0

850

1 18 0

500

' 5 0

500

; 10 G

1

300

I beg to thank the publishers of these works for so frankly giving
me these illustrations of the demand for agricultural works. Of
com'se there is a large number of other books addressed to farmers
which have not had anything like the success of these. But I think
that even here, considering the very large public to which these books
are addressed, and the contrasted demand for professional books in
the medical world, we have evidence rather of an imperfect than of a
satisfactory state of j)rofessional education in that of agriculture. If
I lay the burden of the smaliness of the reading public for agricultm'al
books to the discredit of professional rather than general education, it
is partly because that public includes 30,000 landowners as well as
60,000 English farmers.

I believe the result of the whole inquiry to be, that it is the
promotion of professional rather than of general education, that is
most needed in the English agricultural world.

I^What can the Agkicultukal Society do?

We come lastly to consider how this Agricultural Society may best
promote the improvement of agricultui'al education in this country,
and I shall not tax your patience for more than five minutes longer.

Three-and-twenty years ago a lecture on the importance of pro-
fessional education for agi'icultm-ists was delivered by the late Robert
Jeffries Brown of Cirencester, before the local Farmers' Club at
Fairford, and a most admirable restilt ensued upon his advocacy and
subsequent energetic labours. The Royal Agricultural College has
long been at once a splendid illustration of the power of a local
farmers' club when once its interest is aroused, and a most useful,
educational agency for the advantage of the agricultural community,
for which we have to thank, not only the intelligence and energy of
its founders, but much public spirit and self-denial since. I do not
refer at any length to its past services or present efficiency, for both
are related by Mr. Lawrence in the current number of our Journal,
but its history certainly may be cited as a proof that our local
farmers' clubs may be most usefully taken into alliance with this
Society in connexion with the work of agricultural education which is
before it.

What has to be done ? There are probably 30,000 farms of 200
acres and upv/ards in this coimtry, occupied, therefore, by men of

458 Abstract Rejiort of Agricultural Discussions.

:i certain substantial middle-class in society, whose sons may thns
command a fair middle-class education. If their professional life
averages as much at thirty years, then 1000 yoimg men of this class
are every year drafted in this country from the rank of agricultural
student or apprentice to that of professional agriculturist. Now, we
may assume that there is at least a period of three or four years in
the student or ap])reutice life of each when educational stimulus
and guidance would be professionally usefid ; and it thus appears
that there is always a constituency of 3000 or 4000 young men in
England open to that educational influence which this Society
might, and, as I believe, ouglit to exert. To apjily the rein and
spur to this large body, therefore, is the work which has to
l»c done.

How is it to be done V I know no other way of offering the
stimulus and guidance which are needed tlian the old-fashioned plan
of offering prizes to candidates, and doterminiiig their ridative merit
by examination. It is hardly possible, no doubt, for any dispassionate
observer to avoid the conclusion that the guidance of exiierience, and
tlie stimulus of desired professional success, and of looked-for good
social position, are really the guidance and the stimulus by which
agricultural education is, and always will be, efficiently promoted in
this country. Nevertheless, it is consistent with all experience, both
that valuable prizes and distinctions to be won at competitive exami-
natifms, are an effective addition to the natural rewards Avhich educa-
tion confers ujion the student ; and that the programme of trustworthy
examiners is an effective addition to the natural guidance which
experience confers ujion instructors.

I have, indeed, lieard it asserted that this system of examination
and reward is Avholly inapplicable to the agi'icultural student or
apprentice. It is alleged that there is no possibilitj' of testing agri-
cultural knowledge and efficiency except in actual practice. The
objection might be made with exactly equal force to those exami-
nations through which naval officers take their successive steps in
rank, and there certainly it is altogether untenable. But, indeed, I
am qiiite certain that all who have had any experience in agricultural
examinations, whether they be professors determining the industry
and capacity of a student before he is passed, or agents ascertaining
the ability and qualifications of a bailiff before he is engaged, must
admit the power of an examiner to ascertain whether any candidate
for the rewards at his disposal has been a diligent and successful
agricultural student or apprentice.

In order, then, to carry out a system of examinations of this kind,
which I believe would be perfectly efficient in agriculture as it is in
other j)rofessions, I would have this Society seek the alliance of the
leading local farmers' clubs. The whole coimtry is divided into
eight or ten — I do not know how many — districts, which the Society
visits in rotation. There are active farmers' clubs in each, with lots
of vitality and energy. The Hexham, Newcastle, and Penrith
Tarmers' Clubs in the north ; the Wirral Farmers' Club in Cheshire,
the Midland Farmers' Club in Birmiagham, the Kiagscote Farmera'

Agricultural Education. 4513

Club in Gloucestershire, the Hungerford, the Dorchester, tlic Botley,
the Maidstone Farmers' (UuLs, and many others, in the south. Any
of these, I am persuaded, or where there is more than one in any of
the Society's districts — then two or more united — could, and I believe
would, readily accept a commission from this Society in connexion
with this subject. It is surely not an extravagant supposition that in
every one of the districts on the Society's list 100/. could be annually
collected through the local clubs in each from landowners and others
interested in agricultural prosperity, to be awarded by the Society's
examiners, in substantial scholarships and prizes, to the most intelli-
gent agricultural students belonging to each district. If only ten or
a dozen young men in every district should at first come forward to
claim these rewards, great good woxild be done. But I cannot doubt
that, stirred up by the local agencies, which would seciire just that
kind of publicity which the scheme requii-cs, largely increased num-
bers would ultimately strive for the honours and substantial advan-
tages of success at the local Eoyal Agricultural Society's professional
examinations.

I do not, however, pretend to discuss this matter in any detail. No
doubt there arc plenty of difficulties in the way, but none insuperable,
as I believe. At any rate, I earnestly hope that this great Society,
which has successfully accomplished one most serviceable piece of
jirofessional education during its career — I mean, educated the great
body of the landowners of this coimtry into a taste for agricultiu-al
pursuits — will make the effort which is expected from it to promote
the professional education of those who are still more directly de-
pendent upon the cultivation of the land for their support.

Mr. Eaymond Barker proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Morton for
his varied and interesting lecture.

Mr. Dent, M.P., in seconding the motion, said, there could be no
question as to the very great value and the very great fairness of the
lecture. He thought the observations in the early j)ortion of the
lecture, as to the requisites for making a good farmer, were par-
ticularly valuable. The great difficulty was to educate farmers so as
to enable them to cultivate land with ability and profit. Having sat
for a short time on the Education Committee of the Eoyal Agricul-
tural Society, he must say that the more they had studied that question
the greater seemed to be the difficulties with which it is surrounded.
The chief difficulty lay in this, that, while you vv'ished to give a good
education in general subjects at school, you desired also that early
habits of observation should not be impaired, but rather, if j^ossible,
strengthened, during the school period ; and lie could quite understand
that to keep a boy too long at school might tend to injure his jDowers
of observation. But, then, speaking from his own experience of
farmers — men who farmed from 200 to 250 acres — he should say that
few of them kept their children at school for even a fair amount of
time, while a very large number of boys left school almost as early as
labourers' sons, their education being of a very meagre and indifferent
description. The worst feature of the case, perhaps, was that when
these boys left school it Vv-as merely to go on their fathers' farms, and

460 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

tlius they did not obtain any exj^erience of farming beyond tlie range
of a circle of 10 or 12 miles. That was a very great drawback. If
farmers' sons after leaving school could go out for a time and see
something of what was going on at a distance from their homes, a very
great point would be gained.

The best way for that Society to cncom-agc education was by the
institution of scholarshij^s, rather than the giving of prizes. There
was a suggestion thrown out on that point by Mr. Morton, which had
occiuTod to another very active member of the Society, who was on
the Education Committee, namely, that they should call in the assist-
ance of farmers in different localities, and that, in fact, scholarships
should be instituted by local authorities acting in conjunction with the
Council of that Society.

Within the last twenty years ho had seen twelve yoimg men cither
succeeding to farms or preparing to succeed to them, not one of
whom, as he believed, ever v/ent away from his father's farm to learn
the business of farming. He had cndcavom-cd to impress on farmers
in his neighbom'hood the advantages to be derived from pursuing a
different course ; but he was always met with the remark that the sons
were such useful, reliable, and steady fellows — and he could cer-
tainly endorse that account from observation — that they could not be
spared.

In some letters which had been published on this subject in the
' Agricultural Gazette,' he found the writers making great complaints
that the yoimg farmers of the jiresent day were too fond of amusement,
and did not stick sufficiently close to work. lie did not think the
Society could cure that which was rather a tendency of the age. The
race of farmers was, in fact, getting much larger than it had been.
Many young men were now going into farming as a pleasant occupa-
tion ; and having a good capital, perhaps they thought that one of the
pleasantest jiarts of farming life was to take some share in the amuse-
ments of the hunting-field.

Mr. IIoLLAXD, M.P., expressed the pleasure he had felt in listening
to Mr. Morton. As regarded the mode in which Mr. Morton proposed
to improve the educational position of the futm-c farmers, he thought
they must all agree with him as to the connexion which should exist
between the Eoyal Agi-icultiu-al Society and the local societies. The
education of the futm-e farmers was of course mainly in the hands of
their relatives, so many of whom were members of local Societies. If,
therefore, the Eoyal, acting in concert with these Societies, were
enabled to send examiners through the coimtry, the educational wants
of farmers might be supplied without the creation of much further
machinery than that which at present existed. Mr, Dent had alluded
to the fact that while young men were employed in farming they took
their recreation like other people who lived in the coimtry. There
was no harm in that ; on the contrary, good would result from men
being called together and passing over tracts of coimtry which they
might otherwise never visit. But they must look at another circum-
stance. Education was entering more largely into agriculture than
ever ; and in this country it invariably happened that a large additional

Agricultural Education. 461

amount of capital was employed in a trade into whicli improved educa-
tion entered. Capital and education combined were entering into the
farming business, and one result would inevitably be a diminution of
the number of small farms. Men of capital and education would not
be satisfied with farms of 100 or 150 acres. This being the case, it
would be found that the introduction of machinery which was now
requisite for the working of such farms, and the appliances of science
in connexion with agriculture, must have full and fair play; if,
therefore, that Society desired to be prepared for the great changes in
the agricultural world arising from the improvements which were
being made, it must, either by co-operation with local Societies or iu
some other manner, aim at improving the education of the farmer. If
they looked to the advantage of the future farmer, they must endeavour
to supply him with science in connexion v/ith agriculture to a much
greater extent than it had been suj)plied hitherto. Although, as
Mr. Morton remarked at the commencement of his lecture, the harvest
only occurred once in the year, yet the prcjiaration for the harvest,
and the preparation for the after-croj)S, would be advanced to such
an extent by the improvements which were now being made in agri-
culture, that the inconveniences of weather, and many of those evils
to which farmers had hitherto been subject, would, perhaps, ere long,
be in a considerable degree avoided. On these groimds he thought
they ought all to aim at securing an improved education for the sons
of farmers.

Dr. Ceisp believed that until the Government established an agri-
cultural college, there would never be a j)roper system of education for
the agriculturists of this country. He should like to see a college in
London, with a regular staff of professors, and a museum attached.
Many students would then be enabled to take a degree, and the
beneficial effects of such an institution would extend throughout the
country. The advantage of giving prizes was very doubtful. At
Guy's Hospital the prize system had been discontinued because it T,'as
found that when a student had to work himself up almost exclusively
on any si)ecial object, the devotion of so much time to that object was
injurious to him in after life.

Professor Coleman said that a man must be educated in the practical
details of farming : for unless he was brought up to xmderstand
every single point in practice, he would very likely fail to make a
profit. While he fully admitted that students should be enabled as
far as possible to see a variety of practice, and not be left entirely to
the farm on which they were brought up, he maintained that a know-
ledge of scientific principles was equally important. If a man was
to keep a-head in the present day, he must understand the reason for
every detail of practice, and must look carefully at every new process
in farming.

Having had much to do with the education of a great many young-
men in the College at Cirencester, where he was formerly a pupil, he
had seen the great difficulties under which young men laboured when
they had come there without that general preliminary education which
alone could enable them to grasp the scientific truths that were pre-

462 Abstract Report of Atjricultural Discussions.

scutecl to them. He Lad seen, especially in the earlier days of tliat
institution, young men entering Avho left the general school at about
fourteen or fifteen. Having afterwards lived for three or four years
on their fathers' faiTUS, and, he was afraid, spent a large portion of
their time in hunting and shooting, they had then come to the institu-
tion perfectly impreparcd to take advantage of the opportunities of
improvement which were offered to them ; in fact, the knowledge
which they should have acquired passed completely over their heads.
Therefore, •while he fully admitted the great importance of practical
details, he thought it was also very important that there should be a
good general education, and that boys should not leave school to gain
a Icnowledge of the practical details of farming at such an early period
as had been suggested by Mr. Morton.

Mr. MooKK did not quite agi'ce with some of the previous speakers
in the opinion that sporting contributed to the improvement of the
young farmers. He maintained that j'oung men should go u2)on a farm
to learn the business, and while there should stick to it. There was
such a tendency in outdoor occujjation to create a disinclination for
reading and office work, that he made it his rule never to take a pnpil
without a distinct understanding that there should be no sjioi'ting
during the time he might be with him. "Whatever st^lf-dcnial and self-
discipline they were thus called upon to exercise, he believed they would
be the better for in after life. Whatever might be done by the Society
to fm'ther agricultural education in this country, lie hoped they would
not mix themselves up with the question of tlie general education of
the people ; because, although there Mas a class of farmers who under-
valued education, and felt little concern for their sons in that respect,
yet he was happy to say that that class was rapidly diminishing. As
a body, the farmers were becoming as anxious as any other class to
avail themselv( s of the advantages of education.

The other day ho visited the Agricultural College at Cii'cnccster,
and Mr. Constable mentioned to him that tlie Farmers' Club at Kings-
cote had recently made an arrangement, by which Mr. Church, the
chemist at the college, was to deliver a series of lectures in connexion
with that Society, and extending over a considerable period ; and he
added that a large number of farmers' sons had put their names down
with subscrijitions of five guineas a-piece to pay for these lectures.
He, Mr. Moore, did not by any means undervalue the local Societies ;
but the great mistake connected with them was, that tlicy had gene-
rally confined tliemsclves to shows of live stock, &c. Eight or ten
years ago, he had assisted in the establishment of a library at Farriug-
don, and in connexion with that they had a course of lectures in the
winter, the attendance at which had varied from fifty to seventy. The
effect of that institution had, he believed, been very beneficial. Still,
he must say that the books in the library were not read so much as he
could wish. If the Royal Agricultural Society could in any way helj)
f 01 war? a movement of that kind, they would be doing a great good to
the agricidtural conmiunity.

Sir Walter Stirling said, it seemed to him that the question was
one between practical iiitelligence and scientific acquirements ; whether,

Agricultural Education. 463

iu short, tliey corJd dispense Mdtli practical industry by setting up
scientific inquiry as the p-'imum mobile, or cardinal feature, of the
whole system. In his view farming was not to be considered as a
science, but rather as an industry. Therefore, the greatest practical
intelligence must be essential to carrying it on. How did they gene-
rally regard the operations of a gentleman farmer ? Why nine times
out of ten as a complete failure. And why? Because from his
birth and his habits he did not possess the practical experience which
the common farmer possessed in an eminent degree. Persons em-
ployed in the useful arts and purposes of life were by no means the
better for the knowledso of either the use of the globes, or trigono-
metry, or the higher departments of science. On the contrary, we
knew they were the worse for these ; inasmuch as such acquirements
gave them a vast amount of conceit and pretension, which rather inter-
fered vvith their practical intelligence and their ability to achieve
success in the particular profession they might have embraced. It
was the same v/ith regard to manufactm-es. The successful manufac-
tiu'er, say the calico-printer, had but a very small knowledge of the
analysis of coloui', or understood mauve or magenta, chemically
speaking. Most likely he made his fortune by not knowing thorn.
Of this they had a recent example in that great and clever man, whom
all must remember vvdth respect and reverence, he meant Mr. Cobden.
He was a failure in his own profession : at all events he did not
acquire a fortune as a cotton-manufacturer — and most likely it was
owing to the circumstance, viz., that his ideas soared above the
technical requirements of his original occupation — were too high, and
his education superficial.

Mr. Holland, M.P., alluding to the remarks of Mr. Moore on the
subject of libraries, suggested that it would be a great advantage if in
circulating the books they were accom2:)anied by a brief synopsis cf
their contents.

The Chairman said, the subject of agi-icultm-al education had become
one of real national importance. There was a Eoyal Commission
inquiring into middle-class education, and of course that would include
an inquiry into the position of the farmer so far as his education was
concerned. He could not agree with Dr. Crisp that the best thing to
do woidd be to establish an Agricultural College and Museum sup-
ported by the State, or that the State should interfere in the matter in
any way whatever. They might rely upon it that the best museuni
that a farmer's son could have was the farm itself, where he was to
learn his business practically. He concmTcd with Mr. Morton, then
that it was upon the farm that the boy must learn his work ; a farm,
moreover, at some distance from the locality in which he would after-
wards reside. But Mr. Morton had scarcely allowed sufficient time
for the boy's early education, and seemed to think that he ought to
leave school or college early to go to the farm. Unless he got a good
education, and thereby awakened in his mind the desire to obtain
further knowledge on subjects connected with the employment of his
after life, unless he was interested in various ways in education gene-
rally, there was little in the life of a farm.er's son to encourage liim to

VOL. I. — S. S. 2 H

464 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

continue Lis studies. It was of immense importance, tliereiore, that
the farmer should, in the first instance, receive a liberal education, in
order that he might, from his own desire and impulse, continue, when
on the farm, the studies in v/hich he had been engaged at school. As
contributing towards this object there was, perhaps, hardly a better
plan than that which had been suggested by Mr. Moore; viz., that
when farmers' sons were gi'own up they should have opportimities
afforded them for hearing lectures on agricultural subjects, and have
access to a good library. It was not in the power of many farmers
to send their sons to college for two or three years, as suggested by
Mr. Morton, before taking a fann. In the absence of this, the i^lau
recommended by Mr. Moore was certainly worthy of consideration.
In fact, the Koyal Agricxdtural Society intended shortly to open com-
munications with £irmers' clubs in England, with a view to interesting
them on this question of agricultural education, and, if possible, to
establish a common action respecting it. The whole question was
very fairly and ably argued in the lectm-c, and ho was sure they
were much indebted to Mr. Morton for it.

A vote of thanks was then passed to Mr. Morton.

Meeting of the WeeMy Council, Wednesday, May 31. The President,
Sir E. Kekuison, M.P., in the chair. Professor Voelckee delivered a
lecture on

Irrigation.

Professor Voelcker said : Last year I had the pleasure of delivering
in this room a lecture on the qualities of good di'inking-waters, and
waters used for general domestic purposes. To-day it will devolve
upon me to speak more particularly of the character of waters best
adapted for irrigation ; and at the outset I vdsh to remind you that
it is foreign to my present piirpose to speak of the various systems of
irrigation, or to enter into practical details with which farmers who
practice irrigation are better acquainted thaii I can possibly be.
Although I am always happy to give advice on subjects in which I can
see a connecting link between the man of science and the practical
farmer, I do not think it incumbent on me, as your consulting
chemist, to treat of purely practical matters, such as the application of
water, after it has reached the farm, to the land.

I think I can more profitably occupy your attention to-day by speaking
on the general principles that ought to guide us in the application of
water for the irrigation of land ; and in doing so I must briefly allude
to the great variety of opinion which prevails with regard to the cause
of the efficiency of different kinds of water.

Some ascribe its beneficial effects altogether to the matters dissolved
in the waters. We hear some asserting that none but muddy, or foul
waters, are fit for irrigation ; whilst we have the trustworthy evidence
of men who have applied perfectly clean and bright water to their
lands with the most excellent eft'ect. Again, we find some maintaining
that water ought to be soft in order to produce a beneficial effect;
others state that hard waters are best adapted for irrigation. Some

On Irrigation. 465

ascribe the fertilizing value to the carbonic acid cTissolved in the
water. Others even maintain that it is the carbonic acid in the water
which does the mischief which is occasionally observed. Further the
warmth of the water is by some considered the sole fertilising agent,
whilst others do not hesitate to say that temperature has nothing to do
with the beneficial effects. I might have alluded to other matters, as
showing that there is a great diversity of opinion prevalent upon this
subject, but it is not necessary. Let us then inquire which of these
views are right, and which are evidently founded on misconceptions or
prejudice.

To render my subject more perspicuous, it may perhaps be well
to glance for a moment at the action of waters on soils, for I have
noticed that in all the papers which treat on the causes of the efficiency
of water for irrigation, the soil is left altogether out of consideration ;
yet a very few illustrations will show you at once that it is in vain
to discuss merely the qiialities of v/ater, -without reference to the
quality of the soil. We know that in this immediate neighbourhood, on
the London clay, heavy showers of rain, which in a measure irrigate
the land — for sometimes the water remains for days upon our meadow
lands — have more effect than even London manure. It is a well-
known fact that in bad seasons — that is, when there is little rain in the
spring — manures applied to the land have no effect ; and in the favour-
able seasons, when heavy rains fall during the spring months, manures
are not required, because the rain does more good than all the manures
the farmers can possibly apply to land so tenacious as the London
clay. Here evidently the water dissolves the fertilising matter out of
the soil. It must render soluble a very large quantity, for we obtain a
large produce of grass. On the other hand, we find that even on well-
manured soils of a purely sandy character, the water, when it falls
copiously in the spring, has the effect of washing-in such soluble
matters as nitrate of soda, and even guano. Whilst, then, on sandy
land pure water does produce a decidedly beneficial effect, on other
land it may have the contrary effect ; and further, what pure rain-water
does will also in a measure be done by natural spring-waters. Let
us then glance for a moment in a general way at the action of water
on the soil, to assist us in arriving at a satisfactory conclusion with
regard to the water which is most useful for irrigation.

In the first place, I notice that water carries air into the soil. I say
into the soil, for I take it to be a well-recognised principle that on
irrigated meadows the water should not merely flow over the soil, but
. also percolate through the soil. The soil, for this reason, must be
porous ; not only its surface drained, but its imder-drainage must be
either naturally good, or rendered perfect by art. In bringing down
air then into the soil, and with it fertilising matter — ammonia and
carbonic acid — from the atmosphere, water also carries along with it
chemical agents, v»^hich render both organic and mineral fertilisers
soluble and fit to become food for plants. First, the organic matters
are rapidly destroyed by the oxygen of the air; the nitrogenous
substances are converted into nitrates, which we know have a most
powerful stimulating effect on the growth of aU vegetable produce.

2 H 2

4G6 Abstract Report of Afjricultural Discussion?..

The nitrates, wliicli invariably occur iu all drainage-waters, and wLicli
are also found in all natural spring-\Yaters, arc evidently the in'oducts
of the oxydation of organic matter originally i)resent iu the soil.

There is a wise j^rovision that no organic filth shoidd accumulate.
The air which is carried down in the water, bringing oxygen into
immediate contact with those organic remains, destroys them, and
converts an obnoxious material into one that is of the greatest
value.

The change which water produces on a variety of mineral matters
is no less important. I just now observed that all natm'al water (rain-
water as well as spring-water) invariably contains carbonic acid iu
solution. This carbonic acid acts as a solvent for many mineral
matters whicli are insoluble in pm'c water. Coming from rocks that
contain small quantities of phosphate of lime, it dissolves this im-
portant constituent, and renders them available for the use of the i)lants.
Again, water charged with carbonic acid decomposes some of our
natural silicates, and renders them available as plant-food. Lastly, water
carries wai'mth into the soil. It is well laiowu to all scientific men
that water is heaviest and densest at 40^ — that is 8^ above the freezing
point. When the air is at 32^, the water as it cools, instead of
becoming denser and sinking, actually rises in the uj^per layer of the
soil; the colder particles of water rise higher until they are at 32^,
when a sheet of ice is formed, wdiich preserves the water below at 40^,
so that xmder ice the tcmpcratm-e of water is at least 8^ higher than
that of the air dmung frost.

On an average, perhaps, the temperature of our natural spring-
waters may be said to be about 10-' above that of the air dui'ing
the months in v.hich irrigation is practised, though we find in
them great variations. Some that feel cold during the summer,
and warm during the winter, -when tested with a thermometer
will be found of a uniform teuiperature throughout the year ; they are
not affected by the temperature of the atmosphere. I take it that such
waters, other circmustances being equal, arc particularly useful for
irrigation, as they convey into the soil and to the roots of the jdants a
considerable degree of warmth. These may be said to be some of the
chief benefits that arise, speaking generally, from the percolation of
water through tlie soil.

I now pass on to speak more especially of the most desirable
qualities of water used fur irrigation. I will take them in the
order in which they arc usefid to the fanner. The best water for
in-igation is no doubt sewage-water ; because it is a natural water,
which contains refuse excrementitious matters, that are exceedingly
useful fertilising agents. In no natui-al waters do we find the amount
of ammonia or of phosphoric acid that occurs even in the most dilute
sewage; and as ammonia and phosphoric acid, perhajjs also potash
(which occurs in sewage in appreciable quantities), are fertilisers of
the greatest importance, we ought not to waste them, but apply
them to the land, if possible. The organic matters, in percolating
through the soil, are converted into nitrates, the gTeater portion of
which, no doubt, is rapidly taken up by the succulent produce which

On Irrigation. 467

is best suited to irrigated lands. Eye-grass ought to be extensively,
and perhaps exclusively, grown on soils adapted for irrigation, in
order that the soluble matters, as soon as they become available, may
be elaborated into vegetable produce, and that good food, after being
produced on the land, may not be aftervrards washed away. Do, however,
what v/e will, we cannot prevent altogether the waste of a great deal of
fertilising matters in the drainage of irrigated fields. This is a great
fact, well known to those v/ho have seen the irrigated meadows on Lord
liatherton's estate at Teddesley, in Stailbrdshirc. I have strong reason
for believing that drainage-water is occasionally more useful for irriga-
tion than the natural spring-waters of the locality.

On highly-manm-ed fields we cannot doubt that water, in jiassing
through the land, actually takes out more than it imparts to the soil.
It is quite true that in other instances the water itself conveys food to
the land ; but when the land is highly-manured, or if the soluble
matters are, as in the case of sewage, brought on the land in great
abundance, a great deal of fertilising matter will pass away in the
di'ainage-water. In proof of this I may mention two analyses of
water, that I find in the third Eeport of the Commission which sat to
inquire into the best mode of distributing the sewage of towns. That
Keport states, at page 18, that the sewage, when applied to the soil, con-
tained in solution 44-87 grains per gallon of soluble matter ; the drainage
from the soil contained 37*o2 ; thus showing that a considerable
quantity of soluble matter is retained in the sewage. It is true that
most of the ammonia has been absorbed (or transformed), for the 5*74
grains originally present in the sewage became reduced to 1 grain ;
still there is 1 grain in a gallon left. What is of yet greater im-
portance is this fact, — ^that whilst the sewage contains no nitric acid,
the drainage contains no less than 4 and a fraction per cent, derived
from nitrogenous matter, or even from ammonia ; for I believe that
ammonia is capable of oxydation, and of being la,rgely converted into
nitric acid, which is perhaps the very best form in vi'hich it can be pre-
sented to the growing plant.

In several drinking- v/aters, fitted rather for irrigation, I have
foTind a large proportion of nitric acid — indeed the presence of
appreciable amounts of nitric acid can be detected in all natural
springs. We have very scanty information upon this subject,
which is one that I should like thoroughly to investigate. I should
like to ascertain what quantity of v/atcr goes on to the land in
the natural rainfall, or the natiu-al springs that are made to fiow
over it ; what quantity passes out of the drain in the drainage-
water, because the settlement of this question will throw light upon
the exhaustion of soils, of which we Iiave heard so much. It is im-
possible to restore to the land with ])rofit all that we take out of it. The
natural sources of loss are far greater than those occasioned in oiu*
fields by the removal of the produce. Perhaps it will clear oiu' ideas
en the subjects of exhaustion and j)ermanent deterioration of our fields
if this subject is tlioroughly investigated. I therefore purpose to go
tlioroughly into it, and examine not only the waters that are best fitted
for irrigation, but also the drainage-water : and I stand in need of

458 Alstrad Report of Agricultural Discussions.

the assistancs of some pra,ctical men v/lio would imdertake to apply
gauges for measuring tlie quantity of water that fails on the land and
the quantity that passes thi-ough the di-ains on a given area.

Sewage-water, then, is no doubt the most useful water for irrigation.
But here differences of oi>inion arc sometimes expressed. Some
maintain that a perfectly bright and clear sewage is best adapted for
irrigation. Others say that the muddier the sewage is, and the more
suspended matter it contains, the better. I contend that a moderately
clear sewage is the better, because that which contains much sus-
jjended matter is apt to produce on the sm-facc of the soil, especially
if not very porous, a silicious film, which dries and chokes up the
pores of the soil, and in this way does mischief. If the coarser
particles are skimmed off by the sewage being allowed to pass
through a grating, and the whole suspended matter finds its way into
the land, it v.-ill do good, if projicrly distributed. We need not be
particular in filtering the water to a nicety, but should be careful
not to allow too much of the suspended matter to flov/ * on the
land, especially if it is not a purely sandy porous soil, on which
sewage application is most efficacious. As a matter of cm-iosity,
I have brought with me a sample of the Maj)lin Sands, to which I am
inclined to think irrigation with sewage v\-ill be useful. It is supposed
that this sand contains some clay — not much, and also some other
fertilising matters.

I now i)ass on to another description of water, next in point of
efficacy to sewage. Nile water conveys a vast amoimt of fertilising
matter to the natm-ally sterile plains on the banks of that river. Some
time ago I made an analysis of Nile v.ater, taken both at the rise of
the flood and when the flood was at its height. At the latter stage the
quantity of solid matter carried along is fom- times as great as at the
time when the Nile begins to rise, and it is chiefly in the deposit of
this solid matter that the fertilising action consists. Apart from this
deposit Nile water contains only 10 grains per gallon of solid matter
in solution, and perhaps the application of these muddy rivers can
hardly be called iiTigation proper; it is more the warping than the
irrigating of land. Suffice it, then, to say that muddy streams which
contain large quantities of suspended mineral, as well as organic
matter, are chiefly useful in depositing new soil.

I pass on now to another description of water — that of waters which
have an equal temperature throughout the year. Water of that kind
is considerably warmer in winter than the atmosjihere of our fields.
We have some observations made upon this point by Mr. Whitley, of
Truro, in Cornwall ; also by Mr. liobert Smith, who has examined
several sj)rings in Exmoor, in Devonshire. Both these gentlemen are
of opinion that the temperature of irrigation-water dui-ing the spring
months is 10° higher than the temperatm-e of the air. Thus a
considerable quantity of heat is carried into our soils. Waters of a
Tmiform temperature generally come from deep sjn-ings; and deep
springs generally contain more mineral matter in solution. If water
passes through a thin layer of soil or rock, it has not much time to
dissolve the mineral matter. When it percolates through a large body

0)1 Irrigation. 4G9

of soil find an extensive layer of rock, it dissolves more mineral
matter ; and that is doubtless another reason why waters that are warm
in winter are more beneficial for irrigating purposes than those the
temperature of which is influenced by that of the air.

I do not think hardness in water is prejudicial to irrigation. I can,
indeed, give practical evidence to the contrary. Some of the irrigated
meadovv's in the ncighbom-hood of Cirencester, and in other parts of
Gloucestershire, are irrigated with very hard water, and the effect pro-
duced on them is marvellous. I can conceive that on some land the
lime that is conveyed to it in the shape of water is of no advantage ;
but I cannot conceive how lime in water can have an injurious effect.
Let me give you an illustration showing how apt men are, who perhaps
take a little too much credit for their practical sense, to theorise,
notwithstanding their strong protestations to the contrary. Practical
writers on the subject of irrigation have remarked that soft waters are
good, because their softness is due to a soapy constituent — potash or
some kind of alkali. Now chemical examination shows that soft
rrater generally contains no traces of alkali. It is the hard waters
v/hich usually contain the most potash and soda, for the simple reason
that, as they traverse soil or rock, potash and soda must be dissolved
at the same time as the mineral substances, which they take up. As a
matter of fact I may mention that it is the hard waters that contain
alkalis, not those which feel greasy and soft ; these last are soft simply
because of the absence of mineral matters, such as lime, oxide of iron,
and magnesia.

The best spring-waters for irrigation are those which contain the
largest quantity of fertilising matters, especially mineral matters, in
solution, and which contain also the most heat, and are thus in the
best condition for yielding to the soil over which they pass both food
and warmth.

In conclusion, I would allude briefly to the waters v/hich either are
altogether unfit, or else require special treatment to fit them for irriga-
tion. Such are the waters v/hich rise from peaty or boggy ground ;
these positively do harm. I have foimd it stated that it is the tannin
dissolved in the water that does mischief; but this is evidently a
mistake. Tannin is a substance which is very rapidly affected and
destroyed by atmospheric influences ; so that in tanning care
must be taken to bring the materials used as soon as possible in
contact with liquids containing tannin. We use solutions containing
tannin as a test to ascertain the presence of oxygen. Tannin, then, is
evidently not the injurious thing which it is sometimes supposed to be,
v/hen it is present in peaty v/atcrs. Nor are the organic acids which
are known to the chemist under the name of ulmic or humic acids as
injurious in water as some have considered them. In peaty waters the
quantity of these acids is but small ; and it is very doubtful whether
they produce any injurious effect upon vegetation. But there is very
frequently present in peaty water sulphate of iron, or green vitriol;
and this is the constituent that does all the mischief. Waters con-
taining this ingredient are recognised by the ochrous deposit they
produce in their channel-bed. Sometimes waters which flow through

470 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

even a small portion of soil, especially if it be calcareous, arc cleiirived of
this ochrous matter, and become again fit for irrigation ; but in nine
cases out of ton it is the sulphate of iron which occurs in waters
rising in peaty localities that does the mischief. In the specimens of
peaty soil which I exhibit you can see the sulphate of iron crystallizing
out. My attention has frequently been directed to the injury caused
to vegetation by such waters. A few days ago the He v. Mr. Clutter-
buck sent me, from his park near Abingdon, such a sample. Then,
again, waters wliich contain too large an amount of saline matters are
injm'ious for irrigation. Among these I may mention sea- water, for I
could adduce two or three instances in which, to my knowledge,
when tried for irrigation, it lias turned out a complete failure, and
for two or three years has rendered the soil sterile.

I promised at the beginning of this lecture to confine my attention to
the qualities of waters ; and having mentioned some qualities which are
most desirable for irrigation, and others which we ought to avoid, and
having further alluded to some waters which are injurious on account
of their deleterious substances, I think I have pretty well cxliaustcd
the subject.

Sir John Johnstone, M.P., said that some years ago ho used for the
piu'pose of irrigation, water that came from the moors, Avhich proved
so deleterious that he was obliged to give up using it. At the time he
was under the impression tliat the injury was caused by the tannin in
the water ; and he considered it a great advantage that they had in
that Society an opportunity of having such mistakes corrected. The
mischief was no doubt due to the ochrous matter Avhich the Avatcr
deposited in the soil. He wished to add, in confirmation of the
Professor's remarks on drainage-water, that he had some meadows in
the neighbom-hood of Leominster, where the same water had been used
three times, and the last iipplication seemed as successfid as the first.

In reply to a question from Mr. Frere,

Professor Voelcker said, — in some of the waters that passed
through the primary rocks, the amount of potash is considerable,
five or six grains per gallon. That is a larger portion than occurs in
sewage. No doubt a great deal of the benefit derived from some
natural water is due to the presence of potash.

The Chair:\ian said Professor Yoelcker's lecture was very valuable,
dii-ecting, as it did, the members to the diflerent kinds of water that
were most available for irrigation. He agreed with him that hard
waters, particularly such as he had seen in the counties of Dorset and
Wilts flowing from chalk, were exceedingly valuable. They were,
indeed, far more valuable than those soapy and soft waters which some
people had supposed to produce the gi-eatcst eftects in irrigation. Tne
Professor had wisely separated what he called warped lands — that is,
lands on which such deposits were foi-med as came from the K"ile,
or might be found in Lincolnshire and some other English counties —
from lands to which irrigation was applicable. Irrigation, strictly
speaking, consists in the passing of water as rapidly as possible
through land without leaving a film behind. He quite concurred Avith
the lecturer that where the thinned water of sewage came naturally, if

On Irrigation. 471

it contained its fair proportion of ammonia, it worJcl be tlie more
valuable for passing rapidly, and not choking the pores of the soil
through -which it passed. Wliat had been said about the injurious
effects of sulphate of iron and peaty waters was most important, and
lectures of that kind, borne out by personal knowledge, were calculated
to be most useful in preventing the expenditure of money on irrigation
with water Avhich would do more harm than good.

There was another important point, having reference to water from
drains. At tliat moment Mr. Bailey Denton was very anxious that
inquiries should be made with regard to the supply of v/ater, which of
late years had been much changed by the drainage throughout the
country. That gentleman was of opinion that in some cases, in
consequence of the water being drained away, the rainfall had been
lessened, and the difficulty of obtaining viator increased, and that
hence there was a necessity for using and storing our drai]iage-
water as much as possible. This appeared to him a very valuable
hint. It was already established that water v/hich passed through
highly-fertilised land was more valuable than water which did not
natui-ally contain much ammonia. Probably before long an inquiry
would have to be instituted, as to the manner in v/hich the dams,
which had been long maintained at certain heights, should be altered,
in order to enable people to avail themselves more easily of the water
supply. The water now came out at a doubly and treblj^ rapid pace ;
yet there was no possible means of altering the height, because the
law did not permit it. There must be an inquiry with the view
of enabling agriculturists to use the rainfall more extensively than
they have done. In conclusion, he must repeat that he considered the
lecture \vhich had been delivered one from v/hich agriculture was
likely to derive great benefit.

Sir J. Johnstone, M.P., said many of the meadows in the neighbour-
hood of the Humber called " salt-meadows," were very good for
fattening animals. He should like to hear from the lecturer some
explanation of that.

Professor Voelcker said he knew a good many salt-meadov/s on
some parts of the coast. The quantity of salt that was brought upon
the land was very small, but it was sufficient to produce a decidedly
useful effect. Let it be remembered that for agricultural produce a
small quantity of salt was of very great use, whilst a large dose was
invariably injurious. Such a quantity as would be conveyed to land
by the spray of sea- water was no doubt beneiicia]. Indeed, he believed
that the addition of some salt to sewage would be of great benefit to
the feeding qualities of grass.

Every kind of refuse may with benefit be put in the water, and then
applied to the land, which has a v/onderful deodorising power. He
was led to make this remark by knowing that the chairman took a
great interest in the cultivation of flax. Stec2)-water v/as a very great
nuisance, and the only woy of disjjosing of it was to carry it over a
moderate area of soil. All other deodorizers were either too cxjiensive
or not available. Even a small area of soil completely deodorised the
most fcetid liquid, and a large portion of the fertilising matter was

472 Abstract Meport of Agricultural Discussior^s.

left in the laud. On tlie previous Saturday Lc visited Mr. Marriage's
farm, and was perfectly astouished to find that the water there, after
passing tlu"ough some fields, and being used twice over again, was
brought into such a state that he would not have had the slightest
hesitation in drinking it. Although it was originally sewage, it had
become better for di-inking than many drinking-waters which he had
had sent to him to be analysed.

The CHAiR:viAis- observed that what the Professor had just said about
flax-water was borne out by his own experience. Some time ago he
had a difficulty in getting rid of the water which came from the flax,
and which was most disagreeable. At last some steam-pumps were
i)ut up. About 1,500 barrels of flax-water a day were now discharged
on five or six acres of sandy laud, and the water which flowed into the
river from that land was as pure as it could possibly be.

Meeting of the Wceldy Council, Wednesdmj, Jxine lAtJi. Mr. Raymond
Baekeb in the Chair. Dr. W. ]3udd, of Clifton, delivered his

Lecture ox a TyrnoiD Fever in Pigs.

Dr. BuDD said: I feel that as a medical man chiefly concerned
with diseases in the hiunau subject, I lay myself open to the charge
of presumption in attempting to speak of diseases in animals before an
agi*icultm-al audience, and especially in the presence of so distinguished
a veterinarian as my friend Professor Simonds. I must rely for my
vindication on the following facts : 1st, that the particular disease
of which I am about to show some results is one of the greatest
scientific importance ; 2nd, that, although it has been incidentally
noticed in veterinary aud scientific journals, it has never, so far as
I am aware, been scientifically and systematically described ; * and
3rd, that within the last few years it has been the cause of enormous
mortality among pigs in various parts of the kingdom, — a mortality
which is still proceeding, and which, if I may depend upon the state-
ments of persons connected with the pig-trade, is likely to' affect
materially the price of pork. I need scarcely observe that in these
days of dear meat anything that may affect the supply of food for the
working classes is matter of national concern.

Another motive for bringing this disease under your notice is, that the
opportunities for prosecuting the inquiry further have passed out of
my hands. This fever, which was apparently very rife in my neigh-
bom-hood at one time, has now died out ; and I am extremely anxious
that the few i-udiments which I have brought together should not be
allowed to perish, but be placed in the hands of more competent
persons than myself, or persons having a larger field for investigations
of this kind.

It may simplify what I have to say if I at once state that the

* Unless a statement in the last edition of Eoll's ' Lehrbuch der Pathologie und
Therapie der Hausthiere,' article ' Gastrischer Fieber,' to the effect that all the
domestic animals are subject to a fever attended by ulceration of the intestine, be
supposed to include this malady, I have met with no mention of it anywhere.
Roll's book contains, however, no special description of this disease in the pig.

Typhoid Fever in Pigs. 473

conception I have formed of tliis particular disorclcr is that it is
of a typhoid character. Most of you, no doubt, are sufficiently familiar
■with the disease called typhoid fever, and sometimes gastric fever, in
man. That disease is attended and characterised by a peculiar
ulceration of the intestinal follicles. So with the disease in the pig :
it, too, is a typhoid fever, characterised and attended by a peculiar
series of ulcerations of the intestine, v/hich are in some respects the
very counterpart of the ulcerations found in the human intestine, so
that the two may be considered exact pathological equivalents ; the
differences betvv-een them, more especially as touching the order of
their distribution, are, however, too serious to allow us to suppose
that they are the common effect of a single specific poison. My idea
is that the two maladies are not identical, or not interchangeable ; that
is to say, that the typhoid fever of the pig is not communicable to man,
nor that of man to the pig. The pig-fever stands towards the typhoid
fever in man in just the same sort of relation that small-pox in sheep
stands to human small-pox. My first acquaintance wdth the disorder
I owe to Professor John Gamgec, of the Veterinary College, Edinburgh.
In August last he wrote me a short note to say that a very remarkable
ivnd fatal outbreak of true typhoid fever had occurred among pigs in
Edinburgh ; that the disease had been attended by ulcerations of the
intestinal canal, the precise coxxnterpart of those attendant on fever in
man ; that the disorder had been imported into Edinburgh by stock
from Wolverhampton, but had been extinguished by measures which,
as I gathered from his note, had been directed against contagion.
He closed his note by offering to send me specimens, or a v.'hole pig, if
I desired it. Eeeling that it was a case in which, if in any, it was
advisable to " go the whole hog," I telegraphed to him to send me a
pig entire. The weather was very hot at the time, so that Vhen the
pig, which was desj)atched in accordance with this request, reached
me, it was in an advanced stage of decomposition. That, however,
did not prevent me from examining it and ascertaining that the colon
was beset by numerous ulcers.

I heard nothing more of the malady for sis or eight months, when
a, friend of mine, a medical practitioner in the neighbourhood of
Bristol, wrote me to say that the pigs in Clifton Yv^orkhousc Avere
iill dying of intestinal fever; that out of a lot of ten pigs which
had taken the disorder, six had died, and the remaining four were not
likely to recover. Next day I went over to see the patients, and had
an opportunity — the only one I have had — of observing the disease
in the living subject. I saw them from day to day until they died ;
and I could not give you a better idea of what I saw than by saying
that the disease is the exact counterpart of typhoid fever in man, though
more rapid and more deadly ; but in other respects singularly like.

I will say a word or two on the history of these ten pigs. They
had been purchased in Bristol market about a week before the first
symptoms showed themselves, and when brought to the workhouse
they aj^peared to be in perfect health. In the course of four or five
days one or two of them began to droop and exhibit signs of illness.
The earliest death occurred on the fourth day after the first symptoms

474 Ahstract Rej)ort of Afjricidtural Discussions.

were observed. As it is quite likely that the earliest symptoms had
escaped notice, the animal had probably been ailing longer than that.
The others died at various periods of the disorder, ranging from the
8th to the 10th, 12th, 16th, and the longest survivor lingered until the
20th day. The outbreak lasted in the whole about six weeks.

I have said that the symptoms resembled in a general vv'ay those
of typhoid fever in man. The pig began to droop and shivered,
more or less, distinctly, suddenly became very prostriite, lost it.-j
appetite, got thirsty, and seemed very unwilling to be disturbed.
The master of the workhouse believed that in the first stage of the
disorder these pigs suflcred from headache ; and though this seems
to be a curious statement, I have no doubt that it was a correct one ;
for one could liardly fail, from their heavy look, the fixed way in
•vphich they held their heads, and the resistance they offered to their
heads being distiu'bed, to come to the same conclusion. These fii'st
symptoms were cither attended or soon followed by profuse diarrhrea :
this is one of the leading features of the dise.ise. The discharges
were at fii-st of a light yellow, and strikingly resembled the light
ochre-yellow discharges that belong to typhoid fever in man. As
the disease advanced various modifications in the colour of the evacua-
tions ensued. They became more or less of a dark green, and
towards the end in many cases of a deep chocolate or dirty red,
which tinge arose from the occmTcncc of hemorrhage in the intestinal
ulcerations. Since it is important in a disease like this, where
investigations are new, to fix upon outward signs that may lead to
its early recognition, I will refer to a symptom I regret not having
witnessed myself, but which, as I am told, is a constant cha-
racteristic of the disorder in its early stage. On, apparently, the
second, third, or lourth day, the skin of the pig between and aromid
the ears became of a red colom-, passing into various shades of purple
or violet. This red tinge gradually spreads over the whole surface
of the animal, and is especially conspicuous on the flanks and otlior
parts not much covered with hair; and it appears to have earned
for the malad}'- a particular sobriq[uet. Two or three pig-factors
visited these pigs, and they at once said, " Oh! we know this disease
well enough ; we call it the soldier," from a fancied resemblance in
the skin of the pig to the military red.

As the disease advanced, diarrhcta became very profuse ; the pros-
tration increased, and I fancy that delirium supervened. The pigs
seemed to me to be quite out of their mind, if one may say so. In
the later stages of the disorder there is another circumstance which
is more or less a characteristic of it. Many of these pigs became
partially paralj^sed in their hinder extremities, and so weak as not to
bs able to stand. The evacuations became involuntary ; the Aveakness
gradually increased ; and the animal sank. So much for the symptoniS
dm'ing life.

* [Through the kindness of the owner, I was enabled to make a more

* The passage iuchided in brackets did not form part of the original lecture.
For the accompanying illustrations we are indebted to the British Medical Asso-
ciation.

Typhoid Fever in Pi[jS. 475

or less comple post mortem examination in six of tlie cases ; and it is
on the results thus obtained that the following observations are
based.

The only strikingly characteristic morbid changes were seated in
the intestinal canal. These were in every sense remarkable.
Described in general terms, they may be said to consist of a series of
ulcerations of peculiar character, variously distributed over the intes-
tinal tract, from the stomach to the rectum inclusive.

The first stage of the local afiection appears to be marked by the
development (amid all the phenomena of acute inflaimnatory dis-
turbance), in the substance of the mucous membrane and in the
submucous tissue, of an adventitious deposit (or cell-growth, rather),
resembling, in many of its characters, the v/ell-loiown yellow matter of
liumau typhoid fever.

The seat of this new formation is marked by circular or oval
patches, varying in diameter from a quarter of an inch to two inches,
which attract the eye by their striking constrast in colom- to the sm*-
rounding membrane, and by their standing in relief upon it. (Figs, la,
p. 476, and Ih, p. 477.)

The tinge of these patches varies from brownish yellow, through
chocolate, to deep violet.

In a more advanced stage, the corresponding mucous membrane is
foimd fretted with numerous small ulcers, or has entirely disappeared
over the whole extent of tlie morbid deposit, which then forms the
base of the sore. These two extremes were well sho"vvn in two
stomachs taken from pigs which died at difierent stages of the disease.
(See Figs la, p. 476, and 2, p. 479.)

In some specimens, the ulcers iiov/ appear in the form of deep exca-
vations. In the greater number, however, the idcerative process is
concurrent v/ith an exuberant outgrowth of the new formation already
described, and in such v/ise that the ulcerations present a series of
more or less fungoid elevations on the surface of the mucous membrane,
A similar tendency, but in slighter degree, is exhibited in certain
cases of typhoid fever in man. The resulting changes, in fact, form
the subject of one Cruveilhicr's most effective plates. In the j^ig, this
tendency to exuberant vegetative outgrov/th, in the cases which have
fallen under my obseiwation, reached its maximum in the stomach, as
may be seen by Fig. 2, p. 479. In this stomach, it will be observed, there
are five ulcers, varying in diameter from a third of an inch to about
an inch and a half. Like the ulcers generally, they are either circular
or oval in shape. These ulcers are not only raised much above the
level of the sm-rounding membrane, but are bounded by everted edges,
which project, mushroom-like, considerably beyond the base or pedicle
of the outgrowth. They resemble notliing so much — and the parallel
is in more than one way deeply suggestive — as a series of cancerous
ulcerations which I once sav/ in the colon of a woman who had died
of cancer of that gut and of the mesentery. The surface of these
ulcers was apparently in organic connexion with the vessels of the
j)art ; the morbid matter by which it v.'as constituted being of a deep
violet colour, from infiltration with blood.

476

Ahstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

^ The drawing Fig. 3 (p. 481) exliibits the disease in a very different
phase— a phase which I take to be that of retrogression and beginning
of repair. It comprises the hirge intestine and lower end of the
ileum of a pig which died on the twenty-sixth day of illness. The

Fig. 1 a. — Stomach of V\%, shewiDg Crst stage of disease.

appearance of the diseased parts is in the highest degree i^ecnliar.
Viewed at a little distance, the gut looks exactly as if a number of
thin discs of calmnba-root had been stuck on to it. A friend prefers
to liken them to the discs of a leathery sort of lichen, ^\-ith which
most persons must be familiar, as infesting the bark of certain trees.

Typhoid Fever in Figs.

477

As applied to a large proportion of the patches, this comparison also
is extremely apt. Some few among them, on the other hand, recall to
mind the characteristic crusts of syphilitic ruj)ia — a fact which, again,
is suggestive of many things.

'.r. 1 6.— Portion of Intestine, shewing first stage of disease. Fij. 5.— Intestine, witli Croupal Exudation.

The material of these peculiar looking excrescences is formed by
the adventitious matter already spoken of as constituting the original
basis of the ulcerations. From being soft, spongy, and succulent,
this material has become much drier and firmer, having now much
about the consistence of tolerably firm cheese. Under the microscope,

478 Abstract RepoH of Agricultural Discussions.

its original cellular character is seen still to exist ; tlie whole mass
being, in fact, made up of wcll-detined microscopic cells. (Fig. 4.)

On using a little gentle traction, the indi-

frA (Q) vidual disc may be easily detached from the

/^ (^ imderlying membrane, leaving a surface

(^^ l>' v/liich, although \Yanting in the polish and

r^ Av" " ' ■ • "-'^^ f~h velvety appearance of the siu-roxmding area,

\^l . • C^' vS) is exactly on a level ^dth it.

(^""yV '.'... O . *:■'. r\ I \iQ.\o suggested that these patches proba-

(P^_ \/^ ••-o-''C ^^y exhibited the disease in a retrogressive

O.O v^y.^^-^^ stage — the stage preliminary to repair. I
' (^ .^■>' ^ infer this partly from the history of the case

^ '•- from which the sj)ccimen was taken, and

Fig. 4.— cv'iis irom Deposit in jnirtly fi^om the morbid aj^pearances them-

Jntestine. g^^j^^g^

The pig to which this intestine belonged lived to the twenty-sixth
day; and, a Avcck before its death, gave every sign of approaching
convalescence. Appetite had returned : diarrhoea had nearly ceased ;
the animal had become more lively ; and nearly every symptom of the
fever proper had disappeared. At this juncture i)lcuropneumonia of
the right lung supervened, and speedily proved fatal. After dcatli,
the greater part of this lung was found in a state of hepatisation, and
its whole suiface covered by a soft, recent, yellow fiilse membrane.

The condition of the patches themselves was still more indicative of
a reparative tendency. In the early and middle stages of the disease,
these patches were highly vascular ; their surface was an open ulcer ;
and the surrounding membrane, where the morbid changes were
severe, was often much thickened and deeply injected. In the stage
before us, tlie patches were no longer in the condition of open sores,
but had become hardened into crusts ; and the surroimding vascularity
had for tlie most part cntii-ely faded awaj'. When torn ojff by gentle
traction, the underlying membrane seemed only to require a new
epithelium to be restored to a soimd conditioii.

The various appearances which I have here attempted to describe
represent the ditfercnt phases of what may be called the typical form
of the local affection. In some cases, in addition to these, a condition
of intestine is found which is the precise counterpart of human
dysentery. The dra^A-ing Fig. 5 ("p. 477) represents the lower part of a
small intestine, which for a length of eight inches or more is coated
with a thick layer of that form of exudation which the Germans call
" croui)al," and which is characteristic of dysentery in its severest
form. One of the large intestines exhibits ajipearauces of the same
character, associated with extensive sloughing and ulceration of the
mucous membrane. These dysenteric alterations are, as far as I have
seen, always attended by that gi-eat thickening of the gut, from sub-
mucous infiltration, with which those who are practically acquainted
with the morbid anatomy of dysentery are so familiar.

The large intestine is the chief — -in some cases the exclusive seat of
the disease. In the case, for instance, from which this drawing was
taken, the three small ulcers in the lower pai't of the ilemn represented

Ti/phoid Fever in Pigs.

479

in tlie drawing, and three small chocolate-coloured circular spots,
without breach of surface, in the stomach, were the only discernible
morbid changes above the ileo-cfecal valve. (Fig. 3, p. 481.) The
colon, on the contrary, in the same pig, was so extensively diseased

Stomach of Pig, shewing Vegetative Outgrowths^connectcd witli'^Ukcis

that, from this valve to the anus, there was scarcely a square inch of
membrane that was not beset by the characteristic patches.

If we put aside the cases in which the lower end of the ileum is in
a dysenteric condition, the stomach is the part which, next to the
colon, suffers most. The alterations which this organ presents in some
cases are, as we have seen, as severe as they are remarkable.

VOL. I. — S. S. 2 I

480 Abstract Report of A'jricultural Discussions.

Tlie ulcerated patclies wliicli occiu* in tlic small intestines are few
in niunber, and for tlie most part exhibit the disease in a much
slighter form. Sometimes there are only two or three altogether,
which in that case arc generally seated in the "large Peyer's i)atch,
which in the pig, as in man, lies immediately above the ileo-cfecal
valve. Sometimes, in addition to these, some fifteen or twenty more
may be counted, variously distributed through the length of the gut,
but for the most jiart occupying its middle third.

In the intestine, the disease seems to originate, chiefly, in the
isolated follicles. Peyer's i)atchcs, which occur only in the small
intestine, often either escape altogether, or arc only affected in a
partial and quite irregular manner. Sometimes, in the immediate
neighbourhood of an ulcer seated on an isolated follicle, a Peyer's
patch may be seen in the normal state ; at other i)oints, one end of a
patch is affected by the disease, Avhile the other remains entirely free
from it.

The condition of the oesophagus I have not investigated. Judging
from what occiu:s in human typhoid it is more than probable that this
tube participates in the disorder.

I have remarked, that the only perfectly characteristic morbid
appearances attaching to this malady arc found in the intestinal
canal. It is wortli noting that the !:;})lcen, wJiich in some stages of
human typhoid fever imdergoes such a marked modification, presents
here no perceptible deviation from its normal state. The same may
be said of the liver, mth this excei^tion, that in one or two instances I
have seen a thin layer of adventitious deposit occm-ring in irregular
patches immediately under the peritoneal coat of the organ. More
than once I have observed a similar deposit under the pleura also. I
have not had time to subject this dcjiosit to a minute examination ;
but its colour and general appearance would suggest the idea of its
being identical with the adventitious deposit which precedes the stage
of iilceration in the intestine.

Various degrees of passive congestion and of pleuropneumonia are
the only other morbid changes I have found in the lung. I must
confess, however, that I have not examined this organ with quite the
same care which I have bestowed on the intestinal canal.

In one case there were several oimces of limpid serum in the
pericardiiun ; but, with this exception, the heart presented nothing
abnormal.

The kidneys exhibited appearances worthy of note. In all the
cases which I have examined, these organs were a good deal con-
gested— more variegated in colour than in the healthy state ; and, in
some instances, their surface was thickly beset by ecchymoses. These
alterations must be familiar to most as a frequent attendant on malig-
nant fevers, and as generally associated with acute albuminuria in the
living subject.

For want of time, the nervous centres were~not examined in any
instance.] pi)

Now these are all the facts that have come immediately within my
own knowledge. In what I have to add, depending as it does more

TypJioid Fever in Pigs.

481

or less upon the testimony of unscientific persons, I must" speak with
more reserve. But if the information which has reached me can be
relied upon, there are two points of very great importance in the

Fig. 3. — Portion of Large Intestine. Stage of Ketrogrcssiion and commencing Repair.

natural history of the disorder ; the first, that it is virulently conta-
gious ; the second, that it is quite peculiar to the pig. I have heard
of instances where it has swept away all the pigs in the homestead ;
yet no other creatm-e on the farm, whether man or beast, suffered
in the slightest way. So that it really seems to be a disorder j)eculiar
to the pig. This I need scarcely say is a fact of very great scientific
interest.

2 I 2

482 Ahs&act Report of Arjricidtnral Discussions.

Tlie disease appears to have been known to pig-factors in Bristol
and its neighbourhood for a considerable number of years ; but in
their exjierionce until lately it only occurred in spoi-adic or isolated
cases. Within the last year or two, however, it has become epidemic.
I am almost afraid to repeat all that I have heard about it ; but two
or three men largely concerned in the jiig-trade have assured mo
that from 10,000 to 15,000 pigs have died in the south and south-
west of England of this disease in the course of the last eighteen
months ; and if that be the case, surely it is high time that the
disorder should be seriously investigated.

I would here otfer a cohjectiirr as to the causes of this disease
having become so rife dm-ing the last two years. Within ten or
fifteen years it has been ascertained that typhoid fever in man is much
moi'e prevalent in dry seasons than in wet ; in fact, that it never
becomes widely epidemic over the whole kingdom except in very dry
seasons. The reason 1 believe to be this. All those contagioiis
disorders are caused by organic poisons, wliich are thrown off from
the body in vari(jus forms. In these typhoid fevers they are thrown
oif by the bowels in a liquid state. Now, in the liquid state all these
poisons perish very quicldy. But there is a fundamental law which
has never been sufficiently dwelt upon in relation to all these cq)i-
demic disorders, wliich is this, that when once these poisons pass into
a dried state, if they can be kept dry, they will retain tlieir powers
for almost any period. Thus we are all familiar with the fact that
dry vaccine matter will keep good for many yeai-s. Now my conjec-
tui'c is that the poisonous germs thrown oft' in this disorder of the
pig within the last two years have, in consequence of the great dryness
of the seasons, been preserved to a nmch larger extent than common in
the dry state, and in that way have been disseminated over the country.

In bringing these observations to a close I shall make one or two
suggestions of a practical kind, because this is an eminently practical
Society, and your object is to turn the knowledge here acquired to
practical and useful purposes. I ventm-e, therefore, to say a word or
two on the subject of Prevention. I have stated my belief that this
■disease is the coimterj)art of typhoid fever in man. Now it is quite a
settled jwint that this fever is a contagious disorder, chiefly propagated
by discharges from the bowels. Now if the two diseases are the
analogues one of the other, the same would hold good of the disorder
in the pig. I believe that it is a contagious disorder, and that it is
propagated mainly by the discharges from those sores in the intestines
which constitute the specific character of the disease. It is the jjoison
which finds its way through the system of the animal, and is thence cast
out ui)on the groimd. If pigs in the early stage of the disorder are
sent by steamboat, they taint the steamboat. In like manner they
taint the market, the stye, and the drains of the stye. The su^estions,
then, which I would oii'er are these : —

1. — Try to recognise the disorder in its earliest stages.

2. — Separate the sick from the iminfected without the least delay.

3. — And — this is fundamental to my mind — immediately slaughter
the affected animals.

Ti/phoid Fever in Pigs. 483

4. — All tliesc precautions will be in vain if you do not destroy tlie
infectious discharges from tlic intestines of the diseased pigs.

You may soj)arate the sick from the uninfected, but if in dry
weather you tm'u your healthy pigs at the end of two or three weeks
into the stye or tlio yard where the others had been ill, you Avill find
the disorder break out anew.

And now permit me to express a hope that the Eoyal Agricultural
Society will take up this matter, and place the investigation in the
hands of my distinguished friend Professor Simonds, than whom
there is no man in Europe more competent to conduct such an
inquiry. The members of this Society have great opioortunities.
You know that mankind is infested, to a fearful degree, by that re-
markable group of disorders which are called epidemics — small-pos,
scarlet fever, typhoid fever, and typhus fever. Many physicians —
wrongly I think— have pronounced them to be inscrutable. You
have in animals epizootic diseases, that are the exact countcrjiarts
of these, analogous in their nature, propagated and destroying life in
the same way. But in studying these diseases in animals you
have the enormous advantage that all the problems which suggest
themselves may be put to the test of experimental investigation.
Y'ou know we cannot exi^eriment upon men and women as we can
upon jjigs and bullocks. I think this disorder among pigs is one of
the most interesting of the whole group ; and I believe that if it were
subjected, as opportunity occurs, to the test of exiDerimental inquiry,
results would come out that would not fail to be of the highest value
to the agriculturist, Avhilst they would also possess great scientific
interest in their bearing on kindred diseases in man, of a far higher
and still wider range.

The Chairman said he had listened with very great satisfaction
to the observations of Dr. Budd, and added that in his neighbourhood
in Berkshire there had during the last few months been an immense
mortality among pigs. The disease was of a most extraordinary
character, and from ail he could learn it develoj^ed itself without any
premonitory symjitoms, and carried ofl' its victims quite suddenly.

Dr. Budd believed it probable that, from the virulence of the
poison, the disease was sometimes mortal at so early a stage that, as
in the case of small-pox in man, the jiatient died without throwing
out the eruptions. A certain proportion of pigs might die in the
same way before the local disease had had time to develope itself in
its characteristic form.

Professor Wilson inquii-ed how the red tinge in the cuticle about
the ears and those parts of the body which had little hair was to be
recognised in a black pig. He presumed the j)ig-dealcrs must have
some means of detecting it even in that case.

Dr. Budd said the ten pigs of which he had been speaking were
not black, and he could not answer the question.

Professor Simonds said that although attention had been more
especially directed to this disease within the last three years, there
could be no question that it had existed in a form unrecognised by
medical men for a very considerable time. It was in the early part

484 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

of 1862 that the attention of tlie vcterlnaiy profession, and of himself
in particular, was fii'st called to this matter, in conseq[uence of a
vinilent outbreak of the malady in the county of Berks. The first
pigs he then saw were some belonging to Mr. Charles Cantrell, Avhich
had received the very best treatment from the time of their being born ;
and he confessed that when he saw them he was completely taken aback,
and scarcely knew Avhat disease he was dealing with. He had never
seen anything of the Icind before ; for although he quite agreed with
Dr. Budd as to there being ulcerations in the mucous membrane, and
chiefly in the larger intestines, still in this instance there was a great
deposit on the membrane, and it was only by removing these deposits
that he was enabled to see that there were any ulcerations.

Dr, Budd. — It was the same in my case.

Professor Simonds. — These deposits were — as Dr. Budd has said —
like fungi on a tree, or the scar on a horse's leg after the operation of
firing, or slices of the columba-root. But they prevailed to a far greater
extent than any of these similes would convey to the mind. They existed
to such an extent, indeed, as absolutely to obliterate the passage through
the intestines, and more than one pig died from a ruptui'e of the intes-
tines, for the feculent matter could not pass through the colon in con-
sequence of the amazing amount of deposit. Other pigs showed less of
these characteristics, and in these instances the ulcerations were well
marked, and chiefly confined to the large intestines. Very shortly
after, he heard that many other pigs in the neighbourhood of Windsor
had taken the disease, and as a very considerable number had died
in the county that year, and he had observed the affection chiefly
among Berkshire pigs, he began to imbibe the notion that they Avcre
more suscci)tible of the disease tlian others. Subsequent experience
had shown him the fallacy of this conclusion, and he now thought
there was no difference whatever with regard to breeds of pigs, all
being, in his opinion, equally susceptible to the influence of the
contagion. Suffice it to say, that from 18G2 to the present time
the disease had been extending throughout the whole country, and
he did not Imow a single county that was not suffering more or less
from the affection. Certainly it existed in all the southern, midland,
and most of the northern counties, for he had seen animals from all
those districts. It was for this reason that in the Eeport of the
Governors of the Eoyal Veterinary College to this Society last year
the following paragi-aph was introduced : —

" Although what may be called the established epizootics have been less
prevalent, a peculiar disease in the nature of diphtheria has affected pip;s in
several parts of the country. This disease, however, has apparently passed its
climax, and seems now to be on the decline. The sanitary mi^asurcs recom-
mended by the Professor were attended with marked benefit by keeping the
malady in check ; but further investigations into its pathology are required,
and in this, as in other analogous cases, the Governors invite the co-operation
of the Society."

He quoted this passage to show that the Council had not only been
alive to the existence and ravages of the disease, but had been exceed-
ingly anxious to receive information and support from the various

Tijphoid Fever in Pifjs. 485

members of the Society. The disease was therein spolreu of as being
of the natiu'e of diphtheria, and it was so described because he had
found that tlie deposits upon the mucous membrane in the early stages
of the malady bore a close analogy to the deposits which were seen
in diphtheria — (Dr. Budd : " Certainly.") — and he did not see why in a
diiihtheroid disease those deposits might not be in any j)art of the
intestinal track, as well as upon the fauces. In fact, the deposit might
exist in various parts of the body. He made that observation because
he had seen again and again in pigs de2:)osits taking place upon the
pharynx, the fauces, and the epiglottis, precisely in the same manner
as in the human subject. This showed, at all events, that pigs were
susceptible of that jiarticular class of aifections.

With reference to the contagiousness of the disease he quite agreed
with Dr. Budd, and further he agreed that in dry seasons it was j^ro-
bably more contagious than in wet, and for the reason Dr. Budd had
explained. Perhaps the " materics morbi " breaks up. if it bo in a
iluid, like sewage. He found, however, that it was contagious as well
in winter as in summer — (Dr. Budd: " True ") — that it made as much
progress in wet wealher as in dry, but that j)igs differed considerably
in their susceptibility to its action. In his experience the disease
rarely attacked aged j)igs ; it had in some cases spared all the old pigs
on the farm, whilst it had swept off nearly the whole of the young
ones. He could not admit, therefore, that the farmer was likely to
lose all his pigs when his herd v\^as attacked. Animals that v/ere
upwards of six months old resisted the disease in a most remarkable
manner. With regard to the means by v*^hich the morbific matter
might be propagated, he thought it was most likely to be propagated
through the medium of the atmosphere. That other agents might
also be conductors of it he vrould not dispute; but he came to
the conclusion which he had stated from the circumstance that he
had seen the disease existing upon hill-farms where the coimtry all
arovmd was open, and vrhere there was no possible communication
between that and other farms. He had seen it also among pigs
that were kept in the best possible manner, and fed upon the
best possible food, and that lay in houses that might rather be
called parlours for pigs to dwell in than styes. The animals were
washed two or three times a week, and treated with the greatest care,
just as if the owner had intended to send them for exhibition to a
cattle-show. This was a fact of some value — because it indicated,
not only that pigs thus well managed were susceptible of the affection,
but that no precaution gave security to the animal ; and especially
was the fact of value v/hen he contrasted it with another to which he
would allude. In one of his visits to the country for the purpose of
investigating the disease, he saw a large nmnber of pigs on one farm
that were the subjects of the affection. These were chiefly young pigs
that had been bred upon the farm — and of all the mismanaged animals
he ever met with, they were the worst. They were running about in
the mud, and dwelling in places that were as filthy as any the imagi-
nation could picture. As soon as the young pigs v/ere weaned they,
were fed exclusively upon bran and water. Thus were brought into

486 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

operation a niunbcr of causes that must tend to produce disease and
render tlie animals susceptible. But, curious to relate, in that j)articular
instance, the disease was not more fatal than in the case of pigs which
had been managed in the directly opposite manner. It would appear,
therefore, so far as his observation went, that susceptibility depended
not so much on management as on age. Why young pigs should be
susceptible, and old pigs not, he could not say.

With resjicct to the character of the disease he quite agreed that it
was of the nature of typhoid fever ; that was to say, it belonged to that
class of diseases which were termed zymotic ; and he also held that it
had a close likeness to typhoid fever iu the hmnan subject. Though
not identical, they were diseases of the same class and the same family ;
they bore as strong a resemblance to each other as one fungus bore to
another fungus. As to the duration of the malady, he was inclined
to believe that it ran its course far more rai)idly iu the pig than
typhoid fever did in the human subject — (Dr. Budd : " Decidedly.") And
further, that the disease might have its beginning and ending in the
com-se of four or live days — (Dr. Budd : " Clearly.") When, how-
ever, they got the disease in that form it was not to be expected, on
making a post mortem examination, that large dejiosits would be found
on the mucous membranes, or very extensive ulcerations. It would
appeal", indeed, that the animals were killed by the large mass of
morbilic matter which had entered into their organisms. It was in
those cases particularly that the changes of colour in the skin — red
here and red there — especially about the ears and the ujiper part of
the neck, and also on the back and sides, were seen. In addition
to that it would invariably be found that the conjunctival membrane
of the eye was intensely reddened. Sometimes, too, though that was
more rare, the eye would be~ bloodshot. If a jiost mortem examina-
tion were made, a patch of intense intianmiation woidd probably be
found in the stomachs as well as in the intestinal canal ; and when
that was observable, not luifrcquently there would be a thin layer of
lymph of a dirty or yellomsh-whitc colour, spread over it, which,
if scraped otf, would disclose the presence of inflammatory action of
the most intense nature on that particular sjiot. If the animal had
taken a dose of arsenic, or some other mineral or highly-irritating
poisonous agent, the inflammatory action could not be gi-eater.

Frequently, however, there were no deposits, and scarcely any appa-
rent change in the mucous membrane. Of this he had seen examides
within the last month in some well-managed pigs in Bedfordshire,
some of which had died in the early stages of the aflfection, even as
soon as the third day. Those cases were marked by effusions of blood
here and there, and in one case the capsule of the kidney was thus
aifected. More generally the serous membrane of the abdomen and
the lining membrane of the left side of the heart were spotted, clearly
sho\ving that it was a blood-disease, and that the contaminated blood
had left its vessels and produced the petechial spots that had been
described. In the case in question the disease was introduced by some
store-pigs bought in market. The influence of contagion was thus
clearly shown.

Typhoid Fever in Pigs. 487

Having observed tlio tTiscasc in the early as well as in tlie more
advanced stage, and examined all tbe connecting links between the two
extremes, he nevertheless felt that he had a very great deal indeed
to learn with regard to the true pathology of the disease. He con-
sidered that it was allied to typhoid fever, whilst analogous to, and
partaking of, the nature of diphtheria. The symptoms had been most
accurately described by Dr. Budd ; and it was imj)ortaut that farmers
should early recognise their existence. There could be no doubt that
in many cases the animals showed indications of headache. They vv^ero
ill at ease, and he had heard it said that as soon as they were attacked,
there was a peculiar pricking up of their ears. In some instances they
loathed food ; and in all cases the appetite was fastidious, if it were
not entirely lost. The breathing was not much disturbed, and the
pulse gave little or no sign of the malignancy of the disease. As a
rule, the body was very hot, particularly in some places, and usually,
but not invariably, the extremities were cold. At the commencement
the bowels were constipated, whatever might be the kind of food on
which the animals lived. Later in the disease, certainly on the-
third day, diarrhoea supervened ; the evacuations were of a peculiar
character ; not copious, but constant — a teaspoouful at a time ten times
in an hour. The feculent matter having passed off, the fluid dis-
charged contained a quantity of broken-uj) Ij^mph, which was of a dirty
white, and proceeded from the scabs in the intestinal canal.

With regard to the discolouration of the skin of the black pig, it was
difficult perhaps to say, when the vessels of the skin were congested ;
but if the skin was particularly hot and unusually dark, he thought
it might be inferred that there was a determination of blood to the
vessels of the skin. With reference to the duration of the disorder, he
had never himself seen it j)rotracted beyond seven or eight days.
There was no doubt that it produced death speedily, and that, sjoeak-
ing generally, its dm-ation was remarkably short. As to the spread of
the affection from the pig to other animals, he did not think there was
the least risk of that ; for it was a singular fact, which science might
one day throw light upon, that there were certain victims to certain
special poisons, and that a disease which would kill the ox could
not be spread to the sliecp, and the contrary. In regard to the means
of preventing the affection, of course the sooner the disease was
recognised and the animals were got rid of the better. By that means
a large source of mischief was cut off. Cleanliness could not be too
strictly insisted on. The places where the pigs had been kej^t should
be thoroughly washed-floors, walls, and drains ; and no sound animals
should be put there for weeks after the others had left. As a medical
means of preventing the disease, ho had found great benefit to result
from the use of small quantities of a very homely remedy, namely,
sulphur, on account of its antiseptic action. It should be put into the
animals' food twice or thrice in the week. In treating the disease,
sulphite of soda should be freely used.

Mr. Freee suggested that carbolic acid, being an antiseptic, might
be useful.

Professor Coleman mentioned that he had been lately informed of

VOL. I. — s. S. 2 K

488 Ahstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

three cases in -wliicli it liacT been used witli advantage internally and
externally.

Professor Simonds had had no experience of carbolic acid internally
administered ; though externally applied to diseases of the skin he had
found it efficacious.

Dr. BuDD wished to add that he believed this particular disorder
was propagated chiefly by the discharges from the intestinal canal,
and that persons who got the matter about their shoes were frequently
the imconscious agents for conveying the disease from one place to
another. At present the complaint was very rife in the South of
Ireland, from whence vast importations of pigs took place into the
port of Bristol.

END OF VOL. I. — SECOND SERIES.

^LOSDON.: FBIXTED TiY^Vi, CLOTTES AlCD SOKS, STASIPOED BTREET, ASD CIUEIXG CnOSS.

2aoL)al gigrifultural ^onetj) of O^nglanti.

1865.

^vtSitiznt.

SIR EDWARD C. KERRISON, Bart., M.P.

'dLvuittti.

ACLAND, Sir Thomas DrKE, Bart., K'dlerton Parle, Exeter, Devonshire.

Berners, Lord, Keythorpe Hall, Leicester.

Bramston, Thomas William, M.P., Skreens, Chelmsford, Essex.

Challoner, Colonel, Fortnall Parle, Staines, Middlesex.

Feversham, Lord, Helmslerj, Yorli.

Marlborough, Duke of, Blenheim Pari;, Oxford.

PoRTMAN, Lord, Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset.

Powis, Earl of, Poivis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.

Rutland, Duke of, Belvoir Castle, Grantham, Lincolnshire.

Shelley, Sir John Villiers, Bart, M.P., Maresfield Pari:, Sussex.

Speaker, The Rt. Hon. the, Ossington, Newark-on-Trent, Notts.

Thompson, Harry Stephen, M.P., Kirhy Hall, York.

Barker, Thomas Raymond, Hambledon, Henley-on-TJiames, Oxfordshire.

Chichester, Earl of , Stanmer Park, Lewes, Sussex.

Downshire, Marquis of. East Hampstead Park, Bracknell, Berkshire.

Egmont, Earl of, Cowdray Park, Petworth, Sussex.

EvERSLEY, Viscount, Heckfield Place, Winclijield, Hants.

Exeter, Marquis of, Burleigh House, Stamford, Lincolnshire.

Hill, Viscount, Hawkstone Park, Salop.

HoBBS, W. Fisher, Boxted Lodge, Colchester, Essex.

Hood, Major-Gen. the Hon. A. Nelson, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, Berkshire.

Johnstone, Sir John V. B., Bart., M.P., Hackness Hall, Scarborough, Yorkshire.

Miles, Sir "William, Bart., M.P., Leigh Court, Bristol, Somersetshire.

Walsingham, Lord, Merton Hall, Thetford, Norfolk.

(©ti)ttr ifKrmbcrg of Council.

Acland, Thomas Dyke, Sprydoncote, Exeter, Devonshire.

Amos, Charles Edwards, 5, Cedars Road, Clapham Common, Surrey.

Arkwright, J. Hungerford, Hamilton Court, Leominster, Herefordshire.

Barnett, Charles, Stratton Park, Biggleswade, Bedfordshire.

Barthropp, Nathaniel George, Hacheston, Wickham Market, Suffolk.

BowLY, Edward, Siddington House, Cirencester.

BuLLER, James Wentworth, M.P., Downes, Crediton, Devonshire.

Burgess William, Brentimod, Essex.

Cantrell, Charles S., Biding Court, Datchet, Bucks.

Cathcart, Earl, Thornton-le- Street, TMrsk, Yorkshire.

Chesham, Lord, Latimer, Chesham, Bucks.

VOL. I.— S. S. b

ii List of Officers.

Clayden, John, Littlebury, Saffron Walden, Essex.

Dent, J. D., M.P., Ribston Hall, Wetherby, Yorkshire.

Druce, Joseph, Eynsham, Oxford.

FoRTESCUE, Earl, Castle Hill, Southmolton, Devonshire.

GiBRS, B. T. Brandreth, Hal/moon Street, PiccadiUi/, London, W.

Hamond, Anthony, Westacre Hall, Brandon, Norfolk.

Holland, Edward, I\I.P., Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, Worcestershire.

HosKYNS, Chandos Wren, Hareicood, lios^ Herefordshire.

Hudson, John, Castleacre Lodge, Brandon, Norfolk.

HuMBERSTON, PiiiLip Stapylton, M.P., Mollingtou, Chester, Cheshire.

HuTTON, William, Gate Burton, Gainsboro', Yorkshire.

Jonas, Samuel, Chrishall Grange, Saffron Walden, Essex.

Kerrison, Sir Edward Clarence, Bart., M.P., Brome Hall, Scale, Norfolk.

KiNGSCOTE, Colonel, M.P., Kingscote, Wootton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.

Lawes, John Bennet, IMhamsted, St. Albans, Herts.

Lawrence, Charles, Cirencester, Gloucestershire.

Leigh, Lord, Stoneleigh Abbey, Warwickshire.

Macdonald, Sir Archibald Keppel, Bart., Woolmer Lodge, Liphook, Hants.

JIiLWARD, KiCHARD, Thurgorton Priory, Southicell, Notts.

Pain, Thomas, Ugford Cottage, Salisbury, Wilts.

Pope, Edward, Great Toller, Maiden Newton, Dorset.

Kandell, Charles, Chadbury, Evesham, Worcestershire.

Kigden, William, Hove, Brighton, S>issex.

EiDLEY, Sir Matthew White, Bart., M.F., Blagdon, Cramlington, Northumberland.

Sanday, William, Holmepierrepont, Notts.

Shrewsbury and Talbot, Earl of, Ligcstre Hall, Staffordshire.

Shuttleworth, Joseph, Hartsholme Hall, Lincoln.

S.MiTH, Egbert, Emmett's Grange, Southmolton, Devon.

Torr, William, Aylesby Manor, Great Grimsby, Lincolnshire.

Towneley, Lieut.-Colonel Charles, Towneley Park, Blackburn, Lancashire.

Tredegar, Lord, Tredegar, Newport, Monmouthshire.

Turner, George, Beacon Doicnes, Exeter, Devonshire.

Vernon, Hon. Augustus H., Sudbury, Derby.

Wallis, Owen, Overstone Grange, Northampton.

Wells, William, Eedleaf, Penslmrst, Eent.

AVestern, Sir Thomas B., Bart., Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex.

Wilson, Henry, Stoidangtoft Hall, Bury-St.-Edmunds, Suffolk.

Wilson, Professor, Ivei; Uxbridge, Bucks.

Wynn, Sir Watkin Williams, Bart, M.P., Bhuabon, Denbigliehire.

H. HALL DARE, 12, Hanover Square, London, W.

Editor — P. H. Frere, Bungate, Cambridge.

Consulting-Chemist— Dr. Augustus Voelcker, 11, Salisbury Square^ E.G.

Veterinary-Inspector — James Beart Slmonds, P.oyal Veterinary College, N.W.

Consulting i'n^/meer— James Easton, or C. E. Amos, Grove, Southwarh, S.E.

Seedsmen — Thomas Gibbs and Co., Corner of Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, W.

Publisher — John JIurray, 50, Albemarle Street, W.

Bankers — The London and Westminster Bank, St. James's Square Branch, S.W.

STANDING COMMITTEES FOR 1865.

Hood, Maj.-Gen. the Hon. A,
Barnett, Charles.
Bramston, T. W., M.P.

dTinancc Committee.

Nelson.

HoBBS, Wm. Fisher.

TORR, WlLLLAM.

f|ou£ic Committee.

The President.
Chairman of Finance Committee.
Chesham, Lord.
Bramston, T. W., M.P.

Challoner, Colonel.
GiBBS, B. T. Brandreth.
HoBBs, Wm. Fisher.

3)ournal Committee.

Cathcart, Earl. Acland, T. Dyke.

Fortesque, Earl. Holland, Ed., M.P.

Speaker, The Rt. Hon. The. Hoskyns, C. Wren.

Shelley, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P. Milward, Richard.
Johnstone, Sir J. V. B., Bt., M.P. Thompson, H. S., M.P.

Kerrison, Sir E. C, Bt., M.P. Wallis, Owen.
Macdonald, Sir A. K., Bt.

Cj^cmtcal Committee.

Cathcart, Earl. Holland, Ed., M.P.

Vernon, Hon. A. H. Hoskyns, C. Wren.

Johnstone, Sir J. V. B., Bt., M.P. Humberston, P. S., M.P,

Kerrison, Sir E. C, Bt., M.P. Huxtable, Ven. Archdeacon.

Macdonald, Sir A. K., Bt. Lawes, J. B.

AcLAiiD, T. Dyke. Thompson, H. S., M.P.

Arkwright, J. H. Wells, William.
Dent, J. D., M.P.

'Feterinari) Committee.

Hood, Maj.-Gen. the Hon. A. Nelson.
Johnstone, Sir J. V. B., Bt., M.P.
Miles, Sir Wm., Bt., M.P.
Barker, Thos. Raymond.
Challoner, Colonel.
Dent, J. D., M.P.
GiBBS, B. T. Brandreth.

Hamond, Anthony.
HoBBs, Wm. Fisher.
Pain, Thos.
SiMONDS, Professor.
Spooner, Professor.
Thompson, H. S., M.P.
Wells, William.

Walsingham, Lord.

Hood, Maj.-Gen. the Hon. A,

Barnett, Charles.

Barthropp, Nathaniel G.

Clayden, John.

Dent, J. D., M.P.

Druce, Joseph.

GiBBS, B. T. Brandreth.

HoBBs, Wm. Fisher.

Holland, Ed., M.P,

Hudson, John.

5tocfe#33vt^e^ Committee.

Jonas, Samitel.
Nelson. Milward, Richard.

Pain, Thomas.
Pope, Edward.
Randell, Chas.
RiGDEN, Wm.
Smith, Robert.
SiMONDS, Professor.
ToRR, William.
Turner, George.
Wallis, Owen,

b 2

Standing Committees for 1865.

implement Committ«.

Chesham, Lord.

Hood, Maj.-Gen. the Hon. A. Nelsox.

Vernon, Hon. A. H.

Kerrison, Sir E. C, Bt., M.P.

Macdonald, Sir A. K., Bt.

Miles, Sir Wm., Bt., M.P.

Amos, C. E.

Arkwright, J. H.

Barnett, Charles.

Cantrell, Chas. S.

Challoner, Colonel.

GiBBS, B. T. Brandretii.
Haiiond, Anthony.
HoBBS, Wm. Fisher.
Holland, Ed., M.P.
Hoskyns, C. Wren.
PCandell, Charles.
Shdttleworth, Joseph.
Thompson, H. S., M.P.
ToRR, William.
Wallis, Owen.
Wilson, Professor.

General ^Inmouti) Committee.

Feversham, Lord, Chaiiman.

FORTESCUE, Eai-1.

Powis, Earl of.

Chesham, Lord.

PORTMAN, Lord.

Tredegar, Lord.

Hood, Maj.-Gen. the Hon. A. Nelson.

Lopes, Sir Masse y, Bart., M.P.

Vernon, Hon. A. H.

Macdonald, Sir A. K., Bart.

KiDLEY, Sir Matthew White, Bart., M.P.

Acland, T. Dyke.

Arkwright, J. Hungerford.

Barnett, Charles.

BowLY, Edward.

Bramston, T. W., M.P.

Cantrell, Charles S.

Challoner, Colonel.

Dent, J. D., M.P.
GiBBS, B. T. Brandretu.
HoBBS, Wm. Eisher.
Holland, E., M.P.
HosKYNS, C. Wren.
KiNGSCOTE, Col., M.P,
MiLWARD, Richard.
Moox, John.
PvViN, Thomas.
Plymouth, Mayor of.
Pope, Edward.
Randell, Charles.
Shottlewortii, Joseph.
Thompson, H. S., M.P.
ToRR, William.
Tremayne, John.
Tdrneb, George.

*^* The President, Trustees, and Vice-Presidents aie Membei-s ex officio of all

Committees.

( V )

MEMORANDA.

Address of Letters. — The Society's office being situated in the postal district
designated by the letter W, members, in their correspondence with the
Secretary, are requested to subjoin that letter to the usual address.

General Meeting in London, in December, 1864.

General Meeting in London, May 22, 1865, at Twelve o'clock.

Meeting at Plymouth, in 1865.

Monthly ConNCiL (for transaction of business), at 12 o'clock on the first Wed-
nesday in every month, excepting January, September, and October: open
only to Members of Council and Governors of the Society.

Weekly Council (for practical communications), at 12 o'clock on all Wednesdays
in February, March, April, May, June, July, and November, excepting the first
Wednesday in each of those months, and during adjournment: open to all
Members of the Society, who are particularly invited by the Council to
avail themselves of this privilege.

Adjournments. — The Council adjourn over Passion and Easter weeks, when
those weeks do not include the first Wednesday of the month ; from the first
Wednesday in August to the first Wednesday in November; and from the first
Wednesday in December to the first Wednesday in February.

Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs. — Members have the privilege of applying to
the Veterinary Committee of the Society ; and of sending animals to the Royal
Veterinary College, on the same terms as if they were subscribers to the
College. — (A statement of these privileges will be found in the present
Appendix.)

Chemical Analysis. — The privileges of Chemical Analysis enjoyed by Members
of the Society will be found stated in the Appendix of the present volume.

Local Cheques. — Members are particularly requested not to forward Country
Cheques for payment in London ; but London Cheques, or Post-office
Orders on Vere-street (payable to H. Hall Dare), in lieu of them. All
Cheques are required to bear upon them a penny draft or receipt stamp,
which must be cancelled in each case by the initials of the drawer. They
may also conveniently transmit their Subscriptions to the Society, by re-
questing their Country Bankers to pay (through their London Agents) the
amount at the Society's Office (No. 12, Hanover Square, London), between
the hours of ten and four, when official receipts, signed by the Secretary,
will be given for such payments.

New Members. — Every candidate for admission into the Society must be pro-
posed by a Member ; the proposer to specify in writing the full name, usual
place of residence, and post-town, of the candidate, either at a Council meet-
ing, or by letter addressed to the Secretary.

Packets by Post. — Packets not exceeding two feet in length, width, or depth,
consisting of written or printed matter (but not containing letters sealed or
open), if sent without envelopes, or enclosed in envelopes open at each end,
may be forwarded by the inland post, if stamped, at the following rates : —

For a packet not exceeding 4 ounces for quarter of a pound) ... 1 penny
„ „ „ 8 „ (or half a pound) .... 2 pence.

,, „ „ 16 „ (or one pound) 4 „

„ ,, „ 24 „ (or one pound and a half) . . 6 „

„ „ „ 32 „ (or two pounds) 8 „

[And so on in the proportion of 8 ounces for each additional 2d.']

",* Members may obtain on application to the Secretary copies of an Abstract of the Cliarter
and Bye-Laws, of a Statement of the General Objects, &c., of the Society, of Chemical
and Veterinary Privileges, and of other printed papers connected with special depart-
ments of the Society's business.

( vi )

aaopal Agricultural ^ocieti? of enslantr*

GENERAL MEETING,

12, Hanovee Square, Thursday, Decembee 8, 1864.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

The Council have to report that during the past half-year the
Society has lost by deaths and resignations 35 of its members,
while 478 new members have, during the same period, been
enrolled on its lists, which is now constituted as follows : —
78 Life Governors,
80 Annual Governors,
1373 Life Members,
44G5 Annual Members,
17 Honorary Members,

making a total of 6013.

A new list of the Governors and members of the Society
having been published in the last number of the Journal, the
Council submit to the members on this occasion the following
schedule, showing the districts to which they belong : —

Amount of

England. —

Number of

representation

Members.

in the CounciL

Beds

41

1

Berks

148

2

Bucks

73

3

Cambridge

5G

1

Chester

121

1

Cornwall

48

Cumberland

60

Derby

113

1

Devon

124

5

Dorset

88

2

Durham

176

Essex

147

4

Gloucester

202

4

Hants

164

2

Carry forward

1561

26

( vii )

Amount of

Number of ■;

representation

England. —

^Member

s.

iu the CounciL

Brouglit forward

1561

26

Hereford

154

2

Herts

100

1

Hunts

37

Kent

220

1

Lancaster

177

1

Leicester

G3

1

Lincoln

199

4

Middlesex

350

2

Monmouth

44

1

Norfolk

152

4

Northampton . .

103

1

Northumberland

419

1

Notts

137

3

Oxon

122

3

Eutland

13

Salop

166

1

Somerset

149

2

Staffs

131

1

Suffolk

136

o

Surrey

188

1

Sussex

153

4

Warwick

160

2

"Westmoreland ..

22

Wilts

133

1

Worcester

170

1

York

293

6

Total .. ..

5552

— 72

Wales. —

Anglesea

8

Brecon

11

Cardigan

11

Carmarthen

24

Caernarvon

12

Denbigh

27

«• •

1

Flint

32

Glamorgan

38

Merioneth

7

Montgomery

17

.. •

1

Pembroke

32

Eadnor

9

Total ..

228

— 2

Scotland

86

Ibeland

79

Channel Islands and Isle

OF Man

17

Foreign Countries

51

General total ..

.

6

313 — 74

( ^"i )

This schedule will enable those friends of the Society and of
agricultural improvement generally, who reside in districts where
the number of members is below the average, to remedy the evil
by recommending to the Council for election the names of can-
didates Avho will no doubt be ready to avail themselves of the
numerous advantages offered by the Society, and by their per-
sonal influence aid in the dissemination of the valuable infor-
mation afforded in the pages of the Journal, in the lectures
delivered to the members, and in the show-yard at the Country
Meetings.

The Council have elected Mr. Wm. Burgess, of the firm of
Burgess and Key, to fill the vacancy caused by translation of
Major-General the Hon. A. N. Hood to the list of Vice-
Presidents of the Society.

The half-yearly statement of accounts to the 30th of June,
1864, has been examined and approved by the Auditors and
Accountants of the Society. The finances were never in a more
satisfactory condition than at present, the sum of 2000/. having
been lately added to the funded capital of the Society, which now
amounts to 18,7G8Z. Is. lOd, stock in the New Three per Cents.

The Council have appointed a Committee to consider the
subject of the " Improvement of the Education of those who
depend upon the Cultivation of the Soil for their Support ; " and
in order to obtain information on this important subject, the
Council have offered a Prize of 50/. for an Essay on Agricultural
Education, and they have authorised their Educational Com-
mittee to invite examining bodies, such as the Universities of
Oxford and Cambridge, the Royal College of Preceptors, the
Society of Arts, &.C. «Scc., to appoint one of their members to
confer with the Committee.

The Meeting at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, was highly successful
in the amount and character of the live stock and implements.
The means for testing the power given off by agricultural ma-
chinery having this year been perfected in a striking and satis-
factory manner, by the consulting-engineer, Mr. Amos (of the
firm of Easton and Amos), who invented a Dynamometer, a
description of which will appear in the Journal, the Council
deemed it right to appropriate a large amount of money to the
trials of Steam-Cultivators ; and feel convinced that the members
generally have every reason to be satisfied that this was a
judicious appropriation of the funds of the Society, and a

( ix )

thorough test of the advance of this most important branch of
Agricultural Machinery.

The General Meeting of the Society, held in the show -yard,
conveyed to the Mayor and Corporation of Newcastle, and to the
Local Committee who had so zealously co-operated with the
Council on the occasion, their cordial thanks for the kind atten-
tion they had paid to the wishes of the Society, and the admirable
manner in which they had made every arrangement required for
promoting the success of the meeting. The Society are indebted
to some railway companies for the arrangements they have made
at their annual show, but regret to say that in some instances
facilities have not been afforded to Exhibitors for the conveyance
of Stock at a reasonable rate.

The Council have decided that the Plymouth Meeting shall
be held in the week commencing Monday, the 17th of July, and
the Prize-Sheets will shortly be ready for distribution. Land for
the trial of drills, manure-distributors, mowing, haymaking, and
reaping machines, and horse-rakes, has been already placed
under the necessary cultivation,' and prizes amounting to 440/.,
will be offered among these classes of Implements, and 2815/. for
Stock.

The Council have from time to time been favoured with
various communications from Earl Russell, Her Majesty's Secre-
tary of State for Foreign Affairs, the substance of which has
been made public in the published proceedings of the Meetings
at which they were read.

Professor Simonds has delivered a Lecture before the Members
of the Society on Small-Pox in Sheep, which will appear in the
Journal of the Society.

The Governors of the Royal Veterinary College have presented
their annual report, by which it appears that more animals have
been admitted into the Hospital of the College for treatment ;
also that there have been more consultations — and that other
arrangements have ^ been made tending to the further develop-
ment of the Veterinary art in respect to the Pathology of Cattle,
Sheep, and Pigs.

By Order of the Council,

H. Hall Dare,

Secretary.

Dr.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL

Half-yearly Cash Account

To Balance in hand, 1st July, 1864 :—

Bankers

Secretary

£. s. d.

2,817 3 11

12 12 4

£. s. d.

2,829 16 3
2,000 0 0-

1

To Deposit withdrawn

To Income, viz. : —

Dividends on Stock

Interest on Deposit Account

Subscriptions: —

Governors' Annual 35 0 0

Members' Annual 789 0 0

241 3 0
64 13 7

1 , 083 0 0

124 3 0

10 10 0

Journal : —

Sales 60 4 3

1

Advertisements 63 18 9

Legacy from the late Beriah Botfield, Esq.

1,523 9 7
8,842 11 1

To Newcastle Meeting

£15,195 16 11

Balance-Sheet,

To Capital:- "-^ILITIES.

Surplus, 30th June, 1864

Less Surplus of Expenditure over Income during
the Half-year, viz : —

Expenditure

Income

To Newcastle Meeting : —

Difference between Receipts and Expenditure,!
the former exceeding the latter by J

£. s. d.
21,354 16 11

1,640 15

1

19,714 1
1,478 8

10
4

£21,192 10 2

(Signed) A. N. HOOD, Chairman of Finance Committee.

QUILTER, BALL, & Co., Accountants.

SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

FROM 1st July to 31st December, 1864.

XI

Cr.

By Expenditure : — ■
Establishment —

Official Salaries, Wages, &c.
House Expenses, Rent, Taxes, &c.

£.

327

309

Journal : —
Printing

(2 Numbers) 1,086 12

Delivery and Advertising (do.)

Stitching (do.)

Wrappers (3 Numbers)

Prize Essays

Other Contributions

181
149
27
80
39

Editor's Salary 250

Chemical: —
Consulting Chemist's Salary

Veterinary : —

Annual Grant to Royal Veterinary College

Postage and Carriage

Advertisements

Sundries

Two new Dynamometers

Subscriptions returned (paid in error) . ,

By Stock : —

Purchase of2279i. 4s. New 3 Per Cents.
By Country Meetings : —

Newcastle

Plymouth

By Balance in hand, Dec. 31, 1864:

Bankers

Secretary

£. s. d.

636 19 5

1,814 5 7
150 0 0

200 0 0

19 15 5

10 9 0

39 13 3

290 0 0

3 2 0

9,720 13
18 0

2
0

280 10
12 8

2
11

s. d.

3,164 4 8

2,000 0 0

9,738 13 2

292 19 1

£15,195 16 11

31sT December, 1864.

ASSETS.

By Cash in hand

By Deposit Account at Bankers

By New 3 per cent. Stock 18,768Z. Is. 10c?. cost ..
By Books and Furniture in Society's House

By Plymouth Meeting

Mem. — The above Assets are exclusive of the
amount recoverable in respect of Subscriptions
in arrear 31st December, 1864, which at that
date amounted to 83lZ.

£. s.

292 19

1 , 000 0

17,881 11

2,000 0

18 0 0

£21,192 10 2

Examined, audited, and found correct, this 25th day of January, 1865.

(Signed) WILLIAM COPELAND ASTBURY, 1 , ,.,

HENRY CORBET, AiuMors on the

WILLIAM COHEN, j P""^* "f ^^^ '^""'''^-

( xii )

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( xiii )

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( ^v )

iiebonport antK }i3lj)mout!) i^ecting, 1865;

IN THE WEEK COMMENCING MONDAY, JULY 17.

SCHEDULE OF PRIZES.

I. — Live-Stock Prizes offered by the Society.

(All Ages calculated to July 1st, 18G5).

Reference
Number in
CertiBcates.

Class.
1

9
10
11
12

13

14

15

IG

17
18
19
20

21

oo

23
24

CATTLE,

SnORT-HoRNED.

Bull, alx)vc three and not exceeding six years old
Bull, above two and not exceeding three years old
Bull, above one and not exceeding two years old
Bull-Calf, above six and not exceeding twelve

months old

Cow, above three years old

Ileifcr, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding three

years old

Yearling Heifer

Heifer-Calf, above six and under twelve months old

Hereford.

Bull, above three and not exceeding six years old
Bull, above two and not exceeding three years old
Bull, above one and not exceeding two years old
Bull-Calf, above six and not exceeding twelve

months old

Cow, above three years til<l

Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding three

years old

Yearling Heifer

Heifer-Calf, above six and under twelve months old

Devon.

Bull, above three and not exceeding six years old
Bull, above two and not exceeding three years old
Bull, above one and not exceeding two years old
Bull-Calf, above six and not exceeding twelve

mouths old

Cow, above three years old

Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding three

years old

Yearling Heifer

Heifer-Calf, above six and under twelve months old

First

Second

Prize.

I'rize.

£.

£.

25

15

25

15

23

15

10

5

20

10

15

10

15

10

10

5

25

15

25

15

25

15

10

5

20

10

15

10

15

10

10

5

25

15

25

15

25

15

10

5

20

10

15

10

15

10

10

5

Frizes for Live Stock.

XV

CATTLE— continued.

Sussex.

Bull, above one and not exceeding six years old . .

Cow, above three years old

Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding three

years old

Yearliu"; Heifer

Channel Islands.

Bull, above two and not exceeding six years old
Bull, above one and not exceeding two years old

Cow, above three years old

Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding three
years old

Other Established Breeds.

Not including the SJiort-Jwrn, Hereford, Devon,
Sussex, or Channel Islands.

Bull, above two and not exceeding six years old
Bull, above one and not exceeding two years old

Cow, above three years old

Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding three

years old

Yearling Heifer

HORSES.

For the Thorough-Bred Stud-Horse, 'having
served Mares during the season 1865, which, iu
the opinion of the Judges, is best calculated to
improve and perjyetuate the breed of the sound
and stout Thorough-Bred Horse for General
Stud Purposes

Hunters.

Stallion, Thorough-Bred, suitable for getting
Hunters, whose regular charge for serving half-
bred Mares during the season 1865 has not
exceeded Five Guineas

Brood Mare, with foal at foot, or in-foal, for
breeding Hunters

20
20
20

20

100

30

20

Second
Prize.

£.
10
10

10
10

10
10
10

10

15

10

15

10

15

10

15

10

15

10

25

20
15

XVI

Prizes for Live Stock.

Reference
Number in

Certificates.

Class.

41

42
43

44
45
46
47

48

49
50
51
52

53
54
55

56
57
58

HOKSES — continued.

Hackney.

Bpood Mare, with foal at foot, or in-foal, for
breeding Hackueys

Ponies.

Stallion, not exceeding 14 liands

Mare, not exceeding 14 hands

AGRICULTURAL HORSES.

Agricultural.

Not qualified to compete as Suffolk.

Stallion, foaled before the 1st of January, 1863

Stallion, foaled in tlie year 1863

^lare and Foal

Mare, three years old

Filly, two years old

Suffolk.

Stallion, foaled before the 1st of January, 1863

Stallion, foaled in the year 1863

^lare and foal

Filly, two years old

Shearling Earn

Kam of any other age

Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock

COTSWOLD.

Shearling Earn

Earn of any other age

Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock

First
Prize.

£.
20

15
10

20
15
20
15

20
20
15

20
20
15

Second
Prize.

£.
10

10
5

25

15

20

10

20

10

15

10

15

10

10
10
10
10

10
10
10

10
10
10

Prizes for Live Stock.

xvu

Reference
Number in
Certificates.

SHEEP— con^mwec?.
Lincoln and other Long-Woolled.

First
Prize.

Second
Prize.

Third
Prize.

Class.

£.

£.

£.

Not qualified to compete as Leicesters or Cotswolds.

59
60
61

Shearling Earn

Ram of any other age

Pen of Five ShearUng Ewes, of the same flock . .

Oxfordshire Down,

20
20
15

10
10
10

5
5
5

62
63
64

Shearling Earn

Ram of any other age

Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock . .

Southdown.

20
20
15

10
10
10

5
5
5

65
60
67

Shearling Earn

Ram of any other age

Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock . .

Shropshire.

20
20
15

10
10

10

5
5
5

68
69
70

Shearling Earn

Earn of any other age

Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock ..

Hampshire and other Short-Woolled.

Not qualified to convpete as Southdowns
or Shropshires.

20
20
15

10
10
10

5
5
5

71
72
73

Shearling Earn ;

Ram of any other age

Pen of Five ShearUng Ewes, of the same flock , .

Somerset and Dorset Horned.

20
20
15

10
10
10

5
5
5

74
75
76

Shearling Earn

Ram of any other age

Pen of Five Ewes, of any age, of the same flock ..

South Hams.

15
15
10

5
5
5

••

77
78
79

Shearling Earn

Eam of any other age

Pen of Five Ewes, of any age, of the same flock ..

15
15
10

5
5
5

••

VOL. I. — S. S.

xvm

Prizes for Live Stock.

Reference
Number in
Certificates.

Class,
80
81

82

83
84
85

86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95

96

97

98

99

100

SHEEP — continued.

Dartmoor — (in Wool).

Shearling Earn

Ram of auy other age

Pen of Five Ewes, of any age, of the same flock

ExMOOR — (m Wool).

Shearling Earn

Ram of any other age

Pen of Five Ewes, of any age, of the same flock

PIGS.

Boar of a large white breed

Boar of a small white breed

Boar of a small black breed

Boar of tlie Berkshire breed

Boar of a breed not eligible for the preceding classes

Breeding Sow of a large white breed

Breeding Sow of a small white breed

Breeding Sow of a small black breed

Breeding Sow of the Berkshire breed

Breeding Sow of a breed not eligible for the pre-
ceding classes

Pen of three Breeding Sow-l'igs of a large white
breed, of the same litter, above four and under
eight months old

Pen of three Breeding Sow-Pigs of a small white
breed, of the same litter, above four and iinder
eight months old

Pen of three Breeding Sow- Pigs of a small black
breed, of the same litter, above four and under
eight months old

Pen of three Breeding Sow-Pigs of the Berkshire
breed, of the same litter, above four and under
eight months old

Pen of three Breeding Sow-Pigs of a breed not
eligible for the preceding classes, of the same
litter, above four and iindcr eight months old . .

First

Second

Prize.

Prize.

£.

£.

15

5

15

5

10

5

15

5

15

5

10

5

10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10

10

10
10
10
10
10

Prizes for Implements and Machinery. xix

II. — Implement and Machinery Prizes offered by the

Society.

I. Drills. ■£•

For the Class of 1. General Purpose Drills 25

Ditto 2. Corn Drills 20

Ditto 3. Ditto for small occupations 15

Ditto 4. Ditto for hill-side delivery 10

Ditto 5. l^irnips and other roots on the flat 20

Ditto 6. Ditto ditto ridge 20

Ditto 7. Water Drills 20

Ditto 8. Drills for small seeds 10

Ditto 9. Drill Pressers 10

II. Manure Distributors.

For the Class of 1. Distributors for dry manure 15

Ditto 2. Ditto. for liquid manure 10

III. Horse Hoes.

For the Class of 1. Horse Hoes for general purposes 15

Ditto 2. Single-row Horse Hoes for ridge and flat 10

Ditto 3. Single-row Grubber 10

Ditto 4. Horse Hoes for thinning turnips 10

IV. Mowing Machines.

For the Class of Mowing Machines for natural and artificial grasses . . 25

V. Haymaking Machines.

For the Class of Haymaking Machines 15

VI. Eeaping Machines.

For the Class of 1. For cutting, with self side-delivery 40

Ditto 2. For cutting the corn, without self-delivery ,, .. 20

Ditto 3. For combined reaping and grass mowing 20

Ditto 4. One-horse Eeapers 20

VII. Horse Eakes.

For the Class of Horse Rakes 10

VIII. Waggons.

For the Class of 1. Pair-horse Waggons 20

Ditto 2. Other Waggons 10

c 2

XX.

special Prizes.

IX. Carts. £.

For the Class of 1. Single-horse Carts 10

Ditto 2. Two-horse Carts 10

Ditto 3. Harvest Carts 10

Ditto 4. Market Carts on springs 10

X. Miscellaneous.

Awards to Agricultural articles, and essential improvements therein

(10 silver medals)

III. — Special Prizes offered by the Local Committee
OF T)evo\i'out and Plymouth.

Reference

First

Secoud

Number In

CATTLE.

Prize.

Prhe.

Certificates.

Devons.

Class.

£.

£.

101

Bull, Cow, and their offspring, the latter not to
exceed nine months old on the l.st July, 1865,
the Cow to have been hatia fule the projjerty of
the Exhibitor two years previous to the 1st July,

1865

30

15

102

Pair of Cows, in-milk or in-calf, exceeding three

years six months old on the 1st July, 1865

20

10

{Contributed hy Breeders.')

103

Pair of Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding

three years six months old on the 1st July, 1865

20

10

104

Pair of Heifers, not exceeding two years six months

old on the 1st July, 1865

15

8

(^Contributed by Breeders.')

105

Pair of Heifers, not exceeding one year six months

old on the 1st July, 1865

15

8

106

Pair of Pull-Calves, not exceeding nine months old

on the 1st July, 1865

20

10

{Contributed by Breeders.)

South Hams.

107

Bull, exceeding three and not exceeding five years

old on the 1st July, 1865

15

10

108

Bull, exceeding one and not exceeding three years

old on the 1st July, 1865

15

10

109

Cow, in-calf or in-milk, exceeding four years old

on the 1st July, 1865

10

5

110

Heifer, in-calf or in-milk, not exceeding four years

old on the 1st July, 1865

10

5

111

Heifer, not exceeding two years six months old on

the 1st July, 1865

6

3

112

Heifer, not exceeding one year six months old on

the 1st July, 1865

6

3

special Prizes.

XXI

Reference
Number in
Certificates.

HORSES.

Agricultural.

First
Prize.

Second
Prize.

Class.

£.

£.

Not being Suffolk or Clydesdale, adapted for a
Hilly District.

113

114

Stallion, not exceeding eight years old

Mare or Filly, not exceeding seven years old

Hunters.

15

10

10
5

115
116

Mare or Gelding, four years old

Mare or Gelding, five and not exceeding sis years
old

EOADSTERS.

15
15

10
10

117

Mare or Gelding, five or six years old, not less than
14 nor exceeding 15 hands 1 in

10

5

PONIES.

Dartmoor.

118
119

Stallion, not exceeding 132 hands

Mare, not exceeding 13 hands

EXMOOR.

10
10

5
5

120
121

Stallion, not exceeding 13 J hands

Mare, not exceeding 13 hands

10
10

5
5

PIGS.

Large Breed.

122

Boar, Sow, and their litter, all to have been bred
by the Exhibitor, the litter not to exceed twelve
weeks old on the 17th July, 1865

Small Breed (Black).

10

5

123

Boar, Sow, and their litter, all to have been bred
by the Exhibitor, the litter not to exceed twelve
weeks old on the 17th July, 1865

10

5

XXll

Special Prizes.

Reference
Number in
Certificates.

BUTTER.

First
Prize.

Second
Prize.

£.

£.

124

12 lbs. of Scald Cream Butter, made and printed

in pounds and half-pounds ..

5

3

ViOOh— {Washed).

{Five Fleeces each).

125

Leicester

2

126

Cotswold

2

127

Lincoln

2

128

Southdown

2

129
130
131

Shropshire

Hampshire and other Short-wooUed

Dorset

2
2
2

132

South Hams

2

133

Dartmoor

2

134

Exmoor

2

Conditions relating to Live Stock. xxiii

CONDITIONS EELATING TO LIVE STOCK.

1. No bull above two years old will be eligible for a prize unless certified to
have served not less than three different cows (or heifers) within the three
months preceding the 1st of June in the year of the Show.

2. No cow will be eligible for a prize unless certified to have had a live calf,
either between the date of entry and that of the Show, or within the twelve
months preceding the date of the Show.

3. No heifer, except yearlings, entered as in-calf, will be eligible for a prize
unless she is certified to have been bulled before the 31st of March in the year
of Show, nor will her o\vner afterwards receive the prize until he shall have
furnished the Secretary with a further certificate that she produced a live calf
before the 31st of January in the subsequent year.

4. All foals must be the offspring of the mare along with which they are
exhibited for the prize.

5. The ewes in each pen must be of the same flock.

6. Sheep exhibited for any of the prizes (except Dartmoor and Exmoor
sheep, which must be shown in the wool) must have been really and fairly
shorn hare after the 1st of April in the year of the Exhibition ; and the
date of such shearing must form part of the Certificate of Entry. Two
Inspectors will be appointed by the Council to examine the sheep on their
admission to the Show- Yard, with instructions to report to the Stewards any
cases in which the sheep have not been really and fairly shorn hare.

7. The three sow-pigs in each pen must be of the same litte/.

8. The breeding sows in Classes 91, 92, 93, 94, and 95, shall be certified
to have had a litter of live pigs within the six months preceding the Show, or
to be in-pig at the time of entry, so as to produce a litter before the 1st of
September following. In the case of in-pig sows, the prize will be withheld
until the Exhibitor shall have furnished the Secretary with a certificate of
farrowing, as above.

9. No sow, if above eighteen months old, that has not produced a litter of
live pigs, shall be eligible to compete in any of the classes.

10. The Judges of pigs will be instructed, with the sanction of the Stewards,
to withhold prizes from any animals which shall appear to them to have been
entered in a wrong class ; and to affix a placard of disqualification to the pens
of those animals.

11. All pigs exhibited at the country meetings of the Society shall be sub-
jected to an examination of their mouths by the Veterinary Inspector of the
Society ; and should the state of dentition in any pig indicate that the age of
the animal has not been correctly returned in the Certificate of Entry, the
Stewards shall have power to disqualify such pig, and shall report the circum-
stance to the Council at its ensuing monthly meeting.

12. If a litter of pigs be sent with a breeding sow, the young pigs must be
the produce of the sow, and must not exceed three months old.

13. No horse shall be exhibited without a certificate from a Member of the
Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, as to the state of the animal with refer-
ence to hereditary diseases, particularly those of the respiratory and visual

xxiv Rules of Adjudication.

organs ; which certificate shall accompany the Certificate of Entry ; but that
the above ghall not supersede the usual examination by the Society's Veterinary
Inspector,

14. A form of certificate will be sent to every Exhibitor of horses, to be
filled up by a Member of the Koyal College of Veterinary Surgeons, certifying
to the soundness of every horse exhibited, without which such horse shall not
be admitted into the Yard.

15. The ponies in Class 43, and the hunters and hacks in Classes 115, 116,
117, 119, and 121 must all be ridden during the Show, and must therefore be
provided with saddles and bridles.

16. A charge of 11. for the accommodation of a horse-box will be made for
each entry of horses in Classes 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 49, £0, 51, 113,
115, 116, 117, 118, 120.

17. A charge of 10s. will be made for the accommodation of a stall for each
entry in Classes 43, 47, 48, 52, 114, 119, 121.

RULES OF ADJUDICATION.

1. As the object of the Society in giving prizes for neat cattle, sheep, and
pigs, is to promote improvement in breeding stock, the Judges in making their
awards will be instructed not to take into their consideration the present value
to the butcher of animals exhibited, but to decide according to their relative
merits for the purpose of breeding.

2. If, in the o]iinion of the Judges, there should be equality of merit, they
will be instructed to make a special report to the Council, who will decide on
the award.

3. The Judges will be instructed to withhold any prize if they are of opinion
that there is not sufficient merit in any of the stock exhibited for such prize
to justify an award ; should, however, the question of di:?qualirying a whole
class arise, the Judges shall consult with the Stewards of the yard, and their
joint decision shall be final.

4. The Judges will be instructed to give in a reserved number in each class
of live stock ; viz., which animal would, in their opinion, possess sufficient
merit for the prize in case the animal to which the prize is awarded should
subsequently become disqualified.

5. In the classes for stallions, mares, and fillies, the Judges in awarding tlie
prizes will be instructed, in addition to symmetry, to take activity and
strength into their consideration.

6. The Judges will be instmcted to deliver to the Director their award,
signed, and stating the numbers to which the prizes are adjudged, before they
leave the yard.

Conditions relating to Machinery. xxv

CONDITIONS KELATING TO MACHINERY.

Steam-Engines.

All engines must be fitted with a steam-indicator, in addition to the ordinary
spring-balance.

DRILI.S.

The general purpose drills, both for large and small occupations, must be
adapted for all kinds of corn, seeds, and manures.

Horse Hoes.

The horse hoes for thinning turnips should be adapted to set them out at
various widths, and leave the plants in such a state that they can ultimately
be singled by hand.

Manure Distributor.

The manure distributor will be preferred which is best adapted for distri-
buting any kind of artificial manure, when in a moist or dry state, and which
is capable of adjustment for the delivery of any quantity from 3 to 40 bushels
per acre.

Forms of Certificate for entry, as well as Prize-Sheets for the Plymouth
Meeting, containing the whole of the conditions and regulations, may
be obtained at the Office of the Society, No. 12, Hanover Square,
London, W.

DATES OF ENTRY.

Certificates for the entry of Implements for the Plymouth Meeting must
be forwarded to the Secretary of the Society, No. 12, Hanover Square,
London (W.), by the 1st of May, and Certificates for the entry of Live
Stock by the 1st of June. Certificates received after those respective dates
will not be accepted, but returned to the persons by whom they have been
sent.

The Prizes of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, and all Prizes
offered by the Devonport and Plymouth Local Committee, are open to general
competition.

VOL. I, — S.S.

( xxvi )

(B^^a^^ antr l^ejportis.

AWAKD FOE 1864.

Miscellaneous Class.

Tlie Prize of 10/. was awarded to the Kev. Nathaniel M. Brown,
Fairy Fort, County Deny, for his Essay on the Cultivation and
Manaecement of Flax.

( xxvii )

iHemberd' pn'bilegeg of Cbemual ^nalpsii^.

The Council have fixed the following rates of Charge for Analyses to
be made by the Consulting Chemist for the hond-fide use of Members
of the Society ; who (to avoid all unnecessary correspondence) are
particularly requested, when applying to him, to mention the kind of
analysis they require, and to quote its number in the subjoined schedule.
The charge for analysis, together with the carriage of the specimens,
must be paid to him by members at the time of their application.

No. 1. — An opinion of the genuineness of Peruvian guano, bone-
dust, or oil-cake (each sample) 5s.

„ 2. — An analysis of guano ; showing the proportion of moisture,
organic matter, sand, phosphate of lime, alkaline salts,
and ammonia .. .. .. ., .. .. 10s,

„ 3. — An estimate of the value (relatively to the average of
samples in the market) of sulphate and muriate of am-
monia, and of the nitrates of potash and soda .. .. 10s.

„ 4. — An analysis of superphosphate of lime for soluble phos-
phates only .. .. .. .. .. .. 10s.

„ 5. — An analysis of siTperphosphate of lime, showing the pro-
portions of moisture, organic matter, sand, soluble and
insoluble phosphates, sulphate of lime, and ammonia .. £1.

„ 6. — An analysis (sufficient for the determination of its agricul-
tural value) of any ordinary artificial manure .. .. £1.

„ 7. — Limestone : — the proportion of lime, 7s. Qd. ; the propor-
tion of magnesia, 10s. ; the proportion of lime and mag-
nesia ., .. .. .. ., .. .. 15s.

„ 8. — Limestone or marls, including carbonate, phosphate, and

sulj)bate of lime, and magnesia with sand and clay .. £1.

„ 9. — Partial analysis of a soil, including determinations of clay,

sand, organic matter, and carbonate of lime .. .. £1.

5,10. — Complete analysis of a soil .. .. .. .. .. £3.

„ 11. — An analysis of oil-cake, or other substance used for feeding
purposes ; showing the proportion of moisture, oil,
mineral matter, albuminous matter, and woody fibre ;
as well as of starch, gum, and sugar, in the aggregate £1.

„ 12. — Analyses of any vegetable product .. .. .. .. £i.

„ 13. — Analyses of animal products, refuse substances used for

manure, &c. from 10s. to 30s.

„ 14. — Determination of the " hardness " of a sample of water

before and after boiling . . . . . . . . . . lOs.

„ 15. — Analysis of water of land drainage, and of water used for

irrigation .. .. .. .. .. .. ,. £2.

„ 16. — ^Determination of nitric acid in a sample of water .. .. £1.

N.B. — Tlie above Scale of Charges is not applicable to the case of persons
commercially engaged in the Manufacture or Sale of any Substance sent for
Analysis.

The Address of the Consulting Chemist of the Society is, Dr. AucrsTtrs
VoELCKER, 11, Salisbury Square, London, E.G., to which he requests that all
letters and parcels (postage and carriage paid) should be directed.

d 2

( xxviii )

jMemliieriB!* Vtitvimtsi l^ribilegcis*

I. — Serious or Extensive Diseases,

No. 1 . Any Member of the Society who may desire professional attendance
and specical advice in cases of serious or extensive disease among his cattle,
sheep, or pigs, and will address a letter to the Sccretarj', will, by return of
post, receive a rejjly stating whether it be considered necessary that Professor
Simonds, the Society's Veterinary Inspector, should visit the place where the
disease prevails.

No. 2. The remuneration of the Inspector will be 21. 2s. each day as a
professional fee, and 1/. Is. each daj' for personal expenses ; and he will also
be allowed to charge the cost of travelling to and from the locality where his
services may have been required. The fees will be paid by the Society, but
the travelling expenses will be a charge against tlie applicant. This charge
may, however, be reduced or remitted altogether at the discretion of the Council,
on such step being recommended to them by tlie Veterinary Committee.

No. 3. The Inspector, on his return from visiting the diseased stock, will
report to the Committee, in writing, tlie results of his observations and jiro-
ceedings, which Keport will lie laid before the Council.

No. 4. When contingencies arise to prevent a personal discharge of the
duties confided to the Inspector, he may, subject to the approval of the Com-
mittee, name some competent professional person to act in his stead, who shall
receive the same rates of remuneration.

II. — Ordinary or Other Cases of Disease.

Members may obtain the attendance of the Veterinary Inspector on any
case of disease bj' paying the cost of his visit, which will be at the following
rate, viz., 21. 2s. per diem, and travelling expenses.

III. — Consultations without visit.

Personal consultation with Veterinary Inspector .. .. 5s.

Consultation by letter .. ,. .. .. .. .. 5s.

Consultation necessitating the writing of three or more letters. 10s,

Post-mortem examination, and re] lort thereon ,. .. .. 10s,
A return of the number of applications during each half-year being required
from the Veterinary Inspector.

IV. — Admission of Diseased Animals to the Veterinary College ;
Investigations, Lectures, and Eeports.

No. 1. All Members of the Society have the privilege of sending cattle,
sheep, and pigs to the IntiiTnary of the Pioj-al Veterinary College, on the same
terms as if they were Members of the College ; viz., by paying for the keep
and treatment of cattle 10s. iSd. per week each animal, and for sheep and
pigs " a small proportionate charge to be fixed by the Principal according to
circumstances."

No. 2. The College has also undertaken to investigate such particular classes
of disease, or special subjects connected with the application of the Veterinary
art to cattle, sheep, and pigs, as may be directed by the Council.

No. 3. In addition to the increased number of lectures now given by
Professor Simonds — the Lecturer on Cattle Pathology — to the pupils in the
Pioyal Veterinary College, he will also deliver such lectures before the Members
of the Society, at their house in Hanover Square, as the Council shall decide.

No. 4. The Royal Veterinary College will from time to time furnish to
the Council a detailed Eeport of the cases of cattle, sheep, and pigg treated
in the Infirmary.

( xxix )

iRopal Agricultural ^ocietp of (J^nglauti^

1865-66.

The Eight Honoukaele LOED TEEDEGAE.
Cru^tetf!.

ACLAND, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., Killerton Park, Exeter, Devonshire.

Berners, Lord, Keythorj)e Hall, Leicester.

Bramston, Thomas Williaji, Skreens, Chelmsford, Essex.

Challoner, Colonel, Portnall Park, Staines, Middlesex.

Denisox, The Kt. Hon. John Evelyn, Ossington, Newarh-on-Trent, Notts.

Feversham, Lord, Helmsleij, York.

Marlborough, Duke of, Blenheim Park, Oxford.

PORTMAN, Lord, Bnjamton, Blandford, Dorset.

Powis, Earl of, Powis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomerijshire.

Rutland, Duke of, Belvoir Castle, Grantham, Lincolnshire.

Shelley, Sir John Villiers, Bart., Maresfield Park, Sussex.

Thompson, Harry Stephen, Kii-hy Hall, York.

Barker, Thomas Raymond, Hamhledon, Henley-on-Tliaines, Oxfordshire.

Chichester, Earl of, Stanmer Park, Lewes, Sussex.

Downshire, Marquis of. East Hampstead Park, Bracknell, Berkshire.

Egmont, Earl of, Cowdraij Park, Petioorth, Sussex.

Eversley', Viscount, Heckfield Place, Winchfield, Hants.

Exeter, Marquis of, Burleigh House, Stamford, Lincolnshire.

Hill, Viscount, Haiokstone Park, Salop.

HOBBs, W. Fisher, Boxted Lodge, Colchester, Essex.

Hood, Major-Gen. the Hon. A. Nelson', Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, Berkshire-..

Johnstone, Sir John V. B., Bart., M.P., Hackness Hall, Scarborough, Yorkshire.

Miles, Sh William, Bart., Leigh Court, Bristol, Somersetshire.

"Walsingham, Lord, Merton Hall, Thefford, Norfolk.

(Bti)tt MtmUv& of Council.

Acland, Thomas Dyke, M.P., Sprydoncote, Exeter, Devonshire. '

Amos, Charles Edwards, 5, Cedars Road, Clapham Common, Surrey.

Arkwright, J. Hungerford, Hampton Court, Leominster, Herefordshire.

Barnett, Charles, Stratton Park, Biggleswade. Bedfordshire.

Barthropp, Nathaniel George, Hacheston, Wickliavi Market, Suffolk.

BowLY, Edward, Siddington House, Cirencester.

Burgess William, Brentwood, Essex.

Cantrell, Charles S., Biding Court, Datchet, Bucks.

Oathcart, Earl, Thornton-le- Street, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

Chesham, Lord, Latimer, Chesham, Bucks.

VOL. I. — s. s. e

XXX List of Officers.

Clayden, John, Littlehury, Saffron Walden, Essex.

Dent, J. D., M.P., Bibston Hall, Wetherhij, Yorlishire.

Druce, Joskpii, Eijnsham, Oxford.

FORTESCUE, Earl, Castle Hill, Southnolton, Bevonsldre.

GiBBS, B. T. Beandretii, Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, London, W.

Hamond, Anthony, Westacre Hall, Brandon, Norfolk.

Holland, Edward, M.P., Dumbleton Uall, Evesham, JVorcestershire.

HosKYNS, Chandos Wren, Uarewood, Ross, nerefordshire.

Hudson, John, Castleacre Lodge, Brandon, Norfolk.

HuTTON, William, Gate Burton, Gaiiisboro', Yorkshire.

Jonas, Samuel, Chrishall Grange, Saffron Walden, Essex.

Kerrison, Sir Edward C, Bart., M.P., Brome Hall, Scale, Norfolk,

KiNGSCOTE, Colonel, IM.P., Kingscote, Wootton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.

Lawes, John Bennet, liothamsted, St. Albans, Herts.

Lawrence, Charles, Cirencester, Gloucestershire.

Lopes, Sir IMassey, Bart., M.P., Marristoic, Iluborough, Devon.

Macdonald, Sir Archiuald Kei'pel, Bart., Woohner Loilge, Lipliodk, HarUa.

MiLWARD, Richard, Thurgarton Priory, Southwell, Notts.

Pain, Thomas, Ugford Cottage, Salisbury, Wilts.

Pope, Edward, Great Toiler, Maiden Neicton, Dorset.

Eandell, Charles, Chadbury, Evesham, W(/rcestershire.

KiGDEN, William, Hove, Brighton, Sussex.

Ridley, Sir Matthew White, Bart., INI.P., Blagdon, Cramlington, Northumberland'

Sanday', William, Holmepierrepont, Notts,

Shrewsbury and Talbot, Earl of, Ligestre Hall, Staffordshire,

Shuttleworth, Joseph, Hartsholme Hall, Lincoln.

Smith, Robert, Emmett's Grange, Southmolton, Devon.

TORR, William, Aylesby Manor, Great Grinisby, Lincolnshire.

Towneley, Lieut.-Colonel Charles, Towneley Park, Blackburn, Lancashire.

Tredegar, Lord, Tredegar, Newport, Monmouthshire.

Turner, George, Beacon Doimies, Exeter, Devonshire,

Vernon, Hon. Augustus H., Sudbury, Derby.

Wallis, Owen, Overstone Grange, Northampton.

Wells, Williasi, Bedleaf, Penshurst, Kent.

Western, Sir Thomas B., Bart., M.P., Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex,

Wilson, Henry', Stowlangtoft Hall, Bury-Sl.-Edmunds, Suffolk.

Wilson, Jacob, Manor Hou>e, Woodhorn, Morpeth, Northumberland.

Wilson, Professor, Ivei; Uxbridge, Bucks.

Wynn, Sir Watkin Williams, Bart, M.P., Bhuabon, Denbiglishire.

II. HALL DARE, 12, Hanover Square, London, W.

Editor — P. H. Frere, Dungatc, Cambridge.

Consulting-Chemist — Dr. Augustus Voelcker, 11, SaVts'Mry Square, E.C.

Veterinary-Inspector — James Beart Simonds, Royal Veterinary College, N.W.

Consulting Engineer — James Easton, or C. E. Amos, Grove, Soutkwarf;, S.E.

Seedsmen — Thomas Gibbs and Co., Corner of Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, W.

Publisher — John JIurray, 50, Albemarle Street, W.

Bankers— TviE Lo>-dos asd Westmlkstee Bakk, St. James's Square Branch, S.W.

( xxxi )

STANDING COMMITTEES FOR 1865-66.

dTinancc Committee. '

Hood, Maj.-Gen. the Hon. A. Nelson. Hobes, Wii. Fisher.

Barnett, Charles. Torr, William.
Bramston, T. W.

?^ou;Se Committee.

TfiE President. Challoner, Colonel.

Chairman of Finance Committee. Gibbs, B. T. Brandreth.

Chesham, Lord. Hobbs, Wm. Fisher.
Bramston, T. W.

Sourual Committee.

Cathcaet, Earl. Acland, T. Dyke, M.P,

Fortesque, Earl. Holland, Ed., M.P.

Denison, The Rt. Hon. J. E. Hoskyns, C. Wren.

Shelley, Sh- J. V., Bt. Milward, Richard.

Johnstone, Sir J. V. B., Bt., M.P. Thompson, H. S.

Kerrison, Sir E. C, Bt, M.P. Wallis, Owen.
Macdonald, Sir A. K., Bt.

Cl^emical Committee.

Cathcart, Earl. Dent, J. D., M.P.

Vernon, Hon. A. H. Holland, Ed., M.P.

Johnstone, Su- J. V. B., Bt., M.P. Hoskyns, C. Wren.

Kerrison, Su- E. C, Bt., M.P. Hctxtable, Ven. Archdeacon.

Macdonald, Sir A. K., Bt. Lawes, J. B.

Acland, T. Dyke, M.P. Thompson, H. S.

Arkwright, J. H. Wells, William.

'Feterinari) Committee.

Hood, Maj.-Gen. the Hon. A. Nelson. Hamond, Anthony.

JoiLNSTONE, Sir J. V. B., Bt., M.P. HoBus, Wm. Fisher.

Miles, Sir Wm., Bt. Pain, Thos.

Barker, Thos. Raymond. Simonds, Professor.

Challoner, Colonel. Spoonek, Professor.

Dent, J. D., M.P. Thompson, H. S.

Gibbs, B. T. Brandreth. Wells, William.

B>tociif'^vi\tS Committee.

Walsingham, Lord. Jonas, Samuel.

Hood, Maj.-Gen. the Hon. A. Nelson. Milward, Richard.

Barnett, Charles. Pain, TnoiLis.

Barthropp, Nathaniel G. Pope, Edward.

Clayden, John. Randell, Chas.

Dent, J. D., M.P, Rigden, Wm.

Druce, Joseph. Smith, Robert.

Gibbs, B. T. Brandreth. Simonds, Professor.

Hobbs, Wm. Fisher. Torr, William.

Holland, Ed., M.P. Turner, George,

Hudson, John. Wallis, Owen.

xxxu

Standing Committees for 18G5-66.

jrmplcmcnt (Committee.

Chesham, Lord.

Hood, Maj.-Gen. the Hon, A. Nelsox.

Vernon, Hon. A. H.

Kerrison, Sir E. C, Bt., M.P.

Macdonald, Sir A. K., Bt.

Miles, Sir Wji., Bt.

Amos, C. E.

Arkwright, J. H.

Barnett, Charles.

Cantrell, Ciias. S.

Cualloner, Colonel.

GiBBS, B. T. Brandreth.
Hamond, Anthony.
HOBBS, Wm. Fisher.
Holland, Ep., M.P.
HosKYNs, C. Wren.
Randell, Charles.
Shuttleworth, Joseph.
Thompson, H. S.
ToRR, William.
Wallis, Owen.
Wilson, Professor.

©encinl J3un) Committer.

Sir E. C. Kerrison, Bt., M.P., Chairman.

Powis, Earl of.

CiiESHAM, Lord.

Feversham, Lord.

PORTMAN, Lord.

Tredegar, Loi-d.

Hood, Maj.-Gen. the Hon. A. Nelson.

Vernon, Hon. A. H.

Barnett, Charles.

BowLY, Edward,

Bury, The Mayor of.

Bramston, T. W.

Cantrell, Charles S.

ClIALLONER, Colonel.

Clayden, John.

Dent, J. D., yi..V.
GiBBs, B. T, Brandreth.
Greene, E,
HoBBS, Wm, Fisher.
Holland, E., M.P.
HosKYNS, C. Wren,

MiLWARD, RiCILARD.

Pain, Thomas.
Randell, Charles.
Shuttleworth, Joseph,
Thompson, H. S,
ToRR, William.
Wilson, Henry.
Wilson, Major,

n* The President, Trustees, and Vice-Presidents are Membei-s ex officio
of all Committees.

( xxxiii )

a^opal ^Ign'cultural J>ocietp of euglanU.

GENERAL MEETING,

12, Hanovee Square, Monday, May 22, 1865.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Since the last General Meeting in December 41 members have
died ; and the names of 220 members have been removed from
the list by retirement, nearly the whole number of these having
joined the Society for the Newcastle Meeting only ; while
3 Governors and 95 members have been elected, so that the
Society now consists of

79 Life Governors,

81 Annual Governors,
1386 Life Members,
4190 Annual Members,

16 Honorary Members,

making a total of 5752.

The Council have elected Sir Massey Lopes, Bart,, M.P., a
Member of Council, in the room of the late Mr. Buller, M.P.

The half-yearly statement of accounts to 31st of December,
1864, has been examined and approved by the auditors and
accountants of the Society, and, together with the Balance-sheet
for the whole year 1864, and a statement of the Country Meeting
for Newcastle-upon-Tyne, has been published in the last number
of the ' Journal.' The funded capital has been increased by a
further investment of 2000/., and now stands at 21,027/. 195. Qd.
in the New Three per Cents. ; 1000/. remains on deposit with the
Society's Bankers, and the current cash-balance in their hands on
the 1st instant was 1981/. 17^. 2d.

Members will have observed in the accounts for 1864, the
item of a legacy of ten guineas left by the late Beriah Botfield,
Esq., M.P.. the first instance of a bequest to the funds of the
Society.

( xxxiv )

Papers have been read at the Weekly INIeetings by Mr. Lawcs
on Sewage ; Mr. Ellman on the Management of a Breeding Flock
of Sheep ; Professor Voelcker on Natural Deposits of Potash in
Germany ; Mr. T. Beale Brown on Flax ; ]\Ir. Morton on Agri-
cultural Education.

The Council, in deciding upon the course of action to be
pursued on the important subject of Education, have found it
attended with much difliculty ; and, indeed, considerable diversity
of opinion has been expressed as to the best mode of procedure.
The Council, after much deliberation, have decided for this
vear to limit their prizes to candidates examined at the Local
Examinations held by the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford.
They consider that sufficient attention has not hitherto been given
to the general education of the sons of Agriculturists. A good
sound education once obtained, special education may be properly
rewarded. The groundwork of Chemistry, Botany, Zoology,
Geology, and Mechanics, and the study of Mathematics, are
included in the subjects for examination both of Cambridge and
Oxford. To candidates, who shall be recommended by any
member of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and who
must be persons in some way dependent on the cultivation of the
land for their support, or intending to make agriculture their
profession, the Council offer the following prizes, viz. : — 1001 in
prizes amongst those who shall pass the Cambridge or Oxford
Senior or Junior Examinations ; 100/. to those at the Cambridge
and Oxford Examinations who, having passed the preliminary
Examination, shall have distinguished themselves in Mathe-
matics, Mechanics, Chemistry, Physics, Botany, Zoology, or
Geology. In addition to these prizes, the Committee are in
negotiation with the authorities at Cambridge, in order that
papers bearing upon special subjects connected with Agriculture
may be set at the next examination in December. Should these
negotiations be successful, a sum of 60/. will be offered for two
papers, one on Agricultural Chemistry, and one on Mechanics as
applied to Agriculture ; which papers will be prepared by gentle-
men appointed by the Royal Agricultural Society of England,
and reported upon by them. Candidates of any age may com-
pete for these special prizes.

The objects which the Council hope to attain are to improve
sound general education, and to encourage proficiency in such

( XXXV )

branches of science as are applicable to tlie study of Agriculture,
and calculated to prepare the mind of the student for the proper
reception of that practical education Avhich can only be com-
pleted by observation of the working of a farm, where he may be
enabled to test the value of such theories as may be presented
to him.

The Council have resolved that the Implement and Stock
Prize sheets for the following year shall in future be prepared at
the November Council and reconsidered in December, in order
that members and the public may have them at an earlier period
than heretofore.

The Contract for the Show-yard Works has been under the
attentive consideration of the Committee, and the Council have
appointed a surveyor, who will form an estimate of the value of
the works at Plymouth, and advise the Council as to the desira-
bility of purchasing a large portion of the plant and materials,
which are at present hired annually from the Contractor,

The arrangements for the Plymouth Meeting, to be held during
the week, commencing Monday, 17th July, are progressing satis-
factorily.

A very large entry is already made of Implements, and the
entries for Stock, which will close on the 1st of June, promise to
be equally numerous.

The Show-yard will be open as under : —

.^. d.
Monday 5 0

Tuesday .. .. .. .. .. 2 G

Wednesday .. .. •- ..2 6

Thursday" 10

Friday 10

The Council have determined that the Country Meeting in
1866 shall be held at Bury St. Edmunds.

The district for the Country Meeting of 1867 will include
the counties of Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham, and
Rutland.

By Order of the Council,

H. Hall Dare,

Secretary.-

XXXVl

HOYAL AGKICULTURAL

De.

Half-yearly Cash Account

To Balance in hand, 1st January, 1865 :■

Bankers

Secretary

To Income, viz.: —

Dividends on Stock

Interest on Deposit Account .

Subscriptions: —

Governors' Life-Compositions .. 50 0 0

Governors' Annual 355 0 0

Members' Life-Compositions .. 220 0 0

Members' Annual 3144 6 0

Journal : —

Sales ..

To Country Meeting
Newcastle
Plymouth

£. s. d.

280 10 2

12 8 11

274

3769

6

0

54

2

2

4170

2

3

14

17

0

3271

5

0

3286

2

0

£. 8. d.
292 19 1

£7749 3 4

Balance-Sheet,

To Capital: LIABILITIES.

Surplus, 31st December, 1864

Surplus of Income over the Expenditure during
the Half-year, viz : —

Income 4170 2 3

Expenditure 1924 3 4

To Newcastle Meeting : —

Difference between Receipts and Expenditure)
during the Half Year, the latter exceeding the>
former by j

s. d. £. 8. d.
. .. 21,192 10 2

2245 18 11

101 4 10

2,144 14 1

£23,337 4 3

(Signed;

A. N. HOOD, Chairman Finance Committee,

SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

FROM 1st January to 30tii June, 1865.

By Expenditure : — £. s. d.
Establishment —

Official Salaries and Wages, &c. 327 6 0

House Expenses, Rent, Taxes, &c. 290 18 10

Journal : —

Printing 392 6 0

Delivery and Advertising .. .. 130 4 6

Prize Essay 10 0 0

Other Contributions 86 4 0

Editor's Salary 250 0 0

Chemical : —
Grant for Investigations, 18G5 .. 200 0 0
Consulting Chemist's Salary ,. 150 0 0

Agricultural Education : —

Printing and Postage

Postage and Carriage

Advertisements

Sundries

Subscriptions (paid in error) returned

By Stock :—

Purchase of 2259?. 17s. 8d. New 3 per Cent. ..

By Country Meetings: —

Newcastle ;

Plymouth

By Balance in hand June 30th, 1865 : —

Bankers

Secretarv

xxxvn

Cr.

£. s. d. £. s. d.

618 4 10

868 14 6

350 0 0

15 9

46 15

3 17

19 2

2

0

0

2000

0

0

116
2302

1
19

10
6

1367
38

5
13

6
2

1924 3 4

2000 0 0

2419 1 4

1405 18 8

£7749 3 4

80th June, 1865.

ASSETS.

By Cash in hand

By Deposit Account at Bankers

By New 3 per cent. Stock, 21,027L 19s. Qd. cost ..
By Books and Furniture in Society's House

£. s. d.

1,405 18 8

1 ,000 0 0

19,881 11 1

2,000 0 0

£. s. d.
24,287 9 9

950 5 6

Mem. — The above Assets are exclusive of the
amount recoverable in respect of Subscrip-
tions in arrear 30th June, 1865, which at
that date amounted to 480/.

Less at Credit of Plymouth Meeting

£23,337 4 3

Examined, audited, and found correct, this 2nd day of August, 1865.

(Signed) W. COPELAND ASTBURY. \ Auditors on the part of

WILLIAM COHEN. / the Society.

QUIETER, BALL, & Co., Accountants.

( sxxviii )

MEMORANDA.

Address of Letters. — The Society's office being situated in the postal district
designated by tlie letter W> members, in their correspoiideuce with the
Secretar3% are requested to subjoin tliat letter to the usual address.

General Meeting in London, in December, 18G5.

General Meeting in London, May 22, 18GG, at Twelve o'clock.

Meeting at Bury St. Edmunds, in 186G.

Monthly Council (for transaction of business), at 12 o'clock on the first Wed-
nesday in every month, excepting January, September, and October: open
only to Members of Council and Governors of the Society.

Weeklv Council (for practical communications), at 12 o'clock on all Wednesdays
in February, March, April, May, June, July, and November, excepting the first
Wednesday in each of those months, and during adjouniment: open to all
Members of the Society, who are particularly invited by the Council to
avail themselves of this privilege.

Adjournments. — The Council adjourn over Passion and Easter weeks, when
those weeks do not include the first Wednesday of the month ; from the first
Wednesday in August to the first Wednesday in November; and from the first
W^ednesday in December to the first Wednesday iu February.

Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs. — Members have the privilege of applying to
the Veterinary Committee of the Society ; and of sending animals to the Royal
Veterinary College, on the same terais as if they were subscribers to the
College.— (A statement of these privileges will be found in the present
Appendix.)

Chesiical Analysis. — The privileges of Chemical Analysis enjoyed by Members
of the Society will be found stated in the Appendix of the present volume.

Local Cheques. — Members are particularly requested not to forward Country
Cheques for payment in London ; but London Cheques, or Post-office
Orders on Vere-street (payable to H. Hall Dare), in lieu of them. All
Cheques are required to bear upon them a penny draft or receipt stamp,
■which must be cancelled in each case by the initials of the drawer. They
may also conveniently transmit their Subscriptions to the Society, by re-
questing their Country Bankers to pay (through their London .Agents) the
amount at the Society's Office (No. 12, Hanover Square, London), between
the hours of ten and four, wlien official receipts, signed by the Secretary,
"will be given for such payments.

New Members. — Every candidate for admission into the Society must be pro-
posed by a Member ; the proposer to specify in writing the full name, usual
place of residence, and post-town, of the candidate, either at a Council meet-
ing, or by letter addressed to the Secretary.

Packets by Post. — Packets not exceeding two feet in length, width, or depth,
consisting of written or printed matter (but not containing letters sealed or
open), if sent without envelopes, or enclosed in envelopes open at each end,
may be forwarded by the inland post, if stamped, at the following rates: —

For a packet not exceediug 4 ounces Cor quarter of a pound) ... 1 penny
„ „ „ 8 „ (or half a pound) .... 2 pence.

„ „ „ 16 „ (or one pound) 4 „

, ,, „ 24 „ (or one pound and a half) . • 6 „

„ „ „ 32 „ (or two pounds) H „

[Ajid BO on In the proportion of 8 ounces for each additional 2cZ.]

*,* Members may obtain on application to the Secretary copies of an Abstract of the Charter
and Bye-Laws, of a Statement of tlie General Objects, &c., of the Society, of Chemical
and Veterinary Privileges, and of other printed papers connected with special depart-
ments of the Society's business.

SHOW AT PLYMOUTH,
JULY, 1865.

STEWARDS OF THE YARD.

Stock.
John D. Dent, M.P.,

Charles Randell,
Edward Bowlv.

Implements.
William Torr,
Earl Cathcart,
William SA^•DAV.

Forage.
John Moox.

Honorary Director of the Show.
B. T. Brandreth Gibbs.

STOCK JUDGES.

Short-horns,

George Drewry,
Joseph Eobixson,
John B. Thompson.

Hereford, Sussex, South Hams Cattle,
and other Established Breeds.
J. Deuce,
G. Pye,
William Yeomans.

Devons,
J. E. J0NE.S,

Edward L. Franklin,
Samuel Umbers,

Channel Islands.
James Dumbrell,

Moses Gibaut,
Charles P. Le Cornu.

Thorough-hreds, Hunters, Hackneys,
and Ponies.

Charles Barnett,
William Young,
Thomas Parrington.

Agricultural and Suffolk Horses.
G. Kersey Cooper,
James Steedman,
Thomas Brooks.

Leicester Sheep,
Luke Borman,
Thomas Twitchell,
John Painter.

Cotswold, Lincoln, and other Long-
wooUed Sheep.
Henry Bateman,
Hugh Aylmer,
Charles Clarke.

Oxfordshire and Shropshire Downs.
Thomas Horley, Jim.,
Pw J. Kewton,
Edward Gough.

Southdown, Hampshire, and other
Short-wooUed Sheep.
Henry Fookes,
J. S. Turner,
Henry Overman.

Exmoor, Dartmoor, South Hams,
Somerset, and Dorset Sheep.
James Hole,
Edward Pope,
Philip Halse.

Pigs.
Thomas Trotter,
Samuel Druce,
Elias p. Squarey.

WOOL JUDGES.

Thomas Clayton, Jason Gurney.

BUTTER JUDGE.
T. Litton.

xl Award of Live- Stock Prizes at Plymouth.

Inspectors of Shearing.
H. Bone, J. B. AYorkman.

Veterinary-Inspectors.
Professor Siiionds, Professor Varnef^l.

Assistant. — P. L. Hunt.

IMPLEMENT JUDGES.

Drills, Manure Distributors, and Horse
Hoes.
John Hickex,
A. H. Johnson,
Francis Sherborn,
John Thompson,
Pobebt Dyson, C.E.

Waggons and Carts.
Jacob Wilson,
Mowing and Keaping Machines. > John Thomp-son.

Haymaking Machines and Horse Bakes.
John Hicken,
A. II. Johnson,
Francis Sherborn,
Pobert Dyson, C.E.

II. J>. Caldwki.l,

E. WoRTI.EV,

GiLsoN ]\Iartin,

T. J. Bramwell, C.E.,

John Coleman.

Miscellaneous.
Jacob Wilson,
John Coleman.

Consulting-Engineer.
C. K. Amos.

AAYARD OF PRIZES.

Note. — The Judges were instructed, besides awarding tlie Prizes^
to designate as the Besei-ved Ninnher one animal in each Class, next
in order of merit, if it possessed sufficient merit for a Prize — in
case an animal to which a Prize was awarded shoidd subsequently
become disqualified.

CATTLE.

Short-Jiorn Bulls and Bull Calves.

Robert Siiarpe, Courtlands, East Grinstcad, Sussex : First Prize, 25?., for
" Lord Cliancc'llor," red, 4 years 1 month 3 weeks 3 da5-s-old ; bred by
the late Jonas Webb ; sire, " Usurer " (19,035) ; dam " Eed Kose ;" sire
of dam, " Marmaduke (14,897)."

Edward Bolitho, Trewidden, Penzance, Cornwall : Second Prize, 15/., for
"Favourite " (19,727), roan, 3 years 1 week 2 days-old; bred by
Messrs. Hoskcn and Son, Lo2;s;ans, Hayle, Cornwall ; sire, " Prince
Frederick" (16,734); dam, "Agnes 2nd;" sire of dam, "Cheltenham"
(12,588).

Augustus Cokyton, Pentillie Castle, Saltash, Cornwall: Third Prize, U.,
for " Hohvood," roan, 3 years 3 months 1 week-old ; bred by R. O'Dog-
hcrty, Talvans, Landrake, Cornwall; sire, "Henry 1st" (11,571); dam,
" Duchess 2nd ;" sire of dam, " Broad Hinton."

'Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Plymouth, xli

John Clayden, Littlebnry, Saffron Walden, Essex : the Reserved Number, to
"Marquis Cornwallis 2nd" (20,292), red with a little white, 4 years 2
months 1 week 5 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Sir Charles"
(16,948) ; dam, " Miriam ;" sire of dam, " Snowball " (15,309),

John Stranger Ford, Luson, Holbeton, Ivy Bridge, Devon : First Prize,
251., for, " Duke of Devonshire," red and white, 2 years 5 months 2 weeks
2 days-old ; bred by Mr. Widdicombe, Hay, Ugborough, Ivy Bridge ;
sire, " Duke of Devonshire ;" dam, " Matchless ;" sire of dam, " Garrard's
Bull."

John Charlesworth, Headfield, Dewsbury, Yorkshire : Second Prize, 15^.,
for " Baron Blencow " (19,267), white, 2 years 8 months 3 weeks 1 day-
old ; bred by E. F. Housman, Lune Bank, Lancaster, Lancashire ; sire,
"Roj^al Windsor" (18,784); dam, " Strawberry Duchess ;" sire of dam,
« Duke of Buckingham " (14,428).

JohnClayden: Third Prize 51, for "Knight of North Essex" (20,079),
roan, 2 years 6 months 4 weeks 1 day-old; bred by exhibitor; sire,
"Marquis Cornwallis" (18,337); dam, "Diadem;" sire of dam, "Sir
Charles" (16,948).

LoKD KiNNAiED, Eossie Priory, Inchture, Perthshire, the Reserved Number, for
" Lord Louis," roan, 2 years 11 months 3 weeks 6 days-old; bred by
exhibitor; sire, "Lord Privy Seal;" dam, "Louise 2nd;" sire of dam,
"Champion."

Francis Hawksworth Fawkes, Farnley Hall, Otley, Yorkshire : First
Prize, 25/., for " Friar Tuck," roan, 1 year 10 mouths 2 days-old ; bi'ed
by exhibitor; sire, "Lord Cobham " (20,164); dam, "Fatima;" sire
of dam, " Inkermau" (13,068).

Thomas Christopher Booth, of Warlabj^, Northallerton, Yorkshire : Second
Prize, 15/., for " Commander-iu-Chief," roan, 1 year 1 month 1 week
6 days-old ; bred by the late R. Booth, Warlaby ; sire, "^Valasco "
(15,443); dam, " CampfoUower ; " sire of dam, "Crown Prince"
(10,087).

Zaccheus Walker, Birmingham : Third Prize, 5?., for " Battersea First
Fruits," roan, 1 year 10 months-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " First
Fruits" (19,751); dam, "Miss Battersea;" sire of dam, "Earl of
Hardwicke " (14,476).

Lokd Walsingham, Merton Hall, Thetford, Norfolk : the Reserved Number,
to " Lord Level 2nd," white, 1 year 11 months 4 days-old ; bred by
exhibitor ; sire, " Lord Lovel " (20,192) ; dam, " Tulip 3rd;" sire of dam,
"Havelock of Lucknow" (16,242).

Francis Hawksworth Fawkes : First Prize, 10/., for " Friar Bacon," roan,
10 months 3 weeks 4 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, "Lord Cobham "
(20,164); dam, "Fatima;" sire of dam, "Inkerman" (13,068).

Sir Anthony de Eothschild, Bart., Aston Clinton, Tring : Second Prize,
5/., for " Corporal," roan, 9 months 3 weeks 1 day-old ; bred by exhibitor;
sire, " Captain Cheery ;" dam, " Statira 4th ;" sire of dam, " Rifle-
man."

George Gakne, Churchill Heath, Chipping Norton, the Reserved Number, to
" Plymouth Candidate," roan, 10 months 1 week 4 days-old ; bred by
exhibitor; sire, "Oyuric" (19,542) ; dam, "Peach ;" sire of dam, "Have-
lock " (14,676).

xlii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Plymouth.

Short-horn Coivs and Heifers.

John Wood, Stanwick Park, Darliuston : First Prize, 20Z., for " Corinno,'
roan, 4 years 11 months 4 weeks-old, in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire,
" Cardisran" (12,556); dam, "Carmine;" sire of dam, " Prince Arthm- "
(13,497).

EicHAED Steattox, Walls Com-t, Bristol : Second Prize, 101., for "Diadem,"
roan, 3 years 5 months 3 weeks-old, in-milk and in-calf ; bred by exhi-
bitor ; sire, " Warwick" (19,120) ; dam, " Lotus ;" sire of dam, " Buck-
ingham" (15,700).

Egbert Sharpe, Courtiands, East Grinstead, Sussex : Third Prize, 5Z., for
" Elegant," red roan, 3 years 2 months 1 week 4 days-old, in-milk ; bred
by Mr. Koakcs, Brockley Court, Croydon, Surrey ; sire, " Cherry Duke
3rd" (15,763) ; dam, " Fuchsia ;" sire of dam, " Hatclifle " (12,097).

Emily Lady Pigot, Branches Park, Newmarket, Cambs, the Ileserved
Number, for " Perfume," white, 3 years 2 months 1 week 1 day-old, in-
milk and in-calf; bred iby Colonel Townelej-, Towncley, Burnley, Lan-
cashire; sire, "Baron Hopewell" (14,134); dam, "Pride;" sire of dam,
"Valiant" (12,253).

Thomas CnRiSTOPiiER Boorrr, Warlabj', Northallerton, Yorkshire : First
Prize, 15/., for "Lady Fragrant," roan, 2 years 4 months-old, in-calf;
bred by the late P. Booth, of Warlaby, Northallerton ; sire, " Lord of the
Valley " (14,837) ; dam, " Lady Blithe ;" sire of dam, " Windsor " (14,013).

John Logan, Maindec House, Newport, Monmouthshire : Second Prize, 10/.,
for " Charlotte 4th," roan, 2 years 3 months 2 days-old, in-calf; bred by
exhibitor; sire, "Duke of Knowlmerc " (19,023); dam, "Charlotte;" sire
of dam, "Noble Arthur" (16,621).

Emily Lady Pigot : Third Prize, 51., for " Lady of I'osalca," rich roan,
2 years 4 weeks-old, in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, " Prince Alfred"
(13,494) ; dam, " White Ladye ;" sire of dam, " Valasco" (15,443).

Eichard Stratton : the Reserved Number, to " Garland," roan, 2 years 3
weeks 3 days-old, in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, " Young Windsor "
(17,241) ; dam, " Gratitude ;" sire of dam, " Buckingham " (15,700).

Lord Feversham, Duncombe Park, Helmsley, Yorkshire: First Prize, 15?.,
for "Princess," roan, 1 year 9 months 5 days-old; bred by exhibitor j
sire, "Vesuvius;" dam, "Lady in White ;" sire of dam, "Skyrocket.'

Egbert Tennant, Scarcroft Lodge, Leeds, Yorkshire : Second Prize, 10?.,
for " Miss Farewell," red and white, 1 year 3 months 2 weeks 1 day-old ;
bred by Colonel Townelcy, 'J'owneley Park, Burnley ; sire, " Duke of
Wharfdale ;" dam, " Frederick's Farewell ; sire of dam, " Frederick."

John Wood : Third Prize, 5?., for " Clotilde," red, little white, 1 year 11
months 4 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, "Knight Errant "(18,154) ;
dam, " Chloe ;" sire of dam, " Cardigan" (12,550).

William Hosken and Son, of Loggans Mill, Hayle, Cornwall, the Reserved
Number, to " Carnation," roan, 1 year 5 months 4 days-old ; bred by
exhibitors; sire, "Prince Frederick" (16,734); dam, "Miss Fisher;"
sire of dam, " Lord of the South " (13,216).

Thomas Edward Pawlett, Beeston, Sandy, Beds ; First Prize, 10?., for
"Charmer 8th,'' roan, 11 months 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire,
" Prince James " (20,554) ; dam, " Charmer 7tli ;" sire of dam, " High-
thorn " (13,028). ,

Award of LiveStock Prizes at Plymouth. xliii

Sir Anthony de Rothschild, Bart. : Second Prize, 5?., for " Little Cherry,"
rich roan, 11 mouths 1 Aveek 2 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire,
" Moiintcbank ;" dam, " Cherry llipe ;" j^ire of dam, " Magician 2nd "
(10,486).

KiCHAED Stratton, the Reserved Number, to " Brilliance," roan, 11 months
3 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Lamp of Lothian " (16,356) ; dam,
" 8th Duchess of Gloucester ;" sire of dam, " His Highness " (14,708).

Hereford Bulls and Bull Calves.

James Marsh Eead, Elkstone, Cheltenham : First Prize, 251., for " Coles-
borne," red, Avhite face, 3 years 4 months 1 week 2 days-old ; bred by
exhibitor; sire, "Caliban" (1163); dam, "Washington;" sire of dam,
" Caiiisle " (923).

John Albert Hollings, The Hillend, Hereford: Second Prize, 15Z., for
" Chieftain 2nd" (1917), red, white face, 4 years 11 months 3 weeks-old;
bred by the late J. Pea, Monaughty, Knighton, Paduorshire ; sire,
"Wellington" (1112); dam, "Gertrude;" sire of dam, "Chieftain"
(930).

John Baldwin, Luddington, Stratford- on- A von, Warwickshire : Third Prize,
5?., for " Battersea," red, white face, 3 years 11 months 2 weeks-old ;
bred by Charles Vevers, Ivington Park, Leominster ; sire, " Corn
Exchange " (1935) ; dam, " Pigeon ;" sire of dam, " Young Sir Andrew "
(1471).

James Marsh PiEAd : the Eeserved Number, to " Peremptorily," red, white
face, 3 years 5 months 3 weeks 1 day-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire,
"Caliban" (1163); dam, "Beauty;" sire of dam, "Dodmore"
(1217 a).

Thomas Duckham, Baysham Court, Ross, Herefordshire : First Prize, 25?.,
for " Commodore " (2472), red, white face, 2 years 10 months 3 weeks
2 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Castor " (1900) ; dam, " Carlisle ;"
sire of dam, " Albert Edward " (859).

William Stallard, Brockhampton, Ross, Herefordshire : Second Prize,
Ibl., for "Chieftain the 3rd," red, white face, 2 years 9 months 3 weeks
1 day-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Chieftain 2nd" (1917); dam,
" Gwenny 2nd ;" sire of dam, " Chieftain " (930).

James Marsh Read : Third Prize, bl., for " Sultan," red, white face, 2 years
10 months 1 week 5 days-old ; bred by the late J. Rea, Monaughty ;
sire, " Sir Benjamin " (1387) ; dam, " Sultana ;" sire of dam, " Grenadier "
(961).

Joseph Rawle Paramore, Dincdor Court, Hereford : First Prize, 257., for
" Dinedor," red, white face, 1 year 8 months 2 weeks 5 days-old ; bred by
exhibitor; sire, "Jew" (2266); dam, "Young Countess;" sire of dam,
" Carlisle " (923).

Edmund Wright, Halston Hall, Oswestry, Salop : Second Prize, 15Z., for
"Sir John," red, white face, 1 year 9 months 1 week 5 days-old; bred
by exhibitor ; sire, " Silver Horn " (2213) ; dam, " Sweetmeat ;" sire of
dam, " Magnet 2nd " (989).

William Tudge, Adforton, Leintwardine, Herefordshire : Third Prize, 51.,
for " Douglas," red, white face, 1 year 7 months 3 weeks-old ; bred by
exhibitor; sire, "Pilot" (2156); dam, "Dainty;" sire of dam, "The
Doctor " (1083).

xliv Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Plymouth.

William Stallard, Brockhampton, Eoss, Herefordshire, the Reserved Numher^
to " Soothsayer," red, white face, 1 year 8 months 2 days-okl : bred by
exhibitor; sire, " Chieftain 2ud"_(iyi7); dam, " Queen's Gilliflower ;"
sire of dam, " The Doctor."

John Monkhouse, The Stow, Hereford : First Prize, 10?., fur " Grandee,"
red, white face, 10 months 3 weeks 5 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ;
sire, " Chieftain ; " dam, " Grand Duchess ; " sire of dam, " Madoc."

Joseph Rawle Paramore : Second Prize, 57., for " Trueboy," red, white
face, 9 months 4 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Portly" (21G5) ;
dam, " Cherry;" sire of dam, "Hotspur" (972).

Henry Rawlins Evans, jun., Swanstone Court, Dilwyn, Leominster, Here-
fordshire, the Jleservcd Number, to "Lord Taunton," red, white face and
mane, 11 months 3 weeks 3 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Chat-
ham " (1914) ; dam, " Gentle 2nd ;" sire of dam, " Rambler " (104(j).

Hereford Coics and Heifers.

John Baldwin : First Prize, 20?., for " Duchess of Bedford 2nd," red, white
face, 3 years 9 months 1 week-old, in-milk ; bred by T. Roberts, Iving-
ton Bury, Leominster; sire, "Sir Thomas;" dam, " Duchess Bedford ;"
sire of dam, " Arthur Napoleon."

John Walker, Westfield House, Holmer, Hereford : Second Prize, 107., for
"Longwaist," red, white lace, 8 years 3 months-old, in-calf; bred by
exhibitor ; dam, " Duchess ; sire of dam, " Governor."

John Walker : Third Prize, 5?., for " Holmer Lass," red, white face, 6
years 4 months 3 weeks 1 day-old, in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire,
" Wallace ;" dam, " Duchess ;" sire of dam, " Governor."

Thomas Olver, Penhallow, Gram pound, Cornwall, the Reserved Kurnber, to
"Blossom," red, white face, 10 years-old, in-calf; bred by the late T.
Longmore, Buxton, Salop; sire, " Young Wallbrd (1820).

John Baldwin: First Prize, 15Z., for "Miss Hastings 2nd," red, white face,
2 years 11 months 2 weeks 1 daj'-old, in-calf; bred by T. Roberts,
IvingtonBurv, Leominster ; sire, "Sir Thomas;" dam, "Lady Hastings;"
sire of dam, " Master Butterfly" (1313).

George Pitt, Chadnor Court, Dilwyn, Leominster, Herefordshire : Second
Prize, 107., for his red, white face, 2 years 6 months 2 weeks 2 days-old,
iu-milk ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Hatfield ;" sire of dam, " Milan."

Major-General the Hon. A. Nelson Hood, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor,
Berks : Third Prize, 57., for " Crown Princess," red, white face, 2 years
9 months 4 weeks 2 days-old, in-milk ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Ajax "
(1843); dam, "Juno;" sire of dam, "Brecon" (918).

John Walker, Westfield House, the Reserved Number, to " Westfield Lass,"
red, white face, 2 years 5 months 3 weeks-old, in-calf ; bred by exhibitor ;
sire, "Nutmeg;" dam, " Nel Gwynne;" sire of dam, "Darling the
Second."

Edmund Wright, Halston Hall, Oswestry, Salop : First Prize, .157., for
" Marchioness," red, white face, 1 year 10 months-old ; bred by exhibitor ;
sire, "Hero" (2039); dam, "Noble;" sire of dam, "Garrick"
(1248).

John Monkhouse : Second Prize, 107., for " Fairy Queen," red, white
face, 1 year 10 months 2 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Chief-
tain ; " dam, " Fairy ; " sire of dam, " Formidable."

Award of Live- Stock Prizes at Plijmoutli. xlv

Philip Turner, The Leen, Pembridgc, Leominster, Herefordshire : Third
Prize, bl., for " Queen of the Vale," red, white face, 1 year 11 months

2 weeks 5 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Bolingbroke " (1883) ;
dam, " Marchioness ;" sire of dam, " Bertram " (1513).

John Hdngerford Arkwright, Hampton Court, Leominster, Herefordshire,
the Reserved Nuraber, for " Spot," red, white face, 1 year 8 months

3 weeks 3 days-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Sir Oliver 2nd" (1733);
sire of dam, " Mortimer " (1328).

Major-General the Hon. A. Nelson Hood : First Prize, 10?., for
"Princess Mary," red, white face, 10 months 1 week 5 days-old;
bred by exhibitor: sire, "Deception;" dam, "Maud;" sire of dam,
"Windsor."

John MoNKHOtrsE : Second Prize, 5?., for " Josephine," red, white face,
11 months 3 weeks 6 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Chieftain ;"
dam, " Violet ;" sire of dam, " Madoc."

Thomas Duckham : the Reserved Numler, to " Darling," red, white face,
7 months 3 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, " Commodore" (2472);
dam, "Delight;" sire of dam, "Pope "(527).

Devon Bulls and Bull Calves.

John Sobet, Trewolland, Liskeard, Cornwall : First Prize, 251., for
" Sobieski" (728), dark red, 4 years 8 months 2 weeks 4 days-old; bred
by exhibitor; sire, "Duke of Chester" (404); dam, " Brown " (1196) ;
sire of dam, " Alfred " (138).

James Davy, Flitton Barton, North Molton, Devon : Second Prize, 15Z.,
for " Duke of Flitton 2nd," red, 3 years 2 months 1 week 4 days-old ;
bred by exhibitor ; sire, "Duke of Flitton 1st ;" dam, " Flower ;" sire of
dam, " Earl of Exeter."

John Azariah Smith, Bradford Peverill, Dorchester, Dorset : Third Prize,
51., for "Constitution," red, 3 years 4 months-old; bred by exhibitor;
sire, "Exchange" (627); dam, "Eachel" (2307) ; sire of dam, "Palmer-
ston " (476).

Lord Clinton, Hcanton, Tatchville, Bcaford, Devon : the Reserved Numher,
to "Baronet," brown, 4 years 11 months 2 weeks 5 days-old; bred by
exhibitor; sire-, " Pasmore's Baronet;" dam, "Profit."

Viscount Falmouth, Tregothnan, Probus, Cornwall : First Prize, 25?., for
" Sunflower," dark red, 2 years 4 months 4 weeks 1 day-old ; bred by
exhibitor; sire, "Duke of Chester" (404); dam, "Flower;" sire of
dam, " Uncle Tom " (328).

James Howard Buli-er, Downes, Crediton, Devon : Second Prize, 15?., for
red, 2 years 10 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by the late T. W. Buller.

Walter Farthing, Stowey Court, Bridgewater, Somerset : Third Prize,
5?., for " Osborn," red, 2 years 4 months 3 weeks-old ; bred by Mr.
Osborn, Norton, Taunton ; sire " Sir Peregrine."

John Jackman, Hexworthy, Lawhitton, Launceston, Cornwall : the Reserved
Numher, to " Garibaldi," red, 2 years 3 months 3 weeks 3 days-old ;
bred by J. Bodley, Stockley Pomeroy, Crediton, Devon ; sire " Champion"
(588a); dam, " Favourite " (1985) ; sire of dam, " Napoleon " (462).

George Turner, Beacon Downes, Exeter : First Prize, 25?., for " Bnnting "
red, 1 year 3 months 4 days-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire " The Liberal ;"
dam, "Fanny Fern."
VOL. I. — S. S. /

xlvi Award of Live- Stock Prizes at Phjmouth.

George Turner : Secoxd Prize, 15Z., for " jMagnum Bomim," red, 1 year
4 months 1 week 5 days- old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, " The Liberal ;"
dam, " Vaudine."

John Bodley, Stockley Pomeroy, Crcditon, Devon : Third Prize, 5Z., for
"Lincoln," red, 1 j'ear 6 months 1 week-old; bred by exhibitor; sire
" Champion " (588) ; dam, " Myrtle " (2191) : sire of dam, "Emperor"
(193).

John Azariah Smith : the Beserved Numler, to " Hercules ;" red, 1 year

4 months 1 week-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire " Constitution ;" dam,
" Young Ilebe" (2450); sire of dam, " Davy's Xapoleon 111. (4(;-l).

William Taylor : First Prize, 101., for " Profit's Duke," red, 11 months
1 week 2 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Duke of Flitton ;" dam,
" Profit ;" sire of dam, " Xelsou."

Walter Farthing: Second Prize, 5/., for red, 11 months 4 weeks 1 day-
old ; bred by exliibitor ; sire, " Sir Peregrine ;" dam, " Cheerful."

James Davy: the Reserved Nuniher, to "Duke of Flitton tlie 3rd," red,
8 months 1 week-old, bred by exhibitor ; sire, "Duke of FUtton 2nd;"
dam, "Picture;" sire of dam, " Napoleon 3rd."

Devon Coics and Heifers.

James Davy : First Prize, 20/., for " Empress," red, 5 years 3 weeks-old,
in-calf; bred by exhibitor; dam, "Empress;" sire of dam, "Eclipse."

WiLLLAM Taylor : Second Prize, 10/., for " Beauty," red, 5 years 8 months

5 days -old, in-milk ; bred by J. Meron, Brinswortliy, JS'orth Molton,
Devon ; sire, " Davy's Xapoleon ; dam, " Lovely."

John Quartly, Cliampson MoUand, South Molton": Third Prize, 5Z., for
"Stately," red, 5 years G months-old, in-calf and in-millc; bred by
exhibitor; sire, "Duke of Chester;" dam, "Flower;" sire of dam,
" Sultan."

John Quartly : the Iteserved Xumher, to " Handsome," red, 7 j-ears G
mouths-old, iu-milk and in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Duke of
Sussex;" dam, " Prettyniaid," sire of dam, "Baronet."

Major-General the Hon. A. Xelson Hood : First Pbize, 15/., for "i: s'
of Denmark," red, 2 years 11 months-old, in-milk ; bred bj' exhibitii-.';
sire, " Colonel" (387) ; dam, " Fancy" (703) ; sii'e of dam, " Wilhani.'

John Quartly : Second Prize, 10/., for liis red heifer, 2 years G months-
old, in-calf ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " King of the Bretons ;" dam, " Sylpli ;
sire of dam, " Butterfly."

James Davy : Third Prize, 5/., for " Lady Bess," red, 2 years 2 months
3 days-old, in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Duke of Flitton 1st,"
dam, " Young Symmetry ;" sire of dam, " Xapoleon 3rd.

Thomas Palmer, Xorton, Stoke CUmsland, Launceston, Cornwall : the
Reserved Kmnher, to " Graceful," brown, 2 years G months 4 weeks
1 day-old, in-calf ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Lord Kerry ; dam, " Duchess ;''
sire of dam, " Havelock."

James Davy : First Prize, 15/., for " Symmetry," red, 1 year 7 months
1 week 4 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Duke of Flitton 1st ;"
dam, " Old Symmetry ;" sire of dam, " Eclipse."

John Quartly : Second Prize, 10/., for his red heifer, 1 year C months-old ;
bred by exhibitor; sire, "Warrior;" dam, "Stately; sire of dam,
" Duke of Chester."

1

Aicard of Livc-Sfock Prizes at PhjmoutJi. xlvii

James Davy : Third Prize, 5Z., for " Young Cherry," red, 1 year 7 months
1 week 1 day-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Duke of Flitton 1st;" dam,
" Cherry ;" sire of dam, " Napolcou 3rd."

George Turner, Beacon Downes, Exeter; the Beserved Number, io "Lndy
Evelyn," red, 1 year 6 months 1 week-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire,
" Devonian ;" dam, " Lady Devon."

Walter Farthing : First Prize, 10?., for his red heifer, 8 months 1 day -old ;
bred by exhibitor; sire, "Viscount;" dam, "Verbena;" sire of dam,
" Duke of Somerset,"

John Azariah Smith: Second Prize, 51., for "Picture," fed, 10 months

1 week 3 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire " Constitution ;" dam,
" Honest ;" sire of dam, " Honest Tom."

AViLLiAM Taylor : the Reserved Numhrr, to " Curly's Duchess," red, 8 months
3 weeks 5 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Duke of Flitton," dam,
" Curly ■" sire of dam, " Derby."

Sussex Bulls.

John and Alfred Heasman, Angmering, Arundel, Sussex : First Prize,
lol., for "The Duke" (97), red, 4 years 6 months 1 week-old; bred by
exhibitor; sire, " Marquis" (16); dam, "Buttercup" (297).

Sussex Cows and Heifers.

John and Alfred Heasman: First Prize, 15/., for "Battersea" (729),
red, 4 years 5 months-old, in-milk, bred by exhibitors ; sire, " Marquis "
(16) ; dam, " Hopeful " (180).

John and Alfred Heasman : Second Prize, 10?., for " Lily " (684), red,
5 years 5 months 2 weeks-old, in-milk ; bred by exhibitors ; sire,
" Marquis " ( 16 ) ; dam, " Snowdrop " (265) ; sire of dam, " Sladcland."

George Jenner, Parsonage House, Udimore, Rye, Sussex : the Reserved
Nuniber, to " Fillpail," red, 4 years 5 months 1 week 5 days-old ; bred
by exhibitor ; sire, " Challenger ;" dam, " Old Fillpail ; sire of dam,
" Stonham Bull."

John and Alfred Heasman: First Prize, 15Z., for "Plymouth," red,.

2 years 6 months 3 weeks 4 days-old, in-calf ; bred by exhibitors ; sire,
"Viscount" (77); dam, "Butterfly" (640); sire of dam, "Marquis"'
(16).

TiLDEN Smith, of Knell Farm, Becklcy, Staplehurst, Sussex r Second Prize,,
10?., for "Betty," red, 2 years 5 months-old, in-calf; bred by ex-
hibitor.

George Jenner : the Reserved Num'her, to " Selmes," red, 2 years 5 months

2 weeks 3 days-old, in-calf ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Challenger ;" sire
of dam, " Stonham."

John and Alfred Heasman: First Prize, 15?., for their red heifer, 1 year

5 months 3 weeks 4 daj's-old ; bred by exhibitors ; sire, " The Duke"

(97) ; dam, sire " Gentle " (574).
John and Alfred Heasman : Second Prize, 10?., for tlieir red'heifer, 1 year

5 months-old, bred by exhibitors ; sire, " The Duke "" (97) ; dam, " Ada"

(62G) ; of dam, " Marquis" (16).

George Jenner : the Reserved Numhrr, to "Beauty," rod, 1 year 3 months

3 weeks 3 days-old; bi'ed by exliibitor; sire, "Tlie Earl," dam, " Beauty
Cow;" sire of dam, " Stonham Bull."

/2

xlviii Aicard of Live-Stock Prizes at Plymouth.

Channel Islands Bulls.

Albert Le Gallais, of La Moie House, St. Aubin's, Jersey : First Prize, 20?,,
for " Butterfly," grey and white, 2 years 7 months-old (Jersey or Alder-
ney) ; bred by T. Filleul, Boulivot, Grouville, Jersey ; dam, " Cowslip."

Clement Fallot, St. Saviour's, Jersey : Second Prize, lOZ., for " The
Prince," brown, 2 years 4 months 2 weeks-old (Jersey); bred by
B. Watts, St. Saviour's ; sire, " Noble."

George Foote, Ashburton House, St. Andrew's, Guernsej' : Third Prize, 57.,
for " Conqueror," fawn brindled and white, 2 years 5 months-old
(Guernsey) ; bred by Hilary Simon, Maison-de-haut, St. Andrew's.

George Foote : the Reserved Number, to " Lord of the Isles," fawn and
white, 3 years 3 months-old (Guernsey); bred by the late J. Demoulpied,
Monnaie-de-haut, St. Andrew's.

Clement Fallot : First Prize, 207., for " Imperial," brown, 1 year 3 months
2 weeks-old (Jersey); bred by exhibitor; sire, " Billy ; " dam, " Mari-
gold."

Charles Pobin, ilon Plaisir, St. Peter's Port, Guernsey: Second Prize,
107., for " Prince of "Wales," red and white, 1 year 9 months 3 weeks-old
(Guernsey) ; bred by Mr. Quertier, Pedvin's Farm, St. Peter's Port,
Guernsey.

Henry Le Feuvre, of Lcs Xibmcs, St. Peter's, Jersey : Third Prize, 51., for
" Duke," fawn, 1 year 3 months 3 weeks 1 day-old (Jersey or Aldemey) ;
bred by Moses Gibaut, Mainland, St. Lawrence, Jersey.

Major George Sidnet Strode, Newnham Park, Plympton, Devon : the
liesei-ved Number, to " Sir Joshua," mouse and white, 1 year 11 months

1 week 4 days-old (Jersey) ; breeder unknown.

Channel Islands Cows and Heifers.

Frederic Broavning, La Patrinioinc, St. Lawrence, Jersey : First Prlze, 207.,
for " Betsj-," dark lirown, 7 years-old (Jeieey), in-milk ; breeder unknown.

Philippe Gaudin, St. Martin's, Maufant, St. Helier's, Jersey : Second Prize,
107., for " Jolie," red brown, little white spots, 8 years 4 months-old
(Jersey), in-milk ; bred by exhibitor.

Henry de Jersey Le Lacheur, of Norgiots, St, Andrew's, Guerasey: Third
Prize, 57., for " Mary," light red and white, 6 years 7 months-old
(Guernsey), in-calf ; bred by John Le Hury, Croute, St. Peter's
Guernsey.

Daniel Goodland, Haviland, St. Peter's Port, Guernsey: the Reserved
Number, to "Fawn," light red and white, 6 years 3 months-old
(Guernsey), in-milk ; bred by exhibitor.

Eli Nicolle, La Fontaine, Trinity, Jersey : First Prize, 207., for "Browny,"
light brown, 2 years 5 months-old (Jersey), in-calf ; bred by exhibitor ;
sire, " Noble."

Henry Le Feuvre : Second Prize, 107., for " Cowslip," brown and white,

2 years 9 months 2 weeks-old (Jersey or Alderney), in-calf ; bred by
exhibitor ; sire, " Butterfly ;" dam, " Primrose."

Philippe Gaudin : Third Prize, 57., for " Petite Jolie," red brown, white
spots, 1 year 10 months 3 weeks-old (Jersey), in-calf; bred by exhibitor.

Henry Le Feuvre, the Reserved Number, to " Matchless," grey and white,
2 years 4 months-old (Jersey or Aldemey), in-calf; bred by exhibitor;
sire, " Butterfly ; " dam, " Pomona."

Award of Live-Stjck Prizes at Plijmoath. xlix

Sidls of other Established Breeds.

EiCHARD Hemming Chapmax, Uptou, Nuneaton, Warwickshire : Fikst
Pkize, 15^., for " Old Sjiarl^enhoe," dark brindled, white back, 5 years
3 weeks 1 day-old (Longhorn) ; bred b}^ Col. Inge, Thorpe Constantine,
Tamworth ; sire, "Tom L 8;" dam, " Fillpail, F.Y.I;" sire of dam,
" Old Kolhvright."

Sir Edward Kerrison, Bart., Brome Hall, Scole, Suffolk : Second Prize,
10?., for "Eclipse," dark red, 4 years 4 months 1 week-old (Suffolk
Polled) ; bred by Mr. Woltou, Ncwbourne, "Woodbridge, Suffolk ; sire,
"Nonpareil;" dam, " Cosselt ;" sire of dam, "Bullfinch."

Sir Edward Kerrison, Bart.: First Prize, 15?., for "Hero," dark red,
1 year 1 month 1 week-old (Suffolk Polled); bred by exhibitor; sire,
" Eiiiemau ;" dam, " Duchess."

Coivs and Heifers of other Established Breeds.

Sir Edward Kerrison, Bart. : First Prize, 151., for "Violet," red, 6 years-
old (Norfolk Polled), iu-milk and in-calf; bred by Mr. Birkbeck,
address unknown ; sire, "Holkham;" dare, "Beauty."

Sir Edward Kerrison, Bart. : Second Prize, 101., for " Susanna," red,
5 years 2 months-old (Suffolk Polled), in-calf; bred by Mr. Good-
clieram, Monedown, Wickham Market.

Eev. Joseph Lloyd Brereton, West Buckland, South Molton : the Reserved
Number, to his red, 3 years 5 months-old (Kerry), in-milk ; breeder
imknown.

PiiCHARD Hemming Chapman : First Prize, 15?., for " Brindled Beauty,"
brindled, white back, 2 years 3 months 2 weeks 3 days-old (Longhorn),
in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Old Sparkeuhoe ;" dam, "Young
Fillpail ;" sire of dam, " Lord AVarner."

Sir Edward Kerrison, Bart. : First Prize, 15/., for "Susan," red, 1 year
9 months 3 weeks 4 days-old (Suffolk Polled) ; bred by exhibitor ; sire,
" Rifleman ;" dam, " Flora."

Sir Edward Kerrison, Bart. : Second Prize, 10?., for " Bella," red, 1 year
4 months 3 days-old (Suffolk Polled) ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Eclipse ;"
dam, " Susamia."

HOESES.
Tlwrough-hred Stud Horse.

Joseph Casson, Middleton Lodge, Uiohall, Linlithgowshire : First Prize,
100?., for " Motley," brown, 14 years-old ; bred by Mr. Piickaby (address
unknown) ; sire, " Touchstone ;" dam, " Lanercost" mare, out of " Caro-
line," by "Whisker."

Hunter Stallions.

Robert George Luxton, Brushford, Wembworthy, Devon : First Prize,
30?., for "The Bald-faced Stag," chesnut, 10 years-old ; bred by General
Peel;" sire, "Harkaway;" dam, " Palma ;" sire of dam, "Plenipo-
tentiary."

1 Axarcl of Live-Stoch Prizes at Plymouth.

Jc UN Tekmatnk, i^ydcnham House, Lew Down, Devon : Second Prize, 20?.,
for " Taul Clifford," lay, 7 years-old ; bred b^' Mr. 1\. Bethel! ; sire,
" CotherdLonc," dam, " Wait Awhile ;" sire of dam, " Sir Isaac."

Hunter Brood Mares.

William Barrett, Puddaven, Totnes, Devon : First Prize, 20Z., for
" Kitty," brown, aged ; breeder unknown.

The Eev. Joseph Lloyd Breretox, West Buckland, South Molton : Second
Prize, loZ., for "The Countess," chcsnut, 11 years-old; bred by Mr.
Wright, Buxton, Norfolk ; sire, " Teddy the Tyler ;" dam, " Congress ;"
sire of dam, " Emilius."

EicuARD H. Watson, Dorsley, Totnes, Devon : Third Prize, 5Z., for " The
Banker's Pet," bay, aged ; breeder unknown ; sire, " Belzoni."

George Pary, Poole Hall, Menheniot, Cornwall : the Beserved Numher, to
"Miss Eomford," light bay, 11 years-old; bred by P. H. Watson,
Dorsley, Totnes ; sire, " Lascelles;"' dam, " Lady Komford;" sire of dam,
" The Bishop of Poniford's Cob."

Hackney Brood Marcs.

Charles Trelawny, Plymouth : First Prize, 201., for " Wren," bay, black
]ioints, 14 years-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Giovanni ;" dam, " Tiny ;"
sire of dam, " Master Ivobert."

Pichard H. Watson : Second Prize, 107., for " Bridesmaid," bay, aged ;
breeder unknown ; sire, " Koj'al William."

Charles Franklin, Bickcn Hall, Taunton, Somerset : Third Prize, 5?., for
" Useful," dark brown ; bred by J. Smith Hewish, Barnstaple ; sire,
" Painbow."

Stallion Ponies.

Charles Anderson Moorshead, Widney Court, Plymouth : First Prize,
15/., for" Sult:in," grey; imported trom India.

Edwin Maunder, of Tkasclly ilill, North Molton: Second Prize, 10?., for
" Young Bobby," bay, 5 years-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sii'e, " Bobby,"
dam, "Peggy."

Marc Ponies.

Samuel Sampson, Park, Broadwoodkelly, Winkleigh, Devon : First Prize,
10/., for " Ahce Bray," 5 years-old, dark bay or brown ; bred by
G. Cross, SottcrleighjWangford, Suffolk; sire, "Venison," dam, "Fanny."

John Hony Trehane, Stockton, Callington, Cornwall : Second Prize, 57.,
for " Princess," bay, 4 years-old ; bred by Mrs. W. Trehane, Tavistock :
sire, " Tavydale ;" dam, " Jessie."

Agricultural Stallions {iiot SuffolJcs).

"The Duke of Beaufort, Badminton, Chii>penham, Wilts : First Prize, 257.,
for " Sir Robert," brown, 7 years-old (Clydesdale) ; bred by J. Scott,
Stanleymuir, Paisley, N.B. : sire, " Young Watty ;" dam, " Guess ;"
sire of dam, " Clyde."

The Eev. Stephen Terry, Dummcr, Basingstoke, Hants : Second Prize,
15/., for " Waverley," bay, 4 years-old (Clydesdale) ; bred by Mr.
Walker, Govan, Glasgow ; sire, " Sir Walter Scott."

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Pit/mouth. li

^YII,LIAM Elpiiick, Cricksca Lodge, Buvnliam, Essex : Third Prize, 107.,
for "Boxer," red roan, 5 years-old (Essex); bred by exhibitor; sire,
"Boxer;" dam, "Dapper;" sire of dam, " Britain."

"William Walker, Colne, St. Ives, Hunts : First Prize, 20Z., for "Young
Conqueror," brown, 2 years-old (Lincolnshire) ; bred by J. Browell,
Bury Piamsej^ Hunts ; sire, " Heart of Oak ;" dam, " Piuclier ;" sire of
dam, " Farmer's Glory." .

James Oram, Shellingford, Faringdon, Berks : Second Prize, 10?., for " King
of the Vale," blue roan, 2 years 1 month-old ; bred by J. Rose, Marston,
Devizes ; sire, " Samson ;" dam, " Violet ;" sire of dam, " Young
Prince."

Henry Hitchcock, Chitterne Allsaints, Heytesburv, Wilts : Third Prize,
5?., for "Albert," chesnut, 2 years-old (Wiltshire) ; bred by exhibitor;
sire, "Champion;" dam, "Violet;" sire of dam, "Farmer's Glory."

Agricultural Mares and Foals (not StiffolJis).

James Slee Bult, Dodhill House, Kington, Taunton, Somerset : Fiest
Prize, 20/., for "Brown," brown, 9 years-old (Wiltshire); bred by
W". H. Hitchcock, Chitterne, Hej'tesbury, Wilts; sire, "Lion;" dam,
" Diamond."

John Logan, Maind(?e, Newport, Monmouthshire : Second Prize, lOL, for
"Stout," dark bay, 5 years-oli ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, "Jamie;" dam,
" Smiler."

George Elliott, Swillcy Farm, Plymouth : Third Prize, 51., for " Blossom,"
gre}', 7 years-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Grey Castle ;" dam,
" Diamond ;" sire of dam, " Samson."

Agricultural Mares (not SuffolJcs).

James Slee Bult : First Prize, 151., for " Bessy," bay, 3 years-old ; bred
bj^ W. H. Hitchcock, Chitterne, Heytesbury, AVilts ; sire, " Brown ;"
dam, " Lion."

Agricultural Fillies (not SuffolJcs).

Major-Gen. the Hon. A. Nelson Hood, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor:
First Prize, 157., for " Pose," bay, 2 years 3 months-old (Clydesdale) ;
bred by exhibitor ; sire, "Britain;" dam, " Young Sally ;" sire of dam
" Farmer."

George Elliott : Second Prize, 107., for " Alma," dark brown, 2 years-
old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Earl Grey ;" dam, " Alma."

Suffolk Stallions.

Sir Edward Kerrison, Bart., Brome Hall, Scole, Suffolk : First Prize, 207.
for his dark chesnut, 3 years 4 months-old ; bred by Mr. Giles, Croxtoii
Park, Thetford ; sire, " Champion ;" dam, " Bonny."

Alfred Hughes, Thorness, Cowes, Tsle of Wight : Second Prize, 107., for
" Carisbrookc," chesnut, 4 years-old ; bred by C. Sawyer, Tunstall,
Suffolk ; dam, " Dapper ;" sire of dam, " Captain."

WiLi-iAM Henry Walker, Wennington, Romford, Essex : First Prize,
157., for " Hero," chesnut, 2 years-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " The
Hero," dam, " Violet."

lii Aivard of Live- Stock Prizes at Plymouth.

William Taylor, Harptree Court, Bla^don, Somerset : Second Pkize, 10/^
for " Rob -Roy," chesnut, 2 years-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Napo-
leon ;" dam, " Brenda."

Suffolk Mares and Foals.

Sir Edward Kerrisox, Bart. : First Prize, 20/., for " Lady Jane," chesnut,
6 years-old ; breeder unknown.

The PiEV. Frederick Sandys Wall, of Bradley Wood, Newton Abbott,
Devon : Second Prize, 10/., for " Doughty," chesnut, 14 years-old ; bred
by Mr. Wainwright, Troston Hall Farm, Bury St. Edmund's.

Suffolk Fillies.

Sm Edward Kerrison, Bart. : First Prize, 15/., for " Worcester Diamond,'"
chesnut, 2 years 6 montlis-uld ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Nonpareil ;"
dam, "Beauty;" sire of dam, "Duke."

Samuel Clayden, of Linton, Cambridgeshire : Second Prize, 10/., for
" Ruby," chesnut, 2 years-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Emperor ; dam,
" Blossom ;" sire of dam, " Samson."

SHEEP.
Leicester Mams.

John Borton, Barton House, ^Maltou, Yorlvshirc : First Prize, 20/., for his
1 year 3 mouths-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Arthur Daebs, Seckinpiton, Tamworth : Second Prize, 10/., for his 1 year
3 mouths 1 week-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire of dam, " Sanday's W."

Lieutenant-Colonel William Inge, Thorpe Constantine, Tamworth, Staf-
fordshire : Third Prize, 5/., for his 1 year 4 months-old ; bred by exhi-
bitor ; sire, " C. N."

John Borton : the Hcserved Kumher, to his 1 year 3 months-old ; bred by
exhibitor.

Robert Ward Creswell, Ravcnstone, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire i
First Prize, 20/., for his 3 years 4 months-old ; bred by W. Sandaj%
Holmpierrepont, Nottingham.

John Borton : Second Prize, 10/., for his 2 j-ears 3 months-old ; bred by
exhibitor.

Robert Ward Creswell, Third Prize, 5/., for his 2 j-ears 4 months-old ;
bred by exhibitor.

John Borton ; the lieferved Xumhei; to his 3 years 3 months-old ; bred by
exliibitor.

Leicester Ewes — Pens of Five.

Thomas Stamper, Highfield House, Oswaldkirk, Yorkshire : First Prize,
15/., for his 1 year 3 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor.

John Borton : Second Prize, 10/., for his 1 year 3 months-old ; bred by
exhibitor.

Lieutenant-Colonel William Inge : Third Prize, 5/., for his 1 year 4
months-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " C. N."

Aivarcl of Live- Stock Prizes at Plymouth. liii

Joseph Gould, PoUimore, Exeter : the lieserved Number, to Lis 1 year 4
months 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Cotsicold Bams.

Thomas Walker, Stowell Park, Northleach, Gloucestershire : First Prizk,
201., for his 1 year 3 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor,

John GiLLETT, Fawler, Charlbury, Oxfordshire: Secoxd Prize, lOZ., for his

1 year 4 months 1 week-old ; bred by exhibitor.

John Gillett : Third Prize, 5?., for his 1 year 4 months 1 week-old ; bred

by exhibitor.
John Gillett : the Reserved Numher, to his 1 year 4 months 1 week-old ;

bred by E. Lane, of Cottage Farm, Northleach, Gloucestershire.

John Gillett : First Prize, 20?., for his 3 years 4 months 1 week-old ;
bred by E. Game, of Aldsworth, Northleach, Gloucestershire.

Thomas Beale Browke, Salperton Park, Andoversford, Cheltenham,
Gloucestershire : Second Prize, lOZ., for his 2 years 2 months 1 week 6
days-old ; bred by exhibitor.

John' Gillett : Third Prize, 5?., for his 3 years 4 months 1 week-old; bred
by E. Lane, Cottage Farm, Northleach, Gloucestershire.

John Kixg Tombs, Langford, Lcchlade, Gloucestershire : the Reserved Nimibery
to his 3 years 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Cotswold Ewes — Pens of Five.

Thomas Beale Browne : First Prize, 2.01., for his 1 year 3 months 2 weeks-
old ; bred by exhibitor.

John Wells, Hampnett, Xorthleach, Gloucestershire : Second Prize, 10/.,
for his 1 year 3 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor.

John Wells : Third Prize, 5Z., for his 1 year 3 months 2 weeks-old ; bred
by exhibitor.

John Wells : the Reserved Numher, to his 1 year 3 months 2 weeks-old ^
bred by exhibitor.

Lincoln and other Long-woolled Bams.

Thomas Bumpstead Marshall, Branston, Lincoln : First Prize, 20/., for
his 1 year 3 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Thomas Bumpstead Marshall : Second Prize, 10/., for his 1 year 3 months

2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor.

John Lynn, Church Farm, Stroxton, Grantham, Lincolnshire : Third Prize,
5/., for his 1 year 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Worcester
2ud Prize ;" sire of dam, " Eojal Leeds."

John Lynn : the Reserved Numher, to his 1 year 4 months-old ; bred by
exhibitor ; sire, " Worcester 2nd Prize ;" sire of dam, " Eoyal Leeds."

John Lynn : First Prize, 20/., for his " Silver Eoyal," 2 years 4 months-
old; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Battersea Eoyal."

Thomas Bumpstead Marshall ; Second Prize, 10/., for his 3 years 4 months-
old ; bred by exhibitor.

Thomas Bumpstead Marshall : Third Prize, 5/., for his 4 years 4 months-
old ; bred by exhibitor.

liv Aicard of Live-Stock Prizes at Pltjmoutli.

Charles Williams, Carlton-le-lMoorlaucl, Xewavk: the Reserved Numler, to
his 2 years 3 months-old ; bred bj' exhibitor ; sire, " Noel."

Lincoln and other Long-icooUed Ewes — Pens of Five.

Thomas Bumpstead Marshall : First Prize, 15Z., for his 1 year 3 months
2 weeks okl ; bred by exhibitor.

The Eev. Joseph Lloyd Brereton, West'Buckland, South Molton : Second
Prize, 10?., for his 1 j'car 3 months-okl ; bred by exhibitor.

Oxfoi'dsMre Doini Hams.

John Bryax, Soiithleigh, Witney, Oxfordshire : First Prize, 20?., for his
1 year 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor.

JoHK Bryan : Secokd Prize, lOZ., for his 1 year 4 months 2 weeks-old ;
bred by exhibitor.

JoiLN' Bryan : Third Prize, 5?., for his 1 year 3 months 2 weeks-old ; bred
by exhibitor.

John Bryan : the licsci-vcd Numher, to his 1 year 3 months 2 weeks-old ;
bred by exiiibitor.

George Wallis, Old Shiflbrd, Bampton, Faringdon : First Prize, 207.,
for his 2 years 5 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor.

George Wallis : Second Prize, lOZ., for his 2 years 5 months 2 weeks-old ;
bred by exhibitor.

Charles Howard, Biddenhani, Bedford : Third Prize, 5?,, for his 2 years
4 mouths 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Oxfordshire Down Ewes — Pens of Five,

The Doke of Marlborough, Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire
First Prize, 20?., for his 1 year 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Charles Howard : Second Prize, 10?., for his 1 year 4 months 2 weeks-old
bred by exhibitor.

Charles Howard : Third Prize, 5?., for his 1 year 4 months 2 weeks-old
bred by exhibitor.

Henry Overman, Weaseuham, Eou,c;ham, Norfolk : the Reserved Number, to
his 1 year 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Southdown Bams.

Lord Walsinghasi, Morton Hall, Thetford, Norfolk : First Prize, 20?., for his
1 year 4 months-old ; bred bj' exhibitor.

Lord AValsingham : Second Prize, 10?., for bis 1 year 4 months-old ; bred
by exhibitor.

Lord Walsingham ; Third Prize, 5?., for his 1 year 4 months-old ; bred
by exhibitor.

The Duke of PvICHMOnd, Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex : the Reserved
Number, to his 1 year 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Lord Walsingham : First Prize, 20?., for his 2 years 4 months-old ; bred by
exhibitor.

Lord Walsingham : Second Prize, 10?., for his 2 years 4 months-old ; bred
by exhibitor.

Aicard of Live-Sfoch Prizes at PhjmoutU. Iv

John Watees, Motcomb, Eastbourne, Sussex: Third Prizk, 57., for bis

2 years 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor.
John Waters : the Iteservcd Number, to liis 4 years 4 months-old ; bred by

the late Jonas Webb.

SoutJidown Ewes — Pens of Five.

The Duke of PacHMOXo : First Prize, 20Z., for his 1 year 4 months-old ;

bred by exhibitor.
Lord Walsingham : Second Prize, lOZ., for his 1 year 4 months-old ; bred

by exhibitor.
The Earl of Eadxor, Colcshill, Highworth, Wiltshire : Third Prize, 5Z.,

for his 1 year 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Battersea and

Webb " (94).
The Duke of Eichmoxd : the Bcserved Number, to his 1 year 4 mouths-old ;

bred by exhibitor.

Shroj)sliire Bams.

Thomas Mansell, Adcott Hall, Shrewsbmy : First Prize, 20Z., for ^'^' Man-
sion," 1 year 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Maccaroni,"

James and Edward Craxe, of Shrawardine, Shrewsbury : Second Prize,
107., for their 1 year 3 months 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitors; sire,
" Xobleman ;" sire of dam, " Juckes."

Thomas Mansell : Third Prize, 51., for his 1 year 3 months 2 weeks-old ;
bred by exhibitor; sire, " Maccaroni ;" sire of dam, " Laurel."

James and Edward Crane : the Reserved Number, to their 1 year 3 months
2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitors; sire, "Chieftain;" sire of dam,
" Celebrity."

Colonel R. Dyott, Freeford, Lichfield, Staffordshire : First Prize, 207., for
" Beaufort," 2 years 3 months 1 week-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire,
" Pattern."

Edward Thornton, Pitchford, Shrewsbury : Second Prize, 107., for " Pitch-
ford Volunteer," 2 years 3 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Sampson Byrd, The Lees Farm, Stafford : Third Prize, 57., for " Young
Quality," 4 years 3 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire,
" Quality ;" sire of dam, " Old Patentee."

Pkyce William Bowen, Shrawardine Castle, Shrewsbury : the Bcserved
Number, to "Lord Clifden," 3 years 3 mouths 2 weeks-old; bred by
exhibitor.

Shropshire Ewes — Pens of Five.

James and Edward Crane : First Prize, 20/., for their 1 year 3 months

2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitors ; sire, " Chieftain ;" sire of dam,

" Celebrity."
Edward Holland, Esq., M.P., Dumbletou Hall, Evesham : Second Prize,

107., for his 1 year 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor.
Lady Willoughby ds Broke, Compton Verney, Warwick'shire : Third

Prize, 57., for her 1 year 3 months 1 week 2 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ;

sire, " Young Patentee."
Lord Wenlock, Bourton Cottage, Much Wcnlock, Salop : the Bcserved

Number, to his 1 year 4 months-old ; bred by exhibito;.

Ivi Award of Live- Stock Prizes at PlymoutlL.

Hampshire and other Short-ioooUcd Bams.

James Eawlekce, Bulbridge, Wilton, Salisbury, Wiltshire : First Prize,

201., for "Berwick," 1 year 6 months-old; bred by exhibitor.
Matthew Arnold, Westmeon, Petersfield, Hampshire : Second Prize, 10?.,

for his 1 year 5 months 1 week-old ; bred by J. and ]\I. Arnold, of

Westmeon, Petersfield, Hampshire.
James Kawlence : Third Prize, 5/., for " The Duke," 1 year G months-old ;

bred by exhibitor.
Matthew Arnold : the Eeserved Number, to " Browa Ben," 1 j^ear 5 months

2 weeks-old; bred by J. and M. Arnold, of Westmeon, Petersfield,

Hampshire; sire, "Big Ben."
James Eawlence : First Prize, 20/., for " Catch 'em alive," 3 years C

months-old ; bred by exhibitor.
Matthew Arnold : Second Prize, 10?., for his 4 years 5 months-old ; bred

by J. and M. Arnold, of Westmeon, Petersfield.

Stephen Kino, Bockhampton Farm, Lambourne, Berks : Third Prize, 5?., for
his 2 years 4 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by exliibitor.

James Rawlence, the licserved Number, to " Blair Athol," 2 years G months-
old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Maccaroni."

Hampshire and othei- Short-woolled Ewes — Pens of Five.

James Eawlence : First Prize, 20?., for his 1 year G mouths-old ; bred by

exhibitor.
James Eawlence : Second Prize, 10?., for his 1 year G months-old ; bred by

exhibitor.

William Browne Canning, Elston, Devizes, Wiltshire : Third Prize, 5?.,
for his 1 year 4 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor.

James Rawlence : the Reserved Number, to his 1 year G months-old ;
bred by exhibitor.

Somerset and Dorset Horned Rams.

Thomas Danger, Huntstile, Bridgewater, Somersetshire : First Prize, 15?.,
for his 1 year 6 months-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Alfred J. Pitfield, Eype, Bridport, Dorsetshire : Second Prize, 5?., for
" Young Xoble," 1 j^ear G months 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire,
" Constitution."

Alfred J. Pitfield : First Prize, 15?., for " Constitution," 3 years
6 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, " Hardware."

Alfred J. Pitfield : Second Prize, 5?., for " Noble," 3 years G months 2
weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Hardware."

Somerset and Dorset Horned Ewes — Pens of Five.

Thomas Danger : First Prize, 10?., for his 1 year G months-old ; bred by
exhibitor.

Alfred J, Pitfield : Second Prize, 5?., for his 1 year G months 2 weeks-
old ; bred by exhibitor ; sires, " Noble," " Constitution," and " Duke."

South Hams Mams.

John AVilcocks, Cleeve, Ivybridge, Devon : First Prize, 15?., for his 1
year 3 months 3 weeks 2 days-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Plymouth. Ivii

George Dewdney, Baccanioor, Plympton, Devou : First Prize, 15?., for
his 3 years 4 montlis-old ; bred by exhibitor.

South Sams Ewes — Pens of Five. •

John Wilcocks : First Prize, 10?., for his 4 years 4 months 1 week 3 days-
old ; bred by exhibitor.

EiCHARD Cock Clark, Butshead, St. Budeaux, Plymouth : Second Prize,
5?., for his 3 years 4 months 2 weelvs-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Dartmoor Bams.

James Drew, Artiscombe, Tavistock, Devon : First Prize, [151., for his 1
year 4 mouths-old ; bred by exhibitor.

PiOBERT May, Grendon, Tavistock : Second Prize, 5?., for his 1 year 4 months
2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Dr. Marks."

Egbert May : the Reserved Numher, to his 1 year 4 months 2 weeks-old ;
bred by exhibitor; sire, " Dr. Marks."

Egbert May : First Prize, 15Z., for " Sam," 4 years 4 months-old ; bred by
T. Squire, North Brenton, Lamerton, Devon.

Thomas Squire, North Brenton, Lamerton, Devon : Second Prize, 5?., for
" Young Samson," 2 years 3 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor ;
" sire, " Samson ;" sire of dam, " Dr. Marks."

Egbert May : the Reserved Numher, to " Garibaldi," 5 years 5 months-old ;
bred by J. Palmer, of Great Close, Bridestowe, Devon.

Dartmoor Ewes — Pens of Five.

James Drew : First Prize, 10?., for his 1 year 4 months-old ; bred by

exhibitor.
James March, Widewell, Tamerton Foliott, Plymouth : Second Prize, 5?.,

for his 4 years-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Thomas Mxtnegrd, of Purps Straugh Prior, Plympton, Devon : the Reserved
Numher, to his ages various.

Exmoor Bams.

Edwin Maunder, Heaselby Mill, North Moltou, Devon : First Prize, 15?.,
for his 1 year 4 months-old ; bred by John Thorne, Northradworthy,
North Molton.

John Passmore, Fyldon, North Molton : Second Prize, 5?., for his 1 year
4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Edwin Maunder : First Prize, 15?., for his 3 years 4 months-old ; bred by
exhibitor.

William Taylor, Harptree Court, Blagdon, Somerset : Second Prize, 5?.,
for " Forester," 3 years 3 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by I!. Smith,
Emmett's Grange, South Molton, Devon.

John Quartly, Champson Molland, South Molton, the Reserved Numher, to
his 3 years 4 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor.

William Taylor : First Prize, 10?., for his 1 year 3 months 2 weeks-old ;
bred by exhibitor.

John Passmore, Fyldon, North Molton : Second Prize, 5?., for his 1 year
4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Iviii Award of Live- Stock Prizes at Plymouth.

PIGS.

Boars of a Large WJiite Breed.

William Ekadley Waixman, Carhead, Cross Hills, Yorkshire : First Prize,
lOZ., for " The Arch Trespasser," about 3 years 2 mouths-old (Carhead);
breeder unknowu.

EiCHARD DicKiN, 161, Old Eoad, Stockport, Lancashire: Second Prize, 51.,
for " Marquis," 2 years 8 mpnths 2 weeks 3 days-old ; bred by A. Cars-
well, Park House, Butley, Maccleslield, Cheshire; sire, "John;" dam,
" Gipsy Queeu."

EiCHARD Elmhiest Duckering, Northorpe, Kirton Lindsey, Lincolnshire :
the Reserved Number, to "Victor," 3 years 10 months 4 M-eeks 1 day-
old ; bred by J. Harrison, Heaton Isorris, Stockport ; sire, " Sampson ;"
dam, " Betsy."

Boars of a Small WJiiie Breed.

EiciiARD DicKiN : First Prize, 107., for " Blair Athol," 2 years 9 months
1 day-old ; bred by Mr, Wainman, Carhead, Cross Hills, Yorksliire.

Samuel Geater Stearn, Brandeston, Wickham Market : Second Prize,
5?., for " Champion," 2 years 7 months-old (Suflblk) ; bred by A.
Hayward, Woodbridge, Suffolk.

George Mumford Sexton, Wlicrsted Hall, Ipswich, Suffolk : the Iifserved
Number, to "Lord Clyde," 10 inonths-old (Suffolk and Yorkshire); bred
by exhibitor ; sire, " The Clipper ;" dam, " Queeu uf the East ;" sh-c of
dam, " Sir Colin."

Boars of a Small Blaclc Breed.

Samuel Geater Stearn: First Prize, lOZ., for " Black Prince," 11 months

1 week 3 days-old (Suffolk) ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Negro ;" dam,
" Jet ;" sire of dam, " Prince."

George Mumford Sexton : Second Prize, 5Z., for " Breadalbane," 1 year

2 months 6 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, "Battersea Prince;" dam,
"Charmer;" sire of dam, "Shortuose."

George Mumford Sexton : the Reserved Number, to " Prince of Wales,"

1 year 2 months 3 weeks 5 days-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Young
Negro;" dam, "Bumptious;" sire of dam, "Terror."

Boars of the BerhsMre Breed.

Arthur Stewart, Saint Bridge, Gloucester: First Prize, 101., for " Glou-
cester Lad," black, little white, 1 j-ear 2 weeks 2 days-old; bred by
exhibitor; sire, "Tim AVhiffler;" dam, "Topsy;" sire of dam,
" Massa."

William Yells, Pound Eobin Fai-m, Highworth, Wiltshire : Second Prize,
57., for black and white, 7 months 2 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ;
sire, "King of Newport;" dam, "Handsome;" sire of dam, "Sur-
prise."

Boars of any other Breed.

EiCHARD Elmhiest Duckeeixg : Fiest Peize, 107., for " Cultivator," white,

2 years 1 week-old (middle) ; bred by T. M. Eichardson, Hibaldstow,
Kirton Lindsey; sire, "Eclipse;" dam, "British Queen;" sire of dam,
"Wentworth."

Award of Live- Stock Prizes at PhjmoutJi. lix

William Bradley "Waixman : Second Prize, 5?., for " Dexter Chief,"
white, 8 months 3 weeks-old (Carhead middle) ; bred by exhibitor ; sire,
" Bend Sinister ;" dam, " Happy Link."

Breeding Soios of a Large White Breed.

William Gamon, The Green, Thornton-le-Moor, Chester : First Prize, 10?.,

for "Lady Havelock," 2 years 9 months 1 week 1 day-old, in-pig;

breeder unknown.
Eichard Elmiiirst Duckerixg : Second Prize, 5Z., for " Poyal Victress,"

2 years 7 months 2 weeks-old, in-pig ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Victor ;"

dam, " Fanny Fern ; sire of dam, " Great Britain."

William Bradley Wainman : the Beserved Number, to "Pdval Hope,"
about 3 years 10 months-old ; breeder unknown.

Breeding Sows of a Small White Breed.

John Bulteel, of Pamflete, Ivy Bridge, Devon : First Prize, 101., for his

1 year 4 months 2 weeks 2 days-old ; bred by Lieut.-Col. Kingscote,
Kiugscote, Wootton-under-Edge.

George Mumford Sexton: Second Prize, 5Z., for "Snowdrop," 1 year

2 months 1 week 3 days-old (Suffolk and Yorkshire), in-pig ; bred by
exbibitor ; sire, "Snowball;" dam, " Windsor Lass."

Samuel Geater Steabn : the Beserved Number, to " Victoria 2nd," 3 years
2 months 3 weeks 2 days-old (Suffolk) ; bred by exliibitor ; sire, " Mar-
quis ;" dam, " Victoria 1st ;" sire of dam, " Duke."

Breeding Soios of a Small Black Breed.

Samuel Geater Stearn : First Prize, 101., for " Black Bess," 10 months
2 weeks 4 days-old (Suffolk), in-pig; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Xegro;"
dam, " Queen of the West ;" sire of dam, " Prince."

George Mumford Sexton : Second Prize, 5?., for " Princess of Wales,"
1 year 2 months 3 weeks 5 days-old (Suffolk), in-pig ; bred by ex-
hibitor ; sire, " Young Negro ;" dam, " Bumptious ;" sire of dam, " Terror."

George Mumford Sexton : the Beserved Nimiher, to " Blink Bonny,"

I year 1 month 2 weeks 2 days-old (Suffolk), in-pig ; bred by exhibitor ;
sire, " Battersea Prince ;" dam, " Charmer's Daughter ;" sire of dam,
" Shortnose."

Breeding Sows of the Berlcshire Breed.

Arthur Stewart : First Prize, 101., for " Snowdro]),'" black, little white,
about 3 years-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Black Jack ;" dam, " Mrs.
Swindon ;" sire of dam, " Duke of Gloucester."

Arthur Stewart : Second Prize, 51., for " Young Sally," black, little white,

II months-old, in-pig ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Tim Whiffler ;" dam,
" Aunt Sally ;" sire of dam, "Jim the Blacksmith."

Arthur Stewart: the Beserved Number, to "Miss Whiffler," black, little
white, 1 year 5 months 1 day-old, in-pig ; bred by exhibitor ; sire,
" Tim Whiffler ;" dam, " Mrs. Bobtail ;" sire of dam, " Jim the Blacksmith."

Breeding Soivs of any other Breed.

PiiCHARD Elmhirst Duckering : First Prize, 10?., for " Queen Bess,"
white, 1 year 10 months 3 weeks 6 days-old (middle), in-pig ; bred by
exhibitor ; sire, " Victor ;" dam, " Beauty ;" sire of dam, " Eclipse."

Ix Aicard of Live-Stoch Prizes at Plymouth.

William Gamox, The Green, Thorn tou-le-Moor, Chester ; Second Prize,

5?., for " Dewdrop," white, 2 years 1 month 1 week 3 days-old (middle),

in-pig ; breeder unknown.
William Bradley Wainman : the Reserved Number, to " Happy Link,"

white, 3 years 7 months 1 w^eek 6 days-old (Carhead middle), in-2)ig ;

bred by exhibitor.

Breeding Soiv Pigs of a Large Wliite Breed — Pens of Tltree.

EicHARD Elmhirst Duckerixg : First Prize, 10?., for " Pose, Shamrock,
and Thistle," 7 months 3 weeks 3 daj's-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire,
" Cultivator ;" dam, " Fanny Fern ;" sire of dam, " Great Britain."

William Bradley Wainmax : Secoxd Prize, 5?., for 7 months 5 days-
old ; bred by exhibitor.

Breeding Sow Pigs of a Small White Breed — Pens of Tliree.

Samuel Geateb Steaen: First Prize, 10/., for "The Three Sisters,"
7 months 2 weeks 3 days-old (Suffolk) ; bred by exhibitor ; sire,
" Prince of Wales ;" dam, " Victoria 2nd " sire of dam, " ilarquis."

George Mumford Sextox : Secokd Prize, 57., for " Happy-a;o-Lucky,"
7 months 3 weeks 1 day-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, " The Clipper ;"
dam, " Cato."

Breeding Soiv Pigs of a Small Black Breed — Pens of Tlirce.

George Mdmford Sexton : First Prize, 107., for " We arc Beauties,"
7 months 1 day-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Young Shortnose ;" dam,
" Worcester Princess ;" sire of dam, " Terror."

George Mumford Sexton : Second Prize, 57., for " Never give up,"
7 months 1 day-old; bred by exhibitor ; " sire, "Young Negro;" dam,
"Worcester Princess;" sire of dam, "Old Shortnose."

Samuel Geater Stearn : the Beserved Ntnnher, to " Three Niggers,"
5 months G davs-old (Suffolk) ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Negro ;" dam,
" Jet."

Breeding Sow Pigs of the Berkshire Breed — Pens of Three.

William Yells : First Prize, 107., for black and white, 7 months 2 days-
old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " King of Newport ;" dam, " Handsome ;"
sire of dam, " Surprise."

John King Tombs, Langford, Lcchlade, Gloucestershire : Second Prize, 57.,
for black and white, 6 months 2 weeks 3 days-old ; bred by exhibitor.

Samuel Widdicoside, Ha}', Ugborough, Ivybridge, Devon : the Beserved
Number, to his black and white, 5 months 2 weeks 2 days-old ; bred by
exhibitor; dam, "Miss Exeter;" sire of dam, "Prince."

Breeding Soic Pigs of any other Breed — Pens of Tliree.

George Mangles, Givendale, Eipon, Yorkshire : First Prize, 107,, for
his white, 5 months 1 week-old (Yorkshire middle) ; bred by exbibitor ;
sire, " Bendigo 3rd."

AYiLLiAM Bradley Wainman : Second Prize, 57., for his white, 7 months
3 days-old (Carhead middle) ; bred by exhibitor.

Aioard of Live- Stock Prizes at Plymouth. Ixi

PRIZES OFFERED BY THE LOCAL COMMITTEE OF
PLYMOUTH AND DEVONPORT.

CATTLE.

Bidl, Cow, and Offspring of the Devon Breed.

"W^ALTER FARTHixcr, Stowey Court, Bridgewater, Somersetshire : First Prize,
30Z., for his bull, "Viscount," red, 5 years 7 months 2 weeks-old; sire,
" Sir Peregrine ;" dam, " Molly ;"' sire of dam, " William." Cow, "Jenny,"
red, 4 years 5 months 2 weeks-old; sire, " Sir Peregrine;" dam, "Lovely ;"
sire of dam, " Duke." OUspring, " Young Jenny," red, 6 months-old ;
all bred by exhibitor,

Samuel Pridham, Pool Farm, Cheriton Fitzpaine, Devonshire : Second
Prize, 151., for his bull, "Young Champion," red, 2 years 8 months
1 week-old ; sire, "Champion" (588) ; dam, "Symmetry ;" sire of dam,
" Emperor." Cow, "Chance," red, 6 years 2 months 1 week 3 days-old ;
sire, " Monarch " (4C0) ; dam, " Pose ;" sire of dam, " Emperor." Ofl-
spring, " Monarch," 8 months 2 weeks 5 days-old ; all bred by exhi-
bitor.

Pairs of Cows of the Devon Breed.

AYiLLiAM Taylor, Harptree Court, Blagdon, Somersetshire : First Prize,
20Z., for "Lovely," red, 12 years 9 months 2 days-old, in-calf; bred by
]\. Merson, Brinsworthy, North Molton ; dam, " Dairymaid ;" sire of
dam, " Albert :" and for " Vaudine," red, 8 years 7 months 1 week-old,
in-milk ; bred by George Turner, Beacon Downes, Exeter ; sire, " Palmer-
ston ;" dam, " Wallflower ;" sire of dam, " Duke of Y'ork."

AValter Farthing : Second Prize, 101., for " Pink," red, G years G months-
old, in-milk and in-calf; bred by Sir A. A. Hood, Bart., St. Audries,
Bridgewater : and for " Petherton," red, 3 years G months 2 weeks-old,
in-milk and in-calf; bred by E. Farthing, North Petherton, Somersetshire.

James Tremain, Trcvarthian, Newlyn, Ladock, Cornwall : the Reserved
Number, for " Rose," red, 8 years 3 weeks 5 days-old, in-milk and in-
calf ; sire, " Pied Pose ;" dam, " Queen of the West :" and for " Favourite,"
dark red, 3 years G months 2 weeks 1 day-old, in-calf; sire, "Bed
Eose ;" dam, " Queen of the West ;" bred by exhibitor.

Pairs of Heifeis of the Devon Breed.

John Bodley, Stockley Pomeroy, Crediton, Devonshire : First Prize, 20?.,.
for "Gentle Annie," red, 3 years 3 months 3 weeks-old, in-calf; sire,.
"Champion" (588); dam, "'Pink" (223G) ; sire of dam, "Monarch"
(460) : and for " Gay lass," red, 3 years 1 week 2 days-old, in-calf; sire,
" Champion " (588) ; dam, « Rose " (2318) ; sire of dam, " Albert " (3G0) ;
both bred by exhibitor.

John Azariah Smith : Second Prize, 10?., for " Honest," red, 3 years
2 months 3 weeks 2 days-old, in-milk and in-calf; sire, "Honest Tom;"
dam, " Picture " (2231) ; sire of dam, " Duke of Sussex " (40G) : and for
" \''ellowbat," red, 3 years 3 months-old, in-milk and in-calf; sire,
"Exchange" (627); dam, "Yellowbat" (3438); sire of dam, "Duke of
Devonshire" (G21); both bred by exhibitor.
VOL. I. — S. S. ^__ ff

Ixii Award of Livc-Stock Prizes at Phjmoutli.

ViscouxT Falmouth, Tregothnnn, Probiis, Cornwall : First Prize, 15/.,
for "Lily Bell," red, 2 years 2 weeks 2 days-oUl, in-calf; sire, "Sir
Colin;" dam, "Lily;" sire of dam, "Uncle Tom" (328): and for
"Bonny Lass," red, 2 years 4 months 3 weeks-old; sire, "Duke of
Chester" (404); dam, "Bloomer" (541); sire of dam, "Earl of Exeter"
(38) ; both bred by exhibitor.

Geobge Turner, Beacon Down«s, Exeter : Second Prize, 8/., for " Hilda,"
red, 2 years 5 months 2 weeks 2 days-old, in-calf ; sire, " Cliampion ;"
dam, "Pearl :" and for "Violet," red, 2 j-cars 4 months-old, in-calf; sire,
"YanTromp;" dam, "Beatrice;" both bred by exhibitor.

William Taylor: First Prize, 15?., for "Sir William's Pe<:f:y," red, 1 year

5 months 3 weeks 5 days-old; sire, " Sir AViJliam ;" dam, "Pe.sgy;"
sire of dam, "Duke:" and for "Salisbury's Lovely," red, 1 year 4
months 1 week-old ; dam, " Young Salisbury ;" both bred by exhibitor.

John Bodley : Seconh Prize, 8/., for '• Violet," red, 1 year 5 months
3 weeks 2 days-old ; sire, " Champion" (588) ; dam, "Stately" (1{)53):
and for " Famous," red, 1 year 5 months 2 weeks 2 days-old ; sire, " Cham-
pion" (588) ; dam, "Careless" (1838); sire of dam, "Monarch" (4G0) ;
both bred by exhibitor.

Pairs of Bull-calves of the Devon Breed.
George Turner : First Prize, 20/., for his red calf, 5 months 3 weeks 3
days-old; sire, "Leotard;" dam, " Piccolomini :" and for his red calf,

6 montlis 1 week 3 days-old ; sire, "Leotard;" dam, " Vaudine;" both
bred by exhibitor.

John Bodley : Second Prize, 10/., for his "Earl of Eldon," red, 8 months
1 week 4 days-old ; sire, " Conqueror ;" dam, " Stately " (1G53) : and for
" Volunteer," red, 7 mouths 2 weeks 5-days-old ; sire, " Conqueror :"
dam, " Young Crafty ;" sire of dam, " Champion ;" both bred by exhibitor.

John Azariah Smith, Bradford Peverell, Dorchester, Dorsetshire : the
Bescrved Narnher, for "Kcwcastle," red, 4 mouths 4 weeks-old ; sire,
"A'olunteer" (747) ; dam, "Young Hebe" (2450) ; sire of dam, " Napo-
leon 3rd" (4G4) : and for " Worcester," red, 2 months-old ; sire, " Volun-
teer" (747) ; dam, " I\achel " (2307) ; sire of dam, " Palmerstou" (470) ;
both bred by exhibitor.

Bulls of the Smith Haiiis Breed.
George Dewdney, Baccamoor, Plympton, Devon : First Prize, 15/., for

" Hero," light red, 4 years 1 week-old ; bred by Mr. Cudlip, Casey Town,

Tavistock.
Thomas PiOWell Cornish, Wolfsgrove Farm, Bishops Teignton, Teignmouth,

Devon : Second Prize, 10/., for " Crochet Second," red, 3 years 1 month

1 week 3 days-old; bred by W. Piendle, jun., Lower Xetherton, Coombe,

Teignmouth ; sire, " Crochet ;"" dam, " Queen of the Valley."
William Coaker, Charletou Court, Kingsbridge, Devon : First Prize, 15/.,

for "Admiral," dark red, 2 years 2 months-old ; bred by exhibitor.
George Dewdney: Second Prize, 10/., for "Nelson," red, 1 year 9 mouths

1 week-old; bred by T. Pearse, Leigh Ford, Plymstock, Devon.
John Anthony, Yealmpton, Devon : the Beservcd Number, to " Rifleman,"

brindle, 1 year 1 week-old ; bred by exhibitor; dam, "Brindle."

Coics of the South Hams Breed.
William Coaker : First Prize, 10/., for " Cheerful," bright red, 0 years
9 months-old, in-milk and in-calf ; bred by exhibitor.

Aioard of Live- Stock Prizes at Phjmoutli. Ixiii

PiicHARD SowTON, Ycalmpton, Devon : Second Prize, U., for " Sfavhcfid,"
red, white spots, 6 yCcars 7 moiitlis-old, iu-milk and in-calf; bred by
exliibitor.

Thomas Vosfer, Merafield, Plyiapton : tlic I^cserved Nutnler, to "Ilard-
wicke," light red, 6 years-old, in-milk ; bred by Messrs. ^Yilling, Ilard-
wicke, Plympton.

Heifers of the Soutli Hams Breed.

John Anthony, Yealmpton, Devon : First Prize, 101., for " Maid of the
Mill," red, 3 years 9 months 1 week 5 days-old, in-calf; bred by exlii-
bitor; dam, " Tulip."

George Coaker : Second Prize, ,5?., for " Young Beauty,"' light red,
3 years 5 months 1 week-old, in-caU" ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " Prince ;"
dam, " Beauty."

William Adams, Gentry, Kingsbridge, Devon : First Prize, 10/., for his
red, 1 year U months 2 weeks 3 days-old ; bred bv exhibitor ; dam,
" Cherry."

Elias Ford, Abbotskerswell, Newton Abbot : Second Prize, Tj/., for " Cherry,"
light red, 1 year 4 months 2 weeks 5 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire,
" Teignharvey."

Elias Ford : the Reserved Numher, to " Dais}-," light red, 1 year 3 months
3 weeks-old ; bred by exliibitor ; sire, " Bickhain."

HOESES.

Agricultural Stallions.

John Henderson, Horsley Hill, Soutli Shields, Durham : First Prize,
15/., lor " Victor," bay, 3 years-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " England's
Glory ;" dam, " Damsel ;" sire of dam, " Farmers Glory."

Edwin Shinner, jun., Stretchford, Staverton, Totnes, Devon : Second Prize,
10?., for " Young Nelson," black, 4 years-old ; bred bj'' Messrs. North-
cott, Upcott Barton, Tavistock ; sire, " Pobin Hood ;" sire of dam,
" Bingleader,"

Agricultural Mares or Fillies.

John Anthony, Ycalmpton, Devon : First Prize, 10/., for " Bessie,'" grey,
4 years-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Blythe;" dam, ''Charlotte;"
sire of dam, *' Galipoli."

John Logan, Maindee House, Newport, Monmouthshire : Second Prize, 5/.,
for " Bright," roan, 7 years-old ; bred by the Pen-y-darn Iron Company,
Glamorganshire.

Hunter Mares o»' Geldings.

George Bland Battams, Kihvorthy, Tavistock, Devon : First Prize, 15?.,
for " Millie," brown, 4 years 3 months-old (mare) ; bred by Mr. Hill,
Tavistock ; sire, " Kingmaker."

George Bland Battams: Second Prize, 10/., for " Sidtan," black, 4 years
3 months-old (i;elding) ; bred by T. Shepherd, Stratton, Bude, Cornwall ;

sire, "Kingmaker;" sire of dam, " Scrcveton."

^2

Ixiv Aicard of Live- Slock Prizes at Plymouth,

The PiEV. Arthur Christopher Thyxxe, Penstowe, Stratton, Cornwall :
the Reserved Number, for " Warwick," dark bay, 4 years-old (gcldiriji) ;
bred by T. Hancock, Tycwoitliy, HolswortLy, Devon; sire, "King-
maker;" sire of dam, " lioyal William."

Hunter Mares or Geldings.

George Bland Battams: Vms-r I'rize, 15?., for " Milford," dark brown,
5 years-old ; bred by Mr. Ilaynes, Milfurd, Hartland, Devon ; sire,
" Kingmaker."

Boadster Mares or Geldings.

Thomas Palmer, Boroiigli, Kelly, 'J'avistock, Devon : First Prize, 10/., for
Ids dark cliesnnt, 5 years-old (tilly) ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, " King-
maker;"' dam, "Pat," sire of dam, " Sir Hercules."

The Rev, Joseph Lloyd Breretox, "West P.uckland, South Moltou : Secokd
Prize, /J/., for his chesniit, 6 years-old (mare) ; breeder unknown.

Dartmoor Pony Stallions.

Thomas Kinsman Bickell, Corn Market Inn, Tavistock : First Prize, 10?.,
for " I^ittle Wonder," dark bay, 7 years-old ; bred by Thomas Milman,
Lydford, Tavistock ; sire, " Forest Panger ;" dam, " Forest Lass."

William Griffin, Lamcrton, Tavistock: Second Prize, OZ., for "Kohinoor,"
dark bay, 8 years-old ; bred by T. Eggins, Collacombe Barton, Tavistock ;
sire, "Pretty Boy;" dam, " Little Flasliing Polly."

Exmoor Pony Stallions.

John Abraham, The Villa, Bude Haven, Cornwall : First Prize, 10/., for
"Bagatelle," bright bay, 7 years-old; bred by exhibitor ; ilani, "A- la-
mode."

Charles Willesford, Tavy Cottage, Tavistock : Second Prize, n/., for
" Prince," dark chesniit, 9 years-old ; bred by F. W. Knight, Simonds
Bath, Exmoor, Bampton, Devon.

Exmoor Pony Mares.

Hiram Bartlett Hamdling, Dodbrool:, Kingsbridge, Devon : First Prize,
10/., for " Sally," dark chesnut, 5 years-old ; bred by i\[r. Smcridge,
Farley, Halwell, Devon ; dam, " Pony."

William Salter, North Tawton, Barton, Devon: Second Prize, 5/., for
" IMultnm in Parvo," bay, 8 years-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, "Sir

Arthur."

Samuel Widdico.mbe, Hay, Ugborough, Ivybridge : the Hcscrved Numher, to
" Polly," bay, 4 years-old ; bred by W. Furneaux, Horsebrook, South
Brent, Devon ; sire, " Favourite."

PIGS.
Boar, Sow and Litter, of a Large Breed.

PiiCHARD E. DucKERiNG, Xorthorpe, Kirton Lindsey : First Prize, 10/., for
his boar, "Hero," white, 2 years 7 months 2 veeks-old; sire, "Victor;"
dam, " Fanny Fern :" sow, " Countess of Leicester," wliite, 3 years 2
months-old; sire, "Great Britain;" dam, "Fanny Fern;" littrr 1
month 3 weeks 2 davs old. l

Aicard of Implement Prizes at Plymouth. Ixv

Boar, Sow and Litter, of a Small Black Breed.

Samuel G. Stearx, Brandeston, Wicldiam Market, Suflblk : FirsT Prize,
10/., for liis boar, " Uncle Tom," 1 year G months-old ; sire, '• Havelock ;"
dam, "Jet;" sire of dam, "Prince:" sow, "Black Pose," 2 years
2 montlis 2 weeks 3 days-old ; sire, " Sambo ;" dam, " Gipsy Queen ;"
sire of dam, "JS'egro;" litter 2 months 6 days-old.

George Mujiford, Sexton, Wherstead Hall, Ipswicli, Suffolk: Secoxd Prize,
r>I., for his boar, " Prince," 1 year 3 months 3 weeks-old ; sire, " Battersea
I'rince;" dam, "Black Bess;" sire of dam, "Negro:" sow, " Poyalty,"
4 years-old ; sire, " Northey ;" litter 2 mouths I week-old.

WOOL.

Five Fleeces.

Thomas Harris, Stony Lane House, Bromsgrove, Worcestershire : tlie Prize
of 21. for his Leicester; shorn Mav 20th, fioni sheep 14 and 15 months-
old.

Charles Body, Alton Hall, Stutton, Ipswich, Suflblk : the Prize of 2?. for
his Southdown ; shorn May 10th, from sheep 15 mouths-old.

David Peynolds Davies, Mere Old Hall, Knutsford, Cheshire : the Prize
of 21. for his Shropshire ; shorn April 4th, from shearlings.

Charles Howard, of Biddenham, Bedford : the Prize of 21. for his Short-
wool ; shorn J une oOth, from ewe tegs.

Pocert May-, Grendon, Tavistock, Devon : the Prize of 21. for his Dartmoor ;
shorn beginning of June, fiom sheep 15 months-old.

Edwin INIaunder, Hcasclby Mill, Xorth Molton, Devon : the Prize of 21. for
his Exmoor ; shorn June 14tli.

BUTTER.

Twelve Pounds Scald Cream.
John V/iddicombe, of Torrhill, Ivybridge, Devon : First Prize, 57.
Thosias Burxafokd, of Ta]nerton Foliott, Plymouth : Second Prize, 21.

IMPLEMENTS.

Drills

Priest and AVoolnough, Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey : tlie Prize of Ten
Pounds, for their Lever DriU, for general purjioscs, (! feet wide ; the grain,
or seed may be either drilled with the manure, or separate from it, as
required.

Richard Hornsry and Sons, Spittlegate Tron-v.-orks, Grantham : the Prize of
Eight Pounds, ibr their Drill, Ibr general jiurposes, for depositing corn

Ixvi Aicard of Implement Prizes at Plymouth.

and seed wiili or without manure ; it has wrought-iron lever.-', India-
rubber tubes, and is cajxible of dej;x)siting from 3 to 40 bushels of artificial
manure per acre as required.

James Coultas, Jun., Spittlegate, Grantham : the Prize of Seven Pounds,
for his 6 Feet 6 Inch 12-Kow General Pui-pose Drill. And for his
Fore-carriage Steerage,

John Sainty, Burnham, Lynn : the Prize of Eight Pounds, for his Corn
and Seed Drill ; manufactured by Garrett and Son, of liCiston Works,
Suffolk. The exhibitor's application of a spring to each lever, instead
of the ordinary weights, renders the action much more efficient and
regular, and reduces the draught, weight, and cost.

Priest and Woolnough : the Prize of Seven Pounds, for their Lever Corn-
Drill, 7 feet wide. For drilling grain or seeds in rows at any distance
apart, and fitted with improved iron levers and patent coulters.

James Coultas, Jun. : the Prize of Five Pounds, for his 7 Feet G Inch 14-riOw
Corn Drill. Price 28/.

John Sainty : the Prize of Six Pounds, for his Corn antl Seed Drill, for
small occupations ; manufactured by Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works,,
Suffolk.

Priest and AVoolnougu : the Prize of Five Pounds, for their Lover Corn
Drill, for small occupations, 5 feet wide. For drilling grain or seeds in
rows at any required distance apart, and fitted with improved iron
levers and patent coulters.

K. HoRNSGY and Sons : the Prize of Four Pounds, for their Corn and Seed
Drill, for small occupations ; will deposit corn and seed at any depth or
distance apart.

James Coultas, Jun. : the Prize of Seven Pounds, for his 5 Feet 9-Po\v
Corn Drill, for liill sides. Price 18Z.

Holmes and Sons, Prospect-place Works, Korwich : the Prize of Three
Pounds, for their Prize Occupation Drill for Hill Sides ; invented by J.
Belfield, Esq., of Paington, and improved and manufactured by the
exhibitors. Fitted with wheel steerage, by which the drill is kept from
sliding or slipping down so as to displace the distances of the rows wlien
working on a hill-side.

Priest and Woolnough : the Prize of Eight Pounds, for their Drill for
Turnips and Manure, on the flat, 7J feet wide; fitted with improved
manure-barrels and steel scrapers for drilling guano, superphosphate, &c.,
in rows, or distributing it broadcast if required.

James Coultas, Jun, : the Prize of Seven Pounds, for his G Feet G Inches,
3, 4, 5, and G-Kow Turnip, ]\Iangold, and Manure Drill,

Pv. Hornsby and Sons: the Prize of Five Pounds, for their Drill, for Turnips
or other roots, on the flat, capable of depositing from 3 to 40 bushels of
artificial manure per acre.

A, AV, Gower and Sons, Hook, Winchfield, Hants, and Market Drayton,
Salop : the Prize of Eight Pounds, for their Two-coulter llidge Manure
Drill for Turnips and Mangolds.

Priest and Woolnough : the Prizk of Seven Pounds, for their Drill for
Turnips and Manure, on the ridge, fitted with improved manure-barrel
and steel scrapers for guano, superphosphate, bones, &c., and with con-
cave iron rollers to form the ridge, and small rollers to fellow after the
seed.

Aioard of Implement Prizes at Plymouth. Ixvii

A. W. GowER and Soxs : the Prize of Five Pounds, for their Two-coulter
Piidge Drill for Turnips and Mangolds ; this is the Leeds Prize Drill
divested of the manure boxes, &c.

E. and J. PiEEVEs, Bratton, Westburj', Wilts : the Prize of Eight Pounds,
for their Patent Liciuid-rnanure, Corn, and Seed Drill, 6 feet wide ;
adapted for sowing 8 rows of liquid manure, 2 to 10 hogsheads per
acre, with corn or seeds ; it is also arranged for sowing liquid manure
from tanks, piggeries, &c., broadcast.

H. and J. PiEEVES : the Prize of Seven Pounds, for their 4-Piow Patent
liquid-manure and Seed Drill, G feet wide ; invented by T. Chandler,
of Aldbourne, improved and manufactured by the exhibitors. Adapted
for sowing liquid manure fi'om cattle-sheds, piggeries, &c., or artificial
manures mixed with water, from 2 to 0 hogsheads per acre. Fitted with
the exhibitor's new patent cylinder, which prevents the cups from
breaking,

James Coultas, Jun. : the Prize of Five Pounds, for their G Feet 6 Incli
4-Pow Turnip, Mangold, and Liquid-manure Drill ; invented by Thomas
Chandler, of Aldbourne, improved and manufactured by the exhibitor.

R. Hornsby and Sons : the Prize of Six Pounds, for their Small Seed and
Piye-grass Drill,

Priest and "Woolnough : the Prize of Four Pounds, for their CTrass-seed
Drill, for liorse-power. For drilling clover, rye-grass, sainfoin, and
other grass seeds, in rows at 3 1 inches apart, the light and heavy seeds
being drilled from separate boxes, so that the required quantity of each
may be properly mixed and regularly sown.

A, W. GowER and Sons : the Prize of Six Pounds, for their Patent Drill
Presser for Two Furrows ; invented by A, and B. S. Gower, of Market
Drayton ; and manufactured by the exliibitors.

AViLLiAM Gerrans, Tregony, Grampound, Cornwall : the Prize of Four
Pounds, for his Land Presser Drill ; invented by William Hensman and
Son ; improved and manufactured by Turner and Bishop.

Priest and Woolnough: Highly Commended for their Lever Drill, for
general purposes, for small occupations, 4^ feet wide. The grain or seeds
can be either drilled with the manure, or separate from it, as required ; it
may also be used as a corn drill without manure.

Hornsby and Sons : Highi-y Commended for their Corn and Seed Drill.
It has received a special prize for vulcanized India-rubber tubes and fore-
carriage steerage.

George Lewis, Kettering, Northamptonsliire : Highly Commended for his
Steerage Corn and Seed Drill. Can be steered to the greatest nicety;
and b\^ applying the smallest pressure to the lever, the flow of seed is
stopped, and the coulters taken out of the ground at the same instant.

Holmes and Son : HKiHi.Y Commended for their Small Occupation Drill for
Corn and Seeds, 10-liows.

E. and J. Eeeves : Highly Commended for their 4-Eow Patent Economical
Manure and Seed Drill, 6 feet Avide ; adapted for sowing all kinds of
artificial manures in their pure state, or mixed with a small quantity
of ashes, from 4 to 20 bushels per acre. Fitted with regulator for hilly
land.

Ixviii Award of Implement Frizes at Phjmouth.

E. and J. IyKeves : Highly CoMMExnED for their 4-riow Patent Manure and
Seed Drill, for ridge ; has concave self-acting roller for ridges, and plain
wood roller to follow the seed.

James Coultas, Jnn. : Highly Commended for his 7 Feet 27-Iio\v Small
Seed and Rye-grass Drill.

Pi. and J. PiEEVES : Commended for their 11-Coulter General Purpose Patent
Manure, Corn, and Seed Drill, 7 feet wide ; will sow from (> to 50 bushels
per acre of artificial manure.

James Coultas, Jun. : Commended for his 4 Feet G Inch G-Kow General
Purpose Drill, i'or small occuiiatious.

A. W. GowKii and Son : Commended for their lo-Coulter Corn and Seed
Drill.

A. W. GowER and Son : Commended for their 13-Coulter Corn and Seed
Drill.

James Coultas, Jun., Commended for his 4 Feet G Inch 8-Kow Corn Drill,
for small occupations.

Manure Distributors.

John Sainty : the Prize of Eight Pounds, for his Manure Distributor ;
invented by Thomas Chambers, Jun., of Calkirk, Norfolk, and manu-
factured by Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works, Suflblk. The delivery-
barrel is made of a peculiar metal, not affected by the most pungent
manures.

Priest and "Woolnough : the Prize of Seven Pounds, for their Manure
Distributor, fur damp or dry manure. For sowing broadcast guano,
superi)hosphate, &c., in a moist or dry state, and in large or .small
quantities, and fitted with improved manure-barrel and steel scrappers.

E. and J. Reeves : the Prize of Ten Pounds, for their Patent Liquid-
manure, Corn, and Seed Drill, G feet wide : ada])tod for sowing 8
rows of liquid numure, 2 to 10 hogsheads jx-'r acre, with corn or seeds;
also for sowing liquid manure from tanks, piggeries, &e., broadcast.

HoRNSBY and Sons : Highly Commended for their Improved Manure Dis-
tributor, for de])ositing dry manure in small or large quantities, as desired.

J. Coultas, Jun. : Commended for his 7 Feet Manure Distributor, for diy
manures.

Horse Hoes.

J-OHN Sainty : the Prize of Six Pounds, for his Lever Horse-hoe ; invented
and improved by the exhibitor, and manutactured by Garrett and Son,
of Leiston Works, Suffolk. Fitted with the exhibitor's springs, as
described above.

Priest and Woolnough : the Prize of Five Pounds, for their Patent Lever
Horse-hoe, for general purposes ; for hoeing between the rows of all
drilled crops of grain or roots on heavy or light land, on the flat or ridge.

William Smith, Kettering, Northamptonshire : the Prize of Four Pounds,
for his Im])rovcd 12-Row General Purpose Steerage Horse-hoe ; with a
new patent fastener for the hoe ; the handles of the hoe are moveable.

Carson and Toone, Warminster, Wilts : the Prize of Four Pounds Ten
Shillings, for their Single-row Horse-hoe (li), with Hoes and 2 Tines

Award of Implement Prizes at Phjmoutli. Ixix

so arranged that no standing cro]) can be injured in working. In-
vented by the kite Hugh Caraon, ot Warminster ; improved and manu-
lactured by the exhibitors.

FiOEEUT Tinkler, King Street, Penrith, Cumberland : the Pkizk of Four
Pounds, for his Light Land Drill Grubber ; improved and manulactured
by Jonathan Stalker.

Edward Page and Co., Pjedford : the Prize of Three Pounds, for their Com-
bined Horse-hoe, 5-Tined CI rubber, and Moulding Plough.

"William Smith : the Prize of Two Pounds Ten Shillings, for his Single-
row Horse-hoe, for Pidge and Plat.

Carson and Toone : the Prize of Six Pounds, for their Horse-hoe (B), as
described above,

Eaton and Sons, Twj-well Works, Thrapston, Northamptonshire ; the Prize
of Five Pounds, for their Patent Turnip Thinner and Horse-hoe com-
bined. Adapted as a horse-hoe for two rows of turnips or beans, and
with the revolving hoes will bunch out the jilants at 9, 12, or 15 inches
in one row, or flat hoc turnips.

James Bowden, Chagford, near Exeter : Highly Commended for his Horse-
hoe.

John Davev, Crasthole, near Devonport, Cornwall : Highly Commended for
his Parallel Expanding Horse-hoe, for Single Kow on the Pidge or Flat;
fitted with self-acting harrow, three wheels, and hill-side steerage.
Can be used as a turni]3-rooter, cutting two rows at one time.

Egbert Tinkler, King Street, Penrith, Cumberland : Commended for his
Jjight Land Drill Grubber; improved and manufactured by Jonathan
Stalker.

Mowing Maciiinp:s.

W. A. Wood, 77, Upiwr Thames Street, liondon: the Prize of Ten Pounds,
for his Grass Mov/ing Machine, for two horses ; will cut one acre jx^r
hour, and pass througii a 5-feet gate.

HoRNSBY and Sons : the Prize of Eight Pounds, for their Imjiroved Mower,
for natural and artilicial grasses.

Henry Kearsley, Pipon, Yorkshire : the Prize of Seven Pounds, for his
Two-horse Grass Mower ; Avell adapted for cutting level or uneven sur-
iaces ; will cut 1 acre per hour.

Hornsby and Sons : the Prize of Eight Pounds, fur their Improved Com-
bined Pieaper and Grass Mowers.

W. A. Wood : the Prize of Seven Pounds, for his Combined ^Mowing and
Peapiug Machine.

A. C. Bamlett, Thirsk, Yorkshire : the Prize of Five Pounds, for his
Two-horse Combined Mowing and Peaping Macliine. Tlie driver can
instantly regulate the cutting height at either eiul of the cutter-bar.

Burgess and Key, 95, Newgate Street, London : IIighi,y Commended fur
their Mowing Machine, for Natural and Artificial Grasses.

Henry Kearsley : Highly Commended for his Two-horse Combined Ecaper
and Mower.

D. H. Barber, Leicester Buildings, King Street, Liverpool ; Commended for
his Combined ]\Io\ving and Peaping Machine. The reaping platform
can be attached or detached by simply removing three bolts.

Ixx Award of Implement Prizes at Plymouth.

Haymaking Machines.

J. and F. Howard, Britannia AVorks, Bedford : the Prize of Six Pounds, foj
their Double-action Haymaking Machine (marked S [H) ; intended for
small occupations.

J. and F. Howard: the Prize of Five Pounds, for their Double-action
Haj-makiug Machine (marked H H) ; a size larger than the preceding,
and recommended as the most useful size,

PoBEUT BoBY, St. Andrew's Works, near Bury St. Edmimd's, Sut^blk : the
Prize of Four Pounds, for his Patent Double-action Haymaking Machine.

AVilliam Newzam Xiciiolson, Trent Works, Newark, Xotts : Highly Com-
mended for his Patent Haymaking Machine, No. 1.

A. and T. Fry, Temple Gate, Bristol: Commended for their Double-action
Haymaking IMachine ; invented and improved b}- Theodore Grace, of
Bristol, and manufactured by the exhibitors.

Reaping Machines.

Pi. HoRNsnv and Sons : the Prize of Twenty-five Pounds, for tlicir Self-
acting Swathe-delivery Picaper.
Samuelson and Co., Britannia AVorks, Banbury, Oxon : the Prize of Fii-teen

Pounds, for their Self-raking Keaper ; invented by Owen Dorsey, of

America; improved and manufactured by the exhibitors. Delivers the

corn in sheaves by means of automatic rakes.
Pv. Hornscy and Sons : the Prize of Ten Pounds, for their Pieaper. Fitted

with improved chain-deliveiy, for delivering sheaves of any size, on

the side of the machine, and free of the horse-track.
R. Hornsry and Sons : the Prize of Five Pounds, for their lleajjer, with

grated drop-sheaf apparatus. The sheaves are partly delivered by the

stubble.
PiCKSLEY, Sims, and Co., Leigh, Manchester : the Prize of Five Pounds, for

their Two-horse Pieaping Machine. Will cut 5 feet 9 inches wide.
AV. A. AVooD : the Prize of Xine Pounds, for his One-horse Peaping

j\Iachinc. Cuts 4^ feet swathe ; the platfonn is made of grates or bars,

so as to allow the stubble greatly to assist the raker in discharging the

cut grain.
Samuelson and Co. : the Prize of Seven Pounds, for their One-horse

"Eclipse" Pcaper. Cuts 5 feet wide, with tilting platfoiTn.
Pi. HoRNSBY and Sons : the Prize of Five Pounds, for their One-horse

Peaper. Fitted with grated drop-sheaf apparatus so an-angcd that the

stubble assists the delivery.
Egbert Cuthbert and Co., Bedale, Yorkshire : Highly Commended for

their One or Two-horse Peaping Machine; invented by Hussey, of

America, improved and manufactured by the exhibitors. Has a high

travelling wheel, with a patented conical surface, so as to take away

the side strain.

Horse Eakes.

J. and^F. Howard: the Prize of Six Pounds for their Horse Pake (marked
X X) ; the teeth, when in work, are raised from the central axle, and
are thus left free to adapt themselves to the irregularities of the surface.

E. Page and Co., Bedford ; the Prize of Four Pounds, for their Improved
Horse Hay, Corn, and Stubble Rake (marked H K 24) ; the teeth are
of oval steel, and very strong. AVidth to extremities 8 feet 10 inches,
space cleared 7 feet 9 inches.

Aioaj-d of Implement Prizes at Plijmouth. Ixxi

John Davky : Hiohly Commended for Lis Portable Horse Eakc ; so con-
structed that the rake can bo turned (iu two parts), on the axle, for
passing througb narrow gateways ; it clears 8 feet 6 inches of land.

Thomas Allcock, Eatcliffe-on-Trent, Xotts : Commended for his Horse Eake.

Waggons.

The Beverley Iron and Waggon Company, Beverley, yorkshirc : the
Prize of Ten Pounds, for their Prize Pair-horse Waggon.

William Ball and Son, Piothwell, Kettering, Northamptonshire : the Prize
of Six Pounds, for their Light Two-horse Waggon ; to cany three tons.

Thomas Milford and Son, Thorverton, Cullompton, Devon : the Prize of
Four Pounds, for their 3 or 4-Horse Prize Waggon, with plank side,
improved break, double shafts, tires 4-inch, and harvest lades complete.

Henry Hayes and Son, Scotgate AVorks, Stamford, Lincolnshire ; the Prize
of Ten Pounds, for their Prize Pair-horse Waggon, which Avill turn in
the room it stands upon. Has oak I'rame and plank sides ; fitted v/ith
break to hind wheels.

The Beverley Iron and Waggon Company : Highly Commended for their
Yorkshire Prize Waggon, with Loose Side and End Boards,

George Milford, Thorverton, Cullompton, Devonshire : Commended for his
Improved Plank Side Pair-horse Waggon.

T. Milford and Son : Commended for their Two-horse Tipping Waggon ;
for tipping the whole load, or dividing it in as many heaps as may be
thought convenient; invented by Thomas Milford, jim., and manu-
factured by the exhibitors.

Carts.

Hayes and Son : the Prize of Four Pounds Ten Shillings, for their Light
Single-horse Cart; with loose sideboards; 3i-inch wheels; solid iron
axle. .

Woods and Cocksedge, Stowmarket; the Prize of Three Pounds, for their
light One-horse Cart.

W. Ball and Son : the Prize of Two Pounds Ten Shillings, for their One-
horse Cart.

Hayes and Son : the Prize of Four Pounds Ten Shillings, for their Prize
Two-horse Cart, having broad fixed nmgs instead of loose sideboards.

T. Milford and Son : the Prize of Three Pounds, for their Two-horse
Cart, with tipping apparatus, lades, and side shelvings complete.

The Beverley Iron and Waggon Company : the Prize of Two Pounds
Ten Shillings, for their One or Two-horse Cart.

The Beverley Iron and Waggon Company : the Prize of Four Pounds
Tex Shillings, for their Prize Harvest Cart, with Fore and End Ladders.

ILiYES and Son : the Prize of Three Pounds, for their Improved Harvest
Cart ; wheels protected from clogging ; fore and end ladders.

A. and T. Fry, Temple Gate, Bristol: the Prize of Two Pounds Ten

Shillings, for their Harvest Cart with bent shafts ; invented by J.

Hannam, Esq., of Burcot Park, improved and manufactured by the

exhibitors.
Robert Puckering and Co., Beverley, Yorkshire : the Prize of Six Pounds

for their Prize Market Cart.

iKxii Aivard of Implement Prizes at Plymouth.

The BEVF.nLEY Iron and "Waggon Company : the Pr.izE of Four. PorNnp

for tlieir Prize Market Cart on Springs.
The Beveuley Iron and Waggon Company : Highly Commended for tlieir

Prize or Model Oue-liorsc Cart with Harvest Paves.
Frank P. Milford, Haldon Works, Kenn, Exeter : Highly Commended for

their Prize Two-horse Farm and Hoad Cart, for General Pnrposcs.
The Beverley Iron and Waggon Company : Highly Commended for

their Improved Market Cart on Springs.
T. Milford and Son : Commended for their Prize One-horse Cart.
George Milford: Commended for his Improved Plank Side Two-horsc Cart.

Miscellaneous.

A. W. GowKu and Son : a Silver Medal, for their Broadcast Seed Machine,
4 yards wide ; has two separate boxes, one for tlic clover-seed and the
other for rye-grass seed.

Francis ^Mellard, Uttoxctcr, Stoke-on-Trent, Staflbrdshirc : a Silver
Medal fur liis Patent Cheese-making Machine, for cutting, gathering,
pressing, and vatting of curds ; invented by Cliarlcs II. Pugh, of Utt-
oxeter, and nianulactnrcd by the exhibitor.

John Gilbert Avery, 105, Pegent Street, London : a Silver Medal, for
his 'I'ubular Chmn, making butter from perfectly sweet cream or new
milk in three miinitcs ; invented liy Thomas A. Jebb, of Buffalo, Kew
York, and manufaetiu'cd by the exhibitor.

Pansomes and Sims, Ipswich : a Silver Medal, for their Pegistered Semi-
circular Pomeltrces ; invented, improved, and niannfncturcd by E.Ed-
munds, of Pugby. Tlie action of the pulley travelling on the circle
always secures a direct line of draught, however unequally the horses
may work.

The West of England Engineering Company, Martock, Somerset : a
Silver Medal, for their Combined Flax-breaking and Scutching Machine.

W. S. Underhill, Newport, Salop: a Silver Medal, for Sketchley's Com-
bined Sawing, Planing, Moulding, Tenoning, Grooving, and Boring
Machine. It will cut and ])lane boards up to ] 1-inch wide, and strike
any shape mould up to 5-inchcs wide.

Alfred E. Peirce, 75, Bridge Poad, Hammersmith, near London : a Silver
Medal Ibr his Cattle Trough ; invented and improved by the exhibitor,
and manufactured by T. Wliitficld and Co., of Birmingham.

Holmes and Sons : a Silver Medal for their Rotary Harrow or Twitch
Extir})ator ; invented by T. Everett, of Stoley, and improved and manu-
factured by the exhibitors. Consists of a number of teeth fitted to a
series of rings, and driven at a great speed by gearing covered completely
from grit and dirt ; the grass is cfliciently freed from the soil and left
on top.

White and Co., 29, Bedford Street, Strand: Cosimended for their Earth
Closet Apparatus ; invented and manufactured by the exhibitors.

AsiiBY and Jeffeky, Stamford, Lincolnshire : Commended for their Set of
Patent Steel Crank-Shields.

George P. Dodge, 79, Upper Thames Street, London : Commended for his

India-rubber Vulcanized Machine Bands.
Webb and Son, Combs, near Stowmarket, Suflolk : Commended for their

Assortment of Leather Machine Bands, Buckets, and Hose.

( Ixxiii )

dB^sajis antr l^cpotts.

AWAEDS FOE 1865.

Class II.
The only Essay sent in was not considered deserving of tlio Prize.

Class III.

The Prize of 25Z. was awarded to Mr. John' Colemax, of South
Fields, Wandsworth, S.W., for his Essay on Sheep Stock.

Class IV.

The Prize of 2hl. was awarded to Mr. HenTvY PIall Dixon, of
10, Kensington Square, \s ., for his Essay on the Eise and Progress
Shorthorns.

Class V.

The Prize of 25/. was awarded to ^Ir. William Henry Heywood,.
of Dunham Massey, Altrincham, Cheshire, for liis Essay on the-
Comparative Profit of making Cheese and Butter.

CLASS VI.

Tlie Prize of 20Z. was awarded to the Eev. J. C. CLUTTi-.nBUCK,
of Long A\'ittenhain, Abingdon, Berks, for his Essay on "Water
Supply.

Class VII.

TIio Prize of 20Z. was awarded to Mr. A. Bailly Dknton, of
Stevenage, Herts, for his Essay on Farm Buildings.

Class IX.

The Prize of 10/. v»'as awarded to Mr. Wilijam Little, of Bunker
Hill, Lamhton, Fence Houses, Co. Durham, for his Essay on Cross-
hrecding of Cattle.

( Ixxiv )

1ESSaj)S autr ^deports.— PEIZES foe 18G6.— All Prizes of tlie
Eoyal Agricultural Society of England are open to general cona-
petition. Competitors will Lc expected to consider and discuss tlio
heads enumerated.

I. FARMING OF LEICESTERSHIEE.
Fifty Sovereigns will be given for the best Eeport on the
Fanning of Leicestershire.

Tlie leading geological features and tlie cliaracter of the soil in diflercnt
localities should be briefly described, l\cfercnco should be made
to any older records of the state of agriculture in the county.

The live stock kept, their breeds, numbers, and nianagement ; the state
of the pasture land — its enrichment or impoverishment, drainage,
manuring, decrease (to secure an admixture of arable) or increase
(from the influence of recent prices) ; the management of arable
land as subsidiary to pasture ; the state of farm-buildings, woods,
and plantations, fences, to be discussed ; characteristic farms to be
described ; improvements, lately made or still required, to be
stated.

II. FARMING OF WORCESTERSHIRE.

Fifty Sovereigns will be given for the best Eeport on the
Farming of Worcestershire.

The subject to be treated as for Prize I., but with special reference to
the Management of Hop-grounds and Orchards, and to the varied
arable lauds within the limits of the count}''.

Ill, TOWN DAIRIES.

Twenty-five Sovereicns will be given for the best Essay on
Town Dairies.

The comparative advantages and drawbacks of a Dairy in a town rather
than at the distance of a few miles ; the influence of crowded build-
ings on the health of the cows, or on the milk they produce, to be
considered. Suggestions for feeding and general management, and
the sale of milk, &c,, &c., to be offered.

IV. MOUNTAIN BREEDS OF SHEEP.
Twenty Sovereigns will be given for the Lest Essay on Mountain
Breeds of Sheep.

The effects of the increase of Cross-breeding among Hill Sheep-Farmers
to be considei'ed. Have the pure races merits which ought to
preserve them from extinction in certain localities ?

Prizes for Essays and Reports. Ixxv

V. THE LEAVES OF PLANTS WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR
POWER OF RESISTING DROUGHT.

Twenty Sovereigns will be given for the best Essay on this
Subject.

Peculiarities in the colour, texture, development, Szc, of Leaves to he
treated of as indicative of their heing suited to dry soils and
climates. The soil, manures, and management suggested by this
criterion to he stated.

VL THE IMPROVEMENT OF WASTE LANDS CONNECTED
WITH MINES.

Fifteen Sovereigns will be given for the best Essay on this
Subject.

Improved Farm ^lanagement to meet the peculiar wants of Men and
Animals connected with the Mines ; and likewise the assignment of
such allotments as the Miners would he ahle and willing to culti-
vate, are to be discussed.

VIL THE USE TO A^ FARMER OF A MAGNIFYING GLASS
OR SIMPLE MICROSCOPE.

Fifteen Sovereigns will be given for the best Essay on this
Subject.

The use of the Glass to be shown for detecting Impurities in samples
of Seeds, Feeding Stuff, or Manures ; Disease, as affecting the Roots,
Stems, or Leaves of Plants ; or for determining the quality of
Grain, Pioots, or Textile Materials.

VIII. ANY OTHER AGRICULTURAL SUBJECT.

Ten Sovereigns will be given for the best Essay on any other
Agi-icultural Subject.

Reports or Essays competing for the Prizes must he sent to the Secretary
of the Society, at 12, Hanover Square, London, on or before March 1,
l^iQQ.'^ Contributors of Papers are requested to retain Copies of their
Communications, as the Society cannot he responsible for their return.

Ixxvi Prizes for Essays and Reports.

EULES OF COMPETITION FOR PEIZE ESSAYS.

1. All information contained in Prize Essays shall be founded on exiierieiice
or observation, and not on simjile reference to books or other sources. Com-
petitors are requested to use foolscap or large letter jiaper, and not to write on
both sides of the leaf.

2. Drawings, specimens, or models, drawn or constructed to a slated scale,
shall accompany writings requiring them.

3. All competitors sliall enclose their names and addresses in a sealed cover,
on which only their motto, the subject of their Essay, and the number of that
subject in the Prize List of the Society, shall be written.*

4. The President or Chairman of the Council for the time being shall oi)en
the cover on which the motto designating the Kss.i)' to whicli the Prize has
been awarded is written, and shall declare the name of the author.

5. The Chairman of the Journal Committee shall alone be empowered to
o;-icn the motto-paper of any Essay not obtaining the Prize, that he may think
likely to be useful for the Society's objects ; with a view of consulting the
v\Titer confidentially as to his willingness to place such Essay at the disposal
of the Journal Committee.

0. The copyright of all Essays gaining Prizes shall belong to the Society,
who shall accordingly have the power to ]niblish the whole or any part of sucii
I'^ssays ; and the other Essays will be returned on the application of the
writers ; but the Society do not make themselves responsible for their loss.

7. The Society are not bound to award a prize unless they consider one of
the Essays deserving of it.

8. In all reports of experiments the expenses shall be accurately detailed.

9. The imperial vreights and measures only are those by which calculations
are to be made.

10. No prize shall be given for any Essay which has been already in print.

11. Prizes may be taken in money or plate, at the option of the successful
candidate.

12. All Essays must be addressed to the Secretary, at the house of the
■Society, on or before the 1st of March, 1SG4.

* Competitors are requested to write their motto on the enclosed paper on which
their names are Avritten, as well as on the outside of the envelope.

( Ixxvii ) ,

:ll^eml3frd' ^Bribilegcs: of Cftemiral ^nalpdi^.

Tjie Council !iave fixed the following' rates of Charge for Analyses to
be made by tiie Coiis^ulting' Citemist for the ho,id-fide use of Members
of the Society ; who (to avoid all uimecessary correspondence) ar(^
})articularly requested, when applying to him, to mention the kind of
analysis they require, and to quote its number in thesul)joined scliedule.
The charge for analysis, together with the carriage of the specimens^
must be paid to him by members at the time of their application.

Xo. 1. — xVn opinion of tlie scnuinencss of Peruvian gr.ano, hone-
dust, or oil-cake (each sample) 5s,

„ 2. — An analysis of guano ; showing the pioportiou of moistui-e,
organic matter, sand, phosphate of lime, alkaline salts,
and ammonia .. .. .. .. .. .. lO.s.

„ 3. — An estimate of the value (relatively to the average of
samples in the market) of sulphate and muriate of am-
monia, and of the nitrates of potash and soda .. .. lOs.
4. — An analysis of superphosphate of lime for soluble phos-
phates only .. .. .. .. .. .. 10s»

,, 5. — Ati analysis of superphosphate of lime, showing the pro-
]>ortions of moisture, organic matter, sand, soluble and
insoluble phosiihates, sulphate of lime, and anmionia .. £1.

„ t). — An analysis (sufticient for the detei'mination of its agricul-
tural value) of any ordinary artificial manure .. .. £1.

„ 7. — Limestone : — the proportion of lime, 7s. G'/. ; the ]:ro]ior-
tion of magnesia, lO.s. ; the proportion of liuic and mag-
nesia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 15s.

„ 8. — Limestone or marls, including carbonate, pliosphato, and

sulphate of lime, and magnesia with sand and clay .. £"1.

,, y. — Partial analysis of a soil, including determinations of clay,

sand, organic matter, and carbonate of lime .. .. £1.

„ 10. — Complete analysis of a soil .. .. .. .. .. £3.

„ 11. — An analysis of oil-cake, or other substance used for feeding
purposes ; showing the proportion of moisture, oil,
mineral matter, albuminous mattei', and woody fibre ;
as well as of sta'-cli, gum, and sugar, in the aggregate £1.
,12. — Analyses of any vegetable product .. .. .. .. £1.

„ 13. — Analyses of animal products, refuse substances used for

manure, i^cc. .. .. .. .. from 10s. to 30s.

„ 1-1. — -Determination of the "hardness" of a sample of water

before and after boiling .. .. .. .. . 10s.

„ 15. — Analysis of water of land drainage, and of water used for

irrigation ., .. .. .. .. .. .. £2.

„ IG. — Determination of nitric acid in a sample of water .. .. £1,

N.P>. — Tlie ahove Scale of ClianicH is not a'ji]:lic'il>lc to the case of jjersons
commcrckilhj en(j(((jcd in the Manufacture or fi<de of avy tSidmiance nent for
Analijsis.

The Address of the Consulting Chemist of the Society is, Dr. Augustus
VoELCKER, 11, Sabsbury Square, London, E.G., to which he requests that all
letters and parcels (postage and carriage paid) should be directed.
VOL. I. — s. s. h

( Ixxviii )

iMembcrsJ' Vtttvimvu lOribtlcgtis*

I, — Seeious or Extensive Diseases.

Xo. 1. Any Member of the Society avIio may desire ])iofessionaI attendance
and special advice in cases of serious or extensive disease anion?; his cattle,
sheep, or pigs, and \viU address a letter to the Secretary, will, by return of
post, receive a reply statin:: v.dicther it l)e considercil necessary that Professor
Simonds, the Society's Veterinary Inspector, sliould visit the place where the
disease prevails.

No. 2. U'he remuneration of the Tns]iector will be 21. 2s. each day as a
professional fee, and 1/. Is. each daj- fur personal expenses ; and he will also
be allowed to charge the cost of travel lini; to and from the locality where his
services may have been retniired. The fees will be paid by the Society, but
the travelling expenses will be a charge against the applicant. This charge
may, however, be reduced or remitted ahixjether at the discretion of tlie Council,
on such step being recommended to them by the Veterinary (Committee.

No. 3. The Inspector, on his return from visiting the diseased stock, will
report to the Committee, in writing, the results of his observations and pro-
ceedings, which Report will be laid before the t'ouncil.

No. 4. ^Vhen contingencies arise to prevent a personal discharge of the
duties confided to the Inspector, he may, subject to the approval of the Com-
mittee, name some comjK'tent professional person to act in his stead, who shall
receive the same rates of remuneration.

II. — Okdinaey OB Otheu Cases ok Disease.

Membere may obtain the attendance of the Vetciinary Inspector on any
case of disease by {'aying the cost of his visit, which will be at the following
vi-atc, viz., 21. 2s. j^er diem, and travelling expenses.

III. — Consultations without visit.

Personal consultation with Vettninary Inspector ., .. 55.

•Consultation by letter .. .. .. .. .. .. 5s.

'Consultation necessitating the Avriting of three or more letters. 10s.

Post-mortem examination, and re])ort thereon .. .. .. 10s.

A return of the number of a'pplications during eacli half-j-ear being required
from the Veterinary Inspector.

IT. — Admission of Diseased Animals to the Yetekinaet College ;
Investigations, Lectukes, and Eeports.

No. 1. All Members of the Societ}' have the privilege of sending cattle,
sheep, and pigs to the Infirmary of the Poyal Veterinary College, on the same
terms as if they were ilembers of the College ; viz., by paying lor the keep
aud treatment of cattle 10s. 0(7. per week each, animal, and for sheep and
pigs " a small proportionate charge to be fixed by the Principal according to
cu'cum stances."

No. 2. The College has also imdertaken to investigate such particular classes
of disease, or special subjects connected with the application of the Vcterinaiy
art to cattle, sheep, and pigs, as may be directed b\' the Council.

No. 3." In addition to the increased nund)er of lectures now given by
Professor Simonds — the Lecturer on Cattle Pathology — to the pupils in the
lioyal Veteriuarj'^ College, he will also deliver such lectures before thcLIembers
of the Societ}', at their house in Hanover Square, as the Council shall decide.

No. 4. The Poyal Vetermarj' College will from time to time furnish to
the Council a detailed Report of the cases of cattle, sheep, and pigs treated
in the Infirmary.

GENEEAL INDEX

TO THE FIRST SEEIES OF THE

JOUKNAL

ROYAL AGRICULTUEAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND.

VOLUMES I. TO XXV.

LONDON:

PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,

AKD CHARING CROSS,

1865.

GENERAL INDEX

JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AaRICULTURAL^
SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

VOLS. I. TO XXY.

ExpLanation of contractions used in the body of this Index : — P. D., Paper followed by
Discussion ; B. D., Remarlcs in the course of Discussion at Meetings of Weelily Council.

Abbey Holm, the, in Cumberland (W.
Dickinson), xiii. 289.

Abele-tkee, the, its planting and manage-
ment (R. Falkener), iii. 273.

Abortion in cows (W. Keary), ix. 445.

, prize essay, by J. Barlow, xii. 62 ;

the fcctus, 70; symptoms of abortion,
71 ; causes of, 74 ; high breeding, 76 ;
its contagions nature, 78 ; treatment of,
81-85 ; " cross bhths ' or false present-
ations, 89.

, SEMI, in wheat, ii. 25.

, in cows, caused by diseased herbage,

ergot in i-ye-grass (H. Tanner), xis.
40 ; well-bred stock most susceptible,
■ih. ; Earl Ducie's opinion, 152.

Absorbent substances, moistui-e, by Pro-
fessor Leslie, v. 126 ; power of soils, by
Sir H. Davy, 129 ; mode of measm'ing
the extent of, by Eev. W. Eham, i. 48 ;
by Schubler, 195.

power of soils for oxygen gas

(Schubler), i. 197. See " Soils."

power of soils, on (Dr. Voelcker),

xviii. 111. See " Soils."

Absorption of potash by soils of known
composition (Dr. Voelcker), xxv. .349.

AcACiA-TREE, the, its planting and
management (Falkener), iii. 272.

Accidents through farm machinery (F.
A. Paget), xxv. 352 ; their number,
353 ; classes in contact witli machinery,
ih. ; originating causes of accidents,
354 ; good and simple machines recom-
mended, ih. ; precautions, ih. ; neglected
repairs, 355 ; Mx. Colbm-n on steam-
boiler explosions, ih. ; self- feeding ar-
rangements for thrashing machines

recommended, 356; accidents ii'om
carelessness, ignorance, and drink, ib. ;
insi^ection of ftxctories and steam-boilers
in Lancashire, 357 ; loss of hfe in
mines, at sea, and by boiler explo-
sions, ih.

Acclimatization of Avheat (Buckman\
xvii. 183.

Accounts, Farm, on (J. Coleman), xix.
122 ; proof of their necessity, ih, ; bal-
ance at baidi no criterion of prosperity
apart from condition of the soil and
stock, ih. ; reference to article in Mor-
ton's ' Cyclopajdia of Agriculture,'
123 ; peculiarities of fixrmers' accounts,
ih. ; the system taught at Cirencester,
ih. ; Lady-day a good time for taking
stock, ih. ; record of acts of husbandly
and imijortance of memorandum-book,
124 ; " parole " contracts, ih. ; form of
inventory, 125 ; the jom-nal should be
neatly kept, 126 ; cash-book, and mean-
ing of I3r. and Cr., 127 ; form of
jomnal used at Cirencester, 129 ; the
journal the abiding record of cash
transactions, 130 ; bills should be kept
in a bundle and endorsed with refer-
ences, ih. ; the ledger described, 132 ;
a complete system of double entry not
ai^i^licable to farm accounts, 133; ex-
penditure not for the benefit of one
crop or object apart from rest, 135 ;
the turnip fallow, ih. ; Lord Meath's
system of accounts, ih. ; an account of
sales and purchases made up monthly,
a foundation for the balance-sheet,
136 ; the labour-jom-nal a mine of in-
formation, 135 ; description of the
. a 2

GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGEICULTURAL JOURNAL.

mode of keeping, 137; the form pro-
])osed by Morton [see ' Farm Account^,'
' Cyc. of Agri.') simple and concise,
but scanty, ih. ; specimen tables ' Cole-
man and Morton), 138; table for task
work, 142 ; the granary book described,
141 ; the stock book. 143.

AcDRvs calamus, see " Rush, the sweet."

Acids, vegetable (Fownes\ iv. 50(!.

Acmes vidgaris, .see " Thyme, tiie com-
mon basil."

AcLANi), T. Dyk(>, on lodging and board-
ing labourers, as practised ou the farm
of Mr. Soutlieron. x. 371.*.

on tile farming of Somersetshire,

])rize report by, xi. G()().

rcj)ly to Lord I'ortman's letter of

condolence with tiie family of Mr. 1*.
Pusey, xvi. COS.

, his selection of samples of drainage

water for analysis by J. T. Way, xvii.
137.

AcREABLE produce of food, by "\V. R.
Karkeek, v. 2G4; nutritive value of
ditierent crops, by W. IL Hyett, iv.
146-148.

A( itEAGE of England (Hoskyns;, xvi.
r)71 ; of Ireland and Scotland, ili.

Adams, W., on an improved dibbling
wheel, iii. 105.

AiiDEKLEV, C. B., MP., on the tenure of
land in Scotland and tlie Chaiuiel
Islands, xvii. G22.

Adhesiveness of soils (Schubler), i. ISS.
<S'ee " Soils."

Administuation dcs Pouts et Cliausst-es,
in France, xxii. 429.

Adonis autumualis, see " Corn pheasant's-
eye."

/EdiLOPS, on the six?cics of, in the South
of France, and their conversion into
wheat (E. Fabre), xv. 107.

, on its transformation into wheat

(Prof. Henfrey). xix. 103; question as
to the validity of M. Fabre's explana-
tions, ih. ; experiments of continental
botanists, ib. ; by Prof Henslow and
Mr. Brown, ib.; conclusions of French
botanists, 104.

, ou its natm-al and artificial fertili-
sation by triticum (Dr. Gordon), xix.
104 ; wheat not found wild, ib. : con-
nected by the Greeks with a?gilops,
105 ; .3^. ovata produces JSI. triticoides,
ib. ; results obtained by IM, Fabre in
twelve generations, ib. ; M. triticoides
probably intiueuced by neigli1x)uring
wheat, 100; question as to Tcuzelle
M-heat, ib. ; two defined types, M. ovata
and yE". triticoides. 107 ; the latter only
a hybrid, ib. ; experiments iu impreg-

ACtKICULTI-RAL.

nation and production of hybrids, 108 ;
conclusions unfavoui-able to M. Fabre's
theory, 110.

^GiLOPS triticoides and its different forms
(Dr. CJordon), second memoir, xix. 110 ;
opinions of Dr. Lindlcy, (7*. ; II. Jor-
dan and his denial of the origin of JE.
triticoides. 111 ; he attril)utes the
changes to malformation, ib. ; differ-
ences between u^J. ovata and JE. triti-
coides, 113; question as to the sterility
of M. triticoides, 114; is .^gilops a
genus distinct from wheat? 116; M.
spcltiformis, 118; M. Jordan's prefer-
ence (if reason to fact, ll'.t; hybrids
have little fixity of cliaracter, 121 ;
variations in .spikelcts of M. triticoides,
//>. ; conclusion, ib. ; fertile hybrids in-
cline towards tlie type of one or other
parent (M. Decaisnc), 122.

-Enoi'ODirJi podograria, see " Gout
Weed."

-'Etiusa cjniapium, see " Fool's parsley

Affghanistax, mode of procuiing water
for irrigation in, v. 287.

AFTER-<iRASs, its relation to the hay-crop
(Lawcs and Gilbert), xix. r)08, 509.

Agarics, the, on, by the Rev, E. Sidney,
X. 391.

Ag.\te, E. E., ou the autumn cleaning of
stubbles, a prize essay, xvi. 110.

Ager's digging machine at the Worcester
meeting Clarke), xxv. 307.

Agrarian grasses, J. Buckman on, xv.
470.

weeds (J. Buckman), xvi. 369.

bent (J. Buckmun\ xvii. 517.

Agreejient, form of, with tenant's com-
pensation clause (R. Smith), xvii. 367.

Agricxltvral chemistiT, on, by J. B.
Lawos, viii. 220; rain, 230; mean
temperature, ib.; climate, 231; com
and climate, 232 ; influence of manures
on quality of wheat, 235 ; on manures,
240 ; superphosphate of lime, 243 ;
Liebig's wheat manure, 244; mineral
manures in general, result of their em-
ployment, 259.

chemistrj-, on, turnips, by J. B.

Lawes, viii. 495 ; influence of seasons
on the growth of, 498; effect of ma-
nm-es ou the growth of, 503. See
'• Turnips."

chemistrj-, the present state (1848)

of agriculture in its relations to che-
mistry and geology (Johnston), ix.
200. ■

chemistry, on sheep-feeding and

niamu'e, jmrt I., bv J. B. Lawes, x.
276.

chemistry, on, especially in relation

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

AGRICL'LTVRAL.

to the mineral theory of Baron Liebig,
xii. 1 ; on the continuous growth of
Avheat on the same soil, 6 ; produce of,
manured with mineral substances only,
and with salts of annuonia only, 10 ;
trials with Liebig's wheat mauiu'e, 12 ;
trials with rice, salts of ammonia, &c.,
as manures for wheat, li; trials with
various salts of ammonia, superphos-
phate of lime, and other salts, 16;
general effect of mineral maum-es on
the growth of wheat, 26 ; faii-y rings,
33 ; effect of superphosphate of lime ou
turnips, ib. (J. B. Lawes.)

Agricultural chemistry, on the compara-
tive feeding qualities of different breeds
of sheep, by J. B. Lawes, xii. Hi, xiii.
178, xvi. 45.

chemistiy, on pig-feeding, by J. B.

Lawes, xvi. 45.

chemistry, on some points connected

with, by J. B. Lawes and Dr. J. H.
Gilbert, xvi. 411 ; accuracy and relia-
bility of then- experiments (J. E. Deui-
son;, xvii. 55 ; services of Baron Liebig,
xvi. 411 ; remarks on his conclusions,
414 ; quotations from his works, 419 ;
quotations from the works of various
foreign chemists ou the theories of
Liebig, 426.

chemistry, on (Liebig), xvii. 284;

amount of nitrogen in legmniuous and
other crops, ib. ; also in soils of Prussia,
Bavaria, Russia, and Cuba, 285 ; ana-
lyses, 286; absorbing power of soils,
287 ; does the natural supply of nitro-
gen suffice for a full wheat croiJ? 288;
waste in London sewage, ib. ; constant
increase of English fertility, 289 ; sup-
ply of nitrogen from coals burnt, ib. ;
can the addition of ammonia perma-
nently ineiease fertility ? ib. ; the
author's ' Chemistry of Agriculture '
not intended as a jiractical manual,
290 ; ou the older humus theory, 291 ;
the author's view, ib. ; increase of or-
ganic life unlimited, ib. ; mineral sub-
stances in the soil and air, 292 ; cause

'. of unequal fertility, 293 ; effect of arti-
ficial supplies of ammonia, 294 ; they
economise time, but hasten exhaustion,
295 ; influence of di-ainage and tillage,
297 ; substances other than nitrogen
supplied in ammoniacal salts, 298 ;
Kuhlmann's experiments, ib. ; why

' four-fifths of annuoniacal salts not re-
covered in crops, 300 ; excess of nitro-
gen in crop over tliat of the guano
used, 301 ; the acid in ammoniacal
salts dissolves j^hosphates (301) and
silicates, 302 ; but where they are ap-

AGRICVLTrEAL.

plied the produce is less in future years,
303 ; and in time becomes nil, 304 ;
wheat and grass follow the same law,
305 ; Schaltcrmann's experiments with
salts of ammonia, ib. ; such salts only
serviceable when all the mineral con-
stituents are in excess, 306 ; the author
complains of mistranslation, 307, and
misquotation by Mr. Lawes, 308 ; his
opinion on ammonia as recorded in his
' Dictionary of Chemistry,' 309 ; in-
terests of landlord and farmer con-
trasted, 311 ; hardwood ashes a good
supplement to phosphates and ammo-
nia, 312 ; action of farmyard manure,
313 ; vindication of the author's manure
and pamphlets, 314 ; meanings of the
word "organic" as used by Liebig
and by Lawes, 316 ; substitution of
"gaseous" suggested (W. Gregoiy),
ib. ; Mr. Lawes' trial of Liebig's ma-
nure reviewed, 318 ; his mixtures, 319 ;
the art of farming consists in utilising
the supply of i^lant food in the air,
321 ; the hyijothesis of the waste of
ammonia, 322, does not account for
like action in phosjihatcs, ib. ; effect of
burnt clay and ashes attributed by
Lawes to tillage, 324 ; examination of
springs and water meadows by Chevau-
dier and Salvetat, ib.; study of Lord
Bacon's works, 325.

Agricultural chemistry, Liebig's paper
xvii. 284) criticised liy J. B. Lawes, xviii.
513 ; his conclusions for ripened cereals
based on results of grass cut green, 519.

chemistry, papers on, by Mr. J. B.

Lawes and Dr. Gilbert. See " Lawes "
and " Lawes and Gilbert."

College, the Royal, report of a com-
mittee appointed by, on the reaping
machines shown at Lewes, xiii. 332.

implements, see " Implements."

Institutions for the advancement

of Agricultural Science, on, by Dr. C.
Daubeny, iii. 364 ; in foreign countries,
ib. ; on those of Grignon, near Paris,
365 ; of Germany, 370 ; at Mogelin in
Brandcnbm-gh, ib. ; at Hohenheim in
Wirtemberg, 372 ; at Schlerssheim, near
Munich, 373 ; at Keszthely, in Hungary,
374 ; near Pavia, ib. ; near Florence,
ib. ; in Ireland, ib. ; the model farm of
Royal Agricultm-al Society of Ireland,
375.

Institutions, Lord Ducie's model

farm, ib. 376.

Institutions, Mrs. D. Gilbert's Agri-

cidtural Schools, ib. 377.

Institutions, Royal Academy of

Agriculture of Sweden, iv. 199.

GENERAL INDEX TO KOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

AGEICXTLTUKAL.

Ageicultural notes on the census of
1S61 (J. D. Dent, M.P.),xxv. 318. See
" Census."

Societies, references to. — Yorkshire

Society (Thompson^ xxv. 1 ; Royal
Irish Improvement, ib. ; Bath and
West of England Society, 2 ; Highland
Society, ib.; English Board of Agri-
cidture, ib.

Agkictjltuke, a science of facts (KulJ-
maiui), xvii. 598.

in Algeria, P.D. (J. Caird. M.P.),

xxiii. 454 ; cotton cultivation, ib. ; ])ro-
ductions of Algeria, ib. ; population,
colonics, and cultivation, 45.") ; climate,
456; extent of cultivable land, ih.;
cattle and sheep. 457; French settle-
ments and establishments for improving
the breed of horses, ib. ; fann of a Jersey
colonist, 458 ; A'i.scount d'Armagnac'a
farm, ib. ; Arab cultiu-e, 45!) ; the plain
of the Shelliff, ib. ; its physical geo-
graphy, ib. ; French policy in Algeria,
460 ; annual revenue. — Discugsian, Mr.
Frere and Mr. Caird, 461.

Board of (Tiiompson, M.P.), xxv. 2.

of England, its state as a science

iu 1S3!», by I'hilip Pusey, i. 1 ; sta-
tistics of, ib.; ravages of the turnip-
fly, 2 ; the spade-husbandry of Belgium,
and of the fens of Lincolnshire, 5;
manures suggested, 10 ; period of
wheat-sowing, 11 ; origin of the che-
valier barley, ib. ; the clover plant, its
failui'c, ih. ; the orobanche disease, ib. ;
the growth of carrots and pai-snips, 13 ;
the tiu-nip-cuttcr, 16; the domestic
animals of England, 17 ; expense of
maintaining cart-horses, 19.

, its progress during the four years

preceding October, 1842, by P. Pusey,
iii. 169 ; drainage, ib. ; manufacture of
di'aining-tiles, 173; cost of thorough-
draining, 176 ; sub.soil-ploughing, 179 ;
too gi-eat lightness of soil, 180; chalk-
ing, ib. ; marling, 181 ; " crag," use of,
in Sufiblk, 183- the plough, 186; on
its di-aught, 191 ; one-horse carts, 193;
diilhng, 195; selection of seed, 195;
wheat-barley, 196 ; chevalier barley, ib. ;
the Dyok and other oats, 197 ; green
crops, ib. ; root crops, 198 ; the white
Belgian carrot, 202 ; vetches, 203 ;
sheep, 204 ; cattle, 205 ; shed-feeding
sheep, 206 ; on spreading manure on
grass-lands, 209 ; use of bone-dust as
a manure, 210 ; rape-dust, ib. ; woollen
rags, 211 ; nitrate of soda, ih. ; guano,
211; marling, 216.

, progress of, and the R. A.

Society (H. S. Thompson, M.P.), xxv.

AGRICULTURE.

1 ; experience of 25 years, and com-
pletion of first series of Journal, ib. ;
formation of R. A. Society, ib. ; Agri-
cultui'al Societies, early formation of,
ib. ; cause of their inefficiency, ib. ;
adoption of the migmtory principle,
railway fiicilities, 3 ; statistics of the
Royal Agricultural Society, table of
income and expenditure for 23 years, 5 ;
explanatory remarks, 3 ; cost of Journal,
4; chemical and veterinaiy investiga-
tions, 6 ; table of receipts and expendi-
ture at country meetings, 7 ; proofs of
pojiularity and progress, 8 ; subordinate;
position of agricultuml machinery 25
3'cars ago, ib. ; implement prizes at the
first Yorkshire meeting, ib. ; at the
Oxford and Cambridge meetings of
the Royal, 9 ; ]\Ir. Pusey "s article of
J 839, ib.; compari.son betwei'n early
and late implement shows, 10 ; the prizo
system, 1 1 ; jNIr. J. C. IMorton's ob-
jections considered, ib. ; July a suitable
month for tiials, ib. ; value of Judges'
Reports ; advantages and defects of com-
petitive trials, 12; advantages not con-
fined to prize-winners, 13 ; the trophy
and trial systems compared, 14; dif-
fusive influence of carefully adjudged
prizes, ib. ; manufacturers' objections,
15 ; ix)sition of the older makers, il). ;
trials a check to inferior work, ib. ;
tbcir advantages to the farmer, and
effect of their abolition, 16; objects of
implement shows, 17 ; steam as ap-
plied to agricultural machinerj% 18 ;
the Swing riots and present race ot
labourers, ib.; statistics, 19; steam for
bam work, ib- ; the letting system,
ib. ; improved machinery indispensable
to the British cnrngrower, 21; steam «
cultivation in relation to small holdings,
ib. ; consolidation of farms and recon-
struction of buildings, ib. ; steam cultuns
of clay lands, 22 ; utilisation of small
engines, 23 ; the two-engine system
(Clarke),j6.; letting engines {orhhojb.;
companies, 24; eft'ect of free trade, table
of grain imports, 25 ; cause of increase,
26; increase of home-grown and im-
ported com in relation to that of popu-
lation, 27 ; wages and diet, ih. ; eco-
nomical considerations, 28 ; cattle, shce]j,
and swine imports, 29; quadrennial
average, ib. ; supplies to Smithfield and
the metropolitan markets, 31 ; decen-
nial average, 32 ; meat by railway, ib. ;
increasing scarcity of sheep, and ad-
vanced price of mutton, 33 ; average of
beef and mutton, 34 ; conclusions, price
of meat in relation to its cost and mode

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

AGRICTLTURE.

of prodiictiou, ih. ; consumption stimn-
lated by tree trade, 35 ; combined stock
and corn farming, ih. ; tenure of land ;
tlie lease system, ih. ; obstacles to its
jjrogress ; objections considered, 3(] ;
customs and covenants, allowance for
recent improvement, notice to tenants,
and option as to mode of cropping, 37 ;
rotation of crops, simplitication of agree-
ments, 38 ; imj^rovemeuts in cultivation
and farm management, 39 ; Mr. Lawes
on the natm-al standard of fertility of
soils, ih. ; application of manm-es, 40 ;
researches of Boussingault and Liebig,
ih. ; experiments of Lawes and Gilbert
at Kothamsted, 41 ; the author and
Prof. Way on the absorbent power of
soils, ih. ; principles of land drainage,
ih.; rise and jn'ogress of the trade in
guano, 42 ; management of a clay farm,
43 ; hillside and fiuTow drains, ih. ;
effect of stagnant water, ih. ; proper
dejitli and distance of drains, ih. ; size of
pipes and use of collars, 45 ; vegetation
as aflected by air and water in the soil,
ih. ; sheep fanning, consumption of
green crops, and economy of horse
labour, 46 ; growth of roots after com,
ih. ; advantages, 47 ; work of the dung-
cai't performed by sheep, ih. ; improve-
ments in making and keeping manure,
48 ; tlie horse-hoe, ih. ; stocking and
management of grass-land, ih. ; results
from forcing young stock to early
maturity, 49 ; cost and advantages of
covered farmyards, 50 ; topics for
future consideration, 51 ; improved
knowledge, resources, and education of
agrieultmists, ih. ; their present posi-
tion, 52.

Agricultuee, on the climate of the British
islands, in its eiiect on cultivation, by
N. Whitley, xi. 1.

, the aiiphcation of science to, by

C. Daubeny, a lecture, iii. 13G.

, connection between, and geology, in

Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset,
by Sir H. T. De la Beeche, viii. 21. See
'■ Geology.''

, the board of, i. 89.

of the Netherlands, Rev. W. Eham

on, ii. 43, iii. 240. See " Nether-
lands."

• of Northumberland, a view of its

jmst and present state, by J. Grey of
Dilston, ii. 151. See Northumber-
land.

Agrostemma-githago, see "Corn-
cockle."

Agrostis stolonifera, .^ee " Marsh bent."

vulgaris, see '■ Fine bent."

ALEXANDER.

Agrostis vulgaris, var. alba, see " Marsh
bent."

vulgaris, var. stolonifera, see '• Agra-
rian bent."

AnL, the, or drainage water from dung,
described by Dr. C. Sprengel, i. 479.

Air drainage of land (Hutchinson), ix.
340.

, its influence on the soil (J. T. Way),

xvii. 123; the great resei-voir of fertilis--
ing agents, 145.

AiRA csespitosa, or turfy hair grass, see
" Hassock grass."

Albite, the, analysis of, xiii. 532.

Albumen from eggs, analysis of (Jones),
iv. 216. See Food of live stock.

, proportion of, in various kinds of

ordinary food of live stock (L. Play-
fair), iv. 232.

, chemical properties of (Hemming),

xiii. 426.

, its plastic power, see "Vegetable

physiology" (Henfrey), xviti. 412.

, vegetable (Dr. Voelcker), xxii. 385.

Alblminoes matter, defined (Dr. Voelc-
ker), xxii. 385.

Alchemilla arvensis, see "Corn ladies'
mantle."

Alcock, Mr., description of the grubbing
of a Surrey down at Kingswood, by,
iv. 307.

, his trial of Mr. Horsfall's plan of

steaming food, xviii. 178.

Alcohol, production of, from inorganic
matter (Berkeley), xxiv. 428.

Alder-tree, the, its planting and ma-
nagement (Falkener), iii. 273.

for hedges, J. Grigor on, vi. 225.

Alderney, the agriculture of, a prize
essay (C. P. Le Cornu), xx. 32.

, the agriculture of, (C. P. Le Cornu),

XX. 64 ; the island described, ih. ; the
tillage similar to that in Guernsey, 65 ;
the Alderney cow, ih. ; great weight of
pigs, ih.

cow, milk from, compared with that

from Kerry (Irish) cows, by E. White,
ii. 420. See " Milk."

cow, on the Jersey, misnamed

Alderney cow, by Col. Le Couteur, v.
43. See " Cow."

, results from feeding with rape-
cake, bean-meal, bran, and maltcombs
(Mr. Stansfield), xviii. 175.

cow, on the yellow pigment peculiar

to its organism (Simonds), xix. 97.

Alderson, J., on nitrate of soda as a
manure, ii. 125.

Alexander, Captain, account of the dis-
covery of the fertilizing power of the
Suffolk crag, by, iii. 183.

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Alkali waste, analysis of, by J. T. AVay,
X. 616; xiii. 498.

Allium ursinum, see " Garlick, tlie liog's."

vineale, see " Garlick, tlie crow's."

Alltx, C., on the preservation of the
Swedish turnip, vii. 275.

Allotment system, on the, by Sir N. E.
Buubury, v. 39L

Allotments to cottages for spade hus-
bandry in Cheshire, v. 96.

, those of Nottinghamshire (R. W.

CoiTingham), vi. 3S ; of Kent (G.
Buckland), 301.

— — , those of the East Eiding of York-
shire (G. Lcgard), ix. 126.

in Nortlianii)tonshire, by W. Beam,

xiii. 88.

, on the (J. C. Morton), xx. 92 ; its

benefits exceed its drawbacks, 93 ;
Lord Ducie's allotments, ib. ; drainage
of the land, ih. ; size of plots, ib. ;
rental, 5 per cent, on outlay, with rates
and taxes, added to previous rent. 9'1 ;
conditions of tenancy, ib. ; increase of
produce, ib. ; cotkiger's prize for best
management awarded by the allottees,
95 ; subsequent development of the
system, ib. ; Lord Ducie's remarks on
the working of the prize sy.stem, 96 ;
Mr. E. W. Baker's allotments at Coltes-
mere, Rutland, 97 ; Prof. Henslow's
experience, ib. ; Lord de Grey's allot-
ments near Ampthill, 98; surplus
labour, ib. ; Mr. Trethewy's remarks at
the Central Farmers' Club, 99 ; table
showing acreage, ])opidation, number
of allotments, and amount of jwor-rates,
100; plots first assigned larger than
those now held, il>. ; open field allot-
ments better than gardens, 101 ; con-
ditions of .success for allotments, ib.

in Berkshire (spearing), xxi. 44.

Alluvial soils of Holstein analysed 'J.
S. Can- , i. 372 ; of Norfolk, on the, by
J. Trinuner, vii. 472-474.

■ of Lincolnshire, by* J. A. Clarke,

xii. 279.

analysed (Hemming), xiii. 536, 539,

540.

of the Trent and Dove (Haywood),

xiv. 58 ; of the Dove analysed, ib.

Almack, B., on drill husbandry of tur-
nips, a prize essay, iv. 49. ^e
" Turnips."

on the agricidturc of Norfolk, v. 307.

&e "Norfolk."

, a form of memorandum on tenant

right to be added to existing agree-
ments or leases, vii. 234.

Alopecurus agrestis, see " Slender fox-
tail-grass."

Alopecurus geniculatus, see " Floatitrg
foxtail-grass."

pratensis, see " Meadow foxtail-
grass."

Alujiina, chemical properties of, xiii.
430.

Alumin'Ous soils, J. Trimmer on, xii. 455.
See " Clay soils."

America, tlie relations of geology to agri-
culture in North-eastern America, by
J. F. W. Johnston, xiii. 1.

American implements and methods of
economising labour (C. W. Eddy), xx.
109; public works in America, 110;
the scarcity of labour promotes machi-
nery, 111 ; English inventions susci-
tated in America, 112 ; English colonies
supplieil with American goods, ploughs,
axes, clocks, boots. Sec, 113; imple-
ments for clearing land — the axe,
stump-extractor, and root-puller, 115;
house-building — the faruK r puts up all
fittings, which are made and sold
wholesale, ib. ; roads — stone-breaking
machines (toothed cylinders), granite-
breaker, &c., 116; railway horse-power
acting as a treadmill, with illustration,
117; mechanical disadvantages of old
horse-walk system, 118 ; co.st of thrash-
ing by hor.se-power, ib. ; straw elevator
costing 3/., 119; the grain-scythe, 120;
light forks, ib. ; the ox-shovel — a scra-
per, 121 ; American ploughs, ib. ; Pre-
sident Jefferson's model, ib. ; large
furrows preferred, ib. ; their moderate
cost, 122; diagram of a_ tumwrest
plough, ib.; horses, 123; use of mules,
124 ; their economy, ib. ; sires pre-
sented to 'Washington by a king of
Spain, ib. ; light waggons, their wheels,
&c., ib.; substitute for springs, 125;
cost of transport of grain to New York,
iJ). ; harrows and horse-rakes, 126 ;
clover as green maniue. ib. ; Indian
corn cleans ground and feeds stock, ib. ;
corn- shellers, ib.; hay-stores, 127;
fences — earth-auger for boring pest-
holes, 128; boring machine for mor-
tises, diagram, ib. ; substitutes for quick
in live fences, 129 ; sower and per-
forated trough with revolving screw,
ib. ; potato plough costing 2/., ib. ; lifts
and other appliances, 13U ; Amo.s's re-
port on American and English horse-
works, ib. ; superiority of the American
machine, 131.

Amherst, Lord, account of Hall Farm,
viii. S3.

Ammonia, present in rain-water, ii. 255 ;
xiv. 379 (P. Pusey) ; xvi. 267 (various
chemists).

VOLUMES OXE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

AjnioxiA, the prevention of its escape from

dun?:, iv. 539.
, liquor containing, from gasworks,

iv. 541 ; observations on, by Dr. A,

Voelcker, xvi. 93.
, the large mass wasterl in the sew-
age of London, Dr. Fowne, iv. 5-17.
, its sources of supply, and its money

value, by J. T. Way, x. 218.

, sulphate of, v. tiOl ; x. 220.

, salts of, the power of the soil to

retain, by H. S. Thompson, xi. 70 ; by

J. T. Way, 313.
, trials with salts of, as a manure for

wheat, by J. B. Lawes, xii. 10-12.
, chemical jjroperties of (Hemming),

xiii. 427.
in soils before and after liming, by

J. T. Way, XV. 505-512.

emitted by decomposing vegetable

matters, xvi. 333 (Bowditch).

the manure for cereals (Way), xvi.

535 ; commercial value of, 53(j ; money
value of, in different substances, 539.

, its i^resence in the air, see "At-
mosphere," xvii. 425, 435 ; affinity of
peat for, 436 ; in burnt clay (Faraday),
452 ; Reiset's experiments, 452 ; ab-
sorbed by porous bodies, ib. ; exi^eri-
meuts by Bonis, ib. ; attracted by oxide
of iron, 453; do. by anhydrous sid-
phates (Eose), ib. ; table of proijortions
(Way), 454.

, the quantity of, in drainage water,

xvii. 134 ; that in rain-water overes-
timated by M. Barral (J. T. Way),
145 ; more fulls in the rain than is
found in drainage-water, 14G ; appara-
tus for determining (J. T. Way), 159;
fixed by gypsum, 222 ; waste of, in the
growth of plants (Liebig), 322 ; quan-
tity of, in rain-water (Way), 618.

, in farmyard manure and dung-heaps

(Dr. Voelcker), xviii. Ill ; free ammonia
inconsiderable, except in interior of
dung-heajjs, 112 ; little escape of, from
horsedung, fresh or fermented, 119; in
dry guano not more than f per cent.,
121 ; experiments on fixing it, 126.

, the jjroportion in which it causes

lodging of the barley crop (Lawes and
Gilbert), xviii. 482.

, is it useful in turnip manure, sup-
plied as suljjhate? (Dr. Voelckerj, xix.
155, 162, 179, 180.

, its action on meadow (Lawes and

Gilbert), xix. 561.

, quantity of, in atmospheric air (M.

Bineau), xxv. 534.

Ammoniacal J^lts distinguished from am-
monia itself xvii. 298-301 ; why partly

inoperative (Liebig , 300; their use ani

diminishing effects on after crops, 303.
AwMOFHiLA arundanacea, see " Sea-reed

or matweed."
Amos, C. E., his report on the trials of

ploughs at the Paris meeting, 1856,

xvii. 39.
, on the horse-works patented by J.

Hartas, xx. 130.
AMYGDALOID rocks, the farming of the

light fcoils of (Haxton"!, xv. 93.
AxAGALis arveusis, see " Pimpernel."
Analysis, by Mr. Spence, the expense of,

ii. 36 ; by Professor Wnj, xiii. 34 ;

mode of, viii. 207.

of soils, on, by Dr. Fownes, iv.

547.

of soils, a prize essay on, by Rev.

W. L. Eham, i. 46 ; imperfections of
methods and results (Lawes), xvii.-
600.

of the ashes of plants, on, by Dr.

Fownes, iv. 552 ; bv Way and Ogston,
vii. 593 ; by J. T. Way, viii. 134.

of vegetable substances collected

and tabulated, by E. T. Hennning, xiii.
449. See " Soils, Guano," &c.

of farmyard-manure, under various

circiunstances (Dr. Voelcker), xvii.
191 ; in a fresh and dry state, 198 -
rotten, 203 ; composition of ash, solu-
able and insoluble, 204 ; detailed com-
position of manure, 205 ; ditto, when
dried at 212-", various analyses, 214 ; of
manure kept under cover, once watered,
218 ; ditto, exposed to the weather, 222 ;
fresh manure, analysis of (227), at dif-
ferent periods of exposure, 228 ; tables
of loss of constituents, 235.

of soils of Eothamsted and Lois

Weedon (Lawes and Gilbertj, xvii. 603 ;
their absorptive power for water and
ammonia, 60S ; further experiments,.
611.

of turnips anburied (Dr. Voelcker),.

XX. 104.

of white turnips, swedes, mangolds,.

and carrots (Dr. Voelcker i, xxi. 162.

of wheat and barley straw, xxi. 161.

of clover-hay, xxi. 162.

of the ashes of plants, how far valu-
able (Dr. Voelcker), xxiv. 42.

Anatomy', see " Cattle," " Sheep,"
" Horses," &c.

Anbury, see " Finger and toe."

Ancholmk, river in Lhicolnshire, its
drainage value (P. Puicy), iv. 293.

Anderson, Dr., on the specific gravity of
swede turnips, xxiii. 361.

, on the process of vegetation in tur-
nips, xxiv. 434,

10

GENERAL IXDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

ANDKAL.

Andeal on the increase of the iileiine in
blood in inflammatoiy disorders, xxi.
210.

Anekoid barometer, on its use for ascer-
taining heiglits, by N. Whitley, xvi.
122.

Angelx cattle (Denmark), xxi. ."OL

Angle berries in cattle (F. Dun), xv. 83.
See " Tumours."

Ajjglesey, Isle of, its agriculture de-
scribed by S. Eowlaudson, vii. 553.

Angiilla isles, the, see " Sir 11. 1. Mur-
chison."

Animal charcoal, as a deodoriser of town
sewage (Way), xv. 157.

Animalcules in wheat, J. S. Henslow on,
ii. 20.

Animal manures. Dr. C. Sprcugel on, i.
415. See " Manures."

from South Africa, analyses of

(Way), xi. 7G7.

Animals, the funguses of (E. Sidney), x.

397.
AxNATTO used to colouT (with turaieric)

the Holstein butt(ii', i. 385 ; Cheshire

cliecse, vi. 122.

{l)i.r(i oiriluua), its origin and use

for colouring cheese (.11. White), xix.
412.

, its preparation (Dr. Yoelckcr), xxii.

64.
, on the composition of (Dr.Voelcker),

xxiv. 549 ; account of the b/'xa orellmia,

650; sorts of commercial annatto, vVj. ;

bixin and orellin, ib. ; analysis of c:^ke

annatto, 551 ; fluid annatto, 552 ; Mr.

Nichols's preparation, ib.
Anntal meadow-grass, analysis of (Way\

xiv. 177; described bv Buckman, xvii.

527.

iTC-giass, analysis of (^'av), xiv.

177."

AxoETn, the, analysis of, xiii. 532.

Anthemis arvensis, see "Chamomile."

cotula, see " Chamomile, the stink-
ing."

AxT-HiLLS, on their eradication from pas-
tures, by 11. Smith, ix. 25.

Anthoxaxthum odoratum, see " Sweet-
scented vernal-grass."

Antheiscxs vidgaris, see "Common-
bealved Parsley."

Antiiyllis vulneraria, see " Kidneyvetch."

Ants injurious to pastures (Curtis), x^•iii.
77.

Apatite, on the, or native phosphate of
hme, by J. Hudson, xii. 253.

, analysis of, xiii. 532.

, Norwegian (Voelcker), xxi. 353-5.

Aphides, or plant lice, on, bv J. Cm-tis,
iii. 49, vi. 503, vii. 41G.

Aphis, the, in hops (Rutley), ix. 564.

Apoplexy in sheep (H. Cleeve), i. 299.

Appelils, C, on the germination of seeds,
xxii. 25.

Ajples, on the prevention of blight on
apjjlcs, by J. Ellis, iv. 267.

, on the cultivation of orchards and

the making of cider and perry, by F.
Falkener, iv. 380 ; the counties most
favoumble for orchards, ih. ; thrive on
certain soils, 380 ; in AVorcester, Glou-
cester, Somerset, and Devon, ib. ; best
site of an orchard, 382 ; aspect, 383 ;
raising plants, ib. ; gral'ting, 384 ; plant-
ing out, ib. ; selection of soils, 385 ;
period of dm-ation of an apple, ib.;
tal)le of cider apples, 386-388; list of
table and kitchen apples, ib. ; pear-
trees, 390, see '-rears;" jjlanting out,
392 ; prei)aring the soil and manuring,
394; pruning, 396; management of
store fmit, 398 ; making cider, ib., see
Cider ; yield of juice, 406.

, those of Kent, described by G.

Buckland, \i. 278.

, those of Devonshire (Tanner), ix.

472.

, tlie situations best adapted to the

growth of, by N. Wiiitley, xi. 47.

, cider-maker's refuse pulj), analysis

of, xiii. 498.

, analysis of the wood of, xiii. 530. ■" 'I

of Herefordshire (Eowlandson), xiv.

440; cider- making, ib.; analysis of
apples, 447 ; artificial preparation of
oil of, 448.

Appold's pump, its use in di-aining Whit-
tlesea INIcre, xxi. 139.

APiABLE land, on the maintenance of
fertility in (J. C. Morton), vii. 283.

Akachnides, the, J. Curtis on, v. 226.

Aeboeicl'ltl're, on, by J. S. Stanhope,
%-ii. 679 ; on the treatment of sick trees
(Sir C. Lemon), v. 606.

Arbutiinot, the Right Hon. C, on deep-
draining, vi. 129, 573, X. 496.

Archer, Edward, on Mr. Bickford's
method of irrigation, xiv. 153.

Arctic cun-ent, its eflect on our climate
(AVliitley), xi. 21.

Arctium lajjpa, see " Buidock."

Aeenaria serpyllifoUa, see " Sandwort,"
the thjTne-leaved."

trinervis, see " Sandwort, the three-
nerved."

AlKgyleshire cattle described by E. F.
Welles, i. 348; Mr. Poole s herd de-
scribed, 349 ; their milk little inferior
to that of tlie Alderney, ib. ; result of
breeding in Herefordshire, ib.

ApjiEL, John, on the indications of fer-

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

11

tility or baiTenness of soils, wlietlier of
colour, consistence, or vegetation, v.
429.

Akkell, Thomas, on the drainage of
land, a prize essay, iv. 319. See
" Drainage of land."

ARK'ttTaGHT, E., his jjlan of road-mending,
xxiii. 451.

Arnold, George, a prize jilan of double
cottages for farm labom'crs, with speci-
fications, XV. 455.

, J., tables of temperature and rain-
fall at Aldershot, 1858-60, xxii. 340.

Arrhexatheeum avenaeeum, see " Com-
mon oat-like grass."

Artichoke, Jerusalem, the, on the ana-
lysis of its ashes, by J. T. Way, viii.
105-200.

, analysis of, xiii. 458.

, M. Boussingault on, vi. 579.

, the leaves of, if eaten by cows, gives

a bitter taste to theh milk (Ruegg),
xiv. 69, ii. 258, iii. 81.

, suited to the Wealden clay, xix.

185 ; bears frost in the ground, and its
tops of use for cattle fodder, ib.

Artificial manures, see " Manm-es."

Aecndo phi-agmites, see " Eeed, the com-
mon;" see also "Phi'agmites com-
munis."

Ascophora nigrans, "the must plant, ex-
periments •with as to the action of
manures (Prof. Eauhn), xxv. 258.

Ash, the, analysis of the wood of, xiii. 530.

Ashes, analysis of wood, xiii. 490 (Nesbit,
&c.).

peat, ib.

coal, ib.

sea-weed, ib.

wood, used in Oxfordshire for lucern,

clover, and sainfoin (Read), xv. 245.

of hardwood a supplement to phos-
phates and ammonia (Liebig), xvii. 312.

of soil at Cirencester, composition of

(Voelckcr), xviii. 363.

from clay soils, their composition

(Voelcker), xviii. 365.

■ a substitute for ammoniacal ma-
nures (Voelcker), xviii. 366.

in various crops, a table of (Rev.

W. R. Bowditch), xLx. 239.

Aspect of land, the influence of, on its
productiveness, by J. Bravendar, v. 578.

AsPERGiLL, the, one of the fungi of the
dauy, by E. Sidney, x. 395.

Athol, the late Duke of, his plantations
of larch, iii. 293.

Atkins's design for rotary digger, with
stationary engine (Clarke), xx. 192.

Atmosphere, an impure, a predisposing
cause of consumption (L. Playfair),

iv. 254 ; Professors Youatt and Sewell
on, ib.

AtmosphePvE of stables, on purifying, by
a mixture of gypsum or sawdust with
sulphmic acid, by H. Reece, iv. 278.

the food of plants (Fowne), iv. 509.

, how the drainage of land facilitates

the entrance of (Parkes), v. 132.

, on the climate of the British Isles

in its effects on cultivation, by N.Whit-
ley, xi. 1. See "Climate."

as a source of nitrogen to plants,

being an account of recent researches
on the subject, by J, T. Way, xvi. 249.

, action of the, on newly deepened

soil (Jamicson), xvii. 407 ; range of
heat at the Cape of Good Hope and hi
Nubia, 409 ; temperature in ditferent
latitudes, 413 : table of maxima, 414 ;
evaporation, effects of, 413; radiation,
ib. ; maxima at sunset, 415 ; increased
by snow, ib. ; snow-covered rocks split
(Darwin), 415; effects of frost, 419;_
annual, monthly, and daily changes of
temperature, table, 416; carbonic acid
varies in quantity, 425 ; its nature and
effects, 429-30 ; dissolves phosphate of

; lime (Liebig), 432 ; ammonia, its pre-
sence in au-, 425 ; its proportion to
the atmosphere (Barral, Boussingault,
Lawes, and Gilbert), 435 ; affinity of
peat for, 436; ozone, 427; air, diy,
does not rust iron, 438.

Atmospheric nutrition of plants, lecture
on (Dr. Voelcker), xxv. 531. See
" Plants."

Auger holes in Elkington's draiuagc, xvii.
487.

AuGiTE, the, analysis of, xiii. 532.

AuRUii maculatum, see " Cuckoo pint."

Autumn cleansing of stubbles, on, by P.
Puscy, viii. 570.

, by R. TMilward, xiv. 431.

, and manuring for bean.s, by R.

Vallentine, xv. 480.

, advantage of doing so on di-y turnip

soils, by R. Vallentine, xvi. 347-352.

AvEiJNG and Porter's improved travelling
porters for steam cultivation at New-
castle, 1864, xxv. 416.

AvENA fatua, .'-ee " Wild-oat."

flavesccns, see " Yellow oat - like

grass."

pratensis, .see " Narrow-leaved oat-
grass."

• pubescens, see " Do^vny oat-grass."

strigosa, see " Bristle-pointed oat."

Average produce of corn in Dorsetshire,
(Ruegg), XV. 424.

of Essex (Baker\ v. 39.

hi E. Lothian (Stevenson), xiv. 290.

12

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

AVERAGE.

Average of wheat in England (Hoskyns),
xvi. 577 ; price, ib. ; imports, 575 ; in-
crease of population, ib.

Avon and Test Valleys, the drainage of
(J. A. Clarke), xv. 40.

Avon district of Warwickshire, its farm-
ing (Evershed), xvii. 477.

AxHOLME, Isle of, described (P. Tusey),
iv. 293.

, and by Arthur Young, iv. 294 ; its

warping system described, 295.

Awn of barley, the, analysis of the ashes
of (Way and Ogston), vii. 044.

Aylesbcky, the Vale of (C. S. Read),
xvi. 280; analysis of a soil from, 281 ;
ducks, 301.

Ayjion, Count Roche, on tbo comparative
value of horses and cattle, xxiv. 97.

Aynesley, J. M., experiments f>n dif-
ferent manures for carrots, iv. 270.

Ayrsuuui: cows, >ee "Cows," "Cattle."

, milk from, compared witii that of

Galloway and Kerry cows (J. F. Bmkej,
iv. 436.

, , milk from, compared with that from

Irish cows (J. F. Burke , i. 442.

society's milch cow competitions,

xxiv. 308.

Azote, see " Nitrogen."

B.

Babington, C. C, on flax-dodder, ii. C3.

Babraham, J. Webb's farm at, vii. 60.

Bacon, R. N., his prize report on the
farming of Norfolk, reference to, xix.
205.

Bacon, on the preparing of (T. Rowland-
son), xi. 592.

Badminton, liquid manure of, analysis
(Dr. Voelcker', xix. 526.

Bagshot series, the, on the improvement
of, in the New Forest, by J. Trimmer,
xvi. 138.

B.\ker, B., on grafting turf, v. 600.

Baker, R., on Essex drainage, iv. 35.

, on the farming of Essex, prize

report, v. 1. See Essex.

, on a variety of rye as green fodder,

vi. 179.

, on the wheat-midge, vii. 273.

(of Writtle), on the management

and cost of horses, xix. 460.

Baker, R. W., an experiment with Aus-
tralian barley, ix. 236.

Baker, T. J. L., on the tlraught of single
cart-horses, i. 429.

Bakewell, Robert, produced rot, to pro-
mote the fattmg of his sheep, iv. 262 ;

BARLEY.

to prevent their being bred from whcH

.sold, xxiii. 73.
Bakewell, R., hisDishley flock, described

by R. Smith, viii. 2.
, the introduction of his sheep into

Nottinghamshire -(Corringham), vi. 17.
, his sheej) described by J. Wilson,

xvi. 223.
, his sheep of Warwick.-^hirc origin

(Evci-shed), xvii. 479.
Balke, — , his break for fixed and portable

steam-engines, xv. 379.
Balmer, T., a statement of the various

systems of cropping in tlie South of

Scotland on difterent kinds of land, iv.

194. See " Rotation of crops."
Bajipton sheep, on the, by J. Wilson, xvi.

229.
Banks of tidal rivers, the best mode of

rcjjairing, by G. S. Poole, xi. 178.
Barclay, D., experiments with nitrate cf

soda, i. 423.
, comparison of guano with other

manures, vi. 175.
, on the advantages of thick sowing,

vi. 192.
Barford, Mr., his liome-brcd Leicesters,

healthy but small, xx. 297.
Bark, the, analysis of the bark of some;

of the common English fruit and forest

trees, xiii. 530.
Barker, J. R., on nitrate of soda as a

manure, ii. 133.
Barley-, the varieties usually sown in

Northumberland, ii. 164.

, harvest-time, ib.

, origin of the chevalier, i. 11.

, the produce per acre from 1831 to

1842, on Lord Lovelace's fann at Ock-

ham, iv. 23.
, growth of, in the Netherlands

(Rham), iii. 249.
, malting, tlie chemistrj- of (Fowncs),

iv. 505 ; seed and straw analysed, 529.

, meal analysed, xiii. 522.

, the ravages of the wireworm on

(Curtis), V. 191.
, experiments on, with saltpetre,

cubic petre, common salt, and rape-dust

and guano, by J. Hannani, v. 270.
, cultivation of, in Norfolk ( Almack),

V. 326.
, gas- water as a manure for, by J.

PajTiter, i. 45.
, experiments by Mr. Simon, with

various manures (dung, rape-dust, bone-
dust, nitrate of soda, saltpetre^, i. 418.

, humeller (Parkes), v. 383.

, cultivation of, in Cornwall (Kar-

keek), vi. 407-413, 425.
, produce of (R. Clive), vi. 233.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

13

Uarley, cultivation of, in Cambridgesliire
(Jonas), vii. 47.

, report on the analysis of the ashes

of, by Way and Ogston, vii. G-i'2.

, analysis of the seed and straw,

hy J. t. Way and G. Ogston, xi.
502.

, growth of, in Suifolk, by H. Rayn-

bird, viii. 279-296.

, an experiment with Australian, by

E. W. Baker, ix. 276.

. the crops of the N. E. of Yorkshire

(Milburn\ ix. 506.

, on the elfects of feeding sheep with,

malted and unmalted, by J. B. Lawcs,
X. 305, 317, 324, 326.

, on the management of, by H. W.

Keary, a prize essay, x. 453 ; the pre-
paration of the land, ib. ; the land
twice ploughed for, in Norfolk, 456 ;
time of sowing, 458; of early sowing,
460 ; diiierent varieties of, ib.

, on the situations best adapted to

the growth of, by N. Whitley, xi. 50.

, growth of, in Gloucestershire (Bra-

vendar), xi. 13S-149.

, effect of climate on the growth of,

by B. Simpson, xi. 652.

, growth of, in Northamptonshire, by

W. Beam, xiii. 56-59.

, on nitrate of soda as a top-dressing

for, by P. Pusey, xiii. 349.

, analysis of a soil at Lynedock,

where barley failed, xiii. 552-3.

, growth of, in Surrey, by S. Ever-
shed, xiv. 81-86.

, as food for i^igs, bv J. B. Lawes,

xiv. 461.

, growth of, on light flinty chalk

soils (Haxton), xv. 100.

, land for, when best ploughed, xv.

110.

, growth of, on the light sands of

Norfolk (Almack), xv. 119.

, growth of, in Oxfordshire (Ecad\

XV. 214.

, on the soils on which it is grown,

by J. Coleman, xvi. 202.

, growth of, in Buckinghamshire

(Eead), xvi. 289.

, on the growth of, by dilferent

manures, continuously on the same
land, and on the position of the crop
in rotation ^J. B. Lawes and Dr.
Gilbert), xviii. 454 ; the field and
manures described, 455 ; hand-sowing
of manures adopted to ensure regu-
larity, 456 ; effects of season and re-
marks on climatic statistics, 457 ; tables
for j-ield of corn, straw, tail corn, and
weight per bushel, 458 ; weight of

barley, 470 ; influence of seasons on
produce from mineral manures, table x.,
476 ; ditto on relation of corn to straw,
table xi., 477 ; the characteristics of
good seasons (1854 and 1857), or bad
(1855), 478 ; fluctuations in the produce
of our manured plots, 479 ; seasons
tell in like manner on manured plots,
high manuring increases risk, 480 ;
average results from individual manures,
481 ; objects of the various groups of
manures, 482 ; the quantity of am-
monia caused " lodging." ib. ; mixed
alkalies retard, superphosphate jiro-
motes ripening, ib. ; quality of corn in
different groups chiefly aflected by the
bulk of crop and nature of the season,
483 ; quality of produce in these groups,
484; increase from farmyard manure,
485 ; influence of nitrate of soda, am-
moniacal salts, &c., 486 ; nitrogen in
rape-cake, its equivalent of ammonia,
488 ; nitrate more rapid in action than
ammoniacal salts, 489 ; overluxurianee
caused by excess of nitrogen not coun-
teracted lay minerals, 492 ; Summari/ :
Barley needs less nitrogen than wheat,
493 ; mineral manures only increase
the crop when the soil itself is charged
with available nitrogen, ih. ; other
trials of barley after experimental
crops, 494 ; barley not benefited by
the excess of nitrogen supplied to the
turnips, 495 ; table of produce of corn,
straw, &c., 496 ; influence of a rotation
in elaborating the soil, 498 ; barley
grown after experimental turnip cro23s,
table of results, 499 ; removal of
turnips not compensated by supply of
minerals, 500 ; tables of barley grown
in 4-course husbandry after turnips,
with and without manures, 504 ; in-
fluence of rotation, large crops of
barley after poor turnips, unmanured,
drawn, 505 ; turnips from superphos-
phate, if drawn, injurious to barley ;
if fed, beneficial, 506 ; with mixed
manures less dift'erence, ib. Con-
clnxions : the 4-course rotation as
affecting available nitrogen, 508 ; barley
manures, 509 ; the roots of plants, ib. ;
diagrams of wheat, barley, roots, 511;
the action of superphosphate, 510;
minerals more serviceable to barley
than wheat, 512 ; Mr. Puscy's trial of
nitric acid, and soda, and potash
separatelj', ib. ; objection to Liebigs
paper in vol. xvii., 512 ; his neglect of
the effect of " season ' and " quantity "
in the action of manure, 513 ; criticism
on his deductions fiom Kulihnami's

14

GE2s^EEAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

' expeiiments, ib. ; a fuller report of
them than given by Liebig, 518; pro-
portion of nitrogen in manure recovered
in the crops, 519; allowance to be
made in calculations for impuiities in
samples, 520 ; how samples were
selected, ih. ; method of analysis, 521 ;
tables of percentage of diy matter and
nitrogen in giain and straw, and weight
of corn per bushel, with and without
nitrogen manure, 523 ; table showing
relation of nitrogen in manm-o to tiuit
in increase of crop, 524 ; percentage
of nitrogen in grain and straw in in-
verse ratio to their quality, 525 ; on the
percentages of dry matter as before
tabulated, 527 ; amount of nitrogen in
crops derived from the natural sup])ly
in excess of tliat in rain and dew, 52'J ;
percentage of nitrogen recovered in
sound crop, 530 ; question as to what
becomes of the rest not yet determined,
531.

Barley, the root of, illustrated, (Professor
Henfrey), xix. 480.

, influence of climate on, see " Cli-
mate," XX. 170.

■ , ]ireparations for, in Suffolk and

Norfolk, 3 ploughings, xx. 173.

, on the growth of, after a grass layer,

(P. n. Frere), xxiv. 225; description
of land and management, ih. ; yield in
1859 and 18G0 as compared with that
of wheat, ih. ; ditto in 18G1 and 1862,
226 ; money value i)er acre, ih. ; barley
less exhausting than wheat, 227 ;
chemistry of growing cereals, ih. ; de-
sirability of increasing the growth of
b;irley on siutable soils, i1).

land, in .Shropshire, twice ploughed

(Tanner), xix. 53.

straw, its analysis and feeding

value (Dr. Voelcker), xxii. 39G.

Baklow"s method of drying Avood (Dr.
(Richardson), xx. 10.

Baklow, J., on abortion in cows, a prize
essay, xii. 62.

Baen.vhd, J., on the use of gypsum as a
manure for sainfoin, ii. 110."

Baexett, Charles, report on the live
stock shown at the Lincoln meeting
(1854), XV. 379.

, his report on the exhibition and

trial of implements at the Warwick
meeting, xx. 313.

, account of Burmese wheat grown

at Stratton, P. D., xxiii. 405.

Bakks, construction of (J. Ewart), xi. 231 .

, conversion of into cattle Ijoxes (J.

Bhmdell), sxv. 250; plan, 252; esti-
mate, 251.

Baeometek, a fall of, without rain, ac-
companied by discharge from drains,
*:ee " Hinxworth diainage " (J. B.
Denton), xx. 290.

Baural, M., his experiments on rain
water, xvii. 142.

, on the escape of nitrogen in per-
spiration, xviii. 165.

, on nitrification, xxiii. 355.

, on salt as a fixer of ammonia

(Voelcker), xxv. 194.

, on salt as a manure, in a letter to

J. B. Lawes, xxv. 510.

Baeeexxess of soils, indications of,
(J. Arkell), v. 429.

B.VETOX, J., of Emswortli, an account of
the successful industrj'^ of a Norfolk
labourer, iv. 587.

, on the application of sulphate of

ammonia to wheat, v. 601.

Baktsia odontites, wc " Red bartsia."

Basalt rocks, analysis of, xiii. 534.

, the farming of the light soils of

(J. Haxton), xv. 93.

Bates, Mr., his breeding stock sold in
low condition, xix. 147 : tiie Ducliess
family of shorthorns, 359 — liis sale in
1850, 360.

Bath and West of England Agricultural
Society (Thompson, M.P.), x.xv. 2.

Bath bricks made at Bridgwater, vii.
268.

Bathing lambs, as a cure for the scour,
by R. Fisher, v. 279.

Batteesea show, report of the stewards
of stock, at, xxiii. 369. — See Reports,
award of prizes, App. xiv.

Bai DEJiEXT, Professor, his report on tlio
use of mangolds and pulp for sheep
breeding, xx. 88.

Bavael^n i^ractico in reference to re-
allotments and enclosures (P. H. F.),
xxiii. 230.

Bean-meal, on feeding cattle with, and
with mangold and other roots (Mac-
Douall ), xiii. 113 ; (Horsfall) xvii. 279.

Beans, tlie produce per acre, from 1831
to 1842, on Lord LoVelace's farm at
Ockham, iv. 23.

, method of growing beans and cab-
bages on the same ground, by the Earl
of Lovelace, v. 112.

, the average produce of Essex,

V. 32.

, growth of, in Norfolk, v. 339.

, on the insects aflfccting, by J.

Curtis, vii. 404.

, on the analysis of the ashes of, by

J. T. Way, viii. 167, ix. 149.

, on the analysis of the seed, by

J. T. Way, X. 494.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

15

Beans, analysis of, grown on -warp soils,
by T. J. Herepath, xi. 105.

, growth of, in Surrey (Evershed),

siv. 87.
, growth of, in East Lothian (Ste-
venson), xiv. 287; deemed tliere tlie
best crop for the preparation of wheat,
ih.
—— , on the bean-tiu-nip fallow, by T.
Burroughes, xiv. 425.

, the growth of winter beans in

Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 215.

and peas, on the cultivation of, a

prize essay, by R. Vallentine, xv. 478 ;
manure when best applied, 480 ; liow
to make them cleansing crops, 481 ;
varieties of beans and peas, 485 ; their
diseases, 486.
, produced on diiferent soils (Cole-
man), xvi. 202.

, growth of, in Buckinghamshire

(Read), xvi. 291.

, winter or spring, their comparative

advantages (R. Vallentine), xviii. 36 ;
winter b. less subject to blight and
disease if sown early on drained land,
37; instances of vigorous spring
growth after severe winter, ih. ; yield
per acre, 38 ; drawbacks to the culti-
vation of winter beans, ib. ; their
sovdng in October inconvenient, ih.;
varieties of beans, 39 ; should be so
' sown as to leave space for horse-hoeing,
ib.

, their feeding and manuring cost,

value, and composition (Horsfall), xviii.
172.

, long-pod, proved on analysis (Way)

to be more valuable than lield beans
(Horsfall), xviii. 187.

, the carob, see "Carobbean."

, green-podded, as food for stock

(Aid. Mechi), xxv. 508.
Bean straw, analysis of (Way), xvii. 263.

, when steamed, given to dairy cows

(Horsfall), xvii. 262.

, analysis and feeding value of (Dr.

Voelcker), xxii. 408-10.
Beaeds (T.) steam cultivating tackle at
Canterbury, xxi. 492 ; at Leeds, xxii.
463 ; at Worcester, xxiv. 365.
Bearded darnel (Buckman), xv. 470,
471.

, its soils and habits (Buckman),

xvi. 366.
Bearing-reins, on theii' uselessness, by
Viscount Downe, xv. 73 ; the cause
of rearing in carriage-horses, xiv. 118.
Bearn, William, on the farming of
Northamptonshire, a prize essay, xiii.
44.

BEDFORDSHIRE.

Bearne, E. S., on the application of
guano and other manures at Stover,
X. 399.
Beart, R., on the manufacture of
draining-tiles, ii. 93. ^'ee "Draining-
tiles."

, on the proper materials for filling

up drains, and the mode in which
water enters them, iv. 411. See
" Drainage of land."
BecqtjERel, on the theory of light, xvii.
422.

, on the relation of stagnant waters

to the duration of life, xxii. 438.
Bedford, Duke of, on labom-ers' cottages,
X, 1S5.

Level (Jonas), vii. 64; (Clarke),

viii. 83-93, xv. 25. See "Feu dis-
trict," " Drainage of land," Wliittlesea
Mere (Wills), xxi. 135.
Bedfordshire, on the farming of, a prize
essay (W. Bennett), xviii, 1 ; reference
to Stone's report in 1794, ib.; preva-
lence of common field high ridges, ib.,
and rot in sheep (Stone), 2 ; topography
of the county, 2, 18 ; variety of soils,
2; rivers, 30. — The day district, 3,
greatly improved by under-draining, 4.
See " Drainage of Bedfordshire ;" in-
troduction of narrow 12-furrow ridges,
6; rotation of crops, cereals in alter-
nate years, 7. — Gravelly and sandy
loams, their situation, 8; rotation of
crops, 9 ; preparation for turnips, ih. ;
the common plough preferred to Ben-
tail's broadshare, ih. ; failure of the
tui-nip crop, 11; turnip-sick land, 12;
introduction of kohlrabi, 13. — Flinty
clay soils over chalk rod: in South
Beds, 14; prevalence of charlock and
the jjig-nut, ih. ; formerly little stock
or corn was produced, 15 ; turnip culti-
vation greatly promoted by the use of
Lawes' superphosiihate, 16. — Pastures,
ib. ; water meadows at Woburn, 17. —
The stock greatly improved, 18 ; few
horses bred, and little attention paid
to breed or colour, 19 ; method of
working brood mai'es, ih. ; principal
breeders of shorthorn cattle, 20 ; Mr.
Barnett's herd, ih. ; the Duke of Bed-
ford's Herefords, 19 ; sheep improved
by tlie introduction of the Leicester
breed, 20; Mr. Pawlett's flock, ib.;
cross-bred sheep, ib. ; the new Oxford
downs, ib. — Agricidtural Implements, 22 ;
Howard's patent two-wheel iron plough,
ih. ; other local makers, ib. ; Hens-
man's coulter fastener, ib. ; Bachelor's
steerage level drill, 23 ; mode of
thrashing, ib. ; thrashing in the field

16

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

objectionable, ib. — Box-feeding cattle,
introduced by S. Bennett, 24. — La-
bourers' wages, 25 ; the allotment
system, 27 ; coatrast between tlie past
and present state of farming, Francis
Duke of Bedford, 28; establishment
of the Woburn sheepshearing and
results, ih.
Beech, the, its planting and management
(Falkener), iii. 271.

for hedges, on, by J. Grigor, vi.

221.

, analysis of its wood, bark, and

leaves, xiii. 5.30.

woods of the Chiltem Hills in

Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 253.

, the sheep's fescue-grass grows

under, in the Cotteswolds (Read), xv.
464.

woods of Buckinghamshire (Read),

xvi. 307.

Beef, analysis of fL. Playfair), xii. 584.

Bees, on the management of (T. \V.
Jeston , i. 503.

Beetles, the elators, skipjacks, click-
beetles, &c., the parents of the wire-
worm, J. Curtis on, v. ISO. See " Wire-
worm," "Insects."

Beetling flax, J. MacAdam on, viii. 377,
453.

Beetroot, the action of dung and some
artificial manures on, by P. Pusey, vi.
528. See " Mangold."

, on the manufactiire of sugar from,

by J. Wilson, xiii. 144. See "Sugar."

, section of a root, xiii. 150.

, refuse matter of Ixsetroot sugar-
makers analysed, xiii. 498.

distillery, on (F. R. de la Trehon-

nais), XX. G8 ; difference l)etween the
meat markets of France and England,
69 ; industrial crops, ib. ; beetroot
sugar due to the Empcrf)r Xajx)leon,
ib.; beetroot spirit to tlie vine disease,
70 ; diflerent uses of beet in different
departments of France, il>. ; cultivation
for sugar costly on foul land, 71 ;
season of pulling, ib. : yield of crops,
•and value per ton, 72 ; pro])ortion of
pulp to roots, ib. ; origin of distilla-
tion, 73 ; prohibition to use corn, ib. ;
imports and high prices, ib. ; Champon-
nois' process of distillation, 74 ; con-
tinuous fermentation an important
feature of the system, ib. ; product of
alcohol, and cost of process per ton of
roots, 75 ; proportionate value of jiulp
and root, 76 ; conflict of opinions, ib. ;
cost of rectifying the " flegme,' 77 ;
value of pulp per ton (Baudement ib. ;
management of stock fed on pulps ;

Bella's experiments, 78 ; Delafond on
fermented food for stock, 79 ; varieties
of beet, percentage of sugar, and
bulk of crops, 80 ; analysis of Engli.sh
and French roots, 81 ; French roots
much richer tlian English, 82 ; Lo
Play and Pluchart's experiments, ib. ;
analysis of pulp by Baudement, 83 ;
at the price of spirits in 1859, no profit
can attend distillation of roots in
England, ib. ; balance-sheets of two
distilleries in France, 84 ; M. Bella's
experiments witii dairy cows, tables,
analyses, and results, 85 ; Messrs. War-
telle and Delouprt's experimental
feeding of sheep with pulp, 88 ; table
of prices of wine and beetroot alcohol,
89; number of French distilleries, 90;
Mr. Hibbcrd's experience in Wiltshire,
the spirit undrinkable fi'om the presence
of an acrid oil, //). ; his adojjtion of
Le Play's method of distilling, 90 ;
tho pul[), with hay, suited for dairy
cows, 91 ; excise regulations, ib.

Beetuuot distillery at Minety, Wilts (Dr.
Voeleker), xxi. 97.

, as an industrial crop in France (P.

H. Frere), xxiv. 25.

Beevei!, Rev. W. H., on the time of entrj'
on farms, xviii. 311.

Beh.\qie, ]\I. de, his prize farm and
management (P. H. Fnre), xxiv. 20.

Belcher, C , on the reclaiming of waste
lands (Wichwood Forest), Prize Essay,
xxiv. 271.

Belgium, see " Netherlands."

Bell, Dr., prize report on the farming
of Durham, xvii. 80.

Bell's (ilr. E. L.) farm in Kent, xxi.
385.

Bell's reaping machine, date of its in-
vention, xvii. 44.

Bella, ]\I., his trials of mangold and of
pulp for dairy cows, xx. 85.

Bellairs, Mr., on the want of schools
for farmers in Gloucestershire, Wor-
cestershire, and Warwickshire, xxv.
540.

Bellis perennis, see " Daisy."

Benefit societies in E. R. of Yorkshire,
ix. 127.

Bengal, water holding cubic petre and
other salts used for irrigation (B.
Wood \ xiii. 359.

Bennett, S., on the growth of oats, xii.
113.

■ , W., prize report on the farming of

Bedfordshire, xviii. 1.

, on the cultivation of kohlrabi, xx.

4G7.

Ben YON, Mr.R., his chalk-pit farm build-

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

17

ings at Englefiekl, Berks (Spearing),
xxi. 31.

Berard, on the chemical power of solar
radiations, xvii. 421.

Berberry-bush, supposed influence of,
in producing mildew in wheat, ii, 13 ;
J. S. Henslow on, 223.

, the parasitic fungus of, by the Eev.

E. Sidney, x. 388.

Berkeley, Eev. M. J., on the develop-
ment and action of the roots of agri-
cultural plants, xxiv. 419.

Berkshire, the chalk soils of, described
by Mavor, xii. 482.

, on the farming of, a prize essay

(J. B. Spearing), xxi. 1. Geological
map, ib. ; Mavors report (1809) as to
enclosures, tithe.s,; leases, poor-rates,
timber, 2 ; recent improvements, ih. ;
arable and timber culture incompatible,
3 ; area, ib. ; population and rates, 4 ;
physical features, ib. ; rainfall, 5 ; the
average fall no criterion for the farm,
6 ; rivers, 7 ; geological features, ib. ;
Mr. Gibson's treatment of "Bagshot
sand," ib. ; liis crops, 8 ; size and rent
of farms, ib. ; the London and plastic
clay, ib. ; Windsor forest partly enclosed
(1813), 9; the chalk, 10; chalking the
clay from beneath, 11 ; rents, 11 ; the
Vale, 12 ; chalk, marl, and greensand
combined, ib. ; hops and orchards, 13 ;
Kimmeridge clay, &c., ib. ; cropping, 14,
roots, 16 ; the water-drill, 17 ; training-
grounds near Isley, ib.; kohlrabi, 18;
spring corn and layers, 19 ; St. Foin,
Mavor's account, change in practice,
a 3 yrs. crop, 20 ; grass seeds manured
early, 21 ; cost of Loudon manure at
Slough and Reading, 22 ; wheat shocks
facing east and west, ib. ; cost of
drainage near Windsor, 23 ; the Buscot
estxite, 24 ; grass land and water
meadows, 24-5; the Prince Consort's
farms, plans, and elevations, 2(3 ; the
Flemish farm, 27 ; IVIr. TurnbuU's
design, ib. ; Norfolk and Home or Shaw
farms, 28 ; provision made for labourers,
29; Earl Radnor's iarra at Oolcshill,
■ib. ; lalxturers' cottages and prizes for
skill, 30 ; Mr. Benyon's farm buildings
at Englefield, 31 ; his treatment of
manure, 32 ; homesteads, 33 ; those on
.sheep farms remote and inconvenient,
ib. ; Mr. Garth's improvements, 34 ;
General Dunn's ditto, ib. ; rick sheds,
ib. ; farm horses, 35 ; neat cattle, 36 ;
pigs and sheep, 37; Sir R. Throck-
morton's southdowns, ib. ; his manage-
ment of ewes and lambs, 38 ; ram
breeders, 39 ; dry flocks, ib ; improve-
VOLS. I. — XXV.

ment in sheep since Mavor's time, 40 ;
Berkshire poll sheep now extinct,
ib. ; implements and machinery, ib. ;
improved harvest-carts, ib. ; steam
thrashing machines, single dressers
preferred, 41 ; steam cultivation, 42 ;
mowers and reapers, ib. ; labourers'
wages, 43 ; piece-work and payment on
Fridays, ib. ; cottages and garden
allotments, 44 ; statute fairs, 45.

Berlin, the analysis of soils, as quoted by
Liebig, show great discrepancies (Lawes
and Gilbert), xvii. 599 ; Professor
Magnus's caution as to this, 600 ; table
of discrepancies, 601.

Berners, Lord, remarks on steam cultiva-
tion, see " Discussion," xxv. 531.

Berzelil's, on humus, xvii. 291.

, chemical formula of bone earth,

xxi. 368-9.

Bethell's steam digger (Clarke"), xx. 181.

Bichat's distinction between relative and
organic life, (P. H. Frere), xxv. 268.

BiCKFORD, John, his improved system of
u-rigation, xiii. 162.

, observations thereon, by E. Archer,

xiv. 153.

, Joseph Druce on, xiv. 432.

Biddel's scarifier, practical experience in
the use of, by H. Case, i. 357 (and
see Ixv.).

Bile, the, its action and uses (Playfair\
iv. 236-261.

Billixgton's method of compressing
wood, XX. 11.

BiLLY'SE, E., on the application of bones
to grass-land, ii. 91.

Bindweed, the small, its soils and habits
(Buckman), xvi. 364.

, the great, xvi. 364.

BiNEAU, M., on the amount of ammonia
in atmospheric air (Voelcker;, xxv.
534.

Binn's patent manure for turnips (Dr.
Voelcker\ xix. 170 ; its analysis, 174 ;
its poverty in fertilishig matters, 175 ;
example of its beneficial effects, ib.

BiRCii-TREE, the, on its planting antlf
management (Falkener), iii. 274.

, analysis of its wootl, xiii. 530.

Bird, Mr. (Wolverhampton), his steam
culture with Fowlers plough (J. A.
Clarke), xx. 221.

Birds, gizzards oT, xv. 278.

, tlieir utility in destroying the insect

pests of the farm, by F. de Tschudi i tr.
by H. L. B. Ibbetson), xxiii. 231 ;
classification of birds, ib. ; distribution
and mvages of insects and caterpillars,
232, 237 ; office of birds, 233 ; utili.sa-
tiou of cockchafers, ib. : destructive
b

18

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

BIEMINGHAM.

beetles and butterflies, 234 ; birds kept
down by destroying nesting-places, 235 ;
crusade against birds in Italy, ib. ; their
propagation in Germanj% ib. ; ichneu-
mons, 237; reptiles destructive to in-
sects, ib. ; insects eggs, their vast num-
ber, and destruction by small bii'ds,
238; utility of the titmouse, Count
Woszicke's testimony, ib. ; habits of the
wi'cn, redstart, swallow, and sparrow,
239; Frederick the Great's cxtennina-
tiou of sparrows, ib. ; singing-birds
generally insectivorous, 240 ; the swal-
low, lark, cnckoo, and woalpccker, ib. ;
owls, 241 ; the hawk tribe, falcons, and
buzzards, 242 ; crows, mngpies, and
pigeons, 243 ; the twite and brarabling,
ib. • the bull and haw finch, 244 ; Ger-
man laws against bird destniction, ib. ;
suggestions for their i)rotectiou and
encoura<!;ement, 24;").

BiUMiNGiiAM, the farming and market
gardening nciir, xvii. 4.^1.

, sewage, how utilised at Aston, xvii.

489.

BiSTOKT, the (Buckman\ xvi. 3G4-37.").

BiXA orellana, .sec " Aimatto."

BiXKN, (jualitics of, xxiv. 550.

Black caterpillar of the tuniip, J. Cm-lis
on, ii. 364. See " Insects."

palmer, black jack, black slug,ii.3G4.

earth, the, of tlie central regions of

Russia, by R. I. INIurchison, viii. 125.
See " Russia."

Blackburn- {It. D.), on dairy practice,
xxiii. 419.

Blackki!, William, past and present state
of agriculture in Ireland, iv. 437. See
" Ireland."

Black-head, the (Buckman), xvi. oG2.

Black-leg, the, in sheep, xvi. 392.

Black racdick, or nonsuch grass, analysis
of (Way), xiv. 179.

Blackmooh, Vale of (Ruegg), xv. 417.

Black mustard, its soils and habits,
(Buckman), xvi. 360; number of its
seeds, 377.

Black-jitzzle in sheep (Cleeve), i. 303.

Black-wateu in sheep (Cleeve), i. 316.

Blackbukn, J. T., on the economical ap-
plication of the liquid manure of a
farm, xxiii. 1.

Blacklock, a., on the cause of the rot in
sheep, xxiii. S3, 89.

Blackwell, T. A. ("Vice-consul), letter

on the mm-rain in Mecklenburg, xvii.

331 ; despatches concerning, xviii. 218.

Bladder campion, its soils and habits

(Buckman), xvi. 360.
Blaikie, Mr. (Mr. Coke's steward), on
farmyard maume, xLs. 241.

Blaikie, W., his pro25oscd rotation of
crops, i. 283.

Bleachers' lime refuse, analj'sis of, xiii.
498.

spent leys, analysis of, xiii. 50G.

Bligh, Captain Walter, his work, ' The
English Imi^rover Improved,' noticed
by J. Parkes, vii. 252.

Blight in apples, its prevention, by J.
Ellis, iv. 267. -S>e " Apples."

in peas (E. Sidney), x. 391.

in wheat, or epiphytes (Buclanan),

xvii. 174; experiments on with pickle,
sulph. of copper, &c., 175.

Blind, the, in sheep (R. Smith), viii. 24.

Blood of the ox, analysis of, xi. 389, iv.
215. See "Fpod of live stock."

, on, by J. B. Simonds, x. 575.

, remarks on its composition, princi-
pally witli reference to diseases of
cattle and sheep in whichj tlie fluid
undergoes important changes (Prof.
Simonds), xxi. 20G ; j>roportional
weights of the solid and fluid parts of
the animal frame, ib. ; weight of the
blood to that of the entire body, 207 ;
definition of blood, ib. ; its red colour,
ib. ; its comjiosition, ib. ; coagulation,
ib. ; senim and its constituents in
heallh and disease, ib. ; albumen, its
presence and office in the blood, 209 ;
the liquor sanguinis, ib. ; salts of the
blood, 210; nature and properties of
fibrine, ib. ; Hunter's definition, ib. ;
its increase in inflammatory disorders
(Andral), ib. ; blood-letting, why and
when beneficial, 211 ; the cattle plague
of Eastern Europe accompanied by loss
of fibrine, ib. ; nutrition mainly due to
fibrine, ib. ; tlie red cells, discovered
by Malpighi, 212 ; their form and size
in man and tlie lower animals (Gulli-
ver), Prof. Queketfs investigations,
213 ; nucleation of blood cells in mam-
mals, ib. ; eftects of domestication, 214 ;
number of blood cells influenced by
sex (Dr. Carpenter), ib. ; their con-
nexion with respiration, ib. ; the act of
inspiration, 215; the expiratoiy act,
ib. ; arterial and venous blood, ib. ;
haematine and globidine, ib. ; why blood
differs in colour (Liebig), 216; effects
of absorbing oxygen and carbon and of
inhaling chloroform, ib. ; white corpus-
cules of blood, ib. ; their ofiice in rela-
tion to nutrition, 217; and presence in
inflammatory disease and butty blood, ib.

, dried, as manure, by J. S. Way, xii.

584 ; analysis of dry ox-blood and ox-
flesh, ib. ; annual consumption of meat
by au adult person, 585.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE,

19

Blood of a healthy and of a glainlcroiis
horse analysed (F. Dun), xiv. 129.

, the " Bootliblood," in shorthorn

cattle, xix. oGl.

Blundell, J. Bursledon, hi^^ farm manage-
ment, xxii. 273.

, on fatting bullocks on arable farms,

xxiii. 478.

, on the conversion of old barns into

cattle-boxes, xxv. 250.

Blytii, Mr., of Burnham, Norfolk, ex-
periments by, on drilling wheat at dif-
ferent distances, v. 355.

, Dr., his preface to Liebig's ' Natural

Laws of Husbancirj',' xxiv. 420.

BoBBiN-JOAN, a disease in potatoes, on,
by Sir C Lemon, iv. 431.

Bobierre's analysis of the water of the
Loire, xxii. 432.

Bog, an account of an improvement of

J, a shakin<j bog at IMeare in Cheshire, by
E. Galton, vi. 182.

, red, see " Red bog."

, the formation of, attiibuted to the

action of iron springs {H. Tanner), xix.
47.

Bog-earth, tlie faiTQing of the light soils
of, in Ireland (Haxton), xv. 95.

Bog iron-ore, analysis of a specimen of,
from Islay, xiii. 554, xvii. 472.

Boiler cleaning process adopted at Wool-
wich (Mr. Holland), xxiii. 431 ; (Dr.
Voelcker), xxv. 567.

tubes, French, moveable (Dcnison),

xvii. 396.

Bond, Mr., on stock farming, xxi. 166.

Bone, Mi-, of Avon, Hants, his farm
management, xxii. 285.

Bone-black, or animal charcoal, its ana-
lysis (Dr. Voelcker), xxi. 379.

Bone-mills, those sliown at Lincoln meet-
ing (1854), XV. 373.

, those shown at Carlisle (1S55), xvi.

519.

, tliose at Chester flSoS), xix. 345.

Bones, application of, to grass-land, in
Cheshire, by E. Billyse, ii. 91 ; grass-
soil best adapted for bones, ib. ; when
tenants allowed to put on bones, ib. ;
time of application, ib.; weight of a
bushel of bone-dust, ib. ; size preferred,
ib. ; boiled and green bones equally
efficacious, 92.

for turnips, by R. A. Christopher,

267.

, compared with Poittevin's manure,

- by J. Hig-ins, 269.

, by H. C. Compton, il).

, trials on turnips with, by J. Everett,

270 ; on different manures as a substi-
tute for, by J. Marshal], iii. 164.

Bones, on the solution of, in suljihuric
acid, for the purposes of manure, by
the Duke of Richmond, iv. 164, 408.

, note on the above paper, by P.

Pusey, ib. ; natureof bones, ib. ; boiled
bones as good manure as unboiled, 408 ;
calcined bones, ib.

, Dr. Fownes on, iv. 542.

, on the application of dissolved (J.

Hannam\ v. 452.

used for turnips in Nottinghamshire

before 1794, vi. 17.

, an experimental inquiry into the

theory of the action and the practical
application of, as a manure for turnijis,
a prize essay, by J. Hannam, vi. 49 ;
the inorganic portion the most valuable,
53, 61 ; trials with, fresh, boiled, finely
pulverized, rough, and dissolved in sul-
phuric acid, 59.

and sulphuric acid, by W. C.

Si^oouer, vi. 71.

as a manure for beetroot, by P.

Pusey, vi. 529.

, on a new method of preparing for

manure, by P. Pusey, viii. 17 (ferment-
ing).

, on the putrefaction of, by P. Pusey,

ix. 530.

, on, by J. T. Way, x. 217.

for pastures, by P. Pusey, xi. 400.

, analysis of fossil bones (Herepath),

xii. 100.

cateu by " crovek'd " cows in Cum-
berland (Dickenson), xiii. 259.

, analysis of fresh, xiii. 490 ; when

mixed with sulphuric acid, burnt and
unburnt, ib.

useless on the silica strata soils of

the lower chalk (Paine), xiv. 236.

used for grass-land with salt, by R.

Milward, xiv. 430.

used in Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 242,

'-, trials with, simple and dissolved,

for swedes, by Dr. A. Voelcker, xvi.
95.

used for grass-lands in Yorkshire,

Lancashire, and Cheshire (J. Dixon),
xix. 204.

not universally applicable to mea-
dow-land ( Lawes and Gilbert), xix. 573.

• for agricultural purposes, tl'ieir com-
position and treatment (Dr. Voelcker),
xxi. 379.

Book-keeping, J. INIorton's scientific, iii.
145.

BoKTiER, M. B., on the nitrification of the
soil, xxiii. 354.

BoTANV, description of the parts of grass
plants (Buckman-, xvii. 169; roots of
the wheat plant (Buckman), 172.

b 2

20

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

BOTRYTIS.

BoTRYTis of the vetch, the Eev. E. Sidney
on, X. 392.

of the ix)tato, 894.

■ of the turnip, ib.

of tlie mangel- wiuzel, ib.

Boucherie's process of preserving timber

{see Richardson I, xx. 9.
Bourne, Kemp, experiments with various

manures for the tmnip crop, xvi. SS.
BotTRNES, the winter, or intermitting, of
Dorsetshire (Ruegg), xv. 410.

of Oxfordshire (Kt>ad), xv. 193.

BovssiNGAiLT, M., on increasing tiie fer-
tility of tlie soil by substances contain-
ing nitrogen, ii. 309.

, on tlie Jerusalem artichoke, vi.

578.

, his experiments on rain-water, xvii.

142.

, on the supply of nitrogen to i)lants,

xvii. 58.
, his reply to Liebig, xvii. 597 ; ni-
trogen in soils not available as plant
food, ib.

, his test for ammonia in the soil,

xvii. 613.

, on tlie escape of nitrogen from a

cow giving milk, xviii. 105.

• , the percentage of nitrogen in h:iv,

xix. 223.

, aualvses of oat, pea, and rve straw,

xxi. lOL

, on nitrification, xxiii. 355.

, on determining the nutritive value

of grain, xxi v. 441.

, on tlie value of manure as measured

by its nitrogen, xxv. 95.

, atmospheric nitrogen not assimilaU-d

by plants, xxv. 532.
, experiments on the amount of car-
bonic acid contained in soils, xxv. 533.

, on tlie amount of ammonia and

nitric acid in rain-water (Voelcker ,
xxv. 534.
BovTRON', on the eftect of sewage on tlie
water of the Seine, xxii. 430 ; analy.sis
of Seine water at diliercnt points in
and near Paris, 432.
BowDiTCH, Eev. "W. R., on the chemical
changes in the fermentation of dung,
a prize essaj', xvi. 323.

, oii the manmial properties of clay

from gas works, xviii. 299.

, on the manuring of grass-lands,

xix. 219.
BowicK, T., his prize essay on the rearing
of calves, xxii. 136.

, prize essay on recent improvements

in haymaking, xxiii. 48.

, prize essay on the management of a

home farm, xxiii. 247.

BRATBROOKE.

BowicK, T., on portable fencing for sheqi,
xxiv. 544.

BowLY, E., on one-linrse carts, a prize
essay, vi. 150.

, prize essay on the management of

breeding cattle, xix. 143.

BoxALL, ]\Ir. (Hants}, his farm manage-
ment, xxii. 2()3.

BoxBED-LODGK, tiials of rcnpors and steam
cultivators (1,S50), xvii. 501.

Box-FEEDiNG, ou, witli liusccd compoimds,
by G. Nicholls, viii. 473.

, by Mr. Wanies, descrilxid, viii.

474.

, on the construction of boxes, xi.

202, 243, 274.

, manure made bj% analysed (Way),

xi. 708, xiii. 482 ; (Laiu'enco) xviii. 368.

Boviiell's traction engine at Colchester

^^ meeting (1850), xvii. 504; at Salisbury
(1857), xviii. 445.

, his endless rails (Clarke), xx. 202.

Boys, II., on the Kentish corn-scythe and
binding rake, i. 444.

Brachvi'odiim piinuitum, sec '■ Broom-
grass, tlie healh fal.se."

sylvaticum, see '• Broom grass, the

slender false.'

Braih.kv, on the cause of sheep rot
('(lentleinan and Fanner's Cuide,' A.v.
1729), xxiii. 72.

Brake, tlie, or biaken, its soils an<l
l.abits (Buckman), xvi. 30(j.

Bramble, the, its soils and l.abits (Buck-
man), xvi. 300.

l^uAMSTox, T. "\V., on the narrow and
wide drilling of wlieat, i. 294.

Brax, proportion of, and flour in seeds of
wheat (Eownes), iv. 540. Sep. '• Flour. '

as food for p^gs, by J. B. Lawes,

xiv. 401.

, analysis of, xiii. 524 ; (Horsfall),

xvii. 203; f Anderson), 271.
Br.ASSiCA naj)us, tee " Xaruw, or wild

rape." B. nai-is oleifeha, winter rape

(Rainals), xxi. 314 ; B. rapa oleifeia,

Riibsen raiie t llaiiials), //).
Braun, on tlie ash of viola ealaminaria,

xxiv. 427.
Bkavendar, J., on the indications whicli

are practical guides in judging of the

fertility and banvnness of the soil, a

prize reiwrt, v. 559.
, on the advantages or disadvantages

of breaking uj) grass-land, a prize essay,

vii. 101.
, on the farming of Gloucestershiir,

a prize report, xi. 110.
Braxey, watery, in .sheep 'Ckcve), i. 310.
Braybrooke. Lord, on the Audley End

water-meadows, vi. 522.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

21

Bread, the mouklincss of, a fungus (E.
Sidney), x. riOG.

Break, for portable and fixed engines,
by — Bulke, xv. 379.

Breeding, see " Cattle," " Sheep," &c.

cattle, on the management of, a

prize essay (PI Bowly), xix. 143;
Bliijor Iiudd's dcscrii)tiou of a model
shorthorn, applieablo to other breeds,
144 ; importance of a good chest, ib. ;
should be kept in open yards with
sheds, not more tban four together, ih. ;
on rearing calves, 144 ; mode of feeding
and time of {Hitting to the bull, 145 ;
instance of precocity in a heifer, ib. ;
feeding, see " Food " ; arrangements for
calving and weaning on dairy farms,
146 ; calves should not be forced nor
made to " rough it," 147 ; Mr. Bates'
and Lord Ducie's stock not kept in
high condition, ib. ; on the choice of
a bull, and breeding from a pedigree
bull and ordinary cow, 148; breeding
in and in, 1 49 ; safeguards among wild
anunals, ib. ; Skellett's book on cattle
diseases, a good authority, ib. ; cleanli-
ness of cattle important, ib. ; remedies
for the scour and husk in calves, 150 ;
ditto for black-leg or quarter, 151 ;
fecundity, how ensured, ib. ; abortion,
how caused, e.r/., drinking from foul
ponds, and eating ergot and rye-grass,
152 ; efi'ects of .season, 153 ; the season
of 1825 remarkable for the number of
bull calves, ih

, on the management of a herd of,

with especial reference to fecundity and
successful gestation (W. Wright), xix.
500 ; farm buildings, 502 ; plans of
covered liomcstead, 503, 505 ; its ad-
vantages, 50G ; feeding with oat and
chaft" and meal reconsidered, 507 ; stock
should pull their own long straw from
racks, ib. ; bulls better for moderate food
and exercise, 508 ; on cows casting their
calves, 509 ; instance of early maturity,
511 ; use of bones on grass, its effect on
iitock, ib. ; smnmer soiling unprofitable,
512 ; export of cattle, 513 : imports of
linseed, 1841-1857, 515 ; amount of cake
made and imported, ib. ; its adultera-
tion, 51() ; pure seed not properly
valued, ib. : American cake, its mix-
ture with bran, ib. ; the mucilage test
of cake, 517 ; ditferent qualities de-
scribed, ib.

, cross, on (W. C. Spooner), xx. 294 ;

size follows the sire mostly, 295 ; the
male offspring of tall and short parents
vary, ib. ; the chest, vital organs, and
forehand often follow the mother, 296 ;

in sheep, only the first cross to be relied
oh, ib. ; see " Breeding-in-and-in " ; the
race-horse bred with difi'erent aim from
ox, sheep, or pig, 297 ; more to bo
gained by crossing slieep than cattle,
298 ; see " Sheep-breeding."
Breeding, cross, of cattle (J. Coleman),
xxiii. 350 ; prevailing crosses in the north,
ib. ; Shrop cattle, 351 ; practice of dairy-
men, ib. ; inlluence of the shorthorn
bull, ib. ; the Herefords at Wobum
Abbey, 352 ; value of cross-bred steers,
ib. ; hmits to advantageous crossing,
ib. ; pedigree, 353 ; importance of
shelter, ib.

in-and-in, defined (E. Bowly), xix.

149 ; to wliat extent allowable, ib.

(W. C. Spooner), see " Breeding,

cross"; mental disease in man, result-
ing from consanguineous marriages,
XX. 297; Mr. Barford's home-bred
Leicesters, since 1783, healthy but
small, ib.

, of stock, the principles by which

it is regulated, prize essay (H. Tanner),
xxii. 1 ; influence of sire and dam, 3, 9 ;
animals in a state of nature, 3; pro-
duction of milk, 4 : effects of domes-
tication, ib. ; milking qualities affected
by the sire, 5 ; efi'ects of fat, ib. ; how
to secure rich milk, 6 ; the mammary
glands, ib. ; formation of meat, 7 :
qualities of dam and efi'ects on otf-
spring, ib. ; economy of well-bred stock,
8 ; points of a good dam and selection
of sire, ib. ; pigs, how cross-bred to
advantage, 9 ; fixity of type, Mahngre-
Nouel's experiments, 10 ; purity of
breed, 1 1 ; breeding in the same line, ib. ;
a high sttmdard more easily obtained
than maintained, 12 ; experience of
IMessrs. Pawlett and R. Smith, ib. ;
hereditary defects, 13; influence of
manag£;ment, ib. ; excessive fat un-
favourable to breeding, ib. ; value of
pedigree, 14.

Breeds, peculiar, of sheep, on, by F. Dun,
xvi. 17 ; of pigs, 18.

of pigs, efi'ect of breeding in and in

(F. Dun), xvi. 38. See " Downs,"
" Devon," " Horses," &c.

Brereton, Eev. J. L., on education as
connected with agriculture, xxv. 59 ;
his pamphlet quoted, 540 ; his expe-
rience at West Buckland, 545.

Brewers' spent hops, analysis of, xiii.
498.

grains, analysis of, xiii. 522 ; dis-
tillers' refuse, ib.

grains, as food for pigs, by J. B.

Lawes, xiv. 461.

GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGEICULTUEAL JOUEXAL.

Brtcks, on hollow brick roofs, l)y R.

Dunn, XV. 181.

, cost of making (J. AViggins\ i. 353.

, Batli, made at Bridgwater, vii. 208.

, perforated, for road-making (Bcart' s),

xviii. 95.
Beickjiakinc; hy steam, machine for

(Clayton's), at the Chelmsford meeting

(1856), xvii. 572.
, for diy earth, at Warwick (1859),

Chamberlain's, xx. 825.
, machines at Newcastle meeting

(1864), report of judges on, xxv. 42-1.
BRroGWATER Level (Acland), xi. 698.
BiiiSTLE-POiNTED oat (Buckmau), xvii.

541.
Briza media, see " Common quaking

grass."
Broad-lea YEP plantain, the effect of irri-
gation upon (Buckman), xv. 470.
, its soils and habits (Buckman), xvi.

364.
Broca, JLP., on liybridisation, xxv. 265.
Brodit:, J., his farm at Abbey Mains,

E. Lothian, xiv. yil.
BuoiiE-GRASs, the soft, analysis of (Way),

xiv. 177.
, its soils and habits (Buclnnan),

xvi. 366, xvii. 530 ; how atTectcd by

manures (Lawes), xx. 260.
. the corn or smooth rye, its soils and

habits (Buckman), xvi. 'M)ij, xvii. 537.
, the barren, its soils and habits,

xvi. 366,
• , the upright, analysis of (Way),

xiv. 177.
, its growth in different situations

(Buckman), xv. 468, xvii. 5:{7.
, the slender false (Buckman), xv.

464, xvi. 366, xvii. 524.
, the heath false (Buckman), xv. 464,

xvi. 366, xvii. 524.
Broths ercctus, see *' Brome-grass, the

upright."

mollis, var. raocmosus, var. oom-

mufatus (Buckmau), see " Bromc-gi-ass,
the soft."

secalinus, see " Bromo-grass, the

corn or smooth rye."

sterilis, see " Brome-grass, the

barren."

Broom, sovni as a crop on the poorest soils
of the Netherlands (Rham), ii. 48.

Broom-rape, or orobanclie, a plant in-
jurious to clover, by J. Main, i. 173.

, the tall (Buckman), xvi. 364.

, the branched, xvi. 364.

, the minor, xvi. 364.

Beol'ghtox House fann, xvi. 296.

Brown, H. H., on the drainage of land,
iii. 166.

Browx, T. Beale {R. D.), on the effects
of food on milk, xxiii. 418; on cattle
condiments (P. D.), 420.
Brown and INIays steam cultivator at

Farningham (1861), xxiii. 401.
Brinel's experiments on the drauglit
on roads of various descriptions, xix.
462.
BLX:KiNGiiA3isinRE, ou the farming of, a
prize report, by C. S. Read, xvi. 269 ;
climate, 270 ; rainfall, tcmjicrature, H). ;
geology of, 271 ; the plastic clay, 272 ;
the sands and gravels, 273 ; tlic iijipcr
chalk, ib. ; the lower clialic, 275 ; the
Cliiltem hills, (7j. ; analy.sis of the chalk,
276 ; the greensand, ib., 211 ; the gault,
ib. ; the iron or lower greensand, ib. ;
the oolite, 278-282 ; the'' vale of Ayles-
bury, 280 ; the Kimmeridge clay, 280 ;
the Oxford clay, ib. 282 ; analysis of
a vale of Aylesbury soil, 281 ; arable,
districts, 283; the rotations on different
.soils. 284; on the plastic clay, ib.; on
tiie Cliiltem.s, ib. ; in tlic vale of Ayles-
bury, 285 ; on gravelly soils, ib. ; on
clay soils, ib. ; on the gi'cat oolite, 286 ;
the management of fallows, ib. ; growth
of oats and barley, 289 ; clover, ib. ;
beans and peas, 291 ; watercrcsscs, ib. ;
grass-land, 292 ; grazing, 293 ; cattle,
ib. ; Creslow farm, 294 ; Ptitlowes farm,
295 ; Broughton farm, 296 ; Hereford
cattle, 293 ; shorthorns, 297 ; butter,
ib. ; cows, 298 ; dairies, ib. ; their pro-
duce, 299 ; sheep, ib. ; pigs, 301 ; pork,
ib. ; Aylesbuiy ducks, ib. ; horses, 302 ;
dmy-horses, 303 ; manures, ib. ; chalk,
304 ; implements, 305 ; improvements
in its agriculture since 1809, 306 ;
wastes, 307 ; Haddon Chacc, ib. ; beech-
woods, /&.; farm-buildings, 308; average
rental, 310; tithes, i6.; poor-rates, 311 ;
roads, 312; laboiucrs, ?7> ; cottages, 313 ;
Haddcnham Manor farm, 320.

Blcklakd, G., on the farming of Kent,
vi. 251. See "Kent."

, W., D.D,, on the causes of the

general presence of the pliosphates in
the strata of the earth, and in all fertile
soils, X. 520 ; description of pseudo or
false coprolites of Suffolk, xxi. 359.

BvcKLEY, J., on a pecidiar^ disease in
ewes, ii. 116.

Buckman, James, on finger and toe in
root crops, xv. 125.

, the natural history and agiicultural

economy of the British grasses, a prize
essay, xv. 462.

, on agricultural weeds, a prize es.say,

xvi. 359.

, on the natural history of British

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

meadow and pasture giTisscs, xvii. 1G2,

513.
Bi'CKMAN, on the roots of the wheat plant

(J. Buckman), a jjvize essay, xvii. 172.
, directions for sowing sorghum S.,

XX. 383.
report on the examination of the

pastures, near Ilchestcr, Somerset, with

a view to ascertain the cause of an

outbreak of splfnio apoplexy, xxiv. 242.
Buckwheat, analysis of, xiii. -iH.

, the climbing (Buclauan), xvi. 3G4.

BuDD, Dr., on the reason why large

animals are less injured by distomata

than small ones, xxiii. 119.
BuGLOSS, the small, its soils and habits

(Buekman), xvi. oG4.
BuGLOSS, the viper's, xvi. 3l)4.
Bugs in corn, J. Curtis on, vi. 509.
Bulbous crowfoot, the, the eficct of hri-

gation upon (Buclanan), xv. 470.

, its soils and habits, xvi. 360.

Bullocks, precocious examples, xx. 443.
Bulls, proposed method of taming savage,

by Erasmus Galton, iv. 559.
, the Jersey, scale of points of (Le

Couteur;, v. 44 ; (Jersey Ag. Soc.) xii.

582.
BuxBUKT, Sir H. C, on the allotment

system, v. 391. See "Allotment sys-
tem."
BuxiuM flexuosum, see " Pig-nut."
BuxsEN, Professor, his volumetric tests

for oxidising agents (Way), xvii. 151.
Bunt, or smut-balls, in wheat (Henslow),

ii. 4. See " Smut."
BuPLUERUM rotuudifohum, see " Hares'-

ear, the common."
BuKDOCK, the (Buckman), xvi. 3G2.
Burgess, J., on nitrate of soda as a

manure, ii. 131.
Burke, John, jun., on the breeding and

management of horses ou a farm, v. 508.

See " Horses."

, J. F., on drainage of laud, ii. 273.

, on cottage economy and cookery,

iii. 83.
• , crown estate at King William's

Town in the counties of Cork and

Kerry, iv. 435. See " Cows."
, experimental improvements on the

estate, iv. 435.
BuiiNESS, C, on the marling of a light

sandy soil on the Duke of Bedford's

farm at Wobm-n, iii. 233. See " Marl-
ing."
Burnet, the common salad, analysis of

(Way), xiv. 177.
BuRNEY, Dr., fables of monthly rainfall

at Gosport, 181G-43, and mean depth

of rain for 41 years, xxii. 343.

BuKNT clay. See " Clay-burning."'
BuRRELL, Sir Charles, on some varieties

of wheat, ii. 147.

, on white carrots, v. 281.

, Mr. (Thetford), his patents for

making portable engines self-ijroiDclling

(J. A. Clarke), xx. 203.
"Bukroughes, Kev. Thomas, his method

of preserving corn-stacks from damage,

xiv. G7.

, on the bean-turnii") fallow, xiv. 425.

, T. C, on white mustard, a prize

essay, vii. 31.
Bush vetch, the, analysed (Way~*, xiv.

179.
Butter of the Netherlands (Rham),"'iii

259.
of Holstein (C, S. Carr), i. 382.

of North Wales (^Kjwlandh.on), vii.

571.

of Gloucestershue (Bravendar), xi.

152.

of Somersetshire (Acland), xi. 735.

, on the production of, by T. Ilow-

landson, a prize essay, xiii. 23 ; com-
position of curd and skimmed milk,
ib. ; of new milk, by Dr. Playfair, 25 ;
on the fat of animals, J[aud in the
food, 2G ; in Cheshire the milk^&om
cows fed on vetches does not produce
first-class cheese, 29 ; produced by
hand-chm'uing and by machinery, 38 ;
saltpetre removes the turnipy flavom*
from cream, 42 ; butter sometimes
coloured by annatto, or the scraping of
. the red part of carrots, 43 ; Professor
Trail and Drs. Bostock and Gerard
on the comparative quantity of ^butter
yielded by milk and cream, seimrate or
mixed, sweet and sour, or scalded, 32.

, large produce of, from a Cmnber-

land cow (Dickinson), xiii. 255.

, on the ]iroduction of, by Louis H.

liuegg, xiv. GS ; butter-making in Dor-
setshire, ib. ; milk rendered bitter by
cow feeding on wormwood, sow-thistle,
or the leaves of the artichoke, G9 ; ill
effects of the cow drinking bad water,
ib. ; necessity for cleanliness in the
dairymaid, 70 ; the cow, ib. ; the Guern-
sey cow, 71 ; the food, ib. ; removal of
turnipy taste from, 72 ; churning, 73 ;
letting dairies, 74 ; tlie supply of but-
ter, 75 ; foreign imports of, ib. ; Irish
butter, imports of, 77 ; fresh butter
from Belgium, ib. ; bad butter-casks of
Dorset, 78.

, impi'ovements needed in the making

of Dorset (Ilucgg), xv. 450.

of Buckinghamshire (Read\ xvi.

297.

24

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Bt'TTEK.

Butter, annual produce of (Horsfall), xvii.
267.

made by Mr. Horsfall, analysis of

(J. T. Way), xvii. 201).

comjwsed of olcin and margcrino

(Horsfall), xvii. 280 ; its variable com-
position in summer and winter, 281.

, rejwrt on that shown at Leeds,

1861 (H. Ludolf), xxii. 232.

, its dicmical constituents (Voelcker ,

xxiv. 201.

Bun'Eii-iiUi!, its habits and soils (Buck-
man), xvi. 362.

BiTYRic acid in cheese (Dr. Voelcker),
xxii. 38.

C.

C.VBBAGE, method of growing beans and
cabbages on the same ground, by the
Earl of Lovelace, v. 112. See Beans.

, ravages of the wireworm on, v. I'J'S.

, growth of, at Stinchcombe, in Glou-
cestershire, i. 3'.)1.

, growth of, in Suflblk, viii. 276.

, cow, analysis of, by Way and Ogston,

xu. 512.

, analysis of, xiii. 474.

, cultivation of, on the light flinty

chalk soils (Haxton), xv. 100.

. growth of, in Oxfordshire (Ecad'^,

XV. 209.

, fly (J. Curtis^ on, iv. 128.

, the " thousand headed," giv^'U to

lambs and ewes in Norfolk (C. S.
Read), xix. 205.

, cattle (Dr. Voelcker), on its compo-
sition, xxi. 05, 06 ; its nutritive value,
06 ; avemge i)roduce, 07.

, cultivation of, for stock-feeding (C.

Lawrence), xxiv. 216, see "Carrots and
Cabbages."

Cadle, C., on the manufacture and pre-
servation of cider and perry, a Wor-
cester prize essay, xxv. 76.

Caiku, Mr., M.P., on the state of Agricul-
tuiv in Algeria, P. D., xxiii. 454.

, J., on manure for mangold-wurtzel,

xvii. 400.

CAKE-bruisers, see " Oil-cake Bruisers."

C.\LCAUE0us soils, tlic origin of (Fowne),
iv. 500.

, on, by J. Trimmer, xii. 455.

, on the barrenness or fertility of, by

J. Coleman, xvi. 173-170 ; analysis of a
soil, 103.

, the weeds of (Buckman)* xvi. 368.

Caldwell, H. B., his report on the
exhibition and trials of implements at
the Canterbury meeting, xxi. 488.

Caldwell, on the implement trials at the
Leeds meeting, xxii. 450.

CALEND.\n, a, of cottage gardening, by J.
Main, ii. 341.

Caloric, see " Heat."

Calvert, W., on nitrate of soda as a
manure, ii. 126.

Calves, on the means of calculating the
lumiber of from a herd of cows (Lord
Spencer), ii. 112.

, the management and rearing of in

Cheshire (Palin\ v. 75 ; food for. ■ih. ; a
recii)e for disordered bowels in, 75.

, the management and fattening of in

Holland (Karkeek), v. 252.

, the management and rearhig of in

Notlinghamshire (Comngham), vi.
21.

, slippinfj calf (Keary^, ix. 445;

(Barlowj, xii. 62.

, the quarter-evil of, in Derbyshire

(Rowlev;, xiv. 53.

, of Oxfordshire (Rcad\ xv. 225.

, on the teeth of, by J. B. Simouds,

XV. 317.

, on the rearing of, a prize essay (T.

Bowick), xxii. 136; the oalf-liouse, its
construction and cost, 137 ; treatment
of the dam, ih. ; dates of calving, 138 ;
suckling!', feeding, ib. ; early weaning,
130; feeding from the pail, ilj.; con-
sumption of milk and dry food, 140 ;
substitutes for milk, 141 ; regidation
of feeding, ib. ; the calf's bed, 142 ; dis-
eases, ib. ; remedy for diarrhoea, ilj. ;
castration, 143; supply of roots, 144;
park grazing and summer keep, ih. ;
iLse of ponds and streams, 145 ; autumn
management, ih.

, on the rearing of (^IMajor M'Clin-

tock , xxii. 146; milk, their natm-al
food, ib. ; licking by the dam, ih. ; eiirly
weaning, 147 ; running witii the dam,
ib. ; ettects of heat ami liurrj', 148 ;
colo.strum or beistyn, ih. ; medicine.",
ib. ; m(xle of teaching calves to feed,
140 ; supply of milk, ib. ; use of the
muzzle, ib. ; the urinary organs, 150 ;
scour, ih. ; .substitutes for milk, ih. ; oil-
cake gruel, ib. ; bean or pea soup, 151 ;
Johnston's " modern dairy and cow-
keeper," ih. ; the " little and often "
sj'stem of feeding, 152; waste caused
by fretting, ib. ; rock-salt and chalk,
153 ; insertion of setons, ib. ; treatment
of diseases, scour, 154 ; hoose or ca-
tarrh, 155; vermin, 156; quarter ill,
157 ; constniction of stock hou.sca, 158 ;
ventilation, ih.

Calving, on the diseases occurring after,
by AV. C. Sibbald, xii. 554 ; prccau-

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

tions to be observed at calving time,
xviii. 323.

Cambial tissue, the primarj' element of
plant growth (Pr. Hent'reyj, xviii. 37(5 ;
diagram, of cells gorged with nitro-
genous matter, ib. ; its ollice in timber
trees, 377.

Camkuidge, W., on the advantage of re-
ducing the size and number of hedges,
vi. 333.

Oambridgeshike, on the farming of, a
prize essay, by S. Jonas, vii. 3o ; tlio
light-land district, 3D ; rotation of crops.
40 ; fallows, ih. ; turnips, 42 ; mangoid-
wurtzel, 45 ; barley-crops, 47 ; clover,
legumes, 48 ; wheat, ib. ; use of rape-
dust for. 49 ; the heavy-land district,
50 ; rotation of crops, 52 ; the western
district, 55; the tirst English county
in which irrigation was introduced, 59 ;
the estate of Babraham, 60 ; Jonas
Webb's flock, ib. ; the fen-district of,
or Isle of Ely, 62 ; history of their im-
provement, ih. ; the Bedford Level, 64 ;
its steam-engines, their power, 66 ; ab-
sence of any regular rotation of crojjs,
70 ; claying of the fen-land, 71 ; on
the chaUk formation of (Trimmer), xii,
480.

Camelina sativa, see " Gold of plea-
suie."

Cameros, Dr., his acid test for cheese-
making, xxi. 91.

Camfbell, J., on the steeping of seeds (as
fertilizers), iv. 557.

• , Mr. (Craigie House, Ayrshire'', liis

experiments with swedes, xxii. 85.

Canary, its growth in Essex (Baker\ v.
38.

Candytuft, its soils and habits (Buck-
man), xvi. 360.

Canker in sheep (J. Seaman\ xvi. 9.

CANTERBruY, the liop-gruunds of, vi. 262.

, meeting of the Koyal Agricultm'al

Society, notes on (P. H. Frere), xxi.
513 ; Kentish agriculture, ih. ; the show
of stock, the shorthorn bull " Royal
Butterfly," and Capt. Gimter's heifers,
514 ; disputed standard for Devon
cattle, ib. ; Shropshire sheep, 515.

Cantrell (R. I).), on milk, xxiii. 418.

Capital, estimate of, for a Kentish farm,
by J. Tomson, viii. 36.

, required for a mixed arable farm in

a midland county, a prize essay (C.
Wratislaw), xxii. 167 ; not influenced
by time of entry, ih. ; size and descrip-
tion of the writer's farm, ih. ; selection
of stock, 168 ; sheep management and
head of live stock, 169 ; payments to
out-going tenant, 170; cost of cropping.

171 ; selection and cost of implements,
172 ; turnip and barley soil, cost of
management, 174 ; sheep and horses,
176; fattening fields, 177; capital jier
acre for a clay farm, ih. ; for a light-
land fann, 178 ; treatment of labourers,
179; commutation of beer allowance,
ih. ; overtime, 180 ; average wages, 181.

Capital, additional memoranda (P. H. F.)
182; cost of making a fallow, 183;
single inversion of the soil, 184 ; allow-
ances for unexhausted improvements,
185; cliarges for tillage, 186; special
obligations of owners and occupiers,
187; cost of manure, ISS; covenanted
allowances, ih. ; custom, ih.

Caprinic acid in cheese (Dr. Voelcker),
xxii. 38.

Capritio acid in clieese (Dr. Voelcker),
xxii. 38.

Capsei,la bursa 2'astoris, see " Shepherd's
Purse."

Caraway, growth of in Essex (Baker),
v. 37 ; sown with coriander-seed, ih.

, the tuberous, its soils and habits

(Buckman), xvi. 361.

Carbon, the quantity of carbon combined
with oxygen in the lungs of a horse
and a cow (Karkeek), v. 251.

, on its chemical properties, by E. S.

Hemming, xiii. 425.

■ of plants, whence derived (Fownes\

iv. 510.

Carbonaceous matter, general use of the
term (Dr. Voelcker), x.vii. 387.

matter deoxidises iron-rust, xvii.

462.

Carbonate of ammonia, analysis of
(Hemming), xviii. 490.

of lime in water, a cause of hardness

(Voelcker), xxv. 564.

of potash, analysis of, xiii. 490.

of soda, analysis of, xiii. 490.

Carbonic acid gas. Dr. Daubeny's ex-
periments on its evolution by plants,
iv. 515.

, the quantity produced by animals

and by men, iv. 515.

, proportion of in the atmosphere, iv.

518.

, its chemical proj^erties, by E. T.

Hemming, xiii. 432.

, absorbed by charcoal (Saussurc),

xvii. 448.

Carboniferous limestone, see " Lime-
stone."

Carduus acaulis, see " Thistle, the stem-
less."

arvensis, see " Thistle, the com."

lanceolatus, see "Thistle, the spear-
plume."

26

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

CAKDUrS.

CARDurs nutans, see " Thistle-musk."

• palustiis, see " Thistle, the marsh."

Carex, see " Sedge or Carnation grass."
Carlina vulgaris, see " Thistle, tlie car-
line."
Carlisle, report of the exhibition of live

stock at the meeting of, by W. Simpson,

xvi. 502.
, on tlie cxhiljition and trial of im-
plements at, by W. F. Ilobbs, xvi.,

505.
• , premiiuns awarded at, for live stock,

xvi., p. xxi. ; for implements, p. xxxvii.
CARNATiON-grass, see " Sedge."
Carnations arc attacked by ■wircworms

(Cm-tis), v. 190.
Carou bean, its fruit analj'sed, xiii. 522.
• , its feeding and manuring cost, valuf,

and composition (Horsfall;, xviii. 172.
Carpenter, Dr., inllncnce of sex on the

number of blood-cells, xxi. 214.
, ou the generation of steam, xxiii.

430.
Carr, J. S., on a method of destroying

rats and mice, ill. 42S.
, on rural economy abroad, i. 124.

See " Mecklenburg."
Carr, on the nual economy of Schlcswig,

Ilolstein, and Lauenbci'g, i. 371.. .S<(;

" Holstein."
, on the sheep-pox, its causes, symiv

toms, and cure, viii. 489.
Carrot, tlie white or Belcrian, on, bv

J. C. Morton, ii. 41.

, P. Pusey on, ii. 41.

, early horn. Lord Uucic on, ii. 42.

, red, tlie weight jier acre grown

from l.SliG to 1842 on Lord Lovelace's

Surrey farm at Ockhani, iv. 23.
, ou white carrots, by G. Turner of

Barton, account of a crop, iv. 2U9.
, experiments on difl'erent manures

for carrots, by J. 3L Ayuesley, on a

clay soil, iv. 270.

, on white, by Sir C. Burrell, v. 281.

, on the analvsis of the ashes of, by

J. T. Way, viii. "l 01.
, growth of in Sudlk (Ra}'nbii-d),

viii. 275 ; of white Belgian, 293.
, the insects which affect, by J.

Curtis, ix. 174.
, as food for horses, by W. C. Spooner,

ix. 271.
, on the cultivation of with raangold-

wurzel in alternate rows, by P. Pusey,

xii. 580.

, Colonel IVIacDouall on feeding cattle

with, and bean-meal, xiii. 113.

■ , on the composition of white Belgian,

by A. Voelcker, xiii. 385 ; contain am-
moniacal salts, 389; analysis of, 393.

Carrot, analysis of, xiii. 458.

, growth of on light flinty chalk soils

(Haxton), xv. 100.^

, on linger and toe in, by J. Buck-
man, XV. 125, see " Finger and toe ; "
experiments with the wild carrot, ih.

, its structiu-e and root, illustrated

(Henfrey), xix. 476, 477.

Carrots, ihe preparation for ]\Ir. Fol-
jambe's jirize croj), xix. 574.

and cajjbagcs for leeding stock, on

tlie cultivation of (C. Lawrence\ xxiv.
210; varying analyses of roots at dif-
ferent stages of growth, ib. ; Dr. Voelc-
ker on the scouring lantls of central
Somerset, ih. ; nitrogen not a sure
indication of feeding value, 217 ; cab-
bage as food for milk cows, ih. ; carrots
more nutritious than cabbages, ih. ;
comparative cost and jiroduco of the
two crops, ib. ; cultivation of caiTots,
218; mode of lifting, 219; cultivation
of cabbage, 220 ; rides for setting out
plants, 221.

, on the storing of, prize essay (G.

Jonas), XXV. 358.

Carrs, the district called the, in Notting-
hamshire (Coningham), vi. 40.

in Yorkshire ( Legard ', ix. 89.

in Lincolnshire (Clarke), xii. 355.

Carting, on the economy of (Peter Love),
xxiii. 220; extra cost of carting from
distant buildings and economy of field
bams and yards, 227 ; estimate of cai-t-
ing per acre, ih. ; its cost in harvest
and winter, 228; note (P. H. F.),
economy of compact farms, 229 ; re-
adjustment of holdings, ib. ; reallot-
ments and enclosures in Bavaria, 230.

Carts, ou the retluction of labour by
means of, by H. J. Hannam, ii. 73;
one-horse cart u.sed in Cumberland and
Westmoreland, ih. ; figure of, ib. ; very-
general in the west of Scotland, 74 ; its
lightness, ib. ; its weight, 75 ; its capa-
ciousness, ib. ; how prci^sure ou a horse
in ascending or descending a hill ob-
viated, 70 ; use of liarvest-carts in
France, 78 ; hints for the construction
of carts for different localities, 79;
figures of different shaped carts, 80;
how skidded m descending hills, 81 ;
dung-carts, 83 ; market-carts, tb. ; saving
by use of one-horse carts, 85 ; expense
of procuring, 88.

contrasted with waggons (P. Pusey),

iv. 305.

, T. J. L. Baker on the draught of

single, i, 429.

, on single-horse, by E. Bowly. vi.

156.

VOLUMES OXE TO TWENTY-FIYE.

CARTS.

Carts, on the advantage of onc-horsc,
by J. French, vi. 374.

, on the advantages derived from tlic

use of one-horse, by E. Loonies, vi. 398.

• , on the advantages of one-horse over

waggons, Ijy P. Love, vii. "223 ; di'ag for
carts, 230.

, P. Puscy on, xi. 39G.

, report on tliose sho\vn at the Great

Exhibition (in 1851), bv P. Pusey, xii.
617.

of Cumberland ("\V. Dickinsou\ xiii.

243.

, on those shown at the Lewes meet-
ing (in 1852 \ xiii. 329.

of Derbyshire (Kowley), xiv. 27.

, those shown at the Gloucester meet-
ing, xiv. 344.

■ of France (J. E. Deuison), xvii.

396.

, those shown at the Salisbury meet-
ing, xviii. 421 ; great variety of con-
struction, ih. ; i^ractical inconvenience
of long bodies (C. W. Hoskins), ib.;
prize for crank-axle, ib. ; diagram of
improved tail-board, 422; Judge's re-
poi-t, 438; advantages of long shafts,
439.

Cart-sheds, on the consstruction of
(Ewart), xi. 240.

CAKrii bulbocastanum, see " Caraway, the
tuberous."

carui, see "Common Caraway."

Case, H., practical experience on the use
of Biddel's scarifier, i. 357.

Casein from peas, analysis of (Scherer),
xi. 389, iv. 216. See "Food of live
stock."

, chemical properties of (Hemming^

xiii. 426.

-, vegetable (Dr. Voelckcr), xxii. 385.

, of milk, analysis of (Voelcker), xxiv.

288.

Catabros/.. aquatica, see " Water whorl-
grass."

Catchwater meadows of West Somerset
(Pusey), iv. 313 ; (Acland), xi. 675.

• , on converting a moory hill-side into,

by J. Eoals, vi. 518.

■ , on the formation of hill-side, on Ex-
moor, by E. Smitli, xii. 1.39.
Cattle, on the selection of male animals
in the breeding of, by Earl Spencer,
i. 22.

, those of Nnttinghamshne, vi. 20.

, on diminishing the quantity of

roots used in the fattening of cattle, liy
C. Lawrence, xv. 488.

" , those of Northmnberland, ii. 177.

• , report by W. Sewell on the epi-
demic amongst in 1841, cxix.

Cattle, on the comparative value of differ-
ent kinds of fodder in feeding, by the
Kev. W. Eham, iii. 78.

, on the feeding of in Germany

(Handley), iii. 225.

, on the method of measuring, by C.

Hilyard, iii. 337.

— — , mismanagement of fattening cattle
(Grey), iv. 1.

, lecture on the applications of phy-
siology to the rearing and feeding of,
by Lyon Playfair, iv. 216. See " Food
of live stock."

, observations on an experiment in

feeding an ox on maugold-wurtzel, iv.
230 ; inflammation in, defined, 253.

, on the comparative advantages in

the employment of horses and oxen in
farm-work, by J. Cowie, v. 52 ; in early
times the ox-gear, how fastened, 53 ;
breed of horses and oxen, and the time
when first put to work, 54 ; breeds he
prefers, ib. ; the conchtion of horses and
oxen, the work performed by each, and
its relative value, nature of the soil
where worked, ih. ; food of his horses
and oxen, ih. ; when fed, ih. ; the soil
the best adajjted to oxen, 55 ; his oxen
never shod, ib. ; not adapted for wheel-
Avork, ib. ; the cost of maintenance and
farriery of each pair of horses and
oxen, ih. ; estimate of comparative
profit and loss, 56 ; not used for draught
jDurposes in Cheshire, S3 ; on the
economy of working oxen (Lavcrgne),
xvii. 37.

, breeds of in Cheshire (Palin), v. 70,

see " Cheslihre ;" mode of rearing calves
in Cheshire, 75.

of North Wiltshii-o (E. Little), v.

175.

of Norfolk (B. Almack), v. 316.

of Argyleshire, described by E. F.

Weller, i. 348, see "Argyleshire."

, the excrements of, i. 459 ; the liquid

portion, 464 ; the solid, 460.

, on fattening, by George Dobito, a

prize essa}', vi. 74; the importance of
breed, ib. ; good skin, good handling,
ib. ; on excessively poor lean stock, 75 ;
summer grazing, ih. ; winter feeding,
76 ; their food, ib. ; stall-feeding, 77 ;
their course of feeding, ib. ; the great
points in, 79.

, breeds of, in Kent (G. Buckland),

vi. 292.

, breeds of, in Cornwall (Karkeek),

vi. 4.50.

, on the sliortliorn, by J. Wright,

vii. 201 ; the Ketton breed of Mr. C.
CoUings described, 202.

28

GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGPJCULTUIIAL JOURNAL.

CATTLE.

Cattle, the " liandling " of, vii. 207.

, on the feeding of, with prepared

food, by J. Marsli, vii. 891.

of North Wales, the, described by

T. Rowland.son, vii. 56I».

, on box-feeding with linseed com-
pounds, by G. Nicliolls, viii. 473.

, on the digestive organs of, by J. B.

Simonds, ix. 27 ; on the stone in, 4!).

of the East Riding of Yorkshire

(G. Legard), ix. 128.

, pleura pneumonia in, bv G. Waters,

ix. 348.

, on the management of, by II. W.

Keary, a prize essay, ix. 424 ; tlie ini-
jjroved .shorthorns, 425 ; stalls, yards,
and biixes eompared, 480; the Ilulder-
ncss and HiTilbrd bnids, 482 ; tl;e
Devons, 43.') ; the Norlblk and Sutlblk,
48it ; the Welsh, ih. ; tlie Clianncl
Islands breed, ih. ; the Galloway, 441 ;
the Ayrshire, 442 ; the West Highland,
ib. ; di.seases, 444 ; red water, 44i).

slipping calf, ix. 445 ; lioven, ih.

, those of Devonshire (Tanner), ix.

478.

, those of Yorkshire (Milbuni), ix.

518.

, tlio.se of Lancashire (Gamett), x. 39.

of South Wales (Read >, x. 188.

, on the maternal organs of re])ro-

duotion of, and of the luactirc in difli-
cult cases of labour, by J. 13. Simonds,
X. 248; hereditiirv' predisposition to
disease, 250 ; to colour, ih.

, on the organs of respiration and

circulation, with csjiecial reference to
the nature and treatment of pleura
pneumonia in the ox, by J. D. Simonds,
X. 570.

of Glouct stershire ''J. Bravendar),

xi. 142.

, on the constniction of cow-houses

(J. Ewart , xi. 247, 256.
, on the constiTiction of a calf-house,

xi. 259.
, on tlie cons-truction of cattle-boxes,

xi. 202, 243, 274.
, on the diseases of occasioned by

mismanagement, by W. F. Karkeek,

xi. 541.

of West Somerset, by T. D. Acland,

. xi. 678.
, on abortion in cows, by J. Barlow,

xii. 62. See " Abortion."
, scale of ix)ints in Jersey cows, xii.

583 ; in Jersey bulls, 582.
fond of the white mustard plant,

xiii. 67.
of Northamptonshire, bv W. Beam,

xiii. 81.

Cattle, experiments on fattening with
ditfercnt kinds of food, by Col. Mao
Douall, of Logan, xiii. 113. See "Live
stock."

of Cumberland described by W.

Dickinson, xiii. 249 ; the wild breeds
of Chilliiigliam, kc.,ih.\ the Lamplugh
breed, their thick liides, 250 ; cows,
256 ; their keep, and the beef of former
times, ih. ; agistment of, 259 ; '" the
Crobbek," ih. ; cattle-dealing and fairs,
260.

, on inoculation for pleuro- pneu-
monia in, by J. B. Simonds, xiii. 378 ;
xiv. 244.

of different breeds shown at the

Society s meetings, from that at Oxford
in 1S39, to that at Lewes in 1852, xii.
397.

of Diibyshire (J. Rowley \ xiv. 21 ;

annual .sale of, at Chatsworth, 44 ; ill

effects of high breeding, 45.
, on the food of cows (L. Ruegg),

xiv. 71 ; in Guernsey, ih.
of East Lothian (C. Stevenson), xiv.

296 ; the expense of conveying of,

297,
, on the hereditary diseases of, by

1"\ Dun, XV. 76.

of Oxfordshire (C. Read), xv. 222.

, on the teeth of, by J. B. Simonds,

XV. 312.
, those shown at the Lincoln meeting

(1854), XV. 380.
, feeding of, in Dorsetshire (Ruegg),

XV. 418.
, on feeding, on turnips raised with

different manmes, by A. Templeton,

xvi. 163.
of Buckinghamshire (C. Read), xvi.

293 ; Herefords, ih. ; shorthorns, 297 ;

cows, 298.
, Dutch and Flemish, at Paris Agri-

cultuml Show, xvii. 895.
, Ayrshire, at Paris Agricultural

Show, xvii. 895.
, long-homed, in Warwickshire, xvii.

492.
, Herefords and shorthorns preferred

for grazing in Warwickshire, xvii. 481.
of the Charolais race (Denison), xvii.

38.
of Durham, shorthorns or Durhams

(Dr. Bell), xvii. 106; Colling, the great

improver of the Durham or Teeswater

breed, ih. ; the celebrated " Durham

ox," its weight and value, {h. ; points

of a well-bred animal, 107.
dain,-, their management (T. Hors-

fallj, xvii. 260. See " Dairy cattle."
of Shroiishire (H. Tanner;, xix. 25 ;

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

29

Herefords, ib. ; Jlr. Child's herd of
Devons, 28, 38.
Cattle, tlicir hve and dead weight com-
pared (HorsfiiUi, xvii. 278.

of Bedfordsliire, principally short-
horns and Herefords (W. Bennett),
xviii. 19.

of Jersey, scale of points, xx. 48.

of Angein and Jutland (Denmark),

xxi. 301.

feeding, experiments in (E. W.

Moore), xvii. 342 ; table of results with
Devon, Hereford, shorthorn, and half-
bred cattle, 344.

feeding (Horsfall), see "Fattening

cattle."
food manufactm-ed, see " Food manu-

factiu'ed."
, management of cattle feeding on

beet pulp, Mr. Bella's experiments, xx.

78.
, composition of their increase while

fattening, see '■ Oxen, sheep, and pigs,"

xxi. 433.
, breeding, management of, see

" Breeding cattle."
, condiments, P. D. (B. Brown'',

xxiii. 420 ; testimony in favour of

Thorleys food, 421 ; Discussion, ih. ;

Mr. Cantrell's experience as to Griffin's

food, (7;.; Mr. H. Cotton (Kent),

422 ; Mr. Simpson (Birmingliam), ib. ;

Mr. Thompson, M.P., 423; Mr. E.

Barker, ib. ; Major Munn, 424 ; ]\Ir.

Lawes ( liothamsted), 425 ; Mr. Frere,

42G ; Professor Simonds, ih. ; Colonel

Challoner (chairman), 427.

boxes, cheap plan of, adopted in

Durham (Dr. Bell), xvii. 109; in the
weald of Sussex (S. Hawes), xix. 197.

boxes converted out of old barns (J.

Blundell), xxv. 250 ; plan and estimate,
251, 252.

C'AL'VET, on the excremcntitious powers of
roots, xxiv. 429.

Cavendish, ou nitrificiition, xxiii. 355.

Cavendish, Hon. W. G., report of imple-
ment trials at Colchester, xvii. 504.

, on road mending as practised by

Mr. Arkwriglit^ xviii. 451.

Celandine, analysis of, xiii.528 ; (Buck-
man), xvi. 370.

Cellulose, intimately related to starch
(Henfrey), xviii. 384.

, in woody tissue iDr. Richardson),

XX. 2.

, its relation to woody fibre (Dr.

Voelcker), xxii. 389.

Census of 1861, agricultuial notes on
(J. D. Dent, M.P.), xxv. 318; area and
population of towns in relation to the

chaff-cutters.

country, ib. ; rate of increase, ib. ;
occupations of the people, ib. ; number
of persons engaged in agriculture, 319 ;
union of small farms, 320; labourers
and servants, ib. ; shejiherds, 321 ;
agricultural students, ib. ; size of farms,
322 ; effect of decreasing the number
of small holdings, 324 ; railways, 325 ;
proportion of grass land, ib. ; sales of
grain at the principal markets of
England and Wales, 32t> ; seasons and
crops, ib.

Centaurea cyanus, see '• Corn blue-
bottle."

nigra, see " Knapweed, or black-
head.'

scabiosa, see " Knapweed, the great,

or hard-head."

Cerastium arvense, see " Corn mouse-
ear."

Cercaria, description of (Simonds), xxiii.
115.

Cereals, vegetation of (B^n-kcley), xxiv.
433.

, artificial fecundation of (M. D.

Hooibreukji, xxv. 258 ; mode of con-
ducting the experiments, 259 ; natural
process of fecundation, 2(30; artificial
means and their advantages, ib. ;
examination and report of Commis-
sioners of investigation, 201 ; report of
second trial, and discrepancies between
the two, 202 ; instructions for the con-
duct of experiments as tests, ib. ; effects
of rolling, 204.

Cesspools in drains, J. Parkes on, vii. 270.

Chadwick, E., on the sanitary effects of
land-drainage, iv. 151.

Chaff given to animals to rediieo t'le
amount of force requisite in m isticatioH
(Playfair), iv. 234.

of oats, analysis of ash of (^Way),

vii. 647.

, clover, experiments witli feeding

sheep on, witli oil-cake and swedes, by
J. B. Lawes, xvi. 47.

cutting at tlie time of thrasliing

(H. Evershcd), xxiii. 337.

houses (H. Evershed', xxiii. 338.

Chaff-cutters, the, exhibited at the
Shrewsbury meeting, vi. 310.

at the York meeting, trials of, ix.

417.

, a report of those shown at the Great

Exhibition (in 1851), by P. Pusey, xii.
033.

, a report on those s'aown (in 1852).

at the Lewes meeting, xiii. 325 ; horse
and steam chaft-cutters, 320.

, a report on tliose siiown at Glou-
cester (1853), xiv. 300.

30

GENERAL IXDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

CHAFF-CUTTERS.

Chaff-cutters, a report on those ,sho\Yn
at Lincoln (1854), xv. 371.

at Carlisle (1855), xvi. 510.

(Belgian) at Paris (1856), xvii. 51.

a rejxirt on those shown at Chester

(1858), xix. 337 ; at Oanterbuiy (18G0),
xxi. 500.

Ohalk formation, farming on, in Lincoln-
shire, the three points of (Pusev), iv.
300.

, farming of, in Kent, by G. Buck-
land, vi. 252.

, on adding chalk to clialk soils

(Pusey), iii. 183.

, on the phosphoric strata in, by J.

M. Paine and J. T. Way, ix. 5G.

• , the soils resting on, their deficiency

in calcareous matters (Logard), ix. 87.

, its use as a manure, by 1'. Pusey, xi.

410.

, the varying forms of, by J. Trim-
mer, xii. 451 ; the chalks of Norfolk,
Cambriilgeshire, &e., 480; of Hertford-
shire, by A. Young, 481 ; of Berkshire,
by Mavor, 4S2 ; of Wiltshire, ))y Davis,
483; of Hampshire, by Vancouver,
484 ; of Dorsetshire, by Stevenson,
48(j ; of Sns.sex, by A. Young, 487 ; of
Surrey, by Stevenson, 48G, 488; of
Kent, by Boys, 487; of the whole
chalk-range, by J. Trimmer, 480.

, on the chemical and agricidtural

characters of the, by J. T. Way and
J. M. Paine, xii. 544 ; the lower ganlt,
analysis of, 54G ; of tlie middle ganlt,
547 ; of the upper gault, 548 ; of the
soft rock alxive the gault, 549 ; of the
firestono rock, ib. ; of the soft brown
rock immediately above the gault, ih. ;
of the fossil ifcrons gi-een marl, 550 ; of
the gi'ey marl or malm, 551 ; of the
lower chalk, 552 ; of the lower chalk
■with flints, 553 ; of the upper soft white
or fi-ee chalk, ih. 554.

and chalk-marl, analy.'sis of, xiii. 53G.

marl from Faruham analysed, xiii.

53G.

from IMuedon and 3Iaestricht, ana-
lysis of, xiii. 53G.

of Surrey, cropping of, by S. Ever-
shed, xiv. 79.

• , on the silica strata of the lower

chalk, by J. T. Wav and J. :M. Paine,
xiv. 225 ; soluble silica of, 22G, 227 ;
malm, 230 ; the tirestone rock, 229 ;
the ganlt between Faraham and Peters-
iield, 231 ; specimens from Selbome in
Hampshire, 235 ; the Underclift' in the
Isle of Wight, ib. ; lime useful on
these soils, 23G ; bones useless, ib. ; on
making silicates of potash and soda,

CHARBON.

238 ; silicate of lime, 239 : probable

agricultural uses of, 241 ; effect of upou

wheat, 242.
Chalk of Surrey, its farming (H. Ever-
shed), xiv. 405.
, the amount of water evaporated

from a chalk soil (Clarke), xv. 41.
, the farming of the light soils of

the upper challc (J. Haxton), xv.

90-9G.
of Oxfordshire (C. Read), xv. 192 ;

the lower chalk, 194 ; intermittent

springs of, 193.
of Dorsetshire, its fanning (Ij.

Ruegg), XV. 397, 398.
, the diftcrent qualities of the chalk

in Dorsetshire, xv. 438.
, the soft chalk of Bere and Wool

(J. Trimmer), xvi. 131.
, the upper, of Buckinghamshiro

(C. Read), xvi. 273; the lower, 275;

analysis of, 27G ; used as a manure,

304.

of Berkshire (Spearing), xxi. 9.

Ch.\lloxer, C. B., pmctical instmctions

for improving and economically main-
taining piirisli and tiu'npikc roads

upon tile mile system, ii. 353. See

"Roads."
, report on the exhibition and tiual

of implements at the Exeter meeting,

xi. 452.
CH.\5rnERLAi?i's machine for making

bricks from dry eartli, as shown at

Warwick (1859), xx. 325.
Chamomile, analysis of, xiii. .528.
, wild, analysis of, xiii. 528 ; its soils

and habits (Buckman), xvi. 364.

, corn (Buckman), xvi. 364.

, stinldng 'Buckman), xvi. 304.

Ch.vmi's process of preserving timber

(Dr. Richardson), xx. 7.
Cn.uiPONNOis' process of distilling, xx.

74, xxi. 97.
Chandler, C, on a drill for distributing

supci7)hosphato of lime in a liquid

state, ix. 521.
Cil\^ndler and Oliver, their steam tackle

(J. A. Clarke), xx. 198.
, its exhibition and trial at Lced.s

meeting (1861), xxii. 463 ; award, 477
Ch.\nxel Islands, on the tenure of land

(C. B. Adderiey, M.P.\ xvii. 622;

small holdings and high rents, 623.
• , agriculture of, a prize essay (C. P.

Le Cornu), xx. 32 ; Jersey, 33 ;

Guernsey, 56 ; Alderney, 64 ; Sark, 66.
Chaplins, Mr., his improvements at

Temple Bruer (Pusey), iv. 302.
Charbox, the, in sheep (J. Seaman^, xvi.

14.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

31

Charcoal, ancl charcoal and salt, as a
manure for turnips, tried by the Earl
of Essex, V. 280.

peat, analysis of, xiii. 490.

. , its use in racking cider (H. Tan-
ner), xix. 25.

, animal or bono black, its analysis

(Dr. Voelcker), xxi. 379.

Charlbury subsoil-plough, the, described
by P. Pusey, i. 4^3.

Charlock, Sinapis arvcnsis, a i\\vourite
food of the black caterpillar of the tur-
nip saw-fly, ii. 377.

, on the extir^iation of, by J. Farn-

combe, xi. 8G.

, its soils and habits (Bucknian), xvi.

360 ; the number of its seeds, 377.

Charjioise sheep, the, of France (M. M.
Nouel), xiv. 221.

Charxock, C, on the application of blue
shale to the surface of land, iii. 161.

• , John H, on tlie farming of the AVest

Riding of Yorkshire, a prize essay, ix.
284.

, on suiting the depth of drainage to

the circtunstances of the soil, x. 507.

, on the destruction of the wireworni,

xi. 182.

, on the advantages of using a pro-
portion of rape-cake as a food for stock,
xi. 613.

Chaeolais cat lie at the Battersea show
(1862),xxiii. 371.

Charter of the Koyal Agricultural So-
ciety, xsii. i.

Chat-moss, reclamation of (Garnett\ x.
10 ; (Smith), xvii. 375.

Chatsworth, the farm at, xiv. 44 ; its
annual sales of live stock, ib.

Cheese, making of, in Holstein, i. 378.

, that of Holland described, iii. 261 ;

Gouda cheese, ib.

, cause of the different flavours of the

cheeses of various districts, iv. 251.

, land generally considered the best

adapted to the making of, iv. 250.

• of Cheshire (Palinj, v. 88 ; modern

improvements in the manufacture of,

■ , sketch of a cheese-mill used in

Cheshire, v. 111.

, a detailed account of the making

of Chesliire cheese, by H. White, a
prize essay, vi. 102 ; made froni new
milk, 103 ; number of cows kept, and
their produce, 104 ; the season, ib. ;
milking olHces and utensils, ib. ; best
temperatiu-e of milk-house, 105 ; the
dairy, ib. ; light and air excluded, ib. ;
' process of cheesemaking, 106 ; the
colouring matter employed, 108, 122 ;

the rennet, ib. ; the curd, 109 ; the
breaking and gathering, 110; quantity
of salt used, 112, 114 ; milk, produce of
cheese from, 114 ; the salting and dry-
ing room, 117; how clieese is sold,
119 ; the scalding of whey, and the
making of whey butter, 121 ; advice to
the dairymaid, 123 ; a recipe for cm-ing
the mawskins, ib.

Cheese of North Wales (Eowlandson),
vii. 571.

of Gloucestershire (Bravendar), xi.

152.

, the Cheddar (T. D. Acland), xi. 705 ;

(Fulton), xxi. 75 ; (Harding), xxi. 82.

, the milk from cows fed on either

clover or vetches considered in Cheshire
not to produce first-class cream (^Eow-
landson), xiii. 29.

, report on that shown at the Chester

meeting (1858), by H. White, xix. 400 ;
the champion prize of lOOL and 101. to
dairymaid, awarded to G. Wallis, 401 ;
weight of the champion cheeses shown,
403; selection of judges, 404; mode of
judging, 405 ; no attention paid to co-
lour, ib. ; want of small cheeses com-
plained of, 406 ; oj^inion of the judges
on colour, 407 ; on quality and texture,
408 ; early ripening, 409 ; suggestions
for future exhibitions, ib. ; defects of
dairies, 410 ; use of external salting,
ib. ; quality of cheese not impaired by
txse of bone manure, 411 ; on the colour-
ing of cheese, 412, see " Aimatto ;" table
of answers to inquiries, by the Chester
local committee, on the manufacture of
cheese, 414 ; produce of cheese per
cow, 416 ; use of the thermometer, 419 ;
use of salt, 417, 419; analyses of whole
and skim-milk cheeses, 420 ; cheese
more nutritious than meat, ib. ; increase
of iDroduction in Clieshire, ib.

, report on that shown at Leeds, 1861

(H. LudoIf),xxii. 232.

, its composition and practical mis-
takes in making it (Dr. Voelcker), xxii.
29 ; cause of the deterioration of Eng-
lish cheese, ib. ; Mr. Hinuberstone's
eiforts, 30 ; how cheese is spoiled, ib. ;
systems of making, 31 ; dairy utensils,
ib. ; composition of milk, ib. ; action of
rennet, ib. ; neglect of scientific prin-
ciples, 32 ; errors in making, ib. ; re-
medies and safeguards, ib. ; composition
and microscopic appearance of cheese,
ib. ; milk-sugar and lactic acid, ib. ; con-
stituents of milk, ib. ; analysis of new
milk, 33; effects of foot], ?b. ; morning
and evening milk compared, 34 ; eff'ects
of good pasture, ib. ; richness of autumn

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

milk, ih. ; relation of butter to casein,
35; quality of cheese influenced by
management, 36 ; cream, wbole-milk,
and Stilton cheese, 37 ; analyses of Stil-
ton and Cotherstone, ib. ; saline taste of
cheese, presence of aumioniacal salts,
generation of acids, 38 ; efiects of water,
39; analyses of Cheshire and Cheddar
clieese, ib. ; cause of rich appearance of
old cheese, ib.; Mr. Hardiuf^'s make,
40 ; tlie ripening process, ib. ; analyses
of double and single Glo'stcrs, 41 ; dif-
ference of price greater tlian tiiat of
quality, 42 ; analyses of Leicester,
Warwick, and "Wiltsliire cheese, 42, 43;
effects of salt, 43 ; analyses of tkim-
milk cheese, 44 ; American cheese, 45 ;
j)ractical mistidies in making, 40 ; cause
of bad flavour, action of fenuents, &c.,
ib. ; importance of cleanliness, 47 ; fer-
ments destroyed by heat, 48; metid
pails and tubs, ib. ; situation of dairy,
ib.; Somerset milk -tins, 49; use of
nitre and salt, ib. ; tlie aeidometer, ib. ;
the tliermohietir, 50 ; percentage of
water in curtl, ib. ; influence of tempe-
rature, 51 ; time of curdling at diflerent
temperaturis, ib. ; separation of curd
from wliey, 52 ; ert'ect of ^vhey in clieese,
ib. ; aimatto, ib. ; colour and shape cri-
terions of quality, 53 ; slip-scalding,
ib.; Cofjuets cheese-tubs, 53, G8 ; curd,
how broken, 54 ; clear whey an iiidi-
cation of good management, ib.; whey
butter, ib. ; composition of whey, 55 ;
in ditferent stages, 50; percentjige of
butter in milk, 55; Keevils dairy ma-
nagement and apparatus, ib. ; albumi-
nous matter in whey and pereentjige of
ciu:d mechanically suspended, 58 ; the
ciud-mill, 59 ; rennet, how made ami
used, ib. ; experiments on the action of
rennet, 61 ; preparation of aunatto, 04 ;
Mr. Nichols' solution, ib. ; evils of irre-
gular or excessive salting, 05 ; the projier
proportion, ib. ; the American mode,
ib. ; errors in keeping cheese, 00 ; damp
or ill- ventilated rooms, 07; turning,
ib. ; influence of temperature, ib. ; use
of hot water, ib. ; prize essays ou cheese-
makuig.

experiments (Dr. Voelcker', xxiii.

170 ; management of pasture farms,
171 ; action of rennet at difterent tem-
peratures, lb. ; mode of making the
Wall's Court experimental cheese, 172 ;
treatment of curd, ib. ; vatting, ib. ;
Cockey's jacketed cheese-tub, 173 ; re-
ceipt for rennet, ib. ; cheese No. 1,
whole milk, analyses of milk and whey,
174; albumen, j6.; valueof whey, 175 ;

CHEMISTRY.

■weight of cheese at (Jifferent periods,
and analysis, ib. ; No. 2, partly skim-
med milk cheese, analysis of milk,
ib. ; analysis of whej-, 170 ; Aveight
and analysis of cheese, ib. ; No. 3,
skinnned milk cheese, analyses of milk,
whey, and ripe cheese, 177 ; No. 4,
extra rich cheese, 17S ; No. 5, whole
milk, 179; No. 6, partly skimmod
milk, ISO; No. 7, skimmed milk, 181 ;
No. 8, extra rich chcH'se, ib. ; table of
results, 182 ; cause of richness of cheese,
ib. ; Mr. Bridges's testimony, 183 ; cause
of the aroma of Cheshire clieese, ib.;
temperature at which to apply rennet,
184 ; results in produce and money of
the Wall's Court experiments, ib. ; policy
of making cheese or butter, ib. ; experi-
ments at Froceste-r Court, Mr. J. F.
Harrison's single Glo'stcr cheese, 185;
his management ami mode of keeping,
ib. ; use of the centrifugal drying ma-
chine for separating whey, 180 ; experi-
ments with cheese (1) made by hand,
and (2) by machine, ib. ; analysis of
milk, ib. ; and two samples of wliey,
187; iiroduce and explanation, 188;
analysis of cheese and results of period-
ical weighings, ib. ; rich (juality of milk
in the fall of the year, 190; produce of
cheese from stated quantities of milk at
difl'erent seasons, ib. ; fermentation of
ciu-d, 191 ; analysis of whey cheese, ib.

Cheese, poisonous, on (Dr. Voelcker),
xxiii. 34() ; use of white and blue vitriol
condemned, ib. ; heaving preventible by
proper management, 347 ; cases of poi-
soning, ib. ; analysis of Little BadswortJi
cheese, 348; ihe sausage and chtese
poison as known in Germany, 349 ; a
family poisoned in Middlesex, 350.

CiiEKSE-making apparatus, on that shown
at Cliester (1858), xix. 343.

presses, ou those at Chester (1858),

xbc. 345.

CiiELiDON'iuM majus, gee " Celandine."

Chelmsford, report of the exhibition of
live stock at the meeting of, by Sir S.
H. Northcote, xvii. 563.

, on the exliibition and trial of im-
plements at, and at Boxbed Loilgc,xvii.
564.

, premiums awarded at, for lire

stock, xvii. p. xxiv. ; for implements, p.

XXXV.

Chemical advantages of land diainage

(J. T. Way), xvii. 123.
Chemistry, see " Agricultural chemistry,''

on the neglect of, by practical farmers,

its causes and remetly, a prize essay, by

E. T. Hemming, xiii. 409.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

CHE3IISTRY.

Chemistry, table of chemical equivalents,
or atomic weights, and definite propor-
tions, by E. T. Hemming, xiii. 445.

, its relation to physiology (A. Hen-

frey), xvii. 63.

' ; process for estimating minute quan-
tities of nitric acid (J. T. Way), xvii.
151.

; metliod of analysing farmyard ma-

mu'e (Voeleker),xvii. 259.

, papers on, see "Lawes and Gil-
bert."

CHENoroDaT»i album, see "White goose-
foot."

Chekey, the, analysis of the wood and
bark of, xiii. 5o0.

trees of Kent, vi. 279.

orchards in Hertfordshire, xxv. 313.

Oherwell, the meadows of the valley of,
injured by the floods, xv. 222.

Cheshike, the farming of, by W. Palin,
prize report, v. 57 ; chiefly in grass, 58 ;
the soils, ib. ; sand-land daiiy-fann,
59 ; course of cropjjing, 60 ; clay-land
dairy-farm, 62 ; rotation after a ley,
03 ; sand-land arable fanu, ih. ; rota-
tion on a strong clay, 65 ; breeds of
cattle, 70 ; cows, ib. ; sheep, their
number, 71 ; Cheviots and Leicesters,
72 ; pigs, 73 ; rearing young cattle,
74 ; management of calves, 75 ; calves
reared from every 20 cows, ib. ; drain-
age, 77 ; agricultural implements, 81 ;
the horses and other cattle employed
in husbandr3% 83 ; the tenures of the
farms, 84 ; reasons for and against
leases, 86 ; wages, 87 ; cheese of
Cheshire, SB; modern improvements
in the manufacture, ib. ; manures em-
ployed, 89; marl, 90; lime, ib.; guano,
itl ; iiitrate of soda, ib. ; cottage allot-
ments for sj^ade husbanchy, 96 ; irri-
gated meadows, 98 ; pasture-land, ib. ;
fences, 99 ; farm-buildings, &c., 100 :
potatoes, 102 ; Swedish turnips, ib. ;
lucerne, 103 ; sketcli of a furrow-
presser, 110 ; sketches of a curd-mill, a
curd-breaker, and a cheese-mill, 111;
an agricultural ride in Cheshire. 105.

, a detailed accoimt of the making of

Cheshire cheese, by H. White, a prize
essay, vi.'102. See " Cheese."
Chester, meeting of Koyal Agricultural
Society at (1858), see " Meetings,"
" Premiums," " Implement trials."
Chesnut, horse, its planting and manage-
ment (Falkener), iii. 274.

, its planting and management (R.

Falkener), iii. 269.

, the Spanish, analysis of its wood

and leaves, xiii. 530.
VOLS. I. XXV.

CHE.STEraiAN, W., account of a newly-
invented portable steaming apparatus
for steaming potatoes or other roots, v.
283.

Chevalier barley, its origin,?. Puscy on,
i. 11, viii. 280.

Cheyalliers glactometre centesimale,
for testing milk, xxiv. 316.

Chevaudier, on water meadows and the
virtue of springs, xvii. 325.

Cheviot sheep, the, their extensive in-
troduction into Scotland described by
J. Dudgeon, i. 97, ii. 174, viii. 431.

, on, by J. Wilson, xvi. 231.

Chichorrm intybus, see " Chicory, wild."

CniCKWEED, its soils and habits (Buck-
man), xvi. 360 ; the number of its
seeds, 377.

Chicory, its cultivation in Holland
(Piham), iii. 251 ; used for beer (for its
bitter taste) and coffee, ib. ; the seed
when sown, ib. ; the soils best adapted
for, ib. ; the roots, when taken up, ib.

, analysis of its root and leaves, xiii.

474.

, the wild, its soils and habits (Buck-
man), xvi. 361.

Childers, J. W., on shed-feeding sheep,
i. 169. See " Sheep."

Chillingham, the, breed of wild cattle
(W. Dickinson), xiii. 249.

Chiltern, the, district, rotation of crops
on (Bead), xv. 203; its beech-woocls,
253; (Read), xvi. 307.

hills of Bucks, xvi. 275.

Chladosporium herl)anim, the, x. 386.

Chloride of sodimn, see " Salt, common."

of potassium, xiii. 430.

Chlorite, the, analysis of, xiii. 532 ; xvii.
463.

, schist rocks, analysis of, xiii. 534.

Chlorophyll, or leaf green, see " Vege-
table Physiology " (Pr. Henfrey), xviii.
390, 394 ; generated, according to
Mulder, from starch, 404 ; its albumi-
nous substance identical with proto-
pla.sm, 405.

Christopher, E. A., on bones and Poit-
tevin's manure for turnips, ii. 267.

Chrysanthemum leucanthemuni, see
" Ox-eye, the white."

segctum, see " Ox-eye, the yellow,

or Com marigold."
Churning in Dorsetshire and other
places (Ruegg), xiv. 73.

in Mr. Horsfall's dairy, xvii. 277.

Churns, a report by P. Pusey on the
churns sho-\vn at the Great Exhibition
(in 1851), xii. 637.
, on those sliown at the Lewes meet-
ing (in 1852;, xiii. 328,

c

34

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Churns at the Gloucester meeting, iv.
345.

at the Carlisle meetmg (1855), xvi.

521.

(Belgian), at the Paris meeting,

1856, xvii. 51.

, at the Salisbury meeting (1857),

xviii. 448; Rev. E. A. Feriyman's de-
scribed, 449.

, at Chester (1858), xbc. 344.

Chute, Mr., Vyne Fai-m, Hants, his ma-
nagement, xxii. 2G(J.

Cider, on the cultivation of orchards and
the making of cider and perry, by F.
Falkener, iv. 380, *ee "Apples;" on
making cider, 398 ; the nature of fer-
mentation, ib. ; the juice, ib. ; the
grindinir, 400 ; the mill, ib. ; cider for
the use of the maker, 401 ; the pom-
mey or pulp, 402 ; the rough strong
cider, ib. ; the sweet cider, ib. ; the col-
lection of the fruit into heaps, 403 ;
precautions necessary in cider-maldng,
ib. ; management of the fermentation,
405 ; aiij)les yield about 70 per cent, of
their weight of juiee, 400.

, on that of Devonshire (Tanner), ix.

473.

, water-cider, ix. 473.

of Gloucestershire (Bravendar), xi.

153.

of Somersetshire (T. D. Acland\ xi.

736.

, refuse apple-pulp, analysis of, xiii.

498.

making in Herefordshire (Rowland-
son), xiv. 440 ; analysis of apples, 447 ;
artificial i)reparatiou of the oil of apples,
448.

, its production in Jersey (Le Comu^,

XX. 39.

and perry, the manufacture and pre-
servation of, a Worcester prize essay (C.
Cadle), XXV. 70; gathering the fruit, 77 ;
grinding and pressing, 78 ; plan and
section of eider-mill, 79; Coleman's mill,
SO ; P. Latchain's patent, 81 ; Devon-
shire pound-houses, 82 ; Herefordshire
travelUng mills, ib. ; use of metal ob-
jectionable, ib. ; prevailing errors, 83 ;
fermeutiition and after management,
ib. ; analysis of Somersetshire cider,
(Voelcker;, 84 ; malic acid the cause of
roughness, ib. ; chemical changes, ib. ;
action of ferments, 85 ; vinous fermen-
tation, ib. ; slow fermentiition, 86 ;
malic acid, its chemical formula, ib. ;
management of cider, ib. ; treatment of
scum and settlings, 87; mode of
cleansing casks, ib. ; precautions against
biu-sting, ib. ; use of isinglass or stewed

apples for " fininsr,'' 88 ; acetous fer-
mentation dependent on temperature,
89 ; bunging, ib. ; management of
perry, il). ; the practice of matching,
90; colouring, ib. ; general remarks,
91 ; use of the saccharometer, ih. ; Mr.
Hill's system of cider-making, 92 ; se-
lection and treatment of fruit, ib. ; rack-
ing, ib.

CiNEiuiAL manures (Prof. Hofmann), xxv.
101.

CiKENCESTER College, liquid manure,
analysis of (Dr. Voelcker), xix. 528.

Clauk, J. F., on a cheap material for
farm-buildings, xxiv. 552.

Claiikk. John, on the advantages and
disadvantages of breaking up grass-
lands, vii. 500.

, J. A., on the great level of the

fens, including those of South Lin-
colnshire, a prize essay, viii. 80. See
" Fens."

, J. A., on the farming of Lincoln-
shire, a prize essay, xii. 259.

, J. A., on trimk drainage, a prize

essay, xv. 1.

, W., on nitrate of soda, iv. 276.

, Dr., his water-purifying process,

xxv. 566.

Classification of soils, by Dr. Daubcny,
iii. 139-156.

of i)lauts, by J. B. Lawes, viii. 229.

Clavssi:n's tiax-cotton, E. Macdermott
on, xii. 235.

, J. Wilson on, xiv. 199.

Clay's (Wakefield) steam cultivator at
tlie Worcester meeting (Clarke), xxiv.
367.

Clay, the blue, of Lincolnshire described
by J. A. Clarke, xii. 280.

, pipe, porcelain, tile, and fire, ana-
lysed, xiii. 536.

, alluvial from Portobello, analysis of,

xiii. 536.

marl, of Ayrshire and Cornwall,

analysis of, xiii. 536.

. as a deodoriser of town sewage

(Way), XV. 161.

, the potter's, or china, of Purbeck

(Ruegg), XV. 390, 394 ; xvi. 131.

, burnt, on the use of, as a manure

for heavy clay soils, by F. Pym, iii.
323; time of year for, ib.; the clay
or marl used by Mr. Pym, 324.

, by Eli Turvill, iv. 267 ; practised in

the Essex Roothings, ib. ; repeated
after four or six years, ib. ; an excellent
preparation for all kinds of com, ib.

, by Lichfield Tabrum, ib.

in Essex, described by R. Baker, v.

12.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

35

Clay, on the improvement of cold, heavy
soils by the application of burnt clay,
by C. Randell, v. 113 ; expenses of,
117.

, burnt, effect on wheat crop (P.

Pusey), vi. 177.

, on clay-burning, by C. Poppy, vii.

142.

, on burning clay for manure, by W.

Long, vii. 245 ; sketch of the kilns, 247.

, on burning clay, by J. J. Mechi, vii.

297 ; subsequent manuring effects of,
xiv. 225.

, on biu-ning land for manure, by T.

Eowlandson, viii. 46 ; the common dif-
ficulties of burning stiff soils, 49 ; burn-
ing in clamps, 51 ; cost of, 56.

, on burning land for manure, by J.

Pierson, viii. 77; the Suffolk mode,
ib ; report of a Suffolk farmers' club on,
79.

in Suffolk, described by H. Rayn-

bird, viii. 317.

■ , on the theory of, by J. T. Way, xi.

377.

, P. Pusey on, xi. 407.

, on the causes of the efHcacy of, by

Dr. A. Voelcker, xii. 496 ; mechanical
effects, 498; absorption of ammonia,
500; chemical effects from varied de-
grees of heat, analyses, 502 ; potash
and soda made soluble, silicates of lime
formed, 504 ; use of lime, 508 ; analysis
of specimens of clays, 502, 505, 507;
of plastic clay, 506 ; clays devoid of
potash unfit for burning, 509 ; ill effects
of over burning, 510 ; why burnt clays
especially benefit root-crops, ib.

, its use in the Weald of Sussex, xix.

101.

, burnt, its action as manure ex-
plained (Voelcker), xii. 496 ; xvii. 56.

, on the burning of clay land (C.

RandeU), xxiv. 540 ; permanence of its
effect, ib. ; crops and management,
ib. ; faggots better than coal for land
burning, 541 ; clay farms after burning
better adapted for sheep, ib. ; propor-
tion of arable land to be maintained,
ib. ; bare fallows condemned, ib. ;
scheme for managing a farm to carry
100 breeding ewes, 542 ; rotation of
crops, 543 ; management and food of
sheep, ib.

farm, on the cultivation of a, ii. 262.

See " Clay soils."

Claying, Mr. W. Linton's experience in,
at Sherriff Hiuton, near York, ii. 67.
See " Soils."

peat soils in Lincolnshire (Morton),

ii. 407 ; (Pusey), iv. 297.

CLAYrNG moorland, by S. Solly, iii. 427.
in Norfolk, described bv B. Almaek,

V. 309; in the fens, 311, 313.
of the fens in Cambridgeshire, de-
scribed by S. Jonas, vii. 71.
in Suffolk, described by H. Raynbird,

viii. 313.
in the S.W. of Hampshire, and the

S.E. of Dorsetshire, xvi. 131.
Clay-slate rocks, analysis of, xiii. 534.
Clay soils, on furrow-draining tenacious

clay soils, by R. Beart, ii. 100.
, on the cultivation of a cold clay

farm, by Rev. G. T. Holcombe, ii. 262.
, on the rotation of crops on heavy

lands, by W. Stace, iv. 169.
, on a new and successful rotation of

crops for heavy clays, by J. S. Nowl-

son, iv. 409; on di-aining, by R. Beart,

411.

, their origin, by Dr. Fownes, iv. 499.

, the heavy clay soils of Essex, by R.

Baker, v. 33 ; Dengy hundred, ih.
, on the improvement of cold and

heavy soils by the application of burnt

claj', by C. Randell, v. 113. See "Clay,

burnt."
, eftuct of burnt clay on a crop of

wheat growing on a heavy clay soil, by

P. Pusey, vi. 477.
of the N.R. of Yorkshire (Milburn),

ix. 511.
, their influence upon the tempera-

tru-e of the atmosphere (Whitley), xi.

10.
, on their power to retain manures,

by H. S. Thompson, xi. 72.
, on the mischief arising from drain-
ing certain clay soils too deeply, by

W. B. Webster, xi. 311.
, on their absorption of ammonia,

&c., by J. T. Way, xi. 317.
, analysis of, by Dr. Voelcker, xii.

502, 505-507 ; those which are fit and

.unfit for burning, 509.
, stifl", medium, light, soft, and strong,

xiii. 540.
, of the new marl and new red sand-
stone in Derbysliire (Rowley), xiv. 58.

of Dorsetshire (Rviegg), xv. 417.

, fertility or barreimess of, by J.

Coleman, xvi. 173, 174; analysis of a

soil, 1 93.

of Buckinghamshire (Read), xvi.

272, 280.

are subject to the fewest weeds

(Buckmanj, xvi. 368.

walls, mode of preparing clay for

walls of cottages (C. Hill), iv. 359.

, those of Suffolk described by H.

Raynbird, viii. 329.

c 2

3G

GENERAL IXDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Clay soils, lias and Oxford, their tendency
to expansion (Buckman), diagram, xvii.
190,

, P. D., their management for sheep-
feeding (A. Hughes), XXV. 521 ; mode
of cultivation, 522 ; diagrams, 524 ;
advantages of the septennial divi-
sion, 52.3; management of sheep, ib.;
preparation for wheat, 520, 529 ; bar-
ley, peas, and beans, 52G ; green crops,
527; roots, &c., 26.; rye-grass land,
528 ; green fallow, ih. ; folding turnii)s,
ib. ; bare winter fallow, 52lt ; impor-
tance of a good weather-made surface
for seeil, ib. ; Discussion, — Howard. J.,
on autumn cultivation and the steam-
cultivator, 530 ; Beruers, Lord, on Nor-
folk ten-furrow work, and steam
ploughing, 531.

Clays, composition of, xvii. 402 ; porce-
lain ditto, //). ; blue colour how caused
(De la Beche , ih.

Clay-ton's steam brick-machine at the
Chehnslord meeting, xvii. 572.

mowing macliine at Salisbury, xviii.

423, 441.

Clayton and Shuttleworth, their manu-
factm-e of steam-engines (]851-5\ xvii.
53.

Cleansing in cows, the retention of (W.

. Sibhaldj, xii. 573.

Cleavers, or clivers, xvi. 361.

Cleeve, Henrj-, prize essay on the dis-
eases of .sheep, i. 295.

Cleveland Agriculturid Society, the
report of a Committee of, on the best
reaping-machine shown for their prize,
xiii. 336.

, the vale of, its agriculture (M. Mil-
burn , ix. 511.

horse, J. L. Baker on the, i. 430.

Click beetles, J. Curtis on, v. 180-217.
See " Wire worms."

Cliff, the, of Lincolnshire, its farming,
its rotations (Clarke), xii. 339.

Climate, that of the Netherlands (Rham),
ii. 43.

, efiect on the growth of com, by

J. B. Lawes,viii.231, 232. Jhid., by IJ.
Smith, xvii. 353.

■ of Suflolk (H. Rayubird). viii. 261.

■ in connexion with agriculture, by

the Earl of Lovelace, ix. 311 ; M. Gas-
parin's work, ib. ; efiect of cold on ve-
getation, 316; number of frosts at
Paris, 318 ; nxin, 330 ; intiuence of the
moon on the weather, 334.

of Devonshire (H. Tanner), ix. 455;

its meteorology, 456.

of Lancashire (W. Garnett), x. 5.

of South Wales (C. Read), x. 125.

CLniATE, on the, of the British Islands in
its efl'ects on cultivation, a prize essay, by
N. Whitley, xi. 1.; on temperature, 2;
mean temperatm-e, 3 ; annual mean
temperature, ib. ; winter, cold of, 4 ;
eftect of elevation on, 5 ; summer tem-
l)erature, 7 ; temperature of night and
day, 9 ; temperature, influence of strata
on, ib. ; the crag, ib. ; the sand, ib. ; the
new red sand-stone, 10; the granite, i'6. ;
the clay soil, 1 1 ; jjeaty soils, ib. ; of
Ireland, ih. ; rain, //;. ; the annual fall,
12 ; monthly fall, ih. ; effcict of eleva-
tion on, 1 5 ; the number of miny days,
18; the arctic current and the gulf-
stream, 19 ; effect of their being with-
drawn on tlic British Islands, 21 ; temp,
of the gidf-streain, //*. ; mean temp, of
the sea greater compared with that of
the atmosj)]iere, 23; the temp, of the
gulf-stream varies in different seasons,
25; insensible vapour in the atmo-
sphere, ih. ; moist climate of the Wi'st
of England and of Ireland, 27 ; mi.sts,
ih. ; fogs, ih. ; clouds. 28 ; dew, 29 ;
lioar-frost, ih. ; cattle in low grounds
and grass, effect of the radiation of
heat upon, 30 ; winds, ih. ; general
eftect of the climate of the British Isles
on vegetation, 31 ; on the growth of
com, 33 ; connexion between summer
temperature and the pioduce of the
liarvest, 35 ; the amount of heat nece.s-
.sary for the perfection of wheat, 36 ; for
barley, oats, and rye, 38 ; effect of warm
moist winters upon wheat, 39; eftect
of the W. and N.W. winds in the West
of England, 41 ; eftect of climate on
the growth of roots, grass, and fodder,
42 ; eftect of. on the growth of turnips,
43 ; of Ireland, 44 ; on the growth of
apples, 47 ; eftect of elevation on agri-
cultural produce, 47 ; the situations in
Great Britain and Ireland Ix'st adapted
for each kind of agricultural produce,
49 ; for wheat, ib. ; for barley, 50 ; for
oats, ih.; for live stock, 51 ; on prognos-
tications of the weather, 57 ; climate of
Britain, 58 ; temperature of foreign
corn-producing countries, 59 ; temp, of
the surface-water of the sea in the
Bristol Channel in 1849. ih.

, on the, of the British Islands in

its eftect on cultivation, by B. Simp.son,
xi. 617; the prevailing winds, 620-643;
land and sea breezes, 621 ; the general
inclination of a country, 622 ; eftect of
cultivation and drainage, 623 ; of the
distribution of the heat in different
seasons of the year, 625 ; monthly mean
temijeratures, 627 ; the different amount

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE,

37

of insensible vapour in the air, 629 ;
monthly dew-points, 632 ; fogs and
mists, ib. ; cloudiness, 635 ; ett'ect of,
637; evaporation, 635; rain, 639-646;
depths whicli fell between 1829 and
1847, 660 ; prognostications of the
weather, 612; grass, efteet of climate
on the growth of, 649 ; on the growth
of grain, 650 ; of wheat, ib. ; of barley,
652 ; of oats, 653 ; of legumes, 654 ;
of potatoes, ib. ; of turnips, 655 ; of
rape, 657.

Climate, on drainage under certain condi-
tions of soil and climate, by Lord
Wharncliffe, xii. 41.

of Cumberland, by W. Dickinson,

xiii. 210 ; rainfalls, 212 ; temperature,
213-14; winds, 214; "the helm wind,"
215 ; eflect of elevation on its farming,
215.

of Iquique in Peru (P. Pusey), xiii.

351.

, on the difficulty of changing the

latitude of sheep (M. Nouel), xiv. 214.

of East Lothian (C. Stevenson), xiv.

278.

of Oxfordshire (C. Eead\ xv. 190 ;

rainfall, 191 ; temjieratm-c, ib.

of Dorsetshire (L. Ruegg), xv. 434.

, intluence of, upon the growth of

wool (J. Wilson), xvi. 240.

of Buckinghamshu-e (C. Eead\ xvi.

270.

of Durham (Dr. Bell), xvii. 87.

, on, as causing variations in the

barley crop (Lawes and Gilbert), xviii.
477.

of Shropshire (H. Tanner), xix. 3.

, effects of altitude in diminishing

tlie permanence of effects of manmes
(Dixon), xix. 218.

, its influence on cultivation (R.

Russell), XX. 158 ; cropping guided by
climate, -ib. ; turnips an apparent ex-
ception, ib. ; influence fif warmth, 159 ;
meclianical and chemical properties of
soils, 160 ; lye-grass a test of climate,
161 ; two years' layer gives a cheaper
rotation, ib. ; disadvantages of the
north and west as compared with the
south-east in farming, 1G2 ; the crop
preceding wheat regulated by climate,
163 ; vegetable matter required in soil
to feed wheat on light dry lands, 164 ;
American summers, hot and moist,
their effect on the wheat crop, 165;
sandy soils under such conditions natu-
ral for wheat, and vegetable matter
injurious, ib. ; need of mannre vaiies
inversely as heat, ib. ; flowering process
delayed by warmth or excess of am-

monia, 166 ; turnips sown in March
run to seed, //;. ; see " Climate, its
influence on Wheat," on " Barley,"
on "Rye," on "Flax," on " Mangold-
wurzel," on " Tui-nips," on "Potatoes,"
on " Leguminous Crops ; " conclusions,
497.

Climate, its influence on Wheat { R. Rus-
sell), xx. 166; plants of prolonged growth
yield well, 167; spring wheats do not
flower in hot climates, ib. ; their success
in Wales and Scotland, but not in
Lincolnshire fens, 168; lake filtering
promotes luxuriance and leads to
blight, ib. ; comparative value of wheat,
barley, and oat crops in Scotlaud, from
1781 to 179.5, 169.

, its influence on Barley (R. Russell),

XX. 170; liability of the crop to lodge
in moist climates, ib. ; sown late, it
wants less manm-e, sown early, it has
stouter straw and seeds better, 171 ;
fine barley grown on clay soils pul-
verised by frost, 172.

, its influence on Oats (R. Russell),

XX. 173 ; they require a moist climate,
174 ; the latest varieties preferred, ib.

, its influence on Rye (R. Russell),

XX. 481 ; rye adajjted to sandy soils,
because it evaporates less water than
wheat, 482 ; marl has a special value
in diy climates, ib. ; is the food of plants
dissolved ? ib. ; the evaporation from
leaves, 483; effects of the dry air of
Teneriffe, ib.

, its influence on Flax (Russell), xx.

484 ; the chemical analysis of flax does
not account for its repute as an ex-
hausting crop, ib. ; found by Arthur
Young in Ireland on exhausted land,
but sown late, 485 ; in Belgium it is
manured with rape-cake, the earlier
sown the more largely, 486 ; in Lincoln-
shire the best is sown early and ma-
tured highly, ib. ; in Scotland later
sowing is best, ib. ; crops that require
very iiiuch nitrogen in the soil leave
a good deal behiud, 487; exhaustion
spoken of ambiguously, 488 ; the poor
farmer's resource is late sowing, ib. ;
Messrs. Lawes and Gilberfs experi-
ments, phosphates serviceable for late
sown barleys, 489 ; its use for Chinese
BUgar-cane, ib.

, its influence on Man"gold-a\t:ezel

(Russell), XX. 490 ; with a high tempe-
rature and a rich soil, IM. is a true
biennial, ib.

, its influence on Turnips (Russell),

XX. 491 ; swedes less adapted than
mangold to a dry forcing climate, «6.;

38

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Ilie supply of phosphate to tiu'iiips sown
iu midsiimmei' attracts a supply of
nitrogen, 492 ; it is required by small
seeded plants, ib. ; the parsnips on
sandy soil (Liebig), ib. ; scanty growth
of swedes after wheat in the soutli-
east, 493 ; their larger growth, manured
with nitrogen, iu the west, ib. ; vege-
table manuring, ib. ; guano is suited to
tui-nips early sown, in moist climate, on
a good loam, 494 ; the glossy-leaved
swede evaporates less than the yellow
turnip, 495.

Climate, its influence on the Potato
(Russell), XX. 495 ; the feeding quality
of roots fiom a poor soil, 49G.

, its influence on LEOUinxors Crops

(Russell), XX. 496 ; peas evaiwrato less
than beaus, ib.

Clinkstone, the, analysis of, xiii. 532.

Clipstone water-meadows described by
J. E. Dcnison, i. 359. See " Water-
meadows."

Clive, Hon. R. II., on certain operations
in thorougii- draining and subsoil-
ploughing at Oakley Park, i. 33.

, as to the improvements at Poles

Farm by thorough-draining, vi. 229.

CLOD-cui"sHEK,'Crosskiirs, practical opi-
nions on the effect of, commimicated by
P. Pusey, iv. 5(J0, xii. 594.

, rejjort on those shown at the Great

Exhibition in 1851, by P. Pusey, xii.
594 ; Norwegian harrow, ib.

, " the Cumberland " (W. Dickinson),

xiii. 242.

, on those shown at the Lewes meet-
ing (1852), xiii. SK!.

at the Gloucester meeting (1853),

xiv. 359.

at the Chelmsford meeting (1856),

xvii. 569.

at the Warwick meeting (1859), xx.

321.

at tlie Newcastle meeting (1864),

XXV. 422.

Clouds, N. "Whitley on, xi. 28.

, B. Simpson on, xi. 635.

Clouet and Lavoisier on nitriiicatiou,
xxiii. 355.

Clouted cream (T. D. Acland) xi.
735.

Clover, red, its growth in Germany, and
on what soils it there succeeds best
(Haudley), iii. 223.

, on its failure, by the Rev. W.

Thorp, iii. 326 ; discordant opinions of
the cause stated, 327 ; analysis of two
soils where clover lailed, 328 ; Liebig's
account of the failure, 329; as to a
noxious excretion being the cause, 330 ;

CLOVEB.

frost kills the clover, 332; effect of

want of cohesiveness in the soil, ib.
Clover, the growth of Trifolium incama-

tum on close-pressed soil, iii. 336.
, growth ot^ in Essex, its seed, v.

4-30.
, additional remarks on the failure of

red clover after harvest, by the Eev. W.

Thorp, iv. 279.
, white, tlic analysis of, by Dr.

Fownes, iv. 532.
, tiie advantages of top-dressing

young clover (J. Dixon', i. 138.
, ou the broom-rape and self-heal,

plants injurious to clover, by J. Main,

i. 173.
, on the failure of the red, by G.

Turner, i. 502.
, the failure of the plant in York-
shire K. 1!., by (J. Lcganl, ix. 100.
, analysis of the ashes of white and

red clover, by J. T. Way, ix. 138.

ruckle of the N. R. of Yorkshire,

ix. 507.

, the mean weekly increase of 30

sheep kept on green clover and oilcake,
by J. B. Lawes, x. 298.

, the analysis of different varieties,

by J. T. Way and G. H. Ogston, xi.
538.

, seeds, tlie growth of, in Northamp-
tonshire, by W. Beam, xiii. 57.

, red, and its hay, analysed, xiii.

466.

, white, and its hay, analysed, ib.

, analysis of two soils where clover

failed and succeeded, xiii. 552.

, scrapings of roads (repaired with

gypsum) used in Dcrby.shire to prevent
clover-sickness, xiv. 60.

, red, analysed by J. T. W^ay, xiv.

179.

, white or Dutch, analysed, xiv. 179 ;

scarlet or tri-incarnatum, analysed, ib. ;
cow-grass analysed, ib. ; trefoil ana-
lysed, ib. ; hop trefoil analysed, ib.

and rj'c-grass, growtli of, on light

liintycliaik soils (Haxton), xv. 101.

, growth of, in Oxfordshire (Read),

XV. 215 ; dressed with wood-ashes,

245.
, white, the effect of irrigation upon

(Buekman), xv. 470.
, growtli of, in Buckinghamshire

(Read), xvi. 2S9.
, green, recommended for milch cows

(Horsfalli, xvii. 279.
, perennial red, how affected by

manure (Lawes), xx. 262.
, red, report of experiments on its

growth by different manures (Lawes

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

39

and Gilbert), xxi. 178 ; causes as-
signed ■ for failure of the plant, 179 ;
account of experimental plots and
their behaviour under ordinary crops,
ib. ; table (1) of manures employed in
1849, and produce of red clover per
acre, 180 ; explanation, 181 ; table (2)
of produce of wheat in 1850 without
direct manure, after red clover, 182 ;
explanation, 181 ; table (3) of manures
and produce of clover in second season,
1851, 185; preparations for the crop,
183 ; explanation of table, 184 ; appear-
ance of clover sickness, 186 ; illustra-
tive diagram, ih. ; unmanured jjlots
most free from disease, ih. ; effects of
ammoniacal salts and rape-cake, ih. ;
mineral manmes, 187; table (4), com-
parative produce of first and second
clover crojss, 188 ; marked effects of pot-
ash and suj^erphosphate, 189 ; table (5)
of manm-es and crops, 1854-5, 190; dif-
ferent effects of farmyard manure and
minerals, ih. ; table (6), barley crop, by
unexhausted manure, on clover-sick
land, 191 ; table (7), cow-grass after
barley crop in foregoing table, 192 ; no
form of manure efficacious for clover-
sick land, 193 ; table (8), contemporaiy
experunents in kitchen garden at Rot-
hamsted; estimated produce per acre
of clover for six years on same plot
with unchanged seed, 195; sickness
due to soil rather than air, ih. ; the
clover insect, 196 ; excrementitious
matters given out by plant roots and
tlieir relation to clover-sickness, ih. ;
exhaustion of the soil, 197; Mulder on
organic compounds of the soil, ih. ;
hypothetical j^artiality of clover for
carbon compounds, 197-8 ; sources of
carbon for plant assimilation, 198 ;
effects of cereal and leguminous crojjs
on the atmosphere, ih. ; the fixed
alkalies, 199 ; action of gypsum on
recently cleared lands, 199 ; M. Eis-
Icr's experiments, ih. ; conclusions, 200 ;
rest the only remedy, ih.

Clover, Bokhara, on (W. Pryor), xxiii.
405.

Clover-layeks. on the management of,
(C. Rawlence), xxii. 447 ; precautions
against sickness, 448.

Clover-seed, on cleansing, from the
seeds of the orobanche, i. 175.

Clowes, F., of Hemsley, experiments with
manures, iv. 281.

Clutterbuck, Eev. J. C, on the theory of
deep-draining, vi. 489.

, on floods in the Thames basin, xxiv.

579.

Clutterbuck, Eev. J., agricultural notes

on Hertfordshii-e, xxv. 302.
Clwyd, Vale of, described by T. Eowland-

son, vii. 566.
Clydesdale horse, the, described, v. 520.
Coal contains nitrogen, affords ammonia

by distillation, Dr. Fownes, iv. 547 ;

x'viii. 301.
, analysis of coal-miner's refuse-heap,

xiii. 498.
, the distillation of (Bowditch), xviii.

301.
Coal-ashes, analysis of, by Dr. Fownes,

iv. 541.
used as a maniire in South Wales

(Read), x. 144.

, analysis of, xiii. 490.

used with night-soil in Oxfordshire

(Read), xv. 245.
Coal formation, on the soils of, by J.

Trimmer, xii. 494.
, on the soils of the, in Derbyshne,

by J. J. Rowley, xiv. 27.
Cockchafer, the tield (J. Curtis), v. 475.
Cocked and Son, their improved cheese-
making apparatus (Harding), xxi. 89.
Cocksfoot gi-ass, analysis of (Way), xiv.

177.
, J. Buckman, on, xv. 464 ; its value

to the farmer, xvii. 531 ; how affected

by manui'es (Lawes) , xx. 258.
, its growth in different situations, xv.

468.
Cocoa olein (Price's), its use in pleura

pneumonia (Horsfall), xviii. 190.
Codfish, on the refuse of, as a portable

manure, by Ker B. Hamilton, xiv.

393.
, as a food for pigs (J. B. Lawes),

xiv. 486.
, dried Newfoundland, analysis of

(Gilbert), xiv. 498.
CcENURES cerebralis, the cause of gid in

sheeiJ, xxiii. 95.
CoKE-ASHES, analysis of, by Dr. Fownes,

iv. 541. See " Coal."
, T. W., Earl of Leicester, his im-
provements in West Norfolk, iii. 1. See

" Norfolk."
CoLBECK, T. L., on the agriculture of

Northumberland, a prize report, viii.

422.
CoLBURN, Z., on steam-boiler explosions,

xxv. 355.
CoLCHicrM autumuale, see " Meadow col-

chicum."
Cold clay farm, on the cultivation of,

by the Rev. G. F. Holcombe, ii. 262.
Coleman's cultivator, for steam power, at

the Canterbuiy meeting, xxi. 491, at

Famiugham (1851), xxiii. 402; dia-

40

GEXERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

gram of apparatus at work, 403 ; at
Worcester (J. A. Clarke), xxiv. 37'2 ;
report of judges, 481 ; award of eora-
mendatioii, 487 ; receives silver medal
at Newcastle meeting, xxv. 412; award
of 2nd prize for imiirovements in
parters, 416.

Coleman, John, on the causes of fertility
or barrenness of soils, xvi. I(j9.

, on farm accounts, xix. 1 22.

, John, jun., on exix'rinicnts in

wheat growinrf. at Holkham Park, xix.,
303 ; ditto turnips, 30G.

, J. (Woburn), on tho cross-breeding

of cattle, xxiii. 350.

, Professor, on the breeding and

feeding of sheep, P. D., xxiv. 023.

, general report on the Newcastle

meeting, xxv. 391.

Colling, Charles, his breed of Ketton
shorthonis, vii. 201, 202, 207; his
handling of cattle, ib.; jjroceeds of his
sales in ISIO and 1818, xix. 338.

CoLOSTiaii, or bcistyu, on (Major M'Clin-
tock), xxii. 148.

CoLorK, on the hereditary disposition
to, in animals, by J. B. Simonds, x. 250.

in soils nfti'cts their warmth, by

Schublcr, i. 202; as indicating barren-
ness or fertility, by J. liiavmdar, v. 5G0.

Coltsfoot, its soils and habits Buckman),

xvi. 362 ; its flowers and seeds arrive

before the leaves, 378.
Columbian guano (Dr. Voelcker), xxi.

361.
Colza, brassica campestris. a variety of

the cabbage, its cultivation in Holland,

iii. 252.
CoMFREY, analysis of, xiii. 474.
Common beaked jiarsley, the effect of

iiTigation upon (Buckman), xv. 470.
, its soil and habits (Buckman), xvi.

862.

campion, its soils and habits, xvi.

360 ; number of its seeds, 377.

oatlike-grass, its growth in different

situations (Buckman), xv. 4G8, xvi. 366,
xvii. 520 ; how affected by manures
(Lawes), xx. 255.

quaking-grass, analysis of (Way),

xiv. 177.

its growth in different situations

(Buckman), xv. 468, xvii. 531 ; liow
affected by manures (Lawes), xx. 257.

reed (Buckman), xvii. 542.

caraway, how affected by mamu'es

(Lawes), xx. 264.

lands divided, in Durham, xvii. 93.

CoMPENS.\TiON to tenants for lime, bones,
manure, fences, buildings, &c., in agree-
ment (R. Smith), xvii. 368.

CO-OPERATIVE.

CoJiPOST heaps, next to liquid manuire,

the best means of bringing fertilisers

into perfect contact with the soil (J. T.

Way), xvii. 150.

CojriTON, H. C, on the growth of turnips

with various manures, ii. 268.
Concrete for roads (J. B. Denton), xviii.

94.
Condiments, see "Cattle condiments,"

P. D.. xxiii. 420.
CoNFEHVoius, subdivision of, e. g., tho

.spyrogyne ( Henfrcy), xvii. 78.
CoNUM maculatum, xee " Hemlock."
Consistency- of soils, J. Schublcr on, i.
185 ; OS indicating fertility, J. Bm-
vendar on. v. 563.
CoNSTiTiTioN of auimals, Lord Spencer

on the importance of, i. 23.
CoNSVMiTioN defined, tlie milk of a con-
.sumptive cow contains very little buttcr
(Lyon Playfair), iv. 253 ; its phenomena
in I'rowdetl cowhouses, 254.

in .sheep (H. Cleeve), i. 317.

in cattle (F. Dun), xv. 79.

CoNVOLviLis arvensis, see " Bindweed,
the small."

sepium, see " Bindweed, the great."

Cooking food for cattle, on, P. D. (P. H.
Frere), xxiii. 448 ; straw as food, ib. ;
Mr. Lawes's Woburn experiments, 449 ;
the author's own experiments, ib. ; his
present practice, ib. Disaisnion : Mr.
Lawes on the economy of cooking, 451 ;
Mr. Dent on pulping and the use of
malt-combs, 452 ; I'rofessor Simonda
on the idiysiological aspect of tiio
question, ih. ; Mr. Lawes on cooked
food in relation to the process of
digestion, ib.
Cooke. T., a description of an improved
agiicultural draining-level, with the
process of levelling as required for
agricultural purposes, x. 165.
Cooking for cottagers, F. Burke on, iii.

83.
Co-orEKATm; farms at Assington (J.
Gurdon), xxiv. 165; means of raising
the labourer in his class, ib. ; necessary
guarantees for management and repay-
ment of loans, ib. ; the author's form of
agreement, 166; names of members,
and rules and regulations of Assington
Co-operative Society, 167.
remarks by P. H. Frere, 168; de-
scription of the farm, crops, and stock,
ib. ; rent, management, and wages, 1G9 ;
duties of manager, 170 ; picked la-
bourers as bailiffs, ib. ; profits and divi-
dends, ib. ; purchase of household
necessaries, 171 ; supply of milk, ib. ;
coals and luel, ih. ; effects of the sys-

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

41

COPROLITES.

tern, 172 ; arrangements in event of
death and vacancies, ib. ; general con-
siderations, 173.

CoPROLiTES, the presence of phosphate of
lime no evidence of the existence of
coprolites in a rock (Dr. Daubeny), ii.
224.

, on, by J. T. Way, x. 215.

, on pseudo-coprolites, by Dr. Buck-
land, X. 520.

, observations on tlie chemical com-
position and agricultural value of the
fossil bones or pseudo-coprolites of the
Crag, by T. J. Herejiath, xii. 91; ana-
lysis of the pseudo-coprolites, 97, 102 ;
of the true coprolites, ih.

, the carboniferous limestone of Eg-

remont in Cumberland contains copro-
litic nodules, xiii. 209.

dissolved in sulphuric acid, experi-
ments with, as a manure for swedes, by
Dr. A. Voelcker, xvi. 95.

, Cambridgeshire, analysis of (Dr.

Voelcker), xxi. o57.

, of Suffolk, pseudo or false coprolites

(Dr. Buckland), xxi. 359; their analy-
sis (Dr. Voelcker). ib.

Coquet's cheese-tubs (Dr. Voelcker),
xxii. 53, 6S.

Coral rag, the, of Oxfordshire, xv. 196.

CoRiANDEK-SEED growu iu Essex exten-
sively (Baker), v. 37 ; sown with cara-
way, i!7).

Corn, insects which affect it in the field
and the granary, by J. Curtis, vii. 78.

measures, table of, vii. 136.

, the temperature of foreign corn-
producing countries, by N. Whitley,
xi. 59.

, effect of climate on the growth of,

by B. Simpson, xi. 650.

, nitrogen in ordinary soils is the ele-
ment mainly required as manure for
(P. Pusey), xiii. 358.

, average produce of in E. Lothian

(Stevenson), xiv. 296. See " Average."

blue-bottle, analysis of, xiii. 528 ;

its soils and habits (Buckman), xvi.
362.

bedstraw, the rough-fruited, its soils

and habits (Buckman), xvi. 362 ; the
number of its seeds, 377.

cockle, the analysis of, xiii. 52S ;

(Buckman), xvi. 370 ; its soils and ha-
bits (Buckman), xvi. 360; the number
of its seeds, 377.

crowfoot (Buckman), soils and

habits, xvi. 360.

crusliers, a report by P. Pusey on

those exhibited at the Great Exhibi-
tion (hi 1851J, xii. 631 ; on those shown

(in 1852) at the Lewes meeting, xiii.

325.
Corn crushers at the Chester meeting

(1858), report on, xix. 340.
dressing-machines, on those shown

at Chester ( 1858), xix. 342.
dressing-machines, see " Winnowing-

machiues."

forget-me-not, the, its soils ami

habits (Buckman), xvi. 364.

gromwell, its soils and habits, xvi.

364.

horsetail, the, its soils and habits,

xvi. 366.

marigold, its soils and habits (Buck-
man), xvi. 362.
mills, see "Mills."

lady's mantle, its soils and habits

(Buckman), xvi. 360.

mint, the (Buckman). xvi. 364.

moths, the, described by J. Curtis,

vii. 84.

mouse-ear, the, its soils and habits,.

(Buckman), xvi. 360.

mow, a section of one in Lancashire,

X. 49.

parsley, its soils and habits (Buck-
man), xvi. 362.

penny-cress, its soils and habits

(Buckman), xvi. 360.

Ijheasant's-ej'o (Buckman), xvi. 360.

scabious (Buckman), xvi. 362.

scythe and corn-rake, the Kentish,

described, i. 444 ; use of, in Cumber-
land (W. Dickinson), xiii. 233.

stacks, on a method of preserving

from damage by rooks, xiv. 67.

crops, instances of great yield (Mor-
ton), XX. 445.

rents at Holkham (C. S. Read), xix.

291.

trade, statistics of, 1828-1855 (H. S.

Bright), xvii. 2, see " Wheat, prices
of."

woundwort ^Buckman), xvi. 364.

CoRNAZ, Mr., his experience of Tliury's
method of regulating the sex of the
offspring of animals (P. H. Frere), xxv.
253.

CoRNSTONE, the, division of the old red
sandstone of Herefordshire, xiv. 436.

Cornwall, on the connexion between
its agricidture and geology, by Sir H.
T. De la Beche, iii. 21. See " Geo-
logy."

, on preparation of the wheat-croi:) in,

by J. H. Tremayne, v. 158.

, on the farming of, by W. ¥. Kar-

keek, vi. 400 ; its granite soils, 404 r
rotation of cro2)s on, 407 ; its grauwackc
group, 408 ; rotation of crops on, 413 -

42

GENERAL IXDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

CORRINGHAM.

the serpentine rock, 419; the horn-
blende soils, 419 ; tlie diallage soils,
420 ; the di-ainage systems in Cornwall,
421; general culture, 423; cultivation
of wiieat, ih. ; cultivation of barley,
425; its hay crops, -ib.; cultivation of
turnips in, 427 ; growth of potatoes
in, 428 ; gi'owth of rape in, 430 ;
cropping and culture reviewed, 433;
erroneous conditions as to management,
434 ; manujes employed, 438 ; analysis
of granite, 439 ; lime in the sea-sands
of, 440 ; waste lands, 444 ; analysis of
a specimen of, 447 ; breeds of sbeep,
448 ; breeds of cattle, 450 ; feeding of
cattle, 452 ; breeds of liorses, 453 ;
feeding of horses, 454 ; animal labour,
45G ; agiicultural labour, 458 ; agricul-
tural unplement!', 4G0.

OoKuixGHAM, Iv. W., on tliG agriculturc
of Nottinghamshire (a prize report j, vi.
1. See "Nottinghamshire."

CoTSWOLD sheep, trials with the feeding
of, by J. B. Lawes, xiii. 179, xvi. 73 ;
food consumed by, 1 85 ; the wool they
produced, 189; by E. Moore, vii. 294.

, comparative jjrofit realized with, by

y. Uruce, xiv. 210.

, the cross bred or Down-Cotswold of

Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 228.

, those shown at the Lincoln meeting

(18.)4), XV. 381.

, J. Wilson on, xvi. 226.

, R. Smitli on, viii. 16.

CoTSwoLDS, in Gloucestershire, the farm-
ing of (J. Bravendar ), xi. 133.

, analysis of soils of (Voelcker),

xviii. 359-60.

, sheep, account of (R. Smith), xix.

384.

■Cottage gardening, on, by J. Main, ii.
323 ; its draining, ih. ; its fencing, ih. ;
its trenching, ih. ; on keeping it in
heart. 324 ; on a succession of crops in
it, 325 ; on the parsnip, 328 ; of the
carrot, 329 ; on tlie radish, lettuce,
and tunnp crop, 330; on the potato
crop, 331 ; plan of a garden for a first
year's cropjjing, 335 ; probable crop to
be gathered from l-8th of an acre or
20 poles, 336; plan of cropping for
second year, ih.; a pig may be pro-
fitably kept, and how, 337 ; five general
good rules for, 339 ; seeds required in
a garden, and their quantities, 340 ; a
monthly calendar of the work to be
done in a well-managed kitchen gar-
den, 341.

' economy and cookery, on, by F.

Burke, iii. }<o.

Cottages, on the construction of; by the

Rev. Copinger Hill, prize essay, iv.
356 ; the walls, 357 ; walls and roofs,
ib. : of things in common, such as an
oven, or a copper, 358 ; the mode of
preparing clay for walls, 359 ; of build-
ing these walls, ih. ; of the coast of
brick- walls, 360 ; of stone-w^alls, 361 ;
of the chimney, ih. ; of the oven, ib. ;
paving the floors, ib. ; of the ceilings,
362 ; of lath and jtlastcring, ih. ; the
windows, 363 ; stairs, 364 ; chamber
floors, ih. ; doors, 365 ; thatched roof,
ih. ; total cost of clay and thatched cot-
tage, 366 ; ditto of stone and thatch,
367 ; elevation and ground-plans, 368.

Cottages fur labourer.-*, construction of
(Isaacs), xvii. 494 : cost not to exceed 85Z.
each, 495 ; should be remunerative, ib. ;
gables are costly and comfortless, 496 ;
size of rooms, ih. ; M'Culloch's prize
windows, 497 ; Beadon's caves gutter,
499 ; objections to briek-Hoors, ih. ;
thatch, its advantages and drawbacks,
500 ; the Newark cottiige ninge (plan),
ih. ; ventilation, 502 ; Pearce's grate,
■ib. ; Dr. Arnott s valves, 503 ; drainage
and privies, 504 ; spccitications for cot-
tages, 505 ; plans of ditto, 509.

, the, of Essex (Baker), v. 31.

, on tliebuildingof cottages for farm-
labourers, by John Grey, v. 237.

, plans of some cottages in Northum-
berland, V. 239 ; estimates of the ex-
pense of these, 244.

, on the advantage of comfortable

cottages, G. Nicholls, vii. 17 ; of cot-
tage gardens, 21.

, the Duke of Bedford on, x. 185 ;

plans, elevations, anil estimates for, 188.

, on the construction of a pair for

agricultural labourers, by Henry Grod-
dard, a first prize essay, x. 230 ; situa-
tion, aspect, soil, 231; exterior arrange-
ment.s ib. ; interior arrangements, 232 ;
the out-otfices. 233 ; materials, con-
struction, supply of water, &c., ib. ;
warming and ventilating, 234 ; specifi-
cation and estimate, 235 ; a plan of a
cottage grate, 243 ; elevation of cot-
tages, 245.

, on labourers', by J. Y. Macvicar, a

second-prize essay, x. 400 ; plans, 404 ;
estimates, 411-417; specification, 414.

of Oxfordshire (Read-, xv. 264.

of Dorsetshire (Ruegg), xv. 441;

plans of, improved, 442.

, prize jilan of double cottages for

farm-labourers, with specifications, by
G. Arnold, xv. 455.

of Buckinghamshire (Read), xvi.

313.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

43

Cottages of Warwickshire (Evershed),
xvii. 490.

of Berksliire (Spearing), xxi. 30, 44.

of Hampshire (Wilkinson), xxii.

Lord Palnierston's, 278 ; Mr. M. Por-
tal's, 299 ; requisite improvements,
xxii. 324.

, on materials for the construction

of, P. D. (J. Taylor, jun.), xxiv. 559 ;
defects and damp of cottages the
source of disease, ib. ; details of plans,
?6. ; damp proceeding from founda-
tions, 560 ; the author's stoneware
damp-proof coiu-se, ib. ; perforated
bricks, &c., 570; blocks, 56L 570;
concrete walls, 562, 571 ; their economy
and convenience, 562 ; ventilating
floor-tiles, ib., 572 ; roofing-tiles, 563,
572 ; smoke-consmning fireplace, 564,
573 ; Dr. Aruott's plan, ib. ; mode of
sweeping chimneys, 565 ; Discussion, —
cost of cottages, ib. ; rent in relation to
outlay (J. B. Denton), 566 ; compara-
tive cost of bricks and concrete (Tay-
lor), 567 ; thatched roofs (Dr. Crisp),
568 ; Bath and West of England So-
ciety's plans for cheap cottages, ib. ;
cost of patent roof-tiles (Taylor), 569 ;
mud walls (Wood), 569; (Taylor),
560; clay-bats (Frere), 569.

for farm-labourers in Denmark, xxi.

289.

CoTTAGEEs' prizcs for allotment manage-
ment awarded by themselves (J. C.
Morton), xx. 95 ; theii- influence, 96.

CoTTiNGHAM, Mr., liis experience of the
cost of the steam threshing-machine,
xxiii. 324.

Cotton-cake, its use as food for stock in
Norfolk (C. S. Read), xix. 287.

, its composition and nutritive value

(Dr. Voelcker), xix. 420 ; its oil not
valuable because of its dark colour,
421 ; decorticated cake, its price, 422 ;
analysis of thick and thin decorticated
cakes, 423; percentage of oil, nitrogen,
and mucilage in thin cake, 424 ; ditto
in thick cake, 425 ; composition of cake
made of whole seed, 426; its woody
fibre or residue not acted upon by di-
lute sulphuric acid, 427 ; oil-meal, its
composition, ib. ; ash of decorticated
cake rich in phosphates, 428 ; sum-
mary, 429 ; case of deatli of a bullock
resulting from eatmg cake with excess
of husks, 430.

, improvements in its manufacture,

(Dr. Voelcker), xxv. 235.

Cotton-flax, xiv. 199, See " Claussen's
flax-cotton."

Cotton-like substance, an account of a,

found after an inundation of the

Thames, i. 505.
Couch-grass, P. Puscy on, xi. 423.

, J. Buckman on, xv. 471 ; xvii. 524.

, on forking up by hand labour, by

E. E. Agate, xvi. 111.
, its soils and habits (Buckman), xvi.

366 ; its use to cousohdate banks, xvii.

164.
, analysis of its ash (Voelcker), xviii.

352 ; its richness in silica and phos-
phoric acid, 353.
Cough or cold in sheep (Cleeve), i. 318.

, chronic, in horses (Dun), xiv. 117.

CoiNTRY smiths descrijjed (W. Miles),

xviii. 275.
Covered horaestalls, W. Fisher Hobbs

on, xiv. 325.

farm-steadings, on, by Lord Kin-

nahd, xiv. 336.

farm-steadings, j^lan of (W. Wright),

xix. 503.
CowDUNG, analysis of, Mr. Horsfall's

88 lbs. per cow daily (J. T. Way), xviii.

157.
, composition of excrements of milch

cows (Horsfall), xviii. 164.

urine, dressings of, increase the

growth of trefoil (Bywater), xix. 247.

Cow-grass, analysis of (Way), xiv. 179.

parsnip, its soils and habits, xvi.

362.

CowiE, J., on the comparative advan-
tages in the employment of horses and
oxen in farm-work, prize essay, v. 52.
See " Cattle."

Cowkale, the giant, grown in Jersey (Le
Cornu) xx. 47.

Cows in Holland often lie on smooth
brick floors, ii. 57 ; bean-meal mixed
mth their water, iii. 246 ; the way in
which their cows are fed, 258 ; their
scalded food, ih. ; called " brasin," ib. ;
their butter, ib. ; their dairies, 259 ;
when put into winter quarters, when
put to grass, 260 ; the milk-room, ib. ;
experiments on the produce of milk
and butter afforded by Kerry, Gallo-
way, and A}Tshirc cows, iv. 436.

, on the Jersey, misnamed Alderney

cow, by Col. Le Couteur, v. 42 ; their
extraction, ib. ; the scale of points for
Jersey cows, 44 ; sketch of the old and
the improved breed, 46 ; tlie way in
which a Jersey farmer treats his cow,
48 ; the tethering of it, 49 ; the rearing,
ib. ; the cream very rich, ib. ; yield of
milk, 50 ; the Jersey butter, ib.

of Cheshire, v. 70 ; no distinct breed

there, ib. See " Cheshire."

, on their gestation, by Earl Spencer,

44

GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

i. 165; shortest time, longest, 167; on
twins of diflerent sexes, 168.

Cows, on the detection of pregnancy in,
l.y W. Youatt, i. 170.

, the milk from the Irisli and the

Ayrshire cows compared, i. 443.

, on the construction of the cow-
house, xi. 247, 256, 259

, on ahortion in, by J. Barlow, a

jjrize essay, xii. 62. See " Abortion.''

, on tiio diseases occurring alter calv-
ing, by W. E. Sibhahl, a prize essay,
xii. 554 ; milk fever, dropping, 557 ;
the garget, or inllammiliun of the
udder, 562 ; cracked teats, 566 ; liy-
steritis, or inflammation of the womb,
567 ; red water, 56S ; inversion of tlic
uterus, 571 ; retention of the placenta,
or cleansing, 573.

, analysi.s of solid excreta, xiii. 482,

, analysis of urine, xiii. 506.

, on the food of, xiv. 71 ; in Guern-
sey, il).

of Oxfordshire fRea<l), xv. 224.

(see " Cattle "), on the maternal

organs of rejiroiluction in, and on tiie
practice in dillieult cases of labour, by
J. B. Simonds, x. 248.

of Brittany, account of, from notices

by M. Jamet' P. II. Frcre, xxiv. 213;
chiefly valued fur their yield and
(juality of butter, ib. ; cross-breeding,
214; points and description of a good
animal, 215.

. scale of points in Jersey cows (Roy.

Jersey Ag. Soc), xii. 583.

fond of the green white mustard,

xiii. 67.

, uistanees of remarkably good

milkers in CumberlaTid (\V. Dickinson;,
xiii. 255.

:, red water of, in Derbyshire, xiv. 53.

, certain plants give a bitter taste to

their milk, xiv. 6U; ill etiect of bad
water on, ib.

, on the teeth of the, by J. B. Si-
monds, XV. 312.

, mammary gland of, on its anatomy

and physiology ^J. B. Simonds), xi.x.
81 ; characteristics of manmials, 82 ;
sea mammals, as the dolphin, ib. ; bats,
ib. ; varied jjositiou of mammae, 83 ;
their nimiber a measure of fecundity,
ib. ; practice of suckling four calves from
one cow as a prelude to weaning, 84 ;
varieties in the milk ducts, ('6. ; vertict\l
.section of a ewe's mammary gland (after
Sir A. Cooper), showing reservoirs,
milk-ducts. &c., 85 ; carnivom have
no reservoirs, 86; difference between
the udder and the mamma, ib. ; the

CRAN BORNE.

udder comprises four distinct glands
parted and enclosed by same tissue,
ib.; in some animals each gland is
made up of distinct tubes, 87 ; plate
(after Sh A. Cooper), illustrating the
lactiferous tubes, ib. ; openings of the
teat, 88 ; plate of the elephant's teat,
ib. ; formation of milk from blood, 89 ;
the uilder connected with arteries, ih. ;
plate showing the follicles of the milk-
ducts, ib. ; ditto the duct or stem with
its branches, 90; ditto, the udder, 91 ;
refuse blood carried otf by the veins,
92; the abdominal vein, and Youatt 's
misconception respecting it, (7>. ; struc-
ture of the teats, 93 ; the outlet closed
liy elastic fibrous tissue, ib. ; milk, tho
tyi)e of all food (Prout), 94; i)late
showing milk magnified, 95 ; cream
globules, butter-milk, formation of lac-
tie acid, ib. ; the yellow pigment peculiar
to Alderney cows tho cause of tiieir
yellow butter, 97 ; signs of a good
milker, ib. ; the in-calf heifer, 98 ; co-
lostrum promoted by generous diet, 99 ;
plate showing its microscoi^ic appear-
ance, ib. ; effects of age and temjiera-
ment, ib. ; milk of the human female,
when formed, 100; connexion between
the nervuus and vascular .systems, ;7>. ;
mfluencc of health and tcmperatui"e,
101 ; of exertion and food, 102.

Cows, milking qualities of Ayrsiiire, Bre-
ton, and Kerry cows, xxiv. 308 ; ditto,
pure bred shorthorns (Voelcker), 309.

CowsLu», the conmion (Buckman), xvi,
364.

Cox, 1 1., on the cultivation of the potato,
vi. 345.

, on the potato disease, a prize essay,

vii. 486.

Crab, the, for hedges, vi. 215.

Crag formation, the, of Norfolk, on, by J.
Trimmer, vii. 458.

, discovery of its value as a manure

(Capt. Alexander), iii. 183.

, its influence upon the temix;rature

of the climate (Whitley, xi. 9.)

, on the chemical composition and

agricultural value of the fo.ssil bones
or jDseudo-coprolites of the crag, by T.
J. Herepath, xii. i)l ; map of the crag,
95; analysis of the phosphatic earth,
96; of the pseudo-coprolites. !)7, 102;
of the true coprolites, 99, 1U2 ; of tiic
fossil bones, 100.

, a soil from, examined, xiii. 536.

CuAJir, J., his evidence as to sheep-rot»
xxiii. 68.

Cranbokne Chase, xv. 448; the extinc-
tion of the deer in, ib.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

45

CR:VNE-FLY.

Crane-fly, the, J. Curtis on, viii. 413.

CcANESBiLL, tlic long-stalkcd, its soils and
habits (Buckiiian), xvi. 3G0.

, the jagged-leaved, xvi. 860.

, the long-leaved, xvi. 360.

Crawshey oh sheep-rot (' The Country-
man's Instructor,' a.d. 1636), xxiii. 71.

Cream, the clouted, or scalded, of Somer-
setshire (Acland), xi. 735.

, annual produce of (Horsfall), xvii.

267.

, analysis of (Voelcker), xxiv. 298.

Ckeamometee, Quevenne's, described,
xxiv. 316.

Creeping crowfoot, its soils and habits
(Buckman), xvi. 360 ; how affected by
manures (Ijawes), xx. 265.

fescue grass, its growth in dift'erent

situations, xv. 468, xvii. 533-535.

soft grass, described, xvii. 519.

Creslow farm, xvi. 294.

Crested dogstail grass, analysis of (Way"),
xiv. 177 ; its habits (Buckman), xvii.
521 ; how affected by manures (Lawes),
XX. 258.

Creyke, Ealph, an account of the process
of warping by, v. 398.

Crisp, T., on lupines as food for sheep,
XX. 106.

, the first grower of lupines as a field

crop in England (Dr. Voelcker), xxi.38y.

Crobbek or Crovek, a disease of the Cum-
berland cows, xiii. 259.

Crook, W., on the i)henomena of steam,
xxiii. 429.

Cropping, the course of, adojDted in Kent
(R. Heathorn), xxi. 385: Mr. Bell's
farm, ih. ; autumn cultivation, ib. ; eco-
nomy of 1 -horse carts, ih. ; manage-
ment of light land on an 8-years' course,
386 ; fodder-crops, ib. ; stubble-tuniijis,
ib. ; trefoil followed by tmnips, 387 ;
stock kept, ib. ; an 8-years' rotation on
heavy land, mangold following rye, &c.,
388.

Crops, rotation of, &c., in the Netherlands,
ii. 43. See " Rotation of crops."

, on the chemical constituents of, by

C. Daubeny, lii. 433.

Cross breeding, see " Breeding, cross."

Ckosskill, W., on the necessity of care in
the preservation of agricultural imple-
ments, ii. 150.

, accounts of the action of his clod-
crusher, collected by P. Pusey, iv. 560.

, liis steam-cultivator, xx. 184.

Crown estate, at King William's Town,
in the counties of Cork and Kerrv, by
J. F. Burke, iv. 435.

Croydon, analysis of sewage from (Way),
XV. 155.

CUMBERLAND.

Crushers, corn and linseed, shown at the
Lewes meeting in 1852, xiii. 325.

, cake, at Gloucester (1853), xiv. 362.

, cake and oat, at Lincoln (1854), xv.

372 ; at Canterbuiy (1860), xxi. 501.

Cubic measure, table of, vii. 133.

IDcti-e, see "Nitrate of soda."

Cuckoo pint, the (Buckman), xvi. 36G.

Cudweed, the mountain, xvi. 362.

, the marsli (Buckman), ib.

CuLLEY, the Messrs., the agriculture of
Northumberland mvich beliolden to
them, ii. 153.

, entered on the farm of Wark in

1786, ii. 158.

, introduced the Leicester sheep into

Northumberland about 1766, ii. 174.

Culm or stem, of grasses (Buckman), xvii.
164.

CuT.TivATioN by steam, see " Steam-
culture."

Cultivators, report on tliose shown at
the Great Exhibition in 1851, by P.
Pusey, xii. 595 ; Biddle's, 598 ; Cole-
man's, 598.

, those shown at the Lewes meeting

(1852), xiii. 315.

at Gloucester meeting (1853), xiv.

357.

at Carlisle meeting (1855), xvi. 507,

524.

at Chelmsford meeting (1856). xvii.

567.

at Paris, ditto, xvii. 41.

at Warwick meeting (1859), xx.

320.

at Newcastle (18()4), xxv. 422.

Cumberland, on the farming of, a prize
essay, by William Dickinson, xiii. 207 ;
its soils and strata, ib. ; new red sand-
stone, gypsum, coal-fields, 208 ; the
carl)oniferous limestone of Egremont
contains coprolitic nodules, 209 ; lime-
stones, ib. ; climate as it affects crops,
210; rainfalls, 211; temperature, 213,
214; winds, ib.; the "helm wind,"
215 ; eiiect of elevation on the farming
of the county, 215 ; the ancient and
the modern farming compared, 218 ;
modern farms, ib.; the "Statesmen,"
the Netherby estate, 221 ; leases, 225 ;
the first introduction of turnips in
1755, 227 ; growth of, ih. ; the sale of,
to be fed oft", 229 ; growth of potatoes,
230 ; its wheat crops, 231 ; oats and
oatmeal, 232 ; corn harvesting, 233 ;
the use of the coiTi-scythe, ih. ; ma-
niu-es, 235 ; fences, 238 ; the labourers,
239 ; implements, 240 ; the Cumber-
laud clod - crusher, 242 ; carts, 243 ;
horse - harness of former times, 245;

46

GENERAL IXDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

CUNNINGTON.

primitive .saddles, 24G ; the horses, 247 ;
cattle, 249; the wild breeds of Chil-
lingharas, &e., ib. ; the Lanijilugh breed,
thickness of their hides, 250 ; " more
depends upon the rearing of stock tiian
the kinds of stock," 253 ; a cow which
gave ];> quarts of milk yielding 26 oz.
of butter at each meal, 255 ; mode of
keeping and slaughtering cattle in
former days, 256 ; agistment of cattle,
259 ; tiie disease called " Crobbek ' or
" Crovek," 259 ; cattle - dealing and
fairs, 200 ; sheep of, ih. ; tlie Herd-
wick breed, 2G4 ; the change of colour
in their wool by hard weather, ib. ; the
other mountain slieep, ib. ; the shep-
herds, 265, 270 ; the noble shephenl's
dog, 206, 269 ; his sagacity in snow-
storms, the great snow-slorm of 1807,
267 ; " the laziest siieplicrd has always
the best dog," 270 ; pigs, ib. ; poultry,
{b. ; pastures and grasses, 271 ; the old
bad farmer's saying, " Switch is the
mother of grass," 273 ; Italian ryi'-
giass, /&. ; grass-seeds not sown in 1752,
ib. ; lucerne, 274 ; farmliouses, 275 ;
former primitive modes of winnowing
corn, 276 ; fuel and peat mosses, 278 ;
Solway moss, its irruption, ib. ; woods
and jilantatious, 280 ; salt spray car-
ried to K(mdal in the storm of 1839,
281 ; the Scotch fir, 282 ; on preserv-
ing sawn larch timber, 283; draining,
284; on tiie Abbey Holme, 289;
the unenclosed wastes, their extent,
ib ; hill-side irrigation, 291 ; lime tried
in irrigation, 293 ; hay-making, 294 ;
hay - barns, 297 ; improvements since
the report of Bailey and Culley in
1805, ib.

CDNxrKGTox, Mr., on the wool of Susses
Down sheep, xxii. 297.

Curb, the, in horses (Dun), xiv. 115.

Cled-breaker, sketch of one used in
Cheshire, v. 111.

CrRD-MiLL, sketch of one used in Cheshire,
■ib.

Curl in potatoes, on the prevention of, by
H. S. Thompson, vi. 161.

Curtis, J., observations on the insects
which afiect the tiu-nip crop, ii. 193.
See "Insects."

, on tlie turnip saw-fly and its black

caterpillar, ii. 364.

, ou the plant-lice, maggots of flies,

caterpillars of moths, &c., iii. 49. See
" Insects."

, on the insects atfecting the turnip

crop, including the white cabbage
butterflies, the turnip-seed weevil, &c.,
iii. 306. See " Insects."

Curtis, J., on the various insects infesting
the turni}) crop, including the surface
eatcrpillar-s, the tiirnip gall weevil, tlie
dipterous flies, and rove beetles infesting
anbury, iv. 100.

, observations on the natural history

of the insects called wireworms, affect-
ing the turnips, corn crops, &c., also of
their parents the elators or beetles,
called skipjacks, click beetles, &c., v.
180. See " Wireworms."

, on the natural history and economy

of various insects affecting the corn
crops, many of them improperly called
wireworms, including ground beetles,
chafters or 5Iay-bugs, also the cater-
pillars of a moth and saw-fly, and the
larva? of some minute flies, v. 469.

, observations on tiie natural history

I and economy of various insects arteel-
I ing tiie corn crops, including a saw-fly,
the Hessian fly, the wheat midge, and
the barley midge, vi. 131.

, the .same continued, including the

wheat midge, the tlirips, the wheat
louse, the wheat bug, the vibrio, vi.
493.

, on tiic insects affecting the corn

crops and tiie granary, including moths,
weevils, and other beetles, vii. 78 ; the
com weevils, 95.

, on the iiLsects affecting peas and

beans, including weevils, maggots, bees,
&c., vii. 404.

, on a weevil which afl'ects the pea

crop, and various insects which injure
or destroy the mangold-wurzel or beet,
viii. 399.

, on the various insects affecting

carrots and parsnips, ix. 174.

, on the various insects affecting the

potato crops, x. 70.

, on the various insects, snails, slugs,

&c., aflecting clover crops, grasses, tares,
and sainfoin, xviii. 41.

CcscuTA epilinum, see "Dodder, the
flax."

europaja, see " Dodder, the."

trifolii, see " Clover dodder."

Cyantte, the, analysis of, xiii. 532.

Cynosurus cristatus, see " Crested dogs-
tail grass."

echinatus (Buckman), xvii. 521.

Cysticercus fasciolaris, its presence in the
liver of rats and mice, xxiii. 95.

D.

Dacre, Lord, on the use of saltpetre and
cubic petre as manures, i 278.

VOLUMES OXE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

47

DACTYLIS.

Dactylis glomerata, see " Cocksfoot
grass."

Daddy-long-legs, not the parents of the
•wireworm, v. 227.

Dahlias attacked by -wireworms, v. 196.

Dairies, those of Holstein, i. 37G; their
vessels, 380.

, the Netherlands described (Kham),

iii. 259 ; their butter, tlieir cheese, 2G0.

of Chesliire (H. White), vi. 104;

implements of, 124.

of South Wales (Read), x. 140.

, the fungi which infest, by E. Sidney,

X. 395.

, on the construction of (Tancred), xi.

205; (Ewart), 257.

, letting of, in Dorsetshire (Euegg),

xiv. 74.

of Dorsetshire (Ruegg), xv. 423.

of Buckinghamshire (C. Read), xvi.

298 ; their produce, ib.

, on the production and composition

of milk, by Lyon Playfair, iv. 240. See
"Milk," "Butter," "Cheese," &c.

■ , in Warwickshire, xvii. 483.

Dairy, Mr. Horsfall's described, xvii.
275 ; coolness maintained by a flow of
water and the use of a draw-well, 27G.

Dairy cows, Mr. Horsfall's manage-
ment of, xvii. 200 ; cows in milk need
more liberal diet than store cows :
gives rape-cake, bran, and bean straw,
steamed (262), and occasionally bean-
meal extra (263), followed by green
food, ib. ; summer treatment of cows,
264 ; weighing cows a test of their
dietary, ib. ; sufficient roots and hay
should be given to support the frame,
and extra food to provide for milk
and cream, 265 ; milch cows re-
quire nitrogenous food, 266 ; richness
of milk and cream, ib. ; proportions of
milk, cream, and butter, with autho-
I'ities quoted, 267 ; winter diet (1856),
271 ; weight of milch cows, 272 ; Ger-
man cows, their yield of milk and
butter, 274 ; results of H.s dietary
when adopted hj Mr. Simpson, 275 ;
steaming food, 278 ; advantages of
weigliing cattle, ib. ; relation of live to
dead weight, ib. ; importance of main-
taining condition, 279 ; to effect this,
give bean-meal, green clover, and
beans, ib.

, methods of feeding (T. Horsfall),

xviii. 152 ; comparative experiments,
ib. ; and table of yield of milk, 153 ;
diet described, 155 ; its quantity and
cliemical composition, 156 ; composition
of food producing milk and tlesh, ib. ;
relation of milk, flesh, manure, and

waste, 157, 165 ; ascending values of
manure, cattle food, and human food,
158 ; loss of nitrogen by perspiration
(Boussingault), 159 ; composition of
ordinary food to maintain a cow, 100 ;
why milch cows drink more water than
fattening cattle, 160 ; food to be appor-
tioned to the activity of the animal
functions, 161 ; need of albumen to form
casein, 164; experiments on the weights
and milk-yield of 6 cattle, 174 ; results
of mangold and hay feeding, 175;
Alderney cows, their feeding and pro-
duce, 176 ; Mr. Alcock's trial of Mr.
Horsfall's mode of feeding, 178 ; com-
IDosition and quality of his butter, 178 ;
see " Rape-cake ; " hay and swedes
compared. 184 ; treatment of milk fever,
187.

Dairy cows, M. Bella's trials of mangolds
and of pulji for dairy cows, xx. 85.

Dairy management. Mi-. Horsfall's de-
scribed, xvii. 277; winter management,
ib. ; mode of chmning, ib.

, on (T. Horsfall), xviii. 150; see

"Dairy cows, method of feeding;" re-
lation of margarine and oleiu in summer
and winter, 179.

, in Shropshire (H. Tanner), xix.

26.

, in the Cheddar district (J. Harding),

xxi. 83 ; in Leicestershire, 84.

, statistics of produce (E. Harding),

xxiv. 553.

utensils used by Mr. Horsfall, xvii.

269; thick calico to cover milk cans,
276.

Dairy practice, improvements in, a prize
essay (J. Fulton), xxi. 73 ; quality of
modem English cheese, ib. ; Mr. Gre-
gory on Keevil's ajDjiaratus, ib; the
Clieddar practice, 75 ; slip-scalding, ib. ;
Mr. Harding, of Marksbury, ib. ; the
siphon apjjaratus, ib. ; improved co-
agulating tub, 76; cheese press, 77;
Strutfs apparatus for turning cheese
(diagram), ib. ; Fulton's acetometer, ib. ;
Fulton's register, 78, 80; recapitula-
tion, 79 ; list of approved dairy utensils
and apparatus, tiote, 81.

, improvements in (Joseph Harding),

xxi. 82 ; the author's Somersetshire
experience, ib. ; Cheddar cheese, ib. ;
improved management of dairy farms,
83, winter shelter of cattle, 84 ; use of
bones in Cheshire, ib. ; economy of
labour, the old barrel churn, 85 ; im-
proved utensils, tubs and presses, 86 ;
Stokes's press and expanding vat, 92 ;
M' Adam's whey separator, 87 ; the
curd-breaker, 88; Keevil's apparatus,

4S

GEXEllAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

ib.; Cockey's, 89; the slip-scaliHng
process, ib. ; keeping cheese, 90 ; liquid
aunatto, ib. ; cflect of acidity on flavour,
91 ; Dr. Cameron's acid test, ib.

Dairy arrangements (Dr. Voelcker), xxiv.
291, see "Milk."

Daieymaid, a word of advice to, vi. 123.

• necessity for cleanliness in, xiv. 70.

Daisy, the, its habits and soils (Buckman),
xvi. 3G2.

Daltom's rain-gauge, its construction and
use, xvii. 12(5.

Dandeliox, the, its soils and habits
(Buckman), xvi. ',)Gl ; analysis of, 370.

D.vniel's manures, trials with, on turnips,
by W. Miles, v. 394.

D'AiiBOVAL, on tho cause of rot in sheep,
xxiii. 90.

Daugents French Prize Farm, xxiv. Ifi.

Darnel grass, analysis of (Way), xiv.
177.

, or perennial rj'c-grass (Buckman),

xvii. 52G ; Darnel drunken, ib.

Dauwin on the action of earthworms, xix.
225.

Daubeny, Dr. C, on the scientific prin-
ciples by which the ajiplication of ma-
nures ought to be regulated, ii. 232.

, lecture on the application of science

to agriculture, iii. 130.

, on the public institutions for the

advancement of agricultural science
which exist in other countries, and on
some in our own, iii. 304. See "Agri-
cultural Institutions."

, on the chemical constituents of

plants, iii. 433.

, on the evolution of carbonic acid

gas by plants, iv. 515.

, on the occurrence of phosphorite in

Estrcmadura (in conjunction with
Captain AViddrington), iv. 40G. See
" Phosphorite."

, on the use of the Spanish phospho-
rite as a manure, vi. 329.

, on the distinction between the

active and dormant ingreilicnts of the
soil, vii. 237.

. on the cxcrementitious powers of

roots, xxiv. 429.
Davcus carota, see " Wild carrot."
Dale, on the mean flow of the river
Loire, xxii. 434.

, on early sowing, xx. 171.

DA\qs, Hewitt, some account of Spring

Park farm, vii. 524.
Davis, P., on the use of bones and sul-
phuric acid as compost, vi. 244.
Dawson, R., his occupation of the parish

of Withcall, iv. 299.
Deacon, J., on the advantage of inocu-

lating sheep for the smallj^ox, xxv.
509.

De.\n. George, on the cost of agricultu-
ral buildings, xi. 55S.

Deanston system of draining. Sir J.
Graham on, i. 29.

Deaxstoxi-sing, i. 36, 95.

Decay in timber, how caused (Dr.
Richardson), xx. 4.

De Grey, Earl, his cottage allotments
at Silsoe, near Ampthill, xx. 98.

De la Beche, Sir H. T., on the connec-
tion between geology and agriculture
in tho counties of Cornwall, Devon,
and West Somerset, iii. 21. See
" Geologj'."

DELPHrarsi consolida, see " Larkspur."

Dengy hundred in Essex, its difficult
farming described (Baker), v. 33; its
wheat and beans excellent, 35.

Denison, J. Eveljii, on French Agricul-
ture and state cst^xblishments, i. 257.
See " France."

, on the Duke of Portland's water-
meadows at Clipston Park, i. 359. See
'■ Water-meadows."

, on the system of planting and the

management of forest trees at Welbeck,
ix. 3G(J.

, on tlic grubbing up of woods, xvi.

352. See " Woods."

, on the agricultural department of

the Paris Exhibition (1850), xvii. 33.

. on the agricultural meeting at

I'arisof 1850, xvii. 394.

, translation of H. Mangon's paper

\ on Obstructions in Draining-tiles, xvii.
■ 625.

, on tho use of the reaping-machine

in a wet harvest, xxi. 549.

Den.mark, agricultural tour in, by J. F.
Johnson, iii. 400 ; the lunnber of black
cattle on the banks of the Elljc, 402;
how fattened, ib. ; turnips nearly un-
known, ib. ; the plienomenon of the
Wilster and Krenipe marshes, ib. ; the
liquid manure of their cattle, here called
"jauca," 403; how applied, 404; soils
of Holstcin, 405 ; growth of rapeseed
in Holstein, 409 ; in Funen the cattle
when housed, 410 ; the growth of
wheat, 412 ; rye, growth of, the prin-
cipal food of the jx^ople, ib. ; the royal
farm at Frcdericksborg, 413; agricul-
ture in Jutland, R/. ; kind of potatoes
preferred in Denmark and Sweden,
414; the Jutland cattle how raised,
415; sold to the farmers, how fat-
tened, ib. ; in Jutland how the land
is cultivated, ib. ; how rents are paid,
ib. ; the stock of the farm, ib. ; wages

VOLUMES OXE TO TWEXTY-FIVE.

49

of labourers, 4] G, see " Wages ;" their
food, 410 ; employment of servants after
harvest, 417 ; the land in north Jut-
laud, ih. ; growth of rye, ib. ; spurry
sown for feeding, 418; the clover of
sandy soils, ih. ; Denmark grows her
own food, 420.
Dkxmaek, agriculture of (Harry Kainals),
xxi. 267 ; climate favourable to fniit
and grain, ih. ; rainftdl, 268 ; seasons
and distribution of labour, ih. ; geo-
logical features, 2(ji) ; marsh lands
in Slcswig and Holstein, ib. ; the
queller or salicornea herbacea, ib. ;
foreland, ih. ; dikes (diagram), 27U ;
reclamation of land near Hoyer, ih. ;
definition of the term Koug, ih. ; fer-
tility of the marshes, 271 ; Ersley on
national economy, ih. ; the Halligerue
islands, lofts, and wharfs, ih. ; distri-
bution of soils, 272 ; agricultiu-al pro-
duce and exports, ib. ; harbours and
]-ailways, 273 ; cattle exports from
Jutland, 274; farm buildings, 275;
plans of yeoman farmhouse, yard, and
buildings, 276 ; the diele, 277 ; plan of
improved farmhouse in Holstein, 278 ;
social statistics and taxation, 270 ;
hartkorn, the basis of valuation and
taxation on land, ib. ; its distribution,
280 ; plove, the basis of assessment in
Sleswig and Holstein, 281 ; feudalism
and life leases, 282 ; emancipation of
the yeomen, 285 ; origin and abolition
of manorial labour, ib. ; the leasehold
system, 286; estates of the nobility, ib.;
abolition of entail, 287 ; privileged
estates, ib. ; herregaarde or large
estates, ih. ; yeomen farms, ih. ; tenant
farmers, 288 ; fluctuations in the price
of land, ib. ; system of labour, 289 ;
cottages and farm wages, ib. ; com-
munal divisions of land, their origin,
defects, and abolition, 290 ; inner and
outer fields, 291 ; rotations, including
pasturage or clover, 292 ; English and
ficotch "husbandly, 293 ; agi?cultm-al
implements, ib. ; treatment of the soil,
294 ; harvesting crops, 295 ; thrashing,
ih. ; clearing waste laud, ib. ; cultiva-
tion of heaths and bogs, ib. ; water
meadows, 296 ; drainage how paid,
297 ; manure, marling, and ploughing
in green crops, 298 ; neglect of fish
manure, ih. ; superphosphate, 299 ;
horses, the Yorkshire and Danish cross,
ib ; exports, 300 ; horned cattle of Jut-
land and Angeln, 301 ; the shorthorn
cross, ib. ; statistics, dairy management
and utensils, 302 ; exports of Kiel
butter, 303 ; imports and exports of
VOLS. I. — XSV.

DEUDYSIIIRE.

cheese, 304 ; fatting of oxen, ih. ; cattle
and salted meat exports, 305 ; English
demand, ib. ; native sheep, 30G ; the
merino, ih. ; Bornhplm sheep, 307 ;
imports and exports of sheep and wool,
ib. ; swine, ib. ; the Yorkshire race, the
Jutland pig, ih. ; exjiorts of swine and
pork, 308 ; cereal crops, 309 ; attention
paid to seed, ih. ; grain, how sold, ih. ;.
mildew, 310; varieties of wheat, ih.;
rye, the Provsti variety, 311 ; varieties
of barley and quantity exported, 311,
312 ; the old Danish oat, 312 ; buck-
wheat, peas, and beans, 313 ; potatoes,
their export checked by disease, ib. ;
rape, 314 ; flax and hemp cultivation^
315 ; hops, ib. ; effects of the British
corn law, ih. ; gardens and fruit trees,.
316 ; woods and forests, their extent,
317 ; the beech the national tree, ib. ;
oak forests and fir plantations, ib. ;
timber imports, 318 ; peat and turf
bogs, mode of working, ih. ; coal-mines,
field sports, game laws, 319; destruc-
tion of vermin, 320 ; fisheries, ib. ;
fishing-rights, 321 ; bee-keeping (Dzier-
zon), honey, and wax, 322 ; bog iron
and amber, ib. ; industrial occupations,
323 ; brickworks, 324 ; agricultural
societies and inslitutious, ih. ; agricul-
tural and veterinary school at Copen-
hagen, 325 ; the Koyal Society of
Kural Economy, ih. ; agricultural lite-
rature, ib.; table of agricultural pro-
ducts, 326 ; exports to Great Britain,
327.

Dent, J. D. (M.P.), agricultural notes on
the census of 1861, xxv., 318.

, report to the Council ou the cattle

exhibited at Newcastle, xxv. 425.

Dentition, see "Teeth."

Denton, J. B., on farm roads on strong
soils, a prize essay, xviii. 82.

, on Hinxworth di-ainage, xs. 273.

, description of the drainage of a.

portion of the valley of the Test near
Broadlands, xxii. 344.

, on the eft'ect of under drainage on

our rivers and arterial channels, xxiv.
573.

Deodorisers of town sewage, on, by J. T.
Way, XV. 157.

Derby meeting of the Eoyal Agi'icul-
tural Society, report on the exhibition
of implements at, in 1843, iv. 453.

Derbyshire, the farming of, a prize
report, by John J. Kowley, xiv. 17; its
geology, 18 ; magnesian limestone, 20 ;
analysis of, 21 ; rotation on, 22 ; turnip
fallow on, ih.; preparation of shed
manure, 23 ; cattle, 24 ; sheep, 25 ; im-
d

50 ' GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

1»E SArSSURE.

plements, 26; carts aiul waggons, 27;
the coal series, ib. ; analysis of a soil,
28 ; the gritstone soQ of the coal series,
ib. ; rotations on, ib. ; use of lime, 38 ;
mode of repairing roads, 39; the mil-
stone grit and shale series, ib. ; analysis
of a soil from, 40 ; analysis of the " fox
earth," 41 ; the farm at Chatsworth,
its annual sales of btock, 44 ; ill effects
of high breeding in cattle, 45 ; analy-
sis of a shale soil, 47 ; rotation on
peaty soils, 49 ; the native woodland
sheep, 50 ; the carboniferous-marine or
mountain lime, ib. ; analysis of a soil
of, 52 ; rotation on, 53 ; chiefly grass-
land, ib. ; the quarter-evil in calves,
the red water in cows, ib. ; tlie clays
and gravels of the new marl and new
red sandstone, and the alluvium of the
Trent and Dove, 58 ; analysis of allu-
vium soil from the Dove meadows, ih. ;
rotation in the Dove valley, 59 ; use of
salt as a manure, 60; roads mended
with gypsum — scrapings used to pre-
vent clover-sicknesH, ilj. ; rotation on
the red marls, ib. ; in Apijletrce hun-
dred, 61 ; improvements in Derbyshire
fanning suice 1815, 62.

De Sai ssure on Humus, xvii. 291.

, his researches on vegetation (Lawcs

and Gilbert), xxv. 96.

, on organic and inorganic manmes

(Liebig), xxv. 505.

, on the small percentage of carbonic

acid in the air (Voelcker), xxv. 533.

Desmazieres, M., on the fungi of roots
of legiuninous plants, xxiv. 434.

Devil's guts or dodder, xvi. 364.

Devon cattle in Somerset, account of
(T. D. Aclund\ xi. 680; the Quartly
family, ib.

, described (R. Smith), xix. 368 ; Mr.

Quartly's efforts and success in im-
proving, 369.

county school, account of (Rev. J. L.

Brereton', xxv. 63, 68 ; balance-sheet
of, 71 ; remarks on (P. H. Frere), 72.

, South Hams sheep (Wilson), xvi.

229 ; the Bampton, ib.

Devonshire, on the connexion between
its agricultiu'e and its geology, by
Sir H. T. de la Beche, iii. 2l'. See
■ " Geology."

, on the large hedges and small en-
closures of Devon and the adjoining
coimties, by J. Grant, v. 420.

, on the farming of, a prize report,

by Henry Tanner, ix. 454 ; its climate,
455 ; meteorology of, 456 ; soils, 458 ;
tillage, 461 ; preparation for root crops
— timiips, ib. ; the potato crops, 463 ;

DICKINSON.

preparation for corn crops — wheat, 465 ;
manures — farmyard, 466 ; lime, 468 ;
sea-sand, 469 ; seaweed, ib. ; draining,
470 ; iini)lements, 471 ; orchards, ib. ;
the apples, 472 ; its cider, 473 ; water-
cider, ib. ; its grass-land, 476 ; the
Devon cattle, 478 ; the sheep, 481 ; its
horses, 482 ; its pigs, ib. ; its poultry,
483 ; enclosures, ib. ; its woods and
plantations, 484 ; its waste land, 485 ;
management of landed .property in,
486; farm-buildings, 488 ; the agricul-
tural laboui'er, 490.

Devonshire, the management of water-
meadows, by P. Pusey, x. 473. "

Dextrine, made from starch, iv, 505 ; it^
nature (Henfrey), xviii. 406.

Dew, the cause and physical action of,
J. Paikes on, v. 130.

, the amount of, precipitated during

the night varies with the soil and the
leaves of dirtVrent plants, v. 132, 133.

, N. Whitley on, xi. 29.

points, the monthly, by B. Simpson,

xi. 632.

rusts u-on (IVIallet), xvii. 444.

Deavdney, G., on nitrate of soda as a
manure, ii. 127.

Dhoora, analysis of the gi"ain of, xiii. 522.

DiALLAGE rocks of Cornwall (Kurk(;ek\
vi. 420.

, analysis of, xiii. 532.

rocks, analysis of, xiii. 534 ; xvii.

465.

DiAKUHCEA, its origin (Lyon Playfair),
iv. 254.

in sheep (H. Cleeve), i. 306; (F.

Dun), xvi. 28.

and colic in horses (F. Dun\ xiv.

121.

in cattle (F. Dun), xv. 77.

DranLiNG by task-work, on the prices
paid for, by X. Raynbird, vii. 129.

machine, Newberry's, rejMrt on, by

J. H. Langston and the other referees,
iv. 316.

exiSbited at the Shrewsbury meet-
ing in 1845, vi. 314.

wheel, on an improved, by W.

Adams, with a sketch, iii. 163.

Dickenson, W., on the breeding of horses ;
a letter to the Right Hon. J. E. Deni-
son, xxiv. 255.

Dickinson, J., his observations on the
rain-gauge at King's Langley, v. 146.

, William (of North Mosses), on the

farming of Cumljerland, a prize essay,
xiii. 207. See " Cumberland."

, W., on the application of liquid

manure to a new variety of Italian rye-
grass, vi. 575.

VOLUMES OXE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

51

DICKINSOX.

Dickinson, W., on a variety of Italian rye-
grass, viii. 572.

, W., Burley rails, Hants, his farm

management, xxii. 281.

Digestion : on the digestive organs of
tlie ox and sheep, by J. B. Simonds,
ix. 27.

DiG(;iNC. combined with ploughing (P.
Lowe), xvii. 549.

cheap, in Kent (P. Lowe), xvii. 555.

forks (of steel), those shown at the

Lewes meeting (in 1852), xiii. 328.

machine exhibited at the Gloucester

meetmg (1853), xiv. 359.

DiGiT.\Lis purpurea, see " Foxglove."

DiLUvirM, the, or drift of Lincolnshire
(J. A. Clarke), xii. 275; of Norfolk
(Trimmer), vii. 448.

DioPSiDE, the, analysis of, xiii. 532.

DiPSACi's sylvestris, see " Wild teasel."

DiscrssiONS at meetings of Weekly Coimcil,
18G2, Feb. 12; Pryor, W., on Bokhara
clover, xxiii. 405 ; Barnett, C, account
of Burmese wheat grown at Stratton,
ib.; Feb. 26, Eyre and Co. on the
adulteration of oil-cake, ih. ; Frere,
P. H., on Russian agriculture, 406;
March 12, lecture on milk by Professor
Voelcker, 410 ; discussion, 418 ; March
19, Brown B., on cattle conthments,
420; discussion, 421; March 26, Hol-
land, M. P., on steam boiler manage-
ment, 428 ; discussion, 433 ; April 3,
Frere, P. H., on tlie growth of mangold,
441 ; discussion, 445 ; April 30, Frere,
P. H., on cooking food for cattle, 448 ;
discussion, 450; May 21, Cahd, M. P.,
on the state of agriculture in Algeria,
454 ; discussion, 460 ; May 28, lecture
by Professor Voelcker on town sewage,
462 ; discussion, 469 ; June 18, Elliott,
J., on faim buildings, 471 ; discussion,
477 ; Biundell on fattening bullocks
on arable farms, 478 ; discussion, 482 ;
July 9, Profs. Simonds, Buckman, and
Voelcker, on the causes of an outbreak
of splenic apoplexy near Ilchestcr,
xxiv. 228 ; discussion, 254.

, in the year 1863, Feb. 25, Taylor,

J., on materials for the construction of
cottages, 559 ; discussion, 565 ; March
18, Denton, B., on the eflect of under
drainage on the rivers and arterial
channels, 573; discussion, 583; April
15, Voelcker, Dr., on the adulteration
of oil-cake, 589; discussion, 595; April
29, Simonds, Prof., on the natural
history of parasites, 597 ; discussion,
607 ; May 15, Euck, E., on steam culti-
vation, 610; discussion, 619 ; June 10,
Coleman, Prof., on the breeding and

feeding of sheep, 623 ; discussion, 634 ;
June 24, Voelcker, Dr., on the com-
parative effects of diflerent manures on
grass-lands, 639 ; discussion, 645.

Discussions in the year 1864, Feb. 17,
Lawes, J. B., on the action of common salt
as manure, xxv. 512 ; discussion, 516 ;
March 16, Hughes, A., on the manage-
ment of clay lands for sheep feeding,
521 ; discussion, 529 ; May 11, Voelcker,
Dr., on the atmospheric nutrition of
plants, 531 ; discussion, 537 ; April 23,
Holland, IMi-., on agricultural educa-
tion, 539 ; discussion, 543 ; June 8,
Simonds, Prof., on smallpox in sheep,
549; June 22, Voelcker, Dr., on the
chemical qualities of water for eco-
nomical pmposes, 562 ; discussion, 568.

Disease in potatoes, on, by Lord Port-
man, vi. 343.

in hops (S. Eutley), ix. 563.

Diseases of animals, hereditary predis-
i:)osition to (J. B. Simonds), x. 250.

, the, of cattle and sheep caused by

mismanagement, by W. F. Karkeek, xi.
541.

of poultry, by W. Trotter, xii. 202.

, hereditary, of horses, by F. Dun,

xiv. 106; bonespavin, 114; curb, 115;
strain of back tendons, ib. ; navicular
diseases, 116; chronic cough, roaring,
117; ophthalmia, 118; diarrhcea and
colic, 121 ; grease, 122 ; rheumatism,
122 ; scrofulous diathesis, 124 ; rickets,
125 ; hydrocephalus, 126 ; tabes me-
senterica, 126 ; glanders and farcy, 128.

, on the hereditary diseases of cattle,

by Finlay Dun, a prize essay, xv.
76 ; diarrhoea, 77 ; rheumatic diathesis,
ih. ; bustion foid, 79 ; scrofulous diathe-
sis, ib. ; consiuniJtion, ib. ; malignant tu-
mours, 83 ; -warts, or angle-berries, or
clyers, ib. ; cancerous and schirrous
tumours, 84 ; fevers, 86 ; the desirable
characters which cattle should possess,
ib.

, on tlie parturient fever of ewes, a

prize essay, by J. Seaman, xv. 383,

, on lameness in sheep and lambs, a

prize essay, by J. Seaman, xvi. 1 ; dis-
eases of the foot, 4 ; foot-root or gravel,
ib. ; epirootic foot-rot or mun-ain, 5 ;
contagious, ib. ; inflammation of the in-
tcrdigitalcanal,8; subcutaneous abscess
or whitlow, ib. ; canker, 9 ; inflamma-
tion and ulceration of the coffin and
coronary joints, 10 ; diseases of the leg,
1 1 ; rheumatism or joint-disease, ib. ;
sanguineous congestion or setfast, 13 ;
cliarbon, black-quarter, or quarter-ill,
14 ; strain.*, 15 ; fractures, ib.
d 2

GENEEAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Diseases, on the hereditaiy diseases of sheep
and pigs, by F. Dun, xvi. IG ; the otter-
shaped sheep of Massacliusets, 17 ;
peculiar breed of pigs, 18 ; resem-
blance of oftspring to parents, 21 ;
Orton's theory, 48 ; for breeding jmr-
poses animals subject to curtain dis-
eases, ib.

, liereditary diseases of sheep, 24 ;

of the brain and nervous system, 25 ;
epilepsy or fits, 2G ; diseases of tlie re-
spiratory organs, 28 ; diseases of the
digestive organs, ib. ; diarrhoea and
dysenteiy, ib. ; rliemnatism, 30 ; scro-
fula, 81 ; liydroceplialus or water-in-
the-head, 88 ; tabes mesenterica, ib. ;
phthisis pulmonalis, 34.

, hereditary diseases and defects of

pigs, 37 ; tlxc ill crtect of breeding in
and in, 38 ; epilepsy, 8'J ; lung dis-
eases, //). ; rheumatism, 40 ; scrofuhi,
ib. ; scrofulous and cancerous ttniiours,
41 ; the mule, 43; various hybrids, 44.

, homa'opathic treatment, examples

of (P. H. Frere), xxiv. 554.

of grasses (Buckman), xv. 474 ;

the smut, ib. ; fungi, (7). ; fau'V-riugs,
474-47(J ; ergot of rye, 477.

of root crops, on tlie finger and

toe in, by J. Buckman, xv. 125. See
" Finger and toe."

of wheat, Prof. Henslow on, ii. 1 ;

remarks on parasitic fungi in, 2.

DiSHLEV Slu'op Society, accoimt of CR.
Smith;, xix. 37S ; documents relating
to, ib. ; names of members and account
of restrictions imposed, 379.

Disinfecting powder (M'Dougall's), a good
sanitarj- agent, but not a fixer of am-
monia rV(K'lcker , xviii. 123. See
'• M'Dougall.'

Distillers' refuse, analysis of, xiii. 522.

DisTOMA hepaticum, the liver fluke, xxiii.
96.

DisTHiBUTOR for Hquid manure (P.
Love's, diagram of, xx. 26.

Ditching by task-work, how paid, by
H. Kaynbird, vii. 131 ; cost of, 520.

Dixon, James, prize essay on making
compost-lieaps from liipiids and otlier
substances, i. 135 ; on manuring grass-
land, a prize essay, xLx. 204.

DoBiTO, G., on fattening cattle, a jirizc
essay, vi. 74.

Dock, the cm-led ('Buckman), xvi. 364.

, the round-leaved, xvi. 364.

, the round-leaved meadow, xvi. 364.

, the water, xvi. 366.

, how affected by manure (Lawes),

XX. 265.

Dodder, the flax, a parasitical plant

DORSETSHIRE.

(Babington), ii. 63; its habits (Buck-
man), xvi. 364.

Dodder or " Devil's-guts " (Buckman),
xvi. 364.

, its varieties ("W. and H. Eajaibird),

xxii. 16, 18; described by Dr. Luulley,
16 ; diagram of flax dodder {Cuscuta
epilinum), 18; clover dodder (C tri-
folii), 20.

Dogs, the shepherd's of Cumberland, xiii.
266-269.

DoMviLLE, Su- C.'s, prize for essay on tlie
management of a suburban farm, xxv,
827.

Donne's lactoscope described, xxiv. 315.

Dorset slieep, tiie, by J. Wilson, xvi. 230 ;
L. H. Ituegg on, xv. 430.

homed sheej) (W. C. Spooner), xx.

306.

Dorsetshire, the clialk soils of described,
by Stevenson, xii. 486.

, butter-making in, by L. H. Euegg,

xiv. 68.

, the fanning of, a prize report, by

Louis H. Ruegg, xv. 389; geology of,
ib. ; the Portland stone, 390 ; tlie Pur-
beck marble, ib. ; its jK)tter's-clays,
shale, and fossil remains, ib. ; clay-pits
of Purbeck, 394 ; fossil trees, ib. ; tho
shale, ib. ; analysis of, 395 ; the occa-
sional diflcrence of soils, and the I'ocks
on which they rest, 897 ; the chalk
formation, 398; its fanning, 399; ro-
tations of, 400 ; tho superiority of tho
giant .sainfoin, 407 ; plan of improved
farm-buildings, 409 ; the Rev. A.
Huxtiible's farms at Sutton Waldron,
410; the growth of turnips, 413; of
sainfoin, ib.; the woods, 414; the water-
meadows, ib. ; the int(>rmitting bournes,
416; the clays, 417; the Vale of
Blackmore, ib. ; rotations of, ib. ;
cattle - feeding, 418; the Vale of
^larshwood, 420 ; fineness of the
timber-trees, ib. ; flax, 421 ; the heath
district, 422-453 ; the dairy system,
423 ; average produce of corn, 424 ;
furze on old jiastures indicates profit-
able barley and turnip land, ib. ; elm-
trees good dairy-land, ib. ; draining,
425; injuries from brooks and rivers,
427 ; sheep, 430 ; the Dorset horns, ib. ;
the Portland mutton, 431 ; wool, 432 ;
manures, 433 ; climate, 434 ; tcmiie-
rature, 435 ; wind, ib. ; rain, ib. ; 486 ;
breaking up of the dowus, 437; tho
different qualities of the chalk, 438 ;
enclosure of wastes, 439; extent of,
440 ; cottages, 441 ; plans of, 442 ;
breaking up of pastures, 447 ; Cran-
borne Chacc, 448; the extinction of

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

53

the deer, ib. ; butter, improvements in
the make of, 450.

Dove, the valley of, its alluvium soils
analysed (Derbyshire), xiv. 58.

Do^vNE, Viscount, on the uselessness of
bearing-reins, xv. 73.

Downing, , his plan of growing root

crops, viii. 27(5.

College estates (P. H. Frere), xxi. 430.

Down land, on the advantages of plough-
ing up (T. Walkden), iv. 80.

of Salisbury Plahi, iv. 80.

near Marl))orougli, iv. 81 .

, on the breaking up of, a prize essay,

by J. Bravendar, vii. 1G3.

on the breaking up of, in Dorset-
shire (Ruegg), XV. 437.

sheep (see " Sheep "), experiments on

the comparative feeding qualities of the
Hampshire and Sussex Down sheep,
by J. B. Lawes, xii. 414, xvi. 73.

sheep, J. Wilson on, xvi. 233 ; wool

of, 241.

Downy oat-grass, analysis of (Way), xiv.
177.

, its growth in different situations

(Buckman), xv. 468, xvii. 541.

Drag for carts described, vii. 230.

Deainage implements, J. Morton, jun.,
on. iii. 100.

of land, on, by J. F. Burke, ii. 273.

, rejiorts of results obtained in

thorough-chaining and subsoil-plough-
ing in 1840 and 1841, by R.White, ii. 346.

, belonguig to Sir R. Peel at Drayton,

account of, by Sir R. Peel, iii. 18.

, by H. Brown, iii. 165.

, by P. Pusey, iv. 23.

, its antiquity in the east of England,

iv. 24.

, Rev. C. Hill on Suifolk drain-
ing, iv. 24; materials used, 26; plans
of trench-drains, 28 ; expense of, 30.

, S. Jonas on Sufiblfc draining, iv.

32.

, W. Flack on Hertfordshire draining,

33.

, long practised in Hertfordshire, iv.

34.

, Essex drainage, by R. Baker, iv. 35.

, Essex draining, by M. Nockolds,

iv. 38.

, Essex draining, by Oxley Parker,

iv. 39.

, Norfolk draining, on, by H. Evans,

iv. 43.

, remarks on, by P. Pusey, iv. 45 ;

expenses of, 4G ; cost of thorough-
draining one acre, 48.

, sanitary effects of, by E. Chadwick,

iv. 151.

DRAINAGE.

Drainage, reijort to Hon. R. Clive on his
draining and subsoil ploughing, by
E. White, iv. 172.

, on, by T. Arkell, prize essay, iv.

318 ; the depth and frequency of
drains, 323 ; the materials used, tiles,
stone, clay, 324 ; on filling drains,
330 ; the direction of drains, 333 ;
the fall requhed, 334 ; benefits derived
from draining heavy land, ib. ; im-
proved climate from, 335; the dura-
bility of drains, 338 ; the j^ast and
present practice of draining, ib. ; dis-
tricts in England which require (1842)
the most extensive efforts in drain-
ing, ib.

, on the proper materials for filling

up drains, and the mode in which water
enters them, by R. Beart, iv. 411; his
experience in chaining cold clay-land,
ib. ; the geological cliaracter of the clay
soils of Huntingdonshire, ib. ; the
depth and frequency of the drains,
412 ; use of worms as drainers of land,
ib. ; the way in which the water enters
the drain, 413 ; advantages of deep
drains, 414 ; under drains, open ch-ains,
ib. ; plan of the drainage of a field,
415 ; the ftxll requu-cd ancl the necessity
of levelling high-ridged lands, 418 ;
the best time for levelling and chaining
land, 419 ; on the fall in diaius, ib. ;
in large rivers, ib. ; best materials in
Himtingdonshire for under-draining,
420 ; filling in, whether with tenacious
or porous earth, 421 ; block draining,
422 ; eftect of water holding clay iu
suspension, 425.

■ , the i^actical mode of draining clay-
land lying wet from surface water, the
laying out of the ground for tlie mains
and small drains, with the cost of
draining with tiles, wood, peat, turf,
or wedge and block draining, iv. 425 ;
summary of the expense of these modes
of draining, 430.

, state of, in Cheshire, W. Palin, v.

77.

, on the influence of water on the

temperature of soils, on the quantity of
rain-water, and its discharge by drains,
by Josiah Parkes, v. 119; physical
action of water, 120; a soil perfectly
fhy and perfectly wet alike sterile, ib. ;
1 inch depth of rain is ecpial to 1 ton
per acre, 122 ; water a powerful radiator
of heat, 123 ; rain- water carries heat
into a soil, 124 ; drains, depth of, ib. ;
covered, ib. ; soils absorb moisture, the
extent of the absorption, 126 ; Professor
Leslie's trials on, ib. ; absorption and

54

GENERAL IXDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

DRAINAGE.

retention of heat by soils, Davy on,
127-129 ; cause and physical action of
dew, 130 ; hoar-frost is frozen dew, 131 ;
drainage, effect of, on the entrance and
exchange of air, 132 ; the amount of
dew precipitated varies with tlie soil
and the leaves of different plants, ih. ;
soils difference of tlieu" attraction for
dew, ib. ; sands are jjowerful attractors,
lb. ; the atmosphere near rivers, and of
the iiplands, 133 ; tiie action of the
leaves of dilfcrent plants on dew, ib. ;
modes of retaining dew by different
plants, ib. ; as to moonshiny or clear
and dewy nights advancing putrefac-
tion, 135 ; tlie covering of j)lants to
protect tlicm from cold explained, ib. ;
the passage of sheep over clover covered
with hoar-frost, 130 ; experiments on
the tc-mperature of soils, 137 ; by
establishing a free passage for water
through the soil, il). • Schubler's ex-
periments at Tubingen and Geneva,
138; Leslie's experiments, 13'.); Mr.
Parkes' own experiments at Kcdmoss
near Bolton, 140; thermometers in it
at different depths, 140, 141; result of
observations, 142 ; facts to be ascer-
tained by experiment, 145 ; on the
quantity of rain compared with the
quantity of water evaporated from or
iiltered through a soil, witii some re-
marks on drainage. 14G ; the register
kept by Mr. John Dickinson of Abbot's
Hill in Hertfordshire, 14G ; the portion
of rain wliich filters through the soil,
148 ; tliat which falls from October to
March, 149 ; when the soil is in its
di-iest state, ib. ; the mean excess of
rain-water to be disposed of during the
six coldest mouths, ib. ; depth of rain
which fell monthly during lS3l» to
1843, 150 ; table of rain which fell in
those 8 years, in inches and tons jkt
acre, 151 ; amount of a very heavy rain,
153 ; running of a deep and a shallower
drain, 154 ; Mr. Hammond's practice
in draining stiff clay, 156 ; the mean
annual rain in Ijondon, 157.

DuAiNAGE, Sii' J. Graham on the frequent
dram system, i. 29.

, report of several operations in

thorough-draining and subsoil-plough-
ing at Oaklev Park, by Mr. R. White,
33, 248.

, on the mode of making and using

tQes on the Stow Hall estate in Norfolk,
described by J. Wiggms, i. 350.

, stoppage of di-ains by the roots of

plants and trees, i. 3G4.

in Nottinghamshii-e, vi. 30.

Drainage, on reducing the cost of per-
manent drainage, by Josiah Parkes, vi.
125.

, on deep drainuig, by the Eight

Hon. C. Arbuthnot, vi. 129.

system of Cornwall (Karkeek), vi.421.

, deep, the theory of, by J. C. Clut-

terbuck, vi. 489.

, on deep, by Right Hon. C. Arbuth-
not, vi. 573.

, on the best method of draining

running sands, by W. Linton, a prize
esstxy, vii. 115.

, by task-work, how paid for, by

H. Raynbird, vii. 131.

, on draining, by J. Parkes, vii. 249 ;

W. Blighs work, ' The English Im-
prover Improved,' 252 ; deposit in
dniiiiiug-pipe at Drayton Manor, 201 ;
deptii to which worms penetrate, 200;
the quantity of salt in the soil in which
whciit will vegetate, 208 ; on air-drains,
209 ; the use of cesspools in, 270.

, on cheapness of, by P. Pusey, vii.

520.

in Sufl'olk, by H. Raynbird, viii.

278 ; its extent and antiquity in Suffolk,
309.

, pastures liable to be burnt up im-
proved by draining, by R. Smith, ix. 11.

, on the failure of deep draining on

certain strong clay subsoils, and tlie
injurious effects of sinking the water
too far below the roots of plants in very
porous, alluvial, and peaty soils, by
W. B. Webster, ix. 237.

, jiractical experiments on the air-
drainage of land, by S. Hutchinson, ix.
340.

, on di-aining with fir-boughs, by

Lord Portman, ix. 453.

in Devonshire (Tanner), ix. 470.

, sandy lands in the N. R. of York-
shire (Milbum), ix. 509.

, a dress for drainers, by the Marqui-s

of Westminster, x. 51.

, on the stoppage of drains by an

earthy deposit, by Lord Portman, x.
119 ; analysis of deposit, by J. T. Wav,
121.

, an improved drain level described,

by T. Cooke, x. 165.

, C. Arbuthnot on the advantages of

deep, X. 490.

, on deep drainage, by P. Pusey, x.

503.

, on suiting the depth of drainage to

the circumstances of the soil, x. 507.

, on the mischief arising from drain-
ing certain clav soils too deeply, by
W. B. Webster, "xi. 311.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

Dkainage, p. Puscy on, xl. 401.

, under certain conditions of soil and

climate, by Lord Wliarnclifle, xii. 41.

of Hetliel Wood farm, by H. Fulton,

xii. 149.

• of the county of Lincoln in general

(Clarke), xii. 289.

, a report, by P. Pusey, on the diain-

ing-ploughs shown at the Great Exhi-
bition (in 1851), xii. 639.

in Nortliamptoushire, by W. Beam,

xiii. 92 ; of the Nene Valley, 109.

■ in Cumberland (Dickmson), xiii.

284.

■ , the tools for, sliown at the Lewes

meetmg (1852), xiii. 327.

' , the water of, analysis of, xiii. 506.

■ of the Keythorpe estate, xiv. 96.

■ , report upon tlie Eye and Derwent

drainage in Yorkshire, by J. Hender-
son, xiv. 129 ; the natural drains of a
district, 130 ; rivers much impeded by
mills, 130, 131, 133-137; the vale of
Pickering, 133; composed of the Kim-
meridge clay, ib. ; expenses of steam-
engine, 138 ; beneficial results in the
removal of the mill-dams and the flood
waters, 140 ; sanitary effects, 142.

, a detailed report of the dr-ainage of

a portion of Martin Mere in Lancashire,
by Henry White, xiv. 156 ; catchwater
drains, 160 ; embankments, 161 ; the
engine, 162 ; sectionof the scoop-wheel,
163 ; rainfaU of the chstrict, 166 ;
weight of water lifted, ib. ; day and
hours in which the engine worked, ib. ;
annual expenditm-e for engine and
■works, 169.

■ , experiment on drainage at different

depths (R. ]\Iilward), xiv. 210.

in East Lothian (Stevenson), xiv.

294.

• , tools for, exhibited at Gloucester

meeting, xiv. 346.

in Surrey (Evershed), xiv. 417.

• in Herefordslm-e (Rowlandson), xiv.

453.

, on trunk drainage, a prize essay, by

J. A. Clarke, xv. 1 ; rivers, streams,
nature's sewers, ib. ; the great easterly
■watershed of England, 2 ; the westerly,
ib. ; how nature's provision of drains
injured, 3 ; by reservoirs, canals, mills,
ib. ; instances of great floods, 4 ; efiect
of rivers and brooks in benefiting grass-
land by occasional winter flooding, and
injuring it by too long a flood, 9 ; injury
from summer flooding, 1 1 ; injury by
flooding to arable land, 13 ; injury by
stoppage or prevention of under-di'aiu-
age, ib. ; increase of laud drainage en-

larges the bulk of the trunk drainage
waters, 17 ; the ordinary difiiculties
of improving trunk di-ainage, and the
remedies, 18 ; history of the public
efforts to improve — the fens, 19 ;
Erith and Plumstead marshes, 21 ; the
Bedford Level, 25 ; windmill pumps
first erected, 27 ; the General Drainage
Act (10 and 11 Vict. c. 38), state of
some rivers, 36 ; the remedy applied to
others, ib. ; drainage of the Test and
Anton Valleys, 40 ; the amoimt of water
per acre evaporated from a saturated
soil and a dry chalk soil, 41 ; the Nene
Valley drainage, 42; floodings highly
injmious to the pubUc health, 51 ;
beneficial sanitary resiflts from good
drainage, 52 ; varying levels of the tide
in the Nene, 53, 55 ; shortsightedness
of the Wisbcach corporation, 58 ; the
upper valley of the Nene, 60 ; obstruc-
tive mills of, 61 ; encroachments of the
millers, 62 ; analysis of the Nene river
water, 67.

Drainage in Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 266.

, Fowler's draining-plough at the

Lincoln meeting, xv. 367.

in Dorsetshire (Ruegg), xv. 425.

operations, extent of, between 1852-4

(DenisonJ, xvii. 59; aided by the public
loan, ib. ; extent in acres, ib.

, in Durham (Dr. Bell), xvii. 94,

101 ; of the " watershaken-strata," 114 ;
usual depth, 30 in., 18 ft. apart, and
36 in. deep, for main drains, 114 ;
cost of draining, 117.

water, its comi^osition (J. T. Way),

xvii. 123.

, the benefits of, partly physical,

partly chemical (J. T. Way), xvh. 123 ;
see " Chemical advantages of " ; only
rarely coloured by manure, 133; table
of mineral contents of Faruham drainage
water, 133; samples supplied by Mr.
Acland, 137 ; chtto by Mr. C. Wren Hos-
kyns, ib. ; mineral matters in drainage
water, whence derived, 141 ; drainage
water from rich land useful for irriga-
tion, 151.

of Bedfordshire, xviii. 4 ; the Duke

of Bedford's arrangements with his
tenantry, ib. ; should draining follow
the direction of the furrow, 50.

(Hinx worth) ; record of discharge,

rainfall, warmth in soil, &c., by J. B.
Denton, xx. 273 ; Mr. Clutterbuck's
estate described, on lower chalk, green-
sand, and gault, ib. ; analyses of soils,
much lime in the gault from infiltra-
tion, 274 ; cost of shallow drains, 275 ;
drains in porous soil as few as possible,

56

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

ib. ; on g:mlt 4 ft. deep and 9 yards
apart, atcojjt of llOs. tu I'SOs. per aero,
ib ; tables of rainfall from October to
May, 270 ; of bavometer, ib. ; of dis-
charge from both elo»c and wide ikaius,
ib.; state of test holes, on close and
wide drain.s, and on nndraincd land, ib. ;
temperature of soil from January to cud
of IMay, ib. ; summary of above table,
278 ; the clays saturated to diain level
27 Nov., 2ya; free discharge, 12 Die.,
ib. ; very large discliargu from sub.se-
quent rainfall, ib. ; incrca:-e of dis-
cliarge in March and April, with fall f>f
barometer, but witiiout rainfall, ib. ;
ob.=;ervatioii.s, 294 ; high ridges liave
been levellcil, and the furm relet on
terms giving a full return for onti;iy, ib.

Urainage, near Windsor, its cost i^ypear-
ing , xxi. 2:5.

and Ene]o.3ure Companies (Wells),

xxi. 14 <J.

of Whittlesea Mere f W. Wells\ xxi.

11)4 ; hituation and ancient state of the
Mere, i;i.3 ; Sir J. lleiniio"s drainage
scheme, I'.'S ; the Middle Level Act
and winks, 137 ; the great Jlarshland
cut, ib. ; process of emptj-ing the jNIere,
138; its present condition, ib.; use
of Appold s jnunp, 131) ; the flood of
December, l!^51, ib. ; renewed oj>era-
tions, construction of banks and dykes,
140 ; eft'eetof drainage, ib. ; cultivation
of reclaimed land, ib. ; peat top-dressed
with underlying gault, 141 ; subsidence
of the level of the district, 142 ; enlarge-
ment of main <lrain, ib. ; use and cost
of jxirtuble railway, 143; cost of dry-
warping, ib. ; composition of guult
' Voelcker), 145 ; its use and cost as a
toi>-ilrcssiijg, ib. ; removal of stagnant
water essential in reclaiming bog, 14G ;
drainage and enclosure companies in-
corporated by Act of Parliament, ib. ;
the AVest of England Company, ib. ;
extent and productive jxiwer of the re-
claimed district of Whittlesea Mere, 147.

, memoranda on the drainage of

Wliittlesea I\Iere i P. H. Frere), xxi.
149 ; past and present iiroductions of
the INIere, 149-.J0; effects of drought
and frost, lot); preliminaries to culti-
vating ]>Lat land, 151 ; value of clay
as a top dressing, (7;. ; probability of
obtaining it directly from below the
fen, ib. ; subsidence and compressibility
of peat, ib. ; proper crops for the warp,
152 ; the crop of 1S59, ib. ; modern
homesteads, ib. ; the clay-bed succeeded
by brown peat, 153 ; remains of ancient
forest trees, ib.

DRAIXING-THES.

Drainage of a portion of the valley of tlie
Test at Broadlands in 1S52 (J. Bailey
Deuton\ xxii. 344 ; physical geograjihy
of the district, ib. ; average mean in-
clination, ib. ; plan of the works and
object proposed, 345 ; results, 31t5 ;
letter from Lord Palmerston on un-
drained land, and the cliects of under-
drainage on the soil, atmosiihere, and
rivers, ;M(j ; volume of the waters of
tlic Te-t nut diminished by drainage
works in adjoining lauds, 347.

, cliects of under-drainage on rivera

and arterial channels, i'. D. (J. B.
Denton), xxiv. 573 ; stiitistics, 574 ; the
ridge and furrow system, ib. ; Parki's's
im])r(>vements on parallid drains, 575;
the PuMic INIoney's Drainage Act, ///. ;
clli.rts of drainage on the river sy.-tem,
ib. ; classification of soils, 570 ; test
holes not adapted to clay lands, ib. ;
drainnge of free soils, ib. ; the Hinx-
wortli experiments, 577 ; evaporation,
578 ; valleys and watercourses, 579 ;
fii)()drf in the Thames basin (Kev. J. C.
ClutterJjuck), ib. ; clfects of under
drainage on the sujiply of water to
rivers, ib. ; plans of free soil drainage
carried out by the author, ib. ; works
on Mr. Dent s estate, 580 ; provision
against sudden floods, 581 ; proper
mode of draining different dcscription.s
of wet land, ib. ; importance of adeipiatu
outfall, 582 ; necessity of river retbrm,
ib. Discussion — Drainage works on the
Ilibstone estate (Mr. Dent, M.P.), 583;
direction of furrows overcome by steam
cultivation i^lv. Holland, M.P.), 584 ;
treatment of porous land 'Denton), ib.;
floods in 1809 ^v. Barker;, 585; im-
policy of hay foj-ming near London
(Prof. Simonds), 580 ; Elkington's
drainage works, importiince of compre-
hensive plans (Frere), 588 ; intervals
between drains (Sir J. Johnstone), ib. ;
the Elkington's system of tapping
springs (F. Hobbs), ib. ; government
inspection (Wells), ib.

Drains, arterial, obstruction of (Dr. Bell),
xvii. 117.

Drain level, a, described by S. H. Payne,
vi. 247.

Draininc-tiles, E. Beart on the econo-
mical manufacture of, ii. 93; expenses
of manufacturing in Huntingdonshire,
ib.; form of kiln, 94; of drj'ing-sheds
and pugmill-hou.se, ib. ; machinery, 95 ;
best-shaped tile for draining laud, ib. ;
cost of erecting kiln and" hopper, ib. ;
description of sheds, kilns, with figures,
90; description of Beart's patent ma-

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

57

DEAINING-TILES.

chine for tile-making, 9S ; clay best
adapted for tiles, 100 ; on furrow-drain-
ing on tenacious clay soils, ib. ; Mr. F.
Burke on Bearfs djainiug-tiles, 101 ;
Mr. P. Pusey on, //;.

DEAiNiXG-tilcs, on the Marquis of Tweed-
dale's tile-making machine, by J. Hunt,
ii. 148.

, on Irvine's tile-making machine, by

W. Ford, iii. 398.

, on i^ipe-tiles, by J. Eead, iv. 273.

, report on drain-tiles and drainage,

by J. Parkes, iv. 3G9; gives the price,
size, weight, &c., of the tiles, by Tweed-
dale, Etheredge, and Read, 370; the
pipe -tile, 372; their progress in Kent,
373 ; dmability of drain-tiles, 379.

, on the cheapest method of making

and burning draining-tiles, by T. L.
Hodges, V. 551 ; working the clay,
553; he preferred Hatcher's tile-making
machine, ib. ; sheds for drying, 554 ;
construction of kilns, ib. ; cost of form-
ing the establishment, 555 ; note by
Mr. Pusey, 556 ; es-timate for draming
an acre of land, 557.

, remedy for obstructions in (H.

Mangon), xxii. 625 ; diagi-am of air
ti-ap, 626 ; calcareous obstructions, 625 ;
ferruginous deposits from peat, 627 ;
tiles should be covered with well-
rammed clay, 629 ; flushing adopted as
a remedy against deposits of red ochre
at the Duke of Portland's (J. E. Deni-
son), 630.

, machines exhibited at the Shrews-

bm-y meeting, 1845, vi. 318.

, on the use of peat tiles, by the

Duke of Richmond, viii. 570.

, a report, by P. Pusey, on the tile-
machines shown at the Great Exhibi-
tion (in 1851), xii. 638.

■ , the tile-machines sliown at the

Lewes meeting f in 1852), xiii. 327.

, clay analysed, xiii. 536.

, machines at Gloucester (1853), xiv.

363.

, machines at Lincoln (1854), xv.

377.

, machines at Carlisle (1855), xvi.

.521.

, steam plough (Eddington's) at the

Warwick meeting (1859), xx. 326.

Dkaught of single cart-horses, T. J. L.
Baker on, i. 429.

of ploughs, J. Freeman on, ii. 104.

, on the advantage of testing, P.

Pusey on, i. 219, iii. 191.

DuAY and Co.'s (Cutchcombe's) mowing
machine at the Salisbury meeting,
report of the judges on, xviii. 422.

DuEssiNG machines, a report on those
shown at the Great Exhibition (in
1851), by P. Pusey, xii. 631.

, on tho.se shown at the Lewes meet-
ing in 1852, xiii. 324.

Drewitt, R. D., comparative trial of
superphosphate of lime and guano for
turnips, vi. 581.

, his farm near Guildford kept free

from weeds, absence of wireworms, ho
believes that he thus starves them, xiv.
84.

DiiEwiTT and Son on nitrate of soda as a
manure, i. 427, ii. 127.

DivirriELD Farmers' Club, tlio, report of
a committee of, on reai>ing-machines,
xui. 334.

Drift, tlie northern or glacial, xvii. 4">5 ;
ditto (Forbes), 456.

Drill, the water-drop drill (Chambers) at
tlie Chelmsford meeting (1856), xvii.
577 ; at Salisbiu-y, xviii. 432.

, Jethro Tull's first idea of (C. W.

Hoskyns\ xviii. 419.

, see " Water drill."

(Hornsby's), at the Salisbury meet-
ing ; the adaptation of vulcanised india-
rubber tubes commended, xviii. 431 .

Drill-hisbandry of turnips, by B.
Almack, iv. 49. See " Turnips."

in Norfolk (Almack), v. 307, 353.

of clover-seed (Almack), v. 327.

in Surrey (Evershed), xiv. 85-90.

Drilling of wheat, wide or narrow, by
T. W. Bramston, i. 294.

wheat, on, and the proper distance

between the rows (C. Rawlence), xxii.
449.

Drill-peessers exhibited at the Shrews-
bury meeting (1845), vi. 314 ; at Salis-
bury, xviii. 432.

Drills for distributing liquid-manure, by
C. Chandler, ix. 521.

, report on those shown at the Great

Exhibition (in 1851), by P. Pusey, xii.
600.

, on those exhibited at the Lewes

meeting (in 1852), xiii. 317.

, a trial between the water-drill and

the dust-diill in growing turnips, xiii.
408.

, report on those at Gloucester (1853),

xiv. 359.

, those at Lincoln (1854), xv. 375.

, those at Carlisle ( 1855), xvi. 508.

, those at Salisbury (1857), xviii. 418,

431.

, those at Leeds (1861), xxii. 453.

Driver, A. and W., their report on the
farming of Hampshire, 1794, xxii. 295.

Dropsy in sheep (Cleeve), i. 314.

58

GENEEAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Dbcce.

Drlte, Joseph, on Beckford's system of
irrigation, xiv. 432.

■ , Samuel, on the comparative profit

realised with diSerent breeds of sheep,
xiv. 211.

Dry-rot in potatoes, on the prevention of,
by H. S. Thompson, vi. IGl.

■ in wood, on, by the Rev. E. Sidney,

X. 394.

Dky-warping, cost of, on IVIr. Wells's
estate, Wliittlesea Mere, xxi. 143.

DrciE, Lord, on the early horn carrot, ii.
42.

, cultivator described, with a sketch,

by J. Morton, iii. 122.

• , his bi-ccding stock sold in poor con-
dition, xix, 147 ; sale of in 1853, xix.
360.

Ducks, on the rearing and management
of, by W. Trotter, xii. 195.

of Ayksbury (C. Read), xvi. 301.

Dudgeon, J., an account of the improve-
ment in the agriculture of Scotland
since the formation of the Highland
Societj-, a prize essay, i. 50.

Dun, Finlay, on the mismanagement of
tarm-horses, a prize essay, xii. 512.

, on the hereditary diseases of horses,

a prize essay, xiv. 106.

, on the hereditary diseases of cattle,

a prize essay, xv. 76.

, on the hereditary diseases of sheep

and pigs, xvi. 16.

, on lameness of sheep and lambs,

xvi. 381.

Dung-heaps, see " Farmyard manure."

, drainings of, on (Dr. Voeleker),

xviii. 131 ; on boiling tlay give oft"
ammonia and carbonic acid, 132 ; their
brown colour due to compounds of
himiic and ulmic acid, 132 ; effect of
temperature on chemical affinities, 133;
analyses of drainings from heaps of
difierent ages, 137 ; presence of nitric
acid in, 138; fermentation of manure
succeeded by eremacausis, ih. ; drain-
lugs from fresh dung have most organic
matter, ib. ; experiments with com-
pound drainings, 140 ; composition of
drainings from rotten dung, 143.

, cost of London, xxv. 285.

Dunn, Robert, on hollow-brick roofs, xv.
181.

, General, his improved homesteads

in Berks (Spearing), xxi. 34.

DuNSTONE, the local name of the trappean
rocks in Cornwall, iii. 28.

DuFLAT, Colonel, on the potato disease in
Poland, vii. 678.

Durham, on the farming of, a prize report
(Dr. Bell), xvii. 86 ; its geological cha-

DYNAMOMETER.

racter, tb. ; climate, 87 ; population,
ib. ; area and rental, 88 ; character of
the soil, 89; on the sea-coast, a fair
wheat-soil, ib. ; Hardwick park di-ained
and improved, 90 ; IMurden Carrs stiU
imreclaimed, ib. ; the Raby estates, 91,
102 ; Streatlam, ib. ; Cockfield, a poor
district, ih. ; acreage and population of
various townships, ib. ; tlie lead-mine
district and its low rental, 92 : extent
of enclosures, 93 ; common lands di-
vided, ib. ; improved value of allot-
ments, 94 ; price sold at, ib. ; good
effects of drainage and its depth, ib. ;
agriculture sacrificed to mining, 95 ;
payment of " double drainage," a pre-
miimi on negligence, ib. ; size and
tenure of estates, 96 ; extent and value
of Church property, ib. ; lands at South
Shields and Gatesliead, 97 ; tenure by
fine and renewal, a bar to improvement,
ib., 119; act for enfranchising lease-
liolds, 98, 119 ; size of farms, small,
ib. ; obstacles to improvement, 99 ;
conditions of letting, ib. ; rotation of
crops, 100 ; green crops dependant on
drainage, lOl ; precarious natiu-e of a
second years clover-crop, 102 ; defici-
ency of permanent pasture, 104 ; glass
seeds usually sown, ib. ; seeds recom-
mended, 105 ; cows tidvcn in to feed on
" stints," 104 ; live stock, see " Cattle,"
" Horses," " Sheep ;" pigs very gene-
rally bred and fed, 107 ; farm-build-
ings need improvement, 108 ; cattle
boxes, 109; stable ventilation, 110;
use of manure, ('6. ; liming. 111 ; fences
and size of enclosmes, ib. ; imple-
ments m use, 112; the swing plougii,
ib. ; a cheap clod-crusher needed, ib. ;
tithes, how distributed, 113 ; poor-rates,
their increase, ib. ; highway rates, ib. ;
prices of labom- and piece work. ib. ;
see " Drainage ;" large outlay on Lord
Durham's estates, 114; ditto on Sir T.
J. Claverings, ib. ; on Mr. Bowes's,
115; eostof draining, 117 ; obstruction
of arterial drains connected with a tidal
river, ib. ; improvements effected, 118 ;
ditto still required, ib. ; leasehold lauds
never drained, 119 ; mismanagement of
Crown lands (Chapwell Wood;, 120;
suggestions for forming plantations,
ib. ; larch-tree suited to the soil and
climate, 121 ; estimate of profit from
its growth, 122.

Dutch cheeses, how made (Rham),iii. 261.

Dykes in Sleswig and Holstein (diagram),
xxi. 270.

Dynamometer (Bentall's), trials reported
by P. Pusey, xii. 580.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

59

DYNASIOJCETER.

Dynamometer, on a, shown at the Lewes

meeting (in 1852), xiii. 328.

at Gloucester (1853), xiv. 859.

, used in the trial of ploughs at the

Paris meeting (1S5G), xvii. 39.
(Amos's), first used to test the

draught of plouglis at the Clielmsford

meeting (1856), xvii. 57-i.
Dyock oat, the, on, by the Kev. E. W.

Fisher, iii. 387. See " Oats."
Dysentery in sheep (H. Cleeve), i. 306 ;

(R. Smith), viii. 21 ; (J. Seaman), xvi.

28.
Dzierzon's system of bee-keeping, xxi.

322.

E.

Earcockle in wheat ^Henslow), ii. 19.

Early harvesting, P. Pusey on, i. 15.

, maturity, indications of, W. F.

Karkeek on, v. 259.

Ears, an animal with large, will not prove
a kindly feeder (Playfair), iv. 265.

, coarse, a symptom of a coarse breed

(Karkeek), v. 261.

Earth-closets, on (Rev. H. Moule), xxiv.
3; principles of the system, 112;
deodorising power and repeated action
of dry sifted earth, ib. ; description
and diagrams of apparatus, 114 ;
kinds of earth most efficacious, 115;
trials of the system at Dorchester,
Portland, and Bradford-on-Avon, 115-
16; value of the manure, 116; applica-
tion of the system to cottages and
public institutions, 118; present con-
dition of towns, 119; sewage works
at Birmingham, ib. ; evidence of Messrs.
Stanbridge and Till, 120; pressine of
costly improvements on the working
classes, 121 ; application of tiie system
to large towns, ib. ; sources of supply
of earth or clay, 122 ; companies to
carry out the earth system, 123 ;
economy of apparatus, ib.

Earth-worm, the (lumbricus terrestris),
its value to the farmer (Curtis), xviii. 19.

Earwigs, account of (Curtis), xviii. 67 ;
their habits, 68 ; two species common
in England, Forficula auricularia and
F. borealis, 69; kejit in check by staphy-
linus olens, the fetid rove-beetle, 70.

East Lothian, see " Lothian East.

EcHimi vulgare, see " Bugloss, the
viper's."

Economical manure, the, experiments
with, as a manure for swedes, by
Dr. A. Voelcker, xvi. 95 ; analysis of,
101.

education.

EcoNOJiY in tillage and harvesting (Deni-
son), xvii. 60.

Eczema epizootica, see " Mouth and foot
disease."

Eddington's steam draining plough at
Warwick (1859), xx. 326; his steam
tackle at Canterbury (I860), xxi. 492.

Eddison, E., on the best means of getting
in tlie harvest in a bad season, xxiii.
210.

Eddy, C. W., on American implements
and methods of economising labour,
XX. 109.

Education, agricultural, Dr.Daubeny on,
iii. 152, 364 ; the Willingdon school,
377.

in Sweden, iv. 204 ; the industrial

school at Quatt, in Shropshire, xix. 63 ;
on the royal farms, xxi. 29.

• , as connected with agriculture (Rev.

J. L. Brereton), xxv. 59 ; sensitiveness
of the middle classes, ib. ; the future
farmer not always a farmers' son, 60 ;
difference between public, private, and
intermediate schools, ib. ; grammar
schools, 61 ; county organisation, 62 ;
the Devon county school, cost and
design, 63, 68 ; degrees and state
grants, ib. ; cause of the deficiencies
of middle class education, ib. ; want
of a fixed standard, 64 ; advantages of
an educational degree, 65 ; county or
middle class degrees, 66 ; element-
ary schools, 67 ; county colleges, 68 ;
the University middle class exami-
nations, ib. ; Lord Fortescue's pro-
posal as to a Royal County University,
with affiliated colleges and schools,
69 ; cost of elementary education, 70 ;
seleetiou of masters, ib. ; care of parish
schools, ib. ; balance-sheet of Devon
county school, 71. — Remarks by the
editor, 72 ; notice of the Devon school
from Lord Fortescue's pamphlet, 73 ;
cost of board, the educational staff, &c.,
ib. ; establishment of county scholar-
ships, 74 ; exhibitions to the Universi-
ties of little practical value at the
present time, 75 ; importance of endow-
ments in real property, ib. ; pre-
liminary expenses in forming public
schools, 76.

• , agricultural (P. D.) by Mr. Hol-
land, M.P., xxv. 539 ; proper basis, ib. ;
Mr. Bellairs and Mr. Brereton on the
want of suitable schools for tlie middle
and lower middle classes, 540 ; Mr.
Grey, of Ddston, on the responsibility
of parents, 541 ; Mr. Wilson on the
qualifications of a farmer, ib. ; Mr. J.
C. Morton on the same subject, 542 ;

€0

GENEEAL I^'DEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTUEAL JOUllNAL.

EmVAKDS.

the example of Devonshire cited, 543.
i>?.sr;M.ss/cHi— SirE. Kerrison on existing
•schools in Sussex and Essex, 544 ; Rev.
J. L. Breieton's experience at West
Buekland, 545 ; Dr. Voelcker and Pro-
fessor Coleinan on fann scliools, 546 ;
Mr. AV. Hoskyns on tlie difficulty of
legislating on such questions. 547 ;
Lord Fevershani'.s concluding observa-
tions as president, ih.

Edwards, Milne, his report to the French
government on the use of .salt as
manure, xxv. 515.

EinvAKDs, W., on dry warping in Hatfield,
Chace, xi. 180.

Egos of j^oultry, selection and hatching
of (W. Tnitter), xii. 181.

Eghemont, the carboniferous limestones
of, xiii. 20i>.

Elder, the, for fences, J. Grigor on, vi.
225.

Ei.ECTuiciTY, its relations to the earth, by
Sciiubkr, i. 207.

— — , no evidence of its influence in
tliunder, rain, mist, fog, or snow (J. T.
Way), xvii. (J21.

Elevation of the land, effect of, on mean
temperature, by N. Wldtiey, xi. 3; on
summer tempei-atiu'e, 7 ; ettect of, upon
tlie rainfall, 15 ; effect of, upon agricul-
tural produce, 40.

, effect of, on the farming of Ciuu-

berland, by W. Dickinson, xiii. 215.

, effect of, upon production, by J.

Bravendar, v. 579; by J. Watson, vi.
97.

Elkington, his draining in Wanvickshire,
xvii. 486.

Elliot, John, on farm-buildings (P. D.),
xxiii. 471.

Ellis, on the rot in sheep ("Shepherd's
Siuc Guide, a.d. ]74it"j, xxiii. 6(j, 72.

, J., on the prevention of blight in

apples, iv. 267.

Ellman, Joliu, of Gl}-nde, his merits as a
sheeji-breeder, viii. 7.

, his system of sheep-breeding, by J.

Farncombc, xi. 77.

, J. Wilson on, xvi. 233.

Elly, S., on the cultivation and pre-
paration of gorse as food for cattle, vi.
523.

Elm, the, on the planting of ^R. Falkener),
iii. 276 ; analysis of the wood and bark
of, xiii. 530.

• , its presence fin Dorsetshire) indicates

good dairy-land (Ruegg), xv. 424.

Elymts arenarius, see " Upright sea lyme-
grass."

Elymus Europaeus. see "Wood lyme-
grass."

ERSLEV.

Embaxkmext against the sea in Lincoln-
shire by means of faggots and warp,
iv. 292.

• of Martin Mere, in Lancashue

(White), xiv. 161.

Emperou of the French, the, elected an
honorary member (report of council),
xvii. p. iii.

ExcLosvRE of land, its good effects ui)on
iigricultm-e and the labom-er (P. Pusey),
iv. 315.

in Devonshire (H. Tanner), ix. 483.

bills since 1710 (Hoskyns), xvi. 575 ;

(T. D. Aclandl, xvi. 575; in Warwick-
shire (Evei-shed), xvii. 491 ; in Durham
(Dr. Bi'll), xvii. 93.

ExDOssiosE and exosmosc (Rev. M, J.
Berkeley), xxiv. 427.

E.NGiNE and boiler house, constniction of
(Tancred), xi. 199 ; (Ewart), 235-253.

ExGiNEEKS, school of, iu Italy (Capt. R.
B. Smith), xxiv. 191.

Exc.LANi), the state of its agriculture in
1839, by P. I'usey, i. 1.

, value of the "farm i)roducc of (Hos-

kj-ns), xvi. 569 ; its acreage, 571 ; its
state? of cultivation two centuries since,
573 ; its increase of pojiidation since
1800, statistical map of, 597.

ExToMoLoijy, the, of Gloucestershire
(Bravendar), xi. 127.

ExTozoA, or internal para.sitic worms
(Simonds), xxiv. 598.

Ei'iDEJiic amongst cattle in 1841, repoit
on, by W. Sewell, ii. cxix.

EriDOTE, a mineral occasionally found in
traj) ifK'ks, xvii. 468.

Ei'iLEPSY in sheeji, on, by F. Dun, xvi. 26.

in pigs (F. Dun), xvi. 39.

EriLoniu.M montanum, see " Willow herb,
the smooth-leaved."

ErizooTic diseases, sketch of their histoiy,
(J. B. Simonds >, xviii. 197-203.

EiBOM salt, ste " Suliihate of magnesia."

l-vQi'iSEiTM arvense, see " Com horsetail."

Ei'vEMACAisis, the process of oxidation, or
slow combustion [e.g. in manure heaps),
that st;ts in after fermentation has
ceased (Voelcker), xviii. 138.

, its action in timber (Dr. Richardson ,

XX. 4.

Ergot in wheat, Henslow on, ii. 19; its
prevention, ib.

, E. Sidney on, x. 390.

rye, J. Buckman on, with plate, xv.

477 ; xvii. 173.

(H. Tanner), xix. 40, plate 41.

Erica, the, see "Heath."

Erith marsli. drainage of, xv. 21.

Erslev. on the national economy of Den-
mark, xxi. 271.

VOLUMES OXE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

61

Eavrii hirsutura, see " Tare, the hairy,"

tetrasjjermiimi, see "Tare, the

smooth."

Erysipphe, the mould, on peas, peach-
leaves, &c., by the Rev. E. Sidney, x.
391.

Essex, the Earl of, trials with salt and
charcoal, and charcoal as a manm-e for
turnips, v. 280 ; his application of
sewage to grass land, xxiv. 67 ; descrip-
tion of his home farm and sewage ex-
periments (Evershed), xxv. '29o.

, draining, practice of in, R. Baker

on, iv. 35.

draining, M. Nockolds on, iv. 38.

draining, J. Oxley Parker on, iv.

39.

, on the farming of, by R. Baker of

Writtle, prize report, v. 1 ; its soils —
the London clay resting upon chalk, 1 :
the farming of the tirst or chalky-clay
district, 2 ; its barley for malting, its
wheat, 3 ; i^eas and beans, growth of, 4 ;
of clover, ib. ; the systems of manage-
ment, 5 ; exixinses of two modes, (j ;
draining the soil, 5-8 ; the mode of
making the drains, 9 ; the mole-plough
used on some soils, 11 ; clay-burning,
the jDrocess described, 12 ; the live-stock
kept in the district, 14 ; the sheep, 15 ;
the pigs— those introduced by Lord
Western and Fisher Hobbs, ib. ; the
implements of husbandry, ib. ; ploughs,
■ib. ; harrows, 16; rollers, ib.; root-
ditching, ib. ; growth of sainfoin, 17 ;
wages, ib. ; public bm-dens, ib. ; the
farm-premises, how arranged, ib.

The second or mixed-soil district, v. IS ;
how cultivated, 20 ; cultivation of
mangold- wm-zel, 21; expenses, 23;
cultivation of swede tiunips, 24 ; ex-
pense, ib. ; white turnij^s, 25 ; common
cabbage, ib. ; white or Belgian carrots
grown, ib. ; the subsoils of Essex, their
weeds, 26 ; stall-feeding, 27 ; not a
breeding county, ib. ; cows, ib. ; harvest-
tune, ib. ; wheat, harvesting of, 28 ; the
corn-ricks, ib. ; oats, harvesting of, ib. ;
barley mown, 29 ; beans, peas ; cost of
cultivating, 30 ; garden-peas, ib. ; ave-
rage crop of wheat, ib. ; clover-seeds
grown, ib. ; thatching, how paid for, 31 ;
cottages, ib. ; waste land, ib. ; general
character of the farming, ib. ; the farm-
houses and buildings, ib. ; Italian rye-
grass, 32 ; the rent, 33 ; the Plaistow
marshes, ib. ; public bmdens, ib.

The thii'd or heavy-clay district, v.
33 ; chalk much used, 34 ; the expense
of cultivation, ib. ; the fallows, ib. ; the
value of the ploughiugs, ib. ; couch and

twitch grass, 35 ; the wheat grown, its
quality, ib. ; the beans, their manage-
ment, 36 ; the crops peculiar to this dis-
trict, ib. ; coriander, caraway, white,
mustard, brown mustard, canary, 37 ;
Rochford huncU-ed, 38 ; its artesian
wells, /7). ; improved healthiness, ib. ;
the woodlands, ih. ; the average pro-
duce of the county, 39 ; the cultivation
of some Stour Valley farms by Mr.-
King Viall, ib.

EsTRAJiADURA pliospliatc, or Spanish
phosphorite (Dr. Voelcker), xxi. 355.

Evaporation, its effects, as tested by
the Dalton rain-gauge, xvii. 126 ; its
widely varying amount in winter and
summer, 127-8 ; annual and monthly
tables (Parkes), ib.

EvENDEN, J. S., his system of steam,
jiloughing, xxiii. 404.

EvERSLEY, Lord, management of his woods
and plantations, xxii. 309.

EvERiTT, James, on saltpetre as a manure,
i. 281.

Evershed, Sytlney, on the improved me-
thods of cropping and cultivating light
land, a prize essay, xiv. 79.

, Henry, on the farming of SmTcy, a

prize report, xiv. 395.

, on the farming of Warwickshire, a

prize report, xvii. 475.

, on the proper office of straw on a

farm, a prize essay, xxi. 153.

on the wear and tear of agricultural

steam-engines and threshing machines,
whether tixed or portable, xxiii. 323.

, on the agriculture of Hertfordshire,

prize essay, xxv. 269.

Ewes, on a peculiar disease in, by J.
Buckley, ii. 116; reiJort by Professor
Sewell, on, 117.

, diseases occurring in, after lambing,

with their remedies, by W. C. Sibbald,
xii. 574.

Excreta of plants, on (Dr. Fowues), iv.
536.

, Macaire on, iv. 536.

EwART, John, on the construction of farm-
buildings, xi. 215.

Exeter meeting, report of the exhibition
and trial of implements at, by (J. B.
Challoner, xi. 452 ; for live stock, Iv.

ExMOOR, improvements in (T. D. Acland),
xi. 688.

, on the formation of hill-side catch-
meadows on Exmoor, by R. Smith, xii.
139.

sheep, breed of, on, by J. Wilson,

xvi. 228.

sheep, at Stratfieldsaye, xxii. 262.

Forest, agistment for stock, xvii. 383.

62

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

EXPERIMENTS

Experiments on rainwater, by Lawes and
Gilbert, M. Barral, and iVI. Boussin-
gault, xvii. 142.

, on farmyard manure (Voelcker),

xvii. 191.

F.

Fabre, M. Esprit, on the species of ajgi-
lops of tlie south of France, and their
conversion into wheat, xv. 1C7.

Fairbairn (the Lammernuiir farmer), on
the rot in slicep, xxiii. 67, 75.

Fairbukn's, W., report on the reapers at
Paris (185G), xvii. 41.

Fairy-rings in pastures, on, by J. T.
Wav, vii. 54!).

, the Rev. E. Sidney on, x. 391,

, J. B. Lawes on, xii. 33.

, J. Bueknian on, xv. 474-476.

Falkener, F., on the necessity' of com-
pounding mineral manures, ii. 418.

, on the cultivation of orchards and

the making of cider and perry, iv. 380.
See tliose heads.

, C, on the planting and manage-
ment of forest-trees, iii. 263.

Fallows, the management of, in Cam-
bridgeshire (S. Jonas), vii. 40-50.

, management of, in Suffolk (H.

Raynbii'd), viii. 270-285.

• , management of, in the N. E. of

Yorkshire [M. Milburn\ ix. 513.

, management of, in Northampton-

sliire, by W. Beam, xiii. G2.

, turnip management of, on the mag-

nesian limestone soils of Derbyshire (J.
Rowley), xiv. 22.

of Surrey, described by S. Evershed,

xiv. 81-83.

, on the bean-turnip, by T. Bur-

roughes, xiv. 425.

, on the clays of Oxford.'ihire (C.

Read), xv. 209.

, on the autumn-cleaning of stubbles,

a prize essay, by E. E. Agate, xvi. 110 ;
forking-out couch. 111.

, management of, in Buckingham-

fehu'e ! C. Read\ xvi. 286.

, by autumn-cleansing of dry tumip-

soils tlieir moisture in spring is aug-
mented, by R, Vallentine, xvi. 347-
352.

Farcy, in horses (Dun), xiv. 128.

Fakm accounts, see "Accounts."

, experimental, at Vaujours, France,

account of (P. H. Frere), xxiii. 286;
general description and map of crops
in 1860, 287; drainage, 289; cost of
irrigating apparatus, ib. ; moveable

FARM-BUILDINGS.

pipes, 290 ; Paris nightsoil (vidange),
291 ; poudrette, ib. ; its analysis, 292 ;
cost of raising water (M. Gasparin),
293 ; of liquid manure laid on by carts,
ib. ; and ))y steam-power and pipes,
294; positions of canal and barge
illustrated, ib. ; Belgian mode of appli-
cation, 295 ; relation of primary cost to
aggregate work, 296; enii)loyment of
engine, ib. ; the system tested by Eng-
lish experience, ib. ; the hydiaulic
crane, 297 ; course of events at Vau-
jours, ib. ; average produce per acre,
299 ; cost of labour (note), ib. ; lodg-
ment of crops, 300 ; precautious against,
301 ; balance-sheet of 1860 criticised,
302; 31. IM. de Ilappcnuau on ver-
min, or i-abbits, 304 ; the dairy, ib. ;
experiments on effect of sewage on hay-
crops, 306 ; analysis of hay, 307 ; effects
of farmyard manure, " soil," and rape-
cake, 307-9 ; analysis of sheep manure,
308 ; effects of manure in relation to
that of substances furnisliing it, 309;
ordinary and li(|uid manure, 310 ;
table of comparative results, 311 .
mangold as affected by farmj'ard ma-
nure and sewage, 312; conclusions,
313; )>lan of future cropping, .'ilS;
difficulty of reconciling experimental
and scientific fanning with profit, 316.

Farm, management of a suburban, prize
essay(J. B. Monck), xxv. 327; the au-
thor s experience, situation and descrip-
tion of his fann, ib. ; profits of market
gardening, 328 ; sale of green produce
and standing crops, 329 ; management
of the dung-heap, ib. ; production and
sale of milk, 330; pigs, ib.; statement,
of profits, 331 ; deductions, ib. ; course
of cropping and general management,

. 332.

, moorland, plan of (E. Smith), xvii.

357.

FARM-buildings, on, by John Grey, iv.
1 ; mismanagement of fattening-cattle,
ib. ; evils to both landlord and tenant
from neglected farm-buildings, 2 ;
threshing-machines, advantages over
threshers and the flail, 6 ; plans of
farm-buildings, 9.

in Devonshire (Tanner), ix. 488.

in Lancashire (^Gamett), x. 38.

, on, by H. S. Thompson, xi. 186.

, on the constitietion of, by Sir

Thomas Tancred, a prize essay, xi. 192.

, on the construction of, by J.

Ewart. xi. 215.

, on the construction of, by W. C.

Spooner and John Elliott, xi. 270.

, a plan for, by J. Hudson, xi. 282.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

63

FARM-BUILDIXGS.

FARM-buildiugs, on, by Thomas Sturgess,
xi. 2SS.

, on, by C. P. Tebbutt, xi. 300;

situations, 216 ; stack-yards, 195, 196,
307 ; barns, 231 ; threshing-house, 197 ;
straw-barn and granary, 197, 232 ; en-
gine and boiler-house, 199, 235, 253 ;
steaming-room and |root-house, 199 ;
horse-stable, 200, 236 ; nag-stable, 205 ;
sheep-sheds, 201 ; cow-house, 247, 256 ;
calf-house, 259 ; cattle-boxes, 202, 243,
274; piggeiy, 203, 259; dairy, 205,
257 ; ventilation, 294 ; yards and sheds
for young stock, 205, 26S ; implement
and cart-shed, 240 ; jslaus for, 214,
223, 552; materials, 229, 293, 572;
specifications, 207, 280, 296 ; estimates,
249, 261, 280 ; steam-power, expense
of, contrasted with horse-power, 285 ;
roofs, 566.

, on the cost of, by G. Dean, xi.

558.

, of Somersetshire (T. D. Acland), xi.

743 ; linhays, 746.

, Lord Kinnaird on, xii. 151 ; j^lans,

158 ; estimates, 159 ; specifications of,
153 ; the implements necessary for a
farm, 152.

of Northamptonshire, by W. Beam,

xiii. 85.

in Cumberland, by W. Dickinson,

xiii. 275.

in East Lothian (Stevenson), xiv.

292.

, on covered homestalls, by W. F.

Hobbs, xiv. 325.
, on covered farm-steadings, by Lord

Kinnaird, xiv. 336.

of Surrey (Evershed), xiv. 416.

of Herefordshire (Eowlandson), xiv.

452.

of Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 254.

, plan of improved in Dorsetshire

(Euegg), XV. 409.

of Buckinghamshire (Read), xvi.

308.

in Durham need improvement (Dr.

BeU), xvu. 108.

, relation of outlay to size of farm

(R. Smith), xvii. 358; plan and cost
of, for a 300-acre farm, ib., 359.

in Shropshire (Tanner), xix. 45.

, the Prince Consort's, near Windsor

(Spearing), xxi. 26.

of Mr. R. Benyon, Englefield, Berks

(Spearing), xxi. 31.

, on, P. D. (J. Elliott\ xxiii. 471 ;

importance of site in relation to health
and drainage, ib. ; aspect, 472 ; im-
portance of shelter to fatting stock, ib. ;
box-feeding, on Blr. Blimdell's plan.

FARMYARD.

473 ; economy of labour promoted by
well-arranged buildings, ib. ; cheap
farm railways, ib. ; comparative advan-
tages of fixed and portable engines,
474 ; the engine's proper situation, ib. ;
mode of construction and choice of ma-
terials, ib. ; essay and plan by tlie
author and Mr. Spooner in Royal A.
Society's Journal, 1850, 475 ; advan-
tage of paved boxes and feeding pas-
sages, ib. ; management of horse-boxes,
476 ; ventilation, ib. ; fire-proof build-
ings, 477. Discussion — Su- E. Kerri-
son. Col. Hood, Messrs. Frere, Black-
burn, and Exall, ib. ; Messrs. Blundell
and Elliot, 478.

FARM-buildings, on a cheap material for
(J. F. Clark), xxiv. 552 ; concrete
blocks, 553.

Farjiers' clubs, subjects for discussion,
iii. 221.

of Lincolnshire described by A.

Young and P. Pusey, iv. 315.

FARBi-roads on strong soils, a prize essay
(J. B. Denton), xviii. 82 ; an over-
costly undertaking for those with only
a lunited interest, ib. ; cost of mainte-
nance must fall on tenants, 83 ; dif-
ferently constructed to laublic roads,
ib. ; fimdamental principles, 84 ; how
cost of di-aught increases with inclina-
tion (Macneill), ib.; transverse section
of road, 85 ; dimensions of ditches,
drains, &c., ib. ; water to be got rid of
by filling up hollows and ruts, 87 ;
economy of drains, ib. ; Telford's adhe-
rence to the convex smface, 88 ; dhec-
tions for forming, 89 ; estimates of cost,
ib. ; local modifications and cost of ma-
terials, 90 ; cost of clay-bm'ning, ballast-
getting, and harrowing, 91 ; roads on
the clay formations, 92 ; their cost, 93 ;
concrete foundation, cost of, ib. ; Beart's
perforated bricks, 95 ; red sandstone a
good foundation, ib. ; granite, its cost
and weight, 96,

Farm servants, see " Labourers ; " how
hired in Northumberland, ii. 183 ;
their wages chiefly paid in kind, 186.
See " Northumberland."

in Meckleuburgh, i. 129.

Farms, home, on the management of.
See " Home farm," xxiii. 247.

, prize, of France (P. H. Frere),

xxiv. 8.

of Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 257.

of Durham, small, xvii. 98.

, on the time of entering. See " Time

of entering farms."

Farmyard manure, on the making of
compost from liquiils and other sub-

64

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

FARMYARD.

stances, by J. Dixon, i. 135 ; peat saw-
dust, ib. ; urine and nightsoil, ib.

Farmyard manure, on the action of, and
some artificial manures, on beetroot, by
P. Puscy, vi. 528.

. fillin,!? of, by taskwork, how paid

(Kaynbird), vii. 134.

turning over lieaps, how jwid, if by

taskwork, vii. 135.

, on the power of soils to retain, by

H. S. Tliompson, xi. G9.

, analysis of, xiii. 482 ; of box-made.

ib. ; of stable, ib.

, jireparation of, un<ler slieds, in

Derbyshire (KowUy\ xiv. 23.

, etiect of, from t-ovcred yards, on

potiitoes and on wheat, by Lord Kin-
naird, xiv. 337.

, some of the chemistry of compost-
heaps (P. Pusey), xiv. 381 ; on adding
lime to, ib.

, on ploughing it in in autumn

(Agate), xvi. 117.

, trials with, as a manure for wheat

grown on a light turni])-soil for four
successive years, by H. W. Kearj', xvi.
212.

, on the chemical changes in the fer-
mentation of dung, a jirizc essav, by
the Rev. W, R. Buwditeh, xvi. '323 ;
on the prevention of noxious emana-
tions from various nitrogenous ma-
nures, 330; ammonia emitted from
decaying vegetable matters, 333 ; light
emitted by, 340; and by annual mat-
ters, ib.; phosphorus, 338; i)hos])hu-
retted liydrogen, 340; sulphur, 341;
sulphuretted liydrogen, 342 ; analysis
of fresh and putrid cows' lu-ine, 34G.

, weeds in (Buckman), xvi. 377.

. horse-dung, analysis of, by Dr.

Fownes, iv. 539.

, analysis of, xiii. 482.

, on its composition, and the changes

it undergoes on keeping (Dr. Voeleker),
xvii. I'Jl ; uniform Siunples difUeidt to
be obtiiined, 193 ; fresh dung, its ana-
lysis, 194; proportion of ammonia in
tlie natiual and the dry states, 195;
analysis of ash, soluble and insoluble,
196; analysis of dry manure kept fiee
from rainiall, 198; freslx maiuu-e con-
tains little nitrogen, 199; the soluble
ash gives indications of potash, silicate
of potash, and soluble phosphate of
lime, 200 ; home-made dung a uni-
versal manure, 202 ; analysis of rotten
dung, 6 months old (203), gives in-
crease of soluble phosphate (204), but
less potash, 205 ; fresh and rotten dung
contrasted, 207; rotten dung rich in

FARMYARD.

oxygen, ib. ; the process of putrefac-
faction (208) accompanied with the
evolution of sulphur and pliosphorus
with hydrogen (209), and forming vola-
tile gases, such as carb. acid and ammo-
nia, and soluble coini)ounds, such as the
humates and ulmates of the alkalies,
210 ; tlie union of ammonia with humio
and ulmic acid destroyed at elevated
temperatures, ib. ; exposure to weather
removes bone-earth and solul)le silica,
217 ; analysis of manure icept luider
cover, once watered, 218; aflbrded few
indications of change in 3 montlis, 220;
formation of sulplnu'ic acid and gypsum
in rotten dung, 221 ; loss of soluble
constituents in manure exposed to
weather, 225; escape of soluble nitro-
gen, ib. ; hot interiors of manure-heaps
give olf ammonia, which is fixed again
by the coolness of the outer layers,
22G ; loss of annnonia in turning heaps,
ib. ; table of loss of weight sustained
by keeping manure for different periods,
227 ; comj)osition of ditto at the dif-
ferent experimental weighings, 228 :
effects of riiinfall, 229 ; composition of
fresh maiuire, exposed, calculated dry,
ib. ; no advantiige in keejiing manure
too long — after 3 months little increase
in percentage of nitrogen, and enor-
mous waste of organic matter, 230 ;
but well regulated fermentation neces-
sary (232), and very little volatile am-
monia is formed during the process,
233 ; rainfall the chief cause of waste of
fertilising materials, ib. ; loss in weight
of manme kejjt under shed, table of,
235 ; fresh manure does not jtroperly fer-
ment under cover, 238 ; fermentive
action ceases with less than 5G pur cent,
of water, ib. ; table of composition of ma-
nure heap at different dates. 239 ; small
loss of nitrogen, as volatile carb. of
ammonia, 239 ; organic acids not readily
fonned in the absence of moisture,
240 ; tables of the composition, &e., of
manure spread in open yards, 241 ; loss
of soluble minerals, 244 ; loss of soluble
and insoluble organic matter '24G), and
of nitrogen, 248 ; correction of foregoing
tables for increase of mineral matter,
230 ; tables of the comjiosition of well-
rotted dung exposed, 251 ; its loss in
weight far less than its loss in value,
254 ; small traces of nitric acid in stale
manure, 255 ; value of soluble coiLsti-
tueuts, 25G ; on clayey soils manure
may be spread without fear of waste,
ib. ; methods of analysis used, 259.
Fakmyard manure, draiuiugs of dung

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

65

FARMYARD.

heaps, and the absorbing properties of

■ soils (Dr. Voelcker), xviii. Ill; the smell
of dung-hills when turned, iDroceeds
from various gases besides ammonia,
120 ; on the use of salt and lime, 121 ;
fresh manure may be spread at once,
except on sandy soils, 139.

Farmyard manure (J. B. Lawes), xxiii.
45 ; table of matters annually entering
into home manures of a farm, ib. ;
constituents of undecomposed farmyard
manm-e, 46 ; analyses by Boussingault
and Voelcker, ib. ; causes of waste and
variations in value, 47 ; relation of
farmyard manure to artificial fertihsers,
tb. ; table of composition of various
kinds of agricultm-al produce, 48.

and cattle-box manure, their rela-
tive value (C. Lawrence), xviii. 368.

Farncombe, Jolm, on the farming of
Sussex, a prize report, xi. 75. See
" Sussex."

Farrier, average bills of, on a farm, xix.
454.

Fasciola hepatica, the liver fluke, xxiii.
93.

Fat is found in certain vegetable sub-
stances, iv. 233 ; effect of oil-cake in
producing fat, 232.

and muscle, an essay on, by W. F.

Karkeek, prize essay, v. 245 ; growth of
plants and animals, 246 ; comparative
analyses of hay, oats, beans, beef, and
potatoes, ib. ; elements of nutrition,
247 ; elements of respiration, ib. ; pro-
teine, 248 ; vegetable fibrine, ib. ; vege-
table albumen, ib. ; vegetable caseine,
ib. ; the proportion of these found in
the common crojjs of the field, 249 ; the
proportion of starch, gum, and sugar,
contained in any separate article of food,
with regard to the fat and tallow which
it is capable of yielding, ib. ; the gluten,
albumen, and caseine in food, as an in-
dication of its muscle or flesh-forming
principle, ib. ; the process by which
' the metamorphoses of these materials
is accompUshed, ib. ; chyme, digestion,
ib. ; chyle, ib. ; the passing of the
blood through the lungs, 250 ; the car-
bon of the food, its conversion to car-
bonic acid, ib. ; i>roduction of heat, 251 ;

' the varying consumption of oxygen gas,
ib. ; influence of temperature on the
consumption of food, ib. ; examples,
ib. ; rest with warmth as an equivalent
for food, 252 ; examples, rearing of
calves in Holland, stall-fed cows, ib. ;
suckling of Dorsetshire house lambs,
253 ; the production of fat, ib. ; the
external and internal fat, 254; ex-
VOLS. I. — XXV.

FATTENING.

amples of internal fat in peculiar breeds,
255 ; the milking qualities of, and in-
side fat, ib. ; animals possessing small
lungs, small livers, and small spleens,
their disposition to fatten, ib. ; external
signs of early maturity, 259 ; the touch,
ib. • smalliiess of bone, 260 ; the size of
the head, ib. ; the ears, ib. ; the horns,
ib. ; a thin neck, ib. ; the rearing de-
partment, 261 ; acreable table of nutri-
tion, 263 ; the food of pigs, 265.

Fat, on the fatty matters in the natural
and artificial grasses, by J. T. Way,
xiv. 173, 177, 179, 180.

, its production from sugar and

starch (Horsfall), xviii. 167.

Fat hen, the (Buckman), xvi. 364.

Fattening cattle, relation of theh live to
their dead weight (Horsfall), xviii. 161
the increase in weight all gain, ib.
their excrements, analysis of, 164
loss of nitrogen caused by excess of
albmninous food, 166 ; value of manure
regulated by the mode of feeding, 167 ;
etficacy of sugar and starch in pro-
ducing fat, ib. ; trial of turnips and
straw by Mr. Hope, Fenton Barns, ib. ;
manure converts store into fattening
pasture, 169 ; fat aids digestion (Leh-
mann), 170 ; the author's practice based
on the relative values of food, 173, see
" Feeding value ;" Indian meal and the
carob bean compared, ib., see " Eape-
cake."

Fattening of oxen, reports of experiments
on, at Woburn Park (J. B. Lawes and
Dr. Gilbert), xxii.200 ; the box system
of feeding, 201 ; tables of results,
203-9 ; relation of increase to food con-
sumed by Herefords and Devons, 210 ;
experiments with Herefords, ib. ;
comparative productiveness of crushed
cake and linseed compound, 211 ; cook-
ing, 212 ; comparison of Woburn results
with those of Colonel M'Dougall and
Mr. Templeton, 213 ; average results
of liberal feeding, 214; comparison
between oxen, sheep, and pigs, their
powers of assimilation and respira-
tion, their extent of intestinal surface,
and consumption of dry substance of
food, 215 ; manure, 216 ; table of food,
litter, dung, ib. ; proportion of maniure
to food consumed, 217 ; daily allow-
ance of straw and yield of dung, 218.

Fattening bullocks on arable farms, P. D.
(Mr. Blundell), xxiii 478; conditions
to be observed, ib. ; cost of feeding,
479 ; analysis of results, ib. ; cost of
summer feeding, ib.; winter feeding,
480 ; regulation of food allowance, ib. ;

G6

GENERAL IXDEX TO IIOTAL AGKICCLTURAL JOURXAL.

suijerioritj^ of mangold to swedes, ih. ;
and of oat-straw fodder to hay, 481 ;
the old-established breeds of cattle
most profitalde to keep, ib. ; crosses
from pure breeds not to be despised, ib. ;
objectioas to pulping and to cutting
straw into chalF, 482 ; advantages of
box feeding iiud use of stiaw as litter,
lb. Discussion — Lord Powis, Mr.
Elliot, and Mr. Spooner, ib. ; note by
P. H. F. on the cost of cutting straw
into cliaff, 483.

Fatty matter in hay (Segclcke), xx. 42G.

Flatheu dust, analysis of (Way), xi. 76(J.

Fecundation of cereal crops, by artificial
means (M. Hooibrenk), xxv. 258.

Fecundity in cows, how to ensure (Mr.
Pegler's pLiii;, xix. 151.

FjiDiA olitoria, sec " Laml)'s lettuce."

Fekding of slu-f]), see " Sheej)-fceding"
(J. ]J. Lawesand Dr. Gilbert , xxii. 181).

—— of stock, on (Ilev. W. Tliorp\ iii.
430.

• of stock (P. H. Frerc), see " Stock

fL-eduig," xxi. 218.

value of articles of food (Horsfall),

xviii. 171 ; tables of composition and
cost, 172.

Fehlings volumetrical copper-test, as ap-
plied by M. Poggialc, xxiv. 315.

Felsfar, analysis of (Karkeek;, vi. 410,
xiii. .")30 ; decomposed by rain-water,
xvii. 459 : its varic-ties, 4(.)d ; its decom-
position, 4(;i : rich in jiotash, 4(j5.

rocks, analysis of, xiii. 534.

FENCiis of X'orfoik, v. 309.

, on, by J. G rigor, a prize essay, vi.

194; evils of tlie present system of,
195 ; hedges for the generality of arable
and pasture districts, 202 ; tiie white-
thorn, 203; tiie sloe, 215; tiie crab,
ib.; the holly, 210; the beech, 221 ;
the hornbeam, 222 ; tiie Scotcii pine,
223 ; the fiuze, 224 ; the elder, 225 ;
Die poplar, ib. ; the alder, ib. ; tlie goat
willow, 226.

of furze (Roberts), vi. 385.

iu Lancashire (Garnett), x. 43.

in Lincolnshii'e on first enclosure f E.

iSmith), xvii. 306.

for moorland farm (K. Smith", xvii.

362.

, for sheepfolds (Greening's), at the

h-'ahsbuiy meeting (1857 ;, xviii. 440.

of Norfolk, on the present mode of

malving and trimming (C. S. Read), xix.
274.

of America, economy of labour in

making, xx. 128.

, portable for sheep (T. Bowick), xxiv.

044 ; the Forfarshh-e system described,

ib. ; use of cotton or hemp netting, 545 :
stakes, 546 ; weight and mode of fixing,
ib. ; objections to their use answered,
(Mr. Goodlet), 546 ; intervals between
the stakes, 547 ; cost per yard, ib. ; the
system specially adapted to Higliland
requirements, ib. ; permanent fencing
(Mr. Swan), 548; repf)rt on tiie use of
nets in Yorkshire, E. li., ib. ; objection-
able in tlie liuiiting-tield, 549.

Fens of Lincolnsliu-e, tiie, report of, by
Arthur Young, iv. 291 ; by Mr. Stone,
ib. ; by Mr. Pusey, ib,

■ , tko claymg of them, iv. 207 ; xvii.

393.

, tlic opposition of tlic fenmen to the

drainage of, iv. 309; tiie reasons they
assigned, ib. ; then- dread of losing their
wild ducks, ib.

, why cultivated (R. Smith), xvii. 351,

of Cambridgeshire drscribed by S.

Jonas, vii. 62 ; their hi.story, ib. ; the
Budford Level, 64 ; claying of, 71, and
xvii. 393 ; steam-engines for draining.
66.

, on the great level of the fens, in-
cluding the fens of Soutli Lincolnshire,
by J. A. Clarke, a prize essay, viii. 80 ;
their early history, 81 ; Roman road
across, ib. ; the first eftbrts to ditiia
them, 83; the Bedford Level, 83, 93;
the soil of tlie fens described, 90 ; deep
beds of peat, 91 ; tlie substrata, the
gault, 92 ; drainage works, 93 ; south
lew], ib.; middle level, 97 ; Sir John
Eeunie's report on, 103; paring and
buruuig system of, 104; the Norfolk
fens, ib. ; the marsh district, 108 ; the
Lincolnshire fens, 114.

, rotation of cioj>s in, viii. 119.

. history of tlie drainage of (Clarke",

XV. 19 ; the Bedford Level, 25.

, Engli.sh (R. Smitli), xvii. 351.

of Norfolk (C. S. Read), xix. 267 ;

greatly improved by claying, marling,
&c., 268 ; tlie best water level for, ib.

Fekmextation of farmyard manure,
whether attended witii a lo.ss of nitrogen
(Voelcker), xvii. 212.

Fer3iented food for stock, on (Delafond ,
IX. 29.

Fekns, analysis of, xiii. 528.

Festuca duriuscula, see "Hard fescue-
grass."

elatior, see " Tall fescue-giass."

loliacea, see " Spiked fuBcue-grass."

ovina, see " Sheep's fescue."

pratensis, see 'Meadow fescue."

rubra, see " Creeping fescue-grass."

, varieties of (Buckman), xvii. 632..

Fevers in cattle (J. Dun), xv. 86,

VOLUMES ONE TO TWEXTY-FIVE.

67

FEVEKSHA3I.

Feveksham, Lord (B. D.), on lailk, xxiii.
418.

, on agricultural education (R. D.),

XXV. 548.

FiBRiNE, its plastic power, see Henfrey on
" Vegetable physiology," xviii. 412.

, vegetable (Dr. Voelcker), xxii. '3H5.

Fir.ROUS covering, on, by C. K. Vacv, vii.
277.

Field madder, its soils and habits (Buck-
man), xvi. oGl.

FiLAKiA bronchialis, an entozoon infesting

• .sheep (Simonds), xxiii. 90.

, varieties of (Simonds), xxiv. 600,

605.

Filbert, the, analysis of the wood'j bark,
and leaves of, xiii. 530.

FiLiCES, see " Ferns."

Fine bent grass (Buclnnan), xvii. 517.

Finger and toe in turnips, described by
J. Curtis, iv. 121.

in root-crops, by James Buckmnn,

XV. 125 ; experiments with the wild
roots of the parsnip and carrot, ib. ; a
clear unbranched tap-root is not natftral
to the parsnip or the carrot, 131 ; finger
and toe will always be found in a field
of either carrots or parsnips, 132; will
prevail where the seed is brought from
a rich to a poor soil, ih. ; or has been
ripened in the same district, ib. ; or
where the seed-roots are not selected,
133 ; or where the original species is a
wild native, ih. ; but there are different
degrees of liability to degeneracy, 134 ;
this disease the midway from wildness
to cultivation, 135.

very common on the gi-eensand for-
mation of O.Kfordshu'e (Kead), xv. 195.

and the analysis of diseased turnips,

fDr. Voelcker), xx. 101 ; lime, though
useful, not a universal j^reventive, ib. ;
potash, &c., maybe wanting, 102 ; visit
to a diseased crop, ib. ; soil deficient in
lime, 103 ; effect of a chance load of
gas-lime, ib. ; analysis of the soil, &c.,
of diseased turnips, 104 ; poor and
diseased roots contain more nitrogen
than good ones, 105.

Finlayson's harrow, J. Morton on, with
a sketch, iii. 120.

Fir, the, analysis of the wood, bark, and
leaves of, xiii. 530.

, analysis of a soil where the firs were

dying, xiii. 554.

Fire-clay analysed, xiii. 536.

Firestone rock, of the chalk formation,
analysed by J. T. Way, xii. 549.

Fish as manure. Dr. Fownes on, iv. 542.

, sprats, analysis of (Wav), x. 610 ;

xiii. 498.

Fish, on the refuse of the cod-fishery of
Newfoundland, as convertible into a
portable manure, by K. B. Hamilton,
xiv. 393 ; analysis of such a manure,
394.

• , dried codfish, analysis of (Lawes),

xiv. 498.

, on the teeth of, by J. B. Simonds,

XV. 278.

FisH-MANURE — engixiis poisson — at Paris
(1856), xvii. 53.

Fisher, Rev. R. W., on the Dyock oaf,
iii. 387.

, R., on the bathing of lambs, as a

cure for the scour, v. 279.

Fisken's patents for steam cultivation
(Clarke), xx. 193 ; xxiv. 368.

Fits in sheep (Dun), xvi. 26.

Fitzheebert, Sii'A., on flukes in the liver
of slieep (' Book of Husbandrye,' a.d.
1532), xxiii. 92.

Flack, W., on Hertfordshire draining, iv.
33.

Flannels, the manufactories of, J. Wilson
on, xvi. 244.

Flax dressed with pigeons' dung in
Flanders (Sprengel), ii. 312.

• , its cultivation in the Netherlands

described (Rham i, iii. 254.

, on the cultivation of, by G. Ni-

cholls, V. 547.

, on the cultivation of, by J. Mac-
Adam, a prize essay, viii. 361 ; analysis
of soils adapted to the growth of, 369 ;
choice of seed, 370; the quantity of
seed, 372 ; rijipling of, 375 ; steeping
of, 377 ; scutching of, 382 ; the storing
of, 387 ; analysis of steep-water, 389 ;
oil-cake and oil produced from the
flax-seed, 392; expense' of growing
flax, 394.

, on the cultivation of, by G. Ni cholls,

viii. 438 ; cultivation of, 446 ; jirepara-
tion of the fibre, 452 ; preservation and
use of the seed, 463.

, analysis of, by J. T. Way and G.

Ogston, xi. 517.

, analysis of the stem, seed, and fibre,

xiii. 474.

, analysis of rich Irish and Dutch

flax-soils, xiii. 552.

, its treatment, agricultural and

technical, by John Wilson, xiv. 187 ;
native soil, ih. ; the different members
of its order— some weeds, ib. ; history
of its cultivation, 188 ; analysis of, 191 ;
sorts adapted for its ordinary produce,
of straw and seed, 193 ; section of straw
and fibres, 194; Lee's patent, 195;
Hill and Bundy's, ib. ; steeping, 196 ;
warm-water steeps, 197 ; the German
e 2

68

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

" Molkenrost," or steeping in sour
•whey, 199 ; M. Claussen's alkaline so-
lution, ih. ; cottonizing of flax, ih. ;
steaming, 201 ; steep liquor, analysis of,
203; steeping flax in its green state,
207 ; imports of, 208 ; manut'actvires of,
ib.

Flax, growth of, in Oxfordsliire (Read),
XV. 21G.

, growth of, in Dorsetshire (Ruegg),

XV. 421.

■ , cultivation of, on clay-land, xvii.

573.

, explanation of the exhausting na-
ture of this crop (Rnssell^, xx. 484 ; its
culture in Ireland, 485 ; in Belgium,
•S). ; in Lincolnshire, 48G.

• , report on that shown at Leeds,

18G1 (H. Ludolf ), xxii. 232.

Flax-cotton, Claussen's, E. Macdermott
on, xii. 235, xiv. 199.

Fi^x-uoDDEU, C. C. Babington on, ii. 63.

Flax-mill shown at Lincoln (1854), xv.
374.

, Pye's method of preparing the

fibre, at the Chelmsford meeting, xvii.
573.

Flax-puhgixg (Linum catharticum), its
effect on cattle when it abounds in their
pastures (Playfair), iv. 251.

Flax-straav, analyses and feeding value
of (Dr. Voclcker), xxii. 410.

Fleas of animals difl'er in species (Hens-
law), ii. 3.

in hops (Rutley), ix. 5G4.

Flegme, the um-cetified spirit of beet
(Trchonnais), xx. 77.

Flesu of the ox, analysis of, iv. 216 ; xi.
389. See " Food of live stock."

and blood of the ox analysed (Play-
fair), xii. 584.

— — , amount of meat annually consumed
by an adult, xii. 585.

• , the flesh-forming principles in the

natural and artificial grasses, by J. T.
Way, xiv. 176, 179, 180.

Fletcher, L. JE. (Manchester Associ-
ation), on the cause of steam-boiler ex-
plosions, xxiii. 440.

Flint, its composition, xvii. 460.

FLOATrxG foxtail-grass (Buckman), xv.
465, xvii. 514.

meadow-grass (Buckman), xv. 465,

xvii. 530.

Flood-waters increased by mill-dams,
xiv. 130-7; reduced by their removal,
140 (J. Henderson).

, effect of, on grass-lands (J. A.

Clarke), xv. 9 ; instances of great floods,
4 ; eflect of upon arable lands, 13.

Flora, the, of Gloucestershire, xi. 126.

Flour, the proportion of gluten influx
enced by the emploj'ment of different
azotised maiim-es, iv. 179, 545. See
" Nitrogen," Food of live stock."

Flour, proportion of, and bran in seeds of
wheat (Dr. Fo\vnes), iv. 545.

Floweuing process delayed by excess of
ammonia or by heat (R. Russell), xx-
166.

Fluke in sheep (J. B. Simonds), xv. 277.

Fly in sheep (H. Cleeve), i. 326.

Fly-galls in sheep (R. Smith), viii. 24.

Fodder, on the comjjarative value of dif-
ferent kinds in feeding cattle, by the
late Rev. W. Rhain, iii. 78.

Fogs, N. Wiiitlcy on, xi. 27.

, B. Simpson on, xi. 632.

Folding of sheep, Sprengel, i. 485.

, R. Smith on, viii. 9.

Food for cottagers, on, by F. Bmke, iii.
83.

for live stock, amount required by

an ox, a milch-cow, a fattening ox, a
sheep (Rev. W. Rham), iii. 82.
• , Mr. Riedesel on, iii. 225 ; the quan-
tity requisite to keep a beast in store
condition, ib. ; or to produce either milk
or meat, ib.

, on modes of comparing the nutri-
tive values of difterent crops, by W.
H. Hyett, iv. 139 ; Von Timer's and
Professor Johnston's tables of equivalent
nutritive substances, 146.

, Lyon Playfair's lecture on the ap-
plications of physiology to the rearing
and feeding of cattle, iv. 215 ; analysis of
gluten from flour, 216; the temperature
of the bodies of animals, ib. ; how sus-
tained, ib. ; the carbon a man consumes
daily, 218 ; the carbon a cow expires
in her breath, ib. ; the quantity of food
necessarj' to support the animal heat,
ib. ; the fruits on which the natives of
warm countries feed, ib. ; the train-oil
used in the arctic regions, ib. ; the use
of clothes, 219 ; warmth is an equivalent,
222 ; experiments at Whitfield farm on
tlie effects of shelter and wai-mth in the
fatting of sheep, ib. ; manifestation of
force is accompanied by a change of
matter in the body, 225; poultry-
feeders keep them quiet, ib. ; experi-
ments with some pigs to j^rove the
advantages of quiet, ib. ; Sir. Childers'
experiments on, 226; other instances
of the effects of quietude, ib. ; the diet
allowed to prisoners in the Scotch
prisons, 227; amount of food allowed
to a cavalry horse, Hj. ; loss of
weight from exercise, ib. ; Cornish
miners, ib. ; uric acid, formation of, 228 ;

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE,

69

the formation of flesh, 229 ; the amount
of water in food, ib. ; experiments with
an ox fed on mangold, 230 ; percent-
age of albumen in food, 232 ; the ex-
periments of Mr. Morton ou the feeding
of pigs, 233 ; the fat ready formed in
■certain vegetable substances, ih. ; eflect
of oil-cake in producing fat, 232 ; fatty
substances arc of use in fattening ani-
mals, 23i ; mutton suet given to fat-
tening diicks, ih. ; linseed-oil a substi-
tute for linseed-cake, ih. ; sugar in-
creases tallow, ih. ; the form in which
food is given to live stock, ih. ; masti-
cation, its use, ib. ; saliva, its use, ih. ;
food given as chafl', its advantages, ih. ;
chaff as suited to different animals, ih. ;
object of rumination, ih. ; the nutriment
•contained in straw, ih. ; chaff-cutting,
ib. ; the object of giving it to ttu'nip-
fed animals, 235 ; the object of giving
hay or straw to stall-fed animals, ih. ;
the use of salt in food, 236 ; formation
of bile, its use, ih. ; the iron contained
in the blood, ih. ; too large a proportion
of salt injurious, 237; the process of
nutrition, ib. ; in youth the supply
must be greater than the waste of the
body, ih. ; the life of an adult and that
of youth, ib. ; milk, its composition, that
of a woman, cow, &c., 238, see " Milk ;"
effect of judicious and generous treat-
ment of the young, 23'J ; effect of in-
terference with the order of nature, ih. ;
of feeding the young animal with
.skimmed milk, 2-40 ; substances added
to skimmed milk for young animals, ib. ;
cold mjurious to young animals, 241 ;
potatoes as the food of a growing animal,
242 ; young animals require exercise,
ib. ; the absence of light, effect of, and
of quietude, 244 ; the Italian mode of
fattening ortolans, ib.

Food of live stock for dairy purposes, iv.
246. -See " Milk."

of live stock, the last food pays best

(Playfair), iv. 264.

, on fattening cattle, by G. Dobito, a

prize essay, vi. 74 ; choice of the lean
stock, ib. ; food, 75 ; the great points
are, cleanliness, warmth, and quiet, 78.

, on stall-feeding, some experiments

l)y J. H. Leigh, vi. 237.

■ , comparative trials on the feeding of

sheep, by T. E. Pawlett, vi. 368.

of cattle in Cornwall (Karkeek), vi.

452.

of horses in Cornwall, vi. 454.

, ou gorse as, by S. Elly, vi. 523.

, the, necessary to produce a pound of

flesh, by Dr. Lyon Playfair, vi. 560.

Food, approximate value of, as fuel to
sustain animal heat, vi. 563.

, on the feeding of stock witli pre-
pared food, and a description of the
apparatus employed, by J. Marshall,
vii. 391.

, a comparison of the consumption of

food by large and small animals (Hamp-
shire Down sheep), by G. Shackel, viii.
487.

, on feeding horses at different seasons,

by W. C. Spooner, ix. 264.

, on sheep-feeding, by J. B. Lawes,

X. 276 ; food employed, 282 ; analysis of
the food, 286 ; amount of food consumed
and increase of weight, 287 ; ditto by
each 100 lbs. weight of the animal,
289, 303, 333, 337 ; the mean weekly
increase of thirty sheep fed on green
clover and 1 lb. of oil-cake, 298 ; on the
effect of malted and unmalted barley,
305, 317, 324, 326.

, on increasing our supplies of animal

food, by J. C. Morton, a prize essay, x.
341 ; modes of doing tliis, 342 ; pro-
duce of grass-land, 346 ; of arable land,
ib. ; produce of the best Lincolnshire
grazing land, 347 ; root-crops, the solid
matters in, 357 ; produce of meat per
acre in difierent countries, 354; as to
the animals which convert the produce
of a farm into the most meat, 356 ; the
results obtained on a farm with oxen,
sheep, and swine, 358 ; on comfort and
warmth, 373.

, on the food of pigs, xi. 601.

, on the green crops of Somersetshire,

and the amount of meat produced by
them (T. D. Acland), xi. 756.

of farm-horses in Lincolnshire (Ac-
land), xii. 390 ; of cattle and pigs in
the same locality, ib.

, report of experiments on the fatten-
ing qualities of different breeds of
sheep (the Hampshire and the Sussex
do\vns), by J. B. Lawes, xii. 414 ; on
swedes, oil-cake, and chaff, 416; results
tabulated, 417, 421 ; the average food
consumed to produce 100 lbs. increase
during twenty-six weeks, 427; produce
of sales of both lots, 436.

ill effects of insufficient or improper

food for horses, by F. Dun, xii. 513 ; or
excessive quantity of food, 525.

, Colonel Macdougall, experiments

on feeding cattle on different descrij}-
tions of food, xiii. 113; on mangold-
wurzel and beau-mtal, white carrots
and bean-meal, turnips grown on
separate fields of different qualities, ih.;
turnips grown with different manm-es.

70

GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTUEAL JOURNAL.

FOOD.

114 ; with turnips and conked food, ih. •
with tnrnips and linseed, and rape-
cakes, 115 ; table of residts, 116.

Food, experiments on the comparative
feeding of forty-six Cotswold sheep, by
J. B. Lawes, xiii. 179.

, the food of cows (Ruegg), xiv. 71 ;

in Guernsey, ih.

, on the relative nutritive and fatten-
ing properties of diflerent natural and
artificial grasses, by J. T. Way, xiv.
171; of natural grasses, 170, 177, 180;
of artificial grasses, 177, 179, 180;
their Hcsh-forming principles, fatty
matters, and heat-producing principles,
■ih.

, agricultural chemistry, pig-feeding,

by J. B. Lawes. xiv. 4.19 ; for meat and
for manure, 400 ; the food of, l)arley,
grains, pollard, and bran, 401 ; experi-
ments on the amount of increase f>b-
tainablo from certain foods and their
mixtures, 4(>'2 ; twelve dillVrent dietaries
formed, 400, 479, 480; tlie chemistry

. of food, ryll ; tiie nitrogenous ])()rtion
of fowl, ih. ; non-nitrogenous portion fif
food tlie measure of the increase in
•weight obtained, 5'd-i ; not the nitro-
genous, 588 ; quality of tiie poik ob-
tained by feeding upon suceuhnt food,
cooked roots, tiic refuse of starcli-
works, peas, and otlier leguminous
seeds, flesh, fisli, and strong-tlavouncl
oleaginous matters, 538; ii diagram
showing the jn-oportions of nitrogenous
and non-nitrogenous food consumed
weekly per 100 lbs. live weiglit of tiie
pigs, 541 ; mineral substiinci's bene-
ficially taken by, 472 ; experiments
witli various food, 408; beans and
lentils. »7j. ; tlie same witii Indian meal,
ih. ; with bran, ih. ; witli Indian meal,
only, /6. ; witli l)ran and Indian meal,
409; non-nitrogenous food seems tlie
best for the animal, nitrogenous for tlie
quality of tiio manure, 475 ; as the
animal fattens his demand for nitro-
genous food decreases, and for non-
nitrogenous increases, 478 ; this justi-
fies the practice of decreasing the
supply of peas and bcaii.s, and increas-
ing that of barley-meal to the fatting
pig, ih.; experiments with barley-
meal, 482; barley-meal and mixtures
of beans, lentils, bran, and tlieir meals,
482, 483 ; experiments with Indian and
barley meals, bran, and eodfisli, 480 ;
increase in live weight about one-htth
or one-sixth of the food thus consinned,
491 ; decrease in the rate of consump-
tion of food to a given weight of

animal as it tsittens, 497 ; analysis of
food consumed, 499 ; comparison of the
weiglit of the constituents of the food
consumed with the increased weight of
the pigs, 500 ; the weekly consumption
of food by the pigs, 500 ; the legu-
minous seeds generally contain twice
as much of nitrogenous compoxmds as
the cereal grains, 535.

Food of live stock, on diminishing the
amount of roots used in fattening-
cattle, by C. Lawrence, xv. 488.

, exjierinients on the comparative

fattening qualities of ditferent breeds,
by J. B. Lawes, xvi. 45; Tjcicester and
cross-breds, ih.; the food, oil-cake, and
clover-ehalf, with Swedish turnips, 47;
increase of tlie Leicesters, 49 ; of the
eross-brcds, 50; tlie food consumed, 53;
average weekly increase, 55 ; average
wool per head, 58, 00 ; produce of sale
of, 05; general results, 71; general
summary of exjierinients with the
Hampshire and Sussex Do^tos, Cots-
wolds, I>eicesters, cross-bred wethers^
and cross-bred ewes, 73 ; as to live
weight, ih. ; as to wool, ih. ; average
prices of meat and wool, 81 ; long-
wooUed sheep, especially the Cots-
wolds, give more gross increase for ii
given amount of food than the Downs
or crosses, 85 ; enumeration of useful
and practical facts relating to sheep-
feethiig, SO.

, on feeding cattle on tuniips raised

with ditferent manures, by A. Temple-
ton, xvi. KJS.

— — , influence of careful and regular
feeding upon the growth of wool, by
J. AVibvon, xvi. 240.

, on tlie efl'ect of mangold pulp and

fenuented food on cuttle (Trehonnais),.
XX. 79.

, Professor Baudement's report on

the use of mangolds and pulp for
sheep-feeding, xx. 88.

, Mr. Hibbeft's trial of mangold

jiulp and hay for dairy cows, xx. 91.

, Dr. Voelcker's experiments on

feeding Cotswold slieep witli mangold
roots as compared witli pu]j>, xxi. 103.

of animals, the albuininous and

farinaceous elements should be balanced
in feeding stock, xvii. 50.

, method of feeding calves (E. Bowl-
by), xix. 144; artificial food not recom-
mended for animals of mature growth,
145 ; food recommended for cows at
ditferent seasons, ih. ; food for dry cows^
140; hay and straw rendered moro
l^alatable by steaming (Mr. Bubb), 14G-

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

71

Food mauufactui-ed ; observations on the
recently introduced manuftxctured
foods for agricultiu-al stock (J. B.
Lawes), xix. 199 ; tlieii- cost, ib. ; and
comi^osition, 200 ; flavour of anise,
cumin, &c., the price four times that of
its probable constituents, 200 ; no exact
evidence that an animal is enabled to
extract much more nutriment from
such food, ib. ; distinction between
concentrated food and manures, 201 ;
the atmospheric sui^ply overlooked, ib. ;
oil, sugar, &c., itneconomical, 202 ; oil-
cake a residuum, not purposely manu-
factured as such, ib. ; waste from re-
spiration, &c., constant, ib. ; manu-
factured food as sauce or medicine,
stimulating digestion, may aid a weak
or over excite a strong one, 203 ; trial
of etfects of manufactured and ordinary
food on pigs, ib. ; results unfavourable
to use of the condiment, ib.

, soluble for stock (J. J. Eowley),

xxi. 5-19 ; diagram of apparatus for its
preparation, 550.

t of plants, on the, by Dr. George

Fowues, prize essay, iv. 498. The
origin and composition of soils, ib. ;
origin of clay soils, 499 ; analysis of
the clay employed in the Sevres porce-
lain works, 500 ; calcareous soils, origin
of, ib. ; limestone soils, 501 ; sand, ib. ;
humus of soils, 502 ; the composition
of heat, 503 ; the sugar, starcli, gum,
and lignia, or woody tibre found in
plants, 504 ; malting barley, chemical
effect of, 505 ; dextrine, ib. ; vegetable
acids, 506 ; oily and resinous principles,
507 ; azotised principles, albuminous
matters, ib. ; the food of plants, 509 ;
the atmosphere, ib. ; the carbon of
plants, 510.

. of plants, the experiments of Priest-
ley, iv. 510; of A. de CandoUe, 511 ;
of Dr. Gilly, ib. ; of T. de Saussure,
ib. ; water-plants, how light acts upon,
513 ; this action peculiar to tlie green
part of plants, ib. ; it ceases on the
withdrawal of liglit, ib. ; wetted saw-
dust placed in oxygen gas, effect of,
515.

, Dr. Daubeny's experiments on the

evolution of carbonic acid gas by plants,
iv. 515 ; supply of carbonic acid gas,
.quantity produced by animals, and by
the inhabitants of a town, 517 ; quantity
emitted by a volcano, 518 ; the amount
of carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere,
ib. ; hydrogen, how derived, ib. ; nitro-
gen of wild plants, how obtained, ib. ;
Boussingault's experiments rTi)on tlie

origin of nitrogen in the plants of the
farm, 519 ; Liebig's opinion of its
origin, 520 ; the use of animal manures,
such as putrid urine, &c., 521 ; the pro-
portion of nitrogen in a soil in Alsace,
522 ; amoiuit of ammonia in rain-water,
ib. ; the mineral constituents of plants,
523 ; these not accidentally present in
])lants, ib. ; siliceous matters in plants,
524 ; the newly enclosed lands of
America, ib. ; the effect of growing
tobacco exhausting the sod of saltpetre,
ib.

Food, analysis of the ashes of wheat-straw,
iv. 525 ; of seed-wheat, 526 ; of straw
and wheat from Berkshu-e, ib ; manured
with farm manm'e, 527 ; ditto manured
with nitrate of soda, ib.

, analysis of barley-sti'aw and grain

grown in Battersea Fields, iv. 529.

, analj'sis of rye-straw and grain, iv.

529.

, analysis of common oats, straw, and

grain, iv. 530.

, on the origin of the silica in plants,

iv. 531.

in lucern, iv. 532,

-■ in white clover, iv. 532.

in potatoes, iv. 532.

in turnips, iv. 532.

in Swedish turnips, iv. 534.

the action of manures, iv. 535.

of plants, the excreta of plants, the

experiments of M. Macaire, iv. 536 ;
the tlieory he propounded, 537 ; analysis
of a.shes of farmyard horse-dung, see
" Horse-dung," 539 ; prevention of the
escape of ammonia from fermenting
dung, ib. ; the use of sulphuric acid for
this purpose, ib. ; two classes of manm'es,
540 ; ammoniacal liquor from gas-
works, 541 ; analysis of coal and coko
ashes, 541 ; bones, fish, guano, 542.

of plants, analysis of guano by Voelc-

ker, iv. 543.

, nitrates of potash and soda, iv.

544.

, the proportion of gluten in floru'

iniiuenced by manures, iv. 545 ; pro-
portion of flour and bran in seeds of
wheat, ib. ; coal contains nitrogen, 547 ;
the ammonia wasted in the sewage of
London, ib. ; on the analysis of soils,
ib. ; analysis of ashes of plants, 552 ;
on the determination of gluten in grain,
554.

, how plants obtain their mineral

food, by J. T. Way, xiii. 135 ; the sili-
ceous covering of wheat-straw, 137.

, probably soluble, derived from weak

solutions fVoelcker), xx. 152.

72

GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Food, late sowing a substitute for manure,
XX. 171.

• of plants, whether soluble or in-
soluble (Russell), XX. 482.

Fool's parsley, its soils and habits (Buck-
man), xvi. 362 ; number of its seeds,
377.

FooT-KOT in sheep (Cleeve), i. 318.

, J. Seaman on, xvi. 4-8.

, F. Dun on, xvi. 395, 3G6.

— — , H. Tanner on, xix. 01.

FoRiiES on the tempci-ature of soil, xvii.
417.

FoBD, W., account by, of Irvine's tile-
making machine, iii. 398.

FuUEST laws and custunis, demesne and
prerogative i Rev. J. Wilkinson), xxii.
331.

FouEST of Si'lwood, Northamptonshire,
xxii. 101; WoolniLr, Hampshire, xxii.
255; Ayles Holt, Hants, xxii. 255;
New Forest, Hants, xxii. 278.

■ of Delamerc, Clieshire, description

of works for reclaiuung and marling
parts of (R. 13. Grantham), xxv. 309 ;
plans and sections, tb. ; geology of the
district, ih. ; sectifm of marl-pit at
Honslough, 370; analysis of marl and
cost of working, 371 ; constniction of
railway, 372 ; treatment of Longridge
and Plover's moss, ib. ; excavation and
distribution of marl, 373 ; analysis, ih. ;
description of jjlant and cost of the
work, 374 ; improvements at Organs-
dale, 375 ; iucreaKtl value of laud, 370;
general remarks, 377 ; value of vegetable
crops near large towns, ib. ; railw ay and
rolling stock, 378; utilisation of engine-
tracks, 379 ; comparative cost of horse
and steam traction, ih. ; duration of the
efficiency of mail, ib. ; ISIr. Thompson
on marling light lamls, ib- Supplement
(P. H. Frerc), 380; account of sub-
sequent treatment and cropping, ib. ;
Mr. Leather's exiKn-ience and proposed
management, 381.

Forests of Demnark (Rainals), xxi. 316.

FoREST-TKEES, on their planting and
management, by C. Falkiner, iii. 203 ;
soils adapted to various trees, 207 ;
climate, ib. ; the oak, its varieties, 268 ;
the Spanish chesnut, 209 ; the elm, 270 ;
the ash, 271 ; the hornbeam, ib. ; the
beech, ib. ; the sycamore, ib. ; the plane,
ih. ; the acacia, ih. ; the poplar, ib. ; the
abele, 273 ; the AvUlow, ib. ; thf alder,
ib. ; the lime, ib. ; the birch, 274 ; the
horse-chesnut, ib. ; resinous or cone-
bearing trees, ih. ; the larch, 275 ; tlie
Scotch fir, 270 ; the Norway spruce, 277 ;
the silver fir, ih. ; niu'sery management,

278 ; on planting, 281 ; on thinning,
pruning, and management of planta-
tions, 280 ; estunate of the expense and
profit from an acre of land planted with
larcli dm-ing 00 years. 295.

FoREST-TKEES, analysis of then- wood, bark,
and leaves, xiii. 530.

, eflect of soil on the growth of (H.

Evershed), xiv. 416 ; (T. Rowlandson),
451.

, of Dorsetshire (Rucgg), xv. 420.

, New Forest, Hampshire (Rev. J.

Wilkinson), xxii. 279 ; varieties of oak,
Quercus pedunculata, and Q. sessiflora,
ib. ; pruning not suited to oaks, ib.

Forks, digging, on those of .steel shown
at the Ll'Wcs meeting (in 1852), xiii.
328.

FoRTESCTE, Earl, on public schools for the
middle classes, xxv. 09.

Fossil manm-es of Norfolk, on, by J.
Trinuner, vii. 478.

'bones, analysis of (Herepath), xii.

100.

, analysis of those from the upper and

lower greensands of Faruiiam (Way),
xiii. 530.

remains of Dorsetshire (Ruegg), xv.

390 ; fo.ssil trees, 394.

Fowler's draining-plough, at the Lincoln
meeting (1854), xv. 307.

steam-plough, at Colchester (1856),

xvii. 504 ; report of judges on, 580.

, at Salisbury (1857), report of the

judges on, xviii. 440 ; the best system
but " not an economical substitute for
tlie plough or spade," ib. ; its excellent
work, 447.

, at Chester (1858), prize of 500?.

awarded to, xix. 313 ; illustrations of
plough, engine, and self-moving wind-
lass and anchor pulley, 325 ; cost of
working, 324 ; character of work done, ib.

, account of (J. A. Clarke), xx. 194 ;

xxiv. 373.

, at Warwick (185 6), adjudged to be the

" best aj)plication of steam-power to the
cidtivation of the land," and entitled
to 50?. prize, xx. 317.

, at Canterbury (1860), prize of 90?.

awarded to, xxi. 492, 497.

, at Leeds (1861), xxii. 477; state-
ments of prime and working cost, 469,
475.

, at Farningham ("1802), xxiii. 399.

, at WoroL^ter (1863), xxiv. 480.

, at Newcastlu (1864), ib.

, experience with (C. Lawrence),

xxv. 249.
Fowls, account of various breeds, by W.
Trotter, xii. 169.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

73

jFownes, Dr., 'on the food of plants, iv.

498. -See " Food of plants."
Fox, Mr., president of the Parlington
Tenants' Club, report on two experi-
ments in feetling sheep, xxiii. 357.
Fox-EAETH soil In Derbyshire, analysis

of, xiv. 41.
Foxglove, the, analysis of, xiii. 52 8.
JFox-HUNTEKS, effect of on young wheat on

light soils, and on heavy, iii. 305.
Foxtail-grass, on some varieties of, by
W. P. Taunton, iv. 271.

, black, on,by W. P. Taunton, iv. 270.

Fkactuees in sheep (Seaman), xvi. 15 ;

(Dun), 386.
Fkance, on its agriculture and state es-
tablishments, by J. C. Deuison, i. 257 ;
one vast field, 263 ; divided into small
plots, ih. ; sheep-farms, 265 ; model
farms, ib. ; veterinary schools, ib. ;
haras or studs, 266 ; food allowed in
these to the horses, 267 ; their agricul-
tural societies, 269 ; expense of these
studs, 270.

, agricultural statistics of, by Sir C.

Lemon, i. 411.

, its breeds of sheep (M. Nouel), xiv.

214 ; its merinos, 215 ; crossings of, ih. ;
no pure English race of, tlirives in,
219 ; the Charmoise breed preferred,
their weight 56 lbs., 222.

, on the species of segilops of the

South of, and their conversion into
wheat (E. Fabre), xv. 167.

, the rural economy of, since 1789,

by M. L. de Lavergue (F. R. de la Tre-
honnais), xxi. 521 ; abolition of the
feudal system, 522 ; introduction of
maize, potatoes, silkworms, and merino
sheep, 523 ; freedom of the land and
its produce, ib. ; effects of minute sub-
divisions, 525 ; small estates common in
old times, ib. ; equal divisions of inherit-
ance, 526 ; English law of primogeni-
ture, ib. ; waste parish lands, 527 ; the
laws of the maximum, ib. ; decree regu-
lating improvement of flocks, tb. ; sta-
tistics of national wealth in 1789 and
1815, 528; progress under the Bour-
bons, Jb. ; distribution of landed pro-
perty and number of proprietors, 530 ;
Arthur Young's statistics compared with
modern retm-ns, 530-1 ; tenant's profit,
532 ; taxation of land, ib. ; price of la-
bom-, ib. ; comparative view of farm ex-
penses, rent, taxes, laboiu', and profit,
533 ; the six agricultural divisions of
France compared, 534 ; statistics :
population and taxes, 535 ; roads, rail-
ways, and rivers, 536 ; the N. W. dis-
trict, ib. ; Flemish agriculture, ib. ; beet-

root cultivation, 537; evils of over-
population, 538 ; N.E. division, the
province of Champagne, vine culture,
539; Burgundy and Franche Comte,
540 ; Western division, 541 ; valley of
the Loire, 542 ; S.E. division, valley of
the Rhone, 543 ; meres, ih. ; mulberry-
trees and silkworms, ib. ; olives, 544 ;
remarkable instances of fertility, ib. ;
Provence, palms and oranges, ih. ; S.W.
division, the Pyre'nees, Garonne, and
Canal du Midi, 545 ; system of me-
tayage, ib. ; neglect of drainage, 546 ;
vineyards of Bordeaux, Toulouse, and
Medoc, ib. ; Central division, 547 ; plain
of Sologne and iirovince of Berri, ih. ;
introduction of Southdown sheep, ib.
France, the water economy of, in its rela-
tion to agriculture (F. R. de la TreTion-
nais), xxii. 421 ; laws and regulations,
422; the N.E., N.W., W., and Loire
basins, 423 ; the Southern Oceanic and
Mediterranean basins, 424 ; the Rhine
and Mouse, ih. ; the Scheldt and its
afiQueuts, 425 ; volume and drainage
area of the Seine, ib. ; the mountains of
Auvergne, 426 ; the Loire, Maine, and
Gironde, ib, ; the Rhone, the outlet of
the Mediterranean basin, 427; effects
of rainfall on the Saone, 428 ; geology
and chemistry of the running waters,
ib. ; researches of the Administration
des Pouts et Chaussees, 429 ; composi-
tion of rain-water, ib. ; geological con-
ditions affecting the natm-e of river-
water, ib. ; researches of Baufron,
Henry, Girardin, and Preisser, 430 ; the
Scheldt and its tributaries, ib. ; source
of the Meusc, ib. ; affiuents of the Seine,
431 ; analyses of Seine water (Bau-
fron and Henry), 432 ; i^reciintation
of mineral salts taken up by the
Seine in its cour.se through Paris
(Girardin and Preisser), 432 ; Bobierre
and Me'rode, on the precipitation of
silicate of alumina by the Loire below
Nantes, and the increase of calcareous
salts, ib. ; geological features of the
Loire basin, ih. ; mean flow of the river
(M. Datie), 434; sources and channels
of the Dordogne and Garonne, ib. ; the
Rhone basin, ih. ; variable flow of the
Rhone and Saone, 435 ; stagnant waters,
swamps, and marshes, ih. ; insalubrity
of Dombes and Bresse, 436 ; pond cul-
tivation, ih. ; vital statistics in the de-
partments of Aigre, 437, and Charente
Infiirieure, 438 ; relation of stagnant
waters to the dui'ation of life (Bec-
querelj, 438; fatal effects of marsh
miasmata, 439 ; the law of waters, ib. ;

GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

ilie French Civil Code and the old
Roman law, 440 ; public anil private
rights of owncrsliip, 441 ; ordnance of
Louis XIV. and public ownership of
rivers, ib. ; aboliliou of prescriptive
rights, 17811, 442 ; proposed code rural,
ib. ; public! and private property in
•water defined, 443 ; the administration
of water and forests, ib. ; waste water
from irrigation, 444 ; recent enactments
for jiroviding capital for tlio drainage
and cultivation of fens and marsiies,
445 ; water passing through or skirting
'estates, ib.; abolition of mills and ob-
structions to navigation conducive to
agriciUtural imi)rovenient, ib. ; obliga-
tion to clear rivcr-bc-ds, 44tj ; the sub-
ject regarded IJom au EugUsh point of
view, 447.

FuANCE, the prize farms of (P. H. Frcre),
xxiv. 8; rural economy of Franco and
Englanil compared, /7'. ; governnunt
prizes for well-managed farms, 'J ; prizes
for stock, ib.; competition for farm
prizes in Normandy, ib. ; the farms uf
IVIM. Basset and Bnrel, Count de Ma-
lartic, anil M. Dulx)sc, 11 ; those of
MM. Aubry and Pai)in, 12 ; farm and
distillery of M. Lange, lil ; Madame
Roc(iuigny's farm, management, and
accounts, 14 ; M. Dargenfs prize farm,
lU; awards of tlie jury, 19; competition
of the Loiret, ib. ; the Mt-tayer system,
ib. ; M. Bobce's farm, ib. ; ^I. do Be-
hague"s farm, 20, management, 22, and
prizes, 24; description of the Ardennes
(Lavergno). ib. ; M. Gerard de Melcys
farm, 23 ; the l)eet-erop, ib. ; competi-
tion and award of prizes, 27 ; M. de
Tailly's water-meadows, //;. ; comix'ti-
tion in AvejTon, 28 ; M. Di.ssez's farm,
his half- holder's management, 2U ;
Baron Dufau's jirize buildings, ib ; M.
Ilodat's farm, oO ; M. Durand's farm
and (hversion of the waters of the Aviy-
ron, 82 ; M. Barascud's improvements,
ib. ; M. de IMonseignal du Cluscrs i)rize
farm, 33 ; its management, 34 ; in-
fluence of prizes, 3(j ; pacific influence
of agricultm-al pursuits, ib. ; the JoruTial
d'Agriculture Pratique, 37.

, horse-labour in (F. R. de la TreTion-

naLs;, xix. 489.

Fkankish, jSlr., his farming at Templc-
Bruer, in Lincolnshire, iv. 303.

French agricultural show, see " Paris."

duties on foreign agricultural im-
plements, xvii. 42.

hiteruational agricultural meeting at

Lille, report on, see '• International
Agricultural Meeting," xxv. 209.

French, J., on the advantage of one-horse

carts, vi. 375.
and English agriculture contrasted

see " Paris Exhibition (ISoU)."
Frere.P. H., memoranda on the drainage

of Wluttlesea Mere, xxi. 149.
, note on the proper office of straw

on the farm, xxi. 102.
, on the moveable steam-engine, xxi.

201.

, on the feeding of stock, xxi. 218.

• , reiwrt of an unsuccessful experi-
ment in growing lupines, xxi. 399.
, on the present aspect of steam cul-
ture, xxi. 401.
, notes on the Cantirbury meeting,

xxi. 513.
, account of the French experimental

fann at Yaujours, xxiii. 280.
, translation of report by a com-
mittee of the Agricuitural Society of

Lille, on the application of Flemish

manure or uiglitsoil, xxiii. 317.
, on the jjresint state of the sewers

and water-supply of Paris, xxiii. 338.
, remarks on exixriments in sheep-

fieding by the Parlingtoa Tenants'

Club, xxiii. 300.
, on Russian agriculture, P.D., xxiii.

406.
, on the growth of mangold, P.D.,

xxiii. 441.
, on cooking food for cattle, F.D.,

xxiii. 448.

, on the prize farms of France, xxiv. 8.

, experiments witii nitrate of soda a.s

a top-dressing for wheat, xxiv. 109.
, on the money value of nightsoil and

of otlier manures, xxiv. 124.
, on the eo-oi)erative farms at Assing-

ton, xxiv. 105.
, review of Capt. R. B. Smith's work

on Italian Irrigation, xxiv. 173.
, account of Brittany cows, from

notices by ^I. Jamet, xxiv. 213.
on tile growth of barley after a grass

layer, xxiv. 225.
, account of M. J. Reiset's agricul-

tiiral experiments, xxiv. 430.
, on the homccopathic treatment of

cattle for lung di.sease, &c., xxiv. 554.
, on the IJevou County School, xxv.

72.
, chemical and physiological glean-
ings from Continental publications, xxv.

255.
, on the improved construction of

.stables, xxv. 364.
, supplement to Mr. Grantham's

paper on the reclaiming part of the

forest of Delamere, xxv. 380.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

75

Fresexius, on the cause of incrustation in
steam-boilers, xxiii. 439.

Frost, on the influence of, upon soils, by
Schubler, i. 190.

' , its eftect upon red clover, by the

Kev. W. Thorp, iii. 331.

Fruit, the funguses on stored, by E. Sid-
ney, X. 397.

Fruit-trees, analysis of the wood and
leaves of the common English, xiii.
530.

Fulton, Hamilton, on the drainage of
Hethel Wood farm, xii. 149.

• , J., prize essay on recent improve-
ments in dairy j)ractice, xxi. 73.

■ , his acetometer for dairy use, xxi.

77.

FuMARiA capriolata, see " Fumitory."

Fumitory, its soils and habits (Buckman),
xvi. 3G0.

Funguses of wheat, Professor Henslow on,
ii. 4.

of the British farm, on, by the Eev.

Edwin Sidney, x. 382 ; mouldiness,
383 ; mildew, 384 ; the Chladosporium
herbarum, 38G ; the uredines of corn
plants, ib. ; smut, bunt, or pepperband,
387 ; oecidium of the berberry, 388 ;
remedies for some of these funguses,
il). ■ the Ustilago hypodytes, 390 ;
theory of fairy-rings, 391 ; the aspei'-
gill, or mouldiness of stacked hay, 391-
396 ; the fungi of peas, 391 ; the bo-
trytis of the vetch, 392 ; of the potato,
ib. ; of turnijis, mangold-wurzel, and

, carrots, 394 ; of hops, ib. ; of dry wood,
the dry-rot, ih. ; the mould on the in-
side of casks and on bread, 396 ; in
milk, 397 ; the mould on saj^py meat,
398 ; the funguses of animals, 399 ;
those of live animals not transferable to
dead, 398.

, on certain, with reference to the

potato disease, by F. .J. Graham, xi. 443.

■ in grasses, by J. Buckman, xv. 474.

, their mode of growth (Henfrey),

xvii. 82.

• , their presence in pastures a sign of

poverty (Eev. W. E. Bowditch), xix.
247.

Furrow, the half-turned, advantageous
(P. Love), xvii. 544.

FuRROw-PREsSER, skctcli of onc uscd in
Cheshire, v. 1 0.

Furze (see " Gorse," " Gorse-bruisers "),
the, for fences, J. Grigor on, vi. 224.

, an essay on, by O. O. Eoberts, vi.

379 ; fences of, 385 ; preparation of, as
food, 387 ; analysis of, 397.

• , its cultivatiou, and preparation as

food for cattle (Elly;, vi. 523.

Furze, analysis of, xiii. 474.

, its presence on old pastures in Dor-
setshire indicates profitable barley and
turnip land lEuegg), xv. 424.

, on the cidtivation of, on the soils

of the New Forest, by J. Trinuner, xvi.
138.

, its soils and habits (Buckman\ xvi.

360.

G.

Gabell, C, on a new subsoil-pjlough, ii.

241.
Galeopsis ladanmn, see " LIcmp-nettle,

the red."

villosa, see "Hemp-nettle, the

downy."

tetrahit, see " Hemp-nettle, the com-
mon."

versicolor, see " Hemji-nettle, the

large-flowered."

Galium aparine, see " Goose-grass."

tricorne, see " Corn bedstraw."

Galloway cows, milk from, compared
with that from Kerry and Ayrshire
cows, iv. 436. See " Cows."

Gallop, the horse's, defined and illus-
trated (Gamgee), xxiv. 359 ; Mons. Le-
cog's definition, 360.

Galton, Erasmus, a proposed method of
taming a savage bull, iv. 559.

, Erasmus, an account of an improve-
ment of a shaking bog at Meare, in
Cheshire, vi. 182.

Game, four-footed, on the evils of, by P.
Pusey, xi. 405 ; cost of, iv. 309.

in Surrey, injury from rabbits (Ever-
shed), xiv. 410 ; in Suffolk (Eaynbird),
viii. 320.

laws of Denmark (Eainals), xxi.

319.

Gamgee, J., sen., on the breediiig of

hunters and roadsters, prize essay, xxiv.

336.
Garget, or inflammation in the udder of

cows (W. Sibbald), xii. 562.

in the ewe (AV. Sibbald), xii. 578.

Garlick, the crow (Buckman), xvi. 366.

, the hog's (Buckman), xvi. 366.

Garnett, W. J., on the farming of Lan-

caslike, a prize report, x. 1.
Garrett's horsehoe, described by P.

Pusey and T. L. Taylor, iv. 77.
Garrolais cattle at the Battersea show

(1862), xxiii. 371.
Garth, Mr,, his improved homesteads in

Berks (Spearing), xxi. 34.
Gasparin on the cost of raising water,

xxiii. 293.

76

GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Gas clay, on the manurial properties of
(Rev. W. R. Bowditch), xviii. 29',) ; the
nitrogen in coal comisarcd with that in
farmyard-dung. 301 ; clay an absorbent
of nitrogen, 302 ; evils of an over-
dressing of gaa-clay, 303 ; its applica-
tion to turnips, 304 ; the action of
sulphuric acid in dissolved bones and
woollen rags on the soil, 305 ; a dressing
of gas-clay and earth benetieial to ne-
glected grass-lands, 30G ; its eftcct < m
the coloin of foliage, 307 ; grass ilrcs-scd
with it preferred by cattle, 308 ; acts as
a check to potato disease, 30U ; its use
on grass-laud, xi.x. 245.

lime, its use for grass-land, xix. 214 ;

caution as to tiie amount and mode of
dix'ssing, ih. ; tlircctions for its use — a
ton per acre (Bowditch), 239; great
caution necessary {note), ib.

Gas-wateu as a manure for barley, J.
Baynter on, i. 45.

Gas-woi!ks, the ammoniacul liquor of the
gas-works. Dr. Fownes on, iv. 541 ; Dr.
A. Voelckcr on, xvi. 03.

, refuse of, as manures, by H. Haud-

ley, i. 45.

, lime refuse, analysis of, xiii. 498.

, tar as a manure, on, by Dr. A.

Voelcker, xvi. 93.

Gates, on those showni at the Lewes
meeting (in 1852), xiii. 328.

Gavlt, that of Kent described by G.
Buckland, vi. 270.

, that under the Lincolnshire fens (J.

A. Clarke^, viii. 92.

, analyses by J. T. Way of the lower

gault, xii. 540 ; of the middle, 547 ;
and of the upj)cr gault, 548 ; of tiie
soft rock above tlie gault. 549 ; and of
the soft brown rock immediately above
the gault, ib.

between Farnham and Petersfield

(Way and Paine), xiv. 231.

of Oxfordshue (C. Read), xv. 195.

of Buckingiiamshu-e (C. Read), xvi.

276.

, underlying the jteat in the fens, its

analysis, xxi. 148.

Gea(3h, W. E., on the best mode of storing
turnips, ii. 137.

Geese, on the rearing and management of
(W. Trotter), xii. 193.

Genista Anglica, i<ee " Greenweed, nee-
dle."

tinctoria, see " Greenweed, dyer's."

Geology, the connexion between, and
agricultui-e in Cornwall, Devon, and
West Somerset, by Sir H. T. De la
Beche, iii. 21 ; the amount of fertility
which may be estimated as due to the

decomposition of the subsoil rocks, 22 ;
the blue lias of Ljnne Regis, the red
marl and sandstone of Sidmouth, ib. ;
beneficent eftects of shelter from the
sea-breezes at Mount Edgcumbe and
other places, 23; the mica-slate, the
woods near Clovclly, ib. ; the chalk
of this district, 24 ; grass-lands and
orchards on the lias, 25 ; the red sand-
stone ari'ft, ib. ; the red marls, ib. ; the
lands of Devon and Somerset on the
rod sandstone, ib.; the soil resting on
the beds of red sandstone and on the
rocks on which it rests, ib. ; the beds
of the carbonaceous series, 26 ; and
where the trappean rocks are mingled
with thorn, //<. ; the grauwacke, A ; the
trappean rocks, how coniix>sed, 27; the
trap rocks of other parts of the world,
such as in Scotland and in Abyssinia,
ib. ; limestone near Torbay, ib. ; the
range of the red and slaty beds of
the grauwacke, 28; the soils on the
greenstone rocks around I'enzance, 29 ;
the .soil on tiie serpentine, around the
Lizard, /'<. ; tenanted by a he;ith, the
Erica vagans, 30 ; quartz, the spar, and
whiteacre in Cornwall and Devon, 29 ;
the diallage rock, sienite, and the horn-
blende slate of the Lizard, 30 ; the
granitic soils, 31; their jiroduce, 32;
])eat on th(: granite soils, ih. ; the allu-
vial soils in other jiluces, 33; the sea
and blown .sand employed as mamu-e,
34 ; the amount annually taken from
PadstoW' Harbour for this puqiose, 35 ;
the quantity of .sand annually employed
in Cornwall and Devon, ib. ; liow chiefly
cfmiposed, ib. ; tiie farmers prefer the
sea-sand, 36.

Geology, on its aj)plication to agricid-
ture, by Sir J. V. B. Johnstone, i. 271.

, on the present (1848) state of agri-
culture in its relations to chemistry and
geology, by Professor J. W. F. John-
ston, ix. 200.

of Lancashire (W. Gamett), x. 2,

5.7.

of South Wales (C. Read), x. 126.

of Gloucestershire (J. Bravendar),

xi. 119.

of Lincolnshire (J. A. Clarke), xii.

262-285.

, on the agricultural geology of Eng-
land and Wales, a prize report by J.
Trimmer, xii. 445 ; its objects, 447 ; the
varj-ing fomis of the oolitic group, 451 ;
and of the chalk, ib. ; of Smith the
geologist, his labours, 451, 478; of
the sorts of the plastic clay, 454 ; the
aluminous soils, 455 ; the calcareous.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

77

lb. ; the siliceous (Mr. Morton's classi-
fication), 456; the erratic tertiaries,
459 ; their marine origin on submerged
lands, 460 ; erratics of the East of Eng-
land, 468 ; their general distribution
north of the Tliames, 467; distribu-
tion of soils as laid down by agricultmul
writers, 477 ; the strong land district
of Suffolk, by A. Young, 478; the
Wolds of Yorkshire, by Lcgard, 479 ;
the chalks of Norfolk, Cauiljridgeshire,
&c., 480 ; the soils of Essex, by A.
Young, 481 ; of Hertfordshire, by A.
Young, ib. ; of Berkshire, by Mavor,
482; of Wiltshire, by Davis, 483; of
Hampshhe, by Vancouver, 484 ; of Dor-
setshire, by Stevenson, 486 ; of Sussex,
by A. Young, 487 ; of Kent, by Boys,
ib. ; of Surrey, by Stevenson, 488 ; the
soils of the whole chalk-range, 489 ; of
the greensand, 490 ; of the oolites and
the lias, 491 ; of the new red sandstone,
493 ; of the coal-measures, 494 ; of the
old red sandstone, ib.

Geology, the relations of geology to agri-
culture in North-eastern America, by J.
F. W. Johnston, xiii. 1 ; the land from
the sea-shore of Virginia to the slopes
of the Alleghany mountains, ib. ; the
muddy flats, 2 ; the alluvial diy rich
soils, ib. ; the prairies, 3 ; the older
rocky formations, 4 ; the gromwell or
pigeon-weed, 19 ; its seeds purchased
by the seed-crushers, ib. ; American
oil-cakes, ib.

—- — of Cumberland, described by W.
Dickinson, xiii. 208.

, relations of geology to agricultiire

in North-eastern America, by J. F. W.
Johnston, xiv. 1 ; the average produc-
tion of the crops of New Brunswick,
7 ; compared with those of New York,
Ohio, and Canada West, 8 ; effect of
burning its forests, 10 ; general re-
srdts of observations with regard to
the relations of agriculture and geo-
logy, 13.

■ of Derbyshire, by J. J. Rowley,

xiv. 18 ; magnesian limestone, 20 ; coal
series, 27 ; the millstone grit and shale
series, 39 ; the carboniferous limestone,
50 ; the clays and gravels of the new
marl and new red-sandstone, and the
alluvium of the Trent and Dove, 58.

, on the geology of the Keythorije
estate, and its relations to the Key-
thorpe system of drainage, by J. Trim-
mer, xiv. 96,

— ^ of Surrey, by H. Evershed, xiv. 396.

• of Herefordshire, by T. Rowland-
son, xiv. 433.

Geology of Oxfordshire (C. Read), xv.
191.

of Suffolk (Trimmer), xii. 478-481.

of Dorsetshire, by L. H. Ruegg, xv.

389 ; occasional difference of soils and
the rocks on which they rest, 397.

, on the agricultural relations of the

western portion of the Hampshire ter-
tiary district, and on the agricultural
imi^ortauce of tlie marls of the New
Forest, by J. Trimmei-, xvi. 125.

of Buckinghamshire (C. Read), xvi.

271 ; the plastic clay, 272 ; sands and
gravels, 273 ; upper chalk, ib. ; lower
chalk, 275 ; the greensand and the
gault, ib. ; the lower greensand, ib. ;
the oolite, 278-288 ; the Kimmeridge
clay, 280 ; the Oxford clay, 280-282.

of Shropshire (H. Tanner), xix. 1 ;

lowei- Silurian strata, Llandeilo flags
(calcareous and sand) ; Caradoc sand-
stone (grit and limestone), Caradoc
flags (shelly-limestone), ib. ; upper Si-
lurian, Weiilock shale and limestone,
ib. ; Lower Ludlow shales and " mud-
stones," 2 ; Aymestry limestone. Up-
per Ludlow sandstone, chiefly, ib. ;
Devonian strata, ih. ; coal-measures,
round Coalbrook-dale, near Shrews-
bury, and in the S.E., ib.

of Berkshire (Spearing), xxi. 7.

Geological maps of North Wales (Row-
laudsou), vii. 588 ; of the fens (Clarke),
viii. 132 ; of Suffolk (Raynbird), 262 ;
of Northumberland (Colbeck), 436 ; of
the East Riding of Yorkshire (Legard),
ix. 85 ; of the West Riding of York-
shire (Charnock), 284; of the North
Riding of Yorkshire (Milburn), 2, 496 ;
of Lancashh-e (Garnett) , x. 2 ; of South
Wales (Read), 122; of Somersetsliire
(Acland), xi. 666 ; of Lincolnshire
(Pusey), iv. 302 (Clarke), xii. 259;
part of N.E. America i Johnston \ xiii. 8,
xiv. 1 ; of Northaiuptoiisliire CBearne),
xiii. 44; of Cumbirland (Dickinson',
247 ; of Derbysliirc ' Itowley), xiv. IS ;
of Surrey (Evershed), 396; of Here-
fordshire (Rowlandson), 433 ; of Oxford-
shire (Read), xv. 189 ; of Dorsetshire
(Ruegg), 390 ; of Buckinghamshire
(Read), xvi. 269 ; of the crag forma-
tion (Herepath), vii. 95 ; of Warwick-
shire (Evershed), xvii. 474 ; of Shrop-
shire (Tanner), xix. 1 ; of Berkshire
(Spearing), xxi. 1 ; of Hampshire (Rev.
J. Wilkinson), xxii. 237 ; of the Isle
of Wight (Rev. J. Wilkinson), 348;
of Hertfordshire (Evershed), xxv. 269.

Geranium columbinum, see " Craueabill,
the long-stalked."

GEXEExVL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

GEKAXirjr.

Geranium dissectum, see " Cranesbill, tlio
jagged-leaved."

• molle, see " Craiiesbill, tlic loag-

leaved."

• robei'tiaiium, see " Herb Robert."

Geeber's ' Elements of General and Mi-
nute Anatomy ' quoted by I'rofessor
Simonds, xxi. 212.

Gei;i.ach'.s investigation.s as to the cau.sc
of the rot in sheep, xxiii. 71i.

Geidian wool-fairs, in l.S5(j, report on,
xvii. 335.

Gehmany, the German landowners, ac-
count of their meeting in 1841, by
li. Handlcy, iii. 217 ; the society of
German hnidowncrs wlien established
ih. ; meeting at I)ol)eran, its proceed-
ings, v7j.; th'_< Xaken or .spade-plongii,
22(J ; the Zuckt r, a plough said to have
been used by the Romans, ib. ; on the
growth of red clover in (iemiany, 223 ;
use of marl, ib. ; use of gypsum, the
soils on which it succeeds best, 224,
see " Gyjjsum," on the feeding of live
stock, fee " Food ; " numljer of estates
in Mecklenburg, 230; education in
Germany, 231 ; tin ir pea.santry, ib. ;
the ordinary rotation of their crops,
232 ; natural pasture in Germany, ib. ;
the wages of their labour, ib. See
" Wages."

, the growth of beetroot in, for sugar

(J. Wilson), xiii. 144.

, passing observations on the farming

of, by Peter Love, xvi. l-Ui.

Germination of seeds, on (Apixjlius),
xxii. 25.

Gestatkjn of cows, by the Earl Spencer,
i. 1U5, See " Cows."

, on the influence of the male on the

period of, by J. B. Simonds, x. 25'J.

Gibson, R., on reclaiming the " 13agshot "
sand, xxi. 7.

Giddiness, accompanying parturition in
ewes, by J. Seaman, a prize cssav, xv.
383.

Gilbert, Mr. T. Davies, agricultural
schools, iii. 377.

, Dr. J. H. See "J. B. Lawes and

Dr. Gilbert," passim.

Gii;audin, on the precipitation of mineral
salts taken up by the Seine in its course
through Paris, xxii. 432.

Giimis of prize cattle and sheep at
Chester (R. Smith), xix. 371, 385 ; at
AVarwick, xx. 339, 345.

Gizzards of birds, on the, by J. B.
Simonds, xv. 276.

Glandeks and farcy in horses (F. Dun\
xiv. 128; the blood of a healthy, and
of a glanderous horse analysed, xiv. 129,

Gla.ss, soluble, xvii. 459.

Glauber salt, see " Sulphate of soda."

Glaucoxite, its resemblance to green
earth, xvii. 4G8.

Glechoma hederacea, see "Ground ivy."

Gloucester meeting, judges' report on
the exhibition and trial of implements
at, xiv. 343.

, report on the exhibition of live

stock at, by R. Milward, xiv. 456.

GLOUCE.STERSHIRE, on the farming of, by
John Bravendar, a prize rei^ort, xi.
116; geology of, 119; the old red
sandstone, 122; carboniferous lime-
stone, ib. • the carboniferous gi-it, 123 ;
the new red sandstone, 124 ; the flora
of the county, 126 ; its entomology,
127 ; the vale of Isis or the Tliames,
128; the rotations in, 130; the Cots-
wokls, tiio oolites, Stonestield slate,
133 ; turnip crops on, 135 ; barley and
oats, 138; seeds, ib.; sainfoin, 139;
wheat, 140; cattle, 142; sheep, ib.;
pigs, 143 ; tlie Vale, Evesham, (irlou-
eester, and Ikrkelev. 145 ; its rotations,
147 ; fallows, 148 ; "barley, 149 ; clover
and beans, ib. ; wheat, 151 ; teazles, ib. ;
butter, cheese-making, 152 ; cider and
perry, 153 ; the Bristol district, 154 ;
breast-ploughing and burning, 156 ;
stifle - burning, 161 ; improviments
efl'eeted since Mr. Rudge's report, 165.

Glue dro.ss, on, as a manure for tuniips,
by W. Miles, ii. 267.

Glume, the, or chalf, scale of grasses
(Buckman), xvii. 166 ; glumel, the, ib.

Gluten, the amount of, in wheat, varies
(J. Hannara), iv. 179. /See "Nitrogen."

, analysis of 'BoussixigauU), iv. 216,

xi. 389. See " Food of live stock."

, the proportion of gluten in flour

varies (Dr. FowTies), iv. 545.

, on the determination of, in grain,

iv. 554.

, chemical properties of (Hemming),

xiii. 426.

Glyceria aquatica (poa), see "Eccd
meadow-grass."

Gnai'halium dioicum, see " Cudweed, the
mountain."

religinosum, see " Cudweed, the

marsh."

Gnats, the, larvas of, see " Leather-
jackets."

Gneiss rocks, anal5-.sis of, xui. 534.

GoDDARD, Henry, on the construction of
a pair of cottages for agiicultural
laboui-ers, a first-prize essay, x. 230.

Goggles in sheep (H. Cleeve), i. 296.

Gold of pleasure, oil-cake, analysis of,
xiii, 522.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWEXTY-FIVE.

79

Gold of pleasure, its soils and habits
(liuckmaii), xvi. oGO.

Golden vallej', the, of Hereforclshii'c (T.
Kowlandsou), xiv. 4:34.

GooDLET, ou the use of cottou netting for

. sheep fencing, xxiv. 546.

Goose grass, its soils and habits (Buck-
man), xvi. 362.

Gordon, Dr., on the fertilisation ot
segilops, xix. 104.

GoRSE, as food for cattle, its cultivation
and jjreijaration, by S. EUy, vi. 523.

GoRSE-BRUiSEES, a rcport, by P. Puscy, ou
those shown at the Great Exhibition
(in 1851), xii. 635.

, on those shown at Lewes meeting

(1852), xiii. 327.

Gossip's, Mr., improvements in Hatfield
Chace described, iv. 296.

GoimA cheese (Kham), iii. 261.

GoiT-WEED, its soils and habits (Buck-
man), xvi. 362;

GowEN, R., account of the good effects
of a bituminous sliale at Christian Mal-
ford, Wilts, iv. 277. See " Shale."

Gkabuen, R. S., on the advantage of
drilling maiden earth for turnips, vi.
488.

Grafting turf, B. Baker on, v. 600.

Graham, F. J., on the potato disease, a
prize essay, vii. 357.

, on the injuries received by certain

plants from the attacks of parasitic
fungi, with particular reference to the
potato disease, xi. 443.

, Sir James, on the Deanston

frequent drain system, as compared
with the furrow-draining and deeji
liloughing of the midland counties of
England, i. 29.

-T , results of exi^eriments in subsoil-
ploughing and potato-planting, i. 244.

Grains, brewer's, see " Brewers."

Gkanakies, corn never keeps well in,
where cattle are confined below them
(J. Gray), iv. 5.

, insects which affect corn in, by J.

Curtis, iv. 78 ; the weevil, 98.

■^ , construction of (Tancred), xi. 197 ;

(Ewart), 232.

Granite, its composition, xvii. 463.

of Corsica crumbles (Liebig), xvii.

460 ; owing to decomposition of the
felspar, 461.

Granitic or growan soils of Cornwall, iii.
• 31. See " Geology."

-r-T— , desciibed by W. F. Karkeek, vi.
404.

• ■ their influence upon the tempera-
ture of the atmosphere (Whitley;, xi.
10.

Granitic rocks, analysis of, xiii. 534.

, the farming of the light soils of the

granite in Scotland (J. Haxtou), xv.
92.

Grant, J., remarks on the large hedges
and small enclosures of Devonshire,

•* &c., V. 420, vi. 246.

Grantham, R. B., on the works for re-
claiming and marling the forest of
Delamcrc, xxv. 369.

Grasses, mowing by taskwork, the prices,
by H. Raynbird, vii. 124.

, the growth of grass-seeds in Suffolk,

by H. Raynbird, viii. 297.

, the grass-seeds of the N. R. of

Yorkshire (M. Milburn), ix. 507.

, the fungi wldch attack the, by the

Rev. E. Sidney, x. 389.

— — , the analysis of, liy J. T. Way and
G. II. Ogston, xi. 530 ; of the clovers,
536 ; of water-meadow grasses, 539.

■ , the effect of climate ou the growth

of, by B. Simpson, xi. 649.

(if Cumberland (Dickinson), xiii,

271-273.

, analyses of meadow (Hemming),

xiu. 466.

, on the relative nutritive and fatten-
ing properties of different natural and
artificial grasses, by J. T. Way, xiv.
171 ; G. Sinclair's system of examina-
tion, 173 ; natural grasses, 176, 177,
180; artificial grasses, 177, 179, 180;
their albuminous or flesh-forming i)rin-
ciples, fatty matters, and heat-producing
principles, ib.

, from a water-meadow, 1st and 2nd

crop, analysis of (Way), xiv. 177.

• , growth of, in East Lothian (C.

Stevenson), xiv. 285.

, the natural history and agricultural

economy of the British grasses, a prize
essay, by J. Buckmau, xv. 462 ; the
jungle or bush grasses, 464 ; aquatic or
water grasses, 465 ; marine or sea-side
grasses, ih. ; meadow grasses, 466 ;
effects of irrigation upon, 467-469 ;
agrarian grasses, 470 ; the diseases of
grasses, 474 ; the smut, ih. ; fungi, ih. ;
fairy-rings, 474-476 ; ergot of rye, 477.

, the natural history of British

meadow and pasture grasses (Buck-
man), xvii. 162, 513.

, modified by soil and cHmate (Buck--

man), xvii. 532-7 ; how distinguished-
from sedges, 165.

, their structure (Buckman), xvii.-

163 ; roots, ib. ; rhizomes or under-
ground stems, 164; culm or stem, ib.;
leaves and their constituent parts, 165 ;
the flower, 166 ; viviparous specimens,

80

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

■ib. ; the different parts described and
illustrated, 168-9.

Grasses, their feeding properties (Hors-
fall;, xvii. 282 ; analyses by Prof. Way,
xviii. 168 ; gi-ass of rapid growth more
digestible than old grass, 169 ; but has
no greater percentage of albuminous
matter, ih. ; its quality improved by an
increased percentage of sugar and
starch, ib,

, collection of, at Kew, xxiv. 134.

, their flowering time (Rev. W. R.

Bowditch), xix. 2i{5.

Geass-land, on grafting tm-f, B. Baker
on, V. 600.

, on the advantages and disadvan-
tages of breaking up, a prize essay, by
J. Bravondar, vii. 161 ; down land,
163; cold pastures, 167; grazing-
ground, 176 ; practice of breaking up,
185 ; on tlie choice of land to be broken
up, 191 ; the advantages to tlie labourer
in employment, and to country in food,
197.

, on the advantages and disadvan-
tages of breaking up, by J. Clarke, vii.
500 ; on clays or clay soils, 513 ; on
peat moorland, bogs, mosses, heaths,
&c., 517 ; good meadow or grazing
ground, 519.

, on the management of, a prize
essay, by R. iSniitli, ix. 1 ; extent of
grass-lands in England, 2 ; ox -lands,
■ib. ; resting on clay subsoils, 4 ; winter
management of, 5 ; the downs and in-
ferior pastures, 8 ; the hilly pastmes,
9 ; illustration of effects of warmth, ib. ;
pastures liable to be burnt up improved
by draining, 11 ; inoculation of turf,
15; upland meadows, 16; water-mea-
dows, 17 ; soils best adapted for water-
meadows, 18 ; quality of water best
adapted for, 19 ; warping, 20 ; hay-
making, 20 ; eradication of weeds in,
22 ; hassocks, 24 ; anthills, 25 ; moss,
ib. ; fences of, 26.

■ , on breaking up by paring and burn-
ing, by P. Pusey, ix. 422.

of Devonshire (Tanner), ix. 476.

• , on the appUcation of pond-mud and

guano to, by E. S. Bearne, x. .S99.

• , effect of climate on the produce of,

by N. Whitley, xi. 42.

■ ■, on boning, by P. Pusey, xi. 409.

• of Northamptonshire, by W. Beam,

xiii. 76.

• , trials in top-di-essing gi-ass-land in

Windsor Park, by F. H. Seymour, xiii.

347. See " Guano," " Nitrate of soda."

, trials with nitrate of soda, nitric

acid, and the carbonates of potash, Boda,

GRASS-LAND.

and ammonia, by P. Pusey, xiv. 376 ;
by G. Hope, of Fenton Barns, 385 ; by
Main of Midlothian, 386.

Grass-land, on improving, by R. Milward
(draining and manuring), xiv. 430.

, effect of flood-waters upon (J. A.

Clarke), xv. 9.

, management of, on light soils in

moist climates (Haxton), xv. 111.

, experiment on, with guano and

nitrate of soda, on a peat bog, by J. D,
Nicol, XV. 185.

, on the breaking Tip of, in Dorset-
shire (Ruegg ), XV. 447.

of Buckinghamshire (Read), xiv.

292.

, the weeds of meadows, J. Buckman

on, xiv. 379.

, on those of Durham (Dr. Bell),

xvii. 104.

■ , the manuring of, a prize essay (J.

Dixon) xix. 204 ; use of bones in York-
bhhc, Lancashire, and Cheshire, ib. ;
raw bones best, 205 ; marked effect of
an old dressing perceptible after drain-
age, ib. ; Capt. De Hollenworth's expe-
rience, rent nearly doubled, ib.; examples
of increase of stock, after use of bonea
on various fiinns, 206, 210; increase in
the Crewe and Nantwich dairy district
fi-om 30 to 50 per cent., 207 ; a dressing
of 12 to 15 cwts. enough for the better
kind of strong soils, 208 ; their action
less beneficial on sandy soils and highly
manined fields near towns, ib. ; Lord
Leicester's experience in Nottingham-
shire unfavourable, ib. ; instance of their
beneficial use after lime, ib. ; bone
sawings hable to adulteration, 209;
price of bones, 211 ; lime of use on hot,
sandy, ferruginous pasture, ib. ; its cost,
ib. ; return from a park of 280 acrea
raised from 120/. to 600/., by dressings
of 8 or 10 tons per acre, at 128. per ton,
212 ; trial of Derbyshire, Clithero, and
Kuottingley hme, ib. ; lime mixed with
soil from drains a very effective dress-
ing, 213 ; an increased rent of 10s. to
15s. per acre obtained after its use, ib. ;
gas lime, impregnated with sulphur,
used rashly destroys clover and grasses,
214 ; 2 tons per acre enough for grass-
land, December the best time for using
it, ib. ; objections to it (iiote), ib. ; farm-
yard manure best applied in Sept. or
Oct., 215 ; guano better suited for feed-
ing-grass than for hay-crop, 215; its
action on young layers, 216; a large
dressing destroys clovers, ib. ; marling,
the stone marl at Alvanley near Dela-
mere forest, greatly improves pasture.

VOLUMES OXE TO TWEXTY-FIVE.

81

GRASS-LAND.

■217 ; shoddy, ib. ; cotton refuse, at
2.S. 6d. per ton, much sought after, 218;
manui'es are less lasting in their eiiects
on land at great altitudes, ib.
CtRass-land, on the nianiuing of (Rev. W.
E.BowcUtch), xix. 219; 50 per cent, of
the land in England under grass, ib. ;
robbery of grass lands to feed the arable,
ib. ; imports of stock, meat, and wool
in 1855-6, 220 ; average amount of asli in
hay crops, 221 ; analyses of meadow hay
■and rye grass, 222 ; nitrogen in hay,
1 per cent., the fine mould beneath
grass not formed from decaying roots
alone, 224 ; action of earth-worms on
pasture, 225 ; Darwin on vegetable
mould, ib. ; small percentage of organic
matter in soil untler turf, 22(3; large
foreign worms near Thirsk, 227 ; dis-
like of worms to coal-ashes, ib. ; they
transport but do not enrich the soil,
228 ; autumn the time for manuring,
229 ; root - growth precedes that of
beans, ib. ; guano advantageously ap-
plied in November (Horsfall), 230 ;
superiority of hay cut early, ib. ; Juno
15th to 25th, the proper mowing time
in the case of mixed grasses, 231 ; mean
rainfall in May, June, and July, 233 ;
action of water on hay (M. Pierre), ib. ;
its loss in nitrogen, potash, and soda,
232 ; hay-tea, an alkaline, aromatic
tonic for young stock, ib. ; flowering
lime of the best grasses, 233 ; Middle-
ton on early manuring, 234 ; Manuring
in July objectionable, ib. ; the objection
reviewed by Mr. Thompson {note), 235 ;
absorptive power of clay soils, com-
posts, use of shoddy, 236 ; soot, malt-
dust, guano, 237 ; increase of grass
from the use of gas-liquor, 238 ; mess
is smothered out when grass is in-
vigorated, ib. ; use of gas-hme and
soapers' waste, 239 ; ashes of grass
compared with those of other crops,
ib. ; silica required for grasses, made
soluble by ammoniacal salts (Liebig),
240; Mr. Blakie on composts, 241;
effects produced by common salt not
lasting, ib. ; the body in minivio rules
tlie crojj, 242 ; bones if repeated be-
come less efficacious, ib. ; grass-land
])ays for manuring, 243 ; Mr. Horsfall's
liberal dressings reviewed, 244 ; effect
of clay from gas-works, 245 ; fungi, a
sign of 23overty, 247 ; trefoil increased
by dressings of cow's urine (Mr. By-
water), ib. ; repeated th'cssings destroy
fine grasses, 248 ; clinkers rich in alka-
lies foster coarse grass ib. ; sewage
suited only to porous soils, 249; cou-
VOLS. I. XXV.

GRASS-LAND.

sideration of conditions essential to its
profitable application, ib. ; compost, a
convenient form, ib. ; earth closets
suggested, ib.

Grass-land, on the laying down of, and its
subsequent management (H. S. Thomp-
son), xix. 250 ; neglect of grass-lands,
ib. ; Arthur Young's estimate of their
produce per acre, ib. ; returns from
outlay on grass not direct, 251 ; exj^e-
rience of a 30-acre field, brokeu-up in
war time, laid down again, fallowed,
limed, sown with rape, fed off by sheej),
and then sown with grass alone, 253 ;
the sheep's gnawing tooth more than
a match for the golden foot, 254 ; lin-
seed cake of no avidl, ib. ; sheep should
be excluded from new layer, ib. ; the
author's later experience and practice
described, 255 ; emijloyment of a ma-
nure collector recommended, ib. ; rules
for i^reparation of compost, ib. ; im-
portance of collecting vegetable mould
for top-dressing grass, ib. ; a dark
tint in soils indicative of vegetable
remains, 256 ; porous soils unfit for
pasture without marling, though
capable of being made first-rate arable,
257 ; history of a sandy field, ib. ; clay-
lands run together and lose atmo-
spheric influences, ib. ; directions for
tiicir management, 258 ; on fallowing,
liming, and sowing hay-seeds and clover
with wheat, ib. ; necessity of keeping
slieep out, ib. ; after the hay-crop, a
liberal dressing of farmyard manure,
compost, guano, and bones must be
applied, ib. ; better have clay land
under the plough than starved as
grass, 259 ; land as above manured
should be rolled in spring, and fed off
with young cattle, ib. ; fine mould in old
grass-land from worm-casts and vege-
table remains, ib. ; its rate of accumu-
lation, 260 ; worms increased by ma-
nuring, ib. ; reason for breaking-np
2 years' layer, and for landlords' reluc-
tance to part with old grass, 201 ; how
to manage inferior pastures, ib. ; varied
dressings foster difierent plants, ib.;
Mr. Lawes' trial plots, 262 ; for quantity
of grass use anmioniacal manures, for
quality use lime or bones, ib. ; obtain
tiie eft'ect at once, and not by niggardly
or piecemeal applications, 263 ; the
economy of feeding pastures fjr making-
beef, ib. ; money well laid out on grass
gives a more certain return than corn-
land, 264.

, on tlio eftecfs of different manures

on the mixed herbage of grass-land
f

82

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

GRASSHOrrERS.

(Lawes and Gilbert), xxiv. 131 ; re\dcw
of former experiments, ib. ; present
method of experimenting, 133 ; classifi-
cation of graminaceous herbage, by
BIi-. Sutherland, 134 ; mode ef taking
samples, ib.; numerical resnli.s of the
inquiry, 135 ; see also table opposite
104 ; details of manuring dilierent
plots, 136 ; description and jjerceutagc
of kinds and species of herbage in
relation to maniu'cs and crops, 138-42 ;
the standard of comparison, 142 ; cftect
of ammonia salts and mineral manure
including silicates, ib. ; ditto, includ-
ing potass, y'^. ; ditto, with sawdust,
excluding potass, ib. ; ditto, with cut
■wheat-straw, ib. ; adaptation of nitrate
of soda for leguminous plants, 143 ;
graminaceaj increased by ammonia and
farmyard manm-e, ib. ; elfects of mixed
minerals, ib. ; supcrjihosphate, 141 ;
ammonia salts, ib. ; sawdust alone, and
mixed with other maniues, 145 ; de-
scription and percentage of predomi-
nating species, in relation to manure
and yield, table, 146; the unmanured
produce, 148 ; elfects of mineral ma-
nure alone, 150 ; ammonia salts, 151 ;
nitrate of soda, 152 ; farmyard, 153 ;
farmyard manru'c and ammonia salts,
154 ; ammonia salts and superphos-
phates, 155 ; nitrate of soda and mixed
mineral manure, ib. ; annuonia salts and
minerals, 157 ; tendency to develop-
ment of leaf or stem, and order of ripe-
ness, 158 ; comparison of results with
those from sewage-manure at Rugby,
160; herbage of Edinlnngh sewage
meadows, 161 ; limitations to forcing
hay crops, ib, ; results, 161-4 ; table,
164.

Grasshoppers, aecoimt of (Curtis), xviii.
76.

Grate, the Newark cottage range, xvii.
500 ; Pearce's ventilating, 502.

GkauwacivE soils, those of Cornwall de-
scribed by W. F. Karkeek, vi. 408.

rocks, analysis of, xiii. 534.

soils, analysis of, xiii. 544.

Gravel soils of the new marl and the
new red sandstone of Derbysliire (J.
Rowley), xiv. 58.

■ of Buckinghamshire (C. Read), xvi.

273.

Gray, John, on the growth of white mus-
tard as a green crop for sheep, v. 360.

Grazixg valleys, the, of the North-east of
Yorkshire (M. Milburn), ix. 514.

• in Buckinghamshii-e (C. Read), xvi.

293.

Grease in horses (F. Dun), xiv. 122.

GRIEVE.

Greavtes, W., on nitrate of soda as a

manure, ii. 137.
Green dust, see "Protococcus viridis."

manure, on tlie use of the wliife

mustard crop as, by T. C. Bui-roughes,
vii. 33.

, white mustard used for this pin-}iosc

in Northamptonshire (H. Beam), xiii.
67.

, n'e sometunos ploughed in for root-
crops in Surrey (S. Evershed), xiv. 85.

sides, on an economical mode of

forming, by C. B. Challoner, ii. 363.

rose-chafer (.J. Cm-tis), iii. 317.

Gi!EEXsand formation, that of Kent de-
scribed, by G. Buckland, vi. 270.
of Lincolnshire, on, by J. A. Clarke,

xii. 26;i.
, analysis of upper and lower, xiii.

536.
, marls of lower and upper, from

Faniham, analysed, xiii. 536.
, analysis of the fossils in the ujiper,

xiii. .536.
of SuiTcy, the farmifig of (Evershed),

xiv. 410.

of Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 194, 195.

of Buckinghamshire (C. Read), xvi.

276, 277 ; the lower greensand, ib.
, ])hosphoric acid in, xvii. 461) ; phos-

phatic i)ebbles in (Henslow), ib.
Greenstone rock, analysis of, xiii. 534.

, analysis of soils of, xiii. 544.

, the farming of the light .soils of (J.

Haxton), xv. 'J3.
Greenweed, dyer's, or woad waxen, its

soils and habits (Buckman), xvi. 360.

needle, or petty whin (Buckman\

xvi. 360.

Greenwich Hospital forms in North-
umberland (J. Grey), ii. 160.

Gregory, Mr. T., on Keevil's cheese-
making apparatus, xxi. 73.

Grey, Governor, account of a reaping-
machine invented iu Australia, v. 284.

Grey, J., of Dilstone, on nitrate of soda
as a manure, ii. 134.

, view of the past and present state

of the agi-icidture of Northumberland,
151. See "Northumberland."

, on farm-buildings, iv. 1. See "Fann-

buildings."

, account of some expeiiments with

guano and other manures on turnips,
iv. 211.

, on the building of cottages for

farm-labourers, v. 237. See " Cot-
tages."

, on the responsibility of parents in

the matter of education, xxv. 541.

Gpje^"e, J. H., on an improvement in the

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

83

mode of attaching horses to a wa^-goii,

vi. 248.
Gkignon, the agricultural school at, iii.

365.
Geigor, J., on fences, a prize essay, vi.

194. See " Fences."
Gripes or spasms in horses and cattle,

on, by J. B. Simonds, ix. 53.
Grit, the carboniferous, of Gloucester-

shii-e (Bravendar), xi. 123.
, the gritstone soils of the Derbyshii-e

coal series (Rowley), xiv. 28.
Groltjd beetle, the, described amongst

the insects affecting the corn-crops, by

J. Curtis, V. 471.
Groundsel, the common, its soils and

habits (Buckman), xvi. 362 ; number of

its seeds, 377.
Grouten's lectures on animal chemistry,

especially in relation to animal pliy-

siology, xxiv. 307.
Growth of plants explained. See " Vege-
table physiology."'
Grubber, or scarifier, the, J. Morton on,

iii. 119.
■ -, report on those shown at the Great

Exhbition in 1851, by P. Pusey, xiii.595.
, those shown at the Lewes meeting

(1852), xiii. 315.

at the Gloucester meeting (1853),

xiv. 357.

at Lincoln (1854), xv. 373.

at Carlisle (1855), xvi. 507-524.

Grubbing woods, on, by J. E. Denison,
xvi. 352 ; expenses of, 354.

of a Surrey down at Kingswood

(P. Pusey), iv. 307.

on Exmoor, cost of (E. Smith), xvii.

390.

Grubs, the larvte of various moths, de-
scribed Curtis), xviii. 71 ; their ravages
in Germany and Switzerland, ih. ; also
in Scotland and Ireland, 72 ; and on
SMddaw, 73 ; remedies against, ih.

Guano, J. P. W. Johnston on, ii. 301 ;
its deposits along the coast of Peru, ib. ;
ih. ; whence derived, ih. ; tiro fresh
guano from the islands of Islay and
Jesus, 302 ; in the time of the Incas,
ib. ; punishment of destroyers of the
young birds on the guano islands, ib. ;
the early trials of guano as a manure
in this country, 303 ; by Mr. Pusey, ih. ;
by Mr. Love of Castle farm, ih. ; by
Mr. Westcar of Barnwood, 304 ; by
Mr. Smith of Gunton Park, ih.; by
Mr. Skirving of Walton Nurseries, ib. ;
its chemical composition, 305 ; analysis"
by Klaproth, ih. ; and by Fourcroy
and Vauquelin, 306 ; by Johnston, ib. ;
Boussingault on the value of nitrogen-

ous manures, 309 ; cause of tlio fer-
tilising action of, 310 ; analysis of the
dung of birds which live upon fish,
sucli as the gannet, 311 ; original or-
ganic matter remaining in the guano as
imported into England, ib. ; the reason
why the Peruviau farmers iDrefer the
recent guano, ih. ; the value of pigeons'
dung, ib. ; the cause of the accumula-
tion of guano on the coast of Peru, 314 ;
little or no rain there, ib. ; the country
a sterile desert, 315 ; sometimes found
in large masse's under drifted beds
of sand, ib. ; of the money value of,
to the English farmer, ih. ; the pro-
fessor's recipe for an imitation manm-e
equal to guano, 317 ; experiments with
guano and other laanures, 318.

, experiments with, on a higlila.nd

and a fen farm, by G. Pryme, iii. 437.

, account of some exiieriments with,

and other manures on turnii^s, by J.
Grey, iv. 211.

, Dr. Fo\vues on, iv. 543; analysis

of, ih.

, experiments with, on barley, by J.

Hannam, v. 270.

, on the analysis of, by Dr. A. Ure,

V. 287.

compared with other manui'es, by

D. Barclay, vi. 175.

as a manure for beeti'oots, by P.

Pusey, vi. 529.

compared with superphosphate of

lime for turnips, by E. D. Drewitt, vi. 581 .

, on the composition and money-valuo

of the diiierent varieties of guano, by
J. T. Way, X. 196 ; auiilysis of Peru-
vian, 202 ; of inferior guanos, 203 ; of
Ichaboe, 209 ; of Augamos, ib. ; of
Patagonian, 210 ; of Saldanha Bay,
211 ; coprolites, 215 ; bones, 217.

, ammonia, its money value, 218;

sulphate of ammonia, 220 ; on the
sampling of guano, 227; on damaged
guano, 229.

, on the application of, and other

manures (to hay crops), by E. S. Bearne,
X. 399.

, on trials with, as a top-dressing for

the grass in Windsor Park, by F. H.
Seymour, xiii. 347.

, analysis of various specimens, xiii.

482.

, trials on wheat with, and nitrate of

soda, soot, &e., by Sir J. M. Tylden,
xiv. 15.

Guano, prize offered by the Eoyal Agri-
cultural Society of England for the dis-
covery of a substitute for, xiv. 4 ; with-
drawn, xvii, 4,

f 2

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Gtjano, on the substitution of nitrate of
soda for, by P. Pusey, xiv. 377-383 ; the
amount of, remaining in Peru (1852),
383.

■ used for grass-land, by R. Milward,

xvi. 430 ; witii salt, ib.

used for grass on a peat bog (J. Ni-

col), XV. 185.

, trials with, simple, and mixed

with dissolved coprolites, Ijy Dr. A.
Voelcker, xvi. !)5.

, analysis of, 78; siiecimens (J. T.

Way), xvi. 549.

, sales of, in three years, by one finn,

xvii. 59.

, best used in a state of compost

(Way), xvii. 150.

contains but little volatile ammonia

(Dr. Voelcker), xviii. 121; effect of
mixing salt with, /7>. ; Barrall's view
not confirmed I)y liis (Dr. Voelcker s)
experiment, 122 ; damaged guano sub-
ject to waste, 123.

accelerates decomposition of fresh

dung, xviii. 18G.

, its use for grass-land (Dixon), xix.

215.

, Peruvian, its use for wheat (Dr.

Voelcker), xx. 390.

, the first cargo of, imported to Eng-
land, XXV. 42.

, Peruvian, on the means of increasing

its efficacy as manure (Dr. Voelcker),
XXV. 186; commercial and agricultural
value. ih. ; composition, ih. ; economical
uses, 187 ; precautions against adulter-
ations, ib. ; efficacious combinations, ib. ;
nitrogen and ammonia siilts, ib. ; me-
chanical preparation of guano, 188 ;
analyses, 189 ; organic matter and salts
of ammonia, 190; ready formed am-
monia in guano, 191 ; results of ana-
lyses, ih. ; percentage of free ammonia
in dift'erent samples, 192 ; solubility of
phosphates in guano, 193; salt not a
fixer, ib. ; M. Banal s experiments, 194 ;
effects of exposure to air, 195 ; table of
guano and salt experiments, 196 ; cause
of peculiar smell of dry guano, 197; treat-
ment of damaged or wet samples, ib. ;
water as a solvent, 198 ; experiments
showing its effects in definite and large
quantities, ib. ; table of results, 199 ;
conclusions, ih. ; analyses of guano
treated with different proportions of
water, 200 ; combined action of sulphate
and oxalate of ammonia, 201 ; experi-
ments and analyses, 202 ; use of sul-
phuric acid, 204 ; experiments as to its
effect in different proportions, 205;
practical directions, 208.

Guano, Egyptian, analysis of (Dr. Voelc-
ker),'xxv. 236.

Guernsey, on the agriculture of, a prize
essay (C. P. Le Corner), xx. 56 ; its
physical geography, 57; the law of
succession, extreme subdivision of pro-
perty, 58 ; freeholds witii reserved com
rents, ib. ; rotations, 59 ; management
of wheat, parsnips, &c., 60 ; barley
pulled up by the roots, 61 ; size of farms
and fields, (7). ; the cow jjrized as in
Jersey, 62 ; the dairy, 63 ; practice of
cliurning milk instead of cream, ?6. ; ex-
port of cows, ib.; the inhabitants, ib.;
mildness and evenness of the climate, 64.

cow, the (Rueggi, xiv. 71; its su-
perior butter-producing properties, ib.

Guinea fowl, on the rearing and manage-
ment of, by W. Trotter, xii. 192.

yam, see " Yam."

Gulf stream, tlie, its effect on the climate
of our islands (Whitley), xi. 19-21.

GuLLE, the liquid manure of Germany,
described by Dr. 0. Hprengel, i. 475.

Gulliver on the size of blood-cells, xxi.
212.

Gum found in plants, iv. 504 ; its origin
explained by Henfrey, xviii. 407.

GuRDON, J., on co-operative farms at As-
sington, Suffolk, xxiv. 165.

, W., experuuents on transplanting

mangold, xxiv. 221.

Gussanuer's milk-pan and strainer, de-
scription and diagram, xxiv. 294.

G'in^uji, an account of tlie ajiplication of
gj^isum as a manure to the artificial
grasses, by C. W. Johnson, a prize
essay, 11 106; composition of, 107; the
cultivated crops which contain gypsum,
ib. ; does not promote putrefaction or
absorb moistm-e, ib. ; how and when
best applied, 108 ; many soils contain
gypsum, 109; the Berkshire peat-ash,
ib.; coal-ashes, 110; the trials of Mr.
J. Barnard of Little Bordcan \s-ith
gypsum on sainfoin, ib. ; tiiose of Mr.
J. Smith of Highstead on clover, 111 ;
its use in Germany described by H.
Handley. iii. 224 ; the soils it is there
used for, ib. ; as to repeated applications,
ib. ; use of peat as a manure, ih.

how applied in Mecklenburg to rape,

to red clover, and to peas, i. 125.

, analysis of sulphate of lime, xiii.

490.

, rock, analysis of, xiii. 534.

, trials vrith guano, nitrate of soda,

soot, &c., by Sir J. M. Tylden, xiv. 1.5.

, roads in Derbyshire mended with.

scrapings used to prevent clover sick-
ness (J. Rowley), xiv. 60.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

85

GYPSUM,

Gypsum, on its use as a deodoriser of town-
sewage (Way), XV. 16].

, its money value (Way), xvi. 51)3.

, a fixer of ammonia (Voelcker J, xvii.

222.

H.

Haddenham manor fiirra, xvi. 320.

H^MATO-SEPsis or black-leg in sheep
(Prof. Simonds),xxiv. 229; Hajmo-albu-
minuria or red-water, ih. ; Hsemostasia,

Haken, the nide plough of Germany, i.
125.

Halkett's guideway system of steam-
cultivation (J. A. Clarke), xx. 199.

Hall farm, near Sevenoaks, described by
Lord Amherst, viii. 33.

Hall, Collinson, his high-pressure steam-
engine, &c., XX. 209.

, his link-chain for steam-cultivation,

as shown at Worcester meeting (J. A.
Clarke), xxiv. 378 ; report of judges on,
480.

link-chain for steam-traction (J. A.

Clarke), xxiv. 378.

, his corkscrew substitute for the

anchor in steam-cultivation (P. H.
Frere), xxiv. 411.

, J., on the quantity of minute ingre-
dients of soil contained in an acre of
land, iii. 434.

Hallet, F. F., on pedigree in wheat,
xxii. 371.

Halligerke Islands, their lofts and
wharfs (agricultm-e of Denmark), xxi.
271.

Halt, the, in sheep (K. Smith), viii. 20.

Hamilton, Ker B. (Governor of New-
foundland), on the refuse of the cod-
fishery, as convertible into a portable
manure, xiv. 393.

Hammond, Anthony, report of the imple-
ments of the Lincoln meeting of the
Society, xv. 363.

, his experience with Dray's im-
proved Hussey's reaping machine, xvii.
339.

Hajiont and Fischer, on the rot in sheep,
xxiii. 65, 77.

Hampshire, the farming of (Kev. J. W.
Wilkinson), xxii. 239 ; area and jjopu-
lation of mainland, ib. ; farms, labonr,
and poor relief, 240 ; rainfall, 241 ;
geological features, ih. ; physical ditto,
243 ; Inkpen beacon, ib. ; water sheds
and river basins, 244 ; di-ainage areas,
245 ; Test and Anton valley, ib. ; classifi-
cation of soils, 246 ; the northern eocene,

HAMBSHIRE.

or woodland district and its products,
247 ; the Hampshire basin, 248 ; the
southern eocene district, 249 ; cornland
near Farnham, 249 ; valley of the Itchen,
ib. ; New Forest marl, its cost and ap-
plication to peat soils, 250 ; the Avon
and Stonr valleys, 251 ; the Middle
or cretaceous district, ih. ; Sidbiuy hill,
252 ; sheep on red lands, ih. ; winter
boiu'nes, ib. ; clays top-dressed from
chalk wells, 253 ; flints, ib. ; meadows
and pastures, ih. ; gault and greensand,
254 ; the hop countiy , ih. ; " malm " im-
l^roved by chalking, 255 ; sihca rock
quarried for manure, ib. ; the village of
Sclborne, ib. ; Woolmer and Alice Holt
forests, ib. ; the season of 1860-1, 257;
farming in the northern district, ih. ;
small occupations, 258; alternation of
wheat and beans for 6 years followed
by a fallow, ih. ; the fallow year, ih. ;
farm management, 259 ; buildings, ib. ;
wages, ih. ; the Duke of Wellington's
improvements at Stratfieldsaye, 260 ;
sheep stock, 262 ; the Duke's tenantry,
ih. ; Mr. Boxall's occupation and ma-
nagement, ih. ; crops for the sheepfold,
ih. ; intercalary crops, 263 ; draining
and subsoiling, 264 ; mangolds, ih. ;
consumption of roots, 265 ; clover layer,
ih. ; stock, ih. ; Mr. Chute's Vyne farm,
his prejjarations for the steam plough,
and rotation, 266 ; farming of the
southern district, 267 ; live stock, ih. ;
implements, ih. ; agricultural societies,
269 ; Portsdown chalk, ih. ; manage-
ment of salt marshes, 270 ; rotation and
manm-es, ib. ; produce, 271 ; Bishop-
stoke cheese market, ib. ; Komsey La-
Ijourers' Friend Society, ih. ; Botley and
South Hants Farmers' Club, 272 ; Mr.
Scott's double three-field system, 273 ;
sheep-feeding, ib. ; Mr. J. Blundell's
faim, Bursledon, /&. ; rotations and ma-
nagement, 274 ; adaijtation of old farm
buildings to modern wants, 276 ; stable
management, ih. ; sheep grazing, 277 ;
cattle feeding, ib. ; Lord Palmerston's
cottages, 278 ; the New Forest, 279 ;
the " Deer- removal Act," ih. ; recent en-
closures, ih. ; navy timber, ib. ; pruning
not suited to oaks, ib. ; New Forest
ponies and pigs, ih. ; Mr. Dickinson's
farm, Bm4ey rails, live stock, and im-
plements, 281 ; farms on the New Forest
border, 282 ; Southampton water, 283 ;
produce, ib. ; valley of the Avon, vale
and down farming, 284 ; Mr. Bone's
management, ib. ; produce of the dis-
trict, 285 ; flood meadows on the Avon,
286 ; dairies, il). ; common meadows.

8G

GENERAL IXDEX TO EOYAL AGEICULTURAL JOURNAL.

HABIESHIEE.

287 ; agricultural societies, ib. ; -wages,
ih. ; consti'uction and cost of water mea-
dows, 288; produce, 289; sheep on
chalk forms, 290 ; rotations iu the
middle district, 291 ; barley after wheat,
292 ; successi\c turnip crops, 293 ; seeds
sown with barhy, 294 ; favourite wheats,
{b. ; Messrs. Driver "s report, 1794, 295 ;
improved Hami^shirc Down sheep, ib. ;
Ml-. Pouletfs liock (A. Young), ib. ;
tendency of the cross to degenerate, ib. ;
extinction of tlie old Wilts and Hants
breed, ib. ; history of tlie Hunts and
Sussex cross, ih. ; theu- size, wool, and
fattening qualities, 29ij ; the Hants and
Cotswold crtjss, as tr-icd by Sir. Twyn-
ham, ib. ; the wool of (Sussex Downs
(Cimnington), 297 ; Overton lamb fair,
ib. ; Wcyiiill fair, 298 ; wages, ib. ■ Mr.
M. Portal's home-fai-m. I>averstoke, ib. ;
his rotation, farm buildings, and cot-
tage.*, 299 ; Sir W. Hciithcote's Hursky
estate, its peculiar situation and mixed
management, 800 ; prejiaration for root
crops and mode of consumption, HOI ;
Amptield I'anii, a modem instance of
reclamation, ib. ; acreage and yield of
hops, 303 ; cidtivation at Hursky, 30-1 ;
management, 305 ; wheat ami beans at
Holybourne, 30G ; woods, 307 ; the
■woodman's maxim, ib. ; siliceous soils,
ib. ; Lord Eversle3^'s management, 309 ;
the Heclrfield coppices, ib. ; osiers,
310 ; ash and hazel, ib. ; grubbing-up
•woi-thless coppice, 311; outlay and re-
sults, ib.; larch and beech, 312; ob-
stacles to education, 313 ; Sunday and
■winter - night school, 314 ; mixed
schools, 315 ; requisite imjirovcments,
316 ; stationary value of heavy clay
soihs, 317 ; Fowler's steam plough, ib. ;
autumn cultivation, 318; preliminaries
to the iise of steam tackle, 319 ; con-
flicting systems, ib. ; restrictive agree-
ments, 320; rent and produce of
watercress grounds. 321 ; application of
farmyard manure to wheat, ib. ; cost
and action of chalk, 322 ; the Odiham
pit, ib. ; analyses, ib. ; chalk and lime,
their relative cost and efl'ect, 323 ; im-
plements, ib. ; buildings, labom-ers' cot-
tages, and tenancies, 324 ; working iu
and out, 325 ; existing forms of lease,
325-7; results of Broadlauds drainage,
328 ; extent of modei-n enclosiu-es, 329 ;
suggested sale of New Forest for resi-
dential sites, 330 ; history of the New
Forest, 331 ; customs of demesne and
prerogative, ib. ; ancient royal encroach-
ments. 3:>2 ; ehartade foresta. ib. ; early
perambulations and existing limits, 333 ;

relaxation of laws, ib. ; assart lands,
334 ; forest courts, ib. ; jurisdiction of
verderers, 335 ; foresters' rights and ob-
ligations (commissioners' rejiort, 1850),
336; allowance and registration of
claims luider 17 and 18 Vict., c. 49,
337 ; existing rights and hmitations,
ib. ; statistics, ib. ; financial statement,
1860, 338; tables of temperatm-e and
i-ainfall at Aldersliot, 1858-60 (J. Ar-
nold), 340; monthly rainfall at EUng
from 1848 to 1860 (W. C. Spoouer),
342 ; monthly i-ainfall at Gosport fi-om
1816 to 1858 (Dr. Burney), 343; mean
depth of rain for 41 years, ib. ; drainage
at Br()adland.s, 344; letter from Lord
Palmerston, 346 ; fai-ming of the Isle of
Wight, see " Isle of Wiglit," 348-71.

Hampsuiek, the chalk soils of, described
by Vancouver, xii. 484.

, on the agricultm-al relations of the

western ]iortion of the Hampshire ter-
tiixry district, and on the agricultural
importance of the marls of the New
Forest, by J. Trimmer, x\^. 125.

Down sheep (*ee " Sheep "), compa-

]-ative experiments on feeding, by J. B.
Lawes, xii. 414, xvi. 73 ; J. Wilson on,
234 ; account of (R. Smith), xix. 38(i.

, their origin (W. G. Spoouer), xx. 300.

Hams, on the cruing of (Kowlandson), xi.
592.

Handlet, Henry, account of the meeting
of the Gei-man landowners in 1841, iii.
217. See " German landowners."

, rejwrt on the Liverijool meetings,

prize wheats, iii. 397.

, on the refuse of gas-works as ma-

nm-es, i. 45.

, on wheel and swing ploughs, a prize

essay, i. 145.

Handling of cattle described, -sai. 207.

Hand-power, illustrations of, by Morton
and Pusey, xxi. 421.

Hannam, G., on the double culture of
tiuiiips between peas, vii, 589.

. H, J., on tin; reduction of horsc-

labom- bj' single carts, ii. 73.

, on the advantage of testing the

draught of ploughs, iii. 9.

, J., on the use and application of

rajie-dust, iv. 177.

, experiments with salt and other

manures, ujwn oats, bai-ley, aud wheat,
V. 267.

, on the action and application of dis-
solved bones, v. 452.

, an experimental inquu-y into the

theorj' of the action and the jiractical
ajjplicatinn of bones as a manure for the
tmnip cro2>, vi. 49.

VOLUMES OXE TO T^VENTY-FIVE.

87

HAITEMEjVX.

Happejieax, jM. ]M. de, on rabLits ia
France, xxiii. 304.

Hard fescue-grass, analysis of (Way), xiv.
177.

, J. Buckrnan on, sv. 4G4 ; its growth

in diflerent situations, 468 ; xvii. 533-535.

Hakd-heau. the (Buckman), svi. 361 .

Harding, Mr. J., of Marksbmy, his im-
proved method of making Cheddar
cheese (Fulton), xxi. 75.

, on recent improvements in dauy

pmctice, xxi. 82.

, analysis of his cheese (Dr. Voelcker),

xxii. 40.

, E., statistics of dairy i^ractice, xxiv.

554.

Hakes-ear, the common, or " thoro-wax,"
its soils and habits (Buckman) xvi. Stil.

Harleston club, experience of in the cost
of horses, xix. 439.

Haexess, horse, of foi-mer days, xiii. 245.

Harrison, Dr., on the rot in sheep, xxiii.
U7, 81.

Harrows, John Morton on, iii. 117.

, fm-nished with wooden teeth in

Gennany, i. 124.

, rejiort ujoon those shown at the

Great Exhibition (in 1851), by P. Pusey,
xii. 593.

, the Norwegian (by Crosskill), xii.

595, xiii. 310.

at the Lewes meeting (1852), xiii.

315.

at the Gloucester meeting (1853),

xiv. 357.

of Oxfordshire (Ptcad), xv. 246.

at the Chelmsford meeting (1856),

xvii. 565.

at the Warwick meeting (1859), xx.

320.

, steam, at the Newcastle meeting,

XXV. 413 ; Ih'st prize awarded to Messrs.
Howard, 414.

, horse, at Newcastle, judges' report

on, XXV. 423.

Hartkorn, the basis of Danish valuation
and taxation, xxi. 279.

Harvesting, the best mode of in a bad
season, L.P.E. (E. Eddison), xxiii.
210 : harvest of 1810, ih. ; character of
recent seasons, 211 ; directions as to
time of reaping, ih. ; small sheaves,
212; singlebands, 213 ; leaving sheaves
open, ib. ; neglected sheaves, ih. ; small
stooks, ih. ; hoods or caps, 214; "muck
in the stook better than in the stack,"
ih. ; watching corn, 215 ; substitute for
^staddles, ih. ; drying corn by hot air,
ih. ; time of carrying, 210 ; the Cornish
^^rrish mow, ih. ; use of reed, ih. ; the
.thatching machine, ih.

Harvesting corn on, P. E. (Peter Love),
xxiii. 217; Scotch planof rickling,/&. ; its
cost per acre, 218 ; cost of round sheaves,
ih. ; cutting corn green, 219 ; cost of
horse-keep, ih. ; cost per acre of reaping
high and low, bagging, mowing, and
machine reaping,- ih. ; swathe-delivery
mowers, 221 ; cost and management of
mnciiines, ih.; carting, 222; economy
of central farm steading, ih. ; thatching
and size of stacks, ih. ; comparative table
of cost of different methods, 223 ; eco-
nomy of high reaping, 224 ; wide-cut-
ting machines, ib. ; mowing barley and
oats, ih. ; effect of climate on straw, ih. ;
exaggerated estimate of the value of
haj% 225 ; facilities for autumn cultiva-
tion, ib. ; situation of stacks, ih. ; use
of barns superseded by the thrashing
machine, 220.

by taskwork, prices paid for, by H.

Eaynbird, vii. 128.

in the N. K. of Yorkshire (M. Ml-

burn\ ix. 501.

in Cumberland (W. Dickinson), xiii.

233 ; the corn-scythe, ib.
in East Lothian (Stevenson), xiv.

305.

in Norfolk (C. S. Eead), xix. 285.

Harvey, K. B. on a productive variety of

wheat, ii. 148.
Hassock grass (Buckman), xv. 464. 465.
, its soils and habits i^Buckman), xvi.

366.
Hassocks, on the removal of from pas-

tm-es, by E. Smith, ix. 24.
Hatching of eggs of poultry (Trotter),

xii. 181 ; artiticial hatching, 185.
Hatfield Cliace described (Pusey), iv.

296.

(Corringham), vi. 40.

Hatherton, Lord, his improvements at

Teddesley, iv. 314.
Hawes, S., on the Wealden clay of Sussex,

and its cultivation, xix. 182.
Hawkstead (in Suffolk), Sir John Cul-

lum's liistory of, the prices paid for

agiicultiu-al labour, &c., in former

periods (Eaynbird), vii. 119.
Haxton. John, on the cultivation of oats,

a prize essay, xii. 105.
, on light-land furniing, a prize essay,

XV. 88.
Hay, the object of giving it to stall-fed

animals (Lyon Playfair), iv. 234.

from water-meadows, its effects as

foc'i' for hor.ses (W. Paxton), i. 347.

preparation of, in Curnwall (W,

Karkeek), vi. 425.

, trussing of, by taskwork, the cost

of (H. Eaynbird), vii. 138.

GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTUEAL JOURNAL.

Hay, making on, by R. Smith, ix. 20.

, the mouldiness of stacked, on, by

Rev. E. Sidney, x. 391, 39G.

• , making of, iu Cumberland (Dickin-
son), xiii. 294 ; the liay-bams of, 297.

, meadow, analysis of, xiii. 466.

, ryegrass, xiii. 466.

, red clover, ib.

, white clover, ib.

, sainfoin, ib.

, lucern, ih.

, vetches, ib.

, deficient in starch and sugar, as a

food for milch cows (Horsfallj, xvii. 2S1.

■ , aftermatli, its analysis (Way), xvii.

281 ; ditto, tirst crop, ib.

■ , its feeding and manuring cost,

value, and composition (Horsfall), xviii.
172.

, its ashes and nitrogen (Rev. W. E.

Bowditch), xix. 222.

, tea, an alkaline, aromatic tonic, for

young stock (M. I'lerre ;, xix. 232.

, the dry matter iu (Lawes and Gil-
bert), XX. 400.

crop, its demand for nunerals (Lawes

and Gilbert), xx. 412.

, clover and meadow, analysis of (Dr.

Voelcker), xxii. 411.

Hayes's combined windlass for steam cul-
tivation, XX. 198.

, its exhibition and trial at Leeds

(1861), xxii. 471 ; award, 477 ; at "Wor-
cester (1863), xxiv. 480.

Haymaking, on Mr. Horsfall's plan, xviii.
182 ; lap-cocks, tlicir use and construc-
tion, 183 ; pikes xdth conical tops for
rick hay, ib.

, the system adopted in Shropshire

(K. Tanner j, xix. 23.

, recent improvements in, prize essay,

(T. Bowick), xxiii. 48 ; diminished cost,
49 ; charges at Frocester Court, 50 ; in-
fluence of weather, ib. ; the hay tedder,
51 ; lodes for its use, 52 ; economy of
the horse-rake, ib. ; Mr. C. Howard's
experience, 53; Burgess and Key's
mowing machine, 54; "Wood's mower,
Mr. Pertwee's testimony, 55 ; prepara-
tion of land, 56 ; ricks, ib. ; substitutes
for beer in the hayfield, 57 ; testimony
of Messrs. C. Howard, J. Tucker, and
Jarvis, ib. ; Mr. "VN'ilson, of Newlands,
58 ; application of manm-e to grass-
land, 60 ; renovating seeds, ib. ; Essex
plan of secm-ing marsh hay, 61 ; early
cutting, ib. ; finishing and thatching,
ib. ; treatment of weathered hay, 62 ;
the practice at "Wobm-n fP. H. F.), ib. ;
Scotch system of haymaking, 63 ; pre-
servation of seed hay, ib.

HEATHORN.

Haysiakixg machines, a report on those
shown at the Great Exhibition '^in 1851),
by P. Pusey, xii. 616.

, on those shown at the Lewes meet-
ing (in 1852), xiii. 316.

, on those shown at the Salisbury

meeting (1857), xviii. 423; rejiort of
the judges, 442.

, those at Leeds (1857), xxii. 457.

, Sir. Horsfall's experience of, xviiL

182.

Hayter, W. G., account of improvements
on Liuslade farm, in Buckinghamshire,
by, iv. 340.

Headuick's survey of Forfarshire, xxiv.
545.

Health, how promoted by the removal of
mill-dams (J. A. Clarke), xiv. 142.

, public, state of in England, see

" Public Healtii."

Heat, on the heat-producing principles in
llie natural and artificial grasses, by J.
T. AVay. xiv. 176, 179, 180.

, on tile juiwer of soils to retain, by

Schubler, i. 200.

Heath, the, analysis of the plant, xiii.
528.

, llie, of Lincolnshire, farming of,

described (J. A. Clarke), xii. 339 ; rota-
tions on, ib.

Heathcote, Sir W., experiment on ma-
nures, v. 277.

, his liomc-farm on the Ilursley estate,

xxii. 300 ; cottages, 302.

Heath-grass (Buckman), xvii. 514.

Heath-laxd, on the advantages of culti-
vating (P. Pusey), iv. 308.

, Lincoln, former state of, ib.

, amount of, in England, ib.

in Scotland, ib.

, Exmoor, in Somersetshire, iv. 308-

311.

, the New Forest, iv. 309.

, Tansk-y Jloor, in Derbyshire, ib.

near Bakewell, iv. 310.

near Alnwick, ib.

of the soutli of Scotland, ib.

Cannock Chace, ib.

, cultivation of part of Exmoor, by

Mr. Roales, iv. 311.

of Clotsham, iv. 312.

, good ell'ect of its enclosure upon

the labourer, iv. 315.

, on reclaiming, by J. "Watson, a prize

essay, vi. 79 ; value of lime as a fir.st
dressing, 93 ; course of cropping for, 95..

, the, of SmTey (Evershed), xiv. 416.

, the, of Dorsetshire (Ruegg), xv.

422, 453.

Heathorx, E., on the course of cropping
adopted in Kent, xxi. 385.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

89

Heavy lands, on the rotation of crops
on, by W. Stace, iv. 1G9. See " Clay
soils."

Hedenbergite, the, analysis of, xiii. 532.

Hedges, remarks on those of Devonshire
and the adjoining counties, by J. Grant,
V. 420, vi."24(J.

of Norfolk (Ahnack), v. 309.

, on, by J. Grigor, vi. 194.

of the Weald of Kent, on, by G.

Buckland, vi. 294.

, on the advantage of reducing the

size and number of, by W. Cambridge,
vi. 333.

of furze, on, by O. O. Roberts, vi.

385.

, on the necessity for reducing the

size of, by J. H. Turner, vi. 479.

and hedgerow timbers of Somerset-
shire (Acland), xi. 748.

, on the efiects of soil on the growth

of timber-trees (Rowlandson), xiv. 451.

, on the weeds of hedge-banks (Buck-
man), xvi. 380.

Heintz's chemical formula of pure bone-
ash, xxi. 368.

Hemlock, its soils and habits, xvi. 362.

Hejiming, Edward T., on the neglect of
chemistry by ijractical farmers, its
causes and remedy, a prize essay, xiii.
409.

Hemp, its cultivation in the Netherlands
described, iii. 257.

, T. Rowlandson on, x. 172 ; the soils

best adapted to, 172, 181 ; the quantity
of seed, 173 ; choice of, 177 ; manuring
for, 173 ; time of sowing, ih. ; nightsoil
the best manure, ib. ; the pulling, 174 ;
cultivation of, in Lincolnshire, 175 ;
watering, 177 ; worms fond of hemp,
they draw it into their holes, 178 ;
seed-hemp, ih. ; exj^enses of a croj) of,
181.

, analyses of the stem and seeds, xiii.

474.

Hemp-nettle, the red (Buclanan), xvi.
364.

, the downy, xvi. 364.

, the common, xvi. 364.

, the large-flowered, xvi. 364.

Henderson, John, report upon the Rye
and Derwent di'ainage, xiv. 129.

Henfrey, Professor, on vegetable physi-
ology, xvii. 62 ; part 2, xviii. 371.

, on the transformation of segilops

into wheat, xix. 103.

, Hemy, on the eiFects of sewage on

waters of the Seine, xxii. 430 ; analysis
of Seine water at different points in
and near Paris, 432.

, on the sti-ucture of roots, xix. 467.

HEREFORDSHIRE.

Hensloav, Professor, on the diseases of
wheat, ii. 2.

, on tlie specific identity of the fungi

producing rust and mildew, ii. 220 ; on
certain specimens of wheat contributed
to tlie Museum of the Society, 271.

, on tlie wlieat midge, iii. 30.

, on suspended germination, xxiv,

423.

, his cottage allotments (J. C. Morton),

XX. 97.

Heraclium spondylium, see " Cow pars-
nip."

Herbaceous plants and grasses at Kew,
collection of, xxiv. 134.

Hekb-Robert, its sorts and habits (Buck-
man), xvi. 360.

Herbs, the changes, by irrigation, of those
found with the grasses (Buckman), xv.
470.

Herbert, R., statistics of live stock and
dead meat for consumption in the
metropolis, xix. 496 ; xx. 473 ; xxi. 173,
381; xxii. 131, 413; xxiii. 365; xxiv.
206, 459 ; xxv. 243, 382.

Herdwick sheep, the, of Cumberland (W.
Dickinson), xiii. 264 ; the change of
colom- m their wool by hard weather,
ih.

sheep, on, by J. Wilson, xvi. 230.

Hereditary predisposition to disease, on,
by J. B. Simonds, x. 250 ; to coloiu-, ib.

Hereford cattle, the (T. Rowlandson),
xiv. 449 ; the old Hereford cattle, 450 ;
then- origin and history, ih.

, E. F. Welles on, i. 349.

of Buckinghamshire (C. Read), xvi.

293.

, accoimt of (R. Smith), xix. 305 ;

their breeders, 366 ; calves run with
then' dams, ih.

Herefordshire, farming of, a jirize report,
by T. Rowlandson, xiv. 433 ; its soils
and subsoils, ih. ; geology of, ih. ; the
old red sandstone, ih. ; " the golden
valley," 434 ; " the ryelands," 436 ; the
cornstone division of the old red sand-
stone, ih. ; lime used as a manm-e, 437 ;
effect of, in different seasons, 439 ; cider
and perry making, 440; the Barland
perry, 446 ; juice obtained from a given
weight of pears, ih.; analysis of pears
and apples, 447 ; artificial preparation
of the oil of pears and apples, 448 ; used
by acid-drop makers, ih. ; the cattle,
449; the old Hereford cattle, 450 ; their
origin and history, ih. ; effect of soil on
the growth of timber-trees, 451 ; the
oaks, ih. ; farm-buildings, 452 ; draining,
453; unprovements in farming since
1805, 454.

90

GEXEEAL IXDEX TO EOYAL AGEICULTURAL JOURXAL.

Heeepath, T. J., on the improvement of
laud by waiting, clicmically considered,
xi. 93.

, on the chemical composition and

agricultui-al value of the fossil bones
and pseudo-coiJiolites of the crag, sii.
91.

. , on the Jatropha manui-e, analysis of,

xii. 25G.

, on the mode of extracting manure

fi-om sewage-water practised at Cardilf
gaol, xiii. 197.

Hersiann's Parisian water-pipes and joints
(P. H. Frcre), xxiii. :345.

Hekpix's account of the piu-plc clover
weevil, x^■iii. 40.

Hertfordshire, the agriculture of, prize
essay (li. Evershed), xxv. 2G9; area,
population, and rainfall, ih. ; soil and
general aspect, 270 ; management oi'
light land, 271 ; the fallow crop, 272 ;
Mr. T. Smith's practice with the steam
plough, 27:5 ; barley, ib. ; destruction of
charlock, ib. ; clover and sainfoin, 27-1 ;
■wheat, ib. ; oats, 27;"> ; fattening lambs
for the London market, 270 ; horned
Dorsets, i6. ; management of heavy land,
ib. ; the rotation, 277 ; stock keeping
and the growth of roots, ib. ; sheeji, 27S ;
fallow crops, ib. ; mangold, 279 ; barley,
280 ; clover, sainfoin, winter beans, &e.,
280; chalking, 281; the thin chalk
(hill) district, 282 ; hay farms, ib. ; trade
in farm produce with London, 2815 ;
obligation of tenants selling hay and
straw, 284 ; Mr. J. Eansome's farm
management, ib. ; price of London dimg,
285 ; IMr. Lawes's farm at Rothamsted,
ib. ; state of crojiping for 14 j'ears,
286 ; number of acres in each crop, 290 ;
summaiy of cropping, 291 ; manage-
ment described, ib. ; corn found to be
more profitable than green crops on
strong land, 292 ; ]Mr. Prouts farm near
Sawbridgeworth, his (b-aining operations,
293; Lord Essex's home-farm and
•sewage experiments, ib. ; I\Ir. Oakley's
farm, 294 ; his stock management, 29.5 ;
mixed food for fattening oxen, 296;
examples from 'Mi: Humbert's experience
in di'aining, 297 ; landlords' charges on
the outlay, ib. ; Mr. John Smj-th's ex-
perience of steam ciiltivation, 298 ;
harvest work, 299 ; wages, ib. ; gift
ploughing, 300 ; tenure of land, ib. ;
Jiverage of crops, ib.; implements in
request, ib. ; economy of swung
mangers, 301 ; enclosures, farm build-
ings, covered homesteads, and cottages,
ib. ; recent and required improvements,
302.

Hertford.«hire, agricultiu'al noteson (Ecv.
J. Clutterbuck), xxv. 302 ; agricidtural
literature, ib. ; early introduction of tur-
nips, 303 ; rainfall and percolation of
■water, ib. ; area and population, 304 ;
markets and sales by auction, ib. ; physi-
cal gcograpliy, 305 ; swallow-holes in re-
lation to drainage and water supply, 306 ;
the water-level in the chalk, 307 ; illus-
trative diagram, 309 ; sheep-fanning at
Wheathanipstead, 308; the chalk dis-
trict, 310 ; irrigation, mills and meadows,
311; drainage of low meadows, ib.;
watercresses, 312 ; cherry orchards, 313 ;
woods and plantations, 314 ; straw plait,
ib. ; varieties of wheat, 315 ; Mr. Hain-
•worth's method of testing different sorts
on the Siunc ground, 316 ; sheep, ib. ;
implements, 317.

drainage, by W. Flack, iv. 33.

• , the chalk soils of, described by A.

Young, xii. 481.

Hertwig on the composition of the ash of
pea-straw, xxii. 407.

Hetiiei.-woou farm, on its drainage, by
H. Fulton, xii. 149.

HiiiRERD, I^Ir., bis manufacture of beet-
root spirit in AViltshire, xx. 90.

Hide, thickness of, in tlie Cumberland.
Lamplugh breed (W. Dickinson), xiii.
250.

HiGGixs, J., on bone and Poittevin's ma-
nures for tmTiii)S, ii. 268.

Highland and Agricultural Society of
Scotland (Thompson, M. P.), xxv. 2.

Hill, liev. C, on the Suffolk system of
draining, 423. See " Drainage."

, on the construction of cottages, iv.

356. See "Cottages."

HiLLYARD, C, on tlic productivcnGSs of
certain wheats, ii. 67-

, on wheat, iiL 297; on measuring

cattle, 337.

, experiment on the feeding properties

of swedes and mangold-wurzcl, iv.
247.

HiXDS, how paid in Northumberland ^.J.
Grey), ii. 183. See " X'orthumberland."

Hixe,"T., on the giant sainfoin, x. 54.

HoAR-FKOST is frozcn dew (J. Parkes), v.
131.

, sheep passing over clover hoar-
frosted kill the leaves, v. 136.

, X. Whitley on, xi. 29.

HoBBS, W. Fisher, on covered homestallg,
xiv. 325.

, report on the exhibition and trial

of imidcments at the Carlisle meeting,
xvi. 505.

, his improved breed of pigs (R.

Smith;, xix. 389.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

91

HoBi?3, rei^ovt on the exl libit ion of live
stock at Leeds, xxii. 218.

■ , his experience of the beneficial

eftects of salt as manure and as medi-
cine for cattle, R. D., xxv. 517, 521.

Hodges, T. Law, on the maldug and
burning draiuing-tilcs, v. 5'A.

, on temporary tile-lnlns, ix. 198.

Hoes, see " Horse-hoes."

Hoeing by taskwork, the prices paid for,
by H. Eayubird, vii. 12G.

, on a new method of hoeing tin-nips,

by P. Pusey, xiii. 207.

HoFMANX, Prof., his projaosed substitution
of the term " cinercal " for "mineral'
manures (Lawes and Gilbert), xxv. 101.

■ , his remarks on Baron Liebig in his

International Eeport (Lawes and Gil-
bert), xxv. 11. 499.

Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd), on sheep
rot, xxiii. 75.

HoLcoJiBE, Eev. G. P., on the cultivation
of a cold clay farm, ii. 262.

LIoLCUs lanatus, .see "Soft meadow-grass."

mollis, see " Creeping soft-grass."

saccharatus, see " Sorghimi sac-

charatum."

HoLDERNESs, the farming of (G. Legard),
ix. 89, 101.

HoLFORD, Mr., his liquid manm-e ana-
lysed (Dr. Voelcker), xix. 523.

HoLiCHAM Park, experiments in wheat-
growing at (J. Coleman), xix. 303.

turnip -growing exiDerimeuts (J.

ColemanX xix. 306.

Holland, C, on the cultm-o of a prize
crop of swedes, xix. 574.

, E., M.P., letter on steam culti-
vation, xxi. 431.

, on agricultural steam-boilers and

their jHoper management (P. D.), xxiii.
428.

, on agricultural education (P. D.),

xxv. 539.

Holly hedges, J. Grigor on, vi. 21 G.

Holmsdale, vale of, on its cultivation, by
G. Buckland, vi. 268.

HoLSTEiN, the rural economy of Schles-
wig Holstein and Lauenburg, by J. S.
Carr, i. 371 ; the character of the
country, climate, temperature, night-
frosts in the spring, ib. ; its banks or
flikes, 372 ; rise of the waters of the
Baltic in winter, the enriching waters
of the Elbe, the analysis of the soil
which it has deposited, ?'j.; size of farms.
373 ; course of crops, ih. ; the domestic
animals, ib. ; the cows, tlieu- yield of
milk, 374 : tlie implements used, ib. ;
gj^psum not always successfully era-
ployed, ib. ; tlie intelligence of the

nOMCEOPATHIC.

lieople, ib. ; the cause of their backward
agi-ieultural knowledge, ih. ; the tenme
of the land, 375 ; the failure of the
Merino sheep, 376 ; the dairies, ib. ; size
of the buildings, ih. ; the milk-cellar,
377 ; the churning-housc,«6. ; the cheese-
room, 378 ; tiie cheese-making, ib. • the
dairymaid, ib. ; their hours of labour,
379 ; the dauy utensils, ib. ; butter-
making, 382 ; churning, ib. ; the care
bestowed in the i^reparation of dairy
salt, 383 ; different qualities of the but-
ter produced, 384 ; the cowhouse, ib. ;
colouring matter of the butter, 385 ; the
breeds of cattle, ih. ; the amount of miUc
produced, 386 ; calves, ib. ; pulmonary
and other diseases of cattle, 387.

Home farms, on the management of, prize
essay (T. Bowick), xxiii. 247 ; size of
buildings how regulated, ib. ; situation
of home premises, 248 ; mess-room and
farm office, ib. ; medicine-chest, ib ;
buildings for stock, 249 ; dairy arrange-
ments, 250; hand milk-waggon (dia-
gram), 251 ; food for milch cows, ib. ;
account of supplies for the stable, 252 ;
mode of charging purchased lots, ib. ;
litter, ib. ; supplies of mutton, beef,
bacon, and pork to the kitchen, 253 ;
shepherd's duties, 254 ; jjoultry manage-
ment, ib. ; Baily's coop, 255 ; eggs, ib. ;
rearing fowls, 256 ; coal-ashes as
potato manure, ib. ; horses, how charged,
ib. ; food for game, ih. ; the farm staff,
ih. ; Sir J. Siuclak on the advantages
of a gentleman farming, 257 ; coal
haulage, ib. ; management of parks and
lawns, 258 ; repair of damage from
rural fetes, &c., ib. ; suitable animals
for parks, 259 ; maintenance of roads
and walks, ih. ; destruction of weeds by
talt, ib. ; repair of adjacent public
roads, 260 ; mode of keeping farm
accounts, 261 ; grain, labour, and cash
account, 262; annual balance-sheet,
264 ; plan of charging the home farm
with capital and interest, ib. ; periodic
examination of accounts by the prin-
cipal, 265 ; disallowance of cha])-
money, ih. ; influence of landlord's
management on tenantry and labourers,
266 ; written characters, 267 ; wages
and piece-work, ih. ; time of leaving
Avork on Saturdays, ih. ; the bailiff's
position and duties, 268 ; his conduct
towards the princii^al, niarl;et exjjenses,
and settlement of accounts, 269 ; his
relation to other members of the staff,
ih.

HoMCEorATHic treatment of cattle for
hmg disease and other inflammatory

92

GENERAL INDEX TO ROY^iL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

attacks (P. H. Frere), xxiv. 554 ; rea-
sons for resorting to it, 555 ; results of
experience, ih. ; memorauda of symp-
toms and treatment, 556 ; post mortem
appearance of the bullock when after-
wards killed, ib. ; condition of meat,
ib. : symptoms and successful treatment
in cases of lung disease, 557.

Hoof of the horse, the (J. Burke), v. 525.

HooiBRENK, M. D., on the artificial fe-
cundation of cereal and other crojjs (P.
H. Frere), xxv. 258.

Hop cultivation of AVorcester, prize essay
(J. P. Smith), xxv. 52; soil, climate, and
situation, ib. ; sorts suited to different
soils, 53 ; prejiaration of land and mode
of planting, ib. ; early and late sorts,
54 ; planting on old tillage, ib. ; growth
of potatoes and mangolil, ib. ; calendar
of operations, 55 ; size of poles, ib. ;
picking and drying, 5G ; cost and care
of poles, ib. ; insect pests, 5G ; i)acking
and diying, ib. ; use of sulj)hur, 58 ;
size and weight of hop-pockets, ib. ;
cost of cultivation per acre, ib.

IIorE, G., his farm at Feuton Bams, in
E. Lothian, xiv. 317.

■ his management of clover (Tanner),

xxi. 345.

Hopi'Eii, Richard, on drawing turnips, a
prize essay, i. IGU.

Hops are grown near Alost, in the Nether-
lands (Rham), iii. 246.

' , ravages of the wireworm on (J.

Cmiis), V. 193.

of I\Iid-Kent (G. Buckland), vi. 279 ;

of the Weald uf Kent, 281 ; hop-oasts',
289 ; of Canterbury, 262 ; cost of culti-
vation, 286.

■ , analyses of the mineral ingredients

of, by J. C. Nesbit, vii. 210; the Gold-
ing hop, 211 ; the yellow-giape hop,
215.

• , analysis of the flower of, by J. T.

Way, ix. 144.

• , analysis of the flower and bine, xiii.

474.

, on the best mode of managing, a

prize essay, by S. Rutlej% ix. 532;
soils and subsoils test adapted to their
growth, ib. ; situations, 535 ; preparing
the ground for planting, ib.; setting out,
538; planting, 543 ; digging the ground,
550 ; poling, 552 ; tying, 554 ; digging
round and earthuag up hills, 559 ; ma-
nures for hops, 561 ; diseases of 563 ;
the flea, 564 ; the aphis, ib. ; the mould,
567 ; picking, 566 ; ch^-ing, 568 ; pack-
ing or bagging, 573; stacking the
poles, 577 ; estimate of the expenses of
bop-growing, 579.

Hops, on the funguses o^ by the Rev. E.
Sidney, x. 394.

, analysis of, by J. T. Way and G,

Ogston, xi. 514.

, analysis of brewers' spent, xiii. 498.

, the hop district of Famham (H.

Evershed), xiv. 406.

, acreage yield of, in Hampshire

(Rev. J. Wilkinson), xxii. 303.

HoPTOVN wheat, P. Shirrefi" on, ii. 344.
See "Wheat."

Hop-TREKOiL, analysis of (Way),xiv. 179.

HoRDEU.'M distichiun, the two-rowed barley
(Rainals), xxi. 311.

hexastichum, the six-rowed barley

(Rainals), xxi. 311.

, its varieties (Buckmau), xvii. 522,

pratense, see " Meadow barley."

Horn, analysis of Karkeek), v. 260, xi.
766 ; (Way), xiii.'49S.

HoRxiiEAM, the, its planting and manage-
ment (Falkeuer), iii. 271.

, on, for hedges, by J. Grigor, vi.

222.

HuFiNBLEXDE, tlic solls of Comwall de-
scried by W. F. Karkeek, vi. 419.

, analysis of, xiii. 532, xvii. 465.

schist, analysis of, xiii. 534.

Horse, the, improvement of by English
kings (R. Smith), xix. 372 ; draught-
horses, 374 ; history of the Clydesdale
horse, ih.

Horsedung of farmyard analysed by Dr.
Fownes, iv. 539.

, analysis of dung of the horse, xiii.

482.

HuitSEFLESu, sale of, at Hamburgh, xviii.
217.

Horses, supply of, adapted to the Eng-
lish army (J. Wilkinson), xxiv. 91 ;
early types and historical incidents, ib. ;
demands of the Engl is) i mihtary ser-
vice, deatlis from accident and disease,
ib. ; regulation allowance of food, 92 ;
comparison of the English and French
systems of management, ib. ; kinds of
horses adapted to difterent branches of
service, 93 ; influence of the Crimean
campaign, ib. ; goveinment price for
army horses, ib. ; effects of crossing,
94 ; influence of the sire, ib. ; early ma-
turity attainable, 95 ; importance of
good mares, ib. ; price ruled by quality,
96 ; supineness of breeders, ib. ; the
remount system in tlie French army,
ih. ; Count Aymon on the comparative
value of horses and cattle, 97 ; the
French demand and supply, ib. ; pro-
ject of depots for foals condemned, 98 ;
the contract system, ib. ; permanent
remount depots, ib. ; estimated annual

VOLUMES ONE TO TWEXTY-FIVE.

93

supply of Normantly and Brittany, 99 ;
price and height of French troop-horses,
ib.
HoESES, on the breeding of (W. Dickinson),
xxiv. 255 ; the condition of land fa-
vourable to breeding, ih. ; importance
of dry subsoil, ib. ; selection of mai-es,
256 ; the sire, ib. ; deterioration in
breed, 257 ; French cart-horses, ib. ;
description and purchase of the cart-
stallion " Napoleon," 258 ; breeding
mares, ib. ; description and diagrams of
stables and fittings, 259-61 ; paving and
ventilation, 262 ; cause of diseases, 263 ;
temperatm-e, ib. ; London carriage-
horses, how bred, 264 ; forms best
adapted for draught and the saddle, ib. ;
position of the vertebrae, 265 ; carriage-
horses, ib. ; hacks, ib. ; stables and
stalls, 266 ; cause of the deterioration
of horses, ib. ; prizes and royal plates,
267 ; evil of handicaps, 268 ; competi-
tion for the lOOZ. prize at Battersea,
269; "blood gives pace, pace is power,"
■ib. ■ the Emperor of Russia's guard,
270 ; suggested means for improving
English horses, ib. ; age of cart, coach,
and race animals, 271.
, the breeding of hunters and road-
sters, F. E. (J. Gamgee, sen.), xxiv.
336 ; standard of breeding regulated by
economical considerations, 337; breed-
ing and rearing of horses best adapted
as hunters, ib. ; thorough-breds not
stout enough, 338 ; history of the Eng-
lish horse from early times, ib. ; rules
to be observed in breeding, 340 ; half
and three-i^arts bred animals, 341 ;
formation of a second stud-book. ib. ;
history of the English blood-horse, 342 ;
colonial horse-breeding, ib.; physiolo-
gical considerations, 343 ; feeding and
management, ib. ; cross-breeding, 344 ;
the normal standard of size and power,
ib. ; over-grown sires objectionable, 345 :
selection of mares, ib. ; half-bred stal-
lions as sires of breeding mares, 346 ;
the royal stud, ib. ; choice of land for
breeding, 347 ; management, 348 ; con-
tinental lessons, ib. ; precautious as to
■food and exercise, 349; high prices
without strict conditions unadvisable,
351 ; rules for judging, 352 ; influence
of steeple-chasing and exportation,

353 ; wintering of mares and foals,

354 ; form and action, 355 ; position of
the head, 356 ; girth of a perfectly
formed Clydesdale stallion, 357 ; dia-
gram illustrating the horse's gallop,
359 ; Mons. F. Lecog's definition of " the
gallop" criticised, 360; Hxuui)hry on

the human foot and hand, ib. ; the phy-
siology of progression, 361 ; manage-
ment of the feet of young horses, 362.
Horses, report on those at the Hamburgh
International Agricultural Meeting,
XXV. 220.
' , on a farm, the breeding and manage-
ment of, by John Burke, jun., v. 508 ;
on breeding hunters, 510; the choice
of a stallion, 510,518; the choice of
the mare, 512 ; never breed from a
horse or mare of a bad constitution,
517 ; the Suiiblk punch, 519 ; the black
Lincolnshire, ib. ; the Clydesdale, 520 ;
the best age of the brood-mare, 521 ;
the best age of the stallion, ib. ; ma-
nagement of the mare just before foal-
ing, 524 ; her treatment after foaling,
ib. ; the management and feeding of
farm-horses, 525 ; the treatment of the
mare and foal after foaling, 526; the
breaking, 529; the hoof of the horse,
531 ; the stable management, 533 ; the
feeding, 534 ; the ill eifects of reple-
tion, 536 ; advantages of fresh and un-
contamiuated air, 539 ; profit of breed-
ing horses, 541.

, on the management of farm-horses,

a prize essay, by W. C. Spooner. ix.
249 ; the various breeds of cart-horses,
250 ; the dray-horse, 252 ; the Suflblk
punch, 254 ; the Clydesdale, ib. ; the
Cleveland, 255 ; breeding and rearing,
ib. ; the keeping, whether in the stable
or the open air, 262 ; feeding in dif-
ferent seasons, 264 ; use of carrots for,
271 ; use of linseed for, 273 ; show of
horses at York, 279.

, on the mismanagement of farm, a

prize report, by Finlay Dun, xii. 512 ;
insufficient or improper food, 513 ; tu-
bercular consumption in, 519 ; exces-
sive quantity of food, 521 ; overwork,
525 ; insufficient shelter, 530.

the Northumberland farm-horses, a

.small and active breed (J. Grey), ii.
177 ; those of the Netherlands described
(Rbam), iii. 262.

, the amount of food allowed to

cavalry horses (Lyon Playfan-), iv. 227.

, those of Lincolnshire (Pusey), iv.

304.

, on the comparative advantages in

• the employment of horses and oxen in
farm-work, by J. Cowie, v. 52. Sec
'• Cattle."

, used entirely in Cheshire iu hus-
bandry (Palin;, V. S3.

, used in Norfolk, v. 313.

— — , expense of maintaining cart-horses,
by P. Pusey, i. 19.

94

GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTUEAL JOIJENAL,

Horses, the French haras, or state studs, i.

266 ; the amoiuit of food allowed iu

these to the horses, 267.
, effect of feedin}? them with hay from

water-meadows (W. Paxton), i. 3-i7.
, Cleveland. T. J. L. Baker on the, i.

430.
• , the excrements of, examined by Dr.

C. Sprengel, i. 488.
, those of Nottinghamshire (Corring-

ham), vi. 22.
, on an improvement in the mode of

attaching to waggons, by J. H. Grieve,

vi. 248.
, breeds of, in Cornwall (Karkeek).

vi. 453.

, feeding of, in Cornwall, vi. 4.')4.

• of the E. Hiding of Yorkshii-o (G.

Legard), ix. 125.
, those of Devonshii-e (Tanner), ix.

482.
, those of N. R, of Yorkshire (M.

IMilburn), ix. 518.

of Lanca.shire ''Gamctt'. x. 40.

of Soutli Wales (C. Read), x. 142.

• of Lincolnshire (Clarke), xii. 412 ;

feeding of. :;i)0.
of Northamptonshire, by W. Beam,

xiii. 71.
of Cumberland, their harness and

saddles of former days, xiii. 245.
, the number of, shown at all the So-
ciety's meetings, from that at Oxford

in is:!!), to Lewes in 1852, xiii. 401.

, analysis of urine of, xiii. 50G.

, on tlie hereditary diseases of, a

prize essay, by F. Dun, xiv. 106. See

" Diseases."
• of East Lothian (Stevenson), xiv.

302.
, on the uselcssness of bearing-reins,

by Viscount Downe, xv. 73.

of Oxfordshu-e (Road), xv. 237.

of Buckinghamshire (Read\ xvi.

302 ; the breed of di-ay-horses, 303.
' cost of keeping (P. Love), xvii.

549.
, the Percheron draught-horses at

Paris meeting, 1856, xvii. 38.

of Durham fClevelands), xvii. 107.

of Bedfordshire, little attention paid

to their breed (Bennett), xviii. 18.
, long-lived, if properly managed (W.

Miles), xviii. 273 ; illustration in the

author's stables, 274.
, in Y'^orkshire (W. "Wright), xxii.

117.
, at the Canterbury meeting (1860) ;

a report on the horses and ponies, with

remarks on the present breed of riding-
horses (J. E. Welby), xxi. 515; prizes

HORSE-POWER.

for thoroiighbred stallions, 516 ; type
of horse required, 517 ; hunters and
hacks as distinguished from racehorses,
518 ; celebrated thoroughbreds, ib. ;
wide crosses unadvisable, 519 ; the
Cleveland bay, ib. ; old-fashioned hack-
neys, 520 ; tlie brood mare, ib. ; acci-
dental defects ought not to disqualify,
521.

Horses, at the Leeds meeting (1861) (W.
Fislicr Hobbs), xxii. 231.

, at the Battcrsea meeting (Stewards'

i"eport), xxiii. 382.

, at the AVorcester meeting, xxiv.

470.

, at the Newcastle meeting, xxv.

, farm, on the depreciation of (J. C.

Morton), xix. 453.

IIon.'^En.MR, analysis of f"Way), xi. 766.

IIoR-SE-noK, Garrett and Sons', described
by P. Puscy and T. L. Taylor, iv. 77.

, report on those showu at the Great

Exhibition (in 1851), by P. Pusey, xii.
610.

, of those shown at the Lewes meet-
ing (1852), xiii. 316.

, at Gloucester (1853). xiv. 358.

, at the Lincoln meeting (1854), xv.

366.

, at tlie Salisbury meeting (1857),

xviii. 420 ; judges' report on, 435.

HoKSE-LAiiOUR, its reduction by means of
carts, H. J. Hannam on, ii. 73. See
" Carts."

■ , its cost in Belgium (Van den Bosch),

xix. 493; rotation on a polder-fkrm
described, 494 ; a severe winter inter-
rupts work, 495 ; cost of dietaiy at
Flemish rates. 111. 16s., or 15Z. English,
ib. ; cost of horses, ten guineas each.
496.

, cost of in France (F. E. de la Trc-

honnais), xix. 489 ; cattle much used
for tillage, 490 ; in the department of
Seine-et-Marne, horse-keep, 2«. per
diem, as against lOd. for oxen, 491 ;
comparative cost of hoi-ses and oxen, in
the department of Aisne, 491, 492.

HoRSE-M.:VXxrBE, its value in France, xix.
493.

HoRSE-POWER, on the cost of (J. C. Mor-
ton), xix. 437 ; comparison of horse and
steam power, 438 ; w'ide variations in
the efficiency of stcam-engine-s, 439 ;
and in estimates of the cost of horses,
ib. ; experience of the Harleston club
in the cost of keeping horses, ib. ; au-
thorities on the subject, 440 ; table of
the dietary and weekly cost of food for
the fom- seasons, reduced from 115 re-
turns, 442 ; large variation in the csti-

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

95

HORSE-RAKES.

mates, 441 ; average cost, ih. ; expla-
nation of symbols and apparent dis-
crepancies, ib. ; table of annual cost of
food, 35 instances, 448 ; table of total
cost, work done, cost per acre, &c., 451 ;
instances of economical management,
Nos. lo, IG, and 17, ih. ; tillage not
most economical wliere horses have
the poorest ]<.ecp, 450 ; dei^reciation,
how calculated, 452 ; actual bills of
saddler, smith, and forrier at Whit-
iield, 453 ; record for 17 years of horses
and implements bought, and of bills,
ib. ; other estimates and records of
bills, 454 ; maintenance of implements,
455 ; allowance for, in Bayldon's ' Art
of Valuation' (Baker's edition), ib.;
Mr. Baker's system of horse-keeping
and tillage, estimate of cost for food,
&c., per annum, 460; Professor Wil-
son's suggestion on referring horse-
work of various kinds to a scientific
standard-power exerted at a given rate
of motion, 4G2 ; definition of horse-
power adapted to the plough, ib. ; the
efforts of the horse intermittent, ib. ;
total annual draught on Whitfield fiirm,
operations performed, and space tra-
versed, 4G3 ; table, the total estimated
in cwts. drawn one mile, 464.

IIoRSE-RAKES, rcport on those shown at
the Great Exhibition (in 1851), by P.
Pusey, xii. 616.

, those at the Lewes meeting (1852),

xiii. 316.

, those at Salisbury meeting (1857),

xviii. 443.

, those at the Leeds meeting (1861),

xxii. 457.

IIoRSE-SHOEiNG, ou (W. Miles), xviii. 270 ;
foot-lameness insidious but not casual,
271 ; early signs of navicular lameness,
272 ; " pointing," no trick, ib. ; how to
preserve the feet, 275 ; country smiths
not an obstinate or prejudiced race, ib. ;
illustration of then- willingness to learn,
277 ; hunters may be shod like other
horses, 278 ; 5 nails sufficient, 279 ; di-
rections for paring, 281 ; the frog, its
nature, 282 ; the shoe, its heating, 283 ;
shoes turned in the rough capable of
improvement in form and dimensions,
284; figure of convenient form of
chisel, ib. ; diagrams of horseshoes,
rounded, cut oft', and nailed on the
authors plan, 284, 285 ; the fuller gene-
rally too narrow, 286 ; the clip, ib. ;
situation of tlie nails, 288 ; fitting the
shoe, ib. ; advantage of bringing in
" the heels," ib. ; heating the shoe,
ib. ; back-holing, 289 ; nails ; their

defects, 290 ; improvements suggested
in their form and quality, 291 ; danger
to the horse from the smith's dandyism,
ib. ; corns, their cause, and mode of
prevention (diagrams), 292-3 ; the
hind shoe, how to shape it and prevent
"forging," 295; raised heels, why ue-
necessary, 296 ; on removing shoes,
297 ; feet should be washed with warm
water, and rubbed dry, 298 ; cow-dung
recommended for stopfjing feet, ib. ;
recipe for making the cerate, or hoof-
dressiug, used iu the author's stables
ib.

Horse-works (American) machine, xx.
117 ; comparative trial of English and
American systems (Amos), 130.

HoRSFALL, T., on the management ot
dairy cattle, xvii. 260.

, on dairy management, xviii. 150.

HoRSLEY, John, statement of the situa-
tion of the labourers in the village of
Saxby, in the Lincolnshire Wolds, v.
282. •

HosKYNs, C. Wren, on agricultural sta-
tistics, xvi. 554. >S'ee " Statistics."

, on the geology of Warwickshire

{note), xvii. 476.

, his selection of samples of drainage-
water for analysis by J. T. Way, xvii.
137.

, on ridge and furrow pasture, and a

method of levelling it, xvii. 327.

, report on the exhibition and trial of

implements at the Salisbmy meeting,
xviii. 415.

, remarks on education, and the diffi-
culty of legislating for the agricultural
classes {R.D.), xxv. 547.

HorsE-BUiLDiNG in America (C. W. Eddy),
XX. 115.

no-\T3, or hoven, in sheep (H. Cleave), i.
304.

, in cattle, by J. B. Simonds, ix. 48.

, by H. W. Keary, ix. 445.

Howard, C, on the use of the hay-tedder
and horse-rake, xxiii. 53 ; substitutes
for beer in the hayfield, 57.

, J., on autumn cultivation, B.D.,

xxv. 530.

, J. and F., windlass for steam-
cultivation (J. A. Clarke), xx. 198.

, their plough, cultivator, and tackle,

xxiv. 369.

, steam-cultivator at the Leeds meet-
ing (1861), report of the judges on, xxii.
462 ; award, 477.

, steam-cultivator and plough at Far-

niugham (1863;, xxiii. 400.

, steam-ploughing apparatus at Wor-
cester (1863), xxiv. 480; awarded third

90

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

prize for small-occupation pui-poses,
487.

Howard, at Newcastle, 18(j4,409 ; steam-
harrow, 414.

Hudson, James (Sec. E. A. See), transla-
tion of M. Scliublers work on the phy-
sical properties of soils, i. 177.

, on the American and other native

phosphates of lime, xii. 249.

, J., of Castlcacre, the farms of, de-
scribed by B. Almaok, v. :!'il.

, a plan for farm-buildings by, xi.

282.

, on the deficiency of fama-capital as

an obstacle to improvement, xxv. 549.

Hughes, A., on the mana.i^cement of clay
land for sheep-feeding, I'.IJ., xxv. 521.

, Mr., of Thoruess, his management,

xxii. 3GG.

HuMiiERSTONE (Mr., M.P.', on cheese-
making, xxii. 30.

HuMKERT, Mr., of Watford, examples from
his experience in draining, xxv. 297.

HuMi3LE-i!EEs, J. Curtis ou, vii. 412.

lluMiiiREV, Mr. (Oak Ash}, his account
of liis tlock, XX. 305.

HuMi'iiRY, Dr., on the human foot and
hand, xxiv. 3(50.

Humus, the, of soils I'Rham), i. 48;
(Fownes), iv. 502 ; absorption, power
of, xvii. 448 ; ditto, 451.

, views on, by Berzelius, Do Saus-

.sure, and Sprengel, xvii. 291.

tlieoiy upset by Liebig (Voelcker),

xviii. 345.

absorbs moisture and ammonia, 347 ;

how produced, 348.

Hungary, passing observations on tlie
farming of, by P. Love, xvi. 152.

Hunt, J., on the Marquis of Tweeddale's
tile-making machine, ii. 148.

Hunter, John, on the fibriue of blood,
xxi. 210.

Huntingdonshire, on the geological
character of the clay soils of, &c., by
E. Beart, iv. 411.

Hurdle, sheep, sketch of a new, v. 328.

Hutchinson, S., practical experiments on
the air-drainage of land, ix. 340.

HuxTABLE, Ecv. A., experiments on shed-
feeding sheej), vi. 242.

• , an experiment in raising a crop of

swedes upon barren land with artificial
manure, vi. 355.

, his fiirms at Sutton Waldrou de-
scribed (Ruegg), XV. 410.

Hybrids, the, of various animals (Dun),
xvi. 44.

, examples of (Frere), xxv. 265; M.

P. Broca's treatise on, ib. See " Le-
poride."

IMPLEMENTS.

Hydatids, difierent varieties of (Simonds\

xxiv. .599.
H•i^)KOCEPHALUS ill horses (Dun), xiv.

12G.

in sheep (Dun), xvi. 33.

Hydrogen is chiefiy obtained by plants

from the decomposition of water

(Fownes), iv. 518.
, its chemical properties (Hemming),

xiii. 425.
. sulphuretted and phosphoretted,

the cause of strong smell of dung and

guano (Dr. Voelcker), xviii. 120.
Hydrometer, its use in testing milk,

xxiv. 31G.
Hyett, W. H,, on nitrate of soda as a

manure, ii. 139.
, on modes of comparing the nutritive

values of diil'ereiit crops, iv. 139.
HYLi!>;rxus i)iniperda, an insect infesting

the Scotch pine (Kolliir), xxii. 450.
Hyi'ER,stiiene, the, analysis of, xiii. 532.

Ibbetsox, J. B., translation of F. de
Tschudi's treatise on the utility of birds,
xxiii. 231,

Iberis nmara, see candytuft.

IcHNEUJioNS, jjarasites of cggar-nioths
dcscrilx'd i Curtis), xviii. 51.

Imi'L]:.^ii;nt.«, their co.^t and maintenance
on a fann (J. C. Morton i, xix. 455.

, agricultural (*ce "Premiums"), tlu^

necessity of care hi then- preservation,
by W. Cro.sskill, ii. 150.

, report on tho.se shown at the Liver-

|xx)l meeting, ii. ciii.

, report on a trial of Eansome and

Co.'s steam thrashing-machines, and
two-horse thi-a.shing-machines, ii. ciii.

, on the present state of agricultmral

niecl)anics, and on the improvements of
which the various iinpkinents now ui
use maybe suscei)tible, liv John Morton,
jun., prize essay, iii. lOU ; implements
of drainage, 101.

, subsoil-plough, iii. 104 ; the jilough,

107; the harrow, 117; the grubber or
scarifier, 119.

at the Bnstol meeting, iii. 3.39 ; at

the Derby meeting, iv. 453.

used in Cheshire (Palin>, v. 81.

used in N. "NVilt.shire (Little), v. 17G.

used in Norfolk (Almack), v. 320.

, report, the, exhibited at the South-
ampton meeting in 1844, by J. Parkes,
V. 361.

, those employed in Nottinghamshire

(Corringham), vi. 36.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE,

97

IMPLEMENTS.

Ijiplejieitts, at the Shrewsbury meeting,

1845, by Josiah Parkes, vi. 303.
used in Coniwall (Karkeek), vi. 460.

at the Newcastle meeting, by J,

Parkes, vii. 681.

at the Northampton meeting, viii.

.^30.

at the York meeting, by H. S.

Thompson, ix. 377.

used in Devonshire (Tanner), ix.

471.

, those used in the N. E. of Yorkshire

(Milburn), ix. 519.

used in Lancashire (Gamett), x. 44.

at the Norwich meeting, by H. S.

Thompson, x. 526 ; history of the im-
provements displayed since the Cam-
bridge meeting, 427.

, shed for, construction of, xi. 240.

at the Exeter meeting, by Colonel

Challoner, xi. 452.

of Somersetshire (Acland), xi. 739.

, the, necessary for a farm, and their

cost, by Lord Kinuaird, xii. 151.

, on the agricultural implements at

the Exhibition of the Works of all
Nations (1851), a report by P. Pusey,
xii. 587.

of Northamptonshire (Beam), xiii.

72.

of Cumberland (W. Dickinson),

xiii. 240.

at the Lewes meeting, 1852, by H.

S. Thompson, xiii. 301.

of Derbyshire, xiv. 26.

• , number entered for exhibition at

the Society's meetings, from Oxford in

1839 to Gloucester in 1853, xiv. xii.
of East Lothian (Stevenson)," xiv.

290.

at the Gloucester meeting, xiv. 343.

of Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 245.

at the Lincoln meeting (1854), by

A. Hammond, xv. 363.
of BucMughamshire (Read), xvi.

305.
, report on the exhibition and trial

of, at CarUsle, by W. F. Hobbs, xvi. 505.
of Warwickshire (Evershed), xvii.

481.
, the exhibition and trial of, at

Chelmsford, by W. G. Cavendish, xvii.

564,
of Bedfordsliire (W. Bennett), xviii.

21.
, the exhibition and trial of, at Salis-
bury, by C. Wren Hoskyns, xviii. 415.
trials ; the triennial course suggested

by Mr. Pusey, xviii. 415 ; difficulty of

seasonable trials (C. W. Hoskyns), ib. ;

the question discussed, 424.
VOLS. I. — XXV.

INFLA5IMATI0N.

Ijiplements, the exhibition and trial of, at
Chester (Sir A. K.Macdonald), xix. 311;
those for the conversion of form-produce
tried, 312; precautions against unsafe
steam-engines suggested, 314.

at the Warwick meeting, xx. 313.

at the Canterbuiy meeting (H. B,

Caldwell), xxi. 488 ; points for judges'
decisions, hint to local societies, 489 ;
a sjiare engine needed in steam-culture,
ib. ; reapers, without side delivery, 490 ;
Sir J. Graham's opinion, ib. ; policy of
local prizes, ib. ; postponed trial of
reapers at Canterbury, 511.

at the Leeds meeting (H. B. Cald-
well), xxii. 450; steam - cultivation
brought to a satisfactory though not per-
fect state, 451 ; performances of Fowler's
scarifier and Howard's " smasher-up,"
ib ; financial success of the meet-
ing- .

at the Battersea meetmg, and steam-
trials at Famingham. stewards' report
on, xxiii. 395 ; the high standard of
excellence observable, ib. ; machinery
in motion, 396. ■

at Worcester, xxiv. 492; value of

trials, ib. ; portable steam-engines, 494 ;
fixed engines, 495 ; essentials to working
expansively, ib. ; consumption of fuel,
496; combined finishing thrashing-
machines, 497 ; fixed barn-works, 498 ;
straw-elevators, 499 ; Bruckshaw's corn-
elevator, ib. ; Penney's corn-separator,
500 ; Child's grain-separator, 502 ;
Grant's moveable railway, ib, ; Cross-
kill's railway, ib. ; Mauudcr's potato-
separator, 503 ; Wallis's patent steerage,
ib.

at Newcastle, xxv. {see " Steam

Cultivation,"), 391.

Inclination of land influences its warmth
and fertility (Schubler), i. 204.

Inclbation, a latent stage of disease (J.
B. Simonds), xviii. 245.

Indian com, analysis of the seeds and
straw, by J. T. Way and G. Hogston,
ii. 508; by Payen and Johnston, xiii.
522.

, analysis of its meal, xiii. 522.

, experiments on, as food for pig,?, by

J. B. Lawes, xiv. 472.

meal, its feeding ami manuring

cost, value, and composition (Horsfallj,
xvii. 172.

Industrial school at Quatt, Salop (H.

Tanner), xix. 63.
Infection, its nature (J. B. Simonds),

xviii. 243.
Inflajdiation defined (Play fair), iv. 253.
in sheep (Cleeve), 1. 316,

g

98

GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGEICULTUEAL JOURNAL.

XJfOCCLATION.

iNOcrLATiON of cattle for plem-o-i:)neu-
monia, by J. B. Simonds, xiii. 373.

• the only real check to smallpox in

sheep (Prof. Simonds), xxv. 5G1 ; the
author's experience, ib. ; objections
answered, ib.

of sheep for smallpox, advantages

of (J. Deacon), xxv. 509 ; experience
in the steppe country of Mid and South
Eussia. ib. ; imi)ossibilitj- of avoiding
contagion, ib. ; mode of inoculation, ib. ;
its efficacy, 510 ; prcciiutions, ib.

of pastures, on the, )jy R. Smith, ix.

15.

in Essex, by E. Baker, v. 32 ; by B.

Baker, 600.

Inokgaxic matters, the, drawn from a soil
by one course of crops on the four-
course sj'stem (Hannam), iv. 178. *?Ve
" Mineral Manures. &c."

Inokganic, see " Mineral " (Liebig).

Insects which affect the turnip crop, by
J. Curtis, ii. 193.

The Tnrnip-beetle, ii. 195 ; they pair

from April to September, 19G ; lay
their eggs (one daily) on the inider
side of the rough leaves of the tiu-nip,
ib. ; modes of protecting tlio tumijis
from their attacks, 20'2 ; small birds
destroy large niuabcrs of them, 210;
engraving of, 212.

Tlie Saic-fly and its black caterpillar,

J. Curtis on, ii. 304 ; certain species
suddenly appear and disappear, ib. :
noticed by Marshall in 1782, ib. ; no-
ticed previously coming from the sea,
303 ; tlio earliest record of their ap-
pearance, 367; moths caught by the
keepers of the Lowestoft lightliousc,
ib. ; tlie saw-fly killed by frost, 369 :
description of, .371 ; when they gene-
rally appear, 373 ; their vitality, ib. ;
number of eggs laid by the female,
374 ; time when the eggs hatched, ib. ;
the yoimg caterpillars, ib. ; delight in
simny weather, 375 ; their growth,
376 ; then they bury themselves in the
soil, ib. ; form a cocoon, ib. ; the char-
lock their food, 377; rooks are the
enemies of the saw-fly caterpillars, 379 ;
swallows of the saw-flies, ib. ; effect of
lime-dust, 380 ; ducks employed, 384 ;
an engraving of the turnip saw-fly in
its various stages, 388.

Plant-Lice. — On the plant-lice, &c.,

by J. Curtis, iii. 49 ; their numbers
when found, 50 ; two distinct species
infest the tiu-nip, ib. ; when they make
their first appearance, 52 ; species of
aphides on the turnips, ib. ; the tmrnip-
leaf plant-louse (aphis rapae), 53 ; the

black-spotted turnip-leaf plant-louse,
54 ; when found, ib. ; the cabbage and
Swedish turnip-leaf plant-louse (aphis
brassiese), ib. ; when it appears, ib. ;
the turnip-flower plant-louse (aphis
floris rapffi'^, 55 ; the enemies of the
])lant-lice, 56 ; the flies which destroy
the aphides of the tm-nip crop, 59 ; the
ajihides, theu- tenacity of life, 67 ; effect
of severe frosts, ib.; how affected by
wet, 68.

Insects, tiunip-leaf miners, drosoi^hila, &c.i
iii. 68 ; varieties of, 70.

, the tiu-uip diamond-black moth

(ccrostoma xylostella), iii. 70; its wldo
disi^rsion, 71.

, the Y-moth Cplusia gamma), iii. 72 ;

when most abundant, 73 ; effect of
rainy and dry seasons, 73 ; engraving
of tlie turnip-lice, &c., 77, 78.

, on the white cabbage-butterfly, by

J. Curtis, iii. 306; when their egga
hatched, 307 ; the ichneumons which
<lestroy them, the microgaster glo-
meratus, and others, 309; the chryso-
mela betulie, 314 ; the tumip-seed
weevil, 315.

, the green rose-chafer, iii. 317 ; en-
gravings of them, 322.

• , on the surface caterpillars, the

tm-nip gall- weevil, and the dipterous
flies and rove-beetles infesting anbury,
by J. Curtis, iv. 100; suiface-gnibs
or caterjiillars, ib.; the great yellow
nnderwing moth, 103; various others,
107 ; anbury, or fingers and toes, 121.

which affect the beet-crop, described

by J. Curtis, viii. 399.

which affect carrots and parsnijw,

by J. Curtis, ix. 174.

, on those which affect the potato-
crops, by J. Cm-tis, x. 70.

affecting wheat : the TVlteat-midge.

— Professor J. S. Henslow on, iii. 36
theii" larv£e or maggots, 37 ; are de-
stroyed by an ichneumon, ib. ; the ex-
tent of their ravages on the wheat, 38 ;
niunber of larvaj obtained from one
bushel of wheat chaff-dust, 38.

, on the wheat-midge, by E. Baker

vii. 293.

affecting the corn-crops ; observa-
tions on their natural history and
economy, many of them improperly
called wireworms, including ground
beetles, chaffers, or ]\Iaybugs, also the
caterpillars of a moth and saw-fly, and
larvje of some minute flies, by J. Cmtia
v. 469.

on a saw-fly, the Hessian fly, the

wheat-midge, and the barley-midge, by

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

99

J. Curtis, vi. 131; the American wheat-
niidge,' 137 ; the British wheat-midge,
lo'J ; the barley-midge, 151.

Insects, the same continued, including the
wheat-midge, thrips, wheat-louse, wheat-
bug, and the vibrio, vi. 493.

, on the insects aifecting peas and

beans, including weevils, maggots,
beetles, &c., by J. Curtis, vii. 404.

aifecting clover (Curtis), sviii. —

Weevils. — <Durculio lineata riddles the
leaves, 43 ; Apion Africans, the purple
clover-weevil, lays eggs in flowers and
the larvas eat seeds, 44 ; its ravages
reported by Mr. Trenchard, 45; Mr.
Markwick s researches, ib. ; A. assi-
nide i'smaller than A. Africanus, its
prevalence in clover-fields and pas-
tm-es, 47 ; A. flavipes, the Dutch
clover-weevil, kept in check by para-
sites, 48 ; described by Gueria, ib. ;
crops affected by it should be cut while
green, ib. ; the weevil destroyed by the
heat of stack fennentation, ib. ; the
ladybird in its larva state injmious, 59.

affecting tares (Curtis), xviii. 33;

A. pomona3, a black weevil, 54 ; litho
bremiella, foimd by the woodside, 55.

affecting sainfoin (Cmiis), xviii. 57 ;

A. hedysari, ih. ; chiysomela polygoni,
58.

affecting lucem, &c. (Cmiis), xviii.

58 ; colaspis atra, a black beetle, in
France, 59 ; coccinella imi^unctata, the
ladybii-d, in Germany, ib. ; snake mille-
pedes in Kent, 60.

affecting pasture-land (Cmiis), xviii.

G4 ; aphides, many varieties, 65 ; ceci-
domyiaj, kept in check by cimex cam-
pestris, a plant-bug, 67 ; the genera
Cldorops and Oscinis, ib. ; the field-
chafer or Maybug (anisoplia horticola)
described, 75 ; its larvae destructive to
pastme, ib. ; destroyed by diluted gas-
liquor or alkalies, ib. ; ants, varieties
of, 77 ; aboimd in the London clay, 'ib. ;
how to destroy, 79.

pests, the habits of, should be studied

and distinguished from those of insect
friends (Curtis), xviii. 80.

■ suggested preventives to then* in-
crease and ravages (Curtis), xviii. 42.

of the farm, their destruction by

bii-ds (F. de Tschudi), xxiii. 231.

International Agricultural Meeting at
Lille, report on (Sir A. K. Macdonald
and Prof. WOson), xxv. 209 ; functions
of the French Minister of Agricultm-e,
ib. ; competitive exhibitions, ib. ; intro-
duction of the foreign element, 210 ;
prizes of honour for faims, ib. ; classtfi-

IKRIGATIOK.

cation of machineiy, 211 ; awards to
English makers, ib. ; steam-ploughs, ib. ;
Kienzy's locomotive cultivator, 213 ;
vertical section and horizontal view of
its worlciug parts, 213-4 ; comparison of
its work with that of English rotary
machines, 215.

International Exhibition at Hamburg,
report on (Prof. Wilson), xxv. 216; Baron
von Nathusius, its originator, 217 ; list
of countries represented by exhibitors,
218; prizes taken by Englislimen for
stock, 219; jurors' reports on horses,
220; Mr. R. Smith on the cattle and
sheep classes, 222 ; machinery and
uuijlement depaifment, 227 ; list of
awards to English makers, ib. ; ground-
plan of the show-yard, 230 ; distribu-
tion of space, 229 ; number of admis-
sions, 231 ; details of expenditm-e, 232 ;
death of Bai-on Ernst Merck, 234.

Inilin, an occasional substitute for starch
in plants, xviii. 408.

Inundations of the sea in Lincolnshire
(Clarke), xii. 312.

Inverness Farmers' Society, report of
experiments on growth of turnips with
different manures, xxiii. 273.

Iodine, its action on starch and cellulose
(Henfrey), xviii. 384; on older cell-
walls, 385 ; on bark, 386 ; on starch
and protoplasm, 399.

Ireland, past and present (1843) state of
agricultiu-e in, by William Blacker, iv.
437 ; at the time of Aifluu- Yoimg,
438 ; the cultivation of small farms on
the estates of Lord Gosford and Colonel
Close in Ai-magh, 441 ; Irish landlords,
446 ; Lord Clancarty's eftbrts, 447 ; the
Flax Improvement Society, 451.

, bogs of (E. Smith), xvii. 351.

, Irish cows, tlie milk from, compared

with that from the Ayrslm-e (F. Burke),
i. 442.

, the imports of Irish butter, xiv. 77 ;

defects of, ib.

, acreage of (Hoskyns), xvi. 571 ;

statistical map of, 602,

Irish bog-bottom, ploughing of (P. Love),
xvii. 553.

Eoyal Improvement Soc. (H. S.

Thompson, M.P.), xxv. 1.

Iron, oxides of, xvii. 470 ; siderite, ib. ;
vivianite, ib. ; pyrites, 471 ; magnetic
iron, ih. ; haematite, ib. ; bog-ore, 472 ;
deposit in chuius, ib. ; a powerful re-
agent, 473.

slag, analysis of, xiii. 498.

Irrigation in Cheshire (PaUn), v. 98.

, mode of iDrocuring water for, in

Affghanistan, v. 287.

g 2

100 GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

IKRIGATION.

Irrigation, on the conversion of a hilly
moor-side into catch-meadow, by J.
Roals, vi. 518.

, on the Audley End water-meadows,

by Lord Braybrooke, vi. 522.

first introduced into England at

Babraham (Jonas), vii. 59.

in North Wales (Rowlandson), vii.

579.

in Lancashire (Garnett), x. 42.

, P. Pusey on, xi. 411.

in Switzerland, on, by H. T. Jen-

kinson, xi. 607.

, on the foi-mation of hillside catch-
meadows on Exmoor, by R. Smith, xii.
139.

, on an improved system, by John

Bickford, xiii. 1(52 ; observations on this,
by E. Archer, xiv. 153.

, on an improved and cheaper system

of laj-ing out catch-meadows, by Sir S.
Northcflte, xiii. 172.

, on tlie theory of, by P. Pusey, xiii.177.

on the Cumberland hillsides (Dick-
inson), xiii. 291.

, saltpetre used in, in Bengal fPusey),

xiii. 359.

, the difference of the waters of the

rivers Wey and ^lole of Surrey for
(Evershed), xiv. 403.

— — , J. Druce on Bickford's system of,
xiv. 432.

, effect of upon various grasses (Buck-
man), XV. 4G7 ; and upon the herbs
found with tlie grasses, 470.

, a.s practised Ijy the Earl of Essex at

Watford, xxiv. G7 ; and ]Mr. Campbell
at Rugby, 07-8; proceedings of the
Royal Sewage Commissioners. G9. See
" Sewage (town), utilisation of."

, Italian, review of Captain R. B.

Smith's work on (P. H. Frere), xxiv.
173 ; biographical sketch of the autlior,
note, tb. ; extent and money value, 174 ;
climate and natiiral advantages, 170 ;
lakes, lb.; liistory of irrigation. 177;
the Naviglio Grande, 178 ; cost of canal
and works, 181 ; canal of Pavia, 182 ;
management of irrigated land, 183;
comparative statement of expenses and
returns, 184 ; laying out water-mea-
dows, 187; diagram of a marcite field,
188 ; tenure of land, and the consegna
or lease, 189; the school of engineers,
191 ; springs, 193; price of water, 194 ;
measm-emeut, 195 ; Soldati"s modulo
IMilanese, diagram, 198 ; law and legis-
lation respecting water, 201 ; conclu-
sion, 204 ; the code of Sardinia, 205.

— — , lessons derivable from the analysis
of Nile water (Dr. Voelcker), xxv. 238.

Isaac, T. W. P., on the construction of
labourers' cottages, a prize essay, xvii.
494.

Isle of Wight, the farming of (Rev. J.
Wilkinson), geological map, xxii. 348 ;
area, population, and jx)or-rates, tb. ;
areas and distribution of geological
formations, 351 ; drainage and water-
slied, 352 ; soils, 355 ; chalk in the south
useless as manure, ib. ; size and manage-
ment of farms, ih. ; rotations, ih. ; Lord
Yarborough's improvements, 354'; the
bowl of the island, ib. ; peat destroyed
by drainage, ib. ; gravel downs, ib. ;
tares on wheat stubble as a catch-crop,
i1). ; wheat soil overlying weald clay,
355 ; native sheep, ib. ; dairy, working,
and grazing cattle, ib. ; cheese, ib. ;
farm buildings and wages, 356; grass
and aral)le land, 357 ; Bembridge lime-
stone, ib. ; costlj' ploughings on wet
land, 358; bouglit ewes fatted for tho
butcher after early lambing, 359 ; stall-
ing sheep, il). ; tlie Prince Consort's
farm, soils, buildings, and stock manage-
ment, 360 ; utilisation of steam power,
361 ; implements, preparation of soil,
and management of stock, 362 ; crops
in 1860, 363 ; Mr. Young's introduction
of steam ploughing, manufacture of
bricks and tiles, and sawing machinery,
ib. ; his cattle and sheep management
and distribution and yield of crops, 364 ;
Sir R. Simeon's improvements, 365 ;
IVIr. Barrington's Devon cattle, ib. ; Mr.
Hughes's management at Tliomess,
366 ; chalking, its effect and cost, 367 ;
defective ploughs and waste of horse
power, ib. ; wages and treatment of
the labourer, 368 : introduction of the
" parlour " (note), ib. ; agricultural
association, 369 ; steam cultivation, ib. ;
relief of the poor and management of
highways, 370.

of Ely, 62. See " Fens."

Italian rye-grass, on its culture and use-
fulness, by J. Rodwell, ii. 214, v. 285.

suitable for irrigation (Lord Bray-
brooke), vi. 522.

, on the application of liquid manure

to, by W. Dickinson, vi. 575.

, on a variety of, by W. Dickinson,

viii. 572.

, analysis of (Way), xiv. 177.

, analysis of ashes of, by J. T. Way,

ix. 144.

, growth of, in Cumberland (W. Dick-
inson), xiii. 274.

, lolium Italicum (Buckman), xvii.

525.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

101

Jabiet, M., on the cows of Brittany, xxiv.
213.

Jamieson, T. F., on the action of the at-
mosphere upon newly-deepened soil,
prize essay, xvii. 407.

Jarvis, Mr., on substitutes for beer in the
hayfield, xxiii. 57.

Jenkinson, Hemy T. J., on ii-rigation as
practised in Switzerland, xi. 607.

Jersey, misnamed Alderney, cow, on the,
by Colonel Le Couteur, v. 43. See
" Cow."

, scale of points in (Koyal Jersey

Agr. Soc), xii. 583.

bull, scale of points in, xii. 582.

, Isle of, its system of ploughing, by

Colonel Le Coutein-, iii. 40 ; the use
of vraic for wheat, 45 ; potato-setting
plough, 47.

trench plough, the great, observations

on, by Colonel Le Couteur, iii. 40.

, agriculture of, a prize essay (C. P.

Le Cornu), xx. 32 ; its outline, climate,
soil, &c., 33 ; leases, 35 ; peculiar free-
holds charged with reserved rents, ib. ;
security given, ib. ; law of succession,
subdivision of property, and size of
estates, 36 , reiats, /S. ; customary rota-
tion on a 20-acre farm, ib. ; fields and
fences, 37 ; stock, ib. ; labourers' wages,
ib. ; farm-buildings, &c., 38 ; cider, its
manufacture, ib. ; wheat-sowing, 40 ;
use of seaweed ashes as manure, ib. ;
parsnij) culture, 41 ; deep ploughing,
ib.; potato planting, 42; mangold, its
produce, 43 ; carrots, 44 ; growth of
swedes after layer, ib. ; clover hay, 45 ;
early potatoes, ib. ; wheat straw used
for thatch, 46 ; cowkale, 47 ; the Jersey
plough, ib. ; cattle, 48 ; scale of points
for bulls, 48 ; for cows and heifers, 49 ;
management of cows, 50 ; tethering,
51 ; yield of milk and butter, ib. ; other
stock, 52 ; the daiiy, 53 ; export of cows,
ib. ; French report on the agriculture
of Jersey, 54; weights and measures,
56.

jERrsALEM artichoke, see " Artichoke."

Jesty, G., on growing mustard for feed,
or to plough in as a preparation for a
wheat crop, iv. 587, v. 358.

JoBLiNG, J. C, on nitrate of soda as a
manure, ii. 136.

Johnson, C. W., on liquid manure, a prize
essay, i. 147. See " Liquid manm-e."

, on gypsum as a mamu-e to the ar-
tificial grasses, a prize essay, ii. 106.
yS'ee "Gypsum,"

^rkeek.

Johnson, C. W., on the improvement of
peat soils, a prize essay, ii. 390. See
" Peat soils."

Johnston, J. F. W., on guano, ii. 301.
See " Guano."

, agricultural tour in Denmark,

Sweden, and Kussia, ii. 400, iv. 196.
See Agriculture of " Denmark,"
"Sweden," and " Eussia."

, table of equivalent nutritive sub-
stances, iv. 146.

, on the inorganic mattei-s drawn

from a soil by one course of crops on
the four-course system, iv. 179.

, on the present state of agriculture

(1848) in its relations to chemistry and
geology, ix. 200.

, on the chemical composition of the

tussac-grass, x. 184.

, the relations of geology to agricul-
ture in North-Eastern America, xiii. 1 ;
xiv. 1.

, C, his ' Modern Dairy and Cow

Keeper' (Major M'Clintock), xxii. 151,

Johnstone, Sir J. V., on the application
of geology to agriculture, i. 271,

Jonas, George, on the storing of turnips,
mangold, potatoes, and carrots, prize
essay, xxv. 358,

Jonas, Samuel, on Suffolk drainage, iv,
33. See " Suffolk."

, on the farming of Cambridgeshire, a

prize essay, vii. 35. See " Cambridge-
shire."

, report on the exhibition of live

stock at the Lewes meeting, xiii. 397.

, a plan for cutting and storing straw

chaft", xxi. 172.

, his map-book and crop accoimts,

xxiv. 15.

Jordan, M., on asgilops, xix. 110.

' Journal d' Agriculture pratique' (P. H,
Frere), xxiv. 37.

Judges at the Koyal Agricultural shows,
their accommodation, xviii. 430,

JuNCUS bufonis, see " Kush, the bog."

conglomeratus, see "Eush, the round-
headed."

eftusus, see " Eush, the common."

Jutland, the agriculture of, described
(J, F. W. Johnston), iii. 413.

, the cuttle of (Eainals), xxi. 301.

Z.

Karkeek, W. F., a prize essay, on fat and
muscle, V. 245. See " Fat and muscle."

, on the farming of Cornwall, vi. 400,

See " Cornwall."

, diseases of cattle and sheep occa-

102 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

sioned by mismanagement, a prize essay,
xi. 541. ^ee " Diseases."

Keaky, W., on the management of cattle,
a prize essay, ix. 424.

■ , on the management of barley, a

prize essay, x. 453.

■ , on nitrate of soda and salt as a top-
dressing for -wheat at Holkham, xiii.
201.

' , on experiments conducted by, at

Holkham Park farm, on the growth of
■wheat for fom* successive years upon
the same land, xvi. 207.

Keep for cows and liorses in winter and
summer (Eev. W. H. Becvor), xviii.
340.

Keevil's cheese-making apparatus iTul-
tou), xxi. 73 ; ^Ir. Gregory's testimony,
ib. ; Mr. J. Singleton's, 74 ; Mr. Hard-
ing of Marksbury, 88; Dr. Voclcker,
xxii. 56.

Kelp-ashes used as a manure for wheat
in Jersey (Le Couteur\ i. 123.

Kent, on the forming of, by George Buck-
land, a prize essay, vi. 251 ; tlie chalk
formation of, 252 ; its rotation of crops.
254; the Isle of Sheppv, ils rotation of
crops, 257; the Isle "of Thanet, its
rotation, 259 ; seaweed extensively
employed as a manure, 261 ; the Can-
terbury hop-grounds, 262 ; the " im-
proved Kent" sheep, 263; rents, 265^
wages, ib. ; the London or north-western
portion, 266; the Helmsdale valley,
268 ; the greensand formation, or Kent-
ish rag, 270 ; the gault, >b. ; mid Kent
district, 271 ; Lord Torrington's farm,
275 ; the favourite apples of Kent, 278 ;
the hop districts of mid Kent, 279 ; the
Weald, 281 ; its hops, 2S5 ; cost of cul-
tivation of, 286 ; hop-oasts, 289 ; wood-
lands of the Weald, 291 ; breeds of
cattle, 292 ; its hedges too close, 294 ;
its ftirms, 296 ; Romney-marsh, 299.

, on the chalks of, by Boys, 487.

Kentish, the, corn-rake and com-scythe
described, i. 444.

Kerrisox, Sir E., on middle class educa-
tion, see " Discussion," xxv. 543.

Kerry, the (Irish) cow, milk from, com-
pared by R. White in 1840, ii. 420, see
'^Milk;" iv. 436, see "Cow."

Kettox, the, breed of shorthorns of C.
Collings described (J. Wright), vii.
202.

Keythorpe estate, notes on its geology
and its relations to the Keythorpe
system of drainage, by J. Trimnier, xiv.
96.

Kidxey vetch, infested by a vellow but-
terfly, P. hyale (Curtis), xviii. 49.

KOHL-RABI.

KiENZi's locomotive cultivator at Lillo
International meeting, xxv. 213.

KniBER's (T.) letter on lupine cultivation,
xxi. 396.

KmnERLEY,G., report on the prize wheats
from the Livcr^jool meeting, iii. 395.

, on the use of saltpetre as manure, i.

275.

KiJiMERiDGE clay, the, of Lincolnshire (J.
A. Clarke), xii. 269.

of the vale of Pickering (J. Render^

sou), xiv. 133.

of Oxfordshire (0. Read\ xv. 196.

of Buckinghamshire (Read), xvi.

280.

of Berkshire (Spearing), xxi. 13.

Kixr., E.. on the cause of the rot in sheep,
xxiii. 78.

KixGswoon, in Surrey, the clearing of a
down at ( Pusey), iv. 307.

KiXNAfRD, Lord, on agricultural buildings,
xii. 151.

, on covered farm-steadings, xiv. 336.

IvxAi'WEED, or blaclchcad (Buckman),
xvi. 361.

, the great, or hardhead, x\-i. 361.

KsAiTi.v arvensis, see " Com scabious."

KxoTORAss, the (I3uckman), xvi. 364.

KoHL-RABi, on, by T. Towers, xi. 495.

, analysis of, by J. T. Way and G.

Ogston, xi. 511 ; by Horsford, xiii.
458.

, its introduction into Bedfordshire

(W. Bennett), xviii. 13 ; its fattening
qualities, ib. ; how grown by Mr. Hors-
fall, xviii. 185.

, on the cultivation of (W. Bennett),

XX. 467 ; grown 30 years back by Mr.
Foster, near Bedford, 468 ; it may bo
drilled in IVLny — 2 lbs. of seed per
acre on ridge, 469; thus providing-
plants for transplanting after tares,
&c., ib. ; manure, ib. ; may follow rye-
grass and precede wheat, 470; cost of
planting, Ss. to 10s. per acre, ib. ; ob-
jections answered — if it draws land, it
makes compensation, 471 ; the stalk
should be severed below the bulb, and
the stems again pecked over before tho
field is ploughed, ib.

(P. Lawson and Son), xx., 497; its

histon,-, 499 ; botanical description, 501 ;
synonjTus, ib. ; varieties, ilhistrated, 502-
508 ; tiie soil and its preparation, 508 ;
manuring, 509; sowing and quantity
of seed, 510 ; preparation of the seed-
bed and time of sowing, 512 ; cultivation
by drilling the seed, 513 ; management
of crop, 514; storing, ?7). ; weight nf
produce, ib. ; consumption of crop by
live stock, 518 ; analysis of Kohl-rabi,

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

10^

522 ; diseases, insects, and accidents to
which tlie crop is hable, 524 ; practical
opinions on its cnltiu'c, ih. — General
smnmaiy.

KoHL-RABi, its cultivation in Berks
(Spearing), xxi. 18.

, on the composition of two varieties

(Dr. A. Voelcker), xxi. 93 ; hardiness
and feeding value, ib. ; analysis and de-
tailed composition, 94, 95 ; its nutri-
tious qualities as comi^ared with swedes
and mangold, 95.

KoLLAR, v., on the Hylesinus pinii^erda,
the Scotch pine beetle, xxii. 450.

Kong, definition of the term (agiiculttu-e
of Denmark), xxi. 270.

KooRiA Mooria guano (Dr. Voelcker), xxi.
364.

Krockee, Dr., his analysis of soils, xvii.
614.

KijcHENMEisTER ou ascaridcs, xxiii. 112.

Kuhlmajin's trials of ammonia andnitrates
for hay, as quoted by Liebig, xvii. 298 ;
the same more completely reported by
]VIi\ Lawes, xviii. 518.

•— , his rei^Iy to Liebig, xvii. 598 ; re-
marks by, on the effect of small artificial
suiDpUes of ammonia, 'ib.

Kyanisinct timber, the process of (Dr.
Richardson), xs. 6.

L.

LABorE, the amount required for a farm
of stated size (Beevor), xviii. 342.

Labourers, good effects of enclosing waste
land upon (Pusey), iv. 315.

taskwork, in Lincolnshire, iv. 315.

, accoimt of the successful industry of

one in Norfolk (Barton), iv. 587.

iu the village of Saxby, on the

Lincolnshire Wolds, by John Horslcy,
v. 283.

—— in Dorsetshire (Huxtable), vi. 356.

of Mecklenburgh (Carr), i. 129.

of Cornwall (Karkeck), vi. 458.

• , on the condition of the agricultural,

by Gr. Nicholls, vii. 1 ; to extend the
benefits of education, 11 ; to enlarge
the field of labour, 15 ; to provide com-
fortable cottages, 17 ; to provide cottage
gardens, 21.

• , on measure- work, by H. Raynbird,

vii. 119.

• , on the advantage to the, of break-

. up inferior pastures, by J. Bravendar,
vii. 197.

• of Northumberland (C4rey), viii. 435.

—— of E. R. of Yorkshire (Legard), ix.
125.

LABorEEES in Devonshire (Tanner), xi.
490.

of the N. R. of Yorkshire (Milbm-n),

ix. 520.

of Lancashire (Garnett), x. 49.

— — of South Wales fRcad), x. 148.

, on their cottages, by the Duke of

Bedford, x. 185. See " Cottages."

, on lodghig and boarding, as prac-
tised on the farm of Mr. Sotheron, x.
379.

, on the improvement of their condi-
tion and dwellings, by J. Famcombe,
xi. 86.

of Somersetshu-e (Acland), xi. 750.

of Lincolnshu-e (Clarke), xii. 403.

of Northamptonshire, by W. Beam,

xiii. 88 ; cottage allotments in, ib.

of Cumberland (W. Dickinson), xiii.

239.

of East Lothian (Stevenson), xiv. 306.

■ of Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 263.

of Buckiughamshii'e (Read), xvi.

312.

, cottages for (Isaacs), xvii. 494. See

" Cottages."

cottages in Shropshire, state of (H.

Tanner), xix. 62.

Labrador, the, analysis of, xiii. 532.

LACTO-BrTYEOMETER, Marchaud's, de-
scribed, xxiv. 315.

Lacto-densimetee, M. Quevenne's, xxiv.
316.

Lactoscope, Doime's, described, xxiv. 315.

Lactose or sugar of milk (Voelcker), xxiv.
289.

Lady-birds, coccinellae, their gi-eat use in
destroying aphides described by J.
Curtis, iii. 56.

LAraa's process of preserving timber (Dr.
Richardson), xx. 7.

Lamb's lettuce, its soils and habits (Buck-
man), xvi. 361.

Lambing, on the diseases occmiing after,
with their remedies, by W. C. Sibbald,
xii. 574.

LAJnss, the rearing of house, in Dorset-
shire, warmth, absence of liglit (Play-
faii-), V. 253.

, on the bathing of, as a cure for the

scorn-, by R. Fisher, v. 279.

, on the teeth of, by J. B. Simonds,

XV. 335.

, on lameness in, by J. Seaman, xvi.

1 ; by Finlay Dun, xvi. 381.
Lameness, on, in sheep and lambs, by J.

Seaman, xvi. 1.
Lamium album, see "Nettle, the white

dead."
amplexicaule, see " Nettle, the hen-
bit."

104 GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Lajiidm pui'pui'eum, see " Nettle, the red
dead."

Lancashiee, on the farmiDg of, a jMize
report, by W. J. Garuett, x. 1 ; its

t soils and its geology, 2, 5, 7; the
climate, 5 ; the southern division, 8 ;
Chat-moss, 9; cultivation of moss-lauds.
11, 25 ; middle division, IG ; the soil,
17 ; northern division, 35 ; Iniiklings,
38 ; cattle, 39 ; sheep, 40 ; liorscs, (7). ;
pigs, 41 ; manures, ib. ; irrigation, 42 ;
fences, 43 ; implements, 44 ; farm la-
bourera, 49 ; section of a corn-mow, ib.

Land valuing on (P. D. Tuckett), Prize
. Essay, xxiv. 1 ; mode of determining
rental value, ib. ; quality of land, 2 ;
geological considerations, ib. ; climate,
3 ; mechanical composition of soil, ib. ;
herbage of grass-land, ib. ; trees and
hedges, 4 ; arable liuid, ib. ; relative
situation of land and buildings, 5 ;
parochial diarges, ib. ; ])roduce an index
to management, 0 ; private lettings, 7 ;
increasing value of land, ib. ; long leases
and corn-rents, ib.

Landed projxjrty, management of, in
Devonshh-e (Tannery, ix. 48G.

Land-measuke, table of, vii. 124; task-
work, ib.

Lai'Sana communis, see " Nipplewort."

Lapwing, the, a great destroyer of the
wireworm (Curtis), v. 208.

IjARCH-tree, the, on its planting and ma-
nagement (Falkener), iii. 275.

, Sir J. y. Menteatli on, ix. 372 ; the

soils on which it flomishes, ib. ; its
durability, 373.

, on preserving ita timber in Cumber-
land (Dickinson), xiii. 283.

, analysis of its wood, xiii. 530.

, adapted for the soil and cUmate of

Dm-ham (Dr. Bell), xvii. 121.

Laed, on the sauug of (^Rowlaudson), xi.
591.

liABKSPrR, its soils and habits (Buckman),
xvi. 360.

Laitenburg, the niral economy of, by
J. T. Carr, i. 371. See " Holstcin."

Laukance, Mr. J., his connexion with the
th-ainage of the Lincolnshire fens, xxi.
136.

Lavekgne, Leonce de, his description of
the Ardennes, xxiv. 24.

Lawes, J. B., his accuracy, and the re-
liability of his experiments (J. E,
Denison), x^■ii. 55.

, on agricultm'al chemistry, vui. 226.

, on agricultm-al chemistrj- — tui-nip

culture, viii. 495,

, on agricultural chemistry — sheep-

feedmg and maum-e, part I., x. 276.

La\\-es, J. B., on agricultural chemistry,
especially in relation to the mineral
theory of Baron Liebig, xii. 1.

, report of experiments on the com-
parative fattening quaUties of different
breeds of sheep, xii. 414; xiii. 178;
xvi. 45 ; xxii. 189 ; xxiii. 191.

, agricultural chemistry — pig-feed-
ing, xiv. 459.

, on the utihsatiou of town sewage,

xxiv. 65.

, report on experiments, conducted

l>y Mr. Kearj-, on the growth of wheat
at Hulkham Park fann, xvi. 207.

, on farmyard manure, xxiii. 45.

, and Dr. J. II. Gilbert, ou some

points connected with agricultural che-
mistry, xvi. 411.

, account of his experimental farm at

Rothamsted, xxv. 285.

, and Dr. Gilbert, on the growth of

wheat by the Lois Weedon system at
Rothamsted, xvii, 582,

, experiments on rain-water, xvii. 142.

, his raiugauge at Rothamsted, xvii.

143.

, and Dr. Gilbert, ou the growth of

Ijarley by different manures, con-
tinuously on the same land, and on the
the jiosition of the crop in rotatiou,
xviii. 454.

, on manufactured cattle-foods, xix.

199.

, on manures for meadow-land, xix.

552 ; XX. 228, 398.

, report of experiments on the growth

of red clover by diflereut mauiues, xxi.
178.

, on the composition of oxen, shcei),

and pigs, and their iucrease while fat-
tening, xxi. 433.

, report of expeiiments on the fatteu-

iug of oxen at Woburn Park farm, xxii.
200.

, report of expeiiments at Roilmer-

sham, on the growth of wheat by dif-
ferent descriptions of manure for several
years in succession on the same land,
xxiii. 31.

, on the effects of different manures

on the mixed herbage of grass-laud,
xxiv. 131.

, further report of experiments witli

different manures on permanent mea-
dow-land, xxiv. 504.

, reply to Baron Liebig on the use of

the terms "mineral" and "inorganic"
(note), xxiv. 506.

, report of exjjeriments ou the growth

of wheat for 20 years in succession on
the same laud, xxv. 93 ; ib, 449.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

105

Lawes, J. B., on Prof. Hofmann's repre-
sentation of their controversy with
Liebig, xxv. 101, note.

, on the action of common salt as

manure, P. D., xxv, 516.

, and the mineral theory, remarks on

(Baron Liebig), xxv. 502.

, Mr., his cart stabling (P. H. Frere),

xxv. 368.

Laavkence, Charles, on diminishing the
quantity of roots used m tatteuiug
cattle, XV. 488.

, on the relative value of cattle-box

manure and farmyard manure, xviii.
368.

, on pulping roots for cattle-food, xx.

453.

, on the management of clover layers,

the proper distance for drilling Avheat,
and the ravages of insects in pines, xxii.
447.

, on the cultivation of carrots and

cabbages for the feeding of stock, xxiv.
216.

, extract from his ' Handy Book for

Young Farmers,' xxiv. 221.

, on swedes, mangold, and the steam-
plough, xxv. 248.

Laws and bye-laws of the Eoyal Agri-
cultural Society, xxii., viii. and ix.

Lawson, p. and Son, on Kohl-rabi, xx.
497.

Lazy-bed system, the, of growing potatoes
described (Dr. Lang), xix. 65.

Lead mines in Dvu-ham, xvii. 92.

Leaden pipes, action of water on (Voelc-
ker), xxv. 567.

Leases, covenants in, P. Pusey on, xi.
420.

in Cumberland not very common,

xiii. 225.

, covenants of, in restraint of certain

croppings, often too stringent (J. B.

Lawes), xvi. 221.

in Scotland, i. 63.

in Norfolk, of Lord Leicester, iii, 6,

8 ; of the county in general, v. 345.
Leather-jackets, the larva; of gnats

(tipula), attack eveiy kind of garden

crop (Curtis), xviii. 74.
Leaves, analysis of those of some of the

common English fruit and forest trees,

xui. 530.
, on then- use (Way), vui. 135.

of can-ots, analysis of (Way), viii.

194.

of tm-nips (Lawes), viii. 545.

of potatoes (G. PhiUips), vu. 304 ;

xvii. 185.
of wheat, xvii. 185 ; in sunshine

they evaporate moisture di'awu up by

roots, 186; they also cU'aw food from

the air, ib.
Lecog's definition of the horse's gallop,

xxiv. 360.
Le Coenu, on the agricultiu'e of the Chan-
nel islands, a prize essay, xx. 32.
Le Couteur, Colonel, on the use of the

great or Jersey trench-plough, iii. 40.
, on the Jersey, misnamed Alderucy

cow, V. 43. See " Cow."
, on pure and improved varieties of

wheat lately introduced into England,

a prize essay, i. 113. See " Wheat."
, on the culture of the parsnip, i.

419.
Legard, George, on the farming of tho

East Kiding of Yorkshire, a prize report,

ix. 85.
Legumine, its plastic power, see Henfrey,

on vegetable physiology, xviii. 412.
Lehmann's physiological chemistry, its

value (Horsfall), xviii. 196.
Leicester sheep, the, or Dishley, viii. 2.

See " Sheep."
, comparative profit realised with, by

S. Druce, xiv. 210.
, experiments on the comparative

fattening qualities of different breeds —

Leicesters and cross-breds — by J. B.

Lawes, xvi. 45 ; general results, 71.

See " Food of live stock."
, J. Wilson on, xvi. 223 ; Bakewell of

Dishley, ih.

(new), J. Wilson on, xvi. 225.

, account of (E. Smith), xix. 378 ; see

" Dishley Society."
Leicester, Earl of, his improvements in

W. Norfolk described by Earl Spencer,

iii. 1. See " Norfolk."
Leicestershire, the geology and system

of drainage of Keythorpe (Trimmer),

xiv. 96.
Leigh, J. H., some experiments on stall-
feeding, vi. 237.
Lemon, Sir Charles, on a disease in

potatoes — the bobbin-joan, iv. 431.
* , on the agricultural statistics of

France, i. 411.
Leontodon taraxicum, see "Dandelion."
LEPiDruM campestre, see " Peppcrwort."
Leplay's method of distillation, xxi. 97.
Leporide, a hybrid between the hare and

rabbit, on (P. H. Frere), xxv. 265 ; ex-

jieriments of E. Koux, ib. • M. P.

Broca's treatise on hybridising, ib. ;

examples of hybrids, ib. ; M. Roux's

object in cross-breeding from hares and

rabbits, 266 ; increased value of i^ro-

duce, ib. ; character of the flesh and

coat, 267 ; principles of cross-breeding

as applied to cattle and sheep, ib. ;

lOG GENEEAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTUEAL JOUENAL.

LEUCITE.

Bichat'g distinction between relative
and organic life, 2G8 ; Mr. Woods, on
the cross-breeding of sheep, 268.

Leucite, the, analysis of, xiii. 582.

Level, drain, a, described by S. H. Payne,
vi. 247.

, an improved, described by T. Cooke,

with the process of levelling, x. ICi.

Lias foi-mation of Somersetshire (Acland);
xi. 707.

of Lincolnshire (Clarke\ xii. 2Go.

, on the soils of, by J. Trimmer, xii.

491.

, on the soils of, in Northamptonshire,
by W. Beam, xiii. 48.

■ of the Keythorpe estate (Trimmer),
xiv. 97.

soils of Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 199.

Lice, on plants (J. Curtis), iii. 49.

of corn crops, vi. 5G3.

of peas and beans, vii. 41G.

Licorice plant, cultivation of, near Pon-
tefract, ix. 297.

Liebig, remarks on his theories of ma-
nures, by J. B. Lawcs, xvi. 411.

' , on some points in agi-icultural che-
mistry, xvii. 284 ; his manm-e and
pamphlets vindicated, 314.

• , remarks on, by Mr. Lawes, xviii.

513, 519.

• , his percentage of nitrogen too high

for common agricultural soils (Lawes
and Gilbert), xvii. G14.

• , on the percentage of nitrogen in

hay, xix. 223.

• , on the assimilation of food by plants

from the soil, xxi. lOG.

' , on nitrification, xxiii. 355.

, on the weight of the excreta per

million of the population, xxiv. 125.

• , his ' Natural Laws of Husbandry,'

xxiv. 420.

• , his mineral theory criticised (Lawes

and Gilbert^, xxv. 95, 491, 498.

• , his remarks on Mr. J. Lawes and

the mineral theory, xxv. 502 ; ammo-
niacal salts not an organic manure, ancf
never held to be so by the writer, ib. ;
atmospheric ammonia a source of nitro-
gen to plants, 503; carbonic acid and
ammonia the atmospheric food of vege-
tables, ih; atmospheric and mineral
elements, ib. ; definition of mineral con-
stituents, 504; Mr. Lawcs's theoiy as
to manure, ib. ; the author's views on
plant food, ib. ; De Saussure, Sprengel,
and Thaer, on the kinds of manure,
505 ; points of difference tetwecn Lawes
and De Saussiu-e, ib. ; ditto, between
Lawes and the author, 506 ; Messrs.
Lawes and Gilbert's conclusions criti-

cised, 507; organic matter not to be
artificially produced, ib. ; fabrication of
manures from inorganic or mineral sub-
stances, 508.

Liebig and Smith, of Lois Weodon, their
teaching contrasted (Lawes and Gil-
bert), xvii. 593.

Liebig's wheat manure, observations on,
by J. B. Lawcs, viii. 244; by Dr.
Voelcker, xviii. 345.

, trials with, for wheat, by J. B.

Lawes, xii. 12.

Ln-E, definition of (Rev. IM. J. Berkeley),
xxiv. 428.

Light, its action on the leaves of plants
(Fownes), iv. 513.

, its inlluence on plants, by G.

Phillips, vii. 308.

, emitted by decomposing animal sub-
stances and by potatoes (Bowditch),
xiv. 340.

, influence of, see "Soil, tempera-
ture of."

, chemical effects of (Gay-Lussac and

Draper), xvii. 423 ; ditto (G. Wilson),
424.

, its influence on vegetation (Hen-

frey), xvii. 84.

Light land farming (Ilaxton), xv. 88.
See "Soils," "Siin-ey," &c.

LiGXiNE, the pure priuoiplo of wood (Dr.
Eichardson , xx. 2.

LiGCLE or tongue, the, of grasses (Buck-
man), xvii. 165.

Lille Agricultural Society, report of com-
mittee on employment of Flemish ma-
nure (nightsoil), xxiii. 317.

, international agricultural meeting,

report on (Sir A. K. Macdonald and
Prof. WUson), xxv. 209.

LiLLiE, Sir J., his patent cultivator
(Clarke), xx. 178.

LiJiE, on the use of, by J. Sybray, iii. 429.

in Nottinghamshire (Corringham),

vi. 35 ; the varjing quality of the
Derbyshire and Yorkshire, ib.

, its value as a first dressing for newly

reclaimed heath-lands, vi. 93.

as a manure in Devonshire (Tanner),

ix. 468.

used as a manure in South Wales

(Read), x. 143.

Lime and marl without manure, xxv. 346.

, P. Pusey, on, xi. 408.

, tried in irrigation in Cumberland

(Dickinson^ xiii. 293.

, chemical properties of (Hemming),

xiii. 429.

, analysis of three soils in which it

was present in the state of silicate, sul-
phate, and carbonate, xiii. 554.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

107

Li:me, analysis of a soil said to be over-
limed, xiii. 554.

, its use as a maniu'e in Derbj'sliire
(Rowley), xiv. 88.

• , useful on the soils of silica strata of

the lower chalk (Way and Paine), xiv.
236.

• , its use in Sun-ey as a maniue (Ever-
shed), xiv. 415.

• , its use in Herefordshire (Eowland-

son), xiv. 437; effect of, in ditierent
seasons, 439.

, as a deodoriser of town sewage

(Way), XV. 157 ; analysis of the preci-
pitate produced, IGl.

' , magnesian, as a deodoriser of

sewage (Way), xv. 163.

, used as a maniue in Oxfordshii-e

(Eead), xv. 245.

, on the influence of, upon the ab-

sorj^tivo properties of soils, by J. T.
Way, XV. 491 ; action of, as a manui-e,
492; amoiant of, ajiplied to the soil,
its relative weight, 495 ; quantity of
ammonia in soOs, 505 ; and after liming,
ib., 512.

, its use in Durham fDr. Bell), xvii.

111.

, its use and cost on Exmoor (E.

Smith),- xvii. 378 ; its decomposition of
silicates, 470.

• , its use and abuse (Eev. W. H.

Beevor), xviii. 33] .

, its application to fallows in Shrop-
shire (H. Tanner), xix. 9 ; its action on
the soil, 10.

■ , its use on newly cleared land in the

weald of Sussex, xix. 190.

' , its use for grass on hot sandy land
(J. Dixon), xix. 211 ; quantity 8 or 10
tons per acre, ib. ; comparative trial of
different sorts, and results, 212.

, carbonate of, xvii., 469; its va

rieties, ib,

•LiMESTONKS of Derbyshire and Yorkshire,
composition of (Corringham), vi. 35.

. of the N. E. of Yorkshire (Milbm-n),

ix. 516.

■ , carboniferous, of Gloucestershire

(Bravendar) xi. 122.

• , carboniferous, of Egremont in Cum-
berland, contain ooprohtic nodules
(Dickinson), xiii. 209.

Limestone soils of Ciunberland, by W.
Dickinson, xiii. 209.

• , magnesian, marls from, of Suther-

landshire, analysis of, xiii. 536.

• , carboniferous, the, of Derbyshire

(Eowley), xiv. 50 ; analysis of a soil of,
53.

' soils (Fownes), iv. 501,

LINCOLNSHIRE.

Limestone of Nottinghamshire (Corring-
ham), vi. 23.

of North Wales (Eowlandson), vii.

578.

• (magnesian) of the W. E. of York-
shire (Chamock), ix. 289.

rock, common, analysed, xiii. 534.

, magnesian, analysed, xiii. 534.

of Derbyshire (Eowley), xiv. 20;

analysis of a soil of, 21.

of Shi-opshire (H. Tanner), xix. 2.

Lime-tree, the, its planting and manage-
ment described (Falkener), iii. 273.

, analysis of its wood and bark, xiii.

530.

LiNAEiA elatine, see "Toad flax, the
shaip-pointed."

minor, see " Snapdragon, the small.' '

spuria, see " Toad flax, the round-
leaved."

vulgaris, see " Toad flax, the

yellow."

Lincoln meeting (1854), report on tho
implements shown at, by A. Hammond,
XV. 363.

, report on the live stock shown at,

by C. Barnett, xv. 379.

, award of prizes at, for live stock,

XV. Ixvi. ; for implements, Ixxxiii.

Heath, cost of cultivating (E. Smith),

xvii. 379,

Lincolnshire, map of (Pusey), iv. 302.

, on the agricultural improvements

of, by P. Pusey, iv. 287 ; its high state
of cultivation, ib. ; once a dreary
waste, still called Lincoln heath, ih. ;
its ancient lighthouse, Dunston Pil-
lar, ib. • Lincoln heath, 288 ; the
chalk wolds of Lincolnshire, ib. ; state
of cultivation, ih. ; the farms of Lord .
Yarborough, Mr. Uppleby, and Mr.
Graham, ib. ; the farming of Lincoln-
shire and that of East Lothian, 289;
tlie objects of agricultural interest
which tlie county presents, ib. ; the two
ranges of hills, tho heath and the
wold, ib. \ the fen, 290 ; formerly a
great morass, ib. ; the fenmen, »'&. ;
Camden's account of them, ib. ; the
ground towards the sea, ib. ; Arthur
Young's report of these fens, 290, 291 ;
Rennie's mode of draining them, 291 ;
embanking in the neighbourhood of
the Wash, 292; Ancholme river, the
ckainage effected by, 293; Hatfield
Chace described, ib. ; the warping
system of tho Isle of Asholm described,
295 ; Mr. Gossip's improvements in
Hatfield Chace, covering the soil with
warp, 296 ; extent of fen warped since
Artliur Youngs time, ib. ; the claying

308 GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTUEAL JOUENAL.

UNCOLNSHIBE.

of fens, 297 ; Arthur Young's descrip-
tion of the "Wolds in 1760, ib. ; again in
1799, 298; the Brocklesby estate de-
scribed, ib. ; the three points in its
chalk farming, 300 ; bones used, ib. ;
stall-feeding, ib. ; the oilcake used, ib. ;
the dung produced, 301 ; Mr. Chap-
Iain's improvements at Temj^le Bruer,
302 ; map of tlie county, ib. ; the farm-
ing of Mi-. Frankish, 303 ; the plough
employed, 304 ; the farm horses, ib. ;
their waggons, 305 ; waggons and carts
contrasted, ib. ; injurious efl'ects of
hedgerow timber, 300 ; good eft'ect of
enclosiu-es uj)on the labourers, 315 ;
taskwork in, ib. ; farmers described, il).

LI^x•OL^■sIIIUE, the black horse of (J.
Burke), v. 519.

, the fens of South Lincolnshire, the

great level of, by J. A. Clarke, a prize
report, viii. SO. ^S^ee " Fens."

, on tiie farming of, l>y J. A. Clarke,

a prize essay, xii. 259 ; the character
of its soils, especially of its marsh and
fenland, 261 ; section of its strata, 262 ;
the lias, 263 ; the oolite, 265 ; the Ox-
ford and Kimmeridgc clays, 269 ; the
grcensand, ib.; the wolds, 271, 330;
diluvium or drift, 275; the alluvial
formation, 279 ; Roman roads and em-
bankments, ib. ; tlie blue clay, 280 ; the
peat, 281; the Wash, 285; the warp
lands of Axliolme, 287 ; remains of
ancient forests, 288; the drainage of
the coimty, 289 ; South IloUand, 292 ;
Deeping fen, 295 ; steam-engine em-
ployed, 295, 325, 329; rainfall, 297;
the black sluice drainage, 300 ; Holland
fen, 302 ; ancient state of tlie fen, 306,
307; the sea-banks, 312; inundations,
ib.; theAncholme levtl,314: ; Sir John
Eennie and the catchwater drains, 317;
former opposition to the drainage of the
fens, 321 ; scoop - wheel, 329 ; the
wolds, turnips on, 330; maniu-es used
for, 333 ; sheep, their local names at
different ages, ib. ; seeds, 334 ; weeds,
337 ; implements u.sed, ib. ; the farmers
of Lord Yaiborough's estates, ib. ; the
heath and the cliff, 339; rotations
on, ib. ; the chalk drift used as a
manure, the Carrs, 355; sheep, 360;
rotations on the warp land, 366; on
the clay loam, 367 ; on the sand loam,
ib. ; on the sand and peat, 368 ; the
process of warjiing in this county and
in Italy, 371 ; the western district,
375 ; peat, paring and burning of, 381 ;
claying of, 382 ; farmyard management,
389 ; tenant-right, 3S8 ; feechng horses,
S90; feeding beasts, ib.; feeding pigs,

LIQUID.

ib. ; management of manure, 391 ; the
long-woolled sheep examined, 393 ; on
increasing the cultivation of swedes,
396 ; on the consumption of straw with
oilcake, 398 ; the comparative merits
rape and turnips, 401 ; the labourers,
403 ; farm-horses, 412 ; the acreage
cultivated in 1799 and 1849, ib.

Lincolnshire sheep, the, on, by J. Wil-
son, xvi. 223.

, on (E. Smith), xix. 383 ; the Lin-
coln Sheep Society, ib. ; crossed with
the Dishley breed, //;. ; names of some
principal breeders, 384.

LiXDLEY, Dr., his opinion as to segilops,
xix. 110; description of llax and clover
dodder, xxii. 18, 20.

Lineal measure, table of, vii. 131.

LiNiLWS, the, of Somersetshire (Acland),
xi, 746 ; plan and cost of (R. Smith),
xvii. 360.

LiNKiJ, the, in Scotland, the farming of
tlie light soils of (Ilaxton), xv. 94.

Linseed as a food for horses, by W. C.
Spooner, ix. 273,

• , analysia of, by J. T. Way, x. 489,

xi. 519.

, ordinary produce per aero of seed

and straw '^J. Wilson), xiv. 193.

, imports of, 1841-18."j7, xix. 515.

Linseed-cake, nee " Oilcake."

LiNSEED-CKUsiiEKs, a rejiort by P. Pusey
on those showoi at the Great Exhibi-
tion (in 1851), xii. 634.

, on those shown (in 1852) at tlic

Lewes meeting, xiii. 325.

, tlie, exliibited at the Shrewsbury

meeting (1845), vi. 317.

LiNSEED-oiL is occasionally given as a
substitute for oilcake, iv. 234.

, proportion of, yielded by different

varieties of linseed (M'Adam), viii.
392.

LiNsLADE farm in Buckinghamsliire, ac-
count of improvements in, by W. G.
Hayter, iv. 340.

Linton, W., rejwrt on the turnip crop on
strong land, i. 451.

, on the best method of draining

running sands, a prize essay, vii. 115.

LiNUM catharticum, see " Purging llax."

LigtiD manure, C. W. Johnson on, a
jirize essay, i. 147 ; its early employ-
ment, ib. ; early erroneous ideas as to
water-food of plants, 148 ; Von Hel-
monfs trials, 149; various theories as
to irrigation, 150; organic matters in
natural waters, ib. ; analysis of river
waters, 152 ; the liquid manure of Bel-
gium, 153 ; of France and Switzerland,
ib. ; Professor Schubler's cxperimeuts,

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

109

LIQTJID,

154 ; expense of preparing, 155 ; the
tanks required for its preparation, ib. ;
lu-ine, its analysis, 156 ; its quality
varies Avith the food employed, 157 ;
the loss of fertilising matters in tovm
sewage, 158.

Liquid manure, on the application of, to
Italian rye-grass, by W. Dickinson, vi.
575.

, analysis of farm tank-water or pu-
trefied urine, by J. T. Way, x. 613.

, used in Switzerland, in water-meads

(Jenkinson), xi. 611.

, on the use of town sewage, by J.

T. Way, XV. 1.S5.

cart, a simple, described by H.

Wood, i. 501.

tanks described by Mr. D. Gilbert,

i. 499.

described by M. M. MUburn, ix.

520.

■ , on, by H. S. Thompson, xi. 439.

, its advantages (J. T. Way), xvii.

150.

— — , on (Dr. Voelcker), xix. 519 ; its
use in Belgium, 520 ; efforts of Messrs.
Mechi, Telfer, and Kennedy to adapt
the Flemish system to English neces-
sities, ih. ; obstacle to its general use,
521 ; outlay on engines, tanks, pipes,
&c., considered, ib. ; varied composi-
tion of liquid manure, 522 ; analysis of
Mr. Holford's specimen, 523 ; its froth
and pungent smell due to carbonate of
ammonia, ib. ; composition of solid
matter, ash, &c., 523-4; horse-urine
its chief constituent, 525 ; its deficiency
in phosphates, ib. ; its probable action
on green and com crops, ib. ; ammonia
fixed by sulphuric acid, ib. ; analysis
of maniue, chiefly cattle urine, 3 years
in tank, from Badminton, 526 ; its de-
ficiency and waste of ammonia as car-
bonate, 528 ; ash like that described,
524 ; analysis of tank-manure at Ciren-
cester College, 528-30 ; its consti-
tuents, the refuse and drains from the
college, 529 ; the liquid, how used, ib. ;
its comparison with other specimens,
531 ; analyses of Mr. Mechi's samples,
534-40 ; its richness in phosphates due
to solid constituents, 535 ; analysis of

. the clear liquid of tank-manure from
solid and hquid excrements, 536 ; its
poverty in fertilising matter, ib. ; ana-
lysis of the muddy liquid, 537-8 ; com-
parative tables for tlie six foregoing
specimens, (1) specific gravity, (2) or-
ganic and mineral matter, (3) nitrogen
in organic matter or as ammonia, 539 ;
comparison of Peruvian guano with

LIQUID.

Tiptree liquid, 540 ; comparative table
of phosphoric acid and potash in the
six foregoing specimens, 541 ; soils to
which liquid manure is adapted, 542 ;
analyses of sandy soils, ib. ; clay soil,
its mineral stores, 545 ; its retentive
character, ib. ; analyses of loamy soils,
546 ; the mineral stores in the upper
ten inches, ib. ; farmyard manure, its
api)lication to clay soils, 547 ; on the
modes of disposing of liquid manure,
549 ; rules for its application under
different circumstances, 550.

Liquid manure, on the changes it
undergoes in contact with soils (Dr.
Voelcker), xx. 134; composition of
soil, 135, and fluid before and after
filtration, 137; method of investi-
gation, 136; the liquid parted with
ammonia and potash, but took up or-
ganic matter and lime, 138-9 ; it dis-
solved oxide of iron, 139 ; potash salts
deposited, ib. ; soda little absorbed,
139-40 ; phosphoric acid taken up
freely but not completely, 140 ; enough
left to feed plants, ib. ; saline solutions,
if strong, impede gi'owth, ib. ; analyses
of soil taken from pasture, 141 ; results,
143 ; ►• trial of poor sandy soil, 144 ;
analyses, 145 ; results, 146 ; little am-
monia or potash absorbed by soil, and
little organic matter, but some lime
taken up by liquid, 147; phosphoric
acid partly absorbed, 148 ; experiments
with fertile soils, ib. ; analyses, 149 ;
results, 151 ; some phosphoric acid, as
also potash, left in solution, 152 ; ana-
lyses of clay soil and liquid manure
from Tiptree Hall, 153-4 ; the liquid
weak, though the soil strong ; the quan-
tities absorbed not great, 155 ; increase
of potash in the liquid, 156 ; conclu-
sions, ib.

, on the best means of applying it to

the land (P. Love), xx. 22 ; difficulty
of working the hose, 23 ; evening the
best time, ib. ; amount of dressings re-
quired, ih.; the rotation, 24 ; economical
arrangement of pipes, 25 ; the dis-
tributor, its worlang, ib. ; diagram of,
26 ; table showing the quantity re-
quired for a given dressing, 27 ; tanks,
their size, construction, and cost, ib. ;
average amount of urine from cattle,
28 ; proportion between sizes of tanks,
acreage of rye-grass, and head of stock,
ib. ; estimates of cost of pipes, &c., 29.

■ of a farm, its economical applica-

tion (J. T. Blackburn), xxiii. 1 ; neces-
sary appliances, ib. ; steam-power, gra-
vitation, and area of operations, 2 ;

110 GExXERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

LITHOSPEKNUM.

sparred floors for cattle, 3 ; vratcr-
supply, ib. ; the example farm describe J,
ih. ; pumps and apparatus, 4 ; precau-
tions, ib. ; proper density of fluid, ih. ;
policy of frequent applications, 5 ;
angles in i^ipes deprecated, ih. ; dia-
gram of irrigated area, G ; arrangement
of pipes, ih. ; importance of even dis-
tribution, 7 ; size and construction of
tanks, 8 ; dressing t^cx acre, 9 ; matters
for manure- taidi, «6. ; use of plain water,
ih. ; supply per acre, 10 ; cropping, ih. ;
management at Cassiobury, 11 ; Italian
rye-grass, (quantity consumed by oxen,
ib.; the time for cutting, 12; cost of
cattle feeding on, 13 ; retmii of solid
manure to the faim, 12 ; proper time
for irrigation, ih. ; cost of apj)aratus,
14; annual working charges, 15; cost
of steam-engme (P. II. F.), ih. ; cost of
the author's macliinery, interest, and
depreciation, IG.

LiTUospEKNUSi arvense, see " Corn grom-
well."

Little, Edward, of Chippenham, the
farming of Wiltshire, a prize report, v.
IGl. fe " "Wiltshire."

LiVEKPOOL meeting, report on the exhi-
bition of implements, ii. ciii.

Liters, small, indicate a tendency to
fatten (Karkeek), v. 255.

Lrv'E Stock, for consumption in the mc-
ti-opolis, statistics of (R. Herbert), xix.
49G; increase of shorthorns suice 1838,
497 ; tables of prices and supplies from
1853 to 1858, 499 ; imports from North
Germany, xx. 473 ; improvement in
Dutch sheep, ih. ; the Irish supplies,
474 ; average dead weight of bullocks
in 1839 and 1859, 475 ; Dutch bullocks
fattened in Norfolk, ih. ; deaths reduced
the profit, ih. ; the increased dead
weights of sheep, 47G ; the supply of
pork, 477 ; stock bought in London for
grazing and for country supplies, or
left unsold, 478 ; supply of dead meat
for the provinces, 479 ; comparative
table of supplies and prices, 480 ; causes
of scarcity of stock in 1860, xxi. 173 ;
increase of cross-bred animals, ib. ;
growing demand for animal food, 174 ;
the in-and-in system of sheei>breeding,
175 ; the forcing system, ib. ; disposal
of inferior joints, 176 ; commercial pro-
gress in 20 years, ib. ; high price of
tallow, ib. ; tables of prices and sup-
plies, 177-8 ; success of cross-breed-
ing, 381 ; Dutch and German sheep,
382 ; price of mutton, ih. ; prevalence
of rot, ib. ; suj^plies of stock from 1855
to 1860, 383 ; foreign stock, 384 ; aver-

LI^'E-STOCK,

age prices of beef and mutton, ih. ; fat-
tening of foreign stock in England,
xxii. 132 ; Spanish bullocks, ib. ; prices
of beef sheep, and mutton (^1861), 133;
the lambing season, ih. ; supjslies of
stock from 185G to 18G1, and average
prices, 134-5; number of cattle iu
Holland, ib. ; increase of crosses in the
English markets, 413; early maturity,
ih.; higli price of mutton, 414; Dutch
sheei) and calves ; table of supplies,
415 ; average prices, 416 ; increase of
Scotch and country-killed meat iu the
metro]iohtiin markets, ih. ; comj)arativo
immunity of stock from disease in 1861,
xxiii. 366 ; table of bullock supplies,
367 ; increased weight of sheep, ib. ;
fat and wool, 368 ; the lambing season,
ih. ; table of meat supplies, ih. ; average
prices, 369 ; losses from disease in 1862,
xxiv. 206 ; total supplies from 1853 to
1862, ih. ; prices of beef and mutton,
207 ; district bullock arrivals, 208 ;
imports of foreign stock, 209; per-
centage of beasts shown in the metro-
politan market in 1858 and 1862, 211 ;
increase of shortlinrns and crosses, ib. ;
sheep supplies, 212 ; increase of cross-
breds, ih. ; supplies of stock in early
part of 1863, xxiv. 454 ; district supplies
and prices of beef and mutton, 456 ;
foreign stock, 457 ; value of rough fat,
458 ; supplies in last 6 months of 1863,
XXV. 243 ; improved condition of sheep,
ib. ; arrivals, 244 ; prices, 245 ; impor-
tations of foreign and colonial wool,
247 ; prices, ih. ; character and supplies
of stock in the first half of the year
1864, XXV. 382 ; distiict arrivals and
prices of meat, 383 ; imports, 384 ;
prices of wool, 385.

Live-Stock, on the situations best ad-
apted for, by N. Whitley, xi. 51.

, at the Lewes exhibition, report of,

by Samuel Jonas, xiii. 397 ; the num-
bers of, shown at the Society "s meet-
ings, from Oxford iu 1839 to Lewes in
1852, 398.

, report on the exhibition of, at the

Gloucester meeting, by K. Milward,
xiv. 456.

, report on the exhibition of, at the

Carlisle meeting, by W. Simjjson. svi.
502.

, report on the exliibition of, at

Chelmsford (1856), by Sir S. H. North-
cote, Bart., xvii. 563.

, report on the exhibition of, at

Chester (1858), by R. Smith, xix. 352 ;
Shoiihorns, 364 ; Herefords, 367 ; De-
vons, 370 ; ages and girths of the prize

VOLUMES OXE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

Ill

LI\'E-STOCK.

cattle, 371 ; horses, 375 ; sheep, 380 ;
girths of sheep, 385; pia;s, 389; Welsh
cattle, 391.

Liye-Stock, report on the exhibition of, at
War\yick (1859) (R. Smith), xx. 326; the
model shorthorn described, 329 ; de-
scription of shorthorns competing, 330-
2 ; Herefords, their blood and character,
332 ; their prizes at Smithfield, ih. ; the
competition at Warwick, 334 -fJ; De-
vons, 336 ; Quartly's blood, ih. ; the
competition at Warwick, 337 ; other
breeds of cattle, 338 ; table of girths of
prize cattle, 339 ; sheep, Leicesters
described, 3-10 ; the Southdown of
1830, 341; long-woolled, 342; the
Cotswold, its coat, 343 ; Oxford Downs,
then- origin, 344 ; horses, 347 ; pigs,
351. Local Prizes. — Cows for dauy
purposes, 353; the longhorned breed
of cattle, 355 ; the herd of Mr. Webster,
of Cauley, ih. ; horses and ponies, 356-
8 ; Shi-opshire sheep, their history, 358.

, report on the exhibition of, at Leeds,

1860 (W. Fisher Hobbs), xxii. 218;
shorthorn cattle, 219, 231 ; Herefords,
219 ; Devons, 221 ; horses, 223 ; Mr.
Sjjooner's veterinary report, ih.; Mr.
Pain's report on hacks and hunters,
225 ; sheep, 226 ; Mr. Eigden's South-
downs, 227 ; Mr. Randall's report on
the Shropshire Downs, 227 ; Mr. Eaw-
lence on "the sliort avooIs, 229; Mr.
Tm-ner's report on pigs, 230 ; the nur-
sery for calves, 231 ; thoroughbred
horses, ih.

, table of the number of animals of

different breeds", &c., exhibited at the
the Royal Agricultural Society's meet-
ings from 1839 to 1858 inclusive (R.
Smith), xix. 357; ditto, at Warwick
(1859), XX. 327.

, report of the Stewards of, at the

Battersea show, xxiii. 369 ; arrange-
ment of classes, ih. ; pubhc judging
first adopted, 370 ; number of entries,
ih. ; Prof. Simonds on the health of the
stock and causes of disqualification,
371 ; French cattle, ih. ; Breton cows,
372 ; Dutch and Swiss cattle, ih. ;
French and Saxon Merino sheep, 373 ;
the Scottish contingent, ih. ; report of
the judges, 374 ; English cattle classes,
375 ; shorthoras, reports of judges, 376 ;
Herefords, 378 ; Devons, 379 ; Sussex
and longhorus, 380, Norfolks and Suf-
folks, 381 ; Welsh and Channel Islands,
ih. ; horses, 382 ; report of judges, 383-6 ;
Suffolks and other agricultural horses,
387 ; sheep, ih. ; Lincohis, other long-
wools, and Cotswolds, 388; Komney

Marsh sheep, 389 ; judges' report, ih. ;
Southdowns and Slu'opshires, 390 ; Ox-
fordshire Downs, 391 ; Dorsets and
mountain sheep, 392 ; pigs, 393 ;
judges' report, 393-4 ; line of demarca-
tion between small and middle bi'ceds
not properly defined, 395.

Live-Stock, report at the Worcester show,
xxiv. 459; number of entries, zfc.; healthy
condition of animals shown, 460 ; reiDoiis
of judges in shorthorn classes, 461 ;
Devons, 465 ; Sussex and other breeds,
466 ; horses, 468 ; hunters, 469 ; agri-
cultural and dray-horses, 470 ; Suffolks,
ih. ; Prof. Varnell's veterinary report,
471 ; Mr. Dent on the sheep and pigs,
472 ; shearing, ih. ; Oxford and Shrop-
shire Downs, 473 ; Lonk sheep, ih. ;
Leicesters, 474 ; Cotswolds, ih. ; Lm-
colns and other long- wools, 475 ; Oxford
Downs, ih. ; Southdowns, ih. ; Shrop-
shires, 476 ; Hampshu-e and other short-
wools, 477 ; Ryeland, Welsh, and other
mountain breeds, 478 ; pigs, ih.

on the cattle exhibited at Newcastle

(J. D. Dent, M.P.), xxv. 425 ; classifi-
cation of breeds, ih. ; importance of
milking qualities, 426 ; shorthorns, 427 ;
precautions in j^^^bhc judging, 429;
Herefords and Devons, ih, ; Mr, Keary's
report, 430 ; Sussex and other breeds,
431 ; the Angus classes, ih. ; Ayrshire
and homed Scotch cattle, 432 ; report
of the stewards of horses, 433 ; hiuiter
skes and brood mares, 434 ; roadster
stallions, 435 ; mares or geldings, 436 ;
ponies, ih.; Mr. IMilAiard's remarks,
439 ; sheeiJ entries, ih, ; rule as to
shearing, ih. ; Leicester and Cotswold
classes, 440 ; Lincolns and Oxford
Downs, 441 ; Shropshires, 443 ; Hamp-
shire and other short-wools, 444 ;
Cheviots, 445 ; report of the wool
judges, ih. ; pigs, 446.

Loams, analysis of several sorts, xiii. 544.

, the weeds of (Buckman), xvi. 369.

Lobelias attacked by wireworms (Curtis),
V. 196.

Loft, W., on different varieties of wheat,
and the advantages of thick sowing, ix.
281.

Lois Weedon system of wheat growing,
as tried at Eothamsted (Lawes and Gil-
bert), see "Wheat-growing."

husbandly, described by Rev, S.

Smith, xvii. 582 ; xviii. 30.

, soil of, see " Soils."

LoLiuM perenne, see " Eye-grass."

Italicum, see "Italian rye-grass."

perenne, see " Perennial rye-grass or

darnel."

112 GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGEICULTURAL JOURNAL.

LoLnui temulentiim, see "Bearded darnel,'
or " Drunken darnel."

London clay formation, the, in Surrey ;
its agriculture (Evershed), xiv. 402.

Long, Walter, on clay-burning for manure,
vii. 245.

LoNG-wooLLED shccp, the breeds of, viii.
IL (See "Sheep."

• , especially the Cotswolds, give more

gross increase for a given weight of
food than the Downs or crosses (J. B.
Lawes), xvi. 85.

— — , J. Wilson on, xvi. 223.

, on (R. Smith), xix. 383.

Loo>rEs, E., on the advantages derived
from the use of one-horse carts, vi.
398.

Lords and ladies (Buckraan), xvi. 366.

Lords' Committee (1833) on the depressed
state of agriculture, xxiii. 68.

Lothian, East, the farming of (1842), con-
sidered by Mr. Pusey to be hardly on
a level vni\\ that of Lincolnsliire, iv.
289.

■ , on the farming of, by Charles Ste-
venson, xiv. 275 ; climate of, 278 ; rain-
fell of, 279 ; rotations of, ih. ; growtli
of turnips, 281 ; swedes, 284 ; wheat,
285 ; grass-seeds, ih. ; oats, 286 ; beans,
287 ; beans deemed the best prepara-
tion for wheat, ih. ; but tlie quality of

> wheat after potatoes superior, ih. ;
sheepwalks, 289 ; woods, ih. ; imple-
ments, 290 ; farm-buildings, 292 ;
draining' of, 294 ; average produce of
corn, 296 ; cattle, {b. ; conveyance of,
297 ; sheep, 298 ; pigs, 302 ; horses, ih. ;
potatoes, 303 ; manures, ih. ; harvest-
ing, 305 ; labourers, payment of, 306 ;
J. Brodie's form at Abbev Mains, 311 ;
P. Handysides, at West' Fenton, 314 ;
G. Hope's at Fenton Bams, 317; steam-
engines employed in Haddingtonshire,
322.

Love, P., on the advantage of one-horse
carts over waggons, vii. 223.

, general remarks on continental

farming, xvi. 142.

• , on deepening the staple soil, xvii.

543.

, his swingle trees described, with

sketch, xvii. 562.

, on the appUcation of liquid manure,

XX. 22.

■ , on harvesting com, xxiii. 217.

, on the economy of carting, xxiii.

226.

Lovelace, the Earl of, on the cidture of
mangold-wurtzel, iv. 21. See "Man-

" gold-wurtzel."

, method of growing beans and cab-

bages on the same grotind, v. 112. See
" Beans."

Lovelace, on climate in connexion with
agriculture, ix. 311.

LvcERNE, on the cultivation of, by J.
Rodwell, iii. 238 ; sows seed witli spring
corn, 239 ; his experiment with it from
1807 to 1841, ib.

, its analysis, by Dr. Fownes, iv. 532,

xiv, 179.

, growth of, in Cumberland (W.

Dickinson), xiii. 274.

, the plant and its hay analysed, xiii.

466.

, dressed with wood-ashes in Oxford-
shire (Read), xv. 245.

LvDOLPH, H., his report on the cheese,
butter, and wool exhibited at Leeds,
xxii. 232.

Llncs, their comparative size in the pig,
slicep, ox, and iiorse, and the order of
their aptitude to fatten is the same, iv.
258 ; very fat cattle, tlieir small lights
and livers, H). ; of the Leicester sheep
and the Soutiidowni, j7). ; discordant
opinions of Licbig, Cline, and Youatt,
257.

, small, indicate a tendency to fatten

(Karkeek), v. 255.

, J. B. Simonds on, x. 587.

LrpiNEs, as food for sheep (T. Crisp), xx.
106.

(Baron Nathusius), xx. 107 ; the

yellow and blue varieties, ih. ; in North
Genuany grown on sands as a green
manure, ih. ; frost destmctive to the
young plant, ih. ; seeds to be picked in

^ the swathes, 1 08 ; sheep become fond
of the seed, though at first bitter, ib. ;
its analysis indicative of high value,
ib. ; clialk and calcareous soils not
favourable, 109.

, the yellow, its composition and the

soil suitable to its culture (Dr. Voelc-
ker), xxi. 389; varieties grown in Ger-
many, ih. ; Mr. T. Crisp the earliest
grower in England, ih. \\\m crop in
1858, 390 ; Mr. Kimber's experiments,
ib. ; effects of wet, 391 ; composition
of plants cut green, and comparison
with cabbages, ih. ; nutritive qualities,
392 ; deficiency of .sugar, tl*. ; per-
centage of water, &c., in green food,
393 ; illustrative tables, ih. ; soils for
lupine cultivation, 394 ; analysis of Mr.
Kimber's soil, ih. ; weight of crop,
395 ; use of gypsum, ib. ; lupines not
siiited to chalk and marls, ih. ; con-
clusions.

, experiments with as a farm-crop

(Mr. T. Kimber), xxi. 390; his soil a

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

113

blowing saud, ib. ; its agricultural
value, ih. ; customary crops, 397 ; pre-
])arations for lupines, ih. ; their growth,
398 ; feeding jjroperties, ib. ; produce
per acre, 399.
Llpines, r-^port of an unsuccessful experi-
ment in growing (P. H. Frere), xxi.
399 ; not adapted for drj' soils, ih. ; the
author's experience, ib. ; conditions of
the experiment, 400.
Lychnis dioica, see " Common campion."
Lycopsts arvensis, see " Bugloss, the
small."

U.

MacAdaji, J., on the cultivation of flax,
a prize essay, viii. 3G1.

MacAdam's whey separator (Harding),
xxi. 87.

Macaire, M., on the excreta of plants, i.
287, iv. 536, 537.

MacCoemick's reaping machine, on, by
P. Pusey, xii. 160.

, its performances at the Paris trials,

1856, xvii. 47 ; improvements in, by
Burgess and Key, 48.

Macdeemott, Edward, on Claussen's flax-
cotton, xii. 235.

Macdonald's, Sir A. K., report on the
International Agricultural Meeting at
Lille, XXV. 209.

, report on the implements and ma-
chinery at Chester, xix. 311.

MacDouall, Colonel, experiments in fat-
tening cattle on difierent descriptions of
food, xiii. 113.

MacDocgall's disinfecting powder (Dr,
Voelcker), xviii. 123 ; its composition,
124 ; its efficacy and defects, ib. ; ex-
periments with, in stables, 126 ; ditto
on farmyard manure, 127 ; ditto in
relation to liquid manure, 128.

MAcnmEKY, accidents through, see " Acci-
dents," XXV. 352.

, at Paris Agricultural Show (1856),

xvii. 396.

, land must be prepared for its use

(W. Fairbairn), xvii. 50.

Mackenzie, Sir F. A., account of Mr.
Sim"s experiments with manures, i.
418.

, Sir G. S., on .sheep-rot, xxiii. 75.

MacClintock, IMajor, on the rearing of
calves, xxii. 146.

Macvicar, J. Y., on labourers' cottages, a
second-prize essay, x. 400.

Magnesia, its affinity for water (Schubler),
xvii. 464 ; forms wet soil, ih. ; its sili-
cates, talc, steatite, and serpentine, ih.
VOLS. I. — XXV.

mangold-wuktzel.

SIagnesian limestone, see " Limestone."
IMagnxs, Prof., his analvses of soils, xxv.

98.
Main, J., on cottage gardening, ii. 322.
, on the orobanche or broom-rape, and

prunella vulgaris or self-heal, plants

injurious to clover, i. 173.
IVIaize, see "Indian corn."
]\Ialic acid, its presence in apples and

chemical formula (Cadle), xxv. 84, 86.
IMalm, or grey marl, analysis of, by J. T.

Way, xii. 551.
Malpighi's discovery of the red cells in

blood, xxi. 212.
Malt, by malting barley a portion of its

starch passes into sugar (Fownes), iv.

505.
, the effect of feeding sheep on

malted and umnalted barley (J. B.

Lawes), x. 305, 317, 324, 326.

, analysis of, xiii. 522.

Malt-combs, analysis of (Way), xvii. 271.

]VIalt-dust, analysis of, xiii. 522.

, its composition (Stockhardt), xix.

237.
Malva rotundifolia, see " Marshmallow,

the round-leaved."
sylvestris, see " Marshmallow, the

common."
Malvern springs, analysis of (Phillips)

xvii. 441.
Mammary gland of cow, see " Cow."
Man, analysis of excreta of, see " Night-
soil."

, analysis of, xiii. 506.

Manby', Eev. E. F., on the cultivation of

early potatoes, xviii. 98.
]VL\NGOLD-wuRTZEL, ou the Comparative

feeding qualities of, and tuinips, by

Earl Spencer, 11. 296.
, on the cultivation of, by W. Miles,

ii. 298.
, this root not attacked by fly, slug, or

wlreworm ( Miles >, ii. 299.
, its seeds must not be buried too deep,

ii. 299 ; dibbling, ib. ; the seed does not

drill well, ib. ; steeping the seed, ib. ;

analysis of Swedish turnips and white

turnips compared with three varieties

of mangold-wurtzel, by Davy and Here-
path, 298.
, grown on the ridge system (Miles),

ii. 299.
, the after culture and storing, Mr.

Bliles adopts the same as for swedes, ii.

299.

, exliausters of the .soil, il. 300.

, of the orange globe, il. 300 : when

the seed should be sown, ib. ; the tilth,

ih. ; its use in feeding, ih.
, Earl Lovelace on, iv. 21 ; plough-

114 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

MAXGOLU-WUBTZEL.

ing for it, ib. ; dunging, ih ; ploughs
and subsoUs, ib. ; sows on tlie ridge, ib. ;
setting out the rows, ib. ; suhsoiling a
second time, ib. ; taking up of the root,
22 ; the succeeding crop, ib. ; the rota-
tions on his farm at Ockham, ib.; tlic
weight of the root - crops, mangolil,
swedes, and carrots, gi-own, 1831 to
3842, at Ockham, 23; on the feeding
properties of, contrastetl with swedes,
by C. Hilyard, an experiment in favour
of swedes, iv. 274.

Mangold-wtrtzel, estimate of the ex-
pense of, in Essex, by R. Baker, v. 23.

■ , growth of, iu Cambridgeshire

(Jonas), vii. 45.

, on the analysis of the ashes of, by

J. T. Way, viii. l.")7.

, on the cultivation of, by G. E. Rayn-

bird, a prize essay, viii. 209 ; the soils
best adapted for, ib. ; the prcparatioii of
the land for, 210 ; trial on steeping the
seeds of, 215 ; varieties of Held beet,
217; mode and expense of taking up
the crop, 218 ; mode of storing, 220 ;
its advantages for f(M>ding stock, 222.

, gi'owth of, in SuftbUc, viii. 271.

• , on the insects which affect, by J.

Curtis, viii. 3'.»D.

• , amount of dry matter in the crop

gi'own at Rothamsted in 1847
(Lawcs\ viii. 5G3.

• , of the funguses of, by the Kev. E.

Sidney, x. 394.

, on the cultivation of, Avith carrots in

alternate rows, by P. Pusey, xii. 580.

' , Colonel JlacDoiKiU's experiments

with, and bcanmeal, iu feeding cattle,
xiii. 113.

, on the manufacture of sugar from

beet, by J. "Wilson, xiii. 144.

■ , on the growth of lx?etroot m Franco,

Germany, and Russia, for sugar, iii.
144.

— — , plants transplanted from seed-beds
in Belgium and Germany, xiii. 14G.

, section of a beetroot, xiii. 150.

— — , disposal on the contment of refuse
of makers of beet sugar for feeding
purposes, xiii. 159.

, analysis of (Way^, xiii. 160.

, analysis of, xiii. 458.

• , growth of, on light flinty chalk soils,

XV. 101 ; on the light sandy soils of
Norfolk, 120.

■ , growth of, in Oxfordshire (Read),

XV. 208.

* , Manure for (J. Caird), xvli. 400.

, cultivation of (C. Paget>, xvii. 403 ;

produce per acre and feeding quantities,
ib. ; roots, 404 ; manure for, 405 ;

leaves not to be stripped till after
October, 406.

JIaxgold-wvktzel root, two years old, its
composition (Dr. Voelckcr), xx. 131 ; its
analysis, large percentage of water,
small of sugar, »S:c., and much salt,
132.

, with a high temperature and a rich

.soil, is a true biennial (Russell), xx.
490 ; its tendency to run to stalk and
flower, ib.

, effects of salt on (Voelcker), xxv.

242.

]\L\NGOLD pulp (distillery refuse) its com-
position and nutritive properties (Dr. A.
Voelcker), xxi. 97 ; methods of distil-
lation adopted by Lei)lay and Cliam-
ponnois, ib. ; beetroot ilistillery in
^Vilts, ib. ; composition of pulp, 97-8 ;
cause of its acidity, 98 ; eagerly eaten
by pigs, ib. ; composition of mangold
root, and changes effected by distilla-
tion, 99 ; analyses of dry roots and dried
pulp, 100-1; pectinous compounds, i6. ;
percentage of fattening materials and
cmde fibre, 102 ; eft'ect of nitrogenous
food on butcher's meat, ib.; feeding
experiments with Cotswold sheep on
roots and on pidp, 103; results in fa-
vour of roots, 104; feeding value of
pulp, 105.

, on the growth of, P. D. (P. H.

Frcre), xxiii. 441 ; experiments with
artificial against Peruvian guano, ib.;
character of the season and previous
crop, 442 ; preparation of the land, 443 ;
statement of experiments on Sir E.
Kerrison's farm, 444 ; Discussion — Mr.
Holland on the autumn application of
manure, 445 ; ^Ir. Holland, Mr. Can-
trcll, and Mr. Peel on the possibility of
growing consecutive crops of mangold,
446 ; Sir E. Kerrison and IMr. Frere on
the use of salt, 447 ; IMr. AVeUs, lilr.
Holland, and Mr. Frere, on the proper
width for drilling, 447.

, experiments on transplanting (W.

Gurdon), xxiv. 221 ; care of tap-roots
essential, 222 ; management and results,
223 ; implement for dibbling seed, ib. ;
formation of seed-bed, 224; cost and
mode of transplanting, ib.

, on the cultivation of, with swedes

(C. Lawrence), xxv. 248.

INIangox, H., on obstructions in draining-
tiles (translated by J. E. Denison), xvii.
625.

]\L4:n-ufactcred cattle food, see " Food."

3L\xrr.ES, Dr. Daubeny on the scientific
principles by which the applications of
manures should be regulated, ii. 232.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWEXTY-FIVE.

Ill

jManuees, earthy matters of soils, how
derived, ii. 241.

, every kuown phxnt contains an al-

kaU, ii. 243.

, phosi^liatc of lime generally difilised

in rocks, ii. 244.

, the amoimt of bases in a plant, ii.

245.

, the alkalies and earth in the fir, ii.

245.

, oxygen added to the air, ii. 24G.

, the carbon which plants contain, ii.

251.

, the carbon in ligneous bodies, ii.

253.

, hydrogen, ih,

, oxygen, •ib.

, the niiti-itive qualities of different

articles of food, ii. 255.

, ammonia in rain-water, ih.

, eflect of germination as to the pro-
portion of nitrogen in seeds, ii. 257.

, experiments on, with turnips, by W.

Mdes, ii. 2(J4.

, on glue-di-op for tiunips, -ib.

, Boussingault on the addition of sub-
stances containing nitrogen, ii. 309.

• , on the necessity of compounding

mineral manures, by F. Falkener, i.
418 ; the sea-sand of Cornwall, iii. 34.

, the vraic or kelp-ashes of Jersey,

Colonel le Couteur on, 45.

, on different, as a substitute for

bones, by W. Marshall, iii. 165.

, on the use and application of rape-
dust, by J. Hannam, iv. 177.

, the proportion of gluten, in vrheat

varies with the manure employed, iv.
179. See " Nitrogen."

, that of stall-fed animals compared

with that of the farmyard, iv. 246.

, experiments on, by F. Clowes, iv.

281.

, the action of, by Dr. Fownes, iv.

535.

, farmyard horsedtmg analysed by Dr.

Fownes, iv. 539. See " Horsedung."

■ , two classes of maniu-es, iv. 540.

, bones, fish, guano, Dr. Fownes on,

iv. 542.

employed in Cheshire (Palin), v. 89 ;

marl, 90 ; lime, ib. ; guano, 91 ; nitrate
of soda, ib.

, experiments on, by Sir" W. Heath-
cote, V. 277.

, trial of several artificial, by W.

jMiles, V. 394 ; Daniel's manure, farm-
yard dvmg, guano, 5-inch bones, and
Stott's salts, 395.

■ , on making compost-heaps from li-

qiuds and other substances, by James

Dixon, a prize essay, i. 135. See
" Farmyard manure."

Mantres, animal, on, by Dr. C. Sprengel,
i. 455 ; the age and kind of the animal
producing it, and the kind of food used,
458; the water used by cattle, influ-
ence of, 459 ; the excrements of neat
cattle, ib. ; solid, 460 ; liquid, 464 ; rape-
cake mixed with urine in Belgium,
471 ; guile described, 475 ; ahl or dung-
hill di-ainage, 479 ; the excrements of
sheep, 481 ; folding, effect of, 485 ;
excrements of the horse, 488 ; excre-
ments of pigs, 491 ; excrements of
poultry, 493 ; on nightsoil, 494.

employed in Nottinghamshire (Cor-

ringham), vi. 34.

• , on nitrate of soda as a top-dressing

for grass-land in Windsor Park, xiii.
347 ; for barley, by P. Pusey, 349 ; for
wheat, by H. M. Kcaiy, 366 ; and by
T. Garnett, 368.

, the cultivation of a farm in SUesia

by artificial manure alone for 14 years,
by Mr. Piotschke, xiii. 564.

, the number of sheep required to

manm-e an acre of land (Morton), i. 404.

, experiments with, on barley, by

Mr. Sim, i. 418.

employed in Cornwall (Ivarkeek), vi.

438.

, use of the white-mustard plant as,

by T. C. Burroughes, vii. 33.

for turnips, on, by E. "Wagstaff,

viii. 225.

, their influence on the quaUty of

wheat, by J. B. Lawes, viii. 235.

, mineral, the general result of their

employment, by J. B. Lawes, viii. 259.

, management of, in Suffolk, de-
scribed by H. Eaynbu'd, viii. 303.

, management of, in Devonshire

(Tanner), ix. 466 ; lime, 468 ; sea-sand,
469 ; seaweed, ib.

for hops, S. Eutley on, ix. 561.

used in South Wales (Eead\ x. 142 ;

seaweed, sea-sand, ib ; lime, 143 ; marl,
ib. ; Coal-ashes, 144 ; paring and bm-n-
ing, ib.

adapted for hemp (Eowlandson), x.

173 ; nightsoil, ib.

, on sheep-feeding and maum'e, by J.

B. Lawes, part I., x. 276.

, on the power of the soil to retain,

by H. S. Thompson, xi. 68.

, on the i^ower of soils to absorb, by

J. T. Way, xi. 323 ; second paper, xiii.
123. See " SoUs."

• , management of, by P. Pusey, xi.[414.

■ used in Somcrsetshu-e ('Acland), vii.

740; silt or mud, 741.

h 2

116 GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTUEAL JOURNAL.

Mani-bes, analyses, by J. T. Way, of seal-
skin, xi. 7G5 ; horsehair, horn-shavings,
feather-dust, and scutch, 76G ; animal
manure, 767 ; box manure, 768 ; sewer-
water, 769.

, on the mineral manure of Liebig,

and on the mineral theory of manures,
by J. B. Lawes, xii. 1, 16; on the con-
tinuous growth of wheat on tlie same
soil, manured with various salts and
other substances, xii. 12, 16.

, on various manures for turnips, xii.

33.

, management of, in Lincolnshire

(Clarke), xii. 391.

employed in Northamptonshire

(Bearn), xiii. 74.

, analysis of the manure produced

from sewage-water at Cardiff gaol, by
T. J. Herepath, xiii. 197; tlic process
described, 198; manure analysed, /?>.

employed in Cumberland (W. Dick-
inson), xiii. 235.

, analysis of solid manures of tlie

farmyard, xiii. 482.

, of box-made, ib,

, stable, ib.

, man, ib.

, horse, ib,

, cow, ib.

, slicep, ib.

, 23is» '^-

, poultrj-, ib,

, pigeon, ib.

, guanos, ib.

, use of, in East Lothian (Stevenson),

xiv. 303.

, effect of farmyard manure on wheat

and potatoes, by Lord Kimiaird, xiv.
337.

, on the natural law by wliich nitrate

of soda acts as a manure, and on its
substitution for guano, by P. Pusey,
xiv. 374 ; trials on oats with, 380.

, on farmyard compost, some of the

chemistry of fP. Pu-'^ey), xiv. 381; on
the practice of adding lime to, ib.

■ , those used in Surrey (Evershed),

xiv. 404.

, on the use of town sewage as, b}' J.

T. Way, XV. 135. See "Sewer-water."

used in Oxfordshire (Eead), xv.

238.

used in Dorsetshire (Ruegg\ xv. 433.

, experiments with, for tiu-nips, by

K. Bourne (flesh manm-e, guano, shoddy,
&c.), xvi. 88.

, on the comparative value of different

artificial manures for raising a crop of
swedes, with remarks on tlie composi-
tion of the mu allies employed in ex-

perimental trials at Cirencester, by Dr.
A. Voelcker, xvi. 90.

]\LiisURES, on the conveyance of mineral
manm-es by railway (Trimmer), xvi.
134.

, used in Buckinghamshire (Eead),

xvi. 303 ; chalk, 304.

, exix}rimcnt on the elementary jnin-

ciples of, as ajiplicd to the growth of
wheat, by P. Pusey, xvi. 529.

, on the value of artificial, by J. T.

Way, xvi. 533 ; ammonia the manure
for cereals, phosphate of lime for root-
crops, 535 ; effect of difference of soil
and climate on, ib. ; the commercial
value of ammonia, 536 ; of tiie various
other artificial manures, 537-539 ; aua-
l)'ses of, 78 ; specimens of guano, 549 ;
of 171 specimens of suiierphosphate of
lime, 549.

, fish, e/ijfrois j90t8soji,at Parig(185G),

xvii. 53.

, its use and i^reservation in Durham

xvii. 110.

, solubility of (Way), xvii. 124.

, farmyard (Dr. Voelcker), see " Farm-
yard manure."

for meadow-land (Lawes and Gil-
bert), see " Meadows, manures for."

(London), carriage by rail (Spear-
ing), xxi. 22.

, " mineral " and " organic " defined

bv Blr. Lawes in reply to Baron Liebig,
xxiv. 506.

of the farm, on the application of,

prize essay (Prof. Tanner;, xxi. 329;
animal manurt^ intennixed with straw,
ib. ; its application to clay .soils,
330 ; superiority of fresh to rotten dung
for fallows, 331 effects of fermentation
in the soil, ib. ; its market value (Dr.
Voelcker), ib. ; manuring for mangolds,
333; use of long manure for swedes,
ib. ; manure for potatoes and cabbage,
334 ; and the bean crop, 335 ; cereals,
ib. ; artificial grasses, 336 ; summary
for clay soQs, 337 ; fodder crops on
sandy loams, Hj. ; treatment of hungry
soils, 338 ; their root-crops, 339 ; dung
lor artificial grasses, 340 ; feeding seeds
in autiunn, 341 ; when to apply dung
to corn crops, ib. and note (P. H. F.),
342 ; summaiT for sandy soils, ib ;

., quality economical, 343; INIr. Pusey's ex-
periments, large and small dressings,
ib.\ animal manures without straw, 344 ;
the fold and use of hmdles, ib. ; ma-
nagement of clover-seed, 345; Mr.
Hope's sj-stem, ib. ; night-folding, 346 ;
stalls with oiJen floors, ih. ; liquid ma-
nure, ib. ; the box and pit system, 347 ;

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

117

treatment of fermenting manure, ib. ;
irrigation, 348 ; eflects of dilution, ib. ;
chemical changes, ib. ; effects on arti-
ficial grasses and corn, 349 ; time of
aijplioation, ib.

M,\NURES, liquid of a farm. See " Liquid
manm-e."

, portable, on their home manufacture

(A. S. Maxwell\ xxui. 270 ; bones and
their products, 271 ; materials and ap-
pliances for making superphosphate,
272 ; Peruvian guano the cheapest
source of ammonia, 273 ; mistm'e of
superphospliate and guano, ib. ; experi-
ments by the Inverness Farmers' So-
ciety on the growth of tmniips with,
different manm-es, ib. ; ammonia-liquor
from gas-works, fermented bones, and
dead carcasses, 275 ; value of a dead
horse, 276 : buying manure with a
guaranteed analysis, ib.

, artificial, on their commercial value

(Dr. Voelcker), xxiii. 277; valuation
tables and reduced cost of well-pre-
pared mamu'es, ib. ; caution as to pub-
lished analyses, 278; deceptive valu-
ations, 279 ; money value of manure
constituents, 280 ; relation of selling
price to calculated value, ib. ; consider-
ations afiecting the commercial value
of soluble phosphates, 281 ; concentrated
samples, ib. ; value of nitrogen in dif-
ferent forms, 284 ; calculated and com-
mercial value of farmyard manure, 283 ;
errors of theorists, ib. ; province of the
agricultural chemist, ib.

, on the efifect of different mamires

on the mixed herbage of grass-land
(Lawes and Gilbert), xxiv. 131. See
" Grass-land."

, on improved methods of making and

keeping (Mr. Thompson, M.P.), xxv. 48.

, artificial, diminution of adulterations

in (Dr. Voelcker), xxv. 236.

, a lecture on the effects of different

manures on grass-lands (Dr. Voelcker),
xxiv. 639 ; considerations afiecting the
value of pasture-land, ib. ; selection of
fertilisers, ib. ; classification of manures,
640 ; effect of nitrates, 641 ; improve-
ment of pastiures, ib. ; liming, 642 ;
fiirmyard manure, salt, bone-dust, 643 ;
treatment of cold wet land, 644; re-
capitulation, 645 ; Discussion, — report
on experiments at Rothamsted (Mr.
Thompson, M.P.), 646; cesspool manure
(Sir G. Jenkinson and Dr. Voelcker),
ib. ; remarks on Dr. Voelcker' s recom-
mendations (Mr. Dent, M.P.), ib. ;
queries and reply fSir J. Johnstone and
Dr. Voelcker), 647; Prof. Buckman's

botanical report, 648; the experimental
plots at Rothamsted (Mr. Thompson,
M.P.), 651 ; the time for applying farm-
yard manure, 652.

Manures, cost of London dung, xxv. 285.

, Flemish (nightsoil), report on its

use by the Agricultural Society of Lille
(translated by P. H. Frere), xxiii. 317 ;
replies to queries by M. Huet, C.E., of
theDepartement des Pouts et Chausse'es,
ib. ; question 1, as to its exclusive use,
ib. ; 2, whether suitable to some lands
more than others, 318 ; 3, whether
adapted for all sorts of crops, 319 ; 4,
quantity recommended for wheat culti-
vation, ib. ; 6, the proper time for using
it, ib.

Manure-distributoes, trial of, at Salis-
bury (1857), xviii. 419, 434.

, at Leeds (1861), xxii. 455.

]Many-spiked cord-grass, xv. 466.

M.U' of the Clipstone water-meadows
(Denison), i. 360.

of N. Wales (Rowlandson), vii. 588.''

of the Great Level of the fens (J. A.

Clarke), viii. 132.

of Suffolk (Raynbird), viii. 262.

of Northmnberland (Colbeck), viii.

436.

of the East Riding of Yorkshke

(Legard), ix. 85.

— — of the West Richng of Yorkshire

(Charnock), ix. 284.
of the North Ritlhig of Yorkshire

(Milburn), ix. 496.

■ of Lancashire (Garnett), x. 2.

of South Wales (Read), x. 122,

of the Atlantic ocean in connexion

with the climate of Britain (Whitley),

xi. 1.
of the British Islands, the lines of

winter cold (Simpson), xi. 617; in

illustration of the temperatures of the

atmosphere in January and June, ib.

of Somersetshire (Acland), xi. 666.

of Lincolnshire (Pusey), iv. 302 ;

(Clarke), xu. 259.

of the crag formation (Herepath),

vii. 95.

■ of part of North -East America (John-
ston), xiii. 8, xiv. 1.

of Northampstonshire (Beam), xiii.

44.

of Cumberland (Dickinson), xiii.

247.

of Derbyshire (Rowley), xiv. 1 8.

• ■ of Surrey (Evershed), xiv. 396.

of Herefordshire (Rowlandson), xiv.

433.

of the river Nene (Clarke), xv. 43.

of Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 189.

118 GENEEAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Map of Dorsetshire (Euegg), xv. 390.

of Buckinghamslm-e (Head), xvi.

269.

• of Warwickshiro (Evershed), xvii.

474.

• of Shropshire (H. Tanner), xix. 1,

, see also " Geological Maps."

Makacaibo guano (Dr. Voelcker), xxi.]361.

Mabcet, on effects of radiation on the
earth's surface, xvii. 415.

Maechand's lacto-butyrometer, xxiv. 315.

Mare, on the detection of pregnancy in
(W. Youatt :, i. 170.

Margarine, its character and properties
(Horsfall), xvii. 2S0 ; its relation to
olein in summer and winter, xviii. 179.

Markilvji, Gervase, on shecji-rot (' Cheapo
and good Husbandry,' a.d. 1614), xxiii.
71.

MARKwiav's account of the purple-clover
weevil, xviii. 45.

Marl burnt into ashes, by F. Pym, iii.
325.

■ , analysis of the fossiliferous green,

by J. T. Way, xii. 550 ; of the grey
marl or malm, 551.

——, peat analysed, xiii. 53(3 ; clay, ih. ;
chalk, ih. ; upi)er grecusand, ih. ; lower
greensand,«6. ; magnesian, ih. ; iJowdery,
ih.

, red, soils, rotation on in Derbyshire
(Rowley), xiv. 60.

, the agricultural importance of those

of the New Forest, by J. Trimmer, xvi.
125 ; the " shell marl " and the " cherry
marl," 134.

Marling, the experience of IVlr, W. Lin-
ton, at Sherriff Hiuton, near York, ii.
67. 5ee" Soils."

• at F. Pym's at the Hazels in Bed-
fordshire, described by P. Pusey, iii.
216.

> , advantages found by a repetition of,

in Germany (Burncss,. iii. 233.

■ of a light sandy soil on the Duke

of Bedford's farm at 'Woburn, iii. 233;
a second time, 23i ; the clay employed,
ih.

' or claying land, by F. Overman, iii.

235 ; used upon gravelly and sandy
soils, and on the moorland, ib. ; labour,
time of marling, 235 ; marling corrects
acidity and gives solidity, 236.

• in Norfolk (Almack\ v. 309.

in Mecklenburgh (S. Carr), i. 126.

• , the analysis of a marl which, having

been used as a manure, rendered the
subsequent application of bones inope-
rative, by Dr. Lyon Playfair, vi. 575.

' in Suffolk, the soils to which it is

applicable (Eajnibird), viii. 312.

]Marlin-g in South "Wales fEead). x. 143.

, P. Pusey on, xi. 407.

, in Warwickshire (Evershed), xvii.

492.

, the stone marl at Alvanley, near

Delamere Forest, a first-rate di-essing for
pasture (Dixon), xix. 217.

Marsilvll, J., a report on the feeding of
stock with prepared food, and descrip-
tion of the apparatus used, a prize
essay, vii. 391.

jVIarsh bent-grass, or squitch fiorin, its
growth in different situations (Buck-
man), XV. 468; its soils and habits
(Buekman), xvi. 360; xvii. 517; how
affected by manures (F. Lawes), xx.
257.

IMae^ulaxd, J. Murton on the improve-
ment of, iv. 580.

of Essex (Plaistow), lets for 4Z. to 57.

per acre, v. 33.

and wolds (R. Smith), xvii. 352.

of Sleswig and ilolsteiu (H. Eai-

nals), xxi. 267.

jMarsilmallow, the common, its soils and
habits (Buekman), xvi. 360.

, tlie round-leaved, xvi. 360.

IMaiwuwoou, vale of (Euegg), xv. 420.

IULartix, Prof., on the growth and qualities
of burnet, xxiii. 141.

, IMr. E., liis sale of shorthorn cattle,

1829, xix. 359.

Martin Mere, in Lancashire, on the
drainage of a portion of it, by H. White,
xiv. 156.

Mary, M., his engineering works in Paris,
(P. H. Frere), xxiii. 341.

JIascall, L., on sheep-rot (' Government
of Sheepe,' a.d. 1587), xxiii. 71.

I\L\ssACHUSETS, the otter-shaped sheep of
(Dun), xvi. 17,

Mastication, the force employed in, re-
duced by chaff-cutting (Playfair;, iv.
234.

Matricaria chamomilla, see " Chamo-
mile, wild."

M.\vor's report on the agriculture of
Berks (1809), xxi. 2.

IMawskins, a recijje for curing the (Palin),
vi. 123.

i\lAXiJiA, Agricultural (J. C. Morton), xx.
442 ; instances of large produce have
happened rather than been sought, yet
their record of use, 443 ; Mr. Thomp-
son's steer, 22 mo. old, 7 st. 10 lbs., ih. ;
animals well fedhom birth exceed their
estimated weight, ih. ; Mr. Shuley's
Hereford, 2 yrs. 6 mo., 87 st. Olbs., th.;
Mr. J. A. Clarke's long-woolled sheep,
444; BIr. Bush's mangold seed, ih.;
Mr, C. Holmes's beans, Sb\ bush, per

VOLUMES OXE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

119

acre, ih. ; ]\Ir. Blundell's carrots, 37 tons
12f cwt. per acre, 4i5 ; Mr. Wilkinson's
wheat, 11 qrs. 2 biisli. per acre (ISl-l),
ib. ; his average yield, 447 ; Mr. Wil-
son's (Eddington Mains), crops of oats,
beans, barley, and wheat, ib. ; oats on
Whittield farm, 131 qrs. per acre, 448 ;
value of lime on sandy soil, ib. ; man-
gold (]Mr. Smith, Woolston), 55 tons per
acre. Col. Noi-th, 64 tons ; potatoes (ilr.
Simpson, Teawig), 14| tons per acre
nearly, 450 ; Mr. Grey (Dilston), on the
value of autumn preparation for, 451 ;
and of seed set in spring with shade.
ib.; rye-grass (Mr. Telfer), SO to 100
tons in two years, 452 ; wheat, at Lois
Weedon, ib. ; subdivision and admixture
of manure as well as of soil to be sought,
453.
Maxims of the Dutch farmers, see " Agri-
culture of Netherlands."

in feeding live stock, see " Food of

live stock."

, " the last food pays best," iv. 264.

, the error of Arthur Young, when

he said of Lincohi heath, " very little

remains to do," iv. 302.
, " every blackcock killed by its

owner on Exmoor costs more than a

full-fed ox," iv. 309.
, the Spanish saying, " wherever the

fodt of the sheep touches the land is

turned into gold," vi. 5.
' , "grass should be 12 hours old for

a sheep and 12 days for a bullock," xii.

387.

in Cumberland, " more dejiends on

the rearing of stock than the kinds of
stock," xiii. 253; "the laziest sliep-
hed has always the best dog," 270 ;
the old and bad farmer's axiom, " switch
is the mother of grass," 273.

on the Derbyshire heavy soils,

" plough dee^D to find the gold," xiv.

2S.
, a Suri'ey maxim, " all stock from its

buih to its death should be constantly

fattening as well as growing," xiv. 84.
' , an old exploded Surrey, " bailey

after mowing must be exposed to nine

dews," xiv. 87.
' , " the worse bred the female, the

more likely is the offspring to resemble

a well-bred sire," Lord Speucer, xiv.

223.
, "substances strengthen vegetation

mainly by their contents of nitrogen,"

P. Pusey, xiv. 377.
, " like produces like," the breeder's

axiom, on, by F. Dun, xvi. 40 (H.

Tanner), xxii. 1.

Maxims, " no foot no horse " (W. MUes),
xviii. 271.

, " tit the shoe to the foot not tho

foot to the shoe" (W. Miles), xviii.
2S3.

, " ammonia the spirit of the farm "

(Huxtable), xviii. 330.

, " the sheep has a foot of gold, and

turns to gold whatever it touches," Per-
sian proverb, xix. 253.

, " the underwood will buy the horse,

the wood the saddle," see " Hampshire
farming," xxii. 308.

, " better to have muck in the stook

than muck in the stack," xxiii. 214.

, " blood gives pace, pace is power "

(Dickinson), xxiv. 269.

Maxwell, A. S., on portable manures and
th.eir home manufacture, xxiii. 270.

IMeadows, see "Grass-lands."

in Oxfordshire subject to floods

(Read), xv. 219.

, the weeds of (Buckmau), xvi. 379.

floated, in Warwickshu-e, xvii. 489.

, mode and management of (Horsfall),

xviii. 18] ; first and second mowings,
when and their yield, ib. ; rapid growth
of cocksfoot grass, 182. See " Hay-
making."

, manures for (Lawes and Gilbert),

xix. 552 ; reference to former articles
by various writers, 553 ; the quality as
well as quantity of permanent grass
influenced by culture, ib. ; action of
special manures on grasses and legumes,
554 ; distinction between annuals and
perennials, ib. ; experiments described,
and former treatment of tlie land, 555 ;
no new seeds sown, ib. ; manures ai^plied
and date of their application, 556 ; de-
scription of crop taken, 557 ; table of
produce of hay with dift'erent manures,
558 ; the hay crop how influenced by
the season, 555-7 ; the average hay crop
a sufficient test of manm-e emijloyed,
5G0 ; tiie results not disturbed by sheep
feeding, ib. ; the unmanured plot shaded
by trees, ib. ; sawdust of no avail, 561 :
grasses increased by ammonia, ih. ; le-
gumes increased by minerals, 562 ; com-
bined action of ammonia and minerals,
ib.; ammonia more required by grass
than by grain crops, ib.; eat v/neat-
straw inoperative as manure, 563 ; eftect
of minerals witii double supply of am-
monia in producing rank growth, 564 ;
iiitrate of soda, tried one year, less
efi'eetual than ammonia, 565 ; chy sub-
stance of hay, its higli percentage of
nitrogen, 566 ; farmyard manure, ib. ;
both its minerals and ammonia opera-

120 GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

tive, but ammonia not all available, 567 ;
table of aftergrass and sheep-feed cal-
culated as hay, 5G9 ; aftergrass increased
by artificial manm'es, 570 ; in the fore-
going experiments the second croj) re-
turned to the laud by feeding, 571 ;
practical conclusions, 573 ; bones only
suited to special localities, ib. ; salts of
potash too dear for general use, ib. ;
guano witli nitrate of soda a good
dressing, ib. ; Ix-nefits resulting from
dung ai^plied at intervals,/?). — Part II.
Produce of constituents per acre, xx.
229 ; tables showing amount of hay,
of dry substance, of mineral matter, and
of nitrogen per acre, and proportion of
nitrogen recovered and not recovered,
231-23G; the dry niattLi- — uuiuanured,
1 ton per acre, with manure, up t^ 2J
tons, 230 ; carbon in hay 40 per cent.,
ib. ; direct supply not required, espe-
cially for graminea3, and increase of 12
per cent, gained, 237 ; more mineral
matter in hay than in corn crop, eitlier
vmmanured or with ammonia only, 238;
farmyard manure slow of action, ib. ;
potash especially exhausted on meadow,
ib.; nitrogen in unmanured hay more
than in com crop, 239 ; legumiiiosaj
fostered by minerals gave yet more
nitrogen, ib. ; double standard of com-
parison, either immanured plot or mixed
mineral manures, 240; the first pre-
fen-ed, ib. ; the increase of nitrogen in
produce assumed to be entirely due to
the artificial supply — certainty unat-
tainable, 241 ; when combined with
minerals, an average of 48 per cent.,
243 ; excess of ammonia gave high jier ■
centage of nitrogen in produce, a ques-
tionable advantage, 243 ; but little more
nitrogen recovered in hay than in corn
crop, 244 ; probable causes of loss of
nitrogen, ib.; gi-amineaj require avail-
able nitrogen within the soU, 245;
recapitulation, ib. — Part III. Plants
developed by different manures, 24G ;
distinctive character of herbage, 247 ;
mode of taking samples with Dr. Pugh's
aid, ib. ; tabular list of plants, the per-
centage of each on selected plots, and
remarks on their growtli, 250; sum-
maiy of preceding table, 252 ; rye-grass,
how affected by manures, minerals pro-
moted, ammonia checked, seeding, 253 ;
Holcus L., woolly soft grass much in-
creased, especially in leaf, by niti-ogen,
255 ; the grass of bad repute and should
be excluded from seeds, ib. ; Arrheena-
iherum ^., oatlike grass, of early growth,
promoted by minerals, 255 ; Anthovan-

thum 0., sweet vernal grass, of doubtful
advantage, discouraged by artificials,
256; Aijrostis V., bent grass, and Briza
ilf., common quaking grass, discomuged
by manures, 257 ; Cynosurus C, crested
dogstail grass, dies out under manures,
258 ; Dactylis (?., rough cockslbot, fos-
tered by excess of ammonia, ib. ; Foa P.,
smooth-stalked meadow-grass, brought
out by farmyard manure, with ammonia
overpowered, 259; Bromus M., soft or
downy brome grass, to be avoided, put
little forward by manure, 260; Avena
P., meadow oat-grass, put little forward
by manure, 261 ; overdi-essings detri-
mental to herbage, ib. Leguminous
herbage. Vetclies, trefoil, and clover, in-
creased by minerals l.")-lol(l, diminished
by ammonia, 262. Miscillaiteous herb-
age. Plantugo L., rib grass or plantain,
diminished by all the dressings, 264 ;
Carum C, common caraway, diminished
or excludt'd by artificials, ib. ; Achilhea
M., Yarrow or Milfoil, favoiu'cd by am-
monia, ib. ; liumex. A., sorrel or dock,
favoured by manuring, but objection-
able, 265 ; ranunculus, crowfoot, and
other plants, decrea.sed by large dress-
ings, ib.; most weeds on unmanured i)lot.s,
and next on plots dresseil with farm-
yard manure and ammonia, 266 ; total
percentage of grasses and results with
dittercnt manures, 2(17 ; percentage of
legumes, 269 ; the difierences in the re-
quirements of grasses and legumes too
broad to be explained by local accident,
270; the action of a manure on any
given plant in a complex herbage con-
sidered, 271 ; recapitulation, 272 ; hay,
its comjwsition, 399; varying proportions
of grasses and legumes, 399 ; dry matter
table, 401 ; its percentage lowered by
anuuoniacal salts, 402; the mineral
matter increases with ripeness, 403 ;
table of percentages, 404 ; the seasons
1856, 1857, and 1858, 405; the direct
supply of minerals told on the results,
but the effects were complex, 406 ; de-
tailed composition of the ash, 407 ;
total amount removed per acre on se-
lected ])lots, ib. ; table of percentage
composition of the ash, 408 ; potash, its
primary importance, 409 ; the increased
drain of, in crop, when supplied in ma-
manm-e, ib. ; likewise increased per-
centage as compared with soda, lime,
magnesia, ib. ; phosphoric and carbonic
acid and silica required by grasses as
they ripen, 410 ; the natural supply was
defective, its amount in late crops was
doubled, whilst potash was quadrupled.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.'

121

411 ; total demand of a heavy liaycrop
on iniucraLs, 412; the ash not much
mflueuced hy seasons, 413 ; nitrocjen,
tahle of percentages in fresh hay and in
dry substance, 415; most found with
least dry matter, least ripening, 416 ;
high percentage in bulk of grass crops
grown with ammonia, although legumes
contain twice as mucli nitrogen as
grasses, 417 ; fall of percentage on ad-
dition of minerals, 418 ; nitrate of soda,
its action, 419; ammonia in the sap of
succulent plants (Yoelcker and Sulli-
van), ih. ; woo J 11 fibre, or indm'ated cel-
lular matter, 420 ; the results as varied
as the processes adopted by M. Segelcke,
ib. ; method pursued as basis of the
tables, ib. ; in some forms hardly dis-
tinguishable from starch, 422 ; analogy
between digestive agencies and weak

• chemical solvents, 422 ; table of per-
centages, 423 ; the table discussed, 424 ;
effects in a cold wet season of this, as of
nitrogen and minerals in the cruile pro-
ducts, 424; faity matter, 426; M. Se-
gelcke's method of extraction, ib. ; col-
lective view of the composition of the
hay, table, 429 ; mode of calculating the
proteine compounds, a caution, 428 ;
amount of mineral matter no criterion
of feeding value, 430 ; fatty matter not
l^ure fat, ib. ; Appendix, tables of du-
plicate determinations, 433.

Meadows, maniu'es foi-, report of further ex-
periments (Lawes and Gilbert), xxiv.
504 ; reference to former experiments,
and results of those of the 4th, 5th, 6tli,
and 7tli seasons, ib. ; statement of the
manuring of each \Aoi, 505 ; i^roduce of
hay per acre, first crop, ib.; table of
results, 530 ; average yield of hay
without manure, 506 ; character of
herbage changed liy manures, 507 ;
tendency of ammoniacal salts without
mineral manure to exhaust the soil,
508; progressive increase of produce
from use of nitrate, 509 ; fluctuating
produce from superphosphate alone,
■ih. ; increase from adding ammoniacal
salts, ib. ; effects of mixed mineral ma-
nure on leguminous plants, 509 ; annual
increase of hay from using minerals and
ammoniacal salts, 510 ; addition of cut
wheat-straw beneficial to the aftergrass,
511 ; increase of hay from using sili-
cates, lb. ; forcing hay crops by arti-
ficials alone condemned, ib. ; ammonia
salts and mixed minerals more bene-
ficial than their equivalent of nitrogen
in the form of nitrate, 512 ; effects of
farmyard manure compared with those

of artificials, 513 ; summary of deduc-
tions, ib. ; produce of aftergrass, ib. ;
weeldy average consumption of grass
by sheep, 514; allowance for manure
returned to the soil, ib. ; effects of tem-
perature conjointly with those of man-
ure, 515-516; chemical composition of
the hay, ib. ; a high percentage of dry
substance, of what indicative, 517 ; con-
siderations affecting the percentage of
nitrogen, ih. ; table of percentage of dry
matter in hay, 532 ; explanation, 518 ;
effects of heat and wet on the action of
certain manm'cs, ib. ; i^crcentage of ash
in hay, table, 533 ; explanation, 519 ;
table of percentages of nitrogen, 534 ;
explanation, 520 ; a high percentage of
nitrogen not a sure indication of high
feeding value, 521 ; produce of con-
stituents per acre, 535-7; explanation,
521 ; amount of dry substance and ni-
trogen removed yearly per acre, ib. ;
supply of carbon to growing jjlants, 522 ;
effects of different manures, 523 ; well
rotted dung the best means of restoring
mineral constituents of soil, 524 ; table
of produce of nitrogen per acre, 537 ;
explanation, 524 ; proportion of the ni-
trogen supplied in the manure which
is recovered as increased yield in the
crop, 525 ; tables, 538-9 ; correction of
former results by those of a longer trial,
527 ; comparison between wheat and
hay experiments, 528 ; discussion as to
the sources of the nitrogen of vegeta-
tion, 528; conclusions — effects of farm-
yard manure, alone and in combination
with artificials, 529.

]Meabow grasses, British, their natural
history (Buckman), xvii. 513.

barley-grass, analysis of (Way), xiv.

177 ; its growth in different situations,
XV. 468.

catstail-grass, analysis of (Way),

xiv. 177.

colcliicum (Buckman), xvi. 366.

fescue-grass, its growth in different

situations (Buckman), xv. 468 ; xvii.
534.

foxtail-grass, analysis of (Way), xiv.

177 ; its relative growth in different
situations (Buckman), xv. 468; xvii.
514.

grasses, analysis of, xiii. 466.

, J. Buckman on, xv. 466 ; effect of

irrigation upon, 467.

jMeal, of oat, Ijarley, maize, turnip, and
plantahi analysed, xiii. 522.

Measure work, on, a prize essay, by Hugh
Eaynbird, vii. 119. — Land measure,
124 ; mowing grasses, ib. ; mowing-

122 GENEEAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTUEAL JOURX.VL.

wheat, 125 ; reaping, ib. • harvest
work, 126 ; hoeing, ib. ; carrots, beets,
wheat, 127 ; harvesting, 12S ; root-
crops, «6.; clibhling, ib.; hauhning, 129;
paring and burning, ib. ; plougliiug,
130 ; thatching, 131 ; tUtching and
fencing, ib. ; lineal measiu-e, table of,
ib.; di-aining, 132; cubic measure, table
of, 133 ; lilting farmyard dung, 134 ;
tui'ning over manure-heaps, 135; bui-n-
ing peat-ashes, 13(! ; thrashing wheat
and barley, 137 ; table of corn-measure,
13ti ; tiTissmg hay, 138 ; shearing sheei),
ib.

BIeascee, Lord Portman on, vii. 140.

Measuring cattle, the method of, by
C. Hilyartl, iii. 337.

Meat, annual consumption of, by an
adult pursou (Way), xii. 585.

, Sir C. Lemon on the consumption

of, in France, i. 414 ; in England, 415.

■ , supplies of England and France

(Lavergne), xvii. 37.

, imports of, in 1S55-G, xix. 220.

Mechi, J. J., on burning clay, vii. 2'.)7 ;
ou its subsequent manuiing effects,
xiv. 224.

, on tliin sowing, vii. 537.

, analyses of his manure (Dr.

Voelckcr), xix. 535.

, Alderman, his liquid manm'c and

soil tested (Yoelckerj, xx. 154 ; power
of soil to retain ammonia, xxi. 117.

, on the use of green-ix)dded beans

as food for stock, xxv. 508.

Meciojixbcrg, rural economy of, by
J. S. Carr, i. 124 ; size of its fiirms, its
climate, the haken, ib.; wooden-teethed
harrows, ib ; its system of cultivation,
125 ; rape gi-own, use of gj^psum, 125 ;
rape-oil used for lamps, ib. ; a re-
munerating ci'op, ib. ; rotation of crops,
ib. ; manures, marl, use of, 126 ; pond-
mud and peat, ib. ; breed of horses, ib. ;
oxen cm))loyed, ib. ; dairy cows, 127 ;
iSaxon or Merino sheep, ib. ; first intro-
duced into Germany, ib. ; calculation
of the profit of a farm, 129; farm
servants, ib. ; their wages, ib. ; valuation
of tUffereut fleeces of wool, 131.

Medicago lupulina, see " Black medick."

sativa, see " Lucem."

Meetings of Royal Agricultural Society,
report ou the exhibition of implements
at Liveipool, ii. citi.

• Bristol, ii. 338.

Derby, iv. 453.

Southampton, v. 301.

Shrewsbury, vi. 303.

Ni/wca.stle,'vii. 681.

Xorthampton, vui. 330.

BlEETiyGS of Eoyal Agricultiu-al Society,

rei^ort on the exhibition of imi^lements

at York, ix. 377.

Norwich, x. 526.

Exeter, xi. 452.

(the works of all nations, 1851), xii.

587.

Lewes (1S52\ xiii. 301.

Gloucester (1853), xiv. 343.

Lincoln (1854), xv. 363.

Carlisle (1855', xvi. 505.

Chelmsford (1856), xvii. 564.

Salisbury (1857), xviii. 415.

Cliester (,ls5S), xix. 311.

Warwick (1859), xx. 313.

Canterbury (,1860), xxi. 488.

Leeds (1861', xxii. 450.

Battersea (1862), xxiii. 395.

Worcester (1863), xxiv. 480, 487.

Newcastle (1864), xxv. 391.

Melamiyulm arvcnse, see "Purple cow-
wheat."
IMicLiLOTis leucautha major, see " Clover,

Bokhara."
IMei.i.owness of feel explained, iv. 263.
i\lE.MiiEus of K. A. S., list of, xiv. xxiv.,

and xxii. x.wii. ; AppentUx, xxv.
jMenteath, Sir J. S., ou Scotch fir and

lurch, ix. 372.
Mentii.\ arvcnsis, see " Corn mint."
Mekino sheep, the, of Germany, i. 127

theii' wool, 131.

, of France, xiv. 215 ; crossmg of, ib.

, J. Wilson on, xvi. 238.

, of Denmark, xxi. 3U6.

]\Iei!(jde's auidysis of Loire water, xxii.

432.
Meslin, the "metail" of Flanders (rye

and wheat), sometimes sown together

rliham), iii. 249.
Metayek system in France, xxiv. 19.
31ETE0U0L0GY of Dcvonsiure (Tanner),

ix. 456.
in connexion with agriculture (Lord

Lovelace), ix. 311.
, on the climate of the British islands

in its effects on cultivation, by N.

Whitley, xi. 1. See "Climate."

, P. Pusey on, xi. 392.

, B. Simpson on, xi. 617.

of England (J. Glaisher), for the

quarter ending 31 March, 1857, xviii.

p. II. ; 30 June, iv. ; 30 September, x. ;

31 December, xn. ; 1858, xix. pp. ii.

and X. ; 1859, xx. pp. ii. and x. ; i860,

x.vi. pp. u. and x. ; 1861, xxii. ii. and

X. ; 1862, xxiii. ii. and iv. ; 1863, xxiv.

II. and X. ; 1864, xxv. n. and x.
Mica, analysis of, xiii. 532 ; xvii. 463.
Mice and rats, mode of destroying, by

J. S. Carr, iii. 428.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

MICEOSCOPE.

Microscope, the, its use in physiology
(Henfrey), xvii. 70.

Microscopic illusti-ations of minute organs
of i^lants, seeds, &c. (Henirey), xvii.
74-82, 2Mssim ; xviii. 376-402, passim.

Midge in wlieat (Henslow), ii. 22,

, precautious against, ii. 23.

, observations on, by J. S. Henslow,

iii. 36.

, observations on, by J. Ciutis, vi.

131.

, observations on, by E. Baker, vii.

273.

■ in Oxfordshii-e (Eead), xv. 213.

Milburn, M. M., on early spring feed,
ii. 215.

, on the farming of the North

Riding of Yorkshu-e, a prize report,
ix. 496.

Milch cows, weighings of (Horsfall),
xvii. 264, 272.

Mildew in wheat, Professor Henslow on,
ii. 9.

, on the precautions to be taken

against, ii. 9.

■ , supposed influence of berberiy-bush

in producing, ii. 13.

, J. S. Henslow on the specific iden-
tity of the fungi producing rust and
mildew, ii. 220.

■ , engraving of the fungi, ii. 220.

, the Eev. E. Sidney on, x. 384.

in Oxfordshire (Eead), xv. 212.

Miles (now Sir W)., on manures and the
growth of turnips, ii. 264.

, on the cultivation of maugold-wurt-

zel, ii. 296.

, report on the wheat selected for

trial at Cambridge and on other wheats,
iii. 391.

, on the growth of swedes, iii. 423.

, trial of several artificial manm-es,

v. 394.

, experiments with Poittevin's ma-
nure, i. 410.

on the wheat selected for trial at

Southampton, vi. 566.

• , trial of seedUng potatoes, viii. 420.

, W. (Exeter), on horseshoeing, xviii.

270,

Milk, on the comparative quality of the
milk from Alderney and Keriy (Irish)
cows in 1840 on the farm of E. Ciive,
by E. White, ii. 421.

• , on (Playfair) that of a woman,

cow, ass, iv. 238 ; what is found in
milk, ib. ; injmious effects to yomig
animals by feeding them with skim-
milk, iv. 239 ; substitute for new milk
in the feeding of young animals, 240 ;
Lord Spencer's practice, ih. ; the Duke

of Northumberland's practice, ih. ;
potash necessary to the formation of
milk, 247; the milk of a cow in a
meadow and of a stall-fed cow, ih. ; the
milk of the evening and that of the
morning, ih. ; the millv of a cow before
the calf has sucked, ih. ; sugar of milk,
248 ; on keeping animals which give
milk tranquil, ih. ; produce of poor
lauds, 250 ; Stilton, Chedder, and
Cheshii'e cheeses, composition of, 251 ;
different plants impart peculiar fla-
vours to milk, ih. ; the stall-fed cows
of Edinbiu-gh, 252 ; beans, effect of, on
milk, 253; the milk of a meadow-fed
cow, 252 ; the milk of a consumptive
cow, 253.

IMiLK, that from Irish and Ayrshii-c cows
compared, i. 442.

, one gallon of, in Chcsliire, its esti-
mated produce (Palin), vi. 114.

, the mould in milk a fungus (Sidney),

X. 397.

, the production of butter from, by

T. Eowlandson, xiii. 23; analysis of
skimmed milk, by Berzehus, ih. ; of
cream, ih. ; of new milk, 26 ; from cows
fed on thfferent food, ih. ; quantity of
butter yielded by new milk by baud
and by machine chiu'niugs, 38 ; in
Cheshire that from cows fed on clover
or vetches does not, it is thought, pro-
duce first-class cheese, 29.

■ , large produce of a Cumberland

cow (Dickinson), xiii. 255.

, rendered bitter by cows feeding on

certain plants (Euegg), xiv. 69 ; re-
moval of tm-nipy taste from, 72.

, annual produce of (Horsfall), and

its relation to ci'eam and butter, xvii.
267; summer milk poorer but more
abundant, 270 ; constituents of food
and milk compared, 273.

, illustration of its microscopical

appearance (J. B. Simonds), xix. 95 ;
formation of cream globules, butter-
milk and lactic acid, ih. ; separation
of curd from whey, and formation of
cheese, 96 ; causes affecting the quality
and quantity of milk, ib.

, analysis of (HaiiUen), xviii. 156,

, a lecture on (Dr. Voelcker), xxiii.

410 ; its constituents, ib. ; cause of its
wliite colour, 411 ; comi)osition of new
milk, ib.; quantity and quality, how
influenced, ih. ; composition of tho
milk of various animals, 412 ; analysis
of ewe's milk, 413; poverty of cow's
milk after repeated calving, ib. ; eflects
of climate and time of millcing, ib. ;
influence of race and breed, 414 ;

124 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

cream, how affected, 415; distillery
wash, a. ; use of lactometers, 416 ; spe-
cific gravity of cream, ib. ; Discussion,
418 ; advantage of shallow milk-pans,
ih. ; effects of bean-meal and grains,
419 ; tlio tube-lactometer not always
trustworthy, 420.
Milk, (Dr. Voelckcr), xxiv. 28G ; its cha-
racteristics and Bi^ccific gravity, ib. ;
microscopic apjDearance, il). ; its com-
position, ib. ; properties of curd or
casein, ib. ; how distinguished from
albumen, ib. ; action of rennet, 287 ;
casein femient, ib. ; analysis of casein,
288 ; vegetable casein, ib. ; presence of
phosphorus in casein and albiuninous
matters, ib. ; albumen, 289 ; sugar of
milk or lactose, ib. ; its analysis, 290 ;
change of lactose into lactic acid, ib. ;
ash of milk, its proportion and analysis,
ib. ; milk-globules, palmalin and stea-
rine, 291 ; chemical constituents and
changes of butter, ib. ; dairy arrange-
ments— importance of cleaiiliness, ib. ;
aspect, ventilation, and general con-
stiTiction of dairies, 292 ; temperature,
293 ; tin milk-pails, ib. ; Major Gus-
sanders pair and strainer, 294 ; glass
pans, 295 ; cream cisterns ; convenience
of shallow vessels, ib. ; temiDeraturo in
relation to acidification, 297 ; rising of
cream or milk globules, ib. : Sanuert's
expeiiment, ib. ; composition and spe-
cific gra\ity of cream, 298; conditions
affecting the yield of Ijutter, ib. ; skim-
milk, 299 ; effect of the period of milk-
ing, 300; distance from the time of
calving, 301 ; season and food, 302 ;
composition of morning and evening
milk at diflerent seasons, ib. ; collateral
experiments, 303 ; influence of food,
304 ; analyses of palm-nut kernel meal,
305 ; quality of milk aflected rather by
food than time of (hawing, ib. ; tribute
to Mr. Coleman, ib. ; Sir. Stnickmann's
experiments on the ibod, weight per
head, and milk-yield of cows, 30G ; con-
clusions, 307 ; influence of breed and
size of animals, ib. ; the AjTshire So-
ciety's miUv competitions, 308; experi-
ments with pure and cross-bred short-
horns, 309; analyses of milk, 310-11;
influence of size on milk-yield, ib ; Mr.
Ockel's experiments, 312; adulteration
and means of detection, ib.; eftocts of
food, 313; indications of richness, ib. ;
creamometers, ib. ; mode of using, 314 ;
Donne' s lactoscope, 315 ; M. Poggiales
use of Fchling's volumetrical copper-
test, ih.; Emile Mounier's test, 316;
M. Quevenne's lacto-densimeter and

creamometer, ib. ; Chevallier's galacto-
metre ccntesimale, ib. ; use of the hy-
drometer, ib. ; analyses of milk and
quantity of cream thro\vn up, 317 ; con-
clusions, 319.

]MiLK-FEVEi{ in cows (Sibbald), xii. 557.

, treatment for (Horsfall), xviii. 187.

Milking cows, on the operation of, by
T. Rowlandson, xiii. 30.

IMiixE, M., on recent sanitary works in
Paris, xxiii. 345.

IMiLLiPEDES described by J. Curtis, v.
228 ; those that infest the pea and bean
crop, vii. 404.

Mills for grinding fine meal, a report by
P. Pusey of those shown at the Great
Exhibition (in 1851), xii. 635.

, on those exhibited at the Lewes

meeting (in 1852), xiii. 317; at the
Glou.-cster meeting (1853), xiv. 361 ;
at the Canterbury meeting (1860), xxi.
500.

, water-mills, the obstacles they pre-
sent to the tkainage of land (Wood),
xiii. 369, 372.

, water-mills, their injurious cfi'cct.'?

in preventing the drainage of a district
(Henderson), xiv. 730-1-3-7; beneficial
results to drainage and to the public
health by their removal, 140; in the
Wey and Mole valleys (Evershed), xiv.
418.

, water-mills, the obstacles they pre-
sent generally to the drainage of a dis-
trict (Clarke), XV. 3; the obstmctive
mills fit' the Nenc, 61 ; encroachments of
the nailers, 67.

, their injurious effects in Dorset-
shire (Iluegg). XV. 427.

MiLi>s on the rot in sheep (Treatise on
rattle), xxiii. 67.

MiLWAKD, II., expei-iraent on drainage at
diflerent depths, xiv. 210.

, on improving grass-land (draining,

maum-ing;, xiv. 430.

, report on the exhibition of live

stock at the Gloucester meeting (1853),
xiv. 456.

, remarks on the show of horses at

the Newcastle meeting, xxv. 439.

MrNEBAL constituents of plants, the
(Fownes), iv. 523.

— — manures, the general result of their
employment, by J. B. Lawes, viii. 529.

.-,u])"stancLS eaten beneficially by pigs

Lawes), xiv. 472.

— — matters in drainage water, whence
derived (J. T. Way), xvii. 141.

substances, terrestrial or atmospheric,

(Liebig), xvii. 292; (Gregory-), 316.

]MiNEK.\Ls not generally needed by the

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

12'

wheat-crop (Lawes and Gilbert), xvii.
591 ; mineral and organic manures con-
trasted (Voeleker), xviii. 347 ; minerals
more serviceable to barley than wheat
(Lawes), xviii. 512.

Minerals, their action on meadows (Lawes
and Gillicrt), xix. 562.

manures, their action in the forcing

climate of the North American States
(Eussell), XX. 4S9.

Mining, its influence on agriculture
(Durham), xvii. 95.

MissELTOE, its habits (Buckman), xvi.
362 ; its injurious effect upon apple-
trees, 374.

Missouri showyard, on the (Hon. IM. B.
Portman), xviii. 417.

Mists, N. Whitley on, xi. 27.

, B. Simpson on, xi. 632.

Mitchell, J., on Eugby sewage, xxii. 94.

MoLE-CBiCKET, ou the, by J. Curtis, vii.
432.

Molinia coerulea (melica), see "Puri^le
melic-grass."

IMoll's process of j^reserviug timber (Dr.
Eichardson), xx. 7.

MoLLEBART, a levelling implement of the
Dutch farmer (Eham), ii. 61.

IMoNCK, J. B., on the management of a
suburban farm, a jirize essay, xxv. 327 ;
monthly calendar of operations on the
farm (Eev. W. H. Beevor), xviii. 331.

MoNTc's Island guano (Dr. Voeleker), xxi.
361.

Moody, Lieut.-Govcrnor, on the tussae-
grass of the Falkland Islands, iv. 17,
vii. 72. See " Tussac-grass."'

, further account of the tussac-grass,

v. 50.

IiIooN, its influence on the weather and
on agricultural operations (Lord Love-
lace), ix. 339.

BIooRE, E. W., experiments by, on the
feeding qualities of difterent breeds of
sheep, vii. 294.

, experiments by, in cattle-feeding,

xvii. 342.

(E. D.), on millr, xxiii. 418.

]MooELAND, see " Heathland."

, on the application of clay to, iii. 427.

, on bringuig into cultivation (E.

Smith), xvii. 349 ; more suitable for
cultivation tlian planting, ib. ; only to
be effected by co-oi)eration of landlord
and tenant, ih. ; or aid from improve-
ment companies, 350 ; fern, broom, and
heather indicate turniji-land, ib. ; Eng-
lish fens, 351 ; Irish bog and peat
lands, extent of, ib. ; marshes and
wolds, 352 ; preliminaries to cultiva-
tion, 353 ; effect of climate and alti-

tude, ib; temperatm'e affected by
swamps, 354 ; arable and stock farms,
"summering" lands, and water-mea-
dows, 355 ; size of fields, 356 ; subsoil-
ing a substitute for drainage, ib. ; jilaii of
farm, 357 ; cost of buildings governed
by acreage, 358 ; plan and cost of
ditto for 300 acre farm, 359 ; linhay
or cattle-shed, plan and cost of, 360 ;
building plans should be capable of
enlargement, 361 ; fences, 362 ; one-
sided stone fences, 363 ; double stone
fences, surrounded by wattles and
beech-trees, cost of (illustration), 364 ;
liedges on the flat, 365; Lincolnshire
fences, quick between sod banks, 366 ;
letting of moorland under special agree-
ments, 367; form of agreement with
compensation clauses, 368; cb'ainage,
370 ; dip of strata, 371 ; open cut for
s^jrings, ib. ; plan and cost of tapping
springs, 372 ; horizontal and upright
drains, 373 ; stone ditto, 374 ; jieats
and "flow" mosses, 374 ; crops for re-
claimed bogs, 375 ; use of lime and
salt, ib. ; water, if not from peat, useful
for irrigation, 376 ; " breaking the jDan,"
ib. ; test-holes, ib. ; water a carrier for
warping low lands, 377 ; draining,
trencliing, and liming for rape, more
costly than warping, 378 ; cultivation
of natm-al soil, Lincoln Heath, 379 ;
paring and burning, ib. ; cost of culti-
vation, ib. ; on high lands, turnips
followed by grasses sown with rape,
381 ; 4 years' layer, composition of,
382 ; stock on Exmoor Forest, charges
for " summering," 383 ; catch meadows,
384 ; outlying stock farms, how ma-
naged, 385 ; cost of subsoiling after
ploughing, 386 ; trenching, aided by
paring i)lough, 387 ; ox labour, ib. ;
estimate of outlay and returns, 388 ;
improved value of reclaimed land, 389 ;
cost of grubbing heath and furze laud,
390 ; moorland soil, analysis of, 391 ;
its want of lime, ib. ; fens in the eastern
counties clayed by pits, 393.

MooR-rAN, analysis of a specimen of,
from Argyleshire, xiii. 554.

Morayshire Farmers' Club, report of
committee of, on the growth of turnips
with new manures, v. 447.

SIoETON, John, on the mode of cultivatiou
adopted at Stinchcombe Farm, i. 388.

, J., jun., on the present state of agri-
cultural mechanics, prize essay, iii. 101 .

— — , .1. C, on the white Belgian carrot,
ii. 40.

, trials in the fattening of some pigs,

iv. 233.

12G GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

SIoRTON, J. C, on the maintenance of fer-
tility in new arable land, vii. 283.

, on increasing our supplies of animal

food, a prize essay, x. 341.

, on the cost of horse-power, xix.

437; the calculations criticised, xxi.
418.

, on the allotment system, xx. 92.

, on agricultural maxima, xx. 442.

, on steam culture (P. H. Frcre), xxi.

401.

, his paper on Helps and Hindrances

to Agricultural progress (Tiiompson,
M.P.), XXV. 11; his objections to the
prize system considered, ib.

, on the essentials to a young farmer

(Mr. Holland), xxv. 542.

MoscKor, W. J., on the results of steam
cultivation, P.F., xxiv. 320.

MosEK, on theory of light, xvii. 422.

Moss, on its removal from pastures, by
R. Smith, ix. 25.

MossLAXD, on the cultivation of, in Lan-
cashire (Garnett), x. 11-25.

Moths and buttertlies affecting clover
(Curtis I, xviii. 49; papilio hyalo on
tlie kidney vetch ; Bomhyx trifolii, the
grass or clover cggar-moth, 49 ; infests
trefoil, shnibs, and trees, 50 ; B. medi-
caginis, the medick eggar-moth, checked
by parasites, 51 ; Euclidia glypbica,
theburnet-moth, 52 ; E. mi, the Shipton-
moth. 53.

• afiecting grass. The antler-moth

(noctua graminis) described (Curtis;,
xviii. 72.

■ , minute, affecting tares (Curtis),

xviii. 5G.

MoiLD-BOARDS, the, in ploughs, on, by
r. Pusey, xii. 588.

MorLDiNEss, Rev. E. Sidney on, x. 383.

of stacked hay, x. 391, 396.

of bread and the inside of casks, x.

396.

MoruE, Rev. H., his earth system of utU-
isuig sewage, xxiv. 111.

MorxiK, ]M. Emile, his plan of testing
milk, xxiv. 316.

MorTH and foot disease; the murrain
of 1839, on (J. B. Simonds), xviii.
200.

jMowixg, prices of taskwork, by N. Eayn-
bu-d, ^'ii. 124.

■ machines, on those at the Salisbury

meeting (1857\ xviii. 423, 441.

, those at Leeds (1861), 457.

Mud used as a manure in the Nether-
lands 'Rham', ii. 43.

• pond, used as a manure with guano,

&c., for grass-lands, by E. S. Beame,
X. 399.

IMuD on the Trent used for warping ana-
Ij-sed, by T. J. Herepath, xi. 97.

of the Nile analysed, xi. 112.

, or silt, of the Somersetshire rivers

(Acland), xi. 741.

, river, analysis of, xiii. 536,

MvLDER on the yeast plant, xvii. 82.

on the generation of chlorophyll

from starch, xviii. 405.

on the organic compounds of the

soil, xxi. 197.

, his discovery and designation of

protein, xxii. 385.

, his analysis of casein, xxiv. 287.

Mi'LE, the, IMr. Orton on the breeding of,
xvi. 43 ; hybrids of various animals, 44.

, its use in America (C. W. Eddy),

XX. 124.

INIujrMY wheat, germination of (Tanner),
xxi. 47.

MiiiLVTE of anmionia, analysis of, xiii.
490.

McRCTnsox, R. I., on the tchornoi gem
or black earth of the central regions of
Russia, iii. 125. See " Rus.sia."

, Sir R. I., on the value of certain

phosphoric rocks in the Anguilla Isles,
XX. 31.

MuuKAix in sheep, J. Seaman on, xvi. 5.

, F. Dun on, xvi. 408.

, the, in IMecklenburg (Vice-Consul

Blackwell), xvii. 331.

, the steppe (Blackwell), xvii. 332 ;

its origin, ib. ; symptoms, ih. ; its con-
tagious character, 334 ; precautionary
measiures, ib.

, on tho steppe murrain or rinder-
pest (J. B. Simonds), xviii. 197 ; ancient
records of, ib. ; its fii'st occurrence in
England, a.d. 1713, and again in 1744;
ib. ; order in council, 198 ; similarity
between the vi.sitations of 1744 and
1856, 200, see "Mouth and foot dis-
ease," and " Pleuro-pncumonia ;" joint
action of British societies in 1856;
Ml". Ernes 's mission 'to the continent,
205 ; the author's mission to Belgium,
207 ; and Holland, 208 ; Belgian sani-
tary laws, ib. ; the Dutch cattle trade,
208, 210 ; illustration of the beneficial
results of inspection at the English
customs, 209 ; precautionary measures
against epizootic disease in Westphalia
and Hanover, 211; the system of in-
spection adopted at Hamburg, 212;
danger of contagious disease from the
commerce in hides, 213 ; the steppes
of Russia, the seat of the disease, 219 ;
supposed to have been introduced into
Prussia by a cargo of bones, 224 ; ditto
into Silesia by Hungarian cattle and

VOLUMES OXE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

127

the infected clothes of a hoy that
escaped quarantine, 225 ; the outbrealc
[ in Eastern Europe attributed to the
frequent movements of Eussian cattle
i during the Crimean war, 227 ; the
Prussian cordon, 230 ; disease in Bres-
lau, 1856, 231 ; the imjiort of Eussian
hides into Eastern Eussia forbidden,
233 ; sanitary measures in Galicia and
regulations as to compensation, 235 ;
statistics of murrain in Crakow, 236 ;
in Galicia medical men employed as
inspectors, 238 ; history of the appear-
ance of rinderpest in Zabrzez and
Kamienica, 1856, 211 ; caused by steppe
oxen infecting young stock, ih. ; of the
oxen that introduced the malady three
recovered from its eflects and fatted,
239 ; character of the murrain, 243 ;
nature of infection, ib. ; fatal effects of
relaxing the cordon of Bohemia, 214 :
dormant j^eriod of diseases, 245 ; rinder-
pest of spontaneous origin, limited to
steppe oxen, 246 ; the general symptoms
described, 247 ; tavomable indications,
248 ; duration of disease, percentage of
deaths, and post-mortem appearances,
249; pathology, 251; details of cases
observed by the author, 253, 256, 260,
263 ; post-mortem examinations, 255,
259, 261 ; mode of valuing condemned
stock, 258 ; Bavarian laws respecting
mm-rain, 265 ; report of murrain in the
Austrian empire, 266 ; hay stored over
cattle-sheds dangerous, 268.

IiIrKRAiN, pulmonary (Blackwell), xvii.
334 ; its origin and contagious cha-
racter, ih.

MuEEAY, G., on the specific gravity of
swede tiu^iips, xxiii. 361.

Mukkay's report on the farming of War-
vfickshire, quoted by Evershed, xvii.
493.

MuRTON, J., on the improvement of marsh-
land, iv. 580.

' , an account of an experiment on the

relative values of several varieties of
wheat, i. 39.

MrscLE, fat and, an essay on, by W. F.
Karkeek, v. 245. See " Fat.'J

Mustard, on the use of growing mustard
for feed, or to plough in as a prepara-
tion for a wheat crop, by G. Jcsty, iv.
587, V. 358.

■ , white and brown, grown in the

himdi-eds of Essex (Baker), v. 36 ; tlic
produce of, 37 ; brown mustard mostly
prohibited in leases, ih.

' , white, crops of, destroy the wire-
worm (Cm-tis), V. 203.

, sown in Norfolk (Jesty), v. 334.

KETHEELANDS.

Mustard, on the growth of white mustard

as a green crop for sheep, by John Gray,

V. 360.
, white, grown and ploughed in as a

manure in Northamptonshhe (Beam),

xiii. 67 ; cows fond of it, ih.

, analysis of, when green, xiii. 474.

, analysis of seeds and straw of white

mustard, xiii. 474 ; of seeds and straw

of brown mustard, ih.
, growth of, in Oxfordshire (Eead),

XV. 208,
, mixed with tepid water generates a

poisonous oil; the water should be

boiled (Voelcker"", xx. 457.
Must plant, experiments on (Prof. Eaulin"),

XXV. 258. See " Ascophora nigrans."
Mutton-suet is often given to fattening

ducks (Playfair), iv. 234.
Myosotis arvensis, see "Corn forget-me-
not."
BIyron, myronic acid, in mustard

(Voelcker), xx. 457.

N.

Nardus stricta. See " Heath-grass."

Narew, or wild rape, its soils and habits
(Buckman), xvi. 360.

Narrow-leaved oat - grass (Buckman),
XV. 464 ; its growth in different situa-

- tions (Buckman), xv. 468, xvi. 366, xvii.
541.

Nathusius, Baron, on lupines as food for
sheei3, XX. 107.

, president of the German Agricul-
tural society, and originator of the In-
ternational Agricultm'al meeting at
Hambm'g, xxv. 217.

Navicular diseases in horses (Dun), xiv.
110.

Ne>)e valley, W. Beam on the di-ainage
of, xiii. 109.

-: — , J. A. Clarke on the drainage of, xv.
42 ; varying levels of the tide of the
Nene, 53-5 ; the upper valley of, 60 ;
obstructive mills of, 61 ; encroachments
of its millers, 62 ; analysis of its water,
07.

Nesbit, J. C, analysis of the mineral in-
gredients of the hop, vii. 210.

, on the conditions necessary for the

formation of nitrates, xiv. 391 ; tlie pre-
paration of artificial nitre beds, 392.

, Professor, on the quantity of oil in

wheat-straw, xxi. 167.

Netherby, the estate of, in Cumberland,
its farming (Dickinson), xiii. 221.

Netherlands, the agriculture of, the Eev.
W. L. Eham on, ii. 43 ; its climate, ih. ;

128 GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTUEAL JOURNAL.

NETHEKLANDS.

soil, ih, ; mud used as a mairare, ?7). ;
mode of trenching their soils, 44 ; of re-
claiming barren lands, ib. ; the molle-
hart, -ib. ; broom sown, ih. ; their crops,
clover, wliite carrots, lye, ih. ; use of
Dutch ashes for clover, ih. ; maxim of
tlie Flemish, 4G ; the land never idle,
ib. ; different seeds sown amongst
growing crops, il). ; liqtiid maniu-e, 47 ;
the stiiTing, pulverising, and mixing of
poor land, 50 ; few meadows, 5(3 ; the
cows lie on smooth bricks, 57 ; im-
plements of tillage, ih. • figures of old
FIcmisliplougli, 58 ; of double-breasted
plough, 50 ; of the tmineau, ih. ; of the
roddcd hurdle, CO ; of the moUcbart, Gl ;
the ploughing, G2 ; rotation of crops, iji.
240 ; on a poor sandy soil, 241 ; growth
of carrots amongst growing crops, 243 ;
spurrey as a green crop, 244 ; rotation
of crops on ricii light soil, 245; appli-
cations of manure, ih. ; manure for
■wheat after potatoes, 246 ; hops grown
near Alost, 251 ; growth of flax. ib. ;
rotation of crops for a good strong
loam, 247; beans, how sown, ib. •
carrots groA\ni in deep Avell- stirred
loams, 248 ; quantity of seed employed,
ib. ; a mixture of rye and wheat is
sown, 249 ; growtli of chicory, 251, see
"Chicoiy;" the oily seeds cultivated
by the Flemish, 251 ; growth of colza,
252 ; crop described, ih. ; their imple-
ment called a plantoir, with a sketch,
253 ; the cidtivation of the pojipy, 254 ;
tlie growth of flax, ib. ; the cultivation
of hemp, 257 ; the way in which tlieir
cows are fed, 258 ; tlieir dairies, 259 ;
the cows, 2G1 ; cheese, ih. ; Gouda or
new-milk cheese, 2G1 ; Dutch cheese,
ib.; oxen, 2G2; sheep,??).; horses, )■?>. ;
roads paved, 2G3 ; the chief excellences
of the husbandry of the Netherlands,
ih.

Nethehlaxps, on the growth of beetroot
in, for sugar, by J. AVilson, xiii. 144.

, the import of butter, salted and

fresh, from (Eucgg\ xiv. 75. 77.

Nets, for folding, used in Norti.iuuber-
land, ii. 109.

Nettle, the white dead (Buckman), svi.
3G4.

• , the henbit, xvi. 3G4.

, the red dead, xvi. 3G4.

, tlie common stinging, xvi. 3G6.

, the small .stinging, xvi. 3GG.

Newbekey's dibbling-machine, report on,
by J. H. Langston, iii. 316.

Newcastle meeting (1846;, the imple-
ments exhibited there, on. bv J. Parkes,
vii. 681.

New Forest, on the improvement of the
soils of, by J. Trimmer, xvi. 138 ; cul-
tivation of furze on, ?7). ; its history and
customs (Rev. J. Wilkinson), xxii. 331 ;
existing rights and limitations, 337 ;
area and distribution, ih.
Newman, C, trials with cubic petre, ii.

2G0.
NicHOLLS, G., on the cultivation of flux,
V. 547, viii. 438.

, on the condition of the agricultural

labourer, witli suggestions for its im-
provement, vii. 1.
, on box-feeding with linseed com-
pounds, viii. 473.
NicoL, J. D., experiments with nitrate of
soda and guano on a peat bog, xv. 185.
NioiiTSOiL, see " Sewage."
Nile river, analysis of tlio deposit or mud
of (RegTiaidt and Ija.si<iigne), xi. 112.

water, analysis of (Dr. Yoelcker),

XXV. 236.
Niitlewort, the, its soils and habits

(Buckman), xvi. 361.
Nitrate of potash. Dr. Fo\Ynes on, iv.
544.

, experiments with, upon oats, barley,

and wlieat, by J. Hannam, v. 267.

, Lord Zetland's trials with, i. 280.

described by Sir Kenelin Digby and

by Evelyn as a manure, xiii. 350.

, analysis of, xiii. 490.

, J. C. Nesbit on the preparation of

artificial nitre beds, xiv. 392 ; analysis
of one at Kennington. ih.
of soda, or cubic petre, experi-
ment and communications on its ap-
jilication as a manure, by D. Barclav,
ii. 117, 129.

Trials by P. Pusev, ii. 118.

the Earl of Zetland, ii. 124.

J. Alderson, ii. 125.

W. Calvert, ii. 126.

Drewitt and Son, ii. 127.

G. Dewdney, ib.

J. Burgess, li. 131.

J. R. Barker, ii. 133.

J. (irev, ii. 134.

J. C. Jobling. ii. 136.

^W (ireaves, ii. 137.

W. L Rham. ii. 139.

W. H. Hvett, ;/).

W. S. Stratford, ii. 259.

J. Iludwell, ii. 260.

C. Newman, ib.

W. Claike, iv. 276.

, Dr. I"'ownes on. iv. 544.

, experiments with, upon oats, barley,

and wheat, by J. Hannam, v. 267.

, Lord Dacre on, i. 278.

, I-ord Zetland on, i. 280.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

120

Nitrate of soda, experiments Avitli, by
"NV. Calvert (wheat and oats), i. 423 ;
by George Dewdney (on wheat, oats,
pastures, and onions), i. 425 ; by D.
Barclay (upon wlicat, sainfoin, clover-
seeds, tares, meadow and pasture, and
swede turnips), 42(3 ; by Urewitt and
Sou (corn crops and turnips), 424.

■ as a top-dressing for wheat, by P.

Pusey, xii. 202,

and salt as a top-di-essing for wheat,

by H. W. Keary, xiii. 200.

■ , eflect of, in top-di-essing grass in

Windsor Park, by F. H. Seymoui', xiii.
347.

, on the source and supply of, and its

use in small quantities as a restorative
to corn crops, by P. Pusey, xiii. 349 ;
its origin, 35.5.

, adulterated with gj'psum (Pusey),

xiii. 362.

, mixed witli salt, used as a top-
dressing for wlieat in Norfolk, xiii. 304,
by II. W. Keary, 367 ; by T. Garnett,
368.

, analysis of, xiii. 490.

, experiments on wheat with, and

with guano, soot, gypsum, and salt (Sir
J. Tylden), xiv. 15.

used as a top-dressing for wheat in

Surrey (Evershed), xiv. 98 ; and as the
only manm'e on a plot for fifteen years,

, on the natural law by which cubic

salt()etre acts as a manm-e, and on its
substitution for guano, by P. Pusey,
xiv. 374 ; effect of, on grass, 376 ; sub-
stances strengthen vegetation mainly
by their contents of nitrogen, xiv. 377.

used for grass on a peat-bog f J.

Nicol), XV. 1S5.

, experiments on its use as a top-
dressing for wheat on the Holkliam
Park farm (J. Coleman, junior), xix.
303.

, as a dressing for grass, less effectual

than ammonia (Lawes and Gilbert), xix.
565.

, its use for wheat (Voelcker), xx.

391 ; composition of, ib. ; results of
renewed experiments, xxv. 239.

, on foreign nitrates, by P. Pusey, xv.

515 ; analysis of, by J. T. Way, 516.

Nitric acid, its efiectongrass(P. Pusey),
xiv. 376.

, amount of in di-ainage water (J. T,

Way), xvii. 134.

and ammonia, their equivalent of

nitrogen (J. T. Way), xvii. 136.

, in some proportion, univi-rsally pre-
sent in drainage water (J. T. Way),
VOLS. I. XXV.

xvii. 138 ; generally in combination
with lime, magnesia, soda, or some
other base, 139 ; estimated loss result-
ing from this cause on Mr. Paino's land
at Farnham, 140 ; its quantity in rain-
water overestimated by M. Barral (,T.
T. Way), 145 ; the large quantity in
Mr. Paine's samples of water, from Farn-
ham, derived from manure, 147 ; not
from ammonia, but such materials as
the uric acid in guano, 148 ; tests for
nitric acid, see " Tests."

Nitric acid, traces of, in farmyard
manure, xvii. 255 ; quantity of, in
rain-M-ater (Way), 618 ; its percent-
age in inverse ratio to the fall of rain,
620.

in rain, not caused liy electrical ac-
tion (Way), xvii. 621.

, process for estimating minute quan-
tities of (Way and Ville), xvii. 151 ;
apparatus eraj^loyed, illustration of, 153.

Nitrification of the soil, on the (M. P.
Bortier), xxiii. 354 ; antiquity of marl-
ing and liming, ib. ; Bernard Palissy on
calcareous manm-es, ?7j. ; opinions of mo-
dern cliemists, ih. ; Piertsch on circum-
stances favoiu'able to nitrificatioii, //*. ;
views of Boussingault, Barral. and
others, 355 ; the practice of artificial
nitrification at Britannia farm, near
Ostend, ib. ; M. Venvinkeroge's experi-
ments at Has.selt, 357.

Nitrogen, connexion between, and the
nutrition of food (Danbeney), ii. 254.

, the quantity of nitrogen in the seed

varies according to the quantity of
nitrogen contained in the manure of
the soil (Hannani), iv. 179 ; Heruib-
staedt's trials with wlieat, .see" Wlieat."

, how obtained by plants iroin the

atmosphere and from animal manures
(Fownes), iv. 518. See " Food of
plants."

is tiie element mainly required as

manure on ordhiary soils by our corn-
crops (P. Pusey), xiii. 358.

, amount of, in cubic and salt petres,

and in guano (Pusey), xiii. 360.

• , chemical properties of, xiii. 425.

, origin of, in plants (P. Pusey), xiv.

377 ; by A. Voelcker, 382.

, the atmospliere as a soiu'ce of, to

plants, by J. T. Way, xvi. 249; M.
Saussure's researches, 252 ; Liebigs,
253; Boussiugault's, i7>., 259; Grager's,
254 ; Kemp's, ib. ; Fresenius's, il). ; De
Ville's, 255 ; Barral's, 258 ; Lawes and
Gilbert's, 261.

, proportion of, in crops (Anderson),

xvii. 446.

130 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

NTTROGEN.

Nitrogen, its formal ive power illustrated
by yeast (Henfrey). xvii. 83.

, do plants assimilate it from the air

(Ville\ xvii. 85.

varies in quantity with that of tlie

rainfall, xvii. 146.

, its percentage in farmyard manure

(Voelcker), xvii. 2.M0 ; it.s woete in ma-
uure kept under cover, 237.

, in the .soils of Prussia, &c. (Liebig),

xvii. 284.

in soils, not available as plant-footl

(Boussiiigaulfi, xvii. .597.

in Imrnt soils less abundant but more

available (Voelcker , xvii. 614.

, Liebig's percent-.igo of, too high for

common agricultural .soils, xvii. G14.

. relation of nitrogen in food, flesh,

milk, manure, and waste ' IJarral and
Boussiiigault\ xviii. 157, 165.

, loss of by cows in per.spiration

(Boussingaultl. xviii. 159, 1(J5.

in grass Horsfall , 166.

, percentage of, iu straw manure

(Way\ xviii. 370.

, proportion of, i'l manure recovered

in the b irley crop (Lawes and Gilbert),
xviii. 519.

, its percentage in grain low when

the quality is higli (Lawes and Gilbert;,
xviii. 525.

, its percentage in hay (Bowditch),

xix. 222.

, an excess of, found in diseased and

poor tumips (Voelcker', xx. 105.

in manure for liay. one-fourth re-
covered in the crop i Lawes , xx. 240 ;
high percentage in produce a question-
able advantage, 243; possiiile causes
why only part is recovered in crop, 244.

in iiay, no gauge of its feeding value

(Lawes and Gilbert), xx. 416.

, in the atmosphere not as.similated

by plants Boussingauit', xxv. 532.

NiTROGENiSED subst/inces, subdivision.s of
the grouj) (Dr. Voelcker), xxii. 385;
their percentage of nitrogen, ib.

Nitrogenous manure, warmth a substitute
for ( Russell >, xx. 485.

substances, tlieir influence on the

gi'owth of plants (A. Henfi-ey), xvii. 62.

Non-nitrogen isED substances, subdivi-
sions of the group (Dr. Voelcker , xxii.
386; tlie designation "carbonaceous
matter,' 387.

Norfolk, West, on the improvements
which liave taken place in, by Earl
Spencer, iii. 1 ; Lord Leicester s efforts,
ib.; West Norfolk as a rye and as a
wheat growing district, ?'6. ; Lord Lei-
cester, when he began farming, 3 ; the

rent of it then, ih. ; origin of the Holk-
ham sheep-shearings, «ii. ; the soil of the

I district, ih. ; introduction of the use of
marl, ib. ; Norfolk sheep, ib. ; no cattle,

I 4 ; Lord Leicester and Biikewell's breed
of cnttlt>, ib. ; and the Leicester sheep
and the Southdown, ih. ; and tlie Merino,
ib. ; liis breed of pigs, 5 ; tlie growth of
wheat in Norfolk before 1778, 6; tlio
late Mr. Overman, ib. ; the rotntion of
the Norfolk farmers previous to tlii.s
time, ih. ; tiie late INIr. Overman's lease,
and its covenants, 7 ; tlie general causes
wliich led to Lord Leicester's success,
ih. ; his meetings, liis liberal feeling.s,
his hospitality, 8 ; long leases, ib.
Norfolk, on Norfolk draining, by H.
Evans, iv. 43.

, on the agricultiire of, by Barugli

Almack, v. 307; its ploughing and
drilling, ib. ; state of its drainage, 308 ;
its fences, 309 ; claying and marling,
ih.; claying in the fens 311 ; by Mi-.
Cambridge of South Runcton, ib ; ma-
nures, 313; horses, 314; cattle, 316;
slieep of, 317 ; the old Norfolk breed,
ib. ; pigs, 318 ; yards, boxes buildings,
&c., 319 ; course of cropping and im-
jilemeiits used, 321 ; the farms of John
Hudson of r'astleacre, 321 ; turnip cul-
tivation, 322 ; the pinctice of some of
the best Noi folk farmers, 324 ; setting
out of turnips, 325; barley cultivation.
326; clover cultivation, 328; sketcli of
a new sheep-hurdle, ib. ; preparing for
wheat, ih. ; tlie use of draught oxen,
330 ; nui-.tard-sowing, 334 ; oats little
cultivated, 336 ; beans, growth of, 339 ;
tares iJt. ; cabbages, 340 ; tenure of the
fanns. 341 ; Coke Earl of Leicester's
practice, ib. ; alteration in the breed of
sheep, 350 ; account of the number of
cattle and sheep at Sniithfield market
on three market-days in 1843, 1844,
351 ; experiments on the best distance
of the rows in drilling wheat, by IMr.
Blyth of Burnl.am, 3.52; quantity of
seed, 353 : dibbling wheat, 355 ; agri-
cultural labourers, 356.

farming, on recent improvements in

(C. S. Readt, xix. 205; the soils, de-
scribed under 5 heads, ib. ; dhstiiiction
between E. and W. Norfolk, 266;
eastern marshes drained by wiiidmilLs,
267; the western fens, ib. ; claying and
marling skirt lands, 268 ; fens, well
clayed, cannot be drained too much, ih. ;
peat on sand, by holding up water, is
made to grow rough grasses ih. ; Blo-
field hundred, the garden of Norfolk,
269; exceptional wheat crop, 90 bush.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE."

131

per acre, ih. ; tlio soil deficient in lime,
ib. ; cattle, turnip-fed on stubbles, ib. ;
mangold exterisively grown, ib. ; couch,
■lb. ; rape followed by turnips generally
successful, 272; vetches absorb mois-
ture, a bad preparation for turnijjs,
ib. ; poppies, how destroyed, v'^. ; fir
belts and fences, 273 ; the light
chalky loams and their recent im-
]3rovement, ib. ; reduction of fences in
West Norfolk, 274; present mode of
making and trimming, ib. ■ increase in
the wheat yield, ib. ; mode of growing —
drilled across the furrow, 275 : nitrate
of soda as a top-dressing preferred to
guano where cold dry winds prevail,
ib. ; cause of the greater breadth of
wheat now sown, ib. ; clover sickness,
ib. ; growth of sainfoin on the increase,
il). ; barley, its yield cannot safely be
increased, 27G ; use of superphosphate,
ib. ; cold springs and high farming ad-
verse to breeding flocks, 277; use of
Gardiner's tm-nip-cutter, ib. ; fields
l^louglied round lor wheat, the course
reversed for fallow, ib. ; cultivators in
some cases superseding iiloughs, ib. ;
use of artificial manures for corn, 278 ;
guano, 279 ; salt, ib. ; implements and
machinery, 280 ; thrashing by steam,
its cost, ib. ; instance of the durability
of a portable engine, ib. ; ploughs, 281 ;
demand for Howard's plough after
taking the prize at Norwich, ib. ;
Chandler's water drill and manure dis-
tributor, ib. ; steam cultivation not yet
considered economical, 282 ; Coleman's
cultivator preferred, though dear, ib. ;
autumn cultivation, 283; on friable
land, if clean, stubble should be left till
winter, ib. ; forking couch, its cost,
284 ; the 5-course rotation a success at
Castle Acre, ib. ; harvesting, 285 ;
cattle — improvement in shorthorns and
Irish, ib. ; losses from plemo-pneu-
monia, 286 ; consumption of turnips,
ib. ; economy of pulping, ib. ; linseed
cake, cotton cake, treacle, locust-beans,
&c., used lor stock, 287 ; pure Norfolk
sheep nearly extinct, 2SS ; their good
points, ib. ; improved Suff"olks, ^7). ;
half-breds from long-woolled sires, ib. ;
cart-horses, then- number and keep, 28!) ;
want of veterinary surgeons, 290 ; rents,
their increase, 291 ; in the East from 5
to 12 per cent., in the West, 10 to 15,
ib. ; com rent at Holkham, ib. ; wages
and taskwork, expenditure on labour
increased 20 per cent., 292 ; open
parishes, ib. ; state of the poor, 293 ;
game, fourfooted, its diminution, ib, ;

NORTHjVMPTONSHIHE.

covenants or valuations, prices too high,
ib.; entry of farms should be at New
Michaelmas, 294; tm-nips not an im-
proved crop, ib. ; increase of mangold
and cabbages, 295 ; the " thousand-
headed" cabbage preferred for ewes
and lambs, ib. ; cattle-yards, ib. ; marl-
ing, 29(j; drovers superseded by rail, for
fat cattle, ib. ; the ' Quarterly Review '
on agricultural progress, 297 ; statistics
of 1853 and 1854 contrasted, ib. ; Nor-
wich com returns in 1805 and 1857,
300 ; cattle imported, ditto sold at Lynn
market, 301 ; poor-rates, their reduction,
ib. ; property-tax assessments, ib. ; esti-
mate of the value of live and dead stock
(subsequently corrected, P. H. F.), 302 ;
the present race of farmers, ib. ; conclu-
sion, ib. — Appendix: on the use of
nitrate of soda for wheat at Holkham,
303 ; experiments in turnip growing,
306 ; guano, with the water-di-ill, must
be applied sparingly, ib. ; if water is at
hand, the expense small, ib. ; tables of
produce from various manures, 807 ;
analyses of the manures, 310.

Norfolk, on the geology of, as illustrating
the laws of the distribution of soils, by
J. Trimmer, vii. 444 ; the crag, 458 ;
the freshwater-beds, 459; the lower and
uppcrdrift, 461 ; the peat, 474; alluvial
district of East Norfolk, 472 ; of West
Norfolk, 477 ; fossil manures of Norfolk,
478.

, the chalks of, described by J, Trim-
mer, xii. 480.

, tlie farming of the light soils of

(Haxton), xv. 115; its difterent rota-
tions compared, 116.

Down sheep, the, J. Wilson on, xvi.

234.

NoKTHAMPTON meeting, report of the
stewards of the implements exhibited
at, viii. 330.

NonTiiAMPTONSHrRE, ou the farming of,
by AV. Beam, a prize essay, xiii. 44 ;
its soils — tlie lower oolite, 48 ; the Has,
ib. ; division of its soils and subsoils,
49 ; the management of its red stony
and sandy soils, on which are its stock
farms, 52 ; its rotation of crops, ib. ; its
turnip crops, ib. ; its barley crops, 56,
59 ; its clover-seeds, 57 ; the wheat
crop, 58, 59 ; the management of the
heavy soils, 61; its rotations, ib.; fal-
lows, 62 ; its root crops, ib. ; its corn
crops, 64 ; wliite mustard grown and
ploughed in as manme, cows fond of,
67 ; the management of the moory and
peaty soils, 69; its rotations, 70; the
horses, 71; the implements, 72; ma-
i 2

132 GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

NORTHCOTE.
mircs, 74; the mauageinont of gi'ass-
land, 7G; cattle, 81; sheep, 82; pigs,
85; its farm-buildings, ih.; laboiu-eis
and cottage allotments, 88 ; the system
of the Rev. C. Smith of Lois Wccdon,
!)1 ; land-ckainage, 92 ; improvements
iu its fanning since 180(J, 97 ; on tlic
drainage of the None valley, 109.

NouTiicoTE, Sir Stafford, on an improved
and elieaper system of laying out catch-
meadows, xiii. 172.

, his report on the sheep and pigs at

the ClielniMford meeting, xvii. 5(j:j.

NoRTHiMBEULANi), its past aiul present
state of agriculture, by J. Grey, ii. 151 ;
its ancient disordered state, ih.; its
wooden harrows, lb. ; when its agricul-
ture began to improve, l.^B ; tlie ]\Iessrs.
Cnllcv, ih.; when turnips generally in-
1 roduced into its liild culture, ih. ; when
iirst sown iu drills in, 151 ; its soils,
mountain ])asture, and unprofitable
wastes, 15(J ; its fertile vale.s, ih. ; ltd
farm-leases, ib. ; tiie soil and size [of
farms in its diffirent districts, ih.; the
rental <>f the farm of Wark, 15S ; tlio
rental of tlie farms of the Greenwieli
Hospital estate since 1772, IGO; rot;i-
tion of crops on its turnip soils, 161 ;
the potato and Hopeton oats, the com-
mon Scotch and Angus, ib. ; growers
<jf spring wheat and barley with grass-
.seeds, ] t;2 ; wheat, cidtivation of, ih. ;
the oat crop, when cut, ih. ; their mode
of liarvesting oats, ib. ; tiie varieties of
barley cultivated in this county, 101 ;
barley harvest, ib. ; its turnip cultiva-
tion, ih. ; the average produce of the
best turnip Nortiiumberland districts,
](I7; horse-hoeing turnips, ICiS; mode
of storing turnips, l(i9 ; the seeding
])roperties of tlie turnips grown in tiiis
county, 171 ; their grass-seeds sown
with a drill, 172; its old meadow-
lands, 17H ; hay, how made, ib. ; hay
badly made tiicre, ib.

• , the sheep stock in the hill district,

ii. 174 ; in the lowlands, ih. ; when tlie
Leicester first introduced, ib. ; the dis-
trict for sheep, ib. ; the price of sheep
per head, 175 ; the first cross between
Cheviot ewes and Leicester rams, ib.

, its cattle, ii. 170 ; the breed, when

introduced, ib. ; its AVest Highlanders,
/7;. ; its general stock of cattle, ib. ; the
cross between the shorthorns and the
West Highlanders, ih. ; their manage-
ment of cattle, 177 ; stall-feeding, //).

, ploughing l)y oxen, ii. 177; the

farm-horses used in this county, ib. ;
their implements, ib. ; thrashing-ma-

NOTTINGILVMSHIRE.

chines, 178 ; one-horse harvest carts
and waggons, ib.; the ploughs used
here, ib. ; maum'cs commonly used,
180; lime, how applied, (7*. ; lime often
repeated, eftect of, ib. ; etfect on the
herbage, ih.; bone.s, use of, 181; rota-
tion adopted on wheat lands, 182 ;
farm-servants on larger farms in this
county, how engaged, 183; the bond-
age system, 184 ; duration, what it
includes, ib. ; hind's cottage, 185 ;
wages chiefly paid in kind, 18*!; ad-
vantages of tliis mode of j)ayment, 187;
farm-buildiugs of stone, how covered,
190.

NOUTHVMBERLAND, OU tllC ttgriculturC of,

by T. L. Colbeck, a prize essay, viii.
422 ; tlie hill or breeding farms, 429 ;
the tiunip farms, 431 ; tlio gmziug
farms, 4o;5; farm-labourers, 435; map
of county, 437.

NoiiWEGi.VN' harrows, on those shown at
tlie Lewes meeting (1852), xiii. 31();
at Gloucester (1853), xiv. 358.

NouwicH meeting, report on the exhibi-
tion ;ind trial of implements at, by Ii.
S. Tiiompson, x. 52(1.

, award of premiums for live stock at,

xi. XV. ; for implements, xxv.

XoiTixdHAMSHiiii:, the agriculture of, by
R. AV. GoiTingliani, vi. 1 ; tlie soil, tlic
new red sandstone, ih. ; the western or
Sivnd district, 2 ; tiie ancient forest of
Siierwiiod, il).; size of farms, 3; what
the late Duke of Portland did for Not-
tingham.shire, 4 ; tlie Clijistone meads,
ih. ; the fir.st introduction of tiie swede
tuniip into the county, 5; its turnip
crops, G, 7 ; course of cropping, 7 ; its
barley crop.s, 11; its grass crops, 12;
see<ls .sown for, 13 ; its wlieat crop.s, 14 ;
use of bones for turnips liefore 1794,
17; its sliecp, ib.; tlic introduction of
the Bfikewcll breed, 18; cattle of the
county, 20 ; its calves, 21 ; its pigs, ib. ;
its horses, 22 ; the limestone district
of Nottinghamshire, 23; its course of
cropping, ih. ; the south-eastern or
clay district, 24 ; its rotation of crops,
25 ; size of the farms, 30 ; drainage,
ib. ; manures employed, 34 ; its lime,
35 ; var}ing quality of, ib. ; Yorkshire
lime, ih. ; Derbyshire lime, il>. ; tlie im-
plements of, 3(j ; allotments to cot-
tagers, 38 ; water-meadows, 39 ; wages, '
ib. ; the district called tlie Cans, 40 ;
Hatfield Cliace, 40.

, improvements in the agriculture of,

since the year 1800 (J. Parkin.son),
xxii. 159; Elkingtons deep drains, ilj.;
i-ecent improvements, ili. ; repair of

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

13v

roiuls, 1(J0; the Diike of Portland's iin-
])rove'mcnts, ih. ; cnclo.siu'c of Selwood
forest, and extension of arable culture,
161 ; embankment and drainage act,
ib. ; autumn cultivation, 16'2 ; turnips,
ib. ; boarding of fami -labourers, ih. ;
cattle management, 1G3 ; labourer's
wages and rent of cottages, Itil ; poor-
relief, -/?^. ; parochial rates, ltJ5; prepa-
ration of food for live-stock, ib. ; liquid
manure tanks, IGU ; equalisation of
management and prices, ib.

NouKL, Malingie, on a method of obtain-
ing immediate fixity of type in forming
a new breed of sheep, translated by 1*.
Fusey, xiv. 214, xxii. 10.

NowLSOX, J. S., statement of a new and
successful rotation of crops for heavy
clays, iv. 109. See " Rotation of crops,"
" Clays."

NrnsERiES of young timber-trees, on
(Falkener), iii. 278.

Nlt-eefuse (probably cocoa-nut), experi-
ments witli, as a manure for swedes, by
Dr. A. Voelcker, xvi. 95.

Ni TKiTiON, atmospheric, of plants, lecture
on (Dr. Voelcker), xxv. 5:-51.

NuTKiTiYE value, see " Food."

Oak, the, its planting and management

(Falkener), iii. 2GS.
, analysis of its wood, bark, and

leaves, xiii. 530.
, the growth of, in the Weald of Sur-
rey (Evershed), xiv. 41G.
in Herefordshire (Rowlandson), xiv.

151.
Oakley's, Mr. R., description of his

farm-management at Lawrence End,

Herts, xxv. 291.
Oatjieal, the, of Cumberland, by W.

Dickinson, xiii. 232.

, analysis of, xiii. 522.

Oats, their mode of harvesting in

Northumberland (Grey), ii. 102.
, varieties cultivated in that county,

ii. 161.
, the Dyock, on, by the Rev. R. W.

Fisher, iii. 387; cultivation on con-
siderable elevations, ib. ; i\Ir. Pusey on,

388.
, seed and straw analysed by Dr.

Fowues, iii. 530.
, the average produce of Essex, per

acre, is about 40 bushels (Baker), v.

39.
, the ravages of llie wireworm ujiou

(Cui-tis), V. 191,

Oats, experiments on, with nitrates of
soda and potash, salt and rape-dust, by
John Hannam, v. 2()7.

, little grown in Norfolk (Almack),

V. 336.

, toi3-dressed with saltpetre, by J.

Everitt, i. 281.

, analysis of the ashes of, by Way

and Ogston, vii. ()45, xi. 498.

, the cultivation of, in the E. R. of

Yorkshire, by G. Legard, ix. 113.

, grown on land after jjaring and

burning (Pusey), ix. 423.

, on the situations best adapted to

the growth of, by N. Whitley, xi. 50.

, analysis of, grown on warj) soils, by

T. J. Herepath, xi. 107.

, growth of, in Gloucestershire (Bra-

vendar), xi. 138.

, analysis of oat-straw, by J. T. Way,

xi. 500.

, effect of climate on the growth of,

by B. Simpson, xi. 653.

, on tlic cultivation of, a prize essay,

• by J. Haxton, xii. 105; soils best
adapted for, 107; S. Bennett on, 113;
on early sowing, ib. ; varieties of, 114 ;
potato-oat, i5. ; sandy oat, 115 ; Sherriff
oat, 116; Hoptoun oat, ib.; late or
common white oats, 1 17 ; dun oat,
119; the kernel or groat, 122 ; general
management, 123 ; on ploughing lea
ground for, 125; sowing and harrow-
ing, 126 ; on manures for, 127 ; on
harvesting, cutting it not quite ripe,
129; the economical use of, 131.

, growth of, in Cumberland (W.

Dickinson), xiii. 232.

, analysis of, by E. T. Ilemmiug,

xiii. 450, 474.

• , analysis of a soil where oats rotted,

at PamiAerston, xiii. 552.

, growth of, in East Lothian (Steven-
son), xiv. 2SG.

, trials Avith nitrate of soda and sul-
phate of ammonia, by P. Pusey, xiv.
380.

, growth of, on light llinty clialk

soils (J. Haxton), xv. 101 ; on other
light soils, 113; on the sandy soils of
Norfolk, 121.

, growth of, in Oxfordshire (C. Read),

XV. 214.

, growth of, on different soils (Cole-
man), xvi. 202.

, growth of, in Buckinghamshire (C.

Read), xvi. 289.

, they require a moist climate, xx.

174 ; the latest varieties preferred,
ib.

Oat-stkaw, analyses of, iu different stages

134 GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

OCHRE.

of growth aud ripeness (Dr. Voelckcr),
xxii. 399-406.

Ochre, red, in draining tiles, theory of
(H. Mangon), xvii. (J'26; cui-e of, by
air traps, 028 ; and bj' flushing (Teb-
bett), G30.

OcHUEY soils, analysis of three, xiii. 554.

Ockel's experiments on tlie milk yield
of different-sized cows, xxiv. '612.

Oecidium of the berberry, Rev. E. Sidney
on, X. 3S8.

Ogston, G. N., report on the analysis of
tlie aslies of plants, vii. 593, viii. 134,
ix. 136, xi. 497.

Oils, vegetable, drying or imctuous
(Horsfall), xvii. 279 ; margerine and
ulein, tlieir proximate elements, ib.

, vegetable, comparatively slow of

digestion (HorsfuU), xviii. 193; their
medical agency, 194.

, their formation in i)lants, xviii.

411.

Oilcake, a new and economical, by J.
Wanics, iii. 439.

• , eft'ect of in producing fat (Plajr-

fair), iv. 232 ; its produce of musclo
and tallow in sheep, ih.

, on box-foeding with linseed com-
pounds, by Cx. Nicliolls, viii. 473.

, on the composition of, by J. T. Way,

X. 479 ; linseed, analysis of, 489.

, on tlio American, by J. F. W. John-
ston, the corn gromwell-seeds used by
the crushers, xiii. 19.

, on feeding cattle with, and with

roots cooked and fresh, by Colonel
Macdouall, xiii. 115.

, linseed, analysis of various, xiii. 522 ;

of gold of pleasure and rape, ib.

, experiments on feeding sheep on,

by members of tiic Tamworth Agricul-
tural Chemistry Association, xv. 460.

, experiments on feeding sheep with,

and clover ciiaff aud swedes, by J. B.
Lawes, xvi. 47.

, its feeding and manuring cost,

value, and composition (Horsfall), xviii.
172.

Oilcake imports and adulterations of (W.
Wright), xix. 515.

bruisers, a report by P. Pusey on

those shown at the Great Exhibition
:in 1851), xii. 635.

bruisers, on those shown at the

Lewes meeting (1852), xiii. 328; Car-
lisle (1855), xvi. 518 ; Cliester (1858),
xix. 341 ; Canterbury (1860), xxi,

, adulterations in, P. D. (^Eyre & Co.),

xxiii. 405 ; R. D., Frere, P. li., and
Hobbs, F., 406.

, lectm-e on adulterations in (Dr.

Voelcker), xxiv. 589; characteristics
of pure, good cake, 590 ; analyses of
samples and statement of impurities,
ib. ; frequent presence of seeds inju-
rious to health or aii'ecting the flavour
of meat, 591 ; mode of detecting impu-
rities, 592 ; cotton-cake, ib. ; earth-nut
cake, 593 ; poppy-cake, ib. ; injurious
efleets of damp and long keeping on
every kind of cake, ib. ; mouldy cake
injurious to cattle, 594 ; chemical ana-
lyses not conclusive as to quality and
condition, ib. ; low-priced cake, 595 ;
])i><(:itssio)i — mult as cattle food (Lord
Faversham and Mr. F. Hobbs), ib. ;
comjiarative experiments with malt
and barley (Dr. Voelcker), 597; on
mixing bran with cake, ib.

Oilcake, report on (Dr. Voelcker), xxv.
234 ; improvements in cotton-cake, 235.

Olein, its cliaracter and properties
(Horsfall), xvii. 280; its relation to
margarine in sunuaer and winter, 179.

Olivine, its composition, xvii. 468.

Oxiox, its root described (Henfrey), xix.
486 ; and illustrated, 487-8.

Onions, nitrate of soda desti'oys the white
maggot in (D. Barclay), 1. 425.

Onobrvchis sativa, see "Sainfoin."

Ononis arvensis, see "Rest-harrow."

Oolites, the, the farming of, in Glouces-
tershire (Bravendar), xi. 133.

, group, varying forms of, by J.

Trimmer, xii. 451.

, on the farming of, in Northamp-
tonshire, by W. Beam, xiii. 48.

Oolite, tiie oolite district of North Wilt-
shire (E. Little), v. 172.

siinds of Somersetshire (Acland),

xi. 718.

soils of Lincolnshire (Clarke), xii.

265.

, the soils of, by J. Trimmer, xii.

491.
, the fanning of the light soils of the

upper oolite (Haxton), xv. 91.
soils of Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 197,

199.

soils of Buckinghamshire (Read),

xvi. 278, 282.

escarpment of Edgehill (Warwick-
shire), xvii. 477.

Ophthalmia in horses CF. Dun), xiv. 118.

Orchaiujs, on the cultivation of, and the
making of cider and perry, by F.
Falkener, iv. 380. See "Apples,"
"Pears," "Cider," "Perry."

, on those of Devonsliire (Tanner),

ix. 471.

, on those of Shropsliire (Tanner),

xix. 44.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

135

Okchards of Berksbiro (Sncariii£r'), xxi.

Orchis latifolia, or marsh orchis (Buck-
luau), xvi. 3b6.

maculata, or spotted-leaved orcliis

(Buckman), xvi. 30(5.

mascuki, or early purple orchis, xvi.

36G,

raorio, or common orcliis, xvi. 3G(j.

Orellin, qualities of, xxiv. 550,
Organ, org;aiiic, the terms explained

(Henfrey), xvii. G5.
Organic, meaning of the term as used

by Liebig, xxv. 503.
matter, nitrogenous and non-nitro-
genous, its money value as a manure

(Way), xvi. 539.
■ matter in drainage water destroyed

by permanganate of potash (J, T. Way),

xvii. 157.
Organs of plants, situated externally

(Henfrey), xvii. C6; tlieir functions,

67 ; elementary organs, ib.
Orobanche, a disease in clover, its origin

described (Pusey), i. 13; (Main), 173.

, or broom-rape, by J. Blain, i. 173.

elatior, see " Broom-rape, tlie tall."

minor, see " Broom-rape, the minor."

ramosa, see " Broom-rape, tlie

branched."

Ortolans, tlie mode of fattening in Italy
(Lyon riayfair), iv. 244.

Orton, on tiie influence of either parent
on the oftspring, xvi. 43.

OsTEOLiTH, a species of phosphorite found
near Hanau (Dr. Voelcker), xxi. 357.

Otmoor, in Oxfordshire (Eead), xv. 251.

Oven for a cottage, cost of (C. Hill), iv,
361.

Overman, Mr., the late, liis growth of
wheat at Holkliam, iii. 6 ; his lease for
light turnip-lands, 7.

, F. W., on claying or marling land,

in. 234. See " M;irliiig."

Owen, Prof., on a hybrid from a hare and
rabbit, xxv. 2G5.

, Prof., on trematode worms, xxiii.

96; on parthenogenesis, 114.

Ox-blood, analysis of, see " Food of live
stock."

Oxen, see " Cattle."

, their keep and cost in France, xix.

490-2.

, sheep, and pigs, their composition

and increase while fatteidng (Lawes
and Gilbert), xxi. 433; tables of nitro-
genous and non-nitrogenous compounds
consumed, 436-7; nitrogen in food,
435 ; cellulose, ib. ; feeding value of
pectine compounds, ih. ; fatty matter, lb. ;
allosvancc for variations, 438 ; bulk and

character of the food of pigs and rate of
increase, ib. ; food and inci ease of sheep,
ib. ; dry substance in oilcake and foreign
corn, 439 ; relation of nitrogenous to
non-nitrogenous food, ib.; proportions
of food in early stages of growtli, ib. ;
economy of feeding, 440 ; food rich in
carbon and hydrogen, ib. ; relative de-
velopment of organs and parts of fat-
tening cattle, ib. ; tables of live and
dead weights of stock, 443-9 ; propor-
tions of intestines and their coiitents to
the enthe animal weight, 441; refer-
ence to ' Philosophical Transactions '
(Pt. II., 18.59), ib.; loose fat, 442;
weight of oftal at various stages, ib. ;
proportion of olfal to carcass, 450 ;
saleable carcass defined, 451 ; rapid in-
crease of fat, ib. ; table of amounts and
IDroportions of the fat and lean parts of
l^igs fed on different food, 452 ; in-
fluence of food, 454 ; description of ten
animals, analysed in difterent condi-
tions of growtli and fatness, 455 ; com-
■ position of carcass and ofl'al, 456 ; of
the entire bodies, 457; proportion of
mineral matters to nitrogenous flesh
constituents, 458; composition of car-
casses and i:)roportion of fat to nitro-
genous substance in beef, mutton, lamb,
and pork, ib. ; percentage of mineral
matter in offal, 459 ; composition of the
entire bodies and percentage of mineral
matter, phosphoric acid, and potash,
460 ; percentage of nitrogenous com-
pounds and of fat in different stages,
461 ; feeding properly termed fattening,
462; tables of the estimated composi-
tion of the increase of fattening oxen,
463 ; sheep, 464 ; pigs, 465 ; explana-
tion of tables, 466; condition of oxen
when experimented on and composition
of their increase, ih. ; increase of mineral
matter and nitrogenous compounds in
fattening sheep and pigs, 467 ; table o/'
mean results, 468; eflect of liberal
feeding in the final fattening stage,
469 ; feeding constituents stored up in
increase (tables), 471-2 ; explanation,
469-470 ; mineral matters removed
from farms by fatted animals, 473 ;
comparative requirements of sheep and
pigs, 474 ; the manure account as
affected by fatted animals, ib. ; tables
of constituents stored up in increase
and of matter thrown off by sheep,
476 ; and pigs, 477 ; explanation of
tables, 475 ; percentage of mineral
matter in iiat sheep and pigs, ib. ; rela-
tion of mineral to nitrogenous matters
of growth, 478 ; propoition of voided to

loG GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTUILYL JOURNAL.

storcd-up food, ib. ; relation of tat
stored up in the increase of pigs to
ready-formed fat in the food (tables),
480 ; explanation, 479 ; sources of fat,
starch, sugar, and i)eetinp, y7). ; relation
of diy matter in food to dry animal in-
crease, 481 ; fat jiroduced from other
constituents, 482 ; iiow to estimate tiie
value of food stuffs, ?7>. ; conclusions,
483 ; proportion of f(X)d to live weight
of animals, ih. ; dry substance iu dif-
ferent kinds of food, 484 ; proportion of
l)arts of animals, ib. ; tiieir cliemical
composition, 48.") ; composition of in-
crease and relation of its constituents
to that of constituents consumed,
48G-7.

Oxen, the teeth of (8imonds\ xv. 312.

Ox-EYK, the white, it^ soils and liabita
(Buckman), xvi. iJG2.

— —, ti:e yellow, xvi. 302,

Ox-ri.ES», analysis of, eee " Food of live
stock."

Oxi'OiJD clay form:ttion, the, of Lincoln-
shire (Clarku „ xii. 2f,'.».

clay formation of Uxrordshirc (Head),

XV. 197.

clay formation of Buckinghamshiro

(Read), xvi. 280, 282.

OxFOKDSiiiUE, on the farming of, a prize
report, by Clare S. Head. xv. 189;
markets of, 190 ; climate, il>. ; rainfall,
191: temperature, ib.; the geology of,
ib.; the chalk, 192; the lower chalk,
194; the grecnsand, 194, 195; the
gault, 195: the Kinnneridgc clay, 190;
coral nig, ib. ; Oxford clav, 197 ; fMilite,
197-199; the lias, 199;' tiie plastic
clav. 192 ; intermittent springs of the
eha"lk, 193; the stonebrash, 197; the
red-laud, 199 ; rotation of crops, 201 ;
in the Cliiltern district, 203 ; in the
mixed soils, ib. ; on the stonebi-ash, ib. ;
ou the red soils, 204 ; on strn-k lands,
fl>. ; Aveeds of the county, 200 ; growth
of turuii)s and swedes, 207 ; mangold-
wiu-tzel, 208 ; mustard, 209 ; cabbages,
ib. ; fallows ou the clay hinds, ib. ;
wheat, 211; the bliglit or mildew, 212 ;
the wheat-midge, 213 ; barky and oats,
214 ; clover, 215 ; winter bean, ib. ; flax,
216; sainfoin, 217; ])aring and buni-
hig, 219; meadows near the rivers
subject to floods, ib. ; the Thame, 221 ;
the Cherwell, 222; the cattle, ib.;
cows, 224 ; calves, 225 ; the sliwp, 227;
the Down-Cotswold sheep, 228 ; ram-
breeders, 230; the pigs, 235; horses,
237; plougliing, 238; manures, ib.;
bones, 242 ; stiperphosphate of lime,
ib. ; woollen refuse, 244 ; ashes, 245 ;

luue, ib. ; implements, ib. ; ploughs,
240; lian-ows, ib.; waggon.s, ib.; the
Oxfordshire (bag, 247 ; Otmoor, 251 ;
Wychwood forest, ib. ; the Cliiltern
beech-woods, 253 ; farm-buildings, 254 ;
the farms, 257 ; tenancies, 259 ; the
tithes, 200 ; labourers, 203 ; cottages,
204 ; draining, 200.

OxFoiu3SHiuE sheep, new, sprung from the
Cotswolds (Rowlandson), x. 436; (S.
Druce), xiv. 211; xx. 309; (W. Spooncr),
XX. 309 ; (K. Smith), xx. 344.

Oxides of iron (Hennning), xiii. 430.

OxvGEXE, the chemical properties of
(Hemming), xiii. 425.

OzoxE (.Jamiesou), xvii. 427 ; its compf>-
sition according to Schonbein, 429 ;
purifies tlie air-, ib.

P.

Pace, T., rejKu-t of an cxperuncnt with
special manures on the growth of turnips
(bones, guano, turf-ashes, the nitrates,
&c.., viii. 57.

Paget, C, on tlic cultivation of mangold-
wurtzel, xxii. 403.

, A., on accidents through farm-
machinery, XXV. 352.

Pain, T., his report on the hacks antl
huntei-3 at the Leeds meeting, xxii,
225.

Paine, J. M., on the phosphoric strata of
the chalk fonnatif)n, ix. 50.

, and J. T. Way, on the chemical and

agricultural characters of the chalk for-
mation, xii. 544.

. and J. T. Way, on the silica stratii

of the lower chalk, xiv. 225.

, his selection of drainage-wat<'r at

Farnham, for analysis by J. T. Way,
xvii. 131.

Palin, William, on the fannhig of
Cheshire, prize report, v. 57. See
" Cheshire."

Palis&y, Bernard, on the use of calcareous
manures, xxiii. 354.

Pauiatin, one of the constituents of butter
(Voelcker), xxiv. 291.

Palmek-stox, Lord, his Hampshire cot-
tages and aniiugements for letting, xxii.
278.

, letter from, rm the influence of

recent drainage works on the climate
and water supply of the Test valle}',
xxii. 340.

Pai'aver argemone, see " Poppy, prickly-
heatled."

dubium, ste " Popi)y, long smooth-
headed."

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

137

Pai'Aveu hybridum, see "Poppy, round
roiigli-headed."

rhses, see '" Poppy, comiuou red."'

Pakalysis in sheep (F. Dun), xvi. liDl.

Paiusites aliecting the internal parts of
animals, their natural history and con-
sequences, a lecture (Prof. Sinionds),
xxiv. 597 ; classification of parasites,
598 ; diiferent classes of entozoa, hyda-
tids, 599; solid worms, tenite or tape-
worms, ib. ; lioUow worms, filaria?, GOl ;
mode in wliich entozoa are introduced
into the animnl system, ib. ; lamb dis-
ease, ib. ; remedies, necessity of strength-
ening diet, use of anthelmhitic agents,
602 ; tm-pentine, use of tonics, chlorine
gas, 603; entozoa causing scour in
sheep, Trichocej>halus attinis, remedies,
604 ; a new worm, the Fllaria hamata,
found in sheep, 606; symptoms and
treatment ; Disctission — remedy for the
gapes in poultry (Lord Beniers), natural
history of the tape-worm, and remedy
for atfected dogs (Siinonds), 607; the
sijncjamus trachealis, and remedy for
the gapes, 608.

Parknchymatous tissue, see "Vegetable
physiology "c(Prof. Heufrey), xviii. 377.

Parixg ami burning by taskwork, the
prices paid for, by K. Ilaynbu'd, vii.
129.

■ , on breaking up grass-lands (by P.

Pusey), ix. 422.

in South Wales (Read), x. 144.

, breast-ploughing and burning in

Gloucestershire (Bravendar), xi. 156.

, stifle-burning, xi. 159.

l)eat-soils in Lincolnshire (Clarke),

xii. 381.

the sainfoin leys in Oxfordshire

' Kead), xv. 219.

on Exmoor (R. Smith), xvii. 379.

and binning, on (Dr. Voelcker),

xviii. 342 ; objections to it answered,
as to destroying organic matter, 344 ;
as to exhausting by cropping, 349 ; on
the ground of expense, ib. ; mineral
and organic manures contrasted, 346 ;
atfinity of humus for ammonia, 347 ;
carbonic acid and heat produced on the
formation of humus, 348 ; clay can
retain moisture and a)nmonia, 349 ;
paring and burning inapplicable to
sandy soils, ib.; Mr. Caird's opinion
on the benefit of the practice confimied,
350 ; humus accumulated by stiff wet
land, 351 ; analysis of burnt weeds, ib. ;
burning destroys weed-seeds and larva;,
355 ; making soils more porous, and
liberating potasli and soda where sili-
cates are found, 35G ; effects of over-

PAUSNIP.

burning, ib. ; pipeclay soils unsuitcd
for biu-ning, ib. ; Mr. Lawrence's expe-
rience, 357 ; soils adapted for burning,
359 ; analyses of soils on the Ootswokl,
359-60 ; the thin brashy soils only light
from the presence of limestone, 359 ;
tlieir fitness for paring and burning, ib. ;
conclusions, 367.

Paris Exhibition (1856), report on the
agricultural department of (J. PI Deni-
son), xvii. 33 ; constitution of jury, ih. ;
relative position of English and French
agriculture (Lavergne), 35 ; sheep and
cattle of England and France contrasted,
36 ; gold medals, to whom awarder], 52.

Agricultural Meeting, 1S56 (J. E.

Denison), xvii. 394 ; Dutch and Flemish
cattle, 395 ; Ayrshire ditto, ib. ; machi-
nery, 366 ; trial of ploughs, 398 ; seeds,
collections of, 399.

, English jurors at, xvii. 394-5.

, the present state of the sewers and

water supply of (P. H. Frere), xxiii.
338.

Parishes, open, their influence (C. S.
Reatl), xix. 292.

Parker, H., on the advantage of very
shallow cultivation on a light moory
farm in Gloucestershire, vi. 187.

, J. Oxley, on Essex draining, iv. 39.

Parkes, Josiah, report on drain-tile's and
drainage, iv. 369. See " Drain-tiles."

, on the influence of water on tla;

temperature of soils, on the quantity of
rain-water and its discharge liy diains,
V. 119. See "Drainage," "Rain-
water."

, report on the exliibition of inqjle-

ments at the Southampton meeting in
1844, V. 361.

, on reducing the cost of permanent

drainage, vi. 125.

, report of the implements exhibited

at the Slu'cwsbury meeting (1845), vi.
303.

, on draining, vii. 249.

, on the exliil:)ition of inq)lements at

the Newcastle meeting, vii. 681.

, on the temperature of the soil, v.

140; xvii. 418.

Parkinson on the rot in sheep, xxiii.
156.

, J., on improvements in the agricul-
ture of Nottinghamshire since the year
1800, xxii. 159.

Pariungton, T., his experience with Bur-
gess and Key's " M'Cormiek's reaping-
machine," xvii. 311.

Parsnip, on the culture of, in Jersey
(Colonel Le Couteur), i. 419 ; (C. I*.
Lo Cornu), xx. 41.

138 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Parsnip in Guernsey, i. 420; drill-luis-
bandry, 421 ; tliiived in deep soils, 419 ;
quantity of seed, 420 ; its housing, usual
Aveight per acre, 421; its leaves used,
422 ; parsnips used to fatten oxen and
pigs, lb. ; and, wiien boiled, poultry, ib. ;
liow it keeps, ib.

, tlie insects which affect, by J.

Ciu-tis, ix. 174.

, on the composition of, by A.

Voelcker, xiii. 38.3 ; analysis of, 390 ;
ammoniacal salts in, 389; their advan-
tages for field cultivation, 39G.

, analysis of, xiii. 4.08.

, on the finger and toe in, xv. 125

(Buckman) ; experiments witli the wild
l)arsnip, ib.

Partkidges great destroyers of the wire-
worm (Curtis), V. 208.

Pastixaca saliva, see " Wild parsnip.''

Pasturk, permanent, on laying domi
land to (Mr. H. Sutton), xxii. 410;
preparation of land, manure, time and
mode of sowing, 417 ; grass-seeds with
wheat, 418 ; suitable weather for
sowing, ib. ; best mixture for medium
soils, 419 ; after-management, hand-
weeding, top-dres.-iiig, &e., ib. ; benefits
of frequent cutting, 420; grazing, ib.;
breaking up and improvement of grass-
lands, ib. ; renovating seeds and time
of sowing, 420-1 ; indications of moss
in old turf, 421 ; remedy for moss, ib.

, on subsoiling, with description of a
new implement (H. Wood), xxv. 510';
deep penetration of roots, ib. ; surface
jiuddles injurious to grass, ib. ; facilities
for filtration, (7*. ; description of im-
proved scarifier, 511.

Pasture-L/Vnd of Cheshire, see " Grass-
lauds."

, on the breaking up of cold, by J.

Bravendar, vii. 167.

, on fauy-rings in, by J. T. Way, vii.

549 ; the fungi of, 550 ; analysis of the
ash of the grass of, 551.

, on a metiiodof breaking up inferior,

by F. Woodward, ix. 54.

of Cumberland (W. Dickinson), xiii.

271.

, analysis of a ban*en pasture-soil at

Braydon in North Wiltshire, xiii. 552.

, on ridge and furrow, and a method

of levelling it (C. W. Hoskyns) xvii.
327 ; cost of the process, 330.

, the nm-sery of inseets which migrate

into tiie arable (Cm-tis), xviii. 05.

, Jlr. Horsfall's management of, de-
scribed, xviii. 184.

, Rev. W. II. Beevor's rules for

stocking, xviii. 334.

PEAS.

Pasture-land, effect of folding turnips
on (Lawes and Gilbert), xix. 555.

Patents, agricultural, for the year 18G1,
xxiii. 4S4 ; for 18G2, xxiv. 053 ; for
1863, xxv. 570.

Pawlett, T. E., on the breeding, feed-
ing, and general management of sheep,
vi. 361.

Paxton, W., practical statement of the
formation of an economical water-
meadow, i. 346.

Payne, S. H., on a novel drain-level, vi.
247.

, process of dressing wood, xx. 11.

P.^YNTER, J., on the employment of gas-
water as a manure for barley, i. 45.

Pearlash, analysis of, xiii. 490. See
" Carbonate of potash."

Pears, on the cultivation of orchards and
the making of cider and perry, l)y F.
Falkoncr, iv. :i80 ; on pnars, 390 ; fruit
on certain soils, ib. (sec " Apples " / ; in
the counties of Worcester, Hereford, and
Gloucester, ib.; the best perry pears,
391 ; the mode of raising pear-trees,
iJ>. ; the princijial perry pears, ib. ; tlic
best eating pears, ib. ; planting out the
trees, 392 ; prejiaring tlie soil manur-
ing, 394 ; pruning, 396 ; management
of store fruit, 398; mode of making
cider, 406.

, analysis of the wood and leaves of,

xiii. 530.

-. of Herefordshire (Rowlandson), xiv.

440 ; juice obtained from a given
Wright of, 446 ; analysis of, 447 ; arti-
ficial preparation of the oil of pears,
448.

Pearson, Dr., on the absence of slicep-
rot on tlie marsh-lands of Kent, xxiii.
81.

Pea-havlm, analj-sis and high feeding
value of (Dr. Voelcker), xxii. 406.

Peas, the average produce per acre in
Essex (Baker), v. 39.

, on the insects affecting, bv J. Curtis,

vii. 404.

, on a Aveevil which affects, by J.

Curtis, viii. 399.

, the fungi of, by the Rev. E. Sidney,

X. 391.

, tlie blight in (Sidney), x. 391 .

, on the double cultiu-e of timilps

between, by C. Hannam, vii. 589.

, on the analvsis of the ashes of, by

J. T. Way, viii.' 167; ix. 147.

, on the analvsis of the seeds of

(Way), X. 494.

, analysis of a soil where peas rotted

at Lancaster, xiii. 552.

and beans, on the cultivation of, a

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

139

prize essay, by E. Vallentinc, xv. 478 ;
liow to make them cleansing crops,
481 ; varieties of seed, 485 ; their dis-
eases, 48G.

Peas, growth of, iu Buckinghamshire
(Read), xvi. 291.

Peat-ashes, burning of, by taskwork, tlie
cost of, by H. Eayabird, vii. 136.

, analysis of, xiii. 490.

Peat-chakcoal as a manure for turnips,
by W. Uppleby, v. 507 ; the precau-
tions necessary in charring the peat,
ib. ; the turnips manured with this
dressing, 508.

• , as a manure for turnips and other

crops, by H. Eaynbird, a prize essay,
vii. 539.

, analysis of, xiii. 490.

, as a deodoriser of town sewage

(Way), XV. 157.

Peat-soils, on the imjirovemcnt of, a
prize essay, by C. W. Johnson, ii. 390 ;
where commonly situated, ■ib. ; level
and deep, ib. ; saturated with water,
colour when dried, ib. ; inflammable,
ib. ; its origin and gradual formation,
391 ; tlie ordinary plants which are in-
digenous to bog-soils, ib.; Dutch ashes,
their analysis, 392 ; the composition of
the liquid in which peat-soils are soak-
ing, ib. ; analysis of two barren peat-
moss soils, 393 ; erroneous modes of
reclaiming peat-soils, ib. ; without drain-
ing them, ib. ; and yet attemiDting to
gi-ow fii-tees in, 394 ; where converted
into excellent water - meadows, 395 ;
power of the steam-engine to drain and
Lrrigate land, o9G ; lime as an applica-
tion for peat-soils, ib. ; potatoes as a first
crop, ib. ; following crops, ib. ; manures
applicable by the drill, 397 ; peat and
nightsoil in compost, ib. ; lime and
peat in compost, 398 ; mode of dividing
fields, ditches, hedges, 399 ; results of
bringing bogs into cultivation, ib. ;
on the improvement of, by P. Pnsey,
400 ; good drainage the primary step,
ib. ; the first crop in Lincolnshire,
401 ; subsoil-ploughing, 403 ; the second
crop, 405 ; rye-grass, ib. ; clay applied
to peat-soils, 406; this clay in Lincoln-
shire how found, 407 ; claying de-
scribed by W. B. Wingate, ib. ; on the
action of lime on peat, 410 ; Sir C. G. S.
Monteith's account of the use of lime
on peat-soils iu Scotland, ib. ; kinds of
clay employed, ib. ; on the aijplication
of a marine peat as a manure in Car-
narvonshire, by Eev. J. \. Vincent,
417 ; claying the peat-soils, mode of,
described by P. Pusey, iv. 299.

Peat-soils, on those of Norfolk, by J.
Trinmier, vii. 474.

, their inlluence on the temperature

of the atmosphere (Whitley;, xi. Jl ;
those of Ireland, ib.

, or moors of Somersetshire (Acland),

xi. 707.

of Lincolnshire, described bv J. A.

Clarke, xii. 281, 288, 368, 381, 382.

, paring and burning of, iu Lincoln-
shire (Clarke), xii. 381.

• , claying of, in Lincolnshire, xii.

382.

, the peat-mosses of Cumberland, by

W. Dickinson, xiii. 278 ; Solway moss,
ib.

, marl from Forfarshire analysed, xiii.

536.

, drained and undrained, from Le\\es

and Holland, analysis of, xiii. 540.

, analysis of one said to be over-
limed, xiii. 554.

, rotation on a, in Derbyshu-e (Eow-

ley), xiv. 49.

, farming of the hght (Haxton), xv.

95, 122.

, experiment with nitrate of soda and

guano on a peat-bog, by J. D. Nicol,
XV. 185.

, on the barrenness and fertility of,

by J. Coleman, xvi. 173, 181.

and bogs of Ireland (E. Smith),

xvii. 351.

Peat-tiles, on the use of, for draining,
by the Duke of Richmond, viii. 570.

Pectin, found in fruits, and obtained, by
boiling, from turnips and other roots,
xviii. 408.

Pedigree in wheat, as a means of in-
creasing the crop (F. F. Hallett), xxii.
371 ; the duection of increase, ib. ;
constituents of wheat plant, .372 ; hori-
zontal and vertical development, ib. ;
pedigree in plants, selection of seed,
high-bred cereals, 373 ; table of results,
374 ; kinds of wheat experimented
Avith, ib. ; plan of selection and dia-
grams showing increase, 374-5 ; superior
vitality of one grain in each ear, ib. ;
comparative experiments on the yield
of wheat grown on the old and new
systems, 376 ; season of planting, ib, ;
width of intervals between singly
planted seeds, 377 ; the system applied
to field culture, ib. ; details of manage-
ment and produce of two experimental
fields, 378 ; quantity of seed influenced
by time of sowing, 379 ; dibbling, how
effected, ih. ; summary of advantages,
ib. ; extension of seed time, economy
of seed, rapid early growth, 380 ; facili-

140 GENERAL INDEX TO IWYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

tics for replnnting, 381 ; 2>i"0(lucc ix;r

acre, ih.
Peel, Sir Robert, an account of a field

tliorough-drained at Drayton Ly, iii. 18.
Peoler, Mr., liin means to ensure fecun-
dity in cows, xix. 151.
Pelham, Dudley, on the winter-feeding

of sheep, xi. 88.
Pexicillii'h, one of the fungi of the

dairy, by E. Sidney, x. 395.
PEri'EJi-KAND in corn, see " Smut."
PiciTEKWouT, its soils and habits (Buck-
man), xvi. 3G0.
Peucheu, on breed of horses, at the Paris

meeting, 1856 (Deni.son), xvii. 38.
Permanent pasture, see " Pasture, jjer-

manent."
Pethoselini'm segetum, see "Coru-

parsley."
PiCKEXMAL rye-grass, or darnel, analysis

of (Way), xiv. 177.
, its growth iu different .-iUiations,

(Kuckman), xv. 408; natural history,

xvii. 525.
I'euky (^Y•(^ "Pears"), on the making of,

by ¥. Fallcener, iv. 380, -lOG.

of Gloucestoi-shii-c (Braveudar), xi.

153.

making in Herefordshire (Rowland-
sou), xiv. -liO; the "Biirland jteri-y,
•ll(j ; the amount of juice obtained
from a given weight of jjears, ih. ;
artificial i)rei)amtion of the oil of pears,
418.

, esssiy on the manufacture and pre-
servation of cider andpeny (0. Cadle),
XXV. 7G. Sec " Cider and peny."

pEitr, the cause of its dry climate i Pusey),
xiii. 351. (See " Guano."

Petasites vulgaris, see " Butter-bur."

Petki, on the germination of wheat at
dilfcrent depths, xvii. 170.

Phalaris arundiuacea, see " Reed canary-
grass."

cauaricnsis, see "Eeed canary-
grass."

Pheasants are great destroyers of the
wireworm (Curtis), v. 208.

Phillus, C. B., on the Pmik sheep of
Thibet, xi. 03.

, G., on the potato-disease, a prize

essay, vii. 300.

' PniLosoFiuGAL Trausactious ' (1859,
Part II.), containing detailed tables of
live and dead weights of cattle, by La wes
and Gilbert (see reference), xxi. 441.

Phleuji pratense, see "Timothy-grass."

PuoNOLiTE, the, see " CUnkstone."

Phosphates, on their presence in the
strata of tlic eartli and in all fertile
soil, l)y Dr. Buekland, x. 520.

PHOSPHATES.

Phosphates, on the American and other
native jjliosphates of lime, by J. Hud-
sou, xii. 24i>.

of lime the maniu'e for cereals

(Way), xvi. 535.

, their money value iu different sub-
stances (Way), xvi. 539.

of lime (soluble), largely present in

fresh farmvard manure (Voelcker),
xvii. 200.

(soluble), given out by watered

bones (Voelcker), xvii. 201; Mr.
Pusey's plan, ib.; Wilhler's testimony, ih.

(soluble), on its absorption by dif-
ferent soils of known composition, and
the application of i)hosi)hate manures
to rout-crops ^^Dr. Voelcker), xxiv. 37 ;
.sources antl use of supeqihosphate, ib. ;
composition and properties of bi- (or
soluble) phosphate of lime, 38 ; wliy
root-crops are benelited by phosi)hatic
manures, 39-41 ; analysis of the ash of
turnip bulbs and topa, 39 ; ditto of the
grain and straw of wheat, ib. ; per-
ctntage of mineral matter removed
from the soil by roots and wheat, 40 ;
effect of superphosphate on barley,
41 ; the cause explained 42 ; auuno-
iiiacal .salts, ib. ; use of ash-analyses, ib. ;
conditions affecting the use of phos-
phatic niamucsalunr or in condjination,
43; pliosphoric acid in relation to ger-
mination, 44 ; turnip manure for cal-
careous clays, 45 ; composition of soil of
experimental pk)ts, ib. ; absorption of
solul)le!pliosphate by a red loamy soil,
40; ditto, by calcareous soil, 48; ditto,
by a stiff' clay subsoil, 49; by a stilV
clay surface soil, 51 ; liy a light sandy
soil, ih. ; by a nuirly soil, 53 ; action of
lime, 54; free acids, mineral or organic,
injurious to vegetation, ib. ; soluble
pliosphates remlered insoluble by cer-
tain soils in limited quantities, 55 ; re-
cipe for making superphosphate, ib. ;
analysis, 56 ; effect on swede crops and
succeeding barley, ib. ; permanency of
bone-dust, ib. ; primary use of manures,
57; cause of the superior efficacy of
soluble phosphates, ib. ; economy of
applying superi>hosphate with water
and "the liquid drill, 58; inefficacy of
bone-dust and pliosjjhates in certain
localities, 59 ; mineral supeiphosphates
deficient iu potash not good turnip-
raiuiure, ib.; remarkable instanc(j of
anbury at Ashton Keynes, ib. ; analysis
of soil and subsoil, 01 ; practical con-
clusioiLS, iJ). ; manm-c for light land,
02; its manulactnre and mode of appli-
cation, ib. ; sunuuary, 63.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

141

PnosrHO Peruvian guano, its nature,
analysis, and use for swedes (Dr. Voelc-
ker), xix. 171.

Phosphatic rocks of the Anguilla isles
(Sii- E. I. Miu-ehisou), xx. ;]1.

■ materials used ibr agricultural

purposes, tlu'ir chemical composition
and conuuercial value (Dr. Voelcker),
xxi. 350 ; sources of phosphates, ih. ;
superphosphate of Imie, ih. ; nitro-
genous fertilisers, 351 ; phosphorus in
albumtuous compounds, ib. ; effects of
phosjdiates on roots and cereals, 352 ;
A^orwegian apatite, where found, 353 ;
its analysis and percentage of phos-
jihate, 354 ; Spanish phosphorite (Estra-
madru'a phosphate), its use as building-
stone, ii^G ; analysis, ib. ; fibrous or
Bavarian phosphorite, 350; osteolith,
357; Cambridgeshire coprolites, their
composition, 357 ; mode of analysis,
ib. ; how to treat coprolites, 358 ; Suf-
folk, jiscudo or false, coprolites, de-
scribed by Dr. Buckland, 359 ; their
colour, consistencj', and composition, ih. ;
their conversion into manure by M.
Ivoblique's j^rocess, 3G0 ; American phos-
])hate, IMaracaibo, Monk's Island, or
Columbian guano, 361 ; its composition
and value, 362 ; Sombrero rock or crust
guano, ih. ; its aiialysis, 363 ; composi-
tion of Kooria Mooria guano, 364 ;
African and West Indian ijhosiihatic
guanos, 365 ; South American bone-ash,
■ih. ; its analysis, 366 ; variations in bone
constituents, 367 ; defective analyses, ih. ;
chemical formula of pure bone-ash
(Heintz), 368, and bone-earth, 368-9;
fluorine in bones, 369 ; the caustic am-
monia test, ih. ; errors in commercial
analyses made by precipit;;tion, 370 ;
illustrations, 371 ; percentage of phos-
phoric acid, the real measure of value,
ib. • the author's method cf analysis,
372 ; tests of its accuracy, 373, agree-
ment of independent analyses, ib. ; ex-
planation of results, 374 ; analysis of
South'American bone-ash, 375 ; how to
conduct and state analy.sis for practical
use, ib. ; compo.sition of pure bone-ash,
376 ; table of analytical results and ex-
planation, 377 ; percentage of phos-
phate, 378; animal charcoal or bone-
black, ih. : its analysis, 379 ; treatment
of bones before crushing, ib. ■ composi-
tion of sound, decayed, and boiled
bones, 380; and of bune sliavings,
381.

PiiosPHOiiic acid, chemical properties of
(Hemming), xiii. 431 ; its presence in
igneous rocks, xvii. 466.

Phospiiofjc acid, its small waste in drain-
age water (J. T. Way), xvii. 140.

strata of the chalk formation, on,

by T. M. Paine and J. T. Way, ix. 56.

Phosphohite, on the occiu'rence of, in
Estramadura, by Dr. C. Daubeny and
Captain Widdrington, v. 406 ; it occurs
in the clay-slate formation, 411 ; ana-
lysis of one of the specimens, 414.

, on its use as a manure (Daubeny),

vi. 329.

■ , in the ash of bran, malt-combs, and

rape-cake, xviii. 159.

, its absorption of, by soils (Dr.

Voelcker), xx. 140 ; its influence on
germination, xxiv. 44.

, Spanish, on the use of, and other

manures, by Sir H. Verney, vi. 331.

, Spanish, on the American and

other native phosphates of Imie, by
J. Hudson, xii. 249 ; the apatite,
253; analysis of si^ccimens from Nor-
way, Spain, and the Tyrol, 254.

Phosphorite, Spanish, or Estramadura
phosphate (Dr. Voelcker), xxi. 355.

, fibrous or Bavarian (Dr. Voelcker),

xxi. 356.

Phosphorus of vegetables CBowditch),
xvi. 338.

Phosphitretted hydrogen, emission of,
by decomposing animal matter (Bow-
ditch), xvi. 340.

Phragmite communis, sec " Common
reed."

Physiology of vegetation, see " Vege-
table physiolog}'."

Pickering, the vale of (Henderson), xiv.
133 ; on the Kimmeridge clay, iJ).

Piecework, see "Taskwork.'

, payanent for, in Berks (Spearing),

xxi. 43.

Peerson, J., on burning land for manure,
viii. 77.

Pigeons, on tlie rearing and management
of, by W. Trotter, xii. 196.

, the dung of, its analyses, xiii. 482.

PiGEONs'-DUNG, employed in Flanders as a
top-dressing for flax (Rliam), ii. 312;
the value of that from 100 pigeons, ih.

PiGGERY', on the construction of, xi. L'O;'.
(Tanered) ; (Ewart), 259.

PiG-NtT, its habit and jirevalenco iu Bed-
fordshire, xviii. 14.

Pigs, how a cottager may profitably kcip
one (Main), ii. 337.

, a pig which lived 160 days witliont

food, iv. 224; effect of manifestation
of force, 225; fattening animals ke])t
i'rom moving, ih. ; experiment with
.some pigs, ib.; Mr. Morton's trials
with fattening pigs (Playfair), 233.

142 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Pigs, the pigs kept in Cheshire (Palin),
V. 78.

. tlie food of, fat and flesh-producing

(Karkeek), v. 265.

of Norfolk ( Almack), v. 318.

, the excrements of, examined by

Dr. 0. Sprengel, i. 491.

, those of Nottinghamshire (Corring-

ham), vi. 21.

■ , tliose of Devonshire (Tanner), ix.

482.

, those of tlie N. E. of Yorkshire

(Milburn), ix. SIS.

of Lancasliire (Garnett), x. 40.

of South Wales (Read), x. 140.

of Gloucustcrsliire (Bravcndar), xi.

143.

, on the breeding and management

of, a prize essay, by T. Rowlandsou,
xi. 574 ; the various breeds of, 575 ;
the Chinese, 577 ; Neapolitan, ib. ; the
lierkshire, 578; on the choice of a
breed, 58U ; pork for market, (7*. ; pig-
killing and cutting up, 588 ; lard, 5'Jl ;
curing hams and bacon, 592 ; the best
mode of rearing, keeping, and fatten-
ing, 598 ; going to Imar, 599 ; exercise
necessary for growing pigs, ih. ; the
sties, GOO ; cleanliness of, ib. ; food of,
001 ; the improved Essex, ()03 ; feed
regularly, 605.

of Nt)rtliamptonshire, by W. Beam,

xiii. 85.

of Cumberland, bv W. Dickinson,

xiii. 270.

, the number of, exhibited at the

Society's meetings, from Oxford in
1839 to Lewes in 1852, xiii. 403.

, analysis of solid excreta of, xiii.

482.

, analysis of urine of, xiii. 506.

of East Lothian Stevenson\ xiv.

302.

, on feeding, by J. B. Lawes, xiv.

458.

• of Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 235.

, on the teeth of, by J. B. Simonds,

XV. 276 ; the fine taste and smell of

the pig, 283 ; not such tiltliy feeders as

is commonly supposed, 283 ; dentition

of, 346.
■ , those shown at the Lincoln meeting

(1854), XV. 382 ; the frauds practised

by some exhibitors, ih.
■ , on the hereditary diseases of pigs

and sheep, by Finlay Dun, xvi. 16;

peculiar breeds of, 18.
occasionally fed on fish and frogs in

Hungary (P. Love), xvi. 154.
-■ — of Buckinghamshire (Read), xvi.

301.

PLAXTOIK.

Pigs fed on sour food in Warwickshire
(Evcrshed), xvii. 480.

, account of (R. Smitli), xix. 388 ;

the Lancashire and Coleshill breeds,
ib. ; Blr. F. Ilobbs's unproved Essex
breed, 3S9.

, liow cross-bred to advantage (H.

Tanner), xxii. 9.

PiiCE, Mr., of Stevington, Bedford, his
experience in steam-cultivation, xx.
210.

PiLEWOUT, crowfoot, its soils and habits
(Buckman), xvi. 360.

PiMi'EKNEL, or poor man's weatlierglass
(Buckman), xvi. 364.

PiNATE, analysis of, xiii. 532.

PiXES, insect ravages on (C. Rawlenoe\
xxii. 449 ; P. austriaca attacked by thc!
beetle Ilyle.siimspiniiierda from neigh-
liouring Scotcii pines, 450.

Pii'EULAV analysed, xiii. 536.

Plane-tkee, the, its planting and ma-
nagement (Fulkener), iii. 271.

Plans of cottages (Laacs), xvii. 509.

PLAXTAfio lanceolata, see '■ Ribwort plan-
tain."

media, nee " Broad-loaved plantnin."

1'laxtaix, the meal analy.sed, xiii. 522.

, analysis of a soil where plantain

would not grow, xiii. 554.

Pipe-tiles, used for draining in Bedford-
sliire (W. Bennett), xviii. 4.

I'lax of the Forest of Delamere, showing
iffects of marling, xxv. opp. 368.

Plaxtixo trees, on (Falkener), iii. 281.

, on the system of planting and the

management of plantations at Welbeck,
by J. E. Denison, ix. 366 ; the Green-
dale oak, 367 ; exiieriments made on
different systems, 368 ; only trees
planted, oak, Sjianish che.snut, and
larch, 370.

, on Scotch fir and larch, by Sir J. S.

Menteath, ix. 373.

in Somersetshire (Acland), xi. 738.

in Cumberland (Dickinson), xiii.

280.

, eftcet of soil on the growth of

(Evershed), xiv. 416, 451.

Plantations, their formation and use in
Durham (Dr. Bell), xvii. 121.

of larch, at Thrisliugtou, Durham,

co.st of, xvii. 121 ; estimated profit from
larch-growing, 122.

Plant-lick, or aphides, bj^ J. Curtis, iii.
49 ; vi. 503 ; vii. 416.

, affecting vetches, peas, and beans

(Curtis), xviii. 59.

Plantoir, the implement used in Flan-
ders for root-planting (with a sketch)
(Rham), iii. 252.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

14;:

Plants, on fil>rous covering of, by 0. K.
Vacj', vii. till.

' , can they use atmospheric nitrogen ?

xvii. 58 ; opinions of Bonssingault anil
Ville, ib.

, structure of (Henfrey), xvii. 73 ;

cells of, illustrated, 74 ; increase of
cells, or plant growth, 77.

, their food inorganic (Liebig), xvii.

292.

, atmospheric nutrition of, lecture

on (Dr. Voelcker), xxv. 531 ; the hu-
mus, or vegetable-mould theory, 532 ;
composition of the atmosphere, ih. ;
atmospheiic nitrogen not assimilated
by plants (Boussingault, and Lawes
and Gilbert), ih. ; office of oxygen and
carbon, ih. ; small percentage of car-
bonic acid in the air (De Saussure),
533 ; its sufficiency for most jslants ih. ;
office of carbonaceous matters in the
soil, ib. ; ak in soil largely charged
with carbonic acid, as determined by
Boussingault's expiriments, ib. ; how
root-ci-ops absorb carbon, 534 ; atmo-
sjiheric ammonia, Boussingault's and
Bineau's researches, ib. ; ammoniacal
feiiilisers more suited to cereals than
green crops, 535 ; use of nitrogenous

' manure, ih. ; danger of hasty generali-
sation, ib. ; indirect influence of the
atmosphere on plant nutrition, ib. ;
aeration of tlie soil, 536 ; quantity of
organic nitrogen in soil, ih. ; influence
of the air on clay soils, 53G ; Discussion,
Hy. ; percentage of nitrogen in Peru-
vian guano, ib. ; large amount of
nitrogen in clover roots (Mr. Holland),
ih. ; effects of feeding of, as compared
witli mowing (Mr. Coleman), 538.

have no selecting power, but ab-
sorb by endosmosis (Voelcker), xviii.
144.

Plastic clay, the soils of, by J. Trimmer,

xii. 454.
, analysis of, by Dr. Voelcker, xii.

506.
, the farming of the light soils of

(Haxton), xv. 92.
soils of Oxfordshire (Bead), xvi. 192.

soils of Buckingliamshire (Read),

xvi. 272.

Playfair, Lyon, on the application of
pliysiology to the rearing and feeding
of cattle, iv. 215. See " Cattle."

, on tlie nature and causes of the

decay in potatoes, vi. 532.

, analysis of a nrarl which having

been used for manure rendered the
subsequent application of manures in-
operative, vi. 575.

rLorGHiNa.

Playfair, Lyon, analysis of the soil and
subsoil of a verj' productive field at
Sutton in Norfolk, vi. 577.

Pleuro-pneumonia in cattle, by G.
Waters, a prize essay, ix. 343.

, on the organs of respiration and

circulation, with especial reference to
])leuro-pneumonia in the ox, by J. B.
Simonds, x. 570.

, on inoculation for, by J. B. Si-
monds, xiii. 373, xiv. 244.

, its effect in diminishing tlie milk-
supply (T. Horsfall), xviii. 151 ; pre-
monitory symptoms, 189; treatment
and remedies, ib. ; cocoa oleiu, its pro-
perties, 190; insidious natiu'c of the
disease, 191 ; laboured inhalation im-
plies consumption of carbon, 191, 193;
food rich in starch and sugar benefi-
cial, 192.

, in 1841, not an imported disease

(J. B. Simonds), xviii. 201 ; most pre-
valent in badly regulated sheds and
on cold, retentive soils, ib. ; its infec-
tious character, ib. ; tliis tlieory ques-
tioned by Mr. Thompson, note, ih. ;
pathology of the disease, 202 ; the
lung affected before tlie pleura, 203 ;
prevalence of the disease in North
Holland in 1857, 208; said to have
been observed in Hanover as early as
1807, 211; precautionary steps taken
by the Danish government against tlie
spread of pleuro-pneumonia, 214 ; in
early stages of the disease, tlie flesh of
slaughtered animals is fit for food, 217;
precautionary mcasm-es against tlip
disease at Liibeck, 220 ; do not restrict
the trade in hides, 221 ; ontlireak of
tlie disease in the duchy of Mecklen-
burg, 1856, 222.

, on the use of inoculation in.

(Eeiset), xxiv. 437.

Plough, paring ; on a new paring-plougli
at Chester (1858), xix. 344.

, tlie Jersey, xx. 47.

, Smith's (Deanstone) .subsoil plough,

xvii. 552; Gray's (Uddington) ditto,
ih.

, double, still used in Warwickshire,

(Evershed), xvii. 481.

, turnwrest, at Chelmsford meeting,

xvii. 576.

, trials of at Paris meeting, 1856,

xvii. 39 ; table of results, 40.

, in Bedfordshire the common plough

preferred to Bentall'sbroadshare Ben-
nett), xviii. 9 ; Howard's two-wheel
iron plough, an extraordinary success,
22.

Plovghint, in Norfolk, v, .307,

144 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

PLorfiiTixa, cxiieriincntal inquiry on
(liaught ill, Ly P. Pusey, i. 219.

, results of txperimeuts on subsoil-

l)loughing and in planting potatoes, by
.Sir James Graham, Bart., i. 244.
, results of experiments on subsoil-
ploughing at Oakley Park, by 11.
White, i. 248.

by taskwork, the prices paid for, by

II. liaynbird, vii. 130.

, report of the results of, with

ploughs shown at the Great Exhi])itiou
in IS;")], by P. Pusey, xii. 587; on
mould-boards, .')89.

, on eleavage, xii. 589.

in Oxfordshire (Head), xv. 238.

, on tlie advantages of autumn

phiugiiings for fallows, by 11. YuUen-
tine, xvi. 347, 352 ; the ridge and Hut
systems, their adaptation to soils and
climates, 34'J.

, deep, its eftects (P. Love), xvii.

543,

, deep and shallow, experiments

(P. Love), xvii. 550.
— — , decji and burning subsoil (P. Love),
xvii. 5.")0.

, English and French contrasted,

xvii. 57(J.
round the field for v.lieat in Nor-
folk, xix. 277.
Ploughs of the Dutch fanners, ii. 58.

, trials on the draught of, by T.

Freeman, ii. 104.

, on the advantage of testing the

draught of ploughs, by H. J. Hannam.
iii. 9.

, the great Jersey trench-plough,

Colonel Le Oouteur vn, iii. 40 ; deeii-
ploughing, its advantage, ib. ; the soils
this plougli is adapted for, 41 ; fallows
unknown in Jersey, 42; tlie plough,
how drawn, 43 ; extent of land i)loughed
ilia day, breadtii of furrow, 44 ; wimxI
engi'aving of, 47.

, the Jersey potato-sc-tting plough,

iii. 47 ; sketch of, ib.

, J. Morton, jun., on, iii. 107 ; on

sulisuil-plough, 107 ; sketch of Clarke's
plough, 108; of the Kentish turn-
wrest, 109; f>f Wilkie's turnwrest, /^. ;
of the framework. 111; of the cutting
parts, 112; of the mould-boards, 114.

, Mason's siuface-pulvcrising plough,

with a sketch, iii. 350, 303.

, observations on, iii. 359.

, those used in Lincolnshire (Pusev\

iv. 304.
• , (111 wheel and swing, by H. Hand-
ley, a prize essay, i. 140 ; the d)nia-
mometer, 142 ; trials at Ipswich, 143 ;

comparative draught of, ih. ; the wheel-
plough not approveil in Scotland, 145;
advantage of a good ploughman in de-
creasing the draught, 145.
Pi.orGiis, exjierimental inquiry as to tlio
draught of, by P. Pusey, i. 219.

, an account of the Churlbury suli-

soil (Pusey), i. 433.

■ , trials with, at Tiptreo Hall (Pusey),

xii. 589.

I , trials of, at Pusey, xii. 590.

I , paring-jilough (Kilby's), xii. 599.

I , a report by P. Pusey on the drain-

' ing-plougiis shown at tin; Great Exhi-
I bition (in 1851), xii. 039.

, on a plough for cutting gutters in

meadows, by Sir Btatibrd Northeote,
xiii. 170.

shown at the Gloucester meeting

(lS53j, xiv. 355.

, tiiosc used in Oxfordfihire (Read),

XV. 246.

, sho\vu at tlio Lincoln meeting

(1854), XV, 304.

, Fowler's draining, at Lincoln

(1854), XV. 307.

, tho.sc shown at the Carlisle meeting

(1855), xvi. 507, 522.

, at the Chelmsford meeting (185C),

xvii. 574.

, trial of j)loughs at the Warwick

meeting, report of Judges on, xx. 317;
suiieriority of tlie wheel over tlie swing
plough never more clearly demon-
strated, ib. ; ridge plough could not bo
trie<l, ib. ; import^mce of hardening
tlie share, 318 ; turnwrest plouglis, ib. ;
tables of performance, 319.

, trials of at Newcastle meeting, rc-

l>ort of Judges on, xxv. 417; light
land ploughs, 418 ; the dyiiamoinetrieal
test not reliable in the case of swing
jilough.s 419 ; Hancock's smaslier,
421 ; Sovereign's combined Canadian
iiniilement. Hi.; Harrison's ridging
jilough, ib.
Pi.dvp:, the basis of assessment in Schlcs-

wig and Holstein, xxi. 281.
PiXM, the analysis of the wood of, xiii.

530.
Pi.uJisTEAD marsh, drainage of (Clarke),

XV. 21.
Pi.ymley's account of tlie Shropshire

Down sheep, xix. 42.
PoA annua, eee " Aimual meadow-
grass."

tiuitans, see "Floating meadow-
grass."

compressa, see "Squitch."

nemomlis, see "Wood meadow-
grass.''

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

145

POA.

PoA pratciisis, see " Smooth-stalked mea-
dow-grass."

2irocumbeus, see " Procumbeut sea

meadow-grass. ' '

trivialis, see " Eough-stalked mea-
dow-grass."

PoGGiALES test for milk, xxiv. 315.

Points, scale of, in Jersey cow (Lc
Contour), v. 44 ; (Jersey A. Soc.), xii.
' 5S3.

in Jersey bulls (Jersey A, Soc),

xii. 582.

Poisons of .sheep (Cleeve), i. 316.

PoiTTEvrn's manure, and bones as a
maniu-e, on trials witli, by R. A. Chris-
topher, ii. 2G7.

, trials on turnips, by H. C. Comp-

ton, ii. 270.

, trials with, by various persons, re-
ported by W. Miles, i. 416, iii. 423.

PoLLAED, as food for pigs, by J. B,
Lawes, xiv. 401.

PoLYGoxTJi avicularc, see " EJiot-grass."

bistorta, see " Bistort."

convolvulus, see " Buckwheat, the

climbing."

I'oNDS, coustraction of, on the Avoids of the
E. R. of Yorkshu-e (Legard), ix. 119.

Pony, account of the breeds of (R. Smith),
xix. 373.

Poole, Gr. S., on the best mode of re-
pairing the banks of tidal rivers flowing
through alluvial soils, xi. 178.

PooK-EATES in Buckinghamshire (Read),
xvi. 311.

in Norfolk, their reduction (C. S.

Read), xix. 307.

Poor-law, new, its operation m Norfolk
(C. S. Read), xix. 292.

PoPLAE-TKEE, the, its planting and ma-
nagement (Falkener), iii. 272.

for hedges, J. Grigor on, vi. 225.

, analysis of its wood, bark, and

leaves, xiii. 530.

I'oiTY, the cidtivation of it in tlie Nether-
lands described (Rham), iii. 254.

, prickly-headed, its soils and habits

(Buckman), xvi. 360.

, long smooth-headed, xvi. 360.

, round rough-headed, xvi. 360.

, common red, xvi. 360 ; the number

of its seeds, 377.

, how destroyed in Norfolk, xix. 272.

PoPEY, C, on burning clay, vii. 142.

Porcelain clay analysed, xiii. 536.

Pores or stomata of wheat, their differ-
ence from those of tui'uips (Buckman),
diagram, xvii. 185.

Pork, fattening for market (Rowlandson),
xi. 586.

, quality of, obtained by feeding with

VOLS, I. — XXV.

different kinds of food, by J. B. Lawes,
xiv. 538.

Pork, of Buckiughamshu'c (Read), xvi.
301.

Portal, Mr. M., his homo farm at Laver-
stoke, Hants, xxii. 298 ; laboui-ers' cot-
tages, 299.

Portland, the Duke of, on the effects of
hay from water-meadows upon horses,
i. 347.

, his water-meadows described by

J. E. Denison, Esq., i. 359.

, observations by, on the property of

water-meadows to give the rot to sheep
at ccrtam seasons, i. 368.

, remedy against deposits of red ochre

in ch'ainiug tiles, xvii. 630.

Portland stone of Dorsetshire (Euegg),
XV. 390.

Portman, Lord, account of Shepherd's
Corner farm, in Dorsetshu-e, iv. 88, 99 ;
viii. 565.

, on the disease in potatoes, vi. 343,

vii. 498.

, on taskwork, vii. 140.

, experiments on the growth of pota-
toes, vii. 158.

, on draining with fir-boughs, ix. 452.

, on the stopping of drains by an

earthy deposit, x. 119.

, on the Tart Lands of Central

Somerset, xxiv. 245.

Portman, Hon. IM. B., report on the
Missom-i Show Yard, xviii. 416.

Potash, chemical properties of (Hem-
ming), xiii. 429.

, money value of, in different sub-
stances (Way), xvi. 539.

, small waste of, in drainage-water

(J. T. Way), xvii. 140.

, its relation to highly manured hay

crops (Lawes and Gilbert), xx. 409.

, on tlie absorption of, by soils of

kno\\'u composition (Dr. Voelcker),
XXV. 333 ; Prof. Way's experiments, ib. ;
the author's experiments, ib. ; kinds of
soil emjiloyed, ib. ; absoiption of caustic
potash by calcareous soil, 334 ; stiff
clay, 335 ; fertile sandy loam, ib. ; pas-
ture - land, 336 ; marly soil, 336 ;
sterile soil, absorption of potasli from a
solution containing carbonate of potash,
339 ; Mr. Phillips's experiments, ib. ;
mechanical and chemical analyses of
sod, 339-40 ; experiments with a solu-
tion containing sulphate of potasli, 340 ;
ditto, on a marly soil, 341 ; on a sterile
sandy soil, 342 ; absorption of sulphuric
acid, 344; presence of ready-formed
ammonia in tlie experimental soil, ih. ;
comparison of results from caustic

146 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

potasli and sulphate of potash, 345 ;

use of lime and marl, 346 ; experiments

■with a solution of chloride of potassium

on a calcareous soil, ib. ; on clay soil

347 ; fertile light sandy loam, ib.

pasture-land, ib.; calcareous clays, 348

sterile sandy soil, 349 ; marly soil, 350

absorption of jjotash from a solution of

nitrate, 351 ; results, 352.
Potatoes, on a disease in, the bobbin-

joan, by Sir C. Lemon, iv. 431.

, analysis of, by Dr. Fowncs, iv. 532.

grown in Cheshire (Palin), v. 102.

• , ravages of the wireworm nijou

(Curtis), V. 192.
, the -wireworm docs not seem to

attack them in some parts of the North

of England (Curtis), v. 198.
, results of experiments on planting,

by Su- James GKiiiam, Bart., i. 244.
, tiic growth of, at Stinchcombe, in

Gloucestersliire, i. 391.
, successful application of soot to

(J. Morton), i. 401.
, on the prevention of curl and dry-
rot in, by H. S. Thompson, vi. 101.
, on the disease in, by Lord Portman,

vi. 343.
, on the cultivation of, by H. Cox,

vi. 345 ; time of planting, 347 ; various

lands, 352.
, on the cultivation of, in Cornwall

(Karkeek), vi. 428.
• , on the nature and ttiuses of the

decay in, by Dr. Lyon Playfair, vi.

532 ; analysis of, 536.
, experiments on tlie growth of, by

Lord Portman, vii. 158.
' , on the potato disease, by G. Phillips,

a prize essay, vii. 300.
■ , on the potato disease, a prize essay,

by E. J. Graham, vii. 357.
on the potato disease, a prize csssiy,

by H. Cox, vii. 486.
■ , experiments on, by Lord Portman,

vii. 498.
' , disease of, in Poland (Duplat), vii.

678.
, trial of seedling, by W. Miles, viii.

420.
, gi'own on the ■warp-soils of the

W. E. of Yorkshire (Oiamock), ix. 298.

of Devonshire Tanner), ix. 403.

of N. R. of Yorkshire (Milburu),

sections of the potato-pits employed,

ix. 514.
, on the various insects wliich affect

this crop, by J. Curtis, x. 70.

, on the funguses of, by the Rev. E.

Sidney, x. 393, 394.
, on certaiu fimguses in connexion

POTATO-DISEASE.

with the potato disease by F. J. Grur
ham, xi. 443.

Potatoes, analysis of, by J. T. Way and
G. H. Ogston, xi. 529.

, on the effect of climate on the

gi'owth of, by B. Simpson, xi. 054.

, growtii of, in Cumberland (W.

Dickinson), xiii. 230.

, analysis of, xiii. 458.

, refuse of starch-makers, analj'sis of,

xiii. 498.

, gro-wth of, in East Lothian (Steven-
son), xiv. 303.

, effect of farmyard manure from

covered and uncovered yard on, by
Lord Kinnaird, xiv. 337.

, growth of, on the light flinty chalk

soils (Haxton\ xv. 100 ; on the sandy
soils of Norfolk, 121.

, light emitted by decomposing

(Bowditch), xvi. 340.

how grown near Binningham, xvii.

486.

, on the early cultivation of (Rev.

E. F. Manby), xviii. 98 ; at Morecombe,
Lancashire, two crops yearly, 99 ; ad-
vantiiges of the soil and situation, 100 ;
the " lemon kidney " a good early
sort, which does not flower, ib. ; rent
and inoduce per acre, 101 ; tlie " red
eye," the second early sort, 102 ; tho
" fluke,' a late winter kind, sound and
productive, ib. ; preparation for the
crop, 103 ; diagram of the proper spado
for setting, 104; management of grow-
ing crop, 100 ; time for lifting, ib. ;
preparation of seed ; sprouting, 107 ;
sprouting rooms, ib. ; management of
seed, 108 ; shelter of young plants from
frost, 109 ; genuine seed scarce and
dear, Hk ; precautions against disease,
110; ground clear of potatoes adapted
for mangold or swedes, 106.

aTid cabbage grown together on Mr.

Horsfall's farm, xviii. 185.

• , on their culture, jjroduction, and

disease ; a prize essay (Dr. Lang), xix.
65 ; metliod of preparing and under-
letting potato-land in South Devon, ib. ;
the " lazy-bed " system described, ib. ;
the drill or row system clean but less
productive, ib. ; the row and harrow
space system, 06 ; the golden pink-eyed
potato,.it continuous growth for twenty-
six years, in self-seeded land, ib.

PoTATO-disease, its first inroad (1845) de-
scribed (Dr. Lang), xix. 66 ; inquiry as
to its cause, 08 ; the question of
atmospheric influence discussed, ib. ;
physiology of the potato, 09 ; germ of
the stem and tuber convertible, ib,;

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

147

rOTATO-GKOWD-'G .

experiments on the firtifioial jiroductiou
nf the disease. 69 ; the vine disease akin
to that of potatoes, ih. ; apple, sloe, ash,
maple, and mulberry-trees, and Jiipan
lihes similarly nttected, 71 ; experiments
on the eflccts of certain manuies, dung,
guano, ashes, lime, and salt, 72 : trials
of sniphnr and charcoal inconclusive,
73 ; trial of silicate of potash, why and
witli what result, 74 ; the disease
microscopically examined, 76 ; its iden-
tity in the potato, vine, and mulberry,
ib. ; the central black spot in the leaf
contagious, ib. ; sulphiu" in a confinetl
space a remedy, 77 ; potatoes covered
with 3 inches of soil exempt from dis-
ease, ib. ; potatoes stored at that depth
coidd not be affected experimentally,
78 ; Japan lily gives three weeks'
warning of disease, 79 ; white potatoes
less liable than red to disease, 79 ;
etiect of dew in causing disease, SO ;
its fungoid nature, 81 ; lime and salt the
only safe manure, ib. ; sorts least liable to
disease, ib. ; preventive measures, ib.

Potato growing, on the system pursued by
IVIr. Knight, of Downtou Castle (Dr.
Lang), xix. 75 ; its wondrous results, ib.

growhig, practical directions for (Dr.

Lang), xix. 78 ; choice of seed, ib. ;
proportions of lime and salt to bo used
as manure, ib. ; imiiortance of ridging
up the rows, ib. ; seedlings, uncertain
and troublesome to cultivate, SO ; con-
clusions, 81.

, method of planting in Jersey (Le

Cornu), XX. 42.

, autumn preparation for,- and spring

setting of (Mr. Grey Dilston), xx. 451.

, sweet, the, analysed, xiii. 522.

PoTENTiLLA auscrina, see " SUverweed."

tormentilla, see " Tormentil."

PoTERiUM millefolium, see " Yarrow."

sanguisorbia, see " Burnet, common

salad."

Pottek's clay of Dorsetshii-e (Ruegg), xv.
390-394.

PouDRETTE de Bondy, or Paris nightsoil,
as turnip manure (Dr. Voelcker), xix.
170 ; its analysis, 181.

PouiLLET, on eifect of radiation on the
earth's surface, xvii. 415.

Pot'LTRY, those of Devonshire (Tanner),
Lx. 483.

, on the rearing and management of,
a prize essay, by W. Trotter, xii. 161 ;
the Queen's poidtry-house, 162 ; the
fowl -house, 164; the turkey - house,
166 ; the goost;-house, 167 ; the grass-
plat, ib. ; breeds, the Cochin-China,
169; the Malay, 172; the Spanish,

173; the game, 174; the Dorking, 175 ;
tlic Dutch evcry-day layers, 176; the
Polish, 177 ; the spangled Hamburg
and the bantam, ib. ; table-fowls, 179 ;
how to obtain a good breed, ISO ; selec-
tion of eggs for hatching 181 ; liatch-
ing ih. ; artificial hatching. 185 ; the
turke}', 187 ; the guinea-fowl, 192 ;
geese, 193 ; ducks, 195 ; the pigeon,
196 ; chseases of poultry, 202.

PovLTKY of Cumberland (Dickinson), xiii.
270.

, the number of, exhibited at the

Lewes meeting, xiii. 404.

, those shown at the Lincoln meet-
ing (1851), xv. 382.

, analysis of the dung of, xiii. 482.

, the excrements of, examined by Dr.

C. Sprengel, i. -193.

Prehnite, analysis of, xiii. 532.

Preisser on the precipitation of mineral
salts taken up by the Seine in its
course through Paris, xxii. 432,

Premiums for live stock and implements
awarded at the Oxford meeting, i. lix.

at the Cambridge meeting, ii. viii.

at the Liverpool meeting, ii. xcvii.

at the Bristol meeting, iii. sxv.

at the Derby meeting, iv. xxxvi.

at the Southampton meeting, v.

xlix.

■ at the Shrewsbury meeting, vi. sxvi.

at the Nevvcastle meeting, vii. xv,

at the Northampton meeting, viii.

xvii.

at the York meeting, ix. xxi.

for implements awarded at the

Exeter meeting, by Colonel Challoner,
xi. 487 ; for live stock, Iv.

for live stock awarded at tlie Nor-
wich meeting (1842j, xi. xv. ; for im-
plements, XXV.

, awards of medals at the Great Ex-
hibition of the Works of all Nations
(in 1851) for agricultural implements,
xii. 649.

— — for li\e stock exhibited at the
Windsor meeting (in 1851 i, xii. xl.

for implements awarded at the Lewes

meeting (1852), xiii. xx. 337 ; for live
stock, ix.

, Gloucester meeting (1853), for live

stock, xiv. xxxiii. ; fcir implements, xliv.

, Lincoln meeting (^1854), for live

stock, XV. Ixvi. ; for implements, Ixxxiii.

, Carlisle meeting (1855), for live

stock, xvi. xxi.; for implements, xxxvii.

, Chtdmsford meeting (1856), for live

stock, xvii. xxiv. ; for implements, xxxv.

— — , Salisbury meeting (1857), for live
stock, xviii. viii. ; for implements, xxx.
k 2

148 GENEKAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGEICULTUEAL JOURNAL.

PEEMirMS.

Pi!EMUMS for live stock and implements
awarded at the Chester meeting (ISob),
for live stock, xix. xxi. ; for implements,
xlv.

, AVarwick meeting (1859), for live

stock, XX. viii. ; for implements, xxx.

, Canterbury meeting (ISGO), for live

stock, xxi. vii; for implements, xxi.

, Leeds meeting (1861), for live stock,

xxii. xi. ; for implements, xxxii.

, Battersea meeting (18G2,, for live

stock, xxii. xiv.

, Worcester meeting (1803% for live

stock, xxiv. xlii. ; for implements, Ixvi.

.Newcastle '1804), for live stock,

XXV. xl. ; for implements, Ixvii.

Pkess-kolls, report on tliose .shown at
tlie Great Exhibition (in 1851) by P.
Puscy, xii. (jlO.

Puic'E, I)., on the sheep rot, xxiii. 77.

Pkices, see "Provisions,"' "Wheat," &c.

PitmuosE, the common (Buckman), xvi.
'Mi.

Phijuea veria, see "Cowslip, the com-
mon."

vulgaris, see " Primrose, the com-
mon."

I'luzE of lOOOZ. offered for the best sub-
stitute for Peruvian guano withdrawn
(report of Council), xvii. iv.

Pkizes, Kee " Premiums."

, influence of, on demand for How-
ard's plough, xix. 281.

Pkoctor's manure, its analysis and use
for wheat (Voclcker\ xx. 392.

PivOCUJiBEXT sea meadow-grass, xv. 4(it!.

Pkoguess in agi-iculture, between 1851-
5(3 (Denison), xvii. 53.

Peoi'euty - TAX assessment in Norfolk
(C. S. Read), xix. 301.

Protein, its discovery by Mulder, xxii.385.

Pkotococcts viridis, the green powder on
trees, palings, &c., xvii. 70. See " Green-
dust."

Pkotoplasji, the substance out of which
the organs of jilants are made (Henfrey),
xvii. 79 ; its increase due to tne supply
of nitrogen, 81 ; xviii. 378, 394.

Pitovisioxs, prices of in England, from
30th June, 1855, to 30th June, 1857,
xviii. vii. ; 1857, 1st and 2nd quarters,
xviii. vi. ; 3rd and 4th quarters, xiv.;
1858, xi.K. vii. xvi.; 1859, xx. vii. xv. ;
1800, xxi. vii. xv. ; 1801, xxii. vii. xv. ;
1802, xxiii. vii.; 18G3, xxiv. vii. xv.;
1804, XXV. vii. xv.

Prumella vidgaris, spp " Self-heal."

PRrssiATE of potash, maker's refuse,
analysis of, xiii. 408.

Pryme, G., experuueuts with guano, iii.
437.

Pkyok, W., on Bokhara clover (Melilotus

leucantha major), xxiii. 405. (P. D.)
Pteris aquilina, see " Brake, the."
PriiLio healtli, state of, in England ;

1857, 1st and 2nd quarters, xviii. vi. ;

3rd and 4tli quarters, xiv. ; 1858, xix.

vi. xiv. ; 18.59, xx. vi. xiv. ; 1800, xxi.

vi. xiv. ; 1801, xxii. vi. xiv.; 1802, xxiii.

vi. ; 1803, xxiv. vi. xiv. ; 1804, xxv.

vi. xiv.
Pi:li' from mangold, xx. 72, 70, 78 ; its

analysis (Baudement), 83.

PlLRING-MACHINES, thosG sllOWn at tllO

Lincoln meeting (1854), xv. 373.

at the Carlisle meeting (1855), xvi.

507-520.

PiLi'isc; roots for cattle-food, on (C. Tiaw-
rence), xx. 453; benefits from dcjcrcas-
ing the supply of roots, 454 ; tho
j)ulper, its history, ih. ; Stanley's steam-
ing apparatus, 455 ; use of rape-cake,
ih.; dietiiry and co.st, 450; importance
of mixing rape-cake witli water at
212", if it contain mustanl, 457; Dr.
Voelcker's explanation, ib. ; eviilenco
on the value of pulping roots, IMr.
Wright, 458 ; ]\Ir. A. S. lUiston, Ciiat-
teris, 459; Mr. Pollard, llitcliin, 400;
Mr. Beadel, ib. ; Mr. Blundcll, Soutli-
ampton, 401 ; Mr. E. Corner, Bridg-
water, 401 ; Mr. Slater, 4(52 ; Mr. C.
Woolfield, ib.; Mr. J. Watson on tho
l)enefits of femienhition, 403 ; Mr. T.
Duckham, Ross, ib. ; Mr. W. Sadler's
comparative experiment in cattle feed-
ing : the lot on pulped food ate less
but gained less weight, 404 ; IMr.
]\PLagan'.s experience — the mixture
sliould .stand 24 hours ; pulj)ed turuijis
do not flavour miUv ; cost of pulping id.
to (kl. iKT ton, 405.

Puir valves of india-rabber (PeiTeaux
and Co. 's invention), at Salisbury meet-
ing, xviii. 448.

PuRbECK marble of Dorsetshire (Ruegg),
XV. 390.

I'riH.HA.'!, R. W., on the use of bones and
sulphuric acid and other manures, V.
440, vi. 244.

, on the action of the same three

years after its application, vii. 273.

PiRGiXG-FL,\x (Linum catharticum) apt
to purge cattle fPlaj-fair), iv. 251.

, its soils and habits (Buckman), xvi.

300.

I'lRiK sheep, on the, of Thibet, by C. B.
Pliillips, xi. 03.

PiRPLE cow-wheat, the (Buckman), xvi.
304.

melic-grass (Buckman), xv. 405,

xvii. 517. <.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

149

rURPLES.

PrarLES ov peppercorn in wheat (Hen-
slow), ii. 19.

PusEY, P., on the state of ngricultuve in
England in 183!), i. 1, See " Agrieul-
ture of England."

, an acconnt of the Charlbnvj^ sub-
soil plougli, i. 433.

on. shallow cultivation of land, vi.

191.

on the eifect of himit clay on a crop

of wheat growing upon very hciivy
clay land, vi. 477.

on the Breudon catch-meadows, vi.

,'521.

— — on the action of dung and some arti-
ficial manures on beetroot, vi. 528.

on white Belgian carrots, ii. 41.

on Beart's draining-tiles, ii. 101.

on nitrate of soda as a mamu'C, ii. 118.

on guano, ii. 303.

, some account of the practice of

English farmers in the improvenient
of peaty soils, ii. 400.

on the progress of agricultural know-
ledge during the last four years, iii.
1(J9. See "Agriculture."

on marl or clay-])urning, iii. 325.

, evidence on the antiquity, cheap-
ness, and efficacy of thorough-di'aining
or land-ditching, as practised through-
out the counties of Suffolk, Hertford,
Essex, and Norfolk, iv. 23. See
" Drainage of land."

on horse-hoeing flat-drilled tiu-nips,

iv. 7G. See " Tiu-uips."

on the agricultural improvements of

Lincolnsliiro (1842), iv. 287. See
" Lincolnshire."

, practical opinions on the effect of

Crosskill's clod-crusher, iv. 560.

, report on the wheats selected for

trial at the Bristol meeting, iv. 583.

, note on jMr. S. L. Hodge's paper

on making and Imrmng draining-tiles,
v. 556.

, experimental inquiry on draught in

plougliing, i. 219.

on the St. John's-day rj'e, vi. 177.

on superphosphate of lime, vi. 324.

on the action of dung and of some

artificial manures upon beetroot, vi.
528 ; quoted by Professor Tanner, xxi.
343.

on cheapness of draining, vii. 520.

on a new method of ^jreparing bones

for manure, viii. 417.

on the autunm cleaning of stubbles

on light land, viii. 570.

on breaking uj) of grass-land by

paring and burning at Longwortii, is.
422.

PusEY, P., on the jiuti-efaction of bono.'?,
ix. 530.

on the use of rape-cake as food for

stock, X. 247, 496.

on the theory and practice of wntcr-

meadows, x. 462.

on deep drainage, x. 508.

on the Purik slieep of Tliibet, xi. C4.

■ on tlie progress of agricultural know-
ledge during tlie last eight vears, xi.
381.

on the controversy on the mineral

theory of manures, xii. 40.

on M'Cormick's reaping-machine,

xii. 161.

• on nitrate of soda as a tojvdressing

for wheat, xii. 202.

on the cultivation of mangold and

carrots in alternate rows, xii. 580.

, report to H. E. H. Prince Albert,

the president of the commission for tlie
Exhibition of the Works of Industry of
all Nations, on the agricultural imple-
ments, xii. 587.

■ on the tlieory of irrigation, xiii.

177.

on a new method of hoeing turnips

xiii. 202, xiv. 358.

on the source and supply of cubic

saltpetre, salitre, or nitrate of soda,
and its use in small quantities as a
restorative to corn crops, xiii. 349.

on a trial between the water-drill

and the dust-drill in growing turnips,
xiii. 408.

, comparative profit realised Avith

diiferent breeds of sheep, xiv. 213.

, translation of a paper by Malingit'-

Nouel on a method of obtaining im-
mediate fixity of type in forming a new
breed of slieeii, xiv. 214.

on the natural law l)y which nitrate

of soda or cul^ic saltpetre acts as a
manure on its sul)stitution for guano,
xiv. 374.

on foreign nitrates, xv. 514.

, notice of his death by the Joimial

Connnittee, xvi. 268.

, experiment on the elementary prin-
ciples of manure as applied to the
growth of wheat, xvi. 529.

, the resolution of the Council of the

Itoyal Agri. Soc. of England on his
death, and letter of Lord Portman to
his family, xvi. 607 ; the reply of Mr.
T. I). Acland, 608.

his trial of nitric acid, soda, and

potasli separately (Lawes), xviii. 512.

Ins .sxnnmary of landlord's improve-
ments, xxii.90.

PfTLowES fann, xvi. 295.

J 50 GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

.PY3I.

Pym, F., on the use of burnt clay as a

manure for heavy clay soils, iii. 323.
Pybites, analysis of, xiii, 532.

Q-

QuANTOCK Hills, the farming of (Acland),

xi. 693.
QrAnTER-E\ii., the, in calves in Derby-
shire (Rowley), xiv. 53.

in sheep (Seaman), xvl. 14.

QuAUTLY, Francis, on his merits as a

breetler (Acland), xi. G80.
QrARTZ, analysis of, xiii. 582.
Queen. tl>e, tlie poultry-house belonging

to, at Windsor, xii. 132.
QrETELET on temperature of soil, xvii.

417.
QiEKETT, Prof., on the size of blood

cells, xxi. 213.
QuELLEU plant, see Salicornea herbacea,

xxi. 209.
Quevenne's lacto-densimeter and crcam-

ometer described, xxiv. 310.

R.

Eackheatii Bub-turf plough, Sir E.
Stracey on, ii. 37.

Eadxor or Welsh sheep, J. Wilson on,
svi. 232.

, Li)rd, his cottages for labourers at

Coieshill Spearing), xxi. 30.

Eags as a manure ibr beetroot, by P.
Puscy, vi. 529.

. the analysis oF, Ly J. T. Way, x.

617.

Eagwort, the common, its soils and habits
(Buekman), xvi. 3G2.

, the lionrj-, xvi. 302.

Eaii.wat-cvttixgs, the slopes of con-
solidated by couch-grass (Buckman),
xvii. 1g4.

Eailway horse-power (American), xx.
117.

Railways, on the conveyance of mineral
mantnes on, by J. Trunmir, xvi. 135.

for steam cultivation (Halketl), 199 ;

cost per acre, 10/., laid in timber,
200.

Eainals, Hany (Brit. Vice-Consul), a
report upon the past and present ttate
of the agriculture of the Danish mo-
narchy, published with the sanction of
the Foreigii-oilice, xxi. 207.

EiUNFALL, in Paris and Alsace, xvii. 445.

in Various districts of England and

Scotland (J. T. Way), xvii. 125; its
assumed average, 25 in., ih. ; its annual

kain-water.

equivalent per acre, ib. ; effects of
evaporation as tested by the Dalton
rain-gauge, 126 ; yearly and monthly
tables of rainfall, evaporation and filtra-
tion (Parkes), 127 ; proportion of rain-
fall entering drains, 129.

Eainkall for 1855 and 1856, analysis of
(J. T. Way), xvii. 619.

for 1858-00, at Alilershot (J. Arnold),

xxii. 340; at Ealing, from 1848-60
(W. C. Spooner), 342 ; at Go.sport from
1816 to 1858 (Dr. Burncy), 343.

Eain-gauge, the Dalton gauge, xvii. 126 ;
tiiat used by Mr. Lawe.s, 146.

RArN-WATER contains ammonia, Liebig, ii.
255.

, the Depth which fi-ll in each month

and each year, 1836 to 1813, in Hert-
fordshire, and the proportion of this
which evaporated and iiltered through
the soil, v. 151 (Dickinson). Seo
" Drainage of land."

, its ellect on crops, by J. B. Lawe.s,

v. 230.

, on the connexion between tlie fall

of, and the cultivation of the district,
by N. Whitley, xi. 11; anunal and
monthly falls of, 12 ; effect of elevation
upon, 15.

, B. Slmp.son on, xi. 639, 646.

, depth of tlie fall in England, 1829

to 1817, xi. 6i;0.

, depth of, in Lincolnshire, by J. A.

Chiike, xii. 297.

• , the rainfalls of Cumberland, by

W. Dickinson, xiii. 211.

, ti.e tutal absence of, at Iquiquo in

Peru, xiii. 351.

, rainfall at Martin Mere in Lanca-
shire, xiv. 106.

of East Lothian (Stevenson), xiv.

279.

contains ammonia, xiv. 379; ana-
lysis of specimens from Puscy and
Paris, ib.

of Oxfordshire (Eeid), xv. 191.

of Dorsefsliire (Eucgg), xv. 435-6.

, amniouia, proportions of, found in,

by various ehenii.sts (Way , xvi. 207.

, rainfall in Buckinghamshire (Eead),

xvi. 271.

, newly fallen rich in oxygen, xvii.

439 ; its action on iron (Guibourt), ib.

, salts in, xvii. 441.

, nitrogen in, xvii. 445.

, experiments on, by Lawes and Gil-
bert, BarraU, and Buussingault, xvii.
142.

, amoimt of nitric acid and ammonia

in Eothamstcd rain-water , J. T. Way),
xvii. 143: ditto, per acre, 144; total

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

151

ILVIN-WATER.

quantity of nitrogen in rainfall, per

acre per anniuii, 144.
Rain-water, the quantity of nitric acid

and ammonia in (J. T. Way), xvii. G18 ;

ditto, per acre, 620.
Eakes, horse, see " Horse-rakes." '
Rasi-breedeks of Oxfordshii-e (Read), xv.

230.
Randall, Mr., his report on the Shrop-
shire sheep at the Leeds meeting, sxii.

227.
Randell, Charles, on the improvement

of cold and heavy soils liy the applica-
tion of bui'ut clay, v. 113. See " Clay,

bui'nt."
, his experiment Avith the Woolston

grubber, xx. 216.
, on the bm'nuig of clay land, xxiv.

540.
Eansome and Sims, directions by, for

working portable steam-engines, xix.

430.
Eansome's process of filliug the pores of

wood, XX. 13.
, J., his farm practice in Hcrtford-

shu-e (Evershed), xxv. 284.
Ranunculus acris, see " Upright meadow-
crowfoot."

arvensis, see " Corn crowfoot."

bulbosus, see " Bulbous crowfoot."

ficaria, see " Pilewort crowfoot."

repens, see " Creepmg crowfoot."

Rape grown extensively in Germany (S.

Carr), i. 124 ; dressed with 100 lbs. of

gypsmn per acre in the spring, ih.
, growth of, in Cornwall (Karkeek),

vi. 430.
, analysis of, by J. T. Way and G.

Ogston, xi. 513.
, on the eifect of climate on the

growth of, by B. Simpson, xi. 657.
, on the comparative merit of, and

turnips (Lawes), xii. 401.

, analysis of xiii. 474.

, green, recommended for milch cows

(Horsfall), x\ai. 279 ; its properties,

xviii. 185.
, when best sown (Horsfall), xviii.

184.
Rape-c.^ke, on, as food for stock, by P.

Puscy, X. 247, 49G.

, the analysis, by J. T. Way, x. 493.

as food for sheep (P. Pusey), x. 496.

, on tlie advantages of using a pro-
portion as food for stock (sheep), by

J. H. Cliarnock, xi. 612.
, on feeding cattle on, combined with

roots, cooked and uncooked, by Colonel

Macdouall, xiii. 115.

, analyses of, xiii. 522 ; xviii. 180.

, used for dairy cows (Horsfall), xvii.

reaping.

262 ; Mr. Horsfall's experience with

dauy and fattening cows, xviii. 180 ;

German cake, rich in quality but not

always pine, 180 ; how to preserve from

mould, ib.
Rape-cake, if containing mustard, should

be mixed with boiUng water (C. Law-
rence), XX. 456.
Rape-dust, on the use and application of,

as mamu-c, by J. Hannam, iv. 177 ; its

effects upon poor arable soils, 180 ; in

wet seasons, its effects upon winter-
sown wheat and on strong soils, ib.
, when a dressing of saline and earthy

matters necessary, iv. 180.
, experiments with, as a manure for

oats and barley, by J. Hannam, v.

267.
, as a manure to the yellow globe

beetroot, by P. Pusey, vi. 528.
, as a manm-e for wheat, by P. Pusey,

vii. 49.
as a manme for wheat grown on a

light soil for four successive years, by

H. W. Keary, xvi. 212.
Rape-oil used imiversally in Germany for

lamps (Rham), i. 125.
Eaphanus raphanistrum, see " Wild ra-

cUsh."
Rats and mice, method of destroying, by

J. S. Carr, iii. 428.
Rawlence, Mr., on tlic short-woolled sheep

at the Leeds meeting, xxii. 229.
, his sheep of the Wilts and Hants

breed, now extinct, xxii. 295.
Raulin, Prof, his experiments on tho

action of manm-es on the must-plant,

XXV. 258.
Raynbird, George E., on the cultivation

of field-beet or mangold-wurzel, a prize

essay, viii. 209.
, Hugh, on measure-work, a prize

essay, vii. 119.
, on peat charcoal as a manure fur

turnips and other crops, a prize essay,

vii. 539.
, on the farming of Suffolk, a prize

essay, viii. 261.
, W. and II., on the adulteration of

seeds, xxii. 14.
Read, C. S., on the farming of South

Wales, a prize report, x. 122.
, on the farming of Oxfordsliire, a

prize essay, xv. 189.
, on the farming of Bucldnghamshire,

a prize report, xvi. 269.

, J., on pipe-tiles, iv. 273.

, on improvements iu Norfolk farming,

xix. 265.
Reaping, the prices of taskwork for, by

H. Raynbird, vii. 125.

152 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

EEAPING-5IACHINES.

Reaping-machines, Governor Grey's de-
scription of one invented in Australia,
(1843), V. 284.

, P. Pusey ou M'Connick's, xii. IGO.

, report ou that .shown at the Great

Exliibitionin 18.51, by P. Pusey, xii. Gil.

, on those at tlie Lewes meeting

(18.52), by H. S. Tliompson, xiii. 302,
316 ; report of a Committee of the
Royal Agricultural College on, 332.

, report of a Committee of the Drif-

lield Farmers' Club on, xiii. 3.34.

, a rejjort by a Committee of the

Cleveland Agricultural Society on tlic
best reaping-machine shown for their
prize, xiii. 330.

at Gloucester (1853), the judges'

report on, xiv. 368.

shovai at Lincoln meeting (1854);

XV, 367.

— — , tliose shown at Carlisle meeting

(1855), xvi. 509, 514, 526.
, those shown at lioxtcd Lodge

(1856), xvii. 578.
, those .sliown at Paris (1S5G\ xvii.

44 ; criticism on their cun.stiuetinn \V.

Fairbairn), 49; table of results of

trials, ib.
■ , on the use of, by A. Hammond,

xvii., 339 ; his exijerience with Dray's

improved "Ilussey's machine," 340;

ditto, by T. I'arrington, 341 ; his expe-
rience with Burgess and Key's " M'Cor-

mick's reaper," ib.
, on those showni at the Salisbm-y

meeting (1857), XNiii. 423 ; report of

the judges, 444.
, on the postponed trials at Cauter-

buiy (1860), xxi. 511.
, on tliose at Leeds (1861), xxii. 457;

supplementary report on deferred tiials,

458 ; table of results, 4G0 ; machinery

in relation to the condition of the agri-
cultural labom'cr, ih.
, its use in a wet liarvest (Right Hon.

J. E. Denison), xxi. 549.
, its use in the harvest of 1860 (C.

Lawrence), xxi. 551.
Receii'ts and admissions at the shows of

the Royal Agricultuml Society, from

1852 to 1863, xxiv. 488.
Red bartsia (Buckman), xvi. 3G4.
boo^, ch-ained and clayed for carrots

(Love), xvii. 554.
■ gum, red rag, red robin in wheat,

(Henslow), ii. 9 ; (Sidney), x. 384. See

" Rusf
land soils, those of Oxfordshire

';Road), XV. 199.
sandstone (new) soils of the W. R,

of Yorkshire (Legard), ix. 290.

Red sandstone, influence of, upon the

tcmperatm-e of the atmosphere (Wiiit-

ley), xi. 10.
of GlouceBtershire (Bravendar), xi.

124.
, on the soils of, by J. Trimmer, xii.

493.
of Cumberland, on, by W. Diclcinson,

xiii. 208.
, the old, of Gloucestershire (Braven-
dar), xi. 122.
, on the soils of, by J. Trimmer, xii.

494.
, analysis of soils of, at TurrilV, xiii.

544.
Redjian, Mr., lu's experience witli Fow-

lers steam-tackle, xx. 224; Lis report

on the cost of steam-cultuie executed,

226.
Red-water in sheep ''Cleeve), i. 314 ;

(R. Smith), ^•iii. 24.

in cattle (Kearj'), ix. 445.

in cows (^ibbald), xii. 568.

of cows in Derbyshire (Rowley), xiv.

53.
Reel'E, Henry, on piuifying the air of

stables by a mixture of g}'psum or saw-
dust with sulphuric acid (L. P]ayfair\

iv. 278.
Reed canary-grass (Buckman), xv. 165 ;

xvii. 516.

meadow-grass (Buckman), xv. 465.

, the conunon, analysis of, xiii. 528.

, J. Buckman on, xv. 465.

, its soils and habits (Buclvman), xvi.

3G6.
Reiset's (M. J.), ngiicultural experiments

(P. H. Frere), xxiv. 436.
Rennie, Sir John,liis plans for the drain-
age of the Lincolnshire Fen.s, iv. 291,

xii. 317; xxi. 136.

, liis catchwater drains, xii. 317.

Rents, tlieir increa.se .since 1786 in
i Northumberland (Grey), ii. 158.
on the Greenwich Hospital estate,

ii. 160.
in Jutland cliiefly paid in kind, com

and butter (Johnston), iii. 415; tlie

stock chiefly belongs to the landlord,

ib.
, average, on different formations in

Buckinghamshire, xvi. 310. Sue the

dilferent English counties.
, in Diu-ham, its increase, xvii. 88 ;

low rents on the coast, 90.
in Shropshire (H. Tanner), in the

wheat district, 7.
corn, at Holkham, Norfolk (C. S.

Read), xix. 291.
Rei'Okt, general, on the Newcastle meeting

(J. Coleman), xxv. 391 ; remarks on

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

153

the Society's second visit, H). ; im-
l»rtance of implement trials, ih. ; police
and railway arrangements, IJD'i ; ste.im-
cultivation, 393 ; report of the judges
(see " Steam - cnltivatiou "), 394-417 ;
judges' report on horse-ploughs, 417;
light-laud jiloughs, 418 ; general pur-
pose ploughs, ib. ; heavy - land ditto,
420 ; suhsoilers, 421 ; paring-ploughs,
ib. ; judges' report of trials of culti-
vators, clod-erushers, rollers, &c., 42'J ;
schedule of awards, 423 ; miscellaneous
implements, and biick and tile ma-
climes, 424.

Resin, its formation in plants, xviii. 411.

Respiration of annuals, on, by J. B.
Simonds, x. 595.

and respiratory substances (Dr.

Voelcker), xxii. 388.

Rest-hakrow, its .soils and habits (Buck-
man;, xvi. 300.

Rhaji, W. L., on the agriculture of the
Netherlands, ii. 43, iii."'240.

• , on nitrate of soda as a manure, iii.

139.

, on the comparative value of dif-
ferent kinds of fodder, iii. 78.

, on the simplest and easiest mode of

analysing soils, a prize essay, i. 40.

, experiments on the improvement

of poor lands by subsoil-ploughing
with and mthout under-draining, i.
257.

Rheimatisji in horses, by F. Dun. xiv.
122.

, in cattle, by F. Dvm, xv. 77.

in Sheep, by J. Seaman, xvi. 11 ; by

F. Dun, xvi. 30, 387, 403.

in pigs, by F. Dun, xvi. 40.

RiiizojiES, underground stems (Buckmau),
xvii. 104.

Rir.WdRT, plantain, rib-grass, analysis of
(Way), xiv. 179.

■ , the eftect of irrigation upon (Buck-
man), XV. 470 ; how aliccted by manures
(Lawes), xx. 204.

Rice, trial witli, as a manure for wheat,
Iw J. B. Lawes, xii. 14.

Richmond, the Duke of, communication
of tlie report of the Morayshire Farm-
ers' Club on experuuents made in
raising tin-nips with sulphiuic acid and
bone-dust, iv. 1G4. See "Sui^erphos-
phate of lune."

, on the solution of bones in sulphuric

acid fur the purposes of manure, iv.
408, V. 443, 447.

, experiments upon the growing of

turnijis with diifcrent manures, vii. 297.

, on the use of peat-tiles lor thaiu-

iug, viii. 570.

Rickett's rotaiy cultivator at the Ches-
ter meeting (1858), (Uagi-am and report
of the judges, xix. 321 ; section of cul-
tivating shaft when at work, 323 ; ac-
count of (Clarke), xx. 188.

Rickets in horses (F. Duu), xiv. 125.

Rick ventilator, v. 388.

Ridging land, benefit of (Sir J. Paxton),
xvii. 473.

Ridley, Sir IM. "White, the judges' report
on the exhibition of implements at the
Gloucester meeting, xiv. 343.

Rinderpest, see " Murrain."

RiSLER, M., on the action of an aqueous
solution of gyi^sum, xxi. 199.

RiTTER, of Jena, on the oxidising power
of non-refrangible rays, xvii. 421.

Rivers, their bunks, on the best mode of
repairing (Poole), xi. 178.

, on tlie improvement to be made in

land by amending the channels of
rivers and other watercourses, by AV.
B. Wood, xiii. 367 ; their ordinary
obstructions, 368 ; mills, &c., 369, 372 ;
the Thames valley, its floods, 370 ; of
the Avon, ib.

, mud of the Trent and Kirkcud-
bright analysetl, xiii. 536.

-= , are the natural drains of a district,

xiv. 130 ; how materially impeded liy
mill-dams, 130, 131, 133, 137.

, on trunk drainage, by J. A. Clarke,

xv. 1.

, the effect of their flood-waters upon

grass-land, xv. 9 ; upon arable 13 ; state

I of some rivers, 36 ; varying level of the
tide of the None, 53, 55.

, their injurious effects from mills,

floods, &c., in Dorsetshire (Ruegg), xv.
427.

RiVER-WATER, analysis of, i. 152, xiii. 506 ;
salts in, xvii. 441.

, the None, analysis of, xv. 67.

Roads, practical instructions for im-
proving and economically maintaining
turnpike and parish roads upon the
mile system, by C. B. Challoner, ii.
353 ; the chief expense in repair of
roads, ib. ; successful working of the
system on part of the Great Western
road, 354 ; quaUfications necessary for
a mileman, 355; tunes for the mile-
man to obtain his levels, ib. ; where
water rests, and hollows need filling
uj), ih. ; when he should be on his
road, 356 ; how milemeii sliould be
encouraged, 357 ; common defects in
shape of roads, 358 ; tendency to be
pushed down towards the water-talile,
359 ; outline plan of the usual form of
a road, ib. ; outline plan of a road 28

154 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

feet wide, ih. ; depots of gravel on the
Western road, 360 ; the best season for
laying on the annual coat of gravel,
ib. ; liow the road should be coated,
361 ; the old plan of putting the gravel
on the centre of the road, ib. ; an eco-
nomical mode of making green sides,
363.

EoADS, mode of repairing, in Derbyshire
(Rowley), xiv. 39.

, materials used in Oxfordshu'e (Read),

XV. 254.

, materials for, used in Buckingham-
shire (Read), xvi. 312.

Eo.\D-MAKiNG a sequel to drainage (J. B.
Denton), xviii. 82.

RoAD-MENDiXG, ou CIIou. W. G. Cavcu-
dish, M.P.), xviii. 451 ; Mr. Arkwright's
plan, ib. ; diagram, 453.

RoALS, J., on converting a moory hillside
into catch-meadow, a prize essay, vi.
518.

Roaring in horses (Dun), xiv. 117.

Roberts, E., on the management of wheat,
a prize essay, viii. 60.

Roberts, O. O., on gorso, vi. 370. See
" Furze."

RoBEY and Co.'s steam-tackle at Canter-
bury, xxi. 491.

RoBLiQUES process for converting phos-
phatic nodules into manure (Dr.
Voelckcr), xxi. 360.

RociiEFOUCAULT and Dolomicu on the
nitrification of chalk, xxiii. 355.

RocHFouD hundred, in Essex, its farming
(Baker), v. 38 ; its artesian wells, ib. ;
its improved healthiuess, ib.

Rocks, analysis of various of the common,
xiii. 534 ; xvii. 457, 466.

RocQUiGNY, Madame, her Frencli prize
farm, management, and accounts (P.
H. Frero), xxiv. 14,

EouwELL, .J., on cubic petre, ii. 260.

, on the cultivation of Lucern, iii.

238. See " Lutern."

, on Italian rye-grass, its culture and

usefulness, ii. 214, v. 285.

, on the comparative uses of tlio

sickle and scythe in harvesting wheats,
i. 447.

, on the improvements in Suffolk

farming since Arthm- Young's time, viii.
307.
Rollers, report on those shown at the
Great Exhibition (in 1851), by P.
Pusey, xii. 593.

, those shown at the Carlisle meeting

(1855), xvi. 507.

, those showna at Newcastle meeting

(1864), XXV. 422.
Romaine's steam, cultivator at Paris

(1856), xvii. 51 ; account of (Clarke),

XX. 181 ; CrosskiU's improvements on,

184.
Romaine's steam cultivator at Leeds

(1861), report of judges on, xxii. 464.
RojiAN embankments in Lincohisliire

(Clarke), xii. 279.
RoiiNEY marsli, its cultivation, by G.

Bucklund, vi. 299.
sheep, described by J. Wilson, xvi.

227.
Roofs, on hollow-brick, by R. Dun, xv.

181.
Rooks great destroyers of the wircwonn

(Ciu-tis), V. 207.
, a method of preserving corn-stacks

from damage by rooks, by the Rev. T.

Burroughcs, xiv. 67.
Root crops, see '• Turnips," «S:c.

of Devonshire (Tanner), ix. 462.

, effect of climate on the growth of

CWliitlcy), xi. 42.

of Northamptonshuo (Beam), xiii.

(i2.

, soils adapted for (Coleman), xvi.

204.
, their true value on the farm, xviii.

186.

fibres, their hmited powers of ab-
sorption (Licbig), xvii. 300.

, their growth and management in

1860 (C. Rawlence), xxi. 551 ; (P. H.

Frere), 553.
Root cutters and pulpers at the Chester

meeting (1858), report on, xix. 339;

Canterbury (1860), xxi. 502.
Roots of plants and trees, stoppage of

drains by (Denison), i. 365.

of an ash-tree, an instance of, 95

feet in length (Cambridge), vi. 342.

of plants (Lanes and Gilbert), xviii.

509 ; of leguminous crops, e. g, clover,

510 ; wheat and barley, ib. ; diagrams
of, 511.

, their early start in spring .should bo

encouraged (Rev. W. R. Bowditch),
xix. 229.

, their structui-e (Professor Hcnfrey),

xix. 4()7 ; vegetative and reproductive
organs, 468 ; the embryo of flowering
jtlants has rudiments of stem, root, and
leaf, 469; the food store or endospenu,
il). ; the cotyledons, ib. ; root growth
determined by their number (illustra-
tion), 470 ; adventitious roots, 471 ; a
root, definition of, 473; its functions,
ib. ; ivy-roots, mere hold-fasts, ib. ;
underground stems, 474 ; tLe jjotiito a
transformed branch, ib. ; rudiments of
leaves and buds indicate a stem, ib. ;
use of the microscope, 475 ; stomata, or

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE,

155

breatliiug pores, Ih. ; tlio carrot, its
structure, 476, and root illusti-ated, 477 ;
fleshy roots belong to annuals or
biennials, 488 ; formation of new roots,
ih.; the dalilia, 479; the onion, ih.;
perennial monocotyledons form bulbs
or tubers as store-i'oots, ih. ; the barley
plant, illustration, 480 ; aerial roots,
381 ; anatomical stiiicture of roots, ih. ;
magnified sections of roots, 4823 ; the
cortical region, 482 ; cambial tissue,
483 ; fibrils, ih. ; the central cord, 484 ;
the apes, 485 ; relation of stem to root
in dicotyledonous roots, ih. ; medullary
rays, ib. ; section of a young turnip,
468 ; monocotyledons, mode of their
development at the apex, illustrated by
perpendicular slice of the rootlet of the
onion, 487; i^rotaplasm abundant at
the top, 488 ; section of onion-root, ih.

Roots, agricultiual, theu' development and
action at various stages of growth (Rev.
M. J. Berkeley), xxiv. 419; Liebig on
plant food, 420 ; his ' Natural Laws of
Husbandry,' ih. ; the embryo, 42 1 ;
germination of cereals, 422 ; influence
of temperature, air, and water, ib. ;
Prof. Henslow on suspended germina-
tion, 423; development of the young
radicle, 424 ; importance of sound seed,
ib. ; supply of nitrogenous and amyloid
matter, 425 ; objection to thin, meagre
seed, ih. ; secondary roots, 426 ; earliest
stage and growth of roots, ih. ; tissue of
spongelets, ih. ; endosmose and exos-
mose, 427 ; selection of food by plants,
ih. ; ash of the viola ctdaminaria, ih. ;
absorbent power of soils, 428 ; Schlei-
den's investigations, ih. ; excrementi-
tious powers of roots, ih. ; investigations
of Cauvet and Dr. Daubeny, 429; ac-
tion of poisons on plants, 430 ; elimin-
atory power of roots, ih. ; tlieir pene-
tration in search of nutriment, 431 ;
chlorosis, ih. ; eltect of long rootlets
left in tlie soil, ih. ; bottom heat, ib. ;
lateral rootlets of vviieat, 432 ; roots as
reservoirs of nourishment, ih. ; functions
of carrot and turnip roots, ih. : object of
the winter rest in wheat, 433 ; fungi
on roots of leguminous plants, ib. ; in-
vestigations of M. Desmazieres, 434 ;
Anderson on tm-nips, ih. ; process of
vegetation and chemical changes, ih. ;
Alirand's examination of tiie oat, 435 ;
function of leaves, ih ; conclusions, ih.

, on the storing of, P. E. [G. Jonas),

see " Storing,'' xxv. 358.

Root-ditching, in Essex (severing the
roots of trees which extend into the
fields) (Baker), v. 16.

BOTATION.

Rosier, Abbe', on the nitrificatiou of soil,
xxiii. 354.

Rot, the, in sheep (R. Smith), viii. 23.

, its origin explained, (L. Playfau-),

iv, 255.

, R. Bakewell produced it in" 'his

sheep in order to forward their fatten-
ing, iv. 262.

, on the liver fluke in sheep, by J, B.

Siraonds, xv. 277 ; xxiii. 64 ; see " Sheep
rot."

Rotation of crops, on the turnip soils of
of Northumberland (Grey), ii. 161.

, on heavy lands, by \V. Stace, prize

essay, iv. 169.

, table of tlie inorganic matters drawn

from the soil by one com-se of crops on
the four-com-se system, by Professor
Johnston, iv. 178.

, statement of the various systems of

cropping in the South of Scotland on
dificrent varieties of land, by T.
Bahner, iv. 194 ; on rich loam, ih. ;
dry turnip-land, ih. ; light sandy soil ;
195 ; rich clay, ib. ; hard clay soil, ib.

, statement of a new and successful

rotation of crops for heavy clays, by J,
S. Nowlson of Northam, Herefordshire,
iv. 409 ; on a farm of 200 acres, rotation
on arable land, 410.

of crops in Cheshire (Palin), v. ; on

sand-land dairy farms, 60 ; on clay-
land dairy farm, 62 ; on sand-land
arable farm, 63; on clay-land arable
farm, 64. See "Clieshire."

in Wiltsliiro (Little), v. 162; on

flinty and chalky loams, ih. ; on light
flinty soils, 163 ; on sandy loams, 165.

, J. Towers on, i. 283 ; note by the

Rev. W. L. Rham, 292.
at Stinchcombe in Glonccstershiro

(Morton), i. 388.

in Nottinghamshire (Corringham),

vi. 7, 23, 25.

on the chalk of Kent (Buckland),

vi. 254.

in tlic Isle of Sheppy, vi. 257.

in the Isle of Thunet, vi. 259.

on the Cornish granite (Karkeek),

vi. 404.

on tlie Cornish grauwacke, vi. 413.

on the light sands of Cambridge-
shire (Jonas), vii. 40; on its heavy
soils, 52 ; ab.sence of, on its fenlauds,
70.

in the Lincolnshire fens (Clarke),

viii. 119.

in Sussex, by J. Farncombe (in the

Soutlidowns), xi. 75 ; (in the eastern
district;, 80 ; (in the "VVeald of Sussex),
81.

156 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

ROTATION.

Rotation of crops in Gloucestersliiro
(IJnivendar), iu the Isis valley, 130 ;
iu " the Vale," 145.

in Lincolnshire, by J. A. Clarke,

xii. 364 ; on the waqi-lands, 0t!6 ; on
the clay loam, 367 ; on the sand loam,
3G8.

in Northamptonshire, hy W. Beam,

on its stony and sandy .soils, xiii. 52;

on its heavy .soils, (>1 ; on its moory

and peaty soils, 70.
, ingredients abstracted from the soil

and the atmosphere by a rotatien of

turnips, barley, clover, and wheat, xiii.

5(iO ; and restored to the soil in manure,

ih.
, the same, by a rotation of turnips,

wheat, beans, wheat, mangolds, wheat,

clover, and wheat, xiii. 502.

in Derbyshire, by J. J. Rowley,

xiv. ; on the soils of tiie magnesian
limestone, 20; on the gritstone of tlie
coal .series, 28; on the millstone grit
and shale, 39; on the carboniferous
limestone, 50 ; in tlie Dove valley, 59.

, on the improved methods of crop-
ping and cultivating liglit land, liy
Sidney Eversiied, a prize essay, xiv.
7!).

of crops in East Lothian (Steven-
son , xiv. 270.

on the London clay of Surrey (Ever-
shed), xiv. 402 ; in utiier soils, 401 ; on
the chalks of, 405; on the greensand,
411 ; on the Weald, 413.

on Ihe light trap or wliinstonc soils

(Huxton), XV. 104.

' on the light soils of Norfolk, xv.
IIG; the 4 and G course contrasted,
ib.

on liglit peaty soils, xv. 123.

in Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 201 ; in

tlic Chiltem district, 203 ; mixed soils,
■ih. ; on the stonebrash, ib. ; ou the red
.soils, 204 ; on stock-lauds, ib.

in Dorsetshire, on tho chalk

(Ruegg), XV. 400; on the clays, 417;
on the heath soils, 422.

in Buckinghamshire (Read), xvi.

284 ; on the plastic clay, ib. ; on the
Chilterns, ib. ; in the vale, 285 ; on
the gravelly soils, ib. ; on the clays,
ib. ; on the great oolite, 28G.

• in Durham (Dr. Bell), xvii. 100.

in Bedfordshire (Benett), ou clay

lands, xviii. 7 ; on gi'avelly and sandy

loams, 0.

adopted by Mr. Horsfall, xviii. 185.

, mflnence of, as illustrated by large

crops of barley after poor turnips, un-

mauured, drawn, (Lawes), XNiii. 505.

KOXBUEnilSIiniK.

Eotation iu crops, the five-course, pur-
sued at Castle Acre, Norfolk (C. S.
Read), xix. 284.

, modifications of the four-course,

rendered advisable by recent improve-
ments r. D. Tuckett ), xxi. 258 ; tho
Norfolk four-course, ib. ; clover sick-
ness its great dilBculty, ib. ; proposed
substitution of other crops iu the third
year, 259 ; failure of wheat after rye-
grass, ib. ; statement of counter ex-
perience (P. H. F.), note; wheat a
l)etter crop after mown clover than
grazed seeds, 259; the air a great
reservoir of fertilising matter, ib. ; on
folding clover layer, 2G0 ; trifolium
iiiearuatum an occasional .substitute
for cIovlt, ib. ; the opinion verified by
experience (P. H. F.), ib. ; substitution
of Siiinfoin for clover at Ilolkham and
•piantity of seed per acre, 201 ; alter-
nation of peas and beans witli clovt'r
on clay soils, ib. ; peas followed by
turnips at Ca.stle Acre, ih. ; failure of
turnips and ])roposed substitution of
rape, tares, and mangold, ib. ; analy.sis
of mangold (Prof. Johnston), ib. ;
jilougliiug iu green crops, <7>. ; winter
fallows, 2G3; partial substitution of
wheat for barley ami oats, ib. ; man-
golds followed by wheat, ib. ; the five-
course rotittion in Essex only sparingly
followed, tliougli l)eans t;ike the place
of clover, 2G4 ; the five-course rotation
iu hilly dibtriets, ib. ; tiie Scotch six-
coiu'se adapted to heavy soils, ib. ; fal-
low crops on light turnip soils, 2G5 ;
wheat growing on the clay, ib. ; lireak-
ing up of inferior grass land, ib. ;
successive growtii of wheat at Lois
AVeedon —six-course rotations in Lin-
colnshire, 2GG ; example of a ten years'
shift, ib. ; liability of wheat to run to
straw after two years' seeds, (P. H.
F.), ib. ; conclusions and recommenda-
tions, ib.

RoTH;\5isTED, soil of, sce " Soils."

Rotschke, M., some account of the
cultivation of a farm iu Silesiii by arti-
ficial manure alone for 14 years, xiii.
5G4.

Eocgh-stalked meadow-grass, analysis
of (Way), xiv. 177.

, its growth iu different situations

(Buekman), xv. 4G8.

, its soils and habits (Buekman),

xvi. 3G6 ; xvii. 528.

Rorxs hybrid, the leporide, xxv. 2G5.

EowLET, J. J., on soluble food for stock,
xxi. 549.

RoxBURGHSHiKE, the agricultural system

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

157

HOWLANDSON,

of (Dudgeon), i. 102 ; its area, 103 ;

soil ii free loam, ib. ; a turnip soil, lb. ;

crops drilled, ib. ; l)est time for swedes

Blay, 104 ; following crop oats, ib. ;

acr(?s annually in corn, ib ; its agricul-
ture in 1700 and in 1784, 105 ; average

produce, lOG ; its Leicester sheep,

107 ; the breeding iiocks, /7). ; tlie cattle

the Teeswatcr, 108; its rental, 101);

rental of the parish of Edmore, ib. ;

general improvements in, 110; use of

bone manure, ib.
KowLANDSON, TlioDias, on tlie agricid-

tnre of North Wales, a prize report,

vii. 553.
, burning land for manure, a prize

essay, viii. 4G.

, on hemp, x. 172.

, on the breeds of sheep the best

adapted for different localities, a prize

essay, x. 421.
, on tlic breeding and management

of pigs, a prize essay, xi. 574.
, ou the production of butter, a prize

essay, xiii. 23.
, on tlie farming of Herefordshire, a

prize report, xiv. 433.
EowLEY, Jo] in J., on the fanning of

Derbyshire, a prize report, xiv. 17.
Rowley's blast-drill for destroying the

tiu-nip-fly, showai at Chester (1858),

xix. 315.
lloYAL Agricultural Society of England,

scliednle of its members, xiv. xxiv. ;

cliarter, bye-laws, and list of members,

xxii. ; appendix, xxiii. xxv.

farms, the, at Windsor (Spearing),

xxi. 27 ; provision for labourers, 29.

, at Osborno (Rev. J. AVilkinson),

xxii. 359-3G3.

RuBus, see ''Bramble."

Ruck, E., on steam cultivation, P. D.,
xxiv. 010.

RiDD, Major, his description of a model
sliorthorn, xix. 144.

RiTDOLFi's classification of trematode
worms, xxiii. 97.

RuEGG, Louis H. on the production of
butter, xiv. 68.

, the farming of Dorsetshire, a prize

essay, xv. 389.

Rugby, analysis of sewage from (Way),
XV. 155 ; its agricultural value (Mit-
chell), xxii. 94 ; experiments conducted
liy tlie Royal Commissioners, xxiv.

RuMEX crispus, see "Dock, the curled."

hydrolapathum, see " Docii, the

water."

olitursifolius, sen " Dock, the rouud-

leaved."

RuMEX pratensis, see " Dock, the round-
leaved meadow."

RuMiXATiON is necessary to keep an ox
in liealth (Playfair), iv. 235.

Rush-sweet, the, analysis of (Way), xiii.
528.

, tlie common (Buckman), xvi. 3ti(J.

, the bog, xvi. 36G.

, the round-headed, xvi. 3GG.

RussKLL, R., on tlie influence of climate
on cultivation, xx. 158, 481.

Russia, on its black-eartli strata, by R.
J. Murchison, iii. 125 ; the extensive
tracts it occupies, 127 ; lies on rocks
of all ages, ib. ; found at all levels, ib. ;
it is full of ravines, ib. ; on central
Rassia, ib.; full of ravines, ib.; tlie
black earth varies in thickness, 128;
its clouds of black dust, 129 ; the finest
soil in Russia for wheat or grass, ib. ;
the farmers never apply manure to it,
ib. ; when leave it fallow, ib. ; tiioir
piles of manure, ib. ; the Russian
lieasant's opinion of manm'e, ib. ; pota-
toes, 130; turnips or otlier green crops
unknown in central Russia, ib. ; ana-
lysis of black earth, 133 ; its supposed
origin, ib.

, the growth of beetroot in, for sugar,

by J. Wilson, xiii. 144.

, black earth of, analysis, xiii. 540 ;

tscherno-sem, its analysis (Liebig), xvii.
280.

Russian agriculture, on, P. D. (P. H.
Frere), xxiii. 40G ; proceedings of tho
Imperial Agricultmal Society of Mos-
cow, ib. ; economical and practical
questions discussed, 407 ; the society's
model farm, 408; difficulties of the
Russian agricultiu'ist, 409.

Rust (or red rag, red robin, red gum), ou
the specific identity of the fungi pro-
ducing rust and mildew, by J. H.
Henslow, ii. 220.

, the Rev. E. Sidney on, x. 380.

RusTOx, A. S., on tho use of the water-
drill, XX. 301.

Rui'LEY, S., on the best mode of managing
hops, in its various branches, a prize
essay, ix. 532.

R\'E for early spring feed, its value
and its cost, by M. M. Milburn, ii.
219.

grown on even the drifting sands of

Jutland (Johnston), iii. 417.

straw and graui analysed, by Dr.

Fownes, iii. 529.

, on the St. Jolm's day, by P. I'usey,

vi. 177.

, on a variety of, as giccn fodder, by

R. Baker, vi. 179.

158 GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Eye, on the St. .John's clay, by W. P.

Taunton, vii. 335.
, analysis of the asli of the seeds

(Way), vii. 647.
, on a variety of Italian rye-grass, by

W. Dickinson, viii. 572.
• , analysis of the ashes of Italian rye-
grass, by J. T. Way, ix. 144.
• , analysis of rye grown on warp soils,

by T. J. Herepath, xi. 108.
and rj'c-straw analysed, xiii. 454,

474.
. wliy siiccially suited to dry sandy

soils (11. liusscU •, XX. 482.
, rye-grass, and rye-grass hay, ana-
lysis of, xiii. 4GG,
sometimes ploughed in as a green

manure for root crops in Hun-ey (Ever-
shed;, xiv. 85.
, annual rye-grass, analysis of (Way),

xiv. 177.
, rye-grass, and clover, growth of on

light flinty chalk soils (Haxton), xv.

101 ; on tlie sandy soils of Norfolk,

120.
, the ergot of, on, by J. Buckman,

XV. 477.
, on the saving of rye-grass seeds

(Buckman), xv. 472.
and Derwent drainage, a report on,

by J. Anderson, xiv. 129.
Ryk-gkass, how afl'ected by maniu'es

(Lawes), xx. 252 ; SIi-. Telfers crops

(Morton), xx. 452.
Ryelaxds, the, of Herefordshire (Row-

landson), xiv. 43tl.
sheep, the, J. Wilson on, xvi. 237.

S.

y.VDDLER, avei-age bUls of, on a farm (Mor-
ton), xix. 454.
tSAiNFoix, analysis of the ashes of, by J.

T. Way, ix. 142 ; of the organic matters

of, xiv. 179.
, on the giant sainfoin, by T. Hine,

X. 54.
, cultivation of, in Gloucestershire

(Bravcndar', xii. 139.

plant and its hay analysed, xiii. 466.

, gio\\'th of, in Oxfordshire (Read),

XV. 217; paring and burning after, 219,

dressed with wood-ashes, 245.
, growth of, in Dorsetsliue (Ruegg),

XV. 413 ; giant sainfoin, its superiority

to the common variety, 407.
, growth of, in Berkshire (Spearing),

xxi. 20.
' , mown, a cooling summer food (P, H,

Frere), xxi. 220.

Sal ammoniac, see " Muriate of ammonia."

Salics of shortliom cattle, xix. 358, 360.

SALiSBriiv, meeting of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society atXlS57). See " Meetings,"
"Prcmiiuus," &c.

Salicounka herbacea. the quellcr ]ilaut
used for embankments in Sleswig and
Holstein, xxi. 269.

Saliva, its use in the mastication of food
(Playfair), iv. 234.

Sai,t, common, ex])eriment3 with, upon
mangolds (Dr. Yoclcker), xxv. 385;
injurious effects of salt on stiff clays in
cold seasons, 386; Mr. Kimbcr's ex-
periments on jioor .simdy soil, ib. ;
analysis of nitro-ijhosphate used in
oxperinientsi, ;J87 ; table of results
from use of salt on different plots, ib. ;
its utility on light sandy soils, 389 ;
projxirtion of blighted and sound roota
on different plots, ib. ; tendency of salt
to promote the development of leaves,
390.

, its action as manure, P. D. (J. B.

Lawes), xxv. 512; average yield of
wheat year after year on tiio Siuno
land, with mixed mineral and ammonia
salts, with and without salt, 513 ; no
improvement in quantity or quality
from use of salt, ib. ; yield of straw not
appreciably affected, 514 ; relation of
corn to .straw, ib. ; action of salt on
mangold not always beneficial, 515;
ISIr. Mdnc Edwards's report to the
French government, Vb.; M. Burral's opi-
nion of .salt as a manure, 516 ; presence
of salt in plants, animals, and rainfall,
ib. ; conclusions, ib. ; Discussion, 517 ;
Hobbs, F., his experience of the bene-
ficial effects of salt, ib. ; Dtnt, Mr., on
the application of salt to mangold,
518; Hooker, J., ditto, 519; Hobbs,
v., on salt as a cattle medicine, 521.

, common, its use to live stock (Play-
fair;, iv. 236 ; too large a proportion in-
jurious, 237 ; effect upon a fatting goose,
ib. ; its use for sheep, ib.

, common, destroys the wireworm,

(Curtis), V. 205.

, experiments with, upon oats, barley,

and whfct, by J. Hannam, v. 267.

and charcoal, experiment with, on

turnips, by the Earl of Essex, v. 280.

, the large quautitj' present in a soil

in which the wheat-plant will vegetate
(Parkes). vii. 268.

, on the power of soils to retain, by

H. S. Thompson, xi. 68, 74.

, spray of tlie sea, distance earned by

the wind in Cumberland, xiii. 281.

, chemistry of (Hemming), xiii. 430.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

159

Salt, aiialj\sis of bay and sca-watcr, from
Cheshire, xiii. 490.

, used in Derhysliire as a dressuig for

wheat (Rowley), xiv. GO ; and in Surrey
(Evershed), 91.

, used for grass-land, with bones and

guano, by R. Milward, xiv. 430.

, a solvent (Way), xvii. 443 ; its effect

on straw, 444 ; (Buekmau), 188 ; on
silicates, ih, ; not a fixer of ammonia
(Voelcker), xviii. 122 ; Burrall s view
on this point not confirmed by Dr.
Voelckei's experiments, ih.
may be useful for swedes (Dr. Voelc-
ker), xix. 175.

, its use m West Norfolk, xix. 279.

, its addition to nitrate of soda as a

top dressing for wheat, beneficial (Dr.
Voelcker), xx. 395.

experiments on mangolds (Dr.

Voelcker), xxv. 240 ; chemical and
physical properties of the soil, 241 ;
results on eiay land not favom-able, 242.
Saltpetre (see "Nitrate of potash)," on
its use as a mamu-e, by G. Kimberley,
i. 275.

and nitrate of soda, as manures, by

Lord Dacre, i. 278.
Salvetat, on water-meadows and the

virtue of springs, xvii. 325.
Sampling, on, of guano, by J. T. AVay, x.

227.
Sand, sea, used as manure in Cornwall
(Karkeek), vi. 440.

, used as a manure in Devonshire

(Tanner), ix. 469.

, from Devon, Isla, and Normandy,

analysis of, xiii. 53G.
Sands, on the best method of di-aining
running sands, by W. Linton, a prize
essay, vii. 115.

, influence of sandy soils upon the

temperature of the atmosi^here (Whit-
ley), xi. 9.

, on their power to absorb certain

manures, by J. T. Way, xi. 31 G.

, analysis of a soil from Mid-Lothian

and the valley of the Trent, xiii. 544.

, the farming of the stiudy or silicious

soils (Haxton), xv. 91 ; of the Hastings
sand, 92.

, on the fertility or barrenness of sandy

soils, by J. Coleman, xvi. 173, 17G ;
analysis of a barren and a fertUe soil, 194.

of Buckinghamshire (Read), vi. 273.

, the weeds of (Buekmau), xvi. 368.

Sandwort, the three-leaved, its soils and
habits (Buekmau, xvi. 360.

, the thyme-leaved, ib.

Sanitary eifects of land-drainage, on, by
E, Chadwick, iv. 151

Sark, on the agriculture of the island of
(C. P. Lo Cornu), xx, 66; the feudal
teniu-e prevents subdivision of property,
■ih. ; richness of the island in minerals,
ih. ; use of sea-weed as manure, 67.

Savory and Son's double engine system
of steam cultivation (J. A. Clarke), xxiv.
375 ; diagrams, 376 ; report of judges,
481; receives 2nd prize, ih.; their im-
provements in double engines highly
commended at Newcastle meeting, 18G4,
xxv. 403 ; their cultivator, ih., 4i5.

Saavdust, wetted, and placed in oxygen

- gas, emits carbonic acid gas, iv. 514.

, its use in the preparation of compost,

by J. Dixon, i. 135.

, of no avail on meadows (Lawes and

Gilbert), xix. 561.

, its effect on grass land when mixed

with mineral manure and ammonia
salts, xxiv. 145.

Scab in sheep (Cleeve), i. 323, 325 ; (E.
Smith), viii. 22.

ScAWosA columbaria, or small scabious
(Buckman), xvi. 361.

ScANDix pecten, see "Shepherd's needle."

Scarifier, or grubber, J. Morton on, iii.
119.

, Biddel's on the use of, by H. Case,

i. 357. See " Biddels scarifier."

, report on those sho^vn at the Great

Exhibition (in 1851), by P. Pusey, xii.
595.

, those shown at the Lewes meeting

(1852), xiii.315.;

, at the Gloucester meetmg (1853),

xiv. 357.

, at the Lincoln meeting (1854), xv.

373.

, at the Carlisle meeting (1855), xvi.

507, 524.

, at the Chelmsford meeting (1856;,

xvii. 568.

Sca.\LTERMANN's experiments on wheat
with salts of ammonia, xvii. 305.

ScHLEiDEN, on tho usc of Vegetable soil,
xxiv. 428.

SciiLESwiG, the rural economy of, by J. S.
Carr, i. 371. See " Holstein."

Schools, the agricultural, of France, i.
264, iii. 365.

of Germany, iii. 370.

of Mr. Davies Gilbert, iii. 377.

, the Royal veterinary and agricul-
tural school, Copenhagen, xxi. 324.

ScHi"BLER, Professor, on tlio piiysical
properties of soils, and the means of
improving them, translated by J. Hud-
son, i. 177. >See" Soils."

, experiments on the tcuipcraturo of

soils, xvii. 410.

160 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGEICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Science, advcancoment in obstructed by
over anxiety for immediate practical
results (Voelcker), xviii. 145.

, a lecture on its ajjplication to agri-
culture, by Dr. C. Daubeny, iii. 1?>6.

ScoBiE, John, on the growth of the tussac-
grass in the isle of Lewis, x. 182.

Scoop-wheels, the, employed in raising
water from the Lincolnshire fens
(Clarke), xii. 329.

, that used in the drainage of a ])or-

tiou of INIartinracre, in Lancuslure
(White), xiv, 163.

Scotch agricultural .society, see "Highland
and Agi-icultural Society," xxv. 2.

fii-, the, its planting and manage-
ment, iii. 270.

for fences, J. Grigor on, vi. 223.

, on planting, by Sir J. S. Mentcath,

ix. 373.

boughs, on draining with, by Lord

Portman, ix. 452.

, plantations of, in Cumberland

(Dickinson), xiii. 282.

— — blackfaccd slieep (Wilson), xvi.
227; wool of, 241.

leases, their effect (C. B. Addtrley,

M.P.), xvii. G22.

Scotland, south of, rotation of crops com-
nuinly followed in, liy T. Baliuer, iv.
l'J4. See "Rotation of crops."

, its general agricultiue considered,

by Mr. Tusey C1S42\ to be on a level
with that of Nortii Devon, iv. 289.

, an account of tlie improvements

winch have taken place in its agiicul-
ture since the formation of the High-
land Society, by J. Dudgeon, a i)rize
essay, i. 50 ; fonner modes of culture,
G3 ; introduction of leases, 04 ; forme r
course of crops, 05 ; the introduction of
ihiUed tiu-nips by Dawson of Frogden,
G7 ; the old Scotch plough, G'J ; manures,
70 ; draining, 71 ; fences, ib. ; rents, lb. ;
produce, 73 ; Uvc stock, 75 ; fii-st volume
of Highland Society's Transactions
published in ll'M, 78 ; implements, 80 ;
rents, 80 ; live stock, 81 ; Edinburgh
Farmers' Magazine commenced in 1800,
83 ; manures, 84 ; draining, 85 ; imjilc-
ments, ib. ; live stock, 8G ; rent, 87 ;
I)roducc, 88 ; agricultural depression of
1815, 91 ; modern draining, 94 ; modern
manm-es, 90 ; live stock, 97 ; introduc-
tion of Cheviot sheep, ih. ; implements,
98 ; jDroduce, 99 ; general review of,
103 ; arable soils, acreage of, 102 ; Rox-
burghshire, its progress in agriculture,
ib. ; rotation of crops, drill system, ib. ;
its produce in 1784 and in 1837, its
breeding flocks, 107; rental, 109; the

SEASONS.

increasedvalueof its land, 110; gcaei-al

imi)rovemcnts, ib.
Scotland, acreage of (Hoskyns), xvi.

571 ; its agricultui-al i^roduce, 598 ; sta-
tistical map of, 000.
, on the tenure of land in (C. B. Ad-

derley, M.P.), xvii. 622.
Scott, Mr. Hanii)shire, Ids double threc-

fielil system, xxii. 273.
Scoi'H, on the bathing of lambs as a ciU'o

for tiic, by K. Fislier, v. 279.
, recipe for tiie euro of, in lambs

(Pawlett), vi. 8G6.
ScorRiNG lambs in Warwickshire, xvii.

482.
ScuEENS for corn and seeds, on those sliown

at Chester (1858), xix. 343.
ScuoFiLOVS diathesis in horses (Dun), xiv.

121.

in cattle (Dun), xv. 79.

in sheep (Dun), xvi. 31, 392.

in pigs (Dmi), xvi. 40 ; scrofulous

and cancerous tinnours in, 41.

Scutch, on tii(/ analysis of, by J. T. Way,

X. 015, xi. 700, xiii. 498.
Scvj'HE, tlie corn, that of Kent described

by H. Boys, i. 444.
compared with tlie sickle in hai-vcst-

ing wheat (Ivodwcll), i. 447.

in Cundxrland (by W. Dickinson),

xiii. 233.

Se^\, its arctic curren), and the gulf-
stream, the clfect of, on our climate
(Wiitley), xi. 19, 21, 25.

, mean temperature of, greater than

that of the atmosphere, xi. 23.

, the temperature of the Gulf-stream

varies in diifcrent seasons, xi. 25.

, temix;rature of, in the British

Channel in 1849, xi. 59.

embankments in Lincolnshire

(Clarke), xii. 312.

, Roman embankments in that county,

xii. 279.
, inundations by the giving way of,

xii. 312.
Sk/Vman, Isaac, on partm-ient fever in

ewes, a prize essay, xv. 383.
, on lameness in sheep and lambs, a

l)rize essay, xvi. 1.
Sea-reet), or matwecd (Buckman), xv.

4G0 ; its effect on sandy clay, xvii. 516.
Sea-sanu used as a manure in Cornwall

(De la Beche), iii. 34. See " Geology

of Cornwall."

used in South Wales (Read), x. 142.

, grasses which grow on (Buckman),

XV. 406.
Sea-side or marine grasses, J. Buckman

on, XV. 4G5, 400.
Seasons, tlicir character iu respect of

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

101

SEASONS.

com and straw (Lawes and Gilbert),
xviii. 477 ; tlicy tell alike on difterent
manures, 4:80.

Skasons, tlieir influeneo on the liay crop
(Lawes and Gilliert), xix. 559.

Seaweeds used extensively as manure
in the Isle of Thauet (liuckland), vi.
2G1.

used as a manure in Devonshire

(Taimer), ix. 4G9.

■ used in South Wales (Read), x.

142.

recommended as a manure for the

tussac-grass (Scohie), x. 183.

, ashes of, tlieir analysis, xiii. 490.

, their ashes used as manure in

Jersey, xx. 40 ; not adapted for pota-
toes, 41.

Sedge, its soils and habits (Buckman),
xvi. 3G6.

Seeds, on tlic steeping of (as fertilisers),
by J. Campbell, iv. 557.

, on the advantage of thick sowing,

by D. Barclay, vi. 192.

, on thick and thin sowing, by Sir

W. Heathcote, vii. 535.

, on thin sowing, by J. J. Mechi, vii.

537.

, a trial on the steeping of mangel-
wurzel seeds, by G. E. Raj'nbird, viii.
215.

■ , grass, growth of, in Suflblk, )jy H.

Kaynbird, viii. 297.

, on the advantages of tliick sowing,

by W. Loft, ix. 281.

, on the comparative merits of thick

and thin so-s\ang, by J. B. Wolfe, ix.
453.

, quantity of seed-wheat used in the

N. E. of Yorksliirc (Milburn), ix. 501.

■ for hemp, choice of, and quantity

employed (Kowlandson), x. 172, 181.

, barley, on the advantages and risks

of early sowing, by H. W. Keaiy, x.
460.

, on the proper quantity of seed for

wheat, by E. B. Wolfe, xi. 184.

, of grasses, not sown in Cumberland

in 1752 (Dickinson), xiii. 273.

, grass crops in Surrey (Evershed),

xiv. 81, 87.

, growth of, in East Lothian (Steven-
son), xiv. 285.

of weeds (Buckman"), xvi. 377 ; of

tlu^ store dormant in soils, 374.

, adulteration of, prize essay (W. and

H. Raynbird), xxii. 14 ; low-i)riced
seeds, seeds badly grown and liar-
vested, 15 ; clover-seed adulterations,
■ih.; bleaching, colouring, and ru))bing,
IG ; impiu-ities in foreign clover, ib. ;
VOLS. I. — XXV.

see dodder (Cuscuta epilinum and C. tri-
folii), 1 8, 20 ; rye-grass adulterated witii
Alopecurus agrestis, Holeus lanatus,
&c., 21, 22 ; sainfoin much mixed with
burnet, 23 ; similarity of the two seeds,
ib.; turnip, rape, and mangold seeils,
24 ; Appelius on germination, 25 ;
adulterations by accident or fraud,
25, 2G ; foreign seed adulterations, 2G ;
evils of sowing foul seed, 27 ; methods
of detection.

Seeding, thin, discouraged by Lawes
and Gilbert, xvii. 591.

Segelcke, M., his tests for woody fibre,
XX. 420.

Self-heal (Buckman), xvi. 3G4.

Selwood forest, see Parkinson's ' Agri-
culture of Nottinghamshire,' xxii. IGl.

Senecio Jacobfea, see " Eagwort, the
common."

tenuifolius, see " Eagwort, tlio

hoary."

vulgaris, see '• Groundsel, the com-
mon."

Serpentine, the, soils of the Lizard arc
not fertile, viii. 29. See " Geology."

of Cornwall, by W. F. Karkeek, vi.

419.

, analysis of, xiii. 532.

rock, analysis of, xiii. 534 ; xvii.

464.

Sewage, remarks on the conditions essen-
tial to its advantageous apj^licalion to
the land (Eev. W. E. Bowditch), xix.
249 ; earth-closets suggested, ih.

, lecture on (Dr. Voelcker), xxiii.

462 ; quantity and constituents of Lon-
don sewage, ib. ; amount of solid matter
l)er gallon, ih. ; ditto, Birmingham
sewage, 463; value put on sewage by
Prof, Hoffman and otlier chemists,
464 ; fallacy of theoretical calculations,
ih ; considerations affecting the value
of manure, 465 ; application of sewago
to sandy soils, ib. ; analyses of clay
soils, ih. ; use of concentrated manure,
ib. ; comparison of sewago and farm-
yard-manure, 4(J() ; analyses of sanily
soils, ib. ; use of bulky manure, 467 ;
grass benefited by large apjilieations
of sewage, ib. ; the Edinbuigii example,
468 ; ab.sorbent properties of soils,
il). ; filtration of potash in sewage
through clay soils, ib. ; advantageous
results from sewage only to be obtained
i'rom large applications, ib. ; irrigation
witli even jmre water beneficial to
clay soils, 469 ; Discussion — Sir .J.
•Tohiistono and Mr. Frere, ib. ; Mr.
Blacklmrn, Mr. Barker, and Dr.
Voelcker, 470.

1

162 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Sewage (town) , utilisation of ( J. B. Lawcs),
xxiv. 65 ; different estimate's of its
value, 66 ; the Sewage Commissioners'
first and second reports, ih. ; applica-
tion of sewage to grass land, G7 ; Lord
Essex's experiments at Watford, ib.;
Mr. Campbell's experience at Rugby,
■ib.; the royal commissioners' experi-
ments, extracts from report, 68 ; sew-
age best suited to succulent crops, ib. ;
detailed account of experiments, (j[) ;
table of produce from difl'ereut quan-
tities of sewage, 70 ; monthly yield of
grass, 71; explanation of tables, 72;
quantities of sewage and amount of
produce in the season, 1861, 73 ; re-
sults of experiments with oxen, 74 ;
results with nxeu fed on green gmss
alone, 75; experiments with cowa, 76;
yield of milk as intluenced by quan-
tity of sewage, 77 ; comi)Ofcition of tiio
sewage water, 78 ; comparative value
of sewage and portiilile manure, 79;
constituents of Rugby and London
sewage, ib. ; composition of scwaged
and unsewagcd grass, 80 ; amounts of
dry substance influenced by stage of
growth, 81; effects of produce on the
milk yield, 82 ; mean composition of
dry substance of grass raised with and
without sewage, ib. ; composition of
milk yielded under like conditions, 83 ;
table of results, 84 ; conclusions, 85 ;
remarks, 86 ; exaggerated estimates of
the value of London sewage, ib. ; not
applicable to every kind of crop, 87 ;
small percentage of solid matter in
sewage in relation to cost of distribu-
tion, ib. ; complieations introduced l)y
sanitaiy arrangements, 88 ; appendix,
89.

, report on the employment of

Flemisli manure in the neighbourhood
of Lille, xxiii. 317.

, the earth system of utilising sewago

(Rev. H. Moule), xxiv. Ill, see " Earth
V. Water."

• , the money value of nightsoil and

other manures (P. H. Frere), xxiv.
124; cost of food no criterion of its
value as manure, ib. ; constituents of
cooked meat (Voelcker), ib. ; manmial
value, 125 ; estimated value of human
excreta per head, ib. ; Liebig's esti-
mated weight per million, ib. ; per in-
dividual, 126; Prof. Way's estimate,
ib. ; Dr. Hoffman's calculations, ib. ;
commercial value of manure ' consti-
tuents, ?7). ; practical application of
chemical knowledge, 127 ; guano as a
standard of value, criticised, ib. ; worth

of farmyard-manm-e, 128 ; cousidora-
tion.s afi'ecting the value of ammonia,
ib. ; cost of potash, ib. ; soluble and
insoluble phosphates, 1 30 ; proposed
revision of classification and i)ricing,
ib. ; hints for the correction of esti-
mated values, 131.

Setpast. the, in sheep (Seaman), xvi. 13.

Seweij,, W., professor, on a peculiar dis-
ease in ewes, ii. 117.

, report on the epidemic amongst

cattle in 1841, ii. cxix.

Sewt.r-water, analysis of, by J. T. Way,
xi. 369, 769. xiii. 506.

, on the mode of extmcting manure

from, as practised at CunlilV gaol, by
T. J. Ilerepnth, xiii. V.H ; the process
(by milk of lime) described, 198 ; ana-
lysis of the manure, ib.

, C. W. Joiin.son on the use of, i. 158.

, on tlie use of town sewage as manure,

by J. T. Way, xv. 135 ; the nature of
sewage, 137 ; tlie plans proposed for its
employment in agriculture, ib. ; amount
of feces ]iroduced liy each individual,
140; analysis of, 143; and of urine,
ib.; analysis of, 141, 142; amount of
water mixed with tiiis, 146; amount of
water pumped into tlie metropolis, lb. ;
analysis of street-drainnge water, 149 ;
appearance of sewage at the mouth of
a London sewer, 152 ; analysis of spe-
cimens from, 153; of .specimens from
the pipe-sewers of Croydon and Rugby,
155, 156; on deodoriser.s, 157; animal
and peat charcoal, v6. ; lime, 159; ana-
lysis of lime precipitate, 160; on gyj)-
bura, 161 : analysis of substance pre-
cipitated by sidphato of alumina, lime,
and cliarcoal, ib. ; clays, ib. ; the salts of
alumina, 162 ; the salts of zinc and iron,
ib. ; magnesia, 163 ; magnesiim lime-
stone, 163; compounds of silica, 164.

of Birmingham, how utilised, xvii.

489.

(nightsoil), Dr. C. Sprengel on, i.

494.

, the best manure for hemp (Row-

landson), x. 173.

■ , analysis of faces of man, xiii. 482.

, amount of the faices and urine pro-
duced by an individual (Way), xv. 140 ;
analysis of these, 141, 142, 143.

, commercial, dried, trials with, as a

manure for swedes, by Dr. A. "Voelcker,
xvi. 95.

Sewers and water-supply of Paris, tlic
present state of (P. H. Frere), xxiii.
338 ; separation of cess-pits from com-
mon sewers, ib. ; closets and water-
supply, 339 ; regidations in tlie Boide-

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

103

vard de Sebastoix)!, ib.; railway loco-
motive tank, 340 ; cost of iiightsoil,
■ib. ; cess-pits how emptied, ih. ; the
water-supply, its history sketched, ib. ;
recent sanitary reforms, 8-11 ; M. Mary's
siphon and reservoirs, ib. ; sub-ways
342 ; size of sewers aud drahis, ih. ; pro-
visions against choking, 343 ; lighting
and signals, ib. ; devices for straining
sewage aud economising materials, 344 ;
accumulations of gas, how got rid of,
ib. ; description of works, 345 ; M.
Miile's reports, ib. ; IM. Hermann's
pipes, ib. ; mode of joining, ib.

Sex of the offspring of animals, directions
for regulating (M. Thury), xxv. 253.

Seymour, F. H., on exi^eriments on top-
dressing grass-land iu Windsor Park,
xiii. 347.

SuACKEL, George, comparison of the con-
sumption of food by large and small
animuls, viii. 487.

Shale, blue, its application to the surface
of land, by C. Charnoek, iii. 161.

• , bitmninous, of Christian Melford,

Wilts, an account of the effect of, as
manure, by R. Gowen, iv. 276.

, rock (Craiglockart), analysed, xiii.

532 ; soil of, 544.

, the shale series, soils of, in Derby-
shire (Itowley), xiv. 39; analysis of a
soil, 47.

of Dorsetshire (Ruegg), xv. 390,

394 ; analysis of, 395.

Shallow^ cultivation, on the advantages
of very, on a light moory farm iu
Gloucestersliire, by H. Parker, vi. 187 ;
effect of one ploughing in six years,
ISS ; Mr. Pusey on, 191.

Shearing sheep by taskwork, the cost of
(Raynbird), vii. 138.

Shed-feeding sheep, by J. W. Childers,
i. 169-407.

, experiments on, by the Eev. A.

Huxtable, vi. 242.

, on the construction of sheds (Tan-

cred), xi. 205; (Ewart). 268.

cattle in Derbyshire for the sake of

the manure (Rowley), xiv. 23.

Sheep, on the selection of male animals
in the breeding of, by Earl Spencer, i. 22.

, on shed-feeding, by J. W. Childers,

i. 169.

, those of Northumberland (Grey),

ii. 174 ; tlie Cheviot breed, ib. ; the
Leicester, ih.

, experiments at Whitfield farm ujion

the etfects of shelter and warmth iu
economising food (Morton), iv. 222.

, their consumption of salt in summer

and in winter, iv. 237.

Sheep, the sheep kept iu Cheshire (Palin\
V. 71 ; the number of Cheviots an(l
Leicesters, ib.

, tlio chief live stock of South Wilt-
shire, chieiiy Southdowns and brecdiusj
flocks (Little), v. 170.

• , of Norfolk (Almack), v. 317.

, the Merino, or Saxon, of Mecldou-

biirg (S. Carr), i. 127; their wool, 131.

, on the diseases of, by Henry Cleeve,

i. 295 ; symptoms and remedies for
diseases, ib. ; water in the head, ih. ;
goggles, turn.sick, &c., 296 ; apoplexy,
blood, 299; epilepsy, 300; palsy, ih.;
rabies, 301 ; ophthalmia, 302 ; black-
muzzle, 303 ; thrush, ib. ; hove, hoveu,
or blown, 304 ; diarrhoea, 306 ; dy-
sentery, ib. ; rot, 307 ; dropsy, 314 ;
red water, ib. ; braxy, 316 ; black water,
■ib. ; poisons, ih. ; inllammatiou, ih. ;
cough or cold, 317 ; consumption, 318 ;
foot-rot, ib.; wounds, 321; scab, pelt-
rot, &c., 323-5; the fly, or sore-heads,
326-7 ; ticks, 328.

, the number required to manure an

aeie of land (Morton), i. 404.

, J. W. Childers on the shed-feeding

of, i. 407.

, Spanish proverb of, vi. 5.

, the fiist introduction of Bakewell's

Leicester into Nottinghamshire (Cor-
ringham), vi. 18.

, experiments on shed-feeding sheep,

by the Rev. A. Huxtable, vi. 242.

, improved Kent (Buckland), vi. 263.

, on the breedhig, feeding, and gene-
ral management of, by 'J.'. E. Pawlett,
vi. 361.

, experiments on feeding of, vi. 368.

, breeds of, in Cornwall (Karkeek),

vi. 448.

, use of the white mustard crop for,

by T. C. Burroughes, vii. 33.

, shearing by taskwork, the cost of

(Raynbird), vii. 138.

, experiments on the feeding qualities

of ditferent breeds of (Leicesters, South-
downs, half-bred Southdown and Lei-
cester Cotswolds, and Cotswolds), by
E. W. More, vii. 294.

, on the management of, by R. Smith,

a prize essay, viii. 1 ; the Leicesters or
Dishley flock, 2 ; the general practice
of the Leicester breeders, 3 ; manage-
ment of rams, ib. ; period of gestation of
the ewes, 4 ; lambing time, 5 ; wean-
ing of the lambs, ib. ; the Southdown
breed, 7 ; Mr. .John EUman's merits, ih. ;
the Babraham flock of Mr. J. Webb,
ib. ; the Hampshire Downs, 8 ; the
Sussex Do>vns, ih. ; a comparative tri;il
1 2

164 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

of the Leicesters with the Dovras, 9 ;
the locgwools, tlie Lincolns, new Ox-
fords, "Cotswolds, Teeswaters, ami
Kents, 11 ; the diseases of, 19 ; tht;
halt, 20; dysentery, 21; the scab, 22;
the rot, 23 ; the sturdy, ih. ■ blindness,
24; redwater, ih.; sore-head.s and fly-
galls, ib. ; the setting a flock, ih. ; the
wool, 25 ; good eflect of warmth on, 30.

Sheei', grazing of sheep, on, in Suliblk
(Raynbird), viii. 295 ; their breeds, :>05.

, an exi)eriraental comparison of tlie

consumption of food by large and small
animals (Hampshire Do\\ti sheep), by
G. Shaekel, viii. 487.

, on the sheep-pox, by J. S. Curr,

viii. 4S9.

, on the digestive organs of, 1 >y J. B.

Simonds, ix. 27.

of K. R. of Yorkshire, by G. Le-

gard, ix. 121.

of Devonshire (Tanner"), ix. 481.

of N. R. of Yorkshire (Milburu), ix.

519.

of Lancashire (Garnctt), x. 40.

of South Wales (Read), x. 140.

, on rape-cake as food for, by P.

Pusey, X. 247.

, on the maternal organs of repro-
duction in, and of the practice in diffi-
cult cases of labour, by J. B. Simonds.
X. 248.

, on .sheep-feeding and manure, by

J. B. Lawes, Part I., x. 27G.

, the amount of food consumed for

each 100 lbs. weight of the animal
when feetling on various kinds of food,
by J. B. Lawes, x. 289, 303, 333. 337.

, on the eflect of feeding witli malted

and inimalted barley, x. 305, 317, 324,
326.

, on the breeds adapted to various

localities, by T. Rowlandson, a prize
essay, x. 421 ; tlie price of wool in
1341, 422 ; the wool produced irom
difterent breeds slaughtered in London,
425 ; the alteration which has taken
place in the quality of wool during the
present century, 424 ; the Duke of
Bedford's experiments on the feeding
of four breeds of sheep in 1794-5,
— Southdowns, Leicesters. Worces-
ters, and Wiltshires — 430 ; the pas-
tures where Southdowns usually do
weU, 432 ; Leicesters, ih. ; the Rye-
lauds, the Wicklow, the Kerry sheep,
433 ; the long-woolled mees, 434 ; the
old Lineolnslure, ih. ; the) Romney
Marsh, ih. ; the Bampton, 435 ; the
Cotswold, 430 ; the Cheviot, 437 ; the
black-fixced sheep, 438 ; the Herd-

\vick a capital mountain-sheep, 440 ;
smearing of sheep, 445 ; the lands to
wJiicli these breeds are best adapted,
44G; the Bakewell breed, 447.

Shkep, on tiie Piuik of Thibet, by C. B.
Phillips, xi. (33.

, on the Sussex Southdown, by L.

Farncombe, xi. 70; on sheep-breeding,
(J7; the system of the late John Ell-
man, ih.; the system of taking lambs
to keep, 81.

, on the winter-feeding of, by the

Hon. D. Pelhani, xi. 88.

of Gloucestershire (Bravendar), xi.

142.

shcd.«, on the construction of ('J'an-

cred'i, xi. 201.

, fin the diseases of, occasioned by

mismanagement (Karkeck), xi. 541.

, (111 the advantages of using a pro-

]ii)rtinii (if rape-cake as the food for, by
J. 11. CluuiKiek, xi. 012.

ofW. Somerset, by T. 1). Acland,

xi. 078.

, their local names at various ages

Clarke), xii. 333.

, the Lincolnshire (Clarke), xii. 300.

, tlie long-woolled, examined (Clarke),

xii. 393.

, report of experiments on tlio com-
parative fattening qualities of difiereut
breeds of sheep, by J. B. Lawes, xii.
414 ; the Hampshire and Sussex Downs,
ih. ; the dry food, oilcake and elover-
chalf. 410 ; tables of the result.s, 417-
421 ; the average food consumed to
produce 100 lbs. increase during 20
weeks, 427 ; amount of wool produced
from each of the sheep. 429 ; produce of
the sales of both lots, 430.

• , the diseases of, occcurring after ])ar-

turition in, with the remedies, a prize
essay, by "SV. C. Sibbald, xii. 574.

of Northamptonshire, by W. Beam,

xiii. 82.

, report of experiments on the com-
parative fattening qualities of diflerent
breeds of sheep, by J. B. Lawes. xiii.
179 ; the Cotswolds. ih. ; the food con-
sumed by 50 Cotswold sheep in 20
weeks, 185; the food which they con-
siuned to produce 100 lbs. of live
weight, ih. : bummary of the results of
feeding Cotswold, Hampshire, and
Sussex sheep, 188 ; the wool produced
by these breeds, 189.

of Cumb(!rland descriljetl by W.

Dickinson, xiii. 263 ; the Herdwick
breed, 204 ; change of colour in their
wool by hard weather, ih. ; tlit; shep-
herds and their dogs, 200-209.

YULUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

165

Sheep, the number of, sliowii fit tho So-
ciety's meetings from Oxford in 1839 to
Lewes in 1852, xiii. 402.

, analysis of solid excreta, xiii. 482.

, analysis of m-iue of, xiii. 500.

of Derbyshire (Rowley), xiv. 25 ;

the native woodland sheep, 50.

, on tho comparative profit realised

with different breeds, by Samuel Drucc,
xiv. 211 ; niuubers tliut may be kei^t
of Cotswold, Leicesters, Hampshire
Down, pm-e Southdowns, cross-bred,
212 ; their average weight of wool, ih. ;
of carcass, ib.; value of their tleece,
ib. ; of their carcass, ib. ; their monthly
food, //). ; note by Mr. Pusey, 213.
, on a method of obtaining imme-
diate fixity of type in forming a new
breed of sheep, by Jlalingie-Nouel, a
paper translated by P. Pusey, xiv. 214 ;
sheep more easily moved from south to
north than from north to .south, ih. ;
the Merino breed, 215 ; crossing of, ib. ;
French breeds, ib. ; attempts to im-
prove, ib. ; no pure English race thrives
in France, 2lO ; on purity of race, 220 ;
the Charmoise breed, 221; a sheep of
112 lbs. more expensive to feed than
two of 5G lbs., 222 ; the preferred
weight in France 5(J lbs., ib. ; lambs by
large rams and small ewes, ib.

of Warwickshire (Evershed), xvii.

479 ; origin of Bakewell's Leicesters
(Murray), ib. ; in North Warwieks.,
Leicesters crossed with Downs, 485.

, the Me'tis Merino at the Paris

meeting, 1856 (Denison), xvii. 38.

, the Danish Merino (Kainals), xxi.

306.
, Shropshire, at the Canterbury meet-
ing, xxi. 515.

, half-bred Southdown and Leicester,

their feeding qualities as compared with
pure Southdowns (J. G. llebow), 552.

, imjaroved Hampshire Downs, xxii. ;

Mr. Poulett's flock (A. Yoimg), ib.

, the Cotswold and Hampshire Down

cross as ti'ied by Mr. Twynham, xxii.
296.

,Exmoors at Stratfieldsaye, xxii. 2G2.

, of the Isle of Wight, xxii. 355.

, the Lonk, at the Worcester meeting,

xxiv. 473.

, of Hertfordshire, xxv. 317.

, sheep-walks of East Lothian (Ste-
venson), xiv. 289 ; its sheep, 298.

of Surrey (Evershed), xiv. 400, 411,

418.

of Oxfordshire (Eead), xv. 227 ; the

Down - Cotswold, 228 ; ram-breeders.
230.

Sheep, on the teeth of sheep, by J. B.
Simonds, xv. 276 ; on the dentition of,
335 ; on the liver ilidjc in, 277.

, those shown at the Lincoln meet-
ing (1854), XV. 381.

, on parturient fever in ewes, a prize

essa}% by J. Seaman, xv. 383.

of Dorsetshire (Ruegg), xv. 430 ;

the "Dorset horns," ib.; the Portland
mutton, 431.

, experiments on feeding sheep with

oilcake, by members of the Tamworth
Agricultural Cliemistry Association, xv.
460.

, on lameness in sheep and lambs, a

prize essay, by J. Seaman, xvi. 1. See
" Diseases of animals."

, on the hcreditai-y diseases of sheep

and pigs, by F. Dun, xvi. 16, see " Dis-
eases of animals;" the points which a
sheep should possess to mdicate health,
36.

, on the various breeds of, in Great

Britain, especially with reference to
the value and character of their wool,
by J. Wilson, xvi. 222 ; the long-
wooUed, ib. ; tlie short-wooUed, ib. ; and
the intermediate, ib. ; tho long-wools,
Lincohishire, 223 ; the Leicester, ib. ;
Bakewell's of Dishley, ib. ; the new
Leicesters, 225 ; the Cotswolds, 226 ;
the Romney Marsh, 227; the black-
faced Scotch, ib. ; the Exmoor, 228 ;
the Devon South Hams, 229; tho
Bampton, ib. ; the Herdwicks, 230 ;
the intermediate breeds, viz. the Dorset,
230 ; the Cheviots, 231 ; the Radnor or
Welsh, 232; the short-woollcd breeds,
viz. the SouthdoNATis, 233 ; the Sussex,
ib. ; Ellman of Glynde, ib. ; the Hamp-
shire Downs, 234 ; the Norfolk Down.;,
235 ; the Sliropshire Downs, 236 ; tho
Ryeland, 237; the Mermo, 238; tho
Shetland, ib.

, the general character, commercial

uses, &c., of British wool, 239. See
" Wool."

of Buckinghamshire (Read), xvi. 299.

, on the lameness of, by F. Dun, xvi.

381 ; estimated nimiber of sheep in
Great Britain and their value, ib. ; ana-
tomy of, 381; fractures, 386; rheu-
matism, 387; paralysis, 391; scrofula
and rickets, 392 ; black-leg, ib. ; tu-
mours and bursal enlargements, 393 ;
diseases of the feet, 395 ; foot-rot, 396 ;
rheumatic foot-rot, 403 ; interdigital
inflammation, 405 ; murrain, 408.

, the prevailing breeds in Durham, —

Leicesters, Cheviots, and half-bred (Dr.
Bell), xvii. 107.

166

GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGKICULTUEAL JOURNAL.

iSheep of Bedfordshire, principally Leiccs-
ters, cross-breds, and Oxford Downs
(Bennett), xviii. 21.

, smallpox, see " Smallpox."

■ of Siiropsliire (PL Tanner) : the

Shropshii'e Downs, a cross of Long-
mynd sheep with pure Soiitlidowns,
xix, 42; names of successful flock-
masters, 58 ; weight of fleece, 5\).

(W. C. Spooner), xx. 308.

, see " Leicester sheep."

, see " Long-wooUed sheep."

, girths of prize sheep at Chester

(R. Smith), xix. oS5.

, on pasture, their keep equal to

16 lbs. of liay per week (Lawcs and
Gilbert), xix. .508.

, Professor Baudemcnt's report on tlio

use of mangolds and pulp for sheep-
feeding, XX. 88.

, breeding of (W. C. Spooner), xx.

298; liistory of sheep in England, 2'J!);
old Wiltshire sheep, with white face,
Roman nose, and long horn, iUu,stra-
iion, 299; their extinction caused by
enclosures, 300 ; in Hamp.shire the old
1)reed crossed but not ol)Hterated, ih. ;
the heavy head reduced only recently,
301 ; in Lawes's sheep experiments
Southdowns throve more than Hamp-
.shires, ib. ; a strain of Berkshirc-uoll
and of Cotswold blood introduced, 302 ;
]Mr. Twynam's rams, ih. ; and paper at a
tanners' club on crossing the Hampshire
Down ewe with a Ootswold ram, 303 ;
the Sussex blood in Wilts since crossed
with Hants i-ams, 304 ; BIi-. Lawrence's
practice, ih. ; Mr. Humfrey's account of
his flock — piokeil Hunts ewes with
Jonas Webb's blood in tlie rams, 305 ;
Downs in Dorsetshire, 30G ; Dorset
horned sheep, ib. ; fat themselves and
their early lambs at once, 307 ; trial
and disuse of ]Merino.«, ih. ; Shropshire
sheep confusedly cros.s-bred, 308 ; both
Southdown and Leicester blood having
been used, ih.; new Oxfords, a cross
of Cotswold and Hants, 309 ; the cross
lias found a congenial soil, ih.; mountain
sheep, ih. ; Norfolk crosses, 310 ; conclu-
sions, ih. ; nearly all breeds except the
Sussex Down have been cross-bred, 312.

SHEEP-DrxG, 3 years old, analysis of (Dr.
Voelcker), xviii. 114; compai-ed witli
farmyard-manure, 116 ; and fresh sheep-
dung, 118.

Sheep - FEEDixo, experiments on, with
mangolds and with pulp ('Dr. A.
Voelcker), xxi. 103.

- — management on a clay fann (Thomp-
son, M,P.), XXV. 40.

SHEEP-PEEDING.

Sheep-feeding, experiments on (J. I>.
Lawes and Dr. Gilbert) ; first report,
X. 270; second report, xii. 414; tliird
report, xiii. 178 ; fourth repoii, xvi.
45 ; fifth report, xxii. 189.

, fifth report of experiments on (J. B.

Lawes and Dr. Gilbert), from the mode-
rately fat to the very fat condition,
xxii. 189 ; wasting eftects of heat and
drought, 190 ; Hants and Sussex Downs,
ib.; CotswolcLs, 191; superior increase
of Leicesters and cross-breds, ib. ;
excessive rainfall, 192 ; tables of food
and increase, 193; of live and dead
weights, 194; consiuuption of oilcake
and chafl', 195 ; of food in relation to
weiglit of sheep and pigs, 196; pro-
ductiveness of fofid at diUerent stages,
197; eai-ly and rajjid fattening, 198;
cost of prejiavation for Christmas mar-
kets, 199; the respiratory process, ib.;
proportionate weight of lungs to entiro
body, 200 ; a limit to fattennig in oxen
and sheep, but not in pigs, 200.

, supplementury report on (J. B.

Lawes and Dr. Ginx.rt), xxiii. 191 ;
cellulose, ib. ; relation of increase to
food, 192 ; kinds of food and sheep
experimented with, ib. ; tables of re-
sults; preliminary and experimental
])eriod, 194-G; experimental period f)idy,
197-202; summary, 203; rates of in-
crease, 205; chafi" and succulent food,
206 ; respiration and functional waste,
ib. ; relative eflects of nitrogenous and
non-nitrogenous food, ib.; comparison
of barley with beans and linseed-oil,
207 ; ready-made fat more assimilabk;
than starcli aiid allied substances, i7). ;
elimination of urea and demand for
water, 208; proportional consumptioir
of food at diflerent stages, t7>. ; eftects of
temperature, 209 ; recapitulation, ib.

, report of two experiments in, by the

Parliugton Tenants" Club (Blr. Fox),
xxiii. 357 ; motles of feeding and objects
aimed at, ib. ; kinds of slicep and tables
of increase, 358-9 ; remarks on the ex-
periments (P. H. Frere), 300; propor-
tions of meat to live weight, ib.

, mode of fattening lambs for the

London market, as practised in Hert-
fordshire (Evershed), xxv. 270.

feeding on clay lands, P. D. (A.

Hughes), see "Clay soils," xxv. 521.

• rot, its nature, cause, treatment,

and prevention (Professor Simonds),
xxiii. 64 ; early allusions to the attee-
tion, 65; its ravages in 1809,76.; aird
frequency in Eg\-pt, 66 ; periodic out-
breaks in Englanil, ib.; names of the

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

]67

SHEEP-FEEDING.

disease, 69; causes assigned by Mas-
call, jMavkbam, Crawshey, 71 ; Bradley
and Ellis, 72; Bakewell's practice of
rotting sheep, 73 ; his motive, ib. ; Dr.
Harrison's review of the imputed
causes of rot, 74 ; theories of Hogg,
Sir G. S. Mackenzie, Fairbairn, 75 ;
Price, Davy, 76 ; Hamont and Fisclier,
77 ; opinion of tlic Arabs, ih. ; attri-
buted by King to the swallowing of
ova on pastures, 78; disproof of the
theorj-, 79 ; Gerlach's experiments, ih. ;
Youatt's opinion, ib. ; miasmata re-
garded as the cause of rot, 80; Dr.
Pearson on the marshes of Kent, 81 ;
tlanger of eating " coathed " pasture
bare, 82 ; Mr. A. Blaeklock's tubercle
theory, 83 ; Mr. S])Ooner"s opinion, ib. ;
the Pilaria broneliialis, ih. ; liability to
rot confined to certain seasons, ib. ;
occurrence of rot on the Duke of Port-
land's water-meadow, 84 ; analogous
case reported in the ' Scotch Journal of
Agriculture,' ih. ; vital force, 88 ; rot an
entozoic disease, ih. ; refutation of Mr.
Blaeklock's theory, 81) ; effects pro-
duced by tlie filavia broiichialis, 90 ;
not attended with inflammation of the
liver, z6. ; but with marked deljihty, 91 ;
flukes in hares and rabbits, ih. ; influ-
ence of food, ib. ; dropsy, 92 ; Sir A.
Fitzhcrbert's description of flukes, ih. ;
filarise in the digestive stomacli of
sheep, 93 ; instance of immature flukes
in the livers of young lambs, ih. ; dia-
grams of distomata or flidies, 94 ; their
effect on the liver, ib. ; their anatomy
and natural history, 95 ; Siebold on the
Cyticereus faseiolaris, and the cause of
gid, ih. ; metamorphoses of entozoa, 9.5 ;
the Distoma hepaticum or Fasciola lie-
patica, the liver fluke, ih. ; trematodo
worms, ih. ; Rudolfi's classification, 97 ;
diagram and description of the Distoma
hepaticum, ih. ; magnified view of ditto,
and colom- of the entozoon, 98 ; external
surface, 99 ; muscular and aquiferous
systems, ih. ; magnified view of tlic ven-
tral sucker, 100 ; digestive system, 101 ;
magnified view, 102 ; oral sucker and
cesophagean sphincter, 103 ; generative
organs, 104 ; magnified view, 105 ;
uterus, lOG ; male organs, ih. ; genera-
tive aj)pendage, 108 ; nervous system,
109 ; natm-ai history of D. hepaticum,
110; long duration of the vital prin-
ciple of the ova. 111; Kiichenmeister
on ascarides, 112 ; change of the em-
bryo of the D. hepaticum into a cer-
caria-sac, 114; Steenstrup's theory of
alternation of generation, ib. ; cercaria-

SHEEP-FEEDING.

sacs, with illustration, 115 ; develop-
ment of cercariaj, ih. ; figiu'e of 0.
ephemera, 116; ditto, encysted, 117;
transfonnation of cercaiiic into disto-
mata, 118; special liability of rumi-
nants to rot, ih. ; flukes in tlie horse;
and ass, 119 ; large animals less injured
by tlu'ra tliaa small ones (Dr. Budd),
ih. ; flukes in man, ih. ; cause of the sus-
ceptibility of sheep, 120 ; recorded in-
stances of quick contamination, 121 ;
period of greatest danger, 123 ; symp-
toms of tlie disease, 126 ; the latent
stage, ib. ; the liver and its functions,
ih.; bile, 128; explanation of the cause
wliy animals gain fat in the early stage
of rot, 129 ; later symptoms, ib. ; apjjear-
ance of the eye, 130 ; thirst and fitful
appetite, ib. ; constituents of blood,
131; diarrhoea, i7(. ; progress and dura-
tion of rot, 132 ; utility of blood-mtddng
food, ib. ; influence of i^arasites on
health, 134 ; post-mortem appearances
135 ; the liver, 136 ; flukes in the biliary
ducts, 137 ; hardness of tlie ova shells,
138 ; death of sheep from passive con-
gestion of the lungs, 139; treatment,
140 ; exploded remedies, 141 ; alleged
efiScaey of burnet, ib. ; Sir G. S. Mac-
kenzie on the use of merciuy, 142 ;
Y'oaatt's recipe, ib. ; Clater's, 143 ;
value of salt, ib. ; practice of tlio
Bedouin Ai-abs, 144 ; mercurial inunc-
tion reprobated, ib. ; management and
treatment of aflected animals, 145; food
and shelter, ib. ; use of salt, 146 ; sul-
phate of iron, ib. ; recipe for medicated
food, ib.; anthelmintic draught, 147;
report on the employment of a French
remedy, ib. ; prevention of the disease,
150 ; Leonard Mascall's advice, ib. ;
G. Markham's recommendation, 152 ;
salt-marshes, 153 ; utility of change of
l)asture not permanent in affected ani-
mals, ih. ; sahno and saccharine mix-
ture for sheep in wet weather, 154 ;
importance of dry situations and drain-
age, 155 ; remedy for destroying imma-
ture forms of the fluke in the animal
body, 157 ; mode of feeding, ib. ; ex-
cessive doses of salt injurious, 158 ;
plan for destro}'ing cercarioe on pas-
tures, 159 ; i5ractical recommendations,
ib.
SiiEEP-1'T.EDiNG, the breeding and feed-
ing of (Prof. Coleman), L. D. xxiv.
623 ; economical considerations, ib. ;
statistics, 624 ; relation of grass to
arable land, ib. ; management of pas-
ture - land, 624 ; sheep in relation
to corn-crops, 625 ; ^economical ^feed-

1G8 GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

SHEEP-FEEDING.

ing of ■ sheep, ib. ; roots and straw
as food, tb. ; straw as a substitute fur
Lay, ib. ; analyses of turnips and oat-
straw, 626-7 ; nut-meal, 628 ; metliod of
using sti-aw, 629 ; pulping, ib. ; marking
rams, 683 ; the wasli-i^ool, ib. ; Ibod
after lambing, ib. ; Mr. Ridley's farm-
management, 632; weaning and dip-
jjing, ib. ; Discussion — Criticisms and
commendations (Lord Berners), 634 ;
use of chaff and cut-hay with roots
(Mr. Holland, M.P.), 635; remarks (Sir
W. Miles), 636 ; sheep-nianagcment in
Yorkshire (Mr. Dent, M.P.), 636; at
Duugato (P. H. Frere), 637 ; manage-
ment of a Southdown flock, use of
dwarf rape (F. Hobbs), 638 ; deleterious
remedies for sheep diseases (Mr. Hol-
land, ]\r.P.), 638; reply (Prof. Cole-
man), ib.

Sheep-feeding, portable fencing for, see
"Fencing."

Sheep's fcscue-gi-ass (Buckman), xv. 464 ;
glows under the beech-trees of the
Cotswolds, ib.

, its growth in different situations

(Bnckman), xv. 46S ; xvii. 533-.5.

Hh ELL-SAND IVom Dt,'von, Isla, and Nor-
mandy, analysis of, xiii. .536.

Shelly, J. V., rcjiort on the wheats se-
lected for trial at the Biistol meeting,
iv. 584.

Shelter, ill effects to horses of iusufli-
cient, by F. Dun, xii. 530.

, advantage of, to cattle (Hopper),

i. 163.

, to sheep (Childers), i. 169, 407.

, R. Smith .and H. S. Thompson on,

viii. 30.

Siiei'Hekd's Comer fai-m, in Dorsetsliire,
an account of, by Lord Portman, iv.
88.

, expcnditm-e and returns from 182G-7

to 1842, iv. 99, viii. 565.

dogs, those of Cimiberland (Dickin-
son), xiii. 266, 269 ; their sagacity in
snowstorms, 267.

needle, its soils and habits (Buck-
man), xvi. 361.

purse, its soils and habits, xvi.

360.

Sheppy, the Isle of, on its agriculture, by

G. Buckland, vi. 257.
Sheraiuha aiwensis, see " Field madder."
Shetland sheep, the, (J. Wilson), xvi.

238.
ShipvReff, p., on Hoptoun wheat, ii. 344.
Shoddy, on the analysis of, by J. T. Way,

X. 617, xiii. 498.
, on the action of, as a manure, by

Dr. A. Yoclckcr, xvi. 94.

SHROPSHIRE.

Shorthorn breed, the, of C. Colling,
described by J. Wright, see "Cattle,"
vii. 201, described by Dr. Bell, xvii.
106. See " Cattle," ""Cattle of Dur-
ham," " Cows."

, description of a model .siiorthorn

(Major Eudd), xix. 144.

, celebrated sales of (R. Smith), xix.

35S-9.

Shorthorns and their breeders (R.
Smith), xix. 358.

Suort-woolled sheep, account of (R.
Smith), xix. 387.

Shp.oi>shire Down shecj), the, J. Wilson
on, xvi. 236.

, their origin, not a ])ure breed (H,

Tanner), xix. 42 ; successful flock-
masters, 58; account of (R. Smith\
386; (W. Spooner\ xx. 308; their
histnrj' (R. Smith), 359.

Shroi^shhie, on the agriculture of, a
prize essay (H. Tanner), xix. 1 ; its
geolog)', see " Geology of Slu'opshire ; "
its climate, 2 ; tables of temi)erature,
3 ; the eastern side most dry and warm,
G ; influence of hills, ib. District I. or
irheat district, 7 ; strong loams with
much poor clay, ib. ; nld-fashioned
fallows, 8 ; their suitableness for
certain soils, 9 ; prescribed quantity of
lime and dung per acre, 9 ; fallow
crop, vetches and rape, ill suited for
sheep in A\nnter, 12; culture of root
crop on fallow ground, 13; no increase
in the area of such crops, ib. ; mangold
cultivation, 14 ; average yield of
wheat so\vn broadcast, 22 to 24 b., 16 ;
small field stacks recommended for
lickle climates, 17 ; peas and beans, ib. ;
clover, 18; mixture of seeds recom-
mended for lajer, ib. ; oats sown broad-
cast after clover, 19 ; the jiracticc
excused by the natiue of the climate,
ib. ; \-ield per acre, 20 ; growth of
barley, ib. ; grass-lands, how managed,
ib. ; use of superphosjihate and guano,
21 ; hay-maldng, 23 ; on lajing poor
tillage land down in grass after fallow,
24 ; orchards, their neglected state, 25 ;
the cider not racked soon enough, ilj. ;
frame for racking recommended, ib. ;
cattle, 25 ; Herefords the predominant
breed, but milch cows of any sort at a
low cost selected, it). ; dairy manage-
ment, 26; calves ill kept, 27; sug-
gested diet for young stock, ib. ; BIr.
Cliild's herd of Devons, 28 ; Highland
Scots adapted for hill-sides, ib. ; horses,
breeding and sale of, 29 ; implements,
ib. ; hedge-row timber, condenmed,
oO; draining, 31. District II. or Cor-

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE,

169

SHROPSHIRE.

vedale district, ib. ; one of the most
fertile of English vales, ih. ; the climate
unfavoin-ablc to tillage, ;52 ; rotation of
crops on clifterent soils, /7;. ; the vetch
crop eaten by sheep, So ; the climate
more suited to swedes than mangold,
ib. ; method of sowing recommended,
34 ; precautions against mildew, So ;
small, slowly-grown roots keep best,
35; economical mode of storing roots,
ib. ; wheat, how sown, 36 ; the sorts
preferred, and quantity sown per acre,
ib. ; the average yield, 37 ; the oat
natm-alised to moist climates, and re-
commended for bad seasons, 37 ; ad-
vantages of Scotch seed, ib. ; beans
liable to blight, ib. ; grass-lands, ex-
cellent and remunerative, 38 ; the con-
genial home of Hereford cattle, ib. ;
early calves, how managed, 39 ; Here-
ford cows occasionally crossed with
shorthorns, 39 ; etfects of ergot of rye
in causing abortion, 40 ; the Longmynd
sheep described by Plymley (' General
View of the Agriculture of Shrop-
sliirc,' J). 803), 42 ; the Sliropshire
Down, a cross of the Longmynd and
Southdown, ib. ; constitution and size
of tlie modeiTi sheep, 43 ; weight and
value of the carcass and tleece, 43 ;
long-woolled crosses unsuccessful, ib. ;
in the northern part of the Corvedale
district, Welsh ewes crossed witli Lei-
cester rams predominate, ib. ; horses
Ivept on pasture, 44 ; orchards cropped
with roots and corn, ib. ; draining and
the use of local stone, ib. ; farm-build-
ings, 45 ; tenure of land, yearly, 45 ;
two years' notice suggested, ib. /)/.<-
trict III., 46 ; embankment of the
Severn near Slirewsbury wanted, ib. ;
EUesmere, the Wrekin, Much Wenlock,
Shiftbal, 47; the boggy soils at Kiu-
nersley and elsewhere, liow caused, ib.;
an araljle and sheep-farming district,
48; green crops, the chiferent kinds
grown, e.g. trifolium, lucern, 49; Italian
rye-grass, 50 ; rape, and tlic proper
time for sowing it, ib. ; preparation for
mangold, 51 ; burning weeds and seeds,
tlie most effectual mode of cleaning
land, ib. ; swedes, the standard root
crop of tlie district, 52 ; carrots, how
grown, 53; barley laud, t\vice ploughed,
ib. ; selection and treatment of seed,
and mode of sowng, 54 ; wheat sown
late on stale fiurows, ib. ; average
crop, use of pressers, ib. ; the use of
■water-furrows on impervious soils, 55 ;
Mr. Wliitmore's water-meadows, 5() ;
cattle, ib. ; the Ilcrcfords and short-

SILICATES.

horns of a high class, ib. ; Lord Ber-
wick's Herefords, ib. ; grey-fiiccd Here-
fords preferred for tiieir hardiness on
i)oor farms, 57 ; Shropshire Down
sheep and successful ilock-mastcrs, ib. ;
their weight of wool, 59 ; a cross with
Leicesters not desirable for carcass oi-
wool, ib.; Sliropshire wool celcl)rated
in the 14th [century, 60 ; weiglit of
lleece much influenced by good keep
in the sjiring, ib. ; treatment of foot-
rot, 61 ; drainage, ib. ; the use of swal-
low-holes, 62; labourers' wages and
cottages, ib. ; the industrial school at
Quatt, 63; tenm-e and allowances for
draining, bones, lime, &c., 64 ; curious
outgoing covenant for corii crops, ib.

SiniiALD, W. C, on tiie diseases oeciu'ring
after parturition in cows and sheeji, a
prize report, xii. 554.

Sickle, the, compared with tlic scythe
in harvesting wheat (Rodwell), i. 447.

Sidney, Eev. Edwin, on the parasitic
fungi of the British farm, x. 382. See
" Funguses."

SxEBoi.D, Von, on the Cy ticercus fasciolaris
and the Crenurus cerebralis, xxiii. 95.

SiEviERS method of compressing wood,
XX. 11.

SiLENE inflata, see " Bladder campion."

Silesia, some account of the cultivation
of a farm in, by artificial manure oidy
for 14 years, by M. Kotschkc, xiii.
564.

Silica in plants, on its origin, by Dr.
Fownes, iv. 524, 531.

' , origin of, in wheat-straw, by J. T.

Way, xiii. 137.

, chemical properties of (Hemming),

xiii. 429.

■ , soluble, on, by J. T. Way and J. M.

Paine, xiv. 226.

strata, the, of the lower chalk, by

J. T. Way and J. M. Paine, xiv.
225.

, its composition (Do la Beehe), xvii.

458, in the Geytersi, ib. ; forms of
(Fuchs), 459.

, required for grasses, made soluble

by annnoniacal salts (Licbig), xix.
240.

Silicates, doul)lc, on the, by J. T. Way,
xiii. 129.

• of alumina and soda, xiii. 129.

(if alumina and lime, xiii. 130.

of alumina and iiotash, xiii. 131.

of alumina and anuuonia, xiii. 131.

, the soil from tlicm derives its power

to ab.sorb manure, xiii. 135.

, the jiower of tlie silicates to absorb

ammonia from the air, xiii. 139.

170 GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

SiMCATES, ou making silicates of potasli
and soda (Way), xiv. 238 ; silicate of
lime, 239 ; possible agricultural uses of,
241 ; ettects of, upon wheat, 242.

on their employment as deodorisers

for town sewage (Way), xv. 1G4.

Siliceous soils, ou, by J. Trunmer, xii.
45G.

, J. Coleman on the fertility or bar-
renness of, xvi. 173, 17G.

Silkworms destroyed by a disease in mul-
berry-trees akin to the potato and vine
disease, xix. 71.

Silver fir-tree, on the, its planting and
management (Falkenerj, iii. 277.

Sn,vEKWEEU, the, its soils and habits
(Buckman), xvi. 3G0.

SiMOX on parasitic diseases, xxiii. 12G.

SiJiOND^ J. B., a Icctme on the anatomy,
physiology, and patliology of the di-
gestive organs of the ox and sheep, ix.
27.

, on the maternal organs of re]>roiluc-

tion in animals, and the practice in diifi-
cult cases of labour, especially in the
cow and ewe, x. 248.

• , on the organs of resiiiration and

circulation, witli especial reference to
plcuro pneumonia in the ox, x. 570.

, on inoculation for pleuro pneu-
monia in cattle, first report, xiii. 373.

, second report ou the prevention of

pleuro imeumonia iu cattle by inocu-
lation, xiv. 244.

, ou the teeth of the ox, sheep, and

pig, as indicative of the ago of the
animal, xv. 27G.

, a report ou steppe murrain or rinder-
pest, xviii. 197.

, on the mammary gland of the cow,

xix. 81.

, lectui'e on the composition of tlic

blood, principally with reference to
diseases of cattle and sheep, iu which
the fluid imdergocs important changes,
xxi. 206.

— — , on the rot in sheep, its natuie, cause,
ti-eatment, and prevention, xxiii. G4.

, report on sjjlcjnic apoplexy in cattle

and sheep, xxiv. 228.

, Icctm-e on internal parasites, xxiv.

597.

, lecture on the smallpox in sheep,

XXV. 549.

SiMPsox, B., on the climate of the British
Islands in its effect on cultivation, xi.
617.
Smpsox, J., his results from feeding cows
on steamed straw and rape-cake (Sir.
Horsfall's system), xvii. 275.
SiMi'soN, William, report on the exhibi-

tion of live stock at the Carlisle meeting
(1855), xvi. 502.

SixAi'is arveusis, see " Charlock."

, nigra, see " Black mustard."

Sixclair's mode of determiniug the nu-
tritive value of grasses, xxii. 392.

SixcLAiK, Sir J., ou the advantages de-
rived by a gentleman from farming,
xxiii. 257.

SiXGLETOx, jMr. J., on Kccvil'a cheese-
making apparatus, xxi. 74.

SivELLET, ou the diseases of cattle; tho
book recommended by E. Bowley, xix.
149.

Skidding one-horso carts, ii. 81. See
" Carts."

SKii-JACTts, the, pai-euts of wiroworms (J.
Curtis), v. 180. See "Wire worm.'

Skye, tiap hills of, xvii. 4G7.

Slate rocks, analysis of soils of, at Castlo
Douglas, xiii. 544.

Sleepers, old, a source of creosote (Dr.
Ilichardsou*, xx. 19.

Slexueu foxtail-grass, or black -bent
(Buckmau), xv. 471; its soils and
habits, xvi. 3GG ; xvii. 514.

Sleswiu aud Holsteiu, agriculture of, see
"Denmark," xxi. 2G9.

Sliitixg calf (Keary), ix. 445 ; (J. Bar-
low), xii. 02.

Sloe, the, for hedges (Grigor), vi. 215.

Snxis ou wheat, use of salt I'or (Almack),
V. 355; (Umax) its varieties^ described,
(Curtis), xviii. G3 ; methods of destroy-
ing pointed out, ()4.

Sjialli'ox of sheep, the visitixtiou of
1847 (J. B. Simouds), xviii. 203; in-
troduced by foreign animals, ib.

, Lecture ( Profl Simouds), xxv. 549 ;

not identical with that in man, 550 ;
origin of tlie disease iu England, 551 ;
the Wiltsliire visitation and its cause,
553 ; diagnosis of the affection, 554 ;
fatality and remedial treatment, 556 ;
vaccination, 557; Mr. Overman's ac-
count of Norfolk practice, 558 ; Mr .
Ramsay's recommendations, 559 ; the
author's experience unfavoui'able, 5G0
inocidation the only real check, 561.

Smeauixg sheep, the compound used, and

the effect, by T. Rowlandson, x. 445.
Sjiell, sense of, connexion between it
and taste (Simonds), xv. 282 ; fineness
ofthatof thepig, 283.
Smith ilhe geologist), on his labours, by
Joshua Trunmer, xii- 451, 478.

of Deanston, on his sysiem of

draining, by Sir J. Graham, i. 29.

, Robert, on the management of

sheep, a prize essay, viii. 1. See
"Sheep."

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

171

SMITH.

Smith, Ilobert, on the inanagement of
yrass-liiud, a prize essay, ix. 1.

, some account of tlie formation of

lull-side catcli -meadows on Ej^mocr,
xii. 139.

— '—, on moorland cultivation, prize
essay, by, xvii. 349.

, report on the exhibition of live-
stock at Chester (1858), xix. 352 ; ditto
at Warwick (1859), xx. 326.

, J. (of Coven), his balanced ti-a-

velling-engines (J. A. Clarke), xx.
207.

, Gapt. R. B., on Italian irrigation,

xxiv. 173.

, Dr. Angus, bis experiments on

nitric acid (J. T. Way), xvii. 148.

, J. P., on hoi") cultivatioji, a Wor-
cester jirizo essay, xxv. 52.

, Eev. S., of Lois Weedon, experi-
ment and growth of wheat, year after
year, on the same land, xii. 133, xiii.
91 ; (P. D. Tuckett), xxi. 2G5.

, on his system of wheat cultm-o, by

J. T. Way, xiii. 141.

, on Lois Weedon husbandry, xvii.

582.

, his root-crops, Lawes and Gilbert),

xA-ii. 594.

fcsJiiTii's (Woolston), steam ciiltivator at
Colchester Meeting (1856), xvii. 579 :
report of judges on, 580.

, at Chester (1858), report of judges,

xix. 32(j ; plan of working, illubtrated,
327.

, his steam-tackle described (J. A.

Clarke), xx. 197 ; xxiv. 368.

, at Leeds (1861), xxii. 463.

, at Farningham, description and

diagrams, xxiii. 397-9. ,

, at Worcester, judges' award, xxiv.

487 ; receives 2iid prize, ib.

, average bills of a, on a farm (J.

Q. Morton), xix. 454.

yiiooTH-STALKED mcadow-grass, analysis
of (Way), xiv. 177.

, its growth in diQ'urent situations

(Buckman), xv. 468; xvii. 529; how
atfected by manures (Lawes), xx. 259.

8mut in wheat, the (Henslow), ii. 4.

, precautions to be taken against,

ii. 6.

, effect of different steeps on seed-
wheat, ii. 8.

, the Eev. E. Sidney on, x. 387.

in grasses, on, by J. Buckman, xv.

474.

Snail, the garden (Helix hortcnsis), its
growth and liabits (Curti.s), xviii. 61.

SxAii-s and slugs described (Curtis), xviii.
01 ; tlieir liermaphroditc character, ib.

Societies, agricultural, in Denmark, xxi.
325 ; Roj'al Society of Rural Economy
(Copenhagen), ib.

Snapduagon, tiie small (Buckman), xvi.
364.

Soda, chemical properties of (Hemming),
xiii. 429.

, ash, aual}'sis of, xiii. 498.

water-makers' lime refuse, analysio

of, xiii. 498.

salts, their relation to vegetation,

xviii. 144.

Sodalite, analysis of, xiii. 532.

Soft meadow-grass, analysis of (Way),
xiv. 177.

meadow-grass, its growth in differ-
ent situations (Buckman), xv. 468 ;
description of (I3uckman), xvii. 518 :
effect of different manures on (Lawes),
XX. 254.

Soils, on their transposition and mixture,
by W. Linton, of Si}erriff Hintou, near
York, prize essay, ii. 67 ; claying, ib. ;
kind of marl or clay used, ib. ; the
quantity used, 68 ; way in which done,
ib. ; expense of 150 yards per acre, 69 ;
a windlass used economically, ib. ; eco-
nomical results, good, 70.

, on their classification, by M.

Schubler and C. Daubeny, iii. 156.

, on the quantity of minute ingre-
dients contained in an acre of land, by
J. Hall, iii. 434.

, on the mixture of, the clialk, tlic

crag-clay, &c., by P. Pusey, iii. 183.

, their origin and composition

(Fownes), iv. 499.

, analysis of the Sevres clay, iv.

500.

, origin of the calcareous, ib.

, limestone, iv. 501.

, humus of, iv. 502.

, large proportion of nitrogen in a

soil in Alsace, iv. 522.

, tlie analysis of, iv. 547.

, on the inlluence of water on tlie

temperature of (Parkes), v. 119. tice
" Rain-water," " Drainage."

, on the indications of fertility or

barrenness of, wlictlier of colour, con-
sistence, or vegetation, by John Arkell,
V. 429.

, on the indications wliich are prac-
tical guides in judging of the fertility
or b.arrenness of tlie soil, by J. Bra-
vendar, prize report, v. 559; colour,
560 ; indications of feitility, 561 ; in-
dications of barrenness, 563 ; consist-
ency, ib. ; plants, '&c., whicli indicate
Ijarrenness, 571.

, on -the simpleist and easiest mode

172 GENERAL INDEX TO llOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

SOILS.

analysing, a prize essay, by the Ecv.
W. L. Rbaiu, i. 4G.

Soils, on tlicir physical properties, and the
means of investigating them, by Pro-
fessor Schnhlcr, translated by James
Hndson, i. 177 ; mode of examining,
178; weight of different earths, 180;
weight of mixtures of, 181 ; their power
to contain watei-, 182 ; to retain it, 190 ;
their firmness and consistency, 18o ;
wlien wet, and when diy, 188; their
loss of bulk by drying, i;»3 ; their
l>owcr of absorbing moisture from tlie
atmosphere, 1D5; their power of ab-
sorbing nitrogen gas, 1H7 ; their power
to retain heat, 200 ; the wanning of
soil by the sun, 202 ; influence of co-
lour, ih. ; and of moistiu'c as to tliis
warming, 20:5 ; influence of the inclina-
tion of tlie ground on the amount of
warmtli it receives from the sun, 204 ;
capacity of soils when moistened to
develop lieat, 207 ; galvanic and elec-
tric relations of tlie earth, 207 ; power
of exciting electricity, 208 ; synoptical
view of, 210 ; on the employment of
the power of containing water in tlie
examination of the constituents of a
soil, 213.

, analysis of soils and subsoil of a

very productive field at Sutton in Nor-
folk (riayfair), vi. .')77, xii. 552.

, on the distinction between tiie active

and dormant ingredients of, by Dr. C.
Daubeiiy, vii. 237.

, on a method of restoring to soils,

the mineral ingredients of the wheat
crop, vii. 076.

of Suftblk, by H. Rayubird, viii.

2G2 ; its heavy loam, 2G3 ; its sands,
2G5 ; its heavy lands, 2G7.

of N. R. of Yorlcshire, by 51. M.

Mill mm, ix. 499.

of Lancashire (Garnett), x. 2, 5, 7.

best adapted for hemp (Kowlandson),

X. 172, 181.

, on the absorbent power of, by H.

S. Thompson, xi. G8 ; as regards ma-
nm-e, 69 ; ammonia, silica, &c., 70 ; of
a strong clay soil, 72 ; of a black soil,
71 ; their power to absorb and retain
farmyard manure, 73 ; to retain com-
mon salt, 74.

, on the power of, to absorb manure,

by J. T. Way, xi. 323, 373 ; power of
sand, 316 ; of clay, 317 ; of the absorp-
tion of ammonia, 321 ; salts of am-
monia, 331 ; salts of potash, 333 ; of
lime, 334, 361 ; of magnesia, 336 ; of
organic matters, 363 ; sewer-water, 369 ;
sweetening of putrid substances by

burying them in the earth, 376 ; on the
theory of clay-burning, 377.

Soils, on drainage, uncler certain condi-
tions, of, and clunate, by Lord Wliarn-
clift'e, xii. 41.

of Lincolnshire, their character,

especially of its marsh and fenland, by
J. A. Clarke, xii. 261 ; strafci, 263 to
285.

, on tlic agricultural geology of Eng-
land and Wales, by J. Trimmer, a jirize
report, xii. 445 ; of the soils of tlie
plastic clay, 454 ; tiie aluiiiinons, 455 ;
tlie calcareous, ib. ; the siliceous, 456 ;
the erratics, 463 : of soils in general,
as laid down by agricultural writei-s,
477 ; the strong land of Suffolk, by A.
Young, 478; tlie Wolds of Yorksliire,
by Legard, 479 ; the chalks of Norfolk
and Cambridgeshire, 480 ; tlie soils of
Essex, by A. Young, 481 ; of Hertford-
shire, by A. Young, ib. ; of Rerksliire,
by Mavor, 482 ; of Wiltshire, by Davis,
483 ; of Hampsliire, by Vancouver,
484 ; of Dorsetshire, by Stevenson,
48G ; of Susdcx, by A. Young, 487; of
Kent, by Doys, ib. : of Surrey, liy Ste-
venson, 488 ; of the whole chalk range,
489 ; of the greensjind, 490 ; of tlio
oolites and the lias, 491 ; of the new red
sandstone, 493; of the coal-measures,
494 ; of the old red sandstone, ib.

, on the, of Nortlianiptonshire, by W.

Beam, the stony and gravelly, xiii. 52 ;
the heavy, Gl ; its moory and peaty, 69 ;
at Lois Wecdon, 91 ; its grass, 76.

, on the power of, to absorb manures,

by J. T. Way, xiii. 123 ; tiio double
silicates of alununa and soda, 129 ; of
alumina and lime, 130 ; of alumina
and potash, 131 ; of ahunina and am-
monia, ib. ; tiie power of the soil to
absorb manure derived from tiiesc
silicates, 135; how plants obtain their
mineral food, ib. ; origin of the siliceous
covering in wheat-straw, 137 ; tlie power
of the silicates to absorb ammonia from
the air, 138 ; Jethro TuUs system, 140 :
the Ilev. C. Smith's system, ib. ; the
mineral substances in a crop of wheat,
141.

of Cumberland, by W. Dickinson,

xiii. 207.

, probable amount of ingredients

taken from or restored to a soil by tho
several crops (seeded rye and beans)
and manures, by E. T. Hemming, xiii.
418 ; by green rye, turnips, and beans),
419.

, peat, alluvial clays, analysis of, xiii.

540.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

17r

Soils, loams, sandy, waste lands, disin-
tegrated rocks, xiii. 544.

, analysis of two, where clover suc-
ceeded, and where clover tailed, xiii.
552.

, analysis of good Irish flax, xiii.

552.

, of best Dutch tlax, xiii. 552.

, alluvia], at Hornuhureh, xiii. 552.

, of barren pasture at Brayden, in

North Wiltshire, xiii. 552.

-. where peas failed at Lancaster, xiii.

552.

where barley failed at Lynedock, in

Perthshire, xiii. 552.

where oats failed at Pampherston,

xiii. 552.

where turnips rotted, xiii. 554.

, analysis of, where plantains would

not grow, xiii. 554.

■ where plantations of firs were dying,

xiii. 554.

, where the lime was in the state of

insoluble silicate, xiii. 554.

where it was in the state of suljihate,

and where it was in the state of car-
bonate, xiii. 554.

, reclaimed peat, overlimed, xiii. 554.

, of ocln-ey, xiii. 554.

, amount of ingredients abstracted

from a soil by a rotation of turnips,
barley, clover, and wheat, xiii. 5G0.

, the same, in a rotation of turnips,

wheat, beans, wheat, mangolds, wheat,
clover, wheat, xiii. 562.

of Derbyshire (^Kowley), xiv. 17 ;

magnesian limestone, 20 ; of the coal,
series, 27 ; of the millstone grit and
shale series, 39 ; of tlic carboniferous
limestone, 56 ; of tlie clays and gravels
of the new marl and new red sand-
stone, and the alluvium of the Trent
and Dove, 58.

, on the improved methods of crop-
ping and cultivating light land, by
Sidney Evershed, a prize essay, xiv.
79 ; cleansing of, S3.

, the effect of, on the growth of tim-
ber-trees (Evershed), xiv. 416.

and subsoils of Herefordshire (Eow-

landson). xiv. 433.

the effect of, on the growth of tim-
ber-trees in Herefordshire, xiv. 451.

, amount of water evaporated from a

di-y chalk and a saturated soil (Clarke),
XV. 41.

on light-land farming, a prize essay,

l)y J. Haxton, xv. 88 ; definition of a
light soil, 89; of the upper chalk, 90,
91) ; of the upper oolite, 91 ; the sandy
or siliceous, ib. ; of the Hastings sand.

92 ; of the plastic clay, ih. ; of the
granite in Scotland, lb. ; of the whin-
stone or trap-rocks, 93, 103 ; of tlie
basalt, tlie greenstone, the amygdaloid,
93; of the "Links," 94; the bog-eartii
aTid peaty soils of Ireland, 95, 122 ; tlie
Norfolk hght soils, 115; its different
I'otations contrasted, 116.

Soils, the occasional difference of soils and
tiic rocks on wliich fhey rest (Kuegg),
XV. 397.

, on the influence of lime upon tlie

absorptive jiroperties of soils, by J. T.
Way, XV. 491 ; ammonia in, before and
after liming, 505, 512.

■ , on the causes of fertility or barren-
ness in, a prize issay, by J. Coleman,
xvi. 169; mechanical distinctions fif
soils, 173; argillaceous, siliceous, cal-
careous, liumous, or peaty soils, 'ib. ;
clays, 174 ; sandy or siliceous soils,
176 ; calcareous, 179 ; peaty or vege-
table soils, 181 ; analysis of soils, 193 ;
clay, ib. ; calcareous, ib. ; of fertile and
barren sands, 194 ; efl'ect of deiith of
soil on vegetation, 195 ; warmth or
coldness of soils, 198; suitableness of
different soils to different crops, 200;
barley, 202 ; oats, ib. ; beans, ib. ; root-
crops, 204; necessity or not tor the
lireseuce of vegetable matter in, 205.

, influence of, upon the growth of

wool, J. Wilson, xvi. 240.

of Buclcinghamsliiro (Read), xvi.

272, 286.

, influence of, upon weeds (Buckman),

xvi. 368.

, of weeds dormant in (Buelanan),

xvi. 374.

suited for dee]5 cultivation (P. Love),

xvii. 545.

absorptive power of (J. T. Way),

xvii. 124.

■ , the thin brasliy soils of the Cofs-

wolds, analysis of (Voelckcr), xviii.
359-60.

, liow affected by silicates and lime

(Way), xvii. 57.

, moorland, analysis of (Exmoor),

(Nesbit), xvii. 391.

, temperature of, influenced liy its

colour (Jamieson), xvii. 409 ; table of
temperature in difterent latitudes, 411 ;
maxima, 412 ; increase of tempei-atuie
with depth, 414; action of frost on
])louglie(i land greater than on jiasture,
417, 419 ; Forbes and Quetek-t on tcm-
])erature of soil, 417 ; Parkcs, ditto, 41S ;
variations of temperature on surface
greater tiian in air, 418 ; tcmjHuature
of red moss, Lancashire, ib. ; inlhience

174 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

of light (Forbes), 420; Hitter and
JBcraid on the chemical power of solar
radiations, 421 ; Becquerel and Mascr
on tiie theory of light, 422 ; chemical
effects of light on chlorine (Gay-Lussac
and Draper), 423; ditto (G. Wilson),
424 ; carbonic ucid in soil (Boussin-
ganlt), 434 ; salt a solvent, 443 ; iron in
rocks oxidised (]MacCulloeli), 447.

Soils, absorptive properties of (Jamicson),
xvii. 447 ; pores of (Misterlich), Hi. •
humus ami platinum black, 448 ; table
of absorptive earths (Schubler), 449;
absorption of moisture (Leslie), 4.'J0 ;
ammonia, see "Ammonia;" soils acted
on by organic acids, 454 ; soils of Great
Britain, 45.1 ; drift, tlie northern or
glacial, ib. ; soils of Cornwall, Devon,
and Somerset (Do la Bechc), 450 ; silica,
457, 458 ; silicates dissolved by carbonic
acid, 4G0 ; ditto by carbonate of ammonia,
461 ; mica in jMxir soils, 463 ; ditto in
Cornish clays, t'V ; magnesia, see " Mag-
nesia;" iron pyrites (hisulpliurct), 464;
Cornish rocks and soils (Do la Beche),
467 ; green eartli, olivine, glauconite,
and epidote, 468 ; carbonate of lime,
469 ; oxides of iron, 470.

, absorptive ix)wer of, for drainings

of dung-lieai>3 (Voelcker), xviii. 13i);
experiments witli compound drainings
of soils of known composition, 140 ;
quantity of aunnonia retained, 141 ;
phosphates absorbed, 145.

, tlieir absorbing powers depend on

peculiar combinations of alumhia, xviii.
148.

, {wrous, absorbing powers of (Dr.

Voelcker), xviii. 146.

, tile matter takim up from, by water

(Dr. Voelcker), xviii. 145 ; experiments
witli pure water, 146.

, loam}', analysis of (Dr. Voelcker),

xix. 546.

, sandy, analysis of (Dr. Voelcker),

xix. 542.

, temperature of, at Hinxworth (J.

B. Denton), xx. 277.

, the staple, on deepening (Love),

xvii. 543 ; deep ploughing only suited
to roots and oats, ib. ; benefit of a half-
turned fmrow, 544; ditto, a rough
surface, 545 ; sirring ploughing go-
verned by t'lie season, ib. ; soils suited
to deep cultivation, ib. ; crops, ditto,
547 ; white mustard ploughed in for
wheat, 546 ; subsoiling after drainage
should not be iunnediate, 548 ; its ex-
pense, 549 ; cost of horse-keep, ib. ;
digging or forking combined with
plougldng, ib. ; wheat experiments,

plougliing at difterent depths, 550-52 ;
subsoiling clays injurious, 551 ; Smith's
(of Deanstone) and Gray's (of Ud-
dingston) subsoil-ploughs, 552 ; effects
of varied plougiiings, 553, 556 ; cheap
digging in Kent, 555; experiments
with wheat, oats, and layer, 557 ; benefit
of deep ploughing and liurning subsoil,
559 ; treatment of peat subsoil, 560 ;
P. Love's equalising swingle-trees, 562.

Soils, Prussian, analysis, of (Liebig), xvii.
285 ; the results criticised (Lawes and
Gilbert \ 595.

of Rothamstcd and Lois Weedon

analysed (Lawes and Gilbert), xvii.
603 ; their absorptive power for water
and ammonia, ib. ; fartiur experiments,
611; Lois Weertua soil lias moro
nitrogen and works better tlian that
of Kothamsted, 612; Lois Weedon a
wlieatsoil — part naturally so, the other

'■ made by marling, xviii. 30.

, the mechanical condition of, favour-
able for tho growth of seed, ti prize
essay (H. Tanner), xxi. 46; gennina-
tion of seeds, 47 ; diastaste, ib. ; stag-
nant water injurious, 48 ; the wheat
crop, effects of a fallow, 49 ; a fine sur-
face not desirable, 50 ; effect of elimato
on clay land, 51 ; sowing wet or dry,
53 ; time for sowing, 55 ; depth de-
sirable for germimition, ib. ; dibbling,
drilling, and sowing broadcast, 56 ;
burhij cultru'c, imjiortunce of a free-
working seed-bed, 57 ; should be sown
when land is dry, 58; influence of
seasons, 59 ; the oat, 60 ; it requires a
firm seed - bed, ib. ; suited to turf
ploughed down, ib. ; time and manner
of sowing, 61 ; peas, 62 ; beans, 63 ;
grass and clover seeds to be lightly
covtned, 64 ; table of depths most
favourable for vegetation, 65 ; turnips
and swedes, 67 ; time of sowing, 69 ;
mangold, ib. ; autumn preparation of
land, ib. ; spring ditto, ib. ; early sow-
ing,/6 ; band-dibhling, 70; carrotsand
parsnip.t, ib. ; mixing com with seed
gives a guide to the horsc-hoe, ib. '
rape or cole, 71 ; s]iring feed, ib. •
French clover or trifolium, when sown'
72.

, the chemical properties of (Dr.

Voelcker), xxi. 105 ; sandy soils and
clays in relation to ammonia, 106 ; value
of soluljle fertilisers, ib. ; Liebig's
mineral theory, ib. ; researches by
Professor Way and the author, ib. ;
soils vary in fertility, 107; effects of
manure on difterent soils, ib. ; changes
effected in manure by soils, ib. ; use

VOLUMES ONE TO TVENTY-FIVE.

175

mid "province of theory, lOS; experi-
ments (1st series) on the absorption, of
ammonia by (1) calcareous soils, 109-
111; (2) fertile loamy soils, 111 ; (3)
stiff clay land, 112 ; (4^ sterile sandy
soil, 113 ; (5) pasture-land, 114 ; results,
115; modes of analysis, 110, 113; ul-
mates and humates of ammonia, 113;
ammonia absorbed by sandy soils as
well as by clay, 116; soluble top-
dressings, ib. ; eiiects of organic acids
in soils, ib. ; experiments with ]Mr.
Mechi's heavy clay soil, 117. Experi-
ments (2nd series) with stronger am-
ammonia solutions {1) on calcareous
soils, US; (2) fertile loam, ib. ; (3)
heavy clay, 119 ; (4) sterile sand, ib. ;
(5) pastm-e-land, ib. ; table of results,
120 ; modes of conducting and correct-
ing analyses, 117, 120. Experiments
(3rd and 4th series) with ammonia solu-
tions of different strength, 121-4 ; am-
monia retention experiments (oth
series), 126-129; solubility of ammonia

', compounds in tlie soil, 125 ; presence
of ammonia in spring- water, ib. ; effects
of rainfall, 128 ; reluctance of soils to
part with ammoziia, 129 ; experiments
(6th series) with solution of sal-ammo-
niaf, 129 ; absorption experiments (7th
series) and retention ditto (8th series),
with sulphate of ammonia, 130 ; results,
131 ; (9th series) retention of ammonia
from solution of sal-ammoniac, 132 ;
effect of water on ammonia absorbed by
the soil, ib. ; ammoniacal salts regarded
as solvents, ib. ; summary, 133.

Soils cause of barrenness in (Dr.Voelcker),
XXV. 23S.

, absorption of potash by soils of

known composition (Dr.Voelcker), xxv.
333.

SoLDATi's IModulo Milanese, xxiv. 197.

Solly, S., on the application of clay to
moorland, viii. 427.

SoLWAY moss, its irruptions and present
state (W. Dickinson), xiii. 278.

SoMEKSETSHiRE, Wcst, ou tlic conncxiou
between its geology and its agriculture,
by Sir H. T. De la Beche, iii. 21. See
"Geology."

, its water-meadows described (P.

Pusey), iv. 312.

, ou the farming of, by T. D. Acland,

a prize report, xi. 666 ; western district,
667; farming of the western hill
country, 668; the alternate system of
arable and grass, 670; the formation
of catcli-meadows, 675 ; the turnip-erop,
676 ; maiiagement of stock ou the hills,
677 ; cattle, ib. ; sheep, 678 ; breeds and

breeders, 680 ; Mr. Francis Quartly, Lis
merits as a breeder, ib. ; sheep, 682 ;
the moorlands, 683 ; hill-feuces, 087 ;
improvements in Exraoor, 688 ; the
Quautock Hills, 693 ; the Vale of Taim-
ton, 695 ; the Bridgwater and other
Levels, 698 ; water-scwer, 700 ; marsli
tarming, grass-lands, 703 ; Chedder
cheese, 705 ; dairy-lands, ib. ; peat,
moors, 707 ; lias formation, stonebrasli,
and clay, 711 ; oolite sands, 718 ; east-
ern district, 725; clouted cream and
butter, 735 ; cider, 736 ; jilanting, 738 ;
implements, 739 ; manures, 740 ; silt or
nuul, 741 ; draining, ib. ; farm-build-
ings, 743 ; linhays, 746 ; hedgerow
timber, 748 ; the labourers, 750 ; allot-
ments, 753; green crops and meat pro-
duced, 756.

SojiERSETSHiEE cidcr, analysis of (Dr.
Voeleker), xxv. 84.

Sombrero guano, on the agricultural
value of (Sir R. I. Mmchison), xx. 31 ;
analysis of specimens, 32.

roclc, or crust guano (Dr. Voeleker),

xxi. 363.

SoNCHUs arvensis, see "Sow-thistle, the
corn."

oloraceus, see "Sow-thistle, the

common."

Soot, experiments on, as a dresshig for
wheat, by J. JIannam, v. 275.

, successful application of, to wheat

and potatoes, at Stinchcombe in Glou-
cestershire (J. Morton), i. 401.

, analj^sis of, xiii. 498.

, trials with, and other maniu'cs for

wheat, by Sir J. M. Tyklen, xiv. 15.

, a valuable fertiliser (Rev. W. R.

Bowditch), xviii. 301 ; its percentage
of sulphate of ammonia, ib.

■ , its weight, cost, and use for grass,

xix. 237.

SoRE-HEADs and fly-galls in sheci> (R.
vSmith), viii. 24.

SoRGHfM saccharatum (Holcus S.), or
North China sugar-cane (Dr. Voeleker),
XX. 378 ; grown in North America for
sugar and distillation, ih. ; trial of, at
Cii'encester, ib. ; its composition in
August, when it contained no sugar,
380 ; and on 26th Septeml>sr, when the
stems were sweet and jjalatablc, 381 ;
the lower stem containing most sugar
and least crude fibre, equal to carrots
in flavoiu-, ib. ; the central stem sliould
be cut before the branches, 382 ; tlio
results obtained in August and Sejj-
tcmljer compared, ib. ; green food, when
lich in nitrogen is imripe, 383 ; S.
hardly suited to English cl imate, ib. ;

176 GENERAL INDEX TO EOTAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

Professor Buckmau's directions for sow-
ing, ih.

Sorghum, remarks on (II. S. Thompson),
XX. 384 ; probability of its making good
liay if fermented in the stiick, 385.

, experience of its growth in Yorlv-

shirc (W. Wright), xxii. IIG.

SouTHAJiiTON meeting, report of the exhi-
bition of imiilements at, by J. Pai-kes,
V. 3G1.

Southdown slieep, the breed of (R.
Smitli), viii. 7. See " Sheep."

, comparative profit realilied with, by

S. Druce, xiv. 210.

, J. Wilson on, xvi. 233 ; tlic Su.s.sex,

il). ; tlie Hampshire, 234 ; the Norfolk,
235 ; the Slirojishire, 23(;.

, account of tlie l)recd (R. Smith),

xix. 381 ; the Babmliam flocks (J.
Webb's), ih.

South Holland, drainage of (J. A. Clarke),
xii. 292.

Sow-nrisTLE, if eaten by cows, gives a
bitter taste to theij* milk (Euegg), xiv.
CD.

, the common, its soils and habits

(Buckman), xvi. 301.

, the cfirn (Buckman), xvi. 3G1 ; tlio

numlx'r of its seeds, 377.

Sr.MN, on the agriculhn-c of, by Captain
Widdrington, iv. 3-14; its three grci^t
zones or di\isions — First : that of the
teriitoryljing along the Mediterranean,
from tiie western extremity of Spain to
the Pyrenees, -ih. ; the .soil of this, ih. ;
the irrigation system of the Bloor.s, ih. ;
sugar-grounds of Slotril and Alniune-
car, ih. ; the Vega of Jlalaga, ih. ; its
soil, wheat, extensive cultivation, ih. ;
otlier jiroductions, ih. ; oil, wine, silk,
])nlse, Incern, ih. ; red pepper, cotton,
coii'ee grown, ih. ; the cochineal insect
at ISIalaga. il). ; deserts, 345 ; the chief
food of the animals the algarroba or
locust-h-ce, ih. ; (hied cod, ih. ; the wheat
harvest, ih. — The second region : the
two Castilcs, Anngon, Estramadura, tlie
gi'cater part of Catalonia, Upper Anda-
lusia, and j^art of Navarre and Leon,
ih. ; the wheat produced here, ih. ; tiie
Castiles, their tiiulier, ih. ; sods, ih. —
The third region is that of the nortli,
G.'dicia, Astiu-ias, the Basque Pro-
vinces, and the gi-eater part of Navarre,
346 ; moisture of its climate, ih. ; maize
or Indian com, cultivation of, ih. — In
the tirst region work is chiefly done
liy manual labom-, 347 ; domestic ani-
mals, ih. ; its horses, mules, and asses,
ih. ; food used in the .second region —
wheat, ih. ; barley, rj'c, ih. ; wine, oil,

and pulse produced, ih. ; the pork, ih. ;
tlie i)astures, the IMerino sheep, ih. ; the
burros or clays of Estramadura, wheat
grown for years in succession, 348 ;
barren conmion lands of this kingdom,
ih. ; their wines, 349 ; tlie olive cul-
tivated, ih. ; the butter of Oviedo, ih. ;
their roails, ih. ; their implements of
agriculture, 350 ; tiie grape or digging
fork of the Basque Provinces, ih. ; the
four great divisions of landed property
— 1, that of the Church; 2, the great
landed jiroprietors ; 3, that of the lesser
nobles and small freeholders ; 4, the
conunon lands Ixlongiiig to towns and
villages, 351 ; the agricultural hdjour-
ers, ih. ; size of the farms, ih. ; the
Spanish cattle, 352 ; no turnips are cid-
tivated, 353 ; the laws respecting the
Blesta or IMcriiios, ih. ; the locusts in
Estramadura, 354 ; jiotatoes, ih. ; the
gi'owth of tobacco forbidden, 355.

Spain, her inertness, holds the three great
manmo dejxisits, phosphate of lime,
guano, cubic petre (P. Puscy), xiii.
35G.

Spauttna alternifolia, see " Many-spiked
cord-grass."

stricta, see "Twin-spiked cord-
grass."

Spavin, bone, in horses (F. Dun), xiv.
114.

Speaking, J. B., prize report on the farm-
ing of Berkshire, xxi. 1.

Specific gi-avity explained (Ilenmiing),
xiii. 432.

Specifications for cottages (Isaacs), xvii,
505.

Speedwell, the procumbent (Buckman),
xvi. 3G4.

, the com, xvi. 3G4.

, buxbamns, xvi. 3G4.

, the ivy-leaved, x\i. 3G4; analysis

of, 370.

, the field, xvi. 3G4.

Spencer, Earl of, on the means of cal-
culating the number of calves which
will iirobably be produced by a herd of
cows, ii. 112.

, on the comparative feeding pro-
perties of man gold- wirrzel and turnip,
ii. 296. See " Mangold-wurzel " and
" Turnip."

, on the improvements which have

taken place in West Norfolk, ii. 1. See
" Norfolk."

, on the selection of male animals in

the breeding of cattle ami sheep, ii.
22.

, on the gestation of cows, i. 1C5.

See " Cows,"

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

177

SrENCER, Earl, on prize white wheat, se-
lected for ti-ial at Southaniptou, vi. 572.

SrERGCLA arvensis, see "Hpuircy."

SriKED fescue-grass, its growth iu dif-
ferent situations (Buckman), xv. 468 ;
xvii. 533-5.

Spiller, Mr. (Woolwich .li'seual), on pre-
venting the incrustation of steam-boilers,
xxiii. 431, 436.

Splenic apoplexy in cattle and sheep,
report on (Prof. Simonds), xxiv. 228 ;
outbreak of the malady iu Somerset,
lb. ; pathology and cause of blood
diseases, 229 ; hismato-sepsis, hajmo-
albuminuria, and hasmostasia, ib. ;
efl'ects of food, ib. ; importance of good
water to cattle, 230 ; office of the sjjleen,
ib. ; sjjlenic ajjoplexy a misnomer, 231 ;
post-mortem appearances, ib. ; the dis-
order due to chemical changes in the
blood, 232 ; flesh of aflected animals
poisonous, ib. ; sjmiptoms and treat-
ment, ib. ; detailed report to the vete-
rinary committee; cause, symptoms,
and post-mortem ajjpearances, 233 ;
first outbreak and spread of ,the malady
ib. ; history of the fields liable to the
affection, ib. ; Mr. Wake's farm, 235 ;
Mr. Bradley's and Mr. Dyke's farms,
236 ; the water supply, 238 ; condition
of the herbage, 239 ; JIi-. Taylor's farm,
240; suggested remedies, 241; drain-
age, imjiroved cattle-yards, butter diet,
and medicines, ib. — Prof. Buekman's
report of the examination of the pas-
tures, 242 ; condition of the water and
herbage, 243 ; prevaihng grasses, 245 ;
Lord Portman on tart lands, ib. ; neces-
sity of drainage and improved cultiva-
tion, 24G ; list of plants on the farms
inspected by Prof Simonds, 246-249 ;
conclusions, 250 ; Dr. Voelcker's report
on the comi^osition of the water, 251-3 ;
water in the lias districts liable to cause
disease, 251 ; iujm-ious efll'cts of unrijie
herbage, 253 ; common origin of causes
producing scour and apoplexy, ib. ; eflect
of manuring, ib. ; Discussion — eflect
of water impregnated with farmyard
refuse, 254 ; remarks l)y the Earl of
Powis, as chahman, ib.

Sfooner, W. C, on bones and suljihuric
acid, vi. 71.

, on the use of superi)hosphato of

lime produced with acid and bones, for
maniu-e, vLi. 143.

, on the management of farm-horses,

a prize essay, ix. 249.

(with John Elliott), on the construc-
tion of farm-buildings, xi. 270.

, on cross-breeding, xx. 294.

VOLS. I. — XXV.

Si'OONER, W. C, on the monthly rainfall at
Ehng, from 1848 to 1860, xxii. 342.

— —, on the cause of the rot in sheep,
xxiii. 83.

Sprain, in horses, of the tendons of the
back (F. Dun), xiv. 115.

Sprats, on the analysis of, by J. T. Way,
X. 610, xiii. 498.

Sprengel, Dr. C, on annual manures, i.
455.

, on humus, xvii. 291.

, on organic and inorganic manm'es

(Liebig ), xxv. 505.

Spring Park farm, some account of, by
II. Davis, vii. 524.

Springs, intermittent. See " Bournes."

, drainage connected with, xvii. 370.

, Malvern, analysis of (Pliillips), xvii.

421.

, Iceland (Sandberger), xvii. 422.

, Carlsbad (Berzelius), ib.

, Trafalgar Square, artesian Avell

(Playfair), xvii. 443.

, on the virtue of (Chevaudier and

Salvctat), xvii. 325.

Spring-water, analysis of, xiii. 506.

Spurge, the sun, its soil and habits
(Buckman), xvi. 366.

, the dwarf, ib.

, the petty, ib.

Spureey, grown for winter-feed iu Jut-
land (J. F. Johnston), iii. 418 ; may be
regarded as the clover of sandy .soils,
ib. , .sown in April and ready for feed-
ing off in Jime, ib.

, its soils and habits (Buckman), xvi.

360.

Spring-feed, early, M. M. Milburn on
h. 215.

Spruce-fir the, of Norway, its planting
and management (Falkener), iii. 277.

Squitch, its soils and habits (Buclouan),
xvi. 366 ; its natm-al history, xvii.
530.

Stables, on purifying the air of, by a
mixture of gypsum or sawdust with
sulphuric acid, by H. Recce, iv. 278.

, management of horses in (F. Burke),

v. 533.

, on the construction of, for fann-

horses (Tancred), xi. 200; (Ewart),
236.

for nag-horses (Tancred), xi. 205.

, ventilation of (Stmgess), xi. 294.

, ventilation of, as practised in Dur-
ham (Dr. BeU), xvii. 110.

— r — , on the improved construction of
(P. H. Frere), xxv. 364 ; report of the
barracks' and hospitals' commissioners,
ib. ; defects in stable arrangements, ib. ;
improved principles of construction,
lU

178 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

oG5 ; illustrative diagrams, 3G6 ; expk-
natiou, ?>G7 ; imjirovement of old
stables, ib. ; Mr. Luwes's cart stabling,
368.

Stage, W., on the rotations of crops on
heavy lands (prize essay), iv. 169. See
" Clay soils."

Stachys arvensis, see " Com-woimd-
wort."

Stack stands, furnishing store-room for
roots, description of (Bccvor\ x\iii.
338.

Stackyaeus, aiTangement of (Tancrc<V,
xi. 195, 196 ; (Tebbutt), 307.

Stall-feeding, on, by J. H. Leigh, vi.
237.

Stalliox, on the choice of, for breeding
purposes (J. Burke), v. 510-.'il8.

Stallions thoroughbred, at Chester
(1858), by R. Smith, xix. 377, 395.

, agricultural, at Chester (R. Smith),

xix. 394.

Stanuoi'e, J. S., on arbo)icultnr.', vii.
679.

, Mr., his mode of feeding Alderncy

cows, xviii. 175.

Starch, the, found in plants (Fowncs),
iv. 504.

, refuse (potato) of starch-makers,

anah'sis of, xiii. 498.

, its composition aud_ relation to oil,

xviii. 170.

, its iirescnce in the seeds and tubers

of plants, &c. (licnfrey), xviii. 395 ; in
Vvheat and oat grain, 397 ; in the jjotato,
ib. ; in maize and rice, 39S ; its change
into dextrine or sugar explained, 40U ;
its presence in the algae, 404.

" Statesmen, the," of Cmnberlaud (Dick-
inson), xiii. 218.

Statistics, agricultural, of France, by
Sir 0. Lemon, i. 411.

, on agricultui-al, Ijy C. Wren Hos-

Icyns, xvi. 554 ; its advantages to the
poorer holders of coiti, 557 ; evidence
of Mr. L. Levi, 559 ; the general ad-
vantages of statistics, 565 ; value of
tlio farm-))roduco of England, 569 ; the
acreage of England, 571 ; of Scotland
and L-elaud, ib. ; state of our cultivation
two centuries since, 573; number of
luclosure Bills since 1710, 575 ; in-
crease of population since 1800, ^vheat
imported, 575 ; prices of wheat, 577 ;
average annual produce of wheat, ib. ;
the poiJulation of Loudon, 595 ; a statis-
tical map, 597 ; the produce of Scotland,
1854, 1855, 598; statistical map of
Scotland, 600; statistical map of lie-
land, 602.

■ , important facts brought out in Nor-

folk in 1853-4 (C. S. Read), xix. 297 ;
ijicrcase in yield of corn in Norfolk and
of stock sold at Lynn, 300.

Statisi'ICS of the corn trade. See '• Corn
trade."

of live .stock for consumption in the

metropolis, see "Live Stock for con-
sumi^tion, &c."

Steam cultm-e, cost of in 1856, xvii. 581 ;
its economy (C. W. Hoskyns), 425-8;
the conditions on wliicli the 500/. prize
was ofl'creil by the Royal Agricultural
Society, xviii. 426 ; the revolution in
culture and crops on clay soils, 427 ;
mischievous eliects of tlio trampling of
horses' feet avoided, 428; the atmo-
sphere the true cultivator, ib. ; even the
stcam-plougii glazes and smears the
soil, 429; suggestion for getting rid of
tiiis, ib.

, on tiie a|)plication of steam jwwer

to the cultivation of the laud (J. A.
Clfirke, a prize cs.say), xx. 174 ; tillage
defined, 175; the glazing action of the
]>lf)Ugh decreased by steam tillage, 176 ;
tlie revolving cutter expends less ix)wer
than the mould board, ib. ; steam
diggers with direct action, their advan-
tages and difficulties, ib. ; Bonsor and
Pettitt's drum cultivator for horse or
other power, working in dii'ection of mo-
tion, 177 ; the patents of Paid and of
Lillie, 178; Usher's patent; the pro-
polling power gained by the resistance
of tlie soil to tlic cui-ved ploughs at
work, ] 79 ; exhibited, but not worked
at Cai-lisle ; theoiy of its action, 180 ;
Bcthell's digger, draNvoi by liorses,
(hivcn by steam, with Boydell's rails
added, 181 ; Komaine's cultivator,
tlrawn by horses, ib. ; Hoskyns, C. W.,
liis rasp, ib. ; progress too slow ; the
coinminution of soil left to natm-e, 182 ;
particles of weathered clod are inde-
l)endent and repelling, not so if parted
mechanically, 183 ; Malkett's commi-
nutor, lUce Norwegian han-ow, axis
parallel to line of motion, ib. ; Croskill's
improvements on Romaine's digger, 184 ;
its work veiy good, from 4 to 7 acres
per day, 185 ; objections to its weight
and complexity, ib. ; Nasli's digger de-
.scribcd, 186; seen working in Cam-
bridgeshire in 1859, 187 ; Ricketfs cul-
tivator ; the coulters move Ibnvard and
upwards with too mudi loss of jwwer,
188; its ti-ial at Chester, 190; Mr.
Rickett's remark in favom- of the uj)-
ward action, 191 ; Mr. Atkin's rotaiy
digger actuated by s-tationary engine,
192; Fiskcn's patents, 193. Jlacltinenj

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

179

worTihuj traction implements. — Fowler's
arrangement, 194; the plough and
cultivator, 195 ; cost, work performed,
and list of purchasers, 19G ; Mr. Wil-
liams's patents for wii-e ropes and for
l")itoh chain, to render engine self-pro-
pelling, 197 ; his use of steam windlass
for felling trees, &c. ; Mr. Smith, of
Woolston, cost of his tackle, ib. ;
Chandler and Oliver's combined mnd-
lass and engine, 198 ; Hayes's combined
windlass, ib. ; Massey's rope-guide, ib. ;
Howard's vertical drum, ib. ; Boydell
and Tuxford's engines suited to road
more than fields, 199 ; Halkett's culti-
vation by rail, ib. ; its cost per acre, &c.,
200 ; its facilities for performance of
other operations ; carrying manm-e, iiTi-
gatiou, trenchmg, &c., 201. Locomotives
for farms and common roads, see " Trac-
tion engines." Practical Experience. —
Mr. Pike, of Stevmgton, Bedford, 210 ;
liis farm described, 211 ; contrast be-
tween i-esults of steam and horse cul-
ture, work done per day, &c., 212 ; his
letter to Messrs. Howard, 213 ; value of
work done by steam, 214 ; sum i^aid for
work done Ijy hh-e, ib. ; abolition of
fallows, 215 ; use of steel ropes, ib. ;
Mr. Eandall's farm, near Evesham,
and his experience witli the Woolston
grubber, 21G; use of the cultivator to
kill couch grass, 217 ; his estunate of
cost of work, wear and tear, &c., 218 ;
Mr. Smith's farm, Woolston, cost of
work, 219 ; decrease of horses kept, ib. ;
pm'chasers of the Woolston tackle, 220 ;
instances and causes of bad success,
221 ; Mr. Bird's farm, near Wolver-
hampton, ib. ; cost of horse-ploughing,
ib. ; his steam culture with Fowler's
plough, ib. ; estimate of cost (with in-
terest on 200 days) of self-propelling
engine, &c., 222 ; Mr. Eechnan's expe-
rience with Fowler's tackle at Over-
tovm, Swindon, 224 ; his soil a sticky
marl, ib. ; cost of ploughing by horse or
ox i^ower, ib. ; di'aught on the plough,
225 ; the power of the horse expended
in his walking over heavy soils, ib. ;
work done, and estimate of cost, ib. ;
Sir. Fowler's estimate and cost of re-
paus, wear and tear, 220 ; diflerence in,
Ijctween capital from liorses or oxen,
and that from steam ta('kle, 227 ; gains
in working and from improved culture,
ib.
Steaji cultm-e, its present aspect (P.
H. Frere), xxi. 401 ; references to
recent writers (Clarke, Morton, and
Wells), ib. ; cultivation of clay lands,

402 ; calculations of. cost by the
Cantcrbmy judges, 403 ; prices paid
for hiring, ib. ; jwevailing niiscoucop-
tions, 405 ; consumption of fuel, ib. ; cost
of removals and repairs, 406 ; wear and
tear scrutinised, ib. : average day's
work witli Fowler's cultivator, ib. ; ex-
perience of Messrs. Holland, Eedman,
King, Saltmarshe, Major Banks, Strat-
ton, and Arnot, 407 ; Smitli's culti-
vator ; exiaerience of Lord Hatherton,
and Messrs. Smith, Pike, and Faux,
408 ; limitation of work in a season,
409 ; advantage of a powerful engine,
ib. ; the engine's working days, ib. ;
cost of manual laboiu and water-cart,
410 ; criticism of reports and estimates,
411; cost of a trained engineer, ib.;
qualities of coal, ib. ; cost of removal,
412 ; and steam power, ib. ; defects in
theories of cost, ib. ; erroneous estimates
of time and work, 413 ; wear and tear,
ib. ; experience derived from steam
thrashing, 414 ; cost of Fowler's 12-
horse engine and tackle, repairs, depre-
ciation, rope, gearing, ploughs, &c.,
415 ; cost per sea.son and per day, 416 ;
prime cost of Smith's cultivator and S-
horse engine, ib. ; wear and cost of
rope, 417 ; working cost per day, ib. ;
ploughmg and scarifying by horse
power, 418; Stevenson's theory of tho
horse's traction power, ib. ; J. C. Mor-
ton's calcidations, ib. ; variations in
amoimt of work in difiercnt months,
419; advantages of mixed occupations
of light and heavy soils, 420 ; valua-
tions of tillages, ib. ; hand-power illus-
trations by Morton and Pusey, 421 ; dis-
tribution and equalisation of labour,
ib. ; impoi-tance of steady employment
for laboiurers, 422 ; the liorses working
days in a year, ih. ; number of hom-s'
work in a day, 423 ; yearly cost, 41?. ;
average hourly cost, 5d., ib. ; in the
busy season, lid., 424 ; value of horse
power as compared with steam, ib. ;
cost of steam-power work per day, ib. ;
special merits of Fowler's and Smith's
apparatus, ib. ; inversion of the soil,
426 ; " sraashing-up," ib. ; adaptation
of size and shaj^e of fields for steam
culture, 427; rapid improvement in
existing systems, 428 ; suggested alter-
ations and improvements in estates,
429 ; small enclosures, high fences, and
trees, ib. ; ponds and loads, 430 ; Down-
ing college estates, ih. ; points of in-
quiry; letter &om Mr. Holland, M.P.,
431 ; cost of old machinery and tackle,
ib. ; new and unproved chtto, 432 ; Avork
m 2

180

GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

to be executed and distribution of steam
power, ib. ; cost per diem, ib. ; saving
in horse keep, 433 ; steam cultiu'c com-
paratively independent of weatlaer, ih.

Steam cultiu-e, Mr. J. Smji^h's experience
in Hertfordshire, xxv. 298.

, results of r. E. (\V. J. IMoscrop) ;

experience on a clay farm, xxiv. 320 ;
geological Ibrmution and average re-
sistance, 321 ; cost of horse j)loughing,
322 ; use of Fowler's tackle, ih. ; expe-
rience of 1S60 and attendant diiliculties,
323; that of 18G1 more favourable,
324 ; cause and cost of breakages and
stoppages, 325 ; breakage anil wear of
shares, skj'fes, rope joints, rope j)orters,
and wire rope, 327 ; time lost in read-
justing anchors, ih. ; annual outgoings
an<l repairs, 328 ; jK-rcentflge for depre-
ciation, 321) ; Avorking cost per day and
jKjr acre, ih. ; percolation of water faci-
litated by steam culture, 330 ; ellects of
poaching avoided, ih. ; cultivation of a
trapezoidal-shaped field by steam and
horses, 331 ; cf)mparison of subsequent
results, 332 ; imj)roved texture of soil
cultivated by steam, 333 ; Cotgreave's
subsoiling tines, Smith's scarifier, and
Fowler's digger, ib. ; selection of imple-
ments, for special work, ib. ; increase of
piTKluce, 334 ; a case in point, ib. ; im-
proved root and com crops, 335.

, five years' i)rogi'ess of (J. A.

Clarke), xxiv. 3G2 ; points already at-
tained, 3G4 ; exhibitors of machinery-
at "Worcester meeting, 3(55 ; Beard's
plough, ih. ; Stcevens, of Hammer-
smith, 3GG ; J. A. Williams, of Bavdon,
ih. ; C. Clay, of "Wakelield, 367 ; Ager's
digging machine, ib. ; Underhill's spring
hook, ih. ; Fisken's system, 3GS ; Smith's
"Woolston apparatus, ib. ; Hayes's sta-
tionaiy engine and windlass, 369 ; How-
ard's improved implements and tackle,
ih. ; Fowler's engines, implements, and
tackle, 373 ; Savory and Sods' double
engine system, 375; diagrams, 37G;
CoUinson Hall's link chain, 378 ; cost
of removals and laying down to work of
different tackle, 380 ; depth of cultiva-
tion at various trials, 381 ; experience
derived from farm practice, 382 ; cost
of wages, rope, and repairs, 383 ; sy-
nopsis of performances of 8 of Fowler's
ploughs, 384 ; 5 of Howard's, 385 ; 12
of Smith's, 386 ; interest and de]irecia-
tion, 387 ; cost of rope and repairs
affected by management, ib. ; examples
of expedition, and cheapness with
Fowler's plough, 388; with How-
ard's cultivator, 390; with Smith's,

391 ; comparison of performances of
different inventions, 392 ; relative eco-
nomy of steam and animal power, 393 ;
estimated cost of horse and ox labour,
ib. ; examples of annual saving from
displacement of teams by Fowler's
plough, 394 ; by Howard's cultivator,
39G ; l)y Smith's, 397 ; profit of steam
culture- affected by other considerations
than cheap work, 398; economy of
time and independence of weather,
399 ; testimonies to the value of steam
tillage, with Fowler's ajjparatus, ih. ;
with Howard's, 400 ; witli Smith's,
401 ; evidence as to increased imxlucc
and enlarged value of land, with Fow-
ler's a))paratus, 403; with Howard's,
404 ; with Smith's, ib. ; exceptional
cases of superiority of horses to steam
jx)wer, 406; advantages of stationary
and moveable engines, lb. ; expedition
and economy in working the direct as
compared with the round-about sys-
tem, 407 ; size and sliaix; of fields,
408; inconvenienct^ of small fields and
largt' hedgerows, 410; expedients for
supplying water to stationary engines,
411 ; sliiftings of tackle avoided by
moveable engines, iJt. ; exiK>dients for
supplementing the anchor grip, ib. ;
stones and roots not insurmountable
obstacles, 412 ; lull farms and stationary
engines, ili. ; farms of IVIessrs. Gill and
Majoribaidis, 413; comparative merits
of tiu-n-over ploughing and smashing-
up, ib. ; considerations affecting the
choice of tackle, 414; Mr. Smith's
"WViolstoTi exjierience, Ri. ; saving on a
small farm, by displacement of teams
and increased produce, 415; original
cost f)f tackle speedily defi-ayed by su-
perior economy of working, 416;
quality of land improved, ih. ; other
instances of small farms under steam
cidture, 417 ; partnersliips in steam
tackle, ih. ; privato lettings and ])ro-
posed companies, 418 ; the 10-horse
engine, 419 ; labour and piece work,
ib.
Steaji culture, a practical farmer's experi-
ence of, P. D. (E. Ruck), xxiv. 610 ; ox
teams, ib. ; size of farms to which .steam
culture is applicable, 611; the landlord's
obligation, ih. ; inconvenience and cost
of trees on arable land, ib. ; experience
with Fowlers 14-horse engine and
tackle, G12 ; daily outlay, il). ; cost of
horse keep equal to man's lalxiur, ih. ;
cost per acre and per day of .steam cul-
tivation, 613 ; increased value of land,
ib. ; drainage facilitated, ib. ; the steam

VOLUMES ONE TO TAVENTY-FIVE.

181

horse needs no baiting, tT). ; action of
fertilisers assisted, 614 ; worms in arable
and meadow land, ih. ; requisite outlay
in steam culture, ib. ; tlirasliing, 11). ;
comparative advantages of the plougli
and cultivator, ih. ; wear and tear, 618 ;
economy of powerful engines, ib. ; cost,
of fuel in comparison with horse-keep,
■ih. ; improved management introduced
by steam, 616 ; etfeet on labourers, ih. ;
use of long rope, ih. ; traction engines,
617 ; Boydell's system, ih. ; abolition
of summer fallow, ih. Discussion —
Howard's tackle ; comijarative merits
of the plough and cultivator (IMr.
Dent, M.P.), 618; clover a deep-feed-
ing plant (Frere), ih. ; comparison of
ihS'erent systems of steam cultivation
(Lord Berners), 619; light soils (Col.
Kingscote), 620 ; exiierienco in Surrey
(Bradshaw), ih. ; steam cultivation
companies ; importance of good occupa-
tion roads (Sidney), 621 ; practical con-
siderations (,Mr. Holland, M.P.), 622 ;
rei)ly (Ruck), ih.
Steam diggers, with direct action, their
advantages and difhculties (J. A.
Clarke), xx. 176.

l)loughs and cultivatra-s shown at

the Carlisle meeting (1S55), xvi. 525.

at Boxted lodge (Colchester meeting,

1856), xvii. 581.

at Salisbmy (1857), xviii. 445 ; re-
port of the judges, ih.

at Chester (1858), xix. 313 ; report

of the judges, 320.

at Warwick (1859), report of the

judges on, xx. 315; competitors, 7 in
number, reduced to 3, ih. ; table of per-
formances, 316 ; award, 317.

at Canterbiuy (1860), report of the

judges on, xxi. 491 ; tables of work and
cost, 494-; comi^arative cost of steam
and horse ploughing, 495; importance
of prolonged trials, 497.

at Leeds (1861), report of the judges

on, xxii. 462 ; description of trial plots,
ib. ; experimental tests with an or-
dinaiy plough, 465 ; table of competi-
tion on fallow field, 467; prime and
working cost of Fowler's and Howard's
heavy land cultivators, 468 ; competi-
tion on light lands, 473; prime and
working cost of Kirby's, Fowler's, and
Howard's light land cultivators ; awards,
477.

at the Battersea meeting ; trials at

Famingham, xxiii. 395 ; diagram of
Sniith's cultivator as seen at work, 397 ;
liis implement and combined machine,
398 ; Fowler's steam-tackle digger, and

STEAM-BOILERS.

foiu'-fiUTOw plough, 399 ; Howard's
cultivator and plough, 400 ; Williams's
(of Baydon), plough and cultivator,
401 ; Brown and May's apparatus, ih. ;
Taskcr and Son's cultivating imple-
ments, ih. ; Coleman and Son's steam
cultivator, description and diagram,
402-3 ; Evenden's system of cultivation
404 ; cost per acre of ploughing by
steam, ih. ; caution as to steam-boilers, ih.

Steam ploughs and cultivators shown
at Worcester, report of the judges,
xxiv. 480 ; Hayes's engine and self-
acthig windlass, ih. ; CoUinson Hall's
liidv chain, ih. ; Coleman's cultivator,
481 ; Fowler's tackle, ih. ; Howard's,
ih. ; Savoiy's system, ih. ; Smith's appa-
ratus, 483 ; tables of results, 482, 485 ;
awards of prizes, 487.

at Newcastle, report, general,

XXV. 391 ; report of the judges, 394 ;
Darley's steam-engine, 395; CoUin-
son Hall's polygonal ckiun and link
chain, ib. ; Richardson's steel plate
boilers, ih. ; table of competitive residts
with ploughs working 7 in. deep, 397 ;
advantages and defects of imjjlements
on the balance j^rinciijle, 396 ; working
cost of tlift'erent systems, 398-400 ; com-
petition of cultivators working nominally
8 in. deep, 401 ; ploughs worldng 7 in.
deej), 404; cost per day of different
tackle, 405-6 ; cultivators working no-
minally at 8 in., 407 ; ploughs for steam
power, 409 ; cultivators, 410 ; trial of
steam harrows, 412 ; windlasses and
aiiplication of power thereto, 414;
anchors, 415 ; rope porters, 416 ; the
double-engine system, ih.

ploughs and cultivators, see

" Fowler's steam plough," Smith's cul-
tivator, Romaine's cultivator, Usher's
steam plough, Rickott's rotary culti-
vator.

Steaji-boilees (agricultiu'al), their proper
management, P.D. (Mr. Holland, M.P.),
xxiii. 428 ; extensive use of steam
power, ih. ; Mr. Crook on the pheno-
mena of steam, 429 ; advantages of
fixed boilers, ib. ; Carpenter on the
generation of steam, ib. ; cause of acci-
dents, 430 ; Mr. Spiller's mode of pre-
venting incrustation on the inner siu'-
faee of boilers, 431 ; associations for
preventing explosions, 432. Discussion
— Mr. Amos on the selection of engine-
(bivers, and the causes of explosions,
433; Mr. Appold, 4,34; Professor Wil-
son, ib. ; Mr. Amos on the glass gauge
and gauge cock, 435 ; Mr. T. B. Brown,
Blr, Amos, Sir E. Kerrison, and Mr.

182 GENER.\JL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

STEAM-ENGESE.

Frere, on the effects of impure water,
435 ; Professor "Wilson, on the action of
caustic soda, 43G; letter from 'Mr.
Spiller, on same subject, ib. ; letter from
Dr. Voelcker, 437 ; incrustation in a
steam-boiler, at Ems, 439; Frcseniiis
on the causes of incrustation, ib.

Steam-kngine, not (1842)sufficiently used
in Lincolnsliire (P. Pusey), iv. 305;
tlio disc-engine, ib. ; this described by
Mr. Graburu, 305.

, its emplovment in Lincolnsliire de-
scribed, by J. A. Clarke, xil. 295, 323,
329.

, a report on those shown at the

Great Exhibition (in 1851), by P. Pusev,
xii. G20.

, progress of the demand for (Thomp-
son), xiii. 313.

, on those exhibited at the Lewes

meeting (in 1852), xiii. 318; the en-
gineer's i"e]iort on, 330.

, working expenses of, and cost (Hen-
derson), xiv. 138,

, a report by H. White of the drain-
age by, of a portion of IMurtinmere,
Lancasliire, xiv. 15(j ; the engine, 1G2 ;
the scoop-whcel, section of, 1U3 ; work-
ing days and hours, IGG; annual ex-
penditure for, 1U9.

employed in E. Huddingtonaliiro

(Stevenson), xiv. 322.

, report on those at the Gloucester

meeting, xiv. 348.

, on those at Gloucester (1853), by

C. E. Amos, xiv. 361 ; the fuel they
consumed, ib.

, those shown at Lincoln (1834), xv.

374.

, those shown at Carlisle (1835), xvi.

50G-509.

, iis value and use on the farm

(Denison), xvii. 53,

, those sliown at Chester (1858), xix.

31 G ; tables of performances, 317 ; .'spe-
cifications and illustrations of tlie prize
engine of Eansomc and Sims, 347.

, the moveable (P. H. Frere), xxi.

201 ; Eastern Counties' experience, ib. ;
rislvs and advantages of letting on liire ;
ib. ; charges for thrashing by measure
or time, 202 ; number of hands re-
quired, ib. ; economy and convenience
of thrashing in the tield, ib ; advan-
tage of feeding boOers with clean
water, 203 ; steam-thrashed straw pre-
ferred by stock, ib.; superiorit}' of
single dressing macliines, ib. ; condition
of the labourer as affected by letting
Kteam-power, 204 ; detailed statement
of cost of lal)our and repairs, 205 ;

STEAM-ENGINES.

causes of depreciation and cost of wear
and tear, 206.

PTEiVii-EN'GiXES, portable, directions ftir
working (Ransome and Sims), xix. 430 ;
directions as to filling boUer, 431 ;
gauge cocks, ib. ; lighting tire, ib. ;
raising steam, 432 ; brushing out tubes,
ib. ; safety-valve, ib. ; oiling and start-
ing engine, 433 ; pumps, ib. ; caution
as to water in boiler, 434 ; inspection
of l)earings, ib. ; moving and cleaning
tlie engine, 435 ; preparations for laying-
up engine, 436; importance of pack-
ing, ib.

, traction, see " Traction engines."

and. thrasliing-machines, fixed or

portable, their wear and tear (H,
Evershcd), xxiii. 323 ; portable en-
gines, cost of repairing, 324 ; expe-
rience of Lord Stradbroke and Mr.
Cottingham, ib. ; of Mr. AVillsher, 325 ;
renewal of lirebox, 32G ; fixed engines,
cost of repairs, 327 ; Lord Stradbrokc's
experience, ib. ; interest and deprecia-
tion, 328 ; table of estimates and re-
sults, 329 ; yearly average, 330 ; de-
preciation of thrashing-machines, 331 ;
portable, 332 ; fixed, 333 ; cost of
thrashuig Ijy flail and machine, ib. ;
cost by single blast machine, 334;
ditto, by double blast, ib.; details of
working cost of 4-horse power machi-
nery, 335 ; portable straw elevators,
336 ; chaff-cutting at the time of thrash-
ing, 337 ; 5Ii-. Jonas's practice, ib. ;
capacity of chaff-houses, 338.

Steasi - rowER and tluashing-machines :
comparative advantages of fixed and
moveable engines, and of single or
double dressing- machines, prize essay
(R. Vallentine), xxiii. 160; portxible en-
gines available for thi-asliing and culti-
vation, but fixed machines better than
moveable ones, ib. ; irregularity of corn
samples from double dressing-machines,
ib. ; their complexity, liabilitj' to de-
rangement, and weight, IGl ; .supe-
riority of fixed machines and engines,
ib. ; tlieir comparative cost, 162 ; re-
newal of boilers, j6. ; maintenance, 163 ;
cost of fixed and moveable machinery,
ib. ; comparative economy of erecting
a &xfd engine and hiring power, ib. ;
cost of labour in thrashing, 1G4 ; hired
power 3s. per quarter, ib. ; tlii'ashing
in and out of doors, ib. ; contingencies
affecting hired machines, 165 ; removal
of straw, ib.; thrashing in the field,
ib.; cost of fixed machinery, Ls. 9*7.
per quarter, KJG ; tlistribution of laboiu-,
ib. ; economy of straw, cliaff, and

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

18[

oavings, 1C7 ; arraugoment of ricks,
management of machine, and payment
to engineer, ih. ; sketch of the author's
■stack-yard, barns, and cngine-honse,
1 GS ; cost of Luikiings, waste tank, &c.,
1(50 ; eonelusions, 170.

8TEAjr tlirasiiing-machine, report on that
of Kan.sonie and Co., ii. ciii.

8te,\minCt - APPARATUS, Chcstcrman's
newly-invented portable, for steaming
potatoes or any other roots for cattle,
V. 283.

, report by P. Pusey on Stanley's

steaming-apparatus showTi at the Great
Exhibition (in 1851), xii. 636.

, on those shown at the Lewes meet-
ing (in 1852), xiii. 328.

at the Gloucester meeting, xiv. 344.

Steajiing food, Mr. Bubl/s experience
of, xix. 14iJ.

Steajiing-room, construction of (Tan-
cred), xi. 199.

Steabine, one of the constituents ' of
butter (Voelcker), xxiv. 291.

Steatite, or soap-stone, xvii. 4G4, 466.

Steexstrup on alternation of genera-
tions, xxiii. 114.

Steep-watek, the, of tlax, aiialysis of
(J. Wilson), xiv. 203.

Steeping seeds in fertilising mixtures
(Fownes), iv. 557.

mangold-wurzel, a trial by G. E.

Eaynbird, viii. 215.

Steevens's Hammersmith steam plough
at the Worcester meeting, xxiv. 306 ;
receives silver medal, 487; ditto at
Newcastle, 1864, xxv. 410.

Stellakia media, see " Chickweed."

Steppe murrain, see " Murrain."

Stevenson, Charles, on the farming of
East Lothian, xiv. 275. See " Lothian,
East."

Stevenson's theory of the horse's traction
power (P. H. Frcre), xxi. 418.

Stewards at Iloyal AgricuUural Society's
meetings : suggestions for diminishing
their laljour, xviii. 431.

STiFLE-p.rRNiNG, practiscd in North Wilt-
shire (Little), v. 173.

Still-refuse, analysis of, xiii. 506.

Stixchcombe farm, the mode of cultiva-
tion adopted on, by Mr. Dimmcry, de-
.sciibed by J. Morton, i. 388.

Stock : instances of heavily stocking
farms (Beevor), xviii. 339; the usual
average, ih. ; estimate of live and dead
stock required on farms of different
idzes, 341.

, ill-bred, the cause of great national

loss, xix. 197.

Stock-breeding, the principles by which

STOCK-FEEDING.

it is regulated (Prof. Tanner), xxii. 1,
See " Breeding."
Stock -FEEDING (P. H. Frere), xxi. 218 ;
situation and extent of the farm sup-
])lying data, ih. ; Sheplierd's corner
farm (Lord Portman), ih. ; stock the
farmer's best staff, 219; sheep better
than oxen for light land arable farms
in Cambridgeshire, ih.; fatting beasts
bought lean not proiitable, ih. ; mown
sainfoin a cooling summer food, ih. ;
detailed cost of yard-feeding a 3i-years
old beast, 221 ; cost of twelve months'
keep and estimated loss, 223 ; com-
mencement of the fatting process, ih. ;
use of beau-meal with cake and chaff,
ih. ; weekly cost of winter keep, ib. ;
Rummer keep, 224 ; and immediate jn-e-
paration for market, ih. ; locust beans,
ih. ; selling price of beasts, ih. ; de-
tailed cost of feeding foiu' young
beasts, 225 ; proportion of meat to live
weight (Horsfall), 226 ; cost of cutting
cliatf, ih. ; comparative value of straw
and dung, ih. ; charge per head of
stock for nutriment from stra,w, 227;
ditto, attendance, ih. ; estimated value
of manin-e, 228 ; yearly feeding-cost of
seven well-selected young beasts, 229 ;
their selling price, 230 ; loss per head,
231 ; use of Thorley's and Hemi'a
cattle food, ih. ; the results criticised,
232 ; an unfavourable balance-sheet
(quoted by Mr. Bond), ih. ; each kind
of produce should pay its own cost,
233 ; selling price of wheat in relation
to its cost, ih. ; production of meat the
cattle feeder's chief aim, 234 ; 8s. Gd.
per stone not a paying price, ih. ;
necessity of economy in feeding, ih. ;
lessons suggested by profitable sheep-
fatting, ih. ; use of stravz-chaff, 235 ;
condimental food, ih. ; sheep manage-
ment, ih. ; the Hock described, ih. :
well-bred animals pay best, 236 ; ob-
jections to breeding flocks, ih. ; Mr.
Bond's management, ih.; proportion
of nitrogenous matter extracted by
sheep from oil-cake (Voelcker), 237 ;
manuring value of dung, ih. ; breeds
of sheep suited to sjjecial localities,
238 ; the black-faced sheep, 239 ; his-
tory of a flock and yield of lambs, ih. ;
East - country ewes advantageously
crossed with long-woolled rams, 240 ;
remedy for defects of the breed, ih. ;
cross-breeding, influence of sire and
dam (Spooner), ih. ; the theory practi-
cally tested, 241 ; feeding experiments
with rape and linseed cake, 242-3 ;
results of periodical weighings, un-

184 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

STOCK-FEEDING.

iiiflucnoecl by tlie breed of s]icep, 244 ;
disappointing expcrimontii with the
Norfolk and Leicester cross, 245 ; sell-
ing prices of cull lambs, 240 ; tables of
live* and dead weights, 247-S ; state-
■ luent of cost and profit, 249 ; com-
parative cost of breeding and dry flocks,
249-50 ; weekly cost of spring keep,
250; land compens;ited for use of in-
ferior roots by exti'a supplies of arti-
ficials, 251 ; over-succulent food in-
jurious to breeding owes, 252 ; detiuled
calculation of cost and profit, 253 ;
preparation of wethers for the butcher,
and shearling ewes for the flock, 254 ;
superior value of ewe lambs, ih. ;
Avoekly cost of food, 254-5 ; di'litnr and
creditor account, 255-7 ; recapitidation,
257-8.
SrocK-FKEDiNG, cxpcriments on, by M. J.
lleiset (1*. H. Frere , xxiv. 43G ; bis posi-
tion as an agriculturist, ib. ; sheep man-
ngcment, 437 ; utilisation of the sewage
of I)iei)]X', ih. ; growth of mangold for
distillation and use of pulj), /6. ; inocula-
tion of cows for pleuro-iiuiumouia, ib. ;
skill in marketing, 4158 ; weight and
feeding quality of wheat, 439 ; specilic
gravity, how determined. Hi. ; rule for
measuring grain, ih. ; density and jier-
centage of water of difll'rent varietiis,
■//). ; etlects of moisture, 440 ; nutriti\e
value of grain, as taught by Boussin-
gault, 441; variable percentage of
nitrogen in dift'erent kinds of wheat,
lb. ; and at difterent stages of growth,
442 ; Dr. Yoelckei-, on a superabund-
ance of nitrogen, ib. ; nitrogen a stimu-
lant and moulding power. 443 ; Eeiset's
adoption of nitrogen as the standard of
value for meat and bread food, ih. ; the
standard criticised, 444 ; sale of coru
by weight, 445 ; experiments on the
feeding of stock, ih. ; his preference for
sheep, 446; account of his flock and
experimental weighings, 447 ; waste of
nitrogen in food, ib. ; straw a stay to
the stomach, ib. ; mode of feeding, and
management, and conduct of experi-
ments, 448 ; cost of feeding per lb. of
live weight, 449 ; proportion of nitrogen
in food recovered in maume, 450 ; pro-
jiortion of useful products to that of
live weight, ib. ; variable amount of
nitrogen in wool, 451 ; wa.ste in re-
spiration, ib. ; table of results of experi-
ments, 452 ; daily value of manme
per head, ib. ; percentage of water in
excrements, ih. ; his system of stall-
feeding, 453 ; value of mangold steamed,
raw, or as pulp, ib. ; table of results.

454; analyses of mangold and pulp,
ib.

Stock Stewards' reports, see "Reports."

Stokes, Mr., of Dean, his improvet!
cheese-press and expanding vat (J.
Harding), xxi. 92.

Sto-aiata, or pores of wheat, diagram of
(Buckman), xvii. 185.

Stuxebuash, the, in Somcrsetsliire (Ac-
land), xi. 711.

, the soils of Oxfordshire (Read), xv.

197.

STuNEnREAKERs, Ameiicau, xx. 116.

Stuxis, removal of, in ceitain cases
injurious; curious illustration of, at
Luton (K. Smith), xvii. 392.

Storing turaips, mangold, potatoes, and
carrots on, prize essay ((J. Jonas), xxv.
358 ; time and mode of performing the
work, ib. ; storing and cleaning turnips
for immediate ust', ib. ; triangular heaps,
359 ; cost of cleaning, ib. ; storing for
field-consumption, ih. ; furrow stores,
360 ; packing, ib. ; mangold heaps,
361 ; harvesting and storing pot;itoes,
362; treatment of the haulm, ib.; pits
and house.s, 363 ; time and mode of
harvesting carrots, i'>.

Sthacev, Sir E., on Kacklieath .snb-lurf
plough, i. 253, ii. 37.

SrrtADiiROKE, Earl of, on the cost of fixed
and jiortable steam thra.shiug machines,
xxiii. 325, 327.

Sthatpord, W. S., on cubic petre, ii. 259.

Stratton, E., experiments with nitrate
of soda as a top-dressing for wheat on
inferior clay, xxiv. 109.

Straw, its proper oflice on a fai-m, prize
es.siiy (H. Evershed), xxi. 153; its
relation to dung, 154 ; litter indispen-
sable to animals in sheds and yards.
i'l. ; use of covered yards, 155 ; saturated
straw expeiLsive to cart, ib. ; weight of
water iu dung (P. H. F.), 156 ; average
consumption of straw as litter, and
yield of manure in ojxin and covered
yards, ib. ; nutritious qualities of stiiiw,
157 ; bidk iu food, ih. ; feeding with
straw and roots, and straw ami bean-
meal, 158 ; feeding with whole roots,
ib. ; storing straw, ih. ; asphalte floors
for chafl'-houses, ^'6. ; cost of chafi"-
cutting, steaming, and fermenting, 159 :
the author's practice, 160 ; value of
difl'erent kinds of stiaw as food for
cattle and horses, ib. ; analyses of oat,
l)ea, and rye straw (Boussingault), 161-
2; wheat and barley straw (Slorton's
Cyc. , ib. ; bean-straw (Way). «7>. ; com-
position of turnips, swedes, and mart-
golds (Voelcker), 162. Note P. H. F. ,

VOLUMES ONE TO TWEXTY-FIYE.

185

standard for farmyard manure, 1G3;
efiects of rainfall, ih. ; old-fashioned
covenants, 164 ; quantity and quality
of manure, as aiiected by covered yards,
ib. ; size of farm to furnish 200 tons of
straw for litter, ih. ; average yield per
acre of wheat, barley, and oat straw,
165 ; consumption of straw by horses
and stock, 166; Mr, Bond on stock-
ftu'ming, ih. ; chaff consumed by sheep,
ih. ; straw used on arable farm of 400
acres, 167; experimeuts on hay and
straw, combined with cake and roots,
ih. ; Nesbitt on oil in wheat-straw,
ih. ; percentage of carbonaceous matter,
168 ; theories of nutrition, ib. ; aids to
digestion, ih. ; cooked cattle-food, ih. ;
comparative analyses of bean-straw and
liay, ib. ; early cutting of fodder plants,
ih. ; rape-cake, ib. ; bean-straw on clay
farms, ib. ; Mr. Horsfall's feeding ex-
periments, ib. ; question as to direct
profit of, from stall-feeding bullocks,
171 ; analytical value of straw, ih. ; its
comparative value for feeding or ma-
nure, ih. ; on cutting and storing straw-
chafl:' (Mr. Jonas), 172.
Stkaw, its composition and nutritive qua-
lities (Dr. Voelcker), xxii. 382 ; errors
and conflicting theories, ih. ; its value
as an absorbent, and action in fixing
ammonia, 383 ; indirect fertilising
value, ih. ; percentage and value of dry
matter in straw i^er ton, ih. ; conversion
of straw into beef, 384 ; evil of over-
ripeness, ih. ; conditions aftectiug the
value of wheat, oat, and barley straw,
ih. ; pea-hauhn, ih. ; want of explicituess
in published analyses, 385 ; percentage
of water in well-harvested straw, ih. ;
subtUvisions of the group "nitroge-
nised ' or flesh-forming substances, ih. ;
straw not rich in them, 386 ; nou-
nitrogenised substances, ih. ; starch not
present in straw, ih. ; percentage of fat
overstated, ih. ; use and office of car-
bonaceous substances, ih. ; percentage of
carbon in fatty matter, 388 ; composition
of gum, sugar, mucilage, and starch, ih. ;
consumption of carbon in respiration,
ib. ; straw deficient in respiratory con-
stituents, ib. ; relation of woody fibre to
celhdose, 389 ; superior nutritiousuess
of straw cut green, ih. ; difficulty of
exactly determining the digestibility of
woody fibre, 391 ; mode of determining
albuminous compounds, ih. ; Sinclair's
experiments with grasses, 392 ; analysis
of wlieat-xlmw, ih. ; percentage of in-
digestible woody fibre, oil, and albu-
minous compounds, 393 ; feeding value

of chaft', ih. ; comparative analyses and
feeding values of ripe and over-ripe
straw, 394 ; Way and Ogston's analyses
of the ash, ib. ; its richness in silica,
395 ; variable percentage of ash, ib. ;
cause of weak straw, ih. ; analyses of
stubble, ih. ; barhij-slraw, ■ dead ripe,
not too ripe, 398 ; ash, 396 ; oat-straw,
ripe, 399 ; from farm-buildings, 400 ;
green, 401 ; fairly ripe and over-ripe,
402 ; estimated composition when chied,
403 ; ash, 399 ; deductions from ana-
lytical results, 440 ; loss of niti'ogen in
ripening corn-crops, ib. ; proper time
to cut oats, 405; succulent food fat-
tening, ib. ; oat-hay, 406 ; •pea-slrma,
406 ; its high feeding value, 407 ; com-
position of ash (Hertwig), and its rela-
tion to that of other straw, ib. ; ?;ea/(-
sf.raw, analyses and feeding value of,
408-10; ash, 'ib.; flax-straw, 411;
clover and meadow-hay, 412 ; its com-
jiosition and superiority to straw, ih. ;
straws arranged in their order of vahu',
413.

Straw, the object of giving it to stall-fed
animals (L. Playfair), iv. 235.

, analysis of wheat-straw, by Dr.

Fownes, iv. 526 ; of barley-straw, 529 ;
of rye-straw, ih. ; of oat-straw, 530.

, analysis of the ashes of pea-straw,

by J. T. Way, ix. 149.

, analysis of the aslies of bean-straw,

ix. 151.

barns, construction of (Tancred), xi.

197; (Ewart), 232.

, analysis of oat, by J. T. Way, xi.

500 ; barley-straw, 504 ; Indian corn,
509 ; flax, 519.

, on the consmnption of, with oilcake

(Clarke), xii. 398.

, on the siliceous covering of wheat-
straw, how obtained, bv J. T. Way, xiii.
137.

, analysis of wheat-straw (Hemming),

xiii. 450 ; barley, iJ). ; oats, ib. ; rye, ib. ;
beans, ih. ; i^ea, ib. ; tares, ib. ; lentils,
ih.

, stifiened by salt, xvii. 444 ; lodging

of crop. ih. ; has a tendency to brighten
straw (Buckman), 188.

, wheat, its feeding and manuring

cost, value, and composition (Horsfall),
xviii. 172.

, barley, amount of, and proportion of

corn, with various manures, at Kotham-
sted, xviii. 458.

. percentage of, in manure (Way),

xviii. 369.

manure, analyses of, by Prof. Way,

xviii. 369 ; by Dr. Voelcker, 371.

J 80 OENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

STRAW.

Straw elevator (American), costing 3?., xx.
119.

STEAW-MANfRE, its Tise on light sandy-
soils (P. H. F.), xxi. 154 11.

Street-drainage water from paved and
inacadamiscid ways, analysed by .1. T.
Way, XV. no.

Strvckmanx, of "VVarlburg, his experi-
ments v,itli milch oows, xxiv. SOLI.

.Stri'J"1''s (Mr. J.^ cheese-press and turner,
xxi. 77.

iSTiBiiLES, on tlic antumn cleansing of, on
liglit land, by T. PusL-y, viii. 570, xi.

■ , on the cleansing of, in tlie N. II. of

Yorkshire (Milburn), ix. 502.

, on tlic autumn cleaning of. a prize

es.say, by E. E. Agate, xvi. 110; fork-
ing up cuucli by hand labuur, 111.

Stludy in sheep, tlie (11. Smitli), viii. 23.

Stuugess, T., on liirm-buildings, xi. 2t:8.

yunsoiL-rLOUGii, 0. Gabell on a new, ii.
421.

, the Chailbury, described by P.

Puscy, i. 4;i:).

BiiisoiL-rLOUGUiXG, H. S. Thompson on,
ii. 2(j.

■ , thorough-draining and, report of

residts obtiuned in, during 1840-1841,
by 11. Wliitc, 340.

, instance of the advantage of, in

addition to draining, by G. Turner, v.
418.

, on the imin'ovement of poor soils

by, witli and witliout under-draining,
by Rev. W. Rhani, i. 257.

, not immediately to follow draining

(P. Love), xvii. 548.

SiiiTURF-i'EuuGn, the Eackheath, Sir E.
Stracey on, i. 253, ii. 37.

Succession, Uiw of, in Jersey (Le Coniu),
XX. 36; in Guernsey, 58.

Succory, see "Chicoiy, wild."

StFEOLK, on the fanning of, a prize essay,
by H. Eayubird. viii. 261 ; its elimate,
■ih. ; its soils, 2ii2 ; its heavy land or
strong loam, 2G3 ; its western sand
district, 265 ; management of its htavy
land, 267 ; its fallows, 270 ; its turnips,
271 ; its beet, 272 ; its carrots, 275 ;
cabbages, Mr. Downing's plan, 276 ;
its draining, 278 ; its barley, 279 ; the
ciievalier bailey, 280 ; clover, beans,
and peas, 281 ; its wheat crops, 282 ;
management of Ught land in, 284 ;
fallows on, 285 ; cultivation of white
carrots iu, 293 ; tlieir system of grazing
sheep on turnips, 295 ; barley crops,
290 ; seeds, 297 ; their grass crops for
seed, 298 ; tlieir Avheat crops, 300 ;
management of manures, 303 ; of their

SULPHOCYAXrDE.

sheep, 305; Mr. Eodwell on the im-
I)rovemc'uts in farming sincci the days
of Arthm- Young, 307 ; tiie extent and
antiquity of tliorough-draiuing in, 309 ;
marling, the soils beneiited by it, 312 ;
claying, 313 ; clay-burning, 317 ; tho
improvrments still needed, 319; in
its farni-))uildings, 320 ; reclamation of
waste lauds, 322 ; linseed compound
for cattle, 325 ; its clay walls, 329.

Suffolk, tho soils of, described by A.
Young, xii. 478—180.

punch horse, described by J. Burke,

v. 519.

Su({AR US f(X>d occasions a gi-eat develop-
ment of tallow (L. Playfair), iv. 234.

found in plants (Fowius), iv. 504.

, on the manufacture of, from beet-
root, by J. Wilson, xiii. 144 ; thu roots
cultivated for this purpose in France,
Belgium, and Germany, ib. ; in Russia,
145 ; the plants transplanted in Ger-
many and in Bolgium, 146 ; section of
a beetroot, 150; is mangold- wurzel
applicable to llie maiiulacture of sugar ?
149; its manufacture, 153; disi^osal of
the refuse for feeding cattle, &c., 157 ;
eomjiarative profit, 158 ; avemge crop
of beet on the continent, 159 ; analysis
of mangold-wurzel, IfJO.

, its eomposition and relation to oil,

xviii. 173.

, how formed in plants (lienfrey),

xviii. 407.

Si<:ar-uf-3I]lk closely resembles starch
in ils chemical properties (L. Playfair),
iv. 248.

Sulphate of annnonia, on its money
value, by J. T. Way, x. 220, xvi. 539."

, trial with, on oats, by P. Pusey,

xiv. 380.

(with muriate of ammonia), tiials

with, on wheat grown for four suc-
cessive years on the same land (J. B.
Lawes), xvi. 212.

of lime, analysis of, xiii. 490. See

'• Gypsimi."

of magnesia, its money value (Way),

xvi. 539.

of potash, analysis of, xiii. 490.

(with the sulpliates of .'ioda and

magnesia), and other manures, effect
of, on wheat grown for four years suc-
cessively on the same land (J. B.
Lawcs), xvi. 212.

, its money value (Way), xvi. 539.

of .soda, experiments with, on wheat,

by John Hannam, v. 275. ,

, analysis of, xiii. 490.

, its nioney value (Way), xvi. 539.

SuLPHOCYAXiDE of ammoniuin, a product

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-PIVE.

187

fmiu distilled coal, used as a dressing
for ouious (Bowditch), xviii. 302.

ScLPUUE in plants (Bowditch), xvi. 341.

Si'Lrnrr.ETTEi) hydrogen, emission of, by
decomposing organic matters (Bow-
ditch), xvi. 342.

SrLrHriuc acid, its use to prevent the
essape of ammoniacal emanations
(Fowncs\ iv. 539.

— — , Dr. lire's table of the quantity in
dilute sulphuric acid at difierent den-
sities, sii. 235.

, chemical properties of (Hemming),

xiii. 431,

, formation of in rotten dung (Voelc-

ker), xvii. 221.

required by turnips (Liebig), xvii.

~" 323.

, its use as manure (Bowditch), xviii.

305.

iScPERPHosPHATE of lime, report by the
committee of the Morayshire Farmers'
Club appointed to inspect and to re-
port on the experiments made in
raising turnips by means of sulphuric
acid and bone-dust, iv. 164; this the
earhest notice in the Journal of the
"great discovery," 164; the first ex-
periments (made in 1842) recorded,
165 ; Mr. M. Willianxs's experiments,
164 ; Mr. Geddess experiments on,
166 ; applied in tlic first instance as a
liquid manure, 167.

, on the solution of bones in sul-
phuric acid for the purposes of
manure, by the Duke of Eichmond, iv.
408,

, note by Mr. Pusey on the foregoing,

iv. 408. See "Bones."

hitherto ( 1843) only used in solu-
tion or as liquid manure, its use with
dry ashes by the drill suggested, iv. 409.

, on the use of bones and sulphuric

acid, V. 443.

, experiments made on turnips with

different manures at the home-farm of
Gordon Castle, Morayshire, in 1843,
with the eiicct on the succeeding croiJ
in 1844, from tlie president, the Duke
of Richmond, v. 443.

, on the use of bones witli sulphuric

acid, by E. Wagstafl", v. 444.

, on bones with wulpliuric acid and

other manures, by R. W. Purchas, v.
440.

■ , report by the committee appointed

by the Morayshire Farmers' Club to
examine the experiments on the growth
of tiu'nips by new manures, \ . 447 ;
communicated liy the Duke of Bich-
mond, ih.

Sui'ERPilosrHATE of lime, the trials at
Gordon Castle, described by T. I5ell,
v. 448.

, tlie trials bv D. D. Mauson, v.

449.

, the trials by G. M. Williams, v.

452.

, on the action and ai^plication of

dissolved bones, by John Hamiam, v.
452.

■ , Mr, Lawes's process of making, v,

408.

, on bones and sulphuric acid, hy

W. C. Spooner, vi. 71.

, trials on, by P. Davis, vi. 244.

, trials on, with ^turnips, by W. W.

Purchas, vi. 244.

, P. Pusey on, vi. 324.

compared with guano for turnips, by

R. D. Drewitt, vi. 5S1.

■ , W. C. Spooner on, vii. 143 ; weight

of bones, 148 ; mode of mixing, 152.

, on its action three years after its

application, by E. W. Purchas, vii.
273.

, J. B. Lawes, his trials with, viii.

243.

, on a drill for distributing,.in a liquid

state, by C Chandler, ix. 521.

, trials with, as a maniu'e for wheat,

by J. B. Lawes, xii. 16, 26.

, its composition and the methods of

making and using it, by J. T. Way,
xii. 204 ; from bones, 214 ; from bone-
ash or animal charcoal, 217 ; from
coprolites, 218 ; from the phosphorite,
219 ; from guano, 221 ; composition of
tlie commercial, 222 ; mode of apply-
ing, 231.

, analysis of, made with burnt and

unburnt bones, xiii. 490.

, use of, in Oxfordshire (Bead), xv.

242.

, trials with, for swedes, by Dr. A.

Voelcker, xvi. 95.

, analysis of (Hodges), xvi. 171 ; spe-
cimens, xvi. 553.

, it tends to early ripening of barley,

xviii. 482.

, analysis of. a good specimen (Dr.

Voelcker), xix. 176 ; different names
and qualities of, 171 ; liome-made equal
to l)est bought samples, 179.

of various makers analysed (Nesbit),

xix. olO.

, its efficacy for root-crops (Voelcker),

xxiv. 43.

Surrey, on the chalks of, by Stevenson,
xii. 480, 488.

, the course of cropping on the chalks,

loams, and liglit sandy soils of, de-

188

GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTUKAL JOURNAL.

SURREY.

scribed by Sydney Evevsbed, a prize
essay, xiv. 79 ; tallows, 80, S3 ; tui-uips,
81 ; barley, 81, 80 ; seeds, 81, 87 ;
■wheat, 81, 88, 80 ; cleansing of soils,
S3 ; the farm of ]\Tv. Drewitt, 8-1 ; rye
sometimes ploughed in for root-crops,
85 ; growth of tiu-nijis, ib. ; beans, 87 ;
clover, 88 ; drilling, 90 ; use of salt for
wheat 91 ; nse of guano as a top-dress-
ing, 93 ; of nitrate of soda, ih. ; used
lor fifteen years as the only manure on
a plot of land, 93.

SntiiEV, on the farming of, a prize report,
by Henry l']vershcd, xiv. 395 ; geology
of, 390; the tertiiiiy, tiio cretaceous,
tlio Wcalden, ib. ; its soils an<l sub-
soils, 398 ; the London clay, 4U2 ; ro-
tations on, ib. ; irrigation, the waters of
tile Mole and "\Vey compared, 403 ;
manures employed, 401 ; tlie chalk
district, 405 ; tlie hop district of Farn-
ham, 400 ; tlic grccnsjind district, 410 ;
tiie wcidd, 412; lime as a manure, 415 ;
enclosures, size of, ///. ; the eti'eet of
soil on the growth of timber-trees, 410 ;
fann-l)uildings, //*. ; draining, 417 ; the
improvements in Snrrev farming since
1813, 419 ; sheep, 400, 411. 413 ; game,
injury from, 410; heaths and waste
lands, 414.

SussKX, on the farming of, by .John Farn-
combe, a prize report, xi. 75 ; the south
and west Downs, ib. ; rotations of crops,
ib. ; the Southdown sheep, 70 ; on
sheep-breeding, the system of the late
John Ellman of Glyndc, 77 ; tlie dis-
trict No. 2, or the Eastern District,
rotiition of crops, 80 ; district No. 3, or
the Weald of Sussex, 8] ; the system of
taking lambs to kecj), ib. ; the extirpa-
tion of charlock, 80 ; the improvement
of the dwellings and condition of the
labourers, ib. ; on the improvements
which took place in Sussex farming
from 1808 to to 1849, 87.

, the chalk soils of, described b}' A.

Yoimg, xii. 487.

Down slieep, experiments on the

comparative feeding qualities of, by J.
B. Lawes, xii. 414, xvi. 73. See
" Sheep."

, J. AVilson on, xvi. 233.

SfTHEELAXD, W., liis classification of
graminaceous herbage for Mr. Lawes,
xxiv. 134.

Sweden, agricultuml tour in, by J. F. W.
Jolmstou, iv. 190.

, its shores are granitic, iv. 190 ; its

high grounds, pine-woods, and moor-
land, 197 ; the surface soil, ib. ; the
climate — the winters, ib. ; the popula-

tion to bo supplied, 198 ; its Royal
Agricultural Academy, 199 ; the mo-
dern improvements in Swedish agri-
culture, 200 ; agricultui'al schools, 202 ;
a tunncland, 205 ; improvements in-
troduced in Swedish farming, 207 ;
water, still too much remains in tliu
soils, ib. ; w'ooden-.soled shoes, ib. ; corn
of the northern provinces, 207 ; salt-
jietre fonnerly made, 208 ; tar, pitch,
and turpentine, ib.; wages of females,
ib. ; brandy made, 209 ; a distillery an
ajipentlage to the farm, ib. ; surface
drainage used, 210.

SwicDi'Ss on the growth of, by W. INIiles,
iii. 423.

, the weight per acre grown in each

year 1831 to 1842 on Lord Lovelace's
farm at Ockham, in Surrey, iv. 23.

, on the feeding of, contrasted with

mangold-wurzel, an experiment in
favour of swedes, by C. Hilyard, iv.
275.

, estimate of the ex))ense of a crop

of, in Essex, by K. Baker, v. 24.

, the first introduction of, into Not-
tinghamshire (Corringham), vi. 5.

, guano and other maniu"es for, com-
posed by D. Barclay, vi. 175.

, an experiment in raising a cro]i on

barren land, by the Rev. H. Huxtable,
vi. 355.

, on the preservation of, by C. Allix,

vii. 275.

, on the extended cultivation of tliem

in Lincolnshire (Clarke), xii. 390.

. growth of, in East Lothian (Stevcn-

.'ioii I, xiv. 284.

, growth of, after an autumn cleans-
ing and manuring, by R. Milward, xiv.
431.

liave less tendency to " finger and

toe" than the common turnij) (_Buck-
man), xv. 135.

, growtli of, in Oxfordshire (Read),

XV. 207.

, experiments on feeding sheep with,

and oilcake and clover-chaflf, by J. B.
Lawes, xvi. 47.

, growth of on strong land (J. E.

Denison , xvii. GO.

, their feeding and manuring cost,

value, and composition (Horsfall), xviii.
172.

, on the comparative value of difter-

eiit artificial manures for raising a crop
of swedes, by Dr. A. Voelcker, xvi. 90 ;
the water, ash, and nitrogen in the
swedes grown by the different manures
emploved, 108. See subseciuent jxiper,
xix. 153.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

189

SwEDES,experiinents upoii,with remarks on
the manures employed (Dr. Voelcker),
xix. 153; former experiments (in vol.
xvi.) did not malcc it clear wlicther
armuonia promotes the swede crop,
154; influence of quantity on results,
155; phosphatic guanos suit turnii^s
best, 15(j ; further experiments to test
the influence of ammonia, 157 ; soil of
trial-field, its analysis, 158 ; difterent
kinds of manure used and grounds of
selection, 159 ; results of analysis of
bone pbosi:)hate, KiO ; comparative
eifect of thing and superphosphate,
161 ; gypsum and sulphates of ammonia
and potash inoperative, ib. ; sulphate of
ammonia perhaps in excess, 162 ; used
alone it retards the plant and stunts
even leaves, th. ; phosphates in excess
benefited the succeeding barley crop,
163; table of the influence of .steeps
on the germination of tui-nips, 164 ;
seed should be kept from contact with
its manures, 165 ; field-experiments on
swedes in 1857, 167 ; on similar land
to that in 18.56, and containing gypsiun
and phosphoric acid, 168 ; method of
determination, ib. ; table of manures
used and crops grown, 170 ; analyses
of manures, their importance, ib. ; su-
perphosphates of difterent strength and
value, ib. ; the same thing under dif-
ferent names, 171 ; guano, variations
in the samples and results, ib. ; salt
mixed with superphosphates may be
useful for swedes, 175 ; analysis of a
good superphosphate, producing the
best crop, 176 ; Iwue-ash mixed with
bone-dust by dealers, 177 ; comparison
of superphosphate from fine dust and
from coarse bones, 178 ; home-made
superi^hosphate cheaper and as effec-
tual as the best bought samples, 179 ;
results from sulphate of ammonia less
than " nothing," 179 ; on superphos-
phate from bone-ash, ISO ; composition
of wool manure, ib. ; poudrette de
Bondy, analysis of, 181 ; its ettects as
comi)ared Avith those of guano and
■woollen refuse, ib ; summary, 182 ; re-
sults unfavourable to ammoniacal .salts,
ib.

, experiments upon, third report (Dr.

Voelcker J, xxii. 69; lessons from pre-
vious trials, 70; exijcriments on 20
trial plots, each diftercntly dressed,
71 ; table of results, 72 ; manure testi-
momal.s„73; experiments in 1850, ib.;
composition of soil, ib. ; table of results,
75; experimental use of simple salts
justified, ib. ; forms of nitrogen used,

76 ; wide and close planting, 77 ; num-
ber of roots grown per acre at difterent
distances, 78 ; eff'ects of suiierphospliato
on clay land, 79 ; gyi^smu, ib. ; sujier-
phospliate, guano, and effect of am-
moniacal matters, 80 ; sulphate of am-
monia, bone-dust, turnip manure, 81 ;
nitrate of soda, 82 ; common salt, 83 ;
dissolved bone-ash, ib. ; mistakes as to
soluble phosphate, 83 ; boue-asli and
sulphate of ammonia, 84 ; sulpliato of
potash, ib. ; bone-ash and nitrate of
soda, ib. Conclusions : effects on root
crops of phosphates, 85; ammoniacal
salts, ib. ; nitrate of soda, ib. ; Mr.
Campbell's experiments, ib. ; tal)le of
results, 86.

S^WEDES, their manuring and management
in different climates (Russell), xx. 491.

, experiments upon (Dr. Voelcker),

xxii. 69.

, on the specific gravity of (G. Mur-
ray), xxiii. 361 ; Dr. Anderson's views,
ib. ; description of experimental crops,
management, and produce, 362-4 ; de-
termination of specific gravity of bulbs
relatively to that of the juice, 364 ;
proper growth of seed, ib. ; the tem-
perature tavourable to the growth of
roots, 365.

, on the cultivation of with mangold

(C. Lawi-ence), xxv. 248.

Sweet-Potato, see " Potato, sweet."

Sweet-scented vernal grass, analysis of
(Way), xiv. 177 ; description of (Buck-
man), xvii. 513 ; how affected by ma-
mu'es (Lawes), xx. 256.

Swingle-trees for equalising draught (P.
Love), xvii. 561.

SwiTZEELANU, ou irrigation as practised
in, by H. T. Jenkinson, xi. 607. See
" Irrigation " and " Water-meadow."

Sybray, J., on the use of Lime, iii. 429.

Sycamoke, the, its j^lanting and manage-
ment (Falkener), iii. 271.

Syenite rock, the, analysed, xiii. 534.

Tabes mcsenterica (F. Dun), xiv. 126.
Tabrum Lichfield, on burning clay, iv. 268.

See " Clay-biuning."
TiENLE, or tapewonns, varieties of

(Simonds), xxiv. 599.
TjVjl-cokn (barley), proportion of, at Piot-

hamsted, xviii. 468.
Talc, analysis of, xiii. 532 ; xvii. 464.
Talcose schist, analysis of, xiii. 534.
Tall fescue-grass (Buckman), xv. 464 ;

xvii. 534.

19U GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

TAMWOKTII.

Tajiworth Agricultiu-al Society, experi-
ment on feeding sheep with oilcake, vi.
460.

T.^:nceed, Sir Thomas, on the construction
of fai-m-builclings, a prize essay, xi.
192.

Tank, manure, a Flemish, for a fann of
100 acres (Rham), iii. 2-iG.

, Mr. D. Gilbert on, i. 499.

, those of the Nortli Riding of York-
shire (Milburn), ix. 520.

, H. S. Thompson on, xi. 439.

T\\xxKi!, Henry, on the farming of Dcvon-
.shu'C, a prize report, ix. 454.

, on the farming of Shropslure, a

prize report, xix. 1.

, on the mechanical contlitioii of the

.soil tavom-ablo for the growth of seed, a
prize essay, xxi. 40.

, on the principles whioh regulate the

breeding of farm .stock, xxii. 1.

Tar, gas, on the use of, as a manure, by
Dr. A. Voelcker, xvi. 93.

Take, the hairy, its soils and luabits
(Buckmau), xvi. 3U0.

, the smooth, ib.

Tarks, 8ee " Vetches."

Tasivjer and Sons' steam cultivating im-
plements at Faruingham (1S61), xxiii.
401.

Tasivwork in Lincolnshii-e (Pusey), iv.
315.

, Hugh Raynbud on, vii. 119., Sec

" Measure- work."

Taste, close connexion between, and the
sense of smell (Simonds), xv. 282.

Talnton, vale of, its fiuming (^Acland),
xi, G95.

TAiTerox, W. P., on the black foxtail-grass,
iv. 270.

, on some vai-ieties of the foxtail-giass

(ulopecm'us), iv. 271.

• , on the St. Jolin's-day rye, vi. 177.

, on the St. John's-day rye, a prize

essay, vii. 334.

Taylor, J., on materials for the construc-
tion of cottages, P.D., xxiv. 559.

Teat.**, cracked, in cows (Sibbakl), xii.
50(5.

Teazles gi-own in Gloucestershire (Tan-
ner), xii. 151.

Tebrutt, C. p., ou form-buildings, xi.

300.
Teddesley, the improvements at, by Lord

Hatherton, iv. 314.
Teeth, on the, of the ox, sheep, and pig,
as indicative of the age of the animal,
by J. B. Simonds, xv. 276 ; the liver-
flidje in sheep, 277 ; birds, ib. ; gizzards,
278 ; tcL'th of fish, /7). ; the thi-ee kinds,
of teeth of the mammalian class, 2S0 ;

temperature.

th£ incisors, ib. ; on the connexion of
taste and smell, 282 ; the fine .sense of
smell of the pig, 283 ; not ,so filthy a
feeder as is commonly suppo.scd, ib. ;
the tushes, 2S4; the molars, 286; the
fangs, 289 ; the enamel of teeth, ib. ;
the dentine of teeth, 293; the crasta,
296 ; the growth of teeth, 300 ; the
dentition of the ox, the fall of the
temporary teeth, 312 ; the teeth at
birth, 317; at tiirec months old, 318;
lit a year old, 321 ; at fifteen months,
322 ; at eigliteen months, 323 ; at
twent)'-t\vo montlis, 324 ; at two years,
32G ; at twenty-eight months, 327 ; at
two and a half and tlu'ce years, 329,
330 ; at three and a quarter years, 332 ;
at five years, 333 ; tables of early and
late average dentition, ib. ; dentition of
the sheep, 335 ; of the lamb, ib. ; at
tljrcc months, 337 ; at nine montlis,
338 ; of a sheep at one year, 339 ; at
fil'tccn months, ib. ; at eighteen months,
342 ; at twenty-one montlis, 343 ; at two
and a quarter years, ib. ; at two years,
344 ; at two and a half and thi'ce and a
quarter years, 345 ; tables of early and
late dentition in sheep, 346.
Teeth, dentition of the pig, xv. 346 ; the
teeth at buth, 348, 350 ; at one month
old, 351 ; at three months, ib. ; at si.x
months, 353; at nine months, 354; at
ten months, 355 ; at one year, 356 ; at
fifteen months, 357 ; at eighteen mouths,
358 ; the perfect tusks of the male i>ig,
361.
Telfer, Mr., his crops of rye-grass, xx.

452,
Temperature, see " Air," " Soil."

, mean, of climate, its effect, by J. B.

Lawes, viii. 230.

■ , on, its effect on cultivation, by N.

Whitley, a prize essay, xi. 2 ; on mean,
3 ; annual mean, ib. ; of winter, 4 ;
effect of elevation on, 5 ; of summer, 7 ;
of nights and days, 9; infiuencc of
strata of the earth on, 9; of the arctic
current and the gidf-stream, 19, 21, 25 ;
of the sea gi-eatcr tlian that of its atmo-
sphere, 23 : connexion between, of sum-
mer, and the produce of the harvest, 35 ;
the amount of, necessary for the ripen-
ing of wheat, 36 ; barley, oats, and lye
will ripen in a lower temperatruc than
wheat, 38 ; high, of winter, its effect
upon wheat, 39; of foreign corn-pro-
ducing countries, 59.

, on by B. Simpson, xi. 625 ; monthly

mean, 627.

of Cumberland, l^y "SY. Dickinson,

xiii. 213.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

191

TEMPEBATUEK.

TK.MPEKATLKE of Oxfordshire (Read), xv.

191.
of Dorsetshire (Euegg), xv. 435.

of Buckinghamshire (Read), xvi.

270.

Tkjipletox, Andrew, on feeding cattle on
tiirui])s raised with difterent manures,
xvi. 1G3.

Tenajtt's, the, right to nnexhausted im-
l^rovements, by G. M. WilUams, vi. 41 ;
in respect of rnanrires, bones, marl,
lime, chalk, or clay, ib. ; of draining,
«7j. ; grass-seeds, ih. ; fiiUows, ?7). ; build-
ings if on "bay stones," 45 ; of oilcake, ih.

, on seeurmg to the outgoing tenant a

claim in nnexhausted improvements, l)y
tlie Loughborough Agricnltm-al Society,
vi. 46.

, a form of memorandum on tenant-
right to be added to existing agree-
ments or leases, by B. Almack, vii.
234.

right in Lincolnshire, by J. A. Clarke,

xii. 388.

of Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 259.

form of agreement as to Moorland

improvements (R. Smitli), xvii. 368.

— , allowance for drainage and unex-
hausted manm-es, in Shropshire (H.
Tanner), xix. 64 ; curious outgoing-
covenant for corn crops, ib.

Tenuhe of the farms in Cheshire (Palin),
V. 84; chiefly yearly, ib. ; terminable as
to land Feb. 2, as to buildings May 1,
ib.

of the farms in Norfolk (Almack),

V. 341 ; Lord Leicester's leases, ib.

of the farms in the N. R. of York-
shire (Milbiu-n), ix. 520.

in South Wales (Read), x. 144.

of land in Scotland and the Channel

Islands (C. B. Adderley, M.P.), xvii.
622.

in Jersey and G- emsey (freeholds

charged with reserved rents), (Le
Cornu), XX. 35.

of land in Italy, the consegna or

lease (P. H. Frere), xxiv. 189.

Test and Anton valleys, the drainage of
(J. A. Clarke), xv. 40.

Tests for nitric acid (,T. T. Way), xvii. 154.

• for ammonia in the soil (Boussin-

gault), xvii. 613.

TETHEPaxa cows in Jersey, xx. 51.

Thaek, M., on organic and inorganic
manures (Liebig), xxv. 505.

Tha3ies or Isis, the vale of, in Glouces-
tershire (Bravendar), xi. 128 ; its rotation
of crops, 130.

■ , tlie meadows of, in Oxfordshire; in-
jured by the floods (Road), xv. 22L

THlJAfiHIXO.

Thaxet, the isle of, its agriculture on, by

G. Buckland, vi. 259.
Thatching, how paid in Essex (R. Bakcr\

V. 31.

by taskwork, by H. Raynbird, vii. 131.

, its advantages and drawbacks as

applied to cottages, xvii. 500.
Thick sowing on the advantages of, by D.

Barclay, vi. 192.
Thix sowing, see " Seeding, thin."
Tiiinnixg forest-trees, on (Falkener), iii.

286.
Thistijo, the stemless, its soils and haljits

(Buckman), xvi. 362.

, the corn, xvi. 301.

, the spcar-plumo, xvi. 362.

, the musk, ib.

, the marsh, ib.

• , the carline, ib.

, analysis of its ash (Voelcker), xviii.

351.
Thlaspi arvense, see '-Corn penuycvess.''
Thompson, H. S., on subsoil-ploughing, ii.

2G.
, on the prevention of curl and dry-rot

in potatoes, vi. 161.
, rejjort on tlie exhibition and trial of

implements at the York meeting, ix.

377.
, report on the exhibition and trial of

implements at the Norwich meeting, x.

626.
, on the absorbent power of soils, xi.

68.

, on farm-buildmgs, xi. 186.

, an account of a trial with the Ame- _

rican reaping machines, xii. 644.
, report on the exhibition and trial of

hnplements at the Lewes meeting

(1852), xiii. 301.
, remarks on road-making for farms,

xviii. 97.
, on laying down grass-land, and its

subsequent management, xix. 250.

, on sorghum saccharatum, xx. 384.

, on agricidtural progress and the

Royal Agricultiu'al Society, xxv. 1.
Thorp, Rev. W., on the failure of red

clover, iii. 327. See " Clover, red."

■ , on t!ie feeding of stock, iii. 430.

, additional remarks on the failure of

red clover after harvest, iv. 279.
Thouvenel, on nitrification, xxiii. 355.
Thp.ashers compared with thrashing-
machines (J. Grey), iv. 6.
Thrashing by taskwork, the cost of (H.

Raynbird), vii. 137.
, house, consti'uctiou of (Tancred), xi.

197.
by liorse-powcr, conti'asted with

steam-power (J, Hudson), xi. 285.

192 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL,

THRASHING.

Thrashing by steam, its cost (0. S. Read),

xix. 280.
Thrashing-machin-es, steam and two-hand,

by Ransome and Co., report on, ii.

ciii.
compared with thrashers (J. Grey),

iv. 0.
, a report on those shown at the Great

Exliibition (in 1851), by P. Pusey, xii.

G25.
■ , on those exhibited at tlio Lewes

meeting (in 1852), xiii. .322.
, exhibited at the Gloucester meeting

(1853), xiv. 351.
, exhibited at tlic Lincoln meeting

(1851), XV. 3ti9.
, improvements in, between 1851 and

I85(j, xvii. 54.
, exhibited at the Chester meeting

(18.58), judges' report on, xbc. 328;

award dcciilcd by a sy.stem of marks

for points, 329 ; combined with report

of engineers, and results from use of

dynamometer, 334 ; coiumendutiou and

criticism, ib.
, exliibited at Canterbury (18G0),

judges' report on, xxi. 498 ; test de-
scribed, ih. ; table of results, 4ill).
, comparative advantage of fixed and

niovciiblc (Ugiucs, and of single or

double dressing machines, P. ]J. (R.

A'allontine), see " Steam power and

thrashing-machines, xxili. lUO.
, on the wear and tear of, fixed or

portable (H. Evershed), xxiii. 323.
TniiocKiMonTON, Sir R., his Southdown

sheep (Spearing), xxi. 37.
Thrush in sheep (Cleeve), i. 303.
THiiUrOW, T. L., on prevention of injury

from the tumip-fiy, xvii. G24.
Till RNAL, H., on the rainfall at Koyston,

Herts, XXV. 269.
Tin i;y, ]\I., on regrdating the sex of the

ullspring of animals, xxv. 253.
Thyjie, tho common basil (Bucknian),

xvi. 364.
Ticivs in sheep (Cleeve), i. 328.
Tiles, draining, R. Beart on, ii. 93. See

" Draining-tiles."
, Irvines machuie for making, de-
scribed by "W. Ford, iii. 398.
, on the mode of making and using,

for under-drainage, on the Stow Hall

estate in Norfolk by J. Wiggins, i. 350.
, on the cheajx^st and best method of

estabhshing a tile-yard, by F. W.

Etheredge, vi. 463 ; machine for

making, 467 ; sheds for drying, ih. ;

construction of kiln, 468.
, on temporary tile-kilns, by T. L.

Hodges, ix. 198.

Tiles, a report by P. Pusey on the tile-
making machines shown at the Great
Exhibition (in 1851), xii. 638.

, on tho tile machines at the Lewes

meeting (in 1852), xiii. 327.

, on the tile machines at Chelmsford

meeting ('1856), xvii. 571.

,on the tile-machines at Paris (1856),

xvii. 43.
Tillage (J. A. Clarke) consists in apply-
ing a wedge to the soil with or without
lifting it, XX. 175.
Tillering of wheat, J. Morton on, i. 43 ;

.J. Buckiruan on, xvii. 179.
Tlmher trees, see " Hedges," " Planta-
tions," Forest trees," " Oak," " Biicli,"
&c.

I and cf)ppicc in Warwicksliire, xvii.

490 ; absence of in Durham, xvii.
97.

I , report on the preservation of (Dr.

Richards', xx. 2; wood, its nature and
composition, ih. ; cellulose and lignine,
j ib.; the structure of wood, illustrations,
3; decay or enieracansis dependent on
I the action of air and moisture on soluble
i .siccharine or albuminous substances,
I 4 ; object to convert soluble into un-
j soluble compounds, 5 ; list of processes
1 suggested, ib. ; coatings of j)aint dcfec-
1 five, 6 ; Kyan's use of corrosive sul>
i liinate, ib ; list of other like agents, ib. ;
I Champy"s process ; use of boiling oils
'■ and fat, 7 ; use of vapours from creosote,
ib. ; Moll's process, ib. ; Lang's use of
sulphurous acid gas, ib. ; use of pressure
in close vessc-ls, fhagram, 8 ; Boiiclierie's
l»roces.s, 9 ; modification of his plan by
Perrin and other inventors, 10; Barlow's
mode of dni'ing wood, ib. ; compression
of wood by Billington and Siovicr, 11 ;
chemical agents employed, ib. ; sub-
stances which give solidity, 13 ; Payne's
process, ib. ; Ransome 's ib. ; saline
solutions, 14 ; puncturing, il). ; charring,
ib.; external coatings, ib.; process of
staining wood adopted by Renard and
Perrui, 15 ; on rendering wood iu-
tlammable, 16; the author's experi-
ments at Gateshead, ib. ; use of im-
]iroved cyliniler, 17 ; materials tried,
ib. ; hint txiken from the condition of
old sleepers, IS; creosote made by dry
distillation, 19 ; specification of patent
for effecting this, ib ; saline solutions
increasing the fluidity of tar, 20 ; pro-
ducts, ib.; wood gas used at Munich
for illuminating purposes, 21 ; tar, ib. ;
use of pjToligneous acid treated with
lime, ib. ; charcoal, ib. ; directions for
using the liquid, 22 ; summary, ib.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.'

193

TniBER, preservation of, list of patents for,

XX. 1.
Time of entry on farms (Rev. W. H.
Beevor), xviii. 311 ; spriuf^ suits tlie
daii-y, autumn the arable farmer, ib. ;
benefit of autumnal cultivation, 312 ;
spring ploughing robs land of its due
moisture, 313 ; tillage should bear a
profit, ih. ; choice of seed corn at the best
and cheapest season, 314 : purchase of
store stock and horses, ih. ; supply of
manure in spring, 319 ; draining to be
done in winter, ih. ; also scouring ditches
and laying out water-meadows, 317 ;
autumn a favourable time for inspection
(C. W. H.), 318 ; the small capital re-
quired for a spring entry its oidy merit,
ib. ; measurement of manure heaps and
haystacks, 31!) ; on the choice of im-
plements and harness, 320 ; the law of
fixtures, 321 ; value of the master's
eye, 323 ; how " to catch the wane at
its turn,' 324 ; plant to be brought as
needed and not till required, 327 ; the
use of a cash credit, 328; the policy of
insurance, ib. ; economy of mamue,
330 ; use and abuse of lime, 331 ;
calendar of operations, ib.

Timothy-grass, its growth in difterent
situations (Buckman,, xv. 468; xvii.
olo.

Tissues, of plants, simple and complex
explained (Henfrey), xvii. 67.

Tithes, great and small, in Oxfordshire
(Read), xv. 2C0.

in Buckinghamshire 'Read), xvi.

310.

Toad-flax, the sharp-pointed (Buclnnan),
xvi. 3U4.

, the round-leaved, xvi. 3G4.

, the yellow, xvi. 3o4.

Tobacco, analysis of its leaves, xiii. 474.

Top-dressings, see " Wheat,'' " Barley,"
" Manures," &c.

ToRiLis nodosa, see " Parsley, the knotted
hedge."'

ToRMENTiL, or scptfoil (potentilla tor-
mentilla), its astringent qualities (L.
Playfair), iv. 251. "

ToRRLNGTON, the Viscount, his farm at
Peckham in Kent described by G.
Bnckland, vi. 275.

Touch, as an indication of condition
(Karkeek), v. 255, 259.

Towers, T., on kohl-mbi, xi. 495.

, John, on the rotation of crops, i.

283.

TowNLEY, Colonel, his breed of short-
horns, xix. 3G2.

Traction engines for farms and common
roads (J. A. Clarke), xx. 201 ; history
VOLS. I. — XXV.

of portable engines from 1841-59, 202;
prizes first oifeied, 1843, ib. ; Boydell's
endless rails, ib. ; BurreU's improve-
ment for diminishing wear and adaption
to common engines, 203 ; Tuxtbrd's
engines, //). ; cost of engines by various
makers, 204 ; 'Williams, of Baydon, his
self-propelling engines, ib. ; his reports.
205 ; preparations for going down hill.
ib. ; Garrett and Sons self-propelling
gear, ib. ; Clayton and Shuttlewortli's,
ditto, 206; Savage's, ?/j. ; Smith, J. (of
Coven), on the advantages of self-pro-
pelling power, 207 ; undulations of
ground not injurious, ib. ; the swill of
the water a protection to the metal
sxnface, ib. ; his travelling enffine, ih. ;
cost of balance engine, 208 ; CoUinson
Hall's patent high-j)re.ssure dry steam-
engine, 209 ; his high-pressure light
engine for roads, ib. ; other modifica-
tions, 210.

Transformation of regilops into wheat
(Professor Henfrey), xix. 103. See
" aEgilops."

Trap-uocks, the, farming of the light soils
of (Haxton), xv. 93, 103.

Treacle, its use as food for stock in
Forfolk (C. S. Read), xix. 287.

Trees, forest, C. Falkener on, iii. 263.

Trefoil, or broad clover, or common
jnirple clover, analysis of (Way), xiv.
179.

, eff'ect of irrigation upon (Buckman),

XV. 470 ; how aft'ected by manures-
(Lawcs), XX. 262.

Trehonnais, F. R. de la, on horse labour in
France, xix. 489.

, on beetroot distillery, xx. 68.

, on J\I. L. de Lavergue's work on

the rural economy of France since 1789,
xxi. 521.

, on the water economy of France in

its relation to agriculture, xxii. 421.

Tremayne, J. H., on preparation for the
wheat-crop in Cornwall, v. 158.

Trematode won s (Simonds), xxiii. 96. '

Trench plough, the Great Jersey, Colonel
Le Couteur on, iii. 40. >^en Ploughs.

ploughing (R. Smitli), xvii. 387.

Ti!i:nt river, the nnid or warp of, analysed
by T. J. Herepath, xi. 101, xiii. 536.

, of the warping-waters, xi. 101.

, alluvium soils of Derbyshire (Row-
ley), xiv. 5S.

Trichina spiralis, the (P. H. Frere),.
xxiv. 608 ; fatal eflects of eating pork
so infested, 609.

Tricocephalus afnuis, the Simonds),
xxiv. 604.

Trifolivm incaraatum, succeeds best on

194

GENERAL IITDEX TO T.OYAL AGPcICULTUEAL JOURNAL.

soila not recently ijloughed (Thorp\ iii.
336.

Tkipoliuji, analysis of, by J. T. Way, xiv.
179.

, growth of, in Surrey (Evershcd),

xiv. 403.

suffers from frost (Towers), i. 291,

medium, see " Cow-grass."

prateusc, the, see " (Jlovcr, red."

pratense pcrenne, see " Trefoil."

procumbens, see " Hop trefoil."

repons, see " Clover, white."

TniMMKK, Joshua, on tlie geolog\' of
Norfolk, as illustrating tlio laws of the
distribution of tioils, vii. 144. iS<.e
" Norfolk."

' , on the agi'icultural geology c»f Eng-
land and Wale.-<, a prize essay, xii. 44.'».
See " Geology."

, notes on the geology of the K<y-

thoi7)e estate, and its relations to the
Keythorpe sy.stcm of drainage, xiv. 90.

, on tho ngrieultural relations of tlie

western portion of the Hamp.shire tcr-
tiajy di.striet, and on the agrieultnral

! importance of the miuls of the New
Forest, xvi. 125.

Triticuji repens, see " Couch-gra.ss."

Tkotteu, William, on the rearing and
management of poultry, a prize essay
xii. lUl.

Trout-stkeajip, good, the wat<^r of, ex-
cellent for ^Yate^-meadow3 (P. Pusey),
X. 466.

Tri-nk-draix.vge, on, a prize essay, by
J. A. Clarke, xv. 1. See " Drainage of
land."

TiiigsixG of hay by taskwork, the cost of
(Eaynbird, vii. 13.S.

TscHcm, F. de, on the utility of birdt* in
destroying the insect jjests of the fann
(Tr. by IL L. B. IbKt.-on), xxiii. 231.

TrcKER, I\Ir. J., on sub.stitutes for beer in
the hay-held, xxiii. 57.

Ticket. P. D., on modifications of the
four course rotation rendeix'd advisable
by modem improvements, xxi. 258.

, ou land valuing, prize essay, xxiv. 1.

Tiff of Iceland, the, xvii. 431.

Till, Jethro, on his system, by J. T.
Way, xiii. 140; on the origin of his
drill (C. AV. Hoskyns), xviii. 410.

Tu.MOLKS in cattle, malignant 'F. Dun',
XV. 83; cancerous or schuTous tu-
mours, 84 ; warts, 83.

in pigs, scrofulous and cancerous

(F. Dun), xvi. 41.

in sheep, F. Dun on, xvi. 393.

TuKF, on gi-afting, B. Baker on, v. 600.

Tri^KEY, the, rearing and management of,
by W. Trotter, xii. 187.

TiTiNTJULL, Mr., his plan for the royal
farms at Windsor (Spearing), xxi. 27.

TcKNEK, J. H., on the necessity of I'e-
ducing the size and number of hedges^
vi. 479.

, George, of Barton, on white carrot.-?,

iv. 269. /See " Carrots."

, instance of the advantage of sub-
soil ploughing in addition to di-aining,
V, 418.

, on the failiup of red clover, i. 502.

, Mr., ou tiin 'sliow of pigs at the

Leeds meeting, xxii. 230.

Ti'RNir-Fi,v, pnvention of injurj' from
(T. L. Thurlow), xvii. 624.

, Rowley's blast drill designed for its

destruction, shown at Chester (1858),
xix. 315.

Tuiixii's, when first generally introduced
into the field-culture of Northmnber-
land (^CJrey , ii. 153.

first sown in drills in that county, ii.

154.

, their cultivation in Nurthumbcrland,

ii. 165 ; swedes, when sown there,
when white turuips sown, 165.

, mode of storing in Northumber-
land, ii. 109.

, on tlio insects which affect them,

by J. Curtis, ii. 193. See " Insects."

, W. E. Geach on the best mode of

storing, ii. 225.

, on the turnip saw-fly and its black

caterpillar, by J. Curtis, ii. 304. See
•' Insects."

, on the plant-lice, maggots of flics,

caterpillars of moths, &c., affecting the
turnip-crop, by J. Curtis, iii. 49. See
• Insects."

, on the "white cabbage butterflies,

the turnip-seed weevil, &c., by J.
Curtis, iii. 306. See " Insects."

, on the drill-husbandry of, by B.

Almack. iv. 49 ; the time of sowing the
ditferent vaiieties, on different soils,
and at diflVrent elevations and latitudes,
50.

, the mode of preparing the land and

1 if drilling the seed, with a description
of the implements u.sed, iv. 52.

, the kind and quantity of maniu'C

used, iv. G4.

, the distance between the rows, iv. 65.

, the manner of performiug the hoe-
ing, iv. 68.

, general observations on, iv. 70.

, on horsC-hoeing tiat-driUtd tiUTiips,

by P. Pusey, iv. 76 ; on Garrett s horse-
hoe, by J. L. Taylor, witli a sketcii, ib.

, on the insects infesting, by J.

Curtis, iv. 100. See " Insects."

VOLUMES OIs^E TO TWENTY-FIVE.

195

TunNiPS, eiigravinpj of diseased tm-nips and
their predatory insects, iv. l.SS.

• , report of the Committee of the

JMorayshire Fanners' Chih ou raising
turnips by sulphuric acid and bones, iv.
164. See " Superphosphate of lime."

• , account of some experiments upon,

with guano and other manui-es, by J.
Grey, iv. 211.

swedes, an experiment in favoiu-

of, contrasted with mangold-wm-zel, by
C. Hilyard, iv. 274.

, analysis of, by Dr. Fownes, iv. 532 ;

swedes, 534.

, estimate of the expense of a crop of,

in Essex, by E. Baker, v. 25.

■• , observations on the natural history

and economy of the insects called wire-
worms affecting the tm'nips, corn-crops,
&c., also of their parents, tlie elators
or beetles, called skipjacks, click-
beetles, &c. (Cm-tis), V. 180. See " Wire-
woims."

, the cultivation of, in Norfolk, de-
scribed (B. Alniack), v. 322.

, on drawing, a prize essay, by E.

Hopper, i. 160.

, the growth of, at Stincheombe in

Gloucestershire (Morton), i. 390.

, report of the crop on strong land,

by W. Linton, i. 451.

■ , an inquiry as to the action of bones

on, by J. Hannam, vi. 49.

, on bones and sulphuric acid as a

manure for (W. C. Spoouer), vi. 71.

, on bones and sulphuric acid as a

manure for, by P. Davis, vi. 244.

, on the same, by E. W, Purchas, vi.

244.

, on the use of bones and sulphuric

acid for, by P. Pusey, vi. 324.

, growth of, in Cornwall (Karkeek),

vi. 427.

, growtli of, in Cambridgeshke

(Jonas), vii. 42.

, on the advantage of drilling maiden

earth lor, by E. S. Graburn, vi. 488.

, trials witli guano and superphos-
phate of lime, by E. D. Drewitt, vi. 581.

, on the preservation of Swedish, by

C. AllLx, vii. 275.

, experiments on the gi-owth of, with

ditierent manures, by the Duke of
Eichmond, vii. 297.

, on peat-c!iarcoal, as a manure for,

by H. Eaynbird, vii. 539.

, on the double culture of, between

peas, by C. Hannam, vii. 589.

, report of an experunent with spe-
cial manures (bones, guano, turf-ashes,
the nitrates, &c.), (Barclay), viii. 57.

Tuaxii's.

TuKNiPS, the analysis of the ashes of, by

J. T. Way, viii. 143 ; the lbs. of mineral

matter in one ton of the bidbs of, 179 ;

an artificial manure ibr, suggested, 205.

manure, on (dung, bones), by E,

AVagstaff, viii. 225.

, growth of, in Suffolk (Eaynbird),

viii. 271.

, grazing sheep on, in Suffolk, viii. 295.

, a new method of preparing bones

as manure, by P. Pusey, viii. 417 ;
trials with bones, bones fermented and
decomjjosed, and sulphated bones, viii.
419.

, agricultural chemistry, tin-nip cul-
ture, by J. B. Lawes, viii. 494 ; effect
of seasons upon the growth of, 497 ;
power of the plant to collect food from
the atmosphere, 501 ; effect of various
manures on in 1843, 503 ; number of
plants and average weight of bulbs per
acre, 505 ; result of the trials ui 1844,
511 ; table of the amount of bulbs per
acre produced by dilierent manures,
517 ; table of the amount of leaves,
518 ; table of the average weight of
the bulbs, 519 ; ta1}le of tiie number of
plants per acre, 520 ; table of the pro-
portion of leaf to bulb, 521 ; effect of
free phosphoric acid on the production
of bulbs, 525 ; mean produce by the
use of various mineral, alkaline, and
superphosphate of lime manures, 528 ;
effect of ammoniacal manures on the
production of leaves, 530 ; unprofitable
effect of an excess of nitrogen in tho
manure, 531 ; loss of weight of, when
drawn and exjiosed to the air, 537 ;
effect of washing turnips for drying
and burning, 538 ; diy mutter in bulbs
grown by different manures, 540 ;
amount of nitrogen in dry turnip-bulb.s
grown by different manures, 549; in
the turuij>leaf, 551 ; the amount of ash
in turni]is produced by different ma-
nures, 554 ; analysis of the ash of tho
bulbs and of the leaf, 558 ; amount of
matters contained in a fair crop of
turnips, 561 ; table of the amount of
dry matter in various root-crops grown
at Eothamsted in 1847, 563.

, cultivation of, in the E. E. of York-
shire (Legard), ix. 107.

croiis of Devonshire (Tanner), ix,

461.

crops of the N. E. of Yorkshire (Mil-
burn), ix. 502 ; the turnip-hack, 509.

, P. Pusey s trials with putrefied

bones, ix. 530.

, on the funguses of, by the Eev. E

Sidney, x. 394.

n 2

196 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

TURNIPS.

TrRKii'S, fffi'ct of climate on the growth of,
by N. Whitley, xi. 42.

, on the oolites in Gloucestershire

^Bravendar), xi. 13.i.

— ~, on the eifect of climate on the
j:^owth of, by B. Simpson, xi. G.io.

— of W. Somerset, by T. D. Acland,
xi. 676.

, trials of sujx>rphosi)hatc of lime ns a

mainire for, by J. B. Ijnwes, xii. .S3.

, on the eomjiarative merits of, and

rape (J. A. Clarke, xii. 401.

, on the growth of, in Northanipton-

^shire, by W. Beam, xiii. 52. |

• , on fc'«'ding cattle with, grown on

variovis soils, and also with tho.se growii |
with variou.s manures by Colcmel Mac- :
Donall, xiii. 113; with cooked foo<I, I
114; and with linseed and rapc-ciikes,
115. I

, on a new method of hoeing, by P. j

Pusey, xiii. 202, xiv. 358. |

, the tirst intHwluction of into Cum- i

bcrland, described by W. Dickinson, |
xiii. 227 ; the present growth of, ih. ;
the sale of, to be fed off^ 22".t. I

, on a trial between the water-drill I

antl the (lu«t-drill, in growing turnips, I
by P. Pusey, xiii. 408. I

, analysis of leaves and bulbs, xiii. 458.

, analysis of turnij)-meal, xiii. 522.

, analysis of all the weeds from an ■

inferior turnip-soil, xiii. 528.

, analysis of soil where turnips rotted,

xiii. 554.

, growth of, on the ningnesian lime-
stone soils of Derbyshire Rowh v ,
xiv. 22.

, growth of, in Surrey, by S. Ever-
shed, xiv. 81, 85.

, growth of, in East Lothian (Steven-
sou i, xiv. 281.

■ , on the use of nitrogenous and phos-

jihate of lime manures for, bvP. Pusiy,
xiv. 388 ; by J. B. Lawes. 389.

• , on the bean-turnip fallow, by T.

Burroughes, xiv. 425.

, cultivation of, on the light flinty

chalk soils (Haxton), xv. 98 ; cultiva-
tion of. on a light soil in a moist cli-
mate, 106.

, growth of, on the light sands of

Norfolk (Haxton^, xv. 117.

, on the " finger and toe " in f.T.

Ciu-tis), iv. 121 (Euckman", xv. 125;
those often grown in the same land
have a tendency to degenemte, 135;
new varieties maintain at first their
form much better, ib. ; swedes less
liable to this disease than the com-
inon, ih.

TVSSAC-GRASS.

TcRNiPS, growth of, in Oxfordshire (ReaJ^
XV. 207.

, growth of, in Dorsetshire fRueggl,

XV. 413.

, exjx'riments with various manures

for, by K. Bourne, xvi. 88.

, on the retention of moisture in

turni]) land l>y R. Vallentine, xvi. 34G ;
the disadvant"ige of spring and summer
ploughing, 348 ; the amount of mois-
ture retained by different soils, j7>. ;
evaporation from soils in dittcrent
months, 349; the ridge system the best
for moist climates, ib. ; tlie flat system
the best for dry climates, 350 ; to re-
tain moisture in dry soils, lb. ; cleanse
the land in autumn and early spring,
352.

, cultivation of, in Bedfordshire (\V.

Bennett :, xviii. 9 ; failun; of crops
from anburj- and niihlew, 11.

culture, continuous, without ma-
nure, exhaustive (Lawes and Gilbert),
xviii. 499.

, their influence on the barley crop

(Lawes and Gilbert), xviii. 503.

, experiments in growing at Holkham

Park farm (J. Coleman, jun.), xix. 306'.

, section of a bulb (Prof. Henfrcy),

xix. 486, illustrated.

, their relations to climate (Russell),

XX. 495.

, experiments on their growth with

ditiferent manures (Inverness Fanner's
Society), xxiii. 273.

, the specific giavity of swedes (An-

ilerson), xxiii. 361.

, the process of vegetation in turnips,

xxiv. 434.

, early introduction of, into Hertford-
shire, encouraged by Oliver Cromwell,
XXV. 303.

TuRXiP-ctiTERS, on those thown at the
Ijewis meeting 'in 1852), xiii. 326.

, at (Jloucester fin 1853), xiv. 363.

, at Lincoln (in 1854), xv. 373.

, at Cariisle (1855), xvi. 520.

, Gardner's cost of .slicing turnips for

sheep, in Norfolk, xix. 277.

TrRNir-THrs^'ER, on that shown at Salis-
bury by ^Ir. Huckvale, xviii. 420.

TrKXAVRE.ST ])lough ''American), on (C. W.
Eddy), with diagiam. xx. 122.

TiRViLL, Eli, on Ijuming clay, iv. 2G7.
See " Clay-burning."

Tiss.\c-Gi!ASS, Lieut.-Govemor Moody on,
iv. 17; gi-ows on pcat-bogs in the
Falkland Islands, ib. ; a gigantic scdgy
gras.s, ib. ; length of its blade s, ib. ; its
gi-owth, ih.; tender, ib.; cattle fatten
upon it, ib. ; green and luxuriant at all

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

191

TUSSAC-GRAS?.

seasons, //*. ; the ■winters in tlie Falkland
I.slamls, 19 ; how the seed.s to be sown, ib.

TussAC-GKASS, further account of the, by
Governor Moody, v. 50.

• of the Falkland Islands, described

by J. C. Moody, vii. 72.

• , its growth in the Isle of Lewis, de-
scribed by J. Scobic, x. 182 ; analysis
of, by J. T. W. Johnston, 184; sea-
weed as a manure for, 183.

, analysis of, xiii. 474.

TussiiAGO farfara, see " Coltsfoot."

TcxFORD and Sons, tlieir traction engines
(J. A. Clarke), xx. 203.

Tweeddale's, the Marquis of, tile-making
machine, ii. 148.

Twin-spiked cord-grass (Buckman), xv.
4GG.

Tyldex, Sir J. M., experiments with
nitiatc of soda, guano, &c., xiv. 15.

Udder, inflammation of, or garget, in

cows (Sibbald), xii. 562 ; in the ewe

(Sibbald), 578.'
Ulex europseus, see " Furze."
UxDERCLiFF in the Isle of Wight, the

silica strata of (Way), xiv. 235.
■Uxderhill's spring hook for steam tackle

(Clarke), xxiv. 367.
Uppleby, W., on peat charcoal as a

manure for turnips, v. 507.
Upright meadow crowfoot, the eflfecl of

irrigation on (Buckman), xv. 470.
, soils and habits (Buckman), xvi.

3G0.
• sea-lyme-grass (Buckman), xv.

466.
Ure, Andrew, on the analysis of guano,

V. 287.
Uredines, the, of corn plants (E. Sidney),

X. 386.
Uric acid, formation of (L. Playfair), iv.

228.
UiUNE of man, the horse, and the cow,

analysis of (Berzelius), i. 156.
~- — , composition of, effected by food,

i. 157.
of the horse diluted with water,

effect of on Italian rye-grass (W.

Dickinson), vi. 575.
' , of that of man, horse, cow, and pig,

xiii. 506.
— of man, amount produced, xv. 140 ;

analysis of (J. T. AVay), 141.
• of the cow, fresh and putrid, analysed

(Bowditch), xvi. 346.
Urtica dioiea, see '• Nettle, the common

stiniring."

vegetable.
Urtica urens, see " Nettle, the small

stinging."
Ushers steam plougli, why not shown at

Carlisle meeting, xviii. 418 ; account of

(Clarke), xx. 179.
UsTiLAGO, the, funguses which attack the

grasses, by the Rev. E. Sidney, x. 389.
hypodites, the Rev. E. Sidnev on.

X. 390.

V.

Vaccination not to bo depended upon as
a remedy or preventive in cases of
smallpox in sheep (Prof. Simonds),
XXV. 560.

Va(;y, C. K., on fibrous covering, vii.
277.

Vallentine, R., on the cultivation of
beans and peas, a prize essay, xv. 478.
See " Beans and peas."

■ , on the retention of moisture in

turnip land, a prize essay, xvi. 346. See
" Turnips,"

• , on the companitive advantages of

sowing beans in spring and autimin, a
prize essay, xviii. 36.

, on the comparative advantages of

fixed and moveable steam jwwer, and
of single and double dressing thrashing-
machines, xxiii. ] 60.

Valuations in Norfolk (C. S. Read), xix.
293.

Valuing land, see " Land valuing."

VAu.iorRS, experimental farm at, see
"Fann, experimental."

Vegetable marrow, analysis of, xiii. 458.

physiology, elementJiry introduction

to (Prof. Henfrey), xvii. 62 ; effects of
life, 64 — see " Argans," see " Tissues ; "
vegetable life or development, 69 ; use
of the microscope, 71 ; structure of
plants, 73 ; their cells, 74 ; increase
of cells or plant-growth, 77 ; subdivi-
sion of confervoids, 78 ; jirotoplasm, its
nature and office, 79 ; the primordial
utricle or fonnative layer, ih. ; nitrogen
increases protoplasm, 81 ; influence of
light, 84 ; nitrogen, whence assimilated
by plants, 85.

, microscopic illustration*, passim.

■ , Part II. (Prof. Henfrey), xviii. 371 ;

cells and cell contents, 372 ; sti-ucture
of plants less varied and complex than
that of animals, ih. ; plants of complex
organisation belong to the liigher group,
373 ; in the lower group all processes
]>erformed in common, ih. ; the fibrous
stem a sort of skeleton, 374; distinct

198 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

VEGETABLE.

reproductive organs a sign of liiglier
life, 375 ; cambial tissue, o7G.

Vegetable oils, see " Oils."

• , parenchymatous tissue, 377 ; office

of cells, ib. ; vascular plants, tlieir dis-
tinct spiml ducts containing air, 381 ;
dycotyledons have ducts forming a
circle between the pith and rliind, 383 ;
fonnation of woody fibre, 381 ; cellulose
allied to starcli, ih. ; how uflectcd by
iodine, 384-38(J ; potash and nitric acid,
their effects on cell walls and woody
fibre, 38G ; resinous coat of the ext<'rnal
skin, 387 ; the bloom of ])luins, grapes,
&c., ih. ; jirotoplasni or fonnative mat-
ter, ih. ; the cell nucleus, 388 ; circula-
tion, 890; chloropliyll or leaf-green,
«6. ; its composition and connexion with
stai'ch, 3f>4 ; starch, presence of, in
seeds, tubers, &c., 395 ; structure of
wheat-gmin, ib. ; starch, solution of,
in germination, 400 ; development
of starch granules by the agency of
jirotojilasm, 401 ; their presence in the
gratuiles of cldorophyll, 403 ; chloro-
phyll, how generated, 405 ; its alltu-
rainous substance idfMitical witli pro-
toplasm, 405 ; starch in seeds replaced
by fixed oil, 40G ; giun its origin, 407 ;
the colour cells of flowers, 409 ; the
cause of autumnal tints and variegated
leaves, 410; essential oils, how formed,
411 ; milky juices, v7>. ; imjiortancc of
albmuinous or nitrogenous principles,
412; their ]irobable formation in the
roots (Mulder\ 413; chlorophyll
formed by sunlight from protoplasm,
ih. ; the relation of nitrogenous to ter-
nary substances not yet fathomed. —
Microscopic diagrams, pasnim.

Verney, Sir H., on the Spanish phospho-
rite and other manures, vi. 331.

Veuonica agrestis, see "Speedwell, the
procumbent."

— — arvensis, see "Speedwell, the com."

buxbaumia, see "Speedwell, the

buxbaums. '

• hcderifolia, see " Speedwell, the ivy-
leaved. '

politer, sec " Speedwell, the field."

Vetch, early, W. J, Williams ou, iii.
236.

, growth of, at Stinchcombe in Glou-
cestershire (Morton), i. 389.

• , on the botrytis of, by the Rev. E.

Sidney, x. 394.

■ , the plant and its hay analysed,

xiii. 4GG.

■ analysed (Way), xiv. 179.

, bush, the, analysed, xiv. 179.

• , growth of, on light tiinty chalk

soils (Haxton), xv. 100 ; on the sandy
soils of Norfolk, 120.

Vetch, growth of in Shropshire (H. Tan-
ner), xix. 12.

, how affected by manure (Lawcs),

XX. 2G2.

Vibrio, a worm occasionally found in red
clover seed (Curtis), xviii. 53.

ViciA sativa, see "Vetch.'

sepium, see "Bush vetcli."

ViLLE, on the supply of nitrogen to
plants, xvii. 58; whence assimilated
by them, 85.

, experiments by, on the growth of

wheat, XXV. 255.

VixCENT, Rev. J. \., on the application
of a marine peat as manure in Ciunar-
vonshire, ii. 417.

Vine disease akin to the potato disease
(Dr. Lang), xix. 70.

Viola tricolor, see "Wild pansj'."

ViscvM album, see " Miseltoe."

Voelckeu, Dr. Augustus, on the causes
of the efficacy of burnt clay, xii. 496 ;
xvii. 56.

, on the composition of the parsnip

and white Belgian carrot, xiii. 385.

, on the source of nitrogen in plants

xiv. 382.

, on the comparative value of dif-
ferent artificial manures for raising
a crop of swedes, with remarks on tho
composition of the manures, xvi. 90.

, on his remarks on the value of

artificial manures, by J. T. Way, xvi.
533.

, on farmyard-manure, xni. 191.

, on farmyard-manure, drainings of

dungheajjs, and the absorbing proper-
tics of soils, xviii. Ill, see "Farmyard-
manure."

, on paring and burning, xviii. 342.

, experiments upon swedes, with re-
marks on the mauures employed, xix.
153.

, his appointment as consulting

chemist of the R. A. Society (report
of council), xix. iv.

, on the composition and nutritive

value of cotton cake, xix. 420.

, on liquid manure, xix. 519.

, on finger and too 'anbury), and

the analysis of diseased turnips, xx. 101.

, on the composition of mangold-

wiu-zel root two years old, xx. 131 .

, on the changes in liqitid manure in

contact with soils, xx. 134.

, on the composition of sorghum .sac-

charatum (Holcus S.), xx. 378.

, his experiments with different top-
dressings upon wheat, xx. 386.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

190

VOELCKEK,

VoELCKBR, Dr. Augustus, on the composi-
tion of khol-rabi and cattle cabbage,
xxi. 93,

, on the composition and nutritive

properties of mangold pulp, xxi. 97.

■ . on the chemical properties of soils,

xxi. 105.

■ , on phosphatic materials used for

agricultural purposes, xxi. 350.

, his method of analysing bone ash,

xxi. 372.

• , on the composition and culture of

the yellow lupine, xxi. 389.

■ , on the composition of cheese and

on practical mistakes in cheese-making,
xxii. 29.

, experiments on swedes, xxii. 69.

, on the composition and nutritive

value of straw, xxii. 382.

■ , experiments with dift'erent top-
dressings on wheat, sxiii. 16 ; xxiv.
100.

, cheese experiments, xxiii. 170.

, on tlie commercial value of artifi-
cial manures, xxiii. 277,

, on poisonous cheese, xxiii. 34G.

, lecture on milk, sxiii. 410.

, lecture on town sewage, xxiii. 462.

, on tlie absorption of phospliate of

lime and tlie application of phosphatic
manures to root crops, xxiv. 37.

■■ , on tlie scouring lands of central

Somerset, xxiv. 216 ; analyses of water
near Ilchester, with a view to ascertain
the cause of splenic apoplexy, 251.

, on milk, xxiv. 286.

, on the composition of annatto,

xxiv. 549.

■ , lecture on the adulteration of oil-
cake, xxiv. 589.

, lecture on the comparative eifects of

different manures on grass-lauds, xxiv.
639.

• , on Peruvian guano and the means

of increasing its elBcacy as a manure,
XXV. 186.

' , his annual report on adulterations,

&c., XXV. 234.

' , on salt experiments and mangolds,

XXV. 240.

-- — ^, on the absorption of potash by soils
of known composition, xxv. 333.

, experiments with salt upon man-
golds, xxv. 385.

, on the atmo.s]:iheric nutrition of

plants, a lecture, xxv. 531.

< -, on the chemical qualities of water

for economical jiurposcs, a lecture,
xxv. 562.

■ , remarks on the value of salt as

manm'o, see " Discussion," xxv. 518.

VoGEL on the distoma or liver fluke,

xxiii. 94.
Von Th.\er, table of equivalent nutritive

substances, iv. 146.
ViiAic or kelp-ashes, the use of in Jersey

as a manure, described by Colonel Lc

Couteur, iii. 45.

W.

Waddon Cbace, on (C. Ecad), xvi. 307.

Wages of furm-labourers {see " La-
bourers") in Northumberland chiefly
paid in kind (J. Grey), ii. 186. See
" Northumberland."

in Germany, iii. 232 ; thrashers, and

in Prussia (H. Ha'jdley), ih.

in Jutland (J. F. Johnston), iii. 416 ;

men and women servants, ih. ; in sum-
mer they liave five meals a day, ih.

in Mecklenburg ( S. Carr), i. 129.

in Nottinghamshire (Corriugham),

vi. 39.

in Kent (Biickland), vi. 265.

in North Wales (Eowlandson), vii.

571.

in Durliam (Dr. Bell), xvii. 113.

in Warwickshire (Evershed), xvii.

490.

in Bedfordshire (W. Bennett), xviii.

25.

in Shropshire (H. Tanner), xix. 62.

in Berkshire (Spearing), xxi. 43.

Waggons are said to last as many years

as they cost pounds (H. Hannam), ii.

88 ; those of the Netherlands described,

iii. 262.
, those used in Lincolnshire (1842)

(P. Pusey), iv. 305; conti-asted with

carts experimentally, ib.
, on an unprovement in the mode of

attaclung horses to, by J. H. Grieve,

vi. 248.
— , on those shown at the Lewes meet-
ing (in 1852), xiii. 326.

of Derbysliire (Rowley), xiv. 27.

.shown at the Gloucester meeting,

xiv. 344.
of Oxfordshire (Read), xv. 246.

of America, their lightness (C. W.

Eddy), XX. 124.

WagstafI'', E., on the use of bones with

sulphuric acid, v. 444.

, on turnip manure, viii. 229.

Wainuight, Mr., his statement of receipts

and admission at the Society's shows,

1852-1863, xxiv. 488.
Wales, North, on the agriculture of, a

prize report, by T. Rowlandson, vii.

553 ; extent, population, &c., ib. ; soils,

200

GEXERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

WALES.

f')). ; Anglesea, soils of, 564 ; vale of
ClwyJ, 560 ; cattle f)f, 509 ; clii'csc,
butter, 571 ; wages, ib. ; the limestone,
578 ; irrigated meadows of, 579 ; bistorj-
of its agriculture, 584.

Wales, South, on the fanning of, by C. S.
Read, a prize report, x. 12'1; climate
of, 125; geology of, 12(j; rotation of
crops in, 132 ; esthnate of the exj)enst^s
and profit of farming, i:>t]; cattle of,
138; dairy management, 140; sheep,
ib.; pigs, j7). ; horses, 142; manures,
sea-sand and si^a-weed, »7). ; lime, 143;
marl, ib. ; coal-ashes, 144 ; paring and
burning, ib. ; rentals and tenures, 147,
103 ; labourers, 148.

^^'Al.KDEN, T., on the advantages of
ploughing uj) down-land, iv. SO.

AVali,8 of clav des<Tibed, tile motle of pre-
paring the clay (C. Hill), iv. 359 ; tho
building, ib. ; the cxpeii.se, iv. 3H0.

of stone, till' cxitense. iv. 300.

of brick, the expeii.se, iv. 3(')1.

■\Vai.nvt, the, analysis of the wood of,
xiii. 530.

Waujith, the effect of, on sheep, by R.
Smith, viii. 30.

, its efteet upon pasture-grounds, by

R. Smith, ix. 9.

WAUNFii, Mr., of Trimiiigham, his system
of box-feeding described by G. Nieholls,
viii. 474.

Waui", the, liy means of fagots, forms
embankments again.st the sea near tiie
Wash in Lincolnsliire (Pusey), iv. 292.

WAUi'iNfi-svsTKM, the, of the Isle of
Axholm, in Ijiiiei)lnsbire, described
;Pasey), iv. 295 ; (Clarke), xii. 287.

, some account of the process of, by

R. Creyke, v. 398.

, noticed by R. Smitli. ix. 20.

, the imjjrovement of land by, che-

micallv considered, bv T. J. Herepath,
xi. 93; called in Italy " Colmata," the
system pursued on the Trent, 97 ; the
deposit, 99 ; analysis of the warping
waters, 101 ; analysis of the warp itself,
ib. ; of the soil before and after warp-
ing, 103; analysis of erojis gi-own on
warj^ed land, 105 ; horse-beans, ib. ;
wheat, 100; oats, 107; rye, 108; ana-
lysis of the mud of the Nile. 112.

• , on dry warping in Hattield Chace

(W. Edwards), xi. ISO.

■ , in Lincolnshire, the process do-

.seribed by J. A. Clarke, xii. 371 ; in
Italy, ib.

, in moorland bottoms (R. Smith),

xvii. 377.

Waup-soils descrilx^d bv J. C. Charnock,
ix. 298.

WASTE-LANCS.

WARP-sorLS, by J. A. Clarke, xii. 287. '

AVarts in cattle (F. Dun), xv. 83.

Waut-wokt, the (Buckmanl, xvi. 366.

Warwick, meeting at in 1859, see "Meet-
ings."

Warwickshire, geological map of, xvii.
474.

, on the farming of (H. Evcrshcd), a

prize report, xvii. 475 ; acreage of the
hundreds, ib. ; geology of, 476 ; coal-
measures, lb. ; new red sandstone, ib. ;
Edge-hill, an oolite escarpment, 477.
Tho Avon district, ib. ; selection and
management of crops, 478 ; ditto of
stock, 479 ; sheep, /7>. ; ploughing, the
doulde plough, 480-481. Sovthekn
district — pro))ortion of pasture-land,
481 ; scouring pastures near Southam,

482. SOITII-WESTERN DISTRICT, ib. ;

rotation of crops, v7). ; selection of
stock, //). ; dairy farms, ib. Northern
DisTRR-r, chiefly arable, 484 ; market-
ganlening near Birmingham, ib. ; pre-
valence of clover sickness, 485 ; remedy
for, ib. ; sheep, ib. ; pigs fed witli sour
food, 480 ; potatoes, how grown, ib.
Drainage and irrigation — Elkington's
plan, ib. ; auger holes in ditto (plan),
487; irrigation much neglected (Mur-
ray), 488 ; (Hoskyus), 489; example of
a meiidow floated from Aston-brook,
ib. ; partial utilis<ition of Birminghan>
sewage, 490 ; timber and coppice, ib. ;
farmhouses and cottages, ili. ; enclo-
sure and reclanuition of waste lauda,
491 ; Lord Aylesford's farms, ib. ;
marling fallen into disuse, 492 ; long-
homed cattle, ib.; wages, 490; Mur-
ray's report, 493.

Waste of annnonia in growth of plants
Liebig , xvii. 322.

Waste-lands, seeds dcsseminated from
(Buekman), xvi. 378.

, those of Cornwall (Karkeek), vi.

444 ; analyses of two soils from, xiii.
544.

, those of Devonshire (Tanner), ix.

485.

, those of Cumberland (Dickinson),

xiii. 289.

, those of Surrey (Evorshed), xiv.

414.

, those of Dorsetshire (Ruegg), their

enclosure, xv. 439 ; extent of, 440.

, those of Buckinghamshire (Read),

xvi. 307.

, see " Moorlands " (R. Smith), xvii.

349.

, reclaiming of, as instanced in

Wichwood Forest, prize essay (C. Bel-
cher), xxiv. 271 ; acreage of waste land

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

201

in the British Isles, 272 ; "Wicliwood
Forest ami the disatforestniont act,
ib. ; survey, 273 ; public roads, ib. ;
award and crown allotment, ib. ; licrds
of deer, 274 ; clearance of brushwood
and timber, ih. ; timber and tree throw-
intj-maehine, 275 ; receipts from timber
felled, ib. ; f^rubbing and fencing, 27*j ;
creation of farms, 277 ; tenders and
tenants, ib. ; map of crown estate, 278 ;
names and extent of farms, 279 ; ex-
penditure in improvements, ?7>. ; present
and former income from the forest, ib. ;
effects of the disaftbrestnient, 280 ;
visit and report b)^ the I^and Sur-
veyors' Club, 281 ; tenants' work, //). ;
description of Potter's-liill farm, ib. ;
tenns of agreement, 282 ; management,
ib. ; tables of owners and tenant's
■work, 283 ; proposed course of crop-
ping, ib. ; general remarks, 284 ; duty
of reclamation, 285.

Water, the amoimt of, in food (L. Play-
fair), iv. 229.

, the way in wliicli it enters a land-
drain (E. Beart), iv. 413 : holding clay
in suspension will choke the most
porous mediimis, iv. 425.

, on its influence on the temperature

of soils, on the quantity of rain-water,
and its discharge by drains, by J,
Parkes, v. 119. See "Drainage."

, regarded by the early philosophers

as the sole food of plants, i. 148.

■ , river-water, analysis of, i. 152 ; of

the Nene (Clarke), xv. 67.

evaporated from tlie leaves of a

polyanthus (Phillips), vii. 306.

, sewage, analysis of, xiii. 506.

, river, analysis of, xiii. 506.

, spring, analysis of, xiii. 506.

, land-drain, analysis of, xiii. 506.

• , SEA, analysis of (Schweitzer), xvii.

440.

, amount of, evaporated from a dry

chalk soil and from a saturated soil
(J. A. Clarke), xv. 41.

, grasses (B^ickman), xv. 465.

, a solvent, xvii. 440.

, from rain and drains, its composi-
tion (J. T. Way), xvii. 123 ; difficulty
of analysing explained, 130.

from Farnham, selected by IMr.

Paine, its analysis (J. T. Way), xvii.
131-3 ; small amount of potash and
phosphoric acid present, 134 ; table of
organic consituents, ib. ; largo amount
of nitric acid, 136 ; this an exceptional
case, ib.

from Devonshire, selected by Mr. Ac-
land, its analysis (J. T. Way;, xvii. 137.

watp:k-meadows.

Watkr selected by Mr. W. Hoskyns, its
analysis (J. T. Way), xvii. 137.

, a lecture on its chemical qualities

(Dr. Voelcker), xxv. 562 ; defective
supply in small towns, and pernicious-
elf ects of iminire water, 563 ; water for
drinking purposes, determination of it'*
good and bad qualities, 564 ; carbonate
of lime a principal constituent of hard
water, ib. ; value of deep wells, 566 r
water for cooking and washing, ib. ;
means of rendering water soft, ib. ;
Clarke's purifying process, ib. ; the
Woolwich boiler-cleaning process, 567 ;
action of water on leaden pipes, ib. ;
jiroper mode of laying water-supply
pipes, 568. Disrussimi — -Mr. Frere on
the supply of good water for the use of
farm-labourers, 569.

in the head in sheep (F. Dun), xvi.

in the horse (F. Dun), xiv. 126.

■ economy of France, the, in its rela-
tion to agriculture (F. K. de la Tre-
honnais), xxii. 421.

Watercourses, rivers and otlier, on the
improvement of, by W. B. Wood, xiii.
367. See " Rivers."

, the weeds of (Buckman), xvi. 380. -

AVatercresses, growth of, in Bucking-
hamshire (Read), xvi. 291 ; in Hert-
fordshire, xxv. 312.

Water-meadows of West Somerset de-
scribed (P. Pusey), iv. 312.

, the economical formation, at Bi-
cester, described by AV. Paxton, i.
346.

, quality of the hay produced from

(AV. Paxton), i. 347.

-, the Clipstone, at Mansfield, de-
scribed by J. E. Denison, i. 359 ; extent,
when formed, ;7>. ; soil, 360 ; the best
inclination for the meads, 361 ; on flat
land, the seeds sown,ib. ; when watered,
ib. ; time of keeping on the water, 362 ;
best quality of water, soft water, that
from bogs, ib. ; sewer and street water,
ib. ; a reservoir formed to equalise the
supply, 363 ; effects of laml-draining
in causing the land to sink, ib. ; effects
of a neglect of Ijottom-drainage, 364 ;
a weed apt to form in the pipes, ib. ;
the stoppage of drains by roots, 365 ;
the produce of, at Clipstone, ib. ; value
of the capital expended in tiieir forma-
tion, 367 ; the liability of sheep fed on
these meadows at certain seasons to
take the rot, lb.

of Nottinghamshire (Corringham),

vi. 39.

, on the conversion of a moory hill-

202 GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGEICULTUEAL JOUENAL.

■WATER-JIEADOWS.

side into catch-meadow, by J. Eoals,
vi. 518,

"Water-meadows of Audley End described
by Lord Braybrookc, vi. 522.

tirst formed iu England at Babra-

liam, vii. 59.

■ of N. Wales (Eowlandson), tII. 579.

, on, by R. Smith, ix. 17 ; quaUty of

water b(-st adapted for, IS.

• , on the tlieoiT and jnactice of, by

r. Pusey, X. 41)2 ; the water best
adapted for, ih. ; temjicratnrc of, 4Go ;
cflect of straw in promoting tbc growtli
of grass, 4(54; water of good trout-
.strcams excellent for, 4G0; i)lau of u
water-meadow, 4G7 ; catchwater-mea-
dows, 4GS ; their management in Devon-
.shire, 473 ; worm-liok.s iilled and worms
killed by irrigation, 47G.

, the analysis of water-meadow grass,

by J. T. Way and G. II. Ogston. xi. 58'J.

, on irrigation aspraetisi^d iu Switzer-
land, by II. T. Jenkinson, xi. G07 ; thu
Avatering, Gfl.S; at Ilofwyl, GlO; liquid
manure u.std in, Gil.

■ , on the formation of liill-side catcli-

meadows on Exmoor, by K. Smith, xii.
139.

• , on an improved sTstem of irrigation,

by J. Biekford, xiii. 1G2 ; observations
uu this system, by E. Arclier, xiv. 153.

■ , on an improved anil cheaper system

of laying out eatch-meadows, by Sir
S. Nortlieote, xiii. 172.

• , on tho theorv.of, by P. Posey, xiii.

177.

• , hill-side, in Cumberland (W. Dick-
inson), xiii. 291.

■ , grasses from, analysis of 1st and

2ud crop (Way), xiv. 177.

• of Dorsetshire (Rucgg), xv. 414 ;

the bounies, 416.

• , on the aijuatic or wafer-grasses, by

J. Buokmau, xv. 4G5; tho meadow-
grasses, 4G6 ; effect of irrigation upon
4G7.

, on, and on the virtue of springs

(Chevaudier and Salvetit , xvii. 325. "

• , near Woburn in Bedfordshire [W.

Bennett), xviii. 17.

— — , iu Berkslme, how let (J/ B. Spear-
ing), xsi, 25.

, in Hampshire, their cost and ma-
nagement (Eev. J. "WilkinsonV xxii.
288.

AVatek-drill, on the use of (A. S. Euston),
XX. 361 ; its value for secm-ing a plant,
362 ; exception at Mr. C. Howards
fai-m, where from peculiarity of soil
er v\-ater a concrete was formed, ib. ;
gradual improvements in Chandler's

drill, 363; substitution of slides for
cups, ib. ; rape sowix )jy putting the
seed into cistern, a good plant,
3G5 ; directions and cautions, ib. ;
umnber of water-drills in use on fen-
farms, 366 ; two old casks packed with
litter in carts suliice to i'eed the drill,
367 ; the admixture of suiJerjihospliate
or guano, 368 ; how to regulate the
feed, 369 ; experiments on mangolds
or rape, witli or without water, also
artificials, 370 ; Mr. Sowerby's man-
gold experiments, mangel against dmig,
373; use of drop-drill, more super-
phosphate and less dung used, rape
increased 30 to 50 per cent., 374; super-
phosphate and water for oats produced
increase of 3 qrs., 375 ; peas and cnr-
rotii thus sown, 376; water useful to
disperse manure, if not to moisten soil,
377.

"Water-driij., its use in Berks (spearing,
xxi. 17.

Waters, George, on pleuro pneumonia
amongst cattle, a i)rize essay, ix. 343.

Water whorl-grass (^Buckman), xv, 465,
xvii. 578.

W.\TER yam, see " Yam."

Watford sewage, utilisation of, by Lord
Essex, XXV. 293.

Watsox, J., on reclaiming heath-land,
vi. 79.

Way, J. T., on the fairj--ring3 of pastmc*
as illustrating the use of inorganic ma-
nures, vii. 549.

, report on the analysis of the aslio

of plants, Part I. (wheat, barlev, oat.>,
&c.), vii. 593.

, report on tho analysis of the ashr.s

of plants. Part II. (turnips, mangold,
carrots, &c.\ viii. Ii54.

, on the phosi>horic strata of the chalk

formation, ix. 56.

, analyses of the ashes of plants

f clover, clover-hay, peas, beans, sti-aw,
kc). ix. 136.

, on the composition and money-
value of different varieties of guano, x.
196.

, on the composition of linseed, oil-
cake, beans, peas, &c., x. 479.

, on the analysis of sprats, x. 610.

, on hquid-manure or taidi-water, x.

613,

. on scutch, X. 615.

; on alkali waste, x. 616.

, on woollen refuse, shoddv, rags, &c.,

X. 617.

, on animal guano, x. 620.

, on the power of .soils to absoi4>

manure, xi. 313; xxiii. 123.

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

203

Wat, J. T. (with G. H. Ogston), fourth
report on tho analysis of the ashes of
plants, xi. 497.

, miscellaneous examinations of ma-
nures, xi. 764.

, on superphosphate of lime and

methods of making and using it, xii.
204.

, the cliemieal and agricultural cha-
racters of the chalk-formation, by, and
J. M. Paine, xii. 544.

« , on dried blood as manure, xii. 5S4.

■ , on the relative nutritive and fat-
tening properties of chtfcrent natural
and artificial grasses, xiv. 171.

• and J. M. Paine, on the silica strata

of the lower chalk, xiv. 225.

• , on the use of tovm-sewage as ma-

nm-e, sv. 135.

' , on the influence of lime on the

" absorptive properties " of soils, xv.
491.

, analysis of certain crystalline salts
from Tampico, xv. 515.

•■^ , the atmosphere as a source of nitro-
gen to plants, being an account of
recent researches on the subject, xvi.
249.

• , on the value of artificial manm-es,

xvi. 533.

■ , on silicates and lime, xvii. 56.

■ , on the composition of the waters of

land-di-ainage and of rain, xvii. 123.

, his complaint against Prof. Liebig,

note, 139.

> , his analysis of bean-straw, xvii. 263.

, on the quantity of nitric acid and

ammonia in rain-water, xvii. 618.

' , his opinion of the mineral theory

(Dr. Voelcker), xxi. 106.

• and Ogston on the composition of

the ash of wheat-straw, xxii. 394.

• , estimated value of human excreta,

xxiv. 125, 126.

Wealden formation of Kent, the, de-
scribed by G. Buckland, vi. 2S1.

■ of Surrey described (Evershed), xiv.

412.

— — clay of Sussex and its cultivation,
on the (S, Hawes), xix. 182 ; the weald
(" wald," a wood) a fresh-water forma-
tion, lb. ; wealden-clay essentially a wheat
soil, ih. ; how to make it grow roots,
183 ; directions for growing mangold,
184 ; Jerusalem artichoke stands frost
in the ground, and its tops good as
fodder for cattle, 185 ; clover liable to
sickness, but excellent crops grown,
186; rye-gi'ass and tares occasionally
ploughed in as a preparation for wheat,
ih. ; wealden-clay, called by ^ Smith

\ " oak-tree clay," ih. ; well-tillcd and
farmed clays never hungry, 187 ; sub-
soils, shrave and fossil or blue lime-
stone, 188; in the absence of land-
springs, drains 4 feet deep are no better
than at 2i feet, 189 ; wheat-growing re-
tention of the simimer-fallow, ih. ; in-
crease of yield on the tanner's farm
from 2 to 52 bushels per acre, 190 ; pei*-
mancnce of the above improvement,
ih. ; lime, its use on cleared land, ih. ;
liurnt clay better than guano for tares,
191 ; clay itself burns freely, ih. ; tares
fed oft" by sheep very beneficial to tlie
land, ih. ; charcoal with guano a good
dressing for mangold, i?). ; road-scrapings
liable to produce weeds, 192 ; preva-
lence of weeds on wasteland, ih. ; impe-
diments to good farming, 193 ; hedge-row
oaks, stunted timber, and " stemmers "
injurious and of little or no value, 'ib. :
coppice condemned, ih. ; fruitfulness of
the grape-vine, 194 ; small farms and
fields, ih. ; cattle and sheep never fat-
tened, 195 ; buildings and roads, their
need of improvement, ih. ■ comparison
of Sussex and Durham, 196 ; computed
national loss from ill-bred stock, 197,"
cattle-boxes especially suited to short-
horns, ih. ; their cost, roofed with slates
externally whitewashed, -198 ; pens with
wooden floors recommended for sheep
on clay farms, ih. \ Dorking fowl, ib.

Weaning of lambs, R. Smith on, viii. 5-

Weather, on prognostications of, by N.
Whitlev, xi. 57.

, by 13. Simpson, xi. 612.

Webb, Jonas, his flocks and farm (Jonas',
vii. 60.

, his flock (R. Sraitli), viii. 7.

, his sheep at the Paris meeting

(1S56\ xvii. 37; his career (R. Smith i,
xix. 381.

, Dr. W., report on the wheats se-
lected for trial at the Bristol meeting,
iv. 586.

Webstek, W. B., on the failure of deep-
draining on certain strong clny sub-
soils, and on the injurious effect of sink-
ing the water too tar below the roots of
plants in very porous, alluvial, and
peaty soils, ix. 237.

, on the mischief arising from drain-
ing certain clay soils too deeply, xi.
311.

Wedgwood on the action of earth wonns
on pasture, xix. 225.

Weeds, tlie subsoils of Essex remarkablv
prolific of (R. Baker), v. 26.

, on the eradication of, from pastures.

liy R. Smith, ix. 22.

204 GENERAL INDEX TO llOYAL AGKICULTURAL JOURNAL,

AVkktw, andvsis of tliu ma^t common, xiii.
528.

, analy.-iis of all the weeJa from an

inferior turnip-soU, xiii. .'328.

, efttict of extirpatinj?. from a farm,

the absence of wireworms on a clean
fiinn in Surrey (Evershed i, xiv. 84.

of Oxfordshire (Head), xv. 20G.

, on agricultural weedd, by J. Buck-
man, a prize essay, xvi. i}.")'.) ; various
definitions of the word weed, ib. ; a list
of, 360 ; influence of soils upon, 'MS ;
certain weeds never found on imbrokeu
ground, .'7*. ; clny-land is subject to the
ifewcdt weeds, ib. ; the weeds of sandy
soils, ib. ; of calcareous .soils, if>. ; of
loamy soils, 'MQ ; agmrian weed.x, ib. ;
analysis of the ashes of five weeds, 370 ;
annual weeds, (7>. ; biennials, 371; pe-
remiials, their modes of increase, ib. ;
habit of growth, 372; panisitic wcK.'ds,
373; the extirj)ation of weeds, 374; of
the seeds dorumnt in soils, ib. ; the i)re-
vention of weed-sowing, 37G ; weeds in
manure, 377 ; seeding of wt>eds, ib. ;
estimate of the number of flowera and
seed.s, ib. ; dissemination of seeds from
wastes, 378 ; weeds of meadows, 379';
which impede watercourses, 380 ; of
liedge-banks and fences, Hi.

, burnt, analysis of (Voelcker), xviii,

351.

"\Vi;kvil, on the, and otlier insects which
aflect corn in the granary and tlie field,
by J. Curtis, vii. 9 j ; in peas, 405.

, on a, which aftects the pea-crops, by

J. Curtis, viii. 399.

, on the turnip, by J. Curtis, v. 119.

, on the, wiiich aifect clover (Curtis,;,

xviii. 43.

WEUiHixG-M.\(iiiXES, ou tliosc at Shrews-
bury in 1845, vi. 317 ; at Newcastle in
184(3 'Parkcs, vii. 691 ; at the Lewes
meeting in 1852, xiii. 327.

AVEUiHT, carcass and live weight of cattle
i^IIorsfally, their proportion, xvii. 278.

WelbI'X'K, system of planting and manage-
ment of plantations at, ix. 36'J.

Welles, E. ¥., on the Argvlesliire cattle,
i. 348.

■\Veu>-, Mr. (Booth Ferry House), on
.steam cultivation (P, H. Frere), xxi.
401.

, Mr. W., Ins semces to agriculture

P. H. Frere ,xxi. 153.

, ou the drainage of Whittlesea Mere,

xxi. 134.

Welsh or Radnor sheep, the, J. Wilson
on, xvi. 2:32 ; \\<h)\ of, 241.

cattle at the Chester meeting ^1858),

by It. Smith, xix. 391.

"Welsh ponies at Chester, xix. 395.

sheep at Chester meeting (R. Smith),

xix. 39(5 ; hints for tlieir improvement,
ib. ; the Cheviot ram, invaluable as a
cross, 398.

Wexsleydale, its farming (Milbum), ix.
516.

"West of England drainage and Inelosurc
Company (Wells), xxi. 146.

Westminster, the Marquis of, on a dress
for drainers, x. 51.

Whakncliefe, Lord, on draining under
certain conditions of soil and climates
xii.41.

Wheat, Professor Henslow on disea.ses of,
ii. 1 ; its parasitic fungi, 2 ; on the
bmit-snuit balls or pepj>erbrand, 4 ; on
the smut or dust-bmud, 6 ; elVect of diii-
fereiit steeps in jjreventing smut, 8 ; on
rust in, 9; on re<l-rag in, ib.; on rcdr
robin in, //*. ; on rcd-gmn in, ib. ; on
mildew in, ib.; on the j)rrcautions to be
taken against rust and mildew, 12 ; ou
the sn])i)o.>;cd influence of tlie berberry
in producing mildew, 13; on the ergot
on, 15; on tlie jirevention of ergot on,
19; on the ear-ciK-kie, purples, or
IK'ppercorn. lb.; on tlio prevention of
the ear-cockle, 21 ; on the wheat-midge,
22 ; on the precautions to be taken
against tlie whcat-midge, 23.

, on the jjroductivi-ne.ss of certaiu

wheats, by C. Ilillyard, ii. 265.

, on some varieties of, by Sir C. Bmv

rell, ii. 147 ; Browne's prolific. Hunters
wliite, and three of Colonel Le Couteur'a,
ib.

, on a productive variety of, by R. B.

Harvey, ii. 148.

, ufitice of several sjiecimens of, con-
tributed to the museum of the Society,
by J. S. Henslow, ii. 271.

, the Hoptoun wheat, P. Shirreff's

iwcount of, ii. 344 ; when fir.st noticed,
ib.; sold for the fir.st time in lfi39, ib.;
de.s<"ril>es its ears, ib. ; comparative trials
with the chevalier wheat, ib. ; and with
the Hunter and Chidham wheat, ib. ;
the prec<iutions necessary in comparative
trials of wheats, 345; rotation of, in
Scotland, 344.

, f>bser\-ations on the wheat-midge, by

Profes.sor J. S. Henslow, iii. 36, see
" Inset^ts ; " in the Netherlands, how
they manure for wheat, 246 ; C. Hilyard
on, 297 ; on the cultivation of wheat
every other vear, ib. ; on clover leys,
298 ; use of the drill-presser, 299 ; tlie
Egyptian wheat, 300 ; trial of several
wlieats, 301 ; brown Lammas wheat, its
soQs, 301 ; of the grub, 303 : the steep-

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

205

ing of tlic seed to prevent smut, ih. ;
the iinportauce of fine weather wlien the
wheat is in bloom, 80-1 ; on light soils
and fox-hunters, ;505 ; report on the
wheats selected for tri.d at (I'ambridge,
and on other wheats, by W. Miles, 391 ;
account of Jonas"s prolific wheat, 394 ;
rejKirt on prize wheats from Liverpool,
by G. Kimberley, 395 ; report on the
Liverpool prize wheats, by H. Handley,
397.
Wheat, the produce per acre on Lord Love-
lace's farm at Ockham from 1831 to
1842, iv. 23.

, the nitrogen in the seeds of, varies

in amount according to the mamn-c
employed in the soil (J. Hannam\ iv.
179.

■ , the superior wheats produced in the

central portions of Spain (Widdrington),
iv. 34.5. See " Spain."

, the seed and straw analysed by Dr.

Fownes, iv. 526.

■ , reports on wheats selected for trial

at the Bristol meeting, from P. Pnscy,
iv. 583 ; from J. V. Shelley, 584 ; from
Dr. W. Webb, 58G.

,^thc'average produce of Essex alxtut

28 bushels per acre, v. 39.

, on the preparation for the wheat

crop in Cornwall, l^y J. H. Trcmayne,
V. 158.

, when sown hi S. Wiltsliire I'Little),

V. 165.

■ , the ravages of the wireworm upon,

by J. Curtis, V. 191.

, experiments on the best distance's of
the rows in drilUng wheat, by Mr. Bl ytli,
of Burnham, iu Norfolk, v. 352 ; dilj-
bling of, 355.

, experiments on, with the nitrates of

.soda and potash, sulpliate of soda, soot,
and salt, by J. Hnnnam, v. 275.

, an account of an experiment on the

relative values of several varieties of
wheat, by J. IMorton, i. 39.
— — , on pxire and unproved varieties of,
lately introduced into England, l)y
Colonel Le Couteur, a jirize essay, i.
113; the white downy described, ib.;
the Jersey Dantzic, llo ; the Whitting-
ton, 117; tlie Bellevue Talavcra, llU ;
comparative statement of results of
trials with, 123.

, top-ckessed with .saltpetre, by J.

Everitt, i. 281.
— — , on the narrow and wide drilling of,
by T. W. Bramston, i. 294.

, its cultivation at Stiuchcomb? in

Gloucestershire (J. Morton), i. 399.
, application of soil to, i. 401.

Wheat, on the comparative uses of the
sickle and .scytliein harvesting Ul. Rod-
well), i. 447.

, a trial of different manures for, by

Pemberton Ltdgh, vi. 328.

, cultivation of, ui Cornwall (Kar-

kcek\ vi. 423.

, effect of burnt clay u|X)n a crop

growing on a hea\'y clay soil, by P.
Pusey, vi. 477.

, on the insects which attack (J.

Curtis), vi. 493.

, on, and on the wheat selected for

trial at Southampton, by W. Miles, vi.
566.

, on the prize white Avlieat selected for

trial at Southampton, by Earl Spencer,
vi. 572.

, cultivation of, iu Cambridgeshire

(Jonas), vii. 48.

, mowing, prices of taskwork, by H.

Raynbird, vii. 125; hoeing, the prices
of, 127; harvesting, tlic prices of, 128;
dibbling, the prices of, ib. ; haulming,
the prices of, 129 ; thrashing, the prices
of, 137.

, on the wheat-midge, by R. Baker,

vii. 273.

, on thick and thin sowing, by Sir W.

Heathcote, vii. 535.

, on thin sowing, by J. J. Mechi, vii.

537.

, report on the analysis of the ashes

ot; by Way and Ogston, vii. 598 ; by
other chemists, xiii. 450.

, on the management of, a prize essay,

by E. Roberts, viii. GO ; its growth after
clover, 61 ; motles of sowing, 62 ; time
of sowing, ib., 69 ; after beans, 64 ; after
jiotatoes, 65 ; on peat soils, 66 ; the
afiplication of dung or artificial manures,
67 ; the quantity of seed, 69 ; varieties
of, and change of, 71 : treatment of the
crops in the spring, 73 ; pressing, lioeing,
ib. ; tlie diseases of, 74 ; time and mode
of cutting, 75 ; thrusliing and dressing,
77.

, the influence of manures on the

quality of, by J. B. Lawcs, viii. 235.

, giowth of, in Suffollf, by 11. Ravn-

l>ird; viii. 282.

crops of Suffolk described, by 11.

Raynbird, viii. 300.

crops iu the E. R. of Yorkshire, by

G. Legard, ix. 116.

, on dift'erent varieties of, and tin;

advantages of thick sowing, by W. Loft,
ix. 281.

, soils on whicli it is continuously

grown in the W. R. of Yorkshire 'L -
gard), ix. 294, 308.

2l)G general ixdex to royal agricultural journal.

"Wheat growu on land after paring and
burning (Pusey), ix. 423.

, on tlie conipaiative merits of thick

and thin sowing, by R. B. Wolfe, ix.
453.

crops of Dcvoasliirc (Tanner}, ix.

465.

crops of tlic N. K. of Yorkshiiv (^Ill-
bum), ix. ¥J9, 501.

, the amount f)f temperature nccessaiy

for the perfection of the wheat crop
Whitley), xi. iiO ; effect of warm, moLst
winters uiwn, 3'J ; tlie situations best
adapted for the growth ol^ 40.

, analysis of, grown on warp soil.s, bv

T. J. Herepath, xi. 10(J.

, giowth of, in Gloucestershire (Tan-
ner), xi. 142, 151.

, on the proper quantity of sc-cd for,

by R. B. Wolfe, xi. 185.

, effect of climate on the growth of.

by B. Simpson, xi. 650.

, on tlie eontiimous growth of, on tlie

same, by J. B. Lawes, xii. 6 ; produce
of, manured with mineral suljstanees
only, and with salts of ammonia only,
10; trials witii Liebig"s wheat manme,
12 ; trials with nca. salts of an»monia,
&c., as manure for wheat, 14 ; trials with
various salts and other manures, IG ;
general effect of mineral maumcs on
the growth of wheat, 26.

, experiment and experience in the

growth of, year after yi-ar on the same
acre of land, by tlie Rev. G. Smith of
Lois AVecdon, xii. l."3; and see T. Gai-
iiett's practice, xiii. 36S.

, on nitrate of soda a.s a toi>-dressing

for, by P. Pusey, xii. 202.

, on the growth of. in Northampton-
shire, by W. Bi^art, xiii. 58, 39.

, on the mineral substances in a crop

of, by J. T. Way, xui. 141.

, on the use of nitrate of soda and .'salt

as a top-di-essing for, by H. W. Kciuv,
xiii. 200.

, growth of, in Cumberland, by W.

Dickinson, xiii. 231.

, cubic petre and salt used as a top-

ilrcssing for, in Norfolk, xiii. 364 ; by
H. W. Kear}-, 367 ; for continuous crops
ni", on the same land, by T. Garuett,
368.

bran, analysis of, xiii. 524.

• , salt used as a diessuig for, in Derby-

.«hire (Rowley), xiv. 60; in Surrey
i Evershed), 91.

, growth of, in Surrey (Evershed\ xiv.

81, 88, 89; top-di-essiiigs, 91, 93. '

> , probable effect of silicate of lime on

(AA'ny and Paine), xiv. 242.

AViiE.\T, growth of, in East Lotliian (Ste-
venson), xiv. 285.

, the effect of farmyard manure &om

covered and uncovered yards on, by
Lord Kinnaud, xiv. 337.

, trials on, with guano, blood, rajie-

dust, and cubic petre, used with the
seed, and as a spring top-dressing, by P.
Pusey, xiv. 386 ; In' G. Hope of Fcnton
Barns, 387 ; by Ca'ird, 389.

, growth of, on light, flinty, chalk

.soils (Haxton), xv. 102; on the sandy-
soils of Norfolk, 119.

, on the species of segilopa of the

south of France, and their conversion
into wheat (Fabre), xv. 167.

, growth of, in Oxfordshire (Read),

XV. 211 ; the wheat-midge in, 213.

, experiments conducted l)y H. W.

Keary on tiio growth of wheat for four
successive years on the same land, a
re|)ort by J. B. Lawes, xvi. 207 ; result:*
of these, the plots being manured with
mineral substances, salts of ammonia by
them.selves and mixed, rape-eake, and
farmyard dung, 212.

, experiment on the elcmentaiT prin-
ciples of manure as applied to the growth
of wheat, by P. Pusey, xvi. 529.

, average prices, produce, and import.i

of, since 1800 (Hoskj-ns), xvi. 575, 577.

exix'riments, ploughing at different

depths (P. Love), xvii. 550, 552.

, specimens of, shown at Paris (1856),

xvii. 52.
, coarse in grain, suited to warm

climates (Denisou), xvii. 52.
plant, on the roots of (Buckman), a

prize essay, xvii. 172.
, diagram of the grain of (Buckman),

xvii. 173 ; plump gi-ains rich in feculent

matter most vaduable, ib. ; structure of

vHen&ey), xviii. 395 ; section of grain,

ib.

roots, office of the deep roots of

winter wheats (Voelcker), xviii. 354.

, higlily susceptible of change (Buck-
man), xvii. 173; belongs to the geniLS
.Tigdops, not ti'iticum, 174; the blight,
ib.
, its derivation from a;gdops (Pro-
fessor Henfrey), xix. 103. See "segi-
I lops."

, a large exceptional crop of, in Nor-

foUc, 90 bushels, p. ac. (C. S. Read),
I xix. 269 ; increase in tiie yield of, in
. Norfolk, 274 ; its better adaptation than
barley to high farming, 275.

, how climate regulates the preceding

ciop (R. Rus-sell;, xx. 163.
, growing on the Lois Wecdon

VOLUilES OXE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

207

svstom, as tried by J. B. Lawes and
Dr. Gilbert at liothamsted, xvii. 582 ;
.soil of the trial field described, 583 ;
kind of implements used, 581; results
of exiwriments, 586; efiects of fallow
explained, 587 ; Mr. Smith's explanation
of tlie faihu'c of the Lois Weedon
sj'stem at Kothamsted, 588 ; experi-
ments challenging explanation, 589.

Wheat growing at Lois Weedon (Eev. S.
Smith), XAnii. 30 ; the soil, uatm'ally or
artificially fitted for wheat, must be pul-
verised, lb. ; mineral food being thus
]n-o\ided, tlic organic comes of itself,
31 ; overfeeding the plant with nitro-
genous food injurious, ib. ; Mr. Lawes's
ihilm-e at Kothamsted accounted for,
:]3 ; too much subsoil brought up at in-
creased cost (34), and the seed sown too
late, 35,

' , gennination of, at different depths,

diagram and ex}3eriments, by Petri (Buck-
land), xvii. 176; mischief of deej)
sowing, ib. ; rootlets, the sheaths of true
roots, 177 ; diagrams of young plants,
17S; tillering, 179; spring growtli, 180;
its peculiarities, 181 ; results from
.sowuig in difierent months of the year,
ib. ; efiects of ti'ansplanting, 182 ; ditto
(if repeatedly cutting down, ib. ; accli-
)nati.satiou, 183 ; seetl- wheat to be taken
from cold and poor soil, 183 ; nitrogenous
manures remiuierative, 184; manures
most commonly used, 187 ; effects of
salt, 188 ; the lifting or throwing out of
the wheat plant, how caused, 189; in
the lias and Oxford clays, diagram, 190.

, object of the -wmter rest, in (Liebig),

xxiv. 433.

, on the weight and feeding quality of

(Eeiset), xxiv. 439.

shocks to face east and west (Spear-
ing), xxi. 22.

straw, cut, of no avail as manure for

meadows (Lawes and Gilbert), xix. 563.

, analysis of (Dr. Voelcker), xxii. 392 ;

ripe and over-ripe samples, 394.

, top-diessings for (Dr. Voelcker), xx.

386; some forms of nitrogen act more
rapidly on wheat than others, ib. ; efiects
of shoddy aj^parent only after harvest,
ib. ; want of scientific experiments under
varied conditions of soil, &c., 387 ; their
difficulty, 388 ; trials with guano, nitrate
of soda, &c., ib.; the soil, 389; jilot 1,
Peruvian guano tried, 390 ; plot 2, nitrate
of .soda, ib. ; plot 3, nitrate of soda
and salt, 391 ; plot 4, Proctor's wheat
manure, ib. ; plot 5, ditto larger dressing,
392 ; plot 6, unmanured, 392 ; plot 7,
challv-marl, ib. ; table of results, Proc-

tor's manure, the highest, 393 ; straw
per acre, 394 ; profit fiom use of manures,
396 ; guano and wheat maniue less ex-
hausting than nitrate to the field, 397.

Whe.at, top-dressings for (Dr. Voelcker;,
xxiii. 16; experiments in 1860, analysis
of soil and description of experimental
plots, 17; table of di-essings, 18; plot 1,
produce from wheat manure, ib. ; plot 2,
Peruvian guano, 19; plot 3, nitrate of
soda, ib. ; plot 4, soda and salt, 20 ;
plot 5, salt, ib. ; plot 6, unmanured, ib. ;
plot 7, sulphate of ammonia, 21 ; plot 8,
soot, ib. ; its analysis, 22 ; comparison
of crops with those of 1859 and that of
the unmanured plot of 1860, 22 ; tables
of com and straw produce, and explana-
tions, 23 ; manxu-es for poor wheat land,
ib. ; salt alone of little or no service, 24 ;
table of money value of increase, ib;
conclusions, comparative values of dif-
ferent manines, 25 ; experunents in
1861, manures employed, ib. • analysis
of ulmate of ammonia, ib. ; analysis of
soil of experimental plots, 26 ; table of
di'essings, ib. ; produce, 27 ; comparative
results, 28 ; variable effects of same
manure in different years, how accoimted
for, 29 ; liberal use of nitrogenised top-
dressings economical, 30 ; treatment of
guano, ib. ; money value of increase
from use of different manures, ib.

experiments in 1862, xxiv. 100 ; com-
position of soil of experimental field, ib. ;
subsoil, 101 ; cropping, ib. ; di'essing of
different plots, ib. ; experiments to ascer-
tain the most economical application of
nitrate of soda, 102; results with nitrate
of soda and .salt in different proportions,
plots 1, 2, 3, 103; nitrate alone,
plot 4 ; plot 5, unmanm-ed, 104 ;
plot 6, nitrate, ib. ; plot 7, guano and
salt, 105; plot 8, guano alone, ib.;
table of results, 106; value of nitrate as
a wheat manure, ib. ; effects of salt alone
and in addition to nitrate or guano, ib. ;
titility of guano and salt on light land,
ib. ; table of money value of increase,
108; rules for the use of nitrate on
difierent soils, ib. ; Mr. Stratton's ex-
periments, 109 ; Mr. Frere's experience,
ib. ; conditions affecting the value of
nitrate as applied to wheat, 110.

, experiments on the growth of, for

twenty years in succession on the same
land (Lawes and Gilbert), xxv. 93 ;
economic application of chemical science,
94; researches and publications of
Boussingault, ib. ; Liebig's mineral
theorj', 95 : his recent contradiction of
his early views, 96; De Saussure's re-

208

GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

WHEAT.

.searches on vegetation, 97; origin of
tlie Kothamsted experiments, ih. ; selec-
tion and character of the trial field, 9:5,
97 ; Professor Magnus's analyses of soils,
9S ; chemical and iihy.»ical qualities not
yet accurately dct<rmined, ih. ; account
of field experiments, it'.); .see also aji-
pendix, 140-1(32 ; mode of ascertaining
the relative condition of exhaustion, 99 ;
inliuence of season, KM!; manures em-
ployed, ib.; moile of distribution, 101;
formation of trial jilots, (7). ; the fielil
results, amoinit and charai'ttr of the
)iro<luce oht;dned in dillerent seasons,
lO'ii; first season, 1843-4; ruinfnll and
t-emperature, ih.; the season adverse to
grass, but favourable to grain, 104; the
small yield of wheat on the trial jilots a
proof of low condition of lanil, /7). ; its
(leficieney in available nitrogen, lO.");
second .-reason, 1844; tiie weather and
crops, lO.i ; etifects of anunonia salts
ami influence of mineral manure, lOt! ;
third season, 184;"), weather and crops.
107 ; comjjamtive etl'ects of mineral
ami nitrogenous manures, 108; fourth
season, 184('>, wealiier and crojis, 109;
elfect of ammonia salts and superjilio.s-
phate, 110 ; fifth sea.son, 1847, weather
and crops. 111 ; defective action of am-
monia salts without minerals, ll'i;
.>*ixth .season, 1848, weather and crops,
112; action of nitrogenous manures,
IV.i: seventh 8ea.-ou, 1849, weather and
crops, ]i;>; tftect of high manuring,
115; eighth sea.son, 1850, 115; sum-
mary of results, lltj; table of cxixri-
mental results in the last twelve years,
Ui'l; jilan, description, and quantity of
nuinurc i)er acre pt r annum, 1 17 ; ninth
scai-on, 1851, 119; ti nth season, 1852,
121 ; eleventh season, 1853, 122 ; twelfth
.season, 1854, 124; thirteenth season,
1855, 125 ; qu;dity and condition of
crop, 12tj; foiuteenth .sta.son, 185G, il>.;
comparative results, tendency of ani-
moina salts and minerals to j)rodnce
grain rather than straw, 128; fifteenth
.stason, 1857, ih.; results, 129; limita-
tions to the productive qualities of am-
monia, loO ; feixtcentii .season, 1858, ib.:
ixsidts, i;il ; reduced application of
))otass and soda, ib. ; seventeenth .season,
1859, lo2; eighteenth season, 18G0, ib.;
nineteenth season, 18(J1, 135 ; twentieth
season, 1802-3, 137 ; results fiom mixed
mhieral manure and ammonia salts,
139 ; influence of seasons on the action
of U rtili.sers, 140 ; ditlerent eflects on
land in high and low condition, 142;
tabk of average annu;>.l produce at dif-

ferent periods, 143 ; general re.sults, 144 ;
maintenance of productiveness of un-
manured land, ih. Apjxndix : tabular
returns, 140; eff"ects of the unexhausted
resi<lue from previous manuring on suc-
ceeding crops, 449 ; produce and increase
<'f wheat tluring seven years" apjdicatiou
of ]jhi)sphatic and annnoniacal manures,
and fur twelve succeeding years without
manure, 450 ; purpose of the experi-
ments, 451 ; protluce and increase of
wheat, both in the year of application
j and during .seven succc-eding years, by
using ammonia salts alone for one year
1 after twelve crops without mamire, 452;
i results of twelve years with mixed
' minend inanure after eight years of
I libeiid nitrogenous manuring, 454; re-
' lation of available alkali to silica in the
.>i<iil, 455; Liebig's thtory questioned,
lb. ; resulls by mixe<l minerals each year
I after anunonia salts, compared with
mixcnl minends year after year, 450 ;
prfKluce 1mm ammonia .salts yearly with
mixed minerals as compari'd with that
from ammonia salts each yejir after
minerals, 458 ; Lieliig on the eft'i;cts of
accumulation, 459; his o])inion not
supi)oi-ted by analyses of .soils, i7*; per-
centage of nitrogen in surface .soils,/?).;
the innx'covered portion of nitrogen in
manure' api)litHl to wlieat, ib. ; elfect on
succeeding crops of unexhausted mineral
manures, 400; illustmtivi; diagrams.
op]i. 401 ; explanation, 401 ; jiroduce of
wlieat on plots dirt'ert-ntly dres^'d, 464 ;
average percentage of minend matter in
ditto, 4<'5 ; correction of Liebig's state-
ment as to amount of soluble pho.splioric
acid u.sed, n., ib. ; relation of annual pro-
duce and increase, and dili'erent eft'ects
of a given amount of anmionia according
to sujiply of available minerals in the
j soil, 400 ; effects of ammonia sjdts on
] heavy loam, 407 ; jn-aetical cf>nclusions,
1 ib. ; tables of results over twelve years,
470 ; average annual jjroduce without
manure, 409 ; projwrtion of grain to
straw, ib. ; eftei-ts of pho.splioric acid,
472 ; proelucc liy lannyard manure, ib. ;
effects of accumulation on later crops,
i 473 ; Jiroduce by mineral manure alone,
ih. ; cause of defective ix'sults, 474 ; pro-
' duct! by minerals and ammonia salts,
' and proportion of increase, 475 ; yield of
corn and straw greater than from farm-
yard manure, 470 ; annual produce from
400 Ills, of ammonia salts per acre alone,
in altcrnaliou with mixed minerals, and
in combination with different kinds of
mineral manure, 477 ; results from

VOLUMES ONE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

209

nitiute used alone or with uiLsed
minerals, 479 ; suitability of nitrate for
spring di-essings, 480 ; its tendency to
develop stem and leaf, ib. ; relative
produce of three experimental plots,
481 ; rape-cake as a source of nitrogen,
{b. ; cereals not benefited by carbon
compounds, 482 ; summary statement of
results for twelve years, ib. ; increased
produce from a given amount of ammonia

I supplied in manure, 484 ; table of results,
4 SO; conditions influencing the pro-
ductive efl'ect of ammonia, 485 ; esti-
mated increase of corn and straw for
each 5 lbs. of ammonia, ib. ; equivalent
dressings of sulphate or muriate of
ammonia, Peruvian guano, and nitrate
of soda, 4S7 ; effect of accumulation, ib. ;
conditions affecting the fertilising action
of anunonia salts, 488 ; importance of
mineral constituents in the soil, 489 ;
effects of climate, ib. ; concluding ob-
servations, 490 ; growth of -wheat for
twenty successive years, and produce
per acre without manm-e, ib. ; ditto with
farmyard maniure, ib. ; with artificials,
ib. ; with mineral manm'es alone, ib. ;
nitrogenous manures alone, 491 ; mixed
mineral and nitrogenous ditto, ib. ; Lie-
big and Professor Anderson on field
experiments, ib. ; results of experiments
on the growtb of wheat by different
manures on different soils, in different
localities and in different seasons,
493 ; explanation of the talkie, 492 ;
practical experience of farmers in
the use of artificials, 494 ; the four-
course rotation, ib. ; its effects on the
soil, ib. ; purchase of food for stock, 495 ;
supply of 23hosphoric acid, ib. ; potass
manures not profitably applied to wheat,
496 ; utilisation of sewage, ib. ; ex-
aggerated views of the exhaustion of
the soil corrected, 497; the subsoil a
source of mineral supply, ib. ; relative
deficiency of available nitrogen, ih. ;
office of fodder crops, 498 ; Liebig's
views on the increase of cereal crojis,
ib. ; failure of his wheat manure, ib. ;
Professor Hofmann's international re-
port criticised, n. 499; nitrogenous
manures alone not to be relied upon,
500 ; objections to purchasing food for
stock answered, ib. ; increased produc-
tiveness of the soil, 501 ; tendency to
abnormal growth rather than exhaus-
tion, ib.; rotation of grain crops, suita-.
ble di'essings, and time of application,
-ib.

Wheat, experiments on the growth of, by
Professor Vdle (P. H. Frere), xxv. 255 ;
his views as to the assimilation of
VOLS,, I. — XXV.

AVHIPPLE-TREES.

nitrogen by plants, ib. ; his trial fields,
256; experiments with different ma-
nures, ib. ; M. Barral's criticisms, 257 ;
results, ih. ; effect of different consti-
tuents of manure on vegetation, 258;
the must jjlant, a convenient subject
for experiment, ib.

Wheat, experiments at Eodmersham,
Kent, on tlie growth of wheat by diffe-
rent manures, for several years in succes-
sion on the same land (J. B. Lawes and
Dr. J. H. Gilbert), xxiii. 31 ; origin of
t'ne exj^eriments, description of soil,
and previous management, ib. ; ma-
nures, and mode of their application,
32 ; the standard of productiveness, ib. ;
its accidental vitiation, 33 ; tables of
produce and increase, 34-38 ; effect of
nitrogenous manures, 39 : produce of
difierent plots — 1, unmanured, ib.; 2,
mixed mineral manures ; 3, ammonia
salts alone ; 4, mixed minerals and
ammonia salts, 40 : 5, guano ; 6, rape-
cake ; 7, farmyard manure, 41 ; sum-
mary of results, 42 ; amount and value
of increase from different manm-es, 43 ;
table of consecutive dressings, cost of
manure, and value of increase, 44;
effectiveness of ammonial salts and
guano, 43; iiossibility of an extra
grain-crop in the course, 44.

, why not benefited by phosphatic

manures (Dr. Voelcker), xxiv. 41.

— , yearly average price of per qr. from

1G41 to 1856 inclusive, vol. xvii. p. 3.

• , quarterly average price of, per qr.,

30th June, 1855, to 31st December,
1857, xviii. p. xvi. ; 31st December,
1856, to 31st December, 1858, xix. p.
xvi. ; 31st December, 1850, to 31st De-
cember, 1859, xix. ; 30th June, 1S58, to
30th June, 1860, xxi. ; 30th Jrmo, 1860,
to 30th June, 1861, xxii. ; 30th .June,
1861, to .30th June, 1862, xxiii.; 30th
June, 1862, to 30th June, 1863, xxiv.

, diagrams of weekly fluctuations in

prices in the years 1828 to 1855, xvii.
p. 4 ; 1856, xviii. p. viii ; 1857, xix. p.
viii; 1858, xx. p. viii; 18.59, xxi. p.
viii; 1860, xxii. p. vii; 1861, xxiii.
p. viii ; 1862, xxiv. p. viii ; 1863, xxv.
p. viii.

Wheat-straw, see " Straw."

Whey, tlie scalding of, and the making of
whey butter (White), vi. 121.

, sour, used as flax-steep in Germany

(J. Wilson), xiv. 199.

Whinstone rocks, the, the farming of the
light soils of (Haxton), xv. 93, 103.

WiHPPLE-TREES, trusscd. On those shown
at the Lewes meeting (in 1852), xiii.
328.

210 GENEEAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTUEAL JOURNAL.

WHITE.

White, H., a detailed account of the
making of Cheshire cheese, a prize
essay, vi. 102. See " Cheese."

, a detailed report of the di-ainnp;e

by steam-power of a portion of Martin
Mere, Lancashire, xiv. 15G.

■ , on the show of cheese at the Chester

meeting (1858), xLx. 400.

, E., on the results obtained in

thorough-draining and subsoil-jjlough-
ing in the years ISiO and 1841, a rei)ort
to the Hon. E. H. Clive, i. ;;3, ii. olU,
iv. 172, vi. 22'.).

• , slatcuK lit of the comparative quality

of milk I'rojn Alderney and Keny
(Ii-i.sb) cows upon thi' farm of the Hon.
K. Clive at Oakley Tark in 1840, ii.
420. Sec " Milk."

, results of experiments on subsoil-
ploughing iind tiiorough-tlraining at
Oakley I'ark, i. 248.

"U'liiTE-GOtiSErooi', tlie (Buckman), xvi.
iJG4.

■\ViiiTE-MiSTAni), T. C. Burrouglus on, a
Iiri7.e essay, vii. oi ; quality of land on
which sown, ib. ; season of mowing, o2 ;
quantity of seed, (7*. ; season of harvest,
ib.; its use as a greeu manure or for
sheep, 33.

, ploughed in as a dressing for wheat

(P. Love), xvii. 547.

"WiiiTETHOKN hedges, J. Grigor on, vi.
203.

Whitfield fami, experiments at, on the
effects of warmth and shelter in econo-
mising the fooil of sheep, iv. 222.

Whitley, Nicholas, on the climate of the
British Islands ui its eflect on agiicul-
ture, a prize essay, xi. 1.

, on the advantage and use of the

aneroid liaromcter in asceilaining
heights, xvi. 122.

Whitlow in sheep (J. Seaman), xvi. S.

Whittlesea Mere, draiuagc of { W. Wells).
See " Drainage," xxi. 134.

WicimooD forest, on the reclaiming of
{See Waste lands ) xxiv. 271.

forest (Eead), xv. 251.

WiiiDRixGTON, Captain, on the agriculture
of Spain, iv. 344. Set '• Spain."

, on the occurrence of j)ho.sphorite in

Estromadma (in conjunction with Dr.
Daubeny), v. 40G. See " Phosphorite."
Wiggins, J., on the mode of making and
using tUes for underthaining on the
Stow Hall estate in Norfolk, i. 350.
Wild carrot, its soils and habits (Buck-
mau), xvi. 361.

oat. the f Buckman), xv. 471, xvi.

366, xvii. .539.
pansy, its soils and 1 abits, xvi. 360.

WILTSHIRE.

Wild paisnip, its soils and habits, xvi.

361.
■ radish, the. its soils and habits, xvi.

360.

teazle, xvi. 361.

"Wilkinson, J., on the supply of horecs

adapted to the nquu'emcnts of the Eng-

lisli anny, xxiv. 91.
WiiJ.iAMS, G. M., on the tenant's right to

unexhausted improvements accowling

to the custom of Noixh Liucolnshir<\

vi. 44.

. W. J., on early vetches, iii. 236.

, of Baydon. his steam jiatents, wire-

rojK', wmdlass, and pitch-chain for pro-

gi-ession (J. A. Clarke), xx. 197.
. his self-inopelling engines (J. A.

Clarke), xx. 204.
, his steam-plough and cidtivator at

Faniingham QS61). xxiii. 401.
, his steam apparatus at Worcester

(1862), xxiv. 366.
Willow-uehb, the .smooth-leaved, its eoils

and habits '^Buckman), xvi. 361.
Wii.Low-TiiEE. the, its ijlanting and

management, iii. 273.
(the goat) for fences, J. Grigor on.

vi. 226.
Wii.lshwj, Mr., his experience of the cost

of steam- tluasliing macliincry, xxiii.

325.
Wilson, John, on the manufacture of

sugar from beetroot, xiii. 144.
, on flax, its treatment, agiicultiual

and technical, xiv. 187.
, on the various breeds of sheep in

Great Britain, especially with reference

tf) tlie character and value of their wool,

xvi. 222.
, of Newlands, on substitutes for beer

in the hayiield, xxiii, 58.
, Profes.sor, his suggestion to calculate

horse-work at per cwt. of draught at a

given rate of morion, xix. 438, 462.
, on the International Agricultui-al

Meeting at Lille, xxv. 209.
, on the Intel-national Agricidtural

Meeting at Hamburg, xxv. 216.
, of Edington Mains, on the proper

qualifications of a £irmer, xxv. 541.
AViltshire, the iarming of, by Edward

Little, of Sheldon Farm, Chippenham,

prize report, v. 161 ; North and South

Wiltshire, ib. ; the north or oohte dis-
trict, its enclosed pasture faims, its

dairies and cheese, ih.
, South wots, or the chalk-disti-ict,

its arable and down land, its flocks,

its corn. v. 101; its hills of chalk,

lb. ; its flinty loam ioils, ib. ; its singular

sand-M-ins, ib. ; their course described.

VOLUMES OXE TO TWENTY-FIVE.

211

WILI SHIRE.

-ib; the strong clays and clayey loams,
162 ; size of farms, the down is at-
tached to tlie forms, lb. ; rotation of
crops on flinty and chalky loams, ib. ;
land when sown with cloA"er, 163 ; light
llinty soils, ib. ; rotations on, sainfoin,
163; heavy white land, 164; the rota-
tion on. ib. ; saud lands, ib. ; turnip
husbandry, ib. ; the course on the
]>oorcr soils, fb. ; on the sandy loams,
165 ; the growth of green crops, ib. ;
management of crops, ib. ; wheat, when
chiefly sown, ib. ; spring wheat, ib. ;
wheat, cost of reaping, 165 ; barley,
when sowni, drilled, mown, ib.; cow-
grass anil marl-grass as substitutes for
red clover, 166 ; the pastures, 167 ; the
water-meadows, ib. ; an important part
of its husbandry, ib. ; then- course of
management, ib. ; manures employed,
168 ; the sheepfold, ib. ; muckle and
folding, ih. ; farmyard - manure, ib. ;
lx)nes, the use of, to the district, ib. ;
chalk, ib. ; paring and burning, 169 ;
breed of cattle, ib. ; the Berkshire
spotted-pig, ib. ; sheep stock, ib. ; kept
for breeding, ib. ; Southdowns, 170 ;
horses, ib. ; the implements, 171 ; di'ain-
age little needed, 172.

WiLTSHiifE, North Wiltshire, or the oolite
district, v. 172 ; the soils of the corn-
brasli, ib. ■ within the Oxford clay, ib. ;
the coral rag and the Kimmeridge clay,
ib. ; sandy soil, ib. ; size of tlie farms,
173 ; rotation, ib. ; maniu-es, ib. ; stifle-
biUTiing, ib. ; the process described, ib. ;
the manures they employ, 174 ; timiips,
ib. ; pastures, 175 ; their breed of cattle
the shorthorn, ib.; grazing of cattle,
176 ; pigs, ib. ; sheep, ib. ; horses, ib. ;
implements, ib. ; drainage of land, 177 ;
the tenure on which the farms are
generally held, ib. ; wages of labourers,
ib. ; improvements and alterations since
1811, 178.

, the chalk soils of, descriljed by

Davis, xii. 483.

sheep, its likeness (W. C. Sjjooner),

XX. 299 ; see " Sheep-breeding ; " its ex-
tinction in Berkshire (Spearing), xxi. 40.

Vt'iNDS. eflect of W. and N.W. winds in
the W. of England, bv N. Whitley,
xi. 41.

, on the prevailing, by B. Simpson,

xi. 620 ; land and sea breezes, 621.

of Cumberland, the " helm-wind,"

by W. Dickinson, xiii. 214, 215.

of Dorsetshire (Kuegg), xv. 435.

WiNDSOiJ forest partly enclosed (Spear-
ing), xxi. 9.

WiNGATE, W. B., accoimt of the claying

•mREAVORM.

of the peat-soils of Lincolnsliire bv,
ii. 407.

WiNNOWiNG-MACHiNES, a report on those
shown at the Great Exhibition (in
1851), by P. Fusey, xii. 631.

, former rude mode of winnowing in

Cumberland (Dickinson), xiii. 276.

, those shown at the Gloucester

meeting (1853), xiv. 351.

, those shown at the Lincoln meeting

(1854), XV. 378.

, those shown at the Carlisle meeting

(1855), xvi. 507, 515.

, on those shown at Chester (1858),

xix. 342.

WiXTER-PKorD wheat, what owing to
(Buckman), xvii. 179.

WiREWORM, observations on the natural
history and economy of the wireworms
aifecting the turnips, corn-crops, &c.,
and also of their parents, the elaters
or beetles, called skipjacks, click-
beetles, &c., by John Curtis, v. 180;
almost omnivorous, 181 ; its food, ib. ;
the beetles the parents of the wire-
worm, ib. ; elaters, skipjacks, or spring-
beetles, 182; the beetles' eggs, ib.;
the wireworms, ib.; habits described,
ib.; whether they can fast, 189; the
crops which sufler from their attacks,
190; oats, barle}% ib. ; wheat, 191;
jjotatoes, 192 ; hops, 193 ; cabbages,
ib. ; the turnip, 194 ; this plant has the
greatest number of insect enemies to
encounter, ib. ; pansies, dahlias, lobe-
lias, carnations, 196; where they do
most mischief, 197; soils commonly
most infested, ib. ; modes of dealing
with the wireworm, ib. ; found in waste
and wood land, 200 ; rolling-crops at-
tacked by them, 201 ; crops that destroy
the wireworm, 203 ; eflect of liquids
on — water, ib. ; spirits of turpentine,
spirits of wine, ib. ; spuits of tar, refuse
lime of gas-works, 204 ; eflect of lime
and soot and salt, 205 ; the rook au
enemy to wireworms, 207 ; and phea-
sants, partridges, lapwings, 208 ; en-
gravings of the wireworm in its
diflerent stages, ib. ; the satin-coated
click-beetle, 217 ; the mouse-coloured
click-beetle, ib. ; the tawny-legged click-
beetle, 218 ; the spitting click-beetle,
219; the black click-beetle, ib.; the
margined click-beetle, 220 ; the pointed
click-beetle, 221 ; the long-necked
click-beetle, ib. ; insects which destroy
tlie wheworms, 224 ; their parasites,
225 ; the parasites of the click-beetles,
ib. ; false wireworms, 227 ; the snake
millepedes, 228.

o 2

212 GENERAL INDEX TO ROYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

WiREWOKM, on the desti'uction of, by J.

M. H. Charuock, xi. 183.
■ , their absence from Mr. Drewitt's

farm near Guildford, a holding free

from weeds (Evershed), xiv. 84.
, infesting sainfoin, suggested means

of destroying (Curtis), xviii. 57.
WoAD, crops of, cfiect on the wircworm

(Curtis), V. 203.
WoiiLER, on soluble phosphate given

out by watered bones, xvii. 201.
Wolds of Lincolnshire, described by A.

Young, iv. 298.

, by J. A. Clarke, xii. 271, 330.

of York.sliire described (Legard), ix.

90, 92, 99, 103.
, the soils of, desoribeil by Tvcgard,

xii. 480.
Wolfe, E. B., on the comparative merits

of thick and thin sowing, ix. 453.
, on the proper quantity of seed for

wheat, xi. 181.
AVoMij, inflammation of, ui cows (Sibbald).

xii. 507.
Women as accountants in France, xxiv.

15.
Wood, W. Bryan, on the improvements

to be made in laud 1iy amending the

channels of rivers and other water-
courses, xiii. 367.

' , H., on subsoiling pastures, XXV. 510.

, see " Timber."

, on the funguses of, dry-rot, &c., by

the Rev. E. Sidney, x. :;94.

ashes, analysis of, xiii. 490.

, analysis of several kinds of (Payen),

ii. 253.
, analysis of the wood of the apple,

xiii. 530.

of the pear, xiii. 530.

of the cherry, ib.

of the plum, ih.

of the filbert, ib.

of the oak, ib.

of the walnut, ib.

■ • of the ash, ib.

of the elm, ib.

of the fibr, ib.

of the larcli, ?7/.

of the bcocli, (7/.

of the birch, ib.

of the cliesnut, ib.

of the lime, ib.

of the poplar, ib.

lyme-gniss (Buckman), xv. 464.

meadow-grass (Buckman"), xvii. 530.

Woods of Devonshire '^Tanner;, ix. 484.
of Cumberland Dickinson^, xiii.

280.
, analysis of wood, bark, and leaves

of forest-trees (Hemming), xiii. 530.

Woods of East Lothian (Stevenson), xiv.
289.

, beech, of Oxfordshire (Read), xv.

253.

of Dorsetshire fEuegg), xv. 414.

, beech, of Bacldnghamshire (^llead\

xvi. 307.

, on the gniblnng up of, by J. E.

Denison, xvi. 352; expenses of, 354;
injury of the shade of a wood, and
prevention of a free circulation of air,
358.

Woodward, F., on a method of breaking
up inferior pasture-land, ix. 54.

W(H)DY fibre, difficulties of estimating
(Lawes), xx. 420.

, its relation to cellulose (Dr. Voelc-

ker), xxii. 389 ; (Lawes), xxiii. 191.

Wool, the Merino, or Saxon of ]\Iecklen-
burg(S. Carr), i. 131.

, observations on (E. Smith), viii. 25.

, the prices of, in Kill, and during

the present century, 1)y T. Eowiundsou,
X. 422 ; produced by dillerent sheep
slaughtered in London in 1800, 423 ;
cll'ects of smearing on, 445.

, the weight of wool produced in a

comparative trial of 40 Sassex and 40
Hampshire Down sheep, by J. B.
Lawes, xii. 429.

])roduced from 40 Cotswold sheep,

by J. B. Lawes, xiii. 189.

analysed, xiii. 490.

of Dorsetshire (Euegg), xv. 432.

produced from Leicester sheep and

cross-breds, in tlie trials of J. B. Lawes,
xvi. 58, GO ; from other .sheep, 73 ;
average prices of, 81.

, on the general character, com-
mercial uses, &c., of British wool, by
John Wilson, xvi. 239 ; " hogs " or
" tegs," ib. ; " wethers " and " ewes," in-
fluence of careful and regular feeding
upon the growth of, 240; influence of
climate, locality, and soil, ib. ; Scotch
cross-bred and Welsh wools, 241 ; Down
and Dorset-stapled wool, ib. ; the deep-
grown combing wools, ib. ; woollens,
242 ; worsteds, ih. ; with cotton warps,
243 ; skin wool, 244 ; scats of the Eng-
lish manufactures of woollen cloths,
ib. ; blankets, low woollens, low car-
pets, worsted goods, flannels, ib. ; prices
of various wools, April 1, 1855, 245;
Lincoln wool, ib. ; Leicester, ih. ; Cots-
wold, Eomney marsh, Devon, Bam-
borougli, ib. ; Bumpton Down, Eye-
land, Merino, 246 ; Dartmoor, Exmoor,
Radnor or Wekh, Ciieviot, black-faced
Highland, Herdwick, Shetland, cross-
bred, 247,

VOLUMES OI^E TO TWENTY-FIVE.

213

Wool of Shropshire, famous m the four-
teenth century (H. Tanner), xix. GO.

, imports of, in 1855-6, xix. 220.

, report on that shown at Leeds,

1S61 (H. Ludolf), xxii. 232.

, importation and prices of, in 1862

(Herbert), xxv. 247.

WooL-FAiKS of Germany in 1856, report
on, xvii. 335.

Woollens, manufactm-es of, J. Wilson
on, xvi. 242.

rags, as a manure for beeti-oot, by

P. Pusey, vi. 529.

, the analysis of, by J. T. Way, x.

617, xiii. 498 ; rich in sulphmic acid
(Bowditch) xviii. 305.

, prennings, cuttings, shoddy ana-
lysed, xiii. 498.

, wooUen refuse used as a manure in

Oxfordshii-e (Read), xv. 244.

or shoddy, a refuse of the flock-
works, its use as a manure, by Dr. A.
Voelcker, xvi. 94 ; its composition, xix.
180.

Worcester showyard, report on, xxiv.
487 ; inadequacy of railway arrange-
ments, 492.

Work, measiu:e, on, by H. Rajnibird, vii.
119.

Worms, earth, the way in which they
aid in di-aining land, by J. Beart, iv.
413.

, the depth to which they penetrate,

by J. Parkes, vii. 266.

, then- fondness for hemp (Eowland-

sou), X. 178.

, theii' holes filled and the worms

killed by irrigation (P. Pusey), x. 476.

, theii- action on jjasture as described

by Wedgwood and Darwin, xix. 225 ;
foreign worms at Thirsk, 277 ; their
dislike to coal ashes, ih. ; their number
increased by manure (H. S. Thompson),
xix. 260 : their operations slow but
effectual, ib.

Wormwood, if eaten by cows, gives a
bitter taste to then- milk (Euegg), xiv.
69.

Worsteds, the manufactories of, J. Wil-
son on, xvi. 243.

WoszicKE, Count, on the utility of the
titmouse in devouring caterpillars,
xxiii. 238.

WoL^NDS of sheep (Cleeve), 1. 321.

WitATisLAW, C., on the capital required
for a mixed arable and pasture farm in
a midland county, a prize essay, xxii.
167.

Wright, J., on shorthorn cattle, vii. 201.

, W., on the management of breed-
ing cattle, xix. 500.

Wright, W., on improvements in the
farming of Yorkshire since the date of
former reports, xxii. 87.

Y.

Ya^t, the water, its tuber analysed, xiii,
522.

, the guinea, its tuber analysed, xiii.

522.

Yarrow-grass, the, analysis of (Way),
xiv. 179.

Yeast-plant, description of (Mulder),
xvii. 82.

, its growth due to nitrogen, 83.

Yellow oat-like grass, analysis of (Way),
xiv. 177.

■ , its growth in different situations

(Buckman), xv. 468 ; xvii. 542.

York meeting, report of the exliibition
and trials of implements at, by H. S.
Thompson, is. 377.

Yorkshire, on the farming of the East
Richng, by G. Legard, a prize report,
ix. 85 ; of the wolds, ib. ; soils resting
on tlic chalk, their origin, and defici-
ency in calcareous matter, 87 ; analysis,
of wold soils, ib. ; Holdcrncss, 89, 101 ;
the Carrs, ib. ; soils of, ib. ; vale of
l'"ork, 90, 99 ; the wold husbandry in
1770, Arthur Young and Sir Digby
Legard on, 92, 103 ; the failure of the
clover-ijlant, 106; the turnip cultiva-
tion of, 107; growth of oats, 113;
wheat-sowing, 116; sainfoin, 118; the
wold-23onds, 119 ; chalking, 121 ; sheep
of, ib. ; cattle of, 123 ; horses of, 125 ;
labourers, ib. ; cottage allotments, 126 ;
benefit societies, 127 ; cultivation of an
East Riding farm, by Mr. F. Shawe, 129.

, on the wold soils, by G. Legard,

xii. 479.

— — , West Riding of, on the farming of,
by J. C. Charuock, a prize report, ix.
284 ; character of soils, ib. ; its great
coal formation, 287; the magnesian
limestone soils, 289 ; the new red sand-
stone, 290 ; the Eipon gravel, 291 ;
peculiarities of agricultural manage-
ment, 293 ; the continued cropping
with wheat, 294; licorice, growth of,
near Pontefract, 297; potatoes grown
on the warp soils, 298 ; the size of the
holdings, 301 ; improvements in the
farming of, since 1799, the extent of
land contained in it, 303 ; the sewage
of its large towns, 308.

, the North Riding, on tlie farming

of, a prize report, by M. M. Milburn,
ix. 496 ; its soils, ib. ; the sand and
gravel district, 499 ; wheat crops, ib. ;

21-i GENERAL INDEX TO EOYAL AGRICULTURAL JOURNAL.

YOKKSHIKE.

quantity of seed, 501 ; harvesting, iJ). ;
its hooded stoobs of corn, ih. ; stubhle
cleansings, 502 ; tuniiji ci-ops, ib. ; tlic
tui-nip hack, 505 ; bailey ci-op, 50(J ;
grass-seeds, 507 ; clover ruckle, ih. ;
the chainagc of its .sandy land, 509 ;
the clay district, 511 ; the Vale of
Cleveland, 512; fallows, 513; sections
of potato pits, 514 ; tlio grazing valleys,
■ih.; Wenslcydale, 51G; analysis of
limestones, ib. ; the mixed district, 517,
cattle, 518; l;orses, «7». ; sheep, A. ; ]iigs,
51'J ; implements, ih.; ttinancy, 520;
labourers, ib. ; tanks for lii^uid muuiue,
ib.
YoRKSHir.E, report on the drainage of the
Rye and IJcrweiit Valleys, Ijy .John
Henderson, xiv. 129.

Agricultural Society (^Thompson,

M.P.), XXV. 1, 8.

farming, improvements in, later re-

l)ort (W. Wright), xxii. 87; Idiidlordg'
improvements and increased rentals, SU;
tile and ))ii)e machines, ib. ; drainage,
■i7(. ; improved cottages, !)0 ; timber, ib. ;
IMr. Pusey's summai-y of landlord's im-
provements, ih. ; covered cattle-yards,
5)1; value of land, ib.; higli jirices of
jiroduce, 92; sewage, 93; utilisation
of domestic sewage, ib. ; Rugby sewage,
94 ; liigh ])rice of guano, ib. ; manage-
ment of roatls anil highways, 95 ; game
preserves, (7;. ; tnmk tlrainage. ib. ; tields
and hedge-rows, 9tj ; tenure of land, ib. ;
form of tenant-right agreemint, 97 ;
reclamation of land at tlie llumber
mouth, ib. ; successful instance of warji-
ing, 98; drainage 99; prizes for well-
managed farms, 100 ; (eiiaut.'<' improve-
ments, 101 ; highland-fonning. 102 ;
artificial mamu'es, ib. ; farm-buildings,
103 ; use of straw, ib. ; the privuiling
rotation, (7;. ; the ^old district, 104 ;
the West Riding, ib.; markets, 105;
tile North Riding, ib. ; cattle-feeding,
ib. ; adulteration of seeds and cake,
106 ; clover-sickness, ib. ; English and
foreign seed, 107 ; Silesiau seed, 108 ;
guano, 109 ; improvements on the low-
land pastures,/?*.; draining arable land,
110 ; the North Riding adapted for
breeding, ib.; redrainagc of "lands,"
111 ; autxunn cultivation, ib. ; wheat

gi'omng on strong loams, //). ; wheat,
112; turnips, /7>. ; hay, field-peas, pota-
toes, 113 ; origin of jwtato disease, 114 ;
llax, 115; holcus saccharatus, 116;
chicory, ih. ; race-liorses, hunters, and
riding-horses, 117; hacks, carriage,
blood, and cart horses, 118; horse-
fairs, 119 ; cattle, ih.; prizes taken at
R.A.S. meetings by Yorkshhe breeders,
ib. ; sliorthoms — value of bulls, ib. ;
general dift'usion of the breed, 120 ;
IMr. Horsfall's mode of feeding. 121 :
.sheep. 122 ; food and management of
Leicesters, 123 ; Earnsliire ewes, ih. ;
the Leicester and Cotswold cross, ib.;
jiig.s, 124 ; bleeders in the West Riding,
//*. ; ])oultry, ih.; cheese, 125; agri-
cultui-al implements, ih. ; .steam tlii-ash-
ing-machincs and ploughs. 120: ploughs
and scarifiers, ih. ; turnip-cutter, ih. ;
liay-making machine, ih. ; MacOonnick's
reaper, 127 ; waggons, ih. ; education, 128 ;
coinmei-cial men as farmers, ih. ; national
sch(X)ls, ib. ; savings bank, 129 ; evening
schools for farm-seiTants, ih. ; farm-gar-
dens, ib. ; rape-.seed and linseed-cake,
economy of labour, 130.

YoiA'iT, on tlie origin of consumption iu
cattle, iv. 254 ; iuul air, neglect of sani-
tary precautious, predisiiosing causes,
254.

, on the detection of pregnancy in the

mare and tli(^ cow, i. 170.

, ou the rot in sheep, xxiii. 79.

Y'ouxi}, Arthur, his report of the fens of
Lincolnshire, iv. 290.

, his French statistics compared with

modem returns, xxi. 530.

■ , his account of the improved Ilamp-

sliire Down shcc^p, Mr. Pouletfs flock,
xxii. 295.

, on the rot in sheep, xxiii. 65; Mr.

Bakeweir.-5 motive for rotting sheep. 73.

, BIr. (t., his improvements at Ashley,

Isle of Wight, xxii. 3G3.

Zeolite, tlie, analvsis of, xiii. 532 ; xvii.

467.
Zetlaxh, the Earl of, on nitrate of soda

as a manure, i. 280, ii. 124.

i-ONDox: riirxTED Br v.-. clowes axd sons, stasifokd street.

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