# & V VV WV mes vyeuee WV VW WWW Pras Vig ¥ y y sd Wye AN) IAChG MAG Y VGUNU GUY UG Wey , We WWW W , AV \ WW. YM ! pees wy “ Wi. yu VU gu ve ' V Wie’ ft Vv WWW v AMadgdl WAY , vi My gw NA NV U ¥ AA | NN W ve Nh W Ww) v iu i ‘i WYN, yw LAAN V v rey WY Jeg uvGUy : V Vy Ue) W V yy my V Wu vi V \ i VU Ww WN Y ay wit uy vy) i W iy he tus i Jiu Md Yee ‘ : 4 ah 6 ee ae iad o et ‘i Vane 3 \ Yen doe nh 8 ‘ =] iM, i Di vGUY vei Vw V ae TV UEAy wee hts score ir boa \ 5 a > > a >>> a > 5 4 SF S> > > Ss => eae i << ae es >>) > > > i. 33 SSS 3Ser >> a> > SW opr W \ y y y y | NU VOCER } wil ‘iw y v Ww V : Uw A , v V 3D SDD> DDI PF D> sy 2? 223 S535 3 >> Sy vuuyyUeyyY SD >>> = >> > >>> >> a> > > >> Fs > 2 »> _D D> yy >> >>») »yY ‘+ > >> >>> >> ee PP > a >>» & DD 2D D172 2 Oe i ba i a E>) , _ Wal \ AiaialalalalaVtA } EUR AN a \ APS YIAAIAIAR YAR MAAN a AINAA \alay Naan re aateae Ve NY. NAIA Vey AAR f AANA AYA ; Sagres Sawn AN Ann Manne A Ai fA \A ANA RRNA RAY A ANN NI Aa S ! | ! AY a\i ON AANAIAA A V nRanne RAMANA \ ANNA YVAAARAR 9! } wacacen RARY OF. =e => = Aiton | ARIANA \A\ shat WANAAARAAA WARRARAA ; AAAnVVAAANAAA iA la sag t\a ww LIB Foe ARA aAAA AaAAAn AAR ia A AANaa ANANANANAA NARA AAWAAANAA AA AAA SH co 2 > eee Se. >> yy Dae DY. 245 D2: >> 2 a vs prep» 232s 8 2 ee DD a Se 322 SD = > Ug aes © VI aN NRE DPI 3 <8 aw Oh A Aid LA AE we d\ Wine ES ped : ues WY yi MN, ii yy ) *. LL on 4 a) ! THE re Tog JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. SECOND SERIES VYORUME THE Six TEEN TH. PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE, LONDON= JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1880. "O433 Vato UwA Se res THESE EXPERIMENTS, IT IS TRUE, ARE NOT EASY; STILL THEY ARE IN THE POWER OF EVERY THINKING HUSBANDMAN. HE WHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT ONE, OF HOWEVER LIMITED APPLICATION, AND TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND OF THOSE WHO COME AFTER. TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT BE EXPECTED. THE FIRST CARE OF ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR SCIENCE SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FORMS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE THE EXECUTION OF THESE AMONG THEIR MEMBERS, VAN THAER, Principles of Agriculture. LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS, ( iii) CONTENTS OF VOLUME XVI. SECOND SERIES. STATISTICS :-— PAGE Meteorology for the year 1879 60! 00 yal es I-X Imports of Corn, &c., British Wheat sold, aad ‘Averate Prices ‘XI-KV Acreage under each “description of Cn Failow, and Grass; and Number of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs in Great Britain and ireland St Oi, lentosanaMlog ie sco Anette tcl sti ae XVEs XVIE Number of Beasts exhibited, and the Prices realised for flier at the Christmas Markets, since 1848 . Sess MOA: XVIII Importations and Average Prices of caren Foreign and Colonial Productions .. .. .. + sonia tak xIx Statistics of Dairy Produce, and Prices Gatrtnt MeN eise 1c XK VAT ARTICLE I.—Report of the Judges appointed by the Royal Agricultural Society of England to ace the Prizes in the Sewage Farm Competition, TSMOb ss . Gres dsm eerel ecle ds os bo - al Il.—Notes on Mariket-Gardening and Vine-Culture in the North- west of France. By H. M. Jenkins, F'.G.S. d sitiasioh of the Society, and Editor of the‘Journal’ .. .. oO, IlI.—The Supply of Milk to Labourers. By Henry mvjeuitied ye AOS TV.—Underwood: the Planting, Growth, Conversion, and Sale thereof. By Francis Tallant, of Easebourne .. a ape V.—Abstract Report on Rot in Sheep. By J. B. Simonds, Principal of the Royal Veterinary College, and Consulting ee Surgeon to the Society .. .. 121 VI.—Report on the Field and Feeding ivoduiinents Senducte at Woburn, on behalf of tke Royal Agricultural Society of England, during the Year 1879. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S., Consulting Chemist to the Society .. .. «. « 130 Vil.—An Experiment on the Comparative Value of Linseed-cake and a mixture of Decorticated Cotton-cake and Maize-meal for fattening Bullocks, By Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S. .. 149 VIII.—On the Comparative Value of Soluble and Insoluble Bree By Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S ., .. 152 IX.—On the Composition of Cream and Skim- milk pisindl iy De Laval’s Centrifugal a ee By Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F'.R.S. ae nt Mtn or eae emer OU) X.—Notes on a Report presented to the * Société des Agriculteurs de France’ by their Deputation to the Kilburn Exhibition. By J. D. Dent, of Ribston, Wetherby .. .. «© « oo» 162 lv CONTENTS. ARTICLE PAGE XI.—Report of the Judges of Foreign Draught Horses at Kilburn 170 XII.—Our Climate and our Wheat-Crops. By J. B. Lawes, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., and J. H. Gilbert, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. . XUI.—The Past Agricultural Year. By J.C. Morton .. .. .. 210 XIV.—Observations on the Disease of the Cow, commonly known as Dropping after Calving. By James Beart eke Principal of the Royal Veterinary College... .. 250 XV.—Report on Experiments on Anthrax conducted at the Baw Institution, february 18 to June 30,1878. By Dr. Burdon- Sanderson, I’.R.S., formerly ‘Superintendent of the Brown Institution 2... so) y0e Ao ZL XVI.—Report on an Inquiry into the fattice Causes, hia et tion of Splenic Fever, Quarter-Evil, and Allied Diseases, made at the Brown Institution. By W.S. Greenfield, WIDE WGC ey Protest Cea of the Brown Institution co. toc Ate XVII.—Annual Report of the iGonguliing Chemist for 1879. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S. .. .. .. soul: XVIII.—Annual Report of the Consulting Botaist fe 1879. By V w. Carruthers, F.R.S... .. 8 eee 821 XIX.—Quarterly Reports of the Grewal Gommittes co nb B74 Additions to the Library in 1879 .. .. .. 2 . «. doo XX.—On the Home Produce, Imports, Consumption, and Price of Wheat, over 28 (or 27) Harvest- Years, 1852-3 to 1879-80. By J. B. Lawes, LL.D., F.R.S., F C.S., and J. H. Gilbert, IDWIOL, INI ISh , FCS. cc, eee es . 337 e XXI.—Utilisation of Waste eee and Teel ieee ment of Materials, Machines, and Appliances on the Farm. By Robert Scott Burn, Consulting Farm Architect and Engineer.. .. Pee bo, tog, Cee XXII.—The Management of a Shor non Tepe By William Housman 381 XXIII.—Laying down Land to Grass. By James Howard, M.P., of Clapham Park, Bedfordshire .. .. 435 XXIV. perc’ on the Studs and Breeds of Horses in ae By J. Collins, Principal Veterinary Surgeon to the Forces .. 441 XXV.—Report on the Cattle Disease in the Island of Cyprus. By F. Charles Heidenstam, M.D , District Medical Officer for Larnaca, Chief Inspector of Cattle Disease... 457 XXVI.—The Sources of Supply of the Manchester Fruit and Vegetable Markets. By John Page .. .. ote 475 XXVII.—The Cumberland and Westmoreland haptcpaies caeuan 1880. By Herbert J. Little, of Coldham Hall, Wisbech 486 XXVIII.—On a New Method of Testing Milk. ee Dr. Augustu Voelcker, F.R.S. .. .. oe .. 583 XXIX.—On the Composition of Ewes? Milk. By ae Augeees Wiosleker Honest an es 5 SE XXX.—On the Composition of Goats’ Milk. By Dr. Anant VioelckerHRiOyere wesc leemenls 594 CONTENTS. Vv ARTICLE PAGE XXXIJI.—Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Carlisle, 1880. By Lieut.-Col. Picton Turbervill, of rhe Priory, Bridgend .. . ae Pee en BEE, eae on Live-Stock at » Genie, by Finlay Dun, of 2, Portland Place, London .. .. do faj0ul XXXITI ae of the Senior Steward of Taements By W. Frankish, of Limber Magna, Ulceby, Lincolnshire .. ., 657 XX XIV.—Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Carlisle. By Robert Neville, of Butleigh Court, Glastonbury .. .. 660 APPENDIX. PAGE List of Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1880 i, xxxvii Standin=|Committees for 1880 ., <2 se os 1 co ov se lil, XXXIX Report of the Council to the General ees December 11, 1879, Pride Vara ae GSOM sa) cal cel ea) Gres no. dc v, xli Distribution of Members and Council... ba GO x< Half-yearly Cash Account from 25th June to 31st Mecanhare 1879, and from 1st January to 380th June, 1880 .... A Sain dbya! Yearly Cash Account from 1st January to 31st December 1879 oe xiv London Exhibition Account, 1879 .... Nee) met ise Xvi Carlisle Meeting, 1880: Schedule of Prizes, ee, Sean cee cals ene XViii List of Stewards and Judges, and Award of Prizes at Carlisle... .. xviii Agricultural Education: Examination Papers, 1880 a Se es xcix Memoranda of Meetings, Payment of Subscriptions, &c... .. XXX, cvii Members, Veterinary brivileres: 3.6 22. (2,601. «1 a) (ie XXxii, cix Members’ Chemical Privileges .. .. .. XXxiil, cx Guide to the Purchase of Artificial Miecurces ale Thane Stutts XXXIV, cxi Members’ Botanical and Entomological Privileges .. .. .. XXXvVi, CXill DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. Statement of Accounts of Sewage Farms... .. .. «+. to facep.2 Table V.—Home Produce, Imports, Consumption, &e. .. to face p. 302. The Binder is destred to collect together all the Appendix matter, with Roman numeral folios and place it at the end of each volume of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Statistics, &c., which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Volume; the lettering at the back to include a statement of the year as well as the volume; the first volume belonging to 1839-40, the second to 1841, the third to 1842, the fourth to 1843, and so on. In Reprints of the Journal all Appendix matter and, in one instance, an Article in the body of the Journal (which at the time had become obsolete), were omitted; the Roman numeral folios however (for convenience of reference), were reprinted without alteration in the Appendix mutter retained. ad = ee bi, #' ’ & (eeprrey » tae oe Aerie ime y ia a eat > ; "i be 7 ied : my ee & db wan: WO ¢ . i ae) Th METEOROLOGY ; IMPORTATIONS OF GRAIN; SALES OF BRITISH WHEAT; PRICES OF CORN AND OTHER PRODUCE; AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS; AND STA- TISTICS OF DAIRY PRODUCE. ——too——— [The facts are derived chiefly from the Meteorological Reports of Mr. GuatsHer, and the Returns of the Boarp or TrAvE and of the INsPEcTOR- GENERAL OF Imports AND Exports. ] METEOROLOGY.—1879. First Quarter (January, February, March).—The readings of the barometer showed an average slight excess in January and March, whereas they ruled considerably below the average in February, indeed it was the wettest February back to 1815, with the excep- tion of 1866: the month was very destructive to vegetation; the mean reading of the quarter was 29°67. The short period of warm weather, which set in on 26th December, ended on 2nd January, when a cold period set in and lasted till 4th February; after 10 days of comparatively warm weather, low temperature pre- vailed again from 17th February till 3rd March. From 4th to 20th March the temperature was generally above the average ; from 21st to 28th it was severely cold, and the last few days of the quarter were warm. The mean temperature of the quarter was 37°1, and was 2°:8 below the average for the corresponding period in 38 years; the mean showed a deficiency of 6°°8 in January, of 1°2 in February, and of 0°-4 in March. The fall of rain, at Greenwich, for the quarter was 7:0 inches, and was 2°0 inches above the average amount in the corresponding quarter in 64 years; 2°6 inches fell in January, 3°8 in February, and 0°6 of an inch in March. The number of hours of bright sunshine measured during the quarter at Greenwich Observatory was 137°5, against 141-0 in the corresponding period of last year. The month of January was unusually sunless, only 14°8 hours of bright sunshine being recorded. Second Quarter (April, May, June).—The readings of the baro- meter showed a slight excess during May, but were considerably VOI cv le —— See A Cn® below the average both in April and June; the mean reading in the quarter was 29:67, and was 0:12 below the average for the corresponding period in 88 years. The weather throughout these three months continued cold, wet, and sunless, During the quarter the temperatures of 17 days only were of their average or a little above their average values, all the rest ~ were below, and at times very much below; on some days both in April and May the deficiency of temperature was as large as 10°, 11°, or 12°, and towards the end of June several days together were of lower temperature than their averages by 5° or 6°. The mean deficiency for the 91 days in the quarter was 3°36 on the average of the preceding 60 years. The mean temperature of the quarter was only 49°-5, the lowest since the very severe corresponding period in 1837, when it was 48°:3, and there have been nine instances only back to 1771 of such low temperatures, viz. in the years 1771, 1773, 1782, 1793, 1799, 1812, 1816, 1824, and 1837. This unusually protracted bad weather set in on 27th October, 1878; the weather in November and December was exceptionally severe, the mean temperature of these two months being 36°7, a ower value than any experienced in this century, and back to 1771 the instances of somewhat lower temperatures were 1782, when it was 35°4; 1784, 35°8; 1786, 36°°3; 1788, 34°°8; and 1796, 85°:4, The mean value for January was only 31°-9, being 51 nearly below the average of 60 years, and it is very remarkable that these three months should be of such low temperatures, as they have recently been from 2° to 3° of higher temperatures than they were a hundred years ago. The months of February and March were together but slightly below their averages, so that the mean tem- perature of the quarter ending March 31st, though low, viz. 37°'1, had been of lower value in twenty instances in the des ger 108 years. With respect to the mean temperature of the eight amis ending June 1879, viz. 41°65, it is the lowest since the cele- brated year of great frost, 1814, when it was still lower, viz. 40°°4. Vegetation, generally, at the end of this quarter was fully a month or six weeks later than usual. The rainfall of the quarter at Greenwich was 10'3 inches, mea- sured on 51 days, and exceeded the average amount in the cor- responding quarter of 64 years by 4:5 inches. The rainfall amounted to 2°6 inches in April, 3-4 inches in May, and 4°3 inches in June; the amount exceeded the average in each month, the largest excess occurring in June. Only four times since 1815 has ( I ) the rainfall of the second. quarter of the year exceeded 10 inches. The rainfall of the first six months of this year was no less than 17:3 inches, and was without a single exception greater than in any corresponding six months since 1815. The number of hours of bright sunshine measured during the quarter at Greenwich Observatory was 352°1, against 486-0 and 499-8 hours respectively, in the second quarters of 1877 and 1878. The deficiency of sunshine was relatively greatest in June. : Third Quarter (July, August, September).—The mean readings of the barometer were below the average during each of the months of this quarter, the depression being greatest during July. The month of July was dull, very cold and sunless, with many days of temperature from 7° to 9° below their averages. Rain fell on every day during the first half of the month, and frequently afterwards, and snow fell at Bolton on both the 4th and 8th, and at Cockermouth on the 9th. August was a month of very unsettled weather, with very litile sunshine; about the middle of the month there were a few days whose mean temperature was equal to or slightly in excess of their averages, and during which period no rain fell, but rain was nearly continuous at all other parts of the month; it was a cold and very wet month, and thunderstorms were frequent. During the first few days of September no rain fell, and it was fine and dry, but, from the 6th, rain fell nearly daily, and the remainder of the month was cloudy and gloomy. Till July 27th the average deficiency of mean temperature was 5° daily, and from July 28th to the end of the quarter, notwith- standing the few days of slight excess of temperature, the defi- ciency of temperature was }° daily. Thus the weather during ths whole quarter has been cold, wet, and sunless, being a continuation of the bad weather which had been prevalent for the eight preceding months. The month of September was the eleventh month in succession of low temperature, and there are only two instances in this cen- tury, viz. in 1813-14, and 1815-16, when the temperatures of these eleven months (November 1878 to September 1879) were closely approximate to that of the present period. The mean temperature of the quarter was 5871, and was 1°°6 below the average for the corresponding period in 108 years. It was below the average in each month of the quarter; the deficiency of temperature was equal to 3°'5 in July, 1°-0 in August, and 0°2 in September. The rainfall of the quarter was remarkable both for its frequency A 2 Oodle) and for the amount measured. At the Royal Observatory, Green- wich, 11:75 inches were measured on 53 of the 92 days of the quarter, exceeding the average in 64 years by 44 inches; 3:7 inches were measured in July, 5:2 inches in August, and 2:8 inches in September. The rainfall exceeded the average in each month of the quarter; the excess was largest in August. The previous instances of such a large fall in this quarter are—in the year 1828, 13°8 inches, in the year 1829, 12°3 inches, in the year 1839 and 1867, 11°4 inches, and in 1875, 10°3 inches; in all other years the fall has been less than 10 inches ; this by itself would have been remarkable, but is much more so when added to the heavy falls of the preceding six months, viz. 17°3 inches, making the total fall this year to the end of September the unprecedented amount of 29 inches. The number of hours of bright sunshine measured during the quarter at Greenwich Observatory was 354-9, against 441-4 and 451-4 in the corresponding periods of 1877 and 1878; the most marked deficiency of sunshine occurred during July. Fourth Quarter (October, November, Decembar).—The readings cf the barometer were above their averages in each month of the quarter. The month of October was perhaps the finest month in the year, yet it was cold, dull, and sunless, with a smaller rainfall than in any October since 1834. November was an exceedingly cold month, with scarcely any rain till after the 18th day; it was not, however, a dry month owing to mists. December was a remark- ably cold month, of lower temperature than any December in this century ; it was also remarkable for dense and very continuous fogs and high readings of the barometer. In October the temperature was variable: there were a few days of warm weather, then a few days of cold weather, the latter pre- ponderating, and so on throughout the month. From November ist to December 27th the weather was most winterly and very severe. The day of lowest temperature was December 7th; its mean tem- perature was 23°6, being 17°9 below its average. The coldest group of days was from December Ist to 7th; their mean tem- perature was 25°9, or 15°8 below their averages. The mean daily temperature of the 12 days between November 30th and December 11th was 27°85, or 13°-67 below the average for these days. The mean temperature of the 38 days ending Decem- ber 27th was 31™1, or 9°-7 below the average. The temperature of every month of the year was below its average, and there is no other instance back to the year 1771 of oe such being the case. The mean temperature of the year 1879 was 46°-2, being lower than that of any other year in this century, with the exception of the year 1814, when it was 45°8; but in this year both May and December were more than 2° above their averages. The month of December was the fourteenth month in succession of low temperature. The mean for this period was 44°:8, and it is necessary to go back to the years 1813-14 for a corresponding period of a similar low temperature, so that there is no instance in this century of a period of lower temperature than the one we are passing through. In 1815 the cold period of fourteen months was followed by a cold January, but both February and March were warm. The mean temperature for the quarter was 39°-9, being 3°7 and 4°-6 respectively, below the averages of the preceding 108 years and 38 years. The mean showed a deficiency of 0°°5 in October, 4°-0 in November, and 6°°7 in December, compared with the average for corresponding periods of 108 years. It was the coldest De- cember in this century, and there are but three instances of so cold a December back to 1771, viz. in the year 1784, 31°-0, in 1788, 29°-0, and in 1796, 30°4. The fall of rain in the months of October, November, and De- cember was 2°3 inches, being 4:9 inches less than the average for this quarter, but, in consequence of the excess of rain in the pre- vious months, the year 1879 will rank as a wet one; the fall in the year was 31‘3 inches, being greater in amount than in any year since 1860. The number of hours of bright sunshine recorded during the quarter at Greenwich Observatory was 138-3, against 184°7 and 157°6 hours, respectively, in the fourth quarters of 1877 and 1878. The largest proportional deficiency of sunshine occurred in October. THE YEAR. The meteorological elements of the year 1879 differed consider- ably from their respective averages, and the weather generally was cold, wet, and sunless. Low temperatures were recorded in every month of the year; the rainfall was in excess of that in the previous year, and also of the average: only 983 hours of bright sunshine were recorded at Greenwich, against 1250 hours in the previous year. The mean of the barometrical values for the year was almost identical with the average of the preceding 38 years, but the readings were principally below the average during the first nine Cop lee) months of the year, and above the average in the last three months, especially in December. The mean temperature of the year was 46°:2, which was 3°°3 below the average of the previous 38 years; the mean temperature of the last three months of the year was 4°-6 below the average. The month of December was the coldest in this century; its mean temperature was 6°°7 below the average. The rainfall in 1878 was heavy, 29:0 inches, but this was exceeded in 1879, when 31-4 inches fell, or 5-0 inches above the average of the preceding 64 years. It rained on 179 days out of the 365. The falls of rain in the second and third quarter of the year were remarkably excessive, and measured respectively 10°3 inches and 11:7 inches, being 4:5 inches and 4°4 inches above the respective average amounts of the previous 64 years. The down- fall in August was 5:2 inches, and exceeded the average for the month by 2°8 inches. The wind swept the earth at the mean velocity of 11°6 miles an hour, which is about a mile an hour above the average of 30 years. 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Taste V.—Quantities of WHEAT, WHEATMEAL and Frour, Bartny, Oats, Pras and Brans, Importep into the Untrep Kryepom in the Yrar 1879. 1879. | Wheat, | | ewts. January .. | 3,766,238 | February | 2,867,994 | March 3,499,374 April .. | 4,390,704 May oe } 3,608, 787 June | 4,523,064 In first Six Paws \ 22,666, 161 July.. .. | 4,988,488 August 6,950,644 September 6,469,904 October .. 5,979,525 November 6,918,362 December 5 395,056 In last Six Months } 36, 701,979 | \ | Wheatmeal and Flour, ewts. 784,937 657,606 | 835,895 T,091,779 756,234 836,655 4,963,106 | 809,009 794,115 987,153 1,040,782 1,087,584 T,048,809 5,767,452 | Barley. ewts. 644,914 345,366 669,549 977,181 745484 467,118 3,849,612, 396, 730 454,788 1,165,888 2,173,617 2,161,208 | 1,339,255 | —— 7,691,486 / Year .. 59,368,140 110,730,558 III,541,098 | | | Oats. Peas, Beans. can 7 cwts. ewts. 1,027, 738 IOI,200 | 57,502 166,573 | 23,505 | 64,701 549,906 | 91,146 | 84,464 683,248 | 148,057 | 114,659 I,239,822 169,647 | 279,694 T,275,072 | 218,358 | 297,771 4,942,359 | 751,913 | 898,791 1,455,319 | 76,634} 164,350 1,277,796 | 104,966 207,008 1,483, 762 27,806 243,361 1,489,549 149,420 200, 268 1,661,931 499,309 | 296,844 971,891 | 306,729 | 299,479 8,540,248 1,164,864 1,411,310 113,482,607 1,916,777 eearert | Notre.—The average weights per quarter of corn, as adopted in the office of the _ Inspector-General of Imports and Exports, are as follow :—For wheat, 485! lbs., or 41 ewts.; for barley, 400 lbs., or 34 ewts.; for oats, 308 Ibs., or 22 ewts. has been entered by weight instead of measure since September, 1864. No duty has been charged since Ist June, 1869. Corn Taste VI.—ComputTep REAL VALUE of CoRN ImporTED into the Unrrep Krn@pom in each of the Five Yrars, 1875-79. 1875. 1876, | 1877. | 1878, 1879, rie POON ce) cn ee. 2 Wheat .. .. « | 27,418,970 '23,140,766 | 33,820,084| 27,397,487 |31,329,500 Barley .. .. «. | 4,630,654 | 3,745,420 | 5,396,791| 5,545,802 | 4,798,923 Oats se ee ee | 5,407,928 | 4,619,427 | 4,998,864) 4,553,946 | 4,500,760 MIZOE o) * wiay ae 8,112,158 12,744,432 | 9,851,236| 12,589,422 | 9,802,249 Other kinds .. .. 2,304,218 | 2,555,397 | 2,321,922] 1,463,433 | 1,634,064 | Wheat Flour .. .. | 4,828,167 | 4,729,206 | 6,803,327| 6,790,320 | 8,505,308 _ Other kinds of Flour T2130 15,474 17,284 Ba oy: 25 585 Total of Corn .. | as pitlog els 51,550,122 | 63,209,508 58,372,624 [Scs530>a83 : | \ rn EE Gesu TabLe VIJ.—Quantities of British WHEAT Soup in the Towns from which Returns are received under the Act of the 27th & 28th Vicrorta, cap. 87, and their AVERAGE Prices, in each of the TweLtve Monvus of the Years 1874-79. First month Second month Third month (five weeks) \ Fourth month Fifth month .. Sixth month | (five weeks) f Seventh month Eighth month Ninth month } (five weeks) Tenth month Eleventh menth Twelfth month } (five weeks) First month .. Second month Third month } (five weeks) Fourth month Fifth month .. Sixth month (five weeks) \ Seventh month Eighth month Ninth month (five weeks) \ Tenth month .. Eleventh month Twelfth month (five weeks) \ QUANTITIES IN QUARTERS. 1874, 1875. 1876. 1877, 1878. 1879, quarters. quarters. quarters. quarters. quarters. quarters, 187,106 | 210,661 | 154,367 | 152,557 | 146,848 | 183,223 189,031 | 223,974 | 188,539 | 173,729 | 164,387 | 237,861 206,145 | 292,172 | 208,367 | 213,718 | 174,025 | 234,469 150,725 | 233,970 | 160,868 | 150,012 | 146,933 | 197,918 175,715 | 234,683 | 174,153 | 132,231 | 166,909 | 227,295 172,298 | 216,016 | 188,611 | 122,390 | 137,981 | 229,307 95,871 | 121,684 | 90,626 | 77,674 | 82,597 | 105,139 82,564 | 135,456 | 88,030 | 89,759 | 119,611 | 71,525 323,153 | 199,314 | 314,327 | 225,659 | 272,699 | 75,374 248,984 | 226,503 | 216,393 | 217,046 | 329,564 | 96,261 225,162 | 186,607 | 192,440 | 175,262 | 216,187 | 156,218 3355339 | 234,035 | 225,254 | 212,627 | 276,943 | 207,511 AVERAGE PRICES PER QUARTER, 1874, 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879, m Gb Sh Gh Ss nd $d: Ck Sous 62 4 44 4 44 II sy] 51 II 50m 63 4 42 3 43 4 | 51 8 es 38 0 Cie Ase 2) Wi Gi 49 8 39) 7 60 oO 43 0 44 11 53 4 EP ees) 4I 0 625 2 if Wes (sy || (5, 106) 51 11 40 IO 6m 2 42 2 | 47 0 64 6 48 Oo 4r 8 60 8 Ae 3} 48 6 62 9 44 11 44 6 58 4 52 4 46 4 64 11 447 49 4 48 11 49 3 46 8 59 1 44 1 47 7 44 8 46 1 46 7 53 39° 7 48 Io 43 11 47 4 48 0 52 3 40 I 49 4 44 6 46 4 | 49 9 | 52 6 40 8 46 7 ¢ XI °) Taste VIII.—Averace Prices of British Corn per Quarter (Imperial measure) as received from the Insprcrors and Orricers of ExcisE accord- ing to the Act of 27th & 28th Vicrorta, cap, 87, in each of the Firry- two WEEKS of the YEAR 1879. Week ending | Wheat. | Barley. | Oats. Week ending x d.\| sod. |e de | January 4..| 39 7 | 38 10 | 20 3 || July oa January II.-| 39 7] 36 11 | 20 1 || July Tides January 18..| 38 rr | 36 11 | 19 8 || July UC} or January 25..| 39 I | 37 5 | 20 1 || July 266 February 1..| 38 4] 36 9/|19 5 || August 2.. February 8..| 38 1] 35 7 | 20 o|| August 9.. February 15..| 38 1] 35 5 {19 2 4| August 16.. February 22..| 37. 7 | 34 10 | 20 3 || August 23.. March Dee) |e3o)) O8ln 33) LOm| tO) 7.) Ampustiy 30. March 8..| 39 I] 34 41] 20 5 || September 6 March 15..| 39 71| 34 I] 20 9 || September 13 March 22..| 40 8 | 33 9] 21 1 || September 20 March 29..| 40 8] 33 ©| 20 8 || September 27 Average of }| ee “|| Average of Winter ge) @) | sis (Weekes Summer Quarter | Quarter April 5--| 40 Ir | 32 6 | 2u 1 || October 4.. April T2ie0|| 40 0 | 32) 3 | 20 8|| October 11- April 19..| 44 2 | 30 11 | 20 7 || October 18.. April 26..| 460 1m | 3m © | 20 11 || October 25.. May 3--| 40 9 | 30 1] 2r 9g || November 1 May I0..| 40 9 | 30 9] 2z 5 || November 8 May 17+-| 40 8 | 30 1 | 24 11 || November 15 May 24--| 41 4 | 28 10 | 22 6 || November 22 May 3I..| 41 5 | 28 6 | 21 xr |} November 29 June 7--| 41 7 | 26 6) 2x 8 || December 6 June 14..| 41 4 | 28 2] 22 3 || December 13 June 21..| 4m 8 | 25 11 | 23 5 || December 20 June 28..) 42 6 | 28 x) 22 1 || December 27 | Average of | || Average of Spring ATae20 2. OOl | p28 Autumn Quarter J! | Quarter - ~ | | | | | a- com 49 48 opt = mA BRN HWW n = Lal COOoMNF OO OH Ln) | Hh OANNI™~ Ww wv iS} lon) 2} =} coat Mwy OHNYHOR DA aS Lal _ aN fe) | non MAB O WH @AHOOO™N Oats. On INO ODN OFO VOL, XVI.—S. S. ( XIV ) TasLe IX.—Quantities of WHEAT, BartEy, Oats, Peas, Beans, InprIan Corn or Maizz, WHEATMEAL and Four, ImporTep in the Four YEArs 1876-79 ; also the Countrigs from which the WHEAT, WHEATMEAL, and FLour were obtained. Wheat from— Russia Denmark Germany France a oe Turkey and Roumania .. Egypt United States Chili British India.. .. Australia British North America Other ecuntries Barley .. Oats =. Peas .. Beans .. Indian Corn, Wheatmeal and Flour from— Germany France Total Wheat oe o- o- o- or Maize o- o- -- United States.. .. British North America.. Other countries Total Wheatmeal and a Indian Corn Flour Meal 55 oe oe «- | II, 204,588 | 1876, =a cwts. 8,769,260 262,518 2,324,148 293,350 1,238,851 2,218,227 19,299,785 982,619 3,279,887 * 2,417,151 3308 356 44,394,152 957793975 1,609,997 4,601,206 39,958,226 930,469 | 1,083,447 2,320,886 282,053 I, 325,685 55942,540 7,706 1877. cwts, IO, 838,000 73,812 5455 5763 1,494,783 I, 253,018 2,447,709 21,308,667 736,011 6,104,940 425,697 2,912,178 1,186,122 ‘ 54,162,888 12,979,751 12,925,604 1,511,846 4,573,482 30,455,681 1,239,437 I, 900, 213 1,771,558 254,695 2,203,626 75399,529 9,713 1878, cewts. 9,032,930 * 5,118,135 II,200 240, 105 217,498 28,963,901 5°,573 1,819,304 | 1,459,850 2,603,586 294,561 49,811,643 14,162,028 12,765,789 1,804, 733 1,870,508 41,631,348 1,118,761 696,059 3,635,200 294,448 2,079,551 7,823,999 41,679 1879, ewts. 72975 5144 ok 3,616,419 | 17,793 | 170,354 | 2,064,397 35,976, 605 1,372,461 887,256 2,245,657 4,676,686 365,168 59,368,140 11,541,098 113,482,607 1,916,777 2,310,101 36,078,586 914,483 3555229 6,863,172 460,435 2,137,239 10, 730,558 37,080 * Included under “ Other Countries.’ Ca¥ ) te X.—AvVeERAGE Pricss of Consols, of Wheat, of Meat, and of Potatoes ; also the AVERAGE Nomsen of Paupers relieved on the last day of each Week; and the Mzan TEMPERATURE, in each of the Sixteen Quarters ending December 31st, 1879, a AVERAGE PRICES, ' | PAUPERISM. | Minimum | wheat aes i urters Rate per per Meat per lb. at the Metro- atoes Quarterly Average of the ean ' : (York Regents) | Number of Paupers re- Consols| 7; Quarter politan Meat Market . Tempe- ding (for ee. in (by the Carcass). at ey . lieved ou de ieee day of ake. oney).| by the England Market, . h Bank of te Southwark. England, | ‘’*¢S: Beef. Mutton. In-door. | Out-door. y] 5 : 31 2*00 | 51 4 | 44d.—7$d.| 5d.—o@d. | 138s.—172s. | 152,778 | 532,697 | 42°3 = Mean ld. Mean 73d.) Mean 155s. es ‘ ©30} 94% | 2°96 | Gt 5 | 44d.—82d.| 48d.—ofd. | 136s.—174s. | 143,674 | 523,878 | 51°9 Mean 63d. | Mean 7d. | Mean155s. t. 30 951 | 2°45 | 62 o | 44¢.—82d.| 48d.—gid.| 978.—126s. | 139,211 | 509,110 | 58°5 5 Mean 64d. | Mean 7d. Mean 111s.6d. ; ls ST 962 4°50 | 52 4 | 38d.—8d. | 43d.—88d. | 1525.—174s. | 151,709 | 512,286 | 45°0 : Mean 57d. | Mean 63d. | Mean 1633s. 30 | 953 2°48 | 50 10 | 4!d.—8ld. | 48d.—o2d. | 188s.—212s. 162,442 | 540,571 | 41°5 Mean 63d.| Mean 7d. | Mean 200s. | @30] 958 2°85 | 50 2 | 4§d.—88d. | 5d.—géd. | 150s.—187s. | 151,715 | 533,787 | 54°6 Mean 63d. | Mean 73d. |Mean 168s.6d. f.30 | 954 4°36 | 44 6 | 4$d.—83d. | 4$d.—92d. | 1208.—1518. 145,956 | 513,616 | 60°8 Mean 63d. | Mean—7d. |Mean 135s.6d. le 32 { 95 5°4 40 2 | 43d.—78d. | 47d.—8§d. | rr1s.—r32s. | 159,720 | 523,996 | 41°6 Mean 6d. | Mean 63d. Mean 121:s.6d.| 31 | 963 | 3°38 | 39 0 | 32d.—72d.| 4$d.—8éd. 118s.—1448. | 172,200 599,991 | 37° Mean 53d.) Mean 63d.| Mean 131s. : @30]| 98% 2°05 | 4t 2 | 44d.—72d.| 48d.—od. | 1288.—161s.| 159,946 | 567,915 | 49°5 Mean 5$d.| Mean 62d. |Mean 144s.6d. 978 | 2°00 | 47 2 | 4d.—7§d. | 43d.—od.| 1828.—233s.| 157,113 | 548,755 | 58°21 Mean 57d.| Mean 62d.| Mean207s.6d. 98 2°60 | 48 1 | 38d.—72d. | 44d.—7fd. | 1368.—1608. | 173,099 | 565,644 | 39°9 Mean 54d. | Mean 63d. | Meanr4$s. exile) Taste XI.—ACREAGE under each Description of Crop, Great Brivain and DescripTiIon of Crops and Live Srock. Corn Crops :— Wheat .. Barley or Bere Oats Rye Beans Peas Toran Corn Crops GREEN Crops :— Potatoes Turnips and Swedes Mangold and Beetroot Carrots and Parsnips .. * Cabbage, Kohl-rabi, and Rape .. Vetches, Lucerne, and any other crop "} (except clover or grass) . ToraL GREEN Ginn Oruer Crops, Grass, &e. :— Flax Hops a0 ae Bare fallow or uncropped arable land Clover and artificial and other Brasere under rotation . Permanent pasture, meadow, or grass not broken up in rotation (exclusive of heath or mountain land) Live Stock :— Cattle Sheep Pigs 56) Ga) fon 50 % Total number of horses used for agriculture, unbroken horses, and mares kept ae for breeding OO 60 oY, CO Acreage of orchard, or of arable or grass- land, used also for fruit-trees Acreage of woods, pop: and es tations 08 " "| 4 1877, Acres. 3,168,540 2,417,588 2,754,179 60,146 497,879 311,797 9,210,129 512,477 2,073 5455 358,055 15,953 182,710 442,202 3,584,846 7,481 71,239 616,147 4,494,216 13,728,355 No. 5,697,933 28,161,164 2,498,728 T, 388,582 163,290 GREAT Brita.) 1878, oo, Acres. 3,218,417 2,469,652 2,698,907 60,117 437,936 282,617 9,167,646 508,431 2,031,860 343,389 14,711 171,773 420,846 3,491,010 7,261 71,789 632,423 4,573,107 13,911,296 No. 1879, Acres. 2,890,244 2,667,176 5,738,128 28, 406, 206 2,483,248 1,412,502 165,415 2,656,628 49,127 444,228 277,831 8,985,234 541,344 2,017,075 363,561 15,844 168, 386 448,108 35554,318 75°55 67,671 721,409 4,473,373 14,166,724 No. 5,856,356 28,157,080 2,091,559 1,432,845 174,715 |. a 2,187,078"| 2,187,078") 2,187,078" * As returned ¢ xva ) TRELAND. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1877. Acres, Acres. Acres. Acres, | 143,319 154,011 157,508 3,321,065 226,603 244,504 254,845 2,652,300 1,471,698 | 1,412,637 I, 330,212 4,238,957 10,441 10,864 9,086 70, 703 8,584 8,267 9,294 506, 701 1,202 1,138 855 313,470 1,861,847 1,831,421 1,761,800 || 11,103,196 871,522 846 ,985 842,621 || 1,392,784 336,201 329,942 314,666 || 2,419,296 48,753 45,187 51,163 407,518 3503 3,938 4,530 19,943 47,006 46,938 40,326 229, 786 47,868 44,770 41,330 492,364 1,354,853 | 1,317,760 | 1,294,636 || 4,961,691 123,362 IIr,808 128,004 | 130,846 si as | 3 71,239 16,678 16,971 16,295 633,495 1,925 168 | 1,942,716 | 1,937,348 || 6,460,404 10,145,227 | 10,124,745 | 10,198,139 || 23,903,314 No. No. No. No. 3,996,027 | 3,984,751 | 4,067,094 || 9,731,537 3,989,178 | 4,094,230 | 4,017,889 || 32,220,067 1,467,999 | 1,269,340 | 1,071,990 3,984,447 496,165 504,750 513,036 1,894,128 | 328,413 Acres, 3,381,701 2,722,879 4,124,029 71,074 446, 466 284,026 11,030,175 1,364,508 2,372,198 389, 306 19,163 218,855 468,165 4,832,195 119,076 71,789 650,238 6,557,748 24,065,394 No, 9,761,288 32,571,018 3,767,960 1,927,066 Fattow, and Grass, and Numser of Carrir, Saeep, and Pras, in Trevanpd, in 1877-79. Unitep Krncpom, including the Islands. Acres. ” 3,056,428 2,931,809 3 ? 998 ? 200 58,288 4535751 278,983 10,777,459 1,392,822 2,341,527 415,450 20,913 208 , 808 492,036 4,871,556 135,060 67,671 738,264 6,450,905 24,395 »905 No. 9,961,536 32,237,958 3,178,106 1,955 +394 in 1872. Cv) Taste XIT.—Nomper of Beasts exhibited and the Prices realised for them at the Curistmas Markets since 1843. Year. 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 Beasts. 4,510 55713 5,326 4,570 4, 282 55942 5,765 6,341 6, 103 6,271 73°37 6,181 7,000 6,748 | 6,856 6,424 7,560 7,860 8,840 Prices. Be Ga 4 O—4 4 4 0—4 6 3 6—4 8 4 Oo—5 8 3 Ghee) 34 Ae 3 4-4 0 3 o—3 10 2 8—4 2 8—4 0 3 2—4 Io 3 O54 3 8—4 2 BF Aone O, 3 4-4-8 rat ah a SOON Se Ace oe AO By 4—5ine Year. Beasts, 8,430 10,372 7,130 75539 79340 8,110 54320 6,728 6,425 6,320 7,560 6,170 6,570 7,660 7,020 7,510 6,830 5,620 Prices. aS das (Rss GER a Ws G1) Wo wie - fe) font 2S de (bias (Oy Gorey (6) en I) PN CoO) CNT co ny) 85 TABLE XIIJ.—AVERAGE Prices of BriTIsH WHEAT, BARLEY, and Oats, per ImpertaL QuarTER, in each of the SrxrzEN YEARS 1863-79, Year, 1863 1864, 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 Wheat. Barley. 8s. d. E310 29 II 29 9 Bi 40 oO 43 0 BOS Ba 302 Oats, By Ch 2 I 2I 10 Year. 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 Wheat. wn e) vw woo Barley. Oo C Ss) Years 1876-79; and their QUANTITIES. | Anim ats, Living: @alvedian (ae +. se Sheep .. Lambs .. ds Swine and Hogs.. MMATCORD ile se ‘ae ise Cotton, Raw Guano ate reer nee hes Hemp : on 6h ee Hides untanned: Dry .. ” ” Wet 4 Petroleum .. ee a Oilseed Cakes Potatoes Lard * ‘z Bae ciel gure malt Beef 2... oe BECP ON «3 se ‘se Alover Seeds 5 Flax-seed and Linsee TE ac Sheep and Lambs’ Wool .. ee Ree ests great hundreds | Oxen, Bulls, and Cows, number ‘Bones (burnt or not, or as animal) | Tanne XIV.—Cerrarn Artrones of ForEtan and CononrAL Propucrion Importep in the a 1876. 1877. 1878, 1879. 227,478 | 174,023 226,455 208,720 a 44,098 | 30,172 27,008 39,172 i? T,041, 494 874,062 892,126 944,869 5 43,558 20,037 55,911 52,267 tons f 85,135 104,223 855773 65,067 ewts. 13,346,739 | 12,112,819 | 11,978,208 | 13,171,043 ys 1,404,661 | 2,216,267 1,553,664 | 1,694,051 ev 210,918 152,990 178,178 76,945 y> | 4,170,728 1,251,458 1,224,195 I, 204,036 53 167,421 248,620 169,512 262,616 »» | 469,460] 551,547 565 ,909 5455373 sabes | 583,914 594,542 595,221 463,086 tuns 100,175 134,096 119,169 170,831 tons 190,225 163,349 201,299 216,002 ewts. 6,031,341 7,969,136 8,751,174 | 9,352,236 »» 1,659,357 | 1,637,939 1,795,413 | 2,045,606 1,538,475 | 1,651,088 1,965,949 | 1,789,168 | 6,274,924 | 6,257,892 6,529,036 | 6,388,838 cewts. 558,993 592,944 go8 ,187 838,897 >» | 2,809,990 | 2,395,223 3,466,565 | 3,996,922 we 349,455 423,869 797 336 906, 128 99 243,342 208 , 364 219,445 242,864 ” 350,151 295 524 369,500 400,591 13 387,099 358,056 305,049 345 ,206 qrs. | 1,998,130 | 1,706,796 1,990,529 | 1,665,333 5% 499,218 539,263 641,261 365 340 Ibs. | 385,987,842 (405,949,161 | 395,461,286 411,106,627 Taste XV.—Quvantitry and Vatur of Muat Imporrep in the 6 Yuars, 1874-9. QUANTITIES. | 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. . Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Beef, Salted or Fresh .. | 261,721 | 215,581 | 413,351 | 678,505 | 723,558 | 806,462 ‘Meat, , ye» | 19,401 | 144,954 92,556 | 130,178 | 145,493 | 151,505 Total.. 381,124 | 360,535 | 505,907 | 808,683 | 869,051 | 957,967 “Meat, Preserved other- | wise than by caitiie | 265,223) L7h3373 | 283,066 | 469,003 | 438,903 | 566,758 ) Total Meat. Vaal 531,908 | 788,973 |t,277,686 |1,307,954 |1,524,725 | = = = VALUES. ) 2: £. S. £. A £5 ‘Beef, Salted or Fresh .. 523,326 | 454,337 | 943,580 1,686,392 [1,753,066 '1,919,922 “Meat, , » s+ | 335,846 | 419,019 | 281,830 | 388,933 | 426,864 | 436,317 Total OSH Bgqsrga |. haq3 73516 1,225,410 2,075,325 |2,179,930 2,356,239 Meat, preserved other-)| | | Bean orate} 757,00L | 592,196 | 887,035 1,434,234 Ay BEB AsuE yy gee, 32x Total Meat .. {1,616,173 |1,465,552 |2,112,445 1s 509,559 3,493,471 4,044,560 0 te EEE EES ee a eee ee ee ee ( XX ) The quantity of meat imported in 1878 was 1,307,954 ewts., against 1,277,686 in the previous year; in 1879 the quantity was 1,524,725 cwts., being an increase over that of the previous year of 216,771 ecwts. The average price of beef per lb. by the carcass at the Metro- _ politan Meat Market was 53d. in 1879 ; in 1878 it was 62d., show- ing a reduction in 1879 of 10 per cent. The average price of mutton per lb. was 68d. in 1879; in 1878 it was 7d., showing a reduction in 1879 of 5 per cent. The reduction in the price of beef and mutton since 1876 was equal to 15 and 12 per cent. respectively ; it appears therefore that the increased importation of meat has had the effect of reducing the price of butchers’ meat at the wholesale market. In 1879 there was a decrease, compared with the previous year, in the number of oxen, bulls, and cows of 17,735, and in swine and hogs of 3,644; but there was an increase in the number of sheep and calves of 52,743 and 12,164 respectively. STATISTICS OF DAIRY PRODUCE. The following remarks relating to Butter and Cheese are ex- tracted from ‘ The Grocer’ :— The provision trade in the year 1879 was marked by some almost unprecedented characteristics. Prices of cheese and butter, during some months, were lower than were ever previously known, whilst in others they have reached quite a maximum point. During July and August, American cheese of the best grades sold as low as 32s. and 33s., whilst low and secondary descriptions were all but given away at prices ranging as low as from 13s. to 15s. In November and December best descriptions realised 72s. per ewt, English Cheddars sold at the earlier period as low as 30s. and 32s.; the same grades at the end of the year brought 75s. and 76s., whilst extra prime qualities sold at 86s. and 88s. The same as to butters. In the early summer months values ruled lower than had ever been known. ‘The make was small, but the neces- sities of the Irish dairy farmers compelled them to throw their stocks upon the market, and the result was great cheapness. The shortness of the make, however, soon afterwards began to tell its tale. Values moved rapidly upward, and in December they were as high as they have generally been at the close of the season in February. C HEX *) Burtrer.—The year 1879 commenced with severe weather, and scarcely a week passed up to the end of March without falls of snow in some parts of the United Kingdom ; the summer was wet, and the harvest was bad; all this told disastrously in the various departments of agriculture, and produced such variations in the prices of butter as have not been known for many years. The months of January, February, March, and April passed without quotations for Clonmel or Carlow butter, and this continued until about the third week in May, when a few small sales were made of fine Clonmels at 98s. to 100s. f.o.b.; good useful brands were offered at shillings less. These prices continued until the middle of July, when quotations were lowered at the end to 80s. to 90s. ; then very little change took place until the third week in August, when they were offered for shipment, and sales made, at 80s. to 84s. f.o.b. At these prices a few buyers were found, and shippers refused to sell to a further extent. A few sales were made early in September at 85s. to 94s. f.o.b. A sudden reaction then took place ; in the second week 100s. to 110s. were the prices asked, a further advance of 10s. the next week, and at the close of the month the quoted rates for fine were 110s. to 124s, The first week in October, 112s. to 126s., varying according to freshness and repute of brand, and at the close of the month, 124s. to 136s. These prices nearly stopped the demand; but shippers, believing fine butter would be scarce before the close of the season, were not anxious sellers. Throughout the month of November the demand was very limited, quotations nearly nominal at the same prices as in October—124s. to 136s. f.o.b. In the first week in December, with a continuation of severe weather for three or four weeks, holders of the best brands advanced their asking prices 2s., say to 126s. to 138s., but buyers did not respond. Second and third weeks unchanged. Cork Burrer.—In this market the severity of the weather had its influence also upon the labour in the agricultural districts, and strikes in the mining and manufacturing districts left the labouring classes with less money to spend upon necessaries of life. The first week in January began with prices for firsts, 125s. to 133s. ; at the end of the month they were 112s. to 133s., and so continued to the first week in March ; the second week they were 2s. higher. These were the last-quoted prices for firsts for the season. In the beginning of January seconds were 112s. to 120s.; thirds, 78s. to 80s.; seconds then, for the remainder of the month, varied from 115s. to 125s.; thirds, 80s. to 83s. Seconds the first week in February were 110s. to 127s.; at the end of the month, 110s. to 130s. ( ©!) In the middle of March they were 105s. to 133s.; at the end of the month, 102s. to 125s. In the first and second weeks of April they were 90s. to 107s., according to freshness. This finished the season’s classification for old. At the close of the month of January, thirds were 83s. The first week in February they were 90s. to 96s.; at the end of the month, 94s. to 99s. In the beginning of March they were 90s. to 95s.; then gradually declined to 76s. to 82s. at the close. The first fortnight in April they varied from 70s. to 75s. This closed the season for the brands of 1878. The closing prices in the Cork market were 102s. for seconds and 78s. for thirds. The new season’s brands for 1879 opened on April 14 in the Cork market at 104s. for seconds and 70s. for thirds. Here they were quoted the third week in April 95s. to 115s. for seconds ; at the end of the month, 101s.; thirds, 84s. In the third week in ~ May firsts were 98s., the last week 93s., and remained the same to the second week in June; the next week, 90s., the last week, 87s. Seconds the first week in May, 93s., the third week a gradual decline to 89s., the last week, 82s. Thirds the first week, 78s., then 80s. to 81s. to the third week, and the last week 76s. Seconds the first week in June, 81s., and, with a gradual decline, were at 76s. the end of the month; thirds, in a like manner, began at 77s., and finished at 70s. July, firsts began at 86s., and finished at 83s. ; seconds began and finished at 75s.; and thirds, 67s. to 69s. August, firsts commenced at 84s. to 85s.; were 82s. to 83s. the third week, and 89s. the last; seconds, the first week, 75s. to 76s.; the third week, 72s.; the last week, 78s.; thirds, the first week, 70s., the third week, 65s.; the end of the month, 69s.. Buyers now began to think that prices had for a length of time been unnaturally low, and a sudden reaction took place. At the beginning of September firsts were 95s.; the second week, 110s. to 113s., the next week, 2s. more; the end of the month, 110s. to 126s. October, first week same price ; the last, 125s. to 130s. November began with firsts at 125s. to 130s., and gradually increased to 130s. to 140s. at the close. Seconds, the first week in September, 88s. ; the second week, 96s. to 100s.; the last week, 95s. to 113s. To the second week in October they had advanced only 1s.; at the end of the month they were 114s. to 118s. The first week in November they were 116s. to 122s., the last week 115s. to 120s. In September thirds were, the first week, 74s.; the second week, 85s. to 87s.; the last week, 90s. to 100s. In October, the first week, 84s. to 92s.; the next week, 90s. to 103s.; the last week, 105s. to 110s. In November prices fluctuated considerably ; the first week they were 104s. to 112s., the second week, 112s. to 117s.; the last week, 107s. to 109s. In . ( XXII ) the beginning of December, first Corks were advanced to 136s. to 143s., seconds were 115s. to 126s., and thirds, 108s. to 112s. Very few firkins were then classed as firsts in the Cork market. The second week firsts were 140s. to 145s. ; seconds, 115s. to 121s. ; thirds, 108s. to 110s. The third week scarcely any firsts were offered ; seconds, 116s. to126s.; thirds, fresh inspected, 106s. to 109s. Forrien Burrer.—Really fine butters were scarce. First Normandys began at 130s. to 136s., and finished at 128s. to 136s. ; but from the first week in January to the third week in February prices varied little. Dutch began at 116s. to 120s.; the third week in January they were 120s. to 124s.; the first two weeks in February, 134s. to 136s. ; the next week, 130s. to 132s. In American there was a wide range, the extremes, according to quality, were 50s. to 110s.; the next fortnight, 40s. to 110s.; then, to the third week in February, 35s. to 120s. The month of April began with cold weather, and vegetation was backward. In the first week of May there was snow and frost, and the end of the month was wet ; this kept vegetation backward. Normandy firsts, in the first week in April, were 104s. to 120s.; in the first week in May they were 112s. to 130s. American, at the same period, was 30s. to 105s. The month of June was milder, but much rain fell, and vegetation was still very backward; at the end of the month there was scarcely any signs of haymaking, July also was wet and cold, and the rainfall was heavy; harvest prospects were therefore gloomy. From the beginning of June to the end of August first Normandys fluctuated but little. The haymaking season was the worst one known in England for many years; the crops were light, potatoes were blighted, frnit was not half an average crop, and hops not one-fourth. In September the prices of first Normandys differed little from those of the previous month; they began at 106s. to 112s., and closed at 108s. to 118s. In October prices began to advance, and early in November they were 122s. to 128s.; then, with a change to severe winterly weather, at the end of this month the prices were 126s. to 132s. In December there was a falling off in the make of fine butter, and prices in the third week were 136s. to 146s. for those in casks. Dutch butter was 108s. to 112s, in the first week in September ; the third week in December it was 130s. to 140s. In American there was a wide range both in quality and price; the first week in September the prices were 60s. to 95s. ; the third week in December they were 90s. to 140s. Currse.—For the first six months of the year there was scarcely any change worth notice in the prices of the best descriptions of Gy) English cheese ; some of the lower qualities were affected by the prices at which American cheese were offered. From the beginning of January to the middle of February the quoted rates for Cheshire were 62s. to 82s. ; then 62s. to 83s., to the middle of April; then 56s, to 83s. to the end of June. Quotations for Cheddar varied from 44s. to 84s., according to qualities, from the first week in January to the last week in February; then 44s. to 85s. to the end of May, and 44s. to 80s. to theend of June. Really fine English was scarce and firmly held from the lateness of the season; very little of this summer’s make has yet been brought to market. Holders of lower qualities were anxious sellers. The first fortnight in July Cheddars were 44s. to 80s. ; 44s. to 76s., the third week; the last week, 44s. to 64s. A few of this season’s make then came forward. From the first to the third week in August prices were 44s. to 76s.; then, to the end of the month, 60s. to 73s. The low prices at which Americans were now offered materially lessened the demand for English. For Cheshire cheese the prices in the first fortnight in July were quoted at 50s. to 82s.; the next week, 50s. to 76s.; the end of the month, 45s. to 76s. The first fortnight in August, 45s. to 68s. ; then 40s. to 70s., to the first week in September ; then 66s. to 74s.; in the middle of the month, 64s. to 76s. ; and at the end of the month and to the end of October, 64s. to 82s. A sudden reaction now took place in the price of American. For the first three weeks in November prices of Cheshires were 62s. to 86s.; then, to the end of December, 62s. to 88s. The first week in September, Cheddar cheese was quoted at 64s. to 78s.; the second week, 62s. to 76s.; the third week, 64s. to 76s.; then, 62s. to 80s. from the last week in September to the end of October; from the first week to the third week in November, 72s. to 84s.; then, 72s. to 86s., to the end of December. AMERICAN CHEESE.—The prices fluctuated very much. Best, the first week in January, 46s. to 53s.; lower qualities, 23s. to 40s.: best from the second week to the end of the month, 51s. to 53s.; lower qualities, 22s. to 48s.: best, first fortnight in February, 50s. to 53s. ; then 52s. to 54s. to the middle of March; lower qualities, the middle of February, 22s. to 48s.; the end of the month, 26s. to 48s., March, 24s. to 48s.: best, from the first week in April to the first week in June, 50s. to 52s.; lower qualities, the beginning of April to third week, 25s. to 48s. ; then 24s. to 46s. to the middle of May ; then 22s. to 46s. to the first week in June. New, from the second week in June to the end of the month, 40s. to 42s. ; lower qualities, the first week in June, 22s. to 46s.; second week, 26s. to 46s.; last (rey) week, 32s. to 36s.: best, first week in July, 37s. to 40s.; then 36s. to 38s. to the first week in August; then 34s. to 36s. the last week: lower qualities, the first and second week in July, 28s. to 34s.; last week in July to second week in August, 25s. to 34s.; then 24s. to 32s. to the first week in September: best, first week in September, 30s. to 40s. ; second week, 26s. to 38s.; lower qualities, second week in September, 26s. to 30s. These low quotations began to attract the attention of buyers, resulting in a rapid advance, say nearly 20s. per cwt. in two weeks. Prices for best in the third week in September were 34s. to 46s. ; the fourth week, 54s. to 56s. ; the first week in October, 54s. to 58s.; the second week, 58s. to 62s.; the third week, 60s. to 64s.; the last week, 64s. to 68s. Buyers having supplied their wants liberally, no further change took place till the end of December, firsts remaining then at 64s. to 68s.; lower qualities, the second week in September, 26s. to 30s.; the third week, 34s. to 38s.; the last week, 44s. to 52s.: the first week in October, 46s. to 52s.; second week, 46s. to 54s. ; third week, 48s. to 56s.; the last week, 50s. to 60s. : first week in November, 52s. to 60s.; then, to the end of the month, 54s. to 60s., and throughout December, 56s. to 64s. Thus best qualities, which were not higher than 38s. the second week in September, caused a considerable falling off in shipments, and were 68s. at the end of December. Lower qualities fluctuated in a like manner from 24s. to 32s. to 56s. to 64s. ( Vy) The following Quotations, &o., are extracted from ‘ The Grocer,’ TapLe XVI.—AvrraGeE and Current Prices of Burrer and CHEESE on Ist SATURDAY in January of each YEAR, from the latest actual MarKET SALEs. | Average Average , | Annual Price | Annual Price ee ee in the 5 years, | in the 4 years, | 1880 ye 1870-74. 1875-79. ‘ , Per cwt. Per cwt. Per cwt. Butter : Ss. Ss. §: Ss. s. Ss. Carlow, finest, F.0.B | 126 to 136/13 to 1441126 to 140 re Landed 124° 5, 138/038 5, 148 Corl, Ists.. 338 4, 143 (343 >, 34B'| 145 os 4. »» 2nds step) 290 \5)5, T35) 33h io 4) Catal Las clots >» ards,new .. | 101 5, I26' 108) ,, Yoo) EIS, 5; +, 4ths Cae CHIP tio BM GN) GO Sp. c | Limerick .. TL), LAN ea Ss) Tee Foreign : | Briesland js, < bes | DUS) >, ZG) 12% Vo a een ea Jersey, &c. 79) 5 229) (94 4, ade mes) 136 Kiel .. va tse | RIE 5:5) 0045 103 5 eee Po, ths | Normandy .. .. G3) fis, L5O) || 192) a TS 2Omee meta American cor ce 82 4, Fy 8x ,, 2" OA%s sar 335 Bos An oo oo an on beng 65) ao5 Cheese: English Cheddar, )} - fine, new f 16 5, 99] 72 5, 99] 72 », 86 +, good,new] 74 ,, 93] cosh ne | Red Somerset Loaf... | 68 ,, 82] 97 5, 89 | 74 5, o= White or yellow Cheddar Loa! f | 72 9» 8) 1B oy 87 hers tag Scotch Cheddar 6) sine UIA ekO4i ss eekeO, 5 } Cheshire, new.. .. FO. sin CEPT 78) Ss) 86 GR Gee An good ditto iit on SM Oh BH! . . Wiltshire, new .. sp. SE SO Si yO) G2 on Fo a good ditto | 57 ,, 64} 60 ,, 68] cies | North Wilts Loaf,new] 66 ,, 80 Wee og © 5 5 Derby 29 92 | 65 ey 83 i 2? 64 | 70 os 114 Foreign : American, fine .. 68) 55 7B 63)" igen On) (64 ae peo >» good Bay 59) | 05) ||) 40s) 59) Olne mmnCO Gouda are 49 ,, 64 Di i515) OLa |) aS Om Oe a Edam, new 5S) snes 565, (65) 56 55 (6d Gruyere, new .. 6) 5 85 | TL 5 78 Taste X VII.— Quantity and Vaux of Burrer Importep from Denmarg, 1865-78. Years. Quantities. pias keer Years. | Quantities. Compntet Beat Cwts. £. Cwts. oe 1865 65 5555 362,440 1872 1735574 T,009, 322 1866 67,305 319,528 1873 | 201,558 I, 203,459 1867 80,589 422,479 1874 226,053 T, 363,433 1868 791437 471,262 || 1875 206,171 1,275,870 1869 103 ,613 574,981 1876 | 205,195 I, 311,234 1870 127,013 767, 190 1877 | 210, 322 1,347,791 1871 140,851 803,226 | 1878 242,427 1,517,467 ( XXVII ) Tapte XVIIT,— Quantity and Vautvue of Burrer Imported from the Unirep Srares, Betarum, France and Hontanp; and of CuHEEse Imported from the Unirep Staves and Hotuanp, 1865-78. UNITED STATES. ceo |B a _ Cwense, ; Quantities, Gompated. Quantities, none Cwts. £. II Cwts. £. TeGee (ae 83,216 437,793 || 442,913 1,296,204 1866 .. 16,059 77,754 || 415,726 1,386,447 1667s. 39,035 Tr3,290 || 526,740 1,470,017 Ta68° ss 7,017 37,279 489,117 I, 439,380 1869. 17,203 84,603 487,870 1,612,325 1870. 16,915 80,928 555 1385 I, 861, 263 na7n 7. 83,775 394,359 731,326 2,014,805 1872, 45 765 199,679 || 598,198 I, 701,435 1873 .. 43,406 199,639 || 790,238 2,353,181 1874 .. 36,307 188,769 849,933 2,589,776 1875. 40, 331 205,900 | 958,978 2, 786,027 1876. 118,131 593,122 ‘|| 936,203 2,564,977 1 ye 188,491 920,561 | 1,082,844 3,129,829 1678 .. 219,794 998, 766 1,345,745 3,306,612 BELGIUM. FRANCE. Years. a Borrter. | Burrer. Cwts, £, | Cwts. £. 1865 + 70,619 433,179 | 353,115 1,867,085 1866... 76,667 426,712 | 452,196 2,276,493 1867 .. 80,754 470,464 459,693 2,265,147 1868 .. 70,456 405 .987 3935578 2,156,824 1869 .. 85,789 481,609 407,432 2,231,450 TOON see 84,408 516,643 289,692 1,672,899 TO70 ce 94,539 523,460 304, 683 1,636,006 1872 .. 74,191 409,555 355,089 1,916,795 LG73 se 76,610 439,501 446,550 2,409, 861 1874 .. 76,723 465,517 713,251 3,944,233 1875 +. 795950 499,028 567,560 3,387,219 1876 65,309 419,209 622,488 35732,405 1877 58,200 378,435 || 606,762 3,654,488 1878 80,073 499,889 || 555,272 34179, 326 — ‘ HOLLAND. Borer. | CHEESE. a! | _ = Cwts. Lh | Cwts. £. 1865 .. 345,026 1,886,486 |, 386,962 I, 100,037 1866 .. 383,225 1,979,079 || 426,559 1,317,231 1867 .. | 326,217 1,733,459 || 332,628 961,245 1868 .. 343,322 1,992,414 | 329,565 959,547 1869... 415,176 2,253,420 | 426,913 T2062, LOK 1870 .. 406,795 2,388,459 | = 422,553 1,204,830 I87I .. 390,616 1,986,708 = || 348,148 954,236 1872 .. 269,091 1,358,579 || 329,535 942,537 O73). 279,004 1,453,875 = || 336,654 1,013 -233 1874 - 351,605 1,877,755 398,888 1,164,921 1875 357,106 1,917,910 || 370,123 1,078 594 1876 402,984 2,252,909 || = 330,435 949,413 1877 372,134 2,084,686 || 341,980 984,855 878... 460,601 2,494,903 | 355,159 1,018,669 SS EEE BE Are en des | ae wien "7 a wi ae i7) Mi vr vy ihe 2 mat: vet bit a i a ut a a fg — 6 ; pe hed ay ¢ hey want Lie oe a . Ala mena r4 eae a. ' ¥ / ns , at - ' 4 hdl ft ’ : F ee a lls 7 I : ry Aim? igo i { i ws a ~ os. a ee I fe yee =38' 2 4 Vs > hi ‘ if “- se? 00) PE : ee OA tir \ { aoe ay wee i . f y i aete hay ne et i J LAP hte sy pe mit, Wis € a) ofall ¢ 7 [ 1.4 wt : FY i Rl yoko ore, aye be WO Ae et Av re ' ¢ EP pe. { eo aoe a i ve! rl | f i! j v / pee ene Geis ee a WV r,. Vie aid Le, Aap a Se) es ~’ ; | ‘ ik =r } Ase, Hey its Vi } ee sires pre ye | ‘east o i om ita MeeVee * Miva piPrhVert ca i h PAT Puc pi F VOGh ah Veni! Ree, hale wae vy 1 Apdo fx! a Lae | bot plate! 704. & 4 349.044 i ety bust v7,4 H ev eed ber! vip 2e5 pS hel ’ Crue we j pia, = de thy WP a | eA webs JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. I.—Report of the Judges appointed by the Royal Agricultural Society of England to adjudicate the Prizes in the Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. Two prizes, each of the value of one hundred pounds, were offered for the best-managed Sewage Farms in England and Wales, by the Mansion House Committee in connection with the London International Exhibition of the Society, and these prizes were accepted by the Council. One prize was offered in Class I. for the best-managed sewage farm utilising the sewage of not more than twenty thousand people, and another prize was offered in Class II. for the best-managed sewage farm utilising the sewage of more than twenty thousand people. In Class I, the following sewage farms were entered :— Aldershot, by J. T. Blackburn. Bedford, by the Corporation of Bedford. Guisbrough, by Admiral Thomas Chaloner. Wrexham, by Lieut.-Col. Alfred S. Jones, V.C. In Class IT. the following sewage farms were entered :— Birmingham, by the Birmingham, Tame, and Rea Dis- trict Drainage Board. Croydon, by Joseph Parrott. Doncaster, by R. 8. Brundell. Reading, by the Corporation of Reading. Leamington, by the Earl of Warwick. In considering the reports on the several sewage farms which are appended, it must not be overlooked that the season of 1878-9 has probably been the most disastrous which has been known in the annals of British agriculture for a very long period, it having been one of the wettest, coldest, and latest seasons on record. The excess of moisture and the absence of sunshine, which have been so unfavourable to all agricultural VOL. XVI.—S. 8. B 2 Report of the Judges on the operations, have told with even greater force upon sewage farms, which necessarily at all times fore to dispose of a large quan- tity of water, in addition to the ordinary rain falling on the land. If, therefore, in the following reports, remarks of a dis- paraging nature are made, not only should the difficulties of keeping an ordinary farm clean during the last season be borne in mind, but also that the difficulties are much greater in the case of sewage farms, where hoeing, instead of destroying, has only transplanted the weeds. Moreover, the expenses on a sewage farm during such a season as that of 1879 have been considerably greater than usual in consequence of the difficulties experienced in attempting to harvest hay and corn through a protracted period; while the difficulty of disposing of green produce was increased, owing to the general abundance of grass and other green crops, and at the same time sewage-grown produce was much depreciated in value. The annexed table will show some of the chief monetary features of the several farms which have been examined, from which it will be seen that the profit or loss on a sewage farm is almost entirely dependent upon the amount of rent, rates, and taxes which are paid. The conclusions to be drawn from our investigations lead us to state that practically there appears to be no great value in sewage itself, but that, given an ordinary farm and a sewage farm at the same rent, the sewage farm will hold its own even in a wet and backward year like the past, but in dry periods the sewage farm has a much greater advantage over an ordinary farm. As a mode of effectually disposing of sewage in an innocuous manner, and generally in an economical way, an examination of the several farms and of their accounts shows that the system pursued is most successful and satisfactory. The advantage and economy of sewage-farming, as a mode of dealing with sewage, are shown very conclusively in the case of Bir- mingham, in which the farming operations show a profit of 10641. 18s. 7d. in the year 1878, while the chemical treatment of the sewage, two-thirds of which is passed into the streams of the district after such treatment, cost in the same year 11,9871. 15s. 3d. It will be observed from the annexed table that there is a very considerable difference both in the amount of capital engaged upon the several farms, and in the gross returns per acre. In cases where market gardening isin vogue, as at Bedford, Bir- mingham, Wrexham, and, to a small extent, at Croydon, the gross returns per acre are the largest. The amount of wages paid per acre on these farms is also the greatest. The gross returns per acre for Leamington appear small, but this is due to its being saddled with a large acreage of grass-land, which by YaME oF Town. / STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF SEWAGE FARMS FOR THE YEAR 1878-1879. mee Wea ithes, ‘age Date of end of ote Valuation Rent Rates, | Management| Wages of Ae Financial Year. Calculation, per Acre. per Acre, Taxes, per Acre. per Acre. ordinary cartAcra 2. per Acre, Agricultural v 3 Labourer. | Acres. £3da/|/£8.da)£5 d|£s% d|£8% a 104° 0 ap None ae | 81st Dec. 1878 | 183-13 710 13) 5 1 43/0 9 2% | S3lst Dec. 1878 | 252791 {1711 0 | 1 6 8 |019 5} 25th Mar. 1879 | 455°64 | 10 19 7} 110 1 1} ju aan Qnd Feb. 1879| 304-82 |16 7 6} 219 31/0 3 14 Bist Dec. 1878 | 24-23 None 110113} 0 4 11} 81st Dec. 1878 | 764'19 | 1017 2 117 5) 7004 6 29th Sept. 1879 | 645° 0 | 16 4 1 Frechold 017 9 Ist Feb. 1879 | 104° 0 | 2314 5 | 3 14 SE) 16 7} 015 93/3 2 73 | 0 7 103/219 3} | 08 9 |511 Gf 0 6 6/2 7 4 |314 6 0 5 2/2 5 oF 0 6 2/3 5 3} is 4 5 10} 018 015 | SB. 2d. |) Bs id. 0/1215 43 0/18 4 3 0 10 111 0 10 2 8} 0} 11 4 6g | 0/1012 33 | 614 6 0/1017 58 Gross Return per Head f o Population contributing to Sewers. Profit per Acre, BB. ds tea ia a profit 11 | | Loss per Acre, | | | £8 chy . | Ll 6 7% | lk 5 19 | O17 43 | 117 11 Population contributing to Sewage. 8,000 18,690 112,500 | 55,000 | 21,000 | | 5,300 23,000 33,000 | 10,000 | Number | Number of People | of People contri- contri- buting to | buting to an Acre | an Acre calculated | calculated on whole | on Area ‘Area of | actually Farm. Irrigated. REMARKS. 102 122 444 539 121 172 69 92 219 330 30 142 51 433 96 99 Information not ayailable. Ne eee cost of pumping \\ sewage. |{No rent charged for free- hold land, | |{Does not include cost of { pumping, (Rent includes amount paid for sewage, but does not include cost of plunping. eae not include cost of pumping or rent. At Guisbrough the only permanent man employed receives 20s, a-week and his house. Women are mostly employed on farm at 1s. 6d. a-day, but when men are employed the weekly wage is 18s. At Croydon, in the year ending March, 1878, the gross return per head of the population was 3s. 1d., gross return per acre 17/, 12s, 114d., and the loss 61, 7s. 3$d. per acre. At Birmingham the rent of the leasehold land, 101 a, 3x. 39 p. in extent, has been distributed over whole farm. — At Leamington the wages of other than ordinary Inbourers ave as high as 18s. per week, with a cottage in addition, To face page 2. é I. : ‘ eS % ‘ . a. : , ee ae - % a © ad aa? ATH wh ‘ 57 ie i) F | { ; ? : t Pie jf ry Vitet Me vf h Vet ih BS reve ve.) ~ s : ; «sod! (cpu ee Ta ’ r I Ss . ‘ . ra } ciah ky | -4 ae (Bit 4 oy ad fal 5 hea ; 7 ; a hes mae rts wily i were & 01 Wiha * ¥ wee Hees ha bee AL | ; oie Hert fut ts _ bi a OS OF ; cin, ry whan ‘ ae pals he aS ¥ F ’ . ; ; how OMOEA 6 aah: A ‘ “i y] 1S \ 4 Fs . 4 a) Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 3 itself would not give any great return per,acre. When, how- ever, the gross returns per head of the population contributing to the sewers are considered, then Leamington comes out in a more favourable light; but here again the large acreage abso- lutely increases this amount beyond its true value. It should be remarked that a large area of ordinary agricultural land attached to a sewage farm does not always add to the profit of the undertaking: This will be clearly seen from an examina- tion of the accounts of the Reading Sewage Farm, which has a larger proportion of unirrigated to irrigated land than any other farm which we examined ; and yet the undertaking has always been carried on at a loss if a reasonable amount of rent is charged for the land. At Croydon, it is shown that in the year ending 25th March, 1879, there was a loss of 147. 5s, 13d. er acre, the gross returns per acre having only reached 10/. 1s. 11d. per acre as against 177. 12s. 114d. per acre in the previous year, and as against a loss of 6/. 7s. 33d. per acre in that year, which was the largest amount lost in any year up to that period on this farm. There is also a very considerable difference in regard to the physical properties of the soil on the several farms. This is very distinctly shown by experiments which have been made upon the absorbing properties of the soils collected from the different farms which are given in the table on page 4. It should be borne in mind, in considering this table, that the less absorbent the soil is, the more readily will it act as a filter. This is clearly shown by the results when we take a case like Doncaster (No. 13), where there is no surface-effluent, and very little subsoil-efiluent flowing from the land. It is con- firmed again by the light sandy soils of Leamington (No. 18), and also by the fact that samples Nos. 11 and 12 from Croydon are taken from a field which is noted for disposing of large volumes of sewage. The subsoil of this field possesses great filtration powers, but little capacity for absorption. We are happy to report that in every case we received from the several competitors all the assistance and information which were necessary in forming our judgment of the merits of each farm. In adjudicating the order of merit of the several farms, we took into consideration the instructions given to us, viz. :— . General management with a view to profit. . Productiveness of crops. . Goodness and suitability of stock (where there were any). . Management of grass-land. . State of carriers, gates, fences, roads, and general neatness. . Mode of book-keeping followed. SO Ol COD B 2 4 Report of the Judges on the Statement of the Puystcat Prorrrrrs of the Sorms on the several SEWAGE-FARMS. Percentage of Water No. Name of Place. Description of Soil. by Weight. Soil will absorb. 1 | Aldershot .. » ight sandy). ) a) «ss --mEAn OO 2 | Bedford .. 5 Light sandy .. primey. |eak 277 3 | Bedford .. Loamy soil er OO) olf nese i). bt ae Light. soil, containing eat and . | RENEE os { other organic matter P 5 a Oa 5 | Birmingham .. +. | Stiff land, clay soil 57°6 6 Croydon (Beddington) .. | Light peaty Bollaeeer oat LOB AO, 7 | Croydon (Beddington) .. ee belowlass sample yellow 25°9) 8 | Croydon (Beddington) .. | Gravelly surface soil 48°5 9 | Croydon (Beddington) .. | Gravelly surface soil .. 49°77 10 | Croydon (Beddington) .. Vane eae eravel enon ‘below 13°1 Grayelly soil (dark colour), con- 11 | Croydon (Beddington) .. | taining organic matter and fine}| 65°9 roots .. 12 | Croydon (Beddington) .. ieee ake subsoil from = 9+4 13 | Doncaster Light sandy soil .. 24°2 14 | Doncaster Soil from mangold field 28°8 15 | Doncaster Stiff soil (el ay) 47°3 16 | Guisbrough Stiff soil... .. 54°3 17 | Guisbrough Stiff soil .. 49°3 18 | Leamington Light sandy soil 23°4 19 | Leamington Stiff soil . 2 44°9 20 | Leamington Heavy soil (clay) . 56°6 21 | Reading . Light soil 40°2 22 | Reading .. (eel, one foot deep | “below ay 32-7 | ample 23 | Reading .. .. | Stiff soil o0 43°S Ba \opende ae | paper one foot deep ‘below — 46-2 2 sample Sandy and peaty, ‘containing 25 | Wrexham much organic matter sere 61°5 Meadow) , Sandy and peaty, ‘containing 80-0 26 | Wrexham |; much organic matter Grom |{ market garden) In judging the large farms we had not much trouble in deter- mining the order of merit, but in the small farms there was much greater difficulty, owing to the differences of soil, climate, and other conflicting details. In Class L., for farms utilising the sewage of not more than 20,000 people, we say that the Sewage Farm of the Corporation of Belford: managed by Mr. J. H. Collett, and that of Wrexham, farmed by Lieut,-Colonel Alfred S. J ones, V.C., are in our judg- ment equal in merit, and we adjudicate the prize to them jointly. Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 5 In Class II., for farms utilising the sewage of more than 20,000 people, we adjudicate the prize to the Earl of Warwick for the Leamington Sewage Farm, managed, under the direc- tion of Captain Fosbery, the Earl of Warwick’s agent, by Mr. Tough, the bailiff. We are, however, strongly of opinion that a second prize should be given in this class, which, if given, we award to Mr. R. S. Brundell, in connection with the Sewage Farm of Doncaster, which is an admirable example of thrifty management, and shows how sewage can be applied to general farming. We also highly commend the Sewage Farm of the Birmingham, Tame, and Rea District Drainage Board, managed by Mr. James Anscombe. We should add that the Prize Farm, and the second farm in Class II., possess a much higher order of merit than the Prize Farms in Class I. We consider that it would be an invidious position for the Sewage Farm at Doncaster to be placed in not to receive a prize, having regard to the fact that its merits con- siderably exceed those of the Prize Farms in Class I.; therefore we recommend the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society to take this matter into their consideration, with a view to giving a second prize in Class II.* Number of | Petsonsem-| Cnitdren Number Name of Farm, as in Paes living on of Deaths peration, manne Farm. occurring. Aldershot... .. «. 15 25 12 0 BSCGLOLD sik) con ee il 28 6 0 Birmingham .. .. 12 28 9 2t Croydon’. 3. 7. 18 94 30 5§ Doncaster cence 6 44 22, 0 Guisbrough .. .. 9 8 4 0 Leamington .. .. 8 46 14 2 FRAG ii tec sos oe 4 88t 32 1 Werexhaml,. (acl < 10 19 8 0 Matalsiee, cst | a 93 380 137 10 With respect to the sanitary aspect of sewage-farming, the above table will show the several particulars which have been collected in reference to the farms during the period they have been in operation, the number of persons either living or working on the farms, the number of children residing on the farms, and * The Council decided, at their meeting in February, to give a Special Prize of 25/. to Mr. R. S. Brundell in connection with the Doncaster Sewage Farm. + These figures do not include the men engaged in laying out additional land for sewage purposes. { These deaths occurred in connection with sewage tanks and not sewage farm. § These deaths have occurred within the last ten years. 6 Report of the Judges on the the number of deaths which have occurred. An examination of this table will show that the rate of mortality on an average of the number of years which these farms have been in operation does not exceed three per thousand per annum. ‘This is a very low rate, but in all probability it may not be lower than would be found in an equal number of selected lives taken from an agricultural district. The results of the sanitary inquiry show that sewage- farming is not detrimental to life or health. A statement made by the manager of the Croydon Sewage Farm that the horses on that farm were very subject to grease, caused us to make special inquiry into this subject, and we found that on no other sewage farm were the horses subject to this par- ticular disease, or to any other disease; but that both horses and other live stock were very healthy on all the farms we examined, Sewage-farming is becoming an important agricultural feature in the country, there being at the present time about one hundred such farms in operation. The following detailed reports relating to the management of the various sewage farms entered in com- petition will, we trust, be of some value to all interested in sewage operations. BaLpWIN LATHAM. CLARE SEWELL READ. Tuos. H. THURSFIELD. Crass I.—Berprorp SEwAGEe Farm. Tuts farm is held under five separate owners, to whom the fol- lowing rents are paid by the Corporation of Bedford :— OWNERS. Acreages. Rent Paid. ‘Ay Rib Bs ue aey, Duke of Bedford .. .. we 43) (2) 119 SoG eOmae Captain Polhill Turner, M. ret ae 80 0 0.) 426.0 0 Rev. J. G. C. Campion’ wees 20 127 || 130) 070 Corporation of Bedford aha yee 27 234] 124 0 0 Hospital of St. John .. .. .. THEE XO) 51 10 0 183 0 22] 92710 O Add paid to London and North-Western Railway Company for Sewer crossing under ab ot) G) Railway Sand nad! v's £928 10 0 The farm was established in 1868, and is managed for the Corporation of Bedford by Mr. J. H. Collett, and.it re- Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 7 ceives the sewage of the borough of Bedford, which con- tains a population of 18,690 persons. Of the 183 a. Or. 22 p., 153 a. lr. 2p. are arable, and 29a. 3r. 20p. pasture; and 153 acres of the farm are irrigated with sewage. The soil of the farm is light land, the subsoil being gravel. Experiments have been made with two samples of the soil, which show, on an average of three experiments with the most sandy soil, that it is capable of absorbing 33°6 per cent. of its weight 1 in water, and that the more loamy soil would absorb 42°3 per cent. of its weight in water. As a rule, the smaller the percentage of water absorbed the greater is the percolating power of the water through the soil. The sum of 69502. has been expended upon this farm and upon the works necessary for lifting the sewage upon it, the expenditure being divided as follows :— Sit dares hSsnid. Cost of land on which pumping works are Dlaced; "> se apie tye ra Ears ee (he ie de ZOOS Engine and boiler-house .. .. ss 77915 2 Pump, EHEINES NOLCH Beh Has Mood eal, wee OOO TE mo Cast-iron delivery WoeMie G5 kom eo gon. (ike: bs AE WMOSCENAMEOUS) sa.) ce. burs ee cs on, 002—L8 LO 2850 15 7 WGI PcnSaMOU MM cnepsn Metall * os) occ) cosh cay cee DOME LeeTO Farm buildings .. eee OUamIIEES Labour, laying out farm, making roads, &e. 1213 Opel: Horse hire for ditto .. 3s ibd eye cola 39 Pipes, bricks, &c., used on farm. ae oo, HEE IG) 1 ———— 3192 12 5 £6950 0 8 The sewage from Bedford is brought by gravitation to the site of the pumping station, which is situated upon land con- tiguous to the farm and adjoining the river Ouse, into which there is a storm-water overflow. When the river is in flood, we were informed that the sewers were liable to be flooded from the leakage into the outfall-sewer; and at such times the sewage, with the exception of such portions of the solids as are retained by a grating, is turned directly into the river, as we found on our second visit to this farm, when the whole of it was passing into the river. At the pumping station there are a pair of horizontal high-pressure engines working centrifugal pumps, which are employed to lift the sewage on to the farm. The following figures show the acreage and the height to which the sewage is lifted :— ‘AQ SEs) P: 30 0 21—Sewage requires to be lifted 21 feet. 123 0 1— 5 UWS gp 380 0 O—Not irrigated. 8 Report of the Judges on the At the sewage pumping station there is a tank with an iron screen across it, which intercepts some of the solid matter from the sewage, and a man is engaged to keep this screen free. ‘The matter removed from the sewage, which is a comparatively small quantity, is either used upon the contiguous garden or upon the farm. The pumping is usually only carried on in the daytime. At night the sewage is stored in the sewers, and the average daily quantity pumped is 950,000 gallons. The quantity of coal used daily to raise the sewage averages 21 cwt. The sewage having been screened, it is pumped through an 18-inch iron delivery main, having a 15-inch iron branch delivery main, to one part of the farm; from thence it is distributed in earthenware pipe-carriers laid in embankments above the surface of the land, which vary in size from 18 inches to 9 inches in diameter. The distribution of the sewage over the land irrigated is through earth-cut channels, which are ploughed or dug out from time to time as required. A small portion only of the farm, about 5 acres in extent, has been under-drained with 2-inch pipe-drains 60 feet apart and 3 feet deep. Very little effluent was flowing through these drains at the time of our inspection, but the whole of the fields of the sewage farm are surrounded by deep ditches, which tend very materially to drain the subsoil. We were informed that if the circumstances had admitted of a greater depth being given to the land drains, they would have been placed lower, but the falls in this case would not admit of the drains being laid deeper. A great variety of crops are grown upon this sewage farm, which is treated as a combined sewage farm and market-garden. It is somewhat singular that the peculiar crop, whatever it may be, that suits the neighbourhood, seems to flourish under sewage. Lucerne is not a plant which we would select as the most likely to be benefited by sewage, yet in Paris it is almost the only green crop grown on the sewaged land, it being the favourite provender of the district. So onions, that are grown in great profusion around Bedford, seem to flourish upon sewaged land and appear the most profitable crop to grow. The following table (page 9), which was handed to us by the farm manager, shows the acreage and the value of the produce for the four years 1875 to 1878; and an examination of the accounts for 1878 showed that the income and expenditure had been as in the table on page 10. GS ZL 8b ae 0 0 GIT) Of 0 ore |'0 0- OT 004 |0 0 9g 3 6.82 fe) 0 ORME a se os I~ 9 €19 0 4 &I i) 0 OLEt |0 0 ve re oly 9 F GI = II GI 101 | ¢ *F OF Ss 0 4108 |#9 0 FI -< a a ~ to oon |e eat Q 0 F GIZ\EL 6 ZI § 9 € 161 | 1 6I OL S £9 eco lth G ge b SL SST |f6 9I 9T = 0 0 sé |0 O 0% = G 11 62t|4 & S&T 3 0 FL FE | Lh AL E&I Ry ¢ 9 ser itr el et a O Wht ERATE, 182-9 y 0 0 #81 |F% STL 8 + ae a A sr SESE 3 S _—<———a ee S ‘sonpoig | ‘aioy sed o) Te0, | ‘aSvloAV | “SL8T OF En 0 & & (i) Ore Es 0 02 0 0 02 0 0 One 0, 02 T O Om ies 02 iT € 06 & € OenOere Or € € OM Oe LT WU) ie 03 & OL 0 Tt 6 OR oer OS Ges 0 2a 0 &@ ce OD ik 0 O F% Che tu ‘eBvol0y | | OL T O8T |} OT IT L0E@ ne OL 0 087 aie AG 0 et 0 0 6IL sis 0 Z 2 W) {5 009 0 20 009 0 0 SF | 02 0 O 0 OLT 0 0 ZL | 0% 0 0 ChOnee Ue Weaalt apie 1G 0 ar 2e 0 9122 0) 0) LT OO) 25 110) (Oe. Si 0m. 0 FE 10) 0c EL 10) 02) ml Oe Ounr 0 © 28 eek 1S Oe ed: (eC NOs Wh ey te 6 ¥¢ G9 LIT ($8 218 (tks 0) 0) Ze \|0)..0) FT a0) oles GoW ia Wa Wo (He agar ts Gy She Oras i tele | We re! #L €L 68I |¥6 IEE | 0 O &T 0 S 10F |#, € 6 |O §€ E&I 0 OL S02 |% S St |0 @ SI O10) UC) |S Sor Tr n0c 0" FE (th (oye rae |) Sig | ke 4 EL. Si 1S) GleLtectes Ol wire cc 0 9 S4y|/Il9l zr |0 O LE 00 09 |0 0 8 0 2 Ff 0 oloze |f6 9 OF | 0 0 18 Gf Ja yams sued Gy Qt aa ie Va GOA ‘sonporg | ‘a1oy 10d ‘gBval0y 18307, asBloAW “LL8T IL 91 2822; ps 0€ LT 081] 8 ZI F222) oY OO wr oO Go Omen ay ae OH Mee TO O GS Wks We IPO 198ts 0 8 02 On 0 F |)0) 0 Ze) 07 0) 0 |/0' 0 9 0 0 OF OL OG i208 WO Sik OO. 0 0 Tz OW jae hi Bea wo Eo I ie oie Owe th Gare Ob) ty err Sani) 3S'10 on 3 Ow ae OO Oe NOs tte ae 22 OuSTROBS 9 Slo 10) Om ce | OmO OL |krsStar 6 L Wr | TL Sk yl 0 +0 Ss a 9 % 2% 90 |f1b0 [01 0 v2 | 8 -sn ys | Thiet 2.2 0 £108 |0L8 Sf |0 oOo 9 |O0 wr48 | 4 XT SI (OOO), 4 Mie, oe Ne az a Oy 0 JL 9IL| 6 #16 MQ (i) fae) Ghesage ll aae G3 T 9 49 [6 IL 9 0 .t OT) 6. €L 822 \¥F O FI 6 €1 sce |ff 8 ze | OL O IT]O O 182 }f0OL 9 82 9 I TIT|}% Z IL |O oO OT] 9 9 oft |t9 ILS y OL E9L 6 F OL |O0 O 9T]0 T 9IT}S TI SI € T ses #8 O FL | 0% 0 8E}9 9 Gea |¥0 SI FT @ 6 tes ite 8 2 0 oO 0€/]9 OL Ist |fO IT 9 OG even) aS) ele |l0n 0) OShi9) 10) (668) (NG ace peg |pw sy |auvip es = |p es g: “aonpold "210 V aad : “oonpold ‘d1OV aod [vO], OSVIOAV esvany On A osBlIAV “OL8T | 0O€ € O8T 02 0 0 02 0 0 OL OFI0 (jt (Xi) (9 36 a8 OL Lag: 0 O FL (He gn ye 06 O OT OMG (hee ad 0G & OF 0 0 o& 0 O & ‘dH “¥. ‘eBvoDy ee ** spaq paas puv sn3vivdsy Mon (Qey]-qns) Mopropt "om ‘Sool, JuRLIND AoyuMog APA ** snSevivdsy BO OO CRU ep eps SMOLIV IT 91QRI9R0 4 ** sraquimong ee oe * oe £19)99 suvog Aoupiyy SIOMOPINVD - of we sA0aug osrqgry SUT ** aseqqep Suyidg De 0 suvog 6) ** geal AL ** suolug $9098}0,7 sdrusivgy ** sjo1anp, ** sapamg splosuryy oe emmystg JuUoUROAe,T ssvis-ofy Uel[RyL "AOU LO NOWAIOS4 (T "BIST pur J-9-GIQT SIvIOX OY} Io doy Wowo Jo quoy aod MoIUg DOVUGAY put ToVaUOY Y}TA ONIddOUH JO INAWALVLG WAVA AOVMAS CYOACHET Report of the Judges on the 10 a & 8 6I18&SF & 8 618&F — OW OL 28s - 22 se eee ss) e! OSBORN Sudo JO 180K) TSS. Stas se Se SUT TOM MO SSOT) Oona ea: OL POL. er? to SIT sHoowe |poosT Ty iy &6 oe gee Mice pati eels Tite cisisins (62) th COTELSUT 9 #8 tr ne ee ae te ae oe oe goxey, pure 807IT (1) TA Cc ED eC CCM COCs CCC CMEC SIT =) tS ag SI eZ vs os ++ sosuodxny pUt WOISsTUIIOD s,todtTIOTjONW OL L &1 he ek eee SYIOM JUOUVULIOT OF 21 Gli ee SS os ee phupMopes qouery DEKE ke ee gee ae al ae ee Uy a PUI WEE 47 86 BE SEES BOSS Tae? ee sPIBdeL SUT epueep 0 ¢9f ‘* ‘* poumstoo Lexy pur ‘ssvis-ofy ‘u109 ostozT Gueg. eL GOO GO O08 DOG" 00 ray iokae bo a2 pL LeACOTANTT | 716 " ' *« pnassyomnd Meg pue ‘dooy ‘atop osi0F{ (OE 4 Se DOME OG eh OO & OD Ob On 00 SYIOA JUOUVUIIOT 6 0 L DENOS {GPL SoS eae ce eee Asche Psi) Meee Ss aoCUs]ll 0 0 ¢9L ‘ ** pautmsuoo Avy pur ‘ssvas-oAyy ‘MID asI0FT MOR). 92 28, Fe Gee ie Tey Waeeh oe nel uote OL SL F88E th th thee tee sdo1g Jo soyug IT LEZq ** Slgq ‘Avenuvp ysT Gueg pus yoo}g jo uoryenteA 0 B CLEL LST ‘toqmoosg ysTg GuY[g pus Yoo}g Jo uorpenyeA ‘Ds 5 ‘D8 “‘CUALIGNTAX *“GILOONT eee ee ee ee | eae i ‘SL8T “WiaNMOI ISTE SUIPUS UVAX oy} AOF SLNAONDY JO INANALVILG WaVd AOVMUS CUO Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. AY It will be seen from the foregoing statement of account that if the cost of pumping the sewage is deducted, which is fairly not an item of farm expenditure, the farm shows a profit. At least half the farm is very poor land, which is hired at a stiff price, three times what it is worth to an ordinary farmer. The Cor- poration, however, have the advantage of farming a portion of the land under the Duke of Bedford, and therefore came in for an abatement of half a year’s rent during the past year (1879) ; and, moreover, the land subject to this abatement in rent 1s some of the very best on the whole sewage farm. The cropping of the farm for the past year (1879) was as fol- lows :— Ae BR: oP: As RAR IBOLELCUS EU hit 6) geen L290 /O Brought forward .. 129 3 20 Biyecrassis | s. 12, =. (20-0 0) |), Winter beans.. <. 1 3.0) 10 Rhubarb.. .. -. . © O 20 | Kidney beans ih it @ Waulaiowers,«. (§.. =» 6 0 ©) Swedes «. . .. Og OW Prickly comfrey .. .. O 1 O | Cabbage (pring) - At 50 IBatleveeO lice axek nacd a 4h 1/0 Lettuce}... ne LO RIONZO IONE api catia ses. GZ0s0l; 10 Asparagus Oe poe OR Ay EASSMIpS nee difss 2. cO ) Le) O) ||, Currantitreess Ge: col see, 2/00 OAPNGES set) ew, cee, 69 1 0),|) Meadow; (let)... 22 2 0 Wheat wee ce) 226 (0) 0) | Pastureanphandyee (ied (0) Mangolds.. .. .. .. 26 O 0 | Savoys (cabbage) .. SOF LO ORtSieo rsh saywcse ses 1d 2. 0 | Roads, carriers, &e: Gel Carried forward .. 129 38 20 Total acreage of farm..183 0 22 Rye-grass.—The rye-grass on this farm is allowed to stand for two years. It is sown in the autumn or in spring, as circumstances require. Experience, however, at Bedford shows that this crop has deteriorated in value, so that last year they did not realise more than 7/. 13s. 4d. per acre for it. This falling off in value is principally due to the fact that there has been such an abundance of grass during the last two years that there has been no great demand for the rye-grass. ‘The green crops yield nothing like the sum they ought to produce. ‘This is due, in a measure, to the fact that the Corporation have to sell the produce in a district which is at all times well provided with green food. ‘The chief drawback to this farm appears to be the absence of live stock, but we understand that the Corporation, since our last inspection, have erected a complete set of farm buildings to accommodate twenty-four milking cows, with open sheds for young stock and piggeries; also a resi- dence for the farm manager; and they may reasonably expect that a well- managed dairy-farm, so conveniently situated for the sale of milk, will pay fairly “well. Potatoes.—Potatoes are planted on the flat, 18 inches to 30 inches from row to row, and the distance of the tubers in the rows varying from 15 inches to 18 inches apart, depending upon the variety of potato grown. Early Ashleaf and Magnum Bonum are the kinds most liked. The potatoes are full of top. A dressing of stable-dung is applied to the land. The potato crop is not irrigated with sewage during the period of growth. The farm manager reported, November 7 th, 1879, that the Magnum Bonum potatoes are entirely free from disease, and that they have just finished digging over 30 tons of splendid stuff, the produce of seven acres. Mangolds. —Mangolds are planted on the flat, as are all other crops on this 12 Report of the Judges on the farm, the idea being that in the case of land laid out as at Bedford in short plots on a quick fall, the sewage is more readily applied to the crop on the flat than if the crop were planted on ridges ; for if the ridges ran with the fall, the sewage would rapidly flow down the comparatively short length of the fields into the ditches at the bottom ; and if the land is ridged across the fall, even if every ridge was an exact contour of the land, very uneven distribution of the sewage would take place. The objection to the flat system adopted at Bedford, on account of the physical features of the land, appears to be that the sewage is liable to pond in places, on account of the unevenness of the ground, and that the growing crop is liable to be soiled by direct contact with the sewage. ‘The mangolds are drilled in rows 26 inches apart, and are hoed out to 12 inches from plant to plant, the quantity of seed sown per acre being 5 lbs. ‘The early sown mangolds, both here and on other farms, have run to seed. ‘The mangolds on this farm are a good plant ; one field especially, which was sewaged in the winter, was capital; they are irrigated from time to time during the period of growth. Onions.—The seed is drilled in rows 8 inches distant.. The bulbs of the onions should be from 4 inches to 6 inches apart in the rows. The quantity of seed sown is from 8 lbs. to 10 lbs. per acre, depending upon the quality of the land and the time of sowing. ‘he cost of cleaning this crop is about 5/. 10s. per acre in ordinary seasons, This year the wet weather has interfered very much with the cleaning, and the weeds have been a great trouble. The onions are thinned out the second time of cleaning, ‘This crop was very fair for the season, but in places where the water lodged the plant was destroyed. The crop is not irrigated with sewage while growing, but sewage is applied to the land before the seed is sown. Cabbage.—This was a good crop, considering the severe winter, and sold at 8d. per dozen, delivered on rail for Manchester. Cauliflowers are usually planted in June and cleared in October. It is a crop that answers well on this farm. Both cabbage and cauliflowers are planted in rows, so that the plants are 2 feet distant from each other. The land previous to planting is marked out both ways with a drill. The precision thus gained in planting the crop is found to give greater facility for afterwards using the horse-hoe. Prickly Comfrey.—A small quantity of this crop is grown for horse-fodder. The roots were planted in March 1878, and the crop was cut three times in that year. The roots are planted 24 inches apart each way, and the crop is said to take any amount of sewage. The manager states that he believes it to be impossible to damage this plant with sewage, for the crop had been con- tinuously flooded with sewage for three weeks in succession, and this treatment was found more beneficial than otherwise. Carrots.—Carrots are drilled in rows about 12 inches apart, and the plants are from 4 to 6 inches distant in the rows. Carrots are not sewaged during their period of growth. The crop, which did not appear to be a very good one, has, we learn, been sold, and produced nearly 16/7. 10s. per acre. Parsnips.—The parsnips were a very fine crop; they are drilled in rows about 12 inches apart, and the plants are from 8 to 10 inches apart; 7 lbs. of seed per acre is used. Swedes.—A small quantity of swedes are grown, but they have not been sewaged. They are drilled in rows 24 inches distant, and the roots are hoed out to 12 inches apart. Three pounds of seed per acre is drilled. Rhubarb.—A small quantity of rhubarb is grown, but on that part of the farm which is seldom sewaged. ‘he roots are placed at a distance of 4 feet apart, and they are moved once in every five years. Wheat.—Red Browick is the variety grown. The crop was level, heavy, and good, and followed potatoes. The land had not been sewaged for two years, and the crop was not sewaged during the period of growth. Oats.—White Polish are the sort grown; they were a very good and heavy Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 13 crop. This crop was sown on land in which parsnips and mangolds had been erown the previous year. ‘The parsnips had not been sewaged when growing ; the mangolds were sewaged while under cultivation. The oat crop looked much better on the part following the mangolds than on that following the parsnips. This crop, like all other cereal crops, is not sewaged during the period of growth. Barley.—This was a heavy crop, but lodged. It was sown on land that had grown mangolds the previous year, and the land had been sewaged after the mangolds had been removed at the end of the year 1878. Celery.—Celery is grown on this farm, and it is found to be one of the best sewage crops grown. The trenches for the reception of the young plants are well sewaged before planting, and the crop is greatly benefited by the frequent dressings of sewage during the period of growth. ‘The sewage is applied between the rows. Lettuces, asparagus, and other small garden crops, are grown on land that receives an occasional dressing of sewage. Rotation of Cropping.—A portion of this farm being liable to flooding, it is found impossible to carry out, on this account, any regular system of rota- tion of cropping. On some of the land the following system is observed :— Ist, rye-grass for two years; 2nd, mangolds; 38rd, wheat or oats; 4th, onions or potatoes, followed by rye-grass. Horses.—Six strong Shire-bred horses are employed on this farm solely for working the land and other farm operations. In the summer the horses are principally fed on rye-grass, and in the winter with beans, oats, and chaff, with a considerable amount of roots, carrots being generally used until Christmas, and mangolds afterwards. The manager reported that this course of feeding keeps the horses particularly healthy. He also reported, in answer to special inquiry, that he never had a greasy-legged horse on the farm, and does not consider the horses on the sew- age farm more liable to that or any other disease than on farms under ordinary cultivation. He further reported that the veteri- nary surgeon’s bill on this sewage farm, during the last four years, averaged about 3s. 6d. per horse. Sanitary.— Eight persons reside on the farm, six of whom are children, and about twenty men and boys are engaged on the farm, who do not reside on it. Mr. J. H. Collett, the farm manager, reported—* No man, either living or working on the farm, or any man living near, has ever suffered from any epi- demic disease. ** No man ever employed on this farm for a sufficient length of time to haye felt the ill-effects of sewage has died up to the present time, neither has there been a death of any resident, young or old. “J can give you no other information on this point excepting that my men have been particularly healthy, and I have never heard the men employed on this, or the adjoining farms, or any person living near, ever complain of injury or annoyance from our utilisation of sewage.” i Report of the Judges on the Crass 1.—WREXHAM SEWAGE FARM. Tue Wrexham Sewage Farm is the property of P. B. Davies- Cooke, Esq., and is rented by the Corporation of Wrexham at 3201. per annum. It is now underlet to Lieut.-Colonel Alfred Stowell Jones, V.C., on a lease for nineteen years, which will expire in the year 1891. Twenty acres of additional land are rented by Lieut.-Colonel Jones from Sir Roger W. H. Palmer, Bart., at 2/. per acre. The entire farm covers an area of 104 acres, made up as follows :— Acres. Avra le sea). Wie. 11) eke ao Maree Pasture... 4:2 eee Roads, site of buildings, &c. .. 34 104 The sewage of the town of Wrexham, which contains a popu- lation of 10,000 persons, flows by direct gravitation on to this farm. At the head of the farm are placed a pair of settling- tanks, into which the sewage flows, and in which the solid matters subside, the liquid flowing from these tanks being dis- tributed over the land by means of earth-cut carriers, except in a few instances where the carriers are earthenware pipes. All the sewage that finds its way into the tanks is passed on to the farm. There is, however, a storm-water overflow at the entrance into the tanks, and we were informed that there were others in the district. The quantity of liquid sewage conveyed on to the farm varies from 300,000 gallons per diem in dry weather to 500,000 gallons in wet weather. All excess beyond the latter quantity flows by storm-water overflows into the adjacent brook, and we observed at the time of two of our inspections that the overflow at the entrance to the sewage-tanks was acting. The solid matters taken out of the tank are first allowed to drain, and then they are thoroughly dried and sifted; a Gibbs’s fan and cylinder, driven by a portable steam-engine, is used for drying the sludge, which is previously sold to the Wrexham Manure Company, who make a manure called the “‘ Farmer’s Friend.” We were informed that 172 tons of this manure were sold in 1878 at 6/. 10s. per ton, and that each ton consisted of— 1 ewt. sulphate of ammonia. 7 ewts. fine raw bone-meal. 12 ewts. dried sewage-sludge. 1 ton. Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 15 About 300 tons of dry sludge is annually removed from the tanks. What is not disposed of for making artificial manure is used directly upon some portions of the land, or is sold to neighbouring farmers. The land for the most part is of alight sandy character, con- taining peat or vegetable matter, upon a subsoil of gravel and sand. Experiments made with the soil show that a sample taken from Stanstey Meadow absorbed 57 per cent. of its weight of water, and a sample taken from the market-garden land absorbed as much as 70 per cent. of its weight of water. The absorbent character of these soils is due to the large amount of organic matter present in them. About four acres of the farm have been under-drained with 6-inch and 8-inch pipes, six feet deep and forty yards apart. Isolated drains, constructed with 3, 4, and 6-inch pipes, have been laid in wet places on the farm, where required, at a depth of 3 feet 6 inches. There is very little surface effluent flowing off the farm. The under-drains, however, were flowing freely at the time of our inspections, the effluent from these under- drains being clear and apparently very pure. The amount of capital expended by Colonel Jones in pre- paring the land for the reception of the sewage has been as follows :— £! ss) a. UMNO Sages ee) ess ser “sere eaiacte Aa ee LOO I opeSs SDT CMe oficial iofin ete'olm eic'outdeaciee Scimmastpe GLAGe Hale A: Sewage. carriers ae Recast? es as, VOU ORIG Preparing land for sewage a Cone ee 7 E200!) CORED OAM STAMOMeHCINO ys.) Veo! 0 cs) cs os ot) MOOME TO ARGLAIMETSUICOSLINE aces ceny ete) Sock toy LOGO OND Amount of Capital paid off :— SAS es? cc) cess ee, LOLA GONmcet Rac mca ge 61 LIF od se “e - on oe ae oe oe SODUAL 26 OL FS we oe ee e * ee oe ee OINUB IL = rey (NE SE a a ig iy oe 7 Gres) OTE TAT TB LOCO) 8 61 +S oe bg ee pe ae as emake coe AT S 0 ¢ 08 eee eee Wace Sham we dic TOpurAorg GP Onra0n 37 ty Mina soe Sec eens gz IL9 9 sala 8/2 ®12 pak 81>) eres inty eee ole Jee cee a OLE MOET 0 0 06 ‘7 '* SOIMOg PUB SOSIOFT OSVITIND Ss 0 8LZ OC i a AOC tC UE jo oary & OW TE TSG tes SS SR ne ee SOR) Arve TOF topuoaorg a 42 9 S Eee ea Cae a ea emer 929.0 (208 (2) : FOL DL Leg. woe) = Sisdorg Toprey) 18730 pus oseqqro a Qu rc) ie! oe eee eee een oe uoin dasgmo uo] Cua @ & 89 DOP coe Cl DU rat “ee Wi, =SSO01RIOC ite = Ocha ee e oo on .- on oe oe spaog 1OYO OL ZL IF ve oe oe on e on on ABIL pus Avy “ & 0 8 Z e oe we oa oe ee e ee ee oe $90}Vj0g CG ZL Ick ee oe oe oa oe oe oo oe oe S8BI) ce Rs a) @) 2 6O~ Ofte =—Uos 0 o. .- os “ _peeg TOF VBI A GC 8 gg ae +o on eee sopo MS pus SplOsuvyL ts 0 0 ZG on oe oe ee on ee oe oe oe aT%O 0 0 8 oe on oe oe oe ee oe +. S}eQ “ ILGL L8G tenet ne oe grog 9 $1 L¢ oC Bowes Cerone. MuCCiki iO: Go qwoy A JO oes T Sf 0SIS “ " % " ** QLgT ‘Kxwnzqo,g ys ‘uoryentsA Lg 698 " " ' * LIST ‘Aven«qot 481 ‘uoryenye A ‘p35 D's F “AUALIGNGAX “MIMOONT CSL *AUVOAUIH LST ONIGNE UVAR THL WOX SLNQAONNY FO INANALVLIG to WUVA GOVMES WVAHXdCUM 1% Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 6 1 S6c'sF 6F1 ming Le o> al AOmte AR OMIM re or) ne ie 2) © w sH co bn al] WOAOHDOOOSOOURGSSOCSCS ie) ig) DH on OO al 96 re le) N TEED US SD (GN 'G9)09) OE O10 sH Sracooonowond 6 ro) - oa LL8T. ‘WUOLIGNA Xo qyorg eouvleg OOUBINSUT OAT IT SNOOML|[IOSTIA[ “ STO, FO3072 A "* goTeg WO TOISsTUMOL "ese #* TOTO}VO-OTOT[ "8G ‘MOTTTVIG {SFT ‘s[vog “4: Sogn urer¢: "+ glammoqery oy Looge "* sosuodxny Areur4e}0 A sytq AvAprery aOXE IL PUR ‘SOumnL ‘soVery ** SOSB AL (eomrD) omMULL [POYYIy ‘* JopusAoIg YyUsyovyl gy 66 ‘* Jo Ory ‘* poredoax fe posvyoind syuotmodury “+ gspo0g 1oIO on oe CONS ue ** s90}v]0q on - oe ae@) 09, Ob (¢ Kopueg, ‘x geal pees TOFPBOUIM toe Pe quay ‘freniqoa,y IST ‘Moryenye A £6 FL 866 ‘SF mit rier re SES SNS eS Rss) rile ter MmMUOUOCMWOHDCOSMWMPrCSCOSOnHACOW soe Ll re S1e= a —_——- ‘op emuLyy weyxXer Ak OT} 03 Sur} ™ pue mMoqvy ure 7, gyua yy dooyy ssBrg omuvyy =f * ae eo oe oe oe oo ae oe SIU oe o- oe on SOSIOFT ce Se feeet eSe STO J0.e18s sorMOg PUL SOsIO] OSUIIED ** SMOD Arve Joy TopueAord, eonporg. Teprey royjo pus asBqqen “MOONT do Avg pues key *f oe oe on §00}B40q ce si ssp) ae ‘* spposuryy =‘ * 81vQ Ge foyieg ** JVOITAA JO o[eg SLET ‘Avenrqo,7 IST ‘uoTyenye A oe Oo oe ee oo oe oe 2/87 ‘AUVAUGHT JST SUIPUS UVTA OY} OJ SLNAOODY Jo INGWALVLG WIV AOVMES AVEXATIM VOL. XVI.—S. §. Report of the Judges on the D | , #9 6 IPo'SF #9 6 PS'ss TOL 8 GIL mp rere sUpaise yt, aap ae game Pe nd Cu reo ual Sed ¢ ZB oe ae oe es ee Fe, Ego gOnETNT 0) 0) Zk te ee ae eee ee oe gaTeg WO WOIssiuAUAO;) M @ i Be ele sen) ol es Uae 8 “RQMORBO-OTON || 46) SiG ve ee ee gH Ah AUATICY 0} OSPNIS POMP Suyivg 0 0 Z of on oe oe oe ae SCZ ‘ToTT[VIS Q SCT. ee) 0 0 el of oe oe oe oe oe oe se ee oe syuo 9 ZL¢ te ee ne te oe eee gQTMOGVT LF 109g 008 de eee ee teen Se eee oes Soo BEBE) 0 i g o og ee ee oe oe ee oe oouviInsuy OAL 88 8 gc oe ee oe oe oe oe ee oe OINUV]AL 66 g FL 98 oo oe oe oe ee ee SOXB], pus ‘soul, ‘$0 BI] 9 SL T¢ ee oe Ar} ee ee ee ee oe ee SUL ee £9 IL OFF oe oe oe oe . ee we re oe oe S058 MA 9 S c ela, ae o we oo oe oe ee SOATBO JO 9[VG OL Z IL wi, See pce ney we The) sie ose Eee STOPUOAOL 0 0 06 CD sollog PUB SOSIOT-OSVTITEA os OL TES ap nae ee EQ ge ay eee se SU oS el cy @ IIsks 4 a. Eee BOE RGR EMOO IEE 10p lopuerord 0 61 Gc oe ee ee ee AO oe ee poaedet 6eé iL it 6L or OC ue ue na a ABS pus Avy eS 6 FS Uae ae oe OL a posvyqomd syuoute,dury i) @ GE Meinon cucu Ou a th Sau Ps Se 0 Or BB dG 00) 5 0 0D) G0 a PE ASSIS) UK) (hd PAEKG gonpord UeprVes-joyAV]L TOY}O PUL sossqqeg ‘* 0 ca ee oe Ao oe oe o oe ae oe $90}8}0q gy I 06 ae oe co oe oe oe ee oe SSB. ae (i) ee 9) oe sas be te 0d te GOK) TOT 8}BO TEES aon le ger “ie oh eens Note oe sploSurytL OG 0 0 #2 So 0a. 66 |e Oo dS GNI) zy OL 6L ee enn asreeoo ecot inca OY 6 9 98¢ on oe oe oe oe oe ee oe ae ae query 9 g Ze ee oe or ee oe oe ee ee yvott MA JO aTVg EL OL OTS OO LST ‘Atonaqoyt 987 “woryenyeA Sous orice ce) ee ee OLB Seance ai aad “UOTPENTE A. “pm «8.8 (LV 5F oy) ‘TY ALIGNTIXG, z *MILOONT, ‘G1 QT ‘AUVAUATT JST SUIpuo UVTA OY} 1OJ SLNAODO'W JO TNEWALVLG ‘WUVd GOVMES WVHXAYM Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 19 With reference to the valuation, the sum of 670/. has been added to Colonel Jones’s valuation to cover the cost of stock which has been sold to the sub-tenant, Mr. George Jackson ; and, by agreement with Colonel Jones, this stock is kept on the farm. The resident dairyman on the farm, under agree- ment with Colonel Jones, is bound to keep not less than 25 nor more than 30 cows, and he pays Colonel Jones 5s. per week each for grazing cows in one meadow. When this fails, he purchases what hay, mangolds, turnips, cabbages, or rye- grass he may require at 25 per cent. under market-price on the ground ; and he purchases straw at 50 per cent. off the market- price, taking it from the machine, or 30 per cent. under market- price if taken from the stack, and he leaves all the manure on the farm. He is also allowed to keep three horses, a number of pigs and poultry on the farm, but not geese; and he pays 5/. per annum rent for the house and garden. The arable land on this farm might in parts have been somewhat cleaner, but the fences and roads were in good order, especially when the naturally poor growth of the fences is taken into consideration. The cropping of the land for the past year (1879) has been as follows :— FX. Vagal aad Pasture—Hay, grazing spring andautumn .. .. 384 0 0 A Grazanotonly. 7.0 Wows ee bet did) vee Eli OT1O Arable—Italian rye-grass.. .. .. . « «. 16 83 0 it Black Vantarian'OatSes. es. seo) se ee LO 70 % BaLleyas Mabe tohs ee cle esa) Bette ies ies oct COLO! FO Man COldS) S.5.5 bos) see tack t cs Bermes. OMe oLmO is Seetea te iT ooh. RD de cee SOLS Wil . Market carden Yh ROR In ner ase Tp oS oHONIO Potatoes 3 0 0 Wrexham Manure Co.’s sheds and drying-grounds Ow @ For Shone’s experiments, pneumatic seweragesystem 0 2 0 Roads, house, garden, stackyard,&c. .. .. . 3 14 MotalWacreacevontarmy..) 9's. .) 2. 1 LOLMO! 10 Rye-grass.—This is the chief crop cultivated on this farm. The seed is usually sown about the 1st of April at the rate of two bushels per acre, and the first cutting of the fresh-sown crop occurs inJuly. The crop is allowed to stand three years, and is generally cut four times the first year, six or seven times the second year, and four or five times the third year. The weight of rye- grass grown in the three years, on an average, is nearly 40 tons per acre per annum. It is copiously irrigated with sewage after every cutting of grass. The crop is sold partly toa dairyman, whose stock is on the farm, and partly to general customers, and generally realises about 9d. per cwt. The cutting of 1879 was quite one month later than usual. Grass that cannot be disposed of green is made into hay. Attempts have been made on this farm to artificially make the rye-grass into hay. For this purpose the grass was cut in its green and fresh state with a chaff-machine, and c 2 20 Report of the Judges on the the short-cut grass was then passed into the drying cylinder of a Gibbs's machine. The chopped hay produced is said to have contained, when so dried, from 20 to 25 per cent. of moisture. When put up for store, instead of heating and further drying, it turned mouldy and was spoilt. Mangolds—YVhis crop is grown on ridges, which are 27 inches apart. The plant is hoed out to 12 inches distance in the rows, and 6 lbs. of seed per acre are sown. Long red is the favourite variety grown on this farm, and it is usually taken after a straw-crop with the aid of sewage. The crop receives four or five dressings of sewage during the period of erowth. The mangolds were sown on the 8rd of May, and were a very good crop—in fact, the best (as a whole) we saw during our inspections on any farm. ‘The quantity of mangolds grown per acre varies from 380 to 46 tons, and it is found that these sewage-grown mangolds will keep well in the clamp until they are all sold, and not unfrequently they are kept a long time. It is not considered that the climate is well suited to the growth of mangolds. Potatoes——This crop is grown in ridges at 27 inches’ distance apart, and the tubers are 14 inches from each other on the ridge. ‘‘ Champions” are the best sort that has been tried. No liquid sewage is applied to the crop. The land is dressed with farmyard-manure or sewage-sludge. The potatoes in 1879 were an excellent crop. Oats.—“Scotch Black ‘Tartarian” is the sort grown. The oats of 1879 were sown on the 4th of April at the rate of 33 bushels per acre, and seemed a remarkable crop, looking well. In a former year we were informed that they yielded 78 measures of 46 lbs. each per acre. The crop is not directly sewaged, but follows in regular rotation the growth of rye-grass, which receives a large quantity of sewage. Part of the crop of oats of 1879 was seeded with permanent ¢ grass and part with rye-grass at the time of sowing. Barley.—A crop of this grain was growing on poor land. Although in ‘the early part of the season it “did not look well, yet it turned out in “the end avery good crop. The barley is not directly sewaged, but the land had been manured with sewage-sludge. The 1879 crop was sown on the 18th of April, at the rate of 23 bushels of seed per acre, and followed turnips, which had been previously grown on the land. Wheat.—There was no wheat-crop growing on the farm in 1879, but it is occasionally grown instead of oats in the regular course of rotation of cropping pursued. Scholey’s Square-headed Wheat is the variety grown. It is not sewaged during the period of growth, and is sown at the rate of 3 bushels of seed per acre after rye-grass. Market-Garden.—A portion of this farm is laid out for a market-carden, and produces cabbages, carrots, beans, French beans, peas, onions, lettuce, radishes, spinach, rhubarb, and strawberries. The land for these crops receives a dressing of farmyard-manure. The crops for the most part are planted on ridges, and are sewaged at intervals depending upon the weather, the sewage being applied more for the sake of watering them than for manuring the crop, except in the case of cabbages, celery, and rhubarb, which will take a considerable quantity of sewage. Permanent Grass and Old Turf Land.—The grass-land on this farm receives very heavy dressings of sewage in the winter months. During the severe winter of 1878-9, all the sewage was applied either to the grass- land or to fallow-land ; and we were informed that the erass-lands on this farm had been used for skating during the severe frost. ‘The grass-lands did not look well at the time of our first inspection, after the frost had gone; and at that period (14th of February) the land was still receiving copious supplies of sewage. A considerable amount of thick depcesit was observable about the sewage-carriers and on the low spots, but this deposit did not kill Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 21 any grass, ‘This same land, later on, showed no signs of injury from the application of the sewage-water under such adverse circumstances, but after having been grazed to the 27th of May it grew all over it a very good hay- crop, which was purchased by the resident dairyman, and was again grazed in the autumn. A meadow which is used exclusively for grazing is contoured . with carriers, and is occasionally irrigated. Rotation of Cropping.—The rule observed on this farm is first, for three years, rye-grass, followed in the fourth year by wheat or oats, in the fifth year mangolds, and in the sixth year a return to rye-grass. Cattle—Colonel Jones has but two cows of his own,,having disposed of his stock to a dairyman for the sum of 670/. The stock is, however, all kept on the farm under the terms of the agreement already referred to, and the value of this stock is included in the farm valuation, but none of the tenant’s plant is included in the valuation. At the time of our in- spection there were twenty-six cows in milk, three dry, and six calves, and also one bull on the farm. The dairy stock is tied up all the winter and part of the summer. In the summer the cows are fed on Italian rye-grass night and morning, and graze in the meadow. In winter they are fed on hay, mangolds, cabbage, Indian-meal and grains. ‘The cows are bought in from time to time as required, and are soid off whendry. The calves are sold mostly for rearing, but some few are sold fat to the butcher. Two or three are invariably kept for the renewal of the stock. The calves are never allowed to suck the cows, but are reared on skimmed milk and linseed. The average yield of milk is about 14 gallon per cow per day, and the price realised for the milk, when sold night and morning in Wrexham, at the time of our inspection, was but 2d. per quart, the usual retail price being 3d. per quart. Barren cows are fed and sold to the butcher. The bull is a two-year-old Short- horn, bred by Sir Watkin W. Wynn, by “ Duke of Clive.” The health of the cattle was reported as good, for, with the excep- tion of a very mild outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease and an occasional case of milk-feyer, no cow has been sick during the past eight years they have been kept on this farm. Hlorses.—Fourteen horses and ponies are kept, twelve of which are the property of Colonel Jones, and two the property of Mr. Jackson, the resident dairyman. Two horses and two ponies belonging to Colonel Jones are exclusively used for private purposes. There are three cart-horses, and the remainder is made up of young horses and ponies bred on the farm. The horses working on the farm are also employed in carting sewage- sludge for the Wrexham Manure Company. The health of the horses is very good. Colonel Jones reported that the horses are 22 Report of the Judges on the not subject to any disease, and that he “ never knew a healthier lot, and I have had to do with many horses all my life.” The horses get no corn, and nothing but rye-grass from May to November, and in the winter rye-grass and meadow-hay, home- grown oats, and Indian corn; and they are in constant work in all weathers. Pigs.—Ahbout ten pigs were on the farm; one breeding sow and store pigs are usually kept. They are fed on skim-milk, garden-stuff, Indian meal, and swill procured from the neigh- bouring barracks. Sanitary.— Eleven persons reside on the farm, including eight children, and about eight other men work on the farm,.who do not reside thereon. Coionel Jones reported that, “The children have had whooping-cough, mumps, and measles, and that, besides these, one slight case of acute rheumatism, and common catarrhs and coughs have been the only diseases of any kind endured by the men who reside on the farm, or any of their families, or by those of men regularly employed on this farm. No children of persons resident on the farm, and none of the men regularly engaged on the farm have died.” Crass 1.—AnprrsHot SEWAGE Farm. Tus farm is the property of the Secretary of State for War, and, when in a state of common, in 1864, was let to Mr. James T. Blackburn, on lease for sixteen years, rent free, together with the sewage flowing from the Camp at Aldershot, containing a population of about 8000 persons. The farm contains about 104 acres, 99 of which are under sewage cultivation, the remaining portion being occupied by buildings, cottages, gardens, roads, fences, &c. It is situated on the Bagshot Sands, and consists of a light sandy soil upon a subsoil of ferruginous gravel. Experiments have been made upon this soil as to its power of absorption, and, on an average of three experiments, the soil is shown to be capable of absorbing 362 per cent. of its own weight of water, a quantity which indicates that the soil is of a porous character, as will be seen by reference to similar experiments upon the soil of other sewage farms which have been examined. The land was ori- ginally not worth 5s. per acre, but its value under the judicious management of Mr. Blackburn has been very considerably increased. For some years after being brought into operation, the farm was carried on at a loss to the tenant, but an ex- Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 23 amination of the accounts now shows that the farm pays its way. About 60007. have been expended in preparing the land for the reception of the sewage, in the construction of sewage-tanks and carriers, the erection of farm-buildings, bailiff’s lodge, and cottages, and in the formation of roads, This sum was provided by the Secretary of State for War, in the shape of an annual subsidy extending over a series of years, but the amount was found and expended by the tenant in the very beginning of the operations on the farm. We were informed that prior to the sewage being taken on to this land, and the expenditure of this money on works, it cost the authorities 1600/. a year to deal with the sewage at the Camp in a very unsatisfactory manner. The sewage flows upon ninety acres of land by direct gravitation; and is delivered in a fresh state, and is much stronger than ordinary town sewage. All the sewage goes on to the land. There are storm-water outlets provided in the Camp, but we were informed that they only partially acted, and that there is no mode of diverting the sewage so that it can pass by the farm into the streams of the district, but all of it has to pass on to the farm. At the time of our various visits, a con- siderable quantity of effluent water was flowing from the drains of the farm. This water was bright, clear, and free from offensive matter, and was evidently much purer than the stream into which it was discharged. ‘The solids of the sewage are removed by subsidence in small tanks placed at the head of the farm, and only the liquid sewage flows directly on to the land which is irrigated. The solids collected in these subsidence tanks are occasionally flushed out through the main carrier into three sludge-tanks, which have been formed at a lower point on the farm. These sludge-tanks were constructed by simply throwing up the earth into banks, and protecting the slopes with a coating of gravel mixed with tar. ‘They are each about 37 yards long, 7 yards wide, and 2 feet 6 inches deep. The solid matter remains in these sludge-tanks a sufficiently long time to allow it to drain and consolidate so as to be easily carted upon the land, when required, at certain seasons of the year. Near the lower portion of the farm an engine-house, a high-pressure steam-engine, and pumps have been erected ; these can be used either to pump sewage on to the nine acres of land which cannot be commanded by gravitation ; or in the summer and during dry periods water can be raised from a stream in the neighbourhood for diluting the sewage; or a portion of the effluent water from the sewage farm can be again thrown over the land. The liquid sewage is conveyed over the farm through earth-cut carriers, the sides of which are protected with grass 24 Report of the Judges on the sods laid one upon another, and the land, which has a gentle slope, has been laid out as nearly as possible in five-acre plots, each plot being again subdivided by carriers for the convenience of irrigating, cutting, and removing the crops. Rye-grass cutting is commenced at the bottom of each plot and continued upwards, so that when the bottom of the plot is cleared of the crop it may be again irrigated without interfering with the crop upon the upper portion of the plot. The sewage is distributed by means of contour carriers, which are ploughed out from time to time when the crop is ready for the reception of the sewage. Portions of the ground which required drainage have been under-drained to a depth of from 4 to 6 feet, the drains being from 30 to 60 feet apart. Mr. Blackburn has grown all sorts of crops upon the land, but he now devotes his attention to the cultivation of rye-grass, potatoes, and rhubarb. The cropping of the year 1879 was :— Acres. Potatoes TN LN SN a Rye-prass iS P07 UE nee Rhubarb: 00' 795) te @abbage plants 7) "0" "99. eae i Total. .99 Rye-grass.—As a rule this crop is not allowed to stand longer than two years, and the greater portion for only one year. It is generally sown in September and October, following potatoes, after the land has been grubbed and cleaned, 2 to 3 bushels of seed to the acre being sown. ‘The seed is all crown upon the farm, the second crop of the second year being selected for seed. From 4 to 6 quarters of seed per acre are grown, and at the same time about 13 to 2 tons per acre of ryegrass-hay are made. This home-grown seed is found by experience to be far superior to any bought seed. In no case has the rye-grass upon this farm been allowed to stand for three years, as in the case of some of the other sewage farms we visited, but after the second year it is ploughed up for potatoes. The rye-grass is sold to cow-keepers on the land, and to contractors for the use of horses, a nominal quantity only being reserved for special customers and for one cow kept upon the farm for the purpose of supplying the farm-bailiff and his family with milk. The grass is sold at so much per acre in the spring, the purchaser doing what he likes with it. Both this year and last year, in consequence of the abundance of feed, a considerable quantity of the grass was made into hay. ‘The long frost and snow of the winter of 1878-9 killed a portion of the newly-sown arass, but, by re-sowing in the early spring, before the summer a good and uniform crop appeared all over the land. The first crop of rye-grass upon this farm was cut in 1879, on the 1st of April, which is a month later than cutting took place in the previous year. Usually the rye-grass is cut four, five, and six times a year, depending on whether it is to be used for horses, cows, or other cattle. Potatoes.—Potatoes are the chief crop grown upon this farm, and in their cultivation Mr. Blackburn has had great experience, and has elicited valuable results as to the varieties which are best adapted for sewage culture. In Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 25 preparing the land for potatoes, an ingenious skim-coulter is used, attached to the plough, by the aid of which the rye-grass turf is completely turned over and buried. Prior to the planting of the potatoes the land receives a dressing of from 38 to + ewt. per acre of superphosphate of lime. ‘The potatoes are all planted on ridges, these ridges being 26 inches apart, and the plants 12 inches distant from each other on the ridges. ‘The varieties of potatoes best suited for sewage cultivation are found to be those imported by Mr. Blackburn direct from America. Disease has never troubled this crop much, but all sorts of English potatoes produce too much haulm. ‘The American potatoes grow with little top and answer much better than English seed. About 12 cwt. of seed potatoes are planted to the acre, and the usual yield is about twelve-fold. Several varieties of potatoes are grown so as to come into the market in succession. his crop is usually sold on the ground. ‘The potatoes are not irrigated with sewage during the period of growth, but depend tor their fertilising matter upon the decay of the grass roots, and upon the previous supply of sewage applied to the land; also to the solid matter which has been applied and ploughed into the land, to the phosphate dressing, and to the stable-litter brought on to the farm. Lhubarb.—The rhubarb is grown from plants placed at a distance of 3 feet apart, the ground having been deeply trenched and well-manured with stable- manure previous to receiving the plants. ‘The crop is grown for three years, when the selected roots are re-divided. ‘lhe crop receives liquid sewage during the period of its growth, and is sold for market up to the 1st of June, after which period it is cultivated for wine manufacture. At the end of August the pulling of the crop ceases. In the winter the crop is protected by a slight covering of stable-litter. General Remarks.—Until recently a large number of cows were kept on the farm by a sub-tenant. During the past year, however, only one cow was kept, to which reference has already been made. Four horses are kept for the purposes of cultivation —two Clydesdale and two English horses. Experiments upon the cultivation of mangolds on this farm show that the soil is not capable of producing anything like the weight of mangolds grown on other sewage farms; and on this account, and in con- sequence of the small sum realised for them, the cultivation of this crop has been abandoned. The long spell of wet weather last summer had a most damaging effect upon the yield of potatoes on this farm, The heavy rain on the 28th of May last, and the continuous rains throughout the season, flooded a large portion of the farm, and here and there several acres of potatoes were actually killed by it. The superabundance of moisture appeared to have entirely destroyed the fertility imparted by the sewage, and although the land was fairly tilled and kept free from root-weeds, in all the low spots the annuals were to be seen. Mr. Blackburn reported that since this farm has been under sewage, although every year a large quantity of potatoes has been grown, there has not been, on an average, more than one sack of diseased potatoes each year. Whether this result is due to the special variety of potatoes cultivated, to the application of the sewage, or to the use of gas-lime, with 26 Report of the Judges on the which the land is occasionally dressed, are points that merit further investigation. There are many features in the manage- ment of this farm that appear to us worthy of the highest commen- dation ; and we regret that, owing to the peculiar circumstances under which the tenant is placed in reference to the near approach of the expiration of his lease, we cannot present a balance sheet showing the results of his operations. Sanitary.—The farm has been in existence for fifteen years. Twenty-five persons are either employed or live on the farm, including twenty-two residents, twelve of whom are children. Mr. Blackburn states: ‘‘ No death has taken place among the men, some of whom have worked steadily on the farm without a day’s illness since it was started. No children have died on the farm during its existence as a sewage farm. None of the men, or their families, have ever been subject to any epidemic disease, in fact, nothing worse has occurred than an increase in their appetite. I have never heard, experienced, or seen any ill-effects to health from the working of this farm. I lived on the farm for six years, during which time I was at least ten hours a day superintending its details, and was never more than three or four days away at one time.” Cuiass 1.—GuIssroucH SEWAGE Farm. Tuts farm, if farm it can be called, is the property of, and is carried on by Admiral Chaloner, under the management of his agent, Mr. J. W. Clarke. It was established in the year 1870. It is situated in a sheltered valley, and is a fairly successful and a most interesting experiment. It shows what may be done by a landowner desirous of serving the interests of the neighbouring town, and how the sewage of a large population may be disposed of upon a comparatively small plot of land, as in this case the sewage of at least 330 persons is disposed of upon one acre of land so as to be rendered comparatively harmless, and this is done without any loss to the landowner. . ~ ee The acreage of land used for sewage purposesis .. 16 O 8 Waste land, embankments, &c., from which a hay Bourg crop is taken .. PGR OG! O05) dor 00 Roads, streams; Gcc.'. vif.) fai) sone ecm cel oem This land receives the sewage of the town of Guisbrough, which contains a population of 5300 persons. Admiral Chaloner pays the authorities of Guisborough 5/. per annum for the Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 27 sewage, which has been taken on lease for the purpose of dis- posing of it. The town of Guisbrough is also supplied with water from waterworks established by Admiral Chaloner. About 70,000 gallons of water per day are supplied from the water- works to the town, in addition to which there are a number of local wells. The sewers receive the surface-drainage and rain- fall of the district, including the drainage from the roads. The sewage is conveyed by gravitation on to the land. When the outfall sewer was originally constructed it was made to dis- charge into duplicate covered tanks, but a dam 18 inches high has been placed in the old 3-ft. by 2-ft. outfall sewer at a point above the tanks. From the covered tank there is an overflow into the contiguous brook. ‘The new outfall sewer to the farm commences above the dam in the old outfall sewer, and the sewage is conveyed lower down the valley on to the land pre- pared for its reception. Ata point at the head of the sewaged Jand there is an overflow into the brook. Both this overflow and the one at the old tanks were found to be acting at the time of our visit, on the 18th February, 1879. The sewer which con- veys the sewage on to the land is a 15-inch earthenware-pipe which, at a lower point on the land, bifurcates into 12-inch pipes. These pipes form the main carriers, and are laid in embankments, from which 6-inch branch drains distribute the sewage on to the land. These branch drain-outlets are placed at distances of about 11 yards apart along the main carriers. The sewage is distributed over the surface of the land in earth- cut carriers, which are formed from time to time to suit the nature of the crop or the land to be treated. The whole of the land is’ under-drained. The main drains are 8 inches and 6 inches in diameter; and the branches vary from 4 inches to 3 inches in diameter, and are 5 feet 6 inches deep, clay jointed. The subsidiary drains are_about 5 feet deep, all clay puddled at the joints, and are laid at distances of about 11 yards apart. In one or two places where spring-water was met with the drains were laid at 5 yards apart. The soil is an alluvial deposit, mostly clay, with a vein of gravel, and it cannot be regarded as favourable for the purpose of being used as a filter for sewage. The lighter soil contains vegetable or peaty matter. On an average of three experiments it was found to absorb 54:6 per cent. of its weight of water. An average of three experiments on a more loamy sample of soil showed that this description would absorb 49-3 per cent. of its weight of water. The colour of the soil is red, this colour being imparted by the presence of iron, and as there are tan- yards in Guisbrough, and the waste of the tan-yards finds its Way into the sewage, the effect of the tan-water coming in con- - 28 Report of the Judges on the tact with the iron of the soil is to impart to the effluent sewage a decidedly inky hue. We cannot say that the effluent passing from the drains is always pure, as there were indications that the unpurified sewage occasionally finds its way through the land into the drains. This is usually the case where land of this character is under- drained, as the effect of under-drainage is to cause the ground to dry and shrink, thus leaving minute fissures or cracks through which the sewage will pass into the drains, in certain seasons of the year, with little or no purification. The cost of preparing the land for the reception of the sewage has been somewhat heavy. Large quantities of earth have been excavated, and the valley has been considerably widened in the bottom by the excavations from the sides. The sum of 16917. 11s. 8d. has been expended on the works, being at the rate of over 105/. per acre. It should be said in reference to this capital, that five per cent. every year has been charged in the farm accounts in addition to the rents, which are the same as those paid for the land before the sewage farm was established, and in the year 1878 as much as 66/. 9s. was charged for interest. The farm, however, has earned, after paying rent, interest, and all expenses, in the eight years since it was established, the sum of 3731. 5s. 64d., which has been applied to the reduction of the capital, which is now 1329/. 2s. 103d. The balance of profit and the yearly value of the crops, as abstracted from the farm accounts since 1871, have been as follows :— Prorit anp Loss Account. Value of Crop, Year. Loss. Profit. ay ees per Acre. “5 Ch, 2B, he 5h 1871 af VARY (mie nite as) (0) 1872 LU fe hd oc PASS (Om Ke) 1873 a 45 3 2 if Ab GS 1874 nC 163 0 10 2476700 1875 Gn 140 10 11 26m Gone 1876 4 1) Oe 1S) aI) i 1877 aS Ses) ed iby 53 1878 an LORTGHA iy <4) () £47 3 5 |£420 8 115 Deduct Loss .. 47 3 5 Profit. ., ..,|£0130 9 6% The foregoing return shows that the value of the crops per acre has considerably declined during the past three years. This, ee Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 29 we were informed, was principally due to the depression in the iron trade in the district, in consequence of which there had been by no means so great a demand as previously for agri- cultural produce of the character grown on this farm. We have carefully examined the accounts of the farm for 1878, which are as follows :— GUISBROUGH SEWAGE FARM. Sratement of Accounts for YEAR ending 31st Decumszr, 1878. Income. EXPENDITURE. ee Ge oes TeGinyvesctscd er ss en es los 4 66) Rents. G.t° se tee Oe ve 870 Penance 0 es LO 12) 1G) | Wages’..0. .. -e) yee ase ae 690) 5 >» or valuation, Swedes and 3014 5 Team-work A Teas Sheedy See tol Turnips DeedsrrzkF fac) Trey eee ee Pe 75 15 Mencolds' (247 0) 9) Manure, (<2 . 2.) aes 1010 aT > GarrotseeccuslGn OulO URS! jock madech gael b cluskoew 0000 PE Si Hay « 10 0 O | Sewage Sn Sinai tes om feces OE iBalance-profitemess ie se pie eli wo £272 2 0 The valuation of stock-in-hand every year is included in the receipts for each crop. The accounts of the undertaking are well kept and regularly audited. From the item of profit, which appears in these accounts for 1878, the interest upon capital has not been deducted as in the table of the balance of profit before referred to, so as to assimilate these accounts with the accounts of other farms in which no interest is charged. With reference to the disposal of the produce, it should be ob- served that no crop is fed off on the land, and no stock is kept upon the farm. A large portion of the produce grown is sold to the estate at a rate somewhat less than that at which it is sold to the general public. In winter the sewage is applied to fallow land. During the past winter (1878-9) five acres of fallow land were used for the recep- tion of the sewage, the sewage flowing on to 2} acres for one week, and being then diverted on to the other 24 acres. After flowing on to this 24 acres it was diverted back again, and so on through- out-the whole of the winter, so that the sewage of over 1000 persons per acre was treated for four months of the year on 5 acres of land. It is intended, and the works were in pro- gress, to extend one of the leading carriers lower down the valley, over which the sewage is intended to be distributed in time of storm, and in the winter on the rough grass-land in this part of the valley. DOOONSCHMO 30 Report of the Judges on the The cropping of the farm for the year 1879 was as follows :— A. “Eee: IRiye-orass: 3. 4. | toc teem tne Stycemnnce mmen ene] OOM Rhubarb) 42:00 goe a eee OF MaEO AUTnipS eel yee aimee) elect mene s 0ro elo OMmmn Came Drainage -20fie es ee Seo lees = Con COMERS Sewage carriers, 2.) 0. fee). «00 ye) oom COOMmnOMEG Sewage tank ian (3 ds 0) Preparing land for sewage, rents during preparation of land, cost of improvements on land, including expenditure on park LAT dear ies sen ates AUR miec rots an Orem « Road making and erubbing fences .. .. 3806 O Telegraph from pumping station (moiety) 42 10 0 3,231 18 6 £7,070 “19 7 Valuation of live and dead stock ot on Os 2 90 elm £15,369 138 1 An arrangement has been entered into between the Earl of Warwick and the Corporation of Leamington, under which his Lordship pays the Corporation the sum of 450/. per annum for the sewage. This has been equivalent to purchasing 13-6 tons for 1d. in the year 1876, 13-9 tons for 1d. in 1877, 13:1 tons for 1d. in 1878, or an average of 134 fons for ld. A portion of the sewage has been year by year disposed of to adjoining holders of land; during 1878 to the extent of more than one- third of the whole. From the accounts, it appears that the Earl of Warwick has been a considerable loser by this opera- tion; in 1876 he received ld. for 20 tons; in 1877, ld. for 16 tons, and in 1878, ld. for 54 tons. No doubt in a wet-year like that of 1878 it was an advantage to distribute the sewage over as large an area as possible. The works necessary for conveying the sewage to adjoining lands have been executed ——— — == CC Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 33 at the cost of the Earl of Warwick. The preparing of the adjoining lands for the reception of the sewage was done by those of his Lordship’s tenants who receive it. During the year 1878 about 45 acres of land were irrigated with sewage by the adjoining land-holders. This area received in that year 521,232 tons of sewage, being at the rate of 11,583 tons per acre, or to an irrigation depth of 114°6 inches. The sewage of Leamington is first brought by direct gravita- tion to a site near the river Leam, where there are two sewage- tanks ; one a covered tank capable of containing half a million gallons, and the other an open tank capable of holding one million gallons. There are also storm-water outlets from the tanks into the river, so that at any period the excess beyond what may be stored in these tanks passes direct into the river. The average daily quantity of sewage pumped during the past seven years on to the farm has been 823,500 gallons. Along- side the tanks, the pumping-station has been erected for lifting the sewage on to the farm at Heathcote, which is distant about 23 miles; it is lifted up to a vertical elevation of 132 feet in order to command the whole of the lands at Heathcote for the purpose of irrigation. The cost of pumping is defrayed by the Corporation of Leamington. At the pumping-station there are a pair of condensing beam-engines, having a stroke of 8 feet, the steam cylinders being 36 inches in diameter. Each engine works a pair of single-acting pumps _ 26 inches in diameter, which are placed at half distance at each side of the beam. There is but one fly-wheel to the pair of engines, which make from 11 to 12 strokes per minute when in full work. The iron rising-main for conveying the sewage from the pumping station to the farm is 20 inches in diameter for the first half mile, and 18 inches for the remaining 13 mile. At the time of our inspection on the 4th of June last, the water-pressure indicated in the engine-house on the rising-main was 65 lbs. to the square inch. The engines are usually employed in raising the sewage on to the farm from 6 A.M. to 4 P.M., and there is a direct telegraphic communica- tion between the sewage pumping-station and the farm, by which all notices referring to the times of pumping and the quantities pumped are transmitted. We understood that the cost of the works undertaken by the Corporation of Leaming- ton for the disposal of the sewage, including the expenditure of 8500/. for the tanks, which were originally made for working the A. B.C. process of clarifying sewage, has been 24,0001. ; and it further costs the Corporation of Leamington from 800. to 9002. per annum to pump the sewage on to the farm, against which they have the set-off of the amount paid by the Earl of VOL. XVI.—S. S. D °° 34 Report of the Judges on the Warwick for the sewage. On the sewage farm, at the ends of the delivery-pipes, there are two tanks ; the chief tank is a small brick tank which intercepts a small amount of solid matter. At the end of the branch delivery-main there is a large open excavation in the earth for storing sewage; but this is now used only to a very slight extent. As far as possible all the solids of the sewage are pumped with the liquid. For this purpose, the large open tank at the site of the outfall is occa- sionally stirred up by men who work from a punt, and who mix the solids with the water, so that the whole may be pumped on to the farm. Any solids which cannot be got from the tank at the pumping-station in this way are removed by manual labour about once a year, when the tank is drawn down. This work is done by the Corporation of Leamington, and the solids thus removed are disposed of by them. After the sewage has been delivered upon the farm, in some few cases it is conveyed through earthenware-pipe carriers. Most of the carriers, how- ever, are simple earth-cut trenches, and the sewage is invariably distributed over the surface of the land from such carriers. The land is mostly drained, the stiff land at a depth of 4 feet, with the drains 40 feet apart, and the light land 5 feet deep, with the drains 60 feet apart. There was no surface effluent from the farm, and very little effluent from the land drains at the time of our inspections, compared with the volume of sewage which is applied to the land. The Leamington sewage farm no doubt enjoys some special advantages, all of which have been made the most of. The quality of the sewage is good, and in no other district did we find such facilities for selling the produce from the farm. The prejudice which still exists in many parts of England against milk, rye-grass, and vegetables grown by sewage have here all been overcome, if they ever existed, and in all seasons there are customers for all that is grown. The sewage farm proper, being occupied in conjunction with Lord Warwick’s park, is enabled to keep a large head of stock throughout the year; and from the accounts it will-be seen that one-half the gross receipts taken on the farm occur in connection with the live-stock or their produce. With reference, however, to the park-land, it should be stated that the rent paid for it and the adjoining arable land is at the rate of 1/. 11s. 2d. per acre, while that of the sewaged land proper is at the rate of 2/. 4s. per acre. We were also informed that the Earl of Warwick has the privilege of turning his horses in the park without charge, that the arable land held in connection with the park is completely surrounded by game preserves, and that the land is cultivated in a great measure for the purpose of preserving the game; so that it would appear, Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 35 taking these facts into consideration, that the rent paid for the park land is high. Although the whole of the sewage farm is capable of being irrigated, yet, from the returns which were handed to us, it appears that some parts are cropped with corn and other produce which do not receive sewage, while some of the lighter portions of the land are sewaged every year. The farm was very clean, and in a good state of cultivation. Ex- cellent order was observed everywhere; the hedges, gates, roads, carriers, &c., were all well kept; and, in fact, the arrange- ments of the farm reflect the greatest credit upon those concerned in its management. Captain Fosbery informed us that the principle of sewage culture which guided him in laying out the Heathcote farm was that sewage farming should not be dealt with as a distinct branch of husbandry, but that, in order to make it successful, it must be ingrafted upon ordinary agriculture. The following returns, handed to us by Captain Fosbery, show the cropping of the several fields on the sewage farm since it was established, and also the volume of sewage and the number of dressings which have been applied to each field :-— Amount of Srewace applied to different Frexps. JaNvuAny 1, 1872—Janvary 1, 1873. = Number | Total / | suber = Acreage. Cror. of slices cosy . Dressings. Sewage. —EE| | | feats Re. P. Tons. 64 | 10 1 84 | Italian Rye-grass 23 92,4393 25 10 1 17 | Italian Breer 26 104,883 20 and 21 6 1 25| Cabbage .. . 6 18 ,082 22 fies. 6 Market-Garden . 2, 57,258 44 6 3 17 | Mangold oc 9 22,1202 65 10 3 11 | Italian Rye-grass 27 111,384 54 9 1 29 | Fallow for Beans .. 1 19,2322 67 6 3 16 | Permanent Pasture .. 5 12,5152 27 and 28 13 3 2 | Italian Rye-grass .. 23 1238323 50, 41, 45,63 and 46} 41 0 0 | Permanent Pasture .. 3 50,4164 58 and 59 20 0 15 | Fallow for Wheat 2 18,2164 66 10 2 25) Seeds .. .. a 29,5202 51 and 53 Siesta vtanoOldaiiecy Use on! ls 9 66,3811 ‘(Italian Rye-grass, after x 48 11 0. 36 { ee ame et 4 20,886 13 and 71 20 1 22) Fallow 60) 60 7 4 33,2024 47 10 0 32) Seeds .. il 45,0953 43 9 0 4/] ForGrass .. . 4 16,1522 | Sewage supplied to Farmers .. .. 87 , 3422 Sewage pumped in Twelve Months .. 927, 961 |S a RR ES ES SEES Dez 36 Amount of Srwacz applied to different Frmtps—continued. JANUARY 1, 1873—January 1, 1874. 24 44 and 47 41, 45, 46, 67 and 26 42 58 and 59 13 Part of 27 and 28 Part of 27 and 28 48 69 25 54 43 13 65 22 27 and 28 64 Part of 21 and 22 24 27 and 28 20 and part of 21 Part of 43 25 65 and 66 Part of 43 54 64 41, 45 and 46 48 13 Part of 20, 21 and 22 27 and 28 27 and 28 58 “a 59 Report of the Judges on the Acreage. AS) Bier sh Gy) 1b i 1p 8) 7s) 1k Bill cia 0) ZOOS 12 2 26 13 0 O Q) ai Y 1l 0 36 o) ey 8 Udy il 7 OQ it 2) yy OQ 4 12 2 26 LOPS eee CS © Crore. Cabbage Seeds .. ae Permanent Pasture le Italian Rye-grass Mangold .. .. Market-Garden .. Talian Byers Savoys.. .. Ttalian Rye-g orass Fallow.. é Italian Rye-g grass Italian Rye-grass Italian Rye- pie Fallow .. : Stubble Cabbage Sewage supplied to Farmers Sewage pumped in Twelve Montks .. JANUARY Acreage, 6 0 9 4 10 17 21 36 i) 4 9 29 34 19 18 So SCORHOD &© WONOCH HH OHH OCOWHOHWSA 12 6 4 0 13 2 13 2 8 0 10 32 10 17 9) 12 10 0 20 15 1, 1874— Crop. Cabbage Fallow Italian Rye- ~grass, &e. Barley Fallow Cabbage Fallow Seeds . . Italian Rye-g orass Italian Rye-grass Mangold ; Mangold ; Italian Rye-grass Parsnips and Carrots Permanent Pasture .. Italian Rye-grass Italian Rye-grass Turnips Second Crop of G Cabbage Ms ie Italian Rye-grass { Cabbage... .. .. Italian Rye-grass Italian Rye-grass Second Crop of Cabbage x Italian Rye-grass Permanent Pasture . Stubble Sewage supplied to Farmers Sewage pumped in Twelve Months .. JANUARY 1, 1875. Number of Dressings. Number of Dressings. bo bh oo 09 Le ) NE NWN RE WONOSNN TNR OP RDO W Re Cr Total Amount of Sewage. Tons. _ 8, 857 51,1384 92,2954 52,3822 28,7794 35, EYE 126,518 93, 830 161,136 38,4554 152,3172 30,4072 122,6033 23,497 27, 8864 2,474 344, 196% 1,291,442 Total Amount of Sewage. Tons. 15, 6423 17,8063 33,0982 — 3, 9652 37,047 54, 2602 63,007 118 , 2522 63, 529 1,214 3838 "119. 0948 4°36) 22,342 103, ;084§ 215, 5362 ae = : Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 37 Amount of Snwaae applied to different Firatps—continued. JANuARY 1, 1875—Janvuary 1, 1876. umber | Total Amount ee of Acreage. Crop. a of i Se of 2 | 7 | Dressings. Sewage. —— EE A. R. P. Tons. Part of 13 8 2 6:| Italian Rye-grass 18 58,314 Part of 13 4 0 0 | Cabbage 17 32,186 20, 21 and 22 14 0 31 | Italian Rye-grass 35 181,322 24 5 1 12 | Italian Rye-grass 49 146,676 25 10 1 17 | Cabbage - 14 35,114 27 and 28 13 3 2) Italian ree 409) On 42 379,010 49, 55 and 56 5 0 0} Mangold .. ote Gee 4 7,352 47 10 0 32 | Italian Rye- “grass sare hers 36 166,470 54 9 1 29 | Italian Rye-grass.. 25 98,735 o, |{Cabbage, Strawberries and 64 S$ 1 “34 i scat ig ee 4 15,910 65 10 3 11) Fallow for Mangold . a 2 9,176 72 Oe ie s6ulaseed: ara. Ag ab 3 13,886 1,45, 46,50 and 67 | 37 0 18 | Permanent Pasture ee ee Fi 66,635 42 and 43 14 0 4 | Fallow for Mangold .. 23 135,515 Sewage supplied to Farmers 205 , 629 Sewage pumped in Twelve Months .. 1,451,930 January 1, 1876—Janvary 1, 1877. Number | Total Amount ae of Acreage Crop. . of of r Dressings. Sewage. Jeeps Ap det Tons. 23 10 1 19 | Italian Rye-grass 31 127 , 0652 42 6 3 17 | Italian Rye-grass 257 114, 0543 27 and 28 13 3 2 | Italian Rye-grass 47 246 , 866 24 5 1 12 | Italian Rye-grass 56 112,6153 22 7 3 6) Italian as 21 60, 232 61 ZS Se Seedsir.) 0 22 106, 200% 60 10 1 17] Fallow 20 10,428? 20 and 21 6 1 25 | Fallow 6 17,8563 Part of 13 4 0 0O| Fallow 3 6,069 42 and 43 17 3 4) Fallow 2 12,1372 25 10 1 17 | Cabbage Pi aCe 7 29,4113 41, 45,46 and 67 | 26 0 34) Permanent Pasture .. .. 8 78,3744 30 and 41 12> 0:8 | Permanent Pasture .. .. 17 84,3642 Mangold, Strawberries and 1 64 101 3 ee yh ie 56,3243 5+ 9 1 29 Bean Fallow os 3 11,730 20 and 21 6 1 25 | Mangold 5 if 32,9022 Part of 13 Saaz’ 6 Henan Rye-grass .. —.. 6 20,5292 \{Italian Rye-grass after 3 48 111 0 36 { we a 7 32,0988 22 7 3 6) Grass Fallow 9 27,0763 Sewage supplied to Farmers 294,069 Sewage pumped in Twelve Months . 1,480,408 38 Report of the Judges on the Amount of Sewace applied to different Firtps—continued. Janvary 1, 1877—Janvary 1, 1878. ; 7 Number } Total A Sele of Acreage. Crop. of om i Dressings. Sewage. A. R. P. |(7 acres Italian Rye-grass | Tons. 41, 45,46, 67 and 44 | 33 0 0 and 26 acres Permanent 29 393 , 643 I= Pasturent7.9%.2 (es Mea. 42 8 0 0 | Italian Rye-grass .. .. 26 85,468 23 8 2 0 | Italian Rye-grass .. .. 27 93,979 13 4 0 0 | Italian Rye-grass .. .. 36 58,510 22 and Part of 21 8 0 0 |{Italian Rye-grass .. .. 14 45,938 Italian Rye-grass, Straw- os aioe { berries and Rhubarb a oe Dee 20 and Part of 21 i, 0) 70))|\Wallowstori@ats’. iss 4 se 20 56,378 24 OO) eeu |e Maneoldeirns as) iste 15 30,913 Part of 43 ay a Cabbage beg fe Aan ieee 5 16,333 Part of 27 and 28 EZ ee Cabbage dete Be Bee 4 9,481 24,Partof27and28 | 14 1 14] Mangold .. .. .. .. 13 89,568 29 W250) (ON Manzoldiiee ts ween abet 23 58, 664 Part of 27 and 28 B W 0 Turnips Jukes: feesea bees 2 3,133 48 11 0 36 | ttalian Rye-grass Sere ate 32 143 , 638 Part of 21 Zi On ON ESavoysrnnre SG) on 2 2,173 59 and 59 20 0 0) Fallow for Turnips ae | 5 42,000 65 10 0 0 } Italian Rye-grass 5 21,000 25 10 1 17 | Italian Rye-grass .. | 2 11,268 Part of 43 5 0 4) Parsnips and Cabbage Viewed AY 45,000 50 10 3 24 | Permanent Pasture .. .. | 4 ‘17,500 54 9 1 29 | Fallow for Turnips 4 17,500 Sewage supplied to Farmers .. .. . 190,000 Sewage pumped in Twelve Months .. 1,504,215 January 1, 1878—Januany 1, 1879. NTRenOE Number | Total-Amount ear Acreage, Crop. of of Field. Dressings. “Sewage. : | ING Weer BE Tons. 22 6 2 10 | Italian Rye-grass .. .. 6 15,4473 23 10 1 19 Italian Rye-grass .. .. 29 117, 739% 25 10 1 17/ Italian Rye-grass .. .. | 31 124, 0602 27 and 28 Ey Tay 1 | Mangold Copco 40 op 21 113 , 7274 42 8 3 0| Italian Rye-grass .. .. 11 36,1174 48 11 0 36} Italian Rye-grass .... 21 94,2122 44 Gi 3 Gl Cabbare mar ouee erm 17 41,2532 65 10 3 11| Italian’ Rye-grass 20 80, 2232 13 12 2 26 eee and Italian ies ml 57,4522 24 3 1 12 | Oat Fallow.. 9 11,3562 20 and 21 6 1 25 | Potatoes and Savoys.. 6 14,686 41,45, 46 and 67 | 26 0 34 Permanent Pasture .. .. zf 73,951 54 Oelae 29m) lang ol dierent mss 21 77 , 550% 51 and 53 19 0 0| Fallow.. .. BS Waco 2 21,0452 24 5 1 12 | Italian Rye-grass 7 15,6913 Sewage supplied to Farmers .. .. 521, 232 Sewage pumped in Twelve Months .. 1,415,748 — 39 Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. a RR RS SS SE & L t6F ‘OIF 3 oL Fer OIF PEOrEOT TS ee eee de Sonal e I. 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BOOCMONOCOCVUOGONRSOCSCOUNRVCOCONMNOoS Yon Olly OUG: SNOOURT[OVSTTAL COM Y coe gS) 2 oe JTOOM. “ce Pet ee oS *s 8" SOSIOFT OS LLITIBO ‘oy ‘ouresy ‘so8i0H] O}BIS Loy Lopuoaorg S810] “ . oe oe oe og .e SSIg “ oe dooyg its 91998) JO oes dooyy aser5 ae Avy “ow SeOTH Od ‘oBeqqep ss o- on . “sul 19) “ ‘' spjosusyy =“ ee oe oe oe oe oe SiMy@) “ suvog “ kopwegq =“ wot AA JO OT8S we oe oe oe oe o. ** Sururelqy poyg Aou 4“unoooy peytdeg puey Sumtolpe suyesiim 10 poatooory i. SL8T “Loqmooay 4STg “Woryenye A, *AMOONT ‘2181 ‘AGaNGOA SLE SUIpuo uva_ OY} LOZ SLNQODOY JO LNANALVLG WAVA GOVMAS NOLONIAVAT 42 Report of the Judges on the It will be seen from the foregoing accounts for the three years. ending 31st Dec., 1876, 1877, and 1878 (pp. 39-41), that each year, in addition B paying A5OL. for the sewage, there has been a profit upon this farm. The profit, however, of 20260. 4s. 34d. in the three years would not pay more than 4:4 per cent. per annum upon the capital which has been invested. ‘The artificial manure charged in the accounts consists of soot for the wheat crop and bones and salt for the permanent grass-land. The cropping for 1879 was as follows :— A. Rk. Pr. A. R. P. Italian Rye-grass.. .. 49 © 37 | Brought forward.. .. 201 0 33 pecdss Gs be re eee LG 28 2a NInCabbage bo. fe. boat a OMmEO Pasture... 4. 2. . 86" 2. 14s)" Barley... <1.) tues al Omen Potatoes so cee-~ ae . Ae O% (O) “Parsnips: \ iJ.)5 cee OMOREg Oats. es far ee «©6118 CON |) Beans’ 5» ce 3. 0 oe Oe Mancoldss 43. 85 s. =» 2o0 0 O44) elurmips “2 eet ZORRO Carrots se toe! vee, 2 ON FO. DWheat, 3..." 22 se Om Rbwoark 19.2 jee) tee ONO Carried forward .. 201 O 383 371 0 38 Rye-grass.—This crop is grown both for sale and home consumption. It is not allowed to stand longer than two years, and about 25 acres are sown every year,—usually in the autumn at the rate of three bushels of seed per acre. A crop sown in September 1877 was cut eight times in 1878 and twice in 1879, and then ploughed up; the land was pressed, sewaged, and sown on the flat broadcast on the 15th June, 1879, with green-top turnips and swedes, which looked well and promising at the time of our visit in August. In 1878 the cutting of rye-grass commenced on the 2nd February. In 1879 it commenced on the 7th April, having been sown in September 1878. The first cutting yielded 4 tons per acre of green grass; the second, on the 4th June, yielded 16 tons of grass per acre; the third cutting on the 8th July, 14 tons of grass per acre; fourth cutting on the 14th August, 8 tons, fifth cutting on the 12th September, 6 tons, sixth cutting on the 6th October, 5 tons, seventh cutting in November, 2 tons per acre. A field of rye-grass was seeded as an experiment with 10 lbs. per acre of trifolium, but it did not answer. Rye-grass is occasionally made into hay, but when this is the case it is carted onto the meadows to finish the drying process. ‘This crop receives enormous dressings of sewage during the period of its growth, as will be seen on reference to the tables showing the quantities of sewage that have been applied to the land. Mangolds.—This is a crop largely grown on this farm. It is drilled on the flat, the drills being 26 inches distant, and the plants are hoed out to 10 inches’ distance in the rows. Sewage is not applied to the crop until the plants begin to bulb. They are then irrigated. This crop in 1878 received 21 dressings of sewage while under cultivation, or 8265 tons of sewage per acre, equivalent to an irrigating depth of 81°8 inches of water in addition to the rainfall, The mangolds of 1878, when examined in the spring of 1879, we found to be sound and good, but not equal in weight and bulk to those grown on the Reading sewage farm. One field of mangolds was poor and stunted, but on the higher and light land they were a capital crop, and in all cases were clean, and the plants regular but late. Cabbage.—Ordinary cabbages for market are planted on the level in rows 22 inches distant, and the plants are 17 inches apart in the rows. Savoys Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 43: are planted in a similar manner. Drumhead cabbages are also planted on the flat 26 inches distant in rows and 24 inches from plant to plant. All the cabbages are irrigated during the period of growth, and in 1878 this crop on one field received 17 dressings of sewage, or about 6102 tons per acre, equal to an irrigating depth of 60°4 inches. Parsnips.—This crop is grown on the level. Six lbs. of seed per acre is drilled in rows 14 inches distant, and hoed out to 6 inches in the rows. The crop is not irrigated, but usually succeeds cabbage or the second year’s rye- grass, which has been sewaged. ‘The crop was clean, and promised to be a fair one. Carrots.—These are drilled in rows on the level at 14 inches’ distance, and are hoed out to from 4 inches to 6 inches in the rows. Six lbs. of seed per acre are sown. ‘This crop was not good, nor was it looking well, although it was clean. It is not directly irrigated with sewage, but, like parsnips, succeeds, either directly or after two years, a crop that has been heavily dressed with sewage. Potatoes.—The varieties grown were “ Myatt’s Early Rose” and “ Victoria.” They are planted in drills from 24 inches to 26 inches apart, and 12 inches from plant to plant in the rows. The crop of 1879 was planted on the 9th April, and succeeded rye-grass that had been cut four times the previous year. It was then sewaged, broken up and sown at the end of July, with turnips which were fed off on the ground with sheep. ‘This year the potato crop had been sold at the time of our visit in August at 17/. 10s. per acre, the buyer having to raise the crop and take all risk. Potatoes are not directly sewaged during the period of their growth, and the crop of 1879 was not so good as usual. Rhubarb.—At Leamington, as on most sewage farms, this is one of the permanent crops. It costs about 50/. per acre to purchase roots, prepare the ground, and plant out; and the crop realises about 40/. per acre every year. The roots, however, require to be taken up every three years, to be divided and replanted; they are planted 30 inches apart, and are irrigated with sewage during the period of growth. After the pulling for market is finished no further use is made of the crop. The purchaser of the crop pulls and markets the produce. Wheat.—A large acreage of this crop is grown on the farm, but as a rule not under the influence of sewage. Taking the fields of wheat grown during 1879, we found in the first example that the previous crops had been bare fallow in 1878, wheat in 1877, beans in 1876, oats in 1875, wheat in 1874, beans in 1873, wheat in 1872, permanent pasture and mangolds in 1871; and none of these crops were irrigated. The second example was immediately pre- ceded by barley in 1878, turnips in 1877, wheat in 1876, beans in 1875, wheat in 1874, mangolds in 1873, wheat in 1872, and swedes and peas, in 1871. The turnip crop preceding barley was irrigated in 1877. The wheat stubble was irrigated in 1874 and the bastard fallow for wheat in 1872. The third example was immediately preceded by beans in 1878, and before that by grass in 1877, mangold, cabbage, &c., in 1876, parsnips and potatoes and carrots in 1875, parsnips and potatoes in 1874, wheat in 1878, Italian rye-grass in 1872, and Italian rye-grass in 1871. Mangolds were sewaged in 1876, cabbages, &c., in 1875, bastard fallow was sewaged in 1874, and rye-grass in 1872. The wheat crop of the present year was sown at the rate of 2 bushels of seed per acre about the middle of October 1878. The wheat was seeded with 1 peck of rye-grass, 10 lbs. of red clover, 5 lbs. of trefoil and alsike mixed. The plant looked well, especially the “thick set” or square-headed wheat, which promised a good if not a great yield. The Browick wheat was also good. Oats.—Oats were heavy and lodged. The land was sown on the 22nd of April at the rate of 4 bushels of seed per acre. ‘his crop, like the wheat, is 44 Report of the Judges on the not directly irrigated, This year’s crop succeeded Italian rye-grass, which had been grown on the farm the two preceding years, and had been heavily dressed with sewage. Beans.—TVhe winter beans were drilled on the 23rd October, 1878, and were a poor plant. The spring beans, however, drilled on the 10th March, 1879, were a capital crop. This crop is not directly irrigated with sewage. The seed is drilled in rows at intervals of 15 inches, and 8 bushels per acre are used. The preceding crops vary very much; for example, beans in 1879 were preceded in one case by wheat both in 1878 and 1877, clover in 1876, oats in 1875, mangold in 1874 and 1873, beans in 1872, and oats in 1871. The only sewage applied to these crops was to the mangold in 1874. Another field of beans in 1879 was preceded by wheat in 1878, seeds in 1877, oats in 1876, mangolds and swedes in 1875, oats in 1874, wheat in 1878, beans in 1872, and wheat in 1871. The only sewage applied was to the mangolds in 1875. A third field of beans in 1879 was preceded by Italian rye-grass in 1878 and 1877, wheat in 1876, beans in 1875, grass in 1874 and 1873, wheat in 1872, and swedes in 1871. The crop was irrigated with sewage in 1878, 1877, 1876, 1874, 1873, and in 1872. Barley.—Barley was a fair standing crop. It was sown at the rate of two bushels per acre on the 22nd of April. ‘The crop is not irrigated directly with sewage. Of two fields of this crop in 1879 one was preceded by turnips and parsnips in 1878 ; parsnips, cabbage and turnips in 1877 ; potatoes, carrots, &c.,in 1876; mangolds in 1875; Italian rye-grass in 1874 and 1873; barley in 1872; and swedes in 1871. Of the above crops the cabbage in 1877, fallow in - 1876, fallow for mangolds in 1875, Italian rye-grass in 1874 and 1873, and fallow for grass in 1872, were irrigated with sewage. A second field of barley in 1879 was preceded by turnips in 1878, barley in 1877, wheat in 1876, clover in 1875, barley in 1874, swedes in 1878, and wheat in 1872. The clover and seeds in 1875 were the only crops previously occupying the ground that were irrigated. Turnips and Swedes.—Green-top turnips are usually sown broadcast at the rate of 3 lbs. of seed per acre, and are fed off on the ground by sheep. Swedes are also grown on this farm. They are drilled on the flat at 16 inches distant, and the bulbs are hoed out to 9 inches apart in the rows. Two lbs. of seed were drilled per acre. ‘The crop is irrigated with sewage to a moderate extent. Turnips and swedes usually follow a straw crop of either wheat, barley, orjoats, and occasionally green-top turnips are cultivated, chiefly after Italian rye-grass. Seeds are usually sown with the straw crops. The variety and quantity of seed sown has already been given under the head of wheat. Clover is occa- sionally irrigated in dry seasons with moderate dressings of sewage. By reference to the returns, however, we find that seeds have not been sewaged since the year 1875, Prickly Comfrey.—Vhis is a crop which has been grown upon this farm for two years, and has been given up, as it was found that the horses and cattle would not eat the produce by choice. It appears, however, that the crop, when once planted, is difficult to eradicate from the ground, as upon the plot on which it had been grown during the present year a number of young plants had made their appearance. Cattle.—At the time of our inspection 44 Shorthorn cows of good quality were in milk on the farm, and there were also six dry cows. The production of milk is one of the chief features of this farm, and the yield of milk from a cow in summer averages 2 gallons per head per day, and all the year round the Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 45 average is found to be 24 gallons per head per day. The milk is sold under contract to a milkman at 11d. for four quarts all the year round. The cows are milked to within six weeks of calving, and are then turned into the park, but when not in calf are sold to the butcher. It has been found by experiment that in summer, when the cows are fed on rye-grass, a cow consumes and wastes 1} ewt. of grass per day. The cows which are not bred on the farm are bought in with the second or third calf, and are kept in good condition ready for the butcher. The cows, when in the sheds in the early part of the present year, and at other times, were found to be kept remarkably clean, and were regularly groomed, and the attention given to them was well requited, as they looked well and healthy. Under the terms of the contract with the milkman the bailiff is always bound to supply him with any quantity of milk he may give notice that he requires, and consequently it is often necessary to buy cows to give the extra supply. Barren cows are sold fat, and others are bought in their place to keep upthe supply of milk. The cows in summer are fed on rye-grass, and 3 to 4 lbs. each of unde- corticated cotton-cake mixed with bean-flour and palm-nut meal. At night they have a run in a meadow. In winter they have about 6 lbs. each per day of decorticated cotton-cake mixed with bean-flour, pulped roots, and hay. There were 27 rearing calves on the farm. They are fed for the first week on new milk, and afterwards on skim-milk with a little oilcake. They are kept in yards until 12 months old, and are then turned into the park and fed off at two or two and a half years old. The heifers not required for the herd are finished off in the park, and the bullocks are brought up to folds, and have cake, corn, and roots. ‘There were 54 rising three-year-old steers, 22 heifers two years old, and 44 yearlings on the farm. There is also one pedigree bull, “ Duke of Sockburn 2nd,” 36,544, by “Cherry Duke 2nd,” 25,758. The way in which so many calves are reared is that during the summer the cows give more milk, and the milkman takes less, as the winter is the Leamington “ season.” Sheep.—There were 150 ewes, 172 one-year-old tegs, 222 lambs, and 2 rams on the farm. The sheep are bred from Shropshire ewes crossed with an Oxford Down ram, and are a very good lot. No sheep are bought, but about 160 ewes are every year put to the ram, and the produce reared and mostly sold fat as yearlings. When the lambs are weaned they have an allowance of oats and Indian corn mixed, at the rate of 4 lb. per head per day. The tegs on the pastures were having 1 lb. per head per day of decorticated cotton-cake and Indian corn mixed together. They would then be put on green-top 46 Report of the Judges on the turnips, afterwards on swedes with clover-hay, and corn. Fifty tegs had been sold previous to June at 60s. each bare shorn, and some of the lambs had also been disposed of. Horses. —There were 26 horses and young stock on the farm, or 13 cart-horses, 3 mares in foal, 4 three-year-olds, 2 two-year- olds, 3 yearlings, and one nag. ‘The horses not only do the work of the farm, but are also required for the working of the estate. ‘They are a very useful stamp of horse, of Clydesdale and Suffolk breed. It is found that the horses on this farm are not subject to grease or any other disease. Pigs.—Three breeding sows and one boar of the small white breed are kept. The young pigs are mostly fattened and sold as porkers of about 80 Ibs. weight. Farm Buildings.—These consist mainly of the old buildings on the farm previous to its adaptation as a sewage farm; but they have been added to and made fit for the reception of the milking and other stock. Very great judgment has been exercised in the alteration of the old buildings, which have been well arranged so as to meet the present requirements of the farm without any extravagant expenditure, and they are kept in excellent order and condition. Sanitary.—Twenty-six persons reside on the sewage farm, including fourteen children, and twenty others are employed who do not reside on it. At no time has there been any form of epidemic disease. A child about twelve months old died about six years ago, and one man not living on the farm died from inflammation of the lungs. Dr. Wilson, the medical officer of health of the district, reported August 6th, 1879, writing to Captain Fosbery, the agent of the Earl of Warwick, “Concerning the sanitary condition of the Heath- cote sewage farm and its surroundings, I have much pleasure in being able to state that I have never received any complaint of nuisance connected with the farm, nor have I, though I have frequently inspected it myself, ever detected any. The roads through and around the farm are much frequented as carriage-drives by residents in Leamington, and I need hardly say that if there were any offensive effluvia given off from the farm I should not only hear of any complaints which would certainly be preferred, but the roads themselves would soon be deserted by pleasure seekers. I have further to state that during the six years I have held my present appoint- ment no case of fever or illness of any kind has come to my knowledge which could be in any way attributed to the farm or to the dairy produce. Indeed, the health of those on the farm, and of the residents in the neighbourhood, has, so far as I have been able to ascertain, been exceptionally good ; and it is within Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 47 my knowledge that both butter and milk were repeatedly analysed by the former analyst of Leamington, and found to be of excellent quality.” Crass 2.—DoncASTER SEWAGE Farm. Tuts farm is the freehold property of the Corporation of Doncaster and of Lord Auckland, 26 acres being the property of the last-named owner. It was partially laid out by the Corporation of Doncaster, and has since been completed by the tenant. The farm has been let on lease for fourteen years to Richard S. Brundell, Esq., and the lease will expire on the 2nd of February, 1887. The farm contains an area of 304 a. 3dr. 11 p., of which 229 a. lr. 27 p. were irrigated in 1878, 75a. lr. 24 p. not being irrigated ; it was established in 1873, and receives the sewage of the town of Doncaster, which contains a population of 21,000 persons. The sewage of Doncaster is collected at a low point in the town near the river Don, where the pumping station is placed, and whence the sewage is pumped through a 21-inch cast-iron main about two miles in length on to the farm, at a cost to the Corporation of Doncaster of about 350/. per annum. The cost of the pumping station and of the delivery main to the farm has been 18,0007. At the pumping station there is an overflow from the sewers into the river, through which the sewage is discharged in times of storm or other periods when the sewers are surcharged. At the pumping station there are a pair of compound beam engines with wrought-iron beams working two pumps direct from the beam, The whole of the sewage pumped on to the farm has to be lifted to an elevation of 52 feet. ‘The delivery of the sewage on to the farm, however, only takes place in the daytime. At night it is stored in a tank-sewer capable of holding 250,000 gallons of sewage, which is placed in the lower part of Doncaster. At the sewage works there are fixed in the sewers cages which form screens to keep out the larger solid matters from the pumps, all the rest of the sewage being pumped on to the farm. At the highest level of the sewage farm there has been constructed a triangular sewage tank one acre in extent, for the purpose of the storage of sewage ; but experience has shown that it is undesirable to use this tank. When the sewage arrives on the farm, it is distributed through earthenware pipe carriers, laid either in embankments or im- mediately below the ground. These carriers occupy all the high portions of the farm, whence the sewage is distributed over the land in earth-cut carriers. The earthenware carriers 48 Report of the Judges on the vary in size from 18 inches to 9 inches in diameter, and in some cases they are worked under slight pressure. The farm is situated upon the Pebble or Conglomerate Beds of the Bunter series of the New Red Sandstone formation, and the soil is of a somewhat variable character. The larger portion of the farm is very light land resting upon a subsoil of red sand, the remaining portion consistirz of red stratified clay. Experiments showed that, on an average of three samples of light soil, the quantity of water capable of being absorbed was 23°8 per cent. of its weight; a sample taken from a field of mangolds, of a rather loamy nature, on an average of three experiments, absorbed 28:8 per cent. of its weight of water, and the stiff soil on the farm on an average of three samples, absorbed 47:4 per cent. of its weight of water. These experiments show that the light land is of an extremely porous character; and this is abundantly testified by the quantity of sewage which the land is capable of absorbing, and which will be hereafter referred to. About 90 acres of the farm have been under-drained. In the porous soils the drains are 6 feet deep, on the loamy soils 4 feet 6 inches deep, and in the clay lands they are 4 feet deep. The drains vary in distance from 11 yards to 40 yards apart. Notwithstanding the large quantities of sewage which were poured upon the surface at all periods of our inspection, it was found that there was no surface effluent, and that the under-drains also yielded little or no effluent water. The amount of capital expended in preparing the land as a sewage farm has been as follows :— ep Ch, Cost of preparing Land—Corporation of Doncaster paid 3500 0 0 for Materials and Laying-out .. .. é Tenant for Labour, Laying-out part of Farm as s agreed .. 300 0 0 Corporation of Doncaster for extra Buildings) 3. as 4) LOOOMORO Extra Buildings, Cost to Venanty) 9... Ws) sn eset es) ato CMO MC £5150 0 0 In addition to the cost of laying-out the land, it has cost the Corporation of Doncaster 18,000/. for the erection of the pump- ing station and the delivery main for conveying the sewage to the farm. The sum of 4000/. capital has been embarked by the tenant in the working of this farm, part of which was paid as a valuation on entering, viz., 971/. 17s. 2d., to which must be added tenant’s improvements 295/. 9s. 4d., making a total sum of 12671. Gs. 6d. as the present estimated amount of the tenant- right valuation. Five acres of land have been specially prepared as a filter bed, having been more closely drained ; but experience has Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 49 shown that it is not necessary for this land to be used fer the purpose intended; and it is now worked like other portions of the farm. The sewage is applied to various crops in the spring and summer, and also to a few crops in the winter; but it is largely applied to fallow land in the winter-time. This farm forms an excellent example of careful, judicious, and economical working. With capital little in excess of that required for an ordinary farm, the land is well tilled, fairly cleaned, and a large quantity of produce is raised from a naturally poor soil. The labour bill is small, yet everything is in decent order. The statements on pages 50 and 51 give the last two years’ balance-sheets of the working of this farm. The cropping of the farm for the year 1879 was as follows :— A. R. Pe | i) Bg A BlackCurrants . « 1 2 0 Brought forward ..128 2 0 Gooseberries and Raspber- 120 Potaboesmiee: wi cele «sae ORG ries 3 OCU Turnips and Swedes .. 34 O O Peasias ped OF 0. allowance, 2 ON 0 Mangolds.. . 81 0 O CloverSeedsand Rye-grass 75 O O Wheat = 2) 0 On) Meadowas. ees 3. 40) OO Barley Sl) 2° Oe Ozierss—4:., Gece 8) OO Oats .. 7 2 0. Roads, Carriers, sates 4s ety Rye .. 2 2 0 Tank and Stackyard .. Beans Gy a Carried forward ..123 2 0 | 9095, Oe The rent now paid for the land and sewage is 3/. per acre, but the land before it was converted into a sewage farm was let at an average of 26s. per acre; and the ordinary rent paid for adjoin- ing agricultural land is at the present time about 30s. per acre. The following quantities of sewage were pumped on to the farm in the years 1874-78 :-— 1874—968,7814 tons. 1877—895,384 tons. 1875—891,8082 ,, 1878—921,4404 ,, 1876—981,1773 _,, The volume of sewage applied to various crops differs enor- mously ; as much as 17,505 tons per acre were applied in 1878 to rye-grass, which was equivalent to a vertical irrigation depth of 173 inches in the year. Mangolds received 6455 tons or 64 inches in vertical depth, and permanent grass 4504 tons per acre or 44 inches in depth ; while beans received only 188 tons per acre or 1? inch in depth. VOL. XVI.—S. S. E OL GI 9I& eh) SEE es ge eT ees Sole ae OL Tao el G Ae 0 > IPFSe 0 > LPrse 0 0 OOL os .. oe on . .. o* . oe qUOTOS BUR] L SL 10F oe oe oe on ay +e pred yuoyy twok-J[VET qsury 0 9L SF ss te ee oe ee HULU, SUTTTOAO'T PUL SUEULIG, | IL 8 £02 Senta eNotes si" Miami.” cele mens SCL O:T@) PANTO UCI Cems - 9 9) 29 Se es PO Sono S, Avy UO RUA uuUO TE, | c Ge TOT 4 A=" Sie ses sdorg Wwery pue sjooy *‘ = | —~ 9 OF 6SI QS ue See eS Ra ecb JUL E88 be OEE) ee an BA nee eS[QO LON Tes: S | ) & PF 0S Ua eee co en dca (ee) Perley OOM OMOSE ORC ee ane Ue) sem eee te “le edi Ac CS Rian ATRTOETOLO TES S | as) ZS t LL we o oe oe ee .- oe oe oo oe am ‘paeg | 9 8 19z'e@ ee S | > eo hos ee oe Gti Peerage cls Sin SLMS UOTT Om 9 9 LoatT ‘oy ‘sdomp suIMOTD 4YSNT sqyuvuay, —~ | = 9 9 STF Bre 00 | on 0G Gus G0 OO quay aly ij MOE Oc me 88 ‘op ‘sjooy ‘AezT Sut09g > & G ¢ GOL . ve . oo oe ole An enor ‘sox, ‘so, UIT 0 0 LIFSL o on on oe + MOO}g OATT & | : e 0. G1 698 Soy iach 0s CONC? Pe GON EINER EO) OTTO ips) 0b GI “ % % B8urppng | | } eI ZOL on . oe oo oo on oe oe on oe SSR AL | 0 Gi ee0‘T oe on oe of on oe spuowtop dary OGG Te te ee ee Rec ANG ONT WOM UN TBAT | ‘Dp (8 GF —ISMOTPOJ SU “QygT ‘Aivnaqog “WorpeNIVA De B S ey TUALIGNTAN GL “AMOONT eee "QYQ] ‘AUVAUGE,T PUG SUIPUS UVAX OY} LOF SLNAOODY JO LNANALYLY WUVA POVMAS WALSVONOG 50 Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. —_———-—_ rer OLS %29‘SF UR we 0 0 OOL OL OL G61 b F 692 b &I Le & GL GF IL 9 8F 0 O F06 & GL IéL o. eo ee se puey SsurpoaoT ts re se 8 qTQTIOS BURIAL ‘ye 8 STITE, SMouIsEpeL, + t+ 8* O0}g Jo osBTPANT "* "079 ‘poag ‘oy ‘OxvoIO SUING JUIIT pred soxuy, pus sozeyy viotd Phan “Alege Uae else qudyy - on oe oo oe SOB AL " gygt ‘Aavnaqoy ‘uorenye A ‘MUALIGNTAX TT OL 8 %9‘S¢ OL T £92 9 9 Str 9 F GL boL L9L 6 IL Lt6 8 8 G6FO'T OL 8 Z66‘F te io) oe fn ee ee oe ae ee ee ee oe oo (wax snoroid onp pred yuo '' sopeg Arpung T8s Atpung “++ sdorg weet puv sjooy ‘* * yoo}g oary ‘* UIOD Jo o[vg 9 LOST ** ‘OY ‘sdotg SutMony GYSuy yweU, OF (BG tt | tom usiooi ‘Aue titom Q) GOSTE, 2: 2o.e * aecn arse Rese reat ony Loft oe Se) esi Pl etLG so. Oe) ee eee eeeeecimnonie! Cun "Bee —i SAOT[OF sv ‘GrST ‘awnaqoy Suoryenyy A, “ANOONT ————————— "GL8T ‘AUVaNia, pug SUIPUS AVE OY} LOF SLNAOOOY Jo LNUWHLVIG WUVA FOVMAS UALSVONOG “ ssory oounpug ical 52 Report of the Judges on the Rye-grass.—There is a very uncertain demand for this crop, which compels the tenant to manage the land more as an ordinary farm than as a sewage farm. About one-fourteenth part of the farm was under cultivation with rye-grass in the year 1879. It is grown from seed sown in the spring with a corn crop, at the rate of 2 bushels per acre; it is allowed to stand for cutting for two years, and is then grazed for another year. The crop on the light soil of this farm will take enormous quantities of sewage, and in the year 1878 as much as 247,268% tons were applied to a field of 14a. Or. 20p., being at the rate of 17,505 tons to an acre, or to a depth of 14 fcet 5 inches. This crop was cut for the first time in the year 1879 in the first week in May, and was sold at the rate of 9d. per ewt., the yield of this cutting being from 10 to 12 tons per acre. The crop would probably be cut four times in that year. Mangolds——The soil of this farm is not suited for the growth of mangolds ; and without sewage they could not be grown on the light land. They are a poor plant on the light land; on the more loamy soils they are better and more regular. Six pounds of seed are drilled per acre on ridges 27 inches distant, and the plants are about 12 inches apart on the ridge. The crop is usually sold by auction on the land at the end of October, and realises from 18/7. to 251. per acre. Mangolds are irrigated with sewage during the period of growth. ~ Swedes.—This crop was the best we saw on any sewage farm we examined, and promised to be a heavy crop. ‘Two pounds of seed per acre were drilled on the flat 21 inches distant; and the plants were 10 inches apart in the drills. We ascertained that the hand-hoeing cost 8s. per acre, viz. 5s. per acre for chopping out and singling, and 3s. for hoeing a second time. A man ordinarily earning 17s. per week can make more money at the above prices. The crop was by no means free from couch grass. The swedes followed rye- grass that had been down for three years, the last crop of rye-grass having been fed off on the ground with sheep. The swedes are sold by auction in October, and realise from 10/. to 18/. per acre. The crop is occasionally inrigated with sewage. White Turnips.—This crop succeeds rye, which is fed off on the land with sheep. When we visited the farm on the 5th of June, 1879, the crop of rye was on the land. On our visit on the 13th of August, the turnips were covering the ground, and had made a wonderful growth in a very short time. ‘There is a good demand for this crop; and what is not fed off by sheep is sold to cow-keepers at 18s. per ton. This crop had not been directly irrigated with sewage. ‘Two pounds of seed per acre are sown. Wheat (Scotch Brown) was a very heavy crop, and in some places lodged. Some of the ears appeared to be deficient owing to the wet weather. Ten pecks of seed per acre were drilled. The cereals on this farm contrasted in a most marked and favourable manner with those on adjoining lands which had not been sewaged. Wheat is not irrigated with sewage during the period of its growth. Barley.—T welve pecks per acre of seed are drilled for this crop after wheat, and it looked very well. The land had not been sewaged for this crop. Some barley on light sandy land which had been previously sewaged also looked very well. Barley is not directly irrigated with sewage. Rye.—Kight pecks per acre of seed are drilled for this crop on a field of light land adjoining a covert, and it had been sewaged to get it out of reach of the ground game. Clover and other grass seeds had been planted in the rye, having been sown 4 inches apart with a seed barrel on an ordinary corn drill. The crop looked very well. Oats.—Potato oats are also grown on this farm, but the crop is not sewaged during the period of its growth. Sixteen pecks of seed per acre are drilled. Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 53 Peas.—Peas were a fair crop for the season. The land is prepared for the peas and let to a customer who finds the seed and pays for hoeing, picking, &c., and 7/. 10s. Od. per acre for the land. The crop is generally ready for market at the end of June or the beginning of July; but in 1879 it was a month later than usual. The crop is not sewaged during the period of its growth. Beans (Spring) are also cultivated on this farm. They were a fair crop, but are not sewaged while growing. Eight pecks of seed per acre are drilled. Potatoes.—The varieties grown are “ Victoria” and “Champions.” They are planted on ridges 27 inches distant and about 12 inches apart in the rows ; only a small quantity are grown, and there was a tendency to run to haulm. ‘This crop is not irrigated during the period of its growth. Oziers (Long Skin Hards) are grown on the low-lying and flat land on the east side of the farm. They are planted in rows 27 inches apart; the sets being 12 inches distant in the rows. Market-Garden—tThree acres of land have been laid out as a market- garden and planted with gooseberries, currants of various kinds, raspberries, and strawberries. Intermediate between the fruit bushes, various kinds of market-garden produce are grown, such as carrots, parsnips, broccoli, cabbage, potatoes, and celery. This part of the farm is sublet to a tenant with a cottage at 401. per annum. ‘The tenant has the right to have what sewage he requires. There was an enormous crop of weeds on the ground amongst the vegetables and bushes; but this is due to the fault of the sub-tenant. It originally cost 38/. to plant the land with currant-trees, gooseberries, &c. Mixed Seeds.—A field of seeds grown on very poor land had been irrigated ; then the carriers had been ploughed in to prevent sheep being cast in them, and these will be opened out when sewage is again applied. This field is grazed with sheep and cattle; and it is intended to retain it in grass as long as it will produce any feed. Grass-land.—W ith some exception the grass-land is irrigated once or twice in the winter, and produces a great amount of summer food, on which the cows milk remarkably well. Young stock also thrive on this pasture, which carries double the stock of ordinary grass-lands. Rotation of Cropping.—On the light lands on this farm the following rotation is observed: roots, barley, rye-grass for three years, and then a return to roots. On the loamy soils, roots, wheat, seeds, wheat, and then a return to roots; and on the stiff lands, wheat, clover, wheat, beans, and fallow. Cattle.—T welve milking cows (Shorthorns) and a bull are kept on this farm. More would be kept, but there is no demand for milk. There appears to be a foolish prejudice against the use of milk from a sewage farm in this neighbourhood. A small quantity is sold at 10d. per four quarts. At the farm, the tenant says he would be glad to sell at 8d. per four quarts if he could dispose of a quantity. It is a great drawback to a sewage farm not to be able to sell the rye-grass grown nor to turn it into milk in consequence of the want of demand. No effort is made by the farmer to increase the yield of milk by artificial feeding on account of there being no demand. The cows yield about 1} gallon of milk per head per day, and are kept in the summer in the pastures, with a little rye-grass when in the shed for milking. In the winter they are fed on roots and hay. 54 Report of the Judges on the All calves are reared on the farm and are fed principally on skimmed milk. There were thirty-one heifers and steers grazing on the farm last year (1879). In the winter they are brought into the straw-yard and fed on hay and roots. ‘The bull is a Shorthorn and was bred on the farm. Barren cows are fatted on cake and roots. Heifers are fed as before described and kept as cows. Steers are fed on roots, cake, and hay, and sold for beef. Sheep.—A flock of 150 breeding ewes are kept on the farm, 120 Lincolns and 30 Hampshire Downs, all of which are bought in. They produce on an average 200 lambs, which are sold off fat at prices varying from 38s. to 46s. each. The flock was not free from foot-rot at the period of our inspection, Both the ewes and lambs are sold fat and are fed upon turnips, mangolds, and seeds. Pigs.—Fourteen pigs, including two breeding sows, are kept on the farm; and are fed on the skim-milk, meal, and vegetable waste. Horses.—There are thirteen excellent horses and foals on the farm, two Suffolk and six Yorkshire bred cart-horses are em- ployed to work the farm. There is also a nag, two two-year- olds, and one mare and foal. ‘The horses are reported to be free from grease or any other disease, and to thrive wonderfully well on the sewaged rye-grass. Sanitary.—Forty-four persons reside on the farm, twenty-two of whom are children ; and six persons work on the farm who do not reside on it. Mr. R.S. Brundell, the lessee, reports that there has been no form of epidemic disease amongst the men or their families, and no deaths have occurred on the farm; and that the “ health generally is good on the farm and in the neighbourhood.” Cuass 2.—BIRMINGHAM SEWAGE Farm. At Birmingham the sewage farm is worked by the united district called the Birmingham, Tame, and Rea District Drainage Board. Mr. James Anscombe has the management both of the sewage farm and the general treatment of the sewage at the sewage works, The sewage farm has been twelve years in operation, and contains an area of 271 a. 2r. 18 p., of which 169 a. 2r. 19 p. are the freehold property of the Drainage Board, and 101 a. 3r. 39 p. are held upon lease by the same Board. The population of the united district is 450,000, and the Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 55 volume of sewage to be dealt with at the site of the outfall works is about 12,000,000 gallons per day in dry weather. One- fourth, or 3,000,000 gallons per day only, are applied to the land, on to which it flows by direct gravitation ; the remaining three- fourths, after chemical treatment, are passed into the water- courses of the district. At 6 p.m. on the 4th of June last, 10} inches in depth of sewage was flowing over a gauge-dam, 4 feet wide, on to the sewage farm, this being at the rate of 6,305,400 gallons in 24 hours. Again, at 3.30 P.M. on the 11th of August, 10 inches in depth of sewage was flowing over the same dam on to the sewage farm, being at the rate of 5,860,400 gallons in 24 hours. With reference to the preparation of the sewage prior to its application to the land, it should be stated that one portion of the land, 30 acres in extent, receives the sewage without any treatment; 20 acres receive the sewage after it has had lime added to it, but before precipitation in the tanks; and the remaining portion receives the sewage after subsidence has taken place in the tanks. It is the clarified effluent from the tanks which is used for irrigation. The manager considers that, of the two sewaged areas, the one receiving crude sewage and the other limed sewage, the one in which the sewage has had lime mixed with it answers the best. The mode of treatment of the sewage is as follows:—At about a quarter of a mile distant from the site of the outfall into a series of tanks, lime is added to the sewage as it flows through the sewers. This lime is procured from Dudley, in Staffordshire, and is ground in water, in an arrangement similar to that of a mortar- mill, and the slaked lime flows from the mill direct into the sewer. About 14 tons of lime are every day added to the sewage as it flows down the outfall sewers. The subsidence- works at the outfall of the sewers consist of 19 tanks, or 3 large roughing-tanks, into which the sewage first flows, which average 390 feet in length, 90 feet wide and 5 feet 6 inches deep (one of these roughing-tanks having not yet been used); and there are 16 smaller tanks, each 150 feet long, 50 feet wide and 8 feet deep. Each of the large roughing-tanks now in use is at present worked for about a fortnight, after which period the sewage is diverted into the other while the deposit is removed from the former; but it is intended, as soon as the third roughing-tank is brought into operation, to empty these tanks weekly, and so relieve the work which has to be done by the smaller subsidence-tanks. The flow of the sewage is so regulated that each of the secondary subsidence- tanks receives about 5th part of the sewage, and in them subsidence takes place. At each end of these subsidence- 56 Report of the Judges on the tanks, the floors of which slope to both ends, are placed the suction-pipes attached to a Tangye’s special pump fixed in a temporary shed in a convenient position with reference to the tanks. This pump lifts the semi-fluid deposit from the tanks into a series of elevated wooden troughs, which are fixed upon poles at a considerable altitude at the site of the works, but having a good fall to the ground to which it is desired to convey the liquid sludge. In these troughs the sludge flows, or it is assisted by men who walk in them, and who are provided with poles to which is fitted a disc, with which they push the sludge forward as they move down the trough. The bulk of the deposit from the roughing-tanks is lifted by a ‘ Jacob’s ladder,” worked by steam-power, and the matter is conveyed into the elevated troughs for conveyance on to the land; the remainder, which largely consists of road-drift from the streets and roads, is removed by means of a steam-crane. The sewage farm, therefore, is not only required to deal with the liquid sewage, but is also used for the disposal of the sewage-sludge. The whole farm up to the present time has received one dressing of sludge, and some portions are now receiving a second dressing. About 500 tons of. moist sludge are raised every day and passed on to the land, and fifty-four acres of land are required every year for its reception. The land is prepared for this purpose by raising small embankments so as to divide it into a series of small tanks into which the sludge is run in succession, and, after it has consolidated, in the course of a few weeks it is dug into the land to a depth of 2 feet. When ready to dig into the land, it forms a deposit of about 12 inches in depth. Experiments made by us show that the liquid sludge as conveyed by the troughs to the land in August contained 415°8 per cent. of water when compared with the dry matter present in it, or each 100 parts of the sludge contained 80-62 of water and 19°38 of dry matter; and when ready to dig into the land the moisture had so far diminished that it was found to contain but 91:4 per cent. of water, or each 100 parts of the sludge contained 47:65 of water and 52:35 of dry matter. Three other samples of the Birmingham sewage-sludge sent to us in November were found to contain as follows :— First Sample from the roughing-tanks contained 617 per cent. of its weight of water when compared with the dry solid matter in the sample. Second Sample of sludge from the ordinary subsidence-tanks contained 677 per cent. of water, and Third Sample of sludge from the land before it is dug in was found to contain 177 per cent. of water, when similarly compared with that in the dry solid matter in the sample. . = ( Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 5 Two samples of sewage-sludge taken on the 29th of September, 1879, and analysed and valued by Dr. W. Wallace, the City analyst of Glasgow, had the following composition and value :— Anatysis of BrruryaHam Sewace-Siuper, 29th September, 1879 (Am Drmp). By Wi11am Watzace, Pu.D., &e., Guascow. stom | eet Roughing Ug Into the | Teak, Land. ete. te oe. ees |i 12°70.) 18°16 Organic matter .. .. .. | 19°19 20°04 Phosphoricacid 3, <2 =. “40 “72 Sulpliuricacid = -. 9 2. | =. 1°45 35 Carbonic acid Soh ance 0s 7°62 8°53 Viinelwerade vcceh ea aceon! LL 12°74 Magnesia or Od Co oa “96 1°37 Qxide’ofiron).; .. 5 =e 2°70 3°20 FAUT OS mao) | ore, Oc Lece 2°68 2°58 Sandyelay, ©, 9.4 «0 ao | 4s 37°98 99°96 | 100°62 | | a | Phosphate of lime cB Wa “87 1°57 _ Nitrogen Sous et he 4 52, “49 | Equal to ammonia “cor 63 “60 Calculated value per ton .. | 10s. 9d. 11s. 5d. | The operations of preparing the land and digging in the sludge cost 12/7. per acre. This amount is not charged to the farm, as the sludge is not considered delivered to it until this operation has been completed. The land after it has received this sludge is turned up every two years with a steam plough. Experience shows that the sludge does not amalgamate with the soil; and what strikes one is its utter worthlessness; for even with the addition of lime, after the lapse of this period, it still exists as a mass of fibrous matter in the ground. The soil of the farm is sandy, and contains peat upon a gravel subsoil. The character of the soil is shown by experiments which haye been made with reference to its absorption of water. The lighter portions, which contain peat, are shown to absorb 78°8 per cent. of their weight in water, while a more loamy sample absorbed but 56:01 per cent. of its weight in water. The admixture of the sewage sludge has somewhat altered the natural character of the soil and increased its absorbent property for water. The farm, lying as it does between two small rivers—the Tame and the Rea—is liable to be flooded. Although the land 58 Report of the Judges on the has been embanked, yet a part of the farm was under water a few days before we mate our inspection in August last. About 197 acres of the land is very closely andewdwanedt the drains being half a chain apart and 6 feet deep. In some parts of the oa however, the drains are a chain apart. The outfalls of the under-drains are constructed so as to enable one to examine the effluent, which at the time of our inspection had the appear- ance of spring-water, and did not in the least tend to foul the open watercourse which flows through the land, and into which the under-drains discharge. ‘The sewage is distributed by surface-carriers, which are all cut in the earth, no expensive masonry or pipe-carriers being used. The capital expended in fitting this farm for the reception of sewage has amounted to 13,709/. 11s. 7d., which sum includes the expenditure necessary for embanking the river. ‘The items are made up as follows :— £ &. @. Levelling and draining land, forming roads,) ; r 9,844 7 0 bridges and carriers . eR Sigs Bc Embankine river. - Pee eed 807 Lbs Farm buildin: os and cottages: 5. “6. ~ <1 aa) emO pO me £13,709 11 7 An examination of the accounts for 1878 shows that the income and expenditure have been as shown in the table opposite (p. 59). It should be observed in reference to the above accounts that no rent is charged against the farm for the freehold land. On the other hand, no abatement is made for 54 acres of land which are every year taken out of the farm for the purpose of dealing with the sludge. It will also be observed that the amount of rent charged is quite as much as the whole of such land would be worth to an ordinary farmer, especially having regard to the fact that it is liable to be flooded, as has been the case during the present year. The two adjoining farms, we have been informed, are let at 2/. and 3/. 5s. respectively per acre. The following table gives the cropping for the year 1879 :— APPR SUPS | as? Ves Potatoes te. i (/siq iii rad LOr 2010 Brought forward ..155 3 4 VEGES onl eeesis lee vee M2 Oi) Oats ting hs. across Suey nee ome OMmne Kohl Tabie. .. ..:-»,. 8 "2 O.) Wheat (xi eo-4 =o Ome Ryevrass.. .. .. «. 68 O O | Grass-land soy lea. | coe O RRO MMRG Mingold eh PAE 81. 25-00 | Barley. fist SAA eee Turnips .. .. -. «13 1 4 | Land used for sludge Cole) JA Aiea Reaseenmee amen cca eee (4. On Oe Works (including = acre Chbbase =, «. «-, - 12 © 0} rhubarb) Ma ia Seeds co 00 7 © O |} Roadsand stream... .. 25 3 23 Carried forward ..155 3 4 | Fil VAMS 59 Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. “PULL PLOYIoIF OY} TOF poSsavyo st JUL ON y eee VN}... ee IL S&L 6GE8F IL &L 666SF be Sis00b 1 eee Oe Smee oo beeen ee ieee 5-2 t eae eee | FGLgK OO soem, pare soggy | DRUIer a Se Sa Bo Pe eee ee ava, ca tego Se ea aR Bre caeammah Soames OL el FL oe oe . . ae og oe o- suedoyy pue SOOT, | 0 } ELT oe on ve oe oo or o- on on oe ee Avy oat DRO. Bo mee “baea es appory SurySnopg puv omSusq | 8 SGOT tt ttt + gopong pute eppoSunyzy Goumoug eta ie oat EL aS thas ae OmOH HGe ey EGR a ee ieee aoe saqqujozoa 9 OL 1&Z oe on oo oe on .- vo oe “OM ‘squey ‘spoog | OL e OGL sents oe on o- oe se oe ssvis-o.ay “ 00 OO swt th Se eae ee go Souery | Gh Picarsy (Re OP Ra eye ty es 1 a or a a ee OTs aC Re lr BOGAN | 72> Gy Qizt. =: Temi ap et sh, oven “Ayan Wee XI Jo opwg p va 6886 °° ** LUST “foquo0oq] ysTg ‘puvy UT YOo}S worenyeA | G EI gEerR ‘* ** gLST ‘toquIooDg erg ‘purely UT 30jg woeNTLA Si 1G? ‘TUALIGNGAX ‘TMOONT a" SS.” ee a ‘BL8T “Utama Tg Surpuo uvaX oy} oy SENAOODY Jo INGNEDLVLG ‘WUVA TOVMAS WVHONIWUIA 60 Report of the Judges on the Rye-grass.—The rye-grass is sown in the spring, and is not allowed to stand more than two years. There was no great demand for grass this year (1879) nor last year, hence much of it was made into hay. This crop receives a large amount of sewage during the period of its growth. Three bushels of seed per acre are sown. Potatoes..—* Early Rose” and Patterson’s “ Victoria ” are the sorts grown. They are planted in ridges 24 inches apart, and 10 inches distant on the ridge. No sewage is given to this crop during the period of its growth. The pes on which the potatoes were growing had been twice dressed with sewage- sludge. Mangolds.—The mangolds are drilled in ridges 27 inches apart, and hoed 12 inches distant from each other on the ridges, 6 Ibs. of seed being drilled to the acre. Last year the average yield of this crop was 63 tons per acre. Various varieties are grown. The crop, as a rule, after the plants are suffi- ciently strong, is irrigated fortnightly, but last year, owing to exceptionally wet weather, only one dressing of sewage had been given prior to our last visit on the 11th of August, 1879. We have, however, been informed by the manager that subsequently four additional dressings were applied before the crop was got up. The mangolds this year have been under water from the flooding of the river, but the crop does not appear to have been much injured. No manure but the sewage and sewage-sludge is used for growing the crop. Kohl Rabi.—This is a crop that has been very successfully grown on this farm. It is drilled in ridges the same as mangolds, but 8 Ibs. of seed per acre are sown, and the crop is only watered with sewage in dry weather. A part of the crop of 1878 was clamped, and when examined in the spring of 1879 was found to be both weighty and sound, and the crop of 1879 promised equally well. Cabbage.—These are grown on the flat, and are planted in rows 24 inches apart, and the plants are 18 inches distant in the rows. ‘This crop is irrigated with sewage from time to time. The price at which the cabbages are sold varies from 11d. to 13d. per dozen, and the crop realises about 40/7. per acre. Wheat.—The variety grown is Browick Red. It is a good crop, but late. It is drilled 7 inches apart, and 2 bushels of seed per acre are sown. ‘The crop is not irrigated during the period of growth. Barley.—This crop does not promise so well as the other cereal crops. It is not irrigated with sewage during the period of growth. It is drilled 6 inches distant, and 23 bushels per acre of seed are sown. Oats.—This is a heavy crop, but is much laid. Very heavy crops of oats have been grown on this farm. In 1878, 11 acres of Black ‘Tartar oats yielded 120 bushels of corn, and 2 tons of straw per acre. This crop is drilled 6 inches apart, 3 bushels of seed per acre being sown; it is not sewaged during the period of its growth. Swedes.—These have been successfully grown on this farm, but in 1879 they were evidently too late to produce a great weight per acre. The crop is grown on ridges 24 inches apart, the roots being 9 inches distant on the ridge. Early Turnips.—This crop is sown on the level, 8 lbs. of seed per acre being used. In June (1879) it promised to be a good crop, but when examined in August it was all spoilt, having run to seed, as many other early-sown root-crops did that year. Vetches.—Both spring and winter vetches are grown on this farm, but the crop did not look well. Three bushels of seed per acre are sown. ‘The crop is not irrigated during the period of its growth. Peas.—This crop is sown on the flat. Two bushels of seed per acre are drilled in rows 18 inches apart, and close together in the rows. It is not directly irrigated with sewage. Rhubarb.—The quantity cultivated is three-quarters of an acre. The sort Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 61 grown isthe “ Victoria,” a late variety. Up to June of this year about 30/. had been realised for the crop. The roots are planted about 4 feet apart, and every three years they are taken up and divided. The crop is watered with sewage in the spring and early summer. There is no sale for this crop after the marketing period is over. The crop is not grown on the sewage farm proper, but on that portion of the land reserved for works. Rotation of Cropping—No regular system of rotation of cropping is observed on this farm, owing to the fact that every year a large part of it is sacrificed in dealing with the sewage- sludge. Experience gained on this farm shows no deviation from the general rule that rye-grass pays best ; next mangolds, then follow cabbages ; and that sewage does not answer so well for any other crop, and also that the growing of garden stuff on a sewage farm is more or less a mistake. The farm is well- managed, clean, and generally in good order, and shows signs, when more land is obtained, of being quite a success, Farm Buildings —The farm buildings are new, very con- venient, and complete, arrangements having been adopted in the design to economise both labour and straw. Cattle.—Thirty-four cows in milk, of a mixed character, prin- cipally Shorthorns, have been bought in for milking, and there are, besides, ten feeding cows, six yearling heifers, and one Short- horn bull, bred on the farm. All dry and barren cows are fatted on cut hay, linseed-cake, and bean-meal, and are then sold to a butcher. Cows for milking are bought in just before they calve. The calves are sold at three or four days old, and realise from 35s. to 40s. each. The cows are kept in full milk about six months. in summer the milking cows are fed twice a-day on dry stuff, and three times a-day on green food, the food used being rye- grass, cotton-cake, and bean, oat, or maize-meal. When feeding on grass each cow has 2 lbs. of decorticated cotton-cake and 4 lbs. of oat, bean, or maize-meal. In the winter the cows are principally fed on brewers’ grains, cut hay, bean, oat, or maize- meal, all of which are steamed. Each cow yields in the six months, when in full milk, 2? gallons per head per day ; and this milk is sold at 9d. per gallon of four quarts in the summer, and 93d. in the winter. The heifers on the farm are put to the bull when 21 months old, and calved. Sheep.—In February 1879 there were forty-two Shropshire ewes on the farm, which had been purchased in the previous autumn and put toaram. They were an excellent lot of ewes, and in very good condition, and certainly seemed to thrive upon the rye-grass pasture. They produced seventy-two lambs, being at the rate of 13ths per ewe, which had mostly been sold to the butcher, fat, at prices from 38s. downwards. The ewes had decorticated cotton-cake and kibbled maize on the pastures, and were in turn sold fat, as it was not considered well to keep them 62 Report of the Judges on the for a second year on the sewaged land, and they are found to pay well by being kept for only one year. Pigs.—There were about forty-five pigs of the Berkshire and the large white breeds on the farm. They are fed upon unsaleable vegetables, steamed with sharps and pea-meal. They are principally sold as porkers, at prices varying from 10s. to 11s. per score. Eight pigs were being fed for bacon. Horses.—There are nine working horses kept on the farm, and also two two-year-old colts, two one-year-old colts, and a foal. The horses are partly used on the outlet works in addition to the ordinary farm-work. Sanitary.—Eighteen persons reside on the farm, including nine children, and ten others work on it. Mr. J. Anscombe, the manager, writes:—‘‘ There are three cottages on the farm. These were erected three years back. There are families at each house, and, as far as I am aware, no doctor has been on the place. “No children or persons resident on the farm have died. “ None of the men employed from the commencement of the farm have died; but two of the men who had previously been engaged on the borough sewers, and were transferred therefrom to the tanks in 1858 and 1859, have; but they were men over 60 years of age.” Mr. Anscombe adds: “ The men, as a rule, are very healthy, also the inhabitants of the adjoining neighbourhood.” William S. Till, Esq., C.E,, the borough engineer, writes, 9th August, 1879: “I have to inform you that I have been con- nected with the Saltley Sewage Works and Farm since their commencement, and can say of my own knowledge that there has not been any epidemic during the whole period; in fact, I have repeatedly remarked the healthiness of the men employed thereat.” Cuass 2.—Croypon SEwAGE Farm sat BEDDINGTON. Ar Croydon, sewage irrigation as a mode of purifying sewage has been practised for a longer period than in any other town in this country. The amount of land formerly used, however, was of small extent, consisting of grass-land which was unpre- pared for the reception of the sewage. In the year 1857 the sewage of Croydon proper was applied to but 15 acres of land. It was not until the year 1860 that a large portion of the pre- sent farm was taken on lease by the Croydon Local Board from various owners, and was let to Mr. John Marriage for a term of eleven years. At the end of the year 1860 this farm was so far completed that 100 acres of it were under irrigation. The total Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 63 acreage of the farm at that time was 301 acres, of which not more than 240 acres were at any time irrigated with sewage. In the year 1871 the farm was extended, so that at the present time it contains the following areas :— Aue BM oP Freehold land of the Croydon Local Board .. .. 53 8 2% Leasehold from Dr, Shorthouse et Ee PR Ole Zi mR Meme: ys)..c cal ae amen nO) 210s i (Vines er Che COT) # ceuh sats sentir omic une OLS 455 2 23 After the expiration of Mr. Marriage’s lease in 1871, the farm was let to the Croydon Irrigation and Farming Co., Limited, at the full rents paid by the Local Board, together with interest on capital expended. In three years this Company lost 7072/., when they were relieved of the undertaking on paying a fine of 500/., which appears in the accounts of 1874, and this sum, together with the back rents and interest paid by the Company, makes this year’s undertaking appear to have been remunerative. Since the stoppage of the Company, the farm has been worked by the Croydon Local Board under the charge of a manager. Mr. Joseph Parrott is the present manager, with whom an arrangement had been made at the time this sewage farm was entered in the competition, that he should take over the farm ; but this arrangement has not been carried out, and he still con- tinues the management for the Local Board. Not more than 360 acres of the whole farm are at present under sewage irrigation at any time. Having regard to the fact that certain crops are not irrigated (such as oats) during their period of growth, the area of land to which the sewage is actually applied does not exceed 320 acres all the year round. The population of the district draining on to this farm is esti- mated at 55,000, so that the sewage of at least 170 persons is constantly applied to each acre of land irrigated in the course ofa year. The quantity of sewage applied in twelve months, from October 1878 to September 1879, was equal to a daily volume of 140 gallons per head per day of the population. The sewage is brought on to the farm at Beddington by two outfall sewers ; one from Croydon proper, the other bringing the drainage from the southern side of the Norwood Hills. The sewage is discharged on to the farm by direct gravitation. Pre- viously to the liquid sewage passing on to the land, it is passed through Mr. Baldwin Latham’s patent sewage extractors, which remove the sand, solid faces, paper, &c. These extractors consist of revolving screens, which are actuated by the sewage itself, so as to continuously remove the solid matter as fast as it _ ™ These areas haye been purchased by the Croydon Local Board since the inspection of the farm by the Judges. 64 Report of the Judges on the is conveyed down by the sewers. The machinery for the ex- traction of the solids from the Norwood sewage is placed upon the upper end of the sewage farm, and that for the removal of the solids from the sewage of Croydon proper is situated at a place called Brimstone Barn, which was formerly the site of large sewage tanks, in which the sewage was treated with a view to purification, and is between the town and the farm. The volume of sewage passing daily on to this farm varies immensely. During the past year, in addition to the extra- ordinary wet season, large quantities of subsoil-water have been passed into the sewers by reason of the construction of new sewers within the water-line of the district, the water from the sewer trenches being admitted into the sewers as they are con- structed. These new sewer operations have more than doubled the volume of the sewage in the sewers of Croydon during the past year, and in the twelve months from October 1878 to the end of September 1879, 12,557,790 tons of sewage were passed on to the farm from both outfall sewers, an amount equivalent to a depth of 388°5 inches on the 320 acres actually irrigated, in addition to the local rainfall, which was 33:4 inches during the same period—the actual quantity of sewage applied per acre at Croydon being seven times greater than that applied per acre at Leamington during the same period. The whole con- tents of the sewers at Croydon are at all periods discharged on to the farm, there being no storm-water outlets by which any portion of the water from the sewers can escape at any point into the adjacent streams. The Croydon sewage farm is an exception in this respect to the other sewage farms which have been inspected, as it deals completely with the whole sewage of the place in all weathers. It should be observed that a large portion of the rain falling on the streets of Croydon is not admitted into the sewers, but is conveyed away direct to the natural water-courses of the district. The soil of the farm is well adapted for the purpose of sewage treatment. It is a light soil, resting on a gravel subsoil, con- sisting of a light gravel drift overlying the Woolwich and Reading beds of the Tertiary formation. The farm is admirably adapted for irrigation, both from the character of its soil and the gradient of the slopes. Experiments have been made upon seven samples of soil from this farm. A sample of light peaty soil absorbed 103-0 per cent. of its weight of water, while the subsoil from the same field was found to be a heavy marl, absorbing 25°9 per cent. of its weight of water. A sample of gravelly surface-soil was found to absorb 48-5 per cent. of its weight of water, and another sample of very similar soil from another field absorbed 49-7 per cent. of its weight of water. The subsoil of gravel from under this latter sample absorbed Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 65 but 13:1 per cent. of its weight of water. A sample of surface- soil of dark colour, consisting of gravel and containing fine roots, was found to absorb 65:9 per cent. of its weight of water. The subsoil from under this sample was very open gravel, which would absorb but 9°4 per cent. of its weight of water. These two last samples were taken from a field noted for its taking large volumes of sewage ; and in fact a very considerable volume of sewage can be applied to this field for several days, and but little effluent water will flow off. ‘The farm is not drained to any great extent, and it is more or less water-logged, and would be greatly improved both by surface and subsoil drainage ; but what is urgently required is the removal of the large and increasing volume of the subsoil water from the sewers. Not- withstanding the enormous volume of sewage which is poured on to this land, the effluent flowing off at all periods of our inspection was clear and limpid. A great portion of the farm consists of worn-out rye-grass. Water-grasses were to be found luxuriating in many of the fields, yet, notwithstanding, the farm carries a great number of horses and cattle. Some of the fields were very much poached, and the herbage was damaged, by the cattle which were de- pastured thereon. The sewage is conveyed and distributed over the farm in earth-cut carriers, and generally these carriers were clean and in good order. The Local Board’s accounts, since they have had the manage- ment of the farm, show that there are only two years in which the accounts are complete in themselves, viz. 1874 and 1878, as in these years alone has there been a valuation at the commence- ment and termination of the financial year. The summary of the accounts for the two years for which the returns are com- plete—1874 and 1878—are as shown in the table on page 66, The profit and loss for the respective years ending 25th March, 1875, 1876, and 1877 are shown by the following account :— CROYDON SEWAGE FARM. Account for the Yrars ending Marcu 25, 1875, 1876, and 1877. INCOME. oe oe EXPENDITURE, po ear Valuation, 25th March, 1877 .. 5,151 8 6 Valuation, 25th March, 1874 .. 4,732 3 9 Receipts— Expenditure— Year ending 25th March, 1875 7,256 0 0 Year ending 25th March, 1875 10,636 5 1 6 25th March, 1876 6,760 0 0 a 25th March, 1876 9,577 13 8 ~ 25th March, 1877 7,162 6 4 on 25th March, 1877 9,390 3 2 Balance-Loss on 3 years’ working 8,006 10 10 £34,336 5 8 | £34,336 5 8 Loss = £2668 163. 1137. per annum. ----e eee ---- ee VOL. XVI.—S. 8. F Report of the Judges on the -_—_---eee— rr OL 9L 6g¢‘9TF he 8 SOFIE < Gy Paes 2 ee LLET “Wore YS “Moryenye A OL 91 6g¢‘91F — 8 FL 668'S ee ee oe oe oe ee oe oe ee Sso'J-eouRleg IL g egc') ee ee ee ee ee ee oe oe ee ee §}d1000\7 IH) De) et Ie i aI are Gade OL SI SL8T ‘Torey WIGS ‘uoenyeA psy Da oe "Hd OLIGNAIX TL “AMOONT “SL8T OL I #89‘SIF OL L #8¢‘SIe 6 Z €&% ee ee oe ee ee ee JJOIg-souryeq a SE WNROY, Oe ODE 008 00) 900 EEE UG eg ep Gh | 0 0 OST “ SS S'S] -epbueg Gyoouskohye iT Ok Tro SP 9th vere een Fe eh aes sdiooorn eration 9 L 106 *e en ec oe OO) SOLOS BT ONN eT 0 B O@L‘Z ‘oN ‘sySoI0}UT ‘Sout ‘sty TOT S}yULUGT, WOIT poatooory HST ReatG) °° ee se see SL8T oune ‘TonenfeA | 6 § vEeL'F ** ** * 8 + | ger qorETT TRez ‘uoENTEA Dp aig 1 8 & “CUO LIGNAdAX “AMOONT re ee ‘TL8T ‘SINNOOOV WAVE ADVMAS NOLONIGAAa 67 Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. ‘uot MINUTE Jod OOGF YIM syunoooe oy} UI poS«vyp st pury ppoysary Jo sorov Ecg ony, = La Loa ~ rt IK OW DIO OH OH OHIO MOMOMONWAOCANMMAOOAAWOMODOABGCSOMDSCORDOCCH = rs id Len! 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SSRIS s]U0 YY ** enboyp porjaourg 8]S0D akg: “ “ ce “ AI JO opeg " SL8T “toquioydog 196g ‘aoryenye A Fy 68 Report of the Judges on the As no valuation was made at the end of the year, the valuation made on the 29th September has been included in the account of income and expenditure (p. 67). This valuation, amounting to 5003/. 9s. 6d., is divided into two items, viz. 8185/. 8s. 6d. for live and dead stock, and 1818/. 1s. 6d. for tillages, &c. With reference to this valuation, however, it should be said that a valuation made at Michaelmas would naturally be more than one made on the following Lady Day, which is the end of the financial year at Croydon. This is shown to be the case by actual experience at Croydon, for a valuation of this farm on the 29th September, 1876, amounted to 5928/. 4s. 9d., and at the following Lady Day it amounted to 51517. 8s. 6d. It will be seen, therefore, that the loss on working during the past year amounted to the large sum of 64962. 13s. 8d., being at the rate of not less than 147. 5s. 2d. per acre, or a sum greatly in excess of the very large rent which is paid for this farm. It should be observed, in reference to the accounts of the Croydon sewage farm, that, with the exception of the last year, the losses in which have been increased by reason of the excessive volume of cold spring-water passed on to the farm, the apparent loss is not so great when compared with other farms, provided the same amount of rent and taxes were paid as at Croydon. This is apparent when the account for the year ending the 25th of March, 1878, is compared with the Leaming- ton Farm account of 1877, which shows a balance of profit in the year of 567/. 3s. 42d. ; but the sewage farm at Leamington only pays 2/. 4s. per acre rent, and Croydon 10/. per acre rent, and the rates and taxes are proportionately higher at Croydon, so that if Leamington had to pay the same rent, &c., the loss would have been greater per acre at Leamington than at Croydon. The cost of preparing the farm at Beddington for sewage purposes has been comparatively small. By an arrangement entered into with Mr. John Marriage, the first tenant, the Local Board had a portion of the farm laid out at a cost of 3/. per acre, which was the amount they allowed to Mr. Marriage for the work. The cost of the sewage extractors and buildings, laying out additional lands (about 120 acres), including culverts for conveying the sewage on to the lands, makes the total 77221. 6s., made up as follows :— S ae Mr. Hayw ara’ s contract for caves, erection of buildings, and 2217 9 9 extractors on farm . Messrs. Burton and Waller, sewage "extractors at Brimstone Barn 1406 9 8 Messrs. Peskett and Taylor, building for sewage extractors at 53719 1 Brimstone Barn .. Laying down additional land, construction aR culverts; ie. sa ine cluding superintendence, about 120 acres laid out £3040 7s.$ 2840 7 11 ales less fine deducted from contrac tor, £200 ae Amount paid Mr. Marriage, 240 acres laid out, at £3 peracre 720 0 O Total cost of works’ .. 2. <» ee sssmsuliliec me OummNO Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 69 The following table gives the cropping for the year 1879 :-— Acres. Acres. Italian rye-grass .. .. .. 180 Brought forward ., .. 4163 Fermanentipastureiva <<. «« £20, | Celerys lit.ic sarees or ot) cl Nore eee a Gs 40), «|, SECA=DEOS cam hiser pp cprhy ceo abh ee i Hirt aE cfr act | s-) 4 14) |SPOVSNIDS” joy oe, yes) es eee, yl NYSRtOMN Rf Mehr esl ii ss se 28 Rhubarb eeewved etek sc) Cannan es meres ont) Sieh Sh) “Parsley” 2. atte tit. Sk 2) Vegetable marrows.. .. .. PAP ISEN AONE MOP htc (2 czy | Loch mocs 19748 Sprouting broccoli ... .. .., 14 Coleworts... ...... .. .., 10 SEED cova Gey Gece abl) Ghat aqieleer UP ELOEST ne eee PDN ope ac i Carried forward .. .. 4163 Totaleein, i MeL RS 4555 Rye-grass.—This is the principal crop grown both for sale and consump- tion. ‘The crop is sown either in the autumn or the spring. Three bushels per acre of seed are sown, and the crop is allowed to stand fully three years, and it is regularly irrigated with sewage. Mangolds.—Mangolds are grown on this farm both for home consumption and for sale. They are drilled on ridges 26 inches distant, and the plants are 18 inches apart. Various kinds are grown, but the “ Yellow Inter- mediate” is the favourite sort. In 1878, mangolds were not large, but were of good quality. In 1879 they presented a very poor and unhealthy appear- ance, and, having been sown early, largely ran to seed, and the crop was very foul. The water-logged condition of the land injured the crop and prevented its being properly cleaned. Cabbages.—Cabbages are very largely grown on this farm. There was one field clean and well set out, but not sewaged. The common cabbages are all planted on ridges 24 inches distant, and the plants are 24 inches apart on the ridge. Savoys are also planted at the same distances. Coleworts are planted on broad ridges 12 inches distant on each side of the ridge, and 12 inches distant from each other. The cabbages on some parts of the farm are irrigated, and on other parts they have had no sewage. Broccoli are grown on ridges 24 inches distant, the plants being 24 inches apart, in a field which has not been irrigated for some years. Rhubarb.—This is a crop that is largely grown. It is pulled and sent to the London market for sale. After the marketing period is over no use is made of the residue. It is grown from roots which are divided every three years, and which roots are planted 3 feet by 23 feet apart, and, when planted, receive a good dressing of farmyard-manure. The crop is alsomanured in the autumn. Unlike the practice on other sewage farms, the rhubarb on this farm is not irrigated with sewage, and it has been grown on the same land for the last seven years. Sage, Parsley, Vegetable Marrows, Parsnips, and Celery are also grown on this farm; but these crops, with the exception of celery, are not fitted to be treated with sewage, and none of them have been so treated. The celery is grown from plants reared in frames on the farm, and is planted in rows 6 feet apart, the plants being 7 inches from each other on the level; it is gradually earthed up as the plant crows. Oats.—Oats are now grown, and one field was a grand crop, but it was not sewaged. Wheat.—Wheat has also occasionally been grown, but it is not sewaged. Osiers are grown on one or two plots. French and Brown willows are the varieties grown, The sets are planted 2 feet by 13 foot apart each way. The crop is used in marketing the garden produce. The osiers are planted in damp ' positions, and are not directly irrigated with sewage. 70 Report of the Judges on the Rotation of Cropping.—The rotation of cropping pursued on this farm is, first, rye-grass for three years, followed by cabbage or other vegetables ; these again are followed by mangolds, and then a cereal crop is taken, after which is a return to rye-grass. Cattle.—F rom forty to forty-five cows in-milk are kept, some of which are bred on the farm, others are usually bought in before or just after calving. Some of the cows are Shorthorns, and the others are half-bred. The calves are sold off to local dealers at from one to three weeks old. The milk is mostly sold on the farm, wholesale, at from 113d. to 1s. per gallon of four quarts ; but some is now retailed in Croydon at 1s. 4d. per gallon. The average daily yield of a cow is from two to three gallons. The cows are fed in the summer with rye-grass and cotton-cake, and are turned out to grass. In the winter they are entirely stall-fed with hay, pulped mangolds, distillers’ wash, grains, cut straw, and cotton-cake. Occasionally, and as required, the cows have either cotton- or linseed-cake, according to the requirements of the case. Fourteen bullocks were being fed on the farm, and were ready for sale at the time of our inspection. The food for the bullocks consisted of a mixture of pulped mangolds, dis- tillers’ wash, hay, and cut straw, with some corn. There were about fifty head of other cattle on the farm lying out and being fed on hay in the winter, and grazing in the summer. The milk- ing stock are not kept in such condition as we observed on other farms, so that when a cow fails or becomes barren, a considerable loss is entailed between the buying and selling price, or they have to be expensively fed, before they are ready for sale. The cows were not kept in such a cleanly condition as we observed with satisfaction on other sewage farms. Sawdust was largely used for litter in the sheds. ‘The cow-sheds are old, and are by no means so convenient as those either at Leamington or Reading. Horses. —Kighteen horses are kept to work on the farm, and for taking the produce to the London markets. There are seventeen carthorses, partly Flemish-bred and partly English, and there is one nag on the farm. The manager has observed that the horses on this farm are much subject to grease. The farm is open as a lair for cattle and horses that are taken in to graze. The weekly charge is 5s. for small horses and ponies, and 6s. for large horses. Stock are charged at the rate of 3s. a week for a cow or a bullock, 2s. 6d. for a heifer, and 4d. per head for sheep. At these prices it was found that a dairy- man sent his stock on to the farm, but it is questionable if this mode of dealing with the crop pays, as the cattle destroy a considerable amount of grass when the land is moist. All the fields containing cattle were much poached, and a large part of the herbage was destroyed. Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 71 The farm-manure from the sheds and folds is used on that part of the farm which is not irrigated, and on the market-garden. Sanitary.—Ninety-four persons reside on the farm, including thirty children, and, in addition, fifty-four persons are at present engaged at work upon the farm. ‘The number of persons, how- ever, working on the farm a few years back, when market- gardening was more in vogue, was still greater. Mr. J. Parrott, the present farm-manager, reported that no form of epidemic disease has ever manifested itself on the farm during the period that he has had the management of it. One death, an infant one month old, is all that has been recorded as haying taken place on the farm, and that was reported as “delicate from its birth,” and one death from con- sumption had occurred among those working on the farm. Mr. Parrott stated that the health of those engaged on the farm is “remarkably good.” The Female Orphan Asylum at Beddington is contiguous to the Croydon sewage farm, and contains a large number of inmates. The matron wrote, in reply to an inquiry made by the farm-manager, as follows, “6th August, 1879.—During the last two years we have had about 170 orphans in the school, and twelve or thirteen adults. We have had no illness of a serious character, and not one death amongst the girls since the Ist September, 1876. The orphans are taken in from all parts of the country, and many of them are the children of delicate parents.” Mr. George Horseley, who managed this farm for some years, both under the Farm Company and the Local Board, reported, 12th September, 1879, that “the health of the men engaged on the sewage farm at Beddington during the time I had the management was very good. I do not remember any of them having any illness of any kind to prevent them from coming to their work. Peade, the waterman, had been fourteen years on the farm, and had never had a day’s illness during the time. I have some men working for me at the present time who state that they never had their health better than when they were at work at the irrigation farm; in fact I consider an irrigation farm as healthy for the workmen as any other farm. With regard to the deaths, three occurred during the period I was there. The first was Bedlow, Mr. Marriage’s old foreman. He died from some inward complaint, and had been ill for some time. Another was a child who died of scarlet fever. In this case it was clearly shown that the child had the fever when it came on to the farm. It had only been on the farm a few days when it was taken ill. The father of the child had been living near the barracks at Croydon. In the next house to that in which 72 Report of the Judges on the he lived were some children ill with the scarlet fever, and I believe that some deaths had occurred, which clearly showed that the child had caught the fever before it left Croydon. The other death was a little boy who was accidentally run over by a waggon on Mitcham Common. These are the only deaths that occurred during the time I was there, and it was the only time scarlet fever was on the farm.” Mr. F. M. Coldwells, who was also for a short time manager of the farm under the Farm Company, wrote, Sept. 9th, 1879 : ** Although a great many hands were employed on the Croydon irrigation farm during the time I was manager, and at least two families with children resided on it, I only knew of one case of sickness.” This case was that of a man who attended the sewage extractors on the farm at Beddington ; but he soon recovered, and shortly afterwards left the farm at Beddington, but has since been engaged on other sewage farms, and is now employed on the sewage farm at Northampton, Cuass 2.—READING SEWAGE FARM. Tue Reading Sewage Farm is known as the Whitley Manor Farm. It is situated between two and three miles to the south of Reading, and is the property of the Corporation of the Borough of Reading, Mr. W. W. Champion being the farm manager. The farm contains an area of 688 acres, of which 500 acres are pasture, 320) Ya yen salable: 13). 55. . >, Jet mm allotments: 688 acres. The entire area of land purchased by the Urban Sanitary Authority of Reading for the purpose of sewage disposal was about 770 acres; and this area, exclusive of legal expenses, but inclusive of compensation to occupiers and of a sum of 40002 awarded to Mr. Attenborough, the owner of the adjoining property, for consequential damages, was about 80,3002. Up to the time of our inspection 76 a. 0 r. 10 p. had been laid out for irrigation, and 54 acres were then under preparation for irrigation, but to which no sewage had been applied. The farm was established in 1875 for the purpose of purifying the sewage of Reading, which town, we were informed, now contains a population of about 40,000 people, the sewage of 33,000 of whom is passed on to the farm. Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. (ts) The sewage of Reading is collected by intercepting sewers, and is conveyed to the pumping station placed in the lower portion of the town, upon the banks of the river Kennett, at a point where a weir crosses this river. Here the sewage is screened through an inclined grating fitted with a mechanical rake, which is occasionally worked by machinery, and it is then pumped on to the farm. At all ordinary times the water- power of the river Kennett is utilised for pumping the sewage. It drives three turbines, two of which are coupled together, and the remaining one is reserved for use when the head of water is low. The turbines work four single-acting force-pumps 18 inches in diameter, the length of the stroke of the pumps being from time to time adjusted in proportion to the power available, the maximum length of stroke being 30 inches. When the river Kennett is in flood, and at other times when necessary, the sewage is lifted by steam-power. At the pumping- works there are a pair of horizontal high-pressure condensing steam-engines. Each engine has a steam cylinder 24 inches in diameter, and 42 inches length of stroke, and drives a pair of plunger pumps 30 inches in diameter and 36 inches stroke. The sewage is conveyed from the pumping-station to the farm, a distance of 2°43 miles, partly in a 24-inch cast-iron main 2712 yards long, which discharges into a 3-feet brick culvert 1571 yards long, the lift of the pumps to the farm being 43 feet. At the pumping station there is a storm-water overflow which communicates with the river, and which comes into action when the sewers are surcharged. ‘The sewage pumping- station, including the cost of a new set of sluices across the river Kennett, and the sum of 804/. paid for the site, cost 24,501/., and the delivery main and brick sewers in connection therewith have cost 12,329/. 17s. 5d. The annual cost of pumping and of attention to the cleansing and flushing of the sewers, on an average of two years ending 31st of August, 1879, has been 731/. When the sewage arrives upon the farm it is distributed on the surface from earth-cut carriers, the main carriers in all cases being earthenware pipes laid below the surface of the land. The soil of that part of the farm already laid out for irrigation varies somewhat, being partly heavy and partly sandy loam. The subsoil is partly heavy clay, partly gravel, and partly peat. Experiments made with two samples of soil show that one sample of the soil absorbed 47:3 per cent. of its weight of water, and the other sample, being lighter soil, absorbed 30-4 per cent. of its weight of water. The absorbent properties of the soil show that the land is of a porous description and well 74 Report of the Judges on the adapted for sewage purposes. The worst feature, however, of this farm is its liability to be flooded. No less than 350 acres are liable to be flooded; and on the two occasions of our inspection we found large portions under water, viz., on the 12th of February, and the 29th of May, 1879. We have since been informed that floods of the character experienced last year (1879) are very rare, and only occur at long intervals. The sewaged land has been under-drained in some parts 4 feet deep, the drains being 30 feet apart, but over the greater portion the drains are 60 feet apart, though some of the land has been drained as closely as 15 feet apart. An area used for filtration was in a completely water-logged condition, the land having been very much overdone with sewage. Most of the land also appeared to have had too much sewage. ‘The por- . tion under irrigation was fairly cultivated and decently clean, considering the quantity of sewage it has to receive. The volume of sewage passed on to the farm varies from a minimum of 500,000 gallons to a maximum of 800,000 gallons per day. It is only passed on to the farm between the hours of 6.30 A.M. and 5.30 P.M. every day ; and in the night-time, or at such other times as it is not passed on to the farm, the sewage accumulates in two receiving tanks at the sewage pumping-station and in the outfall sewer at Reading. The amount of capital expended in preparing the 76 a. 10 p. of land for irrigation has been as follows :— ee Gh Pipe=CANTICES) ich es) sc) ties fos) cos) est Nos OD anLOmEm Distributing Boxes ROS CAE COs 'dbeliog! Gs 8 1 6 CullventsiOveriStreAM soe) lyeslctesfh mee utes inne 30 9 9 Preparation of Land .. .. ., £1239 19 2 Hedge-crubbing) 5 6. a0) 6 | vo) 2) 10 Filling up Old Ditch .. .. .. 20 4 33 Cleansing out New Ditches... .. 914 -43 — 1445 19 10 Mraimageof Mandic2) ye. feo (yas fog vies ees OL LL Omen Horming) Roads) 7...) ices) sel) Wool) Vices none mnt IDG OM OOS NEN 26 go bol no” 5b de 37. «2 10 Depreciation of Plant used on Works.. .. .. 68 9 43 £3025 17 7% The expenditure actually incurred includes the amount spent on 2 acres which were prepared for sewage, but are now occupied as the site of the new farm buildings. The following accounts give the Profit and Loss on this farm during the last three years :— 15 Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. *popnyout you oSuaes Surdumd jo ysoQ 9 *Apomjny Arezroeg Aq poutrey purl ployooay Toy popnyout quot oN y nn IT 0 £96‘3IF I 0 S96CIF Te SPS eres ccmrea cme cemmmnas epg 4 eevee TOT -O0 tre UCT 61 6ST = spike acs as (Sey ace SROTOUG Oo UmlaGgoul IL F6L Bere edie ely BL ssuIprmg we 07 saredayy ae 61 Wek: Sie me a eS ag OOUVIMSUT OAT IT Ig te te se ee ee quemoy, SuT0Syno 07 WoTyeNTe A a OGF ee 7 oe se oe ee SOXB, pues ‘soqvyy ‘Souqly, tI 16 “eee eee UO UIO SINS Acpong Lig G0 So SS SS ee ee ce ONUa MeO gL TeV, 8 0 G 6 9 L I 9 0 GI 8¢ Cos Seca WIRY OF osnyoy WAT, surfoauog | 0 6 IS ie bre aca caer sles? 6 VOR SARE ECTS | 0 21 29 th te ne ee ne oe ne oe tom “OT osz0 RT | 0 1 02 Cr elie! RODE OO Benne BOG. aoe 00 Areunra}o A | SCS A I i Sujooyg PUB FLOR 8,T}ItIG | 9 @ gF CDE SOOO, SER SO ‘ow ‘spposuvyy ‘sopang ** Smee IOP sD Veet) eee Oe ee @ f0d8M | 9 9L 8tE ANS er PAS UR Re OU Ma se 0 61 29 SO eerste eee Ione) |G 2G = sce Od Die CO CON Ue Ce SOO oi tseyyuy 2G Gly sca). soars ue mene ae? oad se _ deoxy oT8D pus sosioyy Fb OL 82 oS See sce ee se) Ureer Gg) pus non cee $ ZL eIL * - *. oe oe o- oe sSpo90g vd CL $69‘'T “* om oe ef ee oe oe of od SIAL 6 OL 61 928 a oka | eam oy ‘Krouronyy ‘Syuomoydeny BECUEGE | Oe TE Blair bs om Pee te ote ken at, lee: Seem 0 ¢ Igs oo * oo e oo on oo on yoog Jo esvyoin q } IL GFL oe oe oe oe oe oo oe oe oe Avy jo fs) et 0 0 OST, eT ee HN? Arvypeg §pivadojyg weg | 9 FL LOT te te. ee te se ee POATODOL HOYITI, DUS s}UEIT, a LLO Qt te se ee QLBT ‘sempeeyory “uowenteA | g F L9G'S “* "Tf TT 8 LLRT ‘seUMpoBYOIpL ‘uoren[eA F es “TMALIGNTAX i é “DNOONT SS SNES "LIST ‘SVINIGVHOITY Surpue uvaX oY} OF SLNAOONY Jo INawaLVvAg ‘WUVA AOVMAS PONIGVAT Report of the Judges on the 76 ‘pepnpour you oSvaes Surdumnd jo ysog *AytoyNW Areyuueg Aq poutrey purl plOysef Lo} popupour PUT ON es SS eee $ 9 sP0'STF & 9 sF0'STF 8 61 G8 oe oe peewee tay Rig ck Ona oe ae: 6 91 S6 ys wisis ee ‘so3peH Surqqny soyond sutusdeaqy g)9) ce op ae ‘+ ‘op ‘gsurppimg 0} saredayy 0 cL 9E So no ap 00 OO OD oo CGR AMARTIN, Chm OM ORS oe ome re eS te ee pea Aoudoy Joey 8 IL &8P eh te ee rae ae soXVT, puL soywy ‘SOTLL OL OL 9¢ ek ee ETUC LAOS SUT Arpung ZL 99 aH ac asheteel ace Seb) Seek, 82) SSN IO aSenuarg | g Ih 916‘T o oe on we oe oe oe oe Br SOSUAL | 0 0 oe oe oe - oe oe puvy Suiredord ost0H] jo oni @ Lb 6L eee onlin sielans BupooT[S PUB SION, SATIS 6 &I LI dd, wibte atOo, wetig we 00 te om naa © FL 9% So 60, Oh SoD dG, 5 ID. | ede 40 A.reurs0}0 A | o 91 OFZ po 00) 60d «00 «=~ Oo OO = 0 quam @ ZL ZS1 ete ee ve SaTYsaITpT, pur coywaTyng weg | IL ST LZ Pen alat isle ole) lel al aisle Lael BR BsLa EON ice PAG OAT ale pee = eee tk are deoy ae) pu asLoyL @ ® te 48 oe oe oe ee BOT) puB deRING =“ 0 eT SL or oe oe * oa ae oe ae *spa0g 0 9 E9L‘'S oa oe oe oe oe oe oe oe oe YON “ec I L Z8L oe oo on oe ae oe on ‘syuomoydury ‘ ssouleyy | OL Z L0z‘T o- - - - on oe oe ee - 00}8 “ 0 6 Ize meee wee we ee OIG) JO GSUOANG, I 6 S&L eee) ach anid ere cneemmAa TT EaTOrOTES 0) W Gee 2 te ue oe we we we KTRTBS S PIVMI}G IVT | 9 TL LZ gee te, See paatooas “ox ‘souyty, ‘8}U9 YY Cape LOG'S: °°. > Ae eee LLST ‘sempoeyoryy ‘uowyenyeA | ¢ OT ZPL‘OE SLL ‘SVMUpIBTpT, “WOryEnye A (Pass ao: } 2 g "AU ALIGNIAX GL *TICOONT ‘Q)OT ‘SVNIAVHOI]Y SUIpuo UVAA OY} LOZ SINQOOOY JO INANALVLS ‘WUVE GOVMAS DNIGVAY tb Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. asvulep oT} TTA ‘s1y} puv ‘odvaos ioy poavdead $ ‘pepnypoul you esvaios scurduind jo ysop “SSO Of} TOF 4FuNOdOV TIT ‘oonpodd [][v Jo oli[VA poT[stULMIp ot[} pu’ spooy wor SuIstIE sureq jo osodimd oq} toy uve; oy} Jo JNO WY, OLOM pULT JO Soaov OFT «vod sty} SuLINCE *‘puLl OY} JO JUST OY} O} WOTLppV UL oLOJoLOT]} SI SSO] OY} :SYUNOIOV OY} UL POpPNPOUT SI JUL ON » nee, OQ, OL 3 +F08‘9LF 10S D> AO XH ID H F469 69 IDLO OO 3 66 te sospoH surqqniy ‘ SUL ‘asvuwaqy JO sy Ay 086 x ee ‘sSurpping 0} siedoayy TG pact (Ae Gee ie ““ SoUBINSOT, Olt GLE eo oo eee “sexe pussereinesoqghT; €8 SO) ene ema «a S]UOUMOSINGSi(T Atpung cP i eee ee en Sea i, Mee AL jo OBelITE,) COL‘S oo o. oo on oe o- oe oe - SOSV AL GL ee ce Re Ae SuroOus pag FIOM S.gIUIG L& eI aa ie in lee ‘+ KTVULIOJO A GIG tr ve ee ee SUTYSOIT,T, PUB TOLVAT[ND wWRa4g OO ste eee eee ce ae _dooy, a1yye9 pur ostoyy FOL "aeeoomee rs come COcm ter, “= spoag col se sr gee ore we ee “On “same mIOTduly ‘SsOILTe Ey 16 te te ne ene eee HQONG Jo OSBIDING 00% ICC OOS G3 (LIS Iiep oR NCIS TLC GFL‘OL 8 tt gage ‘seutpeeroryy ‘uoIyente A “DUO LIGNTd Xo OL F08‘91F j! 9 86ST. oe oe ae ee oe oe oe oe 4880 J-90uvpEg, {. oe ae oe oe o* oe ‘OM ‘somou. SULT 0 8 & WoHeasraT osekeg 105 paw] surrederd IOJ OIL FT OSLOFT 0 F ogg naa ed er eee ni:3:). 9, Ge IL jut 66 oe ee ee oe oe oe of ee ssvis-oAyy “ SS eo Gg ncaa ee ee ae ST 961 6 a 3 IL 9 eet‘ Ra Ale seh ic ne orale Sas i meer 9 IT 9&2 ee he eS ee ig Cae SOO OUG, Avy jo 9]eg () (0) CO} he ee SEE IN RON IO, OVIG Top (NEKS 748) "ian dt Ba eet sie quart OL ZI Lg ts te eee ne oe eee gatooar SOmgTT, OL* Sch Or “ “ “* “°° °° 6/97 ‘svUlpeToIp, ‘uorenTsA of Tat F *“MIMOONT ese; eee: _—o— ee ——n—a—an "6181 ‘SVWISVHOI]Y Surpue uvaX oy} Toy SLNAODDW JO INAWALVIG WUVA AOVMAS DNIGVAA 78 Report of the Judges on the The following table gives the cropping of the farm for the year 1879 :— : Ae Beans’... &s5. “se Meee eee aes te ee. IMangolds? 2, . sat bantaesceites: | ie (ie enn Wheat MCC oy. tony see) eco, co. Gel Mats: 55 lise Bau sere Pca OOmos 3 Mangolds (irrigated) .. oP ocremcrnes Sil Cabbages (irrigated)... .. .. . « 8 Rye-grass .. .. Col Go = oo. ll Land under Preparation for Sew age ys. 40 Grass-landy.oy [esi vsses yess) codices meal SwWOoOSCOWwWoONooryz SSoCODCCOCCON Let in Allotments eel Siecle toot recom (comms Totgl o.° sate. tae ea CRSie Orne Rye-grass.—This is the principal crop grown on the land to which sewage is applied. By preference the crop is sown on fallows in August, but occasion- ally it has been sown with the corn crop in the spring of the year. The quantity of seed sown per acre is 3 bushels, and we were informed that the crop should not be allowed to stand longer than two years. ‘The rye-grass is usually cut six or seven times a year, and is partly consumed on the farm and partly sold to customers who fetch it away. In May 1879 the crop then being cut was selling at the rate of 87. per acre ready cut on the ground. It receives large quantities of sewage during the period of its growth. Mangolds.—The most notable feature of this farm was the marvellous crop of mangolds grown in 1878; 118 tons of Mammoth Long Red Mangolds (tops and roots) having been grown on one acre, and 92 tons per acre without tops. It is generally said that mangolds forced to such an amazing size are of small value, and will not keep, but in this case we saw the last of them at the end of May 1879, and they were then sound and good. The mangoldsare largely consumed on the farm, but some were sold last year in the field at 17s. per ton, or delivered in Reading at 20s. per ton. Forty-eight tons per acre of Yellow-Globe Mangolds were grown in 1878 on arable land after wheat, and were not sewaged. Mangolds are grown on the level. Six pounds of seed per acre are drilled in rows at 27 inches apart, and the plants are hoed out to 15 inches’ distance in the rows. It cost 15s. per acre to hand-hoe the plants, which are also three times horse-hoed. ‘The crop of 1879 was sown at the end of April, and was rather an irregular plant from an excess of sewage. The sorts of mangold grown on this farm are Long Red, Berkshire Prize, Intermediate, and Golden Tankard, The crop is irr igated with sewage up to the time of hand- hoeing, and if the weather is dry it is watered up to within six weeks or two months of the time of pulling. Cabbages.—This crop was grown on the irrigated land in 1878, but owing to the water-logged condition of the land, arising from the quantity of sewage obliged to be got rid of, and, from the severe frost, the crop was destroyed in the winter. Cabbages are grown on ridges 8 feet distant, and the plants are from 18 inches to 86 inches apart on the ridge, depending upon the variety grown. ~The Cereal Crops en this farm are grown on land that is not sewaged, and are cultivated under the ordinary course of husbandry. Cattle.—There were on the farm at the time of our inspection eighty-one cows in-milk, sixteen cows dry in-calf, twelve barren cows, twenty-four two-year-old heifers, twenty-three one-year- Sewage Farm Competition, 1879. 79 old heifers, fifteen two-year-old steers, thirty-three one-year-old steers, fifty calves and three bulls, making in the whole 257 head of cattle. All the stock are well-bred shorthorns. The cows are milked to within about two months of calving, and they yield on an average two gallons of milk per head per day all the year round. The milk is partly sold in Reading and partly sent to the London market. It realises 10d. per four quarts, except that sold in London, which is sold at three prices, viz., Is. 8d., 1s. 6d., and 1s. 4d. per barn gallon. The milking-cows are fed in the summer on Italian rye-grass, and each cow also receives some fine pollards, the quantity depending on the state of the rye-grass. In the winter the milking-cows are fed on man- golds, cut hay, and fine and coarse pollards, and they sometimes have a few crushed oats. The calves are not allowed to suck the cows, but are reared by hand on Simpson’s meal and new milk until they are old enough to turn out. Steers are sold fat when about two years old. The heifers are put into the herd. The barren cows on the farm were an excellent lot, and would soon be ready for the butcher. The yearlings were good and healthy, and seemed to be doing very well. The bulls on the farm are “ King of the Roses” (36,853), “ Baron Havering 13th,” by “3rd Duke of Geneva” (23,753), and “ Wanderer,” by “ Earl of Ashfield” (36,571). The milking-cows were clean, well kept, and in good condition, four men being employed to look after them, and they are assisted by four others in milking. Horses.—Nineteen horses, mostly of French breed, are kept on the farm; and in addition to ordinary farm work they are engaged for some period in the year drawing manure and refuse from Reading to the farm, and in the preparation of fresh land for sewage purposes. Buildings.—The old farm buildings, which are mostly wooden barns, have been converted into capital places for the young stock. New buildings have been erected for the milking-stock, horses, &c. These buildings are well planned, and contain every convenience for preparing the food of the stock. There is a steam-engine on the premises which drives the food- preparing machinery, pulper, mill, &c.; and for mixing the food there are convenient places, which are connected with the cattle sheds by tramways. The manure is also removed in small trucks running on tramways direct from the sheds to the manure pits, which consist of water-tight and shallow pits. The cows all stand on open-slated wooden floors, an arrange- ment which is considered to save litter. Water is laid on to each of the sheds, and the whole buildings are very complete and suitable for their purpose. The sum of 50902 17s. 4d. has been expended by the Corporation of Reading in constructing 80 Notes on Marhet-gardening and Vine-culture the new farm buildings, in the erection of cottages, and in the adaptation of the old buildings to the present requirements of the farm. Sanitary.—Sixty-three persons live on the farm, including thirty-two children. Twenty-five others are engaged on the farm who do not reside on it. Mr. W. W. Champion, the farm manager, reported that one child died at the age of five weeks, “‘ wasting away from the birth.” Measles and whooping-cough appeared on the farm last winter and spring. ‘These diseases had been “ prevalent in Reading and its neighbourhood.” No adults living or working on the farm have died, and, “judging from the ex- perience of the past, sewage irrigation does not seem prejudicial to health, no children (who would be the first to suffer) can be more bright and healthy ; the men who attend to the irrigation (one of whom has been walking in the sewage and cleaning out the carriers for more than four years) are perfectly healthy, proving that by a wise provision of nature the earth and vegeta- tion seize hold of and convert to plant-food matters injurious to health.” I].— Notes on Market-Gardening and Vine-Culture in the North- west of France. By H. M. JENKINS, F.G.S., Secretary of the Society, and Editor of the ‘ Journal.’ Some of the statements in this paper will appear to many persons so remarkable that it is desirable to preface them with a few words of explanation. In the first place, it should be stated that my notes were taken in 1878; and although the wonderful intercalation and succession of market-garden crops which I shall indicate were taken successfully in that year, I cannot speak as to the results obtained by means of the different systems under the continued deluges of rain which the French agriculturists as well as ourselves experienced throughout 1879. I know, however, from correspondence, that the past year has been very disastrous to the poorer gardeners in the Amiens district. What France has suffered from the unseasonable and inclement succession of seasons which characterised last year could only be ascertained by another investigation ; and that the recently appointed Royal Commission on Agriculture have provided for. It has seemed to me, however, that these notes, which re- present the operations and results of ordinary seasons, might be usefully published at a time when everyone is discussing the great questions which bad harvests and the effects of foreign competition have forced upon all classes connected with the in the North-west of France. 81 land. Those who may carefully study the following pages will doubtless be struck, as I was, with these two facts: (1) That the market-gardens in the districts which I have selected are on very poor land, judging it from an agricultural point of view ; and (2) that the quality of the land has much less to do with its productiveness than the available supply of water. Indeed, if one were to divide the market-gardens into separate orders, classes, or other divisions, as a naturalist divides animals or plants according to the differences between them, the result would be very much as follows :— 1. Market-gardens with water under the soil. 2. Market-gardens with water on the soil. 3. Market-gardens with water above the soil. In the order just mentioned it will, perhaps, be as well to take the three classes of market-gardens, namely, (1) those near Amiens on water-logged peat; (2) those irrigated by sewage near Paris; and (3) those near Paris watered by artificial means. In addition, some notes will be given on the methods of cultivation of certain plants, such as asparagus, dandelion, figs, and vines, which are pursued in certain localities in the north-west of France. One more word is necessary in explanation of a practice which is common to all descriptions of market-gardening in France. Englishmen will read with some astonishment the enormous amount of care bestowed across the Channel on the cultivation of salads, and the large proportion of garden-land occupied by them. But it must be remembered that neither the déjetner nor the dinner is in France considered complete without a well- made salad. The consumption of lettuces, endives, radishes, eresses, and things of that kind, is something enormous per head of the population; and so discriminating is the public taste that each of these plants is divided and sub-divided into varieties, each one of which has its proper season and uses. All this care is not confined to the production of the plant; it is continued into the kitchen, and is completed in the dining- room. Indeed, there are few French ladies who consider their daughters’ education complete if they cannot make a salad in a manner which will at the same time satisfy the requirements of the artist, the savant, and the gourmet. But for this special feature of French living, it is doubtful whether the market- gardeners of Vaugirard, for example, could afford to pay half the rent that they now do. VOL. XVI.—S. §. G 82 Notes on Market-gardening and Vine-culture Amirns Peat District. Every one who has travelled from Boulogne to Paris on the Northern of France Railway must have noticed near Amiens a tract of peat-bog, consisting of alternate patches of land and water, the former nearly swamped but nevertheless bearing crops of garden produce. A day spent in exploring this region would well repay, not only the professional market-gardener, but every one interested in political economy. The district is about 2000 acres in extent, parcelled out in patches of small size. These patches are divided by ditches varying in width from six feet’ to many Fig. 1—View of Market-gardens in the Peat-district near Amiens. Ai Ee ea a TOURS yards, and all sufficiently deep to allow the easy passage of the canoe-like boats which are universally used by the gardeners to convey manure from the town to the gardens, and produce from the gardens to the river-side market. The canoes are pushed along in the narrower and shallower ditches by means of a boat- hook, but in the larger and deeper canals they are propelled by means of a paddle, with singular dexterity and swiftness, by a man or woman sitting aft. in the North-west of France. 83 The gardens rarely exceed 24 acres in extent, and one of that size would be managed entirely by a man and his wife, but then the work is simple slavery. In the summer the women work on three days in the week from half-past two in the morning until ten o’clock at night, and on the alternate days from 5 A.M. until 10 P.M, making an average of about eighteen hours per day! In the ‘winter they work ” from daylight until dark. Similar hours are observed by the men, and they do the heaviest portion of the work. If the workpeople are hired, the women receive about ls. 5d. per day, and the men 2s. 43d. In some cases the gardeners are owners, and in others they are tenants, of their land. The drier land is let at an average rental of nearly 5/. per acre; and the good land, with a portion of it peaty and only slightly decomposed, lets at still higher prices, while the value of the fee simple exceeds 160J. per acre. Con- sidering that one-fifth of the so-called acreage consists of water and only four-fifths of land, it should be interesting to learn how the gardeners manage to pay such rents and earn their livelihood out of such small gardens; and how they obtain a gross pro- duce, estimated to average 35/. per acre, out of a peat bog. The following description, in which it is assumed that a new garden is to be made, is drawn from information which I obtained partly from M. Mannechets, President of the Society of Agriculture and Horticulture of the Somme; but chiefly from M. Racquet, the Professor of Agriculture at Amiens, who accompanied me on my visits to the market-gardens. One of the largest proprietor-gardeners of the district, ;M. Maille, of Neuville-l Amiens, paddled us about and amongst the’ gardens, and very intelligently explained and practically illustrated any points of special interest. Preparation of the soil.—A certain quantity, generally a thick- ness of 6 inches, of peat, which forms the subsoil, is brought up to mix with the top soil, and thus give it a fertility which it does not naturally possess. The depth from which the peat is ob- tained varies, of course, with the nature and depth of the surface soil; but from two to three feet may be taken as an average. Heneatli the peat is a layer of impermeable clay, which is never touched in any case. After the peat has been mixed with the surface soil, and in some cases coincidently with the mixing, a “double dressing” of stable-dung from Amiens, namely, from 20 to 24 tons per acre, is given. This manure costs 11s. per ton, and probably the great demand for it is the explanation of its very high price. No lime is used as manure, and the great object of the gardeners is to preserve the vegetable fibres in the peat as long as possible. After a certain time, however, varying from 12 to 20 years or more, the land gets “tired” of the con- G 2 84 Notes on Market-gardening and Vine-culture tinual cropping, and then its fertility is renewed by an admixture with it of the same quantity of peat as before, followed by a double manuring as just described. I have stated that one-fifth of the nominal acreage consists of water. Therefore the owner or occupier of the garden has the right to renew the fertility of his land by obtaining peat or mud from his side of the bed of the adjoining ditches, instead of from the subsoil of his land. When the land has been fairly brought into cultivation it is dug by hand every winter two spits deep, and in spring it is manured with from 10 to 12 tons per acre of stable-dung, which is forked in immediately before the first sowing. During the last few years a sewage-manure, manufactured by the Goux process, has been somewhat extensively used at the rate of rather more than one ton per acre, with less than a ton of ordinary stable- manure. The Goux sewage-manure is said to contain 24 to 3 per cent. of nitrogen, 3 to 4 per cent. of phosphoric acid, and 13 to 2 per cent. of potash, and its price is 5. per ton, which is as high in proportion as the cost of the stable-manure. Courses of cropping. — Doubtless many variations in the system of cropping which I shall describe may be found in the Amiens market-garden district, but I believe the following statement will give a fair general idea of the system pursued. It should be noted, in advance, that the gardeners generally grow their own seed, as they assert that seed obtained from even the best seedsmen generally fails ; and it is quite conceivable that a process of acclimatizing both seeds and people is neces- sary to a successful result under the circumstances. (1.) In February the land is sown with a mixture of short radishes and Tongrés carrots, and as these are gathered they are succeeded by a mixture of onions, leeks, and winter lettuces, which come off in succession. The lettuce is called “ gliante,” meaning glossy or shining, and has its leaves bordered with a reddish tinge. Amongst the onions a few seeds of cauliflowers are sown, for the purpose of bearing seed. It is impossible to say what the portion of land devoted to the above course in one year will bear the next, but it may be assumed that it will be one of the following, and probably all of them will be taken in turn. In fact, the course just described appears to occupy about one-third of the gardens every year, and thus onions are not taken on the same ground more than once in three years. (2.) This course is essentially devoted to the Marjolaine potato, which is planted in February. Between every second row of potatoes, and in place of a third, shoots of artichokes are planted in April, the plants remaining not more than two years. in the North-west of France. 85 The distance between the rows of potatoes or of potatoes and artichokes is about 18 inches. Sometimes, the bed is planted entirely with potatoes, and in that case they are succeeded by cauliflowers with lettuces between them, or with lettuces and chicory (endive) in place of cauliflowers. (3.) In the August of the previous year, Batavian lettuces having been sown, and pricked out in October or November, they are gathered in May, and are succeeded by haricots sown in May or June. (4.) In November of the previous year, about the 25th, peas having been sown in double rows a foot apart, with a distance of 4 feet 6 inches between each double row, a line of savoys is planted in May in that interval, and, like the peas, gathered as soon as ready, and as the ground is cleared various salads are planted. (5.) This course consists of winter cabbages, which had been sown in August or September, planted out as soon as possible, and gathered in June. The cabbages are followed by carrots, which are again succeeded by chicory (endive) in August or September. It should be added, that a piece of land is devoted to the raising of seedling cabbage, savoy, lettuce, and other plants, to be pricked out as required. General remarks——The quantity of land cultivated by one person is generally in a number of pieces, more or less distant from one another, This is not objected to, as an accident happening to one part of the district, such as a flood, or a storm of wind or hail, is not then so likely to affect all the plots belonging to one man to an equally injurious extent. Very ingenious temporary and movable fences are made of willow- twigs, mats, and all kinds of refuse material, in order to protect the plants from frost and from the prevailing winds. The drier the season the better for this kind of gardening, as vegetables and salads are dearer in dry weather, and the Amiens marsh-gardens rarely or never want watering, in consequence of the water-level being so near the surface of the land The porous nature of the soil is increased, or, at any rate, carefully preserved, by the annual diggings and manurings. The produce of these gardens is very large in quantity, but the quality of the vegetables is not the best. Although rarely or never watered, the crops are nearly always watery, and deficient in flavour. Thus, market-gardeners who cultivate ordinary light land, and who frequently have to water their crops, can sell cabbages, for instance, at 10 centimes each, when the Amiens gardeners have to be content with 4 or 5 centimes a piece for most of theirs. Still, there can be no 86 Notes on Market-gardening and Vine-culture doubt that a large amount of valuable produce is economically obtained from a soil which an uninitiated observer would con- sider impossible to cultivate under the circumstances which I have attempted to describe. When taking leave of M. Maille, I mentioned the bogs of Ireland, told him of their neglected condition, and their micro- scopic rents, and asked him whether it would not be worth his while to make a personal examination of them with a view to emigration. His exclamation, evidently sincere, was :—*“ Si j étais jeune!” SEWAGE MARKET-GARDENING. Sewage-farming has already been frequently treated of in this Journal; and the Report of the Judges of the Sewage Farms which were entered to compete for the Prizes offered by the Mansion House Committee, in connection with the recent Inter- national Agricultural Exhibition at Kilburn, immediately pre- cedes this article. The best results hitherto attained in England by the application of sewage to the land are there described in detail. ‘The object of this short notice is much less ambitious, namely, to draw attention to the manner in which sewage is profitably applied in the vicinity of Paris to the growth of market-garden crops,—a means of utilising faecal matters which appears to have been hitherto somewhat neglected in the United Kingdom.* It is obvious that all farmers cannot turn market-gardeners, if only because fresh vegetables deteriorate by being carried long distances. On the other hand, land that is utilized for the defecation of sewage is nearly always close to a large town, where market-garden produce is in great demand. It therefore seems a natural inference that the growth of vegetables, fruits, and flowers, adapted to the requirements of the local market, should be one of the principal objects of the sewage-farmer, if experience or experiment should prove that sewage-irrigation is favourable to the profitable production of such crops. In England, this question is at present a matter of experiment, while in France, on the sandy plain of Gennevilliers, it has for some few years been demonstrated to be a success, by the ex- perience on a considerable scale of many occupiers of barren Jand, which had hitherto been nearly worthless from either a Horienleural or an agricultural point of view. If we refer to Mr. Morton’s description of * Half-a-dozen English Sewage Farms,” published in the Second Part of this * The Judges of Sewage Farms remark, “‘ That the growing of garden-stuff cn a sewage farm is more or less a mistake.”— Vide supra, p. 61. in the North-west of France. $7 “ Journal’ for 1876, the then position of the market-garden ques- tion will be made apparent by the paucity of references to market-garden crops in the 32 pages of the Journal which that paper occupies. On p. 417 it is stated that there were, at Heathcote, near Leamington, 7a. 3r. 6p. of market-garden in 1872, followed by cabbages in 1873. In 1874, there were 10a. lr. 34>p. of parsnips, potatoes, and carrots; followed in 1875 by rhubarb, mangold, and cabbage; and in 1876 by rhubarb, grass, &c. This is out of a total of 400 acres under sewage irrigation. In fact, as Mr. Morton observes, “a begin- ning has been made at market-gardening” (p. 420). At Don- caster rather more had been done, though some little doubt appeared to exist as to the value of the sewage for fruit-crops. Mr. Morton’s statement is as follows :—‘ Probably the speci- ality of the Doncaster sewage farm is its garden ground, which, lying admirably for the reception of sewage, will, no doubt, ultimately be enormously productive. Besides ordinary garden vegetables, there were beds of fruit—strawberries, gooseberries, and currants; all of which had been sewaged, and owed their productiveness, in some measure, so it was believed, to the occasional irrigation which they had received.” At Bedford, more attention is paid to market-garden crops ; as rhubarb, cucumbers, cauliflowers, red-cabbage, asparagus, vegetable marrows, &c., are all grown, in addition to large acreages of potatoes, onions, and carrots (see p. 431); and “at Wrexham, where Colonel A. Jones makes his sewage farm profitable, the market-garden plot is one of the most productive fields he has” (p. 436). In contrast to this brief sketch of the slow-growing germ of sewage-gardening in England,* as told incidentally by Mr. Morton in 1876, let me trace briefly the rapid extension of this means of utilizing sewage, which has taken place on the sandy plain of Gennevilliers. This is a north-western suburb of Paris, which I visited under very favourable circumstances, owing to the kindness of M. Henri Vilmorin, the reporter of the Commission to which allusion will presently be made. Commencing in 1869 with less than 18 acres of land under irrigation, the area devoted to the utilization of sewage has annually increased, until in 1877 it amounted to between 800 and 900 acres, and in 1878 to nearly 1000 acres, while the rent of the land per acre has been augmented four-fold. This in- crease of rent is some measure of the value attached to the * Tt is curious that the English sewage farms on which market-gardening has been attempted, viz. Bedford, Wrexham, Leamington, and Doncaster, are those, to which prizes have been awarded. Vide the Report of the Judges of Sewage Farms, passim, 88 Notes on Marhet-gardening and Vine-culture sewage asa fertilizer, because a mere nominal charge is at present made for it, and each farmer is allowed to turn on to his land as much or as little as he chooses, and at such times as he considers it desirable that his crop should be irrigated. Land which, before sewage-irrigation was possible, let as no more than from 25s. to 35s. per acre, although so near Paris, now easily commands from five to seven guineas. The produce of the land has changed from a Maseranle yield of 12 to 16 bushels of rye or we to such enormous receipts as a gross money return of from 48/. to 641. per acre from cabbages, and of from 802 to as much even as 160J. yielded by cauliflowers. Other vegetables, such as carrots, onions, and artichokes, have yielded nearly as large a return, as also have peppermint, ab- sinthe, and other savoury herbs. About one-sixth part of the sewage of Paris is conveyed to the pumping-stations at St. Quen, Clichy, and St. Denis; but a comparatively small portion of ine fraction has hitherto been utilised, the remainder being still conveyed into the Seine. In this respect the sewage-gardeners of Gennevilliers have a great advantage over the occupiers of sewage farms who are compelled to pass over their land the whole of the sewage con- veyed to it at all seasons of the year, whether the crops require lrigation or not, and whether the season is wet or dry. There- fore, with a view to encourage the application of sewage to the land, the authorities have given leases of the sewage for nine years to the present concessionaires, the rent being under 5s. per acre for the first three years, and the charge to be revised at the end of each period of that duration. M. de la Trehonnais has already described the sewage gardens of Gennevilliers so thoroughly in this ‘Journal,’* that it is unnecessary to travel over the same ground. ome peculi- arities of cultivation may, however, be noticed, more par- ticularly in reference to the manner in which ore sewage is conveyed and applied to the growing crops. At the present time the sewage is conveyed from the pumping-station to the fields in large closed conduits; and not until it is diverted into the main carriers on the land is it exposed to the open air. In this way the nuisance which is more or less inseparable from a sewage farm is reduced to a minimum. On the land itself there are the usual series of main and secondary open carriers, and the latter are placed at right angles to the ridges. ‘These ridges, on which the crops are grown, are not more than broad enough for two rows of cabbages. The sewage is turned out of the small carriers or gulleys into the * Secon] Series, vol. xii. Part I. pp. 109 to 128, 1876. in the North-west of France. 89 furrows between the ridges, and thus do not come into actual contact with the growing plants, as is the case when they are grown on the flat. Generally, two parallel rows of cabbages, cauliflowers, &c., are planted on each ridge; and scarcely a crop is to be seen without another and smaller or later crop coming forward between the plants of what may be termed the main crop. These peculiarities in the methods of cultivation and irrigation, in addition to the porous nature of the soil, have probably much to do with the successful application of sewage to market-garden crops at Gennevilliers. It must be admitted, however, that many of the market- gardeners at Gennevilliers give evidence of the abundance and strength of the sewage by becoming careless of the growth of weeds. That the foulness of much of the land was not a necessity of the system or the season, was made manifest to me by a visit to the land in the occupation of the authorities of the city of Paris. This is, indeed, a garden, whether judged by the abundance of the crops, the variety of the plants cultivated, or the cleanliness of the land. According to a report of a Commission appointed by the Prefect of the Seine to inquire into the results of the application of sewage to market-garden crops, it appears that general yields were 30 to 50 tons per acre of cabbages, 48 tons of beetroots, from 20 to over 50 tons of carrots, and 6 tons of haricot beans. But these figures by no means represent the total produce of the land in the course of the year, for not only is there generally an intercalated crop, but after the cabbages, &c., are sold off there is generally time to take another crop between the plants of what was the “intercalated crop,” but which after the sale of the cabbages becomes the main crop. Of other and more valuable crops than those already quoted, the following yields are given:—Artichokes 14,000 to 32,000 heads per acre; cauliflowers, 8000 to 12,000 heads, weighing from 14 to 16 tons ; garlic, 15 tons; celery, more than 40 tons; onions, 24 to 32 tons; leeks, 24 tons; potatoes, 12 to 16 tons; pumpkins, 48 to 56 tons ; and salsify, 4000 to 5000 bundles, weighing as much as 10 tons. The reporter of the Commission adds, that if these figures are compared with the produce of land not irrigated, the difference will be found in some cases to be even five times in favour of the irrigated land: Not less satisfactory have been the results obtained from the growth of scent-bearing and savoury herbs ; for instance, peppermint has yielded from 16 to 20 tons per acre in two cuttings, absinthe from 44 to 48 tons, and angelica over 11 tons the second year. The quality of the herbs and vegetables has been found excellent from every point of 90 Notes on Marhet-gardening and Vine-culture view, and many of the large hotels in Paris regularly obtain their supplies from the sewage-gardens of Gennevilliers; but it is found necessary in the case of savoury herbs to avoid irrigation for at least a fortnight before gathering the crop. With regard to fruit-trees and nursery-plants generally, the Com- mission express themselves in equally favourable terms, while acknowledging the greater difficulty in bringing these products of the soil to so satisfactory a comparative test as can be easily done in the case of vegetables, flowers, and herbs. The general conclusions arrived at by this Commission were formulated as follows :— (1.) The application of sewage to horticultural products, and particularly to large vegetables, is practical, and sanctioned by experience. It presents considerable advantages from three points of view :— (a) The abundance and the beauty of the products obtained. (b) Their quality and their healthiness. (c) The money return from their cultivation. (2.) Green vegetables, such as cabbages, celery, spinach, lettuces, endive, as well as the edible roots and the savoury herbs, are all specially adapted for sewage irrigation. (3.) The quantity of sewage absorbed by one acre cropped with vegetables may at present be 21,000 cubic yards per annum. That quantity will probably be reduced by the effect of improvements in the processes of irrigation. (4.) The distribution of the sewage by means of irrigating furrows is the method which appears most commend- able. (5.) The irrigation should be moderate, intermittent, and frequently renewed. (6.) The sewage should not be allowed to come into contact with the foliage or stem of the cultivated plants. (7.) It is desirable that the position of the furrows should be frequently changed. It may be asked whether, if so large a measure of success has attended the application of sewage to market-gardening at Gennevilliers, the system will not be extended so as to flood the Paris markets. At present this contingency is so remote that it need not be seriously discussed. One circumstance alone renders the extension of the sewage-gardens more and more difficult, and that is, the cost of labour and the difficulty of tn the North-west of Irance. 91 procuring it. At present, the ordinary pay of a garden-labourer ranges from 4s. 6d. to 5s. per diem; but, en revanche, the day’s work round Paris averages 14 hours. MARKET-GARDENS OF PARIS. The brilliant French capital abounds in attractions to every class of Englishman, but it is doubtful whether anything more interesting to the cultivator of the soil can be found than the market-gardens on the outskirts of the city, and especially those within the fortifications in the quarter and neighbourhood of Vaugirard.* The market-gardens within the enceinte of Paris occupy an area of nearly 3500 acres. The largest are about 24 acres in extent, and the smallest are scarcely more than an acre. The gardener is not often the owner of his land, and the rent paid varies chiefly with the distance of the garden from the central market (Halle) of Paris. Each garden has attached to it a dwelling-house, a stable, a cart-shed, and an elevated reservoir of water, generally supplied from a well, the water being pumped up daily by horse-power. An abundant supply of water, which can be economically distributed as required, by means of numerous hydrants and attached hose, is an essential element of success, and forms invariably one of the most im- portant adjuncts to the garden. The system of cultivation is essentially a forcing one, with a view to bring vegetables of all kinds very early in the year to the Paris market. The land itself plays, comparatively speaking, a subordinate part in the growth of the crops, its place being taken by a mixture of earth and manure known as terreau, which cannot be pro- perly made in less than four years, and beneath which a layer of long manure is placed. The garden is therefore a great hot- bed, covered more or less with glass in the colder months, but of course open to the sun and air in summer. Instead of giving any general description of the management and results of these gardens, I will briefly state the facts relating to two gardens at Vaugirard, and merely glance at two others at greater distances from the market, and in the less fashionable neighbourhood of St. Denis. The first garden which I visited at Vaugirard is in the occu- pation of M. C. Lecomte, and comprises 1 acre 16 perches. The rent is 56/. per annum, and the annual expenditure for manure 96/2 The plant, including bell-glasses, frames and * Tam again indebted to M. Henri Vilmorin for special facilities in making an inspection of the market-gardens at Vaugirard, St. Denis, Etampes, Mantes, and elsewhere. 92 Notes on Market-gardening and Vine-culture lights, implements, horse, &c., had cost between 600/. and 6501. The courses of cropping are as follows :— (1.) Cabbage- and cos-lettuces, sown at the end of September, are pricked out in the beginning of November, covered with glass, and sold in February and March. Carrots are sown between the lettuces in January and February ; and as the lettuces are sold a second crop of salads is grown, and cauliflower plants are pricked in between the carrots. After the carrots are sold, corn-salad or spinach is sown, and thus ends the year under this course, which requires a layer of 18 inches of a mixture of old and green dung to be placed under the ¢erreau, so as to form a mild hotbed to encourage the growth of the earlier oe (2.) White onions having been sown in a seta bed in the beginning of August, they are pricked out in September, and sold in April, eee ice lettuces, and then early cauliflowers, are planted, the latter in May to be succeeded by celery, which had been sown in April. The celery is generally planted on the flat, instead of in trenches, and close together. It is blanched by being covered completely with a layer of straw or long manure; but some gardeners, especially for the later sorts, dig up the plants, cut off their leaves, and put them in “by the heels,” as we should say, in a trench, completely covering them with earth. The next garden I visited was in the occupation of M. Laurent, who rents 24 acres of land, including house, &e., at 120/. per annum. His stable-manure costs him 200/. per annum, under a series of contracts at rates varying 12d. to 2d. per horse per day. His plant is said to be worth 14002. including the cost of a machine for warming frames with hot water Been of manure, for the purpose of growing early carrots, and 200J. for hand-glasses and lights for frames, He has three courses of cropping, viz. :— (1.) Sows turnips (Navets de Vertu, race Marteau) at the end of January and beginning of February. In May he plants melons as the turnips are cele) and then pricks in cauliflowers between the melons. After ae melons are sold, corn-salad or winter spinach is sown between the euliowert which are marketed in the autumn, and the land is cleared during the winter. (2.) Turnips or carrots are sown as in the previous course, but are succeeded by endive (chicory or escarole) pricked out in place of melons. The salads are followed by cauliflowers and winter salads as in course No. 1. (3.) Early York cabbage is planted out at the end of October, and amongst these cos-lettuces are pricked out. These are fol- in the North-west of France. 93 lowed by early cauliflowers and cos-lettuces, and again by late cauliflowers and cos-lettuces. On one of the courses in each year the latest kind of celery is grown instead of cauliflowers. The crop is pulled up in November, and put in trenches to preserve the plants until March, when celery is both scarce and dear. As a rule the course of cropping of each piece of land is changed every year. Men begin work during the season at three o’clock in the morning, and they receive 3/. per month wages in addition to board and lodging. M. Laurent keeps three labourers, and he and his wife also do their part in this hard business. If we reckon rent, rates, and taxes, expenditure on manure and labour, including keep and the wages of himself and wife, keep of horse, cost of seed, repairs, and interest on capital, it seems to me that the outgoings on this garden of 2} acres cannot be much less than 800/. per annum, and the marvel is that, even with such a succession of crops as I have indicated, it can be made to pay. At St. Denis, one of the gardens which I visited was managed on the same system as those just described. It was remarkably well done, and when I saw it was more than half covered with a luxuriant crop of celery, which was then receiving a copious watering, and would soon be blanched by being covered with straw. The celery had been preceded by melons, and these by various salads, again preceded by carrots. On one plot there had been six crops in the year up to the date of my visit, Sept. 14. This garden contained a trifle under two acres, and the rent was 80/. per annum, including, as in the preceding cases, the house and other “etceteras.” ‘The gardener informed me that his total expenses of all kinds amounted to 28s. (35 francs) per diem, money paid out of pocket, or 5117. per annum. The other garden was two miles farther north of Paris, and although not so well managed the system was the same, with the exception that very early vegetables could not be grown, I was told, as they are at Vaugirard, this being a much later district. The garden was 2 acres 16 perches in extent, the rent was 56/. per annum, or the same as M. Lecomte’s at Vaugirard for half the area, and the expenditure on manure did not exceed 80J. per annum, being much less than M. Lecomte’s. This latter differ- ence doubtless has much to answer for, and I quote it chiefly to show that the enormous expenditure on the other gardens is not reckless or wasteful, but is deliberately adopted as the result of the experience of generations as the best means of obtaining small vegetables and delicate salads, when those luxuries command the high price which the Parisian gourmet is willing to pay. 94 Notes on Market-gardening and Vine-culture ‘“‘ On the plains,” as it is termed round Paris, the small farmers grow common market-garden crops on the following system :— (1) Early peas, sown wide enough apart to admit of (2) early potatoes being planted between them. After peas they plant (3) haricot beans, and after potatoes sow (4) late peas. Again, after haricots they plant early cabbages to come off in the spring, peas being sown in their due season between the rows of cabbages, and so on as before. CULTIVATION OF SPECIAL PLANTS. In the suburbs of Paris there are market-gardens on a larger scale than the walled gardens of Vaugirard, some of which are devoted to the cultivation of fruits and vegetables requiring special mention ; also in the district of Amiens there are market- gardens on a larger scale than in the peat district. The land in these cases consists of the usual marly soil of the country, and large quantities of strawberries, asparagus, and dandelions are cultivated, in addition to lettuces, cabbages, cauliflowers, and other usual market-garden plants. Of late years the mode of cultivation of asparagus has been entirely altered in this and other districts of France. The method now adopted was origi- nated at Argenteuil near Paris—the headquarters of the asparagus culture—and is commonly known by the name of that fertile suburb of the French capital. The systematic cultivation of the dandelion on a large scale has been introduced very recently, and the market-gardeners as well as the consumers are enthusi- astic in its praises. Dandelion.—This plant, used to a certain extent in England for medicinal purposes, but otherwise despised by us as a troublesome weed, is now carefully cultivated in France for the purpose of being used as a salad, in the middle of winter, after it has been blanched by covering it with earth or sand to the depth of three or four inches for two or three weeks. No less than five varieties are quoted in last year’s list of seeds issued by the well-known French seedsmen, Messrs. Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co. Its great merit, in addition to its hygienic properties, is its abundance at a time of year when most other salads are very scarce. The seed is sown in nursery beds in April, rather a heavy soil being preferred. In May and June the plants are pricked out in rows two feet apart, and eight inches’ distance between the plants. The seed may also be sown in rows the same dis- tance apart as before, and the plants afterwards thinned, and singled to a distance of eight or ten inches between them. The _plant being indigenous to our climate, as well as to that of in the North-west of France. 95 France, variations of temperature have little effect upon it. To obtain the best results and a delicate salad, it is necessary to purchase seed of the improved varieties, as the wild dandelion is coarse in comparison. Asparagus.—Argenteuil, as already stated, is the locality in France most celebrated for the growth of this succulent vege- table, but it is grown very largely near Amiens, Valery-sur- Somme, and many other places, on a gigantic scale. One grower wrote to me in 1878 asking if I could help him to dispose of 100 bundles per day during the season! M. Godefroy- Lebeuf, who sells one-year-old plants to growers, had last year between 7 and 8 acres in seedlings at Argenteuil, and from him I have derived on the spot much of the information which is given below. Great care is taken in the selection of the seed. M. Godefroy- Lebeuf never uses any seed of his own growth, but he travels about the district at the period of flowering, and selects for purchase in the autumn the most vigorous female stems which he finds in close proximity to strong and healthy male stems, frequently paying as much as 5 or 6 francs for one female stem. Even with all this precaution it is not thought advisable to use all the seeds on the selected stem, but only those on the lower branches. The seeds are extracted by macerating the fruit in water, and they are generally kept two years. before being sown. The land is prepared for sowing by ploughing it not more than 8 inches deep with a specially light iron two-wheel plough, the right wheel being smaller than the left. The seed is very carefully sown in lines 32 inches apart by women and children. The land between the rows is kept very clean by frequent har- rowings and hoeings. The period of sowing varies somewhat in different districts, March and April being preferred near Amiens, and the beginning of June at Argenteuil. Seedling plants thus raised are sold when one year old for planting out. If older plants are used the result is not so good. The plantation is made in April, in the following manner :— Trenches about 8 inches in depth and 4 feet apart are dug with a spade, but the land beneath is not disturbed, as it is better left solid. The earth from the trenches is piled on the lands between them. No manure is used. After pruning their roots, the young plants are placed a yard apart in the trenches, care being taken to spread out the root-fibres laterally. They are then slightly covered with earth, which is well trampled upon. A stake is driven into the ground to mark the position of each plant, and also to enable the young shoots to be tied to it, and thus prevent them from being broken by the wind. Care is 96 Notes on Market-gardeniny and Vine-culture taken not to injure the roots with this stake, which is therefore driven into the ground some inches from the crown, so that the portion above the ground shall incline towards the plant, Nothing more is done the first year than to keep the trenches free from weeds, and the plant free from the asparagus beetle as far as possible, and to tie the young shoots to the stake as they grow up. If the weather should prove very hot, 2 or 3 inches more earth is placed over the crown of the plant, but not otherwise. If the season is rainy, some earth will be washed down from the sides of the trench. In either case, in the month of November, the stems are cut at about a foot above the ground, the earth covering the crown and roots is removed carefully, leaving them nearly, but not quite, exposed to the air. This operation is performed with a shoyt-handled Dutch hoe, which is worked circularly all round the crown, the earth upon which is finally removed by the hand. In the spring, about March, the roots are again covered with earth, but to a slightly greater depth than was done in the previous year, the operations of which are otherwise repeated to the letter. The third year the crown is still more deeply covered with earth, and farmyard-manure is placed in the trenches in the intervals between the plants, but not over them. A few shoots may be carefully cut if they come up close together, but not otherwise. This cutting enables the plant to throw lateral shoots. Before cutting any shoots the earth is carefully removed from the sides of the crown, so that other shoots may not be injured by the operation. After this period the shoots may be systematically cut, but not too hardly this the first year of cutting; the earth is gradually added to cover the growing shoots in order to blanch them. Some growers put manure every winter in the trenches along their whole length, but M. Godefroy-Lebeuf prefers to place the manure in the ridges, as he holds that manure in direct contact with the roots of asparagus produces deformed shoots. With proper treatment the roots of the plants will, in the course of a few years, cover the whole of the space between the original plants. In the meantime the ridges are cropped with potatoes, cauliflowers, and other garden plants; but ulti- mately, as the crown rises gradually towards the surface, the ridges entirely disappear. It must not be inferred that asparagus is always grown so systematically even in France, for one frequently sees, even in the Argenteuil district, that asparagus has been planted in a shallow hole here and there, where a vine has failed, or where some other cause has produced a vacant spot. At Argenteuil the rent of land devoted to the growth of asparagus exceeds 7/. per acre, whereas ordinary agricultural in the North-west of France. SAC) land in the same commune does not fetch more than half that amount. Although there are a number of so-called “ sorts” of aspa- ragus, M. Godefroy-Lebeuf thinks that there are really only two—the early and the late. The former has the advantage in price, and the latter in the quantity of produce. Figs.—An outline of the mode of cultivation of the fig, carried out on a large scale in the neighbourhood of Paris, may be interesting to English fruit-growers. Two slanting trenches are made in the spring so as to form a letter V, and slips one year old are planted in them so as to make an angle with the earth of about 45°. The first year they are allowed to grow naturally and without pruning, but in October the side branches are cut off, and three or four weeks later the main stem is bent down to the ground, and all the new wood, including the growing point, is placed in a shallow trench, and covered with a sufficient layer of earth to prevent the frost from getting access to the plant. In the spring, on a dull day, the earth is removed, and a few days afterwards, the growing point is cut off. As soon as it is possible to dis- tinguish the fruit-buds from the leaf-buds, which grow side by side from each axil, all the leaf-buds are nipped off except one on each side close to the old wood. The fruit-buds thus left on last year’s wood will produce fruit this year; and in the autumn the fruit-bearing wood will be cut down to the new branches which have been produced by the two leaf-buds selected in the spring for the purpose. Similar operations are performed every year, and particular attention is given to cut off any shoots which may grow on the old stem. New stems or suckers from the roots are allowed to grow to a limited extent, and are treated in the same way as the original shoot. When grown on a large scale, the trees are planted in lines about 20 feet apart in each direc- tion. M.V.F. Lebeuf, in his little book, entitled ‘ Les Asperges, les Fraises, les Figues, les Framboises, et les Groseilles,’ men- tions a curious but simple method of hastening the ripening of the fig, namely, when the eye is yellow, and apparently about to dilate, the skin being also brilliant and inclining to yellow, it is sufficient to put on the eye the least touch of olive oil in the early morning or evening, and in nine days the fruit will be ripe. He adds a caution that if the operation is performed before the fig is ready, or in a blaze of sunshine, it does more harm than it would otherwise do good. VINE-CULTURE. It would be impossible to describe the various methods of cultivating the vine, as practised in the several vine-growing VOL. XVI.—S. S. H 98 Notes on Market-gardening and Vine-culture districts of France within the limits at my disposal. Further, most of the French wine-growing districts possess a climate so entirely different from our own, that little would be gained by writing such a treatise for English readers. As, however, there are certain very important vine-growing districts in the north- western portion of France, some notice of the peculiarities in the cultivation of the vine, which distinguish them from each other, may fitly be added to the notes on market-gardening given in the preceding pages. There are some apparently anomalous facts in reference to vine-culture which may be enumerated at the outset. (1) The poorer the land the better the quality of the produce of the grape, whether wine or brandy; and, inversely, the richer the land in the same district the larger the quantity of the produce. (2) The best grapes are grown on hill-sides or elevated ground with a southern aspect. (3) Grapes grown in valleys are of bad quality, and in some districts absolutely worthless for wine- making. The difference of a foot or two in the elevation of the land has a marked effect on the quality of the grape for wine- making purposes. (4) The number of vines planted per acre in the best districts varies enormously. ‘Thus in the Medoc, from which are obtained the splendid wines of Chateau Lafite, Chateau Margaux, and many other clarets of less note, not more than 2500 vines are planted per acre ; while in the equally cele- brated district of Champagne about nine times the number of vines are planted on the same space of ground. More curious still, in the Saumur district, where also sparkling wine is made, not more than one-tenth of the number of vines are planted per acre as compared with the practice in Champagne. Champagne.—lIt is unnecessary to state that vines have been cultivated in this district from a very remote period; and, although it is one of the most northern vine-regions of France, it is certainly one of the most renowned for its product ; ; and to those who are connoisseurs of sparkling wine it stands second to none. During the last sixty years many improvements have been made in the cultivation of the vine and the manufacture of its produce, and probably every inch of suitable ground in the district is now turned into a vineyard. The following notes have been for the most part obtained from MM. Ayala, of Ay, near Epernay, to whom I am very much indebted for infor- mation and hospitality. The kind of grape almost exclusively grown is the black Burgundian sort known as Pinot, but in certain vineyards, on the left bank of the Marne, different varieties of a white grape are grown, and the wine from them is much sought after by the merchants for the purpose of giving to the produce of the black in the North-west of France. 99 grape that amber colour which is preferred by the drinkers of champagne. All vines are liable to certain pests, such as Oidium, Phyl- loxera, and others ; but in Champagne there are dangers peculiar to the locality which the vine-grower has specially to combat. In the first place, owing to the northern latitude of the Cham- pagne district, the quantity of solar heat from which the plant can annually derive benefit is very small as compared with that which prevails in more southern districts. Therefore, a special mode of cultivation is necessary in order to bring the grapes to a satisfactory degree of maturity. The method now universally adopted is to keep the grapes as close as possible to the arid soil, which thus during the night exhales on the fruit the solar heat which it had absorbed during the day. In order to ensure the success of this practice, the vines are pruned very hard, only two eyes being left, and every year the main stem is a little more covered with earth by the spade, so that only a small portion of old wood is left projecting above the ground, From time to time it is necessary to fill up gaps caused by the decay of old plants. This is done by a process of layering to a depth of 9 or 10 inches, not only old wood but also a certain number of eyes on the wood of the year. The layer is covered by a mixture of earth and manure, and thus grows with con- siderable vigour, giving not only a good crop in the course of a short time, but also furnishing slips which may be used to fill up other gaps. This practice is not unattended with inconveniences. In the first place, to ensure the success of the layering it is necessary to select vigorous plants which have strong shoots; and as the layering cannot be done at a very great distance from the parent plant, and often at very variable distances, the lines of vines become gradually more or less confused, and the proper cultiva- tion and cleaning of the vineyard more difficult and expensive. During recent years many experiments have been made to preserve the lines of vines, with the triple object of being able to use movable means of protection against spring frosts, to use a horse-hoe and thus reduce the cost of successive hand-hoeings, and finally to enable the vines to be periodically manured in their turn. This mode of cultivation is pursued in most of the vine-growing districts of France, and it has the undeniable advantage of admitting more sun, more light, and more air to the plants. Nevertheless, in Champagne as almost everywhere, any innovation upon ancient usages is sure to be condemned by the majority, who are wedded to old practices, without giving a new idea a fair trial. At the same time, it must be observed H 2 100 Notes on Marhet-gardening and Vine-culture that the small vine-growers, who require no extraneous labour, work with great industry and intelligence in their vineyards, and it is not yet absolutely proved that the new system produces as much wine of better quality as the old one, or even more wine of the same quality. The work of the year may be briefly described as follows :— After the vintage, which generally occupies from the first of September to the middle of October, the stakes to which the vines are tied are pulled up and stacked in the vineyards. In winter the ground is dug all over, or in those places where it seems most to require it. Some caution is requisite, for although the digging assists in destroying insects, which are then buried in the ground, on the other hand it hastens the coming of the vine into leaf in the spring, and thus exposes it more to the de- structive effects of spring frosts. In February, or, still better, in March, the vine is pruned, layering is done if required ; the land is hoed and cleaned, and the stakes are replaced; but the vines are not then tied to them. When the vines are sufficiently in leaf, but before they are in flower, they are tied to the stakes —generally about the beginning of June. Afterwards, the use- less slips are cut off, and those branches which have grown too vigorously are pruned down to about 20 inches. This pruning is repeated several times according to the luxuriance of the growth of the vine. However much these prunings may weaken the plant and diminish the crop, they are absolutely necessary, under the general system of planting, to enable the sun’s rays to penetrate to and ripen the fruit, more especially the bunches near the ground. Several hoeings are also necessary to destroy weeds, which in the light and poor soils of Champagne are very detrimental to the vintage. For making new vineyards, the ends of the pruned branches are planted in a slanting position in February or March, at the time of pruning, in a nursery-bed, and grown there for two or three years with the special object of enabling the plants to acquire a good development of root. For this purpose they are pruned down every year, so as to leave two or at most three eyes of the last year’s wood. The fruit comes on the new wood of the same year, but it is generally five years before a vine is allowed to come into bearing. An acre of vineyard of a good quality will produce generally from 130 to 160 gallons of marketable wine, but sometimes a much larger quantity, and occasionally almost nothing. An ordinary peasant proprietor with his family can manage between 3 and 4 acres without hired labour, but the peasants do not often possess so large an extent of land. Owing to the high price of everything, especially food, lodging, and manure, in the North-west of France. 101 and the burden of rates and taxes, it is reckoned: that to pay his way the peasant should be able to sell his produce for at least 1002. per annum. The lowest possible return from one hectare (24 acres), which will enable this balance of receipts and ex- penditure to be arrived at, is therefore between 64/. and 68/., or say 26/. per acre. The large proprietor requires a somewhat larger return to make his vineyard pay, because during times of pressure, when there is considerable competition for hired labour, he is obliged to engage occasional labourers at a very high rate. On the other hand, it should be remembered that many of these larger estates represent the first quality (premiers crus) of Champagne, and that their produce is often sold at the rate of 800/. per acre, and generally exceeds 300/. per acre. These prices leave a very wide margin for additional expendi- ture on labour and other items necessary to the production of the best quality of wine. The vineyards are usually the pro- perty of the cultivator, being seldom let except during an interval previous to sale, and then the rent paid is usually half the gross produce. Saumur.—Nothing can be more striking than the contrast between the vineyards of the two great districts where sparkling wine is the speciality. Instead of the hill sides covered with short closely-planted vines that one sees in Champagne, the vines of Saumur appear at first sight to be neither more nor less than hedgerows, separating the fields of corn and clover, and trained to stakes, sometimes connected by iron wire. There are, however, some vineyards entirely devoted to the grape, and there the usual course of cultivation, as I was informed, by Mr. Akerman Laurance, of St. Laurent, near Saumur, is briefly as follows :— The ground having been thoroughly well cultivated, during the autumn and early spring, the vines are planted in March. The sets are cuttings taken in November, and they are planted deeper in sandy ground than in heavier soil, the rows being 6 feet 6 inches apart and the plants 33 inches distant in the rows. Manuring is done in various ways. It is considered best to apply manure only once in ten years, but some farmers manure every four years and others again every year. Frequent manure is condemned by those who should be the best judges. There is also an idea that cattle-dung is the best manure for sandy soil and stable-manure for richer soil. Sometimes, also, guano is used. The land is either dug or ploughed three or four times during the growing season, to keep it free from weeds, and pruning is done at the beginning of June. As in Champagne so in the Saumur district, the vines on the hill-sides and on chalky soils give the best wine, and those in the valleys 102 ~~ Notes on Market-gardening and Vine-culture, §c. and on flat land produce what are termed “small wines ” ( petits vins). Farms which produce from 50 to 100 casks a year are the most numerous in this district, but there are many which have an average vintage of 300 or 400 casks. The merchants buy the “must” of the farmers, generally having a contract with them for a number of years at so much per hogshead. Cognac.—A few words on this district, which is of almost as much interest to Englishmen as the Champagne, will enable me to mention that fearful scourge, the Phylloxera. The vines are grown on an intermediate system to those prevailing in Cham- pagne and Saumur. They are planted in rows about a yard apart, but not many rows together without an interval cropped as agricultural land. The land is manured for. the fame -crops, but the vines are not specially manured, as they are thought to obtain sufficient nutriment from the manure applied to the adjacent crops. The cultivation of the land, except hand-hoeing, is done by means of an ancient lumbering machine like a one-tined cultivator, drawn by two bullocks. The ordinary course of cropping is the national three-shift rotation, namely, two white crops followed by green crops, potatoes, or bare fallow. Wheat often succeeds wheat on the stronger land, where, of course, no vines are grown. About 50 acres is the prevailing size of the farms, which are worked generally on the métayer system (that is to say, the farmer receives half the produce as payment for labour and supervision, and the landlord receives the other half as payment for rent, interest on capital, manure, and other expenses). Vine-lands are generally cultivated by the proprietors. The farmers distil their own wine at the farm-houses, without the supervision of a custom-house officer, but they must obtain a permit to move it. The duty is paid when the brandy is sold to the retail dealer, or when it is shipped for export. The export duty is light, but the duty for home consumption is very heavy. The great question in the Cognac district, which comprises nearly the whole of the two Departments of the Charente, is, “‘ Flow to prevent in future the ravages of the Phylloxera?” Up to the end of 1878 about one-third of the acreage in vines in the two Departments had been utterly ruined. In consequence, so I was informed, the value of vineyard property had been so depre- ciated that in some districts it was entirely unsaleable: in fact, nobody attempted to sell real estate. However, thanks to de frugality of the farmers, which in this district took the form of hoarding brandy instead of coin, it was estimated that the markets could be supplied with more or less matured brandy for at least seven or eight years from these hoards. It is the prac- tice of the farmers to reserve a portion of each year’s make, and to The Supply of Milk to Labourers. 103 sell it by degrees, after a sufficient lapse of time, at a high price. Buying pure brandy has, however, become somewhat difficult, even to experts, because the farmers have learned to adulterate the grape-spirit with beet-root spirit and essences. Years ago such practices were never attempted, but are now common. The best district for Cognac is on the side of the Charente, opposite the town of Jarnac, yet not in the true valley of the Charente, but in the next valley but one farther south. This is the real home of the “Fin Champagne.” Very good brandy is obtained in the neighbouring valleys, but this one bears the palm. The ordinary qualities of Cognac are produced by blending the spirit produced in the several valleys on the Jarnac side in various proportions ; and the manner in which this is done by each “ house” is a secret most jealously preserved. A small quantity of syrup made from the finest white crystalized sugar is added. Such is a brief sketch of the vine-culture and brandy produc- tion in the two Departments of the Charente—a fair district, whose vineyards are being rapidly rendered desolate by a microscopic insect related to the common plant-louse. The French Government has appointed Commissions to investigate the subject ; individual men of science have studied the question from almost every point of view ; experiments, both preventive and curative, have been tried ; but up to the present time the Phylloxera, like the potato-disease, has defied every effort sug- gested by science and every device prompted by human ingenuity. I should add, that M. E. Martell, of Cognac, and M. Hine, of Jarnac, gave me every facility to investigate this district. It would be presumption for me to attempt to enter into the Phylloxera question ; but, without reference to that insect pest, I may perhaps be allowed to say that vegetable pests might be much less rampant in the district than they are at present, if greater attention and improved implements were applied to the culti- vation of the soil. {11.— The Supply of Milk to Labourers. By Henry Eversuep. DuRING my inquiries last year, when engaged in preparing a paper on ‘Cow Keeping by Farm Labourers’ which appeared in the Jast number of the ‘ Journal,’ numerous correspondents, from all parts of the country, complained of the difficulty which labourers and others experience in obtaining milk for their families. That milk is the best and most complete food for children and young people no one will dispute. Many of my correspondents have given their opinion derived from personal 104 The Supply of Milk to Labourers. observation, that milk is indispensable for the proper rearing of families; and that the labouring classes, both in town and country, are liable to deterioration from the want of milk for their children. It would be easy to supply copious medical evidence to the same effect, but it would be out of place. In this short paper I propose to show, from a practical point of view, the value of milk as an article of diet, its scarcity, and the methods by which it might be rendered more abundant. Instead of collecting medical opinions I propose to quote Mr. Snowball, the Duke of Northumberland’s Commissioner in the North. He says:— “T have always attributed the superiority of power and intellect in the Northumberland farm labourers to the food they receive in early life. Their parents had a cow, kept a certain quantity of wheat, barley, oats, and pease as part of their wages, with also about 1000 yards of potatoes planted, from which the most wholesome food was obtained for their sustenance, but after the tariff by which tea, coffee, sugar, &c., were reduced in price, a disposition grew against payment of wages in kind; and the payment in corn and the keeping of a cow is the exception instead of the rule, which I much regret.” Even in the North a change in the method of payments is leading, for the present at least, to the diminished use of milk. In the North, however, the milk question, as it affects farm labourers, is very much less urgent than in the south. The ‘“‘ family system” still prevails, and the young labourers, living in the farm-houses, get their basins of hot milk morning and night. Mr. Joseph Culshaw, Townley, Lancashire, informs me that the labourers in his neighbourhood do not keep cows, and the young men lodge in the farm-houses. Colonel Kingscote, the late President of the Society, resides in a locality incorrigibly arable, on the Cotswold hills, where the large farms of 500 or 600 acres have hardly sufficient pasture for the maintenance of two or three cows on each farm, and where little milk is obtainable by either farmers or labourers. I venture to quote the following paragraph from a letter of Colonel Kingscote’s, on the importance of the milk supply generally :— “T think every employer of farm-labour should sell milk to the labourer at as cheap a rate as he can, in proportion to the number of the family, as I do in my own case.” Mr. John Treadwell, Upper Winchendon, has communicated the following information from the Vale of Aylesbury :— “Tn this district the practice is to give all the cattle- and stock-men and boys (where a butter-dairy is kept) a good basin of hot milk for breakfast, and if there is any illness the farmers never refuse a can of milk. Since milk-selling has become more prominent, I think that in many instances the stockmen get coffee or beer for breakfast instead of milk.” The Supply of Mith to Labourers. 105 Mr. R. Neville, Butleigh Court, Glastonbury, gives an un- usually satisfactory account of the milk supply in his neigh- bourhood. He says :— “This is a regular dairy country; the labourers generally get milk and butter from their employers at a fair market price. I sell skim-milk at 3d. per quart to all who like to fetch it, and bring the money with them; about twenty daily are thus supplied.” And as skim-milk has lost none of its nitrogenous elements, Mr. Neville’s neighbours are supplied with a very valuable article of food at a very low price. The labourers of Liphook referred to by Sir A. Macdonald, are quite mistaken as to the comparative value of new and of skim milk. Sir A. Macdonald, writing from Woolmer, Liphook, says that milk is not very readily attainable in that neighbourhood. “The farm-labourers appear to consider milk necessary only for young children, and for that purpose they purchase new milk at 2d. per pint, in preference to skim-milk gratis. “Tn answer to inquiries, I am told by the labourers that they prefer their tea or coffee without milk.” Mr. W. Frankish, Limber, Ulceby, Lincolnshire, describes his district as partially supplied either by cottage cow-keepers or small farmers, or by those larger ones who sometimes sell milk at a nominal charge to the labourers. I have now quoted several cases of an unusual character; but so much evidence of the shortness of the milk supply comes from so many cor- respondents in various parts of the country, that it is impossible to doubt it. Those who do not meet with the difficulty of obtaining milk at a poor man’s price may be assured that their place of residence is highly favoured. Lord Vernon says :— “In the dairy districts of Derbyshire the labourer has great difficulty in obtaining milk.” Mr. Charles Howard writes from Biddenham :— “Milk is not available in many villages to the extent that is desirable. A supply of good skim-milk would be a great boon to men with large families, poe it might be managed without much trouble or inconvenience on most arms.” Mr. Howard adds a hint which I cannot forbear quoting. He says :— “Tn this village we have some four or five small holdings, varying from © to 10 acres, on each of which some two or three cows are kept; formerly the milk was made into butter, but as the population of Bedford has increased, these cottagers sell their milk to go there, being only a short distance from the town. Some of these holdings are occupied by men who have been thrifty, industrious labourers. I consider they have a beneficial effect: they 106 The Supply of Mitk to Labourers. are an incentive to thrift and good conduct, as none are promoted to them unless they have conducted themselves respectably.” Mr. Henry A. Bottle writes from Patenhall, Kimbolton, Beds, of the general need in his neighbourhood that milk should be more accessible to the working classes. Mr. James Howard shows how he has dealt with the milk question in the Village of Clapham, near Bedford, in the follow- ing words :— “Owing to the difficulty the people in this village had in obtaining milk, I set up a hand-cart, which cost five guineas, the can holding 15 gallons. After the morning milking is over, the milkman goes the round of the village with the cart ; the journey takes about 13 to 2 hours. ‘The milk is skimmed once or twice according to the weather, and the charge made is 1d. per quart. Those who prefer new milk get it at the dairy, for which they pay 4d. per quart. Nothing is sent out on Sundays, but an extra journey is made on Saturday atternoon, ‘The villagers are very thankful for the accommodation, and the man has never had the least trouble about payment. I think the difficulty in getting milk in villages is very general aed has become a crying evil.” The Hon. Wilbraham Egerton, M.P., Rosthern Manor, Knuts- ford, has favoured me with the following plan for overcoming the aril difficulty, which has been adopted i in his neighbour- hood :— “ A field of 12 acres, called the Church Field, and cl ose to the church, in the village of Rosthern, is let to six of the inhabitants of the village for cow- pasturage at the annual rent of 37. per cow, on condition that any milk not required by the family of the owner of the cow shall be sold to the villagers. This arrangement answers very well; and besides this arrangement the school- master living in the village lias a small farm of 12 acres, and keeps three or four cows, and supplies his family and some of the villagers with milk.” Mr. Egerton adds, on the subject of condensed milk :-— “The tins of condensed milk are quite available and an excellent substitute for milk. Having visited the manufactory at Middlewick in Cheshire, I can testify to the admirable way in which the watery particles of the milk are evaporated ; and nothing remains to be done but to restore the water to the condensed milk for use.” Before considering in further detail the methods for increasing the milk supply, it will be desirable to compare its value with that of other food, and thus to ascertain the price which farm- labourers should be willing to pay for it. On this part of my subject I shall be guided partly by the evidence contained in Dr. Pavy’s ‘ Treatise on Food and Dietetics, and on the table of analysis in Dr. Letheby’s work on ‘ Food.’ The following analyses are taken from Dr. Letheby’s work on Food :— The Supply of Milk to Labourers. Composition of Meats. 107 Lean Fat Lean Fat Dried ,| Fat Beef. Beef. Mutton. | Mutton.} Bacon. Pork. — — — ——— — — —— Bi ie -_- - —) Nitrogenous matter 19°38 | 14-8) 18:3] 12-4 8°8 9°8 Bat... as 3°6 | 29°8 AOE mre last ime 48°9 Saline matter .. S-1 | 4:4 478.) M39 2°9 2°3 Water 72°0 51°0 | 72:°0).| 03.0 15°0 39°0 100°0 | 100-0 | 100°0 100-0 | 100-0 | 100°0 Composition of Mixx AND CHEESE. Chedd Ski d eddar Se, *77- | SKimme | Cheese. Cow's Milk. | Milk. : zs X eras ae SES es eee Nitrogenous matter .. Ape Rao eC 28-4 4°1 4-1 Hi Sy Coe 31-1 ice) 0°7 Lactine ened it Sees Saha Mae rane 52 | (64 Saline matter 4°5 O38 | 0°8 Water .. 36°0 86°0 88-0 | 100-0 * 100°0 100-0 Conrosition of Fartnacrous Foops. Bread. Potato. | Oatmeal. beer Nitrogenous matter .. 8-1 2°1 12°6 10-8 Carbo-hydrates .. 51-4 ° | ec 63°8 70°5 Starch .. ee se i el Sits me ae BUCRT 3... Dy a BI | ae CO 2 per bundles z per hundred. Cutting and stripping alder and willow for powderwood, 10s. per load piled, 24 feet long, in 3 feet lengths 2 feet high Making wattled sheep-hurdles in the Weald, of hazel, 3s. 9d. per dozen. the Planting, Growth, Conversion, and Sale thereof. lit Sale Prices in the Coppices. Ss. @. 16-feet hop-poles .. .. .. «. 15 0 per hundred or bundle. 14-feet = fe ies iris ss, Len O es 12-feet hop-poles 9 0 - 10-feet “e Sen ais desy ten 0 0. - SHOMMAZOUSEE Ce sch) ee ae es. 9) O ee Clean bavins Re Gare YH O EA Bush»; RREAS, Lice! jes. tok Cae 6 es Broom-sticks aon 1s, O 5s Bean-sticks aera il “ BTOOM=DANUSE swe ves cee ce LO 5 IMOOREGISTARCS sip fsa vee ce ee de 2 ie Walking-sticks 63 Fe 2 O per gross. Spar timber O 9 per hundred or bundle. Pea-sticks... «« 0 2 3 Withes 0 6 SO ee en ae Ps Powderwood, alder, and willow, sold at 50s. per load, delivered to ( railway station, in 1877. Prices paid for making Hoops in 1877. Sande Hourteenfeet.. .. §.. es Ll 38 per bundle. Middling : Joes nal és TEOMCUDIDOL Jacsie costyye sign Ze 1X0) re HON ans 4 0 8 . Hogshead ot, OC 0 10 a Tota) | aa eee ee 0 10 3 Kilderkin 0 10 ay Firkin 0 10 be Long pink 0 10 % Short ,, 0 8 S MIRAI sia b fesys Soe siethe!, omislbe he's OP aC 5 3-gallon bottle OT ee Os ~ - a5 AUR ste cnet «arte On S 5s 1- i a Ong siete eee % Tying hoop chips, at per hundred bundles, 2s. 3d. Names of Bundles, Lengths of Hoops cut, and Number in each Bundle, Fourteen feet .. .. 14 feetlong .. .. 60 jiineaKellbieyer” NS ECR Vee aise ee aye mae OO. PEO RDO. Seale | (se nuisuinv lier 159 Dols OL Short ,, Be tak chi tasy Oe De wy aj joes OO IElwosheads xe ease vs OSes sdb tr 90 ayaa a a ie ye oon beat e ZO Lib ayo tr soy pigitieue ZO Firkin oe on oe .- 2 ” .- . 180 Woneipink ees. iar) 2s Sod bas wen aveatiloO Short ,, a alt seer ae aa Tumbril emt | ener Levys Fea heen GLO S-CAMOMLDOLLO ie aategce, 6 DE erisy eee ae, O00) = " ac, “EAP REST ae eadh este, OOO. 1- 24 se) O00 Sold at per load of 30 bundles, Geimared 118 Underwood : Hoops sold at per Load of 30 Bundles, delivered in London, in 1877. Gh Ch Hourteen feet <3). 3. 6 7% G) per load: Wickens og coc DOG D Long pipe 60. 00 oo ee Ith 3G » Short ,, 60. oo 8a eo O)! © Hy Hogshead so 0g cw Barrel SOEs. ee (AO WO bn Kall denkin ements. te ceomn 8 ONO, a Hin: Uae ae tots 4 5 0 ia Long pink 410 0 st Short ,, celeoe 312 6 - ramalorilieee rs | tee 212-6 bes 3-gallon bottle.. .. 310 0 A 2- 35 a 6d |) do 1D) 9G + 1- a oo ao A ® @ 3 Less the carriage to the station, and railway charges to London, about 18s. per load. To landowners who prefer to sell underwood standing, the following Conditions of Sale, &c., may be useful :— I. Except that the Auctioneers reserve the right of refusing a bidding, the highest bidder shall be the Purchaser; and in case any dispute shall arise between two or more bidders, the Lot in dispute shall be put up again and re- sold. The bidding for each Lot to be at per acre. II. That no person shall advance less than two shillings and sixpence under five pounds, five shillings under ten pounds, and ten shillings above ten pounds, at each bidding. Ill. That the Underwood of the Lots, stated to be computed, is to be taken by the Purchasers at the quantity stated in the printed bills of this Sale. TV. The Purchaser of each Lot shall immediately after the Sale pay a deposit of twenty pounds per cent. into the hands of the Auctioneers as part of the purchase-money, and shall give security to the satisfaction of the Vendor's Agent for the payment of the remainder at .... on or before the sixth day of May, 18, before which day all the Lots (except those mentioned in the 8rd Condition) shall be measured by a competent Surveyor, appointed and paid by the Vendor, or sixpence in the pound will be allowed on imme- diate payment of such remainder, subject to final settlement on the Lots to be measured; and in case of non-payment of such remainder of the purchase- money, or any part thereof, on or before the said sixth day of May, the Vendor may, at any time after such default (without prejudice to any other remedy for recovering the said purchase-money), seize, retake, retain, and sell to any other person or persons the said Underwood or any part thereof, and the produce thereof, and of any part thereof, and whether converted or unconverted, and wheresoever or in whosoever’s possession the same, or any part thereof, respectively, may then be, for making good the purchase-money, or such part thereof as shall remain unpaid. And also interest at the rate of ten pounds per cent. per annum, on all balances from time to time remaining due from and after the said sixth day of May. V. That the Vendor reserves to himself sufficient live stuff for the fences, where required, and the Purchasers are to leave standing all tellers whatsoever. and such stems, hollies, and plashers as are marked with paint; and if any tellers, or stems, hollies, or plashers which are so marked, or any tree or trees, are cut down or destroyed by the Purchaser or Purchasers, or his or their the Planting, Growth, Conversion, and Sale thereof. 119 workmen, or if he or they shall commit any other damage, injury or spoil whatsoever, such Purchaser or Purchasers shall pay treble the amount of the value thereof, and all costs of assessing the same. All damages with the expense of assessing the same, shall be paid to the Vendor’s Agent within seven days after the publication of the award of the referee, as appointed in the last Condition hereunder. Norz.—Special attention is called to the foregoing Condition, which will be strictly enforced. VI. That the Purchaser or Purchasers of each Lot shall have, or cause to have, all goods arising from the Lots, cleared off or stacked in places pointed out by the Vendor’s Woodwards, or in default thereof in places where the least possible damage may accrue, on or before the first day of May next (but no stack shall be made within four feet of any boundary fence) under a penalty for each Lot of ten shillings per day, for every day after the said first day of May, on which any portion of the goods so arising shall not be stacked as aforesaid; except the stackwood and the alder and willow left for stripping, which are to be stacked in a similar manner, on or before the twenty-fourth day of July next, under a penalty of ten shillings per day as aforesaid, and all goods whatsoever, except stackwood, shall be entirely cleared off the premises before the twenty-eighth day of September next, and the stackwood on or before the twenty-cichth day of September, 188 ; or on and after either of these days respectively, all goods of either description which shall then remain thereon, shall become absolutely the property of the Vendor, any Condition, Sale, or ether transaction to the contrary notwithstanding. Andif any wilful or other damage is done in removing any portion of the goods produced on or from any of the said Lots, the Purchaser or Purchasers shall pay for the same in the same manner as provided in Condition fifth. In all cases the Pur- chaser or Purchasers, or carriers employed by him or them, shall make use of the usual and accustomed roads only, or such other roads as are pointed out by the respective Woodwards; all other or new roads, made or used by him or any of them, will be accounted and assessed as wilful damage as before provided. VII. That the whole of the Underwood in each of the Lots in this Sale (except the alder and willow left for stripping), and all single alder in each Lot (which the Vendor reserves the right of having cut off the stem at any earlier time he may think fit) shall be cut off the stem on or before the twenty-fifth day of March next, under a penalty of ten shillings per day as aforesaid, and subject to Conditions 5 and 8; and the alder and willow so left for stripping (where not otherwise provided) shall be cut off the stem on or before the twenty-fourth day of June next, under the like penalty and Conditions. And the Purchaser of Lots shall not be entitled to enter thereon for any purpose whatever, before the twelfth day of January next, if not previously shot over, nor of Lots before the twentieth day of November next. VIII. If any Purchaser or Purchasers neglect or fail to complete the pur- chase agreeable to these Conditions, the deposit-money shall be forfeited, and the Vendor may re-sell such Lot or Lots, or goods arising from the same, either by public auction or private contract; and the deficiency, if any, on such re-sale with all charges attending the same, shall be made good to the Vendor by the defaulter at this present Sale, and if not immediately paid, to be recovered as and for liquidated damages. And Lastly, all damages and other charges arising out of the infraction of any of the foregoing Conditions, or any matter or thing relating thereto, if not thereby provided, shall be submitted to the sole umpirage or award of Mr. , the Auctioneer at this Sale, or to some person to be appointed by him in writing, such award to be binding on all parties; and for the better enforcing the performance thereof, such submission or reference 120 Underwood : the Planting, Growth, Conversion, Sale, §c. shall be made a rule of the Court of Queen’s Bench, pursuant to the statute in that case made and provided. Contract for Purchaser. I do hereby acknowledge that I have this day purchased, by public Auction, Lot of the Underwood mentioned in the foregoing Particulars, for the sum of and have paid into the hands of the Auctioneer the sum of as a deposit, and in part payment of the said purchase-money ; and I do hereby agree to pay the remaining sum of unto the Vendor’s Agent, at , on or before the 6th day of May, 18, and in all other respects, on my part, to fulfil the foregoing Conditions of Sale. As witness my hand this 5th day of November, 18 Purchase-money for Lot .. £ Depositnow paid .. .. £ temaining unpaid Witness Contract for Vendor. I do hereby acknowledge that has been this day declared Purchaser of Lot of the Underwood mentioned in the foregoing Particulars, at the sum of and that he has paid into my hands as a deposit, and in part payment of the said purchase-money ; and I do hereby agree that the Vendor shall, in all respects, fulfil on his part the foregoing Conditions of Sale. As witness my hand this 5th day of November, 18 . Purchase-money for Lot .. £ Deposit now paid .. .. £ temaining unpaid Witness No underwood varies more in value than alder and willow, locally known as powderwood. When wars prevail alder is in demand. In the piping times of peace it is a drug and is sold for firewood. It has the merit of growing and thriving in bogs and swamps, in which little else can live. ‘The period at which powderwood can be stripped is from the 24th of May to 24th of June. Within a circle of ten miles round Midhurst 1500 acres of underwood are annually sold by auction, chiefly on the fore- going terms. One working coppice-buyer is frequently surety for another. To the honour of the craft, instances of men failing to meet their payments are rare. Landowners will find it greatly to their advantage to keep the clearing roads in good order, also fences, water rails, and gates. Cattle, as well as hares and rabbits, are very partial to the “ first shoot.” A recent introduction of hoops from abroad, at a low price, threatened to injure the English trade. The foreign hoops have not proved durable and the home-made are again in request. | Abstract Report on Rot in Sheep. 121 Although coal has not been discovered in Sussex, some re- mains of ancient foundries exist. I have recently drained a quagmire, a clearing road for woods, and made a firm road by a thick layer of cinders laid on wood fagots. The bed of cinders on which I draw is 20 feet deep and several yards wide, in a wood of Major Hollist’s, known as Furnace Coppice, close to Furnace Pond, parish of Lynchmere, where in former days ironfoundries existed. Good specimens of Sussex iron firebacks, bearing the Montague Arms, are preserved in the mansion at Cowdray Park. Other designs may be found in the open hearths of many farmhouses in the county. V.—Abstract Report on Rot in Sheep. By J. B. Simonps, Principal of the Royal Veterinary College, and Consulting Veterinary Surgeon to the Society. Wirth reference to the existing disease among sheep, commonly known as Rot, it is important that agriculturists should under- stand that the malady is one exclusively depending on the existence of parasites in the liver, ordinarily called Flukes. The embryos of these creatures enter into the stomach of the sheep in a form so minute as to escape ordinary observation : they may indeed be described as infusoria, abounding in water, and in wet pasture-grounds. From the stomach the embryos pass into the intestine and thence onwards to the gall-ducts of the liver, where they quickly increase in size and become as flukes sexually mature. The ova—eggs of the fluke—are depo- sited in the gall-ducts in immense numbers, and, flowing out with the bile into the intestinal canal, they are freely distributed with the faculent evacuations of the sheep wherever the animal may roam. It has been calculated that a single fluke will mature 40,000 ova. In due course the expelled ova give birth to the infusorial embryos, which in an advanced stage of development again enter the bodies of sheep and other animals. It is thus that rot persists from year to year, and especially on wet farms. A few flukes may not be attended with any serious ill-conse- quences ; but the existence of a large number in the liver early produces structural changes in the organ itself, which, with the consumption of the bile on which the parasites live, ultimately cause a dropsical condition of the entire body of the affected animal, and necessarily lead to its death. It is only in an advanced stage of the disease that rot can with certainty be recognised, and frequently too late for curative remedies to be of much avail. Thus, for instance, the present serious outbreak of the disease had its commencement during 122 Abstract Report on Rot in Sheep. the summer of last year. It was at that time, and more espe- cially in the months of July, August, and September, that in consequence of the excessive fall of rain saturating the ground with wet, and producing the overflow of streams and rivulets, that the fluke-embryos in vast numbers were taken in with the food of the sheep. Had agriculturists then adopted means, which were pointed out as far back as, 1862, to prevent the embryos, thus widely dispersed, developing into young flukes within the organism of the sheep, hundreds of animals now falling a sacrifice to rot would have been saved. These and other important and kindred facts connected with the parasitic origin of the disease and its prevention were set forth in an Essay on Rot, which was published originally in the Society’s ‘ Journal,’ in 1862, and is now republished in a sepa- rate form, with extensive additions, for circulation among agriculturists in general.* It is well known that in many valley farms and wet feeding- grounds sheep will take the rot in any year, be the state of the weather what it may ; but the whole history of the disease from the earliest times, as well as all recent investigations into the natural history of the liver-fluke, show that in wet summers danger is incurred by the pasturing of sheep on land which under ordinary circumstances would be safe. Outbreaks equally as extensive and fatal as the present have occurred in this country in past years; and, dating back to 1735, the following periods may be quoted as examples: 1747, 66, 92, 1809, 716, 24, °30, °53, and ’60. Ireland also suffered to a most serious extent in 1862, when wet weather prevailed there throughout the year; but in England, on the contrary, the summer being dry, only partial occurrences of the disease were observed, especially on wet and boggy pasture land. The rot of 1830-1 is believed to have been the most serious outbreak of any recorded, evidence of the destruction of not less than two millions of sheep having been given before a Parliament- ary Committee, which sat in 1833 to inquire into the causes of the depressed state of agriculture. The rot of 1860 also swept away thousands of sheep, and affected large numbers of cattle, the year having been, like the past one, remarkable for the almost uninterrupted rainfall for weeks together. So long as the weather continues warm and humid into the autumn, so long does great danger exist; but a change from wet to dry, and especially the occurrence of sharp frosts, speedily arrests the development of the fluke-embryos. * each 4 Ibs bd aniseed ee ay : ss sulphate ofiron.. .. 1 Ib. Let the salt, aniseed, and sulphate of iron be mixed together first, and afterwards well incorporated with the cake and pea-meal. The quantity of the mixture to be given to each sheep daily should be half a pint to a pint, in addition to an ordinary allow- ance of corn or cake and hay-chaff. It may be used with advantage for three or four weeks in succession, but should be discontinued occasionally for a day or two, especially if the animals become affected with diarrhoea, By means of this kind many sheep may be either brought into, or kept in, such condition, as will enable the proprietor to dis- pose of them at a price which will considerably diminish the loss he would otherwise sustain. Rot when fully established can only be viewed, however, as being incurable ; but, nevertheless, the knowledge of its cause and nature holds out no faint hope of our being able to prevent it. In adopting preventive measures we must not lose sight of the well-known circumstance that sheep never take rot on salt marshes, although the ground is generally saturated with moisture. It may, however, be rightly asked, upon what does this immunity depend? The answer to the question is both easy and satisfactory. Salt-water is destructive to the fluke- embryos as they escape from the eggs. These infusorial crea- tures belong to fresh water, and to this alone. It is here that they pass through their several gradations when out of the body to fit them for their ultimate development into flukes by entering the digestive organs of sheep. If flukes, however, should have taken up their abode in the liver prior to the sheep being placed on salt marshes, they are beyond the reach of harm. The character of the daily food will have but little effect on the parasites, and the disease will gradually progress to a fatal termination. 128 Abstract Report on Rot in Sheep. Thus it will be seen that the removal to salt marshes as a pre- ventive measure is valuable, but as a curative one it is only fallacious. It is, however, a preventive within the reach of but very few persons, and even these may not have recourse to it sufficiently early; they may keep their sheep at home during a wet summer, until all the mischief has been done. It may be asked, what means can the agriculturist employ at home for the purpose of destroying the immature forms of the fluke after they have entered the stomach of the sheep? This brings us again to the administration of salt as an effectual agent for the purpose. Its combination with sulphate of iron and aniseed will materially increase its pre- ventive power. Indeed no better medicinal compound for this purpose can be employed than the one named when speaking of the treatment of the disease. The daily use of the mixture will not only arrest the further development of the fluke- embryos, but will destroy the early-hatched flukes, and thus remove the cause of the malady. ‘The rules for the use of the medicated food must, however, be modified, as the object sought is somewhat different. It is almost impossible to reckon upon the time the compound may have to be employed, and therefore care should be taken that no ill effects follow its long-continued use. In a wet year, like that of 1879, it may be found requisite to commence its use early in June, if net in May, and to continue it to the end of October. Under such circumstances, however, if a moderate quantity only is allowed daily, no possible harm can arise. To meet a difficulty of this kind, however, the proportion of the medicine to that of the nitrogenised food should be altered by adding to the two bushels of linseed-cake and pea-meal two more bushels of corn. We prefer one of crushed oats and another of crushed maize, to both being of the same kind. Either is good food for sheep, but a mixture of them is better. The relative proportion of the salt and of the other ingredients is thus reduced one-half, thereby enabling the agriculturist to vary the amount of the medicine according to circumstances, but always securing the partaking of some of it by using from half a pint to a pint daily of the food-compound, divided or not into two feeds. Provision also is thus made for the nutrition of the animals when the grasses have lost much of their quality, as they invariably have when surcharged with moisture. A difficulty frequently exists in getting sheep to eat “ manger- food,” especially if mixed with hay-chaff, when the animals are at grass during the summer, but this is not insurmountable. Most farms yield at this period of the year some green food, such as tares, clover, Italian rye-grass, &c., a small quantity of Abstract Report on the Rot in Sheep. 129 which can be daily cut into chaff, with a proportion of hay, for mixing with the other food. Judicious management will sur- mount many a little difficulty, and the result will be an ample reward for the care and attention which had been bestowed on the animals. If the system be properly carried out, little fear of the occurrence of rot, even in the most unpropitious seasons or on land proverbially bad for sheep, need be entertained. It will be seen that the quantity of salt and sulphate of iron which I have named is much below that which is ordinarily used. No doubt a larger amount may be safely employed, but it is to be remembered that the preventive power of the compound depends more on its long-continued use than on the largeness of its quantity fora time. A change of weather may call for its complete withdrawal, but, on the contrary, it may have to be continued throughout the entire summer and even long into autumn. The fondness of animals for salt will lead them to partake readily of an amount which may, under certain circum- stances, be productive of considerable mischief. Agriculturists need therefore to be put on their guard respecting an abuse of this valuable agent. Little more need be said respecting the employment of salt in the prevention of rot, except to take objection to the sug- gestions which have been made to sow it on the land, with a view of destroying the fluke-embryos. If two or three appli- cations of it in a year would do this, even should the herbage suffer for a time, I, perhaps, should not be found to dissent from the practice. But when it is remembered that the natural history of the liver-fluke establishes the fact that brood after brood of embryos are being produced from ova, cast daily out of the bodies of rotten sheep, and that the hatching process therefore goes regularly on day by day, and week by week, for several consecutive months, the necessity for frequent repetitions of salt in the same year becomes apparent, and these could not fail to be highly injurious to the pasturage, more especially on the retentive clays, where rot prevails, Repeated small dressings of lime I can conceive to be nearly as efficacious as those of salt in destroying the fluke-embryos, and these would stimulate the growth of better grasses, besides proving of permanent benefit to the soil; nevertheless, neither salt nor lime-dressing of land must be depended upon as a preventive of rot. VOL. XVI.—S. S. K ( 130.2) VI.—Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments conducted at Woburn, on behalf of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, during the Year 1879. By Dr. Augustus VOELCKER, F.R.S., Consulting Chemist to the Society. Tue EXPERIMENTS ON THE CoNTINUOUS GROWTH OF WHEAT. BEFORE the experiments on the continuous growth of corn were instituted, a crop of wheat, yielding 253 bushels of dressed corn and 204 ewts. of straw, was grown by the late tenant in 1875. Since that time wheat has been grown every year, and thus the same land yielded in 1879 the fourth crop of wheat in suc- cession, or the third crop since the systematic experiments were begun. The mineral manures in the quantities given in the tabulated results on the following pages were sown on plot 8 and plot 9 on the 8th of November, 1878, and on plots 4, 5, and 6, on the 9th of November. The seed—Browick wheat—was drilled in on the 2nd of November, when the land was in excellent condition for the reception of the seed; nevertheless, the plant only made its appearance above ground on the 30th of December, the wheat having been about two months in the ground before it got through the surface. The salts of ammonia and nitrate of soda were sown on the 7th and 8th of March, 1879. The dung on plots 10 and 11 was applied on the 24th of January, 1879. In 1877 and 1878 the dung was applied to the land in a long and undecomposed condition, which had the effect of making the naturally very light soil of the experimental field still more loose. Moreover, it appeared to me that too much litter was used in the making of the dung. In order to remedy these defects the dung used in the wheat and barley experi- ments for 1879 was made in the Woburn feeding-boxes in the autumn of 1878, less litter than in the two preceding years being used, and it was cut into chaff instead of being used long as formerly. The requisite quantity of dung required for the experiments on the continuous growth of wheat and barley was produced by eight bullocks, four making dung for the wheat and four for the barley experiments. The bullocks were put into the feeding-boxes on the 8th of October, when their weight was as follows :— Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 131 Bullocks making Manure for Permanent Wheat Experiments. Cwts. qrs. Ibs, Peds eee Foe, D8 Total weight of Osea ose is.- 9 | 24 (four, bullocks| on, the Pee Or sei sg LO.” OL x38 8rd Oct., 1878, 4 A 9 1 8 Jj 1ton 18 cwts. 15 lbs, Each bullock received daily as food : 4 lbs. decorticated cotton- cake, about 64 1bs. Indian corn meal, 48 lbs. of white turnips and 8 lbs. of wheat-straw chaff; and by the 5th of November, that is in five weeks, they had consumed :— Decorticated cotton-cake .. .. .. 5 cwts. Indian corn-meal Balt 20 ee ale Siowiis, WintteMUrMIps Gf) we “uss. fila. Wi we) 2 1o. LONS. Wheat-straw chaff .. .. . « LOcwts. and, trodden into dung, 114 cwts. of wheat-straw, cut into chaff of about 2-inch length. When the dung was removed from the boxes it was short (straw chaff having been used as litter), fairly well-fermented, and in a condition fit for being placed on the land at once. In order to prevent loss of more or less of the soluble and most valuable fertilising constituents during November, December, and January, it appeared to me advisable to delay the appli- cation of the dung to the land until the end of January. In the meantime the dung removed from the feeding-boxes on the 5th of November was put into a covered hovel, closed in on all sides. On the 24th of January, when the dung was applied to the wheat, it was weighed, and the requisite quantity, containing the calculated amount of ammonia required, namely, nitrogen equal to 100lbs. of ammonia on plot 10, and 200\bs. on plot 11, was applied to these experimental plots. The four bullocks fed as stated above, and kept in feeding-boxes littered with 114 ewts. of wheat-straw, cut into chaff about 2 inches long, in round numbers, made 2} tons of rotten dung, weighed after having been kept for nearly three months under cover. The dung was applied to the land as a top-dressing; and when I inspected the experimental field on the 7th of March, 1879, it had become well amalgamated with the land; the soil was firm and the wheat looked well and promising. On the 5th of November the bullocks which made the dung for the wheat experiments weighed as follows :— Gain from Oct. 3 to Nov. 5, 1879 (5 weeks), Cwts. qrs. Ibs. qrs. Ibs, eae Ae ae 2 = . Gr. 1 2 Total gain in 3 ° : 7 a 0 21 B ivccke net -10.087 = 1197¢, ear ie 4 Pee Loy Owe fle 2 ODS K 2 132 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. The four bullocks accordingly increased 284lbs. per week, or each gained on an average 7} lbs. per week. On some of the experimental plots the wheat suffered from the attacks of wire-worm, and bare places had to be filled up by transplanted wheat. By dint of much trouble a fairly uniform plant was produced on the several plots, and no expense ‘was spared to keep the land free from weeds, which proved a meost difficult task in a wet and bad season like that of 1879. The wheat was cut on the 8th of September, and carted and thatched on the 17th of September, 1879. Directly after the field had been cleared of the wheat, it was scuffled and drag-harrowed with a view of killing weeds, and ploughed rather shallow on the 15th and 16th of October. Threshing in the field by means of a portable engine com- menced on the 30th of October, 1879. The straw of each plot was weighed in the field, and the corn of each plot bagged, carefully labelled, and stored in the granary until the 19th of November, when the gross weight of corn from each plot was ascertained; and this weight was checked by measuring the produce of each plot, and weighing separately every bushel of corn produced on the eleyen experimental }-acre plots. In this way the possibility of a serious mistake in taking down the weight of corn may be avoided, and at the same time the average weight of a bushel of corn may be ascertained more correctly than by weighing only 1 or 2 bushels. I may men- tion that the differences in the weight of several bushels of corn from the same plot seldom varied more than from } to $ lb. The weight per bushel in the following tabulated results is the average weight of the several separate weights of every bushel of corn grown on each plot. There is no need of embodying in this report all the figures which were obtained in weighing the produce of the experimental wheat-field; but in order to show clearly how close is the agreement of the gross weight of corn and the sum of the separate weighings of each bushel usually turned out in the wheat and barley experiments in 1879, I quote the details obtained on plot 5. Weighed with the bags, the corn weighed 379 lbs., bags alone 9Ibs., leaving the total net weight of corn 3701bs. Bushelled out, the wheat on plot 5 gave: 1st bushel, weighing 542 lbs. 2nd, » 543 4, Biel) . 54, 4th ”? ”? 54 ” dth 2? » 54 Led 6th 9 ” 54 2? and 4383 ,, Total weight, 368% lbs. Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 133 The difference in the weight, as ascertained by weighing the whole of the produce in one operation on an ordinary weigh- bridge and measuring out and weighing each bushel separately, it will be seen, does not exceed 1}1b. I select this plot for illustration because it showed the greatest difference in these weights on any one plot. In some cases the total weights, as ascertained on a rough weighing machine in one operation, and by adding the weights of the several bushels as determined on a more delicate weighing-machine, differed not more than } or } lb. The table on page 134 shows at a glance the treatment of each plot as regards manure, and the result of the harvest of 1879- 1879 was such a cold and wet season that the wheat in many places, especially on heavy land, did not fill well, and turned out a more or less complete failure.. Thus in Mr. Lawes’ experiments, the continuously unmanured plot produced scarcely more than 4 bushels of wheat per acre ; and on all the manured plots the produce sank down to an abnormally low figure in comparison with the average produce in fairly good corn-growing seasons. I have therefore some hesitation in making any comments on the results of the wheat harvest on the experimental field at Woburn in 1879, and shall not attempt to reconcile any anomalies which may be due to inequalities in the soil of the field, partial destruction of the plant by wire-worm, blight, and other circumstances over which the experimenter has no control. Nevertheless, the experiments on the continuous growth of wheat in 1879 present some interesting features upon which I may be allowed to dwell for a few moments. Comparing the produce of the unmanured plot 1 with that of the preceding year, it will be seen that in 1878 the weight of dressed corn per acre was 943 Ibs., as against 490 Ibs. in 1879 ; and that, whereas the bushel on plot 1 weighed 60 Ibs. in 1878, it weighed only 48} lbs. in 1879. In the produce of straw on plot 1 in 1879 there is a falling off of 6 cwts. 2 qrs. and 18 lbs., as compared with the produce in straw in 1878. The second un- manured plot, No. 7, has again produced less corn than plot No. 1. This is now the third year in which this has been observed. Thus, in the years 1877-1879, the two unmanured plots, 1 and 7, yielded respectively ;— Pror 1 (Unmanured). | Pror 7 (Unmanured). Dressed Weight Dressed Weight Corn. Bushel, Corn, Bu Sik —— al mae Bushels. lbs. | Bushels. lbs. 1877 221 | 61:8 207 | 61°1 1878 15°8 60 12 58°6 1879 10°1 483 dy 50°0 | | 134 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. Propuce or WueEat. TxHrrp Season, 1879. PRODUCE PER ACRE, Dressed Corn. PLoTs. MANURES PER ACRE. Straw, Chaff, Number | Weight &e. Weight. of per Bushels. Bushel. Ibs. Ibs. ewts. qrs. lbs. ii Unmanured .. .. «|. 490 10°1 483 12 3 14 200 lbs. ammonia-salts, alone an (Guplied ~ a ~ aN Te ins oaee 756 | 14-7 | Sip | 20 2 99 275 Ibs. nitrate of soda ere in the 3 |{ Oa i 604 | 12 50k |19 1 QL 200 Ibs. sulphate of potash, 100 Ibs. sulphate of soda, 100 Ibs. sulphate Be 4 of magnesia, 3} cwt. superphosphate 538 Ts) | ead 17 0 22 of lime .. C 200 Ibs. sulph. potash, 100 Ibs. sulph. soda, 100 lbs. sulph. magnesia, 3} F 5 ewts. superphosphate of lime, and 200(| 1480 27°3 54 35 0 26 lbs. ammonia-salts (in spring) .. 200 Ibs. sulph. potash, 100 Ibs. sulph. soda, 100 lbs. sulph. magnesia, 33 ; 6 ewts. superphosphate of lime, and 275{| 1412 25°5 55 362 22 lbs. nitrate of soda (in spring) .. i Nr Ohaveeprracl ssen easy “Wee aal Gow eas 376 (08 50 13) ean soda, 100 lbs. sulph. magnesia, 33 || ewts. superphosphate of lime, and 400 lbs. ammonia-salts (in spring) .. ioe) 200 lbs. sulph. potash, 100 lbs. sulph. 1603 31-2 512 45 2 18 oe) soda, 100 lbs. sulph. magnesia, 33 ewts. superphosphate of lime, and 550 lbs. nitrate of soda (in spring) .. 462 14m © 1418 26°7 52 iQ fe Ibs. sulph, potash, 100 Ibs. sulph. (Farmyard-manure, estimated to contain) nitrogen = 100 lbs. ammonia, made from 700 lbs. decorticated cotton-cake, 10 1120 Ibs. maize-meal, 8400 lbs. white?| 736 13°4 55 19 0 0 turnips, 1400 lbs. wheat-straw, as food; and 1610 lbs. wheat-straw as litter. Weight about 3tons .. ..) nitrogen = 200 lbs. ammonia, made from 1400 lbs. decorticated cotton- cake, 2240 Ibs. maize-meal, 16,800 Ibs.}| 1034 18°7 55% 24 0 20 white turnips, 2800 lbs. wheat-straw 1a chaff, as food ; and 3220 lbs. wheat- | straw as litter. Weight about 6 tons ( | Farmyard-manure, estimated to contain) ( Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 135 It is quite evident that the natural productive powers of plot 1 are better than those of the second unmanured plot. Plot 7, it may be stated, is situated nearest the road-side of the field, and plot 1 is at the lower end of the field, and evidently better land than plot 7. Ammonia-salts alone, it will be seen, produced a better effect than an equivalent quantity of nitrate of soda applied without any minerals, in conformity with the results of the two preceding seasons. The minerals without ammonia or nitrate of soda on plot 4 had a better effect on the produce than in previous seasons; but, on the whole, raised but slightly the produce in corn. Notwith- standing the unpropitious season, the addition of 200 lbs. of ammonia-salts to the minerals largely increased both the yield of corn and straw on plot 5. Thus, 200 Ibs. of ammonia-salts per acre on plot 2, produced only 756 Ibs. of dressed corn, and 20 ewts. 2 qrs. 22 lbs. of straw; whilst the same amount of ammonia-salts, with the addition of minerals, on plot 5 yielded 1480 lbs., or nearly twice as much dressed corn, and 1 ton 15 cwts. and 26 Ibs. of straw. If the weather towards harvest- time had been warm, no doubt the produce in corn on plot 5 would have been much more considerable, for the weight of straw and general luxuriant appearance of the wheat-crop on plot 5, clearly showed that all that was wanted to insure a heavy yield was heat and sun to ripen the crop. As it was, the wheat on plot 5 weighed 543 lbs. per bushel, and was a better sample than that on plot 2, manured with ammonia-salts alone, which weighed only 514 lbs. per bushel. Nitrate of soda on plot 6, in conjunction with minerals, pro- duced somewhat less corn and more straw than ammonia-salts and minerals. The larger dose of 400 lbs. of ammonia-salts on plot 8, in addition to minerals, produced the heaviest crop of dressed corn and a large bulk of straw. A still larger weight of straw was obtained by the use of 550 lbs. of nitrate of soda, in conjunction with minerals, on plot 9, but it appears at the expense of corn, which gave 44 bushels less per acre in comparison with that reaped off plot 8. The great weight of 2 tons 6 cwts. 2 qrs. and 14 lbs. of straw per acre raised on plot 9 appears to indicate that on light soils heavy top-dressings with nitrate of soda, even in conjunction with minerals, have the effect in bad seasons of producing too much straw. The wheat on plot 9, however, it may be stated, was not blighted, but only thin. Both the application of the more moderate quantity and of double the amount of dung, estimated to contain nitrogen equal to 100 lbs. and 200 lbs. of ammonia respectively, notwithstanding 136 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. the adverse season of 1879, produced better crops than in the preceding year. Considering that only 6 tons of dung were put on plot 11, and the extremely bad wheat-growing season, 18-7 bushels of dressed wheat, weighing 554 lbs. per bushel and 24 cwts. 20 lbs. of straw per acre, may be regarded as a satis- factory result, which clearly proves that it is desirable to apply dung on light land short and well rotten, and not in a long, fresh condition. The cost per acre of the artificials employed in the experiments on the continuous growth of wheat and barley was the same as in the preceding year, namely :— About Sse On Plot 2. Ammonia-salts alone.. 2 2 » 9 Nitrate of soda alone.. 2 0 >» 4. Minerals alone .. 3 3: 0+ Minerals and ammonia eet ( ;> 6. Minerals and nitrate of soda ay rs » 8. Minerals and ammonia ia, 9. Minerals and nitrate of soda Tro Tue EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONTINUOUS GROWTH OF BARLEY. The manures applied for the barley were the same as those for the wheat experiments. The mineral manures, as well as the ammonia-salts and nitrate of soda, were sown by the broadcast manure-distributor on the 8th of March, 1879, and the barley was drilled in on the 18th of March. The dung used in the barley experiments was produced by four bullocks fed and kept in precisely the same manner as the four bullocks which made the manure for the wheat experi- ments. The dung, estimated to contain nitrogen corresponding to 100 lbs. of ammonia per acre for one plot, and 200 lbs. of ammonia per acre for the second plot, was put on the land on the 25th and the 27th of January, 1879 :— Total Food consumed by Four Bullocks in Five Weeks. Decorticated cotton-cake .. .. .. « 5 cwts. Maize-meal” <5, Soh! Wes 7 on te eRe ES White turnips se Me) Tse Urs. Sie. ORUOHEs Whieat-straw chaff ve ites!) set Oe el Ofewis® Wheat-straw, cut into chaff about 2 inches long, 113 cwts. used as litter. Accordingly, the four bullocks gained 563 lbs. per week, or, each bullock on an average, 14 lbs. per week, or 2 lbs. per day. The barley was cut on the 30th of August, 1879, and carted and thatched on the 20th of September. Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 137 Wercur of Four Butiooxs which made the Dune for the BARLEY EXPERIMENTS. je ga Weight on | Increase Total | Bullock. > the 5th | in Five = ctober 3, November. | Weeks. Increase. | 1878. Cwt. qrs. Ibs. | Cwt. qrs. Ibs. qrs. lbs. Cwt. qrs. Ibs.| 10), 10,., 0 | No. 1 10 1 10/ 1 10) | Peewiedet rt? |10'.0. 12), 8 0 22 8 eee GiGi 10). Os B5.4 3-94 4/10 0 14/10 2 a) 2 12)| The plot manured with minerals only ripened a few days before the plots manured with ammonia and nitrate of soda. No apparent difference was noticeable between the nitrate of soda and ammonia plots. The barley was threshed out in the field in the beginning of November, and the straw weighed at the time of threshing, and on the 19th of November the dressed corn was weighed, when the results were obtained as shown in the table on page 138. It appears from these tabulated results :— 1. That minerals alone had no effect upon the produce in barley. 2. That ammonia-salts alone produced a better crop than nitrate of soda applied without minerals, thus confirming the experience of the two preceding years. 3. That 200 lbs. of ammonia -salts, in conjunction with minerals, had a slightly better effect upon barley than an equi- valent amount of nitrate of soda and minerals. 4. That, on the other hand, the larger dressing of nitrate of soda on plot 9, in conjunction with minerals, produced a heavier crop than minerals and the larger dose (400 lbs.) of ammonia- salts on plot 8. 5. That the small quantity of dung applied to plot 10 did not materially raise the produce. In comparison with the yield of one of the unmanured plots (plot 1), plot 10, manured with 3 tons of dung, yielded about 1 bushel less barley ; and in com- parison with the barley crop on the second unmanured plot ae 7), the dunged plot No. 10 yielded about 2 bushels more arley. 6. That double the quantity of dung used on plot 10, or 6 tons applied on plot 11, gave a large increase. 7. That one of the unmanured plots (plot 1) gave about 6 bushels more corn, and 2 ewts. 27 lbs. more straw than the second unmanured plot (plot 7). 138 PLors. cr ~I an Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. Propuce or Bariey. Turrp Szason, 1879. MANURES PER ACRE. | Unmanured A he. tart | 200 Ibs. ammonia-salts, alone 75 lbs. nitrate of soda, alone sulph. of soda, 100 lbs. sulph. mag- 200 Ibs. sulphate of potash, 100 lbs. nesia, 35 cwts. superphosphate of lime of soda, 100 lbs. sulph. of magnesia, 33 owts. superphosphate of lime, and 200 lbs. sulph. of potash, 100 Ibs. eal 200 lbs, ammonia-salts of soda, 100 lbs. sulphate of magnesia, 34 ewts. of superphosphate of lime, and 275 Ibs. nitrate of soda Unmanured 200 Ibs, sulph. of potash, 100 Ibs. sulph. of soda, 100 lbs. sulph. of magnesia, 33 ewts. of superphosphate of gue 200 Ibs. sulph. of potash, 100 Ibs. hae and 400 Ibs. ammonia-salts : 200 ibs.'sulph. of potash, 100 Ibs. sulph. of soda, 100 lbs, sulph. of magnesia, 33 cewts. of |superphosphate of lime, and 550 lbs. of nitrate of soda .. (Farmyard-manure, estimated to contain nitrogen = 100 lbs. of ammonia, made from 700 Ibs. decorticated cotton- cake, 1120 lbs. maize-meal, 8400 lbs. white turnips, 1400 Ibs. wheat-straw chaff, || as food; and 1610 lbs. wheat-straw as litter. Weight about 3 tons .. | nitrogen = 200 lbs. ammonia, made from 1400 lbs. decorticated cotton- cake, 2240 lbs. maize-meal, 16,800 lbs. white turnips, 2800 lbs. wheat-straw chaff, as food; and 3220 Ibs. wheat-]| ( eae. estimated to contain ( straw as litter. Weight about 6 tons PRODUCE PER ACRE. Weight. Ibs. 972 1368 1051 [626 1495 1426 664 1489 1850 949 1413 Dressed Corn. Straw, Chaff. Number | Weight &e, 0 per Bushels. | Bushel. | * Ibs. ewts. qrs. lbs. iyoal 504 13 1 27°1 50% 18 0 21°5 49 17 1 2% 11°8 53 10 0 28°7 52 21..2 @ | | | 27°3 .| 522 | 20.0 13 51 11 0 6 30°8 513 23 O 26 37 50 27 0 1 18°2 52 13 0 6 | 27:2 52 15 1 2 | Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 139 It will be remembered that for the last three seasons the unmanured plot 1 produced more wheat than the second un- manured plot 7; the results obtained on the unmanured barley plots during three seasons in succession exhibit similar differences, and distinctly prove that that part of the ex- perimental field which comprises the unmanured wheat and barley plots (No. 1) is in a higher agricultural condition than that in which the second unmanured corn plots (No. 7) are situated. It will be further seen that the produce in 1879 on all the eleven experimental plots fell considerably below that of 1878. With the exception of the dressed corn raised with nitrate of soda on plot 3, which weighed only 49 lbs. per bushel, the barley on the remaining plots weighed from 50 to 53 |bs. per bushel, or only one or two pounds less than the weight of a bushel of wheat grown on the several experimental wheat plots. Tue EXPERIMENTS IN ROTATION. Rotation No. 1.—1877, seeds; 1878, wheat; 1879, roots; 1880, barley. Roots, 1879.—Less litter having been used in making the dung in the feeding-boxes for the mangold experiments, and the straw used as litter having been cut into chaff, the dung came out of the boxes short and fairly well-fermented. It and the mineral manures on plots 3 and 4 were applied to the land in spring before the seed was sown. The nitrate of soda on plots 3 and 4 was sown by hand between the rows in the middle of June, after the plants had been singled out and become well-established in the soil. Within a week’s time after the application, the nitrate of soda began to tell upon the mangolds; and all the time the mangolds were in the ground the nitrated plots, especially plot 3, which received the larger top-dressing of nitrate of soda, grew more vigorously and were in a more flourishing condition than the plots which were manured with dung only. The seed was sown in the first week of May, and came up well; but the weather was so cold in May and June that the young plants made hardly any progress, and it was only with great trouble and expense that they could be kept fairly free from weeds. } Even after the mangolds were singled and had every chance _ of growing, they made no start, and were miserably small in August and September. There was a regular plant on all the plots; but want of heat and sunshine told upon the crop, and 140 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. when the roots had to be taken up in November they were small and weighed less per acre than I anticipated, judging from the luxuriant but deceptive appearance of the tops. Roration Maneoups, 1878, arter WHEAT. PRODUCE PER ACRE, PLots. Roots. Leaves. tons, cwts. qrs. lbs.| tons. cwts. qrs. lbs, |(With dung, made from 1728 lbs. straw |} as litter; 5000 Ibs. mangolds; 1250 lbs. wheat-straw chaff, and 1000 lbs. 4 1018/2 211 decorticated cotton-cake .. ate With dung, made from 1728 Ibs. straw as litter ; 5000 lbs. mangolds; 1250 Ibs. wheat-straw chaff, and 1000 lbs. of maize-meal With dung, made from 1728 lbs. straw) as litter; 5000 Ibs. mangolds; 1250 lbs. wheat-straw chaff; and artifi- cial manure, containing two-thirds as much nitrogen, and the other constituents, of the manure from 1000 Ibs. decorticated cotton-cake ; 7 19 026)2 19 1 & namely, 248 lbs. nitrate of soda, 100 Ibs. of bone-ash (made into superphosphate), 623 lbs. sulphate of potash and 65 lbs. paaiots of mag- nesia Ag = With dung, made from 1728 lbs. straw as litter; 5000 Ibs. mangolds; 1250 lbs. Wheat-straw chaft; and artificial manure, containing as much nitro- gen, and other constituents, as the manure from 1000 lbs. maize-meal ; 5 15. 3:22) 128 Se namely, 80 lbs. nitrate of soda, 164 lbs. bone-ash (made into superphos- || phate), 7 lbs. sulphate of potash, and 11 lbs. sulphate of magnesia .. .. — It will be seen that the larger dose of nitrate of soda and minerals in addition to dung, in round numbers, produced 8 tons of mangolds, topped, tailed, and cleaned; the smaller dose of nitrate of soda not quite 6 tons; and the remaining plots about 4% tons of clean mangolds per acre. This is a great falling off in comparison with the last year’s crop, as will be seen by the subjoined tabular results, showing the produce in mangolds on the four experimental plots in the last two seasons :-— Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 141 Propucs of Rotation Mancotps in 1878 and 1879. Produce per Acre. Roots. Leaves. Tons. cwts. qrs. lbs. | Tons. cwts. qrs. lbs. Plot 1 in 1878 .. 3) WA ib) 2 ih SL OTo) sa 4 10 1 8 2° 2+ 1h 4: Plot 2 in 1878 .. Tel Gae Olea O Zn Von Oe SEL isis CS as eerie 2 it aOn whee Plot 3in 1878.. | 18 13 0 20 By IBY By (| WP INULS 700s. 195200826 Zi LOIS Ss | Plot 4 in 1878 .. 17 Sil oil wal Hebe Bye by] » in 1879.. i 1} 8) Py 7 Jae ees at | Rotation No. 2.—Four acres. 1877, roots; 1878, barley; 1879, seeds ; 1880, wheat. Seeds, 1879.—The four acres of clover and rye-grass sown with the barley in the preceding year were fed-off by sheep during the summer, and the land is now sown with wheat. On one acre, 672 lbs. of decorticated cotton-cake were con- sumed ; on the second acre, 728lbs. of Indian corn-meal ; and the third and fourth acres were separately eaten off without any purchased food. On each of the four acres ten sheep were put on the 20th of May, and kept on the seeds until July 7th, 1879 (seven weeks), when each lot was weighed and sold of. A second lot of sheep was put on the clover on the 8th of August, and kept until the 17th of September, or a period of five weeks and three days. On the 7th of October a fresh lot of sheep was put on the clover, and kept upon it until the 23rd of October, or a period of two weeks and two days, but the sheep lost in weight during this period. The first lot of sheep kept on the clover from the 20th of May to the 7th of July, in that period of seven weeks yielded the following increase in live-weight :— Increase in Live- Ports. Ibs. 1 Fed-off by 10 sheep, with 245 Ibs. decorticated * z cotton-cake ; on the land 48 days .. ; 2 Fed-off by 10 sheep, with 245 lbs. Saiveone, 182 F on the land 48 days . 3 Fed-off by 10 sheep, sachout ae fied on a 2253 : land 48 days .. .. viet by 10 sheep, than einer faa: on on the} land 48 days... “e - 162t The cake-pen did not eat the cake well at first. The clover was very fine and luxuriant on all four acres, especially on 142 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. plot 3, on which the barley was top-dressed in the preceding _year with nitrate of soda. The second lot of sheep was put upon cloyer-seeds on the 8th of August, and kept on the land until the 17th of September, in isan period of five weeks and three days they made the following increase in live-weight :— Increase in Live- PLots, Ibs. Fed-off by 10 sheep, with decorticated cotton- 1231 cake; kept on the land 5 weeks and 5 days .. Fed-off by 10 sheep, with maize-meal ; ey ont yre1 the land 5 weeks and 5 days .. .. = Fed-off by 10 sheep, without other food ; kept ont 4491 the land 5 weeks and 5 days .. .. . 14 Fed-off by 10 sheep, without other food; kept on 902 ; the land 5 weeks and 5 days .._ . 7 The third lot of sheep was put on the clover-seeds on the 7th of October. The sheep on plots 3 and 4, which re- ceived neither cake nor corn, finished the clover on the 23rd of October; the sheep on plot 1 finished the clover and remainder of the allotted quantity of decorticated cotton-cake on the 29th of October; and the sheep on plot 2 consumed the re- quired quantity of maize-meal on the clover-seeds on the 5th of November. The sheep which were kept on the clover without any addi- tional food, during a period of sixteen days lost slightly in weight ; whilst the sheep eating cotton-cake and maize were kept on the clover twenty-two and twenty-nine days re- spectively, and gained in weight, as will be seen by the follow- ing tabulated results :— Clover fed-off by Sheep the third time. Increase in Live-weight,. PLots, Qrs. Ibs. 1 Fed-off by 10 sheep, with decorticated cotton- 1 3 ; cake; on the land 22 days .. .. .. ; 9 Fed-off ne 10 sheep, with maize-meal ; kept 0 ont 9 491 : the land) 29) Gaye con Uso. h Ue pene 3 Loss in Live-weight. 3 Fed-off by 10 sheep, without other food ; on 0 258 : ia JEMGl WG chy. he Gy eae Ge 4 Fed-off by 10 sheep, without ether food; ml 9 98 : the land 16 days .. ..° «. 5 The following table shows the number of ie fed on each acre, the quantity of purchased food consumed (if any), the number of days the animals were kept on the land, and the total increase of live-weight yielded :— Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 148 Increase in Live-weight. Pots. ey i : Ibs. Fed-off by 10 sheep, with 672 Ibs. decorticated| 45 | cotton-cake; on the land 110 days... .. ..f °° Fed-off by 10 sheep, with 728 lbs. maize-meal 5} 435 | on the land 117 days toy al Le ngs fey Fed-off by 10 sheep, without other food; on eon 9191 | land 104 days eA 4 Fed-off by 10 sheep, saihout ae food ; on in| 250 3 | land 104 days A ; AZ zs The average gain in live-weight of ten sheep kept on clover- seeds without purchased food thus was 281} lbs.; and, as they were kept on clover for fifteen weeks all but one day, they gained 12 Ibs. per week, or 14 lb. per head per week. The sheep fed upon clover and from i lb. to $1b. of maize-meal per day, or altogether 63 cwts. in seventeen weeks, increased 435 lbs. live- weight, or made about 254 Ibs. per week, or 24 lbs. per head per week. Decorticated cotton-cake did not do so well this year as last year, for it will be seen that in a period of sixteen weeks the ten sheep gained 238 lbs. live-weight, or, in other words, they increased in weight 204 lbs. per week, or 2 lbs. per head per week. It must not be concluded that because in 1879 maize produced a better result than decorticated cotton-cake it is a more suitable food for sheep, for in the two preceding years decorticated cotton-cake gave a larger increase in live-weight than maize- meal. Probably the most economical result by feeding off clover- seeds by sheep would be to give them, as additional food, from 3 lb. to } Ib. of mixed decorticated cottoncake-meal and maize- meal per head per day; this mixed meal, I am inclined to think, will do fattening sheep more good than either meal by itself. The reason why cotton-cake did not produce so large an increase in the live-weight of sheep that fed-off the clover- seeds in 1879 as in the previous year, and did not stand so good a comparison this year with maize as last year, I believe has to be sought in the unhealthy condition of some of the sheep in the cotton-cake lot. Several were badly affected by foot-rot, and made little flesh for some time, and one suffering from a bad mouth and foot-rot lost 182 lbs. in five weeks. It should be borne in mind that these experiments were not instituted for the purpose of fattening sheep in the most profit- able manner on clover-seeds, but with the intention of passing through them and incorporating with the land two descriptions of purchased food differing widely in composition, decorticated cotton-cake being a highly nitrogenous food and maize-meal 144 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. comparatively poor in nitrogenous compounds, as will be seen by the following analyses of samples of the cake and maize actually consumed in these experiments :— Composition of DrcorticATED Corron-cAKkE and Ma1zu-Mnat used in the Wosurn Exprrments, 1879, Decorticated Cotton-cake.| Maize-Meal. Moisture BO co. Oo ah eles | Od 8:49 15:01 Oile. eres eins ice: lies) | cist) Wer 15°83 1°88 Albuminous compounds .. .. .. 42°16 8-60 Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre 17°61 { (Chi cence Woody fibre (cellulose) 59° Oo Gn 8°46 1°56 Mineral matter (ash) $0, a6 ~ 06 7°45 1°75 100-00 100-00 Containing nitrogen .. .. «.. 6°73 i foe, | Rotation No. 3.—1878, seeds; 1879, wheat; 1880, roots; 1881, barley. Wheat, 1879.—The seeds were fed off in 1878 i ten sheep kept on each of the four acres of this Rotation. On plot 1 the sheep consumed as additional food 672 lbs. of decorticated cotton-cake. On plot 2 they consumed 728 lbs. of maize-meal. On plots 3 and 4 no additional food was given; but on plot 3 the wheat was manured with artificial manures, containing as much nitrogen and other fertilising constituents as the manure from 672 lbs. of decorticated cotton-cake, namely, 275 Ibs. of nitrate of soda, 73 lbs. bone-ash made into superphosphate, 454 lbs. sulphate of potash, and 473 lbs. of sulphate of magnesia. And lastly, on the fourth acre (plot 4) the wheat was manured with artificial manures containing as much nitrogen and other fertilising matters as the manure from 728 lbs. of maize-meal, namely, 584 lbs. of nitrate of soda, 112 lbs. of bone-ash made into superphosphate, 5 Ibs. of sulphate of potash, and 8 lbs. of sulphate of magnesia. The same kind of wheat which was sown in 1877—Browick wheat—was sown on the 2nd of November, 1878, and the artificial manures were applied as top-dressings on the 10th of March, 1879. Although the seed went into the land when it was in capital condition, the cold weather—November and December—prevented the plant pushing through the soil for two months, for it was not before the Ist of January, 1879, that the wheat came up. Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 145 The four acres of Rotation wheat were cut on the 13th of September, or just about one month later than in 1878, carted and stacked on the 3rd and 4th of October, and threshed out in the field in the beginning of November 1879. The straw and chaff were weighed in the field at the time of threshing, and the corn was kept in labelled bags until the 19th of November, when it was weighed, and the total weight checked by measuring the number of bushels, and weighing each bushel. The table on page 146 shows the results obtained. Nothwithstanding the distressing season, the wheat on all the four Rotation acres, it will be seen, produced a full crop. Throughout the season the wheat looked splendid, and promised a very heavy crop, but towards harvest it became evident that the corn would not come to perfection for want of sun and heat. There is not much difference in the yield of corn on each of the Rotation acres, nor does the bushel of wheat differ much, whether grown with or without artificials. The corn was light, weighing only from 534 lbs. to 543 lbs. per bushel. Nitrate of soda applied as a top-dressing on plot 3 in a proportion equiva- lent to the nitrogen contained in the manure resulting from the consumption of 672 lbs, of decorticated cotton-cake on plot 1, produced only 14 bushel more head-corn and a few pounds more tail-wheat than the wheat on plot 1; whilst the smaller dose of nitrate of soda used as a top-dressing on plot 4, con- taining an amount of nitrogen equal to that of the manure resulting from the consumption by sheep of 728 Ibs. of maize- meal, yielded about 2 bushels more head-corn than the wheat on plot 2 (the maize plot). On looking carefully over the tabulated results (p. 146) it will be noticed that the application of nitrate of soda on plots 3 and 4, and more especially on plot 3, resulted in a very large quantity of straw. On all four acres, I would remark, more straw and less corn were produced in 1879 than in 1878; but, as the wheat was very strong, the four Rotation acres would have yielded very heavy wheat crops if sunshine and heat had brought the corn to perfection. On plot 3, it will be seen, no less than 3 tons 4 cwts. 18 lbs. of straw and chaff were produced, or about 11 cwts. more than on plot 1 (cotton-cake plot). The cost of the artificial manures. used on plot 3 amounted to 2/. 18s., and on plot 4 to 11s. Rotation No. 4.—Four acres: 1878, roots; 187%, barley ; 1880, seeds ; 1881, wheat. Barley, 1879.—The mangolds in 1878 were grown on: Plot 1. With dung, made from 1728 lbs. of straw as litter, 5000 Ibs. mangolds, 1250 Ibs. wheat-straw chaff, and 1000 Ibs. of decorticated cotton-cake. VOL. XVI.—=S. S. L ts at Woburn. xpervmen E; Report on the Field and Feeding 146 LG G 81 @ Tg SiS Os shes SY ale Ceyl 8G 1¢ ye fait te 6 *SqT ‘sab ‘s}.A09 ‘su0} "Sq ‘Joqsng aod WS AL ‘oy {VIO ‘Aviyg 8-4 ‘sjoysng foI & T {FG 8) (0). he tS L 0 @ an En iSlE= IE F-&¢ |} ‘sqp “sab ‘sqa10 “Sq *poqsug “WBiOAA tod JUSTO MA OAL -TEVL, Cm 46" a le ST 6-Lg | #46 0 8I Gate || Steyg=(@)- Lit #98 | #8— TI LL | ‘Sqr ‘sib *szao | 3 ‘spoqsng “319 AL “WoT AL PvoH NUON aassan(y "QJST NI GNVYT DHL NO“aaa sang uTLay ¢ Iv tp GL8T NI “SG ‘ON NOMVLOY co aOAdoug fe ior ZLQ SB “op ‘proe- oroydsoyd “qsvjod [wowl-azrvut JO “ST SZL WOT, suup or} B IO}JVUL SUISTPI}LOZ YONUL sv SUTUIEZTIOS eon ]VIoytyre WIA Surids ur pessorp -do} ‘uT0d 10 oyvo qnoyyTA doays q Yo pay! oo ae 03[¥0-110}}09 pa}voy}.1009p JO ) UeSsO4IU YON sv Suruvezuoo ‘sa.inuvut TePyyawe YA Surids ur possorp-doz “UX0d IO OYBo JNoyTIA doays Aq Yo pay spoog J ss 8" 1BOUI-IZIVUL JO “Sq SZ, pournsuoo yory ‘deays Aq Jo poy spaog OYVO-WOJJOO PoyworyIOdap Jo “sqy ZL9 pownsuos yor ‘deays Aq Yo pay spoag “TVA A, NOLLVLO YT ‘a1 9uQ JO SLOT ts at Woburn. 147 sperimen Ex Report on the Field and Feeding Foe 6 Ss ot pee Gi SiS a be GF er SIE AU *Sq[ ‘SAb *S}.9 ‘Su10} | “ory ‘geqo ‘aris | | fOr | wT 2 4 (0) sg | igh 7-Ge | FLD Oe Ces ace | | AP ee Re Cee Ome OPI et Sy tL Be TLC. On On le Sele “"sq] | ‘sq, ‘sab "s}.Mo “Sd joysng: | ‘oysng aad “spoyeng “qq AY aod WSO M | WSIOAL ULOD-[18 I, ‘NNOD Gassay(y | | FP-18 g-0F | # 9-0F ‘sjoysng ace iA! 6&6 6G 8 coll MEBs)! Pe Ge Lk | ‘sqr ‘stb *s}.0o “9310. co te eee OIMUBUT [CIO TLE eral ‘+ #* wpos JO OYVAITU ‘SqT FAT ‘Apouva ‘9 VO-0}}OO Po}BoIyLOOOP “SGT YOOT WoIz OINULU OY} SV NOSONIU YON sv pay g -0u0 = SaTULe}Q0D ‘OIMULIE [RIOT [ITAL ts ee +s (Qoyd Ozer) SpVIoyTyIe NOTIALAL w ue (qopd oxvo-104}00) speyoyTyIE JOTFLAL I $e ee ‘a1dy oud JO SLOT ‘INV’ SHL NO GHAI SCIOONV][ VALAV “GIST NI ‘GZ ‘ON NOMLVLOY TO TOAGoUg ‘AMTAVE NOLLVLOYT ee 148 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. Plot 2. With dung, made from 1728 lbs. of straw as litter, 5000 lbs. mangolds, 1250 lbs. wheat-straw chaff, and 1000 Ibs. of maize-meal. Plot 5. With dung, made from 1728 lbs. of straw as: litter, 5000 Ibs. mangolds, 1250 Ibs. wheat-straw chaff, and artificial manure containing two-thirds as much nitrogen and other constituents of the manure from 1000 Ibs. decorticated cotton- cake, namely, 248 Ibs. nitrate of soda, 100 lbs. bone-ash (made into superphosphate), 624 lbs. sulphate of potash, and 65 Ibs. sulphate of magnesia. Plot 4. With dung, made from 1728 lbs. of straw as litter, 5000 Ibs. mangolds, 1250 lbs. wheat-straw chaff, and artificial manure containing as much nitrogen and other constituents as the manure from 1000 Ibs. maize-meal, namely, 80 lbs. of nitrate of soda, 164 lbs. bone-ash (made ane superphosphate), 7 lbs. of sulphate of potash, and 11 lbs. sulphate of magnesia. The succeeding barley on plots 1, 2, and 4 was grown without artificial manure ; on plot 3 with artificial manure containing one-third as much nitrogen as the manure from 1000 Ibs. decor- ticated cotton-cake, namely, 124 lbs. of nitrate of soda, applied as a top-dressing in May. The barley was drilled in at the rate of 9 pecks per acre on the 7th and 8th of April, 1879, and the crop was cut on the 15th of September, carted and stacked between the 4th and 7th of October, and threshed in the first week of November, when the straw and chaff were weighed at once in the field, and the corn was placed in carefully labelled bags in the granary. The corn was weighed and measured on the 19th of November, 1879, and the results were obtained as shown in the table on page 147. It will be seen that the barley-crop on plot 1, after mangolds, manured with dung from 1000 lbs. of decorticated cotton-cake, produced about 24 bushels less corn than on plot 2, which was manured with dung resulting from the consumption of 1000 lbs. of maize-meal. The difference is not great, but inasmuch as decorticated cotton-cake contains much more nitrogen than maize, and furnishes a richer dung than the latter, I naturally expected that the barley-crop would turn out better on plot 1 than on plot 2. The actual results did not fulfil this expecta- tion, and I can only account for this somewhat unexpected result by the fact that during the past very wet season we had at times heavy thunder-storms oo heavy rains, in consequence of which the water flowed towards the lowest end of the experimental field, and stood occasionally for some time upon a part of the acre of barley grown after mangolds manured with dung from decorticated cotton-cake. The nitrate of soda on plot 3 does not appear to have had An Experiment on the Value of Linseed-cake, &c. 149 such a beneficial effect in 1879 as in the preceding year. The barley, it will be noticed, weighed nearly as much per bushel as the wheat. Considering the bad season, both the Rotation- wheat and the Rotation-barley grown on the light Woburn land were fine crops, far exceeding the average produce of corn grown in England in 1879. VIL—An Experiment on the Comparative Value of Linseed- cake and a Mixture of Decorticated Cotton-cake and Maize-meal for fattening Bullocks. By Dr. Aucustus Vor.oxcer, F.R.S., Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society. On the 3rd of October, eight bullocks (Herefords) were put in the feeding-boxes for the purpose of making the requisite quan- tity of manure for the experiments on the continuous growth of wheat and barley. The bullocks, in addition to white turnips and straw-chaff, received decorticated cotton-cake and maize-meal. They were removed from the boxes on the 9th of November, and as they were in good condition, it occurred to me to try a fattening experi- ment, with a view of ascertaining whether it is more profitable to give linseed-cake to fattening-bullocks, in addition to roots and chaff, or a mixture of maize and decorticated cotton-cake. The same eight bullocks were again put into the feeding- boxes, after having been weighed on November the 9th, 1879. All were fed upon the same allowance—white turnips, swedes, and chaff—in addition to which four bullocks received Indian corn-meal and decorticated cotton-cake, in equal proportions, and four bullocks linseed-cake. The bullocks were again weighed on the 17th of December, and for the last time on the 17th of January, 1879. Between the 9th of November, 1878, and the 17th of January, 1879, one lot of four bullocks consumed :— Tons. cwts. qrs. lbs. 0 16 3. 4&4 of Wheat Chaff. 0 10 O- O of White Turnips. 4 7 2 0 of Swedish Turnips. 0 18 3. 24 of Decorticated Cotton-cake. And 0 19 1 20 of Maize-meal. The second lot during the same period consumed the same amount of roots and straw, namely :— Tons. cwts. qrs. Ibs. O 16 3 4 of Wheat Chaff as food. 0 10 0 0 of White Turnips. 4 7 2 0 of Swedes. And1l 14 1 5 of Linseed-cake. 150 An Experiment on the Comparative Value Each lot had an allowance for litter of 1 ton 19 ewts. and 1 qr. of wheat-straw, cut into chaff about 2 inches long. The following table shows the composition of the three kinds of purchased food used in this experiment :— Composition of | | Linseed-cake Leconte Samia Maize-meal. Moisturds tiyie aaah behi-ok 8:58 | 10-89 | 15-01 OD) Ss crresioges cea ie ioe meses 14°86 9°86 1:88 Albuminous compounds .. .. .. 43°06 29°87 8°60 c 71. Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre 16°32 34°33 1 ae Woody fibre (cellulose) de betas heed 9°60 8-25 1°56 Mineral matter (ash) 2 758 | 6°80 1°75 100°00 100-00 100-00 | ————_ ——$_—_ — Containing nitrogen -. .. «. | 6°89 4°78 1°37 The next table shows the weight of the eight bullocks when put into the feeding-boxes on the 17th of December, 1878, and the increase in live-weight of each bullock during that period :— | | Weight of | Weight of | . 4 3ullocks on the | Bullocks on the Increase in | BULLOCES. 9th November, | 17th December,| Live-Weight. | | 1878. 1879. | Cwts. qrs. Ibs. | Cwts. qrs. Ibs. Cwts. qrs. Ibs. Fed on Decor- ( No. 1 9023) 10 026 OS Saer sel ticated he Dee S52) 435 esl eS) 1 02h Cotton-cake Sine |) LOM Se Onell SO mealS) Osa LS and Maize-meal.{| ,, 4 Qn, tl | al Og 0.22) go Total weight of 4)| 39 2 0 | 42 1 26 2 3 26 IBUllocKSi= mimes eel | % | No. 5.5 {10 0)..19: | | 10080) WA ames | Fed on ES pp OOM ee Ge Ze OB we | Linseed-cake. et is 9) 215, | elons0 1 | oO 1 14 | eS das 10 2 19.) 11 90" °26)| On See Bullocks .. Total weight of | 40 2 14| 48 0 27] 2 2 13 | It will be seen that the mixed cotton-cake and maize-meal gave a little more increase than the linseed-cake. The bullocks were again weighed on the 17th of January, and then sold off to the butcher. s 3 of certain Foods for Fattening Bullocks. 151 Their weights on the 9th of November, 1878, when put up, and on the 17th of January, when ready for the butcher, were the following :— Weight of | Weight of Bullocks on the Bullocks on the Increase in | 9th November, | 17th January, | Live-Weight. | 1878. 1879. Cwts. qrs. Ibs. | BULLocKs, | Cwts. qrs. Ibs. Cwts. qrs. Ibs. Fed on Decor- ( No. 1 .. Sy ak Be NO) By 07 ee 22 ticated at a OF 2 3) ell 2) 16 ee 2a Ona Cotton-cake Ro sis One Seen (melas) bel nlm Olean and Maize-meal.{ ., 4 .. DAS: 2) S10) 3) HE L012 Pee poeht of AN 3g. 2 -0)| 4510 BE." 5 2 (24 Bullocks .. No. 5 10 0 19 1G meso wets) TQ 8 | Fed on apie (Ehsan LOOM LIE ZaNLS Oy a Linseed-cake. Pre ee 9m 2 15 Ope Zee (Sai ele Oeeeon| ry ec LODZ 9) 2) 0, 14: IH 5) ‘ce aha i 40 2 14') 46 US 2 17 ullockS .. .. | There is only a difference of 7 lbs. in the increase of live- weight of the two sets of bullocks, and it may therefore be stated that in this experiment the mixed maize-meal and decorticated cotton-cake produced as much increase in the weight of the bullocks as linseed-cake. Both sets of bullocks were sup- plied with the same amount of roots and straw-chaff as food. If we inquire into the extra expense for purchased food in helping to produce the increase in live-weight, it will be found from the subjoined particulars that in the case of the bullocks which had decorticated cotton-cake and maize-meal, the lb. of live-weight cost on an average 51d. in cake and corn, whilst the increase cost 64d. per lb. in the case of the four bullocks fed on linseed-cake. Fattening Experiments upon 8 Bullocks, begun Nov. 9th, 1878, Jinished Jan. 17th, 1879. Tons cwts: qrs) Ibs; Ss | ls a5 We Decorticated Cotton-cake on} = Sen eRe i!” at ain aor eenth O18 3.924 ot 10 pecton— 7. 6 10 Miauizeomncd eee OL 19 Dn 205 6120.6 loge = 6s Bi8 eallpy lay (5) Linseed-cake eaten by 4 fs ge Binllocks: Sas ri Pee? ext OPO.» loa The cost of the purchased food thus was 2/. 10s. 4d. less in 152 On the Comparative Value of the case of the four bullocks fed on decorticated cotton-cake and maize-meal than in the case of the four bullocks which had linseed cake as an additional food. Some of the bullocks did much better than others, as will be seen by the following particulars :— Tnerease in | } | Weight | between : . BULLOCKS. November 9, At a Cost an Purchased Gra’ a Food. 1878, and January 17, 1879. | Ibs. Per Ib. Fed on Decor- ( No. 1 .. | 162 5, | Showing an ticated Sy Oise 237 37 Average Cotton-cake Pea hasic 117 7d. of did. and Maize-meal.{ ,, 4 .. 124 63d. per lb, Total Increase .. 640 | No. 5 186 53d. )Showing an | Fed on Linseed-} ,, 6 .. 169 5#d.{ Average } cake, Sy ndioears 115 83d. of 63d. » 8 .. | 163 6d. per lb. Total Increase .. | 633 } } VIII.—On the Comparative Value of Soluble and Insoluble Phosphates. By Dr. Auaustus VoELCKER, F.R.S. A Goop deal of attention has Jately been directed to a series of experiments which for some years past have been carried out in Aberdeenshire with a view of finding out the most suitable and economical manure for raising a crop of swedes. The results of these field-experiments apparently tend to show that mineral-phosphates in a finely ground condition are but little less efficacious than after treatment with sulphuric acid, and that it is more economical to manure root-crops with finely ground coprolites, and other kinds of mineral-phosphates, than with superphosphate made from these materials. If this prac- tical recommendation which Mr. Jamieson has given to turnip- growers is based on experiments to which no objection can be taken, and if other experimenters in the main arrive at the same conclusions as Mr. Jamieson, it is clear that for the last twenty-five or thirty years agriculturists have been altogether wrong in applying superphosphate to their root-crops instead of the ground raw materials from which it is produced; and Soluble and Insoluble Phosphates. TS that the manufacture of superphosphate, in which millions of pounds sterling are embarked, has been established on unsound principles, and carried on for more than twenty-five years to the disadvantage of the farmer. It is not my intention to make any critical remarks on Mr. Jamieson’s field-experiments, nor to controvert his bold assertion that the results of the Aberdeenshire field-experiments will cause a complete revolution in the manufacture of artificial manures ; but I propose simply to direct attention to a few pub- lished experiments which are diametrically opposed in their results to those which Mr. Jamieson has obtained, and which conclusively prove the economy and beneficial effects of dissolved phosphatic manures in comparison with the raw materials from which they are manufactured. It will be admitted by all persons that, in order to be food for plants, phosphate of lime, like other constituents of plant-food, must be soluble to some extent in water, or in the liquid which passes through the medium of the root into the plant. Although we are in the habit of speaking of insoluble phosphate of lime, no phosphate of lime, not even the hardest and most crystalline variety, is absolutely insoluble in water, especially when the water is charged with more or less carbonic acid. Some of the beds of the Lower Chalk formation, and certain marls in the Greensand for- mation, it is well known, are more efficacious fertilisers than the chalk and marls in the Upper Chalk formation, mainly because they contain more or less considerable proportions of phosphate of lime, of which no appreciable quantities occur in the latter formation. There cannot be any question about the fact that, in the shape of marl or chalk, mineral phosphate of lime is soluble in water charged with carbonic acid, and that phosphatic marls and chalk are better fertilisers than marls or chalk in which phosphate of lime is absent, or present only in minute proportions. I do not therefore deny for a moment that insoluble mineral phosphate of lime has fertilising properties. It will also be admitted that the more finely the phosphate of lime is divided, the more easily it will be acted upon by water ; or, in other words, that in a finely divided state phosphate of lime is soluble to a greater extent in water, and is more efli- cacious as a manuring agent than in a coarser state of division. In a paper published by me in 1868, in the ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society,’ on the “Solubility of Phosphatic Materials,” I gave experimental evidence of the varying degree of solubility of various forms in which phosphate of lime occurs in coarse and fine bone-dust ; in Peruvian and phosphatic guanos ; in bone-ash and porous mineral-phosphates ; in coprolites ; in different kinds of hard and crystalline phosphatic minerals, 154 On the Comparative Value of and in precipitated phosphate of lime. Thus, I showed that a given quantity of water dissolves more phosphate of lime from fine than from coarse bone-dust ; that more phosphate of lime is taken up by a given quantity of water from bone-dust than from bone-ash, more from phosphatic guano than from coprolite powder, and more from the latter than from apatite and other crystalline mineral phosphates. Further, that insoluble phosphate of lime, obtained by pre- cipitation from its solution, 1 is much more soluble in water than phosphate of lime in the shape of the finest bone-meal or bone- ash ; and that, recently precipitated, it is very voluminous, and in that state about four times as soluble in water as it is after it has been dried and heated. The greater efficacy of the phosphate of lime as a manure in bones in comparison with coprolite powder entirely depends upon its finer state of aggregation, and consequently upon its greater solubility in the form of bone-dust. The general experience of the best farmers during the last twenty-five or thirty years has shown most clearly that dissolved bone-dust is a more efficacious and more economical manure for root-crops than raw bone-dust or even fine bone-meal. As treat- ment with acid increases the etficacy of bone-dust, it is evident that the same treatment must render more efficacious coprolites and other mineral phosphates, which, in the shape of the finest powder in which they can be obtained by mechanical means, are far less soluble than bone-dust. The whole secret of the energetic action of superphosphate depends upon the production of most minutely subdivided or precipitated insoluble phosphate of lime within the soil itself, and not, as is erroneously supposed by some, on the diene absorption of soluble phosphates by plants. All soils have the power of precipitating, more or less rapidly, soluble phosphate from its solution; but whilst some, like all soils rich in lime, effect the precipitation with rapidity, others, deficient in lime or other basic elements, only gradually change the soluble into insoluble precipitated phosphate of lime. As this change must take place before the phosphate can be useful to the growing plant, and as even minute quantities of free acid are injurious to the healthy growth of all plants, we can well understand why, on soils deficient in lime or other bases, a very acid superphosphate, although rich in soluble phosphate, has a less beneficial effect upon root-crops than a mineral superphosphate which is poor in acid soluble phosphate of lime. By treatment with acid, the hard and difficultly soluble phosphates in coprolites and ote phosphatic minerals are rendered soluble in water in the first place, and afterwards obtained as precipitated phosphates in an Soluble and Insoluble Phosphates. 155 insoluble form within the soil itself. Insoluble phosphates in a precipitated condition are not only greatly more bulky than in the form of the finest powder which can be obtained by me- chanical means, but are also more soluble in water than merely powdered phosphate of lime. In consequence of this voluminous and extremely fine state of division in which phosphate of lime is precipitated in the soil, the application of a few hundredweight of superphosphate per acre in most cases answers better and is more economical than two or three tons of a phosphatic marl, or half a ton of coprolite powder. Nevertheless there are, no doubt, soils upon which marl may be applied with greater advantage than superphosphate, and there are others upon which fine bone-dust, or bone-dust treated with a little acid and only partiy rendered soluble, is a more suitable manure for roots than dissolved bones rich in soluble phosphate. The question under discussion, however, is not what is the best manure for root- crops on various kinds of soils, but is it good or bad economy to treat phosphatic materials with acid? or, in other words, to manufacture them into superphosphate or to apply them in a raw state to the land. It can scarcely be imagined that all the many farmers who have applied, year after year for more than twenty years, dis- solved bones or superphosphate asa manure for turnips and other root-crops can have been mistaken in considering it true economy to use these manures in preference to undissolved bones. The earliest notice of the great discovery, as the late Mr. Pusey called the treatment of bones with acid, and the use of dissolved bones in agriculture, occurs in vol. iv. of the ‘Journal’ of the Society for 1843, in a “ Report by the Committee of the Moray- shire Farmers’ Club appointed to inspect and report on the Experiments made in rearing Turnips by means of Sulphuric acid and Bone-dust,” communicated by the Duke of Richmond. Amongst other particulars, I find recorded that raw bone-dust alone, applied at an expense of 38s. per acre, produced 11 tons Jewts. 21% lbs. of turnips per acre; whilst bone-dust, treated with sulphuric-acid, and applied at acost of 17s. 6d. per acre, produced 13 tons 10 cwts. 21° Ibs. of turnips. Similarly, satis- factory results by the use of dissolved bones were obtained in 1844 and 1845 by Mr. Williams, Mr. Geddes, and Dr. Monson, and reported to the Morayshire Farmers’ Club, in experiments by Mr. Fleming of Boachan, Paisley ; in others by Mr. Finnie of Swanston; and especially in the trials by Mr. Hannam, to whom the Council of our Society awarded a prize for his _admirably well-conducted field-experiments, and the able and interesting Report which will be found in vol. v. 1845, “On 156 On the Comparative Value of the Action and Application of Dissolved Bones. By John Hannam.” Mr. Hannam’s experiments were tried on plots of one-tenth of an acre each, with rough and fine bones, raw and dissolved ; with boiled bones, raw and dissolved; and with bone-ash merely powdered and treated with acid. To quote a few of his results :—6 cwts. of raw bones, crushed, have produced 10 tons 3 ewts. 4 stone of turnips: 3 ewts. of raw bones, dissolved in 1} cwt. of acid, produced 16 tons 1 cwt. 3 stone 6 lbs.: 15 ewt. of raw bones, dissolved in } ewt. of acid, produced 12 tons 11 ewts. 3 stone 6 Ibs. Still more to the point are his experiments with the mineral portion of bones dissolved and undissolved :—3+ ewts. of ground bone-ash produced 9 tons 7 ewts. 4 stone: 14 ewt. of ground bone- ash, dissolved in 1} ewt. of acid, produced 14 tons 3 ewt. 7 stone 6 lbs. of turnips. In experiments on the use of raw and dissolved bones on the Duke of Richmond’s Home Farm, Gordon Castle, the following results were obtained :— Sixteen bushels of bones, at a cost of 1/. 16s. per acre, produced 11 tons of turnips; and the following year, 3 qrs. 7 bushels 14 peck of barley. Two bushels of bones and 83 lbs. of sulphuric acid, at a cost of 11s. 6d. per acre, applied with the liquid-manure drill, pro- duced 12 tons and 4 cwts. of turnips, and the following year, 3 qrs. 4 bushels 3 pecks of barley. In experiments by Mr. R. W. Purchas, tried in Gloucestershire, in 1843, 34 bushels of bone-dust and 80 lbs. of sulphuric acid, costing 1. Os, 6d. per acre, produced 13 tons 1 ewt. 1 qr. turnips ; and 16 bushels of bones (half dust), costing 2/. 4s. per acre, produced 8 tons 2 cwts. 2 lbs. of turnips; and 20 bushels of bones, costing 2/. 14s. per acre, produced 9 tons 1 ewt. 1 qr. of turnips. The field manured with bones and sulphuric acid in 1843 was planted in 1845 with carrots. The part manured with acid and bones at a cost of 11. 0s. 6d. per acre, produced 24} cwt. per acre more than the part manured with 20 bushels of bones at a cost of 2/. 14s. per acre. In a series of experiments which I tried in 1855, 56, *57, 08, and 759, at Cirencester, I obtained similar results. Thus, 7 cwts. and 16 Ibs. of bone-dust, at a cost of 2/. per acre, pro- duced 8 tons 16 ecwts. of swedes ; and bone-dust, dissolved in one-third its weight of acid, applied at the same cost (2/.) per acre, produced 13 tons 12 cwts. 16 lbs. of swedes; and dissolved coprolites, 11 tons 12 cwts. of swedes; and no manure gave 5 tons 4 cwts. In another trial.in 1859, I obtained with 3 ewts. of a purely Soluble and Insoluble Phosphates. 157 mineral superphosphate, 20 tons 15 ewt. 2 qrs. 24 Ibs. of swedes per acre, or an increase of 6 tons 1 cwt. 1 qr. 20 Ibs. over the unmanured plot. In vol. vi. of the ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society,’ Dr. Daubeny records experiments with ground Spanish phos- phorite and dissolved phosphorite :—12 cwts. of ground phos- phorite per acre produced 28,639 Ibs. of turnips; and 12 ewts. of Spanish phosphorite, treated with acid, produced 30,869 Ibs. As far back as 1844 Mr. G. B. Lawes experimented at Rothamsted on the comparative efficacy of ground mineral phosphates, and the same material decomposed and rendered soluble by sulphuric acid. A detailed account of these results will be found in vol. viii. part ii. of the ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England.’ Mr. Lawes records in this paper three experiments which appear to me to prove conclu- sively the vastly superior efficacy of dissolved mineral phosphates in comparison with the same materials not treated with acid and merely ground. Tons. cwts. qrs. No. 1. ; or natite (a mineral phos- é o. 1. 3 cwts. of ground apatite (¢ eral phos A 3 1° 0 of tumips phate) gave > No. 2. 3 cwts. of superphosphate, made from) one Lbs 2 ewts. of apatite and decomposed by acid, gavef ” "4 2 No. 3. 270 lbs. of apatite and 104 lbs. of sul- t 7 14 3 phuric acid, gave 4, In Mr. Lawes’ weenie made in 1845, the produce of turnips also was larger in the case of bone-ash treated with sulphuric acid than with ground bone-ash. Thus, 400 Ibs. calcined bone-dust produced 10 tons 4 cwts. of white turnips ; and 400 Ibs. calcined bone-dust with 268 Ibs. sulphuric acid gave 15 tons 11 cwts. of white turnips. Sir Harry Verney also made experiments with ground and dissolyed Spanish phosphorite, in 1855, on barley. Nothing gave 3 qrs. 6 bushels 2 pecks of barley. Undissolved Spanish phosphorite, at a cost of 18s. per acre, produced 5 qrs. 3 bushels 2 pecks of barley ; and Spanish Bees pace and acid, at the same cost, yielded 6 qrs. 3 bushels 2 pecks of barley. Mr. father winds up his account of numerous experiments with raw and dissolved bones as follows :— “The general advantages arising from the use of dissolved bones instead of ordinary bone-dust are : “1. Great saving in the cost of the application. “*2. A gain in the greatly augmented produce. “3. A crop which grows so quickly that the fly and other enemies of the turnip-infancy cannot affect it so seriously as in ordinary cases. 158 On the Comparative Value of , “4, A crop with so early a tendency to form bulbs that it affords us the means, by sowing early, of getting an early crop for autumnal feeding ; or, by sowing late, of securing a crop when no other known means could effect it, and when our land, owing to peculiar cir- cumstances, has not been fit far the seed at an earlier period.” “The fertilising influence of the bones will be quadrupled. The various circumstances under which the several applications which support this conclusion were tried, without one contradic- tory result, place that conclusion beyond the possibility of error, and justify us in asserting that practice has realised what theory previously promised in the most important saving which has ever been held out in the use of manure.” The experience of farmers in all parts of the world has since fully confirmed the correctness of Mr. Hannam’s conclusions, ~ and it appears to me both an irrational and a retrograde step if agriculturists were to attempt the use of raw phosphatic mine- rals instead of applying them treated with acid. Briefly stated, the following are my views on the compara- tive efficacy of different kinds of phosphatic materials and the economy of applying them to the land, either in a raw state or after treatment with acid :— 1. Acid or soluble phosphate is not usefully taken up as such by plants, and has to become insoluble in the soil before it can become plant-food. 2. The efficacy of insoluble phosphate of lime as a fer- tilising ingredient rises or falls with the more or less finely divided state in which it occurs in various phosphatic materials. 3. The finer the state of division of the particles of phos-_ phate of lime in phosphatic materials the more readily it is soluble in water, and the more efficacious are the phosphatic materials as manure. Therefore coarsely ground coprolites and other phosphatic minerals are less soluble and less efficacious than in a state of fine powder. 4. In porous soft bones the phosphate of lime occurs in a different state of aggregation than in hard bones, and in the former condition phosphate is more soluble and efficacious than in the latter, and for the same reason the phosphate of lime in fine bone-dust is more soluble in water and more efficacious than the phos- hate of lime in 3-inch bones or coarse bone-dust. In the form of hard crystalline phosphate of lime, Or Soluble and Insoluble Phosphates. 159 mineral phosphates—such as Norwegian, Canadian, and Spanish apatite—are less soluble than in the shape of porous phosphatic materials, such as certain kinds of phosphatic guano and semi-fossilized rock-guano, for the simple reason that the particles of phosphate of lime are more finely divided, and in every case more soluble in water in the more porous materials than in crystalline hard materials. 6. By treatment with acid the phosphate of lime in phos- phatic materials is rendered perfectly soluble in water, and on the application of dissolved phosphatic mate- rials (superphosphate) to the soil, the soluble phosphate contained in the superphosphate is precipitated and rendered insoluble by contact with the soil. 7. In this precipitated condition insoluble phosphate of lime is infinitely more finely divided, and in conse- quence greatly more efficacious, than in the finest state in which the raw materials used by makers of super- phosphate can be obtained by mechanical means. 8. In my judgment, chemical treatment with acid is the most economical and best pian of utilising mineral phosphates for agricultural purposes. To persons wishing to institute practical experiments relating to this matter, I would recommend the following scheme in duplicate experiments :— General Scheme of Swede Trials, One-fourth of an Acre. 1. 4 ewts. dissolved coprolites (containing 25 per cent. soluble phos- phates), costing about 17. per acre. - 6 ewts. raw coprolites finely powdered, at a cost of about 1Z. per acre. . 25 ewts. fine bone-meal . 3 ewts. dissolved bone-meal Sc . 3 cwts. precipitated phosphate of lime . Nothing. . 6 cwts. of Redonda phosphate finely ground (a native phosphate of alumina and cana Rotten dung, 20 tons.. a GE . Rotten dung, 10 tons, and 4 ewts. dis- solved coprolites i. .. ... .. 2 24 10. Rotten dung, 10 tons, and 6 ewts. of coprolite powder, per acre. 11. Chalk, at the rate of 5 tons per acre. oe * ” ” ” ”? “1a Or co DO eye Each experimental plot should not be less than 1-4th of an acre. Swedes to be the experimental crop ; on one plot 4 cwt. per acre of superphosphate, containing 25 per cent. of soluble phosphate (dissolved coprolites), costing about 1/. per acre, is to be applied, and to the other manured plots various phosphatic fertilisers, likewise at a cost of about 1/. per acre in every case. a Ce AGOs B IX.—On the Composition of Cream and Skim-milk obtained by De Laval’s Centrifugal Cream-separator. By Dr. Avaustus VoELcKER, F.R.S. DurinG the Exhibition at Kilburn I had an opportunity of ascertaining the composition of the cream and skim-milk which were obtained in the Kilburn trials with De Laval’s centrifugal cream-separator, and as the results of my analyses are of some interest to dairymen, they may be briefly recorded in the ‘ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society.’ The following is the composition of the milk used in the Kilburn trials on the 4th of July, 1879, and of a sample of the skim-milk produced by Laval’s cream-separator. Skim-milk | from | New Milk. Laval's Cream- Separator. | | | Water } | | | Srew2 90°71 Butter-fat | 3°45 22 *@aseine oy ace meee | 5-12 SOG! Milk-sugar .. .. .. | 3°11 5°12 Mineral matter (ash) .. | “60 64 * Containing nitrogen .. .. .. *50 ‘33 Milk well skimmed in the ordinary manner contains on an average about 2 per cent. of butter-fat, whereas the skim- milk obtained in Laval’s cream-separator did not retain quite 4 per cent. Thus of the 33 per cent. of butter-fat (in round numbers) 3+ per cent. were obtained in the cream, and only 3 per cent. of fat passed into the skim-milk, affording a striking proof of the perfect manner in which the butter-forming constituents are separated from milk in passing through Laval’s rotatory machine. Had the milk been set in pans and skimmed thoroughly in the usual manner, instead of 54 per cent. of pure butter-fat only 22 per cent. would have been obtained from the new milk; or, in other words, by Laval’s separator 93 per cent. of the butter- fat were obtained in the cream and 7 per cent. only left in the skim-milk ; whilst by the usual plan of skimming only 784 per On the Composition of Cream and Skim-Milh, Sc. 161 cent. of the butter-fat of milk passes into the cream, and 214 per cent. remain in the skim-milk. In another trial at Kilburn on the 8th of July the separation of butter-fat from the milk was not so perfect as in the first trial, as will be seen by the following results, showing the composition of the skim-milk produced :— AVSTGUME eeAi rac) picsUNiiesr Mees) Hee) sie, sem stent OO 740 IGE | BeG come scoe ican “Scr ancl Meno. Fon W)PEKS) ““ICISSGTiOY . ea Gage apo cee Ss Rael com eBa mane 000)! Milk-sugar .. SO Gc. ome (ote codeccaeteall Mineral matter (ash) FOr RICK Gs | wo: Wicomt man. p AOS 1G: 100°00 *Containingnitrogen 2. 2. s. so + ss 0°48 In the second trial it will be seen nearly 4 per cent. of fat was contained in the skim-milk. The cream obtained by means of the separator had the follow- ing composition :— Werte emiem “tell te So aces phates Rang een CODE LA utterataty oss ts ws, se heel oe aceny one seu, 20509 CHSCMIB eae cs) icc Se cuss, atu ve; Micsytsiee, | LcOG Milk-sugar .. Sa ae Pe ee SPOS 8308) Mineral matter (ash) eth has retin CEO? 100-00 Containing MitrOoREN Nas use| sis) Ucn alee! welas 0°43 Good cream obtained in the ordinary way of skimming milk seldom contains as much as 25 per cent., and generally rather less, butter-fat ; and quite as much casein as was contained in the cream from Laval’s machine. The Kilburn trials thus show that cream from milk which has been passed through Laval’s separator is richer in butter- fat than that obtained in the usual manner. On the occasion of the dairy show held last October at Islington, | had another opportunity of examining the skim- milk obtained by Laval’s cream-separator. This sample had the following composition :— Composition of Skim-milk obtained by Laval’s Cream-Separator. Wei? on og 955" SBSREOn 5a! Mest Neoemncre, peshO toy IBIUIORCIETI” 950) ec WRCEE CN ae 0°31 ACRE, 100, <6) gue. ROG OMaC nnn? Me 3°3 Milk-sugar .. Cee. oo 4°17 Mineral matter (ash) .. 0°79 100°00 *Containing nitrogen nO. ON ed odmens 0°53 VOL. XVI.—S. S. M 162 Notes on a Report of the Kilburn Exhibition Another portion of the same milk, after having been skimmed in the usual way, contained in 100 parts :— IWiSter," 2..." rock \fovun) Comite nes) Mates) ican OU MAG IButter=fat sc, has SMe UmEcme Mock | icon WR tCoImmmat a Loa t. SOasein 3/0552 Es... Us, Ge 3°69 Milk-sugar' .nm-q-) MPuRMNSORe <<) pirioctie boele aes 5°16 Mineralematters (ash) eecgmerccnn Wc le l-culre snes 0°78 100-00 *Containing nitrogen Go WoO sa6) CO co 0°59 According to these trials nearly four times as much butter-fat was left in ordinary skim-milk as in the skim-milk obtained in Laval’s cream-separator. I may state that in these experiments the percentage of pure butter-fat was determined with great care, and the results were verified by appropriate checks. X.—WNotes on a Report presented to the ‘ Société des Agri- culteurs de France’ by their Deputation to the Kilburn Exhibi- tion. By J. D. Dent, of Ribston, Wetherby. THOosE members of our Council who had the pleasure of accom- panying the deputations of foreign agriculturists last summer to Woburn, Rothamsted, and Windsor were anxious to know what impressions of England and her agriculture these gentle- men had formed. I have had the good fortune to read the report presented by M. Mare de Haut, with the assistance of his col- leagues, MM. Julien de Felcourt, Tiersonnier, Vilmorin, and Caseneuve, to the Society of French Agriculturists. I propose to lay before our Members some comments on the Show and on English agriculture made by gentlemen so intelligent and ob- servant as these French agriculturists undoubtedly were. The Report opens with a graceful recognition of the hospitable wel- come which they received from our Society. Our French friends acknowledge the “‘ exquisite courtesy ” of Lord Vernon, the kind- ness of Mr. Jenkins and Mr. Pitman, and the hospitality of the Lord Mayor. They were charmed with the “ princely domain of Woburn,” the special train, the twenty-five carriages waiting for our polyglot party, preceded by an outrider ‘ en grande tenue ;’ the park of 2500 acres, the miles of grass drives, bordered by masses of rhododendrons in full flower, the gracious tact of their host, who pointed out the historic collections of his house with all the wit and finish of a Parisian; and finally, that wondrous ease with which his Grace welcomed his guests in a presented to the * Société des Agriculteurs de France, 163 fluent speech commenced in French, continued in German, and concluded in English. Mr. Lawes’ scientific experiments at Rothamsted, her gracious Majesty’s welcome to Windsor, are all gratefully acknowledged ; and the triumphant mud of Kil- burn lost most of its discomforts under the interest of the whole Show and the smiles of the Princess of Wales and the three pretty children who accompanied her. A very good and clear account of our regulations with respect to the importation of foreign cattle forms the next portion of the Report; and the following remarks on the regulations respecting French cattle appear to me worth record :-— “ We will now only notice the second category, in which French animals are included. By this they must be landed at certain defined ports, and immediately confined to the dépdts where they are to be sold, and slaughtered within ten days. From these regulations two inconveniences arise. “ First, the choice of the market is restricted, and in conse- quence the importer is dependent upon the butchers who fre- quent these particular dépéts. Secondly, the cattle cannot be taken to stay in pastures in order to finish them off to the degree of fatness which the English consumer desires. In consequence of the stringency of these new regulations, as we were informed by the superintendent of these dépdts, and as we were already aware from statistics, the importation of French cattle to England has almost come to an end. “* However, we thought it our duty to visit some of these dépots, and particularly the one in London, in order to form an opinion of their accommodation for cattle and their interior regulations. The manager, to whom we were referred by the head of the Veterinary Department in London, received us with the greatest courtesy, and went with us through a most minute and careful visit. This dépdt is situated at Deptford, on the Thames, and occupies some buildings formerly used as part of an arsenal for the royal navy. We must say that we found here a lairage quite perfect from every point of view—in space, ventilation, abundant supply of water, care and cleanliness, facility of debarkation, nothing was wanting. It will hold 3000 oxen and 14,000 sheep.. The cost of lairage is 9d. for a sheep, 6s. for an ox for the whole time they are there. The owner pays for the food, and if it is not considered sufficient by the manager of the dépét, he orders a further'supply, and, to use the very words of the manager, exacts from the owner such a price for it that he is not tempted to expose himself to the charge a second time. We saw a cargo of sheep landed from a Hamburg vessel, the opera- tion was very easily and quickly performed. “ At the time of our visit the depot contained a great number M 2 164 Notes on a Report of the Kilburn Exhibition of sheep and some American oxen. The trade is so important that there are here two markets each week. At the last there were 5500 sheep sold. The director told us that he was expecting the arrival of about 2000 American oxen in nine ships, and that a still greater number were on their road to Liverpool. ‘* The measure which placed American cattle under the regu- lations for slaughter has not arrested their importation in the same manner as it has that of the French. We could only have found out if it had had the effect of slackening the importation by a comparison of the statistics of two periods, which we have been unable to do. We have been able to obtain the informa- tion, which we here insert, that the freight of cattle from New York to London varies from 65 francs to 100 francs each beast. The issue of the slaughtering regulation and the consequent provision of compulsory markets for American cattle has had the effect of increasing the importance of the London dépot at the expense of that at Liverpool; and that we can easily imagine, because the London market is near the principal centre of consumption. If the French trade in cattle with England should again become active it is to Deptford that it must gravitate.” The quarantine station at Southampton does not appear to have impressed the foreign visitors so favourably. This is described as a small stable or shed of planks, without any troughs, and in which were half-a-dozen wretched Normandy heifers, separated from one another by hurdles. Proceeding to the Show at Kilburn the writer seems to have been most impressed by our draught-horses, and disappointed with the hunters. He eulogises the high quality and the uniformity of breed and of shape of the draught-horses ; and he seems struck by the desire of the Judges to reward the distinctive character of each breed, rather than some ideal standard of excellence in the animal itself. I fear the members of the English Cart-horse Society will not agree in his division of the draught-horses into three classes—Suffolks, Clydesdales, and those which belong to neither of these races, but appear to arise from crosses of all races. The Suffolks are described as of immense height, heavy, slow, of a common type, and very like the Flemish. Their bulk is greater than their strength, their limbs not equal to their car- casses, only fit to draw drays, and of no use as crosses for French work. The Clydesdales approached more nearly the type which the French writer admired. He thinks them less over-done with fat, better shaped, with limbs clean, sound, and in better proportion to the body; which is short, thick set, and very presented to the * Société des Agriculteurs de France.’ 165 powerful ; the shoulders good, the action very free. They trotted lightly over the broken ground, and gave one the idea that many of them were capable of drawing waggons at a trot. In one class of Clydesdales (Class 6) one horse (No. 125), which was passed over with a mere mention by the Judges, as being smaller than some of the others, would make admirable crosses for the mares belonging to the Boulogne and Ardennes breeds. With our English cart-horses the writer does not appear to have been so much impressed ; he thinks that all the draught- horses were shown in a state of exaggerated fatness; a criticism which seems very -well placed; and he concludes by saying, “To sum up, while admiring much the breeds of English draught-horses, we believe our French races are more useful for us, and more adapted to our wants, and that only in exceptional cases we need seek in England for stallions to cross with our own draught-horses, in order to give substance and compactness to some of the more loosely built breeds.” The hunting blood-mares he describes as exceptional in size, strength, and beauty ; the stallions rather disappointed him, and I think he was not far wrong in describing the remaining classes of hunters as only moderate. The roadsters are described as of a very fine type, short- legged, well coupled, with beautiful action, trotting with an ease and smoothness quite remarkable. From amongst these the French breeders are advised that they might make excellent selections to improve their half-bred horses, by infusing spirit, soundness of limb, especially in the hocks, which are generally weak points in French horses. The writer saw nothing prettier or more graceful than Mr. Wilson’s ponies ; their beautiful action and good manners, their strength and activity, which would enable them to carry an ordinary man, or rapidly draw a light carriage, appear to have equally delighted and astonished him. And from amongst these he is of opinion that the French breeder might make a wise selection for crossing the ponies of the Landes. The docility and good manners of all the horses seem to have surprised the reporter, who contrasts the behaviour of horses of 4 or 5 years old preceding their grooms with a long loose rein, in fine form and perfect pace, with the disorderly and untrained horses of a French Show. The reporter on the cattle appears equally delighted and im- pressed with the uniformity of the English breeds ; but the only point of interest in his criticism seems to be that the Shorthorns took the prizes both in their own classes and also amongst the dairy-cattle ; the explanation given to him was that in the race are two types, of which one is distinctively a milk-producing 166 Notes on a Report of the Kilburn Exhibition form. Amongst the sheep, not even the popular Shropshire can shake his admiration of the Southdown, which he describes as superb, and maintaining the first place for their perfect shape. We need not go fully into the report on seeds, implements, and the waggons used for the carriage of meat, but a portion of the report on the use of feeding-stuffs and artificial manures will probably be of some interest. “For some time the English farmers, paying higher than other nations for their land and labour, have recognised the necessity of getting heavier crops, and for that purpose of freely manuring the land with other materials than those produced from the farm itself, as is done by those cultivators who only use stable or farmyard-dung. Bone-dust or crushed bones, mineral phosphates, guanos, and other artificial manures, were employed in England before being generally introduced into other coun- tries. Very soon came in the practice of treating phosphates with sulphuric acid, to render the phosphoric acid more readily available. This was making an advance to the land which could be repaid at once, and not by annual instalments. “England in all its manufactories of manure has placed the whole world under contribution to enrich its soil, and hence it is that her crops of every kind are about a third more than are produced from an equal area in France. She obtains phosphates from our southern coasts, guanos from the Pacific, and bones from ancient burial-places, or distant fields of battle, such as Egypt. “‘ The trade in chemical manures is much larger in England than in France ; though we have houses of equal scientific worth, and which conduct their business as well as any English establish- ments. It is in the ignorance of our cultivators that our in- feriority in this respect exists. The French farmer, not knowin what an artificial manure should be, allows himself to be cheated ; and, when he is cheated, he includes all the manufacturers and dealers in his abuse, which is as persistent as it 1s unreason- able. From cattle-food as well as manure England enriches her soil at the expense of other nations. The quantity of oil-cakes consumed in Great Britain is very large. The oil is produced without robbing the soil; it is not so with the other substances which are found in the fruit or grain from which oil is derived. All these tropical regions which export oil seeds or fruit send away a portion of their fertility. France retains a portion of it, as Marseilles is a great centre of the production of oil from seed; but the principal part of the cake manufactured there comes to England in the same way as the linseed-cakes from the departments of the north and north-west. England also largely manufactures oil from seeds, but retains the oil-cakes, besides importing from abroad about 100,000 tons a-year.” presented to the ‘Société des Agriculteurs de France.’ 167 Glancing at the exhibition of seeds, the author thinks that our seedsmen, in their excessive rivalry, have gone much too far in their attempts to produce enormous roots. In the samples of grasses exhibited there were only the spikes preserved, and not the grasses themselves, so that it was impossible to judge of the value of the several species as producers of hay. The exhi- bition of English and Foreign hops appears to have much interested our visitors, who were struck with the fine specimens exhibited by Barth et fils, of Nuremberg, grown in Bohemia and Bavaria; and they regret that their own cultivators, from Burgundy especially, should have missed the opportunity of showing that their products were fully equal to those of Germany, and superior to most of the English exhibits. In the Cote d’Or the growth of hops is not sufficient for the consumption, though much progress is being made in recent years in their cultivation, especially since the loss of Alsace, formerly one of the principal hop-producing districts of France. There is nothing very striking in the comments on the machinery, the attention of our visitors having been mainly directed to novelties; but they say “ before leaving Kilburn we cannot help making this reflection—the exhibition which for so many days has presented to us this imposing spectacle, is the exclusive work of one private association. To prepare and to organise it the Royal Agricultural Society of England has not hesitated to spend more than a million francs. Will our Society of French Agriculturists, with all its energy and life, ever attain so much power as to try such bold experiments?” After a brief retrospect of the farms which the writer had seen, he concludes :— “ Nothing is less like a French farm than an English one; the buildings here are conspicuous by their absence; one or perhaps two yards surrounded by very low sheds, inclosed on one side only, and that to the exterior with overlapping boards like the sheds of our railway stations, and on the other open to the yards. One side of the sheds furnishes shelter for the carts, and the many machines and implements which form the ‘ work- ing stock’ of the farm, the other sheds receive the animals during the rare intervals in which they leave the fields, and even then they are free to pass as they like from shed to yard and from yard to shed. The horse stable alone is enclosed, while in the yard the manure accumulates and rots. There are scarcely any barns, and the few which exist are continually being transformed into cattle-sheds. For the same reason cattle- sheds have no granaries over them, and are rarely more than (two metres) seven feet up to the eaves. “One looks in vain for the great kitchen and the patriarchal 168 Notes on a Report of the Kilburn Exhibition table where the labourers of our farms seat themselves. None of these are fed by the farmer; every one of them, somewhere near the farm, has his own private house, to which an English- man always clings, however small it may be. About these simple buildings are ranged a long belt of stacks, some of hay, some of corn. If the threshing has been finished and the straw consumed, the permanent steddles are ready for the future stacks, As necessary accompaniments to the stacks, rick-cloths are ranged with supporting poles to form, as it were, a temporary tent while the stacks are being built. By the side of the yards, and often communicating with them by a private entrance, is the farm-house, sometimes of a good size, but oftener uniting a modest with a neat and elegant appear- ance. Round the house, framed in verdure, is a garden full of charming flowers, almost always having a greenhouse, a verdant lawn, roads gravelled and inclosed with a neat fence, which the farmer, returning on horseback from his rounds amongst his meadows and his fields, opens with as much ease as any fox- hunter coming home to Leamington from the chase. This spectacle, which to eyes used to our French farms may appear a fancy sketch, is everywhere seen in England. “So marked a difference from our own habits must rest on some higher cause, which there is no difficulty in discover- ing. The general idea of the establishment depends upon the system of cultivation, and this upon the climate. The founda- tion of English agriculture is the production of live stock ; about three-fourths of the soil is devoted to its support, and only one-fourth to the plants which are directly used for the food of men. Pasturage is the foundation of all the farming ; this is naturally the product of a climate essentially favourable to the growth of grass, almost always kept in a state of moisture by fog and frequent rain, never scorched up by a burning sun, and whose everlasting green, ever springing again during the grazing of the herds, makes the wealth of English agriculture and the reputation of her landscapes. Under this sky, nearly always overcast, is maintained a climate which escapes equally the excessive rigour of cold and the burning extreme of heat, and which animals are always able to sustain. “From all that has gone before, we can see that it is more easy to point out the differences than to institute comparisons between French and English farms. A French farmer lives in his steading, an Englishman lives near it; the Frenchman boards and lodges most of his workpeople, the Englishman does not board or lodge any of them; the Frenchman tries to put everything under cover, both crops and stock, the Englishman likes to leave all outside and to have no more shelter than is presented to the * Société des Agriculteurs de France.” 169 absolutely necessary; the Frenchman would shut everything up, the Englishman would leave everything open. It would be impossible and even. silly to suggest to our cultivators or proprietors to build farm buildings exactly like our neighbours, but what one can do in this study of the country buildings of our neighbours, is to look for certain practical notions which belong to every period, and certain details of execution in which they excel. Their first idea is a dislike of the mag- nificent and superfluous; the absolute avoidance of useless expenditure is nowhere more evident in England than in all that relates to these country buildings, which are considered unproductive capital whenever they exceed what is necessary. The farmer would no more think of asking for them than the landlord would think of building them; either of them would rather drain twenty acres than have a building which is of no use to any one. *«« Another idea we can get from the English is the desirability, indeed the necessity, of plenty of ventilation for animals. Without going as far as they do, for our climate would not allow it, we might do much more in this way than we do. We should like particularly to point out the arrangements they adopt for all animals, even those which are being fattened, by the provision of a small court adjoining the building in which the animal is confined, which allows it at the same time a cer- tain amount of exercise as well as the permanent shelter with which it must be supplied. ** But in spite of all these elements of prosperity, agriculture in England is suffering as well as in France. Although with a very natural national pride the English farmers concealed from foreigners their wounds under the brilliancy of their Exhi- bition, and kept silence under their suffering, yet English agri- culture, even during our visit, raised a cry in the British Par- liament which was heard by all the world. We felt for them a very great grief. It is the only painful impression we bring back from our journey.” I must say that I wish our French friends had seen more of us and ata happier time. Our cattle, at least in the north, do not lead quite such an exposed life as our visitors imagine. Those who know the value of covered yards and ample shed room for stock, will scarcely recognise the description of herds wandering forth at their own free will at all seasons, and even yet, although the custom is not so general as of old, the labourers and the hired servants of the house are fed by many farmers. Thanks, too, to our kind French friends for their sympathy in our year of difficulty. They have not been without their own agricul- tural troubles. 170 Report of the Judges of We would fain hope we may welcome some of them at Carlisle, with brighter suns and under happier auspices; and though we cannot hope to show them a Windsor, or a Woburn, or a Rothamsted, nor perhaps farm-houses standing in their flowery lawns, they will see how our north-country farmers have held their own against the hardships of their climate, and may visit a border land rich in the traditions of Scotch and English life, and I am sure they will meet with a hearty and appreciative welcome. XI.—Report of the Judges of Foreign Draught Horses at Kilburn, 1879.* THESE horses were entered in the Catalogue in several classes under the following names :— Percheron and Boulonnais,” “ Flemish,” and “ other Foreign Draught Horses.” The classes represented were Nos. 238 and 239, and 242 to 245; but in these six classes there were altogether only sixteen entries. The abstention of foreign exhibitors is very much to be re- gretted, but its solution is to be found in the difficulty of con- veying animals across the sea, and more especially in the measures of sanitary police which the English Government has felt bound to take with regard to foreign animals. It is true that these precautionary regulations do not apply to horses, but many breeders, frightened already by the inconveniences of the journey, have recoiled before the precautions which they believed were applicable to them, but which also they did not clearly under- stand. Ciass 288.—Percheron and Boulonnais Stallions.—This class contained five entries, all of which were present; and of the six classes which we had to judge it was certainly the one which came before us under the best cir- cumstances. All the horses in this class possessed the characteristic grey colour of the Percheron and Boulonnais breeds, to which they all belonged more or less. ‘The first-prize stallion, “Turenne,” No. 7692, belonging to M. Pierre Louis Modesse-Berquet, a French exhibitor, was foaled in 1871, in the department of the Pas-de-Calais. It is one of the best types of the French draught horse, being both strong and light. Its head is delicate, the stride long, body near the ground, and the limbs are big and well set on. ‘his horse trots with perfect ease. It carried off the first prize at the Universal Exhibition at Paris for draught stallions under 16 hands high. The second prize, “ Brilliant,” No. 2688, belonging to His Grace the Duke of Westminster, is also of French extraction; it possesses those qualities which are appreciated in a draught stallion, while at the same time * This Report was received too late to be included in the “ Report on the Horses at Kilburn,” published in the last number of the ‘ Journal,’ pp. 565-601. —Epiror. - Draught Horses at Killurn. 171 it trots easily. The third-prize stallion, “ Prince,” No, 2691, belonging to M. Modesse-Berquet, is 7 years old. It has the true stamp of the Boulonnais breed, much more pronounced than No. 2692. It is more massive, and has lightness in its movements. We will only mention the two remaining horses in this class, “* Hercules,” No. 2690, and “ Sultan,” No. 2689, as they showed nothing particular that requires description. CLAss 239.—Percheron and Boulonnais Mares, with or without Foals.— There were only two mares in this class, and they appeared to be of French origin. ‘They were wanting in any distinctive features, but they appeared to have most affinity with the Boulonnais breed. Slender in their limbs, they were heavy and wanting inaction. Both belonged to Mr. W. P. Warner, of the Welsh Harp, Hendon, and the first prize was awarded to “ Milly,” No. 2694, the second going to ‘‘ Nora,” No. 2698. Cuass 242.—Flemish Stallions—Only one entry was made in this class, namely, a Flemish stallion called “ Brilliant,’ No. 2717, belonging to M. Remi Vandeschuere. This is a chestnut horse, 8 years old, about 16-1 in height, and one of the best types of the Flemish breed. It obtained the first prize at the Paris Exhibition in 1868 for draught stallions of 16 hands and upwards. - Cuass 243.—Flemish Mares, with or without Foal.—There was only one Flemish mare in this class, exhibited by M. Paul Tiberghien, of Senesse, Belgium. This was a bay-brown, called “ Altesse,” No. 2720, 6 years old, in foal to “ Duke of Waterloo.” This animal was so deficient in the points that a brood mare should possess, that the Judges awarded it only the third prize. Cuass 244.—Stallions of other Foreign Draught Breeds—This class con- tained only three Belgian horses, which certainly were not some of the best representatives of their country. The Judges placed them in the following order :—First prize went to “ Bayard 38rd,” No. 2728, a three-year-old roan, well got up, and tolerably regular in form, but wanting in action. The second-prize horse was “ Neron,” No. 2721, a three-year old bay, belonging to M. EK. Lambert, of Braisne-le-Comte, Belgium. This was a massive horse, having little merit. The third prize was awarded to the “ Duke of Water- loo,” No. 2722, a four-year-old chestnut, of ordinary character, belonging to M. Paul Tiberghien. Cuass 245.—Mares of other Foreign Draught Breeds, with or without Foals.—'This class contained five mares, all belonging to M. Paul Tiberghien. Of these, one was nine years old, two were five, and the remaining two were three years old. The oldest of these, “Sultana,” No. 2784, was the best, and the only one of a grey colour, the others being roan. “Sultana” is a very fine mare, with plenty of blood, and a remarkable trotter. She reminds one much of the old mares called “Mareyeuse,” which were formerly found in the Boulonnais, and received that name because they were specially employed in carrying fish from the sea-coast to Paris. This type of horse is very rare now-a-days. “ Sultana ” obtained a first prize at the Paris Exhibition, 1878. The four remaining mares—the best one of which was ill—presented nothing charactenstic, The exhibition of Foreign Draught Horses was thus of little importance. We regret this the more because the Continent should have been able to send acollection worth serious study as agricultural horses by the Royal Agricultural Society of England. The English exhibition was very complete and well selected; and it would have been exceedingly interesting to compare with it the different breeds of horses of the countries which had been 172 Report of the Judges of Foreign Draught Horses at Kilburn. invited to take part in this magnificent Show. The Society included in this category the Percherons and Boulonnais, the Normans and Anglo-Normans, the Flemish, and finally horses of other foreign breeds, whether for draught or for riding pur- poses. This classification leaves something to be desired, because it gives the exhibitors the choice of entering their horses in those classes in which they think they are most likely to obtain prizes. At the present time, the various breeds have disappeared, and it is very difficult to distinguish them amongst ail these animals bred from all kinds of stallions. We believe that a classification of horses according to their use or capacity would be more practical for agricultural horses, specifying their divisions according to age and weight. It would thus have been possible to establish a class of draught horses which could work at a walking pace and another which could work at a trot, without taking into account the origin of the animals —a regulation which leads to grave errors, as at present Percherons are bred in the Boulonnais and vice versa. We regret also that the Royal Agricultural Society has not brought together in competition English and foreign horses without any other distinction than those of use, age, and height. We believe that under these conditions the aim of the compe- tition would be better attained, and its study would be more interesting.* In conclusion, we ought to say that amongst the sixteen draught borses exhibited, three are remarkable animals. These are—‘ Turenne,” No. 2692, a stallion of the best type of the French Percheron breed ; “ Brilliant,” No. 2717, a stallion of a good type of the Flemish breed of heavy draught horses ; and “ Sultana,” No. 2724, old as she is, a most exact and most rare representative of the small Boulonnais breed called Mareyeuse. Certainly these three animals are excellent types of the breeds which they represent; but we still think that the Continent possesses animals even more remarkable, and we regret that we did not see them exhibited at this magnificent Show. Signed LAVALARD. H. van WIcKEVOORT CROMMELIN. * This Report appears without the signature of the English Judge—Colonel Barlow—chiefly because he dissents from the opinions expressed in this and the preceding paragraph.—Epiror. (173. ) XII.—Our Climate and our Wheat-Crops. By J. B. Lawes, LL.D. ERS: F:C.S., and J. H. Greet, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.CS. INTRODUCTION. I. Seasons or HicH anp or Low Propuctivensss (p. 175). II. THe Season oF 1878-9, AND THE EXPERIMENTAL WHEAT-CROPS Av RoTHAMSTED (p. 195). INTRODUCTION. Since the publication of our Paper, “On the Home Produce Imports, and Consumption of Wheat,” in this ‘ Journal’ in 1868 (vol. vi. s.s., part 2), more than eleven years have passed away, —years during which the agricultural interests of these islands haye experienced a transition from a state of great prosperity to one of great depression,—years during which the worst features of our climate have been exhibited in unusual frequency, and which have terminated with a season, not only by far the worst for the wheat-crop since the commencement of our experiments on the continuous growth of the crop in 1843-4, but probably the very worst that has occurred since observers have furnished us with records of temperature and rainfall, and with other weather statistics. It has been remarked that, so far as climate is concerned, the British Isles are outside the zone favourable to the growth of wheat, and that its successful cultivation is due to the skill of the farmer in contending against adverse meteorological con- ditions. It is true that the area under the crop is rapidly diminishing, and that its continued growth appears to gravitate to those districts where the climate, or the soil, or the combina- tion of the two, is the most favourable. But the great decline in area cannot be attributed to any general change for the worse in the characters of the climate. Indeed, Mr. Glaisher has recently called attention to the fact that, dividing the last 108 years into six periods of eighteen years each, there is even a slight progressive increase of mean temperature from the first to the last of those six periods. It is to the greatly increased production of wheat in other countries, at a lower cost than in our own, and to low rates of transport, by which it is brought into our markets in quantity and at a price much reducing the value of the home-produce, that the reduced area under the crop is chiefly to be attributed. 174 Our Climate and our Wheat-Crops. As only about 5 per cent. of the total wheat-crop is derived from the soil itself, the remainder coming, directly or indirectly, from the atmosphere ; and as the amount of matter accumulated from either source depends mainly on the quantity, and the relations to one another, of heat and moisture, we cannot be surprised that the character of the seasons exercises such a pre- ponderating influence over the growth of our crops. As yet, however, the connection between meteorological phenomena and the progress of vegetation is not so clearly comprehended as to enable us to estimate with any accuracy the yield of a crop by studying the statistics of the weather during the period of its growth. Experience does, indeed, teach us that we may expect better crops under certain conditions of the weather than under others. But it is only by a careful comparison of the characters of the seasons on the one hand, and of the quantity and quality of the produce on the other, for many years, that we can hope to acquire sufficient knowledge to enable us to assign to the various agencies, the sum of which constitutes the climate of the year, their respective values in the production of the crop. As we have said before (this ‘ Journal,’ vol. ix., part 1, p. 96) :—‘ Thus, it is obvious that different seasons will differ almost infinitely at each succeeding period of their advance, and that, with each variation, the character of development of the plant will also vary, tending to luxuriance, or to maturation, that is, to quantity, or to quality, as the case may be. Hence, only a very detailed considera- tion of climatic statistics, taken together with careful periodic observations in the field, can afford a really clear perception of the connection between the ever-fluctuating characters of season and the equally fluctuating characters of growth and produce. It is, in fact, the distribution of the various elements making up the season, their mutual adaptations, and their adaptation to the stage of growth of the plant, which throughout influence the tendency to produce quantity or quality. it not unfrequently happens, too, that some passing conditions, not indicated by a summary of the meteorological registry, may affect the crop very strikingly ; and thus the cause will be overlooked, unless careful observations be also made, and the stage of progress, and tenden- cies of growth, of the crop itself at the time, be likewise taken into account.” Still, such records as we do possess, of the conditions as to tem- perature and moisture of different seasons, are sufficient to account in great measure for the great variation in the quantity and the quality of ourcrops. The actual amount of rainfall must, how- ever, be carefully considered in connection with the temperature of the period. For example, it is obvious that a given amount of rain, equally distributed through the spring and summer in Our Climate and our Wheat-Crops. 175 each of two seasons, will have a very widely different effect on vegetation in the two cases, if the one season should be at the same time a hot and the other a cold one. Or, if the temperature of the two seasons be the same, but the rainfall very different, so also will the effect on vegetation be very different. It is generally supposed that the temperature of our summers is not,’on the average, sufficiently high for the production of abundant and well-ripened crops of wheat ; and that it is in the hottest seasons that the produce is the most abundant. This may be the case so far as a certain class of soils is concerned. But a good deal of wheat is grown upon light land, on which the crop suffers considerably in a season of drought or unusual heat. It would appear that the defect of our climate for the production of wheat is more connected with an excess of moisture than with a deficiency of heat, during the periods of active growth and maturing. It is, in fact, when a cold season, or one of only moderate temperature, is acompanied by an excess of rain, that we find the yield of our wheat-crops is the most defective. J. Szasons or HicH AND oF Low PRODUCTIVENESS. Before entering upon any detailed consideration of the pecu- liarities of the season and of the experimental wheat-crops at Rothamsted, in 1879, we will endeavour to illustrate, in broad outline, the general characters of season under which some of the best and some of the worst wheat-crops of which we have the record, or the experience, have been grown in this country. For this purpose we will disregard any special characters of the seasons in question at Rothamsted, and draw our illustrations entirely from independent data ; namely, the records of the observations of temperature and rainfall made at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich; and we adopt for the most part those published by Mr. Glaisher. It is obvious that even such data are more or less local in their application; still, they do indicate the general character of the different seasons, and their ’ distinction from one another. In Tables I. Il. and II., which follow, are given the parti- culars of the temperature and rainfall of fourteen seasons during the present century, each of which was more or less remarkable so far as the growth of the wheat-crop is concerned. These are 1816, 1832, 1833, 1834, 1835, 1853, 1854, 1857, 1860, 1863, 1864, 1868, 1870, and 1879. The first and the last of them, 1816 and 1879, have the character of yielding the two worst wheat-crops nie the period included by those dates, if not indeed within the century. 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With these few exceptions every other month of the six within each of the six seasons was either about average or over average, and in many cases very much over average as to temperature. Then as to the rainfall over the same period. In two of the seasons there were two months, and in two there was only one month, with any considerable excess of rain ; whilst in the other two there was a deficiency in every month of the six. ‘There were, therefore, in each of the six seasons, four, five, or six of these six months considerably drier than the average. Next, as to the three months of May, June, and July. In two out of the six seasons, each of the three months was warmer than the average; in two each was colder than the average; and in the remaining two there were warmer and colder months, giving about average mean temperatures. As to the rain of these three months, in one out of the six years there were two of the three, in four there was only one of the three, and in the other in neither month an excess of rain. In one only of. the six years was the total rain of the three months over the average ; though, in three of the six seasons there was an excess in August. With these explanations as to the elements making up the averages for the six seasons, it is to be observed that their average mean temperature was higher than that of 108 years, in every month of the twelve; but that the excess was very much greater in the months prior to May than in May and afterwards. In fact, the excess of mean temperature, taking the average of these six seasons of greatest productiveness of both corn and straw, is, notwithstanding the coldness of one or two winter or spring months in individual seasons, very much greater before May than afterwards, and it is, notwithstanding the high summer temperature of two of the years, quite in- significant afterwards. Turning now to the average rainfall; there is less than the average amount in nine months out of the twelve, and in the other three the excess is quite insignificant. It is remarkable, too, that the longest period of deficiency is from seed-time to the end of April; the period during which the temperatures were at the same time more in excess of the average. Further, the only month of any important amount of average excess is June; but Table VI. shows that there was, even in that month, not more than the average number of rainy days ; whilst, of course, the higher temperatures, and the growth of the crops, at that period, would tend to counteract any otherwise evil effects from an excess. Upon the whole, then, the seasons of highest productiveness of all were characterised by higher than average temperatures during most of the winter and the early spring. Some were Our Climate and our Wheat-Crops. 193 considerably warmer during the summer also, but the majority were characterised by but little higher, or even lower, than average temperatures in the summer. There was also a pre- vailing deficiency of rain in the winter and spring, but a less marked deficiency in the summer. The second class includes four seasons of high produce of corn, but of small produce of straw; and these seasons of high yield gave, on the average, less corn per acre than the seasons of greater total bulk of produce. “Here, again, we have higher than average mean temperatures in every month but November and March, and then the deficiency was quite insignificant. But, in these seasons of comparatively small total produce, but of high yield of grain, the distribution of the excess of tempera- ture is exactly the opposite of that observed in the case of the seasons of heaviest gross produce. We have now comparatively insignificant excess of temperature in each month prior to May, but a considerable excess in May and the subsequent months, to harvest. Then as to the rainfall: the only month of the twelve in which there is any excess above the average is January; whilst it is in May, June, and July, the months of excess of temperature, that the deficiency is by far the most marked. It is in these three months too that the number of rainy days is the most below the average. In the cases, then, of small produce of straw, but of high proportion of corn to straw, the result was associated with little more than fairly average conditions as to temperature during the early stages of development of the plant, but with a consider- able excess during the period of active above-ground growth, and of maturation. There is, at the same time, though a consider- able total deficiency of rain, a much more marked deficiency during the periods of more active above-ground growth, and of ripening, than during the earlier stages. The third class of seasons, that including four of unusually low produce, shows very marked differences from either of the foregoing. The averages show an actual deficiency of tempera- ture in ten months out of the twelve; and in only one from seed-time to harvest was there an average excess of any im- portance, namely, in January. The deficiency of temperature was also more marked in the spring than in the winter, and more in the summer than in the spring. With this great defi- ciency of average temperature almost throughout, we have also, almost throughout, an excess of rain; and the excess is very much the greater in April and afterwards up to harvest than previously. The number of rainy days is also greatly in excess, especially in the summer months. Very low productiveness was, then, associated with both low temperatures and excess of Vou, X “Ane = oun ~ es “ABIL = Zi = 5 ‘tdy 8 4 “TOuBH | Q A *Srensqaq A£1v1.1Ga,F Rs : Arvenuse . oO “Arenues aquiaoeqy An “Jequre0aq 1 ara Pane Bal Sc ea: re ict *10qQUIOA0 NT im ci JaqmeaoNn 1B = | ae mie ance Sl ee so re SPS *19q0}0) ape \> *18q0} [ts : 40}20 “ ee E: OP ee i '_ ~ L - a “2s pe 2 —— = —— > sesetasa ws 288 eT gn a ke In these diagrams the thin white lines represent the year 1859-60, the dotted lines the year 1867-8, and the broad white lines the year 1878-9. The Past Agricultural Year. 213 Tasie I.—Resvutts of MernoroLocioaAL Opservations at CARDINGTON, near Breprorp, for the Three Years, 1859-60, 1867-8, 1878-9. 1859-1860. (Cold and wet.) Montus. poe. Mena ae Rainfall. es | {Amount of | Max. | Min. | ee Roce Mean. Cloud: Amount. ey eieeineee Ne I< 5 a 0-10 | Inches October | 76°0 | 21°6 | 57°9 | 43°6 | 50°1 | 7°6 2°74 13 November | 57-0 | 21-0 | 47-1 | 34-1 | 40-4 5:6 1°85 10 December 56°0 | 6:0 | 40°4 | 28°5 | 34-8 | 6:7 1-80 18 January 56°0 | 26-0 | 44-3 \'3820 \38°5. | 161 2°50 17 February | 52°4 | 19°4 | 41-4 | 29°1 | 35°9 | 6°1 1-20 14 March 60-0 | 26°6 | 48-2 | 34:6 | 40-7 | 6-8 1:60 19 April | 66°6 | 26-0 | 52-1 | 34:4 | 42-6 | 6°5 -80 16 May 75°0 | 31:0 | 65:3 | 44-9 53-9 | 1:0 3°26 15 June | 71:0 | 40°0 | 65-4 | 48-9 | 54°8 | 8-0 4°32 26 July | 76°4 | 40°0 | 68-0 | 49-8 | 57-9 15 1°34 12 August .. | 72:4 | 43-0 | 66-9 | 50°9 | 57-2 | 7-4 2°80 25 September 68°6 | 32°0 | 61°7 | 44-2 | 52°3 | 7-1 3°00 13 Mean .. | 65°6 | 27:7 54°9 | 89°7 | 46°6 | 64 27°21 | 198 1867-1868. (Hot and dry.) October 67°0 | 29°0 | 56-4 | 40°5 | 48-4) 6°38 1:90 17 November | 60°4 | 23°6 | 47°5 | 35-2 | 41-1 675 “40 | 5 December 06°4 | 12°6 | 43°3 | 30°7 | 37-1 | 7:5 1°40 14 January 55:0 | 24-0 | 41-4 | 34-3 | 837 7/ 8:0 2°80 18 February 61°70 | 25-0 | 50°1 | 87°0 | 43-4 | 6-2 1°50 10 March 60°0 | 26-4 | 52-1 | 86:0 | 43-8 | 6-4 1°64 15 April | 67°0 | 25-0 | 58:4 | 38°5 | 47-7 | 6-8 1:13 9 May ess0) s2-0") 71-2 1 45°61 58"7 |) 4-5 “60 | 4 | June .. 88-4 | 40-0 | 76°1 | 49°6 | 63°5 | 4-2 1:00 | 5 Waly .. 95:4 | 46-0 | 80-4 | 54°8 | 66-8 | 4-4 15) 2 | August .. 92-0 | 45°0 | 74-9 |'58-9)'63°7| 6-0 | 3-20) 8 September 90°4 | 38:0 | 69°6 | 48-7 | 59-1 | 5:4 | 3:20; 10 —— el | ae Mean 73-4 | 30°6 | 60-1 | 42-1) 50-9} 6-0 | 18-92} 117 1878-1879. (Cold and wet.) October 70°6 | 29-6 | 57°6 | 43-1 | 50-1 5:5 2-10 14 November 51-4 | 27-0 | 44°2 | 33°6 | 38:7 7°6 3°50 17 December 53°4 | 12-0 | 36°6 | 26-9 | 32-1 7°6 1-46 12 January .- | 46°0 | 16°0 | 34°6 | 25°5 | 30-2 76 2°25 u February .. | 54°6 | 17-6 | 43:1 | 32°9 | 87°6| 8-2 2°90 18 Marches ree) 6020) | 27-0) 48-6 | 33-2 | 40-5 | 6:5 1-00 10 April 61-4 | 28-0 | 51-3 | 35-2 | 42-0 | o7°5 1°80 14 May .. | 68°6 | 26°6 | 58-1 | 39°5 | 47:6 | 7:0 3°25 16 June eaieds Onleso“OulG7°01| 49°6 | 56°8| 7-8 4°35 24 aly... -. | 79°6'| 43°6|| 67-9 | 51-4 | 58-1 8-4 4°20 22 August .. .. | 77°0 | 45°4 | 69-3 | 52°3 | 59-8 | 6-0 4°50 15 | September 70°0 | 37°0 | 63°5 | 47-1 | 54:9] 6-2 2°60 14 Mean 63°9 | 29°1 | 58°5 | 39°2 | 45°7| 7:2 | 33°91] 183 RS 214 The Past Agricultural Year. Tasie I].—Resvuts of Merroronocicat OpservaTions at STONYHURST CotLEGE, seven miles North of BLiacksurn, for the Three Years, 1859-60, 1867-8, 1878-9. 1859-1860. (Cold and wet.) Montus. Temperature. : Mean Rainfall. | Amount of Max. | Min, | Heer | 36 | Mean, | lou.” |! Amount: | ae - z 3 A 5 0-10 | Inches. October .. .. | 71°7 | 25-2 | 53°4 | 42°0 | 47°9 71:3 3°30 20 November .,. | 55:1 | 24°9 | 46-7 | 35:2 | 40°7 6°5 2°80 18 December 52°3 | 12°7 | 39°2 | 28°9 | 33-9 6°6 2°90 14 January Epson | alyGe || Ze ON eyez ba) i/o} 7:0 4°90 25 February 46:4 | 19:1 | 41-1 | 29°7 | 34°8 6°5 1:70 16 March 51°6 | 21-0 | 45-0 | 34:1 | 39°3 7:2 5°80 26 April 62°4 | 28°4 | 51°0 | 35°5 | 42-6 6-0 1°60 13 May hie 73°6 | 31°3 | 69°8 | 43°0 | 51-4 6°5 4-00 21 June -- | 67°6 | 40°2 | 61:2 | 47:5 | 53-1 975 6°10 26 Aieliy oc 75°0 | 42-3 | 67:2 | 49°6 | 56°2 7:6 1-70 14 August .. .. | 69°2 | 41°2 | 62:0 | 49-0 | 53:8 8°7 6°10 29 September .. | 83°6 | 34°7 | 60°6 | 45:0 | 51:3 6:9 3°30 18 Mean 63°5 || 28-2) | 5323: || 39<3 || 45°2 7°2 | 44-20 | 240 1867-1868. (Hot and dry.) October .. | 66-4 | 30°3 | 54:0 | 42°2 | 47-4] 7-7 | 5°10 23 November .. | 53-1 | 26-1 | 46-4 | 35-5 | 40-4 | 6-9 2°10 9 December .. | 61:0 | 22-0 | 43°3 | 33°6 | 38°3 Us! 4°90 22 January o. | 04°4 | 25:2 | 43°7 | 34-8 | 39-0 8-1 3°60 21 February .. | 53°1 | 25°6 | 46:9 | 37-1 | 41°8 ee 4:20 24 March oo) | DOLO) P2622) 1|)0020))) 3629) 84370 7:2 6°10 23 April’ <2 2. | G18! |, 2829) | 54-1 5\"4022 A 5-6 6°9 2°20 16 May .. | 80°0 | 31°9 | 64°8 | 46-4 | 53°8 6°3 1°50 20 June +. | 83°0 | 41°5 | 69-1 | 48-1 | 56-5 6°3 -70 17 July -» | 88°1 | 43°2 | 75°6 | 53°8 | 62-5 5:2, -70 9 August .. .. | 88°0 | 44°8 | 70°9 | 53:4 | 60°3 6-0 4°30 22 September .. | 85°0 | 40:0 | 65:2 | 49-4 | 56°0 5°6 2°40 15 Mean .. | 69°3 | 32:1 | 57-0 | 42°6 | 48:7 6°8 37°80 221 1878-1879. (Cold and wet.) * October oo | 692) | 2728 | 5670") 44-1! 4974 8S 5:42 24 November ~.. | 50°0 | 25°S | 43°4 | 33:0 | 37°5 8°6 3°77 La December .. | 50°5 | 13-1 | 36°9 | 24°3 | 30°3 We 2:03 16 January aon 4620) | 17233029) 25-00 S0E2 6:9 og} 8 February .. | 50°3 | 24°8 | 40°7 | 32:4 | 36-0 9°5 2°70 2r March .. .. | 54:8 | 24°3 | 46°5 | 33:9 | 39:1 8°6 2°51 16 April 06 |) GIES) || Parfctye|| Glo) || Buoy. | chao 2583} 1:56 16 May se sa.) |) G°S || 30°01 57-1 (1 39"7 || 4627 76 2°38 21 DUGON + Ee O20n| S820 663-70 472 On\nooee 8°7 4:79 24 July .. « | 74°2 | 42°8 | 63°2 | 50-4 | 54°7 9°5 6°79 26 ATICTISt =} ween EON aL ON Gor2 eg Moore 8°5 (onl 22 September .. | 71:0 | 34°0 | 61°4 | 46°3 | 52°9 73 3°40 20 Mean .. | 61°5 | 28:9 | 51°7 | 38:4 | 43°9 8:2 44°59 231 The Past Agricultural Year. 215 Taste III.—Comprarison of the Raiwratz of 1878-79 with the ANNUAL AVERAGE. | Banal | Excess of Defici- | Excess | Defici- Neveniber AVerage | 1878-9 nor per cent. | ency per STATIONS. 1878, to | “Annual | over 1878-9 | of cent. of Sete Rainfall. (averner: | nee Average. | Average. Inches. Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Bury St. Edmunds, Cufford | 35°74 | 23°61 | 12°13 Se ei) Ol London, Camden Square .. | 36°64 | 25°02 | 11°62 on 46 Shifnal, Houghton Hall .. | 34°76 | 23°73 11:03; .. | 46 Hitchin Py. ay 32°91") 123-25) “9766 acer |p 42 a Boston r on 29°91 | 21-72} 8-19 fot: fh. is} as Banbury, High Street .. | 34°02| 25-24] 8-78 2 35 Cirencester 50 40 41°46 | 30°87 | 10°59 oe ty Hod: exipOtt ests ae «= =. | 40°42) 32°45 | 7°97 ae 25 Worth Shields... .. « 33°82 | 27°22 | 6°60 ae |), Ble Bodmin .. no te 56°74 | 46:11 | 10°63 Se) i), @ 23 Tenbury, Orleton <. 37°60 | 30°56 | 7:04 ae 23 Haverfordwest .. .. .. 56°05 | 47°17 | &:-88 St | dado ae Barnstaple £O"40)| oo ole | sorOe |) ie 15 oe Maidstone, Hunton Court 28°83 | 25°13 | 3°70 este aD ce Manchester, Ardwick de 35°10 | 30°92 | 4:18 se 14 a Llandudno, Warwick House} 32°19 | 30°09 | 2:10 ea | 7 : Or ey se 24°53 | 23°38) P15 és 5 cc Skipton, Ameliffe .. 50 53°80 | 56°40 50 2°60 6c 5 Keswick, Scathwaite .. | 105°62 | 153°46 ae 47°84 ae 31 * One other Table (III.) is necessary, in order to realise the relative severity of the injury sustained. In this table records from about twenty widely-scattered stations are Batey in the order of the excess of the fall of the twelve months 1878-9 above the average. Bury St. Edmunds has experienced most, and there- fore heads the list. The total fall at that station in the twelve months ending October 31st, 1879, was 35°74 inches, whereas the average fall in twelve months is only 23°61 inches; the fall was therefore 12-13 inches above the average, or the excess amounted to 51 per cent. of the mean, ¢.c. rather more than half as much again as the usual amount. Middlesex and Shropshire follow next with nearly equal excess; and then we gradually come to North Devon, Maidstone, Manchester, North Wales, and York where the excess was unimportant ; and finally we finish with North-West Yorkshire and Cumberland, in each of which districts the twelve months have actually eer drier than the average. If these percentage excesses are placed upon a map it will be found that they environ the county of Huntingdon in all directions, and render it certain that the excess of rainfall has been greater over the midland and eastern counties of England than elsewhere. Guided by this alone, one would expect that residents in those districts have suffered more than those else- 216 The Past Agricultural Year. where. But these broad features will necessarily be modified by the fact that the date of the rainfall makes all the difference to the crops. This is so obvious to every agriculturist, that I need say no more respecting it. “Observations respecting the amount of sunshine made in a manufacturing locality like Greenwich are necessarily impaired by the prevalence of smoke ; but remembering and making full allowance for that fact, and remembering also that in summer the sun is above the horizon 16 hours per diem, in winter 8 hours per diem, and on the average of the whole year 12 hours per diem, the following table shows a deficiency almost greater than seems credible.” Average Daily Duration of Sunshine at Greenwich. Hrs. Min. Hrs. Min, November, 1878 .. i 24 May, 1879 4 24 December, 1878 0 30 June, 1879 4 42 January, 1879 0 30 July, 1875 3 12 Hebruary, iG Oem. amo August, 1879 .. 4 30 March, 1879 2 54 September, 1879.. 3 54 April, 1879 2 30 October, 1879 2 12 Average per diem, 2 hours 39 minutes sunshine, Bs bs 9 hours 21 minutes cloudy. _ », 12 hours sun below horizon. Having thus described the season meteorologically, let us now examine its agricultural character. For the collection of evidence on this point I addressed a letter of inquiry last July to a number of leading tenant farmers in the several counties between the extreme north and south of the island, stating as follows the particulars on which information was desired, and the questions on which the experience of the year might, it was thought, be expected to throw light :— 1. As to the health of the live stock of the farm, will you tell me your experience as to the drop of lambs and the health of the ewe flock; and, generally, as to the influence of the prolonged winter and the wet spring on the health of horses, cattle and sheep ? 2. As to the crops of the farm, one would like to know in a number of instances the effect of the winter on the wheattrop, on particular varieties ; and on crops after fallow, clover, beans, respectively: also on the winter bean crop, and on green crops left exposed. 8. As to fallow operations, the questions to be answered relate to the influence of land drainage and of autumn cultivation in making the necessary work of spring time easier or possible. Also to the great difficulties of spring and summer fallow work, and their results in the subsequent turnip and mangold crop; which, however, cannot be fully known till later on. A large quantity of information in answer to this circular soon reached me; and some further evidence has been sent to The Past Agricultural Year. mint me during the subsequent winter. A selection from these reports, generally abridged with occasional editorial comment, is, I think, the form in which their subject can be best laid before the reader of the ‘Journal.’ In the first place 1 give unabridged the reports which I have received from Mr. C. Randell and Mr. C. Whitehead, Members of the Council. CHADBURY, NEAR EvesHam, the farm occupied by Mr. Randell, was described by himself ten years ago (‘ Journal’ of the Society, vol. v., S. S.)—in connection then with the Agricultural Lessons of a Drought. It consists of 490 acres, about 90 of which are in pasture and meadow, the remainder arable, being, as to 100 acres of it, “gravelly soil, fair turnip land; 180 acres of heavy clay land, of fair quality; and 120 acres of very poor clay.” Mr. Randell’s statement is as follows :— “ First, as to the long winter—The effect of this has been partially to destroy the wheat plant upon clay land, especially on the north sides of the ridges, and where sown upon land which had been fallowed, or I should rather say which had been rendered hollow by more than one ploughing: for fallowing clay jand last year was impracticable, except during the one month of good weather for haymaking, when only steam-cultivating farmers could take advantage of it. Where these failures occurred wheat has been replanted, but, considering the length and severity of the winter, this has not been necessary to so great an extent as was expected, owing to the absence of wind which, when accompanying hard frost, is always destructive. Winter beans were generally killed, and spring beans or peas were planted in their stead. Vetches, too, suffered from the frost. Another crop, cabbages, suffered greatly: few fields escaped partial or total destruction; where they did escape without material injury it would appear to have been owing to high condition having given such vigour to the plants as enabled them to withstand the action of frost. On this farm a field of rather light land was heavily manured after harvest from a covered yard, and had one ton of soot per acre har- rowed in; the cabbage plants, strong ones, from seed sown in July, were set out early in October. When sufficiently rooted, 4 cwt. per acre of guano were applied, and they were horse- and hand-hoed ; this saved them, in spite of frost, and the crop— 16 acres—was sold at a high price instead of being consumed by sheep. Another field, 13 acres of clay land, was planted after the former one, with no manure except the soot; the frost destroyed fully two-thirds of the cabbages, and the whole piece was drilled across with seed of the thousand-headed cabbage in March. The weather continued cold; the seed was long in 218 The Past Agricultural Year. vegetating ; and, before it was possible to hoe the crop, annual weeds nearly covered the ground. Now we come to the second season—misnamed that year, Spring—and, finishing the answer to your question as to the effects of winter, the history of this piece of cabbages shall be completed. ‘The weeds among them continued to grow in spite of all endeavours to keep them down by hoeing, and after a heavy expense had been so incurred, all hope was abandoned, and the lambs were put on to eat autumn-planted cabbages, spring-sown thousand heads, and weeds together, in the hope that the land might afterwards be got fit to grow barley. “To go back now to your question as to the effect of the severe winter upon live stock: Cattle had to subsist almost entirely on dry food during the winter, and for a month longer than usual, consequently the great crop of hay of 1878 was nearly exhausted. Sheep eating frozen roots made little progress, even with a liberal allowance of cake, corn and chaff; and, even where the roots—swedes and mangolds—had been stored, the severity of the weather prevented sheep thriving as usual, and the ‘ tegs,’ when sold out in the spring, did not come up to the weight of former years. In the breeding flock the losses of ewes were considerable, especially where they had been kept mainly upon dry food. This was apparently owing to crushing each other at the troughs, so that they produced dead lambs, themselves dying afterwards. ‘Those farmers who suffered from this cause will probably take care to guard against it in future by using racks instead of troughs, so constructed as to prevent such crushing. The Spring Season.— Returning to the second season, more disastrous in its effects than the frost of winter, let me Show liow where cabbages did and did not succeed, the mangold crop was a success. ‘Two fields, each 17 acres, were treated dif- ferently. One had been heavily manured and steam-ploughed after harvest, and so left until the last week of March, then simply stirred by a chisel-tined drag, harrowed, rolled down, and drilled. Here, although some annual weeds appeared, there were not more than could be got under in spite of weather. On the other field about 15 tons per acre of mangolds had been carted on the stubble in the previous autumn to be consumed by sheep with cake and corn, to assist in the preparation for the next mangold crop; 30 loads per acre of burnt soil from sheep sheds and yards were ploughed in at the end of March. The land worked down fine and firm, and was planted with mangolds on the Ist and 2nd of April, a mixture of 4 ewt. fish guano and 2 ewt. Peruvian guano per acre being harrowed in on both fields. There was this difference in the result: the mangolds came up The Past Agricultural Year. 219 equally well on both fields ; on the former they were not seriously affected by surface-weeds ; on the latter they were so overgrown by them that there was no alternative but to scuffle them up, which was done by steam, working ‘ Coleman’s Cultivator’ in the second week of May, and mangolds with a few swedes were drilled again. Another crop of weeds came up with the man- golds, but this time the one grew as fast as the other, and in spite of rain the latter gained possession of the land. This detail is given to show the importance of autumn cultivation for this crop. It would appear that the seeds of annual weeds upon the field so treated vegetated in part, and were destroyed by frost and subsequent scarifying and harrowing at the time of sowing, while upon the unploughed field they were dormant until exposed to atmospheric influence by cultivation, and so weeds and mangold seed vegetated together. The result has been that with more liberal treatment and the expense of second planting on this field, the crop has been 8 tons less per acre than on that which was got ready in the autumn. “So much for the effects of the wet season upon cabbages and mangolds. It aiso delayed the preparation of the land for swedes and turnips, and the sowing was late. On land adapted to these crops barley and wheat generally looked moderately well, though wanting sunshine; the clover and rye-grass abundant. * But it is upon the heavy lands that the effect of the continued rains has been most disastrous. Previous wet seasons made the effectual fallowing of such land after vetches or mixed seeds, eaten. off early, impossible. Dead fallows are well nigh exploded, and would have been worse to clean in such seasons than the attempted midsummer fallows. This kind of land has conse- quently for the last five years been getting fouler, and the manure is washed out of it, so even with a favourable spring, an. average wheat crop could not have been expected; but now it seemed hopeless: the wheat and barley upon clay and marl gene- rally looking very badly. At the same time it must be added that the timely application of top-dressings to the growing crops upon such land has this season had a wonderful effect in enabling them to withstand the effect of constant saturation; and where this has been done there will be an abundance of straw. What the product of corn may be it is yet (July 1879) too soon to cal- culate upon, but with straw enough there is hope. Unfortunately previous bad seasons and present low prices have discouraged expenditure in this direction. ‘The clover crops on the strong lands are good. Hay will be fully an average, though damaged to some extent by floods. We only want the predicted drought to secure these crops and clean the fallows, and the prospects would brighten wonderfully. 220 The Past Agricultural Year. “The winter's lessons are: (1) To guard against the effects of severe frost, wheat on clay land should be sown between the middle of September and the middle of October, after clover and beans, the land plonghed once, quantity of seed used during that time not to exceed five pecks per acre; and it should not be planted upon land fallowed after vetches, or any other fallow, which should be left for barley. This will not apply to very poor clays or to strong marl upon clay subsoil, the most difficult of all land to deal with. (2) To manure and plough before winter all land intended for mangolds. (3) To secure from frost all root crops as soon as possible after they have done growing. This is no new lesson, but it has been enforced by the late winter. (4) While giving to breeding ewes dry food—chaff, malt dust, maize, and decorticated cotton-cake is not an expensive mixture—to take care that they do not crush each other to get to it. (5) If growing cabbages, to bear in mind that high condition and good cultivation will afford the best security against a severe winter. “The wet spring teaches us: (1) How utterly helpless we are in dealing with foul clay land in such weather, and how import- ant it is, when we have such land clean, to keep it so by forking after harvest. (2) That high condition—whether it be the result of previous manuring by sheep eating green crops, with the addition of cake and corn, or of farmyard-manure, or the early application to the growing crops of guano, fish guano, or nitrate of soda—has a great effect in enabling these crops to withstand the ill effects of continued rains. And lastly (3) That even in such seasons, relying upon our own exertions and the promise that ‘seedtime and harvest shall not fail,’ we must determine to produce all we can, especially of such things as are least abundantly imported—mutton and malting barley to wit—and hope that with more favourable seasons, and an improvement in the general trade of the country, we shall as heretofore get over all our difficulties.” Thus far was written before harvest time last year. The paper was sent back to Mr. Randell for any addition which the subsequent experience might suggest, and we now add the following additional report :-— “ All went from bad to worse. The rain continued, unre- lieved by sunshine; hay in many places was carried away by flood, and the quality of that which escaped was materially injured; even with better weather it would not have been good, as, like everything else, it had wanted warmth and sunshine. The barley-crops went down, and before harvest had a second growth from the roots in ear. So, with a great bulk of straw, there is nearly 3 quarters of barley per acre less than in 1878, The Past Agricultural Year. 22% inferior in quality, and damaged after cutting by continued rains. Wheat is 25 per cent. less than the average of the last thirty years, and of indifferent quality. Beans are a failure, and peas planted after them are only half a crop. “Enough of complaining ; there is a somewhat brighter side to the picture, and it must be shown. “1. The one field of mangolds produced 40 tons per acre, the other, of mangolds and swedes mixed, 32 tons per acre. “2. It has been said that the field of cabbages—16 acres— was sold at a high price; it may be added that after cabbages the same field produced 8 acres of cauliflowers, 5 acres of cab- bages again, and 3 acres of cabbage-plants; all of which also were sold at satisfactory prices; leading, with other considera- tions, to this conclusion—that where soil and situation enable us to do so with advantage, the old routine or course of crop- ping should be given up, growing instead anything that will pay. On this farm the production of vegetables and fruit has been increasing. Some ten years since, 80 acres of land were added to it, of which 25 acres were in tillage. Twenty acres were at once planted with fruit-trees, apples, and plums, and the whole 25 acres laid down to grass. Pasture and trees are doing well, thanks to folding twice a year by sheep eating oil-cake, corn, and roots. Five acres of poor clay-land have been given up this winter to plum-trees and black currants. The field upon which the early cabbages were grown last year will now be sown with peas of one of the most popular kinds, with a view to selling green if a satisfactory price can be obtained ; if not, they will be harvested, in the hope of finding purchasers next year at one-half the price (32s. per bushel) now paid for the seed. With regard to the arable land generally, it seems desirable upon this farm to ignore all system, using the small portion of light land mainly for the growth of vegetables and seeds to sell, and roots for sheep, with occasional crops of corn, making the best clays grow corn more frequently, and leaving the worst two years in grass instead of one. “And, to complete this brighter side of the picture, the sheep are sound. They have been, as usual, between hurdles all the year, having an allowance of dry food, with access at all times to salt. That this is a preventive to the rot would appear from the following instance of immunity from it on very dan- gerous land, In September last, when culling out the breeding- ewes intended for sale, twelve were found which, for various reasons, were unfit to breed from, with a view to ascertain whether with dry food—clover-chaff, oil-cake, and maize, with salt—they would take the rot upon land where, without such food, they certainly would not escape it. They were at once put 222 The Past Agricultural Year. into a meadow, more than half of which had repeatedly been flooded by the Avon: they remained there until the middle of November, were then put to roots, sold in January at 74s. 9d. each, and proved when killed to be perfectly sound. It must not be supposed that because dry food and salt saved these sheep, where upon the grass alone they would certainly have become rotten, that such food is to be relied upon with entire confidence if sheep are allowed to go upon meadows which have ‘been entirely under water—in this case half of the meadow had been free from floods. It only goes to prove that such treatment will prevent the disease upon any land where men of common prudence would usually allow sheep to graze, but where in 1879 they became rotten. No grass-land in the Midland Counties was safe. ‘“* Enough has been said of the farming here ; there are neigh- bouring farms of lighter land in good condition, the occupiers of which I doubt not can show more satisfactory results. They have escaped serious loss; but profits of farming in 1879 we do not hear of ; throughout the whole of this district the reverse is very generally unquestionable and to very serious amounts. The deficiency in the harvest would vary from 20 per cent. upon the best lands to 50 per cent. upon clay-lands, which, from previous unfavourable seasons and other causes, were in bad condition. Roots were generally less than half a crop, and the preparation for another wheat-crop was deplorable. While on the grass-lands hay was injured, feeding-cattle, unless aided by oil-cake, did not get fat. Dairy-cows milked badly and became very poor, young stock did not grow, and, to crown this list of disasters, sheep are rotten to a fearful extent. The only redeeming feature in the weather of 1879 was the dry autumn, which rendered it possible to sow more land with wheat than there had before been any hope of doing; but the prospect of the condition of the land when the wheat comes off is not cheering. Taken altogether, the season of 1879 was by far the worst of the last half-century.” Mr. Charles Whitehead’s land lies on the other side of the island. Kent is dryer, whether in wet seasons or in dry, than Worcestershire. The district, too, from which Mr. Whitehead writes is one of freer soil than that of Chadbury. It will be seen, however, that the difficulties of the season have been as great in the one county as the other. Mr. Whitehead says :— “With regard to the question submitted to me as to the effect of the severe winter and very wet spring and summer of this year upon agriculture in this district, west of Maidstone, in Mid Kent—(1) As to the health of the live-stock of the farm, The Past Agricultural Year. 223 I consider that all the animals have been quite in an average state of health. There has been no epidemic disease. The drop of lambs was not quite up to the average in point of numbers, but they have been healthy for the most part, and the losses among the ewes were below the average. Horses have not suffered in any particular respect. Cattle did not thrive so well in the meadows as usual, because the grass was always wet and ‘lush; but their health has been generally good. (2) As to the crops of the farm—Wheat generally went in badly ; much of it was put in late, and in many cases the plant was not above the ground until after the winter frosts. During the early spring the plant was somewhat thin, but filled up considerably during April, especially upon the best soils, and where top-dressings were applied. The wet season in May and June caused a strong growth of straw and flag, and at the same time a great unevenness. Fine weather towards the end of July, just about the time of the blossoming, improved the appear- ance of the wheat plants most marvellously, and except that the soft grains looked somewhat pinched, there seemed no reason why there should not have been an average yield if the weather continued fine throughout August. On my own farm I could not get the wheat in on a certain piece of land until the 9th of March. Having seed by me of Scholey’s Square Head which had been steeped in sulphate of copper for sowing in November, I sowed this, and was in fear until the change in the weather arrived that it would not come into ear at all. After a few fine days the ears appeared, and at the beginning of August there was a promise of an over average yield, and the plants were particularly even and uniform. This wheat was cut about the middle of September, and in spite of the continual rains during the latter part of August and the beginning of September stood almost upright and yielded 6 quarters of corn and a large amount of stiff straw. The quality of the grain when the wheat was cut was good for the season; but it was very much injured by rain when in the shock. This variety of wheat was the least affected by the wet season; and in most cases its straw did not go down, at least not so badly as that of other varieties. With regard to the influence of previous cultivation upon the wheat plant, that after fallow was perhaps the best. Slugs were troublesome to some of the wheat plants upon clover leys, and caused a certain loss of plant. The best and strongest piece of wheat I had, which was almost in a normal state during its growth, in spite of the adverse climatic influences, was after white tankard turnips folded in August, after rape sown in the preced- ing autumn and folded in March. This was put in on the 13th of October, 14 bushel of Scholey’s Square Head being . 224 The Past Agricultural Year. drilled in per acre. The effect of the winter upon clover was not prejudicial, as there were heavy cuts as a rule about here. Winter tares suffered considerably. Trifolium was not injured. Winter oats were not affected in any way, and their yield was above an average. Winter beans are not grown. Spring oats went in fairly well and in pretty good time. There was a spell of comparatively fine weather early in March, which enabled farmers to put their Lent corn in. On most of the farms in this locality the oats did fairly well, and gave about an average crop. Barley is not grown. Spring beans had plenty of haulm, but were not well podded, and were much blighted. The very wet weather in the spring sadly interfered with the usual culti- vation of land in preparation for mangolds, swedes, and turnips. Mangolds were got in in a most unsatisfactory manner, and the weeds were fast overpowering them, when fortunately a spell of finer weather came ; but the crop has been much under average. The attempt to get swedes in was abandoned by many, and the land lay soddened with moisture, growing thistles, couch, and water-grass abundantly. Great efforts were made to get the land cleaner, and turnips were sown in some instances, but there must be a great crop of weeds with the coming corn crop when the usual rotation has been continued. i “ As the land in this district is for the most part naturally drained, as it lies upon the Kentish ragstone, and is friable, a wet season is not so disastrous as in the heavy clay-land district of the Weald of Kent, which is closely contiguous to it. “Tt may be remarked that the wet, cold, and changeable weather in the spring at the time of the blossoming of the fruit- trees so affected the ‘setting’ of blossoms, which were unusually abundant, that there was not half a crop of fruit in this, the ‘garden of England.’ At the same time the hop-plants were seriously weakened, so that they could not grow away from the aphides, which caused one of the most general blights on record.” A report which Mr. Lawes, of Rothamsted, was good enough to send me would have been presented here, but the reader will, I believe, find that the Rothamsted experience is the subject of an independent paper in this number of the ‘Journal.’ I pro- ceed now, therefore, to quote the reports to which I referred in the outset as gathered from my other correspondents. ‘The first two are from northern counties. _ Caitaness.— Watten. Ist. As to deterioration and {loss, amongst the hill farms. Cheviot sheep occupy most of the hill farms in the northern counties, Black-faces being The Past Agricultural Year. 225 present only in few instances; and the death-rate of the latter has been much the greater of the two in the same circumstances. Half-bred and Cheviot ewe-flocks, from which are bred the half-bred stock, being crossed by Leicester tups, occupy the lowlands and arable ground, and are chiefly confined to Caithness. All stock-owners have lost above an average, but no season has shown greater divergences from usual averages. For instance, the west coast of Sutherland has got off comparatively safely in comparison with the middle district, removed alike from sea and rail. The latter suffered, owing to the impossibility of bringing extra keep to the hirsels, or the hirsels to where it could be provided. The east coast comes next, where the long-continued north and east winds during spring put a finish upon the damage caused by the severity of the winter, reducing the stock the third time, by the blighting of vegetation almost to starvation-point, and causing a deal of loss amongst lambing ewes. The loss amongst the old sheep has run from 73 per cent., under the most favourable circumstances, to 20 per cent., or even more in the worst cases. We may therefore conclude that about 12 per cent. may possibly be regarded as a fair average. Lambs again will run from two-thirds in the west and most favoured places, to one-fourth or less in many instances of the annual average; and they are all bad alike and of little value. Tn instances known to me, tenants instead of selling cast ewes have had to buy to make up stock. In others, after spending hundreds of pounds in extra keep, the shott lambs have been simply useless and worthless, In fact, a produce of one-half is counted something out of the common in the middle and east coast districts. Few old sheep, where hand-fed, died before the 1st of April, and with good weather they might have struggled through; but April and May killed them in myriads, there being little or no grass, and the sheep having been all to a great extent removed to their summer quarters, owing to a delusive fresh and warmth setting in about that time, which was followed by a period of the most bitter cold weather we have ever experienced. The truth of the matter is—most stockowners lost heart and just left them to Pro- vidence, as they could do no more for them except taking them down to be hand-fed again. This they were pretty sick of, and always were in the hope of things getting better, so lost thereby all their extra keep and sheep like- wise. In Ross and Inverness the storms of winter did not do much harm; but the spring destroyed numbers, and the losses are not much less than those of Sutherland, only flockmasters there mostly saved the great expense of extra feeding. Extra feeding on farms which fed straight through would amount to from 5s. to 16s. each sheep. In addition to direct costs and losses, flocks have deteriorated. Lambs are very bad, owing to the poverty of the ewes when with young, the food not being sufticient to sustain life and fully to develop the foetus; and when the young were dropped, the supply of milk, for the same reason, was scanty, so the lambs are badly thriven, scraggy and pot-bellied. The ewes, instead of producing milk when a flush of keep was to be had, laid it on as fat, so in many instances they got in fair order, and no doubt will get over the great privation they underwent. Counting the fall in value of stock, and the low state of the wool-market, many large holders have lost a fortune, and that not a small one. Yet all these experiences are not without a lesson, and I will, in conclusion, point out a few things that in my judgment have intensified this state of matters. In the first place, owing to many previous seasons being open and mild, flockmasters never provided any keep for such emergencies as storms; and instead of cutting the haughs and other places where good meadow hay might be made, they pastured them; the high prices of stock and wool inducing them to increase the number of the stock to more than the ground could carry. Asa result of this procedure, the one-year-old sheep, or hoggs, have been wintered in the low country (arable ground in Ross-shire and Caithness) upon turnip, and this has VOL, XVI.—S. S. Q 226 The Past Agricultural Year. at length rendered the stock much more delicate. In fact it is only in some farms we meet with stock which are considered as hardy and sound as were the characteristics of the Sutherland Cheviots in days gone by. The ewe- lambs have been also generally wintered upon turnips, and they are tupped by sheep in many instances pampered to such an extent as render them unfit for hill service. Let me add, as suggestions, that if lime could be brought into the country the benefits would be untold; and if farms could be split up and rendered more manageable; and if stockowners depended less upon their shepherds’ reports and looked more after their own affairs; and if —, &c. 2nd. Or TirnaGE OPERATIONS. (a.) As to Root Crops.—Our spring months, although cold, were as a rule dry, so we were enabled to get our turnip crops, with but few interruptions, put down in good order, thus securing a fair promise of a sufficient braird. But although this proved to be the case upon properly cultivated and highly manured soils, on much of the inferior lands where drainage has been at a discount, a great breadth had to be re-sown, owing to the cold weather and blighting east winds; and where plants made an appearance, they soon assumed a most unhealthy appearance, and to a creat extent withered away. ‘The saturated soil increasing by its coldness the effect of ungenial weather, rendered the manure applied ineffective, and so the plants were destroyed by the depredations of insects when tender. Upon this farm, which has within its bounds some of the best soil in the county, 380 acres were all singled in good season. This was upon the better part of fallow, but there was a field resting upon a retentive subsoil which had to be in parts redrained, and in autumn, thinking that the breaking up of the sub- soil, owing to the early harvest, might be done with the usual strength of the farm, I set to work with subsoil-plonghs and thoroughly stirred the soil to a depth of from 14 to 18 inches, and have thereby secured a fair crop on the greater part of it. The failure occurs where the soil rests upon a subsoil of blue clay, which is impervious to water, and where by way of experiment half a ton of the much- vaunted ground coprolites were tried instead of the usual dose of guano, dis- solved bones and bone-meal. I suspect that the kind of artificial manure applied has more to do with the success or non-success of our turnip-crop than farmers seem to think, as, on inquiry, I find where superphosphates alone have been applied that the crop is generally a failure, owing, I suppose, to this manure being too soluble in a wet season, and lacking the ammonia so necessary to push vegetation ahead ina cold one. ‘The rain would be apt to wash a great portion out of the soil, and, where drainage is deficient, the food of the plant would be presented in too diluted a form. ‘True, the soil by its absorptive pro- perties would retain the manure, but I suspect seasons such as we have passed through have not been taken into consideration by the analyst. About the beginning of July much rain fell, and fears were entertained that upon even the best soil the crop would be ruined; but this was obviated in a great measure, I believe, by our starting (when favoured by the intermission, of a day’s drought) three scuffles with grubber-teeth, which stirred the soil to a depth of about 10 inches, thereby admitting fresh air and helping to carry off part of the superfluous water which might fall afterwards, and would other- wise be retained by the caked condition of the surface-soil. This was done upon two different occasions all over the break, and the result has been a crop above an ayerage. A neighbour of mine, at my suggestion, adopted the same practice, and has likewise secured a better crop than he bas had for years. (b.) As to Corn Crops.—They were all got down in good order, and, as a result, we had a regular braird with strong and healthy plants, which did not, however, make rapid progress, owing to the saturated condition of the soil and absence of heat. Afterwards upon dry free soils the constant dropping nature of the season made the crop run to straw. ‘This also was true of land after root-crops ; and in consequence a great breadth became lodged before the ear The Past Agricultural Year. 227 was fertilised; and even in the lighter crops the upper portion of the head was nothing but chaff. Cutting operations commenced about the first week of October, and upon this farm they proved to be most tedious work, owing to the twisted and laid condition of the crop, and the great bulk of straw. Upon one field of 20 acres the machines were entirely useless; I therefore put on ten scythes. You may judge the nature of the work when I inform you that with the utmost diligence a man could not get over above half an acre a day; sometimes even less. When looking at the work being done—much of the straw useless and the corn rotten, and neither food for man nor beast—I felt that high farming might be carried too far. No less than 200 quarters of oats have been sold off this particular field upon a former occasion. This year the yield will not be 90 quarters. After much hand-labour the machines were driven through the remainder, the work not being at all satisfactorily done; but time would not permit of delay. Before cutting was finished, on a fine breezy afternoon, the corn being in excellent order, all hands were set to “ screw,” that is to put the corn together in small stacks upon the field. The hands are divided into parties of four each, and each party take three rows of stooks ; one man, laying a foundation of about six feet in diameter, builds the rows as in ordinary stacking, the heads being drawn gradually in towards the summit—two loops of straw rope are laid across the top and tied down the side ; another man forks the corn, and the remaining two drag in the sheaves to them by grasping eight sheaves at a time. We finished 33 acres in this manner in five hours. Next day proved wet, and cutting was resumed, but in the after- noon we got 40 acres put together; and again on the Monday we got other 30 finished in four hours, which made the half of the crop secure, as by this plan the crop is comparatively safe. We should, however, prefer carting direct from the stook, as we thereby save the loss by, the handling and shaking, and also much labour. Still in our climate but for this method in a late, season we should oftentimes lose the half of our crops. GrorGE Brown, Jun. BerwicksHirE.—Mungo’s Walls, Dunse. Ist. As to the Live-stock of the Farm.—Horses, having had plenty of idle: time during seven months, are healthy and fresh. Feeding-cattle, having, plenty of litter and shelter, did well where turnips had been harvested. Those: that had to get frozen or muddy turnips all through, may, however, have left. more pay, simply by surviving until prices rose in May! ‘here is more some-: times made in buying and selling, than by feeding nostrums. Cows got. less outdoor exercise than usual, but in other respects were well cared-for. On grass, however, they made little butter, although brought in to sheltered yards and straw every night. Grazing-cattle turned out fresh, lost flesh during the summer, and leaner purchases made little advance. Sheep suffered ; most severely during winter, many being mere ‘ objects” at the end of it, although getting liberal fare. Our ewes got the best of turnips, free from frost, and hay every day, and came to the yeaning in good condition appa-- rently, bringing forth a good fall of firm and strong lambs; and then all went wrong! First, many ewes showed they had got a taint on the wet pastures ; of November; a good many of them died, and the rest were pretty well re- covered by cake and corn, which they should have had sooner, had we known. Heavy snow-storms and slush continuing all March, the young things were too much confined, and to that we must attribute the invasion of a most fatal disease, previously unknown to most shepherds, but very. general this year, among what we call “bred” lambs, and said to have Q 2 228 The Past Agricultural Year. appeared in one or two places some years ago under the name of “ blackleg.” At two or three days old there appear livid swellings on any part of the body, from tip of nose to root of tail, and death comes in a day or two—no recovery. We thus lost more than a third of our lambs, and generally the best. When a week old they were safe from the blackleg, but then came the old familiar “cripples” to swell the list of casualties, and the unprecedented result is that we have but eighteen lambs (many of them miserable things) from each score (twenty) of ewes put to the tup. ‘The worst crop we ever before had was twenty-four, and a fair average we reckon at twenty-eight, weaned, from ‘‘ Border ’’ Leicester Ewes (bred from Messrs. Stone and Burgess of Leicestershire). Of course, hardier crosses from the Cheviot have, in this low country, done much better, though they have not been altogether scathe- less. At the autumn lamb sales it was observed that well-known flocks pre- sented little more than half their usual number of “tops,” and these not up to the mark. Thus, the tremendous fall in wool and the drop in mutton, together with the uncertainty of the turnip-crop, have combined to keep the price of lamb rather below last year, quality considered. Talking of wool, ours is good, scarcely a cotted fleece among the ewes. But can any one explain this cotting, or, as we (perhaps more significantly) call it, “coating” of fleeces? It is not always the leanest ewe that is worst. 2nd. As to Field-work.—Of winter wheat I can say nothing. My own was sown on March 3rd, each of the 7 acres receiving 4 bushels Square- Headed seed, with 13 cwt. fish-guano, and bone-meal afterwards. It came thin and spindly, though afterwards dark enough in flac. In 1877 the same sort, sown a month earlier, was cut on October 8th, but this was a later season still, certainly the latest of modern times, and we did not cut till October 15th. Last year, and two years ago, we learned most emphatically that a very big crop may yield very poorly. As to the turnip-crop, some of us had enough of swedes stored to serve a month or two, but more were surprised by the early winter, and had to dig laboriously among snow for daily supplies. Taking advantage of occasional thaws, we managed to supplement our store with roots fresh enough for immediate use, though not so clean as could have been wished ; and any poaching of the land was remedied by the frosts of March. It was well for us that we managed thus to save part of our original store until April ; for the very considerable breadth that remained on the ground was never fit to keep in store above a week, getting steadily worse as they stood, until at last quite one-half of the remainder were no better than soap, and cattle had even to sup portions of the latter half, and did tolerably well too. Among all this wreck, however, there was a brilliant exception in a somewhat old- fashioned purple-topped swede, deep-growing and round—none of your “big croppers,” which are soft as butter—and you may guess I sow no other until better advised. As to fallow operations, it is perhaps owing to our late climate that autumn cultivation is seldom now attempted, and never with satisfactory results, the land so treated being no cleaner in spring, and much wetter than if it had lain in plough-furrow. There can be no question as to the good of land drainage, if properly planned; but two days ago I had water standing between Government 4-feet drains at 28 feet intervals; while heavier land, where we more recently put in a 30-inch drain in these intervals, was drying fairly and regularly. After twenty-five years’ observation, I am all for shallow drains, and plenty of them, on anything like heavy land. On some light lands most of the roots got sown in May, the weather being remarkably favourable at first, although showery towards the end of the month. After that we had ten inches of rain in two months; and, not to mention minor delays, were unable to get horses on the land for a whole fortnight together. Our swedes were well planted, not all thinned though, nor could we get The Past Agricultural Year. 229 them cleaned. Softer turnips, being swept off by flea, were very late and blanky; and for the first time in my life I had to sow turnips in July. In fine, you cannot find any one that ever saw so bad a season for the proper fal- lowing of heavy land. The lesson to be drawn from all this, and pondered during the remaining years of current leases and lifetimes, is that land was taken five or ten years ago at much too high rents, which few landlords will abate—and that on high principle ! James ‘THOMSON. No one, I am sure, will regret that he has been taken by the above reports outside the limits of what may be considered the strict field of the Society’s operations. Scottish experience has many good lessons for English agriculturists ; and the letters of Mr. George Brown, jun., of Caithness, and Mr. James Thomson of Berwickshire, will be read with interest not only in the up- land cultivated districts of many northern English counties wherever circumstances resemble theirs, but wherever lessons in energetic harvest-work, liberal winter management of stock, and choice of hardy breeds and sorts, whether of plants or animals, are needed ; as indeed they have been needed everywhere in the United Kingdom during the past two years. The following are some of the letters of my English corre- spondents :— NortTHUMBERLAND.—Houndalee, Acklington. 1. Live-stock.—With the exception of calves, my stock could not possibly have been healthier than they were during the winter and spring of 1879. I keep a flying stock of half-bred Leicester and Cheviot ewes, and although they lost a good deal of condition during the very severe weather, yet at lambing-time they did well, having a fair average crop of healthy lambs and plenty of milk. Their feed through the storm was bean-straw, and chaff as made by the thresher—not chopped—and one truss of hay to about sixty ewes, with a half-pint of oats apiece twice a-day. About a month before lambing I give turnips, about as many as they can eat, and continue them as long as I can. The hoggs get much the same feed as ewes, only not excecding one half~pint of oats per day, and no turnips. Of course they are not intended to get fat before September; but had it been a dec-nt season since May, most of them would have been fat by July. I bring up all my own cattle, rearing about fifty calves a year, taking care to buy only well-bred ones, which at present are very dear, from 50s. to 60s. each. I never knew so much sick- ness as there has been among young calves since last autumn. I mean calves from birth to about six weeks old. It must have been caused by the severe weather. I have tried many remedies, but have not found any trustworthy cure. The older animals—from one to two years old—have been remarkably healthy, did well in the yards, and continued thriving in the field, although slowly, owing no doubt to the wet state of the grass and the cold weather. Horses needed a good deal of corn to keep them up to their work. The grass seemed to do them no good; and it would be impossible for them to do much work on this strong clay without a lot of dry food. 2. Tillage operations.—I may state that nearly the whole of my farm, with the exception of 60 or 70 acres, is the strongest possible clay, thoroughly 230 The Past Agricultural Year. drained at 4 feet—although I certainly do not prefer such deep drains on strong clay—and in fair condition. Clovers did not take well in 1878; but as I only sow the best English and Welsh Red, and the best seeds of other clovers and grasses, they stood the winter well; and, although much later in spring, the hay-crop was a fair one. Turnips and swedes left on the ground during the winter were almost a total loss. I had some hundreds of loads rotten, and a great many more just like sponges. ‘Those “planted,” ¢.e. pulled with tops and roots left on and placed close together, kept good, and made capital feed till April. We had not a particularly bad seed-time, and the land worked remarkably well. As to fallow operations, a decent fallow was scarcely to be seen. Speaking personally, I like fallow ploughed for the first time in March and April: as a rule it works much better than that doue in autumn; it does not get “ soured” below, and keeps weeds back. My experience is that the autumn furrow is labour lost. This refers to bare fallow on strong land. As to draining, I quite believe that for strong land 23 feet is plenty deep enough, and I keep the ridges in the old form, but not too high. No end of harm has been done here by draining 4 feet and laying the land flat—the water cannot get off. The outlook for farmers is gloomy in the extreme. J. W. ANNETT. YorKSHIRE.—Olliver, Richmond. 1. Live-stock.—The winter and spring of 1879 bore hard on the flock- master. With due care and liberal feeding, doubtless many flocks have come through the ordeal without serious loss; but in order to this a large expendi- ture on extraneous food has been incurred. On the Earl of Zetland’s farms here, managed under my supervision, about 440 ewes are annually put to the ram ; one-half (being Black-faced Moor-ewes) are kept on a small moor on the outside of the estate, at an elevation of 1000 feet above sea-level. The others (Shropshires) are kept on the home farm, at an elevation of 550 feet. The keep of the Moor-ewes, in ordinary seasons, has been an allowance of hay, during such periods of the winter, averaging about one month, as the grass and heather have been covered with snow. This, with what they could pick up, had hitherto brought them very well through the winter. Last season they were hay-fed from the middle of December to the end of April, at a cost over ordinary seasons of not less than 6s. per head ; and even with this many of the ewes clipped very poor. The mortality in lambing, however, was not above 1 per cent. greater than the average of ten years previous, and the loss of lambs not quite 4 per cent. greater; and these were principally from the shearling ewes, - The Shropshire flock during the winter months is run over 250 acres of old pasture-land, getting a few turnips thrown down daily after the end of November, supplemented with a little cake and corn about a month before lambing. When the ground was covered with snow they had a mixture of pulped roots and straw-chaff daily, with 1 lb. of cake each—as much of the roots and straw as they could eat. Under this treatment the flock has done well, rarely losing as many ewes as 8 per cent. per annum, and frequently not so many as 2 per cent. During the last winter and spring they were trough-fed for four months, at an expense over ordinary seasons of at least 10s. per head. The deaths from October, when put to ram, to July 31, were twelve, an in- crease of nearly 34 per cent. over the average of years. On the 3lst July we had fourteen lambs fewer than the previous year, which was an average one. On the whole, the loss sustained by deaths, smaller increase and extra- keep, cannot have been less than 200/. Some of our neighbours who had fed The Past Agricultural Year 231 as liberally experienced about the same results. Others who did not do so sustained much heavier losses both of ewes and lambs, and financially a very much greater loss. Our greatest loss was from the shearling ewes and their produce, they being very poor, and their lambs so small and weak that many succumbed to the rigours of the season. ‘This shows they were not sufficiently maintained, and it would doubtless have been better management to have separated them from the ewes and kept them by themselves. 2. Village operations.—The wheat-crops stood the winter remarkably well, the only failures being on wet undrained land. Spring corn was very late sown, but in this district, on the whole, it went in well, and though quite three weeks late at harvest time, yet on all good sound and well-conditioned lands there was ample bulk for a good crop. The failure has been on wet, cold clays, and also on poor land even when not wet. Several fields on land of this description in this neighbourhood have been hardly worth reaping. This is attributed to the wet and cold summer more than the winter. Root-crops exposed during winter were very much damaged ; not so much from the frost, for they were well covered with snow during the time it was most intense, but from the wood-pigeons and rooks, which picked and damaged the crown of the bulb, after which it invariably rotted. ‘The loss varied, accord- ing to circumstances, from 30 to 50 per cent. of the fields unsecured. W. J. Moscror. LixcotnsHirE.—Claxby, Alford. I have now been farming for fifty-five years, and do not remember such a remarkable year as we have had since the latter end of October 1878. Part of my occupation is dry land, part lying lower is stiff, but it, too, is good land. On the former, the wheat-seeding got finished pretty satisfactorily. As to the lower land, it was impossible to complete the wheat-seeding; and for the first time during my experience I have been beaten. On the dry land the crops were fair; but, as to the lower land, the crops were the worst I ever knew. We had continual floods of rain from the latter end of October to the beginning of December, when frost and snow set in, and continued for a long time. The frost very much benefited the land (much damaged by autumn floods), so that we got a very fair spring seed-time, and not too late. A great deal of wheat was sown in spring, on such land as could not be sown in autumn, and, with a good seed-bed, came up well. But the floods of rain, which fell almost continually up to the end of July, afterwards damaged the wheat and barley-crops at least one-half; the whole of the time since seed- time, except for very short periods, having been wet, cold, and sunless. Turnips got fairly put in on dry land, by watching for a fine day, and «ame up Well; but it was too wet and cold for them to grow fast. And as regards the heavy land, a very short breadth could be sown, for the land could not be got into condition. Fallows on heavy land have been in a foul state, where too much freedom in cropping has been practised. 1 do not think there is so much advantage in autumn cultivation as some people say. The expense in cultivating, cleaning, picking, &c., is repaid when it happens to be an early harvest and dry autumn; but we do not get this as the rule. I think it better not to let the land get in a foul state by cross-cropping, or taking what some call more freedom in cultivation, but to farm generally on the four-course system, having one-fourth part turnips where land is suitable, one-fourth part seeds, and keeping a good flock of sheep on the farm, well fed. Autumn cultivation is not required under such a system ; and running the steam-cultivator across the fallows, so soon as it is dry in the spring, will bring the work up. J. B. Drine. 232 The Past Agricultural Year. CuEsHIRE.—Brassey Green, Tarporley. The extraordinarily wet and cold autumn, winter and spring we experienced in 1879 has totally unfitted all wet and cold lands for cereal crops; and the farmers in Cheshire are resolving to diminish their tillage-grounds and increase their pasturage. Early potatoes withstood the wet weather better than most other green crops. Turmips and mangolds most generally proved a failure; and there were hundreds of acres prepared that could not be got upon to sow, which have proved a very serious loss. The losses in the early part of the year amongst cattle, sheep and horses were much more numerous than usual. But the greatest disaster which about one-fourth of the Cheshire dairy farmers have recently experienced was in consequence of the great depression of the cheese trade which took place at the close of the winter, or very early in the spring. Numbers who had been offered 60s. and over for their dairies in the autumn, sold ultimately at 35s. and under; and unless in better times they had laid by in store, they cannot possibly grapple with present difficulties. As all my farm is down in grass, and nearly all drained and well-boned, I had after May a good bite of grass, though rather heavily stocked with sheep and feeding-cattle: still the cattle did not thrive so well as usual. The losses amongst sheep, chiefly through the rot, have been more numerous than usual, though not so heavy as in some other counties. Out of the grazing flock of 155 I have kept sixty-nine through a portion of the winter, and only three appeared to be affected, and two of these only in a very slight degree. ‘The remainder | am now disposing of to a neighbouring butcher at 10d. per Ib. ; and he says they answer his purpose better than heavy weights at 9d. Stocks of cattle in general are very much out of condition, and an unusual number are now casting their calves, and I scarcely ever remember barren cows and stirks being so numerous. Within the last few weeks cattle for the dairy have rapidly advanced in value. No doubt the great rise which has recently taken place in the value of cheese, and prospects having thus improved, is the chief cause of this advance in the price of live-stock. The stiffest portions of my farm, which all lies upon clay, have at times, through the heavy rain, sustained a little damage by the trampling of the cattle. J have, however, reaped the advantage of draining and having it in a good state of fertility. ‘There is a great scarcity of grass on large tracts of clay-land, which is mostly undrained in this part of Cheshire, but a good supply on light and rich soils. The late depression should teach agriculturists to live in times of sunshine and prosperity within their means, ,and guard against a lavish expenditure, It should incite them to be skiful and energetic, aiming at a high state of cultivation, and, if possible, making their farms produce more than their predecessors got. JOSEPH ASTON. NorrineHam.— Wollaton. (1.) Live-stock.—The prolonged winter of 1878 made evident two things. If stock had sufficient care and proper food, they were healthy and did well; when neglected in these matters, they suffered considerably. Particularly was this the case with sheep, and especially ewes. On many grass-farms where the chief stock kept are dairy cows, some one, two, or threescore ewes are often wintered hardly. Among these there was generally great mortality ; half, and in some cases all, the ewes died. But on farms where they had a little corn, bran and hay given to them they did well. I used hay-chaff ad lib., half-pound of decorticated cotton-cake, and half-pound malt-culms per head The Past Agricultural Year. 233- per day. The ewes ran on sound grass-land, and were very healthy, and forty-nine ewes produced ninety-one lambs. Good fat lambs were scarce, and sheep have not done so well as in drier seasons. I am happy to add that my ewes and hoggetts have been kept on dry grass-land, and, receiving the above liberal allowance of dry food, have kept sound. But the sheep-rot has made dreadful havoc among many flocks. I hear of one case where but twenty remain of a flock of 800. Cattle and horses have generally been healthy. Cows have milked well, but unless they had meal, or, better, decorticated. cotton-cake, there was but little cream in the milk. Grass has been too washy to produce butter or beef. (2.) Tillage and Crops.—W inter beans were a complete failure; many were ploughed up, and thousand-headed cabbage or other green crop planted in April ; and some fields left would have been better ploughed up, for they have done no good. On most strong land wheats were too thin; November of 1878 was so wet that much of the seed rotted in the ground. Farmyard-manure, applied at seed-time, has done no good whatever to wheat; but portable manures, especially soot, have answered well. Where only dung was used for wheat or barley on the cold clays the crop was a failure—acres did not yield the seed again, though the land had been drained, and each drain could be accurately traced by the extra height of the grain growing just over it. On wheat-land, after beans, clover or vetches, slugs have been dreadfully abundant, and have done much damage in the spring. For me they cleared off 18 acres of young clover. I sowed in early mornings and late evenings 4 bushels of hot lime per acre, and then re-sowed clover, and thus secured a plant. I would advise the sowing of 3 or 4 cwt. of salt per acre, especially after clover, peas, beans or vetches. As to autumn cultivation :—As a preparation for root-crops, it is my opinion that on strong land it is indispensable. We cannot depend upon having a plant of mangolds unless the seed is sown on the frost furrow. Our best plan is to cultivate (generally by steam) as soon as the harvest is finished : work out and clear off the weeds, getting the land ploughed—manuring first, if we can—but getting it ploughed before winter. Then, when it gets dry in the spring, apply broadcast the portable manure, working it well with drag and harrows, and drill on the flat, not too deep. By using these means we had a good plant ; but more sun was wanted for rapid growth. Of all farming operations here summer fallows were the worst. We could not let them alone; the weeds would go to seed; yet all work was wasted time. They were ploughed two or three times, but this has not done a scrap of good, for they were just as foul in August as at Christmas time. For many a summer fallow there must be paid three years’ rent, rates and labour bill, before there is any return. W. P. J. ALLSEBROOK. DerbysHIreE.— Ashbourne. The winter of 1878-9 was exceptionally severe in the Peak of Derbyshire. The land was frost-bound, and the snow lay on it for many months; and it was followed by a spring that was one only in name. Hence it followed that the large forage crops of "78 were in the great bulk of cases entirely consumed, and in many instances had to be supplemented by various kinds of feeding- stuffs, causing thereby a large and unexpected outlay, for which the prevailing low prices of farm-produce offered no corresponding return. The live-stock of the farm, as a rule, were very healthy through the winter, as they usually are in hard weather if only they are well attended to; but when spring-time came round they seemed to relax in condition, becoming 234 The Past Agricultural Year. soft and flaccid. This led in many instances to in-calf cows casting their calves too early, and ewes their lambs. In the lambing season the weather varied rapidly and frequently between extremes of hot and cold, causing much fatality among ewes. Parturient fever was rife, and many ewes in good condi- tion, so far as quantity of flesh goes, sickened and died very suddenly, when the weather became suddenly warm after a spell of cold. It is probable that sheep were not so easily and quickly infected with liver-rot in the winter of 1878-9 as they were in the following summer and autumn. It is to the astonishing spring and summer seasons of 1879 that we must attribute the disastrous malady from which sheep in many districts have been suffering. On the carboniferous limestone hills of Derbyshire, however, there are but isolated cases of rot, except among such sheep as were laid out to winter in other districts ; these are now failing with rot, and it is to be feared they will communicate it to the sound portions of the flocks to which they belong. In the Ashbourne district great numbers of sheep are dying, and many others are doomed, while even cattle are succumbing to the same parasitic disease. One limestone-land farmer of my acquaintance, who last autumn sent out fifty hoggetts to be wintered on a-low-lying farm on another/geological forma- tion, has already lost more than half of them, and expects the remainder will die; and his experience is that of one among scores. ‘The present state of things means wholesale ruin to many farmers. J. P. SHELDON. Derrbysuire.—Lartington. 1. Live-stock.—We have generally found after a severe winter that sheep, if they have had plenty of suitable food, have been strong and healthy, and have brought a good crop of lambs. During the winter of 1878-9 the sheep were kept well, but at the lambing season, the beginning of April (though we had lost none of any consequence), they were exceedingly poor, and short — of milk. I do not know how to account for their being so poor, unless it was the unusual severity of the winter. The fall of lambs was under the average both in numbers and quality. Among some of my neighbours the loss from scour and weakness has been very great. ‘The ewes were generally as strong and healthy as could be expected, considering the lateness and -wetness of the spring and the scarcity of food. Many, within a few miles round, were starved to death through the excessive wet and cold after they were shorn. Tam not aware that the prolonged winter and the wet spring have had any specially injurious effect upon the health of the horses and cattle. hey have had none in my own case, and I have heard no special complaints from my neighbours. We have to be thankful that in this neighbourhood the flocks have escaped the liver-rot which has caused such ravages elsewhere. 2. Tillage and Crops.—Oats are the only cereal grown about here; and these turned out better than was for a long time expected. ‘The first sown, about the beginning of April, especially on the leys—land that has for several years been laid down to grass—came up very poor and thin; those which were sown about three weeks after came up better. For a long time we expected to have to cut them green, but those who waited had the satis- faction to find them get fairly ripe ; and the latest corn turned out best, for the weather was fine from the middle of October till towards the end of November, thereby giving us a chance of getting the corn in. The crops of grass were fair, but hay-harvest will not soon be forgotten. With some farmers it extended from the middle of July to about the end of October. Whoever has experienced one hay-harvest like that of 1879, will never wish to experience another similar to it. A deal of the hay is worse The Past Agriculturat Year. 235 than straw. Even hay that seemed to be got in well, has very little “ nature ” in it, and does the cattle scarcely any good. The turnips, what few were sown early, had for the most part to be sown over again; but those which had not to be sown over again, were by far a better crop than the late sown ones, for the late sown ones could not grow on account of the wet and cold. In the worst season previous to 1879, we always managed to secure enough of turnips to give to the sheep while they were lambing, but this season we have failed to do even that. As to my ownjexperience in general, during the year 1879, I never knew anything like it. We foddered the cows with hay till either the 5th or 6th of June, and then we began again to fodder them with hay in August, for they had trodden the pasture into a mire. During the latter half of May, and the former half of June, they gave little more than half their usual quantity of milk, and throughout the season the yield of milk fell much short of the average. What with high rents, high rates, high wages, and disastrous seasons, on the one hand, and the low prices of everything but beef and mutton, of which we have not now much to sell, on the other, I never knew the farmers of this county so thoroughly pinched as they are now. For the first time since I have been a farmer they are beginning to talk of throwing up their farms. But if they did, such is the insane competition for laud in this part, the farms would at present be eagerly taken up; if not by bond jide farmers, by trades- men who have saved a bit of money. JoHN NADEN. STAFFORDSHIRE.—Croxden Abbey, Uttoucter. 1. Live-stock—My small flock of eighty Shropshires were wintered on grass-land, and supplied during the hard weather, and afterwards through the lambing season, with plenty of good hay in racks and 3 lb. of decorticated cotton-cake each daily. Few roots were given until after lambing. The ewes wintered well, and the total loss of ewes was three, two of which had three dead lambs each. The fall of lambs was large, and although the loss during the season was, in consequence of inclement weather, greater than usual, the number of lambs weaned considerably exceeded one and a half per ewe. Over thirty ewe-hoggetts also reared one lamb each. In consequence of the scarcity of spring food, extra food had to be given to the ewes until the middle of May; and even with this expensive extra keep, the constant rain and cold winds retarded the growth of the lambs. The yearling wether- hoggetts, which I generally fatten at thirteen to fifteen months old, throve well during the hard weather on sound sheltered meadows, having a few roots fresh from the pit, with hay and mixed cake and corn, 1 1b. each, daily. One hundred were wintered and have been all, except fifteen, sold fat, the lowest price being 55s. each out of the wool. Rather less than usual of foot-rot, a very troublesome complaint in this land, has affected my sheep. Except for the greater cost than usual of cake and com consumed, in consequence of the severity of the season, I can find no fault with the general result of my flock. In many cases, however, in this district the result has been far different. Some of my next neighbours have suffered heavy losses from the liver-rot, acquired probably during the very wet season in the middle of last corn harvest, by keeping sheep thickly on wet land. A large percentage of the sheep of this district were more or less tainted at the early part of the winter, and the severity of the season doubtless caused many to succumb sooner than they would have done in a mild winter. Cattle did not, where well fed, thrive amiss during the hard weather, though 236 The Past Agricultural Year. it told upon a few animals of bad constitution. From the heavy fall of snow, which lay very long upon the land, cattle were far more than usual in this district dependent upon dry fodder for their subsistence ; and the hay-crop of 1878, one of the heaviest ever known in this district, barely sufficed to maintain the cattle through the long severe winter and cold last spring. I had my roots all secured before the hard weather fully set in, except 2 acres of cabbages which were carted out to cattle and yearling sheep in the snow in the early winter, and, although frozen, were consumed without difficulty. I attribute one or two cases of abortion in the cows to this use of frosted cabbage. Cattle have not, however, thriven so well as usual during the grazing season. They were cold and uncomfortable, and the grass was washy and deficient in quality as well as in quantity. The experience of managers of dairy factories who take exact measurement is that they had 25 per cent. less milk during the season from the same number of cows; and this was generally confirmed by private dairymen. Pastures, even when usually sound, were much trodden and damaged by heavy stock. In the valley of the Dove, where large numbers of cattle are fattened in the grass season, there was general complaint of the bad growth of the cattle, very many beasts having been worth little more than when turned out. 2. Tillage Operations.—My root-land was sown with wheat just previous to the hard frost; the seed lay in the ground nearly four months. On the drier land it eventually came well. On the strongest land the deluge of rain in March rotted much of the seed, and it came up thin. Spring corn went in well, the strong land working freely from the frost. The root-land worked very well, having been ploughed in October and November. My mangolds were all sown in April, but the cold weather hindered their start. The difficulty of keeping down chickweed and other condition weeds was very great. Swedes were a good plant, but in low places were much checked by the excessive wet. Cabbages, of which most farmers in this district grow some, planting in May for autumn-consumption by cattle, were generally very poor. Many plants were destroyed or injured by the winter; and on all heavy land the excess of rain damaged, if it did not utterly spoil them. Though cabbages do not in ordinary seasons do well on dry soils, they suffer on all tenacious soils at least as much as any root from excessive wet. Drainage, even where deep enough and with drains at moderate distances apart, has proved only a partial and inefficient remedy on clay soils for the damage produced by excessive wet. Autumn cultivation in this comparatively late district is not always possible or desirable. Where the land is clean and tolerably free from annuals it is better ploughed deeply, without stirring the surface, early in the autumn, and then left untouched until the work of sowing roots is commenced in April or May, leaving the winter’s frost to pulverise the soil. [na fine early season much good may, however, be done by working and cleanirg in the autumn any dirty land. As to bare fallows, the season was most difficult for cleaning them, Ido not have them. I think any land requiring them regularly ought to be laid away to grass. W. T. CarrineTon. STAFFORDSHIRE.—L/ford Park. 1. Live-stock.—As regards sheep, the losses have been fearful, and this has not been confined to one district or class of farm. Men who never had a rotten sheep before have lost scores. Two or three cases occur to me: one The Past Agricultural Year. 237 of 100 theaves and 40 hoggetts; another of 150, ali the breeding flock ; another of forty, and so on. None of these, except the hoggetts, were bought sheep, and they were kept on the ordinary pastures. All flocks had serious losses at lambing, principally from low fever, caused, I think, by want of nitrogenous food. {I have little doubt but that my own loss of fourteen theaves was caused by this, not from want of food; but I think more blood- food was needed. During the last month of pregnancy, when the fetus seems to develop rapidly, was the eritical period. All that died, or were ill, were young sheep with twins. Shropshire sheep are very prolific, and we induce this habit by feeding them on rather stimulating herbage at tupping time, so that we ought to be doubly careful in unpropitious weather, particularly if very cold and wet. Where it can be had, a good run of grass, with a few turnips—and, during the last month or so of pregnancy, a pound of oats, peas or cake, or a mixture of them, given with a little clover-chaff or bran—is a good flesh-forming diet. For similar reasons lambs needed young pastures and trough-meat during the spring and summer. 2. Tillage Operations.—As to the effect of the winter and spring on crop- ping, it may be broadly stated that the strong and cold soils suffered severely. Wheat was thin on the ground, and very backward. The earliest sown on such soils fared the best, from getting fairly rooted before the frost set in. Land of uneven surface, even where drained, lost plant in the hollows from the snow being drifted into them, and alternately thawed and frozen. The old rules remain: sow difficult working land early, on fairly rounded stetches ; cut water grips, draw furrows, and do not harrow down too fine, Barley, in consequence of the long frost, went in well, but was the worst crop of the season. Winter beans were a failure; they had many enemies beside the frost. The great loss of roots from exposure ought to teach every one that it is poor economy to neglect taking every care of such an expensive | and valuable crop. We had to plough up our winter tares. Under an ordinary rainfall succeeding the long and severe frost, fallows, I have no | doubt, would have worked admirably ; but what we hoped would prove our _ blessing was our bane. The disintegrated soil admitted the water so freely | and fully, and the quantity of rainfall being in excess and the temperature | below par, any attempt at ploughing or scuffling the land simply puddled or plastered it; cleaning was out of the question, and a great breadth of roots was sown in a very unsatisfactory manner. Hoeing was simply transplanting weeds. All crops (seeds especially) have been much benefited by ammoniacal top-dressings ; and an amount which, under a forcing season, would have been dangerous to the crop, has this year been absorbed healthily and, I think, | economically. G, A. May, SHROPSHIRE.—Church Stretton. 1. As to the live-stock. The drop of lambs was usually in this district below the average, with very great losses during and after the lambing season, and the loss among the ewes was almost unprecedented. Owing to the wet autumn and severe winter, thousands of sheep have died from the rot or fluke in the liver; but on my own farm I have been wonderfully fortunate, as my loss has been nominal, although the drop of lambs was not large: 415 lambs, after the lambing season was well over, from 331 ewes, 21 of which were barren. Feeding-sheep did well on swedes, where they were well looked after ; but in many places there were great losses from the roots being left exposed | in the fields; and these did the sheen little or no good, if they did not even \ 238 The Past Agricultural Year. go quite rotten. I had a quantity covered up before the frost, which kept well until the second week in May, and finished off the hoggs by shearing time. The wool was not, as a rule, of such good quality as usual, owing, | suppose, to the great amount of cold and wet. Sheep, and especially lambs, did badly all summer; even when fed with cake they did not improve as they ought to have done, although they were all healthy and well, except that foot- rot was prevalent, and needed constant attention. The lambs scoured a good deal, but recovered under the influence of constant change of pasture, cake, and rock-salt to lick when they pleased. I ama great believer in salt —al]l animals are fond of it. Cattle did better than could have been expected, and I had no disease among mine, nor many mishaps. They calved better than they had for years, and I had no case of casting calf, which I have been sadly troubled with for years. They were fed and treated exactly the same as usual. Horses did well, but there was a great mortality among brood-mares at foaling time, and many colts were lost. There were great complaints of mares not standing to the horse, and mares were very late, as a rule, before coming in use. 2. As to the crops of the furm. All my wheat, called “‘ Red-straw White” * (1 grow no other; it can be sown autumn or spring, and is a mixed red-and- white variety of first-class quality), stood the winter well, except on the wet places, and where the drains failed to act. What was sown after vetches, eaten with sheep last summer, seemed to be the best. Most of my winter or autumn-sown vetches entirely perished, and had to be re-sown in the spring ; and nearly all the roots left exposed rotted. On my farm some yellow bullock- turnips, late sown, had kept well, and were useful in the lambing time; these were exposed to all the frost. The wheat sown late lay in the ground during the long frost, and afterwards came up well without any damage. I suppose it had not germinated when the frost set in. I have learnt by experience that in this district wheat cannot be sown too early. The last week in Sep- tember and the first two weeks in October are, in my opinion, the best times for sowing. It is of no use attempting here to do much in cleaning fallows in the autumn, the weather nearly always stopping it. The best course is to plough well and deeply, and watch your opportunity to clean as early as — possible in the spring. Ridge up the turnip and mangold land, even if rough and dirty. Let it lie for a time, then harrow and split the rows, and the land can be cleaned with little trouble by picking the ridges and chain-harrowing, &c., repeating the operation as often as necessary. It was almost impossible to get root-crops really clean last summer, however long we continued at them, with scuffle, hoe, and hand. Joun Hirt. August 19th, 1879. HEREFORDSHIRE.—Baysham Court, Ross. 1. As to the live-stock, Never was the benefit of thorough draining, or the advantage of having naturally dry soils, more apparent than during the past twelve months; and particularly has this been the case for sheep. On wet lands many whole flocks have fallen victims to liver-rot, and severe losses have been sustained in flocks where that disease was previously unknown. The difficulty of retaining the health of our flocks upon dry soils has been great, and the mutton which has been made has been owing to a severe * See Report on Wheats, by John Morton, in the first volume of the ‘Journal’ (1840). The Past Agricultural Year. 239 outlay for feeding-stuffs, both corn and oil-cake. Where a liberal supply of dry food has been given, the ewes did fairly well,and produced a good lot of healthy lambs. The prevalence of foot-rot, or rather lameness from the blood- poisoning of foot-and-mouth disease, which prevailed so generally throughout the county in 1872 and 1874, has been most perplexing to both shepherd and master. Although the herds have been generally healthy, yet from the nature of the grass, and the continued rain upon the animals, it has been requisite to resort to artificial feeding to make beef with advantage. 2. As to the crops of the farm. ‘The beneficial effect of thorough draining, or of naturally dry soils, is as apparent here as in the flocks. The wheat stood the severity of the winter, the subsequent wet spring, and the cold wet summer, better than any other cereal. But upon a very extensive portion of the poor, cold, wet soils of the county the wheat has scarcely paid for seed and labour. Particularly is this the case after clover, peas, beans, and vetches,, as, from the continued wet seasons of the past two years, the slug, in addition to the perishing influence of the cold wet, has been most destructive; and the thin weak plant remaining was sadly choked with weeds which it was impossible to eradicate. It was quite the exception to see a field of winter beans, so completely were they destroyed. The effects of the late spring were but too apparent on the barley and oat-crops, with the exception of some early-planted barley upon the dry and highly-cultivated land. Severe losses were sustained from the action of the frost upon the uncovered swedes and turnips; and as the frost of 1879 commenced unusually early, it was the ex- ception to see many covered, consequently the feeding-sheep and cattle were early forced into the market, and for a few weeks caused depression in price. Fortunately the abundant hay and fodder crops of 1878 enabled farmers generally to keep their store stock through the very protracted winter, but in very many cases the whole was consumed. The fruit, too, was very deficient, although one of the healthiest and most abundant blossoms ever seen. In fact the general prospect in this county is one of the worst I have ever known. The continuance of drenching rain upon the manure in uncovered fold-yards renders the purchasing of artificial feeding-stuffs disheartening, as also the attempts to cultivate undrained land. Covered fold-yards and drained lands are, I think, two of the most important requirements of the day. T. DuckHAm. WorcestersHire.—Lower Clopton, Stratford-on-Avon. 1. The Live-stock.—The drop of lambs was an average one. They remained in a healthy state, owing to some vetches and rape (mixed) having been planted on the 3rd of March to feed them upon, which has produced an abun- dance of keep. Six pecks of vetches (winter), and 8 lbs. of rape was sown to the acre. I think this is the most useful food for lambs, and it should be planted in succession, to feed them at night, turning them on the clovers in the day. ‘The cattle have not done so well, on account of the excessive quantity of rain, 2. The Crops.—The wheat remained in the ground without showing green from the first week in November until the latter end of February. The winter destroyed a portion of the grains, but still it wonderfully thickened, and on my farm looked very even. I only plant two kinds of wheat here, viz. Reedy Red and the Square Head—none after naked fallows. Barley comes after fallows, and has suffered more than anything else on my farm. It will not be anything like what it should be, for the land is highly farmed and all drained, and the seed was well put in, Ihad a good plant of clover, but the weather: has been unfavourable for harvest-work. Winter beans were almost a failure. 240 The Past Agricultural Year. in this district ; but I was lucky with mine, and got a very good crop. They were planted from the 16th to the 26th of October, all dibbled. They did not appear out of the ground until the first week in March. The effect of the late spring and the drenching rains of the summer will be long remembered by the poor farmers. No fallows were profitable : a great deal could not be made fit for planting; and a great deal of land is going out of cultivation. With regard to land drainage, I consider a great deal of mischief has been done by cross-draining on heavy clay-land. The proper way, in my opinion, is to let the water go where it has been accustomed to travel. A great deal of land has been thrown out of its old ridge and furrow by the use of steam cultivation ; and my opinion is, nothing will beat ploughing by horses, and keeping your land in ridge and furrow. Where the soil is the same as mine, the drains should be 3 feet deep at the furrows. Keep your master-drains well attended to, and there will be good results. It is the custom of many as soon as harvest is over to smash up the land, for the sake of getting rid of the annual weeds and being forward with the work; but my experience tells me that a good flock of ewes will clear all the annual weeds away and prepare it for the plough, when land is free from couch and docks. A great many sheep have been rotted in this district the last two years. Henry STILGor. BERKSHIRE.— Oookham, Maidenhead. Wheat could not be sown late in the autumn of 1878, or early in the spring of 1879, on account of the rain and frost ; and the prospect as to future prices appeared so unsatisfactory that few were tempted to risk late spring sowing, consequently the acreage of wheat was exceptionally small. The character of the season, so unsuitable for the maturing of this crop, produced its natural result, and we had on this small acreage a bad yield of inferior quality, much of it stacked so hastily as to unfit it for immediate threshing. Probably 33 quarters to the acre will be found on some of the better lands, but much will yield considerably less than this. Barley and oats suffered less than the wheat ; but there are no full crops of either, and in many cases the crop is miserably deficient in yield and quality, and a large proportion was carried badly, the late season having induced too great haste, considering the large undergrowth of clover or rubbish. The settlement of many ricks and the steam arising from some told their tale. The hay-crop, both clover and meadow, although late, was good in bulk; but the continuous rain, or rather the very short intervals without rain, ren- dered it almost impossible to get it together in good order. Root-crops need sunshine as well as rain, and suffered severely from the want of it. A few fair pieces of mangold-wurzel were seen, but the swedes were small and poor in the extreme; their growth appeared to have been stunted, and they looked starved, even on the best lands in good condition. Rape was a good deal grown as a forlorn hope, but it was scanty and bad, and altogether the prospect for sheep keep was far worse than I ever knew it. Potatoes were almost a failure, although there were a few exceptions where the coarser sorts had been grown on fresh and dry ground. The ground generally got very foul—not only the stubbles but even the fallows—as it has been impossible to clean land. The late harvest added to this difficulty. Harvest began about September Ist, and was not finished till nearly the middle of October. It must be understood that the remarks I have made as to yield of the corn- crops apply to the loams and lighter lands in this district. The state of the ¢lay-lands and low-lying Thames lands has been lamentable, I have heard —————— The Past Agricultural Year. 241 of good clay farms on which the yield of ai7 kinds of corn is put at less than one quarter per acre. Meadows near the Thames were in many instances flooded to such an extent that portions of the crop which had been cut were carried away or completely spoiled, while other portions, varying from 2 or 3 to 50 or 60 acres on a single farm were left uncut. The fruit-crop has proved a very bad one. Altogether the season has been most disastrous to the English farmer; a result due, I believe, to the special character of the weather we have experienced, viz. excessive rain and the absence of sunshine. W. Buustrope. BUCKINGHAMSHIRE.— Woolston, near Bletchley. For over forty years my regular practice has been to winter my ewe flock by a run in the grass-field in the daytime, and folding them in the yard at night, feeding them in cribs with bean-straw. They had always done well, eiving a good healthy lot of lambs. In the autumn of 1878 my ewes were unusually strong; and I treated them in every respect as I had done in former years. ‘They remained healthy and strong throughout the winter, yet they gave me a poor fall of lambs—20 per cent. either dead, or so weak that they could not live, and 80 per cent. that did live were unusually weak, and did not do well till I had weaned them. The weakness of the lambs must have been caused by the cold winter; but why it should have been so I cannot under- stand, for the ewes came out strong at lambing time, with a full supply of milk about them. My tegs that I put upon swedes, cake, corn, and hay for the winter suffered by cold the most, for I lost some 10 per cent. of them by inflammation of the lungs. I lost by the same cause only 1 per cent. of my ewe-tegs that are kept for stores; they lay all through the winter in the grass- fields, receiving 4} pint maize daily, and some hay when the ground was covered by snow. All that was the matter with my sheep through the winter was inflammation of the lungs, and the curious fact is that the ewe-tegs that were left in the field to take care of themselves suffered the least. I have no fallow, my land being now all seeded down for permanent pasture. WILLIAM SMITH. Norta Norrotx.—WNorth Walsham. 1. Live-stock.—Our farm contains between five and six hundred acres arable. We farm under no particular course, but grow from one-fourth to one-fifth of our land with roots, part mangold and part swedes. No sheep are bred, and but few kept, the soil being more adapted for cattle-feeding, carrying about 200 head between the autumn and spring, fattened for the London and local markets. Our experience of the two past seasons has been anything but pleasant or profitable. Our cattle retained their health through the winter ; but, although fed extravagantly high through winter, they fattened very slowly. ‘This we attributed to the inclemency of the weather and the want of more shelter, our yards being too large in proportion to the sheds, causing a further loss in straw for bedding, and a still greater one in the destruction of manure, the continued rains and snow washing away its more fertilising ingredients. We are now building more shedding, indeed covering in the greater portion of the yards, to prevent a repetition of this loss, which we believe, during the ead three seasons, has more than equalled the cost of the buildings now in and. 2. Crops.—We had a good crop of corn in 1878, and secured the greater VOL. XVI.—S. S. R 242 The Past Agricultural Year. portion of the wheat in good condition; but our barley was injured by the excessive rains that followed, to the extent of from 10s. to 20s. per quarter. The wheat that was left was much sprouted, and damaged from 3s. to 8s, per quarter. Some of this loss might have been avoided by an earlier commence- ment of harvest, and by more care in setting up the wheat after the reaper, the sheaves requiring to be set up straight and firm, and not too many in a shock: ten are sufficient, or even fewer, if placed in a circular form to represent a cone. After the completion of the harvest of 1878 we had a brief interval of fine weather, which enabled us to do a little in the way of autumn tillage; but a rainy season again set in, continuing more or less till the month of December, when snow and frost visited us. We succeeded in getting about three-fourths of the autumn-wheat sown, and with much difficulty got the mangold off the ground and secured. This crop was good; the swedes scarcely an average. There was no chance to secure or store any of the latter; numbers of acres entirely destroyed by the frost, were cut up in the spring and ploughed into the land for barley, resulting in a laid crop. This manuring proved more: potent than a fair dressing of nitrate of soda and superphosphate. Wheats on wet and undrained land were thinly planted, and altogether a very indifferent crop; and even upon dry sound soils, both spring and autumn- sown, bulky and apparently good, proved a disappointment, the ears being more blighted and defective than we had ever seen them, and the yield generally bad. What otherwise could be expected from the extraordinary wet season they experienced? Barley on the strong and wet lands was a miserable failure; but on well-farmed porous soils not to be complained of. The same may be said of oats. Winter beans were in this district entirely destroyed by the frost. The land was well-manured in the early spring and resown with spring beans and peas. The former promised a fine crop; the latter a very indifferent one. Both mangold and swedes were a good plant, at least upon all light or mixed soils, but filthy in the extreme. It was impossible to destroy the weeds, especially the chickweed, which grows as fast as it is cut. Potatoes, both early and late and of all kinds, were universally diseased. I have farmed for a period of forty years and never remember a season so fraught with disaster, nor one likely to be attended with such serious con- sequences to the English farmer. W. Cusirt. Hampsuire.—Northbrook, Micheldever. The drop of lambs was an average one, but there was a large number of deaths among the young ewes. Horses and cattle kept in good health, and the pigs in very good health. After clover the wheat looked very thin in the early spring, but improved greatly afterwards. On the mangold ground the wheat appeared to be little affected by the cold winter, but it did not continue to do so well afterwards. After turnips, fed off by the sheep, the wheat always. promised fairly. Rivett wheat after wheat looked bad all along; it was sown late and was hardly up when the frost began. The varieties grown are Mixed Red-and-White, Bromwich, Golden Drop, Square Head, Club Red, and Rivett. With exception of the Rivett, as noticed above, no particular sort appears to have suffered more than another. My impression from observation is, that the late frosts and snows and cold weather did more damage to the wheat than the severe weather of the winter. The winter frosts made a splendid seed-bed for the barley and oats, and the dry weather of March (when the rainfall here was only *84 in.) was very useful for cleaning the land. ‘The soil here being light, on chalk, there is no The Past Agricultural Year. 243 draining required, and were it not that the hay-crop was damaged seriously, prospects would have been good, as wheat, oats, and barley did fairly well. I was during the spring a good deal on some heavy land in Essex, drained 4 feet deep, and examined some of the drains; the land was soaked with water, and the crop ruined. The pipes were about a quarter full of clay, but I could see no evidence of their being stopped up entirely, yet there was almost no water running out of the main outfalls. The conclusion I came to was that the frost had pulverised the clay, and the rainfall of April, May and June had beaten it down and almost puddled it, rendering it impervious, and preventing the water getting down to the 4-feet drains. A depth of 3 feet would, I think, have given a better chance. On this heavy land all the crops were bad; but the damage chiefly resulted from the excessive rain of the summer months and the low temperature during that period. JAMES A. CAIRD. Hamesuire.—Chalcombe, Winchester. 1. Liive-stock.—Hampshire is one of the largest sheep-breeding counties in England, and the Hampshire Downs, which attain enormous weights and are especially remarkable for early maturity, are almost exclusively kept. Their flesh is nearly if not quite equal to the Southdown. I have had them 100 lbs. weight at 9 months, and I haye sold 100 to the butcher at that age at 80s. per head. The lambing season begins early in February, and at that time there was last year abundance of hay and a fair quantity of roots, but the hay was bad and the roots became affected by the frost. Cake was generally used after lambing with the doubles and young ewes, but, notwithstanding, the flocks fell away in condition, and the breed of lambs was worse than I ever knew, and more ewes died. ‘The flocks of the county were worth less in the spring as couples than the ewes alone would have made in the previous autumn. They had more than lost their winter’s keep. The cold and late spring caused a working out of the hay, and green food was slow in coming; till in May the rain came on and thereafter continued, so that the roots were got in with diffi- culty and could not be hoed, consequently many acres have been ploughed up, or fed off prematurely with the weeds. Few cattle are kept in this county, as there is little pasture beside water- meadows, which are usually kept for sheep, with the exception of farms near any railway station which supplies milk to London; and as the cows are kept in a very artificial way, the severe winter had no especial effect upon them. A few Irish steers are bought to eat straw and cake, but, owing to the extreme cold and the fall in the value of cattle, they were not a success last year. The autumn of 1878 was not unfavourable for sowing and general cleaning and cultivation, and steam-tackle was freely resorted to. I have two double sets of Fowler’s tackle; but there are also many sets let out at a moderate rate. The wheat was put in well, but so cold was the weather that much of it never made an appearance for four months and then, especially the Rivett, looked very sickly and thin. On the light lands the frost thinned it, and on the heavy the wet had the same effect. The crop looked worst on the latter description of land, and altogether was a bad one. The spring corn was well planted, and the oats looked well and were the crop of the season. Barley was fairly good on well-farmed light land, but useless on heavy, wet and cold ground. Fine weather was sorely needed for everything; first, to save the hay; then for cleaning roots; and lastly, but not least, for all varieties of corn. J. STRATTON. Raz 244 The Past Agricultural Year. Sussex.—Chichester. 1. Live-stock—Horned stock, where fed on hay, thrived well, even with a smaller amount of roots than usual, the hay having been harvested in prime condition in 1878 ; but those fed on straw, with the usual amount of roots, did badly, straw of that year’s growth being very inferior. We were very free from disease amongst stock. Sheep did well, with very few losses; but the drop of lambs varied a great deal. The forward ewes, lambing about Christmas and January, did very well, with a capital fall of lambs for early fatting. The flock which lambed from middle of February to middle of March did very badly, losing a great many ewes, with a very short fall of lambs. I breed from my ewe-tegs at twelve months old. ‘They lambed from middle of March till middle of April, and did well. The forward ewes were Hampshire Downs, in-lamb-when I bought them (end of August). I allowed them as many roots as they liked to eat, with about 1 1b. of hay apiece daily. The flock (South- downs) were allowed very few swedes, as much cut chaff (half hay and half oat-straw) as they would eat, and about 3 1b. of best linseed-cake daily from the beginning of January. ‘The ewe-tegs had as many white turnips as they would eat, 1 lb. of hay per day, but no cake before they lambed. The forward ewes were kept on a medium soil, light brick-earth, and lambed there. The tlock we kept on a strong brick-earth, and lambed there. The ewe-tegs we kept in the same field as the flock until they began lambing, then they were sent to the homestead where the forward ewes were keeping, and lambed in the same fold. The ewes and lambs did not do well during the summer, suffering a good deal from foot-rot and the great amount of moisture in their {ood ; but they kept healthy till they were weaned. 2. Crops.—l do not generally begin wheat sowing before October 20th. We had a very wet time to put it in, and some land which would have been sown with wheat had to stand over for spring-sowing. After the wheat was sown it lay in the ground longer than I ever knew it before; and when it did come up it was with a very weak shoot, which could not make way against the hard weather we had. Wheat after rape or fallow-crop answered best, then after fed lea, and the red-clover lea was worse than any other. In the same field you could see to a foot where the red clover grew. Much of it was a failure altogether, and had to be ploughed up or re-sown. Red wheats appear to have stood this trying time much better than white, promising a large return. In my neighbourhood we have a wheat peculiar to this district, called “ Old-fashioned Red and White-strawed,” being a mixed wheat; the red having white chaff, similar to Red Nursery, with a bolder berry. This sort was one of the worst this year, after Talavera and Fluff, which, however, are very little sown here. I have sown a considerable quantity of Biddle’s Imperial* for several years; it answers well on our fed leas, having a stiff straw. Being very heavy in the bushel, millers are very fond of it after buying it a few times. It was introduced here a few years since by I’, Padwick, Esq., of Thorney, who had the seed from Herefordshire, whence we vet a change of seed now. It grows very much more white after being grown here a few years. I did not sow any wheat in the spring, but I hear it is better than the autumn-sown. Owing to the wet weather, barley and oats were not sown so soon as usual by a month, not beginning before the 8th of March ; but it was a very good seed-bed for our land, the hard frosts having pulverised the land wondertully. They came up, and promised well. As to cleaning the land and preparing for the root-crops, it was quite im- possible if not done in the autumn of the previous year. I was fortunate in having my worst pieces done at that time, for any that was not attended to * See p. 109 in the ‘Journal,’ vol. x. s.s. The Past Agricultural Year. 245 then could not be done in the spring or summer, especially where the land was not drained. I have been long enovgh in my farm to get my ditches and water-courses well out, and to drain most of the land to a depth of 4 feet 6 inches. It has also been drained with the old turf or wedge drains some years ago; these we cut asunder and fill up with broken chalk down to the deeper tile-drains. ‘This plan carries the water off very quickly, and I begin to think almost too quickly, for I am afraid the water takes some of the properties of the manure down with it, the benefit of which is lost to the land. This evil, however, we must not mind so much as stagnant water, which is injurious in any year, and more in ayear like the present. Mangolds did not like their circumstances at all, and not more than a fourth of the ground sown remained with a crop of mangolds on it. Swedes and turnips did better and — grew away well; but the continued wet prevented their being sown so soon as usual by nearly a month. The weeds started and raced with the young plants. Labour being plentiful, we could check this by hoeing, but it did not kill them. Iam speaking only of my own farm and of crops grown on the level land below Chichester. I hear they were very bad on the hills and in sandy land. I think I should have stated that where roots were sown after once ploughing in summer they looked best; in other years we could get nothing worth speaking of without two or three ploughings. C. J. DrewitT. DorsEtsHIrE.— Waterston, Dorchester, 1. Live-stock.—The winter of 1878-79 was the most trying for sheep I ever experienced. My stock consists of 950 flock ewes and about 400 hogzetts ; the latter were kept on roots and hay (swedes from November to May) and did fairly well; the roots were pulled beforehand, but not cut for them. The ewes were well kept, and fed as carefully as possible on turnips and hay, with a run on old pasture part of the day, till the end of January. If the turnip land was wet, they were not allowed to lie on it. About a week before they commenced lambing they were given some old hay on grass; and a yard was prepared to put them in by night, should the weather be rough. The first part of the lambing time it was very cold, but dry; the lambs came strong, and the ewes were healthy. We generally lose some ewes at this period from straining. When the snow came, with cold rain and wet and mud under foot, we found a change; lambs were born apparently healthy, but died when two or three days old. Ewes did not get over their difticulties so well. A plentiful supply of straw was at hand, but the latter part of the lambing was not nearly so good as the beginning, ‘here was a large pro- portion of twins, or the crop of lambs would have been very deficient ; as it was, we were 150 short, and lost 4 per cent. of ewes. ‘lhe sheep did badly all the spring. They were well supplied with swedes, hay and grass, and had the run of the young clovers, and the mothers of the wether lambs had oats for a time, but never did so well as usual. When put in the water-meadows in April, both ewes and lambs scoured very considerably. We lost. lambs continually. I believe the swedes, although not rotten, were of inferior quality, from the effects of the severe frosts; and all green food, turnip-tops, clovers and grass, from lack of sun and the low temperature which prevailed all the spring, were not so wholesome or nutritious as is generally the case. Fortunately the previous year’s hay was both good and plentiful, and the sheep were supplied with it for nearly seven months. My sheep stock had most attention, caused me more anxiety, and I think suffered more from the past untoward season than anything else. Many ewes pined away and died in the spring from the 246 The Past Agricultural Year. effects of this winter. Some of my neighbours were equally unfortunate. I believe farms exposed to the north and north-east suffered most. My dairy of sixty cows lived in yards on straw, with cake, and a few roots, or a run out by day on some rough pasture, and did well and calved all right. Horses had an easy time of it. Some days during the hard weather they were not out; but two or three were nearly constantly employed carting roots to the sheltered spots and leeward hedges for the sheep. 2. As to the crops of the farm. My system of cropping is the seven-field ; viz. 1. Wheat; 2. Barley; 3. Roots, preceded by Italian rye-grass, rye, winter barley, trifolium or vetches in succession; 4. Roots, rape, or kale; 5. Corn, chiefly wheat with clover seeds; 6. Clover, mown for hay; 7. Clover. Wheat was all sown in October and November, but it made little growth all the winter; in fact, much of the wheat-land looked like a bare fallow. The plant was always thin, but I do not think much was killed by frost. On very light chalk-land it was sown after the presser, and consequently was well buried. In March, which was fortunately a dry month, it was rolled, well harrowed, and rolled again; and ultimately looked far better than I ever expected. The surface filled up, except in some spots, and the ears were a good size. Barley, chiefly after wheat-stubble (which was smashed up after harvest, and well worked and cleaned in the spring) was well put in, except on strong land, which should have had an extra ploughing if fine weather could have been insured. Even that was well pulverised by the frost and had a good surface; but the quantity of rain in June (nearly 6 inches) was a great injury to the barley, making it look very yellow; and the flag became struck with rust and blighted. Oats were generally good; the wet season has suited them. Clover afforded a fair cut, though fed late. All hay was more or less damaged. We now come to the all important root-crop. I sow about 200 acres of the various kinds, for feeding in succession; and my system gives nearly half this quantity after a previous root-crop. This enables me to get the land in order without much trouble, and to drill mangold, rape, or kale, as soon as barley sowing is completed. My land this year was therefore prepared, and the bulk of the crop got in before the heavy rains of June and the beginning of this month; and consequently I had a capital plant of all kinds, each made vigorous growth ; and a good part of the hoeing was done. ‘The early part of the season the fallows worked exceedingly well, thanks to the frost ; and none of my crops suffered from turnip-fly or wire-worm. I will only add that I have a great variety of soils; some very light, on gravel and sand, some strong clay with large flints; but the greater portion of my farm is a chalky loam, not very deep, with chalk subsoil; and being naturally dry, I was not impeded in my work by the wet spring to any great extent. RicHarD GENGE. A succession of local reports, each of which possesses some special interest, is more likely to be studied than a formal essay would be, in which the general result extracted from them might be presented to the reader. These reports have therefore been given separately ; and there only remains the task of pointing out a few of the more important lessons which they seem to teach. In the first place, it must be acknowledged that even the . The Past Agricultural Year. 247 picture of misfortune, gloomy as it is, in which they concur, does not sufficiently represent the disastrous truth of the past agricultural year. Great as the losses have been, and general enough to override and overwhelm such attempts at resistance or recovery as might, under a less severe infliction, have presented us with useful and instructive results, the picture given of them in the above reports is insufficient in almost every aspect. They were for the most part written immediately before harvest ; and although most of them have been since submitted to the writers, and have received their corrections up to a more recent date, there is, nevertheless, a great deal of disastrous experience which has since been realised. ‘The character of the corn-harvest has been ascertained beyond a doubt by the threshing-machine. And the true dimensions of the unprecedented prevalence of the liver-rot in sheep have become more accurately known. Both of these experiences are a true consequence of the weather during the period covered by Mr. G. J. Symons’ Meteorological Report in the outset of this paper. The weather of the subse- quent months, unusually severe though it has been, has been also unusually dry; but it has been as little able to remedy the mischief done by the previous wet season on the health of our flocks as it could be to remedy the evil done to the wheat-crop already harvested. The sheep-rot, the germs of which had had such scope given them by the wet weather of the season described by Mr. Symons, had only begun to display itself when these reports originally came in. Since that time the disaster has assumed really national proportions, Even in dry and arable counties, such as Norfolk and Sussex, which have certain marsh and grass-land districts, instances of the destruction of whole flocks are reported; and the county and agricultural papers have been full of cases of the kind in the midland and western counties, where grass-land is more general. Examples, quoted by the ‘ Bradford Observer,’ from the correspondence of a local firm of wool-merchants, are given of the enormous losses of sheep- farmers in the counties of Northampton, Warwick, Worcester, Oxford, Stafford, Gloucester, Somerset, and Devonshire ; and it cannot be doubted that the next annual Agricultural Statistics published by the Board of Trade will show a marked diminu- tion of the sheep-stock throughout the country in consequence. In low-lying districts, and on badly-drained pasture-lands, the losses have been ruinous. The experience of the corn-harvest is perhaps reported with suflicient truth in the correspondence given above. It was accu- rately anticipated, both from the appearance of the crops in the ripening ear, and from the knowledge that a wet and cold May and June rendered it certain that the actual yield must fall 248 The Fast Agricultural Year. below the promise of the harvest-field. Accordingly, of the returns to the ‘ Agricultural Gazette,’ given in the midst of har- vest-time, more than three-fourths of the reports of the wheat- crop, and three-fifths of those of the barley-crop, stated it to be below an average. The oat-crop, indeed, was the only fair corn-crop of the year. Mr. Lawes’ account of his experience at Rothamsted gave an even more disastrous picture of the corn produce of the country ; and in the ‘ Times’ of March 3, Mr. T. C. Scott has pointed out that the quantity of home-grown. wheat reported as delivered at market during the first six months since last harvest has been only 3,276,000 quarters as compared with 5,873,000 quarters during the corresponding period of 1878-9. ‘The quality indeed of the home-produce has been so exceptionally inferior, that much of it has been given to live- stock, and has not therefore appeared in those returns” this year. To appreciate with accuracy the position of the English farmer generally, however, we must, to losses in the flock and to diminished receipts in the corn-market, add the very dirty con- dition of much of the arable land ; and, above all, the great loss of capital due to a succession of bad seasons. It is certain that fallows never were fouler than they were last autumn; and flock and stock and farm capital were never lower than the seasons described by Mr. Symons have left them. No wonder that one of my correspondents in Lancashire adds to his report,— ‘“ Farmers have at length been taught when valuing the rent they can afford to give, to take into their consideration what effect a succession of bad seasons may have upon the occupation.” A large number of reports have reached me from many Eng- lish and Scotch counties for which I have not been able to find room. They tell the same story as those already quoted. Mr. W. Smith, of West Drums, Forfarshire, after relating his experi- ence, says :— “This is a gloomy enough picture, but I am very sure it is not overdrawn. I have farmed a pretty large extent of arable and pasture land since 1896, and I have a registry of farm operations ever since I put my hand to the work, I have recorded no such season as the present in all that time. The lessons such seasons teach are really few. We cannot contend with Nature in such a mood. Had the calamity been confined to one year it might have been got over, but after a succession of bad seasons this one will, in my opinion, be the ruin of thousands of even our comparatively well-to-do men. It is believed that nothing has been known like it since 1816, which our fathers spoke of as next to 1799 and 1800, as being the most fatal year in farming on record.” This inability to furnish lessons is a consequence of the over- whelming degree of the general failure. Applying to Mr. C. Randell, of Evesham, for instance, for any experience he might have, in which drained and undrained land could this year he The Past Agricultural Year. 249 contrasted, he replies, “ I cannot help you. The wet, cold season has told on all land—clay (drained and undrained), gravel, sand, and chalk—alike. Strange to say, some dry lands seem to have suffered more, especially in quality of both wheat and barley, than heavy clays. Grass-land farmers are not much better off. Feeding, dairying, and young cattle have all done badly. Sheep almost everywhere are more or less affected by the rot.” If any lessons at all can be gathered, they are, as regards the winter and early spring months, in the words of a Lanarkshire correspondent (1), early and comfortable housing of all cattle on the farm; and (2) early securing and storing all green crops before winter against loss, however promising the season may appear to be. ‘The advantages of covered yards for stock, and of energy and activity at harvest-time whether of corn or roots, are undoubtedly among the experiences of the period we have passed through. And, as to land drainage, whether an overwhelming and continuous downfall of rain has. or has not made clay-land—drained and undrained alike— equally unmanageable and unproductive during 1879, we are not likely any the more to lose our confidence in it as a neces- sary first step to good and economical management, whether of soil or manure, in all ordinary seasons. The two principal lessons of the year appear to me to be represented best of all in the letters from Mr. C. Randell, of Evesham, and Mr. G. Brown, of Watten; and they point to liberty of action, as affording at once the opportunity and the stimulus of the tenant-farmer in all cases of unusual difficulty, whether due to weather or to markets or disease. Mr. Randell in particular advocates liberty for the cultivator to choose what crops he shall grow and how he shall dispose of them; and Mr. Brown gives an admirable example of what activity and resolution may accomplish in the circumstance of a most difficult harvest-time. I cannot do better, in conclusion, than recommend any one who may have followed these pages hitherto, to turn back to the beginning and read once more the communications from Mr, Randell and Mr. Brown, which head the long series of in- structive and valuable reports of which this paper for the most part consists.* * Tt is hardly fair to the hay- and corn-drying machine of Mr. W. A. Gibbs, of Gillwell Park, Chingford, Essex, which he has been for many years urging on the attention of the farmer, that this reference to its efficacy, as one of the lessons of the season, should be placed only as a footnote to a page. It will, however, perhaps be more likely to catch the eye by its separate position here. And it is very desirable that it should not be passed over. A model was exhibited at Kilburn, and the machine itself was shown in operation not far from the Show- yard. There is now ample testimony to its efficiency, and, though I cannot yet speak from personal experience, there seems to me no reason now to doubt that ( 950) XIV.— Observations on the Disease of the Cow, commonly known as Dropping after Calving. By JAMES Brart Srmonps, Principal of the Royal Veterinary College. UNDER various names, such as Drop, Dropping after calving, Milk fever, Puerperal fever, Adynamic fever, Parturient apo- plexy, &c., a fatal disease attacking the cow shortly after or even occasionally before or at the time of parturition has long been recognised, In days gone by the pathology of the malady was very im- perfectly understood, and consequently the most conflicting opinions thereon were promulgated by writers on cattle patho- logy, as well as by practitioners of veterinary medicine. Even in the present day it cannot be said that a uniformity of opinion prevails, many persons still clinging to the views which were first advanced by the late Mr. Youatt, in his work on ‘Cattle, their Breeds, Management, and Diseases’ (1834), viz. that “this disease is primarily inflammation of the womb or of the peritoneum, but that it afterwards assumes an intensity of character truly specific.” With more correct views, however, other authors and practitioners now regard the diséase as non- inflammatory, and as being dependent on functional derange- ment of the brain and nervous system. Tur Name.—lI abandon all other names to give preference to Parturient apoplexy, notwithstanding that some of them may convey to the mind the existence of well-marked symptoms of the disease, such as Dropping after calving. The term Milk fever I also hold to be inappropriate; but by no means so much so as Puerperal fever, which strictly means ‘ Child-bed fever,” and consequently ought never to have been used in con- nection with parturition of the cow. Like dropping after calving, Adynamic fever*—loss of power associated with fever—points to the inability of the animal to rise; but beyond this we learn at a cost not much exceeding that of ordinary haymaking in average weather, the last stages of the process can, in a difficult season, be accomplished artificially with economy and success. Such a testimony as that of Mr. Roddick, of Quintain Hill, Waltham Abbey, certainly deserves attention: “ Nineteen loads of damaged hay, which would otherwise have been useless, were rendered fit for stacking at the rate of 24 loads per hour. I realized 601. or 701. by the day and a-half use of the hay dryer.” Mr. Ainsworth, of Smithells Hall, Bolton, also writes: “I have saved a Dutch barnful of hay during rain and without any roof over the machine.” We are none of us disposed to make permanent costly preparation against what is only an exceptional disaster; but on the home and central farms of an estate, and on large farms anywhere, and among the plant of those contract men whose services for threshing, steam-ploughing, drilling, &e., are in most districts to be hired, it seems no longer doubtful that Mr. Gibbs's hay and corn dryer should find a place. * In another part of this Essay I shall speak of Adynamic fever in connection with an animal’s incapability to rise when pregnant. Observations on the Disease of the Cow, Sc. 251 nothing by the addition of the term either of the symptoms or nature of the malady. It was not until 1836 that an effectual effort was made to get rid even of the name of Puerperal fever, then so generally applied, and also of the disease being of an inflammatory nature. In that year an animated discussion took place in the Veterinary Medical Association, when the late Mr. Youatt stated that his opinion of the nature of the disease had undergone a change, and that he took strong objections to the name of Puerperal fever. Many of the speakers nevertheless defended both the name and the inflammatory theory, while others considered the digestive organs as being chiefly implicated. Some spoke of the secretion of milk being arrested, but only one or two drew attention to the evident derangement of the nervous system. The most definite opinion, however, of the nervous system being chiefly involved, was at that time expressed by the late Mr. Friend, of Walsall, who, in a communication to the ‘ Veteri- narian, wrote as follows: “I consider the disease to be one originating in the organic motor nerves.” The dim light which Was thus shed on the pathology of the malady was, however, only discerned by a few practitioners, and for three or four years longer the pages of the ‘ Veterinarian’ continued to be occupied with conflicting opinions, both on the propriety of the name and the pathology of the malady. Progress, however, was made ; and in 1840 the writer of the present paper went beyond many members of the profession who even regarded the nervous system as principally involved, and expressly stated that such derangement depended entirely on an apoplectic condition of the brain and spinal cord. Experience has shown the correctness of this view of the pathology of the disease, and hence the appropriateness of the name, Parturient apoplexy. SUSCEPTIBILITY.—No animal of the farm except the cow is the subject of the malady, although all are liable to be attacked with inflammatory and other diseases at the period of parturi- tion. Even with cows, all are not equally predisposed to par- turient apoplexy, young being less so than aged. Heifers producing their first calf when about two years and a half old may be regarded as altogether insusceptible, and the same may be said with reference to their second calving, as a rule. Succeed- ing labours, however, are attended with greater danger even up to the time that the cow may be rightly designated an old one. Potent for evil as advanced age undoubtedly is, it cannot, never- theless, be affirmed that the oldest animals will be attacked, for daily experience proves that many a middle-aged cow will fall a victim to the disease, although there are older animals in the same herd. The capability of a cow to yield a large quantity 252 Observations on the Disease of the Cow, of milk exercises considerable predisposing influence, and bad milkers are therefore, as a rule, found to be far less susceptible to the disease. As the mammary glands may be said to be at their fullest development, if not immediately at their greatest activity, at the third calving, so it would appear that adultism becomes more dangerous when combined with the power to produce a full lacteal secretion at the time of parturition. Besides this combination, susceptibility is greatly increased by breed: well-bred Yorkshire cows and English-bred Jersey cows being most susceptible, thriving Suffolk and Ayrshire and Dutch cows following in the rear. Well-bred animals have, as is well known, an hereditary predisposition to early maturity, and even plethora. And although it cannot be said that “ good milkers” are plethoric animals, still an innate tendency, depend- ing on breed, to accumulate flesh, materially adds to their sus- ceptibility to be attacked with the disease. Generous feeding, more especially if associated with this hereditary predisposition, and a capability of yielding a full quantity of milk, will neces- sarily increase this liability. It has often been observed that cows of this description, which in the latter period of ute®o- gestation have ceased to give milk, and are generously fed, and perhaps allowed to remain at pasture in the summer when the rest of the herd are driven home for milking, have their suscep- tibility even thereby increased. These several things explain, in part, the well-established fact of the disease being prevalent in some districts and rarely seen in others, Some persons have sought an explanation of this localisation of parturient apoplexy simply in the character of the soil, the rich quality of the food, and the generous feeding of the animals. It is true that on sandy and poor soils the malady is rare; but its prevalence in other districts does not exclusively depend on an opposite condition of the soil, nor on the good management or richness of the grazing land, nor on the high feeding of the cows ; nor, may I add, is it due to the large number of animals which are kept within a limited area. In many dairy districts, where these conditions exist, but where well-bred and good milk- ing cows are sparsely distributed, very few cases of parturient apoplexy are seen. I am practically familiar with many such districts, as with others where the malady is exceedingly rife. In speaking of the causes which favour predisposition, the influence of the weather must not be lost sight of. In the height of summer, although fewer cows may calve within a given area, more cases will occur than in the spring, when the larger number of calves are born. It is also noteworthy that in some years the disease is comparatively rare, while in others it is very prevalent. In considering the predisposing causes of the attack, attention commonly known as Dropping after Calving. 253 may also be directed to the conformation of bovine animals, their liability to great excitation at the time of parturition, and their idiosyncrasy or natural tendency to brain disturb- ance especially when suffering from diseases which implicate the functions of the stomachs, and none the less also of the uterus and other organs. Compared with simple-stomached herbivora, and with many other ruminants, bovine animals are short-necked, and are provided with a more capacious venous system for the return of the blood from the brain. This latter anatomical peculiarity probably depends on the greater length of time which they naturally occupy in grazing, and the necessary pendent position of the head during the whole of such time. The shortness of the neck may, however, exert an influence also in the production of that excited condition of the brain which is often observed both in cows and heifers immediately after parturition in the defence of their young. Their ordinary docile habit is not unfrequently changed to such an extent as to amount to parturient delirium, rendering it dangerous to approach them, and not unfrequently leading to their killing their offspring. Conformation and advanced age in cows, as in the human subject, are powerful agents in the production of apoplectic attacks. Susceptibility is also increased by a previous attack. Cows which recover from the disease are exceedingly liable to become victims to it at the next calving. Exceptions are, how- ever, now and then met with; but the danger is so great that no risk of the kind should be run. In the preceding observations I have endeavoured to explain most of the causes which increase the susceptibility of an animal to be attacked, and I here add that among such causes is that of the period of utero-gestation being fully completed. The malady does not attend, or very rarely, on abortion or premature labour, nor even on protracted labour, especially if manual assistance has been necessary to effect delivery. Inflammation of the uterus, with which dropping has so long been confounded, follows commonly enough on first births, and in young and also impoverished animals and bad milkers, as well as on cases of abortion, premature labours, and mechanically-assisted deliveries. These, indeed, are fruitful sources of inflammation of the uterus, but not of apoplectic attacks. Another marked difference between the two affections is the time which elapses subsequent to delivery and the occurrence of ill-health. Inflammation of the uterus rarely shows itself before the fourth or fifth day after parturition, and is always preceded by febrile excitement and its concomitants, whereas, as has been stated, the susceptibility to parturient apoplexy has either greatly diminished or entirely passed away, by the expiration of the third, or fourth day at the furthest, after delivery. Coma also does not 254 Observations on the Disease of the Cow, necessarily belong to inflammation; but it is the leading dia- gnostic symptom of “ dropping.” Again, in inflammation of the uterus, death rarely follows in less than four to five days; while in dropping, forty-eight hours, with very few exceptions, is the extreme period of duration. Cows which, as “in-calvers,” are sent from market to market, undergoing exertion thereby, are rendered less liable to dropping, but not to inflammation. Lastly, I may repeat that every variety of animal is liable to inflammation of the uterus, but the cow only to parturient apoplexy. PaTHOLOGY.—From what has been advanced, it will be seen that I regard “dropping after calving” as true apoplexy, due to the act of parturition. In what way the apoplectic attack may be caused is not so easy to determine. Some persons have spoken of its production by the “ throwing back into the system of the access of blood which had been sent to the foetus” in utero. Strictly speaking, no such throwing back takes place ; the foetus having its own independent set of blood-vessels. It is quite true, however, that by the contraction of the walls of the uterus after delivery its vessels are closed against the passage of the blood to a very great extent, and consequently for a time repletion of all the other vessels of the body may be said to exist. Doubtless the rapidity with which balance of the circulation is obtained will be in proportion to the activity of the several secretory organs, and perhaps by none more so than by the mammary glands. A free secretion of milk, especially charged as it now is with colostrum, gives earlier and more complete relief to the vessels than would be afforded by any other secretion—milk and blood being so closely allied in composition. It is, how- ever, to be remembered that this secretion often precedes partu- rition, and continues until arrested by the apoplectic attack ; and not only so, but until coma succeeds, and that during this time all the other secreting glands are apparently in a state of activity. Simple repletion of the blood-vessels, under such circumstances, would be early removed, and doubtless fairly completed by the third or fourth day, not until which time, however, will the attack in many instances be found to occur. With reference to the relationship existing between the nervous system and the secretion of milk, it may be affirmed that no secretion is so much under the influence of nerve force. It is not improbable that science may hereafter establish a close connection between an attack of parturient apoplexy and the capability of the mammary glands not merely to secrete but to freely effect the formation of the granulated cells of colostrum, with which the first milk is so largely charged. By their free pro- duction, it may certainly be affirmed that fatty matter is effectively and in a rapid manner eliminated from the blood, thus reducing commonly known as Dropping after Calving. 255 plethora of the vessels and changing the character of the fluid, and probably its action thereby over the entire nervous system. The influence of nerve force upon the amount of the lacteal secretion is doubtless best seen in the human subject, as is that of the character of the secretion itself. Dr. Carpenter, in his ‘Manual of Physiology,’ says, “‘ Under the influence of grief or anxiety the secretion of milk is either checked altogether, or it is diminished in amount and deteriorated in quality. The secre- tion is usually checked altogether by terror, and under the influ- ence of violent passion it may be so changed in its characters as to produce the most injurious and even fatal consequences to the infant.” I quote this passage chiefly to show the probability of an alteration in the power of the mammary glands in secreting the first or colostric milk, as having an important and direct influence over the nervous system, or indirectly upon it through ‘the quality of the blood; this in turn depending upon the amount of fatty matter the circulating fluid contains, or, in other words, on the quantity of colostrum which is secreted immediately before or after parturition. It is not difficult to understand how, under such circumstances, the blood and the nervous system can act and re-act abnormally on each other. So closely attendant on parturition is an attack of the disease, that in a few instances the cow has fallen even before the birth of the calf had been completed. Parturient apoplexy, however, as a rule, occurs shortly after calving, and may happen at any time, as before stated, between the birth of the calf and the close of the fourth day. Why the liability should cease so soon is not easy to determine. It may possibly, as has been hinted at, depend on the excitability of the nervous system being now removed by the mammary glands having eliminated with the lacteal secretion a large proportion of the fatty matter of the blood in the cells of colostrum, In support of this view is the well- known fact that by this time the milk has to a great extent lost the characters of a colostric secretion. Doubtless this theory of the pathology of the disease is open to objection, and so, as it appears to me, is that which fixes primarily the disordered nerve force on the ganglionic nerves of the uterus. It has been supposed that some marked but undefined impress is made on these nerves by parturition, which is quickly conveyed to the cerebro-spinal and cerebral systems. If this be so, it is not difficult to account for the congested state of the vessels of the spinal cord and the brain, of which apoplexy essentially consists. The remarkable sudden- ness of the attack may also be said to favour the view of the nervous system being primarily and directly impressed. Thus a cow, in all respects in perfect health and exercising her 256 Observations on the Disease of the Cow, natural maternal interest towards her calf, will be observed to suddenly stagger, fall, and soon to pass into a comatose condi- tion, which ends too often in speedy death. INDICATIONS AND PROGRESS OF THE ATTACK.—Apart from the very exceptional cases alluded to in which the attack takes place even before parturition, I may here repeat that immediately after her delivery the cow is likely to be affected. The earlier the attack, the more serious does the case become as a rule. In some instances premonitory symptoms are to be observed ; but not in the majority of cases. Indeed it will be found that not only has the cow calved without difficulty, and labour been completed by the expulsion of the foetal membranes; but that she has yielded a fair quantity of milk, partaken of her food with an appetite, has ruminated, digested, and assimilated it, and voided the feeculent matter in its natural condition, and given every other indication of unimpaired health. Suddenly, how- ever, she is observed to cease feeding, to stagger or assume a fixed position, seemingly conscious that if she attempts to move she will fall. The eyes becomes glassy and amaurotic, and with a bewildered stare she recognises her calf for an instant, moans or bellows, staggers and falls. With mouth half open, tongue protruding, breathing laboured and countenance ex- pressive of intense suffering, she will sometimes make two or three ineffectual attempts to rise. As a rule, however, she remains down and either throws herself on her side, or lies on the belly with the head carried backwards towards the flank, and resting on the floor. The body becomes clammy, the ex- tremities cold, and the evacuations of feces and urine cease. The pupilary openings of the eyes are dilated, and the vessels of eyelids engorged with blood, tears not unfrequently trickling down the face. Perfect unconsciousness quickly succeeds, or, in medical language, she becomes comatose, and one by one the special senses are lost as well as all voluntary movements. Coma has been rightly defined to be “ that condition in which the functions of animal life are suspended, with the exception of the mixed function of respiration ; while the functions of organic life, and especially of the circulation, continue in action. There is neither thought, nor the power of voluntary motion nor sensa- tion.” * Thus it will be observed that in the stricken cow the eyes are insensible to the stimulus of light, the limbs to feeling, the ears to sound, and the nostrils to the sense of smell. The taste also and the power of deglutition are gone, the breathing is difficult and stertorous, and the pulse indistinct, wavering and irregular. Besides the loss of swallowing, the implication of the digestive organs in the morbid process is shown by the * Dr. Thomas Watson’s lectures on the principles and practice of physic. commonly known as Dropping after Calving. 257 ingesta in the rumen passing into a state of fermentation, pro- ducing that distension of the viscus, termed tympanitis. ‘This condition of the organ is accompanied with frequent eructa- tions, and what is most remarkable in connection with these is the passing of ingesta from the rumen into the cesophagus, its ascent up the tube to the mouth and its descent therefrom into the windpipe, and ultimately into the ramifications of the bronchial tubes. In such cases death depends not directly on the apoplectic state of the brain and spinal marrow, but upon suffocation—asphyxia. The tympanitic state of the rumen, apart from the eructations, adds greatly to the animal’s suffering, by impeding the breath- ing, and thereby adding to the difficulty of the circulation. Exacerbations of suffering are well marked throughout, and are accompanied with spasmodic twitchings, and often with painful convulsions. The cow no longer rests on the belly, but struggles to get on her side, in doing which the head falls heavily on the floor, and generally in a line with the body. No effort on the part of those in attendance can prevent these spasms. Con- vulsion succeeds convulsion, only to cease with death. Such, in brief, are the symptoms which mark the existence and progress of parturient apoplexy. The duration of the disease varies, and, as can be readily understood, the recoveries are very few. The majority of the animals are found to sink in twenty to twenty-four hours from the attack. Life is rarely prolonged more than forty-eight hours ; indeed it often ceases within four to six hours in cases which are accompanied with convulsions from the beginning. In some instances the disease assumes a less serious type, and the cow is found to retain consciousness for a short time after dropping, to be followed, however, by coma, usually within the first twelve hours; all the leading phenomena of the malady following in due course. Such cases are none the less fatal on this account ; but in the still rarer instances in which the animal does not exhibit a complete withdrawal of consciousness the reco- very is pretty certain. It would appear that, in such cases as these, the vessels of the spinal marrow only are in an apoplectic condition, those of the brain being congested, but not to engorge- ment. Occasionally, however, even in cases in which complete coma is present for twenty-four hours or upwards, the animal has been found to rally. Throughout the attack the cow has lain quiet, convulsions have had hardly any existence, and spas- modic twitchings of muscles have been only slightly marked. Returning consciousness is the most favourable indication of recovery, especially if associated with a temporary recognition VOL. XVI.—S. §. 258 Observations on the Disease of Cows, of the calf, a desire to partake of water or other fluid, a passing away of the tympanitic state of the belly, and a return of the functions of the bowels. In these cases the warmth comes back to the extremities, the pulse becomes distinct and regular, and the breathing unaccompanied with stertor. The animal soon rises under such favourable conditions, and the secretions— manifestly that of the milk—as well as the excretions are speedily resumed. Not the least remarkable thing is the rapidity with which a favourable change takes place. We have often left animals, de- spairing almost entirely of their restoration, and have returned within three or four hours and found them standing with scarcely an unfavourable symptom present. The only explanation which can be given of these cases is that the congested state of the blood-vessels of the brain and spinal marrow had quickly yielded, and a free circulation of the blood been re-established. Post-Mortem APPEARANCES.—It may be correctly affirmed that had veterinary surgeons earlier followed up their observations on the symptoms and progress of parturient apoplexy by search- ing post-mortem examinations, its true pathology would sooner have been recognised. In bygone days it was too much the custom for opinions to be drawn of the nature of almost all internal maladies, simply from the lesions which were to be detected either in the abdomen or chest. In this way we account for the long-existing opinion that parturient apoplexy of the cow was of the same nature as puerperal fever of the human female, viz., that essentially it consisted of inflammation of the uterus and peritoneum. MJarely, however, will it be observed that even the uterus itself presents conditions which would not have been noticed had the cow suffered no illness of any kind, but been slaughtered within the period of calving that the attack usually comes on. Now and then a blush of redness will be seen on its peritoneal surface, limited in extent, and due merely to a hyperemic condition of its vessels. In no case have we met with diffused inflammation of the peritoneum, nor of the coats of any of the abdominal viscera. The liver sometimes gives evidence of congestion, and the mucous membrane of the fourth stomach, and also of the intes- tinal canal, will not unfrequently present here and there a slight inflammatory blush, which owes its origin in most cases to the large doses of cathartic and other medicinal agents which had been administered. Now and then also the omasum—third stomach—will be found to contain an unusual amount of in- gesta, which is rather hard and dry; a state of things simply due to coma having impaired its function and led consequently to retention of its contents. commonly known as Dropping after Calving. 259 The viscera of the chest are more frequently involved in morbid action ; but the pleura cannot be said to give evidence of true in- flammation except under peculiar circumstances. The heart, and also the vessels of the lungs, are generally distended with dark- coloured blood, as the result of mere passive congestion. A most remarkable lesion is not unfrequently met with in the windpipe and bronchial tubes, even to their smallest ramifica- tions, produced by the presence of ingesta which had found its way from the rumen—the first stomach—into the air-passages. In the spasmodic eructations which accompany the comatose stage of the disease, portions of the contents of the ruamen—as has been stated in the description of the symptoms—are forced into the cesophagus, and, ascending into the fauces, pass with the tidal air directly into the windpipe. Nothing can more dis- tinctly show the amount of coma which is present than this; for the passage of the ingesta from the fauces through the glottal opening and larynx is unaccompanied with cough or any imme- diate distress on the part of the animal, In such instances death results from asphyxia, and it may be added that not only ingesta, but even some of the medicine which had incautiously been given—without the appliance of the stomach-pump to secure its conveyance into the rumen—will not unfrequently be found within the bronchial tubes. As will be surmised from the foregoing observations, the special lesions of parturient apoplexy will be found in the brain and spinal cord. The vessels of both the cerebrum and cerebellum are turgid with blood, and not unfrequently blood extravasations are met with between the membranes of the brain, within its ventricles or on its surface. A similar state of the vessels will be found in the spinal cord, especially in its cervical por- tion. Here both the turgescence of the vessels and the extrava- sation of blood are often far greater than in the brain itself. The sheath of the cord participates in the morbid action, and in some instances its vessels, even from the atlas to the lumbar vertebrae, will be found engorged with blood. In one remark- able case examined several years since we found the spinal sheath throughout its full length in such a hyperemic condition that it appeared as if it had been dipped in a deep red dye. In this case also softening of the cord itself existed in the lumbar region. The animal was attacked twenty-two hours after parturition, and survived only about thirty-six hours. She was prostrate for a longer time before coma became complete than is generally observed in the disease. In connection with the lesions of the brain and spinal cord mention may be made of a remarkable case which happened to a cow of our own, ‘The animal survived the attack for the long s2 260 Observations on the Disease of Cows, space of 120 hours; and although the coma yielded somewhat during the time, she never became fully conscious, nor rose from the recumbent position. On making a post-mortem examina- tion the upper portion of the sheath of the spinal cord, from its origin to the extent of several inches, was found deeply stained of a red colour, and a considerable amount of gelatinous exudation of serum existed between the cord and its sheath. Nothing can more satisfactorily prove the true nature of dropping after calving than lesions such as these. TREATMENT.—It cannot be expected in a disease like par- turient apoplexy that curative measures would prove effica- cious except in very rare instances. Some practitioners centre all their hopes of cure on being able by a free use of cathartic agents to excite the bowels to increased action. Others rely on unloading the surcharged blood-vessels by blood-lettings ; and others again, by the use of stimulants, to rouse suspended nerve force that the blood may thus be driven through the congested and disabled vessels, and the balance of the circulation re-esta- blished. Besides these means we meet with practitioners who, regarding ;the disease as milk-fever, direct their efforts mainly to restoring the lacteal secretion by frequent drawing at the teats. ‘The value of these measures may be said to consist rather in their combination than in their individuality ; and it may therefore be said that none of them should be neglected. With reference to the withdrawal of blood, it may be stated that its advantages will depend on the stage of the disease when the animal is first seen. Should the cow be still standing, although supporting the position with the greatest difficulty, or even should she be down, but not yet in a comatose condition, a copious blood-letting should be adopted. If blood be abstracted, it should flow until the pulse wavers from its loss; but if coma should have set in, no justification can be found for blood-letting. We have often known the abstraction of blood in this stage to speedily bring about a fatal termination. As with the withdrawal of blood, so with the exhibition of cathartic medicine, it should be early adopted. A compound formed of sulphate of magnesia, powdered croton, compound tinc- ture of aloes, and a small quantity of calomel, will be found to be as good as any. ‘The dose should be a powerful one, consisting of three-fourths to a pound of the sulphate of magnesia, twenty to thirty grains of croton-seed, four to six ounces of compound tincture of aloes, and a drachm of calomel; for if an impress can be made on the nerves of organic life by arousing the half-suspended peristaltic action of the intestines, great good will be done. We hold, indeed, that benefit results more from quickening the peristaltic movements than by the mere evacu- commonly known as Dropping after Calving. 261 ation of faces. Still it must be borne in mind that the admi- nistration of repeated doses of drastic purgatives is not to be commended, for it frequently happens that, should a favourable change in the symptoms take place, a copious and continuous diarrheea will set in, which will prove fatal to the semi-conva- lescent animal, being the result of inflammation of the mucous membrane of the stomachs and intestines induced by the medi- cine. If any adjunct to the cathartic jirst administered be required, it should consist of enemas often repeated ; a stimu- lating one occasionally, but mainly composed of a bland fluid like soap and water. We take no objection to drawing at the teats, if not too per- severingly had recourse to, for such a proceeding does, in our opinion, more harm than good, by disquieting the animal by so frequently altering her position to get at the mammary glands. Milking can only remove the fluid from the reservoirs of the glands which had been secreted prior to the attack; and after- wards it can go but little way towards restoring the secretion of the mammez when coma has set in. As adjuncts to these means, as well as to others yet to be named, the animal should be thickly clothed, and every effort made to promote warmth of the surface. For this purpose we have known warm flat-irons, as used in the laundry, gently passed over the body from time to time, to be attended with advantage. The legs should also be rubbed with a stimulating liniment, such as turpentine and oil in equal quantities, and wrapped in warm flannel-bandages. Sinapisms should likewise be applied to the abdomen. The spine may be rubbed with a stimulating liniment,“particularly over the region of the back and loins ; but the head should be kept cool by the application of cloths dipped in cold water. To this extent and to no further should the so-called antiphlogistic plan of treatment be adopted. Con- trasted with the phlogistic, which consists of the exhibition of stimulating agents even from the commencement of the attack, experience has shown that it is less successful. We may here state that it is of the first importance, nay, imperatively necessary, that whatever is given either as medi- cine or as a dietetic agent, it should be administered by the stomach-pump. Before coma sets in, the power of deglutition is impaired, and afterwards it is lost, and even when conscious- ness is returning it is barely restored. Fluids poured into the mouth will under such circumstances often pass into the wind- pipe instead of the stomach. Again and again, in making post- mortem examinations, have we found medicine, gruel, &c., in the bronchial tubes, and we repeat that many an animal has been sacrificed—fatal as may be the disease—to a want of precaution in the administration of remedial agents. 262 Observations on the Disease of the Cow, With reference to the exhibition of stimulants it must be borne in mind that one of the earliest symptoms after the animal falls is the rapid fermentation of the ingesta in the rumen, pro- ducing that distended state of the abdomen before alluded to. This condition of the rumen adds greatly to the animal’s suf- ferings, being accompanied with painful eructations. The gaseous matter evolved from the fermenting ingesta practically consists of carbonic anhydride, to neutralise which ammonia is required. Aromatic spirit of ammonia, in one-ounce to two- ounce doses, with a somewhat larger quantity of tincture of ginger, should be given, and repeated according to circum- stances. The tympany may also be relieved, and indeed should be, by occasionally passing the tube of the stomach-pump into the rumen, thus mechanically effecting the removal of the gaseous matter. This procedure will not unfrequently be bene- ficial in another and no less important way, for by it ingesta will be detected in the cesophagus, which by moderate pressure, as in cases of choking, can be thrust back into the rumen, affording considerable relief to the animal. The list of stimulating tinctures and mixtures which are admissible is great, and for the most part they may be advan- tageously mixed with ordinary spirits, such as brandy, whisky, gin, wine, &c. Good wine is to be preferred to spirit, espe- cially in those cases where agents of this kind have frequently to be administered. Its effects are more lasting than those of spirit ; besides which much less irritation of the mucous mem- brane of the stomachs and bowels will attend its repeated exhi- bition. The agent, however, of the stimulating class which in our hands has proved the most useful is the oil of turpentine. It may be given conjoined with the ethers, nitric or sulphuric, in doses of an ounce and a half every three to four hours for the first sixteen or eighteen hours, should coma continue so long. Throughout the whole attack the cow must be well propped up with bundles of straw, and kept lying as much as possible on the belly. She should also be occasionally moved over from one side to the other. This is of more importance than may at first appear, for by it slight tympany will often be removed ; but what is even of greater importance is that stagnation of blood in the parts of the body most pressed upon is thereby prevented. A want of turning has led in several instances to gangrene of the hind-quarters, and ultimately to death therefrom, of animals which had recovered from the comatose condition, had risen and had entered upon the convalescent stage. From the preceding remarks it will be inferred that medicinal agents will have been employed to their full extent while the condition of the animal demanded their use. On a favourable change taking place, and especially if the cow should rise, commonly known as Dropping after Calving. 263 recognise her calf and present indications of recovery, no more medicine should be given; but every care and attention be paid to the animal by good nursing and a careful selection of easily digested food. PREVENTIVE Mrasurrs.—The great fatality of the disease, notwithstanding the best directed efforts of cure, gives an in- creased value to the means of prevention, as on them reliance has to be placed for diminishing the number of attacks. The basis on which prevention rests is that of bringing the pregnant animal into as healthy and natural a condition as possible, by the adoption of hygienic and dietetic principles. Cows of a full habit of body or plethoric tendency are, as we have seen, the most predisposed to the disease. To lessen this, restricted diet, selection of food containing less nutritive matter, but good in quality and easy of digestion, daily walking exercise, clean lairage, the occupancy of well-ventilated buildings, and the keeping of the secretory and excretory organs active by the ex- hibition of medicinal agents, may be said to be among the most effective of these means. The value of prophylactics, great as it may be, is sometimes diminished by causes over which we seem to have little or no control. This position may be illustrated by the following particulars. For five years, 1838-42, we had under our care a very valuable herd of English-bred Jersey cows—twenty-five in number—among which parturient apoplexy had prevailed to a most serious extent, the annual losses by death averaging not less than 20 per cent. The animals, which were the pro- perty of a nobleman, were well cared for, and never allowed to leave the park in which the ducal mansion was situated. Being a so-called self-supporting herd, the annual losses were filled up by the bringing in of the in-calf heifers. We had full authority to use any means thought right for the purpose of preventing the occurrence of the disease, and did not fail to make good use of the privilege. Hygienic principles were adopted throughout the whole period of utero-gestation, and these were added to by the exhibition of aperient and other medicinal agents both immediately before and after parturition. In selected cases bleeding was had recourse to, and, when the state of the mammary glands permitted or required, milking before calving was also adopted. From the time of the birth of the calf till the expiration of the third day a cowman was kept night and day watching the animal, ready to take ad- vantage of the slightest appearance of ill-health by the exhi- bition of medicine with which he was furnished. As may be supposed, many attacks were avoided and more lives were spared ; but it was a remarkable circumstance that, during the five years alluded to, the mortality was never reduced below 264 Olservations on the Discase of the Cow, two a year, or 8 per cent. of the whole herd The saving of 12 per cent. was doubtless a great gain; but it might have been supposed that the disease would have been entirely anni- hilated by the precautions which were taken. Statements of the effective prevention of the disease by simply administering aperient medicine within a few days of calving, placing the anieaal on a restricted and less nutritious diet, and giving a second dose of aperient medicine directly after par- turition, are frequently sounded in our ears. Many persons speak as if it were an absolute certainty that the cow would have dropped had not such measures been adopted. It is right to take precautions with every herd; but it must be remem- bered that thousands of cows in high condition annually produce their calves, even in districts where the disease is common, towards whom no measures of prevention are adopted, and that they pass through labour unscathed. Put these boasted means to the crucial test, as in such herds as we have named, and they will unquestionably fail. It may be asked, are we then to conclude that parturient apoplexy is as difficult to prevent as to cure? Certainly not; the lives of more cows may, we believe, be saved, by the exhibition of sedative medicine immediately on the comple- tion of parturition, conjoined, of course, with the adoption of dietetic and hygienic principles, than by the use of aperients. We quote an instance in point. A dairy of fine Jersey cows, the property of a gentleman, which were always grazed in a park, suffered annually from the malady to a serious extent. Thus, in 1868, out of a herd of sixteen, two died; in 1869, three ; in 1870, three, and in 1871, three. We were then consulted ; and sie sesed that the cows in the latter period of gestation should bee supplied with less food, by being kept in the spring and summer for a few hours in the sheds, be regularly exercised, milked if the state of the mammary glands permitted prior to calving, take salines occasionally, such as nitrate and bi-carbonate of potash with the hypersulphite of soda in moderate quantities, viz., from two to three drachms of the nitrate and four to six of the other preparations; and that immediately on the completion of labour a full dose of tincture of opium—an ounce and half to two ounces—mixed with an equal quantity of spirits of nitric ether should be administered. The result was even more satisfactory than could have been hoped for, no animal having died since 1871 in the herd from parturient apoplexy. It is not to be expected that in all cases a result like this will be attained; but we have no hesitation in saying that the system of administering a sedative agent has answered our full expectation, and succeeded far better than any other. commonly known as Dropping after Calving. 265 We may add to these remarks one other prophylactic measure, but which would scarcely be carried out to the full extent unless, as was the case in the nobleman’s herd, failures continued to occur which it was determined to prevent if possible. ‘The measure alluded to is never to run the risk of a fourth calving, but to fatten or sell all the cows in turn after producing their third calf. We may thus summarise prevention: part with all the old cows; milk late in utero-gestation, and resume it if possible immediately before delivery; enforce daily walking exercise, although the animals may be at pasture; adopt means to lessen the continued supply of rich food; ayoid over-repletion of the stomachs after calving; bleed before parturition in cases of ple- thora; give aperient medicine and follow with salines; keep the animals as free from excitement as possible after delivery, and early administer a full dose of tincture of opium. Other sedatives, such as chloral hydrate, might be combined with the opium, and perhaps with advantage ; but of such a combination we have had no experience. ADDENDUM. ADYNAMIC FEVER. We append a few remarks on cases in which a pregnant cow drops prior to parturition, for by many persons an attack of this kind is viewed as being essentially of the same nature as parturient apoplexy. A close investigation of the circum- stances under which the attack occurs, the symptoms by which it is accompanied, and its general result, will show that the affection is altogether of a different nature. The recumbent cow, being incapable of rising until after parturition, has led to the belief that the loss of power was due to that form of paralysis termed paraplegia. We do not deny that paraplegia may exist in some cases of “dropping before calving ;” but these are quite exceptional and of a somewhat different nature. It will be found that in the affection we are considering, paraplegia cannot be present, as both sensation and voluntary motion exist in the hind extremities; that no impairment of the functions of the bowels nor of the urinary bladder is present ; that on the com- pletion of the period of utero-gestation, labour-pains come on, and are as powerful and as regular as in an animal which had not dropped, and that the leading symptom, viz., the capability to rise, is speedily removed when parturition has been effected. If the term adynamic fever be at all applicable to a prostrate cow when pregnant, it would be in these cases. ‘The animal 266 On Disease of Cows, known as Dropping after Calving. assumes the recumbent position at varying times before calving ; but never until the latter period of gestation, when the weight of the foetus and the gravid uterus, which for many weeks had gone on increasing, had arrived at a stage which the animal is unable to sustain. —This may happen even a month before calving, and although at the commencement of the attack indications of febrile action are present, they are not accompanied with coma, nor with any of the ordinary symptoms of parturient apoplexy. Usually within three or four days the febrile symptoms pass off, - and the animal is simply the subject of adynamy. She lies, feeds well, ruminates, passes the urine and feces naturally, breathes freely, has no decrease of external temperature, nor any in- creased pulsatory action of the heart and arteries. It is not difficult to understand that the muscles of the lumbar region in particular, having to support so great a weight as that of a nearly perfected foetus, which, when fully developed, we have known to weigh at birth as much as 112 lbs., tire under the strain, and lose to some extent their tonicity, as well as their active power of natural contraction. We refer these cases mainly to such a cause; and it is easy to understand why cows should be affected with adynamy, and mares not, if a glance only be taken of the great length and weakness of the loins of the cow compared with the mare, besides which the spine has to carry the weight of the capacious rumen filled with ingesta, together with that of the other stomachs, bowels, liver and abdominal viscera, in addition to the gravid uterus. Allusion has been made to cases in which paralysis to a certain extent does exist; and it is easy to understand why such a complication should exist, by looking to the primary cause and consequent diminished power of the lumbar muscles. Impaired tonicity alone would necessarily be associated with weakened nerve force, and may be also with passive congestion, to a certain extent, of the lumbar portion of the spinal cord. Adynamy in these cases is accompanied with indications of febrile action, such as disturbed breathing, increased circula- tion, loathing of food, suspension of rumination, constipation of bowels, diminished external temperature, and the other usual concomitants of pyrexia. The recumbent position is, however, often sufficient to lessen the severity of the symptoms; but when not, they usually yield to the exhibition of saline aperients, fol- lowed by mild febrifuges, warm clothing of the body, stimulating the loins, and well nursing the patient. Treatment of a similar kind, but not carried to the same extent so far as the exhibition of medicine is concerned, may be demanded in those cases in which congestion of the vessels of the spinal is not a necessary complication. Attention to comfort is the main thing here, and above all it should be Experiments on Anthrax at the Brown Institution. 267 remembered that under no circumstances must the animal be allowed to lie for many hours together on the same side, but be moved over from right to left and vice versdé day by day, that pressure upon the prominent parts of the body, and the now enlarged mammary glands, may not be continuous. XV.— Report on Experiments on Anthrax conducted at the Brown Institution, February 18 to June 30, 1878. By Dr. Burpon SanpERSON, F.R.S., formerly Superintendent of the Brown Institution. In February, 1878, a very serious outbreak of splenic fever (anthrax) occurred on Mr. Mason’s farm at Rigsby, in Lincoln- shire, upwards of fifty animals dying in the course of a few days on one farm. It had at that time already been determined to undertake the inquiry respecting the nature, causes, and prevention of anthrax, and of the diseases allied to it, of which the first fruits have now been presented by Dr. Greenfield. The opportunity afforded by the calamity at Rigsby was therefore seized upon by Mr. Duguid, who was at that time Veterinary Surgeon of the Brown Institution, and had visited the farm as Veterinary Inspector of this Society, of at once beginning the proposed investigation. The records of the experiments, which were made during the succeeding months of 1878, are embodied in the following report. Their value consists in the evidence they afford of two important facts relating to splenic disease. One of these facts is that when the disease is transmitted by inocu- lation from cattle to small rodents, such as guinea-pigs, and then from them back again to cattle, the character of the disease so transmitted is much milder than that of the original dis- ease acquired in the ordinary way. The rodents die, but the bovine animals inoculated with their blood or with the pulp of their diseased spleens recover. The question whether this fact, like the analogous one of the mitigation of human small- pox by transmission, can be directly applied to a practical pur- pose, I leave to be determined by future inquiry. Its present interest lies in its bearing on the nature of the process of infection in anthrax. I attach more practical importance to the second fact which our experiments brought to light, namely, that the poison of anthrax can be very readily communicated by various materials used as food for cattle, and particularly by brewers’ “ grains.” When the warm infusion of this material is once “ infected” by the addition of a trace of anthrax poison derived from the 268 Experiments on Anthrax conducted at body of a diseased animal, the poison so introduced multiplies and grows indefinitely, so that the whole quantity becomes poisonous ; and if a drop of this infected liquid is added to a new quantity of infusion, this in its turn acquires similar pro- perties, as may be readily proved by introducing it into the bodies of small animals, such as rabbits or guinea-pigs. In experiments of this kind the “ grains” serve the purpose of a nursery or cultivating-ground in which the poison or virus may, as it were, be sown and propagated. We therefore call them “ cultivation experiments.” Any liquid or material which serves as a suitable soil for the growth and development of the virus may be called a “cultivation liquid.” There can be no doubt that when disease suddenly breaks out in a previously healthy locality, as it did at Rigsby, the meaning of the occur- rence is that the cattle were in some unknown way brought into contact with an infected “ cultivating” material—a soil into which the seed of anthrax had been dropped, how we know not—which was suitable for its development. What this soil was in the case of the Rigsby outbreak cannot be stated. We have reason to be sure that it was not the water which the animals drank, and have no ground for concluding that the particular “ grains” on which they were fed were infected. With reference to the origin of the outbreak of anthrax it is to be borne in mind that the anthrax virus exists in two dis- tinct forms—one in which it is latent, and may remain for years inactive, although capable of being called into activity by suitable conditions; the other, in which it grows and multi- plies, as it does in the body of the infected animal. It is known that, in general, infected liquids, such as the blood or tissues of diseased animals, are dangerous only when fresh, losing their specific properties as soon as decomposition begins. But when the material has arrived at a certain stage of maturity, it acquires the power, if preserved from destructive influences, of retaining its virulence for years. 1 -possess a specimen of blood which was taken six years ago from a bovine animal, and was found, when recently tried, to be still virulent.* I. INOCULATION OF SMALL ANIMALS WITH ANTHRAX BLOOD. Feb. 18th.—The fresh blood from the spleen of a heifer that died of splenic fever at Rigsby on the night of the 17th was * Why the anthrax poison is in one state perishable, in another permanent and resisting, is fairly understood by scientific men. The reader who is curious on the subject will find information in Prof. Tyndall’s ‘ Fragments of Science’ (vol. 11. p. 282), or in my lectures on ‘ Infection, delivered at the University of London in 1878, and reported in the ‘British Medical Journal’ for January and February, 1878. the Brown Institution. 269 used to inoculate a guinea-pig, which died on the second day after the inoculation, and presented all the post-mortem appear- ances of anthrax. Bacilli* were found in the blood from all parts of the body ; but they were most abundant in the spleen, which appeared swollen and tense. From this animal fresh inoculations of others were made, and the first series of the cultivation-experiments attested. Of the animals inoculated, two guinea-pigs died—one at the end of forty hours; the other was found dead some hours later ; and in both bacilli were present in the blood. In conducting a series of these inoculations from guinea-pig to guinea-pig it was found that they always succumbed to the effects of the poison (when active) in from thirty-six to seventy hours; and in only one instance did the animal survive more than three days. But in several instances the inoculation failed when the animal from which the inoculation material was taken had been dead some time, and decomposition had set in. This was probably the case in two instances, in which blood taken from cattle that died of splenic fever produced no effect on guinea-pigs inoculated with it. Some blood obtained from the spleen of a bullock that died of splenic fever at Rigsby, on March 6th, was introduced into the subcutaneous cellular tissue of a guinea-pig on the evening of March 8th, and only a slight local effect was produced ; that the bullock from which the blood was taken died of splenic fever was proved by the presence of bacilli in the blood when examined on the 7th, and the spleen was much enlarged, weighing 144 lbs. On April 8th blood from a heifer that died of splenic fever on the 6th was used to inoculate a guinea-pig, and produced no result. Similar failures occurred with blood from guinea-pigs that had died of anthrax when decomposition had set in before the material was collected. The fresh anthrax blood, when spread on a thin layer in a watch-glass and dried quickly at a temperature not exceeding 40° C., retained its activity for weeks; and some of the blood obtained from Rigsby on February 18th, thus treated, was suc- cessfully used for inoculations in May. The dried blood from some of the guinea-pigs was aiso used successfully after having been kept in a dry state for several days. II. INocULATION OF CATTLE. At the time of the first outbreak of splenic fever on Mr.:Mason’s farm, there were no small bovine animals at the Brown Institution * Bacillus anthracis is the name given to the living microscopical organism which is always found in the blood and diseased parts of animals affected with anthrax. 270 Experiments on Anthrax conducted at available for these experiments, and therefore the inoculation of cattle with the original anthrax blood could not be tried. On March 25th the spleen of a guinea-pig that died from inoculation with anthrax blood was triturated in a mortar with a small quantity of } per cent. saline solution, and the resulting liquid, containing large numbers of bacilli, was filtered and used to inoculate a calf about six months old. About three drops of the fluid was introduced into the cellular tissue in front of the shoulder, near the course of the jugular vein. On the following day a small nodule was felt at the seat of puncture, but no general symptoms were visible. On the 27th, the second day after inoculation, the temperature had risen from 102° Fahr. to 103°°6. The animai refused its food, and showed well-marked twitching or shivering of the superficial muscles. The tempera- ture still further rose and reached its maximum, 105°2. On the third day the calf was in a very weak and prostrate con- dition; when moved it appeared stiff and unable to walk, staggered on its hind legs, and seemed about to fall. These symptoms were accompanied in the later part of the day by diarrhoea, and the animal seemed dying. On the fourth day the temperature had fallen considerably, the animal was more lively and fed a little; the diarrheea still continued. March 30th.—The fifth day after the inoculation the animal was quite well; temperature normal. As a check-experiment in this case some of the material with which the calf was inoculated was used to inoculate a guinea- pig, which died in about forty-eight hours. May 7th,—A yearling heifer was inoculated with blood from a guinea-pig that died as the result of inoculation with dried anthrax blood obtained February 18th. In this case the blood was diluted with its own volume of saline solution, and five drops of this mixture were injected directly into the posterior auricular vein. On the following day the animal was ill and refused its food. The temperature had risen from 101°:8 Fahr. to 103°-2 ; there was twitching of the muscles and constipation. The temperature in this case reached its maximum, 106° Fahr., on the evening of the second day, and from the prostrate con- dition of the animal it was expected to die during the night, instead of which the temperature declined to 104:2°. The con- stipation was followed by diarrhoea, and the animal began to take food. On the fourth day the temperature was nearly normal, and the animal fairly well. At the same time another yearling heifer was inoculated by the introduction of some of the same solution into the cellular | the Brown Institution. DN tissue ; and in this case the symptoms produced were of the same nature, but were less severe, and developed more slowly. The maximum temperature, 105°-2, was not reached till the evening of the third day. May 16th.—The six-months-old calf inoculated March 25th, and the two yearlings inoculated May 7th, were again used for inoculation with blood from a guinea-pig that died as the result of inoculation with anthrax cultivated to the third generation in grains’ infusion. In the case of the calf, three drops of blood mixed with some saline solution were injected into the posterior auricular vein, and in the two others it was introduced into the cellular tissue. In the calf the symptoms were very severe; the maximum temperature, 106°2, was reached on the morning of the third day, and no material decline was noted until the evening of the fourth day. During this time the animal refused food, but showed considerable thirst ; was in an extremely prostrate con- dition, and suffered from diarrhoea. In the other two animals the symptoms were less severe, developed more slowly, and declined earlier. June 10th.—The same three animals were again inoculated with anthrax cultivated to the third generation in grains infusion. In two, the same symptoms were produced as when they were inoculated with the anthrax blood; but in the third animal, from some unexplained cause, no general symptoms followed the inoculation, but a small abscess formed at the seat of puncture. Il]. AnrHRAX CULTIVATION EXPERIMENTS. In the very serious outbreak of anthrax on Mr. Mason’s farm at Rigsby, near Alford, Lincolnshire, the affected cattle had been fed on grains brought from a neighbouring brewery ; and as this was the only difference between the feeding of the affected and unaffected animals on the farm, it was at first supposed that the grains had produced the disease. Four cattle were fed for several days at the Brown Institution with some of the grains sent up by Mr. Mason for that purpose, but none of them showed any signs of being in the least affected. The fluid expressed from the grains was used to inoculate some guinea-pigs in the subcutaneous cellular tissue, but the only result was local swelling and the formation of small abscesses at the seat of puncture. Although these experiments gave negative results, it was considered advisable to try whether the anthrax bacillus could live in such a medium as grains, 272 Experiments on Anthrax at the Brown Institution. and whether, by inoculation, the grains might be made the means of conveying the poison. For this purpose a small quantity (about 1 lb.) of the grains was thoroughly mixed with one pint of distilled water and allowed to stand for two hours. The liquid thus obtained was filtered and then boiled in a flask, the neck of which was plugged with cotton wool while cooling. The cultivation was conducted in glass tubes about two inches in length, capable of holding about 1 c.c., the ends of which were drawn out to capillary points. They were filled by breaking off one end under the surface of the liquid. When filled, they were at once inoculated by passing in a droplet of anthrax blood by means of a fine capillary tube, or by introducing a particle of dried anthrax blood on the point of a fine needle. The end was then sealed up, and the tubes were kept for periods varying from two to five days, at a temperature of 86°C, In all these cultivation-experiments a tube containing only the cultivating fluid was placed in the incubator* with the inoculated tubes. In the first experiment, at the end of sixty hours, fluid from one of these inoculated tubes was used to inoculate two guinea- pigs, both of which died in less than forty-eight hours; and after death the spleen was seen to be large and tense, and the blood was full of bacilli. As acheck-experiment, the grains’ infusion to which no anthrax blood had been added was injected under the skin of another guinea-pig, the result being only local swelling and the forma- tion of a small abscess. A portion of the active cultivated liquid with which the two guinea-pigs were inoculated was added to some freshly-prepared grains’ infusion, and the same precautions taken as in the former cultivation, and at the end of three days this second generation of bacilli was found active. These cultivations were repeated and carried to the third generation from the original inoculation with the anthrax blood, and, when injected into the cellular tissue of an animal, they caused death in about the same time as if anthrax blood had been injected, and after death bacilli were found in the blood of all parts of the body, but most abundantly in the spleen. Freshly-prepared hay infusion was also used as a cultivating medium, and it was found that the anthrax bacillus could be cultivated in that fluid to the third generation and retain all its virulence, as was proved by animals inoculated with it dying, with * The incubator is a chamber in which a temperature a little below blood heat is maintained. Aqueous humour is the liquid contained in the anterior chamber of the eye. It is suitable as a soil for the cultivation of the anthrax virus, because it closely resembles in character the liquid part of the blood. Report on an Inquiry into Prevention of Splenic Fever, §c. 278 all the post-mortem appearances of anthrax, in from forty to sixty hours. While the cultivation of the bacillus was being conducted in the grains and hay infusions, some pond-water, containing a considerable amount of organic matter and lime-salts, was tried as a cultivating fluid, but failed. The pond-water was treated in exactly the same manner as the other cultivating fluids, and inoculated with anthrax blood which was known to be active ; but at the end of two days, when examined, it was found to contain a variety of organisms, and proved inactive when in- jected into the cellular tissue of a guinea-pig. A number of cultivations were conducted in fresh aqueous humour, for the purpose of keeping up a supply of infecting material. This was found a less troublesome and expensive method than the inoculation of a series of guinea-pigs. In all these cultivation-experiments a portion of the culti- vating fluid was sealed up in a tube without the addition of any anthrax blood, and kept along with the inoculated tubes, and when they were used for the inoculations one animal: was also inoculated with the cultivating fluid alone, and in no case did it produce more than a slight local effect. In the course of these experiments several failures had to be recorded, where the liquid supposed to contain the active anthrax poison failed to produce any effect in the inoculated animals ; but in all such failures it was found that there were other organ- isms present, and these were also found in the tube used for the check-experiment, proving that there had been some contamina- tion of the whole liquid during preparation. XVI.—Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and Pre- vention of Splenic Fever, Quarter-Evil and Allied Diseases, made at the Brown Institution. By W.S. GREENFIELD, M.D., F.R.C.P., Professor-Superintendent of the Brown Institution. THE investigations which form the subject of this Report have been carried on during the past year in continuation of those made in the previous year by Professor Burdon Sanderson and Mr. Duguid. I have, however, extended the scope of the in- quiry, and have taken up, in addition to splenic fever, the disease of cattle known as quarter-evil, and the diseases of horses known as Cape horse-sickness and Loodiana fever. Both in the experimental and clinical work I have been VOL. XVI.—S. S. sh 274 Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and most ably assisted by Mr. George Banham, M.R.C.V.S., Vete- rinary Surgeon to the Brown Institution. It is necessary to state that the investigation is still in progress, many subjects awaiting further opportunities of obtaining material for examination and experiment; and a doubtful opinion must therefore be expressed on many points, which we hope will be cleared up by future observation. ANTHRAX AND ANTHRACOID DISEASES. In addition to the disease of cattle most commonly known to English agriculturists and stockowners as splenic apoplexy or anthrax, there are a considerable number of forms of disease which affect either cattle, sheep, or horses, and more rarely other animals, both in this country and in other parts of the world, to which the common term “ anthracoid,” allied to or resembling anthrax, is applied. Widely diffused as are these diseases, and enormous as is the mortality caused by their attack, we know as yet but little either of their causes or their relation to each other. It was felt that in an inquiry having for its chief object the determination of the causes and prevention of splenic fever, it would be very important to ascertain, as far as possible, the nature of these other forms of anthrax, and the conditions under which they occur, as they might very probably give some clue to the causes of splenic fever. In England the disease known as Quarter-Ill, Quarter-Evil, Black Quarter, and under many other names, is the one concern- ing the nature and causes of which the greatest doubt exists. In France and Germany, and on the Continent generally, the various forms thus separated in England are usually classed together ; in France, going under the name of Charbon, Mal de rate, or Sang de rate; in Germany, as Milzbrand, Karbunkel- hrankheit and Anthrax. The different forms are sometimes more precisely defined, as I shall show later. In Russia, the “Siberian Plague” is the name under which the common disease is known, the name having probably arisen from the supposed resemblance of the disease when communi- cated to man to the true or Levantine Plague. This Siberian plague is very widely spread, reaching throughout Siberia, oc- curring at scattered spots in Russia, and southwards as far as the Caspian. In India there are two or three diseases which appear to be closely allied to splenic fever. In the Punjab there is the disease of horses known as Loodiana fever. Elsewhere a similar disease is highly fatal to elephants and camels. The Hara Murree, or Pali Plague, and the Bharsati disease are two other perhaps Prevention of Splenic Fever, §c., at the Brown Institution. 275 allied epidemic diseases, concerning the nature of which but little is known. In South Africa attention has recently been directed to the very fatal disease of horses, known amongst the Boers as throat- sickness, Dikkip, or black tongue. Although presenting many analogies with some of the localised forms of anthrax, it appears to be distinct, inasmuch as true anthrax when affecting horses in the same or other regions is said to present different symptoms. And, as I hope to show, although there are very close analogies in the fungoid organism which is apparently the cause of the disease, there are also certain well-marked distinctions. In the present Report I propose to limit myself almost exclusively to the subject of the experimental investigations which have been made during the past year at the Brown Institution, re- ferring to other points only so far as may be necessary for the purpose of explanation. Ina future Report I hope to deal with the more recent observations on the nature and mode of propa- gation of anthrax, and the more minute description of the morbid anatomy of the several diseases which have formed the subject of investigation. Amongst the many points relating to anthrax which have received attention, the most important is that of the experimental inoculation of bovine animals with virus modified by trans- mission through the guinea-pig. Some preliminary experi- ments made by Mr. Duguid at the request of my predecessor Dr. Burdon Sanderson appeared to show, first, that when anthrax is communicated by inoculation to bovine animals through rodents, the animals so infected, although exhibiting severe symptoms, recover ; and, secondly, that such animals are less liable to future infection by the same process than others. These experiments I have repeated, varying the method employed ; and although in some respects the results are such as to modify the conclusions suggested by the experiments of Dr. Sanderson, they are nevertheless in striking confirmation of the general result, and afford grounds for hope that the con- tinuance of the experiments may serve to establish a prophylactic for the disease. Hitherto I have had no opportunity of sub- mitting an animal thus inoculated to the crucial test of subsequent exposure to contagion or inoculation from an original case of the disease in a bovine animal ; but I have done so from a sheep which died of the artificial disease, with a favourable result. I have also been engaged in studying the microscopic anatomy of the disease in various animals, with a view to discover the mode of diffusion of the poison, and its method of action in the T 2 276 = Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and system, and as some of these investigations afford practical sug- gestions, I propose to refer to them briefly in the present Report. Inoculation of Bovine Animals with the Poison of Anthrax trans- mitted through CGuinea-pigs. It is now a generally recognised fact that the contagium or virus of splenic apoplexy (anthrax) is a low vegetable organism, the so-called Bacillus anthracis. This organism is found in enormous quantities in the blood and certain of the tissues of animals dying of the disease. It has been shown by repeated experiment that it may be artificially cultivated outside the living body, under conditions suitable to its growth and pro- pagation ; that it nevertheless retains its virulent property, which may be transmitted from generation to generation, so that a far distant progeny of the bacillus first grown from the blood of the living animal, if introduced into the system of another living animal, gives rise to all the phenomena of the disease. Moreover, the disease is readily communicable to a large number of known animals, rodents being especially susceptible, guinea-pigs and mice being amongst the most easily inoculated. In transmitting the disease through rodents to bovine animals, two distinct methods may be employed; the one of direct in- oculation, the other of inoculation with the cultivated virus. The direct method, that employed by Mr. Duguid in his experiments, consists in inoculating the bovine animal with the blood or spleen of a guinea-pig which has died of the disease produced either by inoculating from a cow, or from one of a series of which the first was inoculated from a cow. That is, if guinea-pig A is inoculated from a cow, B from A, C from B, D from C, and then a cow direct from D, it would be an ex- ample of direct inoculation. Or it might be inoculated direct from A or B or C. Dried blood, if properly secured, retains in parts its infective power for a considerable time, so that this process of transmission may have been carried over some months, The “cultivation” or indirect method proceeds on the basis of the fact already indicated, that the poison (the Bacillus anthracis) may be artificially grown in a cultivating fluid in successive generations, and that the last generation may then be inoculated and produce the symptoms and fatal result of the disease. Seeing that the object of my experiments was to inoculate bovine animals with a virus modified by its transmission through the guinea-pig, it may appear that it would be de- Prevention of Splenic Fever, §c., at the Brown Institution. 277 sirable, in order to have the full effect of such modification, either to inoculate directly from the guinea-pig or from a culti- vation not far removed from it. But there would be many practical advantages, if it were found that, having once trans- mitted the virus through one guinea-pig or a series of them, its modified property were subsequently maintained in the artificial cultivations. I have therefore kept this in view, and have tested the effect of successive generations of the artificially pre- pared poison. It would have been a great advantage if I had been able to test, side by side with these cultivations derived from the guinea-pig, other cultivations derived direct from a bovine animal. But in every case cultivations from the latter have failed, owing to the commencement of decomposition in the material sent to us. The method of artificial or fractional cultivation is now well-known. The bacillus is capable of growth in many nutrient fluids, amongst others aqueous humour, hay-infusion, serum, urine, and also in many other natural and artificial fluids. ‘The necessary conditions suitable for its cultivation are supply of nourishment and of air, a proper temperature, and the exclusion of sources of putrefaction in the form of germs of other bacteria. Of the various nutrient fluids, I have employed almost ex- clusively either aqueous humour or hay-infusion. The former may be readily procured from the eye of a recently killed animal, such as a sheep or ox. Of the two methods of cultivation most commonly employed, cultivation in cells and in hermetically sealed tubes, I have employed chiefly the latter for my present purpose, as affording a better supply, which can be more easily preserved, and more readily used for inoculation. The method of cultivation is very simple. A piece of glass- tubing about }-inch in diameter is drawn out at both ends to a fine capillary tube, and sealed at the ends. The central chamber thus formed, about an inch in length, is half-filled with the cultivating fluid, after opening the tube; the lower end is then re-sealed ; a capillary tube, containing a minute quantity of the blood, or only rubbed on the spleen of the animal which has died of anthrax, is passed down into the chamber till it touches the cultivating fluid; it is then rapidly withdrawn and the tube sealed up. The cultivating tube is then placed in an incubator, which is kept at a uniform temperature of about 35° C., and left there for twenty-four to forty-eight hours, at the end of which time an opalescent mass consisting of the growing bacillus has been formed. From this a minute quantity is 278 Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and removed with a capillary tube, and a fresh tube of cultivating fluid is inoculated and placed in the incubator. And a similar procedure may be repeated for an almost indefinite period, if proper precautions be taken. The bacillus thus grown may be preserved in capillary tubes in certain stages of its existence for a very long time. I may now describe what these stages are, for modern research has shown that this organism passes through several distinct phases of existence, in all, however, preserving its power of germination under suitable conditions, as well as its infective property. As seen in the blood and tissues of animals dying of anthrax, the Bacillus anthracis is usually a short protoplasmic rod, measuring from one to four times the diameter of a human red- blood-corpuscle i in length. These rods, in many cases, swarm in immense numbers in the blood, so that they may appear even to exceed the blood-corpuscles themselves. in number, and by their presence they interfere with the normal coalescence of the blood-corpuscles and prevent normal coagulation of the blood. But it is not in every case of anthrax that the Bacilli present this appearance or are found in such numbers. Not uncom- monly they may be found in much smaller quantity ; and in some cases examined only four or five hours after death, the rods may be very much longer than those just described. This may possibly be due to growth after death of the animal. On minute inspection, the longer rods are usually found to be in process of division into two or more short rods of nearly uniform length, Fig. 1.—Bacillus anthracis. ba 1 oo ea SS a sia ~~ \ 2 \ = yy IN ye ee Oo NG KA SS X Ras \ 4 Ss See \ ; STIS) \ i Sra) 8 \ ae 1. Rods of Bacillus anthracis as seen in the blood. 2. Portions of rods under cultivation, 3. Groups of spores. 1 and 2 magnified about 500 diameters. 3 about 700 diameters. The rods, which appear homogeneous and uniform, and blunt at the ends, increase in number by a process of elongation and transverse fission in the ordinary process of the diseaee within the body. If one of the rods which is in course of division be watched, it will be seen that having reached a certain length, a Prevention of Splenic Fever, &c., at the Brown Institution, 279 clear space appears in the middle between the two highly refractile segments. This clear space does not as yet indicate a complete separation, for a delicate outline can be seen uniting the two rods, which ,later become entirely separate. This outline is the delicate sheath which surrounds the rods, but is not readily seen during the simple rod stage. When the organism is cultivated in the manner already described, changes occur which usually follow a certain course. Similar changes may also take place in the carcass of the dead animal, especially if the temperature is favourable. The short rod elongates rapidly into a long filament, com- posed of a homogeneous protoplasm enclosed in a very delicate hyaline sheath, and this filament may grow to a great length, curving in all directions and forming loops or spirals.. These long filaments are often united in parallel bundles, or cross obliquely in a very characteristic manner. As this elongation proceeds, changes take place within the substance of the rod which may assume one of two forms. The more common is as follows: The central protoplasmie mass of the rod becomes somewhat granular in appearance, and the protoplasm appears broken at certain points, clear specks, as seen in the lower straight rod of 2, Fig. 1, sometimes appearing at regular intervals. Then the protoplasm shrinks, leaving clear spaces, with ovoid or oblong highly refractile bodies arranged at regular intervals, as at 3, Fig. 2, or more irregularly or in pairs, as at 4, Fig. 2, and 7, Fig. 3. These oblong or ovoid bodies are the now well-known spores, Fig. 2.—Stages of Bacillus anthracis under Cultivation. 1. Wavy filament, showing commencing lateral formation of spores, as granular dots. 2. Another part of same cultivation, filament dividing, each segment having a terminal dot. 3. Filament in which spores have formed at nearly regular intervals. 4. Portions of filament with spores after division. 5. Isolated spores. 6. Sporules formed by division of spores. One of two things may happen: the spores may remain in situ in the remains of the filament, which persists only as an almost invisible shred of the external hyaline capsule, or they 280 Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and may escape from the filament by a lateral opening. Or, lastly, the filaments may break up into a number of fragments, each containing one or two spores, as at 4, Fig. 2. Fig. 3.— Further Stages of Bacillus anthracis under Cultivation. l we % mere ert ey Aes f Gritacte VS S tga” ys? y Tee SS ey Fat A ‘ hg be SP OY 4 a OD fe = Gere OA NEA eee PN Noi" 48 (So he [rash EF 0.6% 2 Stay BA sy a ® * ws ? * y al lo end eZ ca i é if LAA Fe Ney aes *, } 7. Part of convoluted filaments in which spores have formed, and division is commencing in parts, from cultivation of Bacillus anthracis. 8. Similar process in another Bacillus not connected with anthrax. 9. Portions of filament from 7 more highly magnified. The spores thus formed are capable of long dormancy, for months or years, and may then, given favourable conditions, grow again into rods and reproduce the disease. It is the formation of these spores, and their capacity for resisting changes of temperature and other adverse conditions, which makes the contagion of anthrax so persistent and so difficult to destroy. In some cases these spores, when kept under conditions which are only favourable to very slow germination, undergo a process of division by transverse fission, each spore first dividing across its length, and then each of these halves divide again transversely, so that each formed a group of four minute bodies, or sporules (as Ewart calls them); as seen at 6, Fig. 2, and still better at 35 Pgs, O- The other course of change which may occur in the filaments is that seen at 1 and 2, Fig. 2, and at the bent filament in 2, Fig. 1. The filament appears somewhat swollen :—in it (as in 1, Fig. 1) are seen a number of minute bright dots, which as a rule are towards the sides of the sheath, sometimes only here and there, but occasionally crowding the filament with bright oily-looking dots. In some cases the filaments break up into shorter pieces, as at 2, Fig. 2, whilst in this condition. It is probable that this may be regarded as merely a stage in spore formation, which here commences laterally instead of centrally. The more minute changes which take place in the course of growth and spore formation, will be better seen in Fig. 4, which is taken from cultivations of Bacillus anthracis, magnified 1500 diameters, Prevention of Splenic Fever, §c., at the Brown Institution. 281 Fig. 4.—Bacillus anthracis magnified 1500 diameters. ay a 12345676970" | a ey es | 1, A short rod (8 « long) in which the protoplasmic contents have divided previous to fission of the rod, 2. A clear rod containing only spores. 3. A jointed filament composed of three segments, in one of which fission is commencing, in another a spore has formed, whilst another is empty. 4. Part of filament composed of short homogeneous rods united by a narrower sheath. 5,6,7. Parts of long filaments showing various arrangements of the protoplasm and spores. &. From another filament in which spore formation is proceeding more regularly. Commencing fission is seen at some parts of the filament. 9. Part of filament completely filled with regularly arranged spores. 10. From another cultivation showing sporule germinating into a short rod. (It must be stated that the space between the sheath and the protoplasmic contents did not exist in the original drawing, and that in the other rods it has been necessarily somewhat exaggerated in the woodcut.) I have thought it well thus briefly to describe the changes usually observed, in order to render clear the frequent references to these various conditions in describing the experiments. Details of Experiments on Inoculation of Bovine Animals with Anthrax poison (Bacillus anthracis) transmitted through Rodents. Case I—A steer, in good health and condition, was kept under observation for three weeks, in order to ascertain its normal temperature. It was then inoculated with a small quan- tity of fluid which had been obtained by cultivation of the Bacillus anthracis in aqueous humour, and which swarmed with rods and spores of bacillus. The fluid thus used was the second generation of the cultivation of spleen of a guinea-pig which died of anthrax. This guinea-pig was the third of a series, through which the disease was transmitted from the cow by inoculation. I have already described the method followed in these experiments. For about twenty-four hours no symptoms were observed, there was only very slight swelling at the seat of inoculation. 282 Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and On the morning of the second day, 7.c., about forty hours after the inoculation, the temperature (in the rectum) was found to be 104° Fahr., the normal temperature having been 100° to 101° Fahr. The animal was drowsy and stupid and fed badly, but no rigour was observed, nor any special symptoms. On the evening of the same day, the temperature was 102-4° Fahr., but on the following day it rose to 106:4° Fahr., and continued to vary between 105° and 107° for three days, during which time the animal was seriously ill, and at times seemed hardly likely to recover. On the eighth day, however, the temperature fell to 104°, and on the ninth to 101°, after which the animal speedily recovered and continued perfectly well. I was unable to discover any Bacilli in a drop of the blood examined, but I do not attach much importance to this fact as any proof that they were not present, for I have often failed to find them in the blood of the general circulation in smaller animals at a period before death, when they must have existed in the blood in some organs. The animal, having completely recovered, was again inoculated a second time some weeks from the first inoculation. During the interval after subsidence of the fever produced by the first inoculation, the temperature was at no time higher than 101°4°, ranging between 100° and 101°. This second inoculation was made directly with the fresh spleen of a guinea-pig which had died of anthrax, simply rubbed down with saline solution to make it more fluid. One gramme of this fluid was injected with a hypodermic syringe into the right side about the elbow. The fluid swarmed with rods. In the evening the temperature was 102°. Next day the tem- perature was 102°4° morning, and 102-6° evening, and the animal showed some indisposition and took food badly. On the third day there was complete recovery of appetite, and the temperature became normal. ‘The subsequent temperatures will be seen by reference to the appended table. (See page 284.) The third inoculation was made a week after the second. The animal had completely recovered in every respect, and it was desirable to test the power of resistance acquired by the previous inoculations, and to compare the result with a simultaneous inoculation of another animal with the same material. In this third inoculation the poison was obtained from a guinea- pig which had died of anthrax derived from the horse. The spleen having been removed shortly after death, was rubbed down with saline solution, and one-half of the fluid injected into Prevention of Splenic Fever, §c., at the Brown Institution. 283 the steer, the other half into the cow (Expt. No. 2). No result whatever followed in the case of the steer, with the exception that on the evening of the following day the temperature was 102°. But the appetite was unaffected ; the slight local swelling produced by the inoculation speedily subsided. Fourth inoculation.—A period of three weeks having elapsed after the third inoculation, during which the animal was in good health, a fourth inoculation was made. A guinea-pig, inoculated with blood from the guinea-pig used for a previous experiment, which had been dried and kept in a sealed tube for some weeks, died of anthrax. The spleen was consider- ably enlarged (an unusual occurrence in the guinea-pig), and very soft, and the fluid exuding from the cut surface swarmed with Bacilli. The whole spleen was rubbed down with about a drachm of water, and nearly the whole of the fluid with the particles of the spleen in suspension was injected by means of a hypodermic syringe beneath the skin of the shoulder. The result of this inoculation, so far as general symptoms are con- cerned, was absolutely ni/, not the slightest rise of temperature or failure of appetite being produced, and the animal subse- quently remaining in perfect health. Fifth inoculation—Fourteen days having elapsed since the previous inoculation, during which the temperature of the ani- mal had continued absolutely normal, on no occasion exceeding 101° Fahr., another inoculation was made, the material on this occasion being derived from a sheep, which died of anthrax (see Case IV.). The bloody fluid which flowed from the cut surfaces of the lung was collected, and about one drachm injected beneath the skin of the right shoulder. The fluid injected contained a large number of very long bacillus rods, and caused the usual symptoms of anthrax in a guinea-pig inoculated at the same time. On the day following the inoculation, the part was consider- ably swollen, the animal was rather dull, and did not take food so well as usual, but there’were no othersymptoms. There was some rise of temperature—103-4° in the morning, 103°6° mid-day, and 104° evening. Next day there was still some slight loss of appetite, but the temperature was normal, and subsequently the animal continued in perfect health. A slight swelling remained at the seat of inoculation, which subsequently changed into a small abscess. This was opened, and discharged a small quantity of ichorous pus. This animal is still being kept, awaiting the opportunity of making the crucial experiment of direct inoculation from a case of anthrax in the cow. 284 Report on an Inquiry into the Na ture, Causes, and Case I. EXPerm™ent I. Day of Rectal Temperature. Observa- == = = == = REMARKS. eae Morning. Noon. Evening. fe} fe} ie) 1 100°6 a 101° 2 101° hie 101° 3 101: First inoculation with cultivated aa oe fluid. 4 101°4 F 101°8 5 104° : 102°4 6 104°4 me 106°4 7 105: a 106°8 8 105°4 56 106°6 9) 106° 105°6 10 104° c 104° i 100: : 101: 12 100°4 Oo 101° Experiments II, and III. 1 100° 101° 2 100°8 af 101-4 33 100°4 ; 100°8 4 100°4 2 102° Second inoculation, 5 102°4 ae 102°6 6 100°4 Ss 100° ai 101° 3 101°4 8 100°6 9 100°2 50 101° 10 100°4 a5 101: 11 101> 7 101°2 112 100°8 60 100°4 13 100°4 an 101° Third inoculation. 14 101°2 101° 101° 15 101° 101° 101° 16 101° 101° 101° 17 101° 101° 102° Exprrment IY. 1 100°4 101° 2 101° 101° 3 101°2 101°6 4 101° 100°6 , : Pegs ' 3 ; Fourth inoculation, with spleen o 5 101 2 1014 { aera 6 101: 101°2 101°4 Wf 101°2 Ab 101° 8 100°4 ae 101° 9 100° HA 100-4 Prevention of Spienie Fever, §c., at the Brown Institution. 285 EXPERIMENT Y. Day of Rectal Temperature. Observa- a REMARKS. tion, Morning. Noon. Evening. 1 101° oo 101° 2 101° My; 101° Fifth inoculation, direct from sheep. 3 103°4 103°4 104- 4 101° 100°8 101°4 5 101°6 56 101-6 6 101°2 co 101°6 th 100°4 CO 101° 8 100°4 Case IT.—The material used for these experiments was derived from a case of anthrax in a horse, the poison having been trans- mitted successively through two guinea-pigs. The preparation of the material has already been described (part having been used for Inoculation 3 in Case I.). The other part of the fluid was injected subcutaneously in an old emaciated cow, which, as was discovered subsequently, was. in-calf. On the day of inoculation no symptoms occurred. On the following day the temperature rose to 102:4° morning, 103-° evening. On the third day the morning temperature was 103°6°, evening 102°4°, but there was no loss of appetite, nor were any other symptoms noticed. On the morning of the fourth day the animal was found dead. Case IT. Day of Temperature in Rectum. Observa- = aoe Morning. | Noon. Evening. ie} ie) ° 1 101°4 101-4 101°6 Cnoculation). 2 102°4 102° 103° 3 103°6 102: 102°4 4 Found dead. Post-mortem (6 to 9 hours after death). Body emaciated. A bloody mucous discharge flowed from nostrils and anus. Stomach full and healthy. Intestines congested, with bloody extravasation here and there. Spleen somewhat enlarged, weighing 2 lbs. 14 oz., presents hemorrhagic spots in the capsule. On section, tissue highly vascular, somewhat soft but not diftluent. Liver and kidneys apparently healthy. 286 Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and Heart: numerous small ecchymoses and petechie beneath the endocardium, especially that of the left ventricle, and also in the musculi papillares. Some also more deeply in the muscular tissue, and one or two beneath the pericardium. Lungs appeared healthy and pale. On microscopical examination, the blood was found to con- tain very large numbers of rods of Bacillus anthracis, and the tissue both of the spleen and the other organs also swarmed with them. The sanious discharge from the nostrils also contained them in great abundance. The fcetal calf, of about four months, appeared healthy. All its organs were carefully examined for Bacilli, but none were discovered. It will be observed that this experiment differed from the first case in being inoculated direct from the guinea-pig instead of with cultivated fluid, in the original source of the material, viz. the horse, and in the fact that the animal was-old and emaciated and in-calf. The latter points appear to me to be of more importance than the former, as the animal in Expt. I. was inoculated in the same way and with the same material without any symptom being induced. Case ITI.—A calf 6 months old was inoculated with the fourth cultivation of anthrax Bacillus, derived from the guinea-pig. No symptoms whatever were produced. ‘The temperature had been somewhat irregular previous to the inoculation, owing to an attack of diarrhoea. On the ninth day from the first inocula- tion, the animal appearing perfectly well, it was again inocu- Jated with the first cultivation direct from the spleen, which had been kept sealed up for a fortnight, and swarmed with spores of Bacillus anthracis, To test the virulence of the material, a mouse was inoculated at the same time with a very minute quantity, and was found dead the next day, about 20 hours from the time of inoculation. The spleen of the mouse was found to be crowded with rods of the usual character. On the day following inoculation the part was somewhat swollen, but there was no perceptible rise of temperature until the second day, when it rose to 106° morning, and 106:4° even- ing. For the ensuing four days the elevation of temperature persisted, with variations from 105°4° to 106°4°, there was con- tinued swelling of the shoulder, which extended, and, together with this, loss of appetite. On the seventh day, the morning temperature was 103°8°, but as the swelling persisted and showed no sign of subsiding, an incision was made into it, and fomentations applied. ‘The subcutaneous connective tissue was found to be infiltrated with colourless, somewhat gela- tinous, serous exudation. On microscopic examination no Prevention of Splenic Fever, §c., at the Brown Institution. 287 Bacilli or Bacteria were found either in this serous fluid or in the blood. The animal speedily improved, the swelling subsided, and com- plete recovery occurred. A sufficient time has not yet elapsed for further inoculations to be made. Cass III.—Catr Srx Montus Oxp. Experiment I. Day of Temperature in Rectum. Observa- |— = aaa a REMARKS, mon Morning. Noon, Evening. 1 ° @) 103° First inoculation, with 4th genera- os + tion of cultivated material. 2 104° ie 103°6 3 104: 104°6 105° 4 103°6 00 104-2 5 104 oe 103°4 6 103° Bo 103°8 7 103° oc 103°8 8 102° ze 103° 9 103: 103° feat began with first gene- 10 103 ap 103°2 11 106° 105°6 106:4 12 105-4 106°4 105°8 13 105°4 105°6 105°8 14 *106°4 106°2 105°8 15 106°2 as 106-4 16 103°8 103 8 104: 17 103-4 103° 102° eee swelling subsiding. Hats 18 102°4 102: 102° 19 101° 101°2 101°4 | Quite well. Inoculation of Sheep, with cultivated Bacillus anthracis, in the form of Spores. Some doubts having naturally arisen as to whether the culti- vated material used in the preceding experiments could be re- garded as representing the anthrax poison in a virulent form, and an opportunity arising for inoculation of a sheep, I thought it desirable to test the material upon this animal. And as the disease is liable to be communicated to sheep, and in some countries frequently forms a fatal epidemic amongst them, the question whether the poison was modified in its action upon them by transmission through rodents appeared important. The following experiment was therefore performed :— Case IV.—A young sheep was inoculated with a small quan- tity of the cultivation of the fourth generation, which had been 288 Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and kept sealed up in the incubator for a week. The characters of the organisms found in the fluid at the time of inoculation are seen in the annexed drawing. There were, in fact, hardly any rods, only spores in various stages of subdivision. Fig. 5.—Drawings of Elements seen in Fluid with which the Sheep was inoculated. i) 0 0 0} 5 ieeeat u I 20 I \ e ae fe ; NN 0 aoa E>) & mz 0 oe@ TI. and IJ. drawn with No. 10 imm. Hartnack, No.3 oc. 1. Stages of division in spores. 2. Sar- cina-like groups of 4 sporules. IL. Rows of spores, some in process of division, Ill. With higher power—spores dividing and divided. No symptoms whatever were observed, beyond a slight lowering of temperature, as seen in the list of temperatures. (The normal temperature of the sheep averages 103° Fahr.) The animal fed well, and did not appear to suffer in any way, until the evening of the fifth day (96 hours after inoculation), when the temperature was 107°. No special symptoms, how- ever, were observed. Next morning the sheep was found dead. Examination of the body about twelve hours after death.—Well- marked rigor mortis. No trace of decomposition. No local swelling observed. Skin generally free from exudation or ecchymosis. Pleure healthy. Lungs pretty fully distended. Some small patches of collapse in upper part of right lung. Throughout the whole of both lungs, both on the surface and on section, are very * abundant dark red spots, which have the appearance of uniformly disseminated ecchymoses. They are of nearly uniform size, about that of a mustard-seed. There is no appearance of pneumonic consolidation around or between them. Bronchi and trachea contain frothy blood-stained mucus ; mucous mem- brane generally appears somewhat injected. Pericardium healthy. Heart: ventricles normally contracted. Some small ecchymoses around the base of the left ventricle, in the subserous tissue. Endocardium somewhat deeply blood- stained. Ecchymoses in the muscular wall of the left ventricle, especially in and around the musculi papillares. Valves healthy. Blood in the heart imperfectly coagulated. Prevention of Splenic Fever, §c., at the Brown Institution. 289 Liver small but natural. Spleen somewhat enlarged and soft; on section, however, not pulpy, though readily broken down. Kidneys somewhat swollen and soft, but otherwise of natural appearance. Stomach and intestines natural. Brain and cord appear perfectly healthy. On microscopic examination the blood was found to contain very long rods in comparatively small proportion, 7.e., though several were seen in each field, there was no crowding of them together as is often the case. But the rods were of enormous length, many reaching almost the entire width of the field, measuring from ‘05 to 175 of a millimetre in length, or nearly twenty times the usual length, having, in fact, an appearance often found in the bacilli under cultivation, but rarely in the body. In the bronchial and tracheal mucus, and in the bloody fluid exuding from the lungs, similar elongated Bacilli were found. In the spleen, repeated examination by myself and Mr. Banham, both of the splenic tissue and of the bloody fluid exuding from it, entirely failed to discover any Bacilli. Only a few ordinary micrococci were observed, not a single Bacillus in any of the specimens examined. Microscopic examination of the lungs after hardening in chromic acid, showed that these scattered spots were actual hemorrhages. In addition were seen the usual appearances ; Bacilli in the capillaries and terminal arteries of the pulmonary system, and also in the interlobular connective tissue. Day of Teraperatures. Inocula- TF oes Morning. Evening. ° ° 1 ne 104 2 101°6 103° 3 102° 102°4 4 102°6 103°2 5 103° 107° 6 Found dead. I have already described the result of the inoculation of a steer (which had been previously inoculated with cultivated virus from a guinea-pig) with blood from this case. The results pro- duced on the sheep are a striking proof of the virulence of the material after successive cultivations. To summarise the results of these experiments :— VOL. XVI.—S. S. U 290 Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and A yearling steer, inoculated with cultivated Bacillus of the guinea-pig, after forty hours had a rise of temperature with local swelling, followed by high fever, lasting about six days, this then subsiding and leaving the animal well. A second inoculation direct from the guinea-pig was practi- cally without effect. A third with similar material, which killed a cow inoculated with it, was likewise without effect. A fourth, with similar but still more active material, was likewise devoid of effect. And lastly, direct inoculation from a sheep was followed by very slight fever, which passed off without any result beyond a small local abscess. This was the only instance in which such an abscess was found. A cow, old, emaciated, and in-calf, was inoculated direct from the guinea-pig, and rapidly died of anthrax, having had but little rise of temperature or other symptoms. A calf, six months old, inoculated with cultivated Bacillus fluid, suffered from intense fever, lasting five days, with con- siderable local swelling, but the temperature then fell, and the animal recovered. ‘The course of the temperature was closely analogous to that in the first case. It is scarcely safe at present to attempt to draw any very general conclusions from the experiments which have been per- formed, but I think enough has been done to show the great importance of the inquiry, and the possibility, if not probability, that by this or some analogous method a means may be dis- covered of controlling or preventing this widely prevalent and highly fatal disease. It must be evident to any one who considers the matter that there are many points which must be determined by experiments of a much more extensive character than any I am able to carry out at the Brown Institution. If, as I hope, it should prove on further experiment that the earlier results are con- firmed, and that the inoculation of bovine animals with the Bacillus anthracis cultivated artificially after transmission through guinea-pigs or some other animal serves to render bovine animals totally or partially insusceptible to the disease when transmitted by the usual channels, one great step will have been taken. But there will yet remain the questions: Is the mortality from inoculation by this method a high one, or do even a small per- centage of animals die? What are the conditions under which inoculation may be best performed, and does age exercise an important influence in the fatality? And, lastly, for how long a period is protection from attack conferred ? To settle these points, the inoculation of a large number of animals will be necessary, and their subsequent exposure to sources of contagion at fayourable periods. Prevention of Splenic Fever, §c., at the Brown Institution. 291 For the present I propose to continue these experiments in the same direction as those which have already been made, vary- ing the conditions in such a way as to determine, if possible, the readiest method of inoculation, and that affording the best results.in conferring protection. If the results hitherto obtained should be confirmed, and if I am able to guarantee definite effects from material cultivated in the manner which I have described, it will be easy to preserve the virus for an almost indefinite period, and to send it to any one who is willing to extend the sphere of observation by making inoculations and watching the results. OUTBREAKS OF ANTHRAX. There has been but little information as to outbreaks of the disease (splenic apoplexy); and in no case have I had any opportunity of gaining fresh light upon the etiology of the disease. The facts brought to my notice are embodied in the following reports of Mr. Banham ; they concern two outbreaks, from which the material for the experiments was derived. Outbreak near Romford, Essex.—This occurred in October, amongst a herd of twenty-five cows and two bulls. The cows were turned perfectly healthy into a grass field, the subsoil of which is clay. At the lower end of the field is a stream, which carries the sewage from a village about a mile distant. The cows received no other food, they cannot therefore be said to have been highly fed. In the first outbreak seven cows died. The two bulls, which had been kept in a shed and never been out at all, also died. The only possible communication between the cows and the bulls were—(1) The cows passed the doors of the place in which the bulls were kept. (2) The men who fed the cows often came into the bulls’ stables. The cows were brought up into the homestead, and then allowed to remain for two months, when the owner thought they might be fairly turned out again. But soon after they had been in the grass-field again, two others died. After that they were brought to the farm again, and remained there without any further loss. The second outbreak occurred at the end of December, at Alford in Lincolnshire. On Dec. 19, 1879, there were twenty- two cows tied up in a shed, and they appeared to be perfectly well when fed at3 p.m. It may be mentioned that they were fed on barley, chaff, and straw, tares, hay, mangolds, and linseed- cake. At 3.30 one of the cows seemed stupid, and staggered U 292 Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and about. The attendant was sent for, and found the animal rest- less, temperature 109° Fahr., pulse could not be taken. The cow died at 5 p.M. The carcass was removed into a yard where the horses were kept at night, and a post-mortem exami- nation was made there. The most characteristic lesiens of splenic apoplexy were found. All the parts with which the cow had been in contact were ordered to be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected. Notwithstanding these precautions, on Dec. 25 a horse, which had been worked the previous} day, was found dead. On Dec. 25 another was taken ill, and when the attend- ant arrived he found it unable to rise, and a frothy haemorrhagic discharge flowing from the nostrils. Blood was also running from the anus. The visible mucous membranes and tongue were highly congested and studded with hemorrhagic spots. Death occurred fifteen minutes after his arrival. In connection with this outbreak, I may mention that in the neighbourhood of Alford the disease appears to be endemic, previous cases having been reported to us. On a farm in the neighbourhood, the owner lost fifty cattle in February 1878. On June 5, 1879, a yearling steer from the same yard as that in which the previous outbreak had occurred was found dead. A post-mortem examination showed in the abdomen a quantity of black blood; the spleen weighed 8lbs. and was greatly congested; the gastro-intestinal tract contained bloody fluid throughout, and the mucous membrane showed numerous ecchymoses. Another case occurred in the same neighbourhood, though at some distance from the above, on June 6, in a heifer grazing in the marsh. No previous case was known to have occurred on this farm for twenty-five years before. The symptoms and post-mortem appearances resembled those in the previous case. Distribution of Bacillii—One of the most striking points in the morbid anatomy of anthrax is the enormous number of Bacilli, and the way in which they crowd the blood and tissues. One might indeed imagine, from the way in which the blood sometimes swarms with them, that they would be found nearly equally in all the organs. This, however, so far as my obser- vations go, is not the case. Nor are they especially abundant in the spleen in many of the cases which I have examined ; in some, e.g. the sheep in Case IV., none are found. In the heart they are often found in very great abundance, crowding the vessels, appearing alongside the vessels in the intermuscular spaces, but not in very great number; and form- ing here and there masses which completely plug the small Prevention of Splenic Fever, §c., at the Brown Institution. 293 vessels and lead to extravasation of blood, which of course also contains Bacilli. In the lungs they are well seen, owing to arrangement of the capillaries in the alveolar walls; but they more rarely lead to infarction. \ They do not usually appear in any great number in the pleura. The liver is sometimes very free from them ; when found, they are especially seen in the hepatic veins and their intra- lobular tributaries. The kidneys usually contain them in very large numbers, chiefly in the glomeruli and their afferent and efferent arterioles, and in the parts of the vessels in immediate continuity with them. Many of the afferent arterioles are almost completely plugged by masses of them; in the glomeruli themselves, especially near the surface of the organ, they lie in parallel bundles, in such a way that the capillaries appear to be striated; and sometimes they form a mass which may occupy a consider- able portion of the glomerulus. I have in some of these masses seen the formation of spores: a fact, I believe, of great im- portance. Rupture of the glomerulus may occur, and the Bacilli, usually accompanied by some blood, escape into the con- voluted tubes, where they may grow to a considerable length. Koch states that they do not pass beyond this position, and that he has never seen them in any part of the straight tubes. It must, however, be remembered that he is speaking only of rabbits and mice. There are many considerations which lead me to believe that either Bacilli or spores must, in the majority of cases, pass into the urine and be voided with it; and that this may serve as one of the most important carriers of contagion. I shall there- fore consider it a little more in detail. First, with regard to the glomeruli. It is quite possible that after rupture of the capillary network has occurred, and a quantity of blood has been extravasated, very few of the Bacilli may traverse the tortuous channel and reach the bladder; but what we know of the passage of blood in the urine, under analogous conditions, leads me to believe that some small quantity must pass. Again, | have frequently observed that individual Bacilli can pass through the capillary wall, and even through the walls of large vessels. Some may therefore pass into the urine whilst the network is as yet unruptured. Again, we know that the urine is an excellent nutrient fluid for bacilli, and that they can go on to the formation of spores. Once escaped, therefore, into the urinary tract, one or two Bacilli may serve to contaminate the whole of the urine. 294 Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and Apart from the glomeruli, the relations of the vascular supply of the pyramids may explain a more direct mode of entry of Bacilli by rupture of the capillaries, or, of course, they may escape into the bladder; but the importance of the other method is, I think, especially in the possibility of the acquisition of a more stable form and of spore formation. Anthrax has been communicated by Feser and others by means of inoculation with the urine of animals suffering from the disease. When we consider the very numerous ways in which the poison thus excreted may, having acquired a stable form, become dried on fodder or hay, or spread on the ground in manure, and subsequently be introduced by various channels into the system, especially of animals which, like cows and sheep, are apt to have their food more or less mingled with excreta, we need seek for no more ready mode of preservation and conveyance of the contagion. This fact, if it leads to more rigorous sanitary precautions (such as the thorough destruction of all litter, &c.) suggested by these observations, may prove of great value in limiting and controlling the disease. The widespread distribution of the Baczlli in the capillaries of all the organs which are concerned in the most important functions of animal life, is suggestive of other modes by which they may cause death than by their direct action on the blood. Unquestionably, they must interfere with oxygenation, by taking from the red corpuscles their needful amount of oxygen and appropriating it to their own growth; but their mere mechanical effect must also be considered, impeding, as it must, the action of the heart, the circulation and air absorption in the lungs, the excretory functions of the intestines and kidneys, and so on of nearly all the organs. And in corrobora- tion of this view are the often observed facts of preservation of intelligence and some power of action till very shortly before death, of the lowered temperature which often precedes death, and of the absence of the ordinary symptoms of septic poison- ing, properly so-called: the defective coagulation depending on the mechanical presence of bacilli. So far as I have seen, there may be but slight changes in the blood taken from a large vessel, whilst the capillaries of the organ are crowded with bacilli, and the phenomena associated with early decomposition are much less frequent than in many forms of blood-poisoning. QuARTER-EviL, BLACK QUARTER, OR BLAcK LEG. The disease commonly known by these names is usually regarded as one of the forms of anthrax. It is widely spread throughout this country; and different names are used to de- Prevention of Splenic Fever, §c., at the Brown Institution. 295 signate it in different counties. Quarter-Ill, Joint-Ill, Quarter- Felon, Speed, Hasty, Puck, or Pook, Schewl, and Inflammatory Fever, all appear to be merely local appellations for the same disease. A similar affection is described as Erysipelas car- bunculosum (Armitage), Emphysema infectiosum (Billinger) ; and in Germany it would appear to be classed as only a variety of anthrax, as “ Milzbrand Karbunkel,” or “ Milzbrand Em-~ physem,” and “Rauschbrand.” In France the corresponding form is called “ “deme charbonneuse,”’ or ‘ deme malin.” But I cannot positively assert that any of these names indicate a disease identical with Quarter Evil. Although the disease is well-known to most stock-owners, and in many parts of the country occurs with great regularity at certain periods of the year in some pastures, it is desirable that I should mention the principal common features of the disease under consideration, in order that no confusion may arise. This is the more necessary, as most authors do not separate this disease from anthrax, but consider it is only one manifestation of that disease. I shall point out that there are certain differ- ences from anthrax, in the conditions of its occurrence, its mode of apparent spread, and its pathological appearances, which are sufficiently marked to suggest a provisional separation from anthrax. For many of the facts with regard to this disease I am indebted to my colleague, Mr. Banham, who has seen a good deal of it in Cambridgeshire. The animals usually affected are cattle under two years of age. Young sheep are occasionally victims to it. It occurs chiefly at certain periods of the year, especially the spring and early summer, though not by any means necessarily limited to that time, cases sometimes occurring in October, and its chief prevalence is amongst young cattle recently put out to graze. In some districts there are certain pastures, even certain fields or paddocks, in which cases occur regularly year after year, whilst in other fields cases never break out. So far as the information received extends, these pastures are commonly low- lying lands, with defective drainage, clay and calcareous soils being especially favourable to its development. Whatever the cause of the disease, it would appear, if infec- tious at all, to be so only to a very slight degree. In some places cases occur sporadically year after year, only one or two animals dying, and the others remaining perfectly healthy, re- moval from the field to another being the only precaution required. Sometimes a number of animals succumb, but it rarely extends beyond one farm or one lot of stock. The first symptom observed is that the animal isolates itself 296 Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and from the herd, lies down, shivers, refuses its food, appears dull and listless, and there may or may not be symptoms of fever. The pulse is irregular, feeble, and rapid, 80 to 120 per minute ; if fever is present, the mouth is hot and dry, the conjunctiva reddened, and sometimes spotted with petechia. Some small swellings appear, either on the loins, back, neck, head, brisket, or on one or more of the limbs (usually on the shoulder or quarter). These swellings are at first hot and painful; they rapidly increase in size, and then become cold and painless, and form diffused emphysematous swellings, occupying an extensive surface, which, when tapped with the fingers, produce a peculiar crepitating sound, and if cut into, dark frothy bloody fluid exudes. Large surfaces are frequently found in this mortified state without being preceded by smaller carbuncular swellings. Lameness is of course, in these cases, a prominent symptom. The animal usually lies in this condition for from six to eight hours, then becomes stupid and unconscious, and finally dies in a comatose state, The course and duration of the disease vary ; cases have been known to live from three to seven days, and it is stated by Roll that the swellings sometimes break at one or more points, dis- charging a gangrenous, ichorous, or tenacious bloody fluid ; and it is said that the animal may recover, but Mr. Banham says that these cases are rare, if they ever occur, in England. Most commonly the disease runs a quick course, and kills the animal in from twelve to fifteen hours. The usual post-mortem appearances are: Rigor mortis only slightly developed, the carcass greatly swollen, owing to the subcutaneous emphysema, and also, in some cases, to tympa- nitis. The blood extravasations are usually confined to one quarter, but they may be found in any part of the body. The blood is usually dark-coloured, fluid, and imperfectly coagulated, and, according to some authors, it has a peculiar odour. Decom- position sets in very rapidly, and the blood soon swarms with bacteria. The lungs are said to be congested, the bronchi often filled with frothy mucus. The spleen is usually of normal size and consistence, the liver of healthy appearance, the intestines some- times containing ecchymosed spots, but usually healthy. But the most striking changes are found in the affected limb or quarter. The integuments are distended by the swelling of the subcutaneous tissue. On cutting through the skin, a large quantity of blackish, almost tarry, frothy fluid, filled with bubbles of gas, is found in this position. ‘The swelling and gangrenous condition are not limited to the subcutaneous tissue, but extend deeply through the intermuscular planes separating Prevention of Splenic Fever, Sc., at the Brown Institution. 297 the muscles. ‘The muscles themselves are of blackish-red colour, mottled with points of ecchymosis, and there is a similar edema of the connective tissue between the bundles of muscular fibres, which separates the individual bundles, in a manner analogous to that in which the exudation in the lung in pleuro-pneumonia of cattle separates the pulmonary lobules. The diseased quarter is said to be very deadly to pigs and dogs, and it occasionally happens that men who dress the car- cass, if scratched, die very rapidly with a peculiar form of blood- poisoning; yet it is stated to be a common practice to cut off and bury the affected quarter, and to cook and eat the rest, without any known ill-effects. By some authors * the disease is divided into two forms, the one affecting the quarter, the other chiefly involving the intes- tines. In the latter form the chief symptoms are the passage of bloody faeces with tenesmus, occasionally, also, the urine being bloody ; great tympanitic distension of the abdomen, and rapid prostration. The mucous membrane of the intestines is greatly swollen and intensely congested, or almost gangrenous ; they contain soft bloody feces. This is most marked in the large intestine. The mesenteric glands are greatly swollen, con- gested, and softened, and contain hemorrhagic spots. There may be bloody exudation in the peritoneum. This form of the disease appears to be somewhat allied to the so-called Mycosis intestinalis. It may be well here to point out certain features in which the disease usually differs from splenic apoplexy. 1. Its limitation to certain localities and certain periods of the year, and the apparent absence of direct contagion in most cases. 2. The gangrenous emphysematous nature of the swellings, which is not usual even with local forms of anthrax. 3. The general course and long duration of the disease in some Cases. 4. The presence of coma and convulsions for some time before death. 5. The absence of swelling of the spleen. 6. So far as most observations go, the absence of the charac- teristic anthrax Bacillus from the blood. And, as I shall further show, the disease may be exactly reproduced in rodents by inoculation from various parts of the body, without the discoverable presence of anthrax Bacillus in the blood or organs of the inoculated animals. On the other hand, in no inoculation have I succeeded in * A full account of these diseases is given by F. Hable in the ‘ Oesterreichische Vierteljahreschrift fiir Wissen. Veterinirkunde.’ Bd. li, H. 1, which has been translated by Mr, Banham. 298 = Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and producing anthrax, even in animals very highly susceptible of infection by its poison in very minute doses, such, for instance, as mice and guinea-pigs. There has been great difficulty in procuring any material from this disease for investigation and experiment, only two outbreaks having been reported early enough to allow of a personal in- spection. In two or three cases specimens of blood from the affected quarter, or from the jugular vein, and of other fluids, have been forwarded, but in every case the material had not been properly secured from sources of decomposition, and proved inert on inoculation, showing that in this, as in many other diseases, the specific virus is destroyed by decomposition of the fluid containing it. The most satisfactory case was one in which Mr. Banham was able to make a post-mortem examination and to secure spe- cimens of the various fluids and tissues of the body at a suffi- ciently early period after death for examination. In October 1879 an outbreak of Black Quarter occurred in the parish of Madingley, a village about three miles from Cam- bridge, in a herd of ten or twelve young animals, four of which succumbed to the disease. The usual prophylactic treatment, viz. change of pasture and food, with the administration of saline purgatives followed by vegetable tonics, was adopted, and the other animals remained perfectly healthy. Mr. Banham states that most of the land in this district has a loamy upper soil, with a clayey subsoil, and in consequence the water remains on the land for a considerable time, making it very “clung” and hard to work, what is commonly called “heavy ” land. Through the kindness of Mr. Page Wallis, of Cambridge, Mr. Banham was enabled to make a post-mortem examination of the last of the animals which died during the outbreak, twenty hours after death, and I examined the tissues and fluids about five and a half hours later. Mr. Banham’s report of the post-mortem examination is as follows :— “The carcass was extremely emphysematous, the subcutaneous tissue more or less distended with gas, and infiltrated with reddish gelatinous fluid, this condition being, however, much more marked on the right shoulder and hind quarter, the left side of the body being less affected. On removal of the skin, the muscles beneath the places most affected with emphysematous swelling were of a dark colour, and infiltrated with frothy, gela- tinous, dark-coloured fluid. The muscles most affected were those surrounding the left humerus, both tibie, and the right lumbar region and shoulder. Prevention of Splenic Fever, §c., at the Brown Institution. 299 “ Abdomen tympanitic, and, when opened, a quantity of red- coloured fluid escaped from the cavity. The stomach and intestines appeared healthy. The spleen was slightly enlarged and softened. Liver normal to the naked eye. Kidneys of natural size and colour. “ Pleurz contained an unusual amount of fluid, serous mem- brane smooth and glistening. Lungs fairly healthy, except at the lower third of the left lung, which appeared airless, or nearly so, firm, of dark-red colour and sank in water (probably collapse). Heart and pericardium healthy. Blood in ventricles of heart had coagulated to a firm clot. Similar coagulation had taken place in the large veins.” Blood from the heart and jugular vein and spleen, serum from the heart and from the affected quarter, were preserved in capil- lary tubes hermetically sealed, and examined by myself about five hours later, with the following results: The serum from the affected parts contained only a very few rods, and some few spores similar to those found in other parts. The serum from the blood of the heart contained very few red corpuscles, but in it were seen scattered spores and pieces of filaments attached to them. These spores were nearly 1:4 4 in length, and about °6 or ‘7 w in diameter, hence they were much larger than ordinary bacteria.* The filaments attached to some also resembled pieces of the ordinary anthrax bacillus rods, they were of very delicate outline. The spleen was found to contain a very large number of oblong spores, some free, others with pieces of the filaments attached to them. From these fluids animals were inoculated with the following results. Experiment I—A guinea-pig, inoculated at 12 p.m. Oct. 9, with fluid from the spleen, was found next evening, twenty hours after the inoculation, to be apparently paralysed in the hind limbs, with extremely low temperature. There was swelling and emphysema of the walls of the abdomen, and of the tissues of the inoculated limb. It was killed at 9 P.m., and the tissues and fluids at once examined. The skin of the thigh and of the adjacent abdominal wall was found to separate very readily ; the whole of the subjacent tissues being of blackish, almost gangrenous, appearance. The * It must here be mentioned that Bacilli may be found in blood and tissues after death, which are not anthrax Bacilli. The proof of their anthracoid nature is found only in their effect when inoculated in another animal. This point is too complicated for discussion here, For some facts I may refer to a work of Dr. Timothy Lewis, in ‘ Microscopie Organisms found in the Blood of Man and Animals,’ p. 41. Calcutta, 1879. 300 = Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and muscles of the thigh and abdomen were also swollen, of very black colour, and contained numerous ecchymoses. The spleen appeared perfectly healthy, and not apparently enlarged. On examining the serum from the swollen connective tissue of the thigh, it was found to contain ordinary bacteria and micro- cocci, fhe! baciews in very active movement. Serous fluid, which was somewhat blood-stained, obtained from the centre of affected muscles, also contained a few moving bacteria of the common form. The blood from the heart appeared to be perfectly healthy, and contained neither bacteria nor micrococci of the ordinary form. ‘That from the spleen swarmed with bacteria and micrococci, a few of the rods being quiescent, but even these having the form of ordinary decomposition bacteria. The lungs appeared perfectly natural. I could not collect any fluid in the serous cavities. In this case, then, there were none of the usual characters of anthrax, and neither bacillus rods nor spores were to be dis- covered in the spleen or tissues; but there are two note- worthy points, viz., that the emphysematous swelling of the inoculated limb and of the abdominal wall, the almost gangre- nous state of the tissues and the black condition of the muscles were present, reproducing in this respect the clinical features of the original disease. At the same time there was evidence that decomposition had already commenced during life, in the fact that the splenic tissue swarmed with bacteria. I have never found this before in an animal killed and examined at once. In the other inoculations I was unable to examine the tissues immediately after death. Experiment II.—A. guinea-pig, inoculated in the leg with serum from the affected quarter at the same time as the pre- ceding, was found dead at 8°30 A.M. on October 11. I was unable to examine the body till 5 p.m. The whole of the quarter where the inoculation was made was greatly swollen, the hair and epidermis were detached with great ease, even by a slight touch. In the subcutaneous tissue of this limb and over a great part of the abdominal wall was a quantity of deeply blood-stained exudation. The muscles ot the thigh were swollen and black, containing small spots of ecchymosis. The other hind limb was not affected. All the viscera and the serous cavities were apparently perfectly healthy, and the spleen was free from enlargement. The blood-stained serum from the subcutaneous tissue con- tained many red blood-corpuscles, a few ordinary moving rod- shaped bacteria and some micrococci, no still rods or spores. The peritoneal serum contained no bacteria at all, nor did the blood from the heart. In the spleen were found only ordinary Prevention of Splenic Fever, Sc., at the Brown Institution. 301 moving bacteria. In the pleural serum were a few longer moving rods, some measuring from 8 to 12 mw in length, showing signs of incipient division, but not containing spores. Experiment II[—Another guinea-pig was inoculated at the same time with blood from the heart, which, it will be re- membered, contained spores resembling anthrax spores, and was also found dead thirty-three hours after the inoculation, having had a temperature ten hours after of 106°, and in the evening, twenty-two hours after inoculation, of 100-4°. The appearances, both naked-eye and microscopical, were precisely similar to those in the preceding: no Bacilli nor definite spores were found. Experiment IV.—A rabbit, inoculated in the leg with fluid from the spleen, presented on the following day a very marked swelling of the whole of the inoculated limb, much resembling that in the guinea-pigs. The temperature was 104° for the next two days, morning and evening; on the third day it was 103° to 103:4°, on the fourth, 102-8°. The swelling gradually declined and the animal recovered. These experiments were not continued further, for at the time they appeared to me to indicate that the material employed must have been too much decomposed to be of value. But on reconsideration I am inclined to think that this may have been an error. In all four of these experiments the sequel was different, both from that of the inoculation of ordinary septic material, and from that containing anthrax Bacilli. In all there were the peculiar emphysematous swelling and the black condition of the muscles, with ecchymoses scattered through them, which are characteristic of and give the special feature to the disease known as black-quarter. In no other experiments with animal fluids have I seen anything at all similar produced. Moreover, it was produced alike with the blood from the heart, juice expressed from the spleen, and the serous exudate from the affected quarter. I would especially notice the fact that the spores found in the spleen gave no signs of growth; that they were, in fact, not re- produced in the slightest degree in the animals inoculated. Now what has commonly been observed is that if material containing a quantity of anthrax spores is inoculated, anthrax Bacilli, being developed more rapidly in the body than other Bacilli, produce the symptoms of splenic apoplexy. Here we have evidently to deal with a poison equally rapid and fatal in its action in some cases, producing decomposition actually during life, but apparently hindering the development of Bacillus anthracis, if that organism is really present. Some other experiments, previously made, show that the 502 = Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and blood of quarter-evil loses its peculiar properties when decom- position has become at all advanced, indeed that, as has been shown to occur in many cases, such blood may be inoculated in rodents without causing any deleterious effects at the time, though in some cases later effects are developed. Some blood taken six hours after death from the jugular vein of a cow which died of black-quarter on June 24 was received by me on June 28. The blood had been placed in a small stoppered bottle, completely filled and well secured; neverthe- less when received it was highly offensive. It contained only a few common rod-shaped and other forms of bacteria. About four minims of the blood were injected under the skin of the thigh of a guinea-pig. It was gradually absorbed, the animal showing no symptons whatever. About one drop was similarly injected beneath the skin of the back of a mouse, and no results were produced. Another outbreak, which occurred near Cambridge, has given further opportunities for investigation of this disease. Two cases being reported on February 24, 1880, Mr. Banham went down to Cambridge to examine them and procure material. He found that a post-mortem examination had already been made, and only the affected quarters reserved for his inspection. Nothing abnormal was found in the internal organs. In both cases the affected quarter presented in the most striking manner the usual characters, which have already been described, the subcutaneous and intermuscular connective tissue being in- filtrated with blood-stained serum, and the muscles of blackish- purple colour mottled with spots of hemorrhage. Blood and serous exudation from these parts were secured in capillary tubes about twenty-four hours after death, the weather being cold and almost frosty in the interval. On examining these fluids about thirty-two hours after death I found no sign of decomposition. In the blood and the blood-stained serum which flowed from the quarter, the only striking fact was the entire absence of coagulation, the blood-corpuscles remaining entirely isolated. I was unable, with the highest power which I had at hand (44th oil-immersion of Zeiss), on prolonged examination to detect any bacteria of any form whatever, even micrococci being absent in the freshly-opened tubes containing only blood. No traces of Bacilli or their remains were discovered. It is the more remarkable that bacteria should have been absent, as it is not uncommon for the blood and tissues of the affected parts to be found in a state of decomposition directly after death, some- times even during life as we have already seen. Inoculation experiments were made with the blood and serum from the affected quarter, as in the preceding case. Prevention of Splenic Fever, &c., at the Brown Institution. 303 Experiment I.—A rabbit was inoculated in the thigh with a drop of the serous fluid which had been collected. No symptoms or local results followed. Experiment II.—A rabbit was inoculated with 2 minims of bloody fluid (chiefly blood) from the affected quarter. No symptoms, either local or general, ensued. Experiment III.—A guinea-pig was similarly inoculated with the blood. No effect was produced. At first sight these experiments seem to contradict the results obtained with the previous case. But I must point out a striking difference in the method employed, or rather in the material used. In the former case most of the results were obtained by inoculation with either the spleen or the blood from the general circulation, inoculation with which gave rise to the local phenomena of the disease. Moreover, all the fluids used contained bacteria of some form. In the present case only the local serum and blood were employed, the other fluids not being obtainable, and no bacteria could be discovered in the fluids inoculated. It would, therefore, appear probable that the specific virus does not reside in the local lesion, or is present in a far less active form there than elsewhere. And this again would appear to suggest that the affection of the quarter or limb is secondary to and not the cause of the general disease. I do not desire to speculate further on this subject, which can only be solved by further experiment. Two conclusions alone appear to me to be warranted. [F'irst, a scientific one, that the disease must be different from anthrax, which is so readily communicable to lower animals, especially rodents, that if this were a form of anthrax, some of our experiments must have produced that disease, instead of reproducing either the identical quarter-evil or no effect whatever. Second, a practical conclusion, that the danger of infection is as great or greater from the unaffected parts of the body as from the obviously affected and gangrenous quarter. The practice of burying or burning the obviously diseased part only, and taking no steps to destroy or disinfect the rest of the carcass, is therefore clearly fraught with danger to other animals. I reserve for a future occasion the description of the micro- scopical examination of sections of the hardened organs of animals dying of the original disease, and as a result of inocula- tion from it. I may, however, state that the principal results of this examination were to establish the identity of the inocula- lated with the original disease, and to confirm the conclusions drawn from the naked-eye appearances, but beyond this they have not afforded any clue to the pathology of the disease. In connection with the experiments on this disease it is right a 304 Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and that I should mention the following observation, made in their course. That flagellated protozoa may exist in the blood of healthy animals is now well known from the observations of Rattig, Wedl, Lewis, and others. But I am not aware of any similar recorded observation, and it may be found to have a pathological bearing at some future date. An apparently healthy white mouse was inoculated in the tail with some blood from the diseased quarter, and as it pre- sented no symptom beyond some swelling of the tail, it was supposed to have escaped all mischief. However, the swelling did not subside, but became gangrenous, and towards the middle of the second week it began to emaciate and the belly swelled ; finally, it died on the fourteenth day after the inoculation. Examination five hours after Death.—On opening the abdomen there was found to be considerable opalescent exudation in the peritoneum ; the abdominal wall was also swollen and infiltrated. The tail, where inoculated, was considerably swollen. The other organs were fairly healthy. Before, however, I examined the organs, I took, as usual, some of the exudation in capillary tubes, and also some serum from the pleura and pericardium, and examined these microscopically. I naturally anticipated that I should have found the ordinary characters of semi-purulent serous effusion in the peritoneal fluid, but my astonishment was great when I found the fluid to be swarming with minute organisms swimming actively about in every direction, moving apparently by means of two long cilia or flagella. These organisms I may now describe more fully. They were ovoid, rounded, or more commonly, when in motion, pyriform or balloon-shaped ; very translucent, of delicate hyaline struc- ture, sharply defined. At the posterior extremity were two long fine lashes, moving with a wavy motion, much like that of cilia, and apparently serving to propel the organism forwards. In each could be seen a central clear space running lengthwise, wider at its central part, and apparently contracting and expand- ing. At the anterior extremity a more refractile part could be seen, apparently forming a sort of oral aperture. Their proto- plasm was highly contractile, and they changed shape, elon- gating and contracting very readily. In size they were, when at rest and round, about from 2 to 4°5 w in diameter; when elongated, some reached 6 y in length, and 1:5 to 2 w in width. I was able to observe their movements for more than half an hour, but it was not until they were quiescent that the other cilia could be seen, and they were not well seen until stained. A more thorough study of their character was possible after staining with methylaniline violet, and mounting in glycerine Prevention of Splenic Fever, &c., at the Brown Institution. 305 jelly. It was then found that they had each at least six lashes, sometimes apparently eight, two of these being at the caudal extremity, and the remaining four attached to the anterior extremity, and, so far as I could see, around the oral aperture. These cilia or flagella were extremely delicate, so as hardly to be visible without staining. In length they were from 5 y to 8 4, or nearly twice as long as the length of the body. After staining, the body of some presented numerous fine granules, perhaps due to coagulation of the protoplasm; in each one the anterior extremity stained more deeply, and in some formed a distinct ring. In all the central space came out very clearly. There can, I think, be little doubt that the anterior cilia were not visible during life, owing to their very active move- ment; that the posterior, which seemed to propel the body, were really serving rather as rudders to steer it. I supposed at first that these might be parasites which had escaped from the intestine, bladder, or elsewhere, and I there- fore examined very carefully the contents of these viscera throughout their whole extent, and also the blood, &c., but failed to find any trace of similar organisms in any of these ; whilst all the specimens from the peritoneal exudation swarmed with them, and contained no other organised constituents of importance. What is their nature and significance I must leave for future observation to discover. OTHER ANTHRACOID DISEASES. Amongst the diseases of the class of blood-poisonings which appear to be allied to anthrax are two which especially affect horses, and are known respectively as Cape Horse-sickness and Loodiana fever. At present it is uncertain whether these are identical, and also whether they are or are not produced by the same poison as anthrax. The former disease, “Cape Horse-sickness,” is one to which attention has been specially directed of late by the Zulu war. It appears to be endemic (or enzootic) in certain regions, notably of Natal and Zululand, occurring chiefly in low-lying lands and in valleys, though cases sometimes occur at high altitudes. The disease usually prevails at particular seasons of the year, especially in moist hot weather, or when rain occurs after heat, disappearing almost entirely both in hot dry weather and also in the cold season. Almost universal popular belief and recent experience attribute the attacks to eating the wet grass under such conditions, and it has been VOL. XVI.—S. S. x 306 Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and observed: that cases are especially prevalent when horses are allowed to graze on, or are tethered out, in wet grass. The onset is usually sudden, with dulness, loss of appetite, rise of temperature, injection of the conjunctive, accelerated breathing, cough, and other symptoms, resembling those of inflammation of the lungs. There is evidence of considerable exudation in the bronchi, and in some cases a large quantity of mucus is discharged from the mouth and nostrils. ‘The tempe- rature is usually considerably elevated, reaching 105° to 108° Fahr. In one form of the disease there is great swelling of the tongue and of the cellular tissue of the throat, causing death by suffocation. The disease is usually fatal, sometimes in a few hours, more rarely in two or three days, and cases of recovery are on record. The post-mortem examination shows usually rapid decom- position. There is often a quantity of straw-coloured fluid in the pleura; the lungs are engorged, and along the margin and in patches beneath the pleura is a large quantity of yellow lymph. On section of the lungs, blood and serum flow freely from the cut surfaces, and frothy yellow mucus from the bronchi. Ecchymoses are invariably found beneath the endocardium of the left ventricle, the heart is soft and flabby, and there may be serous effusion in the pericardium. The following account of a case of this disease, for which I am indebted to Mr. R. Moore, M.R.C.V.S., gives a good illus- tration of the symptoms and post-mortem appearances which are usually observed. Material was sent to me for examination :— “The horse had been doing very little work, and was in good condition. He was noticed to be dull in his work the day before he was taken ill. He was first noticed to be ill at 3 oclock P.M., and was seen by me at 6 o'clock the same evening, when he was presenting the following symptoms: Temperature at the mouth very high; pulse imperceptible ; visible mucous membranes highly congested and of a livid hue, especially round the gums; breathing very laborious ; extremities and surface of body cold; crepitation in all parts of both lungs on auscultation. At 9 P.M. the characteristic dis- charge of froth issued freely from the nostrils, and he expired about 10 P.M. “ Post-mortem Examination.—Body in good condition ; flesh dark in colour. “‘ Chest.—Large accumulations of lymph in patches in the areolar tissue on the surface of the lungs and pericardium. Both lungs large in appearance, but not of a very dark colour. When cut, they presented great capillary congestion, which Prevention of Splenic Fever, §c., at the Brown Institution. 307 pervaded every inch of the lungs. The bronchial tubes, both large and small, were very much congested, and from them issued the froth. No part of the lungs heavier than water. Pleura slightly affected. “ Heart.—Deposit of lymph in pericardium. Endocardium of right ventricle congested and livid, almost black. “ Liver and Spleen of normal size, but darker in colour than usual. “ Kidneys. —The left kidney very much congested, the right one healthy. ** Intestines.—There were patches of inflammation over all the bowels and mesentery. “The Blood very dark and fluid.” The condition of the lungs here described is, as I shall hope to show, of considerable interest in relation to some experi- ments which I made with the disease upon animals. The lung affection is evidently a marked and constant feature of the disease, and the principal conditions are subpleural exudation and a sort of bronchial catarrh. ‘These I have been able to reproduce by inoculation of the disease in guinea-pigs and mice, with characters apparently almost identical with those seen in the original disease. Moreover, these lesions were in both situations attended with the presence of bacilli in the affected parts in the initial stages of the morbid process, disap- pearing as it reached its maximum. Of the original disease I have only had the opportunity of examining one specimen, a piece of the affected lung. This was not in a condition for examination for bacteria. The principal change was evidently an inflammation, slight in degree, which followed the lines of the bronchi, but in many places was evidently outside them. Some of the bronchi, espe- cially those of medium size, showed signs of catarrh, but there were a large number of which the mucous membrane appeared absolutely healthy. But in a large number of sections there were very marked changes around the vessels supplying the walls of the bronchi. Some of these were completely plugged by masses of leuco- cytes, and around them for some little distance were the ordinary appearances of inflammation. ‘There were here and there patches of exudation, extending to close beneath the bronchial mucous membrane. The epithelial lining was in many of these perfectly healthy in appearance, but here and there the sub-mucous tissue con- siderably swollen and infiltrated. But the absence of bronchial catarrh was in most parts very striking; only rarely was there any exudation in the air-cells. The pleura was thickened in scattered patches, apparently by exudation into its substance, Xa 308 Report on an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes and which was partly inflammatory, partly haemorrhagic but no superficial effusion was observed. Let me anticipate what I shall have to say with regard to the results in rodents, for the sake of drawing a parallel between the condition here described and that found in them. In two mice, the one inoculated from the other, the first having been in- oculated from a guinea-pig, I found these changes. In the first, marked pulmonary congestion with slight subpleural exudation. In this lung I found commencing inflammation of the sub- pleural tissue with slight haemorrhagic exudation on the surface. Both in patches of the lung tissue, and in these deeper pleural layers and in the exudate I found here and there abundant bacilli, agreeing both with those cultivated from the peritoneal exudation and those seen in the other animals. These were only found locally at the spots of commencing inflammation, and not elsewhere, except scattered in the lung. In the second animal there was no pleural exudation. I found, however, that in some of the larger bronchi, those near the root of the lung, there was incipient catarrh ; that this was not general, but limited to some parts of the circumference of the tube examined, and that side by side with affected bronchi were others absolutely healthy. Then | found that these affected parts corresponded with vessels which were the seat of commencing inflammation, and that around them in the tissues between them and the bronchi were long bacilli, corresponding exactly with those seen in the peritoneum, and in the lung and pleura of mouse No. 1. These bacilli one could trace passing through the walls of the vessels, and some were also seen in the blood within the ves- sels. As the inflammation began, they seemed to disappear, indicating the probability that inflammation is attended by their destruction. Similar bacilli were also found in the blood-vessels of the kidney, but I have as yet failed to find them in other organs. I may now describe these experiments. Some blood, which had been preserved in carefully filled capillary tubes, and some mucus from the nostrils were the materials used. The blood when examined was found to contain some spore-like bodies, a few remains of short rods, and also a few micrococci. A guinea-pig which was inoculated with the blood died in seventeen hours. When examined, four hours after death, there was very slight inflammation and serous exudation at the seat of inoculation, the heart was filled with coagula, the organs generally appeared natural. The blood contained numerous rods and also free spores; that taken from the heart containing the greatest abundance, more than the splenic blood. Prevention of Splenic Fever, §c., at the Drown Institution. 309 Another guinea-pig, inoculated at the same time as the first, did not die till twelve hours later; it presented similar ap- pearances, but there was more exudation at the points of inoculation. Some blood-stained serum from the heart of guinea-pig No. 1 was kept in capillary tubes at normal temperatures for four weeks, and it was then used to inoculate two mice, with very minute quantities. One of these died in twelve hours, and was examined after nine hours. There was no local inflammation in the tail where it had been inoculated, and no inflammation of the peritoneum. The spleen was large and rather soft, the other viscera healthy, except slight injection of the pleura. Blood taken from the right ventricle was found to contain very numerous long rods, many of them measuring 80, in length, some containing spores. Another mouse was inoculated in the tail with a minute quantity of serum collected in the peritoneum of the previous one, and, like it, died in twelve hours. When examined, three and a-half hours after death, some inflammation was found extending along the surface of the abdomen, and some slightly turbid exudation in the peritoneum; the latter containing a large number of long rods like those in the previous case. On comparing together specimens of blood from these ani- mals and some from cases of undoubted anthrax, a very close similarity is discovered. The chief differences are that the bacilli in most cases of true anthrax are much more abundant ; and that the bacilli in Cape fever were more slender. But I find a considerable difference in this respect in bacilli in anthrax ; in specimens from some animals they are decidedly smaller than in others. In other respects, their varying length, junction of two segments at an acute angle, or formation of long rods made up of nearly equal segments, they are very similar in appearance. In the viscera I did not find any important changes beyond those already mentioned in speaking of the lungs. It is indeed a most striking feature of all these forms of blood-poisoning that the changes in the organs are so slight in degree or may be quite undiscoverable. There is one other point of distinction from anthrax which I must note, viz., that the growth of the bacilli in cultivating fluids is much less voluminous than that usual with anthrax bacillus, although in its main features it is very similar. I was able to cultivate the organisms found in the blood, spleen, and peritoneal serum of the guinea-pig for several generations ; and also those from the peritoneum and pleura of the mice subsequently inoculated. The various stages were as follows: they were repeated again and again in successive cultivations, 310 Report on an Inquiry in the Prevention of Splenic Fever. so that the various stages could be watched side by side in crops of different ages. The rods first formed were long and slender, measuring some- times (as in the mouse examined three hours after death) as much as 15 w to 90 » in length, and about -6 yw in thickness. They were usually quite motionless, but some of them moved very slowly along with a slightly wavy motion. These rods, when cultivated, grew rapidly to an enormous length, some extending almost the entire width of the field (about 200). In these longer ones there were sometimes, at an early period, indications of subdivision into shorter rods, from 10 to 80 » in length; but they often produced the twisted rope-like forms before any subdivision. Once or twice a moving stage was observed in rods about 15 to 25 mw in length; but this was uncommon. In these elongated rods the formation of spores proceeds in the usual manner, though, on account of their smaller size, the steps could not be so readily watched as in the ordinary anthrax bacilli. These spores were pretty regularly arranged in a definite order in the rods, sometimes in couples, 7.e. the alternate spaces narrower. In the rods which had undergone partial division before the formation of spores, these were frequently more closely set together; and the filaments broke down more rapidly into a mass of spores, some of which had escaped from the filament, others had been formed by its division. Although these observations are not sufficiently extensive to warrant any definite and final conclusions, they seem to me to indicate that the disease, although allied to anthrax, may yet be distinguished from it by the predominant affection of the lungs, by the relatively small number of bacilli which are found in the blood and organs, as well as by the size of the bacilli themselves. In true anthrax the growth of bacilli is enormous, their dis- tribution general throughout the body, and in many of the organs the blood-vessels are often found to be plugged by masses of them. In the Cape Horse-fever they are produced in relatively small numbers, and display a preference for certain sites, circulating in the blood and wandering out of the vessels at certain points, at which they appear to set up inflammatory changes, and lead to characteristic results which form the anatomy of the disease. In anthrax the blood is the site of their growth, and the sole anatomical characteristic in most cases is the swelling of the spleen, which is due to the peculiar relations to the blood. At the same time it must be allowed that cases of anthrax do occur Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1879. 311 in which the morbid process does not specially affect the spleen, an example of this is seen in the sheep inoculated with anthrax. I am not yet ina position to say whether these two diseases are identical, viz., anthrax and Cape fever, or whether the bacilli are the same in both; my own belief is that they are not identical, but are two members of one group. With regard to Loodiana fever, which appears to be very closely allied to, if not identical with, the Cape horse-sickness. I can say but little. There appears to be usually more swelling of the throat, with infiltration of the intermuscular planes, than in the common form of Cape fever. XVII.—Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1879. By Dr. Aucustus VorELcKER, F.R.S. SINCE the opening of the Society’s Laboratory, at 12 Hanover Square, last March, 843 samples were received for analysis up to the lst of December, 1879 ; and between the lst of December, 1878, and March 1879, 175 analyses were made by me for members of the Royal Agricultural Society in my laboratory at 11, Salisbury Square, making a total of 1018 analyses for that year between the lst of December, 1878, and 1st of December, 1879. This number exceeds that of the analyses made for members of the Society in the preceding year by 294, and in that terminating 1st December, 1877, by 376. The tabulated summary appended to this Report shows that the largest number of analyses were made of samples of dissolved bones, superphos- phate and compound artificial manures, the majority of which were found of good quality. Next to artificial manures in the list stand linseed- and other feeding-cakes, 257 cakes having passed through my hands, besides 36 samples of feeding-meals. Nearly twice as many samples of bone-dust as in the pre- ceding year were sent for analysis. Some of these were adulterated samples, and others samples sold under a wrong denomination. Leaving unnoticed cases of gross adulteration, the particulars of which will be found in the Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, I beg leave to offer a few remarks on the analytical work in the Society’s laboratory during the last twelve months. ComMPOsITION oF GUANO. None of the 84 samples of guano analysed by me during the past season were purposely adulterated, and the majority were 312 Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1879. found to be well worth the price at which the guano was sold. In not a few instances, however, the quality of the guano did not correspond with its market-price, and in some cases the composition of the bulk-sample delivered to the purchaser did not agree with that represented by the analysis of the official sample of the cargo from which the guano was alleged to have been supplied to the purchaser. It is to be feared that un- scrupulous retail manure-dealers buy in the wholesale market inferior guano at the fair official rates at which such guanos are sold by the Peruvian Government agents, and retail it to farmers at prices at which the best Peruvian guano can be bought. It is an unfortunate circumstance that the characters and com- position of the different guano-deposits in South Peru vary greatly with the particular locality from which they are shipped to Eng- land ; and as the present importations into England of Peruvian guano come from the south of Peru, their agricultural and com- mercial yalue necessarily varies considerably. Thus, cargoes from the deposits at Pabillon de Pica are richer in ammonia and more valuable than those from the Huanillos deposits, and these again have a much higher value than the guano from the deposits at Lobos de Afuera and Lobos de Tierra. A dealer in manures, as a rule, takes good care to protect his interests, and he is in a position to ascertain, with comparative little trouble or expense, whether or not a guano which he intends to buy is really part of the particular cargo from which the official sample was drawn, and according to which its price has been fixed by the Peruvian Government agents ; but in most cases the purchaser of a ton or two of guano has no means of ascertaining whether the guano delivered by a local manure-dealer is part of the cargo which it is represented to be in the official analysis. The general guarantee that guano is genuine Peruvian, as pointed out in a former Report, at the present time has lost its signifi- cance and is liable to mislead farmers. It is much to be regretted that all Peruvian guano is not sold of a fairly uniform quality at one uniform price, for, as stated already, the buyer of guano, especially if he be a small farmer requiring but a single ton or less, is exposed to the risk of being supplied by local dealers with an inferior guano, for which he will have to pay the top price of the best cargoes. In illustration of these remarks the following three analyses made during the past season for members of the Society may be quoted :— No. 1, it will be seen, contains fully 2 per cent. more ammonia, ‘more soluble phosphoric acid, and less moisture than the guano marked No. 2, and is worth about 2/. more per ton than the latter. Nevertheless, No, 1 was bought at Liverpool at 127. 5s. a ton, | Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1879. 313 whereas 13/. 10s. per ton was asked for No. 2, that is 1/. 5s. more than for the superior guano. Again, it will be seen that No. 3 contained a little more ammonia, 63 per cent. more phosphates, and much less water than No, 2, and yet it was sold at 10s. less per ton than No. 2. Composrtion oF THrreE SAMPLES OF PERUVIAN GUANO. No, 1. No. 2. No. 3. Moisture .. oe 13 18 LTD 9°87 *Organic matter and ammoniacal salts ela WOORLG 29°38 30°17 Phosphate GHUMeM Re a et oe |) LOD 19°85 23°19 tAlkaline salts, &e. peas | Mar 17°58 26°33 22°95 Insoluble siliceous matter _ Seco ene 17°86 4°69 13°82 100°00 100°00 | 100°00 *Containing nitrogen .. .. +. 8°05 6 16 6°44 Equal toammonia .. ese 9°77 7°48 7°82 +Containing phosphoric aiid: Soh Ps 3°96 2°43 3°89 Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime.. 8°65 5:31 8°48 Total percentage of phosphoric acid 10°92 11°52 14°51 Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime.. 23°84 25°16 31°67 I need hardly say that 13/. 10s. is an extravagant price for Peruvian guano which contained only 7} per cent. of ammonia, and that 13/7. is also too much for a guano of the composition of the sample No. 3. A guano of the composition of sample No. 1, and costing in Liverpool 12/. 5s. per ton, probably would have to be sold retail in the country at 13/. to 13/. 10s., including carriage ; but as the inferior guano No. 2 was sold at 13/. 10s. at Shifnal at the same time when Peruvian guano worth 2/. more per ton was sold at Liverpool at 12/. 5s. per ton, it appears to be probable that either the dealer took an unfair advantage of the fact that 13/7. to 13/7. 10s. was the retail price of high class Peruvian guano at the time, or that the inferior guano was sold on the basis of an analysis representing the composition of a high-class Peruvian guano. There is another point in connection with the sale of Peruvian guano to which I desire to call attention. The importations from the guano deposits in South Peru frequently contain more or less considerable quantities of stones, for which the Government agents allow a full deduction to the wholesale dealers; it is therefore only fair that they should make the same allowance for stones in retailing the guano. Unless the farmer makes this just demand of the dealer for a reduction in the price of guano corresponding to the weight of stones in it, I fear he will not unfrequently pay for stones the same price which he gives for 2 314 Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1379. guano, The weight of stones in guano may be considerable, as will appear from a letter which I received a short time ago from a gentleman, informing me that the weight of stones in 4'tons of guano bought by him amounted to 6 ewts. and 2 lbs. ARTIFICIAL MANURES AND SUPERPHOSPHATES. As usual, a number of inferior artificial manures were received for analysis during the past season, some of which were not only sold under wrong or misleading names, but also at far too high a price. Thus, a sample of manure which was sold under the name of turnip-manure at 7/. 7s. a ton, on analysis was found to have the following composition :— Moisture .. .. sie?) vials: Lota! Sent ioe oe etme Lar Water of combination ere rm mse | a al(0)°'7.23 Monobasic phosphate of lime 5¢ 12°78 (Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime (20: 02) rendered soluble by aa), Insoluble phosphates ., 9°58 Sulphate of lime, &c. 39°65 Insoluble siliceous matter 5°96 100°00 In point of fact this turnip-manure was nothing more or less than a badly made mineral superphosphate, of a quality which can be readily bought in most places at 4/. a ton, or at consider- ably less money in localities favourably situated as regards the supply of superphosphate. The demand of 7/. 7s. for a mineral superphosphate which would be dear at 4/. a ton, is quite incon- sistent with fair dealings. In proof of the assertion that this turnip-manure, or rather mineral superphosphate, would have been dear at 4/., 1 quote the results of the analysis of three samples of artificial manures for roots which a member sent me last June. ‘The three manures had the following composition :— No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Moisture .. . EP eee eecivel hy dusiapeiy) Tort: Organic matter and water of combustion ont Rete 8°41 } 11-05 9°30 Monobasiec phosphate of lime .. 20°68 | 18°07 6°41 (Equal to tribasic phoebe. rendered soluble) (82°37) | (28°29) | (10-04) Insoluble phosphates _.. 6°94 5°18 8:97 Sulphate of lime, &e. sebrheiA /oh\ CERI PRE yes de MBO GOLMt es On 8 coe ee ies Insoluble siliceous matter cul lple) .-aype reper cenlle er ees 6°28 5°28 100-00 | 100-00 100-00 Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1879. 315 Bi feyed. The cost of No: 1 was.) *.. 220%. 5 94) 6 per ton 3 INOMMiie a bh site tegtnleaG \;9,/and » Nos 5 415 0 » Both No. 1 and No. 2, it will be seen, are good mineral super- phosphates. In No, 1, 32 per cent. of soluble phosphate cost ol. 4s. 6d., or 104s. 6d., which makes the price for the unit per cent. of soluble phosphate 3s. 3d. In the superphosphate No. 2, 28 per cent. of soluble cost 4]. 12s. G6d., or 92s. 6d., or the unit per cent. 3s. 33d. The more expensive of the two superphosphates thus was really the cheaper of the two, for, making no allowance for any of the other constituents of the two samples, the unit per cent. of soluble phosphate in No. 1 was obtained at 3d. less than it cost in No. 2. Both manures were cheap at the price at which they were sold. On the same basis of valuation the turnip-manure, which was sold at 7. 7s., would be worth only 37. 5s., or less than one-half the price at which it was actually sold. The sample marked No. 3, costing 4/. 15s. a ton, was sold as a bone-phosphate, but it contained no bone, and was a poor superphosphate made from bone-ash, with the addition of much gypsum, and, I need hardly say, was not worth 4/. 15s. a ton. Indeed 1 ton of the sample No. 2, costing 4/. 12s. 6d., is worth rather more than 2 tons of the so-called bone-phosphate No. 3, costing 9/. 10s. The name dissolved bones, I regret to say, still continues to be applied to mixtures of mineral superphosphates and small proportions of bone. Thus a sample of so-called dissolved bone, the selling price of which was 6/. 10s. a ton, had the following composition :— Moisture .. .. no og JID *Organic matter and ‘water of combination cee rey 010i Monobasic phosphate of lime.. .. da. aot Se ORI5) (Equal to tribasic phosphate of it (10°11) rendered soluble by sel) Sannin Insoluble phosphates .. oo Meo An 1 ADOC: Balpnaperon lumen: “se fs ss set ee eS MOD, Insoluble siliceous matter... os. 0. ee 7739 100°00 * Containing nitrogen... 560M s+. as 65 Equal to ammonia EST PSormsot sr 5 “79 The manure contained only 8 per cent. of bone, and thus should not have been sold under the name of dissolved bone ; nor should 6/. 10s. have been asked for it, for it would not have been cheap at 3/. 10s. a ton. 316 Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1879. I will only give one more instance of a manure which was found on analysis to be worth scarcely one-half the price at which it was sold. The following is the composition of a mangold- manure, cost 7/. per ton :— Moisture.. "0 ae ea *Organic matter and water “of combination sat ele 2OmOo Monobasic phosphate of lime 2c so ene Meteo (Equal to tribasic phosphate ren- 77 dered soluble by a) ( Insoluble phosphates RHO ect wos) Ui: Pulphateroflimeycsch |My) i) ten) eceentect toon tO Insoluble siliceous matter... ww. wwe 16°69 100°00 * Containing nitrogen BO GG | BOG’ sods ‘0c “55 Eiqualgtoyammont ajc eects +tne nar n 67 The price charged for this manure, 7/. a ton, is quite out of proportion to its real value, which scarcely amounted to 3/. 10s. aton. The gentleman for whom I made this analysis wrote to me as follows: “I am very pleased I sent you the mangold- manure for analysis ; it tells me of the great importance attached to the same, and ten times repays for the fee charged.” COMPOSITION OF SooT. Soot, as is well known, is a manure which is principally used as a top-dressing for cereal crops. Its fertilising properties depend entirely upon the sulphate of ammonia which different samples contain in very variable proportions, as will be seen by the subjoined analyses :— No. 1. No. 2. Moisture 50 cl) SOMO OmmAL Ese 6°11 *Organic (carbonaceous) ‘matter and salts of ammonia see el AON ae OAD Oxides ofironandalumina., .. 4°39 .... 4°05 Carbonateyotilimel.mecce ecu teen Oo lame ereiet 6°99 Insoluble siliceous matter .. .. 40°85 .... 12°40 100-00 100°00 * Containing nitrogen .. .. ASD: | ericel OmOS Equal to ammonia do) 00 2 SON ephesie tee Equal to sulphate ofammonia 11°08 .... 17°11 In a third sample of soot I found :— INTRON co" cop wRad EB MCByeiGo sod) co co | DWH Equal toammonia.. .. Pueblo Gbo.4 OI: Equal to sulphate of ammonia 4... «4. 23°76 Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1879. 317 The sender of sample No. 1 informed me that he paid 55s. for it, but that the sweep grumbled hard at so low a price, as he called it. This soot, however, was poor in ammonia, and apparently mixed with a good deal of fine coal-ashes, and instead of being cheap, was scarcely worth 2/. a ton as a manure. The second sample was genuine soot, of fair average quality, and worth one-half more per ton lian the sample No. 1, and not dear at 3/. per ton; whilst the third sample contained an unusually high percentage of sulphate of ammonia, and was very cheap at 3/. a ton. Bats’ GuAno. The following is the composition of an unusually rich sample of bats’ dung :— Moisture .. .. Ven Foe, eee MLA *Organic matter and ‘salts of ammonia sti tasty ua Oo Phosphate OEMS, eG RS SG. Reo eo “compe tel fAlkaline salts .... Sie ibd og b ado wane! RESTS) Insoluble siliceous matter cine ser edger ree *65 100°00 * Containing nitrogen Sea sect as fae SM setaeinats 8:92 Equal to ammonia . ner Pee 10°83 + Containing soluble phosphoric deiduutich te 1-14 Equal to phosphate @rliti®: cy wos Ee oe 2°49 Total phosphoric acid .. coer ch 5°02 Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime |... 10°96 This bats’ guano contained fully as much nitrogen as the best samples of Peruvian guano; and as it was sold in Liverpool at 8/., it was evidently a very cheap and valuable fertiliser. RICE-MEAL. In dressing rice for the market, a cheap and useful feeding- stuff is produced, which is sold under the name of rice-meal. It consists of ground broken rice, and the external layers of the grain of rice, and has a white, or generally pale-yellowish colour. Commercial samples vary to some extent in colour, some being whiter than others, and still more so in composition, as will be seen by the following analyses of samples recently sent to me by members of the Royal Agricultural Society :— Good rice-meal is sold at present at from 4/. 10s. to 51. a ton, and at that price I consider good samples cheap. Rice-meal, it will be seen, contains as much ready-formed fat 318 Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1879. as first-class linseed-cake, and rather less indigestible fibre. On the other hand, linseed-cake contains fully twice as much of albuminoids as rice-meal. Composition oF Five SAmpuLes oF RIcE-MEAL. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. | No. 4. No. 5. RUSE 6 1 on) | oo Go ae 14°35 12°90 10°55 9°65 9°85 Onl G6 ae 10°73 10°60 10°56 11°66 | 14:51 * Albuminous compounds (flesh- forming matters) . Scartot ile 10.87 13°18 14°06 13°12 Starch and digestible ‘fibre. 48°62 |. 50°48 | 53:05 | 50°57 |. 45°60 Woody fibre (cellulose) .. .. 6°83 7°40 5°56 5.86 8.31 }Mineral matter (ash) ems 8°35 WT) 7°10 8:20 8°61 100°00 | 100.00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 * Containing nitrogen ye 1:78 1°74 2°11 2°25 2°10 Telneludimneisilica wl en sce 2:60 2°10 1-05 2°05 1-80 Judging from its composition, rice-meal is better adapted for fattening cattle than young stock, and is a most useful food for milking-cows, i in conjunction “ith bean-meal or decor- ticated-cotton, or rape-cake, or other food rich in nitrogenous matters. The sample No. 5, it will be seen, contained 144 per cent. of oil, which is more than occurs in most samples of first-class pure linseed-cake. Fearing an error might have crept into the oil determination, I repeated the analysis, and obtained closely ~ agreeing results in both analyses. Occasionally rice-meal of a very inferior character is sold in the market. On analysis of such a meal I obtained the follow- ing results : — Composition of very inferior Rice-meal. Moistures 2) 35a) seai0 ) ae ete 3 Soot : 3 Sulphate of magnesia 2 -Refuse manures CO Ong doa cee eer gee 28 HPC CIN CUNMCS MEE Re ord a ME chi isnt Satie wl c eis eeolk Feeding-meals “WP Connon assess” Maa see 36 Wecetable productions’ 5. ' 6. 0.) se ee 5 Milksdandblmbiers Niiscgtex de. ror bide mee O 10 Waters sc sete ENG osn¥h Sandee ob, Use} Kate 52 SOFT ag do Pen che Oe a9 ate 25 Limestones and other minerals oe syste ls 38 13 Moss Olland beer 25 “s; e es eplae es 5 Examinations for [NONE A5 Pe ao icon eo, CO. Ar 6 Total 1018 XVII.—Annual Report of the Consulting Botanist for 1879. By W. Carrurtuers, F.R.S. DurtneG the past year my attention has been specially, by various members of the Society, drawn to the vitality of seeds for per- manent pasture. A large number of samples have been care- fully analysed and examined with this general result—that the samples of grasses in the market are generally free from injurious weeds, but that some species appear to be regularly harvested before the grain is perfected, the almost empty glumes in these cases being, of course, of no value for sowing. Several cases of injuries due to the prevalence of ergot have been brought under my notice. This parasitic fungus has been specially abundant during the past year in pasture-lands, owing, no doubt, to the favouring conditions of the weather. This parasite has been very injarious to the stock on the property in Australia of a member of the Society. I have investigated the conditions under which it appeared there, and have supplied information as to dealing with the pest that I anticipate will lead at least to an alleviation of the injury. With the heip of my colieague who assists me in inquiries relating to animal injuries, I have prepared reports for the Government on the best means of coping with the locusts, VOL. XVI.—S. S. Ni 322 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee. which have proved very destructive to vegetation in Cyprus, from the practical carrying out of which I expect satisfactory results. Insect plagues affecting the hops, and locusts and grass- hoppers, which have been injurious to vegetation in Australia, have engaged our attention, and reports on these insects have been supplied to members. The number of applications for information has greatly in- creased during the past year. The Seeds and Plant Diseases Committee have considered the question of encouraging the production of improved varieties of wheat, and the Council having accepted the proposals, and offered prizes for seed-wheat, the samples sent in for competi- tion have been distributed for experimental cultivation. X1IX.— Quarterly Reporis of the Chemical Committee. JULY, 1879. 1. A sample of manure was sent from the neighbourhood of Croydon, which on analysis furnished the following results :— IMOIStUTC | Joe cos: oct ye cm Wibiculn cock chee eG LOO Ohno TEI GG doh) Bo Aa ede do sa TOUS IPhosphatevoty line ares mek en aeial=tn tis ete anne 222 Oxide of iron and alumina dene at salt Se ROL Carbonatejof limes V2.9) cane aaeena unre OOS Alkaline salts aebd. esl aps eee ese 2°61 (including 1:08 of nitrate of soda) .. .. Insoluble siliceous matter (sand) .. .. .. 2451 100°00 *~ Containing mitroren) y.euss-smssneee 35 Equaltoammonia .. .. .. «. “48 It will be seen that this manure contained only 2 per cent. of phosphate of lime, 1 per cent. of nitrate of soda, and scarcely 4 per cent. of ammonia; the rest of the constituents have no intrinsic fertilising value, and the manure was scarcely con- centrated enough to repay the cost of carriage to any consider- able distance. In reply to the usual inquiries the purchaser wrote as follows :— “ Croydon, April 2nd, 1879. “Dar Sizr,—I am in receipt of your favour together with your analysis of the sample of manure I sent to you, which appears from that to be almost worthless. “Tt is called Blood Manure, and is made by a person who is somewhat an amateur at it, and from his representations as to results in former years, | was induced to try it, but not liking the appearance of it, I thought I would Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee. 323 get an analysis of it from you. The price of it is 77. per ton. Before dis- closing who it is, I wish to let him see what you have sent me, as I do not wish to expose him if he settles fairly, otherwise I shall ask you to give as much publicity to it as possible. “Yours faithfully, with thanks, cc x * * “ A. Vortcxmr, Esa.” 2. A sample of nitrate of soda sent from Shropshire had the following composition :— Moisture ., Sere fo 3°49 Chloride of sodium (common salt) .. .- .- 23°25 @thormimpumGlese ser. sc | ee ce aa) oes LTO OTE MIPALCIOLSO0Age-p Mes soe les pece’ ‘oe JaleiZo 100-00 Supposing good commercial nitrate of soda guaranteed to contain 95 per cent. of pure nitrate to cost 14/. a ton, this sample—which contained 231 per cent. of common salt—would be worth only 107. 13s. per ton. Instead of the required information, the purchaser sent the following note :— “ May 14th, 1879. “‘ Sir,—The agent I had the nitrate from came here, and we took a sample» which we sealed up, and he took it to the analyst for the Shropshire Chamber of Agriculture, and sent me his analysis, which I enclose. He has sown four tons of it on his farm. ‘The only difference that I know of in the samples was that what I sent you was all fine; and the other was more in lumps. Would that account for the difference in the quantity of salt ? “T am, Sir, yours truly, oc * x * * 9 The following is a copy of the analysis referred to :— MOIGUULC Mes, rece ower ctit foc IFAC OE So etect, 240 Ghlorde@msodium <4) Se a. cs | ee ce 1:58 NterateIOMsOda ed) cel ss ag ce ek ee. OGS02 100°00 An excellent sample. Attention is directed to the fact that the vendor took a more lumpy sample for analysis than the one which the purchaser sent to the Society's Laboratory. If common salt had been mixed with the nitrate of soda, the salt would not amalgamate with the lumps of genuine and good commercial nitrate of soda, but become mixed with the finer portions, and hence a good sample might be drawn whilst another sample taken from the finer portion of the contents of the same bag might prove to be adulterated with common salt. In reply to repeated applications for fuller information and ye 324 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee. invoice, the purchaser declined to accede to the request in the following letter :— “ Str,—I should have returned the form at once if I had intended to fill it up; but I object to having my name published in the ‘ Journal,’ as I have seen other farmers’ in connection with samples sent to be analysed. According to your way of taking a sample, the one I sent is not a fair one, as it was taken from the top of two bags, and mixed together; but nitrate of soda, I should think, ought to be genuine whether taken from the top or middle of a bag. “Of course I go by your analysis, and it depends on how I am met by the agent as to whether I deal with him again in any way. “T am, Sir, yours truly, “Dr. Voelcker.” akan afi * = 4, A sample of nitrate of soda sent by Mr. J. L. Baker, Hargrave, near Kimbolton, bought at Liverpool, at 13/. a ton, on analysis had the following composition :— Moisture .. Ss) the ate, Ou ees 4:40 Chloride of sodium 1 Bee “38 RES, RS COG) Other impurities Saha | Goes ee D5 Pure nitrateionisoda) 25 see) sl aera ene Oo UEOs 100-00 In comparison with good nitrate of soda, guaranteed to contain 95 per cent. of pure nitrate of soda, and selling at 13/. a ton, the sample sent by Mr. Baker containing only 60 per cept. of pure nitrate and as much as 30 per cent. of common salt, was worth 8/. 4s. 2d. per ton. Four tons of the mitrate of soda were bought by Mr. J. L. Baker from a neighbouring farmer and manure agent, whose name he declined to give, and who stated that he purchased the nitrate in question of another dealer, and that he sold it to Mr. Baker at about 5s. per ton profit. The vendors, on being communicated with, replied as fellows :— “ Anerley, May 30th, 1879. “ Drar Str,—We have not sold Baker any nitrate of soda, nor warranted any 95 per cent. What we supply may or may not contain 95 or more than that. We never sell by analysis, because what security is there that the analysis would represent what we sent ? “When goods are sent by analysis a sample is taken at the time of sale in presence of both buyer and seller or their agents, and there and then sealed up and sent to a chemist which both parties approve, otherwise persons would often attempt to defraud, as they have done before. “Dr, Voelcker’s remarks are stupid. He says, suppose the nitrate of soda to be worth 13/., the price was and is 14/. 10s., and then the valuation, 81. 4s. 2d., is absurd, there could be none so low. We have nothing to do with the case; but if we were you, we should tell Baker that you did not euarantee 95, and if you did, the analysis was not done at the time of sale, and under the circumstances before mentioned, “Yours truly, (Signed) “ HALE AND Co.” Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee. 325 Ultimately Mr. Baker agreed to a compromise with the agent from whom he bought it, to pay for the nitrate on the basis of Dr. Voelcker’s valuation. 5. Two samples of Black Sea rape cake, warranted to be pure rape, on analysis were found to consist not only of crushed rape seed, but mainly of the dirt and small weed seeds which are sifted out of oily seeds in cleaning them for the market. The cakes sent for analysis contained nearly 10 per cent. of sand, and less nitrogen than good and genuine manure rape cake. Attention is directed to these cases chiefly because the application to the land of such rape cakes may do much mis- chief in sowing a plentiful crop of weeds unless especial care be taken to destroy the germinating power of the numerous small weed seeds of which the bulk of these cakes consists. 6. The following case has no reference to adulteration, but is given as a striking illustration of the advantage which a farmer may derive from buying manures of well-known character and definite composition, and mixing them together in certain proportions, in preference to buying similar mixtures in the form of compound artificial manures. A member of the Society sent two samples of artificial manures which had the following composition :— No. 1. No. 2. Moisture... fe 8-71 1151 *Organic matter and salts of : ammonia. 24-49 29°73 Monobasic phosphate of lime .... 8:08 11-09 Equal to tribasic (bone Eagenate) Phos: : 7.FO phate of lime _.. it CEOs AB) Insoluble phosphates .. ooe-coy, alisals) 17°63 {Sulphate of lime and alkaline salts .. .. 40°66 25°25 Insoluble siliceous matter .. .. .. 1EOH 4:79 100°00 ~=100°00 *Containing nitrogen... .. .. 4:91 4:02 Equal to ammonia .. te 5°96 4:88 tIncluding nitrate of soda. 14°61 1.20 The sample marked No, 1 was made on the farm by mixing together sulphate of ammonia, concentrated superphosphate, hone meal, and nitrate of soda, in the following proportions and costs :-— £ os. d. One ton sulphate of ammonia, at per ton Seen ee lO. sO One ton nitrate of soda, at perton .. .. .. .. 13811 3 Two tons of superphosphate, containing 35 per cent.l 9 19 Q of soluble phosphate, at 47. 15s. .. . Two tons a fine bone-meal (boiled), expected “| 14 11 ee) contain 23 per cent. of ammonia, and 50°55 per cent. of phosphate of lime, at 7/7. 5s, 10d. per ton £55 2 11 326 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee. or 9/. 3s. 10d. per ton, carriage paid to stations 3 and 34 miles distant from the farm. The compound manure marked No. 2 was sold at 13/. per ton cash, or 14/. per ton payable in November. It will be seen that the manure marked No. 1 contained, in round numbers, 5 per cent. less soluble phosphate of lime, and 1} per cent. less insoluble phosphate of lime than the purchased compound manure No, 2, sold at 13/.a ton. On the other hand, the latter contained 1 per cent. less ammonia, and 13 per cent. less nitrate of soda, than the manure which was produced on the farm at a cost of 9/. 3s. 10d. The value of the excess of the phosphates in No. 2 amounts to about 18s., and the value of the excess of ammonia and nitrate of soda in No. 2 compared with No. 1 amounts to about 37s. per ton ; consequently the mixture of sulphate of ammonia, superphosphate, bone-meal, and nitrate of soda, although costing only 9/. 3s. 10d., was really worth 19s. more per ton than the more expensive purchased compound manure. Instead of buying a ready-made mixed manure, the saving of 4]. 15s. per ton was effected by mixing the named ingredients together, which leaves a very wide margin for the expense and trouble of compounding the manure on the farm. The following extracts from a letter received by Dr. Voelcker from the member who sent the samples will be read with interest :— “Dear Sirr,—I am favoured with your note enclosing the results of the analysis of the two samples of manures sent you. Jam more than satisfied with the result of No. 1, my own mixture, although I never had any doubt of its being up to the mark, and well worth the money. “T note what you say, ‘that it is rather a joke to ask 13/. per ton for a manure like No, 2;’ the seller of the manure represents it to be better and cheaper than any other manure in the market, and charges 13/. per ton cash, or 14/. per ton payable in November. He holds a land agent’s situation, and makes use of his position in selling to his employer, and also to his employer's poor tenants, what you are now well aware from the analysis is a fair good manure at an exorbitant price. It is really too bad that those who ought to be the first to assist and enlighten poor struggling tenants in these depressed times should be the first to make use of their position to impose upon them— little wonder some farmers go to the wall with such treatment. I know many large and intelligent farmers who have no difficulty in purchasing cheap in quantities and mixing for themselves, but small tenants are not generally so well informed, nor are they in a position to purchase to advantage. “J haye no wish to interfere with respectable manure merchants, and such, Iam pleased to say I have had no difficulty in finding them. If manure dealers as a class were led to know that those dealing with them had know- ledge enough not to be imposed upon, such impositions as charging from 27. to 5l. per ton over the true value of manure would soon be put an end to, and those of respectability would then, as now, be pleased to deal for cash even at small profits. I am always pleased to read your reports, and more pleased to have your letters. “T am, dear Sir, yours faithfully, cc * ” * Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee. 327 The Committee cannot help calling attention, as they have done before, to the numerous cases, of which several in the above report are examples, of the want of ordinary firmness and moral courage shown by those who, after putting the Society’s consulting chemist and others to great trouble in correspondence, and in the investigation of the cases they bring forward, decline at the last to furnish the means of making them public, and of thereby enabling the Society to expose, as they desire, the nefarious dealings of which too many instances still come before them. DscremsBeEr, 1879. 1. A sample of nitrate of soda was sent on June 9th, 1879, by Mr. R. B. Stafford, of Bedford, which he had purchased of Mr. J. Brightman, Lower Staughton, St. Neots, who informed Mr. Stafford that he obtained the nitrate from Messrs. Hale and Co., of Colchester House, Anerley. On analysis this material yielded the following results :— NIOISHUTO Res, tbls Tg Ai asad lcar cae cend Sal OOo Chloride of sodium (common salt) fo oo Se) OGRE iImMpuricles sf Vs. ee | ewe adl Paey Up nOO Pure nitrate of soda Ana Ec nitener sy mak eot) Sto eels 100-00 The nitrate was bought at 13/. 12s. 6d. per ton, and, according to the purchaser’s statement, was verbally guaranteed to contain 92 per cent. of pure nitrate. It will be seen that the sample sent by Mr. Stafford was adulterated with more than half its weight of common salt, and, according to the price to be paid on the face of the guarantee, it was worth only 5/. 8s. 6d. per ton. Reports of previous cases of samples of nitrate of soda stated to have been supplied by Messrs. Hale and Co. have already appeared in the Quarterly Reports of the Committee. In these it will be seen that Messrs. Hale and Co. repudiate all responsibility for anything done or said by or to their agents, never sell by analysis, and treat Dr. Voelcker’s remarks with derision. 2. Another sample of nitrate of soda was sent on July 8th by Mr. George Church, of Bedford, who purchased it from the same vendor, namely, Mr. J. Brightman, of Lower Staughton, St. Neots, the price paid being 14/. per ton, with a verbal guarantee of 95 per cent, of pure nitrate. This sample, on analysis, gave the following results :— Peeeamr mee Wastes (iSO) Mi se. 8180 . Chloride of sodium (common salt) dn doy, GAIPE Orherampunitiesee eres. o.., ME cg) 25 Puremmitrate oreoda ss B95 328 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee. In reply to the usual inquiries and request for the invoice, Mr. Church stated that “ there being a contra-account between seller and self, I credited my account with the delivery and paid the difference.” According to this analysis, and the price to be paid for good commercial nitrate, the sample sent by Mr. Church is not worth more than 8/. per ton. 3. On the 20th of August, 1879, a sample of nitrate of soda was sent by Mr, F. Monckton, The Cage Farm, Tonbridge, who stated that he had received it direct from London. This sample yielded, on repeated analyses, the following results :— Moisturelecen) feo cch een we. aces Cees 5°01 Chlonidevofisodium™ 3.9 9 95.0908) an eee omen Oia wemjyrNwOy 55 55 abs sys) Pure nitrate of soda oe, est es. tees | Coe mm ONkanall 100°00 According to the statement of the purchaser this nitrate was bought with a guarantee of 95 per cent. pure nitrate, at 15/. 15s. per ton, delivered at Tonbridge, through a most respectable firm in this neighbourhood, but received direct from London, by South-Eastern Railway, from the importers. Mr. Monckton subsequently wrote :— “JT have had transactions for years with the firm for cake, &c., and par- ticularly wish their name kept from publication. It was at their suggestion I sent the soda to Dr. Voelcker: it was guaranteed 95 pure to them. I may add, I think it was a positive injury, as I applied the lot in question to stimulate hops, but having so much salt in it, and the weather following the application being wet and cold, the hops I believe would have been much better without it.” The purchaser, having complained to his vendors, received the following letter from the importers :— “Dear Srr,—We understand from Messrs. that you were the receiver of one ton nitrate of soda forwarded by us to Tonbridge Station on their account on the 16th August last; also that you have had this nitrate analysed by Dr. Voelcker, whose analysis shows a refraction of nearly 25 per cent. The writer of this was from home when the complaint reached us, but upon his return we wrote Messrs. fully upon the subject, and at their request we can only repeat to you the substance of our communication to them. We never in our experience knew of nitrate of soda as imported showing a refraction of anything like 25 per cent. This, coupled with the fact that the test of Messrs. Huson Bros., analysts for the cargo, only shows a refraction of 5:50, induces us to believe, either that some mistake has taken place in your sampling or in Dr. Voelcker’s analysis. “The nitrate which you received was delivered by the St. Catherine’s Dock Company from ship's side to a public carman’s vans, by which it was conveyed to the railway station, All this we can incontestably prove, and we are perfectly satisfied that nothing but nitrate as imported was sent to you. “ As mentioned to Mr. ——, we are willing to go personally and see the Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee. 329 article complained of, and sample it in conjunction with you, and if it is still in your possession, we leave you to fix a day for this purpose. “We addressed a letter to Dr. Voelcker yesterday in regard to his analysis, informing him of the result of Huson Bros.’ test, and asking him to look over his analysis. “We enclose his reply, from which you will observe that he makes it a rule to correspond only with the sender of the sample. Kindly return his letter to us. cx * * x” In answer to further inquiries, Dr. Voelcker received the fol- lowing letter from Mr. Monckton :-— “The Cage, Tonbridge, Sept. 20, 1879. “Dear Str,—I should have written before, but was anxious to afford you as much information as I could. The sample I sent you was taken from two bags only, as the rest were in the field, and nearly all used. JI have portions of two bags that were left after the men had finished sowing, and from which Mr. of the importer’s firm, who came to my farm on Tuesday last, carried away samples to be analysed. I enclose the analysis, which | received this morning, and at the same time an account from the firm I ordered the soda from, deducting 19s. 9d. from the amount first charged, 167. 11s. 9d. for 1 ton 1 cwt. 7 lbs. “Yours obediently, “Dr. A. Voelcker.” “ FREDERICK Monckton.” “ Certificate of Refraction. “London Commercial Sale Rooms, Mincing Lane, E.C., and No. 1, Highbury Park, North, N. “© (Original). “London, September 17th, 1879. “We hereby certify that we have examined the Refraction of the under- mentioned Nitrate of Soda, and that the following is the result, viz. :— “Per ‘ Tonbridge.’ 12 lbs. per cwt. Refraction. “. F. TEScHEMACHER AND J. DENHAM SMITH. nsolubleyand:moisture 2. 95.0 4. ses «. 4025 DUMP RAtCS Ere te) “les a eye veep ise, vec | ot “10 AVINIGIAUCS Mee REL Ueshe sc) hack ace ten ee OD 12°00 “Sample received, 16-9°79.” This case is not without difficulty, and shows that some tam- pering with the cargo must have taken place ; but the Committee are unable to trace where this was done, and they publish the case to show that it is safer to buy by guarantee, and have all samples analysed. 4. Mr. J. C. Wallis, Home Farm, Didlington, Brandon, Norfolk, steward to W. A. T. Amhurst, Esq., wrote on June the 25th as follows :— “Hon. Srr,—I have a lot of manure I should like to have a sample of analysed on behalf of W. A. T. Amhurst, Esq., Didlington Hall (a member of the R.A.S.E.). May I request you to write me what your charges will be, and whether I may send it or not? It is sold at 5/. per.ton, asa mixture of rape- cake, blood, and bones, for turnips. Will you give me an idea as to its value? 330 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee. The following is the analysis of this substance :— Moisttire 3) ) j,k. We weet seu | 020) Eee rea Organic matter FON OD MNCEEEECO enc, co A Phosphate'of lime (s55) cs 2+ =. ses | en eee Oxide of ironjandialuminay))..) /2-yaeeieec aoe Caxbonatelofiimesccen ic)... =) OmOS Alkalineisalts 22) oer 9 c:. * ss, “Ge ee reoenelawticn Insoluble siliceous matter .. .. .. . olol 100:00 Nitrogen 35 oe es eh Rae “74 Equal to ammonia Ag) Ba ad) occ “89 In sending this analysis to Mr. Wallis, Dr. Voelcker stated that he oul think twice about it before he decided to buy such stuff, if it were offered to him, at 1/. 1s. a ton. The following communication was received from Mr. Wallis, in answer to the usual inquiries :— “ Drar Srr,—I thank you very much for analysis received. I am sorry to say it is pretty much as I expected. I had hoped it would turn out better. I only purchased a small quantity from the maker. I have written him, enclosing copy of your analysis, and stating that I do not intend paying more than your valuation unless compelled, and claiming damages; I will let you know the result. Jam not the only one bitten.” Subsequently Mr. Wallis wrote as follows :— “Dear Sir,—The maker has receipted his bill for the manure you analysed for me, without payment. I had some trouble with him.” The maker’s name is not published, simply because Mr. Wallis threatened to have it published unless the bill was receipted without payment. It was a Norwich production. 5. A sample of bone-dust, bought as pure ground bones, at 8/. a ton, was sent by Mr. George Rodger, Arden House, Altrincham. On analysis it yielded the following results :— Moisttre “o:) yeep tie rot aakcis ee me MELD *Organic matter SO emir DAN Ay oko | JSG Phosphate ofaimer yee its. lia" Melina nts mmnLOnMeD Caustic: lime) \y 2g 425) daieey4 Het ae i ORO Carbonate of lime, &e. 50 ef, OUT Insoluble siliceous matter (sand and earth) .. 19°36 100°00 *Containing nitrogen .. .. .. .. 1°02 Higual)tovAmmoniaity ie irene ween nas 1:24 This sample, it will be seen, was very damp and much adulterated with lime-rubbish, old mortar, sand, and brick-dust, and, in comparison with pure bone-dust selling at 8/. a ton, was scarcely worth 2/.aton. No particulars as regards the vendors could be obtained. Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee. dol 6. A sample of artificial manure sent on May 18th by Mr. James Thompson, of Anlaby, Hull, was bought at 6/. 2s. 6d. on the following analysis :— Analysis of Manure Ordered. Moisture ener Soe WL; *Organic matter nad Ww vater of combin: ation, bee yale hh Monocalcic phosphates ., 5, Pa) DAD Equal to bone earth made soluble ne (15 per cent.) iINitrateotsodaand potash’ ..1 G2 ... «. Locb Insoluble phosphates .. Sai niser, J sey Lae Sulphates of potash and magnesia .. 10°4 Sulphate oflime .. .. 24-0 Insoluble matter “Oy 20 3°0 100-0 *Containing nitrogen equal to 6°3 per cent. sulphate of ammonia, An examination of the sample sent yielded the following results :— Analysis of Manure Received. Moisture .. .. oe ee 26238 *Organic matter and water of combination .. 25°60 Monobasic phosphate of lime.. .. aaa uy (OL Equal to tribasic phosphate ‘of lime ony (11°15) phosphates) rendered soluble : Insoluble phosphates... ee CeO S Sulphate of iime, alkaline salts and magnesia 26°45 Insoluble siliceous matter...) we ww 14°67 100-00 * Containing nitrogen .. .. « .. 2°05 Equal toammonia .. .. .. «.- 2°49 An examination of the preceding analyses will show that 6. 2s. 6d. is a fair price for a manure having the composition indicated in the analysis upon which the manure was purchased, while the sample analysed by Dr. Voelcker was not worth so much by at least 1/. 15s. per ton. In answer to inquiries, Mr. Thompson stated that his order of 8 tons of this manure was executed on May the 9th in Hull. Mr. Thompson subsequently wrote to the Secretary as fol- lows :— “ Anlaby, January 7th, 1880. “ Dear Sir,—In answer to your letter of Jan. 5th, I beg to inform you that the correspondence was given up at the time the account was paid. With regard to the payment, ~ the price I paid for the manure was the price Dr. Voelcker stated it to be worth. I may say that when the matter came to be looked into, it was found that a wrong manure was sent to me from the works by mistake; and although Mr. personally superintended the putting up of my lot, yet he did not superintend the delivery of it. When the mistake was found out, it was too late to be remedied, as the greater 332 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee. part of the manure was then in the ground. This being so, it was agreed that I should pay the price put upon it by Dr. Voelcker, and so end the matter. As I believe this to have been purely a mistake, I must beg that if notice of this transaction appears in the ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,’ no names may be mentioned. In proof of it “being my candid opinion that the manure sent to me was a mistake, I may say that it is my intention to purchase my turmip manure for this season from the same firm. “ Yours faithfully, “H. M, Jenkins, Esq., “ Jos. THOMPSON. 12, Hanover Square, London, W.” 7. The following case was referred to Dr. Voelcker by Mr. Sanday, of Wensley House, Bedale, Yorkshire :— Milk-Substitute for Rearing Calves and Pigs. A cream-coloured meal, sold at 35s. per cwt., as a milk-substi- tute for rearing calves and pigs, and described in the handbills as a preparation consisting of “highly nutritious and flesh- forming substances” and “the most perfect soluble food in the world,” on analysis was found to have the following compo- sition :— Moisture .3.° saw tat Me) Gee en eee eee OSD Oi ee oe “40 *Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) 2 “87 Starch and digestible fibre .. .. .. .. 74°85 Woody fibre (cellulose) .. eae som tom LCE: Mihwenrall ng (@IN) ~ oy 55 oo co 0 *50 100°00 + Containing nitrogen sees necmenres “46 The meal appeared to have been kept in a rather damp place, for it contained more moisture than ought to be present in meal. It consisted almost entirely of starch—probably potato-starch— coloured slightly yellowish. It was very poor in nitrogenous or flesh-forming matters in which milk abounds, and was a most unsuitable substitute for milk in rearing calves and pigs. The following is a copy of the handbill :— OWE TE IG) IEE FS) LOP ABS FS) MW IC AC |G) Ab 1B, FOR REARING CALVES AND PIGS, Manufactured only by SPOUNCER AND SONS, GAINSBORO’. “This preparation consists of highly nutritious and flesh-forming sub- stances, and is the most perfect soluble food in the world. ' “ Almost every farmer admits that if his supply of milk were greater, he would rear more calves and pigs, and thus increase the number of his stock. “Tt is an acknowledged fact that if a calf be given new milk until it is a fortnight old it can be well and properly reared on milk-substitute without the use of skimmed milk. Additions to the Library. 333 “As the substitute does not go sour and derange the stomach, the calf will not be so susceptible of scouring, but will, as a consequence, be more healthy.” The following is selected from a number of similar testi- monials :— “Grove Cottage, Lenton, Nottinghamshire, August 7th, 1878. “T am so well satisfied with your milk-substitute, should be glad if you will forward to me one of your 85s. bags to Lenton Station. I shall be glad to recommend it to my friends, feeling persuaded it is a most useful and eecmcal substitute for milk, and am only sorry I did not hear of it earlier.” “‘DrrRECTIONS For Usr.—One measure of the powder to be mixed with cold water to the consistency of cream, then add three quarts of boiling water, stirring briskly all the time. “Sold by agents throughout the Kingdom, in bags at 4s. 9d., 9s. 3d., and 18s. each, or 35s. per cwt. “ Agent—S. Parr, Pharmaceutical Chemist, Nottingham.” ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY IN 1879. I— PERIODICALS PRESENTED TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY. Presented by the respective Societies and Editors, A.—Eneutsu, American, AND CoLonraAL PrRIopIcats. Agricultural Economist. Vol. X. 1879. Acricultural Experiment Station, Middletown, Conn., Report of Work of the. — Gazette. 1879. ——_—_—_——— Almanack. 1880. American Agriculturist. Vol. XXXVIII. 1879. Atheneum. 1879. Bath and West of England Society, Journal of the. Vol. XI. 1879. Bell’s Weekly Messenger. 1879. Bristol Mercury. 1879. British Dairy Farmers’ Association, Journal of the. 1878. Carolina, Handbook of North. 1879. Chamber of Agriculture Journal. Vol. XX. 1879. Coates’s Herd Book. Vol. XXV. 1879. Country Gentleman’s Magazine. 1879. Dairyman. Vol. III. 1879. Economist. Vol. XXXVIL 1879. Essex Standard. Vol. XLIX. 1879, Farm Journal. 1879. 334 Additions to the Library. Farmer. Vols. XXXII. and XXXIII. 1879. Farmer’s Herald. Vol. XXVIII. 1879. Field. Vols. LIII. and LIV. 1879. Galloway Herd Book. Vols. I. and II. 1878-9. Geological Society, Journal of the. Vol. XXXV. 1879. Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, Transactions of the. Vol. XI. 1879. Indian Agriculturist. Vol. IV. 1879. Institution of Civil Engineers, Proceedings of the. 1878-9. —-—\ of Mechanical Engineers, Proceedings of the. 1879. of Surveyors, Transactions of the. Vol. XI. 1879. Investor’s Monthly Manual. Vol. IX. 1879. Trish Farmer’s Gazette, Vol. XXXVIII. 1879. Tronmonger. 1879. ——_. Journal of Forestry. 1879. Kansas, First Biennial Report of the State Board of Agriculture. 1877-78. Live-Stock Journal. Vols. IX. and X. 1879. Longhorn Herd Book. Vol. I. Madras Presidency. Annual Report of the Superintendent of Government Farms. 1878. Maine, Agriculture of. 1877-8. Board of Agriculture. 1877-8. Mark Lane Express and Agricultural Journal. Vol. XLVIII. 1879. Massachussetts, Agriculture of, 1877-8. Meteorological Society, Quarterly Journal of the. Vol. V. 1879. Midland Counties’ Herald. Vol, XLII. 1879, Nature. Vols. XIX. and XX. 1879. Newcastle Courant. 1879. North British Agriculturist. Vol. XXXI. 1879. Ohio. Thirty-second Annual Report of the State Board of Agriculture for the year 1877. Prairie Farmer. 1879. Royal Geographical Society, Journal of the. 1879. , Proceedings of the. 1879. Royal Institution of Great Britain. Vol. VIII. Parts V. and VI. 1879. Royal United Service Institution, Journal of the. Vol. XXXIII. 1879. Smithsonian Institution. Contributions to Knowledge. Vols. XIII.-XV. 1879. Society of Arts, Journal of the. Vol. XXVITI. 1879. Statistical Society, Journal of the. Vol. XLI[. Parts ]I.-IV. 1879. Tasmania, Statistics of the Colony of. 1878. Veterinarian, The. Vol. LII. 1879. List or Forricn Prriopicats. Berlin. Landwirthschaftliche Jahrbiicher. Band VIII. 1879. Landwirthschaftliche Verwaltung. 1875, 1876, 1877. Journal fiir Landwirthschaft. 1878. Heft 4; and 1879, Hefte 1,2, and Supplement. Additions to the Library. 335 Heidelberg. Verhandlungen des Naturhistorisch-Medicinischen Vereins, 1878— 1879. Lima. Revista de Agricultura. 1877. Lisbon. Jornal de Sciencias Mathematicas physicas e Naturaes. 1879, . O Agricultor do Norte de Portugal. Vol. Il. 5 Nos. 1879. Montevideo. Boletin Oficial de la Comision Central de Agricultura del Uruguay. 2 Monthly Parts for 1878; 6 Monthly Parts for 1879. Munich. Zeitschrift des Landwirthschaftlichen Vereins in Bayern. 1878. Paris. Annales Agronomiques. ‘Tome quatrieme. Fasc. 1-4. 1879. ——. Revue des Industries Chimiques et Agricoles. 12 Nos. 1879. —. Revue Agricole, Industrielle, Littéraire et Artistique. 1879. —. Journal d’Agriculture Pratique. 1879. Journal de PAgriculture. 1879. Société des Agriculteurs de France. Tomes [X. and X. 1878 and 1879. Rome. Annali di Agricoltura. 7 Parts. 1879. -. Bollettino di Natizie Agrarie. 12 Nos. 1879. Valencia. Revista Mensual de la Sociedad de Agricultura. Vol. XV. No. TI. April, 1878. II.—BOOKS PRESENTED TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY. Names of Donors in Italics, A. Enetiso, AmErtIcaAn, AND Cotontat Booxs and PamPHLEtTs. Atwater, Prof. W. O. (New York). Resumé of Progress in Agricultural Science in 1878. Bagot, Canon (and James Robertson). Report on Continental Butter Making. Benson, Charles. Saidapet Experimental Farm. Bruce, James. Scotch Live Stock. Buckman, Prof. J. Umbellate Plants, with notes on the Growth of the Parsnip, Carrot, &c. Powie, James. Farm Buildings, Past, and Present. . A Sketch of Seasons, Crops, and Prices from Harly Times. Gibson, J. Agriculture in Wales, Hagen, Dr. H. A, Destruction of Obnoxious Insects. Hubback, Joseph. A Letter on the Corn Laws. Jones, W. Bence. Notes on the Dairies at the Kilburn Show, 1879. Lawes and Gilbert. Agricultural, Botanical, and Chemical Results of Experiments on the Mixed Herbage of Permanent Meadow, conducted for more than 20 years in succession on the same land. Latham, Baldwin. Sanitary Engineering. Mueller, Baron Ferd. von. The Organic Constituents of Plants and Vege- table Substances. Murray, Gilbert. Agricultural Depression: its Causes and Remedies. . Notes on Dairy Farming. Nesbit, A. Anthony, F.C.S. Soils. Rance, Charles H. De. The Secondary Rocks of England, as a Source of Water Supply. Riley, C. V. ‘The Locust or Grasshopper Plague. Shirrif,, Samuel D. Address on Labour. Sturtevant, Dr. E. Lewis. The Dairy Cow. Chemical Corn Growing. Indian Corn. Intercultural Tillage. Milk: Physiological and Miscel- 336 Additions to the Library. Janeous. Milk: its Typal Relations. Seed Breeding. The Law of Inheritance. Plant Food and Agriculture. Physiological Considerations concerning Feeding for Butter and Cheese. Tanner, Prof. Jack’s Education ; or, How he learnt Farming. —————.. Variations in the Composition of Oats. Waring, George E., Jun. Fiske Fund Prize Essay on the Causation of Typhoid Fever. Excremental Diseases; their Causation and their Prevention by Hygienic Means. Irvington Sanitary Survey. Wight, John. The Treasury and Homestead. B. Forrten Books anp PAMPHLETS. Bombay. Notes on the Agriculturists of the District of Aurungabad. Paris. Congres International de l’Agriculture :— Godfroy, J. Economie rurale du Danemark. 1878. Laveleye, Emile de. L’Agriculture Belge. 1878. Martinet, J. B. H. L’Agriculture au Pérou. 1878. Mérice, E. L’Agriculture de Ecosse et de VIrlande. 1878. Sagnier, H. L’Agriculture en Italie. 1878. Tréhonnais, F. R. de la. L’Agriculture de ’Angleterre. 1878. Valette, A. dela. L’Agriculture 4 la Guadeloupe. 1878. (The above works were published and presented by the ‘ Société des Agricultewrs de France.’) Paris. Manuel de la Porcherie. JL. Leouzon, 1879. Rome. Museo Agrarioin Roma. Catalogo, 1879. (Presented by the Italian Minister of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce.) —. Notizie e Studi sulla Agricoltura (1877). 1879. (Presented by the Italian Minister of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce.) . La Laine Italiane alla Esposizione di Parigi nel 1878. 1878. (Pre- sented by the Director of Agriculture.) JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. XX.—On the Home Produce, Imports, Consumption, and Price of Wheat, over 28 (or 27) Harvest-Years, 1852-8 to 1879-80. By J. B. Lawns, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., and J. H. GivBert, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. IN our paper ‘On the Home Produce, Imports and Consump- tion of Wheat,” published in this ‘ Journal’ in 1868, we gave records and estimates on the subject for sixteen harvest-years, 1852-3 to 1867-8 inclusive ; and in 1863, and each year since, an estimate for the then current year has been published in the ‘ Times,’ and elsewhere, soon after harvest. We propose, on the present occasion, to pass in review the estimates formerly given, and to complete the record from the commencement up to the present time ; namely, for twenty-eight (or twenty-seven) years, 1852-3 to 1879-80 inclusive. In our former paper we gave the records and estimates for each division of the United Kingdom separately, and for the whole collectively ; but it is proposed now to confine the illustrations to the United Kingdom as a whole. The main elements of the question are the following :— 1. The area under wheat. 2. The average yield of wheat per acre. 3. The aggregate home produce, and the amount of it available for consumption. 4, The imports. 5. The population. _ 6, The average consumption of wheat per head of the popula- tion per annum. The data then at command, and the results arrived at, were fully considered in the paper above mentioned, and we must refer to it for detailed information on most of the points in question, but the main facts may be briefly summarised here. VOL. XVI.—S. S. Z 338 Home Produce, Imports, Consumption, The Area under Wheat.—For the period from 1852 to 1865 inclusive, we had to rely on estimates alone in fixing the area under the crop in England and Wales. For Scotland, we had Returns collected by the Highland Society for the years 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857 ; but for the two years prior to 1854, and for the years subsequent to 1857, down to 1865 inclusive, we had to rely on estimates merely. For Ireland, Returns were available for each of the sixteen years included in the inquiry. Thanks to the exertions of Mr. Caird, we have for 1866, and for each year since, an official record of the area under the crop, in each division of the United Kingdom, and in the whole collectively, in the ¢ Agricultural Returns’ now annually published about the time of harvest. One element of uncertainty in any estimates of the home produce of wheat is, therefore, fortunately removed. The Average Yield of Wheat per Acre-—The only Returns or official estimates at command relating to this subject, were for Scotland for four years, and for Ireland for each year within the period of our inquiry; whilst, for England and Wales, com- prising from 85 to 90 per cent. of the total area under the crop, there was, and there is, no official information whatever. For this large proportion of the United Kingdom it was therefore, after very full consideration of the data, and of the results to which they led, decided to adopt the average produce per acre each year, on certain selected, and very differently manured plots, in the permanent experimental wheat-field at Rothamsted, as the basis of estimates of the average produce per acre from year to year; and, each year since, the same data have been relied upon in forming an estimate of the average produce over the United Kingdom as a whole. But, having regard to the character of the soil at Rothamsted, to the characters of the indi- vidual seasons, and to the consideration whether the season was more fayourable for heavy or for light land, and so on, the estimate actually adopted for the country at large has, in some seasons, and more especially in bad seasons, differed somewhat from the actual average indicated on the selected plots in the experimental field. Lastly, in all cases, the actual number of bushels is reduced by calculation, so as to represent bushels of the standard weight of 61 lbs. per bushel. It is proposed, on the present occasion, briefly to examine into the validity of the data thus taken as a basis for estimating the average yield per acre of the country each year, and also into the trustworthiness of the results arrived at, as tested by subsequent knowledge, and by their accordance, or otherwise, with the con- clusions arrived at in regard to other elements of the question. The Aggregate Home Produce, and the Amount of it available for Consumption.—It will be obvious that, if we know the area and Price of Wheat, Sc. 339 under the crop, and have a trustworthy estimate of the average yield per acre, the aggregate home produce is ascertained by a very simple calculation. In determining the amount of the total produce available for consumption, allowance has to be made for the amount annually returned to the land as seed. For reasons formerly given, we have assumed 2} bushels per acre to be so returned to the land, and we do not propose to make any alteration in that estimate. 1 The Imports.—From the commencement of the period to which our inquiry relates we have, for the United Kingdom collectively, Returns, either of the net imports of wheat and wheat-flour, or of the imports and exports from which the net imports can be calculated. For the separate divisions of the country the Returns have not been so complete. But, as we are confining attention to the United Kingdom as a whole, this is immaterial for ovr present purpose. In the case of the United Kingdom, the records for the individual weeks or months are available; and from these the net imports have been calculated, not for the calendar years, but for the harvest years, that is, from Sep- tember 1 of one year, to August 31 of the next. The PopulationAs the Registrar-General publishes an estimate of the population at the middle of the calendar year, for every year between one Census and another, it is easy to calculate, with sufficient accuracy for our purpose, the average number of consumers over each harvest-year. The middle of the calendar year. being the end of June, and the middle of the harvest-year the end of February, the plan adopted has been to add to the number recorded for the preceding midsummer, two-thirds of the difference between that figure and the number given for the next midsummer, thus bringing the estimate up to the end of February. Of course, this can only be done after the second record is published, and the plan was not available in estimating the population of the current harvest-year soon after harvest each year; but the necessary corrections have now been made. The figures show some irregularity of increase imme- diately after the Census years, and at some other periods, presumably from a new factor being then adopted for the cal- culation of the annual increase of the population. The Average Consumption of Wheat per head of the Population per Annum.—Previously to the publication of our former paper on this subject, a higher figure had been generally assumed than we were then led to adopt. For England and Wales, we founded an estimate of the average consumption per head of the popula- tion, on the calculation of eighty-six different dietaries, arranged in fifteen divisions, according to sex, age, activity of mode of life, and other circumstances; and the result so obtained was VA Ve 340 Home Produce, Imports, Consumption, compared with that arrived at on the basis of the population, and of the amounts of the available home produce, and of the net imports of wheat, each year. For Scotland, and for Ireland, it was only possible to found an estimate on the basis of popu- lation, and on the amounts of the home and foreign supplies. On these bases we estimated the average consumption of wheat, in the United Kingdom collectively, to be 55 bushels per head of the population per annum, during the later years to which our inquiry related; and we have adopted that figure from that date up to the present time. This estimate, whether correct or not, has from that time been very generally adopted by other writers on the subject also. Its correctness, and its continued applicability, we propose to consider on the present occasion. Thus, with regard to the area under the crop, the imports, and the population, we adopt, without modification, the same data or estimates as previously ; but the basis of the estimates, and the results arrived at, in regard to the average produce of wheat per acre over the United Kingdom each year, and the estimates of the consumption per head of the population, we propose to submit to examination, and to correction or otherwise, as the case may be. As already said, the estimate of the average yield of wheat per acre over the United Kingdom is, each year, founded on the average produce obtained on certain selected plots in the field at Rothamsted, which has now grown the crop for thirty-six years in succession—without manure, with farmyard-manure, and with various artificial manures. There has been no change in the treatment of the unmanured plot, or of the dunged plot, since the commencement of the experiments in 1843-4. There were, however, some changes in the manures applied to the various artificially manured plots during the first eight years, from 1844 to 1851 inclusive. But, for the period of twenty-eight years, from 1852 up to the present time, two of the selected artificially-manured plots have respectively received exactly the same manure each year, and the third has done so for twenty- five years, as described below. The selected plots were— Plot 3. Unmanured every year, experiment commencing 1843-4. Plot 2. 14 tons farmyard-manure every year, commencing 1843-4. Plot 7. Mixed mineral manure, and 400 lbs. ammonia-salts, each year, twenty-eight years, 1851-2, and since. Plot 8. Mixed mineral manure, and 600 lbs. ammonia-salts each year, twenty-eight years, 1851-2, and since. and Price of Wheat, Sc. 341 Plot 9. Mixed mineral manure, and 550 lbs. nitrate of soda, each year, twenty-five years, 1854—5, and since. In forming the estimate of the average produce per acre of the country at large, the plan adopted has been to take the mean produce of the unmanured plot, of the farmyard-manure plot, and of the three artificially manured plots reckoned as one, and to reduce the result so obtained to bushels of the standard weight of 61 lbs. per bushel. As will be shown further on, experience has proved that this mode of estimate leaves but little to be desired as a means of computation of the average yield of the country over a number of years; but it has not been found to be equally applicable for each individual year. Careful compa- rison leads to the conclusion that the so-calculated average pro- duce per acre on the selected plots gives somewhat too high a result for the country at large in seasons of great abundance, and too low a result in unfavourable seasons. Accordingly, as above referred to, in some seasons, instead of the actual average indicated by the experimental plots, a higher or a lower figure has been adopted; and, especially in the case of some of the recent bad seasons, a higher one has been taken. Independently of any such admitted differences between the so directly calculated, and the actually adopted, estimates for individual years, the question arises—whether the average result indicated by the several selected plots remains as applicable as heretofore ? or whether the produce of some is annually declining, or that of others annually increasing, irrespectively of the in- fluence of season, so as to vitiate the continued applicability of such results for the purposes of such an estimate ? The Unmanured Plot.—There can be no doubt that the produce on this plot is gradually declining from exhaustion ; and, inde- pendently of the evidence of diminishing produce, analyses of the soil, at different periods, show that there is a gradual dimi- nution in the amount of nitrogen in it. Owing, however, to the great fluctuations in the amount of produce from year to year, dependent on the season, it is by no means easy to estimate the rate of decline due to exhaustion of the soil, as distinguished. from that due to the seasons. In the first place, it is difficult to- say what figure should be adopted as the standard produce of the plot, by which to compare the yield from year to year. The whole field was manured with farmyard-dung in 1839, and then grew turnips, barley, peas, wheat, and oats, before the commence- ment of the experiments in 1843-4. The plot then grew eight crops of wheat, to 1850-1, without manure, before the commence- ment of the period to which our present estimates refer. No doubt the land would suffer more or less exhaustion during those first eight years; but, as serving to counteract the tendency to decline 342 Home Produce, Imports, Consumption, in yield from that cause, it happened that, taken together, those eight seasons were of considerably more than average produc- tiveness ; so that, perhaps, we may assume the average produce of those eight years fairly to represent the standard produce of the unmanured land independently of material exhaustion. That produce was equal to 17 bushels, at the standard weight of 61 lbs. per bushel. If now we calculate what should be the produce in each of the subsequent twenty-eight years, on the assumption that it fluctuated from the standard exactly in the proportion of the fluctuation from year to year of the adopted average yield of the country at large, and compare the result so obtained with the actual yield of the plot each year, we find that the latter shows an average annual deficiency over the twenty-eight years of 43 bushels. According to this mode of calculation, therefore, this represents the decline of produce on the unmanured plot, irrespectively of season ; and it may be ob- served that, supposing it to be uniform over the whole period, it would correspond to a rate of diminution, due to exhaustion, of between one-quarter and one-third of a bushel from year to year. It remains to be seen whether, with a return of good seasons, the decline will be as marked ; and also whether, in time, a point will be reached at which the produce will remain constant, excepting so far as it is influenced by the fluctuations of the seasons. The Farmyard-manure Plot-——If the unmanured plot is declining in yield and fertility, there can be no doubt that the farmyard-manure plot is increasing in fertility. Analysis at different periods shows that the surface soil has become more than twice as rich in nitrogen as the unmanured land. In fact, as we have shown on several occasions, a large amount of the constituents of farmyard-manure accumulates within the soil, and they are taken up very slowly by crops. It is, indeed, remarkable that, notwithstanding this great accumulation within the soil, the crops on the dunged plot never show over-luxuri- ance. During the last few years there has even been a con- siderable decline in produce, due to unfavourable seasons, which have greatly encouraged the growth of weeds, and especially of grass; whilst, owing to the wetness of the seasons, it has been quite impossible effectually to clean the land, and what has been done to that end has not been accomplished without injury to the crop. If, as in the case of the unmanured plot, we were to adopt the average of the first eight years, from 1844 to 1851, to represent the standard yield of the farmyard-manure plot, irrespectively of material accumulation, the figure arrived at would be 28+ bushels. This is certainly a surprisingly low produce to be obtained by and Price of Wheat, Sc. | 343 the annual application of 14 tons of farmyard-manure per acre, for eight years in succession, and in seasons which, taken toge- ther, were of more than average productiveness. But if we adopt this as the standard produce of the plot; then calculate what should be the produce in each of the subsequent twenty- eight years, provided it fluctuated from year to year exactly in the same degree as the average produce of the country at large ; and then take the difference between this calculated produce fluctuating by season alone, and that actually obtained each year, we ascertain the increase or decrease due to accumulation by manure. On this mode of calculation we get an average annual increase due to accumulation of 54 bushels. If, on the other hand, instead of the average produce of the first eight years, we take the average of the whole thirty-six years of the application of the dung, we get, instead of 281 bushels, 32} bushels, as the standard with which to compare the annual produce. Adopting this figure, and following the same line of calculation as before to exclude the influence of season, we have an average annual excess, due to accumulation, of only 14 bushel. There can be no doubt that, were it not for the adverse influence of the recent wet seasons, the estimated excess would be more than 5} bushels adopting the first standard, and more than 1} bushel adopting the second. Probably the truth lies between these two figures: and, if so, it would appear that, up to the present time at any rate, the gradually diminishing produce on the unmanured plot, due to exhaustion, and the gradually in- creasing produce on the dunged plot, due to accumulation, approximately balance one another. The Artificially-manured Plots.—Though obviously open to objection, in default of any better alternative, we adopt for these plots the average produce of the twenty-eight (or twenty- five) years to represent the standard yield, irrespectively of exhaustion or accumulation. Doing this, and excluding the influence of season by the same line of calculation as before, there is no evidence of material increase, or of material decrease, on either of the plots receiving ammonia-salts, other than that due to season. The first fourteen of the twenty-eight years included a number of seasons of unusually high productiveness, and the last fourteen a number of unusual deficiency. The calculations show, accordingly, an excess over the assumed standard produce during the first half of the period, and a closely corresponding deficiency over the second half, in both the cases where ammonia-salts were used. Where the nitrate of soda was employed, there was, on the other hand, a somewhat greater deficiency over the first period than there was an excess over the second, indicating for the total period a slight deficiency. 9 344 Home Produce, Imports, Consumption, Finally, taking the average of the unmanured plot, of the farmyard-manure plot, and of the three artificially manured plots reckoned as one, as is annually done for the purpose of our estimate; then correcting the result for each year as before, for the fluctuations of season; and comparing the results so obtained with the actual averages, the actual results show a very slight excess over the first half of the period, including more than an average of good seasons, and a some- what greater, but still small, deficiency over the second period, including more than the average of bad seasons. ‘The average of the whole indicates, therefore, no gain by accumulation, but, if anything, a slight loss. Comparing the direct average of the experimental plots with that actually adopted as the average for the United Kingdom each year, the experimental plots indicate for the whole twenty- eight years about three-quarters of a bushel less per acre per annum than the actually adopted estimates founded upon them. Taking the average of the twenty-eight years’ adopted esti- mate of produce per acre as 100, the first column of the follow- ing Table shows the deviation from this general average for the whole period, over the first eight, the second eight, the third eight, and the last four, years of the twenty-eight; and the second column shows the deviation, from the same standard, of the average produce per acre on the selected plots :— Tapre I.—Snowrna the Deviation over each separate Period from the adopted AvERracE of the whole Prriop taken as 100. Actually AR Picts adopted Bioanal Averages. 1, 8, and 9. First 8 years, 1852-59... 103 101 Second 8 years, 1860-67... 104 106 Third 8 years, 1868-75 oe 98 99 | Last 4 years, 1876-79... .. 89 71 Total Period 28 years.. 100 98 So far as the annually adopted estimates are correct, the figures in the first column indicate the actual fluctuations in the average produce per acre of the country at large due to the characters of the seasons over each period compared with the others, and with the total period. The first period of eight years included two of considerably over average, another over average, three rather under, and two very much under average. The result was, however, upon the and Price of Wheat, Se. 345 whole slightly over the average of the twenty-eight years. The adopted average produce showed 3 per cent. over the average of the twenty-eight years, and 2 per cent. over the actual average on the selected plots—a higher figure than the actual average having been adopted in the case of the two years of very low produce. Within the second period of eight years, there were two of the highest yield over the twenty-eight years, two more some- what over average, two under, and two much under average. In this period highly productive seasons prevailed ; the adopted average is 4 per cent. over the average of the twenty-eight years, and the actual average on the selected plots is 6 per cent. over, or 2 per cent. higher than the adopted average. In the third period of eight years there was only one of really high produce, two more were over average, one was under, and four were considerably under average; the mean of the whole being under average. The adopted average for the period shows 2 per cent. under the average of the twenty-eight years, whilst the average of the experimental plots shows 1 per cent. under the average. The last four years included only one over average, two under, and one (1879) very abnormally under average. Over this period, the adopted average amounted to only "89 per cent. of that for the twenty-eight years ; and, with the unusual prevalence of bad seasons, the experimental plots showed only 71 per cent., or much lower than the adopted average. Thus, it appears that, in fairly average seasons, the mean produce of the experimental plots fairly represents the average produce ; that in seasons of unusual abundance the experimental plots indicate too high a figure; and that in seasons of great deficiency they give too low a figure. Upon the whole, it is concluded that we have no better basis for estimating the average yield of the country each year than that of the average produce of the same selected plots as heretofore relied upon ; but that, as heretofore, some judgment must be exercised each year, according to the characters of the season, in deciding whether to adopt the actual figure indicated by the experimental plots, or in which direction, “and in what degree, it should be modified. It will, moreover, have to be considered from time to time, whether any reduction of area that may take place is in greater degree due to the elimination of districts where the soil, or the climate, or the combination of the two, is the less, or the more, favourable for the crop; for it is obvious that, other things being equal, the average produce per acre of the remaining area. will increase or diminish accordingly. 9 346 Home Produce, Imports, Consumption, The next point is to test, as far as the means exist to that end, the correctness of the estimates of the aggregate home produce, and of the consumption per head per annum, as given in our former paper for the first sixteen years, and as annually published as forecasts since that period. In our annual estimates we have adopted a figure for the average produce per acre over the United Kingdom, calcu- lated the aggregate produce, deducted from this the amount required for seed, and then estimated how much would be required, from stocks and imports, to make up the total require- ment for consumption, this being reckoned at a fixed rate per head of the population. Now, however, we have the actual record of the imports each year, as a fixed element of the inquiry ; and, adopting the same returns or estimates as to area and popu- lation as heretofore, the question now is—not what will be the imports, but how far the estimates of home produce have been correct? and how far these estimated amounts, minus the quantities required for seed, and plus the actual imports, give a total corresponding with the estimated requirement for con- sumption ? The following Table shows the averages, for the first eight, for the second eight, for the third eight, for the succeeding three, and for the total period of twenty-seven years, of — 1. The aggregate home produce of wheat, deduced by calcu- lating the amount required for consumption (at the rate of 5:1 bushels per head per annum during the first eight years, and of 5°5 bushels in each subsequent year, as up to this time assumed), deducting from this the imports, and adding 2} bushels per acre for seed. 2. The aggregate home produce calculated according to the annual estimates of the average produce per acre, as previously published. 3. The difference between the estimate of total home produce founded on consumption and imports, and that founded on the annually adopted estimates of average produce per acre. 4, The average produce per acre, calculated from the aggregate home produce founded on the estimated requirements for con- sumption, and the imports. 5. The average produce per acre, according to the annually adopted estimates. 6. The difference between the average produce per acre calcu- lated from the aggregate home produce deduced from consump- tion and imports, and the annually adopted estimates of average produce per acre. and Price of Wheat, §c. 347 Tasre Il.—Comrarine the Estimates of Home Propvuce founded on re- quirements for Consumprion and Imports, with those founded on the annually adopted Estimates of Average Propuce per Acre, over the Unitep Kryepom. Aggregate Home Produce. Average Produce per Acre. Deduced from ane ey le According} 4 nual cal t « 0 Con- 0) ri Zi peegultements | p.tiettes of | ediclaiea || Somption | Annually | gat or Consumption ; and apart ae el ieee Re Imports. | Estimates, Catninicd. Averages for— Quarters, Quarters. Quarters. Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. 8 Years, FE 5 : 1852-59 \ 14,390,956 | 14,310,779 | — 80,177 281 28 — of 8 Years, I 1860-67 } 13,312,217 | 13,309,247 | — 2,970 283 283 0 vatmeet \ 12,174,772 | 12,699,155 | + 524,383 258 mee | it 3 Years 1876-78 \ 10,393,500 | 11,166,910 | + 773,410 25% 274 + 12 27 Years et 1852-78. \ 12,970,521 | 13,181,636 | 4+ 211,115 274 272 + 03 i Leaving out of view for the present any consideration of the inevitable discrepancies which must appear between the results of these two modes of estimate for individual years, it is obvious that, whether we compare the aggregate home produce founded on the requirements for consumption and on imports, with that founded on the annually adopted estimates of produce per acre, or compare the estimated average produce per acre itself arrived at in the two different ways, there is, taking the average of the twenty-seven years, comparatively little difference between the results thus variously arrived at. The annually adopted estimates of produce per acre over the United Kingdom give, however, the higher result. It is obvious that, to bring out still more close conformity of result from the two modes of estimate, we must either raise the estimate of requirement for consumption per head, or lower that of the average produce per acre over the United Kingdom for some of the years. Unfortunately, we have little else than judgment to aid us in deciding between these two alternatives. If, however, we compare the average result by the two methods for shorter periods—for the first, for the second, for the third eight years, and for the last three years, of the twenty-seven, for example—it is seen that the results of the two estimates agree very closely indeed for the first two periods of eight years each ; but that, for the third and fourth periods, those founded on the 348 Home Produce, Imports, Consumption, requirements for consumption and the imports are considerably lower than the average of the annually adopted estimates for those periods. The fact is that, for each of the first two periods, the estimated consumption was itself finally founded on the estimated home produce and the imports of the periods ; so that, although there will be discrepancy in the results arrived at in the two ways for individual years, there could not be material disagreement over the whole of either of those periods. For each of the last two periods, however, the estimate of consump- tion per head has been annually adopted independently, as fore- casts, and the discrepancy between the results of the two modes of estimate for those periods has, therefore, a real significance. Independently of the question of whether or not any cor- rection in the estimates for individual years should be made, the foregoing results would lead to the conclusion that the actual consumption per head, taken together with the amount consumed by stock, has been greater over the last two periods than has been annually assumed. If now we assume the requirement per head to have been 5:6 bushels over the third eight years, and 5:65 bushels over the last three years, instead of, as previously, 5:5 bushels over those eleven years, this would bring the two estimates into very much closer agreement. We should then have the average produce per acre per annum, over the United Kingdom, for the respective periods as follows :— Taste III. Average Produce per Acre. According to | According to | increased Annually Consumption, adopted | and Imports, | Estimates. Bushels. Bushels. Average 8 years, 1852-3—1859-60 .. 281 28 Average 8 years, 1860-1—1867-8 .. 283 283 Average 8 years, 1868-9—1875-6 .. 264 262 Average 3 years, 1876-7—1878-9 .. 27 274 | Average 27 years, 1852-3—1878-9| 273 273 It will be observed that, even with the estimates of the average consumption per head raised as above supposed, the average produce per acre founded on the annual estimates is slightly higher over the last two periods than that founded on consump- tion and imports. It must be borne in mind that the quantity of wheat consumed by farm-stock is an unknown and varying element; and either the estimate of the consumption per head of the population must be fixed to include the average consump- | and price of Wheat, Sc. 349 tion in other ways, or the annual estimates of produce per acre, and of the aggregate home produce founded upon them, should exceed those founded on consumption and imports. It may be remarked that an increase of one-tenth of a bushel in the con- sumption per head per annum would, if derived from home produce, represent an increase of one bushel per acre per annum over the United Kingdom, assuming a population of 33,000,000, and an area under the crop of 3,300,000 acres; figures which closely represented the actual facts a very few years ago. It is obvious that, with an increasing population, and a diminishing area under wheat, such an assumed increase in consumption per head would correspond to more than a bushel per acre. Table IV. (over-leaf) shows the amount of home produce required for consumption within each harvest-year, as calculated by deducting the imports from the estimated total requirement for consumption, adopting the increased estimates of consump- tion per head, as above assumed, for the last eleven years ; and, for comparison with the result so obtained, there is given the amount of home produce available for consumption each year, according to the annual estimates of the average produce per acre, with 2} bushels per acre deducted for seed. ‘The difference between the two is shown in the last column. When it is borne in mind that the first estimate (Col. 4) represents the requirement alone each year, and the second (Col. 5) the amount available for consumption from the estimated actual crop each year, it will be obvious that agreement between the two estimates for individual years is not to be expected. The amounts carried over from one harvest year to another will, of course, vary exceedingly according to circumstances, the in- fluence of which cannot with any certainty be estimated. We have, for example, no reliable information as to the quantity of home-produced wheat held in the farmer’s hands, the quantity consumed by farm-stock, or otherwise used, or the quantity of foreign wheat held over in the granaries. Then, again, the actual length of the period to be provided for, dependent on the earliness or the lateness of consecutive harvests, has to be taken into account. Referring to the actual differences for individual years, as shown by the figures in the last column of the Table (IV.), it is obvious that, whilst there may be, and frequently is, an excess of wheat available over that required for consumption within the harvest-year, there cannot be an actual deficiency. Without attempting to account for each individual difference, it may be observed that the deficiencies which the figures indicate in some of the earlier years would doubtless be compensated, at any rate in part, if the balance were brought forward from the Home Produce, Imports, Consumption, Tasie LV. Tom 7 ~ r ired id . Coananateds aveUREIeeata aa at 5°1 bush. : Consumption acuonaTtt re arvest ist 8 Years, Difference ; according to ane a nee at 5°5 bush. required from Annual Hetiwiites Sent eenner 1 2nd 8 Years, Imports. Home Produce Estimates of topes iG ne ree 31, at 5°6 bush. within each |Average Produce calodinted 8 ‘| 3rd 8 Years, Harvest Year. per Acre é at 5°65 bush. (2} bushels per che ae Acre secusee® | Harvest Year. Annum. 5 ire Quarters. | ioe Quarters. Quarts Wer 1852-8 | 17,538,354 | 5,902,000 | 11,636,354 | 10,433,464 | — 1,202,890 1853-4 | 17,607,749 | 6,092,000 | 11,515,749 | 9,337,546 | — 2,178,203 1854-5 | 17,701,710 | 2,983,000 | 14,718,710 | 16,427,742 | + 1,709,032 1855-6 | 17,816,807 | 3,265,000 | 14,551,807 | 12,776,300 | — 1,775,507 1856-7 | 17,932,364 | 4,112,584 | 13,819,780 | 13,007,453 | — 812,327 1857-8 | 18,055,662 | 5,795,687 | 12,259,975 | 16,148,915 | + 3,883,940 iSh-bo Indoeuir | {sieas |ovtehns | dover | cng = > > ’ ’ 79 ro > : 1860-1 | 19,874,968 | 10,023,968 | 9.851.000 | 9,956,012 | + 105,012 1861-2 | 20,025,576 | 9,099,455 | 10,926,121 | 11,175,188 | + 249,062 1862-3 | 20,165,540 | 9,205,086 | 10,960,454 | 12,882,069 | + 1,921,615 1863-4 | 20,287,594 | 6,991,270 | 13,296,324 | 16,881,807 | + 3,585,483 1864-5 | 20,419,321 | 5,500,705 | 14,918,616 | 15,179,783 | + 261,167 1865-6 | 20,547,130 | 7,313,026 | 13,234;104 | 12/950,305 | — 288,799 1866-7 | 20,684,813 | 7,633,033 | 13,051,780 | 10,458,645 | — 2,598,135 1867-8 | 20,830,600 | 9,015,543 | 11,815,057 | 8,545,890 | — 3,269,167 1868-9 | 21368,178 | 8,2437389 | 13,124/789 | 15,626,060 | + 2,501,271 1869-70 | 21,532,105 | 10,000,004 | 11,532,101 | 12,301,205 | + 769,104 1870-1 | 21,909,347 | 8,841,090 | 13,068,257 | 13,089,893 | + 21,636 iss | dns |e | tend vats | 5 Snead FF ’ y > > ‘ > ’ y oy lai 1873-4 | 22°622'952 | 11,583,645 | 11,039,307 | 9,290,343 | — 1,748,964 1874-5 | 22,840,258 | 11,739,710 | 11,100,548 | 12,898,085 | + 1,797,537 1875-6 | 23,082,333 | 13,948,644 | 9,133,689 | 9,033,000 | — 100,689 1876-7 | 23,537,495 | 12,158,006 | 11,379,489 | 8,857,015 | — 2,522,474 1877-8 | 23,826,133 | 14,511,181 | 9,314,952 | 10,039,073.) + 724,121 1878-9 | 24,058,216 | 14,431,971 | 9,626,245 | 11,698,672 | + 2,072,427 1879-80 | (24,334,025) a a (5,047, 840) » AVERAGES. Sea 17,892,820 | 4,652,784 | 13,240,036 | 13,159,859 | — 80,177 8 Years, } K = 3 = 1860.°67 {, 207954,443 | 8,097,761 | 12,256,682 | 12,253,711 2,971 ee | 22,251,000 | 10,745,568 | 11,505,432 | 11,632,476 | + 127,044 Tay, 23,807,281 | 13,700,386 | 10,106,895 | 10,198,253) + 91,358 Riciwrsd \ 20,570,665 | 8,484,076 | 12,086,589 | 12,109,746 | + 23,157 and Price of Wheat, §c. 351 immediately preceding years, the last three of which were seasons of more than average productiveness, and of lower than average price, conditions which imply abundance. Then as to some of the excesses. It may be mentioned in illustration that, in each of the four consecutive years 1862, 3, 4, and 5, there was more, and in two of them very much more, than the average produce over the country at large ; and it was estimated that, at the harvest of 1865, there still remained over from the extra- ordinary crop of 1863, and the abundant one of 1864, wheat equal to from one-third to one-half of an average crop; and that, even at the harvest of 1866, some of the crop of 1863 remained unthrashed. It may, indeed, be stated generally, that as a rule the excesses follow, as they should, seasons of high productive- ness, and the deficiencies seasons of low productiveness. Discrepancies between the two results for individual years are, in fact, inevitable; and the figures strikingly illustrate the difficulty of the subject, so far as individual years are con- cerned. But if the bases of the estimates are correct, the results of the two methods should agree when averaged over a sufficient number of years. An examination of the averages for the different periods, given at the foot of the table, will show that, with the increased estimates of consumption per head for the last two periods, the agreement between the differently obtained results is really very close. Finally, as to the questions—whether our previous estimates of the consumption of wheat per head of the population, over the first two periods of eight years each, are correct? and whether we are to conclude that there really has been an increased consumption per head in the subsequent years ? There can be no doubt that the average consumption per head has increased in the United Kingdom as a whole since the establishment of free trade in corn; and there can be but little doubt that it has done so less rapidly during the later, than during the earlier, years since that change. This will be the case, at any rate, with the much larger proportion of the total population which is comprised within England and Wales; though the increased consumption has probably been developed later in Scotland, and perhaps in Ireland also. The amount consumed will obviously vary according to the prosperity or otherwise of the people, to the price of wheat itself, and to that of other articles of food also. With regard to the price of wheat, barring exceptional cases, there has been a general tendency to decline throughout the period to which our esti- mates refer. Independently of the influence of lower prices, and of the increased prosperity of the masses of the population, among the circumstances tending to increase the consumption 352 Home Produce, Imports, Consumption, of wheat in recent years may be mentioned the increased price of meat; whilst, among those tending to limit the rate of increase of consumption may be noted the fact that the propor- tion of the total wheat consumed which is derived from foreign sources is rapidly increasing, and the drier foreign wheats will undoubtedly yield a larger percentage of flour, and flour of better quality, than much of the home-grown grain. As already explained, the estimates of consumption per head over the first sixteen years, although controlled by the calcu- lation of numerous dietaries, were finally founded on the estimated amounts of home produce and the ascertained amounts of the imports; and they were calculated for the first half, and the second half of that period separately, in order to ascertain whether or not an increased rate of consumption were indicated. The result was that the so reckoned available supplies showed a consumption of about 5:1 bushels per head per annum over the first eight years, and of 5:5 bushels over the second eight years. Of course, even supposing that the estimates of the available supplies over the whole period were correct, and that there was a considerable increase in the rate of consumption during the period, it is not to be assumed that there was the sudden rise from the first to the second eight years, which taking the averages over those separate periods shows. It is, indeed, doubtful whether the estimates of consumption per head over the earlier years, as deduced from the amounts estimated to be available from the home produce and the imports, may not be somewhat too low, due to an under-estimate of the area under the crop in those years. But, as no data exist upon which to base a trustworthy correction, the safer alternative seems to be simply to call attention to this probability. Then, again, a careful consideration of our annual estimates of produce per acre subsequent to the first sixteen years, leads to the conclusion that some are more probably too low than too high. For 1866 and 1867, for example, our own estimates are lower than those of some others; and that for 1867, at any rate, may we think probably be somewhat too low. But here, again, there is lack of sufficient evidence to justify an alteration. Upon the whole, we are disposed to conclude that our esti- mates of consumption per head during the first period of eight years may be somewhat too low. We also conclude that our previously published estimates of consumption for the years subsequent to the first sixteen, are more probably too low, than that our estimates of average produce per acre, and of aggregate produce founded upon them, are too high. For the reasons given, however, we adopt our previous estimates of average Harvest Years, September 1, to August 31. Taste V.—Panticunars of Home Propvcr, Imror Estimated Home Produce. Available for Co | 1 | Home Produce 1s, Consumprron, and Prick of Wurat, in the Unrrep Kinapom.* Value of Wheat estimated to be Consumed + (At Average ‘Gazette’ Price), Available for Consump- Value of Wheat available for Consumption Por C (At Average "Gazetto’ Price), eon I Total available. Produce, 28 (or 27) Hanvest-Yrars, 1852-3 to 1879-80 inclusive. Harvest- Years, September 1 From || to August $1, Imports, 1852-3 1853-4 1854-5 1855-6 1856-7 1857-8 1858-9 1859-60 1860-1 1861-2 1862-3 1863-4 1864-5 1865-6 1866-7 1867-8 1868-9 1869-70 1870-1 1871-2 1872-3 1873-4 1874-5 1875-6 1876-7 1877-8 1878-9 1879-80 Total Home || less 2¢ Bushels | Imports 1g: ayn Produce. || per Acre for Export otal, | Seed. Quarters, || Quarters. Quarte Quarters. | 11,574,982 |) 10,433,464 | 5,902 16,335,464 10,466,473 3 | 6,092, @}00 | 15,429,546 17,563,140 | 2,983, 19,410,742 13,922,801 Bf 3,265,0)00 | 16,041/300 \§ 14,192,543 || 13,007,453 | 4,112 17,120,037 || 2 17,821,221 || 16,148,915 | 5,796 16,309,949 || 15,147,874 | 4,555 13,135,124 || 12,004,575 | 4,516 11,078,948 9,956,012 | 10, 02% 12,271,546 |) 11,175,183 | 9,09: 21939602 19,703,544 82 | 16,520,907 13,957,554 || 12,882,069 | 9,20: 22,087,155 || 17,922,048 || 16,881,807 | 6,9: 23,873, O77 } 2 16,216,328 || 5,500 20,68 || 13,975,936 7,313 926 | 20, 26% | j3¢ | 17,561,433 23,869,449 || 22,301,209 || 21,930,983 19, 699,093 13) Pie ase ay 12/301, 205 | 10,000 14,151,236 || 13,089,893 | 8,841 11,456,544 || 10,382,493 | 9,316 11,518,596 || 10,438,729 | 12,291, 22,730,192 || 32 10,322,603 |) 9,290,343 | 11,583, 13,972,926 | 12,898,085 | 11,739,710 10,018,418 | 9,03: 13,948, G44 9,732,984 | 5 | 12,158,006 10,970.53 || 1010391073 | 14,511,181 12,647,213 14,431,971 (5,905,020)|| (57047,840)|(16,575,225) (21,628,065), (34)455,207 os Soewa C= 19,979,980 |) 20,274,638 || J COPANO UN AAUP ROR EE aA Ls A OAINWGAMS AAD DIOS SNRUNoS fe OS Cr a or te oer HPASNSNO RIN NOCH RAH OD > S a9) 309° 785), (es, "069, 649) sare [eet 19 7805) 1862-3 1863-4 1869-70 1870-1 1871-2 1872-3 1873-4 1874-5 1875-6 | 1876-7 | 1877-8 1878-9 1879-80 AVERAGES.t 8 Years, 1852-'59 | 8 Years, 1860-67 1868-75 3 Years, 1876-'78 27 Years, 1852-78 8 Years, } | 14,310,779 || 13,159,859 | 4,652,784 | 17,812,643 || 28,067,170 13,309, 247 | 12,258,712 | 8,097,761 | 20,851,473 | 29,606,462 12,699,155 | 11,632,476 | 10,745,968 | 22,878,044 | 31,787,143 11,116,910 || 10,198,258 | 13,700,386 | 23,898,639 | 33,709,425 | 2 37,709,059 13,112,115 en) co : j2e8 {Seater 10-3 Ate 41 Ae sr {Aa Sam | 13,181,636 || 12,109,746 | 8,484,076 | 20,593,822 | 30,252,388 | [ig ea \ * Pxclusive of the Islands in the British Seas. + Consumption reckoned at 5:1 bushels per head per annum the first eight years, 5°5 the second cight, 5°6 the third eight, and 5-65 the next three years. ¢ The “averages” are, in each case, the mere means of the figures in the columns for the respective s periods. 2 || 59:6 | 40-4 |(Av.27 Years, | |)\ 185278 | [To face Page 352. Via ge —— and Price of Wheat, §c. 353 produce per acre each year without change. We also adopt our previous estimates of consumption per head for the first two periods of eight years each without change. But, for the third period of eight years we assume the consumption to have been at the rate of 5:6 bushels per head, and for the last three years at the rate of 5:65 bushels, instead of 5:5 bushels over those eleven years, as previously reckoned. Accordingly, until further experience should indicate further change to be necessary, we propose to adopt 52 bushels as the average consumption per head of the population per annum, over the United Kingdom. Table IV. p. 350, shows the estimated aggregate consump- tion of wheat in each year, and the amount of it derived from home and foreign sources respectively ; and Table V., which follows (facing p. 352), brings to one view the particulars of the estimated home produce, of the imports, of the consumption per head, of the average ‘Gazette’ price per quarter, and of the cost of wheat (at the average ‘Gazette’ price), in the United Kingdom, in each of the 28 (or 27) harvest-years, from 1852-3 up to the present time. Referring to the upper portion of the table for all details, and to the text for further information respecting some of them, the general tendency of the changes which have taken place within the period of our review is clearly indicated in the average results over the periods of 8, 8, 8, 3, and 27 years, given at the foot of the table. According to the figures, the area under wheat was about 20 per cent. less over the last 3, than over the first 8 years, of the 27. The average produce per acre over the United Kingdom was considerably less over the last two than over the first two periods. It amounted to only 273 bushels over the whole 27 years, as compared with 284 bushels, which we had previously assumed to represent the average produce per acre of the country at large. Owing to the reduced produce per acre in recent years, the aggregate home produce has reduced in a somewhat greater degree than has the area under the crop. The annual imports averaged about three times as much over the last 3, as over the first 8, of the 27 years. The total consumption of wheat per annum has increased from an average of about 18 million quarters over the first 8 years, to nearly 24 million quarters over the last 3 years. According to the figures, the average consumption per head per annum was only about 5:1 bushels over the first 8 years, but it amounted to 5-67 bushels over the last 3 years. The price of wheat per quarter has declined from an average VOL. XVI.—S. 8. 2A 354 Utilisation of Waste Substances and of 57s. 8d. over the first 8 years (including the period of the Crimean War) to 49s. over the last 3 years. The annual value of the home produce available for consump- tion has declined from an average of nearly 38,000,0002. over the first 8 years, to less than 25,000,000/. over the last 3 years. The annual value of the imported wheat has increased from an average of little more than 13,000,000/. over the first 8 years, to more than 33,000,000/. over the last 3 years. The annual value of the total wheat estimated to be consumed has ranged from under 40,000,000/. to more than 71,000,000/. ; and it has increased from an average of about 51,500,000/. over the first 8 years, to more than 58,000,000/. over the last 3 years. The average annual cost of wheat per head has somewhat reduced in the later periods; and it has been 36s. 2d. over the 27 years. Over the whole period of 27 years, 40-4 per cent. of the wheat consumed has been derived from imports; and the amount sup- plied from foreign sources has increased from an average of 26°5 per cent. of the total over the first 8 years, to 57:4 per cent. of the total consumed over the last three years, of the 27. XXI.— Utilisation of Waste Substances and Economical Manage- ment of Materials, Machines, and Appliances on the Farm. By Roserrt Scorr Bury, Consulting Farm Architect and Engineer. Characteristics of the Subject.—A glance at the title of this paper will show the comprehensive character of the general subject with which it proposes to deal. That, however, em- braces a much wider range of topics than even the title fore- shadows, as it is proper to observe that this paper was drawn up more with the view to make it suggestive, than that its tenor should be rigidly precise and definite. In point of fact it is difficult, if indeed it be not here impos- sible, to limit the topics which the subject embraces, For that defined, as it may with rigid accuracy be so defined, as the “science of economy,” takes within its range almost everything material. To those who at first sight may object to this impor- tant status here claimed for it, perhaps the following, by an able authority, may be suggestive as bearing thereon. Referring to the operations of practical chemistry, in the various classes — of technical work in which the principles of that science are . Economical Management of Materials, §c., on the Farm. 355 embraced, and there are but few which can be excluded from this category, the following is by my authority set down as axiomatic: “Those experiments, or that work only, is perfect when no useless refuse is left as the resultant of the process.” From this is deduced, as a corollary or natural consequence, “‘ All progress” in any of the branches of technical or material work ‘will resolve itself into the progress of economy.” But refraining from insisting upon this high status for my subject, and taking a very much lower one, even then it will be admitted readily enough that it possesses no small claim to the consideration of all interested in the material progress of the arts and sciences. And, with reference specially to that science in which the readers of this Journal are so deeply inte- rested, it is not easy to limit its utility, or to narrow the range of its application. Nor assuredly can there be a time better fitted for the application of its principles to the every-day practice of the estate or the farm than the present. Never before were these more likely to meet with ready acceptance and intelligent reception than now—now, when agriculture is so depressed that every legitimate means, however humble, ought to be taken to lighten the load which the great majority of its followers are called upon to bear. In proposing to carry out any new plan by which work is to be done more rapidly or economically, that plan has ail the better chance of being readily adopted, should it demand few appliances or aids, more especially if those would otherwise have been of an expensive character. Now this is one of the great advantages possessed by the plans or methods of opera- tion or procedure by which the numerous details of my subject are carried out. Practical as those details are, they can ‘be secured at once without the employment of appliances more or Jess costly, and always difficult, certainly not easy at all times, to be had. The very nature indeed of the various classes of the general subject, or rather the terms in which they are stated, indicate that all unnecessary outlay is to be avoided. The doing away with ‘* waste” of every kind, whether that be of time or materials— the transforming into substances more or less valuable those which are already “waste,” or considered to be such—the em- ployment of substances already valuable, but in such a way, or in such ways, as to increase that value—the distribution of substances of various kinds in daily use on the estate or the farm, in such a way that a lesser bulk or weight will give higher economical results—the pointing out of new sources of power, and of materials useful in a variety of ways—such sources being present on the estate or on the farm—the discussion of subjects Zee 356 Utilisation of Waste Substances and such as these, and the description of their details, point ob- viously in one direction, namely, that in the very attainment of the economy, expenditure is to be avoided as much as possible. The position may be illustrated and enforced by putting it, au contraire, somewhat absurdly thus—that to carry out a system of economy it is necessary to employ expensive appliances, and to adopt wasteful methods of working. As to which, nothing surely needs further to be said. Synopsis of subjects proposed to be treated of —Where so many subjects lie before one for discussion and illustration, it is, I confess, somewhat difficult to decide upon those to be taken up first. And this more especially when all, or nearly all, are full of practically interesting details, But, upon due consideration, | take two great divisions under which the classes of subjects will fall for discussion. Of these divisions the first is the economical use and management of materials valuable in themselves. Of the various classes by which this important division can be illustrated, I select in the first instance the following. (1.) The economical use and management of fuel, and of steam- engine-furnaces, boilers, and general mechanism. The second division of the general subject concerns itself with the collecting, storing, and utilisation of substances known as, or considered to be, ‘ waste” or useless. ‘This other important divi- sion I propose to illustrate by the two following classes : (2.) The collecting, storing, and utilising the “ Waste” mate- rials, which on all or nearly all estates and farms are allowed to lie littering about the yards, buildings, roads, §c.; and (3.) The collecting and storing of water obtained from neglected and generally unknown sources on the estate and farm. These three subjects, as illustrated in the following paragraphs, are placed under this disadvantage, that from the very nature of this paper, as explained in the first paragraph, they are unfinished. ‘They are but sketches, so to say, the finished and detached designs being the work which may or may not be taken in hand at some future and more favourable time. Nevertheless, in the present form of simply suggestive sketches it is hoped that much of a practically valuable character will be given; and in such a way that sundry cognate points of some importance, not always carefully considered, will be suggested to the reader. It may be objected to some of the details of nearly every system that they are comparatively trifling, and that all are too minute to pay for the time and trouble which attending to them involves. But the same objection may be taken to almost every kind of work, forgetful of the fact that the little things are essential to make up in point of fact the larger details. It 9 Economical Management of Materials, §c., on the Farm. 357 is but a truism to state this, yet the lesson it teaches is too apt to be overlooked. And it could very easily be proved that in very many classes of every-day work the complaints everywhere heard of work badly done, sometimes not done at all, though charged and paid for, arise from the neglect of minute details. And it may be very fairly presumed that the known mistakes of many workmen spring from the contempt, openly expressed, for what they call trifles. And the converse of this might as fairly be expected if our workmen were educated up in the great point in believing in the value of little things. Such practical experience as I have had with men and of work leads me to hold a very strong opinion on this point. This, at all events, may be premised,—that the attention to minute details will bring about results not altogether trifling in a paying point of view, and this is the point from which nowadays we have come to look at all things. Scientific industry is now, at all events, clearly on the side of the economy of attending to little things. (1.) Tue Economicat WorkinG or STEAM BOILER-FURNACES, AND OF STEAM-ENGINES. In discussing what may be called the ethics of economy, the workman is not seldom blamed severely for being indifferent as to waste, whether that be of the time or the materials of his master. At the same time it is worthy of some consideration that in some departments he may not know in what or how to save. And one of the practical outcomings of this position will be found at the very threshold of this important department of Estate and Farm Economies in considering the Ordinary position of Engine-drivers in the Farm on first under- taking the duty A young or middle-aged man, as the case may be, has the farm engine “told off” to him as his duty, or as forming part of it, in cases where it is not constantly or, say, often working. All that he is asked to do is to “ fire up.” And perhaps by means of lots of coals, shovelled on any way, and the abundant use of the fire-irons, one or even two practical lessons, so called, may be given him, and possibly also a rough lesson as to what the steam-engine is, what works it, and how, with the materials at his command, he is to keep up this source of working power. This will probably be all in the way of education to his work which he will get even under what may be considered the most generally favourable circumstances. And these lessons will generally end, if indeed they do not begin, with the simple decisive dictum, “fire up.” But in what “firing up” consists of properly, whether it is a thing which 358 Utilisation of Waste Substances and may be done “ anyhow,” or which is the right way or the wrong way to do the work in, the poor stoker too often is at a loss utterly to determine. Left to himself, then, he goes blun- dering on, wasting coals in abundance, for which no proper return or working value is obtained. Happy is his experience should he only stop at this side of waste, and avoid some fearful accident, which may imperil his own life and that of others, and waste much valuable property. Accidents arising from careless working of Steam-engine- Furnaces and Boilers.—Nor need one wonder at the frequency with which accidents of this kind occur, nor at the intensity of the suffering and the greatness of the loss which they sometimes entail. One has but to give a moment’s intelligent glance at a steam-engine with its boiler to see what powerful elements of destruction and disorganisation they contain within them- selves ;—elements which may be brought into existence and let loose at any unexpected moment to work their wild will, through no wilful neglect, but through sheer ignorance of the forces thus put into too often incompetent hands. Competency of ordinary Farm-labourers to be quickly taught to take charge of Steam-engines, and to work them economically and safely——And_ yet, with all its power, nothing is so easy of control as a steam- -engine ; ; and it is quite competent for ordi- nary farm-managers to impart such an amount of knowledge to even an- uneducated labourer as will enable him to manage a steam-engine and its boiler not only safely but economically. The most careful stoker and best engine-driver I have ever known had been but a farm day-labourer. With all our improvements in steam machinery, there is Ais a vast deal to do in the way of working it economically. It may be sent out by the maker in perfect order, and calculated to give the maximum of power with the minimum of fuel-consump- tion. But all the circumstances of working are changed from the period when the “ maker’s man in charge ” leaves his charge to the ordinary routine of farm-labour. Then the engine-driver or stoker finds his difficulties begin ; and it will be well for him, well also for the future character of the work to be done, if at this stage the young or inexpe- rienced engine-driver has some one to give him now and then a look after, now and then a word of encouragement, which goes often very far in inciting a man to do his duty well. Not always, however, I regret to have to remark, will it act power- fully for good. Next to this, or rather superior to it in efficacy, is trusting him, letting him know that he is trusted. This, of course, implies a previous teaching as to what his duties are, and in which and for what he is to be trusted. Economical Management of Materials, §c., on the Farm. 359 Value of good Stoking, what it ensures in economical and safe Steam-engine driving or working.—When a celebrated practical engineer, on being asked a round of questions as to what con- stituted good engine-driving, gave to them all the same answer, “good stoking,” he was not far wrong—from many points of view absolutely correct. And although in some senses paradoxical, like all sayings of the class, it conveyed a fairly correct answer to them all. Assuredly, good stoking ensures economical consumption of fuel, the maximum of steam pro- duced at the minimum of cost. It ensures the regular steady supply of steam sufficient for the requirements of the steam- engine. It ensures the engine being worked at the speed best calculated for the work to be done, never “ racing” or running away through an excess of steam, or making every stroke with difficulty through lack of it. It therefore places within command the means of working the engine at a steady uniform rate; this tends to keep the various parts in better repair, and that for a longer time than would be the case with irregular or over- driving. Good stoking may therefore be said to be something more than what it is popularly conceived to be. It is at all times worth aiming at, especially at times like the present, when it offers, should it offer. nothing else, a saving of fuel. How it can be carried out in practice I shall endeavour in the next few paragraphs to explain; having, in what I give in these, chiefly in view the class to which the care of farm steam- engines is usually given. The quality or heating value, and the mechanical condition, of kinds of Coal :—two elements in good Stoking.—Some conceive that good stoking wholly depends upon the quality of coal; the higher that happens to be, the better the stoking. While the quality of the coal is, no doubt, an important factor in the calculation, it is by far from being the most important, or the only important one, as some claim it to be; tor a good efficient stoker will raise better steam, and keep it more uniformly up to the required pressure, with inferior coal than will a poor stoker supplied with coal of the best or of much better quality. In point of fact, the best quality of coal is not the most economical ; it is apt to “ fly off” too quickly. Considered merely by itself, the best quality of coal is of course the best for steam-raising purposes. But there are circumstances which modify this value. The best quality of coal is not, as a rule, used for steam-engine purposes; and where exceptionally high results are obtained in the efficiency of one steani-engine as compared with another, it may be worth while to inquire what the quality of the fuel employed is. It will in such cases be often found that the so-called most efficient engine has been 360 Utilisation of Waste Substances and driven by coals of a quality and in quantity greatly superior to those used in the contrasted engine. Before results can be fairly compared, circumstances must be equal. Now, seeing that an essential element in good stoking is uniformity in firing, it is obvious that a great help to ensure this will be the uniform quality of the fuel itself. So that of the two it may be almost’ affirmed that it will be better to have the coal of uniform mechanical character, even if it be inferior in quality, than of varying character, though it be superior in quality. In practice, when the coal is of an uneven quality—lumpy and small together—a good careful stoker will almost invariably be found to ‘sort the ‘coals before using them. Hence in our largest factories, where machine firing is not adopted, the quality, or rather the kind, of coals used has a close refer- ence to the mechanical uniformity of the mass. Thus the class of coal known generally throughout the North of England as “nuts ” is preferred by good stokerst ; so much so, that the term nuts is often taken to be synonymous with “ machine or engine coal.” ‘This coal, as the name indicates, is made up of screened coal, so that the pieces are pretty uniformly of the same size—from small to largish “ nuts.” There is amongst this class a good deal of “slack” or small, which is very useful i in bank- ing-up,” and also in “ pride: or backing up.” Some first- class stokers indeed prefer this “ slack” or “ small” of coal, as it enables them to secure most efficiently the “ uniform firing ” they know to be so essential to success. Importance of uniform and regular Firing. Influence of the form of Boiler and Furnace upon this—This “uniform firing” precluding, as it does, all “forcing in firing,” the stoker is in this respect greatly dependent upon the boiler and its furnace which he has to work. In the Cornish pumping-engines, where the most economical consumption of fuel in proportion to the steam raised is perhaps to be met with, there is not only abundant steam and water space in the boiler, but ample furnace-bar and heating space in the furnace. Under these circumstances there is not the slightest excuse, as there is no necessity, for forcing the fire ; and indeed with this high class of steam-engine and boiler such a thing is never tolerated. But in the case of the class of portable steam-engines and boilers now so largely used on farms, a large bulk, and by consequence that of the fire-spaces in fur- nace and boiler, cannot for obvious reasons be secured as in the case of stationary engines and boilers. Hence the greatest argu- ment which can be brought forward in favour of stationary as against portable steam-engines and boilers is just this: that in the stationary class better proportioned steam, water, and fire- spaces can be secured, and that these lead to steady uniform Economical Management of Materials, &c., on the Farm. 861 firing, obviating the necessity of forced or over-firing, and gene- rally secure economical consumption and working throughout. No doubt in the portable engines most recently sent out the dimensions of the various spaces are so well proportioned that an extraordinary degree of “ efficiency” is secured in the boiler- working. Still, there are throughout the country in daily use an enormous number of engines of this class which have been so long in use that they may be said to have outlived the period of improvement; and with this, or at least with many of this class, the poor stoker is almost compelled to be con- tinually “forcing his fire.” And any one at all acquainted _ with what furnaces are and what stoking is, no sooner opens the furnace door than he sees that forced firing is unavoidable under such circumstances of confined heating and water spaces. Indeed, one dees not always require to look into the fur- nace; it is often enough for the expert to look at the boiler barrel, and to compare it with the power or dimensions of the engine. Portable and Fixed or Stationary Steam-engines and Boilers.— Although by many overlooked in considering the elements which affect the question of economical driving of engines, it is worthy of note that much of this is frequently depen- dent upon the kind or class of engine and boiler em- ployed. Practical engineers know the points of distinction between fixed or stationary and the usual class of portable engines and boilers. These points are by many quite over- looked when the question of the kind of engine to be put down is being considered. This is scarcely to be wondered at, when we remember that the question—so long a vexed one in agri- cultural mechanics—of stationary and portable steam-engines has long been looked upon as settled, and that by a verdict wholly in favour of the portable—the stationary nowhere. But there is in this perhaps another instance how circumstances generally bring about, or tend to bring about, a reversal of the original decision. It is not here affirmed that this reversal is at all complete. Far from that. But stationary engines have not only held their own, maintaining the position they occupied when the controversy was decided, but they have of late years greatly increased in numbers. At all events this is more abundantly evident that circumstances are very materially altered in favour of the use of stationary or fixed engines, as compared with the period of settlement above alluded to. A vast deal more work is concentrated at the farmery or farm building requiring power to do it than was contemplated at the period I have referred to. Then everything apparently pointed to the fact that the work of the steam-engine lay outside 302 Utilisation of Waste Substances and and beyond the range, if not near to the buildings. It is not necessary to point out the changes, not only in the work hitherto done in a certain way, but also the new direction in which work has to be done, which has led to this concentration at the buildings of work requiring ‘“ power” to do it with. But it is so, and it is likely to be on the imcrease, especially in the case of large farms and of estates. It is therefore, with many, open at lege to doubt the wisdom of employing portable engines for such a class or for such classes of work ; and this in view of the much higher mechanical effect, or, to put it in popular phrase, the more economical work got out of stationary than out of poitable engines worked under the ordinary routine of farm labour. Some may be inclined to join issue with me here, and to dis- pute this. But the present is not the place to discuss the merits of a question long ago, in point of fact, decided. It is sufficient for the purposes of this paper to rest satisfied that I am in the main putting this point correctly in the terms which I have employed, to which only I may add that, to those who are intimately acquainted with the essentials of accurate machine working, ocular proof of the correctness of my statement may be obtained in cases where there is a fixed or stationary engine and a portable engine working side by side. In this conjunction, not difficult to be met with, the actual mechanical conditions of the two classes of engines—each being in its own class of the same rank or quality—can be seen. And I leave it to any skilled mechanic to say which of the two engines comes in its working the nearest to the perfect supply of all the mechanica) necessities of the case. It is not of course contended that sta- tionary engines are better than portable ones for all classes of work. Such a position, in the actual circumstances of general farm and estate work, would simply be absurd. All that is here affirmed is that, under circumstances greatly on the in- crease, especially on large farms and almost always on large estates where there is a sufficiency of regular work done at a fixed point—the workshop of the buildings—and by the aid of fixed machinery capable of steady and uniform working at what- ever speed driven, to employ a steam-engine regularly and constantly, it will tend to higher economy in working to put down a fixed engine and boiler: When the work at the buildings is fluctuating and irregular, and a portable engine in any Case is employed on the farm, for which, again, there is only irregular work, it will then of course be the cheapest way to use the portable engine in the workshop as it is required. Much could be Baa here under this head, did space permit, from which some practical hints as to the economical use and Economical Management of Materials, §c., on the Farm. 363 careful treatment and management of farm-machinery in general might be obtained. Mechanical advantages of Stationary or fixed Steam-engine- boilers—The great advantage obtained by the use of a fixed or stationary boiler and furnace is, that there being so much the larger dimensions to work with, there is little chance of the heating-surfaces and boiler water-spaces being so confined, as must of necessity be the case even in the best of our portable engines. This is obvious enough on very slight consideration of the circumstances. For in a portable engine the reduction of weight and the securing of compactness in the whole are points of considerable importance. But, however well propor- tioned the heating-spaces of the most recently made portable engines are, there is a very large class in almost daily use in which the proportions are anything but well designed. Those engines, as we have said, are chiefly old, at least, if only com- paratively so, they have been made prior to the introduction of the most recent improvements in this class of engine. In one sense, therefore, it is true that the stoker, with the care of a boiler-furnace of this last class, can scarcely help himself, but must force his firing. Still, for the evils and the conse- quent losses both of time and coal, there is fortunately a source of mitigation and relief. This lies in the system, more or less modified according to circumstances, of uniform steady firing. This, for reasons which I have already briefly explained, is best carried out in the usually well-proportioned furnace of a stationary or fixed steam-engine-boiler. My further remarks, therefore, on the important subject now under discussion will be formed on the supposition that the fireman or stoker has a boiler-furnace of this description to manage. And in order to render what I have to give as free from technical difficulties as possible, I shall briefly describe the mechanical and con- structive arrangements of a boiler-furnace. This, of course, is not meant for, as it is not required by, professional readers, or for those who are au fait to the subject, but it may be useful to many readers, and may serve as the basis of brief instruction to those who may be disposed to impart some knowledge of the kind to those in their employment. Before, however, giving this, let me glance briefly at what constitutes bad stoking. What bad or careless Stoking practically is.— Of the two terms I have more than once used, “ regular” and “ irregular” firing, the first obviously excludes all firing by what is gra- phically called “ fits and starts.” This is ever the style of firing adopted by inexperienced stokers. They throw on shovelful after shovelful of coals, generally with a total disregard of all uni- formity of size and disposition, The coals thus thrown on lie s 364 Utilisation of Waste Substances and pretty well up to the front, sometimes even well on to the “dead” or “dumb” plate, near the furnace-door; and they are allowed to lie there to burn as best they can, throwing out the while huge volumes of dense black smoke at the chimney-head. After an interval, longer or shorter, as it may happen to be, for everything in this system is done by “fits and starts,” the fire-iron is snatched up, the furnace-doors thrown open, and the heap of coals, half-consumed, as the case may be, stirred violently up, one part shoved forward farther on to the furnace-bars, smoke being more or less abundantly thrown off as the amount of unconsumed coal is greater or less. With this irregularity in the time of firing, want of uniformity in the firing is almost certain to be the result. It is, indeed, almost in vain to expect that the coals will be uniformly distributed over the surface of the fire- grate with such a system as that just described; nor is it possible under it to prevent a very large proportion of the heating or available working constituents of the coal passing off by the chimney as unconsumed gas or fuel. This condition of the furnace may be likened to a gas retort, which is only heated in order to pass off the gaseous vapours uselessly into the flues, in place of conveying it to the regular apparatus, by which the crude gases or smoke, as they are popularly called, are converted into a transparent or colourless gas. Now, although a steam-engine boiler-furnace is not practically, in the ordinary sense of the term, a gas-making apparatus, still in one sense it may really be so called, inasmuch as it is possible to be and is often actually such. To fire or stoke the Furnace, so as to prevent the formation of wolumes of black smoke, and thus to secure the economical combus- tion of the Fuel and its Gases.—There is perhaps no more crucial or trying test by which to judge of the efficiency or otherwise of the stoking of a boiler-furnace than to watch the “ beha- viour,” as engineers would say, of the chimney-flue. If this sends forth occasional volumes of densely black smoke, which continue for some time and then die away, to be succeeded after a “clear interval” by fresh volumes, then it may be safely predicted that the stoking is bad, fitful, or irregular, anything but uniform, and therefore wasteful. And without going close to the boiler for actual inspection, an expert can tell by simply watching the chimney for a time, the exact times of the firing- up, stoline: &c., gone through by the stoker. Now all this, and the consequent great waste, can be prevented by good stoking ; and this is within reach of any man of average intelligence. Every shovelful of coal thrown into the furnace contains so much carbonaceous matter within such a volume of combus- Economical Management of Materials, §c., on the Farm. 365 tible gases. It rests mainly, I may say wholly, with the stoker whether this shall pass off into the atmosphere through the chimney in the form of black smoke, more or less dense, or whether, as the gases (or smoke) are produced, they are flashed into flame and intensely heated gases. In the former case a certain volume of cold vapour—for it is this—containing a large bulk of unconsumed yet developed black combustible matter, is passed along the boiler-bottom and along the flues, giving out but comparatively little heat. In the latter case, where the smoke is consumed—to use a popular phrase—gases are formed, which, passing along the flues in a highly heated condition, give out much heat to the boiler and its contents. This advantage, and more than this, can be secured by attend- ing to the stoking, and doing it well and carefully. Tue CoLLEecrinG, STORING-UP, AND THE UTILISATION OF THE “ WASTE,” OR SO-CALLED WASTE MATERIALS LYING ABOUT THE Farm BUILDINGS, AND THE VACANT SPACES, Roaps, ETC., IN THEIR VICINITY. Many persons who were in the habit of travelling much by railway twenty or thirty years ago—must have been struck with one thing. This was, say in a long line of railway, the great number of “heaps” of waste material, chiefly metal near the stations, and those at various parts along the line, were made up largely of contractors’ plant. For years all this material lay untouched and apparently forgotten by the officials of the line. At last, under a new regime, those heaps were cleared off and sold—or otherwise disposed of. They, in the aggregate, represented a very considerable amount, and their disposal further left clear very extensive plots of land which, when utilised, added considerably to the sums gained by the plan of getting rid of all this “ waste” or “useless” material. The lesson taught by this example is obvious enough. It certainly is worthy of being followed, and this, not merely because it will afford an example of carefulness to the working men of the farm which I believe to be essential, but it wil! secure that degree of “order” which I deem little less so. There is this further incentive for the example to be followed, that the material collected will be quite equal to the cost of the collection. This will be so in the worst, or rather the poorest of cases; but in some, indeed not a few, it will, I doubt not, be matter of some surprise that so much valuable material has been allowed to lie wasting away so long unobserved, at least uncared for. In nine cases out of ten the truth really is that few have any conception of what the material is which they see litter- 366 Utilisation of Waste Substances and ing about their buildings, &c.; and it is not of course possible that they should be able even to guess at its value till after the collection. Such material is not all “ worthless rubbish,” as is often stated, but much of it is valuable for many useful purposes on the Estate or Farm—even the veritable rubbish is capable of being utilised.—And it is at this stage that a mistake may possibly be made, as to which a word of caution may be useful. Looking at the col- lected materials, one is exceedingly apt to pronounce the whole as simply a “ heap of rubbish,” and to doom it accordingly to summary destruction. Some surprise may be expressed the while, how so much of this “kind of stuff” could have been collected and kept up year after year. A closer investigation and a little more thought will, however, show that amidst much that 7s:veritable rubbish there is also much that is more or less valuable, and worth putting carefully aside for practical use. I have known materials required in certain constructions to be sent for in the nearest town, and of course paid for at the market-price, when the same materials, almost if not practically quite as good, have been lying littering about the farms in some place or another. After having collected what is called the “rub- bish about the place ”—found here, there, and everywhere, as on many an ill-regulated, disorderly-kept farm, will be the case—let it be, by one of the most careful men, looked quietly over. The best of the “rubbish,” of whatever kind, as bricks, timber, slates, &e., should be carted out and laid aside, each in its respective place. If the ‘“ accumulating period ” of ‘ rubbish deposits” has extended over several years, and more especially if during it some “building work,” as it is generally termed, has been going on, the aggregage of material will be very considerable in amount. And assuredly in not a few instances will the proprietor or tenant be surprised to see how much of it may be used in one odd job or another. It is not, of course, here maintained that on every farm the materials exist for such a varied collection as hinted at above. But in nearly all, where “order” has been neglected for long, and things allowed to lie as they gather or get accumulated, when order is at last esta- blished, a much larger, more varied, and much more generally useful collection of material will be obtained than will by the great majority be thought it all likely to exist. Of course, the larger the place the more varied and extensive will be the work done on it, and, by consequence, the greater will be the accu- mulation of materials. “Order” being once established, the hitherto careless farmer will find it to be a good thing; better still if “order” be thereafter rigidly maintained, and the materials, as they are left on the ground, taken at once to the Economical Management of Materials, §c., on the Farm. 367 ‘place where they are kept, so as to be ready to hand when wanted. : Building materials, or materials useful in Building repairs, §c., a frequent feature in the “ rubbish deposits” of Estates and Farms.— I have alluded to the fact that a prolific source of “ waste” material arises from building work having been carried on at one time or at several times during the “ accumulating period of rubbish deposits.” ‘Those who know the building trades well, know the “ weakness,” some will call it the amiable weakness, of some of their members for’ leaving not only a goodly supply, in a few instances, of the materials which they use in their work, but also more than one of the appliances by which that work is done. Should repairing or other work, therefore, be pretty frequently carried on during the accumulating period, the “stock” of this kind which will be “ acquired” by the owners or occupiers will be considerable; but it will be, so far as they are concerned, most innocently “acquired”; the truth being that they will know nothing about its being left till “order” is established and the rubbish collected, and the existence of this ‘‘ found material” made known. Even then, in fact, many will be driven to guess and to wonder how “ came such things there?” What I have said will be to them a clue to the seeming mystery or difficulty. But not the least advantage of “setting” and “ keeping one’s house in order” is that there will be no inducement to throw materials aside, no matter of what kind, anywhere or in any fashion; but, on the contrary, every inducement to save what is worth saving, or likely to be at one time or another useful. A store or shed in which to keep materials of various kinds, §c., useful in various classes of work on the Estate or Farm.—This will soon be required, and will serve as a place in which to keep the most valuable materials of the “ waste” heap, and from which to distribute them as required for work being gone on with. This store for working or constructive materials will be most usefully placed in connection with the implement shed and the workshop. And by way of keeping down the expenses of this department, the store may itself be a “shed,” pro- tection from the weather being what is only or chiefly necessary for the general run of constructive materials. For the smaller and more valuable articles, as tools, nails, bolts, &c., there should be a small lock-up closet, or a portion of the workshop may be set aside for this. Carrying out the principle of “ order” in everything, and in every department, all the materials should be so laid up in the “store” and “lock-up closet” that a hand can be put upon any one article at once. This may appear to be “ finical” 368 Utilisation of Waste Substances and and “ pottering” in the extreme. Practical men will not think so, for they know that the work of so arranging materials is only or mainly required at the beginning, and that once the system is established it involves the outlay of but little time to maintain it efficiently. They know, further, that even if all this were otherwise, and much time required to arrange the materials orderly, time would still be saved in the long run. It is difficult indeed to over-estimate the importance in cases of emergency of being able at once to find some material, tool, or appliance—and emergencies of a kind involving the chances of loss of life, and generally of property, are likely to arise, and do often arise, in the daily routine of farm-work. At all events, such arrangements as now indicated will economise time. This no one will dispute, any more than it will be disputed that to save time is to save money. And saving of any and every kind is what the farmer and his staff should aim at. And how to save and what to save are the subjects of this paper, even its very raison d’étre. And although, taking the departments separately, the value of what is saved may be but trifling, still, when all the departments are taken together, an aggregate amount will be arrived at by no means to be despised. Over and above which, the other advantages I have named as flowing out of the im- proved system of working should by right be placed to its credit; not the least valuable of which is the establishing of a system which will maintain order throughout the farm. I have named a few of the odds and ends of materials which are to be found in greater or less profusion on many farms. Those will not always all be found, but there is one material rarely absent, and that is wood or timber. This may either be almost wholly the home-grown timber of the estate, or it may be partly this, and partly such pieces or scantlings of foreign timber as may have been left over from the time when the farm- buildings were at first erected, or from some subsequently made repairs, alterations, or additions. But, however found, it may be perfectly set down as a rule having few exceptions that both in quantity and quality the waste timber “lying knocking about,”—as the popular phrase somewhat paradoxically has it— is much more worthy of attention than is generally supposed. Saving and utilising the waste timber of our Estates and Farms.—In too many cases no attempt is made even to save or set aside the so-called ‘ waste timber” lying at numerous places. So far from utilising any of it, I have, as already named, known of instances where timber was required for repairs, where it had to be sent for, and of course paid for at the usual market-price, although all the while more than one piece of the waste timber was suitable for the purpose. There is of course a Economical Management of Materials, §c., on the Farm. 369 considerable proportion of this waste timber wholly unfitted for use in construction. But there need be no waste actually per- petrated for all that. If for nothing else, even the very worst of it will be useful for firewood. And not merely in the farm- buildings, where steam-engines are employed, and cooking for live-stock carried on, is there a large demand for this, but also in the farm-houses and cottages. Yet again in this department have I known of instances where firewood—for the house, however, chiefly, if not wholly—has actually been bought at and carted from the neighbouring town or village. And this where cartloads of it literally lay rotting and wasting away in the very vicinity ; and of course adding to the general untidiness of the farm- buildings! On the other hand, I have known large stores of excellent firewood obtained by the trifling labour of some of the younger servant girls, who, when taking their little strolls about the place, carried with them baskets which almost invariably they got filled, and that, moreover, when one could not easily or readily see materials lying littering about. Indeed, I have known also some of the “ wee toddlin’ things” of the household help one to some purpose in this little industry, so fond were they all of “sticking,” as it was called. But, failing this source of supply, a trifle by way of extra-wage given to the engine- driver, or some other of the more intelligent of the men about the place, will always secure a goodly supply of this article so necessary in all households and, under the usual system of work- ing, also on farm-buildings. It is only the labour which has to be paid for, the material is there; and however trifling may be the amount which represents the saving thus effected, still it will go to swell the aggregate. More than this, it will carry with it its lesson to those who might otherwise be wholly indif- ferent to saving of any kind. When a man finds that he actually adds a trifle, be it literally no more than this, te his weekly wages by using up what he has always looked upon as “ out- and-out waste, worth no one’s while to look at or after,” he will be more apt to look at it in a very different way from that in which he at one time indulged. The simplest way is of course to use it in repairs. This, however, is not always so easy in the case of home-grown timber. This is generally, we may say invariably, in the “round,” as it is technically called, and, unlike the squared and dressed-up pieces of foreign timber, is not so readily adapted to the work on hand, which, speaking generally, is constructed of squared timber. A natty handy fellow can, however, soon get into the way of using round timber, and that, too, with the display of considerable taste when used in con- junction with squared timber. There are, moreover, many VOL. XVI.—S. 8. 2B 370 Utilisation of Waste Substances and pieces of work which can be done wholly by the use of round timber. Some men have quite a clever knack of fixing upon the piece, both in size and shape—the latter especially—and to assign to it that precise position which gives not only the strongest but the neatest and most striking combination possible. Gates, fences, outbuildings of a simple kind, can all be made, if not in the best, certainly in by far the most picturesque way by the use of round timber. Even in general work, therefore, there is a wide field for the utilisation of the timber, including “round,” which on so many farms is greatly neglected, and in not a few allowed to go utterly to waste. The use of “ waste,” or what is considered worthless, timber in the construction of sundry buildings of the Farm.—Here the widest field exists for the exercise of skill in planning and construction. It is not by this meant that there is any real difficulty in carrying out plans by which waste timber can be made service- able in the way above indicated. On the contrary, some of. the methods open to use are so simple in detail, that even labourers wholly inexperienced in construction will within a very brief space be able to grasp and thoroughly understand what has to be done, and be able very quickly and efficiently to do it. What is meant by the skill in design is simply the ready choice of round timber calculated to make the neatest design. Some men, as above stated, have an extraordinary knack of putting together round timber to form almost any desired construction they may require, and this also of the strongest. It may of course be said that there is nothing to be gained by using timber only or principally for any of the buildings of the farm. It is more perishable than the ordinary building materials, is more liable to be burned, and, taking everything into account, is not so very much cheaper, so as to offer any great inducement to use it. All this is very true, although circumstances will materially modify the conclusions here come to. Still the point I am aiming at is not to show—although in some points it could be shown—that timber-work in sundry buildings is cheaper or better than brick or stone; but that the timber being there, or being assumed to be there in abundance, and obtainable at the cheapest of rates, much being otherwise “waste,” or allowed to become so, it will be the truest economy to use it. And beyond all doubt it can be so used that it will be almost fire-proof, and just in so far as it approaches this condition, so also it approaches the condition of being able to withstand “ wear and tear.” Used in conjunction with other materials by methods presently to be noticed, timber, or rather “composite” structures in which timber plays an important part, will hold their own against those built with the ordinary Economical Management of Materials, §c., on the Farm. 371 building materials and in the ordinary way. That way, I need scarcely observe, does not always secure the best and most lasting work, especially if done by some contractors who, if not looked pretty sharply after by those who know what good sound work is and how it ought to be done, do not always give their employers the best work. Of course on some farms the supply of “ waste” timber— using the term “ waste” in the sense I have all along in this paper employed it—will be comparatively small, and only available therefore as a rule for repairs, or for constructing small objects, as gates and the like. When the supply collected from various parts is considerable, as in some cases it will be, it may be made available for the construction of the less im- portant structures, such as outlying stock-houses or shelter-sheds in pasture-fields and the like, or for one or other of the many kinds of small but useful buildings required from time to time on estates and farms, or which improved systems of working may demand. On estates where home-timber is grown to even but a small extent comparatively, there will be a source of supply of round timber useful in the construction of such-like buildings, &c., &c., a supply which, however, is too often made “waste” in the most wasteful of ways. Much of this apparently seems bound to be got rid of thus easily and quickly. I have not seldom been surprised at the reckless way in which the “loppings” or “thinnings” resulting from the cutting down of timber have thus been “ put out of the way,” as if they really were things which it was a duty—and too apparently a pleasureable one—to “ get rid of.” And yet for by far the largest proportion of such “loppings” or “ thinnings ” a use could have been easily found, not merely in the way above indicated, but in other ways, the direction of which it only required but a very little thoughtful consideration to discover or trace out. On this principle, that even the fragments or the waste of waste materials should be gathered up so that nothing be lost, very little of such sources of supply need or ought to be consigned ultimately to the doom of the utterly waste—consumption or burning. But when burning is to be done, why should that not be made to serve some useful purpose, in place of being wasted away in an open heap of burning materials of which the residue—useful as a manure—is not attempted to be saved even by cottagers in whose gardens it might be of some value. I have known not seldom the head gardener at the mansion driven to his wits’ end to find a supply of stakes for various departments of garden-work, such as pea-stakes, when in some parts of the estate or the home farm a bonfire—so to call it —has been going on for days, consuming cartloads of wood DeaBee 312 Utilisation of Waste Substances and highly useful to him. This, no doubt, is a very bad example of careless and reprehensible indifference to waste of the most wasteful kind. Yet it has been perpetrated before now, and may be perpetrated again. When done, no better evidence can be given of the want of care on the part of some one who has the control of a certain department, and of the utter lack of unity of purpose between the heads of the different departments, I may, indeed, say of the absence on the estate or farm of the principle of making the most of things and the avoidance of waste of all kinds—a principle which, known to be established in one department, is found soon to permeate through all the other departments, and by consequence leading, so to say, and influencing the action of all their “heads,” so that they are sure to work in unison, haying but one object in view, namely the interest of the estate. What then I have here classed as the waste timber of the estate can be largely increased in amount and value, if from no other, certainly in not a few instances from this source now noticed. And where those are not sufficient for the purpose of erecting what may be called comparatively large structures, the supply may be supplemented by such longer and larger pieces, as may be absent from the collected waste, from the stock of home-timber cut for sale or for use on the estate. For the majority of the structures required, no great supply of such extra timber will be necessary. This will be confined, as a rule, with few exceptions, to the vertical timbers or posts of the structure; the collective waste will generally provide a sufficiency of the smaller pieces required. I have said that the best method of using waste timber in the erection of structures is the “composite.” The main feature of this is the employment of non-combustible materials made into a species of concrete or hard-setting lime. Better still | is the employment of a true concrete, faced with Portland cement as the binding or setting material. Properly set together, it is surprising, even by the employment of the least valuable of the two materials here named, how strong and durable a building can be obtained, and at a comparatively trifling cost ; this more especially when the various materials, other than the timber, can be obtained on the estate or farm. I do not here wish it to be understood that I advocate the employment of timber in conjunction with other materials for the construc- tion of buildings of the farm, save those of the simplest and most unpretentious character. These may be confined chiefly to odd or extra and outlying buildings, as shelter-sheds, Kc. It could, however, be very easily shown, as already hinted at, that even superior structures, such as cottages, could be erected on this plan, which not only in point of pleasing appearance, Economical Management of Materials, §c., on the Farm. 373 but in that of efficient and lasting construction, would hold their own against many of those brick-and-mortar erections which cannot be said.to adorn some districts of the kingdom. Waste substances of Farm Buildings and Roads ; useful in the formation of Compost-heaps.—The utilisation for manurial pur- poses of the waste substances collected on the farm itself, and also obtainable from other sources, is a subject which is of im- portance enough to demand a special section by itself. This will be found to possess practical features more numerous and more important than many at the first blush of the matter would be disposed to admit. I here simply refer to the subject to show that, if kept in view, it will be another inducement to have the farm-buildings and, indeed, the farm throughout kept in the most orderly fashion. Those who know the value of “ order,” and the influence it exercises on the morale of those engaged in any work in which it is observed, have a difficulty to believe otherwise than that a disorderly farm cannot well be a carefully cultivated one. Taking even the most kindly and charitable view of the case, one will be compelled to believe that there will be loss somewhere ; certainly there will be of time, and, in the case I have just referred to, there will be beyond doubt decided loss of material. For, even admitting that the materials which are allowed to litter about the buildings, roads, &c., of a dis- orderly farm are of no value in the way I have indicated in the preceding paragraph, it will scarcely be denied that much of them may be, and would be, found useful in a high degree in the formation of the compost-heap. I fear, however, that it must be said that but too many of our farmers are not fully alive to the value of the compost-heap, as in their own pecuniary interests I believe they ought to be. Nor if they are ready to. admit its value as a manurial help, do they seem aware that they have at command so large a supply of materials for its composition as they in reality have. But they require looking for, in some cases “ hunting up,” to use a graphic phrase, although it may be taken as a rule that they lie ready enough to hand, but too ready in one sense, as they are but eyesores to those who have the love of order developed, if, indeed, they do not further appeal but too strongly to another of the senses, as. suggestive of anything but the “ balmy gales of Araby the blest.” Worth looking for they are, and the trouble of collect- ing and storing them up will be abundantly repaid by the neat and trim look of the farm-buildings and their surroundings, even if no other benefit be obtainable. Nearly every kind of organic matter in a decaying condition, or which is capable of comparatively speedy decay, is useful for the formation of a compost-heap. Some substances are specially valuable; and if 374 Utilisation of Waste Substances and the farm be situated near a town or large village, if a sharp look-out be maintained, it is surprising how extensive will the list be of materials, some of them of the highest manurial value, which may be obtained from this source. But the farm itself and its dependencies are perpetual providers of manurial sub- stances, and as many of these get “ littering” about, a regular system of collecting must be maintained to prevent this, and convert the “ waste” into a “ useful” substance. THE COLLECTING AND STORING OF WATER OBTAINED FROM NEGLECTED OR UNKNOWN SOURCES OF SUPPLY PRESENT ON THE ESTATE OR THE FARM. This, the third of my selected subjects, is one which possesses peculiar interest, not merely on account of its purely economical features, but because some of these have their origin in causes the existence of which is not even suspected by the great ma- jority of the people. The general subject is one of wide-spread interest, but it concerns rural districts specially, having for them an interest altogether peculiar. Peculiarities connected with the water-supply of Rural dis- tricts.—The concentrated populations of cities and towns are sure in the long run to have their necessities in the matter of water-supply attended to; and this, however badly they are supplied with this necessary of life, and however long they may have waited for it. But in the thinly peopled rural districts, although the units of the population obviously require this necessary equally with the units of town populations, they cannot put forward that aggregate of demand which ultimately compels attention. In the case of isolated houses they have to do as best they can. And even in the villages, where there is a greater aggregate of potential voices, there are examples everywhere of the truth of the saying that what is “everybody’s business is nobody’s business,” when that business is unfortunately not managed in a business-like way. Neglect of sources of water-supply in Rural districts. — The truth of this latter statement is perhaps in no department of social economies more singularly exemplified than in that con- nected with the wise and prudent collection, the careful dis- tribution and the economical use of water in rural districts. It is not that the sources which have been so long neglected are neglected still ; it is not that unknown sources which might be reasonably conjectured to exist, are not attempted to be’ placed within the region of the known. But what is, perhaps, the feature which at once puzzles and pains the scientific philan- Economical Management of Materials, §c. on the Farm. 375 thropist, is that even the known, the obvious sources of supply patent to every one are not taken advantage of to their fullest extent, nay, in many cases, not taken advantage of at all. Causes of this neglect—It is somewhat difficult to account for this apathetic indifference, as being so widely spread. One can understand how it might exist, and why it does exist, amongst a certain class; it is not so easy to understand why it should amongst classes so well educated as our landlords and farmers and the better or well-to-do classes in rural districts are. All the more puzzling when we consider how dis- tinguished they are for enterprise and energy in other depart- ments, some of those even not so important in their issues as this of water-supply is. Of its importance they need as a class no one to tell them. Examples enough, and painful withal, have they had of the suffering entailed both upon man and beast, and of the enormous losses in the aggregate brought upon them in consequence of a long-continued drought. I am inclined, however, to suspect that all this arises not so much from the apathetic indifference which no amount of suffering or loss will arouse to action, as from the influence of certain considerations which have greater weight with them than they care perhaps to acknowledge. The first is the very commonplace one—that is, commonplace from one point of view—that the climate of this country is on the average more of a rainy than a dry one; and that the droughts, consequently exceptional, show their worst effects not universally, but only or chiefly, as a rule, in certain districts. The second reason, not so commonplace, and for the holding of which much more excuse can be made than for the first, is that this indifference to water-supply is only apparent, not real; that the supply would be gladly received, nay, gladly looked after; but that a fear exists that the attainment would only be reached after a larger expenditure of money than even the actual getting of the supply would seem to justify. It is not necessary to say anything here as to the first of these assumed causes for the existence of such apathy as we find to exist in rural districts on the subject of water-supply. Enough has been said in other places, and more will yet be said, to expose its fallacies, and show how dangerous it is to trust to its assumptions. It is simple folly to trust to exceptional causes, not acting in the circumstances in which we ourselves are placed. But the second reason carries with it matter of more reasonable import, and therefore deserves to be more fully noticed and explained. And the best way to meet its difficulties, and to show how groundless to a great extent is its assumptions, is simply to explain the various details of the different classes into which the subject divides itself. These will bring out 376 Utilisation of Waste Substances, and facts upon which figures may be based, proving that to avail ourselves of neglected sources of supply, and even of well-known yet generally unused sources, is not the expensive operation it appears to many to be. Possibly in more than one instance I might hereafter be able to show that the supply may be got. under circumstances which will bring about a double advantage, with a single class of expenditure. Classification of sources of Water-supply.—l have not space to classify the different sources of water-supply, and the various qualities of the water obtained from them. Suffice it briefly to say that all potable waters—7.e. those fitted for the use of man and the domestic animals—come under one or other of three classes or divisions :—first, rain-water, shed directly from the heavens on various surfaces; second, rivulets, brooks, or open running supplies; and third, springs concealed, requiring to be tapped for use, or open and ready, are more or less easily to be availed of. Although the statement may be matter of surprise to some, it is nevertheless true that under all three classes, with their numerous sub-classes, are to be found instances of “ neglected or overlooked sources of water-supply.” And this, even in cases where one would think it is impossible to overlook them, or when under the pressure of most urgent want. So true is it, as Goethe has so well observed, that the eye only sees that which it brings with it the power to see. Hence it is true that the eye requires to be educated as well as the other faculties; hence also the truth of the statement that of all the habits valuable to the farmer, the habit of observation is the chief. And this will find, if not a very wide, at least a most practically useful field in connection with water-supply. The two classes or kinds of Water.— Numerous as are the varieties of water obtainable from the three classes named, alt come under one or other of two great divisions—hard and soft. It is beyond the scope of this paper to enter into any discussion of controverted points, or to give descriptions of the character- istics of waters differing from each other. Suffice it to say that of these two divisions, the opinion has hitherto been gene- rally held that soft water is the more valuable of the two. There is no view, however, taken of any point but what there are some ready to dispute its accuracy, and this of soft water is no excep- tion to this rule. Notwithstanding, however, the grave cha- racter of the charges—so to call them—brought against soft water, and the apparently irrefutable facts or evidence brought forward in support of them, I confess to resting content with this—that there has been, and is now, an almost universal con- sensus of opinion in favour of it. For washing and cooking purposes it beyond all dispute stands pre-eminently the first, Economical Management of Materials, §c., on the Farm, 377 and if it be not generally esteemed by man for drinking, and this chiefly, if not wholly, when it lacks that “sharpness” which _ the aérated waters of springs possess, it is assuredly not only the favourite of, but the most healthy drink for, our domestic animals. General glance at the neglected sources of Water-supply on Estates and Farms.—Under the first of the three classes I have named—the rain-water shed directly on various surfaces—the source which will at once occur to the minds of most is that of the roofs of buildings. And in hazarding the statement that the great majority will deem this class exhausted when this source is named, I could not perhaps give a better or more striking evidence of the ignorance which so generally prevails on the subject of this paper. But although the roofs of buildings when judiciously availed of is a valuable source of water-supply of the purest and softest kind, it is far from being the only source at the command of the manager of the estate or of the farmer. A walk has but to be taken through the fields of the farm to find in more than one of them, perhaps in all, a hint which, if followed up, will give a source of supply. A further hint he may derive from a consideration of the peculiarities of the rain- fall. Both hints point to the taking systematic advantage of ground surfaces as “catch-water areas.” Under general cir- cumstances, in conjunction with underground tanks, these will afford stores of water of the best quality; and it will be found by a little careful observation that these stores may also be placed in the situations most useful, as, for example, in pasture- fields for the use of cattle and sheep. This system of “ catch- water areas” is capable of a great variety of modifications, the most useful of which, for the purposes alike of the mansion, the farmhouse, the farm cottages, and the farm-buildings, | may hereafter in proper place describe and illustrate. There is, moreover, a good deal more to be said on the best known or the most frequently thought about systems of water-shed surfaces, namely, the “roof catch-water areas,” and to this I shall presently direct attention. Under the second class—rivulet and river—I shall take occa- sion to point out what I do not hesitate to call the extraordinary sources of water-supply and of water-power which are at the disposal of the landed proprietors and the farmers in utilising the rivulets. These are present on nearly every farm, but those which are the most readily, most commonly, and most usefully availed of will be met with in those districts bordering on the hilly counties, and generally in what is known as undulating or rolling land. ‘The works generally done in this class are in the popular mind associated, if not with heavy, at least with con- 378 Utilisation of Waste Substances, and siderable expenditure, and also with engineering difficulties of a kind not always easy to be overcome. I trust I shall be able to point out a direction in which a large amount of useful work can be done without involving an expenditure or encountering constructive risks beyond the reach of what I may safely call the energetic yet prudent man. Coming to the third class, that of springs, I also hope to be able to point at directions in which sources of water-supply, hitherto neglected, and of water-power hitherto seldom used, and in perhaps more than one instance never thought of, may be made available. Of necessity my remarks under all the three classes must be brief, for to give full instructions on all the points of so many subjects would require the space of a cyclopedia. But enough may be given to enable managers to carry the proposed plans out, and to suggest to them modes of working under ordinary circumstances. Roof-surfaces as a source of Water-supply, and as a method of securing constructive economy.—Under this head in the first class a few sentences will be suggestive, and sufficient, it is hoped, to enable some useful plans to be carried out. Those who have much to do with building property know too well all which is involved in the phrase “keeping it wind and weather tight,” «s applied thereto. Time lost, temper tried in looking after workmen who do not always work, money spent, and yet after all the wind and weather in some cases keep working out their evil ways. It may with little hesitation be decided that the most power- ful agent in causing the decay of building materials is damp. Indeed it may be said that it is the cause, the only one existing, all the others being but offshoots from it, brought into existence by it. If damp had no existence, buildings would be practically, if not absolutely, imperishable. This we find in fact exemplified in the rainless, or nearly so, regions, as Egypt, and certain dis- tricts of the vast continent of South America, where mud-walled hoyels and cottages are found, although centuries old, as sound as the day the soil or mud was thrown together to form the shelter required. Properly speaking, it is not so much the damp which corrodes or bites them away, if the expression may be used, as the alterna- tions of dampness and dryness to which walls, &c., are subjected. And as to the action of the damp itself, it is not the moisture or damp absorbed from the atmosphere by the materials which does the mischief, or the major portion of it, but the actual contact of water brought about by various agencies. Of these may be named the rain driven up by the wind, so as to come in contact, more or less violently, with the surface of the stones Economical Management of Materials, §c., on the Farm. 379 or bricks, &c., and their numerous joints. The second cause is the rain which is suffered to drop from the eaves, in this case gutterless. These causes work singly or in conjunction in old and neglected buildings; and in buildings which although not old are still neglected, to the great loss of their proprietors ; those in many, too many instances being the while singularly indifferent to them, and if not so, labouring apparently under the impression that there is no remedy for the evil. Of these two sources from which walls, &c., derive the moisture which bring about their rapid deterioration, the second is the most dangerous. Its action is peculiar and is not always considered. I wish to draw attention to this fertile source of “waste,” a waste which in more senses than one deserves the epithet of wanton being added to it—wanton, inasmuch as the second of the evils I have named can be easily prevented, and if not absolutely cheaply, relatively so. Indeed, in one sense the remedy will cost nothing, for the cost of putting up the gutters and the down-spouts will be repaid, and far more than repaid, by the abundant supply of rain-water of the softest and for the most part purest water which can be obtained. In other words, the rain-water thus collected will be so valuable that it will pay for its collection. And thus the advantages derived from guttering the eaves, and providing down-spouts or pipes to lead the water off at once to the receptacles or tanks provided for its reception and storing, will be got for nothing. And these advantages are more numerous and greater than many are dis- posed to acknowledge at the first blush of what they call “so simple a trifle.” Some may maintain that the supply thus obtained from the roof-surfaces cannot possibly be much—in fact some say it is not worth the trouble to collect the small volume obtainable. And to prove this they refer in a very general way to the rain- fall. And in truth it is only fair to admit that this is very deceptive; and the ideas formed of it are as numerous almost as are those who take the trouble to think about it at all. But the amount or volume of the rainfall is in point of fact enormously in excess of what even the most exaggerated or sanguine of popular estimates make it to be. I need not trouble the reader with figures, which are soon forgotten, I simply state the following concrete fact, which may at least in a general way be remembered. Assuming the daily consumption per head of the rural population in any given district to be very nearly double that at present estimated, and adding thereto the volume of water required by the live stock, and, further, that used by the steam-engines in the fold and the field alike, the proportion which the whole volume bears to that of the rainfall in the same 580 Utilisation of Waste Substances, &c., on the Farm. rural district is very small, So small is it, in point of fact, that if we can conceive of the whole volume required in the rural districts to be taken from it, the full volume of the “ wants of the district,” before it was absorbed by the earth, it would scarcely be appreciated, and assuredly would not in any way interfere with the requirements of “the general water economy ” of the district or country. Mr. Bailey Denton, in fact, estimates— and his estimates are always characterised by judicious careful- ness—the amount required to be only one-seventyfourth of the rainfall. I have doubled the amount required, or estimated to be required, per head per day of the population, which is surely liberal enough. But when I say that the usual estimate is far in excess of that which experience shows to be actually used, one will perceive what small ground there is for holding the opinion that the rainfall of any district will fall short of ail the demands made upon it, either by domestic requirements, or the general water economy of the country. But it may be said that these calculations, however convincing, refer to the general rainfall on the earth’s surface, but give no data for the case of roofs. Refraining again from giving figures, and giving in place a fact, from a pretty wide range of experience it appears to be a rule that in the case of a domestic structure, the proportion the roof-surface bears to the rainfall is amply sufficient to give a supply of water for the consumption of the family which the roof covers. And although the range of experience in the case of farm-buildings has been of necessity much narrower, still it would appear as if the same rule happily existed. The coincidence is more than curious, and ought not to be forgotten in thinking of utilising rainfall on roof-surfaces. It is pleasing to know that the utilising of these is becoming daily more and more frequent; some of the plans adopted being characterised by an ingenuity of adaptation in existing circumstances not often met with in other departments of economy. From what has now been given by way of opening up the general subject, the reader will be able to perceive how numerous are the points which it involves, how interesting their details, how practical may be their outcome, and yet how, not- withstanding all this, much of which is widely known, there has been a profound indifference to it, the reason for which it has been difficult to account for. Recent experiences have, however, given some clue to this, and it is at least a most suggestive circumstance that practical and technical science has, in taking up and in bringing such wonderful results out of the subject of the utilisation of waste substances, again shown the way by which the best can be made of all the The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 381 resources placed at man’s disposal. It has further shown him how, of all that he has, nothing is useless, nothing is really ‘““ waste ’"—that nothing ought to be wasted. It is to be hoped that the times of agricultural depression through which we have passed, and are still passing, will have the useful effect of in- ducing those who have hitherto neglected the general system of economical collection and distribution to pay some attention to it now and hereafter. The more deeply they go into its details, the more clearly will the conviction be forced upon them that there is in it—unpromising and uninviting in some, perhaps in many of its aspects—a power for practical benefit, far beyond that which at first sight it promises to yield. Having made it throughout the course of many years a subject of close study, and such practice as professional circumstances permitted, I may perhaps be inclined to give it a greater prominence than it deserves. I, however, venture to say that I do not think so. Certain it is, that however I may have exaggerated the import- ance of some of its details, it is impossible that I can have over- estimated the value of its general principles. XXII.— The Management of a Sherthorn Herd. By WiLL1AM Housman. OF one who undertook to record things new and true, it was said that he indeed kept his engagement, but that the new were not true and the true not new. Relative to my subject, it is easy enough to provide any amount of matter that is true: to introduce the element of novelty is the difficulty, ‘ My wound is great, because it is so small;” my task heavy, because so light ; the materials are all so near at hand that everybody is familiarly acquainted with them already. If it were informa- tion to be brought to light from depths hitherto unexplored, one would eagerly toil and moil to unearth it; but I confess it was with misgivings that I first received the suggestion to deal with such common property of the public as the subject of the management of a Shorthorn herd. The plan adopted has been to visit, in districts wide apart, a few of those farms where Shorthorns are kept, under different systems of agriculture and varying circumstances of soil and climate, and to show what has been done, and what is going on, in those districts. The observations might have been usefully extended, perhaps, to some herds not included; but limits of time, and of the Journal’s space, forbade the extension which I would have made very gladly, had it been possible. I hope 382 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. that the herds which I have taken for purposes of illustration may be found fairly to represent the several systems noticed. At the outset, | purposed to take either the management of the calf from birth to the end of its life in mature cowhood or bullhood ; or the management of a herd from its formation, through the whole course of births, marriages, and deaths; but I soon found that neither of these plans would do, as it is often necessary to know much of the circumstances of a herd and district before we can understand the wherefore of the mode of treatment ; so in dealing with the facts noted I throw aside the fetters of the original scheme and proceed to give my notes in any order that seems most suitable to the peculiarities of each case, introducing occasionally a passing remark or two, and con- cluding with a review of the facts and some comments upon them. The reader may notice that I do not give any details of the training of animals for exhibition. The fact is, training for exhibition, under the forcing system at present in vogue, and likely so to remain, is a matter of special study for each animal ; it is an imposition upon Nature, and Nature’s forbearance must be watched and sounded. The feeder must heap on the last ounce, short of breaking the beam. ‘There is no prescription for the manufacture of prize-winners. We all know the feeding- ' stuffs that cattle like. If we want to make an animal thick-fat, we must take a few of the most nutritive of them, learn the animal’s preferences, and vary the mixture so as to stimulate appetite, remembering, however, that bulk of food as well as quality of food is necessary, and that it would not be nice to live upon plum-cake alone. Exercise, also, must be attended to, and by all means that precious hair must be kept on, even if a glass case be necessary for its preservation. Some such general rules may be laid down, but each exhibitor must work out the details for himself. Some animals make them- selves up to the show-mark with comparatively little feeding, and would be overdone and spoiled by much forcing; but it will scarcely be denied that in the preparation of animals for show, cramming is the rule. In the following particulars of management I am indebted to the owners and managers of the several herds I visited for the ready facilities afforded me of gathering information. In the notes which immediately follow, I am under obligation to Messrs. A. Cruickshank of Sittyton, and J. W. and E. Cruick- shank of Lethenty, for details of the management of the Sittyton and Lethenty herds; and I feel especially obliged to Mr. J. W. Cruickshank for valuable hints concerning the plan of this paper and very comprehensive memoranda of the Aberdeenshire system in general. I beg also to express my acknowledgments The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 383 to those gentlemen not immediately connected with Shorthorn herds of the present time, who have kindly and promptly responded to my requests for information. ABERDEENSHIRE. In no part of the United Kingdom has the Shorthorn become more eminently the great rent-paying breed of a large district than in Aberdeenshire; and in no part of the United Kingdom, therefore, has the management of Shorthorn herds taken a more thoroughly business-like turn. The county of Aberdeen has long supplied a large proportion of the beef consumed in London ; I believe that proportion has amounted to as much as one-seventh of the entire supply of the metropolis; and this beef is mainly that of Shorthorns or Shorthorn crosses. This vast trade arose from the excellence of the cattle introduced by Captain Barclay, of Ury, about fifty years ago, and the extra- ordinary power of the Ury bulls as improvers of the stock of the district, for grazing purposes, when crossed either with the pure-bred cattle of the district, or with cows of a mongrel or nondescript class ; also from the fact that the soil of the district, when well manured with bones, produces a peculiarly good quality of turnip, and that the oat-straw is also of a more feeding character than that grown in many localities: hence there is an unusually large supply of good and cheap food for winter fattening. ‘The Scottish farmer, keenly alive to any new source of profit, recognised in the heavy-fleshed, kindly thriving, early maturing Shorthorns of “the Captain,” as he is to this day called, the means of turning the immediate produce of his land into more valuable human food. The demand for beef stimu- lated the demand for Shorthorn bulls, and the agriculture of a very large area, in course of years, became adapted to the pro- duction of fat steers and heifers of as good quality, as great weight, and as little offal as could be reared in the shortest possible time. Upon the feeding of cattle the farmers now principally depend; and animals bred in the district, and of good quality, are fed off at twenty-four to twenty-six months old. These circumstances should be borne in mind in a survey of Aberdeenshire management. The climate of this, as of every other district, must also be taken into account in considering the treatment of cattle through the various seasons of the year. In the depth of a severe winter the country has almost an Arctic aspect. Sledging is a frequent mode of locomotion. The snow- clad hills, indeed, retain their covering until far into the spring, or even the early summer; and when I visited Aberdeenshire in the middle of May, although the immediate district was clear, 384 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. some of the more distant heights, notably Lochnagar, still shone out with glistening whiteness in the sun. I need scarcely say, therefore, that the climate in spring is very severe, but may add that the nights become cold also early in autumn. The following table of averages of temperature and rainfall at Aberdeen for the twenty-two years 1857-78, inclusive, will give some general idea of the climate, although it does not record the extent of snowfall nor the lowest temperatures of the winter months :— | Temperature. | Number Inches | of Days ] A a Rainfall. | on ee | ear Mean: | Day. | Night. falls. | Bs IWJantanysea tose) -- |) StL | AIeuso a al 21 | February vad Mich 37-9) | 431 So Se Ze 19 | "Mareh, =. «.. -- | 89°6.), (45:2))) S41nieeaea2 22 | April 56 oo am | eC! NPT || Sifoae |) RiP iyi NiMiaysts. en Re 48°3 | 55°2 | 41°4) 1°85 20 June Be oe elt 55700) 62369) 47.40) OO aks July uh coe Aer Silay |) Ceaye0) |) {NEM |) Beez) 20 ANTRNS Go 35 OC DO°D) |) 6325") 4925) | oso 21 September .. .. | 52°71) 59°2 | 46°2) 3°06) 21 Octoberigee: en) @- petro) o2cate0 [Guia owle 22 November .. .. | 40°3 | .45°6 | Soll 3°52 22 December aio aters 38°2 | 43:1 | 33°3.| 3°42 21 Total 32°33 | 244 Almost all Shorthorns in the north of Scotland are owned by tenant-farmers who hold their farms. under nineteen years’ leases. ‘The principal object in view, as I have intimated, is to produce sires which in turn are capable of producing bullocks apt to mature at an early age, and to carry a great weight of flesh. Style, accordingly, is not so much desired as a Arey legged, fine-boned, heavy carcass. Milking qualities are peameed to be highly important, for this if for no other reason—that a good milking cow will give her calf a better start in life than a cow that can barely rear her offspring, and a good impulse to early growth is of excellent effect in the later development of the animal; and not only of the single animal, but of its descendants, inasmuch as propensities gradually called into existence by means of food and management, and artificially maintained and increased through several generations, become hereditary. In Aberdeenshire, however, while the value of milking properties is freely allowed, everything is secondary to heavy flesh. The land in Aberdeenshire is very various, but principally light and gravelly, forming undulating banks of dry porous The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 385 soil along the courses of the rivers; and over the district gene- rally it consists of light loamy soil, abounding in small stones, and lying upon a hard stiff subsoil of boulder clay, or upon granite rock. It is very deficient in lime, and does not produce rich natural pasture. There is also an almost entire absence of phosphate of lime, and it is only by the application of large quantities of bones that good turnip-crops can be produced and the pastures made suitable for carrying heavy cattle. There are no extensive beds of limestone, chalk, or sandstone. The land has been drained, and is all under a regular course of cropping ; say, the first year, new grass; the second and third years, grass; fourth year, oats; fifth year, turnips; and sixth year, barley or oats sown with rye-grass and clover-seed, in the proportion of a bushel and a half, or oftener nearly two bushels, of rye-grass, say about 45 lbs. (taking the average at 24 lbs. to the bushel) to 7 or 8 Ibs. of clover per acre, the cloyer mixed in the proportion of 4 lbs. red, 2 lbs. white, and 1 Ib. alsike. The country is fenced with stone walls; there are few hedges, and very little wood or shelter of any kind is to be found. The farmyard-manure and most of the artificial manure is applied with the turnip-crop. Almost all the soil is suitable for growing yellow turnips of good quality, and most of it also produces good crops of swedes; the oat-straw is good, and turnips and oat-straw form the basis of all cattle-feeding. No hay is grown, except sufficient to supply the horses in winter and spring, and there is no permanent pasture; rye-grass, together with the- small proportion of clover above stated, being the only seeds sown. The cattle are tied up in stalls for about thirty weeks of the year, and graze for about twenty-two weeks; but, owing to cold and frequent frost at nights, part of even this time is of doubtful advantage for grazing, and cattle for feeding are generally taken in sooner. It is obvious that in such a climate good housing is of great importance. The breeding cows are tied up in byres and have everything brought to them, never being loosed, from autumn to spring, when in-calf. Where, as is commonly the case, there are double rows of cows, the animals stand with their heads to the wall, a “ grip” behind separating the two rows. This is generally quite 4 feet wide, and the width of the whole building is from 23 to 24 feet; the stalls measuring 7 ft. 6 in. from grip-stone to head, the trough 1 ft. 6 in., and the width of a stall designed to hold two full-sized cows is about 8 feet. Plenty of room overhead is a great point, with good light and ventilation without draughts. Doors, too, should always be of sufficient width to allow the cattle to pass in and out without injury. The floorings are generally paved with small stones set VOL. XVI.—-S. 8. 20 386 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. in sand ; if set in cement, still better, so as to prevent the foun- dation soil from becoming foul. Young cattle are usually kept in small yards with covered boxes attached ; the box is about 16 feet by 14 feet, with a yard of the same size, for four heifers of ten to twelve months. No cattle, young or old, are turned out into the fields during winter and spring. When in autumn they are taken in, they have yellow turnips and oat or barley-straw. The yellow turnips continue good until February or March, when swedes come in to take their place, and are used until the grass comes in May. For some years past, “ finger-and-toe” and wet seasons have seri- ously reduced the turnip-crops of the district, and it has been sometimes necessary to add some artificial food for the cows. The young cattle have always a small allowance up to twelve months old ; but turnips and oat-straw are, and long have been, the principal feeding materials to which the farmers of Aberdeen- shire trust. The county is essentially a straw-and-turnip dis- trict as regards stock-keeping, and this main feature should be steadily remembered. With reference to the kinds of dry food given as a substitute for turnips when the root-crops have failed, I noticed some little variation upon the different farms; but as I shall have occasion presently to glance at the management pur- sued by several representative breeders whose farms and herds I was allowed to inspect, I will then give some further details concerning these small proportions of artificial food which are subsidiary to the straw-and-turnip system. In the meantime, the following may serve as an average sample of feeding for cows ina bad turnip season :—d6 Ibs, of turnips per diem, given morning and evening, and 10 lbs. of straw, divided over three feeds. Inthe middle of the day, instead of one feed of turnips, a mixture of 1} 1b. of ground decorticated cotton-cake, and 13 lb. of oat-husks The oat-husks give little or no nourishment, but they are rough and bulky, and prevent any danger which might arise from concentrated food, such as cotton-cake. In a year when the turnip crop is good, the cows would have turnips three times in the day, about 35 lbs. at each feed, or from 100 to 112 lbs. per diem, with about 10 lbs. of straw (as above), divided over three meals. We shall come to particular systems by and by, but, for the present, to generalise :—the cows are milked between 5 and 6 o’clock in the morning (I may mention that only women milk the cows); turnips are given at 6; the byres are cleaned out, and the animals fed, and bedded with straw: at 11 in the forenoon they are again milked, and at about half-past 12 turnips (if a good turnip season) and straw are again given, and the byres are again cleaned: from 4 to 6 in the afternoon the animals are again fed with turnips and straw, and all manure The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 387 is removed; and from 6 to 7 in the evening the cows are again milked. When the turnip-crop has failed, some such artificial food as the sample already stated, but chosen accord- ing to price and circumstances, is substituted for one feed of turnips. The system for the young cattle in boxesis much the same as for the cows, except that the heifers have fewer turnips and more artificial food. No linseed-cake is used except for these young cattle, and it is given before they have turnips in the morning. This prevents danger of swelling, which often is troublesome when turnips are given first. In arranging young cattle in boxes, care is taken to sort them according to age and strength, and when one is unfairly treated by others, a change is made until all have an equal chance of food and rest. Young cattle receive some such food as the following, varying with prices and seasons :—heifers, 10 to 12 months old, daily allow- ance about 1 lb. of ground decorticated cotton-cake, 1 lb. of ground barley or oats (generally the inferior grain which is too light to sell to advantage), 2 lbs. of linseed-cake, + lb. of locust (charob) beans, } lb. of bran, and 14 Ib. of oat-hulls; turnips from 50 to 60 lbs., and straw, of which they eat daily about 5 lbs. or 6 lbs. A full supply of good clean drinking-water is of the first im- portance where any cotton-cake is given. When cattle have plenty of turnips they will not usually drink, except, perhaps, when deep milking or some casual drain upon the system causes thirst ; but if a supply of water be not within reach of all cattle, especially when kept tied up or in boxes, great vigilance on the part of the herdsman or manager is necessary, on the ground of both humanity and self-interest; for, even when turnips are largely used, they are not always sufficient to meet the demands of nature; and, to say nothing of the cruel sufferings of a thirsty animal debarred from access to water, I have reason to believe that losses to the owner not seldom occur from failure to supply water to turnip-fed cattle. Such animals may often refuse water, but should have the chance of getting it in case they happen to require it. The calving-time may be considered as ranging from the beginning of September to the beginning of May, but by far the greater number of calves come in February, March, and April : they are reared by their dams; therefore when the cows go out to grass in May they are generally suckling young calves. The practice with regard to the bull varies in different herds. In the large and old-established herd of Mr. A. Cruickshank, at Sittyton, when the cow has calved about six or seven weeks she is turned out with the bull every day; and in summer the bull r) {6) 388 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. grazes regularly with the cows. Now of all the subjects con- nected with the management of cattle, taking the information which I have collected from some of the most experienced breeders in every division of the United Kingdom, there is not one subject upon which the testimony of the different witnesses varies so widely as upon that of the readiness, or otherwise, of suckling cows to breed again. Some affirm that they find no difficulty whatever; that their cows suckle the calves, never see the bull until his services are required, and yet breed again as readily as hand-milked cows whose calves were removed at birth. Others have tried the suckling system, and given it up because they could not get their cows to breed, nor even to take the bull, until the calves were weaned. At Sittyton, where, as throughout Aberdeenshire, all cows suckle their offspring, the cows “generally calve again within twelve months of their pre- vious calving. Running constantly with the bull, they come in use sooner than they would if separated from hone and are in no danger of being missed. One bull, under this system, cannot produce so many calves as if he were kept alone and used sparingly in the ordinary way; but the general produce of the herd is increased. Attention must be paid to the bull’s feet, or he may easily become useless after winter confinement. When cows turn to the bull frequently, they are not allowed access to him for some time. This may become a veterinary question rather than one of simple management; and in each case the intelligence of the manager, and the result of his careful observa- tion of the animals, must determine whether professional advice is necessary. When the cow calves, the calf is tied up beside her; and for some time, until it is well able to take all her milk, the cow is regularly milked—the calf sucking at the same time, so that the cow cannot retain her milk. When the calf can manage all the milk, it is allowed to go loose about at will, one stall being left for the use of cow and calf. The theory is—and I believe it to be per- fectly true—that many of the frequent and discouraging losses among young calves are caused by the allowance of $60 much milk at a tender age. The calves should be kept hungry, that is, never allowed to satisfy themselves, for the first three weeks of their lives. Scouring and indigestion, with consequent formation of hair-balls in the stomach, arise from too liberal or irregular feeding. When the cows go out to grass, the milk generally increases, and sometimes it is again necessary to resort to hand-milking to take away the surplus. After the calf is weaned, the cow is regularly milked three times in the day. Indeed at all times care is taken to relieve the cow of all her milk. The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 389 The calves are trained to eat oilcake and sliced turnips as soon as possible, and are weaned at from seven to eight months old. The young bulls which are to be sold in autumn generally get some oilcake in the fields during the later summer, and the heifer-calves depend upon their mothers and the grass. The heifers are generally put to the bull so as to calve at from twenty-four to twenty-six months old. This early breeding tends to reduce size, and must be met with liberal feeding. When, however, the breeding is put off to another season, the risk of permanent infertility is greatly increased ; and a year’s rest at three or four years old generally enables the animal to come to its full size. Little or no trouble is experienced from the infertility of bulls, which are kept as much as possible in even condition, neither very fat nor very lean; but heavy losses arise from cows slipping their calves. It has been noticed that casting is the more common in years when there is a large supply of turnips and a small crop of straw. Whether this is from any real con- nection of cause and effect, or whether the assumption that such is the case is a too hasty conclusion—post hoc ergo propter hoc— drawn from the insufficient evidence of several remarkable coin- cidences, the Aberdeenshire stock-owners are quite sound in their practice of noting those coincidences, and so varying the keep of their cows, in seasons of the kind, as to endeavour to counteract the possible evil effects of a superabundance of turnips and a scarcity of straw. ‘“ Foot-and-mouth” distemper, that undermining destroyer of our herds, has wasted those of Aberdeenshire extensively and repeatedly; and here, as elsewhere, much of the abortion and barrenness of cows was traceable to this malady, which townspeople and the public generally sup- posed to be a mild, harmless complaint, because, forsooth, it seldom killed outright the visible stock upon the land, but which the breeder and the grazier knew to be one of their worst enemies. This trouble, however, now that the working of the Cattle Diseases Act has reduced it to very narrow limits, is almost forgotten. Very few calves are lost, either at birth or afterwards; but “* quarter-ill” is in some places still troublesome to the farmers. A small daily allowance of oilcake, and the use of an issue (a seton) in the dewlap cf the calf, is usually found sufficient to check it. The severe climate causes much rheumatism among young bulls, and it develops much in the way that the disease known as joint-felon does in Yorkshire. Moderate feeding and regular exercise are accounted the best preventives. By the most experienced and most successful breeders much 390 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. stress is laid upon the maintenance of unchecked progress in young stock; and it is held that in feeding young cattle, if a loss of flesh be allowed to occur, it never can be altogether made good again. This may seem to be rather strongly stated, especially in connection with what has been said just before about a check in the attainment of size, by early breeding, being made good by a year’s rest at three or four years of age; but I believe it will be found to bear examination. Those who have carefully watched the growth and development of cattle will allow that it is at least much easier to make up lost time, as regards growth of frame, than to restore flesh wasted at an early age. Particular care, therefore, is exercised at weaning- time to feed as well as possible, and the calves are still kept tied up beside the dams, so as to have their companionship for awhile, thus avoiding the violent break of a sudden separation, with the bellowing, the pining, the refusal of food, and conse- quent loss of condition, so frequent when the parting is not effected thus gradually. The foregoing remarks, applying generally, with little vari- ation, to the whole of the great breeding and feeding district of the north of Scotland, have more particular reference to the Sittyton, Clyne, and Middleton farms, in the occupation of Mr. A. Cruikshank. Any slight variations noticed upon other holdings visited I will state presently; meanwhile I may say that the above farms comprise altogether about 600 acres, of which the cultivated parts, that is to say, the entire farms, exclusive of roads, area of farmsteads, and similar deductions from the total acreage, may be divided thus :— Acres, Oats and barley to supply straw Pr oom wo) A400) sown grasses for pasture .. «) a0 of | « AhO ‘Turnips Pee ae Pm aren) AG oq mao © 1000) Hay tor: Worses: 4:28 i Sis 1... tenements senrer eee 582 The average stock of cattle and horses together, taken at Whitsuntide, may be put down roundly at 150, exclusive of the calves and foals of the season, which, as being then dependent entirely upon their dams, are not counted as food consumers. If the average were taken at Martinmas it would be consider- ably higher, as the young stock of the year would by that time appreciably assist their parents in the consumption of the direct produce of the land, and the annual reduction of number by sale would not have taken place. The following are the exact numbers of cows and horses, exclusive of calves and foals, but including all other ages, taken at Whitsuntide in the last two The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 391 years, and the numbers this year, which I cannot state exactly, are about the same :— Cows. Horses. Total. WS ise egg RUPE eee RS chy NSROMMEEEG ES LL Mee os) AC sce use LDA The staff of men permanently employed on the three farms numbers 14, on the farms respectively 6, 6, and 2. On all the farms together, 5 men are employed during winter solely about the cattle. Of the pleasant relations of master and servants, and the interest of the former in the welfare of the latter and their children, it would be out of place to speak more particularly here, although I would submit that I am quite in order in thus briefly referring to a state of things which ensures the hearty devotion of the labourer to his employer’s interests, a matter of no small moment where so much watchfulness and painstaking care are required as in the management of a Shorthorn herd. Closely similar in detail is the management upon the farm of Mr. Alexander Davidson, Mains of Cairnbrogie, Old Meldrum. The principal food, however, in lieu of turnips, or to make turnips eke out in a bad turnip season, is bran. No cotton- cake is used. The bulls are kept in the house, tied up in the same byres with the cows, never allowed to run loose with them in the field, but led out to them in the field for service. Mr. Davidson does not often find any difficulty in getting his suckling cows to breed again within a reasonable time after calving. My general notes will also apply to the management of the herds of Mr. William S. Marr, of Uppermill, Tarves, and Mr. Sylvester Campbell, of Kinellar, Blackburn, and the prin- cipal variations in particulars are much the same as at the Mains of Cairnbrogie. At Uppermill the bulls are not allowed to run out with the cows. The chief substitute for turnips in a bad season is a mixture of bran and chaff, sweetened with treacle. On most of the Aberdeenshire farms is a threshing-— mill, worked by either water or horse-power. The mill at Uppermill is a specially good example, with its ample water- power. At Kinellar there is a threshing-machine worked by an 8-horse power portable steam-engine, occasionally doing duty among the neighbouring farmers. Mr. Campbell’s sub- stitutes for turnips vary a little from those already specified, but are of a similar kind. NORTHUMBERLAND. The county of Northumberland, rich in Shorthorn historical associations, affords examples of management under an altogether 392 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. different state of affairs. Nowhere, perhaps, was the combina- tion of dairy and grazing properties more completely effected— both of them in the highest possible degree of development in union—than in some of the old herds of this county. ‘The herd of Messrs. Angus, of Broomley, of former years, was a notable example of what may be done in this respect; and Mr. John Angus, of Bearl, has still a herd in the management of which he endeavours to follow as far as possible the traditions of his district and family. In some modern herds, a great demand for Shorthorns at high prices having sprung up of late years, the temptation to comply with that demand has induced breeders to neglect the “ weeding” which is necessary in order to keep up a herd to the highest point of excellence; and this, although it belongs to the subject of breeding rather than of management, is so important a condition of the success of management, that Icannot omit a passing reference to it. Mr. John Angus, of Bearl, and his brother, Mr. Jonathan Angus, of Newcastle (the latter not now connected with Shorthorn breeding, but perfectly clear in his recollections of Broomley), both confirmed the reports I had previously heard, that the old Broomley cattle were almost invariably not only good, but really deep milkers, yet of the true grazier’s type, square-built, wide chested, with big ribs and well-covered backs. The bulls were of masculine character, not too fine and neat, yet not coarse in the bone. Broomley and Bear! lie on opposite heights, Broomley on the right, Bearl on the left, of the beautiful river Tyne, with Bywell, its castle and two churches, the latter in curiously near neigh- bourhood, lying in the intervening valley, just above the bridge by Stocksfield-on-Tyne railway station. Broomley may be seen from the road close by Bearl. It is high and much exposed land, and the crown of the hill at Bearl stands out bare and bold. The district is a comparatively dry one. The practice at Broomley was to have the cows calving from the beginning of January to the beginning of May, which they did almost without an instance of failure. After the calves “ got upon their legs,” they were kept on skim-milk and boiled linseed until August, when they were weaned, and they were substantially wintered on hay and straw without artificial food of any kind, and at two years old the best heifers were selected and brought to service. Here was a process of selection constantly going on ; each crop of calves tried and sorted, the worst rejected and the best retained. The young stock did not go out in winter except to water. They were kept in large open yards with a com- fortable shed, and were always to be seen in fair store condition. The cows were never housed, even to be milked, during summer, The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 393 and were not brought in at night until about the 11th of November (Martinmas, the traditional time for lying indoors in the district), and in winter they went out regularly through the day, and had their one feed of turnips laid out in a grass- field, after which they were allowed to regale themselves on chaff in the barn-yard. This, with liberal supplies of good meadow hay, was their sole diet. Linseed-cake and other artificial foods they never tasted. There is no recipe for the production of cows that can fill the dairy, breed the primest steers, and make good beef when they have done breeding; all must be done by judgment acquired only in practice. But there are certain rules which cannot be set aside with impunity. If, for instance, heifers be forced for show or sale, or to make “ flat-catchers,” all chance of developing their milking properties should be abandoned at the outset. Indeed, such over-fed brutes rarely make good breeders of beef-stock, inasmuch as the constitution is sapped, an unhealthy tendency to grossness is induced, and the repro- ductive powers are consequently impaired. On the other hand, starveling heifers, I have already assumed, can never regain the muscular tissue once lost while the frame is growing; they may make milkers, but they cannot make fairly representative grazers. The happy medium of liberal but not extravagant keep; early use of the milk-secreting organs by early breeding ; frequent and clean milking, to stimulate the flow of milk; especial attention to the fore-bag in heifers at calving; and the use of such foods as support and sustain the animal while increasing the yield of milk, are among the means of making dairy-and-grazing Shorthorns. The land also has much to do with this. Some lands are quite unfit for the rearing of stock intended for the dairy, while other lands cannot grow good beef-cattle. If the intention is to try to combine milk and beef on either sort of land, artificial feeding must be the resort; but the best policy of the farmer, doubtless, is to breed for milk or beef, or the two combined, according to the capability of his land and the market facilities of his district. As a rule, the man who tries to breed a milking type of Shorthorn falls back upon the old unimproved wedge-shape—light, shallow, narrow fore-quarters, deeper and wider hind-quarters, plenty of paunch, and a deficiency of thigh. This may do for the dairyman, but it will not suit the grazier or the butcher. With those who say that in order to breed the best butchers’ beasts you must utterly sacrifice milk, the traditions of Northumberland are entirely at variance. They instruct us that in order to have a dairy cow of even the first class, it is not absolutely necessary to have 394 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd, a wedge, with the dewlap for an apex. You may even venture upon a big girth and ample crops, and you may grow admi- rable rounds of beef; but let beef be the first consideration, and milk claim due attention when the frame for beef and the generous disposition to thrive are secured. I have alluded to the intimate association of the subjects of breeding and management, and the difficulty of keeping clear of the former while handling the latter subject. But it may be truly said, moreover, that the best part of breeding is neither more nor less than management. If we consider the earliest im- provements of breed, the question arises, how were they effected ? Simply by management. There is really no mystery in what is called “ blood.” Good land, liberal keep, stimulated the diges- tive powers to greater action, resulting in larger and better nourished frames and larger capabilities of sustaining the off- spring. These propensities, cherished through successive gene- rations, became hereditary, and selection did the rest. By the same processes we might in course of time raise highly improved breeds from the very commonest stock in the country; but we have, in the breeds already improved, a long start of any one who would begin de novo, and we find it therefore convenient to make use of the work already done, the good materials plenti- fully at hand. Several of the farms upon which Shorthorns have been suc- cessfully kept in Northumberland lie at heights of five or six hundred feet above the sea-level, in districts where the average rainfall of the year is fully 27 inches. I have selected as a notable illustration of management in this county the herd of the Duke of Northumberland at Alnwick Castle, where the height of the land occupied by the Shorthorns varies (upon the whole a fair medium, not in any case extremely high or low) from the “ haugh” down by the river Alne to the high land of Bassington, about 200 feet above the sea, an airy and a healthy place, with an average rainfall of about 25 inches. The Alnwick Park herd, kept with a view to practical utility, has nevertheless turned out winners at the exhibitions of the Royal Agricultural Society of England and other leading associations ; and as an inspection of the cattle on the farms enabled me to observe that the few show animals are no more than fair average specimens of a good working herd, I was glad to have the opportunity of obtaining from Mr. Patten the following particulars of his management. The principal object is to develop the growth of beef rather than milk-production; yet many of the cows are excellent milkers, rearing their own calves; and often, during the height The Management of a Shorihorn Herd. 39 ou of her milking, a cow will have an ample supply for another besides her own. In almost every instance the cows are allowed to suckle their calves. This plan is found to be a safe one for both cow and calf, and since it was fully adopted, the loss of a calf has been very rare, and no Shorthorn cow has died of milk- fever for many years. As safeguards against this cause of loss, the precautions of limiting the cows in their food a féw days before and after calving, and giving laxative medicines at that time, are strictly observed. The calves remain with their dams for six or seven months, when they are weaned, in order to rest the cow before she has another calf. Mr. Patten is most dis- tinct and emphatic in declaring that the suckling system does not prevent the cows from coming in use readily. His own experience is that the average time of their taking the bull does not exceed two months after calving, and as a rule each cow produces a calf every year. The food of the cow in winter, when she is in-milk, consists of hay with an allowance of two mashes (a mixture of bran and bean and Indian meal), given night and morning; and when not in-milk, it is hay and 2 or 3 lbs. of linseed-cake in the day. When turnips or mangold- wurzels are plentiful, an allowance of three or four stones per diem to each cow has a most beneficial effect. An “ outrake” in winter, where a good deal of rough herbage has been left from summer, is considered almost indispensable, especially if no roots are given. During the summer months no artificial food of any kind is used. The heifers, whose food is similar to that of the dried cows, are usually put to the bull when eighteen months old, as any further delay is found to increase the risk of barrenness, especially if the animals are in high condition, as will usually be the case with heifers bred from stock selected for their readiness to thrive, and kept in the manner described. Mr. Patten concurs in the opinion of those who maintain that premature calving is fre- quently the result of inferior food, of mouldy hay in particular, and he strongly insists upon the necessity, for successful manage- ment, that all the food shall be of good wholesome quality. It has been seen that in Scotland, casting is often attributed to an unduly large proportion of turnips over straw (or perhaps it should be stated the other way, too little straw in connection with an abundant supply of turnips); but Mr. Patten’s observa- tions in Northumberland (a grass and hay, not straw and turnip district) go to show that the evil of premature calving is always more prevalent during a winter following a bad hay summer than at any other time. He maintains also that the excessive feeding for the showyard, and the practice of allowing cows . 396 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. in-calf to remain out through the cold nights in autumn, are frequent causes of abortion. The importance of retaining the “ calf’s-flesh,” that layer of fine elastic muscle so agreeable to the touch, and, in its effects as regards the animal’s looks, so pleasing to the eye, is fully recognised at Alnwick Park; so likewise is the difficulty of retaining it. The calves, after weaning, receive special attention, for, although liberally fed, they are apt to lose much of their plump and bloomy appearance. It is an excellent plan, Mr. Patten finds, before weaning-time, to accustom the calves to eat the same kind of food that will be given to them after weaning. He recommends (and uses) 1 Ib. to 2 lbs. of linseed-cake per diem, with some sweet hay, and a few slices of mangold. This proves to be a good diet for newly-weaned calves. When a little older, they may have coarser food with advantage. A lot of ten came forward to grass in the spring of this year in nice condition, their food in winter having been inferior hay, scalded, and mixed with a little Indian meal, served twice a-day, and in their racks oat-straw ad libitum. By thus cooking or scalding the worst part of the hay, and so destroying its injurious properties, he obtains for the young stock a very useful article of food. Nortu-WeEst oF ENGLAND. Crossing from the north-east to the north-west of England, we have in the “ over-sands ” nook of North Lancashire one of the most noted bull-breeding herds in the country, that of the Duke of Devonshire at Holker. Its character, as thus intimated, will be remembered in connection with the management about to be described ; for in all these particulars of the system adopted in each herd, it is most essentially important, in order rightly to appreciate the practice, to bear in mind the main objects that the breeder has in view. The average rainfall at Holker is great. ‘The average tem- perature in the different months of the year is given, in the following table, over three not consecutive years, but the two last years are taken, and the year 1875 introduced for the purpose of comparison. The rainfall in each of these years is added. Holker is situate at the head of Morecambe Bay, and in the close neighbourhood of the Lake Mountains, where showers and rainy days are frequent. Part of the land is park and other permanent grass, part arable, and part recently re- claimed from the Bay and laid down to grass; but I have no memoranda of the proportion of each. The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 397 TEMPERATURE at Hotker. 1875. 1878, | 1879, | = =. Max. Min. Max. Min. | Max. Min. fe} [e) fe) ° fo} fe) SPBINGGEM Shae: tan | ore 51 18 ol 20 45 3 Iepruary §:. «. .-. 55 23 90} 9, | 26 48 22 March oe. Tee 58 24 6li. |) 22 60 21 press Ss se cee 74 28 69 27 BB lb BBs WNTEM et oa. fais, ele 74 36 71 31 67 25 OTC ra a ach web. le 79 42 90 Appel Vibe |) Bis) Jind is), “Seep CBCemcoiinec 79 43 94 41 | 78 47 August Soe Go. ‘bece 73 44 82 45 81 39 eptember’... 2. .- 77 41 74 SO)ee |) eZ 33 October Se toe 66 32 7 26 66 Ne eli November .. .. .. 57 25 52 24 | 56 21 December .; .. .. 55 19 46 10 49 11 Inches. Inches. Inches. Ramfall’ “.. .. In 1875 40°53 | In 1878 39°31 | In 1879 37:432 Mr. Drewry, whose position as the Duke of Devonshire’s estate agent afforded him the opportunity of establishing, and enables him to maintain under his direct personal superin- tendence, the well-known herd, found good Shorthorns when he came to Holker many years ago; but he foresaw the advantages of following a different line of breeding ; and the averages of public sales of the Holker Shorthorns (to say nothing of private transactions) have emphatically vindicated his judgment. In the details of management, as well as in the broader principles of breeding, he takes a lively interest, and probably this readiness to become familiar with minutie goes far to account for the success of his undertakings in general. His plan of rearing Shorthorns is usually, in the first stage of life, by suckling, which is considered the best and cheapest method. Many heifer-calves are reared by putting them upon little Scotch or half-bred heifers. When a bull is reared for use in the herd, suckling is considered preferable; when one is intended for sale at or under twelve months old, he has usually reason, as Mr. Pumblechook told Pip, to be “grateful to them which brought him up by hand.” The calves are not often allowed to suck their dams more than a month, and those which are reared at the pail do not suck at all. The objection to the calves sucking their mothers is, that the cows do not come in season while the calves are with them. The heifers are generally brought to service at eighteen months, or from that age to two years old; but this depends upon their previous growth: if they are strong and likely to 398 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. grow large, they are brought into profit early ; if not so large as desired, they have more time allowed to get their growth. As soon as the calves can eat, in winter they have a little cake and hay, or crushed corn. Those under twelve months old do not go out during the winter months. As soon as there is grass in the spring, those which are a year old are turned out to grass, and get no other food. The same remarks apply to bulls, except that they are better kept than the heifers. The calves are setoned about three months old, and the setons kept in till they are eighteen months, to prevent quarter-evil. The cows are milked twice a-day. If they are deep milkers, they generally have a little cake or corn, and when the pastures begin to fail, the allowance is increased. The times. of lying out in spring, and night-housing in autumn, depend upon the weather and the condition of the cows. If a cow is not milking, and not due to calye until the spring, she probably lies out until Christmas, without any other food than grass. Cows in-milk are generally taken in at nights about the end of October. Ifthe winter is dry, the cows are frequently allowed to go out for an hour or two each day, when fine; but if it is wet and cold, they are only let out to water oncea day. Garget, in July and August, is the worst complaint among cattle in the district. The stock- bulls are generally turned out for two or three months in the summer, with sheds to which they have access at will. We have some special features of locality and climate, conse- quently of management, in the strip of country in Cumberland, bordered westward by the sea, and to the east by a range of green, bare, pastoral fells, running northward from Black Comb towards Wastwater, at heights varying up to somewhere about 1500 feet, thus hedging off from the Duddon Valley the narrow vale through which flows the river Esk beneath the woods of Muncaster. One of the most notable herds in this district is that of Mr. Henry Caddy, of Rougholm, founded by his father many years ago. The farms in Mr. Caddy’s occu- pation are altogether about 900 acres; Rougholm and Hall Waberthwaite, both his own property ; Dyke, belonging to a relative ; Graymains, one of Lord Muncaster’s farms, and Nether Stainton and Ellerbeck, rented of another proprietor, Mr. Nicholson. Besides these enclosed lands there is an unlimited right of fell pasturage. The higher fell supports a flock of Herdwick sheep, and the Shorthorns and a herd of Black Polled Galloway cattle have the lower lands and the fell up to, say, 500 feet. The general character of the country, its wildness and seclusion, may be inferred from the fact that a year or two since a strange wolfish-looking dog, evidently a foreigner, and by the inhabitants supposed to have come ashore from some Baltic The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 399 coaster, suddenly appeared on the fell and commenced devouring the sheep: the farmers of the fell dales and their servants turned out in pursuit with guns, but for days the chase was in vain, and before the marauder could be destroyed he had killed about 200 sheep. Far up such heights, the Shorthorns roam for their living. Now here is a very noteworthy circumstance.—The late Mr. Caddy, who delighted in a good cow, but thought nothing of one that could not fill the pail, reared his young stock on very short allowance, and kept his breeding cows on low diet through the winter; this was according to the tradition of the district concerning the capabilities of his land, and he main- tained that he was obliged to follow that system as the only profitable one. His son, on coming into possession of the property, and inheriting his father’s taste for Shorthorns, was induced to try the effect of more liberal keep in winter and more generous rearing of his calves. The experiment was fairly tried out, and is now abandoned as a complete failure. The sour land cannot keep up the impetus to growth and thriving imparted by the artificial feeding indoors, and there was no choice but between a ruinous artificial system throughout the year, and the old system of low keep. To the latter Mr. Caddy returned, with satisfactory results. The land, unable to support artificially fattened cattle, has nevertheless a remarkable virtue in bringing out lean cattle during the summer months, and it is wonderful to see the progress made by the poorly kept cows and cheaply reared heifers between the first flush of grass in spring and lying-in time in autumn. The farm stock consists, on the average, of about 130 or 140 cattle, 17 horses, 1000 Herdwick sheep and 100 half-bred sheep, by Leicester or Shropshire rams from culled Herdwick ewes, the main flock of Herdwicks, of course, being kept always perfectly pure. Of the 900 acres, about 25 are out of ley, 100 altogether under the plough in the following course :—first year, oats; second, turnips, rape, mangolds; third, wheat or barley; fourth, seed grass, mown or pastured. The herd, a highly-bred one, and comprising representa- tives of high-priced families, is essentially a dairy herd. Milk, indeed, here is the first object; and it is worth notice that, in seeking it, Mr. Caddy has not selected cows of the wedgy, dairy type, nor of the families most highly reputed for milk as opposed to the families primarily famous as beef-makers ; on the contrary, a glance at his pedigrees will show that he has actually taken the reputed beef-makers for his purpose, and used bulls of notoriously heavy-fleshed families, Upon his land, and under his system of keeping the heifers in poorish condition and the 400 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. cows low in winter, he can make Shorthorns milk to any extent ; and he cannot afford to lose the feeding propensities of the breed. The danger of his system is that with unskilful management the cattle in course of time would degenerate into mere milkers, shallow and narrow-fronted and light-fleshed ; but this he does not permit, for he knows too well the true form of the improved Shorthorn, and aims to maintain it, while cultivating by all possible means the dairy properties. The cows are hand-milked, and the calves reared by the pail. From three or four days old the calves are tied up, two or three in a loose box at first, and afterwards, when they get size enough, in little stalls made purposely for them, with rack and trough; a most old-fashioned-looking row of babies,—so staid, with quite the manners of grown-up cows. For some time past the mortality has only been one in seventy, but formerly it used to be much larger. They sometimes suffer from scour (for which castor-oil is the medicine used), but rarely from hair- balls. They have milk twice a-day ; at first one quart of new milk in the day, increased to two and then to three quarts, as the calf’s capacity enlarges; but about three quarts is the maximum quantity of new milk, which when they reach the age of about six months is gradually changed to “ blue” or skim-milk. As soon as they can take it, a little oilcake and hay are given; the calf at (say) four months old getting about half-a-pound of oilcake as the day’s allowance. From six to twelve months old they have, with three quarts of skim-milk at each end of the day, porridge of oilcake-dust, with wheat, barley, and Indian corn all ground together; and when skim-milk is plentiful, the allowance of it sometimes exceeds three quarts at the morn- ing and evening meal. The early-spring calves (born in January and February) go out in the summer, but come in at nights; those dropped later stay indoors over the first winter. The calves of the previous autumn not only go out by day, but lie out at night in the middle of the summer. The cows lie out from the end of May or early part of June, according to the season, until the end of October or beginning of November. In some exceptional cases, cows in-milk, lying out, have 1 lb. of cotton- cake daily ; during the lying-in months, turnips and “ orts”—a term in the North of England for waste hay or straw, the leavings of cows in the byre. Formerly, the turnips used to be pulped and the “orts” cut, but this practice has been discontinued for the last two years, Mr. Caddy being persuaded that cattle do better and are healthier upon food given in a less artificial state. The worst complaint known in the district is red-water, in highly-fed heifers; so that Mr. Caddy’s system of moderate The Management of « Shorthorn Herd. 401 keeping tends to reduce greatly the risk from this disease. Quarter-ill is little known: in the course of his farming Mr. Caddy has only lost three from it. A drive of a few miles northward from Rougholm brings us to Hall Santon, where Messrs. Gaitskell farm their hereditary property, and keep upon it a herd of Shorthorns, the bulk of which is in the ordinary condition of dairy stock, plus the flesh that well-bred Shorthorns will grow while common-bred cattle would remain in a lean state. Occasionally an animal is ° exhibited, and prizes have been won at the national, the county, and the local shows; young bulls are reared, hardily and healthily, and go among the farmers, to become the sires of useful milking and grazing stock, and some calves are made steers. The cows during summer have little if anything more than grass; during winter, when they lie in old-fashioned, under-housed byres, with stalls divided by freestone flags, they have pulped turnips, cut “ orts” (hay or straw), with Indian meal, crushed oats, oilcake, and cotton-cake, the decorticated being always used. The bulls are kept indoors, chained in separate boxes. In one bull-house there is, for the contingency of a bull becoming unruly, an arrangement for feeding him without going into the box—but this does not work well. It will be readily understood by those much among cattle and acquainted with their dispositions, that if a bull has any shyness or other infirmity of temper, the only chance of keeping him under control is to be frequently with him, exercising firmly, but kindly, a master’s power. The “awkward” bull must be accustomed to have the man about him, or the scene will be a stormy one when the man eventually has occasion to approach him. ‘The solitary cell system does not do in such a case. The cows are hand-milked and the calves pail-fed, except when some particular favourite is brought on for show, or is for any other purpose encouraged to do its best as regards outward appearance. The dam, in that case, is sometimes allowed to. suckle her calf; but the suckling system is avoided as much as possible, for the reason that the dam, especially if she is a heifer with her first calf, does not take the bull readily while rearing the calf. The milk given to the pail-fed calves is one, two, or three quarts of new in the day, according to age, as at Rougholm ; but the Hall Santon calves do not get milk so long as those at Rougholm, for their new milk, when they are a few weeks old, is mixed with skim-milk and a little linseed added, until about six months old, when the milk is stopped altogether. The young bulls are kept in wooden sheds, open to the weather at all sides and ends, except that sometimes in the depth of winter sacking is tacked on to the north side of the sheds, which are VOL, XVI.—S. 8. 2D 402 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. lathed at the top with hooper’s chips, to turn the rain, and small larch-branches are used to cover this slight roof. A great part of the land in the neighbourhood is in its natural condition little more than sand: a whirlwind has been known to carry a large portion of a field over the fence and deposit some hundreds of cartloads on the adjoining road, so that it was a work of consider- able time and labour to cart the sand back to its proper place. Messrs. Gaitskell have, however, a hill of good stiff soil on their property, and this they have skimmed, and are continuing to use in the same way, each year taking a sufficient quantity to mix with their farmyard-manure. A space below the midden- stead, at a short distance, is set apart for it, the liquid manure and oozings from the midden being brought down to it, the solid manure eventually mixed with the soil, and the whole applied to the land, thus not only fertilising, but causing that cohesion which is wanting in the sandy surface in its original state. SOUTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. From the north-west I will, with the reader’s consent, travel directly into the south-west of England, and describe what is going on among Shorthorns in Monmouthshire, Gloucestershire, and Somersetshire. The late Mr. Richard Stratton, holding at different times farms in the counties of Somerset and Wilts, was one of those skilful and fortunate men who have contrived to make a hand- some profit out of agricultural pursuits. As a Shorthorn- breeder he was no less successful than as a farmer; and he had the rare credit of raising, from combinations of materials in the acquisition of which his judgment spared his purse, a herd bril- liantly successful at the leading shows. Since his death two of his sons, Mr. Joseph Stratton, of Alton Priors, in Wiltshire, and Mr. Richard Stratton, of The Duffryn, Monmouthshire, have ably carried on his line of breeding and traditions of manage- ment, winning numerous} prizes, including on several occasions the principal prizes and champion honours of the Smithfield Club. This proves that the animals of Messrs. Stratton’s breeding and rearing can make beef; and an inspection of their herds and farms has enabled me to say that the milking properties of many of their cattle are so great that it seemed questionable whether dairy or grazing properties formed the leading feature. The animals in both herds are of similar character; and as I do not wish unnecessarily to multiply ex- amples, and the Alton Priors herd, I regret to say, is about to be dispersed, I will take the management at The Duffryn for my illustration. : The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 403 The Shorthorns at The Duffryn are made subservient to the general farm management, and treated as ordinary cattle— except the one or two specimens usually kept for exhibition. Mr. Richard Stratton is a tenant-farmer, with his rent to make by farming, pure and simple. He considers that with the best of blood and the best type of beef-making Shorthorn it is possible, under judicious treatment, to combine good milking properties, and that the less artificial the keep of breeding cattle the more satisfactory will be the result. In support of his theory about the combination of milk and beef, he can tri- umphantly point to numerous examples on his own farm, and Mr. Dampney, who has used the Messrs. Stratton’s bulls for five- and-twenty years, and many others, have raised herds of great milkers. Mr. Stratton has at The Duffryn and other farms about 1300 acres in hand, of which 700 are in grass (some roots grown for the milk cows), and he keeps 200 head of cattle and 800 sheep (these not kept exclusively on the grass), Cotswolds, to be worked into Downs on the out-farms, and Shropshires at The Duffryn; about 25 horses, including 15 colts and fillies, as he breeds each year 4 or 5 foals out of working mares. He works also by steam-power, with Fowler’s 6-horse engines. The land at The Duffryn is a loam, partly on clay, partly on gravel. Ifton Hill, a distant farm, close by the Severn, and running down to it from a height of about 100 feet above the sea, is partly on the limestone and partly on the same formation as The Duffryn. There are salt marshes at both places. The Duffryn is flat, and, as its name signifies, low-lying land. Castleton, Mr. Stratton’s third farm, on the Old Red Sandstone, lies high, and the young cattle and sheep are chiefly kept there. The salt marshes and “ moors” run down to the Bristol Channel, forming part of Wentloog level. Mr, Stratton has a milk trade with Newport, The Duffryn farm supplying the milk, while, at one of the other farms, cream- cheeses and Devonshire cream are made, forming auxiliaries to the milk trade. A supply of milk is required for winter and summer, so the cows calve at all times of the year. All calves are suckled by their dams for some time; the heifer calves usually about four months, more or less, the bulls longer (about six months), and if more milk is required to meet the trade, the plan is to take off a heifer-calf or two. In future, however, with the cream and cream-cheese trade develop- ing at the other farm, the practice there will be to wean at one week old on skim-milk, with linseed-meal or other substitute for the cream taken off. The cows are always (unlike the Scotch system) milked by men, who go round before the calves suck, and take a portion 7) DY 404 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. of the milk from the deep-milking cows. The calves are kept during the first winter in a yard or shed; afterwards, Mr. Strat- ton’s favourite practice is to keep his cattle as much as possible in the open field, with good sheltering hedges, no sheds. He likes the hedges better than sheds; and he holds that if the animals get a little cut up in winter they thrive all the faster when summer comes. For about two months in the dead of winter the milk-cows and calves of the first winter are kept indoors ; all the rest of the female stock (except the one or two for shows) “roughing it” in the field. To the cows indoors a supply of water ad libitum is allowed. It stands before them all, and they can drink whenever they please. The heifers generally produce their first calves at about two years and nine months old. With suckling dams, some little delay is occasionally experienced in breeding again, as they will not always take the bull before their calves are weaned. The indoors diet for those that require it is hay, roots and meal (or crushed oats), but this, with the exceptions already specified, is not given to anything in larger quantity than would be given to the com- monest dairy cattle. Even the young bulls are not got into more than ordinary working condition, but are reared so as to make satisfactory bulls for farmers. Mr. Thomas Morris, of Maisemore Court, near Gloucester, keeps a herd of Shorthorns of about 130, or rather more, as the average number. ‘The herd was founded by his father, in the year 1828, by the purchase from Mr. Strickland of two pure-bred cows, from which all the cattle now comprised in it are descended, with the exception of stock bulls. These, for the necessary changes of blood, are obtained from other breeders. The main business of Shorthorn breeding at Maisemore is the production of good bulls for ordinary farmers, and they realise at one year old averages of 30 guineas and upwards. ‘The highest year’s average for young bulls sold in one year was 48 guineas. The bulls, to meet the demands of customers, must be of large scale, healthy, robust, kindly thrivers, and of good dairy families: for such Mr. Morris has a ready private sale among tenant-farmers. He farms about 600 acres; but as hay of indefinite quantity is sold, and sheep are kept, 1 am unable to give with sufficient accuracy for my purpose here an estimate of the acreage fairly apportionable to the Shorthorns, which have the range of good grass-land. The calves are not suckled. Besides the profit from the sale of young bulls, the sale of butter is a source of income, and for this object, necessarily, the cream is taken from a large pro- portion of the milk. The bull-calves, nevertheless, are brought up liberally, to make them useful and saleable at twelve months The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 405 old. They have new milk at first, gradually changed to skim- milk, or new and skim-milk mixed, as they grow old enough to take dry food, and then various meals (barley-meal, pea-meal, &e.) are given. ‘The heifer-calves have new milk for about a fortnight, then changed to skim-milk by degrees, but within a few meals, and a very little cake and some chaff (cut hay) and dry bran, mixed, are supplied as the calves can take them. They lie indoors the first winter, afterwards are turned out to grass. The heifers thus moderately reared are put to breeding when about two years and three months old, so as to bring their first calves when they are three years old. The cows, being milked by hand, return to breeding soon after each calf, breed regularly, and generally calve again within the year. When they cease to be profitable as breeders, or when, young cows coming forward, there is a surplus stock of females, the cows no longer required are fed off and sold to the butcher, so that Mr. Morris never needs to have a public sale, his principle throughout being to treat pedigree Shorthorns as ordinary farm-stock, and make them pay rent and profit in the regular course of farming. The old cows made fairly fat realise from 30/., which is about the minimum value, up to 40/. for extra-large cows, or any cows that have a little more than ordinary feeding. The cows lie out-of-doors at night from the first week in April to the beginning of December, in average seasons (subject to variations of a few days at either end of the grass season, according to the weather), and in winter have roots and hay. The stock-bulls are kept in boxes, and, if very quietly dis- posed animals, are turned in loose; if, as is frequently the case with old bulls, inclined to use their heads, they are, although not vicious, tied by the neck by way of precaution. They are never led out for exercise; only for use. This I am bound to mention as a fact in the management, certainly successful management, at Maisemore; not that I would recommend the keeping of bulls without regular daily exercise where there are facilities for letting them have it. The bulls have roots and hay. Usually Mr. Morris has an old stock-sire and a young bull, a junior partner, coming forward to take the old one’s place when he goes off, meanwhile useful for heifers. The young bulls bred in the herd are kept in open-sided boxes, or rather fenced- in sheds, with rail-fronts facing a large square yard. Water is laid on to the boxes and sheds, and turned on as required. The gates of the young bulls’ sheds are secured by a small, yet sufficiently strong iron-fastener, so simple in its construction and use as to minimise the loss of time in opening and shutting 406 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. as the herdsman goes about among the animals. This may seem a trifle to introduce, but unless we find economy of time and labour in minuti@, we shall surely find much waste of them in the entire management of a farm or a herd; and that saving or waste may just make the difference between profitable and unprofitable practice. Within the last 100 years the county of Gloucester has fre- quently changed its stock. The old Gloucestershire breed, with white paces gave place to the Longhorn, the Hereford for working and grazing, and mixed breeds for the pail; these were superseded by the Shorthorn. ‘The county owns the names of some of the most eminent Shorthorn breeders, and at the present time is strong in long-established herds of high reputation. These I need not here mention severally. Any one of them might afford interesting matter relative to my present subject : but within the limits of a paper like this it is impossible to do more than take a few illustrations of different kinds of manage- ment. Having noticed the system pursued at Maisemore Court as an example, like Mr. Richard Stratton’s system in Mon- mouthshire, of Shorthorn management in the course of plain farming, I propose to glance at two well-known “ show herds,” that is to say, herds constantly and successfully represented at the leading agricultural Shows, kept under very different local circumstances, and consequently affording contrasts with regard to treatment. I will first ask the reader to accompany me in fancy from Maisemore, through the city of Gloucester, to Prink- nash Park, only about half-a-dozen miles from the one place to the other, and then to extend his imagination down the Vale of Severn to Berkeley Castle. Prinknash Park, the property of Mr. B. St. John Ackers, stands high on the hills between Gloucester and Stroud, is approached by a steep ascent, and looks down upon a most richly wooded landscape, from a position of rare advantage as regards the picturesque, but, to the cold eye of the purely agri- cultural observer, not so highly favoured. ‘The winters at that height come down with much greater severity, and the very hilly character of the land increases the risk of keeping heavy cattle. Mr. Ackers finds that in most cases it is best to hand-milk the cows and pail-feed the calves. To this system, however, he admits occasional exceptions; but the cows which suckle their calves do not usually breed again so rapidly as the hand-milked cows, which are milked twice a-day, morning and evening. Some of the cows are good milkers, others yielding only about enough to maintain their calves. Before and after calving, the cows have medicine, to keep the system in a cool and healthy The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 407 state, but beyond this there is little meddling with Nature’s powers. The calves are reared hardily, lying indoors the first winter, afterwards out in the fields, without a shed for shelter, only good thick hedges, the natural defence of the hill, well wooded, and their own thick coats of hair, to screen them from the storm ; while on the ground the snow often lies to the depth of eight or ten inches. The heifer-calves intended for show are, of course, generously reared, and comfortably housed as they grow older, while those not meant for exhibition are “roughing it” in wind, rain, or snow, behind the hedges. The most valuable animals in the herd, belonging to families not obtainable without large outlay of money, are never put in training for show, but always brought up in the hardy manner described. The show animals may breed, and some of those most successfully exhibited have bred with remarkable regularity; but the training for exhi- bition unquestionably endangers the reproductive powers, and Mr. Ackers is too well aware of the importance of robust and healthy constitutions to subject to any weakening process the animals upon which mainly he relies for the maintenance of a first-rate herd. The heifers, generally, are kept in a fairly liberal way as regards their food ; some have been rather under- kept, but the rule is to stimulate growth of frame and develop- ment of flesh (not of soft fat which sometimes puts in an appear- ance for flesh), by such treatment as will bring the heifers forward without a check. Forcing and stunting are extremes equally to be avoided. Much the same rule applies to the young bulls as to the heifers, subject to variation of detail. The bull-calves have sufficient milk and dry food to maintain their growth and keep them in nice even flesh, so that as yearlings they are fit for use, either at home or elsewhere; and there are not afterwards those back-reckonings with Nature which must be met sooner or later where forced growth has laid an excessive tax upon her powers. As a precaution against quarter-evil, the calves are setoned. The theory of the management of Lord Fitzhardinge’s herd at Berkeley Castle is that Nature has given a constitution which wants support; and the practice therefore is to keep liberally, never to allow growing animals (as we should say of growing plants) to flag, but to endeavour to keep them strong, healthy, robust, with plenty of mellow flesh all the time of their growth. The land lies on clay, a stiffish clay, in the valley of the Severn, and is mainly alluvial deposit. Being generally flat and not much above the level of the river, it is unsuited for winter pasturage; heavy cows would tread it all to mud and injure 408 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. themselves in doing so; but for the summer months it is good land for Shorthorns, quite able to assist their innate tendency to form flesh. The entire area is about 160 acres, of which 30 are arable, always under crop, wheat and roots alternately as the rule. The cattle number from 90 to 100 head, pedigree Shorthorns and dairy and fattening stock, all told. The pure- bred herd numbered 40 at the date of the private catalogue printed in July 1879, but there has been considerable increase by birth since that time, and no public sale since March 1879. Taking its average number, we may fairly consider it as com- prising from 40 to 50 head, nearly or about one-half the stock of cattle on the land. The remainder are ordinary dairy cows and stock for feeding off. No sheep are kept, but about 100 Berkshire pigs, from which produce to about 400/. value is annually sold. For the work of the estate there are 6 or 7 cart- horses; and now I come to that which gives Berkeley Castle such pleasant associations in the mind of every sportsman—the hunting establishment. About 50 hunters and the famous pack of fox-hounds help to use up the produce of the land; the horses directly, in the shape of hay and straw; the dogs at second-hand, when it is transformed into milk; and the Castle is of course supplied with milk and dairy produce from the farm. Besides this consumption, cheese is made, and a surplus of the value of about 120/. a-year sold. It is of the best quality of Cheddar, and realised last year 74s. per cwt. With regard to the hunters, it should be explained that the farm does not always supply the whole of their hay. Occasionally an extra rick is bought, and of this, as of the home-grown hay, the horses get the best, the Shorthorns coming in for the outsides and tops of the ricks. When I last saw the Berkeley herd, in the early part of June this year, the cattle had just passed through a very bad season— | no roots, and no nourishment in the hay, and an unusually backward spring had so delayed the growth of grass that they had not begun to show the benefit they otherwise would have derived from going out to pasture. Mr. James Peter, the able and successful manager, had certainly got the animals in very good blooming condition, but he owned that it had been done by the free use of dry food, especially of crushed oats, of which he thinks most highly as a safe food, one that never destroys the breeding powers. In average seasons the usual keep would have ensured equally good condition. He had given during the disastroys seasons of last year about 3 Ibs. of cake each to the grown animals. ‘This he does not usually give to cows, except to those which calve about January or February, and they have a little to keep up the flow of milk until they go The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 409 out to grass. Mr. Peter has not adopted any cooking process for bad hay, but approves of the practice of those who do so use it. Tor his own purposes he merely cuts it into chaff. In the Berkeley district calves running out are often troubled with “husk” or “hoose.” The system of rearing in the Berkeley Castle herd is to let the cows suckle their calves, the calves running with the dams and sucking at will for three weeks, and the cows being milked between 5 and 6 in the morning, and at 4 o'clock in the afternoon, to take from them whatever the calves may have left. At the end of the three weeks the calves are taken away and brought up by hand, the finger given for a day or two, if necessary, to teach them to drink out of the bucket. They are fed twice a-day, about one gallon at a meal, less if they scour upon that quantity. In this respect, as should be the case with all allowances to cattle, the constitution and appetite of the animal are studied. Some- times a calf of three weeks old cannot beneficially take more than two quarts at each end of the day. The calves never get miuch more than their one gallon at a feeding. MHair-balls, the frequent cause of loss in some herds, are seldom known at Berkeley. At about five weeks old, calves will nibble at some- thing in the manger. They then have crushed oats, Indian-meal and barley-meal, ground, but not too fine, as calves do not so readily chew the cud when fed on fine-ground meal. These different kinds of meal are varied, and are given in cut hay. Milk is given to the calves until they are six or seven months old. This treatment applies to the bulk of the young stock, reared in the ordinary way. No rule can be laid down for the show animals. Each is the subject of special study. The experiment of suckling for five or six months was fairly tried, but invariably great difficulty was found in getting the cows to breed again. Either they did not show any sign for breeding, or, if they did, and were supposed to be safe in-calf, they would turn again as soon as the calf was weaned. The pedigree cows, for the greater part, are good or fair milkers. The dairy cows without pedigree are all Shorthorns, and, for ordinary cows, are of a superior class, bought in at 24/. or 251. each. They and the more highly bred cows form in fact one Shorthorn dairy herd. The dairy appointments are- excellent. It is scarcely needful to say that the surplus offspring of the pedigree cows, when the herd grows too large for the farm, have been sold at high averages by auction. ‘Some of the bull-calves also go to farmers in the district at remunerative prices. The ordinary dairy cows’ calves are sold at 50s. to 60s. {the heifer-calyes to be reared for dairy stock), and the cows, milked through the summer, are put up about October, tied by 410 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. the neck in byres, fed on hay, roots, cotton-cake and Indian-meal, and sold off fat at Christmas for about 27/. each. Say the cow in-calf costs in the early part of the year 24/., her calf sells for 21. 10s., and she brings 27/. at Christmas, therelis\ ant exdesuian dl. 10s. fas cow and calf over the cost price of the cow, and one season’s milk to cover the grass keep and final feeding for the butcher. Any cows that prove extraordinary milkers are put to one of the pedigree bulls and kept over for future dairy purposes. The calves from such cows are excellent examples of what may be done by the use of superior bulls, and the results are still more marked after a second or third cross. The high- bred sire gives a greatly enhanced tendency to growth of frame and flesh, and perhaps there is in Shorthorns bred up for two or three generations from such sires out of good, strong, country cows, a proportion of lean flesh to the fat which it is not always easy to obtain in the unmixed descendants of high-bred cattle ; that is, of cattle carefully nurtured, and too often overfed, through many generations. Under judicious treatment, doubt- less, the older families of Shorthorns can probably hold their ground as beef-makers against their offspring from common country cows; but we must not forget their right place, which is not so much to be themselves butchers’ beasts, as to have the greatest possible power to improve, by their bulls, the common stock of the country, or other breeds which have lean flesh, but want the mellowness and early maturity of the Shorthorn. The cotton-cake above referred to is given partly for its feeding properties and partly to counteract the too laxative effect of the hay and roots, which in that district are very good and have rather the tendency intimated. The cows, as I have said, cannot go out in winter on account of the soaky condition of the low-lying land. There are plenty of well-ventilated buildings, and they have an ample supply of water in the house; and they lie in, night and day, from the early part of December (earlier or later, ‘according to the weather) until the Ist of May, or, in an early spring, the middle of April. They are never turned out until there is a good “ bite” of grass. In Somersetshire there is a herd very well known in the Show- yard, yet presenting many points of difference, and even of contrast, when compared with either of the show herds in Gloucestershire, which I have noticed for special features of management. I allude to that of Mr. J. S. Bult, of Dodhill House, Kingston, near Taunton, a breeder of very long ex- perience and successful practice, who founded his herd originally upon the stock of the Rev. Henry Berry, has turned out at various times many noted prize animals, and enjoys a reputa- The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 411 tion so extensive that it has led to an occasional foreign trade and the export of a considerable number of his cattle. His steers, more particularly, are famous for their weight and quality. The general herd is kept in very ordinary breeding condition, and it is noteworthy that the dams of those mountains of beef which astonish visitors to the Smithfield Club or Bingley Hall Shows are cows that fill the milk-pail. Mr. Bult farms about 200 acres, in the flat vale of some fourteen miles width, between the Quantock and Blackdown Hills. About one-third of his land is arable, and 30 acres are in orchard. He took the first and champion prizes last year at the Kilburn International Show for orchard-produce. The herd numbers about forty (or two or three over); and although there is no standing flock of sheep upon the farm, from one to two hundred ewes are bought in annually to breed fat lambs, and are in turn sold to the butcher, and followed by other sheep for feeding off turnips and rape. Some black pigs are kept, one job horse, and four carthorses for the agricultural work. Mr. Bult’s calves are weaned at a fortnight old, and fed by pail and finger, on new milk, until they are three weeks old; then the quantity of the new is lessened and skim-milk added, with linseed- gruel in part compensation to the calf for the loss of cream ; and by degrees the proportion of new milk is made less, and of skim-milk and linseed more, until the two latter, with a few roots in winter, with a little barley-meal and linseed-cake, and as much hay as they will eat, form the diet of the calves, and eventually, of course, the liquid is discontinued, and the young stock have the solid food and water only. No common farm stock could live more plainly. After calfhood, they run out for their living. Those, however, for show, are differently treated ; they are housed, and each, according to its capacity, has cake and meal, principally oileake and barley-meal mixed. The heifers (those under ordinary treatment) bring their first calves when from two-and-a-half to three years old. The aim is to have the calves chiefly in December, but sometimes an unfavour- able season will throw the cows out of course, as is the case at present, and the calves come at irregular and less convenient times. The cows lie out at nights from as early in May as the weather will permit to the end of October. Mr. Bult does not care to keep them out late in the autumn if the quantity and quality of his hay, and other considerations, admit of bringing indoors tolerably early. They do better under cover when the nights become chill and frosty. The cow at calving has bran mashes, 2 oz. of nitre in a bucket of water with the chill off, and her own first milk. While suckling, that is, during the first fortnight, she is milked (not at 412 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. the time the calf is actually sucking), to clear her udder of the surplus ; and after the calf is weaned, the cow is regularly milked twice a-day. The bulls are kept up and led out for exercise ; but Mr. Bult is in this respect, like other practical men, unable to always act up to knowledge. He would, if it were possible, have them taken out oftener, longer, and more regularly than at present. The pressure of other farm work upon an ample staff of servants often forbids the doing of things which it is wise to do. So with the bulls. When time is plentiful, they get their exercise ; when work superabounds and time scarcely suffices, more abso- lutely necessary matters take precedence. NORFOLK. The management of the herd at West Dereham Abbey, in the county of Norfolk, is not only the best I can select in con- nection with the agriculture of the district, but it has a more than local character: indeed, if we take a broad view of English systems in general, we find Mr. Hugh Aylmer’s standing out from among them with marked distinctness, in some respects differing from all others with which I am acquainted. Mr. Aylmer succeeded his father in the possession of a flock of long- wool sheep, now familarly known as the West Dereham Long- wools. In order to make clear the position that the Shorthorns occupy at West Dereham, it is necessary to glance at the farms generally, and the flock in particular. At the Abbey Farm, the Manor Farm, the White House Farm, Sheep’s Hill (a grazing ground of 60 acres in Wereham Parish), and a fen farm adjoining his higher land (useful as a reformatory for cows persistently dis- posed to grow too fat), Mr. Aylmer has altogether 1399 acres (his own property, besides some which he lets off), divisible into 360 acres of permanent grass and 1039 under the plough. The four-course system is followed ; steam cultivation in the autumn ; and about twelve working Devons are kept to plough the fen land. The farms adjoin one another, in fact may be called one farm, rather more than three miles from end to end; and Mr. Aylmer’s residence occupies a conveniently central situation. The average rainfall of the district in ordinary years is about 23 inches. The country is generally low-lying, without hills of any considerable height, but gently undulating, unlike the dead level of the neighbouring fens, and has the attraction of wood, including fine hedge-row trees, and the advantage of well- kept roads. The produce of the arable land, it should be understood, does not go to the Shorthorns, except that they get sown-grass hay, The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 415 ‘ and sometimes, in winter, cut straw with malt combs; and on the other hand the horses share with them the permanent pasture. The calculation is 14 cow to the acre in summer. Sheep are thick on the ground. The flock numbers on an average about 1500, but this number of course varies. In the spring the number is increased by about 600 lambs; then when the annual ram-letting comes, about 180 are publicly disposed of the first day, and there is a good deal of private business besides ; there is also a continuous private trade, and sheep are exported to almost every part of the world. Thus the births, sales, lettings, and return of rams from hire, make an ever-fluctuating number. The herd of Shorthorns, established about thirty years ago, and numbering at the time of my last visit, in the early summer of this year, between 90 and 100 animals (about 80 females and 15 bulls), is treated much the same as the flock, that is to say, as a part of the produce of the farm which must make rent and profit. The principal return from the Shorthorns is derived from the sale of bulls, for which there is large foreign and colonial as well as British demand, and occa- sionally by the sale of surplus females. In order to keep up the demand for West Dereham bulls, for home or exportation, it is necessary, as also with the sheep, to make the personal properties of the animals the great aim in breeding. By long experience Mr. Aylmer is made fully aware of the importance of having the best blood; and by the same experience he is also taught that without discrimination in its use the best blood may soon yield but poor results; the ground laboriously gained by selection may easily be lost by neglect of selection; and the inherited impetus towards improvement, given by careful culti- vation, may be destroyed by bad management. The main dlesiderata are—beef and its economical production; constitu- tion—healthy, hardy, and robust; early maturity; and milk, abundant and rich. Beef, and the frame for beef, take pre- cedence of milk, but milk is accounted a very desirable and a very possible accompaniment of the largest inclination to make beef, and of the frame best fitted to carry beef. Good hair and skin must be included ; indeed they really are included in the quality of hardiness, for a sleek, thin-skinned cow, short and poor in hair, can never be a hardy cow; and the West Dereham cattle, in fact, have thick, mossy, close-set hair during the winter months. I desire to set forth these facts at the outset, not that the properties described are peculiar to West Dereham, but in order to show the bearing of the management, as it is specially designed to maintain the properties to which I refer. The calf at birth is allowed to remain with the dam, at least in the same box; but there is in the corner a little pen for the 414 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. calf, in which it is kept, haying the mother’s companionship, though not unrestricted access to her, for the first fortnight. From that time the calf has a pen in some other house, sometimes in a box to itself, but oftener a compartment in a house with other calves, and is taken to the mother twice in the day, morning and evening. Ifthe mother is a deep milker, the herdsman takes from her as much milk as he finds she can spare, leaving plenty for the calf, which then comes in and clears the udder, so that the calf gets the richer “ strippings,” but does not satiate itself by taking too much after a day’s (or a night’s) fasting. Some cows give a considerable quantity of milk at each end of the day, besides keeping their calves well; others only rear their calves. One cow, Mr. Aylmer assured me, yields when in full milk two gallons (eight imperial quarts) morning and evening, 7.e. sixteen quarts in the day, before suckling her calf, which is always fat when weaned. There is no inflexible rule, but usually the calf, if a heifer, is suckled about six months; if a bull, sometimes rather longer. As soon as the calf can be enticed to eat a little dry food, it has in its manger a mixture of crushed oats, oilcake, and ground maize (these ingredients varied in proportion, and one or more omitted, so as to tempt the appetite), and sometimes a little cut cabbage or tares with the dry food ; but it does not do much more than flirt with the manger until it reaches the age of six or seven weeks, when it begins to eat in earnest, and by the time it should be weaned it is pretty well past the necessity of having milk, so that there is no checking of growth or loss of flesh after weaning. The quantity of milk, too, can be regu- lated by the quantity taken from the cow before the calf is turned in with her, and the calf is thus by easy transition relieved of dependence upon its mother. Indeed some calves, particularly bulls, are gradually reduced to so small a proportion of nourish- meat from the dam, that they grow and thrive faster after they are weaned. For a calf a little out of order in health, or not thriving quite so well as it might do, a raw egg, occasionally, beaten up, shell and all, is found a wholesome addition to its diet. 1 have seen this used elsewhere, and have myself used it for calves (omitting the shell) with very good effect. The weaned calves and all the stock indoors have water plentifully supplied, but not laid on before them in their boxes. It is laid on to tubs in the yard, and thence drawn and carried to the animals as required. Formerly Mr. Aylmer had all his cows hand-milked and the calves brought up by bucket, and the system answered very well. It was changed to the suckling system, not from any faults in the hand-milking and pail-feeding system itself, but on account of the difficulty of finding men who are equally good milkers. The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 415 One man would keep the cows up to their milk to any extent, while another in a very short time would contrive to dry all the cows he milked. Mr. Aylmer prefers to have one regular plan and not a mixture of various ways, so when he found the draw- backs to his first system, he changed entirely to the second, and has retained it ever since. No difficulty in getting the cows that suckle their calves to breed regularly is found at West Dereham Abbey. The reason why so many breeders do meet with this difficulty is supposed to exist in the continued companionship of cow and calf. If the calf is allowed to run out with the cow, or to le in with her, the cow, as a rule (a rule, however, by no means without exception), is said to be longer in coming to profit again, in fact shows no disposition to be fruitful, until the calf is taken away; whereas if the cow sees her calf only morning and evening, just long enough to feed it, she is virtually in much the same circumstances as a hand-milked cow that never sees her calf, and she will breed again quite as soon as if milked only by hand. The great point, Mr. Aylmer insists, in favour of reproductiveness in the case of the female is never to let her get too fat. If once she is allowed to reach the condition of obesity, there is no dependence to be placed upon her as a breeder. Reducing in condition may bring her back to her duty, but it is a tiresome and risky process, and very uncertain in its results. The rule that prevention is better than cure applies with great force to this part of Shorthorn management. If one of the West Dereham cows is observed to be making fat too rapidly, a few weeks’ banishment to the purgatorial fen farm is the precaution taken ; and in the event of a cow obstinately growing fat to the destruction of her reproductive powers, she is handed over to the butcher, for whose offices she has prepared herself. Idlers are not permitted to remain in the herd. In the treatment of calves, exercise is a matter of the first importance for health, and to keep the limbs straight. It also has the advantage of promoting docility, by making the calves accustomed to the company of the herdsman, and to handling, and trains them to step out smartly when required for inspection. The calves, therefore, are regularly either led out in a halter every day, or turned out to stretch their limbs and take their airing in the straw-yard. No particular season of the year is made the calving-time : ‘it is all the year round, and if the ages of bulls do not happen to suit the home buyer, they may do for the colonist or the foreigner. The calves are turned out to grass at six months old, or as near that age as possible, according to the time of their birth. The calves born late in the year, or early in the new year, go out in 416 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. the summer following. Those born in the spring, summer, or early autumn have not age enough for going out the same year, but stay indoors (with their daily allowance of exercise as stated) over the first winter. All calves, male or female, are setoned in the dewlap in the spring. The heifers are allowed to breed as soon as they will after they are fifteen months old, bringing their first calves at a little over two years old. If delayed beyond this age, they are found to be not so ready to breed, and sometimes altogether fail, from their hereditary tendency to fatten. It is not so easy to keep them down in condition as to make them fat. The cattle are separated and assorted in ages, for the sake of appearance. In one field, or yard, or range of sheds, according to the time of the year, will be found the large heifer-calves ; in another the yearlings ; elsewhere the two-year-old heifers, and so forth, up to the ponderous old dams of the herd, often showing large, square, distended udders. For one week before calving the cows are kept indoors, their only food being long hay and bran. The housing is exceedingly good, and so arranged as to work in with the system of training animals to a hardy life, without that reckless and needless exposure, injurious to health and extravagantly wasteful of both the animal and its food, which some stock-owners call “making cattle hardy.” The younger heifers have open-sided boxes, a yard with sheds, or boxes with a separate yard to each. Most of the cows are housed in boxes round the yards, and nearly all lie separately, so as not to knock each other about. The whole of the stock lie indoors at night in winter, the district being too wet for even the heifers to lie out. Usually from about the end of April to the end of October or beginning of November (depending upon the season) the cows lie out at night. During the summer months they get grass only; in winter, long hay if hay happens to be plentiful; if not, cut hay and straw mixed. They have no roots, but go out to grass every day in winter. If the ground is clear of snow they thus get a little picking of grass; while the snow lies, they have no green food, yet the air and exercise keep them in health, and they can help themselves to water ad libitum. In noticing the treatment of Shorthorns in Aberdeenshire, I have referred to a prevailing impression that there is some connection between an abundant crop of turnips together with a short crop of straw, and calf-casting. Mr. Aylmer’s opinion is confirmatory of the belief that too large a proportion of turnips has a tendency to cause abortion, and, as we have seen, his cows have no roots at all; while, as a sheep-breeder, he most positively maintains that so great is the danger of giving turnips to ewes during preg- nancy, that he never allows his in-lamb ewes to have any. Per a The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 417 contra, however, I must refer to the very common practice of letting the ewes for lambing take their place on the turnips with the rest of the flock, and the absence of abortion (except from ordinary casualties) in countless places where this is customary. The very day I last left West Dereham Abbey I went into the heart of the arable district between Cambridge and Newmarket, and there, as elsewhere, the breeding ewes have turnips regularly, and no such idea as that the ordinary use of turnips endangers the foetus is entertained by the principal flockmasters. Frosted turnips, no doubt, are injurious to cattle; and such an over- proportion of turnips as will cause an undue distension of the rumen must necessarily be dangerous during pregnancy. All the boxes for the cattle are well drained, and in those places which are not open-sided sheds, or with mere railing to keep the animals in, great attention is paid to the admission of plenty of air and light: The calves’ mangers are high at the back and low in front, sectionally hot-house shaped, divided into three or sometimes four compartments, and placed back up to the gangways, so that they are easily replenished with food as the herdsman passes. ‘To admit of this being done the more readily, the side of the box which forms the back of the manger is of convenient height to reach over from the outside; and to prevent accident, a curved iron bar goes from the wall over the manger from one end, into the side of the box at the other end, and it is just high enough above the manger to allow the calf to feed, and not so high as to permit it to get its fore-legs into the manger and so make a step up for a leap over into the gangway. Wheat-straw is preferred to barley-straw for bedding. In some places, where the cows lie chiefly in byres, I have found the contrary, wheat-straw being unquestionably the right bedding for horses, but barley-straw considered better for cows, because softer and more easily and evenly spread in the stall. The objection to it is a belief entertained that it harbours parasites. The bulls (as a rule, which may have exceptions in the case of restless bulls, in the habit of pounding the walls and doors with their heads) are kept loose in their boxes and led out for exercise. Each bull has about half-a-bushel of roots in the day, and long hay in the winter, cut cabbages and tares, instead of hay, in the summer, until the mangolds come. The daily allowance of oilcake is about 1 lb.; an aged bull in service will probably have 2 lbs. in winter, none in summer. IRELAND. After seeing in succession the English and Scotch herds, I crossed to Ireland to compare the systems of management VOL. XVI.—S. 8. 25 418 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. already noted with those practised in some parts of the south of Ireland. The line from Waterford in the south-east to Tralee in the south-west passes within easy distances from the properties of Mr. Gumbleton of Glanatore, on the borders of the counties of Waterford and Cork, Mr. Downing of Ashfield, and Mr. Welsted of Ballywater, in the latter county; and near Tralee is Ardfert Abbey, the seat of Mr. Crosbie, in the county Kerry. All these are homes of very well-known Shorthorn herds. Mr. Gumbleton has been for some years a successful exhibitor at the leading shows in Ireland, and has taken the honours also of the Royal Agricultural Society of England and the Bath and West of England Society. There are scarcely, however, in the management of the Glanatore herd any special details to bring into very prominent notice. The cows, generally, are in healthy breeding condition, not overfed ; some, indeed, decidedly poor ; and even those which had been exhibited, by no means too fat for breeding. They were out at grass with the rest. The calves, I thought, might be better kept, with advantage. They were all in low condition. I am not advocating the forcing of young stock intended for breeding. If it is necessary to force cattle for exhibition, let the forced animals be sacrifices, to demonstrate the capabilities of their kindred. Surely one may question the wisdom of using too freely the actual descendants of animals fed to gross obesity, if it is desirable to keep up the constitution of the Short- horn, and a fair proportion of lean flesh to the fat. Artificially produced characteristics become hereditary; and for this very reason I would advocate the liberal rearing of calves. Cattle reared in poverty for several generations degenerate to the unimproved type. There is the skin, and if you put your hand upon it you are uncomfortably conscious of the near- ness of the bones. Cattle, on the other hand, in each successive generation “overwhelmed with prosperity” from their birth, have the skin lined only by that which would melt away before the fire. Mr. Gumbleton’s views on Shorthorn management are so forcibly expressed in the Preface to his printed private Cata~ logue of 1878, and there is so much in his remarks worth considering, that a passage or two may be usefully extracted. His great object, he explains, was to find out whether valuable Shorthorns, if treated as ordinary cattle, would prove their superiority. ‘Was this breeding a rich man’s fancy, or would it pay the tenant-farmer? Glanatore is, for the greater part, poor, light land, at a considerable elevation; the cows get no artificial feeding (corn and cake) after they are one year old. Though they do not look so blooming as might please some The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 419 people’s taste, it is found they breed regularly, are very healthy, and, when beef is required, a few months’ feeding makes them fit for the butcher. Doubtless, a herd kept in high condition will look splendid, as meat will hide numerous faults, but costs a fortune, for no use except to please the eye.” In conclusion, Mr. Gumbleton maintains that the results of his experiment have proved “that good blood is of money-value; that there is no occasion to spend a fortune in keeping a herd in showyard condition, even to win high showyard honours; and that in whatever position a well-bred Shorthorn is placed, she will hold a higher place than any ordinary cow.” Next to Glanatore, in order of distance westward, is Ashfield, about a mile from the town of Fermoy, pleasantly situated in the Blackwater valley. Mr. Downing’s herd, although not what is called a show herd, has sent out animals distinguished at the leading shows of the three countries. The peculiarity in the treatment of his calves is that while the heifer-calves are suckled for six or seven months, the bull-calves are reared by the pail. The heifer-calves are turned out to their dams twice a-day, or in favourable weather allowed to run with them in the pasture. Some of the cows being very good milkers, and having much more than the calf could take, are milked while the calf sucks, that being, as remarked before, the time at which the cow most readily yields her milk to the hand. At about a month old, when the calves, male and female, begin to taste anything put in the manger, they are supplied with a little dry food—cake and finely-crushed maize and oats. As they grow older, and the winter season comes on, they and the cows all have pulped roots, cut straw or hay (sometimes mixed), and crushed oats, with Indian-meal or malt-combs. When the soft turnips and swedes are finished and mangolds take their place, it is found that malt-combs are usefully corrective of the purgative effect of mangolds. The cows not suckling their calves are milked twice a-day. In winter the yearling heifers stay indoors, but the cows, kept in boxes, are turned out every fine day for exercise and to graze. During the summer season, of course, they go out to grass. The whole herd is in nice even condition; nothing gross or overfed. The bulls have bran and crushed oats, with hay in winter and cut green food—vetches and clover and rye-grass—during the season. The principal stock-bull (the one at present in service, a well-known show bull formerly, but now a hale and an active animal of nearly nine years) goes out every day with the cows. The Ashfield estate lies between two rivers, yet, except for those who are fortunate enough to have their land on one or other of the rivers, water is scarce. Mr. Downing has, how- ever, the advantage of the solitary spring found between the 2a ie? 420 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. rivers, and from this he has enlarged an excellent watering- place, invaluable to him for his herd. Ballywater, near Castletownroche, lies about three miles to the north, or right of the line of railway, as the route already specified is continued. Mr, Welsted’s herd was founded more than thirty years ago, and retains direct descendants of some of the animals originally purchased. For many years specimens of his cattle were successfully exhibited ; but the practice of show- ing has been long discontinued, and the whole herd is now kept in very moderate breeding condition. For the last eighteen years the young bulls, any surplus heifers from the old pedigree families, and sometimes a few heifers bred up from good, useful stock, imported from England, crossed with the pedigree bulls, have been sold annually by auction. The object, therefore, is to make the herd increase as much as possible, while keeping it up to a standard of breeding and of excellence high enough for practical purposes, to insure a demand for the produce. For upwards of twenty years the bulls used as sires have been hired from England. The calves are suckled until about twenty- four hours old, but are not left with their dams. They are then hand-fed, a moderate quantity of new milk being given, and this is gradually reduced as they take other food. They have then grass in the day and hay and roots at night, the roots are cut into finger-slices, and each calf has about a handful of crushed, roughly-ground, or bruised—never fine-ground—oats, thrown over the sliced roots. ‘There are occasional exceptions to the hand-rearing system. Late calves, for instance, are often suckled, and there are sometimes other circumstances in which it is found best to let the cow rear her calf; but, as a rule, where reasons for the contrary do not exist, the cow after the first full day is hand-milked, and the calf fed from the pail; afterwards from the rack and manger, until of age to go out to grass. The heifers often lie out during the second winter, and the programme for the rest of their time is plain and hardy living, with constant discharge of the duties of motherhood, or the butcher’s poleaxe. Fertility, like dairy and grazing pro- perties, may be promoted by judicious management; but the importance of selection, as a part of management, should never be overlooked. Here, again, we are on border-land. The subjects of breeding and management are so joined together, that it is impossible to traverse either without entering upon the confines of the other. Mr. W. Talbot Crosbie’s herd at Ardfert Abbey, county Kerry, was founded in the year 1841. For the last twenty-eight years the young bulls have been sold by annual auction, and females have been sold privately or by auction, whenever the herd has out- The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 421 grown the accommodation of the land and buildings. The aim has been to produce bulls, and cows for breeding bulls, of a high class; and in the management, therefore, the beef-making and dairy properties of the Shorthorn have been kept in view, not for immediate profit from the sale of fat cattle, or of milk and butter, but in order to make the living produce of the herd valuable to stockowners, who seek profit from those sources. The herd has been successfully represented in the showyard ; and although Mr. Crosbie has ceased to exhibit, cattle bred by him, the offspring of bulls from Aldfert are still constantly winners at some of the principal shows. The averages of his sales of bulls have risen considerably within the last few years, and at each of the three last sales, during the great period of agricultural depression, averages of from 50/. to over 53/. have been realised. ‘The readiness to make beef is the first object. Milk, although secondary, is considered of great im- portance. Some of the cows are capital milkers, the majority fairly good milkers, considering their wealth of flesh; and Mr. Crosbie never had a cow that could not rear her own calf, except in one or two cases, when all the quarters of the udder have been lost from inflammation, commonly called “ garget.” Most of the cows, besides rearing their calves, have a good surplus for the house: but of this more by-and-by. The Ardfert estate lies chiefly on the Limestone and Carbon- iferous Limestone ; not much above the sea, the country being nearly level from Tralee (Tra-Lee, by interpretation, Strand-of- the-Lee), about six miles distant. The land isa good alluvial soil, and the temperature equal, snow seldom lying twenty-four hours on the ground, and ice strong enough to bear being seldom seen. I am unable to give the statistics of the rainfall at Ardfert ; but it is not so great as at Tralee. Wheat grows splendidly. Alto- gether about 300 acres of pasture are in hand: but asheep-walk of 40 acres must be deducted, leaving about 260 acres of excel- lent grass-land and 136 of arable, for the general stock of the farm. The buildings, including hay- and corn-barns, the latter built of concrete, with a special feature in the concrete roofs, are most conveniently arranged, so that the men distributing the food and bedding to the cattle work from a centre, where the turnips, and the straw-, hay- and sheaf-lofts are placed. A travelling truck on rails expedites the men’s labour, and all is under cover, an important matter in a wet climate. In the main building are the young bulls for the yearly auction (after they are taken from their dams), and any other young stock that may need extra keep, and in the wings are the breeding stock. Old and young are kept almost entirely in boxes. There is tying-up room for only 14 head; but box-accommodation for 422 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 122, so that the buildings can cover 136, The boxes have venti- lation at the top, and “ day-doors” or gates to admit a plentiful supply of air during the warmer hours; solid doors to close at night, if the Aan should be cold enough to make the animals eed iat protection. In the case of vse cows and bulk of the young stock, one side of the box is generally open to the weather. With the exception of the yearling heifers and young bulls, sorted in pairs, and the calves in what we may call the nursery, in threes, the animals, although together as regards the food— their boxes adjoining and the truck-line passing down the middle of the buildings—are separate as regards each other; so that when one is removed no excitement is caused among the rest. The boxes are numbered, and the lines of boxes are dis- tinguished by alphabetical letters, for ready reference to the whereabouts of any particular animal. ‘The first calving cow | of the season is put in box No. 1, the second in No, 2, and so forth. The steading has a Turkish bath, very successfully used for any animals that happen to take cold. Concrete cisterns contain a plentiful supply of water. Besides the boxes for the Shorthorns, stable room for seven horses is provided. The herd at the time of my visit, in the middle of June, consisted of 116 pedigree Shorthorns of both sexes and all ages, and, as no special causes of extra increase or diminution existed, this may be taken as about the usual number for the time of year. The service of the cows begins in February, and no cow sees the bull after October. Most of the calves are born in December, or early in January; so that the period between January and the spring sale, about the end of March, would be the time when its number is strongest. The 116 may be divided thus: females, exclusive of sucking calves, 79; heifer-calves, 10; bull-calves, 24; and stock bulls, oe Usually from 40 to 50 of the cows and heifers calve within the year. The calves are suckled, and all run out with the cows as soon as they are turned out to grass, the heifer-calves, until weaned, remaining with them. The weaning of the heifers takes place when the cows are taken indoors in the autumn; but this additional rule is after she is six months in-calf. The bull-calves are brought in as soon as they begin to be troublesome in the field, and are put, in pairs, into ein boxes. Much stress is laid upon this system of pairing them, and keeping the same two always together until the sale. The Hanae are brought in to suckle them twice a-day until the weaning-time. anys bulls get other food as soon as they are brought in; the heifers nak until taken indoors in the autumn, and very little then. The food of both is pulped turnips, plain hay and a mixture of linseed-cake, decorticated The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 423 cotton-cake, oats, and bran in the following proportions, divided into four equal parts :—Two of linseed-cake, one of cotton-cake, and one of crushed oats and bran. No hard-and-fast line is observed as to the quantity given to each animal. The bulls get more or less, according to size; the heifers, as we have seen, only a little, as a sort of relish ; but the needs of each are carefully watched, and more or less food allowed accordingly. No milk is given to either bulls or heifers after they are weaned. At 5 o’clock every evening and 7 in the morning, women go round among the suckling cows and take any accumulated milk. While the majority of the cows are in full milk and their calves young, from 100 to 200 gallons of milk come into the house in the course of one month. The quantity, of course, diminishes as the calves require more and the cows yield less; but this yield in excess of the calves’ sustenance implies the existence of milk-productiveness, which might be largely cultivated by regular and frequent milking (say three times a-day) and restriction of the calves’ access to their dams. The cows, with their calves, and the younger females, are generally turned out, night and day, before the 1st of April. This year, the spring being cold and backward, some were brought in at night until after that time. The autumn weather being usually open and mild, they are not taken in until late in November or early in December. In the winter the breeding cows get nothing but straw, turnips and water, until they calve, except for about a week before calving, when they get scalded bran. Soon after calving, their warm bran mashes are discontinued, and they have hay, turnips, and bran wetted with cold water. If, as is some- times the case, a calving cow has become on this ordinary keep very fat, a little linseed-oil is given to her on pulped turnips. As a rule, very little, if any, medicine is given. Regulation of the system by the diet is preferred to physic. No cake is given to breeding cows, but if, as is not usual, a yearling heifer hap- pens to be in-calf, she has, if she seems to need it, a little oil- cake to keep up her strength and condition. In the ordinary way, the heifers live their second winter on straw and turnips. It is noticed, however, at Ardfert (contrary to most English experience) that yearling heifers are shy of breeding, that about one-half of those which have the chance do not prove in-calf, and nearly all the remainder take a year’s holiday after the first calf. It is only, indeed, in the case of yearlings that have bred (z.e. become mothers when about two years old) that any diffi- culty as to breeding is found. The suckling cows breed again regularly, as a rule within the year, although those which have heifer-calves are accompanied by their calves night and day. 424 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. Generally, the evidence I have collected tells the other way ; that cows allowed to have their calves running out with them, or living in the same box with them, do not readily breed again until the calf is weaned; but the particulars gathered from the Ardfert .farm-books afford very positive testimony, extending over a long course of years, so far as the Ardfert cattle are concerned. The explanation I cannot attempt to offer, but these are the facts. Taking dates of the produce of ten cows, whose average age at the date of last calving was ten years and one month, I find that their average produce was eight calves each, average at date of first calving two years and ten months, and average length of time between the birth of the first and of the last calf, seven years and three months. ‘These cows are all now in the herd, and, so far as I know, continuing to breed ; several of them are by no means old cows, and are likely to breed for many years ; while others may in all probability yield each another calf ortwo. Extending the calculation to cows that had passed out of the herd, I arrived at similar results, but found a greater average of elses. and of age at birth of last calf, because the full life a several of the cows came into the account, which was not the case in taking ten old and middle-aged cows from the herd as it stands. I may further illustrate the breeding power of the herd by taking (from the same source, the Ardfert farm-books) the last few years’ records of the number of breeding cows in the herd, and the number of living calves produced by them. The following table includes, in the column for the number of calves, only such as were actually reared beyond what may be called infancy. Losses beyond that period are rare, and the figures show, not only ample reproductiveness in the herd, but also a very small percentage of losses among the calves at or soon after birth. When the number of calves reared is in excess of the number of cows in-calf, the difference (as is obvious) is in consequence of one or more of the cows producing twins. One cow had bred twins four times. Year. Cows in-calf. Calves reared, S729 1-2 ss eee: 49 La ee Een LSI3iAay ee 52 oe Dy RO LSTA ce. reed egos |) ee stevia die ieae se eG STD) iene Bel StL gues 38 Bs aide dulgery) Mae) ST GR) iech eae 46 ae! geste | Wee eee NS iimee es My 40 a Riel ete oe ESTO mmm to Ley Wes Pa, 2 41 ce a 6 GED SOM meee hts-/) \ fae lek ee 41 ee a ae 353 347 Thus, excepting losses which were compensated by the birth of twins, there was a total loss of only six calves in eight years, The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 425 or of not quite 1 calf out of 44 per annum. The figures for 1880 were not completed when I took these memoranda ; but so far as the calves were born (and all immediately entered in the books) the figures appeared to be about the average of the preceding eight years. CONCLUSION. In reviewing the various systems of management in different districts and circumstances, one cannot fail to remark the occa- sionally contradictory character of the evidence presented con- cerning matters of fact. In one herd, the early breeding of heifers is considered inimical to their strength and growth, and even affects unfavourably, at least for a time, their breeding powers ; in another herd, heifers will be shy to breed, or will not breed at all, unless they are brought to service early. In one herd, cows do not breed again until their calves are weaned ; in another, the suckling of her calf does not throw the cow one day later. With regard to this question, the weight of evidence appears to be in favour of the suggestion that it is rather the companionship of the calf, than the fact that the cow is milked by it instead of by the hand, that delays the cow’s breeding ; but on the other hand there is—for instance, at Ardfert (where all the events in the herd are minutely recorded, and accurate statistics are accordingly afforded by the books)—the fact of cows breeding regularly within the year, while those which have heifer-calves are never parted from them until the final weaning, when the calf is seven, eight, or nine months old, and those which produce males do not lose their society until the young bulls become troublesome, and this can scarcely be before they are at least three or four months old, when in most cases the dam is again safe in-calf. To the obvious answer that delay occurs because the cow is not sufficiently watched, and that while the calf is with her she needs closer watching than if it were away, one may draw argument for a rejoinder from the example of Holker, where the utmost vigilance is exercised, and yet the cows that suckle their calves do not readily breed again. The explanation of these contradictions is perhaps not very easily to be found; but I would submit that we must seek it in local conditions. Perhaps there are in the climate or the land at Ard- fert, or in some circumstances of the breeding, conditions which do not exist at Holker, favourable to the reproductiveness of nursing-mothers. A friend writing from the north of Ireland, without reference to my present inquiries, in fact, some time before I had any idea of writing upon this subject in the ‘Journal,’ mentioned that the soil or climate of his particular district appeared to be peculiarly favourable to the fertility of 426 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. cattle, for there was very seldom the least trouble in getting animals to breed. Writing a few months later, the same corre- spondent said that the season of last year had been exception- ally bad in that respect, an unusually large number of cows having returned to the bull. The remarks in both letters applied not only to the Shorthorns, but to the common stock of the country. That air and pasture have much to do with this is notorious, and a change will often do that which no amount . of management in one place can effect. The late Mr. S. E. Bolden’s success, especially his extraordinary good fortune in raising a family from old Duchess 51st—a speculative purchase at a risk~price—and numerous offspring from some old Warlaby cows bought as doubtful breeders, was attributed in great mea- sure to the facility he had for changing his cows about between Springfield Hall and his sea-side farm of Red Bank. I cannot dismiss the impression, I will not say conclusion, although it almost amounts to belief, that there is in the air of Ardfert, which is near the coast, and probably in the richness of the grass-land, something to account for the apparently exceptional readiness of the suckling cows, whose calves actually live with them, to breed again. My own experience of the suckling versus the hand- milking system is, like that of Mr. Drewry at Holker, Messrs. Gaitskell at Hall Santon, and many others, strongly in favour of the latter as regards the readiness of cows to breed again; yet the land upon which the Shorthorns at Lune Bank were kept is some of the richest grass-land in the North of England. With regard to the early breeding of heifers, on the same land, the safest plan by far was always to let them breed early. If they were not in-calf before they were two years old, I gene- rally had trouble with them. From fifteen to twenty months, ~ according to size and strength, was the usual time for beginning ; and I did not find that heifers which were mothers at two years of age were in any way injured, in either early or after life. There was another point, besides. Cattle of a heavy, flesh- making sort, on good grazing land, could not be got to milk unless they bred early. When they brought their first calves at two or two-and-a-half years old, they seldom failed as milkers ; and they were at any time ready enough to make flesh when required, often when not required to do so. But in addition to contradictory evidence on matters of fact, we have to deal with contradictory opinions upon questions of expediency. For instance, the dry food for young stock— should the corn be merely crushed or bruised, or should it be fine-ground? I have stated the practice of different breeders ; the reader will draw his own conclusions. The turnip question, in connection with abortion, is one on which wide differences of The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 427 opinion exist. As turnips are largely used for sheep, it may be useful to quote from one or two competent authorities upon sheep-management. Mr. Henry Woods, of Merton, in his Lecture on the ‘Diseases of Sheep’ (published as a pamphlet), page 35, referring to abortion in a flock of ewes, says: “ Feeding will, I believe, be found to be the main cause, especially feeding on turnips, as is done on some of our large flock farms ;” and he considers that “we do not give suflicient dry food to counteract the evil effects of turnip-feeding.” He is here alluding to the practice of “feeding our ewes wholly on turnips.” Mr. Woods also introduces his impression about the effect of turnips grown from superphosphate of lime used as manure. But this opens up too wide a question for discussion here. I have asked of several sheep-breeders, in various parts of the country, their experience of the effects of feeding in-lamb ewes upon turnips. As their answers seem to throw some light upon the subject as regards cattle, and to suggest how and why turnips may be dangerous food, I will introduce one or two of their remarks. The first of the following extracts is from the letter of a member of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, well known as a breeder of Shorthorn cattle and Oxfordshire Down sheep—Mr. Charles Howard, of Biddenham. ‘“ We avoid as much as possible putting sheep upon turnips previous to lambing, as we do not consider them healthy food. I have known ewes when fed for some time on turnips bring dead lambs, but, as a rule, they go their full time. ‘The lambs are suffocated by too much water, produced by the turnips, accumu- lating in the womb, I should advise that ewes, previous to lambing, be run upon grass; but when this is not practicable, and turnips must be used, they should have a plentiful supply of dry food, corn and cake. I do not think that cows in-calf would be injured by a moderate supply of roots.” Mr. Thomas Bushby, the Southdown breeder, of West Preston Manor, in Sussex, says: “I think it would be very difficult to cause abor- tion by genuine feeding. My experience has been that frosted turnips are dangerous without dry food, and that no animal should come upon turnips very empty, or ravenous for food. Doubtless indigestion is a great cause of abortion, and indi- gestion is caused by the animals being over-fed at one time, and under-fed at another; so that the animal is sometimes’ very hungry, and, after feeding, cannot digest its food. Many persons have an impression that sheep may have too many turnips before lambing. I think the danger is from this want of discretion in the feeder. Regularity to five minutes should be strictly observed; and the manger should always be cleared up; that is, that the animal should not be over-fed, and after 428 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. its time of feeding have food before it—a thing we should greatly dislike ourselves. With a good feeder the animals lick the manger out; with a bad one the manger is always partly full.” Mr. Bushby adds, that ewes in-lamb, in the latter part of the season, are penned in the field with the ewes that have lambs, and have turnips at their pleasure by day, and dry food at night. He has seldom known them cast their lambs, and his impression is that this is because they are never over-filled, and never too long without food. But the tied-up animal will loathe the food it is always breathing over. Punctuality, with judgment to gauge the capacity of each animal, he considers very necessary; and, as the most frequent cause of abortion, mentions sudden fright—from the discharge of a gun, a dog jumping over a wall, the steam from an engine, or anything else which startles the animals. All this, those know who have ever closely watched Shorthorns, is applicable to cattle; and another cause of abortion is neglect in allowing dead rabbits, rats, rooks, or crows, or any decomposing animal matter, to lie about the land. Cattle, especially when in a breeding state, are keenly sensitive to bad smells. Neglected gateways and watering- places, where heavy cows have to toil and strain themselves through knee-deep mud or clay, are also dangerous. Some breeders separate calves from the mothers for the sake of the cows, that the cows may the more readily breed again ; other breeders do it for the sake of the calves. This is the more important in the case of calves whose dams are deep milkers, for it is of no use to talk about bringing up calves in the “ natural” way when the cow’s yield of milk so tar exceeds that of a cow in her natural state. A yield of five or six gallons a day is known only under highly artificial conditions; and to give a calf unrestricted access to such a supply would be to place it in great danger. In some places, if the cow is a deep milker, the calf is put in a little railed-off corner of her box, where she can see and lick it, but not feed it. The instinct of the cow to lick the calf should not be overlooked. The bloomy appearance of suckled calves is partly due to this motherly attention, and the licking along the calf’s spine, which the cow, with her rasp of a tongue, gives her calf immediately after birth, has evidently an important meaning. ll careful managers, when the calves are not reared by the cow, take care to imitate this process, rubbing well over the spine with a wisp of straw. This not only dries the calf and prevents its taking cold, but evidently strengthens it; and the calf, if a healthy one at full time, responds to the rubbing by vigorous efforts, soon successful, to gain its feet. The calf, penned off in a corner of the cow’s box, is admitted to her for its meals so many times a-day. The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 429 The most common practice is three times a-day while it is very young, twice when a little older ; but there are differences of opinion about this: some managers, remembering that in a wild or natural state the calf would suck often, prefer to continue the three times a-day ; others, observing that while the wild cow yields to her calf frequent small quantities, the domesticated cow, unless a very bad milker, gives hers an ample meal, contend that three times sucking does not allow the calf plenty of time between the first and second, or second and third feed, to digest the milk. Then there is the system, which recognises both these views, of admitting the calf three times a-day, and regulating the quantity it gets by milking the cow while the calf sucks. When companionship of cow and calf without unrestricted access of the calf to the udder is desired, and the corner pen is not practicable, a basket-work muzzle is sometimes put upon the calf; but, after all, this seems a tantalising expedient, and it is questionable whether separation, with occasional access to one another, is not better for both cow and calf. To keep animals as free as possible from annoyance of all kinds is one of the principal rules of every well-managed herd. Any circumstance that frets, or fidgets, or disturbs, is opposed to thriving, and therefore wasteful of food. The wear and tear of “ worry ” taxes the food intended to form bone, muscle, or fat. Where the cow is hand- milked, and suckles her calf besides, would it not be wise to milk before the calf sucks? The calf, then, would get the richer strippings, and the cow be thoroughly dried each time—a matter of great importance. If milked after the calf has sucked, she is not always inclined to yield her milk to the last drop. Probably among breeders of Shorthorns there are none who have paid more attention to the subject of management than Mr. E. A. Fawcett, of Childwick Hall, near St. Albans. What- ever differences of opinion may exist as to the expediency of his practice (and we must always make allowance for possible local reasons for or against any particular rule of management), there can be no question that every part of the subject has been care- fully considered by him, and that whatever he does with his cattle, right or wrong, he is able instantly to give his reason for doing it; and that reason is always the outcome of deliberate thought. In a recent conversation with Mr. Fawcett upon the suckling system which he adopts, I found him strongly opposed to the plan of allowing the calf to run out with the cow in the field, for the following reasons :—(1.) If the cow is a great milker, the calf sucks from perhaps only one quarter, or it may be two quarters, of the udder; the two or three untouched quarters harden (or “stone,” as a local term rather expressively describes it), and there is consequent danger of garget. (2.) The calf gallops, 430 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. gets over-heated, lies down, gets chilled, takes cold, and (pos- sibly) dies. (3.) The calf helps itself to too much milk and too often, disturbing the process of digestion ; it becomes feverish, and perhaps dies, the danger being greatly aggravated when the dam is a deep milker. (4.) The cow, on coming indoors to be milked or stripped of surplus milk, will not yield her milk to the hand unless the calf happens to suck at the same time. (5.) The cow usually will not breed again so soon as if the calf is kept away from her except at suckling-time. Mr. Faweett’s success in management, as regards the fertility of his herd and immunity from disease and loss, is extraordinary. I have said that he rears the calves upon the suckling system, but this is not invariably adopted, for when a heifer calves at a very early age, and before she has got plenty of size and strength to enable her to bring up her calf without injury to herself, the calf is taken from her and brought up on skim-milk, boiled in a vessel plunged in a larger vessel containing water, so that there is no direct action of the fire upon it. The milk is then allowed to cool, and, when required for use, warmed up to new-milk tem- perature. There is some evaporation of the watery part of the milk, which becomes therefore more condensed nourishment. The same process of boiling the milk is understood to destroy the infectious power in the milk of cows in foot-and-mouth disease. The objection to frequency of calves’ feeding is perhaps based partly upon analogy; and it is worth while to consider how far analogy exists between the human subject and the ox. For mankind, the rule, briefly and forcibly set forth by Mr. Erasmus Wilson—in that popular treatise on the skin by which so much was done to extend the use of soap and water—is “to let that patient drudge, the stomach, alone during its three hours of labour and one of rest; to put nothing more into it while the mill is at work, nor when it is in repose gathering its strength for another grind. Tease it not, fret it not, if you would keep it in good humour ; and without its good humour, alas for yours!” We should, nevertheless, remember man’s food goes directly into the true mill, while the ox has a macerating paunch, and two other stomachs before the fourth or digesting stomach is reached ; and continuous eating, for a long time, is the natural habit of the ox. Still, to a certain extent, the analogy may hold good. The same principle, also, which makes a great variety of food at one meal, and continuous sameness of food, injurious to the human subject, may be taken as a guide for the management of cattle ; and if so, how injurious to the health of an animal must be that forcing in which it is necessary to tempt the animal’s appetite by tasty mixtures! In pail-feeding, the risk of unequal The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 431 quantities of milk—sometimes warm, sometimes cold—being given, seems great, and calls for attention and care. Cleanliness of the feeding-pail is also a matter of the greatest importance. According to Culley, one great difficulty in his day was to avoid what was called “lyery” flesh, a sort of black lean, “as black and coarse-grained as horse-flesh,” often abundant, but of bad quality and lacking the desired intermixture of fat. An opposite difficulty besets us now. The modern tendency is to excess of fat and scarcity of lean, so that animals when in poor condition are light-fleshed, and when in high condition are useful chiefly to the soap-boiler ; and as the results of civilisation and education descend from human parent to child, and even acquired habits and peculiarities of manner are frequently trans- mitted to descendants—in the brute creation propensities arti- ficially established become a heritable part of the animal’s nature. Hence, as I have before suggested, the incalculable importance of management in relation to breeding for improvement. Instinct has been described as inherited experience ; so breed may be called inherited culture. Good land, careful manage- ment, the selection of animals which gave the largest and readiest return in milk and beef in proportion to the quantity of food consumed, and the rejection of animals inclining to the opposite of these characteristics, combined to produce what we call the Improved Shorthorn. This selection, no doubt, was to a great extent unstudied, at least as to the results towards which it was tending. The farmer kept for his breeding stock the heifers that best pleased him as thrivers and milkers, and weeded out those which cumbered the ground ; just as his wife stuck to the pullets that proved good layers, and twisted the necks of all that could not earn their keep. Each farmer, doing the best he could for himself, probably thought little, if he ever thought at all, of the adyantages which he was heaping up for posterity. The extraordinary powers of production thus culti- vated through long generations became hereditary ; so strongly hereditary, indeed, that they may survive much abuse and neglect, but they are not indestructible. “Strains of blood” are sometimes spoken of as if they were specific elements, analogous to eléments in chemistry, always certain to produce, in stated combinations, foreknown results; but have not many stock-breeders discovered to their grief how utterly BREED may fail if not supported by skilful MANAGEMENT ? In his ‘Notes on Fields and Cattle, 1862, the Rev. W. Holt Beever happily illustrates the folly of attempting to deal with an improved breed of cattle like the Shorthorn without adequate means of maintaining its improved condition. He says (page 9):—“ The breed invented by the Collings with such 432 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. diligence and judgment, we should never recommend for the adoption of a farmer upon a small holding, or a poor soil ; unless, indeed, he adopt the plan of buying food on a large scale—a principle upon which a three-decker could be farmed. . A more wretched animal than the Shorthorn on scant keep it is difficult to conceive—a faded tulip where a cowslip should have been.” Mr. R. O. Pringle, in his useful work ‘On the Live-Stock of the Farm,’ observes that “from the day when the calf comes into the world to the day when the matured animal is consigned to the butcher, the rule to be observed should be—continuous progression, and no retrogression.” This applies as aptly to stock reared for breeding purposes as to stock brought up for grazing. Retrogression is sheer waste of time and food, therefore of money. Without a good grip of these two elementary prin- ciples, as advanced by Mr. Pringle and Mr. Holt Beever, it is useless to attempt the management of a Shorthorn herd. Mr. Holt Beever does not imply that the pedigree Shorthorn cannot do as much as a common-bred animal upon ordinary keep. The Shorthorn, if owning a pedigree that means (as a pedigree should mean) the inheritance of personal worth, most assuredly can not only equal, but far surpass the common-bred animal, just as good land without manure can yield more than bad land under the same condition. That analogy is good for further application. The impoverishment of a highly improved flesh- making breed of cattle is, like the impoverishment of highly improved land, irrecoverable loss. Something of money value, which has been possessed, is in both cases allowed to go for no return or consideration. Several of the illustrations which I have taken prove what may be done with the Shorthorn upon very moderate keep, if care be taken not to stunt the growth nor to check the steady development of muscle. Many subjects connected with the management of Shorthorns will suggest themselves to the reader, probably, as subjects that might have legitimately come within the scope of this treatise ; such, for instance, as analyses of food, or classification of various foods according to their uses—to make bone, fat, or muscle; to stimulate, to give warmth, &c. But these chiefly are in themselves special subjects already most ably handled in the volumes of the ‘ Journal’ by professional and other com- petent authorities. The veterinary parts of the subject, like- wise, I have studied to avoid as far as possible ; and as I have therefore abstained from quoting the best opinions, the necessity of avoiding also unprofessional nostrums was obvious. Specifics for the prevention or cure of diseases, and matters of that sort, might fill a volume of petty recipes, useful in its way. The idea The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. 433 here has been to keep in view principles of management and facts, and not to overlook opinions, when they were the opinions of thoughtful and experienced men. There are a few more matters of detail I wish to notice. Next to beef, milk must have the place of favour with a great majority of the managers of herds. In future years, so far as we can judge the tendencies of current events, we shall be thrown more than we are at present upon dairy-farming as a source of profit and of the national food-supply. In the belief that without losing in the smallest degree the Shorthorn’s usefulness as a grazing animal, we may largely increase its yield of milk, I am supported by the carefully founded opinion of some of the most practical and successful breeders of grazing stock. In all probability, the three-times-a-day milking would greatly tend to cause an increased flow of milk; and a great deal, I believe, might be done by attention to the bag. In hand-milking, a lazy milker goes to the hind-quarters of the bag first, because they are the easiest to draw ; and for the same reason he sticks to them longest, so that eventually they increase, while the fore-quarters diminish, and a “can-bag,” all down behind and shallow and shrunk in front, is the necessary con- sequence. Eventually, the fore-quarters become almost useless, not in the first cow that is so treated, but by gradual deterio- ration through successively mismanaged generations of cows, until in a great part of the stock, common as well as highly bred, which should be the dairy stock of the country, the capability of the udder is seriously impaired. More attention to this on the part of the owners of Shorthorn herds is urgently needed: not only on the part of owners of herds kept for the dairy, but more especially of the owners of bull-breeding herds ; for it is the bulls bred from cows with no fore-bags that do the mischief all over the country. Much care should be devoted to the exercise of young animals, and making them accustomed to the halter, the slip-noose ot which should be knotted or “locked,” as the ordinary term is, to- prevent its tightening upon the animal, pinching and so causing great pain and consequent restlessness. ‘This is especially im- portant in tying animals up in horse-boxes, or other means of conveyance for travelling. In driving cows the stick should be raised only to point the way, a hint which properly treated animals readily take. Otherwise the stick is seldom necessary, and, if necessary, must be used with a light and careful hand. The abominable cruelty of tail-twisting will never be permitted by any intelligent owner. ‘The herdsman who loses his temper with the cattle under his charge is totally unfit for his place. He must have a kindly liking for them in order to get thorough VOL. XVI.—S. 8. 2F 434 The Management of a Shorthorn Herd. control over them. A herd of shy, frightened cows is one in which a leading principle of management has been overlooked, and a savage bull generally means a savage man. I have found herdsmen, as a rule, exceedingly kind to the cattle under their care, but occasionally a man—far oftener a cow-boy—needs looking after. A frequent, quick-eyed inspection of a herd, with a view to minor casualties, may spare many and heavy losses. An eye injured by a thorn in a hedge, or threatened by the ingrowth of the horn; a piece of stick or dirt between the “claws” of the hoof; the hoof itself cracked, broken, or over-grown ; loose teeth in young animals, ‘ wolves’ teeth” in those of full age; to say nothing of the importance of careful watching for returns to service, preparation for calving, and the earliest symptoms of cold or illness of any kind: these are among the multitudinous matters for which the manager of a Shorthorn herd must be, either personally or by a trustworthy proxy, ever.on the alert. Rock-salt placed in large lumps in the boxes, and in the fields, for the animals indoors and out to lick; a lump of chalk, securely tied, hanging (like a kitten’s cotton-reel) within reach of each calf in its pen.; an earth sod for loss of cud, mint-tea for a calf that has got a chill, a raw egg occasionally for one that wants strengthening: these are among the hundreds of small particulars, which it would be impossible to enumerate here. In all districts but those where the climate is exceptionally genial during the autumn and early winter (parts of Ireland, for example, near the sea), cattle do much better when housed early in the autumn, and turned out proportionately early in the spring. When too well-fed and too long confined in spring they do not thrive so well; and when kept too long out in the cold autumn nights, their hides thicken, and, in popular phraseology, the animals are long before they “get the cold out of their bones.” — In turning out by day in winter, too, itis most important to take the cows in as soon as they draw together towards the buildings, and not let them stand at the gate, wearing off their flesh with the cold, perhaps catching settled complaints, and almost cer-’ tainly ripping one another with their horns, the latter being one of those causes of abortion for which, perhaps, turnips get the blame. I have alluded to the necessity of keeping animals contented and pleased, and the bad economy of permitting disturbance or any sort of annoyance to the cattle. Relative to this, it is obvious that kindness towards the animals is of incalculable importance; and it should be not only negative but positive kindness. Cattle are more amenable to the power of gentleness than would be imagined by those who are not familiarly ac- Laying down Land to Grass. 435 quainted with them. It keeps them in a good humour, and although they don’t literally “laugh and grow fat,” they cer- tainly do extract from their food the more visible and tangible results in proportion to the quietness and happiness of their lives. XXII.—Laying down Land to Grass. By JAMES Howarp, of Clapham Park, Bedfordshire. TuE object of this paper is not to discuss the policy of turning arable land into pasture, but simply to describe my own prac- tice. For two or three generations past the ploughing up of old grass-land has, to a greater or less extent, prevailed in this and the surrounding counties: the unprofitableness of corn-growing during the past few years has not only brought this custom to an end, but has led to an opposite course. The change which has come over the prospects of agriculture has, moreover, caused landowners to regret the conversion of their pastures into tillage, and many are now anxiously inquiring as to the best methods of restoring their land to grass. Eighteen years ago I purchased the Clapham Park Estate of the Earl of Ashburnham, and at once commenced laying down portions in pasture—a practice which I have, for residential and other reasons, continued up to the present time. During this period upwards of 200 acres of arable land have been laid down to grass. The methods of laying down have been various. Before I proceed to describe them, I would remark that in forming an opinion upon any farm practice it is imperative that the kind of soil and other leading facts should be known. I would there- fore state that the whole of my land is on the Oxford-clay and Boulder-clay formations; it has all been thoroughly drained, and was in anything but a high state of cultivation when it came into my hands. The average rainfall is 22 inches. My first experience in laying down land to grass was upon a small farm belonging to a friend, and which I took on a long lease twenty-two years ago. On this farm I laid down a 12-acre field, following the ordinary practice of sowing the seeds with a corn-crop. My experience corresponded with that of most others who have pursued the same course; the grasses began to fail about the third or fourth year, although manure was from time to time applied, and no sheep depastured upon the field ; several years elapsed before much progress was made towards the establishment of a turf. To the best of my remembrance it was not until about the tenth year that the grasses were well Ze 2 436 Laying down Land to Grass. established: for at least seven years the field was not worth half the rental, the grass it produced not being sufficient to support the few young horned-stock turned out upon it, cake or other extraneous food being a necessity. I subsequently laid down other fields upon the same method, and with the same unsatis- factory results. The conclusion I came to was that much truth was expressed in the old Suffolk couplet :— “To break a pasture will make a man To make a pasture will break a man.” About sixteen years ago I was induced to try the system of inoculation. The previous preparation of the land in this case had been a summer or dead fallow. Strips were ploughed out of a good permanent pasture, and pieces about the size of the palm of the hand laid down about 9 inches asunder, the man treading down each piece with his foot. Mixed seeds were subsequently sown, and a light roller passed over the ground. There can be no doubt that a good pasture is more quickly obtained by this method than by any other; the chief drawback is the expense. I calculated that the cost of the experiment was not less than 3/. 10s. to 4/. per acre. Another drawback is the injury done to the pasture from which the strips are taken; this to a great extent has been avoided by the plan of ploughing out very narrow strips, adopted by the Duke of Manchester, who has practised the system of inoculation at Kimbolton (a few miles from here) with eminent success. The Kimbolton Park experiments, with the improvements in the method introduced by his Grace, are well described in the ‘ Journal’ for 1876, Volume XII. On one side of my inoculated plot is old turf, and on the other newly-sown pasture, all three being in the same field. Several years ago my bailiff called my attention to the fact that the stock preferred the inoculated portion to either of the others, and to the present time this preference is constantly observable by the closeness with which the grass is grazed down, and also by the cattle being seen so frequently upon it. Before trying the plan of inoculation, [ had become convinced of the necessity of giving poor clay-land, intended for grass, a summer fallow and laying it down without a corn-crop. My reasons were, (1) to clean it thoroughly, (2) to restore its fertility, and (3) to obtain a fine and suitable tilth. In consequence of the summer of 1862 being continuously wet, the cleaning of a field particularly foul and full of couch- grass was rendered impossible; I resolved therefore upon giving it another year’s fallow, solely with a view to get it clean before laying it down. The result of this accidental ——~ Laying down Land to Grass. 437 circumstance proved most favourable; the grasses not only grew vigorously, but the dying out about the third or fourth year —so invariably the case with new pastures—was far less observ- able. The only reason to account for the superiority of this field over a piece adjoining, laid down after a dead fallow of one year, was that the two years’ rest had so restored the con- dition of the soil that the grasses found all the nourishment in it they required. ‘To this method of treatment I shall again have occasion to refer. Sixteen years ago I acquired, by exchange with a neighbour, a small field of 7 acres which was in sainfoin when it came into my possession. ‘This field, being a short distance from my house and immediately in sight, I postponed, year after year, ploughing up and sowing down in grass. As the sainfoin began to die out, indigenous grasses began to make their appear- ance; I determined, therefore, not to carry out my intention of ploughing it up, but to try the effect of sowing renovating grasses, and manuring the field tolerably often. The result of this course was that I obtained a very fair piece of pasture, which at the present time is not at all inferior to some in close proximity sown down nearly twenty years ago with a corn-crop. Last year I planted another field intended for permanent pasture with sainfoin. I adopted this course, instead of a two- years’ dead fallow, out of deference to the wishes of my bailiff, who reminded me that he was expected to make the farm pay, but how, he asked, was he to do it with so much land being laid down if he had to wait three years fora crop? For the same cogent reasoning, four years ago I sowed a 16-acre field with lucerne, upon which, two years afterwards, I sowed per- manent grass-seeds. Mr. Martin J. Sutton, in his work upon ‘ Permanent Pastures,’ has expressed an unfavourable opinion of sowing grasses in lucerne ; notwithstanding this adverse opinion, from the beautiful carpet of green my field presents this spring I have every reason so far to be satisfied with the experiment. Hitherto I have dwelt upon the different systems pursued ; I now proceed to make a few general observations upon the sowing and subsequent management of newly sown pastures, As already intimated, I greatly prefer sowing down without a corn-crop: on poor clay soils the grasses require for their support the manurial elements which a crop of corn takes out of the land. _ In cases where the land has been exhausted or brought into low condition, a two-years’ dead fallow will be found the cheapest way of restoring fertility, and bringing it into a condition to sustain the grasses through the critical years already ‘alluded to. It is often asserted that the practice of sowing down with a corn-crop is attended with a twofold advantage, viz. the young 438 Laying down Land to Grass. grasses are sheltered by the growing corn, and the sale of the grain raised together with the straw pays a good portion of the expense of laying down. In respect of shelter, I have found no need for it either with spring- or with autumn-sown seeds. As to the corn repaying the expense, there might have been some force in the argument when wheat was worth 10s. per bushel; but at the prices which have ruled of late, I cannot think the practice can pay, more particularly when it is remembered that corn and grass belong to the same natural order of plants, and therefore extract from the soil the same elements of plant-food. It should further be borne in mind that an essential point in laying down is to get the land into good heart; to go therefore the straightest way to take out the very condition required for the sustenance of the grass plants surely cannot be wise or a course to be commended. With respect to the sacrifice attending a two-years’ fallow, I would observe that it is simply the rent, the rates, and the cost of an extra ploughing and one or two scarifyings of the easily moved tilth. Land which has been highly farmed for a number of years may safely be sown down after one year’s fallow. I have a 10-acre field near to my house which, being in high condition, I sowed down in this way in 1876, and which promises well, no renovating grasses being at present necessary. Whichever method is pursued, the land should be scrupulously clean before sowing. I have stubbed up 30 acres of wood, most of which was sown down after a summer’s fallow, and with fair success, but I should be disposed to adopt the two-years’ method in future, and this with a view to give the raw soil, a good deal of which is inva- riably brought to the surface, a more thorough aeration ; I have come to this conclusion, inasmuch as a piece I sowed down in 1877, after one year’s fallow, requires renovating grasses this spring. Great diversity of opinion exists as to whether the grass-seeds should be sown in the spring or in the autumn. Having tried both plans, I have no hesitation in expressing an opinion in favour of the latter, and for this reason: if sown in the spring, when vegetation is quick, the weeds run a race with the grasses, get possession of the ground, and entail great expense in weed- ing; if sown in the autumn, when vegetation is less quick, the grasses have a clearer course, grow more rapidly than weeds, and a thicker plant of grass is the result. ‘The heavy and light seeds should be sown separately but simultaneously, one sower following the other. To lay down absolute rules for the treatment of newly-sown pastures is far easier than, according to my experience, is the Laying down Land to Grass. 439 putting of them into practice. The exigencies of a farm, full of live stock, and fitful seasons upsetting previously formed plans, are apt to override all preconceived notions. If possible, | would avoid putting sheep upon new pastures until the grasses are thoroughly well established. The Persians say, “The sheep has a foot of gold, and turns to gold whatever it treads upon.” The proverb doubtless contains much truth, but it does not hold in the case of new pastures; not that the feet of the sheep are injurious, but their teeth are formidable enemies to young grasses. If compelled to stock with sheep, they should be folded, the folds of ample size, and moved daily, especially in showery weather; in very wet weather the sheep should be taken off. Roots or other artificial food should of course be given. If sheep are simply depastured, they wander over the field and pick out and gnaw down the finer grasses, to the injury or destruction of the pasture ; if confined in a fold, the same injurious results do not appear to follow, at all events not to the same extent. For new pastures, young horned-stock are best, especially for clay soils. Until a turf is formed, cows or bullocks are too heavy, and horses especially are to be interdicted, not only on account of their weight, but because they bite so close to the ground ; indeed they bite into it when the herbage is sweet. Until the grasses get well established it is desirable, if the exi- gencies of the farm admit, to avoid mowing. If young pastures are mown, a light coat of dung should be applied after the crop is removed, or as soon as convenient. In respect of manuring, a very successful and experienced farmer expressed an opinion to me many years ago that grass- land should be manured little and often, that heavy dressings promote the growth of coarse, rank grass: observation has led me to the conclusion that the dictum is sound. The spreading of farmyard-manure upon grass-land is too generally carelessly and imperfectly performed. To ensure its being evenly and uniformly spread over the surface I have, for some years past, used the haymaking-machine. When set in the forward action, a strong haymaker shakes out and scatters the dung most thoroughly : for this work a windy day should be avoided. I have not found bone-manure, either in the form of super- phosphate or ground bones, have any marked effect upon either old or new pasture. As I had a bone-mill on the farm, and made my own superphosphate, there could be no question as to purity. Whether the absence of effect arises from the fact that in boulder-clay soils are found large quantities of small pieces of chalk and limestone, continually undergoing decomposition, 440) Laying down Land to Grass. I am unable to say, but the want of effect of bone-manure was year after year most apparent. Nor is my experience in this matter singular; | have met with many who have tried bones with the same want of success. Coal or cinder-ashes have a very marked effect on both old and new pastures; I attribute this to their mechanical action in keeping open the surface and preventing it getting “ hide-bound ;” for I have noticed similar effects to proceed from the application of road-scrapings, brick- dust, and sharp sand. The sowing of renovating grasses and white clover about the third or fourth year will, as a rule, be found desirable; the quantity should of course ,be regulated by the extent to which the grasses have lost plant: about 6 lbs. of seed per acre will generally suffice; the chain or flexible harrow should be passed over the ground once or twice. The whole of my grass-land, new and old pasture, is gone over with a flexible spiked harrow twice a year—spring and autumn. At the end of the autumn, in addition to disturbing any moss which may have formed, or rough grass which may have become matted, the effect of the harrowing is to distribute the cattle-droppings, and to let in any grass-seeds which have ripened and fallen on the surface. In conclusion I would observe, tiat the question as to the best method to be pursued depends very much upon whether the laying down has to be done by the landlord or the tenant. If by the former, and the land is similar in character to my own, I should have no hesitation in deciding in favour of the two- year dead-fallow system, feeling assured that the time lost at the beginning would be speedily regained, and this whether sowing or inoculation were adopted. If by a tenant, he would scarcely be justified in pursuing this course, unless the rent were re- mitted for two or three years, or he was in possession of a long lease with liberal covenants, or in some way reimbursed for effecting this permanent improvement. To the ordinary tenant who resorts to laying down, or is com- pelled—for reasons which need not be entered upon—to adopt this course, the plan of sowing upon a sainfoin or lucerne layer offers many advantages, the chief of which is there is no great or immediate sacrifice, valuable crops are being taken off during the time the grasses are establishing themselves, and by the applica- tion of light dressings of manure a pasture will in a very few years be obtained, the value of which will depend to a great extent upon the manner in which it is treated. When a choice of fields for laying down can be exercised, I should prefer those which are difficult and expensive to till, particularly hill-sides and uneven ground. If corn-growing should remain as unprofitable as it has been Report on the Studs and Breeds of Horses in Hungary. 441 the past few years, I see no alternative but the putting such land down in grass, and raising young cattle and hay upon it. This in its social aspect is a retrograde movement, but “ necessity has no laws.” If corn-growing should again become profitable, the same land would for many years be far more valuable for arable purposes because of the rest it had had—at all events the farmer in the meantime would be relieved of all anxiety arising from unfavourable seed-time, inclement winters, disastrous har- vests, and other perplexities incident to the growing of grain- crops. Clapham Park, Bedfordshire, April 1880. XXIV.—Report on the Studs and Breeds of Horses in Hungary. By J. Couuins, Principal Veterinary Surgeon to the Forces. [Reprinted by permission of the Secretary of State for War.] TuE Government studs in Hungary are established for the purpose of breeding stallions for the service of the mares of the country. They do not breed horses for the army, or for sale, with one exception, to be noted hereafter. Sales are held annually at each establishment, but simply for the disposal of colts and fillies, that are considered unfit for stud purposes, and the worn-out and useless mares and stallions. There are four studs, as follows :— At Mezihegyes, Department Csanad. At Kisbér, Department Komarom. At Babolna, Department Komarom. At Fogaras, Department Transylvania. MEZOHEGYES. Founded in 1785.—I inspected this stud on the 28th and 29th of August, 1879. There are four troops of brood mares of dis- tinct types, as follows :— i-yHalt-bred, English :. .., FP ..»... .. 84 Ze NOOIUS ss ALD OMe AEN) 6s) Sart Elec skeen OW : * SMR Nees sc. ch, ee. 94 AUGIOMUSM A eeeemcce! oss.) cht fai! |.) SL The original stock from which these mares are, by repute, descended was very mixed. It is said to have been the in- digenous breed, undoubtedly, I think, of Eastern origin, crossed with horses from Transylvania, Bessarabia, Poland, Mecklen- burg, Turkey, and, no doubt, from many other sources ; but the 442 Report on the Studs and Breeds of Horses in Hungary. distinctive characteristics of the present brood mares were ob- tained, in comparatively recent times, from well-known imported sires. The half-bred English troop of mares was founded about 1840 by the descendants of two imported English horses, named “ Furioso ” and “ Nordstar ;” but whether these were thorough- or half-bred, I could not ascertain. ‘The produce of the first- named is crossed with the second, and vice versa ; but from what I could learn they were not kept rigidly distinct, as the Arab cross is found to exist in some of the mares, and probably other strains. The troop of mares are all full bays, no white. I may here remark that bay is the prevailing colour of the horses of Hungary. The grey horses are all of Arab or Eastern descent. They are a very fine lot of mares indeed ; height from 15 to 16 hands, average 15°2, possessing all the characteristics of the English horse ; in fact, it would be difficult to distinguish them from our own breed. ‘Their points are good throughout; with good hocks, excellent backs and loins, and great breadth under the knee. The two types of the “ Nonius” breed are said to be of French origin, from a stallion of that name captured, in 1815, in Normandy. ‘The Nonius horses are distinguished by their large coarse heads and Roman noses. The large Nonius mares measure from 15:2 to 17 hands; some of them are very fine, and would do for horse artillery, or carriage purposes. This caste is very numerous throughout all the stallion depots, and furnishes their largest-sized horses. ‘The mares being specially selected through many generations are, no doubt, excellent ; but the large Nonius stallions are, I think, in numerous instances, very defective, as I shall have occasion to notice when remarking on the stallion depots. The small Nonius mares are, as their name indicates, of the same extraction, but smaller; height from 14 to 15:1, or so. I liked these mares very much, and stallions of this class are very numerous, and better suited for the small country mares. The “ Gidrans” are all full chestnuts, of Arab extraction, crossed with the English horse. ‘The troop was founded by a pure-bred Arab named “ Gidran,” imported in 1818. For a number of years this caste was kept distinct, and composed entirely of the pure Arab breed ; but, to correct faults common to the Arab, they were crossed in late years with the English thoroughbred, and the cross has been found to answer admirably. The troop is now essentially Anglo-Arab. The only objection to them is that they are small, 13:3 to 15:1; but from the fact of the stud authorities being about to divide the troop, as in the case of the Nonius horses, into large and small, it is to be Report on the Studs and Breeds of Horses in Hungary. 448 inferred that by judicious crossing the defect, as regards size, is being remedied. ‘The Gidrans I liked exceedingly. They show much Arab blood, but their action is better than the Arab, and if only a little bigger, 15-1 to 15:2, would be the perfection of hussar troopers. In addition to the four troops of mares described, they are forming a troop of Norfolk mares, the nucleus of which consists of a few of that breed imported during the last few years; but, from some reason or other, they were not shown to me. From what I could gather, the result is not considered altogether satis- factory; but in course of time, no doubt, by judicious selections, extending over some years, a troop of this class will eventually be fully established. I inspected all the young stock, as follows :— Yearling colts cues Tacs eS eearihe ss ecw cS J) ENITCE ESO eet OSEAN GAN Wico alto BE? Two-year-old colts JSlen othe Commedone boomed a Shs) A HIRES EN et ect! DAG eeS1e SG Three-year-old colfs. 2. 2. 0s we ew «OB ‘ FIGS i44 on. esc Adsds pasaecere eee OW OSISIOL UNIS AVCAT cg) a a8u oat ley) ears ese ccrL The colts and fillies are brought up and stabled on attaining 3 years of age, and kept until the following spring, when the selection takes place, the best colts being retained for district stallions, and the fillies for the stud troops of brood mares. The remainder are sold off, the colts being previously castrated, and both colts and fillies broken to harness. Each troop of mares, also the colts and fillies of their respective sex and age, are always kept perfectly distinct, both at pasture and in the studs, and are tended by well-mounted hussars armed with stock-whips. I was much struck with the excellent con- dition of the young stock; how well grown they were, and how well their limbs were developed, which can be attributed only to good keep and great care. The foals of the year were just weaned at my visit. They are fed with crushed oats as soon as they are able to eat them,—that is, when a few weeks old; and the oat-feeding continues throughout their career. The foals are brought in three times a-day to be fed with oats. The buildings used for the purpose, as well as to afford protection during the frosts and snow of winter when grazing is out of the question, are large erections some 100 yards in length, very lofty, solidly built, with large arched openings facing the south. Attached to them are extensive railed-in yards, where the mares and foals can remain at will; ample short litter covers the floor, and a large low manger extends all round the walls, with rack-chains attached to the bottom. Each foal walks to his 444 Report on the Studs and Breeds of Horses in Hungary. own place at the manger with the greatest regularity. At one end is an ample trough kept well supplied with fresh water. The different troops of mares and young stock were all out grazing in various parts of the estate at my visit. The estate of Mezihegyes is very extensive, consisting of some 30,009 acres, and everything for the use of the stud is grown on the farm.* The pasture, in our sense of the term, is very indifferent; the face of the country at the period of my visit (August) much resembled India; flat, sandy, very hot; everything parched and dried-up. Protection from the sun is afforded by belts of the quick-growing acacia-tree, which stretch away for miles over the country. ‘The pastures are formed by artificial grasses, ryegrass, clover, lucerne, &c., and huge stacks of hay are dotted all over the estate. If the young stock, how- ever, had to depend solely on the pastures, as they do in Ireland, for example, very different animals would be the result; they would resemble the Indian country-bred,—thin, lathy, spindle- legged, flat-sided, and which, if worked early, become ‘“ knocked- kneed” and “ cat-hammed ;” and this is the condition in which we find the average run of horses of the country, clearly showing that good keep is the first essential in the improvement of any breed of horses, given either by rich natural pastures, as with us, or by artificial diet, as is carried out in these studs. The home-stallions, that is, those used exclusively for the stud mares, are 17 in number. ‘They are of the following breeds :-— English, full and half-bred. Anglo-Arab. Anglo-Nonius. Gidran. Norfolk. The large horses owe their size to the English blood ; on the other hand, all the small stallions have more or less Arab blood. The largest stallions are the Nonius horses; the small are Gidrans, or pure Arabs. There is also a cross of the Nonius- Gidrans, which is thought much of. JI was of opinion that all these stallions were very well selected ; their points were excel- lent throughout; they were of the right size, with undeniably good joints and legs, and of good action. The names of the original imported sires are retained during many generations. On walking through the studs and stallion depots, the pedigrees, as may be seen written up at every head- post, indicate how much the English blood has been resorted to, from the familiarity of the names. In addition to those already Report on the Studs and Breeds of Horses in Hungary. 445 speak, of the improved Hungarian breed, we meet with such names as ‘* Ostregar,” ‘ Macbeth,” ‘ Codrington,” ‘ Exact,” “ Amity,” “ Pride of England,” “ Rector,” “‘ Lismore,” and many more of pure English descent. The colts, if kept for breeding, retain the name of the sire from which they are descended, with a number, so that we find “ Furioso XI.,” “ Nonius X XIIL.,” and so on, the name and number corresponding with the stud- book entries. Both colts and fillies bred in the studs are branded, when weaned, on the near side under the saddle. Each caste has its own distinctive brand, for example— -+- signifies an animal of the Nonius stock. VY Pe 5 Tarpeo Nonius stock. Z op - Zdenko stock. Formerly the brand was placed on the quarter; this is now abolished, but the practice of branding on the shoulder, quarter, and neck in large letters is common in the private studs, and, like the brands on Australian horses, they much disfigure them. The home stallions are very fine specimens of their respective classes, and I think very little fault could be found with them. The large Nonius are, if anything, too tall, but they all have excellent limbs. There is here also a splendid specimen of the Norfolk horse, called “ Highflyer.” He is-excellent, but unfor- tunately his stock is not well spoken of. It seems as if the cross of the coarse horse is too violent for the Eastern strain of blood, and that our thorough, or three-fourths bred horses suit better the Arab stock. I saw several specimens of the Norfolk produce ; they look coarse, are unevenly made, and are not at all in favour with the country breeders; but I think they are right to persevere, as what the country breed wants is bone and action, and it is probable that in the private studs, where a heavier class of mare is to be found, as well as in certain districts on the Austrian frontiers, where the German peasants still retain the coarse-bred German horse, the Norfolk cross will do good service. The Anglo-Arab and Gidran stallions were very good, 446 Report on the Studs and Breeds of Horses in Hungary. and if the country mares were of the right sort, and the foals properly fed, no horses would surpass their produce for breeding, activity, action, and all the essentials required in good saddle- horses. I closely inspected the 68 three-year-olds, selected for the district stallions next spring. Many, I thought, were too tall, especially the Nonius horses, leggy, and flat-sided. There are about 230 casualties annually amongst the Govern- ment stallions in the country, to be met by the produce of the four studs. KISBER STUD. On the 9th of September I visited the stud at Kisbér, in the department of Komarom, about five hours from Budapest by rail, and about seven hours from Vienna. ‘The estate consists of about 12,000 acres. The stud is composed of stallions and mares, which are exclusively of English blood, either thorough- or half-bred ; no extraneous cross whatever. Here stands “ Buc- caneer,” famous as the sire of “ Kisbér,” a Derby winner ; also ‘“‘Cambuscan,” sire of that extraordinary mare which has never yet been beaten, and is still on the turf,—viz. “ Kincsem.” Both “ Kisbér” and “ Kincsem” were bred in the paddocks of Kisbér. ‘There are seven home stallions here, as follows :— Buccaneer, Cambuscan, Ostregar, Young Buccaneer, Bois Russel, and two half-bred Furiosos of English descent. During my visit the famous French horse, “ Verneuil,” by: “‘ Mortemer,” arrived, which the Government had just purchased for 78002., to stand here. I naturally was much interested in these famous animals. ‘ Buccaneer” is rather a coarse-looking horse, of a dark rich brown, but looks like a half-bred. “ Cam- buscan,” a dark chestnut, on the other hand, has more style about him ; he is handsomer, and shows more quality. “ Ostre- gar” is a fine well-bred looking horse, with excellent points. “ Verneuil” is a very tall chestnut, with drooping quarters, and toes slightly turned out, but is a grand mover. There are 25 English thoroughbred mares, and 102 half-bred English. Amongst the thoroughbreds we find such noted mares as “‘ Mineral,” “ Beeswing,” “ Gratitude,” ‘“ Deception,” “ Firefly,” “¢ Honeybee,” “Imperative,” “ Pauline,” “ Verbena,” “ Fancy,” &e. &c., for each of which large sums were given. ‘These mares occupy the home paddocks, of which there are a large number ; two or three mares, with their foals, being in each paddock, Report on the Studs and Breeds of Horses in Hungary. 447 and to each is attached a small shed and yard. ‘The ground is somewhat hilly, but the pasturage is much better than at Mezi- hegyes, and it is well-watered by a stream running through the estate. : I think that everything in the way of care and good manage- ment is carried on here to ensure the success of the establishment. It was, in fact, a treat to see such splendid animals, and to see with what sedulous care they are tended, and the young stock reared. The thoroughbred stock is sold by auction when yearlings. In this way “ Kisbér” and “ Kincsem” became private pro- perty. It is only at this stud, and with the thoroughbreds, that the yearlings are sold without reserve. But although they become private property, it is a condition of the sale that, on the termination of their career on the turf, they must return and end their days as stallions or brood mares in Hungary. About 15 foals are thus sold every year, for an average of about 5000 francs per head, although as much as 30,000 francs have been obtained for one only. It will be seen from this that the home thoroughbred stallions are recruited with imported stock, so that the source of the stream is being constantly renewed by the best English blood. I inspected 19 half-bred three-year-old colts, intended for district stallions next spring, principally the stock of “* Ostregar,” “ Bois Russel,’ ‘“Cambuscan,” and “ Buccaneer,” out of half- bred mares of pure English descent. 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By Joun Pace.* Tuts subject is indeed a comprehensive one. ‘Time was when this market was dependent upon Cheshire and the Lancashire bank of the Mersey for its supplies of fresh vegetables and fruits ; but since the abolition of duties, improved steam navi- gation, and the more complete development of the railway system, no spot upon the earth’s surface appears sufficiently remote to deprive the teeming populations of these districts of its productions. But whilst these changes have proved a blessing to the com- munity generally, it will be said, probably, that they have tended to the injury of the native 'grower of many kinds of agricultural and horticultural produce. We know that that which is for the public good is oftentimes temporarily preju- dicial to the interests of individuals. It is not the province of the writer of this article to point out any remedial measures that may suggest themselves; but he may be permitted to say that it seems pretty certain that the only change that can bring remunerative prices to the English grower—if they are not now so—lies between himself and the owner of the soil he cultivates. Diminished crops in this country, from whatever cause, no longer mean higher prices from the consumer. Abundance in any part of the world will flow into the scarcity of any other as surely as air rushes into a vacuum. Other changes have also taken place. Ere the revolution in the sources of supply had begun, the growers supplying this market brought their goods and disposed of them personally, now the great bulk reaches us by railway. The number of carts laden with their owners’ produce which arrived in the market on the night of Friday, the 8th of August, and before six o’clock on the morning of Saturday, the 9th, last year, was two hundred and thirty. Their contents would probably be about one-eighth of the total supply brought for the Saturday’s market. Very few large growers now sell their own goods; they are generally con- signed to salesmen who have permanent standings in the market, and who charge a commission of 5 per cent. upon the sale of all goods entrusted to them. This system has its advantages, and perhaps is not entirely free from occasional disadvantages. Doubtless the owner would frequently make more by his goods if he personally attended the sale of them, but then, to set against this, there is the time and money expended to enable him to do * Extracted from a Prize Essay published by the Royal Manchester, Liverpool, and North Lancashire Agricultural Society, by permission of that Society. 476 The Sources of Supply of the so, and, therefore, all things considered, he is induced to save himself much trouble and employ the salesman. In laying before the reader some of the chief sources of supply, I will begin with our own country. In the fret three months of the year vast quantities of flowering broccoli (erroneously called cauliflowers by many persons) are received from Cornwall; very frequently 20 tons per day. The Cornish broccoli are followed by extensive supplies from the Midlands; the very best come from the neighbourhood of Northampton. In March early radishes are received extensively from Worcestershire. One salesman has sold 300 hampers in one day. They leave Evesham and neighbouring stations in the evening and reach Manchester at finest oO Fila the following morning in excellent condition. As I shall frequently have ie mention Evesham as a source of supply, | may here quote what a writer said of it fifty years ago :— “The vale of Evesham is celebiated for the extreme richness and fertility of its soil, which, by the successful mode of culti- vation, produces earlier and more abundant crops than that of any other part of the country. Near the town, on both sides of the river, large portions of ground have been converted into gardens, horticulture constituting the chief occupation of the labouring class: asparagus attains an unequalled perfection in the soil, and is extensively ‘cultivated, and vegetables of every kind are, by means of the River Avon, conveyed hence to the principal towns in the surrounding district.” Since this was written, capital, science, and industry have enabled the gardeners of the productive vale of Evesham to im- measurably increase their out-put, and the railway has come and superseded the River Avon in distributing it. A great many spring radishes are also grown at Wallasey, on the Cheshire side of the Mersey, and sent to the Manchester, Liverpool,‘and Yorkshire markets. Water-cress has become an articie of considerable commercial importance ; as an early spring salad it is a great favourite throughout these districts, and has a yearly increasing sale. It comes principally from Oxfordshire, where it is highly culti- vated and finds employment for a considerable number of peasants. It is cut in the afternoon, put on the train, and reaches the Manchester market at three o’clock the following morning. Many tons are sold here in one day. Thirty-five years ago the only supply of this article to Manchester was brought in a hamper or two by men, who gathered it from the Cheshire ditches. The first supply of spring cabbages comes from the far-famed Manchester Fruit and Vegetable Markets. 477 Evesham. They are followed in a few days by those which are grown around London; then come the Lincolnshire and Cheshire cabbages, and those grown in the neighbourhood of Warrington. Asparagus is now plentifully supplied ; the quantity consumed has probably quadrupled in the last eight years. One salesman has sold a hundred hampers here in one morning. Worcester- shire (Evesham) and Northamptonshire are the chief sources of supply. The first green peas which appear in the market come from Algeria, Spain, and France in the order named. The first English from Evesham, the next from Nottinghamshire, and lastly from Yorkshire. From these two latter places the supply is enor- mous; one salesman has disposed of 1500 sacks in one day ; the quantities grown in Cheshire and Lancashire are quite insignificant in comparison, and call for no further notice. The rule is to market peas the next morning after they are gathered. If they stand in bulk more than one night, fermentation sets in, and they are much depreciated. The rates for bringing green peas to Manchester from Nottinghamshire are—for two tons and upwards, 13s. 4d. per ton; one ton and less than two, 20s. They are put on the railway at Newark, Collingham, Swinderby, and Rollston. From Yorkshire—Burton-Salmon, Selby, and neighbourhood, lls. 8d. per ton ; York, 12s. 4d.; Milford Junction, 12s. I should have previously stated that the rate from Evesham is 20s. per ton. In all cases the minimum weight for these rates is two tons, and lesser consignments are charged higher rates. Six thousand five hundred sacks of peas have been pitched in the Manchester market in one day. The first new potatoes seen in the market come from France, in small quantities, and are always dear. In May they come from Cornwall and the Scilly Isles, and are followed by large quantities from Jersey. The Jersey potatoes have very greatly improved in quality in the last few years, and the sale of them has consequently much increased. From the small beginning of a few baskets twice a week, the trade has grown to many tons daily. One salesman has sold 40 tons of them in one day. The Jersey are closely followed by the “ Ormskirk Pink-eyes ;” of all early potatoes these are probably the very finest flavoured. For many years their production was exclusively in the hands of small farmers and cottagers occupying the district lying between Southport and Liverpool ; but of late years their cultivation has extended through South Cheshire, from the neighbourhood of Warrington away to Dunham-o’-th’-Hill. Much care is required 478 The Sources of Supply of the and bestowed upon their production ; they are kept indoors till they have sprouted, and then are carefully planted in “ butts,” over which straw-mats are laid during the night and on cold days, to shield them from the frost. These supplies are followed by those grown on both banks of the River Mersey, chiefly between Warrington and Barton. Vast quantities of excellent late potatoes are also received from North-west Lancashire ; in- deed, it may be said that the county in which the tuber was first grown, after its introduction into England, has never since shown it any neglect. The once-popular “ Fluke” potato was raised from seed by John Turner, a labourer on the Langley Hall Farm, at Birch, near Middleton: it has now fallen quite out of favour, and is but sparsely grown. All through the winter large quantities of potatoes are received from Yorkshire, from Lincolnshire, and from Scotland ; most of these are those known as the “ York Regent,” than which no better late potato need be grown. I have no means of ascer- taining the quantity of potatoes brought into Manchester in a year; but as all the populous towns by which it is sur- rounded draw their supplies from it, the total quantity must be immense. Beside the great Fruit and Vegetable Market at Shude Hill, there is an extensive potato market on the premises of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company, in Oldham Road ; this market is in the hands of the Railway Company, who pay the Corporation 1500/. per annum for the privilege of holding it. Under the agreement, potatoes and carrots only are per- mitted to be sold there, and none but those which arrive by the Company’s line. The largest quantity of new potatoes brought into the market at Shude Hill in one week, from 1870 to 1879, inclusive, has been as follows :— Loaps or 18-Sroner. 1870. 1871, 1872. 1873. 1874, 21,000 29,500 18,200 19,100 18,750 1875. 1876. 1877, 1878. 1879, 18,500 19,000 14,800 28,000 22,250 That the home-grower of this popular and useful article of food has not a monopoly of its growth, however, the fol- lowing figures will testify ; they are copied from the Govern- ment Return for 1877. I have been unable to procure last year’s Return, but I believe the quantity to have been greatly in excess of that in 1877. I learn from a private source that the quantity shipped from Hamburg alone, last year, was 4,592,270 cwts.: Manchester Fruit and Vegetable Markets. 479 Yrar 1877—I’rom Germany .. .. 3,636,600 cwts. | Portugal.. .. .. 38,019 cwts. Holand’ — 2" se 729,941 ,, Channel Islands « +.064,451 ..,, Belgium .. .. 933,021 ,, Malta. avie seal tute 63,253 - France Bee ORL SO y 55 Canadian ene CeNOO. making a total of 7,929,226 cwts. The: following are the rates for carrying potatoes to Manchester from many of the places named :—Belgium, 14s. per ton; Ham- burg, 22s. 6d.; France, 35s.; Jersey, 50s.; St. Malo, 50s. ; Ayrshire and district, 21s, 8d. to 23s. 4d.: Perth and district, 25s. to 27s. 6d.; Goole, 11s. 10d.; Hull, 14s. 1d.; Keadby and Crowle, 12s. 2d. ; and Holbeach, 16s. 6d. Cheshire. — Delamere, 8s. 8d.; Mouldsworth, 5s.; Manby, 9s.; Helsby, 9s.; Tarvin, 9s.; Mobberley, 7s. 11d. ; Knutsford, 7s. 11ld.; Plumbley, 8s. 4d.; Northwich, 8s. 9d.; Hartford, 8s. 6d. ; Cuddington, 7s. 6d.; and Wallasey, 8s. 4d. Carrots first appear in the market in April: they come from France in bunches. About the first week in June they begin to arrive from Holland, also in bunches. Then come supplies from Bedfordshire. Towards the end of August large supplies come loose in trucks from Lincolnshire and Huntingdonshire, increasing in quantity as the season advances. The rate for bringing them from the last three places mentioned is from 11s. 8d. to 13s. per ton. The turnips supplied to the market for culinary purposes are grown almost exclusively within a few miles of it ; they consist of three sorts. First, a very excellent variety raised by Mr. James Kelsall, late of Stretford, now of Picton Gorse Farm, near Chester, about fifteen years ago. During the winter two yellow kinds are most in favour, the “ Orange Jelly,” brought out by Messrs. Dickson and Brown, the eminent seedsmen of Chester, and the “Scarisbrick Yellow.” The ‘“ White Stone,” generally seen in the South of England markets, finds no favour here. Forced rhubarb makes its first appearance in the market in Christmas week; as the spring advances the supply increases, and large quantities are sold. SS EES ae NS NE SS Fan TS which when tested by the Judges on the grass in the Yard, gave every satisfaction; the potatoes were deposited at perfectly equal distances, and in a length of 56 yards there was only one miss in each row, which probably would not have happened 662 Report on the Exhibition and had the machine been working in the field. The cups which take up the seed are each a link of an endless chain, merely Fig. 2.—Details of the mechanism of Messrs. Murray and Co.’s Potato-planter. hooked into each other; and on the end of each cup is a tail, which as the chain turns over the supporting wheels, rises’ up Fig. 3.— View of the mechanism of Messrs. Murray and Co.’s Potato-planter. through the bottom of the succeeding cup, thus not only en- suring the seed leaving the cup at the right moment, but clear- Trials of Implements at Carlisle. 663 ing out any dirt that may have accumulated there. This is an important improvement, and effectually remedies a hitherto existing fault. Motion is communicated to the cups by means of the well-known Ewart’s detachable drive-chain, and there is also an adjustment for properly balancing the machine when going up- or down-hill. The seed can also be dropped at three different distances apart by a very simple arrangement of change wheels. ‘The machines are made either double or single. No. 2508. John Crowley and Co., Sheffield—a Silver Medal for their new Horse-gear, the novelty of the principle being a step in the right direction, viz., in having the large wheel fixed and forming the main base to the machine, instead of revolving as usually is the case. The shafting can be led off at different angles, or three shafts can be driven as required. The machine Fig. 4.—View of Messrs. Crowley and Oo.’s Horse-gear. was tested on the dynamometer, and though only for one horse, stood the test of transmitting four-horse work, and gave out good duty. ‘There was no proof of any more economical trans- mission of the power over other good horse-gears, but the pro- portions, principle, and workmanship were decidedly good. No, 2871. Barford and Perkins’ self-acting arrangement for lifting steam cultivators, drags, or other similar implements, stands next on the list, and well deserved the honour of the medal it gained. It is of great importance in the roundabout system to be able to lift the implement just before the end of the pull, so that when the anchor moves on, the engine shall not have to pull both it and the cultivator at the same time. Other means are used to obtain this result, which will be described in their place; but none are so simple or mechanical as this one. On the boss of the cultivator wheels is a ratchet with 8 teeth ; the axle is cranked as in other lifting cultivators, and on the cranked part is carried, in bearings, a shaft on which are two double cams, each with five teeth on either part; these, by a simple movement of the foot, gear into the ratchet-wheels, and 664 Report on the Exhibition and lift the cultivator, which is held in its position by the ordinary apparatus ; the cams immediately swing clear and are ready for another lift. No. 8226. Everett's Patent 10-horse-power Steam-plough Engine, made by Charles Burrell and Sons, of Thetford, which, although shown last year, has now been much improved. It was worked in the trial-field and gave the Judges great satisfaction by the way in which it moved about and set down its roundabout tackle, and worked various implements as directed. It has one cylinder, 10 inches diameter by 12 inches stroke, and works up to 150 Ibs. pressure. A pinion of 11 teeth on the Vig. 5.— Everett's “ Universal” Ploughing and Traction Engine. crank-shaft gears directly into a spur-wheel of 107 teeth bolted on to the periphery of the winding-drum ; the drums are carried by brackets and studs bolted on to the boiler, are of wrought- iron, and can carry 1000 yards of ?-inch diameter wire-rope ; being vertical, no coiling-gear is required as in the horizontal ones, but probably the life of the rope would be prolonged if there were such an arrangement. ‘The rope leads round a large hori- zontal guide-pulley under the tank, and thence at any angle to the implement. The travelling-gear is fitted with two speeds in avery efficient manner. When used for double-engine tackle there is only one drum to each engine, being made right- and left-hand. The price of the engine exhibited was 620/. with- out rope. No. 3262. Nalder and Nalder, Wantage, obtained a Silver Trials of Implements at Carlisle. 665 Medal for their Straw Elevator as attached to a threshing- machine. This was shown last year at Kilburn, but there then being no opportunity of trying it, it was brought again before the notice of the Judges, who this year were able to work it. As there was a good description and drawing of it in last year’s ‘Journal’ it is only necessary to state that there is no material alteration in its design, but some improvements in minor details which a year’s experience has suggested. In the trial the straw was delivered at various heights and round one- third of a circle, and the apparatus was packed-up for travelling on its accompanying threshing-machine in ten minutes. Of all the exhibits, the Darby Digger, No. 3566, made by Fig. 6.— View of Darby’s Steam-digqger. J. and H. McLaren, Leeds, probably caused the greatest amount of interest ; and from its bold departure from all existing methods of steam cultivation, was by far the best response the Society had to its offer of trials for any new implements for the cultiva- tion of the soil by “steam or other mechanical force,” and well deserved its Silver Medal. Although there have been rumours of ploughing by electricity, nothing of the sort has as yet been shown in England ; and until now, with the exception of some 666 Report on the Exhibition and very early attempts, the various systems of cultivation by means of ropes of steel or hemp have been unassailed. The Digger has been before the public for several years in a comparatively crude form, but is now much simplified, and promises to develop into a useful machine. It consists of a locomotive boiler, with a fire-box in the centre, the tubes on each side, and a funnel at each end. The engine is fixed on the top of the boiler, and has a single cylinder, 9 in. diam. by 12 in. stroke. On the crank-shaft are two bevel pinions, one of which drives the trayelling-wheels through intermediate gear at either of two speeds; the other drives the digger, which consists of three sets of tines, 13 in the centre set, and 14 in each of the outside sets, making a total width of land worked of 20-7 feet. A horizontal crank-shaft, running the length of the boiler, and with Hooke’s joints between the cranks, drives the diggers, and revolves once for every 3°92 revolutions of the engine. When digging, the axis of the travelling-wheels is parallel to that of the boiler; and all are driven, but any or either can be disconnected, the two outer ones by pins, the inner ones by clutches. The steering is effected by a frame hinged on to the foot-plate, and in the rear of the diggers, carrying a set of discs, which, by means of a hand-wheel, can be turned to any angle and act as a rudder. When in travelling- trim this frame is unshipped, and the driving-wheels are dis- connected and turned round with their axes across that of the boiler in the ordinary way. One pair is connected with a hand- wheel, and used as steering-wheels ; the other pair is connected with the engine, and propels the machine. The wheels are 3 feet 6 inches in diameter by 2 feet wide. The Digger was well tried in the field, but the land being very dry was all in its favour. Then came two days’ heavy rain. How will the Digger go now? was the general remark of those interested; so, at the request of its makers and Mr. Darby, it was again taken out, and, to the surprise of all, worked as well as before ; but, in spite of at least two inches of rain, the land was of such a quality as not to be much affected by it, and any ordinary steam-plough would have worked. How the Digger will act in wet slippery clay it was impos- sible to prove. The work appeared equal to, or even in some respects better than, ordinary ploughing, but not so good as cultivating or digging, as far as laying the land up rough for fallowing, which is generally what is wanted where steam is used ; but this could doubtless be altered by using differently- shaped tines. The following are the results obtained by the Society’s Engineers :— Trials of Implements at Carlisle, 667 Particulars and Performances of Darby's 8-Horse-Power Broadside Steam Digger, Exhibited by Messrs. J. and H. McLaren. The engine is 8 nominal horse-power, with single cylinder 9 in. diameter, 12 in. stroke, 120 lbs. safety-valve pressure in boiler. Heating surface in fire-box .. 55 tubes, &c. Motalicse Grate surface, 6°64 square feet. Gearing.—Engine crank shaft makes 3°92 digger shaft, Square Feet. revolutions to 1 revolution of ‘The digger tines are spaced about 6 in. apart from centre to centre, and are contained in 3 frames, which are worked by cranks set at equal angles with one another. There are 13 tines in the centre frame, and 14 in each outer frame, making 41 tines in all. Effective width dug as implement advances, observed as Weight of implement (given by Messrs. McLaren) : Engine, boiler, coals, and water, carried on 4 ea 13 10 pravelline=swheels! Ws." 5.) ae) Seewilhoen lect dias HinamieramMakdiscersis, ck. eet eth oe w ave eer ee Total’ ss se 4 travelling wheels, each 3 ft. 6 in. diameter, Load on wheels per inch width of tyres, 316 lbs. Experiments with Digger at Carlisle, July 10. Mean depth dug.. 3a 6°07 inches Weight of unmoved earth | per cubic foot Advance of implement (when spuds are on wheels) per revolution of digger shaft .. Advance of implement ] per revolution of engine Average revolutions of engine per minute - 1 Advance of implement per minute Ne “A Volume of earth moved per revolution of engine .. Weight do. do. Mean foot-lbs. of work indicated do. Indicated work in engine cylinder per Ib. of earth moved, or height in feet to which earth moved must be raised to represent work done (mean of 6 experiments) Mean indicated horse-power when | working straight ahead... " Mean indicated horse- “pow er working and turing at ends A Mean indicated hor se-power “running light) over land straight ahead, but with diggers out of gear it Ratio of power required to move implement without digging to power required when digging ‘i Time “occupied for each half-turn at ends of furrows, digging at same time (favourable instances) Be 2-0 in. wide. ee ll 20°7 ft. Tons. cwt. qrs. 2 Tepe Ts al: ms eee *506 ft. 105°1 cubic ft. 1°028 ft. *262 ft. 180 47-5 ft. 2°74 cubic ft. 288 lbs. 5254 ft.-lbs. 18°2 ft.-lbs. 668 Report on the Exhibition and A luc ver | , eaaat : Rone y: ee g per hour, assuming fury te ey be 200 yards 1-19%aabes: Average indicated horse- -power required for this rate 28°3h ofsprogressi)(sacah ly vee Mean he /sci0 ick Tr ene a A few days subsequently to the above trials, viz., on the 15th July, the Darby Digger was taken out to the same ground after continuous heavy rain, and worked direct up a hill-side on a slope frequently exceeding 1 in 10 at an engine speed of 200 revolutions per minute; it also worked on the flat, and crossed some fallows ; the last-pamed operation, however, was only done with difficulty in the then wet state of the ground. Performances of Burrell’s 10-Horse-Power Ploughing-Engine (Everett's Patent), working a Fowler 4-Furrow Balanced Digger (lent to the Society by Messrs, Fowler), ai Carlisle, July 10, 1880. One engine, cylinder 10 in. diameter, 12 in. stroke, boiler pressed to 150 lbs. pressure. Square Feet. Heating surface in fire-box so Hiterieeu! feet pb Ty tUDES.* fis wisp psicins 9. sick, Seen Total.) os /,c3+ heeate aa) ae Fire-grate surface, 5°5 square feet. The whole of boiler made of Landore Siemens steel. Weight complete, including water and coals, 133 tons. Two 11-tooth pinions on engine crank shaft, drive a wheel with 107 teeth on each drum. Feet. Average length of rope wound on drums ee revolution 18-4 of drum during trials Rar oi: wae Advance of implement per revolution of engine: sieemes 1°89 Digger has 4 breasts, with Furrow wheel 5°0 in. diameter, 4% in. broad. Land wheel 4°6 in. diameter, 57 in. broad. Skid wheel 183 in. diameter, 43 in. broad. Weight, 34 cwt. Weight per inch width of me 362 Ibs. Average width dug .. . ae 40°5 inches 3°375 ft, Average depth dug 50 6°02 inches 502 ft. Weight of unmoved earth. per cubic ft... .. .. 105°1 cubic ft. Volume of earth moved per engine revolution... .. 3°20 cubic ft. Weight do. do. ae 336 lbs. Mean, war -lbs. of work indicated in engine per po 8221 ft-lbs. Indicated work in » cylinder | per “Tb. of earth — | Il or height in feet to which earth moved must be raised to represent work done coe of 9 indicator ce experiments) . Average revolutions of engine per minute. C 180 Mean indicated horse- -power in straightforward work 44°8 h.-p. Do. do. when drageing the rope 18°3 and implement light over ground without digging He Ratio of power required to move rope and implement without digging to that required when digger ger | 405 working .. .. ee Trials of Implements at Carlisle. 669 Area dug per hour, if we allow furrows to be 200 yards long, and supposing 3 minute lost at the end of eek furrow from the time digger stops till it starts to work again O Average indicated horse- power while working at this rate, allowing nothing, however, for moving r anchors 1°22 acres. t 34°9 hi-p. Comparison of Economic Performances of Darby's Digger with those of other Diggers, so far as regards the power required to dig 1 lb. of earth. Indicated ‘ Work of Engine in Foot-lbs. per 1 Ib. of Earth moved, or Height to which Earth must be raised to repre- sent Work done. Darby Dicer at Carlisle, July 10, 1850 wap a tee 18°2 Fow er Diccer ,, worked by | Burrell’s engine and tackle. Nn. B. This should not be taken as an official trial, as the implement was | 24+4 only lent to the Judges of the R.A.S.E. by Messrs. Fowler, to enable them to institute a Se a and it was not worked by their own tackle) .. [*Fowter’s 6-Furrow Diacer at Stafford 22-2 » 5 39 = Gs 22°6 y 4 3 a 25°9 21°8 aver- i ays 2 : 19°8 age, ” A ” ” 18° 6 Howarp’s 4 £, 5 gop ltee 21°8 Fowier’s 4 oy Wolverhampton, worked by Fisken Roundabout Tackle (mean ‘of 21-9) 5 trials at various speeds) .. ... «. o Fig. 7.—Specimen Diagram from Darby's Broadside Digger Engine in full Work, digging. [ \ tale! ae Scale 40 lbs. to 1 inch, 180 revolutions per minute, 115 lbs, steam, engine cylinder 9 in. diameter, 12 in. stroke, * Extracted from Table III., Wolverhampton Trials, 1871. 670 Report on the Exhibition and Fig. 8.—Specimen Diagram from Burrell’s 10-Horse-Power Engine (Everett's Patent), working Roundabout Tackle and Fouwler’s 4-Furrow Digger. OE — Scale 40 Ibs. to 1 inch, 180 revolutions per minute, 110 lbs. steam, engine cylinder 10 in. diameter 12 in. stroke, Easton AND ANDERSON, Consulting Engineers, R.A.SL. Messrs. John Fowler and Co., Leeds, amongst their steam- ploughing machinery, had an eight-horse-power Double Drum Engine on a new principle, and which certainly looked a great improvement on those hitherto made. A set of roundabout tackle was at work with one of these engines in a field near the Yard, and gave people a very good idea of its capabilities. One drum is hung under the boiler in the usual position, and is driven by an upright shaft; on this shaft, immediately above the lower bearing, is a bevel- wheel, giving motion to a horizontal shaft running alongside the fire-box ; and this, by means of bevel- gearing, drives a short vertical shaft with a pinion-gearing into the hinder drum, which is carried on a stud fixed on the bottom of the tank, this being made strong enough to withstand the strains put upon it. The engine can be worked in three ways—(1) Along the headland opposite to a self-moving anchor, and so have a direct pull upon the implement; (2) remaining stationary, and working with two self-moving anchors; or (3) as one of a pair of engines. The makers do not claim that this principle is better than a pair of engines, but that it is a most efficient single engine set, embodying, as far as possible, the advantages of the double system. The anchor used with this tackle is entirely self-acting ; it is moved along the headland by the direct pull of the hauling- rope; and the distance it moves forward each bout can be con- trolled by the ploughman without his leaving the implement. Trials of Implements at Carlisle. 671 R. Hornsby and Sons (Limited), Grantham, showed in article 3305 (Fig. 9) an improved Turn-wrest Plough, well designed and made, and which would doubtless do excellent work, and quickly, but it would not stand the treatment farmers very often give their ploughs, viz., leaving them under a hedge until again wanted. The plough-bodies are hung under the beam on turned pins, so that when set either way for work, the one in use lies against the side of the beam, and is held in its place by a fork, which wedges it and makes it practically solid with the beam. By pulling back a lever the bodies are released, they automatically change places, and the plough is ready for work the opposite way. The fore-end of the beam is arranged so that the depth required to be ploughed can be set by simply adjusting two Fig. 9.—Messrs. R. Hornsby and Sons’ Turn-wrest Plough. stop-plates, thus equalising the depth for both ways ; the draught is then self-acting, as well as the draught-bar, which thereby pulls in the line required by the plough at work. ~ Messrs. Burrell and Sons, Thetford, exhibited, amongst other things, Everett’s Patent Automatic Travelling Anchor, which can move either backwards or forwards as desired. On the anchor is a horizontai drum, on which are about 80 yards of wire rope, the end of which is made fast to an anchor, and is payed out as the travelling anchor advances. By an arrange- ment of gearing the motion is reversed and the rope hauled in, the anchor consequently “ backing” as far as requisite. This was shown at work in the trial-field, and was apparently capable of doing all that its makers claimed for it. Messrs. Fisken and Co., Leeds, had at work in the trial-field an Improved Set of Tackle, driven as usual by a quick-speed manilla rope, and consisting of one three-furrow balance-plough and windlass combined, two self-moving anchors, and porters and ropes for a furrow 300 yards long. The price reduced to 2001. The improvements mainly consist in not carrying the 672 Report on the Exhibition and rope all round the field, but in two lines parallel with the furrow ; and the windlass is again mounted on the plough, in somewhat the same manner as it was at the last Royal Agri- cultural Society’s Show at Carlisle in 1855. Mr. Frederick Savage, King’s Lynn, Norfolk, worked in the trial-field a ten-horse-power Agricultural Engine. The driving- wheels form the winding drums, as is usual in these engines. The anchors are self-moving, and the whole weight rests on the retaining tines. A new implement was shown in connection with this tackle, viz., a four-ring self-acting Presser and Drill Combined, to be used behind the plough. A swivel foot, Fig. 10.—Savage’s combined Self-acting Presser and Drill. lowered on to the ground by a lever, takes the weight of the presser in turning at the headlands. A small harrow is also attached, and drawn behind the presser, for covering the seed. This is the first implement of the kind ever made, so doubtless. many improvements on it will appear in time, and in certain hands on some soils will probably prove of considerable value. Mr. J. A. Mays, 223 Gresham House, London, showed a curiously contrived Revolving Railway attached to the driving- wheels of a six-horse-power Traction Engine, which consists of a series of plates or feet about 15 inches square, connected by links and ball-and-socket joints to a ring, which ring fits on to the driving-wheel, and the two are only connected by the frictional adhesion caused by the weight of the engine. As the wheels revolve the feet come down on to the ground and are picked up in turn, two being on the ground at once. The feet are faced with wood strips. One of the wheels met with Triais of Empiements at Carlisle. 673 an accident on the way to the field, so the engine had to work with one, and was made to pull a five- furrow plough. The advantage of this application is exceedingly doubtful, but it may be as well to record in the ‘ Journal’ that such a machine has been exhibited. Messrs. Everett, Adams, and Co. , Ryburgh, Norfolk, exhibited the Eureka Mower, an American invention, which is certainly Fig. 11—View of the Eureka Mower exhibited by Messrs. Everett, Adams, and Co. well deserving the attention of farmers. A somewhat similar machine was made some years ago, but was found to have several defects which are now apparently overcome. This machine was well tried by the Judges in the field, and cut a fair crop of alsike-clover and bents, which instead of being laid flat, as by other machines, was left light and loose, the centre of each swathe, owing to the outside falling inwards, being kept upright, and almost looking as if it had not been cut at all, which must considerably quicken the drying. Although tried with the horse-dynamometer, it was impossible to obtain any results, owing to heavy rain coming on, and the dynamometer having to travel in the long grass in front of the machine rolled it down, and thus entirely altered the conditions from those of ordinary aan The draught must be very much less than in VOL. XVI.—#. 8. 2X 674 Report on the Exhibition and ordinary machines, owing to the direct pull the horses exert. One walks in the long grass, the other just outside: at the end Fig. 12.—Illustration of the Swathe left by the Eureka Mower. of the field the machine turns, not being driven round and round as other mowers, so that the grass trodden down by the horse one time is effectually cut the next. The wheels are 3 feet 6 inches in diameter. There are no bevil wheels, motion being imparted to the knife by a bell-crank, so either end of the knife is free to rise or fall as it likes, and is easily raised by the driver when required. A six-feet cutter-bar is used, which is supposed to be equal in draught to an ordinary 4 feet 6 inches machine. Messrs. Richard Garrett and Sons, Leiston, have certainly made a step in the right direction in the shape of a Compound Portable Engine. Messrs. John Fowler and Co. and others make ‘‘semi-fixed” compound engines with the cylinders underneath the boiler, but this is the first true portable compound ever made, or at any rate ever exhibited in the Society's Yard. In a few words, the advantage of this system is obtained by using a high pressure, and expanding it down as low as possible. The great revolution which the adoption of this method caused in marine engines, by reducing the consumption of coal by more than 50 per cent., has been one of the chief causes which have helped on the importation of foreign food from long distances; so if hitherto it has somewhat operated against the interests, of English farmers, the time may now have come when it will prove a good ally. The engine in the Yard was 10-horse-power, with cylinders 7? inches and 11} inches in diameter by 10 inches stroke. The cranks are at right angles. The steam pressure is 80 lbs. and the cut-off in the high-pressure cylinder is at half- stroke. The makers state that considerable economy in fuel is shown by this engine over ordinary portables, and no doubt at some future time the system will be brought more prominently under the Society’s notice ; but a higher pressure of steam than 80 lbs. must be used to get the best results, and as 150 lbs, is now constantly used in railway locomotives, and even in ploughing. engines, why should the working pressure of port- Trials of Implements at Carlisle. 675 ables remain, as is almost universally the case, at the old- fashioned 60 Ibs. ? Messrs. Armstrong, Addison, and Co., Sunderland, showed Gates, Fencing, and Wood-paving pickled by their process, by means of which great durability is ensured. ‘They state that sleepers so treated have been in use on the North-Eastern Railway for twenty-seven years; and that wood-pavement on the Sunderland Bridge is still good, although for thirteen years it has been subjected to heavy traffic. Messrs. Richardson and Son, Carlisle, showed a Potato-sorting Machine, which efficiently makes three clean separations, large, seconds, and small, the dirt falling by itself. It consists of a series of screens of galvanised wire, and is an adaptation of the principle of the winnowing machine, being worked in a similar manner by hand. Several minor details of construction appeared capable of improvement, which will no doubt be done in future, the machine in the Yard being the first of its sort. Messrs. Perkins, Paternoster, and Burlingham, of Hitchin, had a collection of Polygon Corn-screens of various sizes, suit- able to both farmers and seed-growers, which, by varying the barrels, can be made to separate any different sorts of seed. No. 712 in the Catalogue is stated as being capable of screening from 40 to 60 quarters of corn per day by hand-power. Messrs. J. and F. Howard, of Bedford, exhibited a new Plough, steel being used instead of wrought iron. The beam is bent round in one piece, and carries the share and mouldboard, thus doing away with the casting that has hitherto been used, and making the plough stronger and lighter. They also showed a new class of Haymaking Machine, the travelling wheels of which are mounted on axles, with an eccentric movement, so that by a partial revolution of the axle the gearing is thrown in or out, the large tooth-wheel on the axle has “ open teeth,” so that if any grass or dirt gets on it they are punched through by the teeth of the pinion. The fork- head springs, which are important points in a haymaker, are simply straight strips of riband steel, which are just the right length when the forks are in either position to retain them there without being in a state of compression. They thus seem effectually to fulfil all the required conditions, and can be replaced without any tools. A Steam Cultivator, with a harrow slung to it from a pair of bell-crank levers, the other arms of which are connected with the turning lever, which lifts the harrow clear of the ground at the moment of turning, is a very neat and novel arrangement, and was also exhibited by Messrs. Howard, amongst other steam- cultivating appliances. pe Y- 676 Report on the Exhibition and Messrs. Hunt and Tawell, Earl’s Colne, Essex, showed a combined Chaff-cutter and Oat-mill ; also a similar machine, but with a bean- or maize-mill as well. This is a most suitable machine for small stables; and it is in these places that the prejudice which coachmen and grooms have against giving horses chaff and bruised corn is most rife. These machines must reduce the trouble of doing this to a minimum, and are there- fore well worth the attention of those who keep even one horse. The chaff-cutter has two knives, either convex or concave, as required, fitted on to a suitable fly-wheel, the mouth being 81 inches by 23 inches. The crushing part is fixed on the side of the machine, and has a double solid-steel roller ; the cutting- Fig. 13.—View of Messrs. Hunt and Tawell's combined Chaff-cutter and Oat-mill. plates are made with a fluted strip of hardened steel dovetailed into the ordinary cast-iron back. The hopper has a division in it, which is turned to one side or the other, for beans or oats, as required. The knives are prevented from rubbing against the face when grinding by slacking a nut on the shaft, when a spring washer behind the wheel forces it outwards and so gives clearance. The makers state that the machine will crush from 21 to 3 bushels of corn, or cut 2 ewts. of chaff, per hour, and is specially designed for exportation. Messrs. Andrew Handyside and Co., Derby, showed a new double-action root-stripper and slicer. The cutters are so arranged on the disc that when the machine is turned in one Trials of Implements at Carlisle. 677 direction it produces slices; when in the other, finger-pieces, without any alteration of knives or knife-bars. A modification of this machine is also combined with a chaff-cutter, the two operations of chaff-cutting and pulping going on simultaneously, so that the two products in falling get thoroughly well mixed up together, and all the juice of the roots is at once absorbed by the chaff, thus saving both the labour of mixing afterwards, and a certain amount of waste of material. Messrs. Haughton and Thompson, Carlisle, had a good collec- tion of Threshing Machines suitable for small farms ; also mowing and reaping machines, and horse-rakes, broad-cast seed-sowers, land-rollers, and other machines specially adapted for the surrounding district. Messrs. Ransomes, Sims, and Head, Ipswich, exhibited a new Self-acting Horse-rake, No. 2187, with T-section steel teeth, the motion being obtained by a lever on either side of the rake, the ends of which, being bent over the tyres of the wheels, are, by the action of the foot of the driver, made to bite on them, and so are carried round by the wheels as they revolve. The other ends of the levers being attached to the rocking frame of the rake, to which the teeth are hung, thus lift the teeth, which can be held in this position as long as desired, either for delivering the load, turning, or backing. This firm has also a good improvement in the tines of their Haymaking Machines. ‘The tines must be curved to carry the hay well over the machine when scattering, but for turning, straight tines leave the hay much lighter ; so by making the tines alternately straight and curved, the machine will work equally well in either action. The gearing is strong and well protected, and the machine reduced in length, thus lessening the draught and weight on the horse’s back. Many of the readers of this ‘Journal’ must, when walking about in London or other large towns, have been struck by the quantity of oats scattered on the ground, especially near cab- stands, owing to the horses tossing them out of their nose-bags whilst feeding. This defect is completely overcome by the “ Kennett ” No ose-bag (Catalogue, No. 1154), exhibited by John Unite, 291, Edgware Road, W., the Society’s contractor for canvas. The Giles advantages Ebinicd for it are: ‘‘ The horse breathes easily, there being large brass eyelet-holes round the bag near his nose; the dust is not tossed into his nostrils, the greater part of the weight is supported by the neck, and there is no wear and tear of the bag against the ground.” In shape the nose-bag is like a sock cut off above the ankle ; ; into this part the horse’s nose goes, and it is suspended from the head. The toe of the sock hangs under the neck of the horse, and here most 678 Report on the Exhibition and of the corn lies. When the horse wants a mouthful he lowers his head a few inches, and the food slides down; he then naturally raises his head, eats his mouthful clear of the re- mainder of the feed, breathing freely, and repeats the process Fig. 14.—Illustration of the “‘ Kennett” Nose-bag. as he desires. Thus the corn can be completely consumed without tossing, and without any attention on the part of his driver. The nose-bag was put on to a horse in the Yard, which had never had one on before, and which fed out of it with apparently the greatest comfort. This invention is well worthy of the attention of horse- owners, and probably, as in many other good and simple con- trivances, the main objection they will find in its use will be the prejudice of their men against even trying anything new. Mechwart Buchholz’ Complete Corn-grinding Roller-mill (No. 3711), made by Ganz and Co., price 155/., and exhibited by Buchholz and Co., Royal Flour Mills, Vauxhall, is a machine, as the exhibitors claim, “destined to replace mill-stones’ for economy of power and the production of a higher quality of flour.” This “ Low-grinding Roller-mill,” as it is also called, has three iron rollers ; the grain is first crushed by the top pair, it then falls on to the lower end of an inclined sieve, which, owing to a peculiar kicking motion, tends to work the meal gradually up the incline ; and thus the sieve is made so effective that half the usual area only is required. The meal then falls on to a lower sieve, and all that requires further grinding passes between the second and third rollers. By this machine, the importers say that “it is possible to reduce wheat to flour and bran in the most direct and simple manner through rollers, whereby the whole produce of the flour is raised in quality and value.” Be Trials of Implements at Carlisle. 679 this as it may, the machine is exceedingly well constructed ; the rollers are made of special metal, and carried by an anti-friction Fig. 15.—Messrs. Buchholz and Oo.’s Corn-grinding Roller-mill. i — ii, sl = SSS eee EE = ring which allows great pressure to be put on them without injuring the bearings. No. 2932, James Harkness, of Gretna, Dumfries, the veritable Gretna Green smith (who during the storms amused us all in the trial-grounds with many curious stories of that celebrated place), exhibited some Drill Ploughs, one of which was taken out into 680 Report on the Exhibition and the field at the special wish of the Judges, who were much struck with the design of it. The plough-point is carried well to the front, and so comes much closer to the point of draught than usual, and the handles being also a good length, the plough- man has great power over the implement. The mouldboards are hinged, and can be readily expanded or contracted by a rod which moves a sliding block on the beam, the block being con- nected to the mouldboards by two short links with a simple Fig. 16.—View of Mr. James Harkness’ Drill Plough. joint at each end. A land-marker is attached, as is usual in all North-country ploughs and drills—a refinement seldom or never seen in the South. The plough was tried on some of the land that had recently been steam-cultivated and harrowed, and in spite of the awkward- ness of a horse quite raw to the work, made very good drills, and fully bore out the opinion of the Judges that it is a handy and well-constructed implement. Its price is 3/. 15s. There were two exhibits which properly belonged to the Stock department, but as they found their place in the Implement-yard they should perhaps be mentioned in this Report, viz.: the Bee Tent, brought by the British Beekeepers’ Association, and the Fish, by Mr. J. L. Armistead, of Roundhay, Leeds. Owing to the miserable weather, little could be done in the way of manipulating the bees, but the tent was always filled with visitors, who attentively listened to the instructive lectures on Beekeeping which were constantly being given, and who showed by the questions they asked, and by their general interest in the art, that such an exhibition was well worthy of a place in the Society’s Yard. The Fish, in a neighbouring tent, consisted of trout, char, and salmo fontinalis (American brook-trout), bred by the exhi- bitor, and shown in separate tanks; some of this year’s hatching and some about eighteen months old. There were also speci- mens of fish-hatching apparatus. No doubt a great deal more ought to be done in the way of Trials of Implements at Carlisle. 681 fish-culture in England than there is at present, and many a stream capable of growing good trout is neglected because it is small; whereas in a brook not a yard wide, trout will grow to 2 lbs. and 3 lbs. weight, if they have a fair chance given them and plenty of food, the best of which is fresh-water shrimps and snails, and in such brooks these generally abound. In conclusion, I will say that although there is much really good and substantial work done, yet there is a growing tendency amongst machine-makers of all classes, owing to competition, to cheapen their work at the risk of efficiency. This is to a great extent the fault of their customers, who will buy the cheapest thing, forgetting that it is the dearest in the end; and so brasses are lightened, inferior metal used, and if it were possible to cast an engine with steam up, no doubt it would be done. Both makers and buyers would do well to adopt as their standard the workmanship and design shown by the best locomotive engineers, and not give way to shoddy, but keep up the quality of English productions, which in the long run will be the only way to retain our share of the trade of the world. This every- where is now being most seriously threatened, not only by foreign countries putting prohibitive import duties on English machinery, but by developing their own iron-works, and training workmen who so far seem more amenable to reason than ours,— more thrifty, and consequently able to live well on much lower wages than many English workmen would starve on. There are two facts, I learn from good authorities, affecting both farmers and manufacturers, which it may not be out of place to notice. The carriage of certain implements is less from England to America than it is to Ireland; and from some if not all ports, foreign cattle are carried inland at a cheaper rate than English cattle would be by the same or any train. This may be owing somewhat to the disturbed state of commerce ; and when things right themselves, as now happily there is every prospect of their doing, we may hope that general prosperity will abolish such anomalies. Tue Worxkine Dairy. One of the most interesting sights in the whole yard was the Working Dairy, under the management of Mr. Allender, of the Aylesbury Dairy Company, who, at the request of the Society, sent a collection of the best and newest machines employed by them, and fully showed their use by keeping them in constant work. Several improvements suggested by the experience of Bristol and Kilburn were made in the arrangement of the Dairy. At 682 Report on the Exhibition and. one end was one of Marshall and Son’s six-horse-power vertical engines, which drove a shaft running the length of the building, supplied steam for heating water, and for driving a small engine attached to the cooling apparatus. Along one side and end, under the projecting roof, the public could stand, and the re- maining side was provided with raised seats, so that those people who were specially interested could, on payment of a shilling, comfortably watch the processes, obtain information from the attendants, or instruction from the frequent lectures and explanations given by a competent person told off for the purpose, who thus supplied a want much felt on former occasions. The improved systems of setting milk, viz., Swartz and Cooley, which have been before described in the ‘ Journal,’ here clearly showed their superiority over the old flat-pan system ; the Cooley, in Mr. Allender’s opinion, being very suitable for small dairies, but for large concerns the Swartz is preferable. The water in the tanks was kept at about 40° by means of a cooling machine, such as is common in breweries, the low tem- perature being obtained by the evaporation of ether, pumped through pipes fixed in the tanks. There was nothing special to record about the churns or butter workers. In buying large quantities of milk it is practically found to be impossible to get accurate results by measuring, so a machine has been invented by Mr. Allender for weighing it, by which means the quantity to an ounce is quickly and surely known, It consists of a weighing-table about 3 feet 6 inches square ; on this are two A-frames, between which is supported, on trunnions, a copper tank, holding 35 gallons, or about 3 cwt. of milk. In one half of this is fitted a wire strainer, 80 meshes to the inch, through which the milk is poured. The tank being full, the contents are weighed, a catch is released, and the whole tipped up into a tank on the floor, from whence it is used’as required. Another new machine is the Aylesbury Dairy Company’s Patent Butter- mixer, which has several uses—as mixing salt with butter, and washing salt out of butter—but its chief purpose is for mixing butyroseter, or the new butter preservative, with the butter to beso treated. It consists of two fluted rollers of wood, through which the butter passes into a pug mill below, the knives of which are of wood and can readily be taken out and cleaned ; the machine is driven by power, and is capable of getting through a large amount of work in a short time. Two Centrifugal Separators (Laval’s patent) were also shown at work, and were fully described in last year’s ‘ Journal,’—most Trials of Implements at Carlisle. 683 ingenious machines, but about the utility of which a good deal of doubt still exists, nor is it at all certain that the cream does not undergo some important molecular change from the centrifugal force to which it is subjected. To obtain the best price for butter, not only should it be properly made, but cleanly and tastefully put before the pur- chaser, and in this latter respect many makers are most deficient, and the price of otherwise good butter is often diminished by the slovenly way in which it is sent to market. To simplify and ensure uniformity in this pro- cess, a simple machine on the principle of a brick- press is used, which any one can easily work. It will make pound or half- pound pats, which are turned out with the greatest uniformity and rapidity. Much skill is required in neatly making it up by hand, and the exquisite way in which it was weighed into pounds, and made up by the neat-fingered dairymen, each pound wrapped in a piece of linen and slipped into a basket (like those in which strawberries are sold) just to fit it, must have taught a good lesson, not only to many a North-country dairymaid, but to many a lady as well. Judging from the quantity of specimen pats sold, and from the continuous interest shown in the Dairy from the beginning to the end of the Show, by people who were evidently not merely sight-seers, but anxious and eager to learn, the Society may well congratulate itself in having done no little good, in an educational point of view, in this most important but greatly neglected branch of British farming—that of butter-making. No cheesemaking was done in the Yard, the process being too long and too delicate a one to be properly shown and explained in the bustle of a Show; so all the energy of Mr. Allender and his assistants was directed to butter. ‘Too much praise cannot be bestowed on them, one and all, for the thorough way in which the work was done; nor on the Aylesbury Dairy Company, for so well responding to the wish of the Society in carrying out such an exceedingly instructive exhibition, and one which should form a portion of every future Show. Fig. 17.—Butter-presser. : ’ ~ SO “J A 7 4 ' —<—-_ ws ie! . DR Ak 'y Dv ata Qt eee Talk saunter { uli. bien? sat acitk poe os | ig a . Peso pearls) Ww mee omer eos | Stas | 4 pth iN ins y ke - ‘ PAiteids {Seis denis iftGie wi @ wy od wate tee lake ae F ary y ‘ oo » | a Coed 2b grt he = : 2 Hi 3 hes j ir. State an - e éuTr ah cs i Gaz tule SIMOTOIS ae nisor Vigan Og Aust oe 4 irik Pena in ie ME ry rime sts , LN byes seUd>. Jt AM fy i wie i ie Shy al * #4; Ay a it4 i4 > Yt fre ' . ; IP * aA Wy 5 , eA ey : sia, \y i" i ho) t ‘ ‘ é i - ky «Us J t Talele 6,4 i. ae * ‘ ‘ rir) pw f 15 ' viv i ‘ ae 4 ite A . bi ay Af — 9 y t tag Si ban! Labs * » 4 Year when Elected. 1879 1855 1857 1850 1863 1868 1854 1860 1839 1856 1858 1861 1861 1839 1861 1867 1847 1848 1858 1848 1852 1872 1859 1855 *1858 *1877 1880 1875 1875 *1863 1861 1874 1878 *1860 *1868 *1871 1873 1876 KRopal Agricultural Soctetp of England. 1880-81. Prestvent. THE DUKE OF BEDFORD. Grustecs. H.R.H. Tur Prince or Wates, K.G., Marlborough House, Pall Mall, 8.W. AcLAND, Sir THomas Dyke, Bart., M.P., Sprydoncote, Exeter, Devonshire. Brrpport, General Viscount, Cricket St. Thomas, Chard, Somersetshire. CuesuaM, Lord, Latimer, Chesham, Bucks. Kinesoore, Colonel, M.P., Kingscote, Wotton-under-Hdge, Gloucestershir«. Licurie.p, Earl of, Shugborough, Staffordshire. Macponap, Sir AncHIBALD KEPPEL, Bt., Woolmer Lodge, Liphook, Hants. Marteoroven, Duke of, K.G., Blenheim Park, Oxford. Portman, Viscount, Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset. Powis, Earl of, Powis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire. RutLann, Duke of, K.G., Belvoir Castle, Grantham, Leicestershire. WELLs, Witu1Am, Holmewood, Peterborough, Northamptonshire. Vice-Prestvents. Catucart, Earl, Thornton-le-Street, Thirsk, Yorkshire. CurcHesTER, Earl of, Stanmer Park, Lewes, Sussex. Dent, J. D., Ribston Hall, Wetherby, Yorkshire. DevonsHtre, Duke of, K.G., Holker Hall, Lancashire. EversxEy, Viscount, Heckfield Place, Winchfield, Hants. Gisps, Sir Branpretu, Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, London, W. Kerrison, Sir Epwarp C., Bart., Brome Hall, Scole, Suffolk. Lawes, JOHN BENNET, Rothamsted, St. Albans, Herts. RicHMonD AND Gorpon, Duke of, K.G., Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex. SKELMERSDALE, Lord, Lathom Hall, Ormskirk, Lancashire. Vernon, Lord, Sudbury Hall, Derby. Wyny, Sir Watkin Wittiams, Bart., M.P., Wynnstay, Ruabon, Denbighshire. Other PMembers of Council. Amos, CHARLES Epwarps, 5, Cedars Road, Clapham Common, Surrey. ArxwricHt, J. H., Hampton Court, Leominster, Herefordshire, AsHwortH, ALFRED, Poynton, Cheshire. Avettnc, Tuomas, Rochester, Kent. Ayumer, Hucu, West Dereham, Stoke Ferry, Norfolk. Bow.y, Epwarp, Siddington House, Cirencester, Gloucestershire. CANTRELL, CHARLES S., Riding Court, Datchet (Bucks), Windsor. Cuanpos-PoLE-GELL, H., Hopton Hall, Wirksworth, Derbyshire. Davies, Davip Reynoips, Agden Hall, Lymm, Cheshire. Druvce, JosrrH, Hynsham, Oxford. Epmonps, WILLIAM JouN, Southrop, Lechlade, Gloucestershire. Ecerton, Hon. WirprauaM, M.P., Rostherne Manor, Knutsford, Cheshire. Evans, Joun, Ufington, Shrewsbury, Salop. FeversHaM, Earl of, Duncombe Park, Helmsley, Yorkshire. * Those Members of the Council whose names are prefixed by an asterisk retire by rotation in July, but are eligible for re-election in May, VOL. XVI.—S. 8. a il Year when Elected. *1879 *1875 1879 *1874 1876 *1878 1871 1869 *1872 *1874 1865 1871 1874 *1879 *1878 1857 *1861 1875 1867 *1871 1869 1875 *1874 *1878 *1856 1874 *1875 *1874 1845 1871 1871 *1870 *1870 1865 *1878 List of Officers Foster, 8. P., Killhow, Carlisle, Cumberland. FRangIsH, WILLIAM, Limber Magna, Ulceby, Lincolnshire. Gorrinck, Huau, Kingston-by-Sea, Shoreham, Sussex. Hems.ey, Joun, Shelton, Newark, Notts. Howarp, Cuarues, Biddenham, Bedford. Howarb, James, Clapham Park, Bedfordshire. Jonzs, J. Bowen, Ensdon House, Montford Bridge, R.S.O., Salop. Lexps, Ropert, Keswick Old Hall, Norwich. Leicester, Earl of, K.G., Holkham Hall, Wells, Norfolk. Linpsay, Colonel Loyp, M.P., Lockinge Park, Wantage, Berkshire. Lopss, Sir Massy, Bart., M.P., Maristow, Roborough, Devon. MolIntosu, Davin, Havering Park, Romford, Essex. Mart, Josern, Highfield House, Littleport, Isle of Ely, Cambridgeshire. NEvILi4E, Rosert, Butleigh Court, Glastonbury, Somersetshire. Opams, James, The Grange, Bishop Stortford, Herts. Parn, Tuomas, The Grove, Basingstoke, Hants. RaNnDELL, Cuanes, Chadbury, Evesham, Worcestershire. Ransome, Ropert Cares, Ipswich, Suffolk. RaveEnswortTH, Karl of, Ravensworth Castle, Durham. RAWLENCE, JAmEs, Bulbridge, Wilton, Salisbury, Wilts. Ruwiey, Sir M.Wurrs, Bart., M.P., Blagdon, Cramlington, Northumberland. RussELL, Ropert, Horton Court Lodge, Dartford. Sanpay, Grorce Henry, Wensley House, Bedale, Yorkshire. SuEraTon, Witu1am, Broom House, Ellesmere, Salop. SHUTTLEWORTH, JosEPH, Hartsholme Hall, Lincoln. Spencer, Earl, K.G., Althorpe, Northampton. Srratton, Ricwarp, The Duffryn, Newport, Monmouthshire. TURBERVILL, Lieut.-Col. Picton, Ewenny Priory, Bridgend, South Wales. Turner, GrorGE, Great Bowley, Tiverton, Devonshire. TURNER, JABEZ, Norman Cross, Yaxley, Huntingdonshire. WAKEFIELD, WiLu1AM H., Sedgwick, Kendal, Westmoreland. We sy-Grecory, Sir Winiiam Harz, Bart., M.P., Denton Hail, Grantham, Lincolnshire. WuiteHead, Cuarves, Barming House, Maidstone, Kent. Wiuson, JAcozn, Woodhorn Manor, Morpeth, Northumberland. Wisz, Grorce, Woodcote, Warwick. Secretary and Bvitor. H. M. JENKINS, 12, Hanover Square, London, W. Consulting Chemist—Dr. Avucusrus VortcKeEr, F.R.S., 12, Hanover Square, W. Consulting Botanist-—W. Carrutuers, F.R.S., F.L.S., British Museum, W.C. Consulting Veterinary Surgeon—Protessor James Beart Smonps, Royal Veteri- nary College, Camden Town, N.W. Veterinary Inspectors—Tur OFFICERS OF THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE. Consulting Engineers—Eastons & ANDERSON, 3, Whitehall Place, S.W. Surveyor—Gurorce Hunt, Evesham, Worcestershire. Seedsmen—Tuomas Grpps and Oo., Corner of Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, W. Publisher—Joun Murray, 50, Albemarle Street, W. Bankers—Tur Lonpon AND WESTMINSTER Bank, St. James's Square Branch, 8.W. * Those Members of the Council whose names are prefixed by an asterisk retire by rotation in July, but are eligible for re-election in May, STANDING COMMITTEES FOR 1880. Finance Committee. Kanescots, Colonel (Chairman). Franxisu, W. Briprort, General Viscount. RANDELL, CHARLES. 'Riptey, Sir M. Wine, Bt. SHUTTLEWORTH, J. Davigs, D. R. Bouse Committee. Tur PRESIDENT. Gipps, Sir BRANDRETE. CuarrMaN of Finance Committee. CANTEELL, C. 8. Briprort, General Viscount. Kryesoorn, Colonel. Hournal Conrnuttee. Dent, J. D. (Chairman). Jonrs, J. Bowen. Carucart, Earl. Kryescore, Colonel. We py-Grecory, Sir W. E., Bt. Ransome, R. C. Rintey, Sir M. Wurrs, Bt. TuRBERVILL, Lieut.-Col. Cuanpos-PoLE-GELL, H. We ts, W. FRANKISH, W. WHITEHEAD, CHARLES. Hemsery, J. Wisp, G. Howarp, J. Chemical Committee. We ts, WiiirAm (Chairman). Dent, J. D. Beprorp, Duke of. Howanrp, C. Licurre.p, Earl of, Jones, J. BOWEN. VERNON, Lord. Lawes, J. B. Macpona.p, Sir A. K., Bart. Nevizez, R. We.py-Grecory, Sir W. E., Bt. TURBERVILL, Lieut.-Col. ARKWRIGHT, J. H. VoELcKER, Dr. A. AVELING, T. WAKEFIELD, W. H. Carrutuers, W. Warren, R. A. Davis, D. R. WHITEHEAD, CHARLES. Seeds and Plant-Diseases Committee. Vernon, Lord. FRankIsH, W. Wexpy-Grecory, Sir W. E., Bt. JonES, J. BowEN. Gisps, Sir BRANDRETH. TURBERVILL, Lieut.-Col. Arkwricut, J. H. VorELcKER, Dr, Carruruers, W. WHITEHEAD, CHARLES. Veterinary Committee. Ecerrton, Hon. WiLBRAHAM Gorrince, H. (Chairman). GREENFIELD, Dr. Wo. SMITH. Caruoart, Earl. Harptey, M. J. Briweort, General Viscount, Kryescore, Colonel. Rw ey, Sir M. Wurre, Bt. Opams, JAMES. Gipss, Sit BRANDRETH. Sanpay, G. H. Brown, Professor. Sanperson, Dr. J. Burpon, CuHANDOS-POLE-GELL, H. Snionns, Professor. Davies, D. R. Srrarron, R. Dueum, W. WAKEFIELD, W. H. FLeMiIne, GEORGE. WELLs, WILLIAM. Foster, 8. P. Wiuson, JAcos. a2 1vV StocksPrises Committee. FRANKISH, W. GorrineGn, H. Cuanpos Potn-GELL, H. (Chairman). Bripport, Gen. Visct. HeEmsLey, J. Grsss, Sir BranDRETH. Howarp, C. ARKWRIGHT, J. H. MoInvosu, D. Ayumer, H. Par, ‘I’. Bowty, Epwarp. Davirs, D. R. Evans, Joun. Sanpay, G. H. SHERATON, W. Implement Committee. Howarp, J. JONES, J. BowEN. Martin, J. Brimport, Gen. Viscount. Vernon, Lord. Gisss, Sir BRANDRETH. ANDERSON, W. Nevitxy, R. AVELING, T. Ransome, R. C. FRANKISH, W. Ricu, W. E. HeEms.ey, J. Sanpay, G. H. Howarp, C, SHERATON, W. Standing Committees for 1880. Smuonns, Prof. Srratron, R. Torr, J. Turner, Guo. WAKEFIELD, W. H. WILSON, JACOB. Wise, G. The Stewards of Live Stock, SHUTTLEWORTH, JOSEPH. Stratton, R. TuRBERVILL, Lieut.-Col. TourNER, JABEZ. WHITEHEAD, CHARLES. WIison, JACOB. The Stewards of Imple- ments, General Carlisle Committee. Kivescors, Colonel. (Chairman). Briprort, Gen. Viscount. CuesHam, Lord. SKELMERSDALE, Lord. Ecerrton, Hon. W. Gripes, Sir BRANDRETH. AVELING, T. Ayumer, H. Bow ty, E. CANTRELL, CHARLES S. Car.isLr, Mayor of. CuHanpos-PoLe-GELL, H. Davies, D. R. FRANKISH, W. Foster, 8. P. Howarp, C. Hemstry, J. James, Captain W. E. JONES, J. BowEn, MclInrosu, D. Martin, J. Paw, T. RANDELL, CHARLES, Ransome, R. C. RAWLENCE, J. RusseExt, R. Sanpay, G. H. SHUTTLEWORTH, J. STEPHENSON, CHRISTO- PHER. Stratton, R. TURBERVILL, Lieut.-Col. TURNER, JABEZ. WAKEFIELD, W. H. WELLs, W. WHITEHEAD, CHARLES, WILSON, JACOB. Woon, Grorce. Show-Vard Contracts Committec. Wutson, JAcon (Chairman). Caanpos-PoLe-GeELL, H. Gress, Sir BRANDRETH. FRranxkisH, W. Amos, C. E. Hemstey, J. AVELING, T. Howarp, C, Committee of Selection. SKELMERSDALE, Lord. Cuanpos-PoLe-GEL, H, Hems ey, J. Carucart, Harl. Briwrort, Gen. Visct. RANDELL, CHARLES. Sanpay, G. H. SHUTTLEWORTH, JOSEPH. Srratton, R. Howanrp, C. TURBERVILL, Lieut.-Col. And the Chairmen of the Standing Committees. Evucatton Committee. JONES, J. BOWEN, NeEvixe, R, Kinescorer, Colonel. TURBERVILL, Lieut.-Col. Dent, J. D. (Chairman), Beprorp, Duke of. AVELING, T. , VoELCEER, Dr. WHITEHEAD, CHARLES. Wise, G. Cattle Plaque Committee. THE WHOLE CoUNCIL *.* The PresIDENT, TRUSTEES, and VicE-PrEsIDENTS are Members ex officio of all Committees. GENERAL MEETING, 12, Hanover Squarg, THurspay, December 111u, 1879. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. In presenting the usual Half-yearly Report to the General Meeting in December, the Council have to express their satis- faction at the remarkably large numher of Governors and Members who have been elected during the year; but at the same time they must express their regret and disappointment that the International Exhibition at Kilburn has resulted in a serious drain upon the funded capital of the Society. During the year 1879, the number of Governors and Mem- bers has been increased by the election of 4 Governors and 1285 Members, and diminished by the death of 3 Governors and 90 Members, and the removal of 96 Members from resig- nation or by order of the Council. The Society now consists of :— 82 Life Governors, 71 Annual Governors, 2619 Life Members, 5099 Annual Members, 20 Honorary Members, making a total of 7891, and showing an increase of 1094 Members during the current year. The Council have the pleasure of announcing that the Prince of Wales having graciously expressed a desire of taking part in the proceedings of the Society as a Member of Council, His Royal Highness has been unanimously elected a Trustee of the Society. By the end of this year the funded capital of the Society will have been reduced by the sum of 14,000/., of which nearly vi Report to the General Meeting. 12,0007. has been required to meet the deficit in the receipts at the Kilburn Exhibition, while the balance has been devoted to the building of the new laboratory and to the purchase of plant and materials for the Carlisle Meeting next year. The funded property of the Society at the end of the year will stand at 12,4301. 7s. Od. New Three per Cents., and the balance of the current account in the hands of the Bankers on the Ist inst. was 1895/2. 19s. 6d., which, however, is not sufficient to meet outstanding claims connected with the London Meeting. The half-yearly statement of accounts to the 30th of June last has been examined and approved by the Society’s auditors and accountants, and has been published for the information of the Members in the last number of the ‘ Journal.’ In their Report to the Annual General Meeting held last May, the Council described the special features ‘which the London Meeting would include ; and the programme then pre- sented was duly carried out, though under the most un- favourable circumstances as regards weather. The Kilburn Exhibition was certainly the largest and most varied Agri- cultural Show hitherto held; and amongst the novel features which specially attracted attention may be mentioned the International Dairy, the Comparative Loan Collection of Ancient and Modern Farm Implements, the Railway Waggons for the Conveyance of Fresh Provisions, and the Competing Plans of Farm Buildings. The Foreign Exhibits of Stock and Implements, although not numerous, were generally charac- teristic and interesting. The Live Stock department attained unprecedented dimensions ; and the Council rejoice to add that owing to the precautions taken, and to the vigilance of a most efficient staff of Veterinary Inspectors, no case of Contagious or Infectious Disease appeared amongst any of the animals. Notwithstanding the very inclement weather, the proportion of animals affected with ordinary ailments, in comparison with the number exhibited, was reported as not so great as in the average of years. The Presidency of the Prince of Wales, the visit of Her Majesty the Queen and of nearly every member of the Royal Family; the attendance of an unusually large number of Members of the Society; and the admission of about 200,000 Report to the General Meeting. vil people by payment at the turnstiles or by Season Tickets are sufficient indications of the general interest taken in the London Exhibition. The Council refer the Members to the several reports on the different departments of the London Exhibition, published in the last number of the ‘Journal,’ from a perusal of which some idea of the magnitude and variety of that Exhibition, as well as of the difficulties under which it was held, may be gained by those who were unable to see it. The Council have great satisfaction in reporting that the establishment of the new laboratory has already been emi- nently successful in encouraging the Members to send samples of purchased manures and feeding stuffs to Dr. Voelcker for analysis. Since the opening of the laboratory last March up to the beginning of the current month, the number of samples sent to Dr. Voelcker for analysis was 843, being 296 more than those sent during the corresponding period of the previous year. The experiments at Woburn are being carried out on the same plan as hitherto, and a full report of the results obtained this year will be published in the forthcoming volume of the ‘Journal.’ Notwithstanding the exceptionally unfavourable season, the Council are of opinion that the comparison of the produce obtained by the use of different manures will be both interesting and useful to the Members of the Society. Dr. Voelcker’s Quarterly Reports on the adulteration of manures and feeding-stuffs show, that although the efforts of the Society have tended to the abatement of these practices to an appreciable extent, there is still great room for improvement. The want of ordinary firmness shown by those who, after putting the Society's Consulting Chemist and others to great trouble and correspondence in the investigation of the cases they bring forward, decline at the last to furnish the means of making them public, is one of the great difficulties with which the Council have now to contend. The magnitude of the Implement Show at Kilburn has again drawn the attention of the Council to the desirability of curtail- ing this department of the Society’s Country-meetings. They have therefore resolved that the maximum size of stands be 150 feet, and that the Implement Committee be empowered to decide vill Report to the General Meeting. the space alloted to each Exhibitor, and to disqualify any of his proposed exhibits; and that the charge for space in the mis- cellaneous department be doubled. The Carlisle Local Committee are co-operating with the Council in order to make the meeting next year as useful and as attractive as possible. The Local Committee have offered Prizes in four classes for the best managed farms in the Counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland and in the Haltwhistle Union of the County of Northumberland, and seventeen entries have been received. In addition to the Prizes for Live Stock which will be offered by the Society as usual, the Carlisle Local Committee propose to offer Prizes for Hunters, Hackneys, Coach-horses, Ponies, Galloway Cattle, Dairy Cows, and Butter. The Council have decided that the Judges of Implements at Carlisle shall be empowered to award gold and silver medals to any implements or machines for the cultivation of the land by steam or other mechanical force, which in the opinion of the Stewards and Judges are new inventions, and have not been previously submitted to trial by the Society. The Carlisle Meeting will commence on Monday, July 12th, and close on Friday, July 16th. The new arrangement with the Governors of the Royal Veterinary College continues to work satisfactorily, and the Council would again call the attention of the Members to the valuable reports by the Professors of the College on the princi- pal cases which have come under their notice. These reports are published in the Proceedings of the Council-meetings in the Agricultural Newspapers. The experiments on quarter-evil and allied diseases are still being carried on at the Brown Institution ; but the Director of the Institution finds great difficulty in procuring cases at a sufficiently early period of the disease. The Council therefore hope that any outbreak of quarter-evil or splenic apoplexy may be at once made known by telegraph to Dr. Greenfield, the Brown Institution, Wandsworth Road. In consequence of the numerous applications which Professor Simonds continues to receive for copies of his paper on sheep- rot, published originally in 1862, in the 23rd volume of the ‘Journal,’ the Council have resolved to re-publish it as a Report to the General Meeting. ix pamphlet, considering that after the wet season of this year, sheep-rot is likely to be more prevalent in the country than usual. Six specimens of wheat have been forwarded for competition, for the Prizes offered by the Society for the best new variety : these have each been divided into four lots and forwarded to four Members of the Society, who have agreed to grow the samples in accordance with the conditions laid down. Samples of the corn and straw have also been retained for comparison with the new crop. Twenty-three candidates from four schools were entered to compete for the Society’s Junior Scholarships ; and the result of the examination was as follows :— Ist. R. P. Coopr, Devon County School. 2nd. B. FurNIvALL, Surrey County School. ord, J. RiagBy, Sandbach Grammar School. 4th. T. Lrrsr, Sandbach Grammar School. 5th. G, L. HAstenurst, Surrey County School. 6th. C. S. BrimtEy, Bedford County School. 7th, A. E. Kina, Surrey County School. During the past year twelve candidates also competed for the Society’s Senior Certificates and Prizes. Of these, three were successful in gaining first-class certificates, and the remainder failed in some branch of study. On the whole the Council see no reason to regret the course they are pursuing in offering these prizes and scholarships, but they are by no means satis- with the number of competitors for scholarships. If Masters of Schools were aware of the advantages offered, viz.: the scholar- ship of 20/., the examination conducted at their own schools, with no trouble or expense to themselves,—the Council believe that they would receive more applications; and that a more general attempt would be made in country schools to teach the principles of Agriculture, and the elements of Chemistry, Mechanics, and Mensuration. By order of the Council, H. M. Jenkins, Secretary. Pu Roval Agricultural Society of England. 1880. DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY AND OF MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. | NUMBER NuMBER DistRIcTs. | CouNTIES. OF N MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. Mempers. | Covuncit. | | BepFoRDSHIRE 138 2 C. Howard ; James Howard. BUCKINGHAMSHIRE... 107 2 (Gaateateaa T.; C. 8. CAMBRIDGESHIRE 101 1 J. Martin. ISSIEXG ey intar 272 1 D. McIntosh. HERTFORDSHIRE 146 2 J. B. Lawes, v.p.; J. Odams. HUNTINGDONSHIRE... 48 2 Jabez Turner; W. Wells, v. A. MIDDLESEX 295 1 Sir Brandreth Gibbs, y.P. H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, NORFOLK.. .. 329 4 K.G., v.; Earl of Leicester; Hugh Aylmer; Robert Leeds. ; Duke of Marlborough, 1.; J. OXFORDSHIRE .. 147 2 { nae Sir E. C. Kerrison, v.p.; R. C. SUFFOLK .. Ly seis { Ravenel ? —1758 | — 19 CUMBERLAND .. 162 ] S. P. Foster. { DuRHAM.. .. 125 1 Earl of Ravensworth. B. | NoRTHUMBERLAND .. 152 2 iG ee Ridley > Jacob \| WESTMORELAND .. GAs ue It W. H. Wakefield, — 503|— 5 | DERBYSHIRE .. 148 2 {eoeoene bi oe | LEICESTERSHIRE .- 99 1 Duke of Rutland, r. | Sir W. Earle Welby-Gregory ; Cc. | LINCOLNSHIRE... 205 3 W. Frankish; J. Shuttle- | worth, | NorTHAMPTONSHIRE 130 i Earl Spencer. NorrinGHAMSHIRE.. | 158 1 J. Hemsley. RUTLAND ae Distribution of Members of the Society. DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY—continued. DIsTRIcts. CountTIEs. BERKSHIRE. .. CoRNWALL .. .. DEVONSHIRE DORSETSHIRE .. HAMPSHIRE KENT SOMERSETSHIRE SURREY ., SussrEx .. WILTSHIRE YORKSHIRE .. GLOUCESTERSHIRE .. H®REFORDSHIRE MonMOUTHSHIRE SHROPSHIRE STAFFORDSHIRE WARWICKSHIRE WORCESTERSHIRE SoutH WALES CHESHIRE ss LANCASHIRE NortH WALES CORIAND re lle) sie ae. an TRELAND fe mec Lae CHANNEL ISLANDS .. .. .. Forrign CountRizs.. > MEMBERS WITHOUT ADDRESSES .. NUMBER Or MEMBERS. — SS wo _ co Tw oe So a veg 103 104 — 376 | ee ee ao) Number IN CounciL. 18 — lor) Members or Councit. Colonel Loyd Lindsay. Sir T. D. Acland, t.; Sir M. { Lopes; G. Turner. Viscount Portman, T, Viscount Eversley, v.p.; Sir A. { kK. Macdonald, r.; T. Pain. T. Aveling; KR. Russell; C. Whitehead. Visct. Bridport, vr. ; R. Neville. C. E. Amos. (Bee of Chichester, v.p.; Duke of Richmond and Gordon, | v.p.; H. Gorringe. J. Rawlence. ie Cathcart, v.p.; Earl of Feversham ; J. D. Dent, v.r.; G. H. Sanday. {E. Bowly; W. J. Edmonds; | Col. Kingscote, tT. J. H. Arkwright. R. Stratton. cae Eyans ; J. Bowen Jones ; W. Sheraton. Earl of Lichfield, tv. | George Wise. | ©. Randell. | Lt.-Col. Picton Turbervill. | ete W. Egerton; D. R. Davies; A, Ashworth. | Duke of Devonshire, v.p.; Lord i Skelmersdale, v.p. Earl of Powis, t.; Sir W. W. { Wynn, v.P. | | | ROYAL AGRICULTURAL Dr. To Balance in hand, 25th June, 1879 :— ING eG dol Good! 6d. 6a oa 60.80 co Secretary... .. «. mo 00 AOS: 65 Go do 60 oo 94 Oy. OG do. Ga) oF To Income :— Dividends on Stock .. .. «2 «oe «- Subscriptions :— Coyam@seenuAl Sy 45 65 So oo oo 4 Members’ Life-Compositions .. .. .. .. .- Members’ Annual ~.. «2 «se o- «0 . Journal :— PA GVELLISEMENES sein retolire/e mtelalnntalayntrs|« SEP Gd og 66.00. ca.00) 0b Sale of ‘Hints on Butter Making’.. Chemical :— ISM e ALINE | OA> 65 GU SO on on Veterinary :— Professional Hees! Tae | are) be ae SPCC oG ao. oq do..o0 04) 65 00 45 Farm Inspection :— Entry Fees 1880 AOiwcd . 0G_ do OO o0 Oc Bristol Meeting .. ee ee ee Total Income Tow sO? ods ath ag IO IE EOI RAMU NGS Go of no oo oO 00 OO To Capital — LIABILITIES, Surplus; 25th June; 1879) we secs el we wie Deduct Surplus of Expenditure over Income during the Half-year, viz.:— [xpenditure) (< c« se sls) fois islel | ee IMME “Gol 66 00-00 "ob On Go Oooo Less half-year’s interest and depreciation on } Country Meeting Plant .. .. «+ «- «o- London Exhibition :— Excess of Expenditure over Receipts .. .. .. QUILTER, BALL, CROSBIE, GLEGG, & WELTON, Accountants. HALF-YEARLY Caso ACCOUNT | £38 d. Soar ds via isle A 1,804 4 5 Re ah eee 013 1 — 1,804.17 6 hc a ics. 113662 10 0 aie 211 18 11 &s (8s as | 15 0 0 1011 0 O 834 1 0 1,860 1 0 62/15. 3 ay HR} 43 41 510 269 14 9 : 189 1 6 4 22 6 6 0% Wl ll 19 0 0 no oe oe 75 16 10 ies ug : 2,648 4 6 taba 2 ee 23,183 5 4 £39,298 17 4 | BALANCE-SHEET, Ey EE GS 33,744 5 2 i 1,009 5 4 | 271 11 10 1,230 17 2 | 15,339 14 10 Ran pole avery | | —— — | | £18,404 10 4 xiii SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. FROM 25Tu JUNE TO 3lst DECEMBER, 1879. Cr. By Expenditure :— £ 8. a. £ s. d.| £ 8 @ Establishment :— Salaries, Wages, &c. RVEAGe Miele, ae: Ge ea, 6921000 House :—Rent, Taxes, Repairs, &. .. «. .«. 345 4 4 Office: Printing, Postage, Stationery, &c... .. 279 12 6 | Journal ;— 1,817 6 10 Printing and Stitching .. «se se ec ec »«- 76519 6 Postage and Delivery ont alae, ei series 1240) 010%) Literary Contributions .. .. o. «. «. «- 28014 0 | \Wiee@ile) ois bp Merl Bod = 0G. Joo ed GO) mace ae Cp hh tat PAMIORIIMICE ate, as) acy wiaei ceMeeTeL | wb. Peja ne 312 6 | Reprint of No,.29. . Ho Gd. ‘GO 56 110 | Printing ‘ Hints on Butter Mi aking > Gen est! fee 23 15 9 Chemical :— Us tS el Salaries .. aie lec ss Gln 10) 0 Erecting Laboratory, Palace eee as i719 0] Petty Payments Dec. Job ao. Uo Boome 40 0 0} Veterinary :— ie ens sat EY UF The Brown Institution for Investigations to 125 0 0 | MEDUSA STP! 5c sie ce da, eis are Professional Fees to Royal Veterinary College .. 48 19 11 | 173 19 11 Botanical :— Consulting Botanist’s Salary 1. eo «se «0 08 ec ce oe 50 0 0 Education :— | (PRUE are | col in) ee M(efet y ‘ale’ | ees cet Mele 406 MGHOMMSNI DAMS else ct ces cis cee | ce coe AON OHO) 144 0 6 Subscriptions (paid in error) returned .. .. «2 se oe ee | 3.0 0 Stock:—Powerof Attorney. .. «se -«. «: «ss es oo va] 011 6 BrIstOMMCCHUCWE theme ee ccs) ws) Sat vam wee de ce eatl| 50 0 0 Motalhixyenditure’s re sist. lee wich ee, sie) te sir Eoieee ws 3,657 9 10 By Country Meeting Plant 1. 1. .. «2 «we os oo co , 0 oO. Gor 00 mene (5 4) By London Exhibition 1... 6. oe ce ee oe oe te we 31,765 6 11 ByiCar hele Meeting: 5. js a6 cis ce, ce as le es ee ce | 1,401 3 2 —— —| 33,166 10 1 By Balance in hand, 31st December :— 38,595 6 8 INEGI oo .o5. fo. GO moO -OGUNCOR GOMmMOUMECo: NCCEMCOMECCE| 682 13 4 | | DOCKEDADY cc iwc) ciel Nele le wn (00 ee oe sie) ae oe ae | 2017 4 | —_— 703 10 8 £39,298 17 4 3lst DrecemBer, 1879. en Pee ee§ | £ os. da. By Cash in hand . OO. a8 "OG8 Oo) bo 703 10 8 By New 3 per Cent, Stock 12, 4301. 7s. 0d. cost* 1. 1. sibusise hele DS 6iiela OL By Books and Furniture in Society’s House .. 56, Op. Hd" 0c 1,451 17 6 iByi@ountry Meeting Plant. .3 oc io6 dae cs 00 0s (il we 3,170 111 ; es 17,0035 to ieeopuroncarisie Meeting 5 .< «se 0 ee) ev es cs «cs 0G Ba. -00 L40i Se * Value at 97 = 12,0571. 8s. 11d. Mem.—The above Assets are exclusive of the amount recoverable in respect of arrears of Subscription to 31st December, 1879, which at that date amounted to 11091. £18,404 10 4 ! Examined, audited, and found correct, this 1st day of March, 1880. FRANCIS SHERBORN, A. H. JOHNSON, \ Auditors on behalf of the Society. HENRY CANTRELL. XIV Dr. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL YEARLY Casa Account, To Balance in hand, 1st Jan. 1879 :— Bankers . . Secretary. . To sale of Stock Yo Income :— Dividends on Stock . Subscriptions :— Governors’ Life Compositions . Governors’ Annual 6 Members’ Life-Compositions Members’ Annual, Journal :— Advertisements Sales . . . Sale of ‘Hints on Butter Making’ Chemical :— Laboratory Fees Farm-Inspection :— Entry Fees Establishment :— Rent « « Veterinary :— Professional Fees Sundries c To Bristol Meeting . To London Exhibition . Total Income. oo a o wooo i) 8,047 3 0 322 16 6 189 1 6 19 0 0 171 * 0.10 38,802 4 4 as 18s | Ge 20013 7 13,662 10 0 9,295 4 4 38,973 5 2 £62,131 13 1 a SOCIETY OF, ENGLAND. From Ist JANUARY TO 31st DecemseEr, 1879. Or. By Expenditure :— £ Ss a, OR ge ti Ro ee as Establishment :— | BRIGTICMVLODCH TACs: 6c, 6 of ecete @ @ 6 1,385 0 0 | House: Rent, Taxes, Repairs, &c. . . . 804° 5 7 | Office: Printing, Postage, Stationery, &c.. . . (ig euler! ———_— 2,856 6 8 Journal :— Printing and Stitching . . .. . o 1,451°13' 3 Postage and Delivery. . . . SiO 450 0 0 Literary Contributions . . . . 56419 0 NMGEHOMUSEReMisE In os le io ge curs ete 16813 0 | Advertising . Sind oo yeg Reman Wan). ce 312 6 Reprint of No. 29: a eres 56 110 Printing ‘ Hints on Butter Making Tay te! fe 23:15 9 ———— ————_ 2,718 15 4 Chemical :— Grant for Investigations, 1878 . . ... . 200 0 9 SOUBTICH MMSE lis) ich let) let ol sf eth acl” 599 13 MEtRVAPAYMENIS esc ww y's) cee) ow) ss 40 0 0 ectingaboratory . . 2. . . .« « « « 592 14 0 Chemical Apparatus . 2. . « « « « « « 300 0 0 PEGUINRUTOMCS mst et ee tl fige as) te te te 8L18 6 | ST 5) 6 Veterinary:— The Brown Institution for Perens 1879 . 250 0 0 Prizes and Medals. 5 edad 30 7 0 | Fees to Examiners . ; 2115 O Professional Fees to Royal Veterinary, College 5 7115 5 —_—__ 373 17 5 Botanical :— Consulting Botanist’s Salary. . . . 2. . « ne 100 0 0 Education. :— Fees to Examiners, . Fe a 5 5210 0 RING Vey wel <0 ic 4, es ssl te 22 5 0 PRIMORHRIDE SES, Lie ie) oj) < «1s ss 6) 8 6 18 3 6 SMEG) 15 aor AS Geo SLSR MDa emer 50 0 0 EXUIQUAESINDS es arco isl io cf « ) 6 « 0 140 0 0 [SS 282 18 6 Subscriptions (paid in error) returned. . . . Oe ot 15 1 Farm Inspection:— PUCLVGUHINIT OME AMET cil fel ave, ved eh re Go 6915 9 BINADICS arate (aM ey aisfoKere (als sey, fe.) val | atncre A 35) 5) 5 Total Expenditure. . . . . <) axe aia S276) sone By Country Meeting Plant. . . . . 2 . ws « i 0 cf 1,803 17 9 \By IBEIDOMSCELINE 6 5 6 sh FO lt tl Ue a 6 32113 8 Mondon xhibition . . . . . s » «© « « i ie 49,622 2 3 RBEIBLCRNTCORUME AN ihe Sieldaeurcvs 5, lee oh ee tian rt 1,401 3 2 By Balance in hand :— ed Ok) ODA 5 es a 6 68213 4 CERSESY 9 9 26) Ion aCeC rr amines mers aed a -9 ZONA oars e. fis) sey be Weller” ic, cs) 6) lot olen eumurCnanrS nn Sn 4 0 0 SalejofCatalogues!: 7... ic. jes sf) isvicel, isi, YoumNmelsry fn, 50” /a uncial suet aroun re 1,371 0 @ Printing Hntries\ini implement /Catalopuel | yajerauss Wetec) <1 «| 4,946 7.5 »» Horse Hire 50a aes ok ae Pe 426 3 7 » Postage, Stationery, ‘Telegrams, and Office Fittings oe 7615 2 », Cisterns, 781. 16s.; Lavatory Fittings, 1441. 14s. 8d.5 Tamnstiles, 1 171. 5s. 3d. 240 15 11 s, Insurance, 210. 78. 6d.; Signals, 192.108. . . .« » ne 40 17 6 » Sundries . . 1611 6 s» Superintendent of Works, 00u!, 4 Surveyor, 4021. 158.3 ‘Interest and “Depre- i 1.86113 1 ciation of Plant, 3981. 18s. 1d. eacia en ihs! Mal pa ie” Ve baie ares fia Per Contra :— 23,879 6 0 By Auction Sales, 34777. 18s. 10d.; Private Sales, 1, peu Cr eect a Gy Ve) ,, Exhibitors and Purveyors . . . . OF vo wrmor ic. (cease Ply mel 7 » Sundries. . PT ot aCe Ce Cane 20°15 2 5, Timber and Ironmongery sent to Carlisle Se at CMU hoe “<. rape ebNay Vag’ h's 535 13 2 MBUETOUSELSICOTeNInAne nt Llante— ac ilies! ee Ere Cee ea D2STe 12d 9 25 %a nad 14,621 18 5 {Show-Yard :—Rent of Land, 15537. Gs. 8d.; Rent of Cab Stand, 302. . . . . « 1583 6 8 Drainage. . . 122119 1 Making roads, making up and lev elling, burning ballast, materials Coxcept 2253 16 6 Sleepers), team labour, bee UG . ie) ber aieey Wars 6 Additional works, drainage, ballast, team labour, &e. ae Ms et kale Tolan ts 1034 5 10 Commission on Works, and Railway fares . a hale ‘9419 0 Hurdles and Sleepers, 16057. 1s. 1d. ; Ballast and Tan, 1471. 1s. ‘ed. Ace a 2% Laying on and use of Water. . Mri «0 SORT 1b, 20 Restoring Land after Show and making "good Roads and Paths. Cleary fall 297 4 3 OHUINARUS HENCE) te ll cry ai hice ys) er) Glraetn MPS MNIOMNE. 1) OME oun 179 16 6 eons Judges :—Implements, 1137. 13s.; Stock, 5847. 13s. 7d.; Foreign, 297. 16s. 7d.; Butter and Cheese, 451, 4s.; Bacon, Hops, and Cider, 411. 18s. 6d.; Wool and Bees, 280. 8s. 9d. 5 Farm bs ae 481. 10s. Sewage Farms, 2681. 9s. 11d. ; Market-garden Farms, 241.175. . 2 « «© « « e » 1,185 11 4 Consulting Engineers and Assistants. . aye), toby @ bh ictiey Whee pee Ie Pree TS 227 1 4 Inspectors :—Veterinary, 941. 5s.; Shearing, "351. 2s. 10d. . Pract Ls) a) airieen ic) er Noe ou eee 129 710 RACE. pew en ts Cie PEO Car ee te ite ltocte iled Clerks and Assistants: :—Bankers, 1501.; Post Office, 561. 5s. 10d.; Secretary and Stewards, 642 6 1 2651. 10s. 3d.; Foreign Clerk and Interpreters, TAY AAO CAS Cer Seta pneh al ces Lt oes at Stewards’ Expenses, 56l. 6s. ; Assistant Stewards, 1427. 1s.5d. . . 198 7 5 Superintendents of Stock and Implement Yards, 1021. 5s. 6d. ; Foremen and Assistant- Foremen, = 2151. 98. 7d. pape str iuen Superintending and Placing Ola Implements, * Superintending Produce Sheds, &e. eS Perec Ty SiO Yardmen, Foddermen, Grooms, Labourers, &.. . oyae 639 17 7% Index Clerk and Money Takers, 1700. 3s. 11d. ; Money “Changer, Doorkeepers &e., 2021. 13s. o 372 16 11 Commissionaires, 2571. 4s.; Boy Messengers, al, MSsisd. s . 26519 3 Stewards’ Hotel Expenses and Entertaining Foreign Visitors, 6901.7 is25 Journeys to Windsor, ‘al. 14s, 703 1 0 Refreshments and entertainments in Show-yard . gS wulAe lee: Te 770 10 3 Lodgings for Officials, 872. 12s.; Expenses of Secretary ‘and Staff, “OT. 1s. sd. i WT 13) Ss Furnishing, &c., H.R.H. the President's Tent, 4221. 5s.; Plants and Flowers for ditto and Members’ Club, 1951. 4s. 6d. . Oma Catalogues -—Implements, 11611. Lis. 4d. + Stock, 11411. 16s. 3d.; - Awards, Li6l. 185.3 Plan of Yard, 2 531. 15s. ; Commission on Sales, 891. 5s. . ANMOtAt atc hina }2,6 BINT Printing, 16441. 2s. 4d.; Advertising and Bill Posting, ‘98191. 1s. spetet areas ee peer co, Sue (4540am ore Postage, Carriage, Stationery, Badges, &c. . Sh 9 ane CaurtePAsas 0" é% 259). Tea Hay, 591U. 10s. 2d.; Straw, 989/. 2s. 1d.; Green Food, “8191. 12s. “ed. - e 2,393 4 9 Repairs, Insurance, and Carriage of Testing Machinery for Trials aud for International Dair ry: 12 ew Horse and Carriage Hire. . tin Ok Gates apne 238 1 9 Milk and Cream, 621. 2s.; Ice, 431. bs. ‘10d. for International Dairy. SUD 2 Cea ORC mma 105 7 10 Meat and Poultry, 591. 10s. id.; Ice, 30. 108., foriirigltof Meat Vans. 5 2 5 « 3 -« « = « CS) Quarantine Expenses. . ails: gia eekrene(c 123 10 7 Veterinary Medicines, 31. 58. ld; ” Baskets, 30. ‘Los. ; 0 Oil Baize, ‘241, 12s. 6 6d... A ac Sh 85 Organist and Hire of Organ, sl. 8s. ; Hire of Chairs, 351. 17s. 4d.; Hire of Clock, 151. rc 59 5 4 Corn and Seeds, 87. 1s. 1d.; Digging Embankment, i as 33 1 1 Use of Engines ‘and men, 281. ls. 1d.; Fire Brigade, S0l. ; Carriage of Old Implements, 2400. 9s. 3d. 348 10 4 Prize Plates, 1291. 3s. 6d.; Rosettes, 341. 8s. 10d.; Caps and Jackets, 301.7s.8d. . «. « . 194 0 0 Removing Cows for fear of Pleuro-Pneumonia, 501.3 Petty charges, TST ciel . 63 7 0 Clearing Yard after Show :—Wages, Horse Hire, &e. CRUMP ee te rae ch ed. CO ee 13412 2 Stock :—Prizes, 73887.*; Medals, 18.10s.0 ss s+ . + 6 6 « 2 ri roe aerate Sawin igo OBR | £50,170 3 1 TT . —oOoOO of Norfolk and Suffolk Polled Cattle, 507. ; Breeders of Polled Angus and Aberdeen Cattle, 257.; Goat Breeders, 28l.; Hop Growers and Hop Factors, 1701. 3 Perry and Cider, by M. Biddulph, Esq., M.P., 701.5 3 British Bee- keepers’ Association, 231. VOL. XVI.—S. S. b ( xviii) Carlisle Meeting, 1880. ON MONDAY, THE 12ra OF JULY, AND FOUR FOLLOWING DAYS. SCHEDULE OF PRIZES. I.—Live-Stock PrizsEs. Reference Number in Certificates, Class COONS Uuip (os) bo e Se —t HORSES. STALLIONS. Agricultural Stallion, four years old and upwards, not qualified to compete as Clydesdale or Suffolk Agricultural Stallion, three years old, not qualified ‘to comupete. as Clydesdale or Suffolk ces Agricultural Stallion, two years old, not qualified ‘to compete as Cly ydesdale or Suffolk Son ee aeee Clydesdale Stallion, four years old and upwards . Clydesdale Stallion, three years old .. : Clydesdale Stallion, two years old SMcesies Bo Suffolk Stallion, four years old and upwards... Suffolk Stallion, three years old swe Sulkee | Suffolk Stallion, two years old Thorough-bred Stallion, suitable for getting Hunters sh tad aces eee *Thorough-bred Stallion, suitable for getting Hunters or Coach Horses . The Prize-winner must serye half-bred Mates 4 in ie County of Cumberland during the season 1881, at a fee not exceeding three guineas (groom’s fee included); the horse to attend and remain during the whole of the season within the County, and to stand one day each week during the season at Carlisle, Wigton, Cockermouth, and Penrith ; the Prize not to be paid until these conditions are complied with. Stallion, suitable for getting Coach Horses .. Stallion, suitable for getting Hackneys, above 14 | hands 2 inches and not exceeding 15 hands 2 inches’. Pony Stallion, above 13 hands 2 inches and not exceeding 14 hands 2 inches hes 105 15 * Offered by Members of the Cumberland Hunt. Second 15 10 10 Prizes for Live Stock. xix Reference Second | Third Number in Prize. Prize. eonooamed HORSES—continued. Class £ | £ Broop Marzs anp FILins. | 15 Agricultural Mare and Foal, not qualified to com- “pete as Clydesdale or Suffolk Se nace ANC eT 20 10 16 Clydesdale Mare and Foal 20 10 ali Suffolk Mare and Foal .. .. .. 20 10 18 Mare, four years old or upwards .. 10 5 19 Agricultural Filly, three years old, not t qualified ‘to compete as Clydesdale or Suffolk . - 10 5 20 Clydesdale Filly, three years old.. 10 5 21 Suffolk Filly, three years old fe 10 5 22 Agricultural Filly, two years old, not qualified t to “compete as Clydesdale or Suffolle “5 10 5 23 Clydesdale Filly, two years old : 10 5 24 Suffolk Filly, two years old .. 10 5 25 + \*Agricultural Filly, one year old 5 x 26 ~=—|*Clydesdale Filly, one year old 5 Ea Oe Hunter Mare and Foal . 20 10 28 Coaching Mare and Foal af 10 5 29 Hackney Mare and Foal, above 14 hands 2 ‘inches and not exceeding 15 hands 2 inches ah 10 5 80 Pony Mare and Foal, above 13 hands 2 inches and not exceeding 14 hands 2 inches ae 10 5 AGRICULTURAL Mares, CoLts, AND GELDINGS. Vot qualified to compete as Clydesdale or Suffolk. 31 *Pair of Agricultural Horses, Mares or Geldings, four years old and eee not less than 16 hands high .. . 10 5 32 ~|*Gelding, four i ‘old, ‘not less than 16 hands high Bo. Ee ae 10 5 33 *Gelding, three years ‘old. 10 5 34 |*Gelding, two yearsold .. .. 10 5 35 *Aoricultural Colt or Gelding, one year ‘old . 5 bs 36 *Clydesdale Colt or Gelding, one year old 5 HUNTERS. 37 +‘|*Mare or Gelding, up to 15 stone, five ets old and upwards... 15 10 38 |*Mare or Gelding, up to 12 stone, five years old and upwards 2) o SSeS 15 10 39 _|*Mare or Gelding, four years Gio ss ist: | 10 5 40 |*Mare or Gelding, three years old .. 10 5 41 |*Mare or Gelding, two years old 5 sos 42 |*Mare, Colt, or Gelding, one year old ae 5 * Offered by the Carlisle Local Committee. XX Prizes for Live Stock. |g a. Reference Gis 2s 58 Eg. Bs Phar ape HORSES—continued. EE SE\BE 22 Cl Le) ae |e ee - Coacu Horsss. 43 _*Mare or Gelding, four years old and upwards, not less than 16 hands high os fae) Wigetelee Seal tallo) 5 = 4 \*Mare or Gelding, three years old . Lui ALO eae 45 \*Mare or Gelding, two years old 10] 5] | | HAcKNEYS AND ROADSTERS. | 46 |*Mare or Gelding, exceeding 15 hands, up to not | less‘thanbystome, “ess, 1) 4 es) cc eva) eeu (NIRS 47 |*Mare or Gelding, exceeding 15 nee up to not less than 12 stone 20/10; 5 48 *Mare or Gelding, above 14 ‘and “not " exceeding | 15 hands, up to 15 stone .. 20a tOme > 49 |*Mare or Gelding, above 14 and not " exceeding 15 hands, up to 12 stone .. 20 | 10) 5 Ponies. 50 |*Mare or Gelding, above 13 and not exceeding 14 hands alas | AO) |) 15) 51 *Mare or Gelding, above 12 hands ‘and not exceed- ing 13 hands 15 | LOSS 36 52 |*Mare or Gelding, not exceeding 12 hands TOM eS) ge CATTLE, Ge AGES ARE CALCULATED To Ist Juty, 1880, | inclusive.) | SHORTHORN. 53 Bull, above three years old . 30) | 20) 15 | 10 54 Bull, above two and not exceeding three years old 25 | 15 | 10 5 55 Yearling Bull, above one and not exceeding two 4 years ; old 25 | 15.) 10 5 56 Bull-Calf, above six and not exceeding twelve months old... .. Sey 0) || aN} |) al) 5 57 Cow, in-milk or in-calf, above three years old 20 | 15 | 10 5 58 Heifer, in-milk or in- -calf, not exceeding three years old... Foe) AO) 05) |p Ko) 5 59 Yearling Heifer, above one and not exceeding two years sold. 20 | 16 | 10 5 60 Heifer-Calf, above § six and under twelve months @Gl 55 an 00 20) | 15:1) 10 5 * Offered by the Carlisle Local Committee. +A Champion Prize, value “£25, ‘will be hes for the best Shorthorn Bull in the Show. + Offered by Mr. 8. P, Foster. Reference Number in Certificates. Class Prizes for Live Stockh. CATTLE—continued. HEREFORD. Bull, above three years old Bull, above two and not exceeding ‘three years old Yearling Bull, above one and not exceeding two years Old) cer este Bull-Calf, above six and not exceeding twelve | months old . He oe Cow, in-milk or in-calf, above three years old | Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding three yearsold .. Yearling Heifer, above one and not exceeding two | years sold. Heifer-Calf, above six and acdeet ‘twelve months old Sceemcat PROMO He ios Maen AcE Deryon. Bull, above three yearsold .. .. Bull, above two and not exceeding three years old Yearling Bull, above one and not exceeding two years old Bull-Calf, above six - and not exceeding twelve months old . Cow, in-milk or in- calf, above three years old Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding three years old .. Yearling Heifer, above one and not exceeding two years sold. a6 Heifer-Calf, above six and under twelve months OUMNH MEY Corum ce ru fetl oc. bs untae Sussex. Bull, above three years old .. .. Bull, above two and not exceeding three years old Yearling Bull, above one and not exceeding two years sold. Cow, in-milk or in-calf, ‘above three years old Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, above two and not exceeding three years old . da. er Yearling Heifer, above one and not exceeding two years ROR. trac, PR cn” 5s Lone-Horn. Bull, two years old and upwards .. Bull, under two yearsold 4. Cow, in-calf or in-milk, three years old and UPWALGS) ps0) as Mom Rect: 8! S0 Heifer, under three years old OC. sy OCe NDCC Se or oO or Orc Oo Oro ou Oo over O1cr oor ror Xxil Prizes for Live Stock. Reference Number in Certificates. Class CATTLE—continued. JERSEY. Bull, two years old and upwards .. 98 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 Bull, under two years old 5 Cow, in-calf or in-milk, three years ‘old and upwards Heifer, under three years old aah ee GUERNSEY. Bull, above one year old.. .. Cow, i in-calf or in-milk, three years ‘old and ndupwards Heifer, not exceeding three years.old... 4. NorFOLK AND SUFFOLK POLLED. Bull, two years old and upwards .. Bull, not exceeding two years old Cow, in-calf or inemilk, three years old and up. wards ., Heifer, under three - years “old AYRSHIRE. Bull, above two years old C Cow, i in-calf or in-milk, above three years old Heifer, not exceeding three years old .. PoLiteD GALLOWAY. *Bull, above three years old .. . *Bull, above three and not exceeding two years old *Yearling Bull, above one and not. exceeding two years “old at ;*Cow, in-milk or + in-calf, above three years old Ee *Heifer, in-milk or in- -calf, above two and not ex- ceeding three years old es *Yearling “Heifer, above one and not exceeding two years Folds. Pottep ANGUS, oR ABERDEEN, *Bull, two years old and upwards .. *Bull, not exceeding two years old.. *Cow, in-calf or in-milk, three years old and up- wards .. Ze *Heifer, under three : years ‘old First | Prize. £ 20 15 20 15 Second Prize. Third Prize. Corer ger ot orc cor CU Or Or Or C1 or crc Cr or on co G1 oi oo * Offered by the Carlisle Local Committee. Prizes for Live Stoch. XXIi Reference Number in Certificates. Class 113 114 115 116 HT 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 CATTLE—continued. Dairy Cows. *Pair of Dairy Cows, of any breed or cross, in-milk, milking properties to be specially considered .. *Cow of any breed or cross, in-milk, milking pro- perties to be specially considered ee. ee The Jersey and Guernséy Cows entered as in-milk, and the Dairy Cows in Classes 111 and 112, must be milked dry on the evening of July 11, in the presence of an officer of the Society. No Third Prize will be given unless at least Six Entries be exhibited, and no Second Prize will be given unless at least Three Entries be exhibited, except on the special recommendation of the Judges to the Stewards of Stock. SHEEP. LEICESTER. Shearling Ram ‘ Ram of any other age : Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, ‘of the same flock xs eo oe ee BorpDER LEICESTER. Shearling Ram Ram of any other age ob Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, ‘of the same flock oe CorswoLp. Shearling Ram Ram of any other age Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, ‘of the same flock . LIncoLn. Shearling Ram wnat oe o- ee Ram of any otherage .. .. Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock . ae * Offered by the Carlisle Local Commititee. First Prize. i. 20 20 15 | Second Prize. £. Third Prize. &. ccc Cro XXIV Prizes for Live Stock. Reference Number in Certificates? | Class 125 126 127 134 135 1386 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 -144 145 146 | SHEEP—continued. ‘ OXFORDSHIRE Down. Shearling Ram ; Ram of any other age 00 Pen of Five Shearling wes, ‘of the same 'e flock zy SourHpown. Shearling Ram on Ram of any other age Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, ‘of the same flock SHROPSHIRE. Shearling Ram .. .. Ram of any other age . Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock HAMPSHIRE AND OTHER SHORT-WOOLLED BRrEEDs. Not qualified to compete as Southdown or Shropshire. Shearling Ram Ram of any other age Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock CHEVIOT. Shearling Ram .. .. .- Ram of any other age .. Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock BLACK-FACED Mountain. Shearling Ram ob an 06 Ram of any other age ae Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, ‘of the same flock a HeErpwick. Shearling Ram Ram of any other age .. 26 Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, ‘of the same flock a *Pen of Five Ewes of the same flock, with their Lambs, direct from the heaf or fell .. * Offered by the Right Hon, Lord Leconfield. Second | Third Prize. Prize £. £ 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 3) 10 5 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 D 3 5 3 5 3 Prizes for Live Stock. XXV Reference “ First | Second | Third Number in SHEEP—continued. Pree, | Pricer |betes Certificates. } ~ Class £. ee Lonk. 147 Shearling Ram ie Ope <5 3 148 Ram of any other age “C OMe 3 149 Pen otf Five Shearling Ewes, ‘of the same 1e flock Sn £0) >|. 16 3 Kentisu, Romney Marsu, Devon, AND | OTHER LOoNG-WOOLLED BREEDS. | Vot qualified to compete in any of the preceding | | classes of Long-woolled Sheep. 150 Shearling Ram gece hs 2 Fas » 10 Ss ameee 151, Ram of any other age .. cic 10 } oo 152 Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, ‘of the same flack we 10 BAG me No Third Prize will be given unless at least Six Entries be exhibited, and no Second Prize will be | given unless at least Three Entries be exhibited, | except on the special recommendation of the Judges | to the Stewards of Stock. | | PIGS. | | | a | Large Wuitr Breen. | 153 Boar, above six months and not exceeding twelve | | monthsold.. .. Cemas | 10 5 154 Boar, above twelve months old coo Fal 5 DA 155 Pen of Three Breeding Sow-Pigs of the same 3 litter, | above three and not exceeding six months | old Soles PSD BUetcle encour acon Aco MOC amet em ae: oC 156 IBTcedine|SOWiac) ec cscn ce = 10 5 . SmaLL WHITE Breen, 157 Boar, above six months and not exceeding twelve | months old .. °.. = ia Pa it 440 & ile oe 158 Boar, above twelve months old oe | 10 Sunil eee 159 Pen of Three Breeding Sow-Pigs of the : same litter, above three and not exceeding six months Oks. - wie > atte ed Mcowlrcee > Goo) SeRRSC Mae nan et Ol Firs) oo 160 Brecciic Sow gee ne ts ys, asii| tO | XXv1 Prizes for Live Stock. eer er NUS a ee SSSR aa ian Reference | First Second = Sia pee PIGS—continued. | Erize:, | Eis ea Ores | £. £. £. | SmatLt Buack BREED. 161 | Boar, above six months and not exceeding twelve | months old . sg, 10 5 ee 162 | Boar, above twelve months old .. 10 5 163 | Pen of Three Breeding Sow-Pigs of. the same litter, above three and: not exceeding six months | old oe .- -- -- .- .- - .- se | LO 5 164 Breeding Sow ci! ives hee los |S) \techlateain Lee 5 BERKSHIRE BREED. 165 Boar, above six months and not exceeding twelve months old . ? PRMOMM ce (1G, 5 166 Boar, above twelve months old a5 10 5 167 Pen of Three Breeding Sow-Pigs of thes: same , litter, ; above three and “not exceeding six months old dao head Miksa: actGARe Wate [tes ie Af omer Sem 10 5 af 168 IBS Keetohbay=2 SOAs Vey on! pee ee ee ee oe | LO 5 ee OtTuER BREEDS. Not eligible to compete in any of the preceding Classes. 169 Boar, above six months and not exceeding twelve months old . AG Anes see Bol. Ob 10 170 Boar, above twelve months old 30 10 171 Pen of three Breeding Sow-Pigs of the same litter, above three and not exceeding six months old.. 10 172 IBKeeebbNe SON? Gq 09 cD 90. Ope edor oD oc 10 Or ot Over No Second Prize will be given unless at least Three Entries be exhibited, except on the special recommendation of the Judges to the Stewards of Stock. BUTTER. £ 173 = |*tSix Pounds of Fresh Butter (open to makers only) .. 6 174 *One Firkin of Butter (open to makers only). 6 * Offered by the Carlisle Local Committee. + The first, second, and third prizes in this class are offered in plate by J. A. Wheat- ley, Esq., Carlisle. ("van ~ J SPECTA L. PRIAES: STEAM CULTIVATING MACHINERY. SrPecrAL GoLp AND Sitver MEDALS. 1. The Judges are empowered to award Gold and Silver Medals to any Implements and Machines for the cultivation of the land by steam or other mechanical force, which, in the opinion of the Stewards and Judges, are new inventions, and have not been previously submitted to trial by the Society. 2. The Stewards and Judges are instructed that the Gold Medals shall be awarded only in cases of special merit, and for Implements and Machines likely, in their opinion, to be practically useful. SILVER MEDALS. For New INVENTIONS. 1. There are Ten Silver Medals, the award of which the Judges appointed by the Council have the power of recommending in cases of sufficient merit in New Implements exhibited at the Carlisle Show. 2. These Medals cannot in any case be awarded to any implement, unless the principle of the implement, or of the improvement of it, be entirely new. No Medal shall be awarded by the Judges without the consent of the Stewards, and no Commendation of Miscellaneous Articles shall be made by the Judges. 3. The Judges are also empowered to make special awards of Medals for efficient modes of guarding or shielding Machinery, especially when worked by steam, from contact with persons immediately engaged in attending to such machinery while at work. 4. No Medal shall, in any case, be awarded to any Implement or Miscella- neous Article capable of Trial until it has been subjected to such Trial as the Stewards may direct. (© xxv) CONDITIONS APPLYING TO CERTAIN CLASSES ONLY. Horsss. 1. All foals must be the offspring of the mare along with which they are exhibited ; and the sire of the foal must be given on the certificate of entry. 2. No veterinary inspection of horses will be required except when con- sidered necessary by the Judges, who will be accompanied by the Veterinary Ppl All hackneys and ponies will be measured on entering the show- yard. 3. Hunters and Hackneys entered to compete in the light-weight classes will be disqualified if, in the opinion of the Judges, they are eligible to compete in the heavy-weight classes. 4. A charge of 1/. for the accommodation of a horse-box, in addition to the entry-fee, will be made for each entry for stallions and mares with foals at foot. Flooring for the stalls will be provided at the exhibitor’s expense if required. 5. A charge of 10s. will be made in addition to the entry-fee, for the ac- commodation of a stall for each animal in the other horse classes. Flooring for the horse-boxes will be provided at the exhibitor’s expense if required. 6. Any exhibitor wishing to remove his horse for the night will be allowed to do so on depositing 102. at the Secretary’s office, and receiving an official pass—the time of leaving, and that of returning next morning, to be inserted thereon; and if the animal be not duly brought back, the sum of 10/. will be forfeited to the Society for each Show day the animal is absent; and the exhi- bitor will also forfeit any prize awarded to him in any class at the Carlisle Show, and will not be allowed to exhibit again at the Society’s Show until the forfeits are paid. CATTLE. 7. No bull above two years old will be eligible for a Prize unless certified to have served not less than three different cows (or heifers) within the three months preceding the 1st of June in the year of the Show. 8. All bulls above one year old shall have rings or “ bull-dogs” in their’ noses, and be provided with leading sticks. 9. No cow will be eligible for a Prize unless certified either at the date of entry or between the date of entry and that of the Show to have had a living calf,—or that the calf, if dead, was born at its proper time,—within fifteen months preceding the date of the Show, and the date of last calving must be entered on the certificate. The cow must be either in-milk or in- calf at the time of the Show; and if in-calf only she will not be eligible for a prize unless she is certified to have been bulled before the 31st of March in the year of the Show, nor will her owner afterwards receive the prize until he shall have furnished the Secretary with a further certificate before the 51st of January in the subsequent year, that she produced a living calf; or that the calf, if dead, was born at its proper time. 10. Every cow of the Channel Island breeds entered as in-milk, and every cow entered in the Dairy Classes, shall be milked dry on the evening preceding the Show, in the presence of an officer of the Society, specially appointed for the purpose, Rules of Adjudication. Xxx 11. No heifer, entered as in-calf, will be eligible for a Prize unless she is certified to have been bulled before the 31st of March in the year of the Show, nor will her owner afterwards receive the Prize until he shall have furnished the Secretary with a further certificate before the 31st of January in the sub- sequent year, that she produced a living calf; or that the calf, if dead, was born at its proper time. 12. Shorthorns.—Each animal entered in the Shorthorn Classes must be certified by the Exhibitor to be entered, or eligible to be entered, in Coates’s ‘ Herd-Book.’ SHEEP. 13. All rams, except shearlings, must have been used in the preceding year. 14. Sheep exhibited for any of the prizes must have been really and fairly shorn bare after the 1st of April in the year of the Show; and the date of such shearing must form part of the Certificate of Entry. Inspectors will be appointed by the Council to examine the sheep on their admission to the show-yard, with instructions to report to the Stewards any cases in which the sheep have not been really and fairly shorn bare. Pias. 15. The three sow-pigs in each pen must be of the same litter. 16. The breeding sows in Classes 156, 160, 164, 168, and 172, shall be certified to have had a litter of live pigs within the six months preceding the Show, or to be in-pig at the time of entry, so as to produce a litter before the 1st of September following. In the case of in-pig sows, the Prize will be withheld until the exhibitor shall have furnished the Secretary with a certifi- cate of farrowing, as above. 17. No sow, above eighteen months old, that has not produced a litter of live pigs, shall be eligible to compete in any of the classes. 18. The Judges of pigs will be instructed, with the sanction of the Stewards, to withhold prizes from any animals which shall appear to them to have been entered in a wrong class. 19. All pigs exhibited at the Country Meetings of the Society shall be sub- jected to an examination of their mouths by the Veterinary Inspector of the Society ; and should the state of dentition in any pig indicate that the age of the animal has not been correctly retuned in the Certificate of Entry, the Stewards shall have power to disqualify such pig, and shall report the circum- stance to the Council at its ensuing Monthly Meeting. Every pig which shall be found on examination by the Inspector to be oiled or coloured will be disqualified for competition and removed from the Show-Yard ; as well as any pig which shall be oiled or coloured while in the Show-Yard. 20. If a litter of pigs be sent with a breeding sow, the young pigs must be the produce of the sow, and must not exceed two months old. RULES OF ADJUDICATION. 1. As the object of the Society in giving prizes for cattle, sheep, and pigs, is to promote improvement in breeding stock, the Judges, in making their awards, will be instructed not to take into their consideration the present value to the butcher of animals exhibited, but to decide according to their relative merits for the purpose of breeding. 2, If, in the opinion of the Judges, there should be equality of merit, they XxX Dates of Entry. will be instructed to make a special report to the Council, who will decide on the award. 3. The Judges will be instructed to withhold any prize if they are of opinion that there is not sufficient merit in any of the stock exhibited for such Prize to justify an award. 4. The Judges will be instructed to give in a Reserved Number in each class of live stock: viz., which animal would, in their opinion, possess sufficient merit for the Prize, in case the animal to which the Prize is awarded should subsequently become disqualified. 5. In the classes for stallions, mares, and fillies, the Judges, in awarding the Prizes will be instructed, in addition to symmetry, to take activity and strength into their consideration. 6. The attention of the Stewards and Judges is particularly called to the conditions applying to pigs. ‘The Senior Steward of Live Stock is requested to report any malpractices on the part of Exhibitors, and any person found guilty will not be allowed to exhibit at future Meetings of the Society. The Judges will be instructed to deliver to the Stewards their awards, signed, and stating the numbers to which the Prizes are adjudged, before they leave the Yard, noting any disqualifications. They are to transmit, under cover to the Secretary immediately after the Show, their Reports on the several classes in which they have adjudicated, in order that each Report may be included in the General Report of the Exhibition of Live Stock at Carlisle, to be published in the ‘Journal’ of the Society. DATES OF ENTRY FOR LIVE STOCK AND IMPLEMENTS, Certiricatss for the entry of Implements for the Carlisle Meeting must be forwarded to the Secretary of the Society, No. 12, Hanover Square, London, W., by the 1st of April, and Certificates for the entry of Live Stock, Butter, &c., by the Ist of May. Certificates received after those respective dates will not be accepted, but returned to the persons by whom they have been sent. __ The Prizes of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and all Prizes offered by the Carlisle Local Committee, are open to general competition. * * Forms of Certificate for entry, as well as Prize-Sheets for the Carlisle Meeting, containing the whole of the conditions and regulations, may be obtained at the Office of the Society, No, 12, Hanover Square, London, W. ( xx 3 MEMORANDA. Appress of Letrers—The Socicty’s office being situated in the postal district designated by the letter WV, Members, in their correspondence with the Secretary, are requested to subjoin that letter to the usual address. GENERAL Mertine in London, December 11th, 1879. Genet. Meetre¢ in London, May 22, 1880, at 12 o’clock, Meeting at Carlisle, July 12th and four following days, 1880. Monruty Councit (for transaction of business), at 12 o’clock on the first Wednesday in every month, excepting January, September, and October: open only to Members of Council and Governors of the Society. ADJOURNMENTS.—The Council adjourn over Passion and Easter weeks, when those weeks do not include the first Wednesday of the month; from the first Wednesday in August to the first Wednesday in November ; and from the first Wednesday in December to the first Wednesday in February. Orrice Hours.—10 to 4. On Saturdays, 10 to 2. Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs.—Members have the privilege of applying to the Veterinary - Committee of the Society, and of sending animals to the Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, N.W.—(A statement of these privileges will be found on page xxxii in this Appendix.) CuemicaL ANALYsIs.—The privileges of Chemical Analysis enjoyed by Members of the Society will be found stated in this Appendix (page xxxiii). BOTANICAL PrIvILEGEs.—The Botanical and Entomological Privileges enjoyed by Members of the Society will be found stated in this Appendix (page xxxvi). Svsscriprions.—1. Annual.—The subscription of a Governor is £5, and that of a Member £1, due in advance on the Ist of January of each year, and becoming in arrear if unpaid by the 1st of June. 2. For Life——Governors may compound for their subscription for future years by paying at once the sum of £50, and Members by paying £10. Governors and Members who have paid their annual subscription for 20 years or upwards, and whose subscriptions are not in arrear, may compound for future annual subscriptions, that of the current year inclusive, by a single payment of £25 for a Governor, and £5 for a Member, PAYMENTS.—Subscriptions may be paid to the Secretary, in the most direct and satisfactory manner, either at the Office of the Society, No. 12, Hanover Square, London, W., or by means of post- office orders, to be obtained at any of the principal post-offices throughout the kingdom, and made payable to him at the Vere Street Office, London, W.; but any cheque on a banker's or any other house of business in London will be equally available, if made payable on demand. In obtaining post-office orders care should be taken to give the postmaster the correct initials and surname of the Secretary of the Society (H. M. Jenkins), otherwise the payment will be refused to him at the post-office on which such order has been obtained; and when remitting the money-orders it should be stated by whom, and on whose account, they are sent. Cheques should be made payable as drafts on demand (not as bills only payable after sight or a certain number of days after date), and should be drawn on a London (not on a local country) banker. When payment is made to the London and Westminster Bank, St. James’s Square Branch, as the bankers of the Society, it will be desirable that the Secretary should be advised by letter of such payment, in order that the entry in the banker’s book may be at once iden- tified, and the amount posted to the credit of the proper party. No coin can be remitted by post, unless the letter be registered. New Meneers.—Byery candidate for admission into the Society must be proposed by a Member ; the proposer to specify in writing the full name, usual place of residence, and post-town, of the candidate, either at a Council meeting, or by letter addressed to the Secretary. Forms of Proposal may be obtained on application to the Secretary. *,* Members may obtain on application to the Secretary copies of an Abstract of the Charter and Bye-laws, of a Statement of the General Objects, &c., of the Society, of Chemical, Botanical, and Veterinary Privileges, and of other printed papers connected with special departments of the Society’s business, C aa Members’ Weterinary Privileges. I.—VIsIts OF THE VETERINARY INSPECTOR. 1, Any Member of the Society who may desire professional attendance and special advice in cases of disease among his cattle, sheep, or pigs, should apply to the Secretary of the Society, or to the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College, and Consulting Veterinary Surgeon, Camden Town, London, N.W. 2. The remuneration of the Consulting Veterinary Surgeon or Inspector will be 27. 2s. each day as a professional fee, and the charge for personal expenses, when such have been incurred, will in no cases exceed one guinea per diem. He will also be allowed to charge the cost of travelling to and from the locality where his services may have been required. These charges may, however, in cases of serious or extensive outbreaks of contagious disease, be reduced or remitted altogether, so far as the Members of the Society are concerned, at the discretion of the Council, on such step being recommended to them by the Veterinary Committee. 3. The Inspector, on his return from visiting the diseased stock, will report to the Member, and, through the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College, to the Committee, in writing, the results of his observations and proceedings, which Report will be laid before the Council. 4. When contingencies arise to prevent a personal discharge of the duties, the Consulting Veterinary Surgeon, may, subject to the approval of the Committee, name some competent professional person to act in his stead, who shall receive the same rates of remuneration. II.—ConsvLTATIONS WITHOUT VISIT. Personal consultation with Veterinary Inspector... ss LOsiiGa. Consultation by letter +0 0 co 50 so) LOSNGae Post-mortem examination, and report thereon .. os ls. A return of the number of applications from Members of the Society during each half-year is required from the Veterinary Inspector. IIT.—Apmisston or Disrasep ANIMALS TO THE RoyAL VETERINARY Contiecr, Campen Town, N.W.; Investigations AND Reports. 1. All Members of the Society have the privilege of sending cattle, sheep, and pigs to the Infirmary of the Royal Veterinary College, on the following terms ; viz., by paying for the keep and treatment of cattle 10s. 6d. per week each animal, and for sheep and pigs, 3s. 6d. per week. No. 2. A detailed Report of the cases of cattle, sheep, and pigs treated in the Infirmary of the College or on Farms in the occupation of Members of the Society, will be furnished to the Council quarterly ; and also special reports from time to time on any matter of unusual interest which may come under the notice of the Officers of the College By Order of the Council, H. M. JENKINS, Secretary. ( xxxiii_ ) Members’ Pribileges of Chemical Analpsis (Applicable only to the case of Persons who are not commercially engaged in the manufacture or sale of any substance sent for Analysis). Tae Council have fixed the following rates of Charges for Analysis to be made by the Consulting Chemist for the bond-fide and sole use of Members of the Society ; who, to avoid all unnecessary correspondence, are particularly requested, when applying to him to mention the kind of analysis they require, and to quote its number in the subjoined schedule. The charge for analysis, together with the carriage of the specimens (if any), must be paid to him by Members at the time of their application : No. 1.—An opinion of the genuineness and value of bone-dust or oil- cake (each sample) : 58. 5, 2.—An estimate of the value (relatively to the average samples i in the market) of sulphate and muriate of ammonia and of the nitrate of potash and soda oe ee », 3,—An analysis of guano; showing the proportion of moisture, organic matter, sand, phosphate of lime, alkaline salts and ammonia, and an estimate of its value, provided the selling price of the article to be analysed be sent with it .. B. 10s. », 4.—An analysis of mineral superphosphate of lime for soluble phosphates only, and an estimate of its value, provided the selling price of the article to be analysed be sent with it .. 5s. », 5.—An analysis of superphosphate of lime, showing the propor- tions of moisture, organic matter, sand, soluble and insoluble phosphates, sulphate of lime, and ammonia, and an estimate of its value, provided the selling price of the article to be analysed be sent with it “ 10s. », 6.—An analysis, showing the valueof any ordinary artificial manure 10s. 2, 7-—An analysis of limestone, showing the proportion of lime .. 7s. 6d. » 8.—An analysis of limestone, showing the proportion of magnesia, or - 10s.; the proportion of lime and magnesia .. 10s, » 9.—An analy sis of limestone or marls, showing the proportion of carbonate, phosphate, and sulphate of lime and mnagnesia, with sand and clay aC 10s. » 10.—Partial analysis of a soil, including determinations of clay, sand, organic matter, and carbonate of lime .. oe ote 10s. Syl: —Complete analysis of a soil £3 5, 12.—An analysis of oil-cake or other substance need for feeding purposes, showing the proportion of moisture, oil, mineral matter, albuminous matter, and woody fibre, as well as of starch, gum, and sugar in the aggregate ; and an estimate of its value as compared with pure linseed-cake .. oe 10s. ;, 13.—Analysis of any vegetable product % 10s. 5, 14.—Analysis of animal products, refuse substances used for manures, &c. A A from 10s. to £1 », 15.—Determination of the “hardness” of a sample of water before and after boiling.. 5s. >, 16.—Analysis of water of land- -drainage, and of water used for inrigation . - oe on oe AL sles —Analysis of water used for domestic purposes sc ac -. £1 10s. », 18.—Determination of nitric acid in a sample of water .. 30 10s. » 19.—Personal consultation with the Consulting Chemist. (The usual hours of attendance for the Director, Monday ex- cepted, will be from 11 to 2, but to prevent disappointment, it is suggested that members desiring to hold a consultation with the Director should write to make an SED me os. 5, 20.—Consultation by letter .. 5s. ,, 21.— Consultation necessitating the writing of three or more letters 10s. The Laboratory of the Society is at 12, Hanover Square, London, W., to which address the Consulting Chemist, Dr. AvGustvs Vortcser, F'.R.S. , requests that all letters and parcels (postage and carriage paid) from Members of "the Societ , who are entitled to avail themselves of the foregoing Privileges, should be direc ed, VOL. XVI.—S. S. c ( “igs GUIDE TO THE PURCHASE OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES AND FEEDING STUFFS, = Freping Cakes, 1. Linseed-cake should be purchased as “ Pure,” and the insertion of this word on the invoice should be insisted upon. The use of such words as “ Best,” “ Genuine,” &e., should be objected to by the purchaser. 2. Rape-cake for feeding purposes should be guaranteed ‘* Pure” and purchased by sample. 3. Decorticated Cotton-cake should be guaranteed “ Pure,” and purchased by sample. 4, Undecorticated Cotton-cake should be guaranteed “ Pure,” and purchased by sample. N.B.—AIl feeding cakes should be purchased in good condition, and the guarantee of the vendor should be immediately checked by a fair sample (taken out of the middle of the cake) being at once sent for examination to a competent analytical chemist. The remainder of the cake from which the sample sent-for examination had been taken should be sealed up in the presence of a witness, and retained by the purchaser for reference in case of dispute. ARTIFICIAL MANUREs, 1. Raw or Green Bones or Bone-dust should be purchased as “ Pure” Raw Bones guaranteed to contain not less than 45 per cent. of tribasic phosphate of lime, and to yield not less than 4 per cent. of ammonia. 2. Boiled Bones should be purchased as “ Pure” Boiled Bones guaranteed to contain not less than 48 per cent. of tribasic phosphate of lime, and to yield not less than 1? per cent. of ammonia, 3. Dissolved Bones are made of various qualities, and are sold at various prices per ton; therefore the quality should be guaranteed, under the heads of soluble phosphate of lime, ¢nsoluble phosphate of lime, and nitrogen or: its equivalent as ammonia, The purchaser should also stipulate for an allowance for each unit per cent. which the dissolved bones should be found on analysis to contain less than the guaranteed percentages of the three substances already mentioned, 4, Mineral Superphosphates should be guaranteed to be delivered in a sufficiently dry and powdery condition, and to contain a certain percentage of soluble phosphate of lime, at a certain price per unit per cent., no value to be attached to dnsoluble phosphates. 5. Compound Artificial Manures should be purchased in the same manner and with the same guarantees as Dissolved Bones. 6. Nitrate of Soda should be guaranteed by the vendor to contain from 94 to 95 per cent. of pure nitrate. . 7. Sulphate of Ammonia should be guaranteed by the vendor to contain not less than 23°per cent. of ammonia. ; 8. Peruvian Guano should be sold under that name, and guaranteed to be in a dry and friable condition, and to contain a certain percentage of ammonia. N.B.—Artificial manures should be guaranteed to be delivered ina sufficiently dry and powdery condition to admit of distribution by the drill. A sample for analysis should be taken, not later than three days after delivery, by emptying several bags, mixing the contents together, and filling two tins holding about half a pound each, in the presence of a witness. Both the tins should be sealed, one kept by the purchaser for reference in case of dispute, and the other for- warded to a competent analytical chemist for examination. (\ seer") INSTRUCTIONS FOR SELECTING AND SENDING SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. ARTIFICIAL MANURES.—Take a large handful of the manure from three or four bags, mix the whole on a large sheet of paper, breaking down with the hand any lumps present, and fold up in tinfoil, or in oil silk, about 3 oz. of the well-mixed sample, and send it to 12, HANoveR Square, Lonpon, W., by post: or place the mixed mauure in a small wooden or tin box, which may be tied by string, but must not be sealed, and send it by post. If the manure be very wet and lumpy, a larger boxful, weighing from 10 to 12 oz., should be sent either by post or railway. Samples not exceeding 4 oz. in weight may be sent by post, by attaching two penny postage stamps to the parcel. Samples not exceeding 8 0z., for three postage stamps. Samples not exceeding 12 oz., for four postage stamps. The parcels should be addressed: Dr. Aucustrus VOELCKER, 12, HANOVER Square, Lonpon, W., and the address of the sender or the number or mark of the article be stated on parcels. The samples may be sent in covers, or in boxes, bags of linen or other materials. No parcel sent by post must exceed 12 oz. in weight, 1 foot 6 inches in length, 9 inches in width, and 6 inches in depth. SOILS.—Have a wooden box made 6 inches long and wide, and from 9 to 12 inches deep, according to the depth of soil and subsoil of the field. Mark out in the field a space of about 12 inches square; dig round in a slanting direction a trench, so as to leave undisturbed a block of soil with its subsoil from 9 to 12 inches deep ; trim this block or plan of the field to make it fit into the wooden box, invert the open box over it, press down firmly, then pass a spade under the box and lift it up, gently turn over the box, nail on the lid and send it by goods or parcel to the laboratory. The soil will then be received in the exact position in which it is found in the field. In the ease of very light, sandy, and porous soils, the wooden box may be at once inverted over the soil and forced down by pressure, and then dug out. WATERS.—Two gallons of water are required for analysis. The water, if possible, should be sent in glass-stoppered Winchester half-gallon bottles, which are readily Obtained in any chemist and druggist’s shop. If Winchester bottles cannot be procured, the water may be sent in perfectly clean new stoneware spirit- jars surrounded by wickerwork. For the determination of the degree of hardness. before and after boiling, only one quart wine-bottle full of water is required. LIMESTONES, MARLS, IRONSTONES, AND OTHER MINERALS.— Whole pieces, weighing from 3 to 4 0z., should be sent enclosed in small linen bags, or wrapped in paper. Postage 2d., if under 4 oz. OILCAKES.—Take a sample from the middle of the cake. To this end break a whole cake into two. Then break off a piece from the end where the two halves were joined together, and wrap it in paper, leaving the ends open, and send parcel by post. The piece should weigh from 10 to120z. Postage, 4d. If sent by railway, one quarter or half a cake should be forwarded. FEEDING MEALS.—About 3 oz. will be sufficient for analysis. Enclose the meal in a small linen bag. Send it by post. On forwarding samples, separate letters should be sent to the iaboratory, specifying the nature of the information required, and, if possible, the object. in view. H. M. JENKINS, Secretary, () xxxyi>) SHMembers’ Gotanical and Entomological Pribtileges. The Council have fixed the following Rates of Charge for the examination of Plants, Seeds, and Insects for the bond-fide use of Members of the Society, who are particularly requested, when applying to the Consulting Botanist, to mention the kind of examination they require, and to quote its number in the subjoined Schedule. The charge for examination must be paid to the Consulting Botanist at the time of application, and the carriage of all parcels must be prepaid. I. BOTANICAL. No. 1.—A report on the purity, amount and nature of foreign materials, perfectness, and germinating power of a sample of seeds 30 5s. », 2—Detailed report on the weight, purity, perfectness, and germinating power of a sample of seeds, with a special description “of the weeds and other foreign materials contained init .. oo» LOS: » 3.—Determination of the species of any weed or other plant, or of any epiphyte or vegetable parasite, with a report on its habits, and the means of its extermination or prevention oe Fee ih », 4.—Report on any disease affecting the farm crop nt SR EOS: 5.—Determination of the species of a collection of natural grasses found in any district on one kind of soil, with a report on their habits and pasture valve .. oe» 10s. Il. ENTOMOLOGICAL. 6.—Determination of the species of any insect, worm, or other animal which, in any stage of its life, injuriously affects the farm crops, with a report on its habits and sugges- tions as to its extermination .. ee o op OSs INSTRUCTIONS FOR SELECTING AND SENDING SPECIMENS. In sending seed or corn for examination the utmost care must be taken to — secure a fair and honest sample. If anything supposed to be injurious or useless exists in the corn or seed, selected samples should also be sent. In collecting specimens of plants, the whole plant should be taken up, and the earth shaken from the roots. If possible, the plant must be in flower or fruit. They should be packed in a light box, or in a firm paper parcel. Specimens of diseased plants or of parasites should be forwarded as fresh as possible. Place them in a bottle, or pack them in tin-foil or oil-silk. All specimens should be accompanied with a letter specifying the nature of the information required, and stating any local circumstances (soil, situation, &c.) which, in the opinion of the sender, would be likely to throw light on the inquiry. N.B.—The above Scale of Charges is not applicable in the case of Seedsmen requiring the services of the Consulting Botanist. Parcels or letters (Carriage or Postage prepaid) to be addressed to Mr. W. Carrutuers, F.R.S., 4, Woodside Villas, Gipsy Hill, London, S.E. H. M. JENKINS, Secretary. Year when Elected. 1879 1855 1857 1850 1861 1863 1868 1854 1860 1839 1856 1858 1861 1873 1839 1867 1847 1848 1858 1872 1848 1852 1859 1855 1858 1877 | 1880 1875 1875 1863 1861 1880 1874 1878 1860 1871 1873 1876 C.xxaviic’) Ropal Agricultural Society of England. 1880-81. President. Mr. WILLIAM WELLS. Trustees. H.R.H. Tue Privce or WAtEs, K.G., Marlborough House, Pall Mall, S.W. AcLAND, Sir THomas Dyxg, Bart., M.P., Sprydoncote, Exeter, Devonshire. Brwwport, General Viscount, Cricket St. Thomas, Chard, Somersetshire. CursHam, Lord, Latimer, Chesham, Bucks. Dent, J. D., Ribston Hall, Wetherby, Yorkshire. Krnesoore, Colonel, M.P., Kingscote, Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire. LICHFIELD, Earl of, Shugborough, Staffordshire. Macponap, Sir ArcHIBALD KepreL, Bt., Woolmer Lodge, Liphook, Hants. MarweoroucH, Duke of, K.G., Blenheim Park, Oxford. Portman, Viscount, Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset. Powis, Earl of, Powis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire. Rutanp, Duke of, K.G., Belvoir Castle, Grantham, Leicestershire. Vice-Bresivents. Catuoart, Earl, Thornton-le-Street, Thirsk, Yorkshire. Beprorp, Duke of, K.G., Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire. CHICHESTER, Earl of, Stanmer Park, Lewes, Sussex. DEvonsHirE, Duke of, K.G., Holker Hall, Lancashire. EversLey, Viscount, Heckfield Place, Winchfield, Hants. Grsss, Sir Branpretu, 13, Pelham Crescent, South Kensington, S.W. Kerrison, Sir Epwarp C., Bart., Brome Hall, Scole, Suffolk. Latuom, Earl of, Lathom Hall, Ormskirk, Lancashire. Lawes, JoHN BENNET, Rothamsted, St. Albans, Herts. RicHMoND AND Gorpon, Duke of, K.G., Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex. Vernon, Lord, Sudbury Hall, Derby. Wynn, Sir Warsin Witiiams, Bart., M.P.,Wynnstay, Ruabon, Denbighshire. @ther fHembers of Council. Amos, CHARLES Epwarps, 5, Cedars Road, Clapham Common, Surrey. ArxkwriGHt, J. H., Hampton Court, Leominster, Herefordshire. AsHworTH, ALFRED, Poynton, Cheshire. AVELING, Tuomas, Rochester, Kent. AyLMeER, HucGu, West Dereham, Stoke Ferry, Norfolk. Bow y, Epwarp, Siddington House, Cirencester, Gloucestershire. CaNTRELL, CHARLES S., Riding Court, Datchet (Bucks), Windsor. CarrincTon, W. T., Croxden Abbey, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire. CuHAnvDos-POLE-GELL, H., Hopton Hall, Wirksworth, Derbyshire. Davies, Davip Reynoups, Agden Hall, Lymm, Cheshire. Drucsz, JoserH, Eynsham, Oxford. Ecerton, Hon. WirpraHaM, M.P., Rostherne Manor, Knutsford, Cheshire. Evans, Joun, Ufington, Shrewsbury, Salop. FrversHAM, Earl of, Duncombe Park, Helmsley, Yorkshire. VOL. XVI.—S. 8S. d XXXVIli List of Officers. Year when Elected. 1879 | Fostsr, 8. P., Killhow, Carlisle, Cumberland. 1875 | Franxisu, Witi1am, Limber Magna, Ulceby, Lincolnshire. 1879 | Gorrincr, Hueu, Kingston-by-Sea, Shoreham, Sussex. 1874 | Hemsuey, Joun, Shelton, Newark, Notts. 1876 | Howarp, Cuaruzs, Biddenham, Bedford. 1878 | Howarp, James, M.P., Clapham Park, Bedfordshire. 1871 | Jonxs, J. Bowen, Ensdon House, Montford Bridge, R.S.O., Salop. 1869 | Lurps, Ropert, Keswick Old Hall, Norwich. 1872 | Lerorsrer, Earl of, K.G., Holkham Hall, Wells, Norfolk. 1874 | Linnsay, Colonel Loyp, M.P., Lockinge Park, Wantage, Berkshire. 1865 | Lopxs, Sir Massey, Bart., M.P., Maristow, Roborough, Devon. 1871 | MolInrosn, Davin, Havering Park, Romford, Essex. 1874 | Martin, Joseru, Highfield House, Littleport, Isle of Ely, Cambridgeshire. 1880 | Moreron, Lord, M.P., Tortworth Court, Falfield, R.S.O., Gloucestershire. 1879 | Nevi4, Rosert, Butleigh Court, Glastonbury, Somersetshire. 1878 | Opams, JamEs, The Grange, Bishop Stortford, Herts. 1857 | Paty, Tuomas, The Grove, Basingstoke, Hants. 1861 | RanpELL, CHar.es, Chadbury, Evesham, Worcestershire. 1875 | Ransome, Ropert Cuaries, Ipswich, Suffolk. 1867 | RavENswortH, Earl of, Ravensworth Castle, Durham. 1871 | Rawience, James, Bulbridge, Wilton, Salisbury, Wilts. 1869 | Rrovey, Sir M.Wurre, Bart., M.P:, Blagdon, Cramlington, Northumberland. 1875 | RusseLty, Rosert, Horton Court Lodge, Dartford. 1874 | Sanpay, Georce Henry, Wensley House, Bedale, Yorkshire. 1878 | SHrraton, Wixi1Am, Broom House, Ellesmere, Salop. 1856 | SHurTLEworTH, JosEPH, Hartsholme Hall, Lincoln. 1874 | Spencer, Earl, K.G., Althorpe, Northampton. 1875 | Srrarton, Riowarp, The Duffryn, Newport, Monmouthshire. 1874 | Turpervitt, Lieut.-Col. Picron, Hwenny Priory, Bridgend, South Wales. 1845 | Turner, Gzorcn, Great Bowley, Tiverton, Devonshire. 1871 | Turner, JaBEz, Norman Cross, Yaxley, Huntingdonshire. 1871 | WaxkerteLp, Winu1am H., Sedgwick, Kendal, Westmoreland. 1870 | Weipy-Grecory, Sir Wint1am Hare, Bart., M.P., Denton Hail, Grantham, Lincolnshire. 1870 | WurrenEad, CuarLes, Barming House, Maidstone, Kent. 1865 | Witson, Jacon, Woodhorn Manor, Morpeth, Northumberland. 1878 | Wist, Grorce, Woodcote, Warwick. Secretary and vitor. H. M. JENKINS, 12, Hanover Square, London, W. Consulting Chemist—Dr. Avcustus VortcKeER, F.R.S., 12, Hanover Square, W. Consulting Botanist—W. CarruTuers, F.R.S., F.LS., British Museum, W.C. Consulting Veterinary Surgeon—Protessor JAMES Beart Smonps, Royal Veteri- nary College, Camden Town, N.W. Veterinary Inspectors—Tux Orricers oF THE RoYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE. Consulting Engineers—Eastons & ANDERSON, 3, Whitehall Place, S.W. Consulting Surveyor—GEORGE Hunt, Evesham, Worcestershire. Seedsmen—Tuomas Gipps and Co., Corner of Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, W. Publisher—Joun Murray, 50, Albemarle Street, W. Bankers—Tue Lonpon AND WestTminsTER Bank, St. James's Square Branch, 8.W. (scx) ) STANDING COMMITTEES FOR 1880. Finance Committee. Kinesoots, Colonel (Chairman). Franxisu, W. Brwwrort, General Viscount. RANDELL, CHARLES. Rivtey, Sir M. Wurrs, Bt. SHUTTLEWORTH, J. Davis, D. R. Mouse Committee. Tue PRESIDENT. Gres, Sir BRANDRETH. CHAIRMAN of Finance Committee. CANTEELL, C. 8. Briprort, General Viscount. Kinescote, Colonel. Sournal Conrimtttec. Dent, J. D. (Chairman). JONES, J. BOWEN. Catuoart, Earl. Krnescore, Colonel. Wexpy-Grecory, Sir W. E., Bt. Ransome, R. C. Rm ey, Sir M. Wurrs, Bt. TURBERVILL, Lieut.-Col, Cuanpos-PoLe-GELL, H, WELLS, W. FRANKISH, W. WHITEHEAD, CHARLES. Hemstey, J. Wiss, G. Howakrp, J. Chemical Committee. We ts, Wittr1am (Chairman). Dent, J. D. BeprorpD, Duke of. Howarp, C. LicuFiEe.p, Earl of. JONES, J. BowEN. Vernon, Lord. Lawes, J. B. Macpona.p, Sir A. K., Bart. NEVILLE, R. WELBy-GreEcory, Sir W. E., Bt. TURBERVILL, Licut.-Col. ArxwaricHt, J. H. VorELcKEER, Dr. A. AvELING, T. WAKEFIELD, W. H. CaRrrRuTHErs, W. Warren, R. A. Daviss, D. R. WHITEHEAD, CHARLES. DSecns and Plant-Diseases Committee. Wuitrnnap, CHartes (Chairman). CarruTHErs, W. Vernon, Lord. FRANKISH, W. Wetpy-Grecory, Sir W. E., Bt. JonEs, J. BOWEN. Grsss, Sir BRANDRETH. 'TURBERVILL, Lieut.-Col. ARKWRIGHT, J. H. VoELCcKEER, Dr. Veterinary Committee. Ecerrton, Hon. WILBRAHAM GorrInGE, H. (Chairman). GREENFIELD, Dr, Wm. Smita. Catucart, Earl. Harr ey, M. J. Briwwrort, General Viscount, Krnescore, Colonel. Ro.ey, Sir M. Wurre, Bt. Opams, JAMES. Gusss, Sir BRANDRETH. Sanpay, G. H. Brown, Professor. Sanperson, Dr. J. Burpon, Cuanvbos-PoLe-GerLL, H. Smionns, Professor. Davies, D. R. Srratron, R. Ducum, W. WAKEFIELD, W. H. Fieminc, GEORGE, WELLS, WILLIAM. Foster, 8. P. P Wi1son, Jacos. d 2 { { x1 Standing Committees for 18 Stock-Prizes Committee. FRANKISH, W. Gorriner, H. CHANDOos Po.E-Gertn, H. (Chairman). Bripport, Gen. Visct. Hemstey, J. Gisps, Sir BRANDRETH. Howarp, C. Arxkwricut, J. H, McInrvosu, D. AYLMER, H. Pain, T. Bowty, Epwarp. Sanpay, G. H. Davis, D. R. SHERATON, W, Evans, Joun. Implement Committee. Howarp, J. JonEs, J. BOWEN. Martin, J. Nevi118, R. Ransome, R. C. Hemstry, J. (Chairman). Bripport, Gen. Viscount, Vernon, Lord. Gipss, Sir BRANDRETH. ANDERSON, W. AVELING, T. Ricu, W. E. FRANKISH, W. Sanpay, G. H. Howarp, C. SHERATON, W. General Derby Committee. Coxe, Hon. E. CoLEeMAN, J. CorBErt, GEO. Davis, D. RB. Beprorp, Duke of, (Chairman), Briprort, Gen. Viscount. OatTucart, Earl. Moreroy, Lord. Dent, J. D. Vernon, Lord. Foster, 8. P. RIpDieEy, Sir M. W. Ecerrton, Hon. W. Gipss, Sir BRANDRETH. FRANKISH, W. Gorrineg, H. Hemstry, J. AsHwortn, A. AVELING, T. AYLmeEr, H. CANTRELL, CHARLES S. CarRrRincton, W. T. CHANDOS-POLE-GELL, H, Hosgson, Alderman. Howarp, C, JONES, J. BOWEN. Krnescors, Colonel. Mayor of Drrsy. Murray, G. 80. Simonps, Prof. STRATTON, R. Torr, J. Turner, Guo. WAKEFIELD, W. H. WILSON, JACOB. Wise, G. The Stewards of Live Stock, SHUTTLEWORTH, JOSEPH. Stratton, R. TURBERVILL, Lieut.-Col. TURNER, JABEZ. WHITEHEAD, CHARLES. WIxson, JACOB. The Stewards of Imple- ments. NEVILLE, R. RANDELL, CHARLES, Sanpay, G. H. SHERATON, W. SHUTTLEWORTH, J. Smrru, Alderman J. TROUTBECK, G. TURBERVILL, Lieut.-Col. Turner, Alderman. Wapkr, S. WAKEFIELD, W. H. WHITEHEAD, C. WILson, JACOB. Wise, GEO. Show-Pard Contracts Committee. Wi1son, Jacoz (Chairman). CHanpos-PoLr-Ge.t, H. Gipps, Sir BRANDRETH. FRANKISH, W. Amos, C. E. Hems ey, J. Aver.ine, T. Howarp, C. Committee of Selecttor. SKELMERSDALE, Lord. CuHanvos-PoLe-GeELL, H. HEMSLEY, J. Carucanrt, Earl. Brippvort, Gen. Visct. RANDELL, CHARLES. Sanpay, G. H. SHUTTLEWORTH, JOSEPH. Srratton, R. Howarp, C. TURBERVILL, Lieut.-Col. And the Chairmen of the Standing Committees, Evucatton Committee. JonES, J. BowEN. NeEvILxE, R. Kincscore, Colonel. TURBERVILL, Lieut.-Col, Dent, J. D. (Chairman). Berprorp, Duke of. AYVELING, T’. VoELCKER, Dr. WHITEHEAD, CHARLES, Wise, G. Cattle Plaque Committee. THE WHOLE CoUNCIL. *.* The PRESIDENT, TRUSTEES, and Vicu-PRESIDENTS are Members ex officio of all Committees, ( xii ) Ropal Agricultural Societp of England. GENERAL MEETING, 12, Hanover Square, SaturpAy, May 22np, 1880. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Styoe the last General Meeting in December, 1 Governor and 225 Members have been elected; but, on the other hand, the death of 1 Governor and 59 Members has been reported, and the names of 92 Members, who resigned in the course of the year 1879, and of 36 whose subscriptions are not recoverable, have been removed from the list. The Society now consists of— 83 Life Governors, 70 Annual Governors, 2673 Life Members, 5083 Annual Members, 20 Honorary Members, making a total of 7929, and showing an increase of 38 since the December Meeting. The Council have to report with much regret the loss of the services of three of their number, by the death of Mr. Torr, M.P., and of Mr. Masfen, and by the resignation of Mr. Edmonds. The first-named vacancy has been filled up by the election of Mr. Alfred Ashworth, of Poynton, Cheshire, and the others are still under the consideration of the Council. The accounts for the year 1879 have been examined and certified by the Auditors and Accountants of the Society, and have been published in the last number of the ‘ Journal,’ together with the statement of Receipts and Expenditure connected with the London Exhibition. The funded property of the Society remains the same as at the end of last year, and therefore stands at 12,4301. 7s. New Three per Cents. The balance of xlii Report to the General Meeting. the current account in the hands of the Society’s bankers, on the Ist instant, was 2806/. 1s. 1d., and 2000/7. remained on deposit. The Carlisle Meeting will commence on Monday, July 12th, and close on Friday, July 16th. Prizes have been offered by the Society and by the Carlisle Local Committee for the chief breeds of Cattle and Sheep, which are distinctive of the Border Counties and of Scotland, in addition to the classes which are ordinarily included in the Prize-sheets. ‘The Council hope that interest on both sides of the Border will thus be aroused, and aid in bringing the Society’s second Meeting at Carlisle to a successful issue. In consequence of the great interest manifested in the Exhi- bition of Dairy Machinery at work in the Kilburn Showyard, the Council have arranged with the Aylesbury Dairy Company to exhibit the chief kinds of Butter-making Utensils at Carlisle, and to make Butter in the Showyard on the several systems which prevail in different districts of England, on the Continent of Europe, and in America. The district assigned for the Country Meeting of 1881 com- prises the counties of Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Northampton, Nottingham, and Rutland; and the Council have decided to accept a most cordial invitation, which they have received from the Mayor and Corporation of Derby, to hold the Country Meeting of 1881 in that locality. The Country Meeting for 1882 will be held in the district which comprises Cornwall, Devonshire, Dorsetshire, Somerset- shire, Wiltshire, Hampshire, Berkshire, Surrey, Sussex, and Kent, in accordance with the scheme of rotation which is at present followed. The result of the first year’s work in the new Laboratory has been highly satisfactory to the Council. The number of analyses has increased from about 700 to 1200, and while the charge on the funds of the Society has remained practically the same as in former years, the cost of each analysis to Members of the Society has been reduced to half the previous rates. The question of the comparative manurial value of soluble and insoluble phosphates has recently attracted much attention and given rise to considerable discussion. The Council, there- fore, requested Dr. Voelcker to write a short statement of the present condition of our knowledge of the subject for the infor- Report to the General Meeting. | xiii mation of Members of the Society, and this paper has been published in the last number of the ‘ Journal.’ The Council have further accepted the generous offer of His Grace the Duke of Bedford, the President of the Society, of a field adjoining Crawley Farm, for the purpose of carrying on further experi- ments on the comparative manurial value of soluble and insoluble phosphates. Contagious Diseases of animals of the farm have not prevailed to any considerable extent during the last year ; Foot-and-mouth Disease has almost ceased to exist in the country ; but the Council have remarked with the greatest concern the ravages of the Rot in sheep and cattle. With a view to diffuse the most accurate information on this subject, the Council requested Professor Simonds to prepare a Revised Edition of his original Treatise on this malady. They have published this Report at a nominal charge, and are glad to be able to state that some thousands of copies have been sold. They also published in the Agricultural Newspapers, last February, a short Code of Directions to farmers whose sheep might be suffering from this affection; and in the last number of the ‘Journal’ of the Society is a further contri- bution from Professor Simonds on the same subject. The Council have also instructed the Veterinary Committee to con- sider the desirability of making an investigation into the recent outbreak of this disease, and to report how they can carry out such investigation; and also whether they are of opinion that local inquiries should be carried out under the direction of the Council. The investigations into Anthracoid Diseases, especially splenic apoplexy and quarter-evil, which were commenced in 1878, at the Brown Institution, by Dr. Burdon Sanderson, have since been continued there by his successor, Dr. Greenfield. The Reports of these authorities up to the end ‘of last year are contained in the last number of the ‘ Journal.’ The Council have arranged with the Governors of the Royal Veterinary College for a simplification of the previous statement of Members’ Veterinary Privileges; and the Rules now in force have been published in the Appendix to the last number of the * Journal.’ Three Graduates of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, out of six who were eligible, presented, themselves to compete xliv Report to the General Meeting. for the Society’s Medals and Prizes offered for proficiency in Cattle Pathology. The Examiners adjudicated the First Prize and Gold Medal to Mr. William Alston Edgar, of Westfield House, Dartford, Kent; the Second Prize and Silver Medal to Mr. William Frank Smith, of Bull Hotel, Bromley, Kent; and the Third Prize and Bronze Medal to Mr. Nicholson Almond, of Great Clacton, Colchester. The Council regret that the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland do not at present sce their way clear to adopt a joint scheme of Examination for these Prizes, whereby they would be thrown open to Graduates of all the Veterinary Schools in the United Kingdom. Nine candidates presented themselves at the recent Senior [Examination in Practical and Scientific Agriculture for the Society’s Prizes and Certificates; but only four satisfied the Examiners in all the subjects necessary to qualify them for the First-class Certificates and Life Membership of the Society, as well as to earn payments as teachers of the principles of agriculture under the Departments of Science and Art. One candidate also obtained a Second-class Certificate. The successful candidates were :— First Ciass. Michael Falcon, jun., Whitfield, R.S.O., Glos. (R. A. Coll.), 1st prize, 25/. R. J. B. Clements, Spa, Gloucester (R. A. Coll.), 2nd prize, 15/. Primrose M‘Connell, Lymm, Cheshire (Edinburgh University), 3rd prize, 10. Gerard de Lisle, Garendon Park, Loughborough (R. A. Coll.), Ath prize, 5/. SECOND CLASS. Richard Hendersén, The Grange, Kirkcudbright, N. B. (educated at Edinburgh). . At the recommendation of the Education Committee, the Council have revised the conditions relating to the Junior Scholarships, so as to enable any boys, who might prove them- selves qualified, to hold them under certain regulations. The following are the principal regulations which must be complied with by candidates desiring to compete for these Scholarships :— Report to the General Meeting. xlv Candidates for the Scholarships must be between fourteen and eighteen years of age. Candidates still at school can only be entered for these Scholarships by the Head-masters of their respective Schools. Other candidates must satisfy the Education Committee of their fitness to compete by sending certificates of education, or of their having passed any examinations in connection with the Science and Art Department, or of any University in the United Kingdom. Any Head-master intending to enter candidates for these Scholarships, and any candidate intending to enter himself, must inform the Secretary of the Royal Agricultural Society of his intention to do so, on or before the 1st of October in each year. All entries must be made on or before October 15th ; and these final entries must give the Christian and Surname as well as the date of birth of each candidate entered. Annual Examinations will be held in the month of November simultaneously at such Schools as have candidates, and at the Society’s Rooms, 12, Hanover Square, London, W.; and the Scholarships will be awarded to the boys who obtain the highest aggregate number of marks. The subjects for examination for the Scholarships will be :— 1. Land Surveying. 2. Elementary Mechanics, as applied to Agriculture. 3. Chemistry, as applied to Agriculture. 4. The Principles of Agriculture, especially with reference to the Rotation of Crops, the Nutrition of Plants and Animals, and the Mechanical Cultivation of the Soil. By order of the Council, H. M. Jenxins, Secretary. xlvi ROYAL AGRICULTURAL Dr. HALF-YEARLY CasH ACCOUNT | To Balance in hand, Ist January, 1880 :— | 2b 8. 8Gs ET Be) feds Bankers iiss) les! Belsmiloe) | se a aisles isleh aie | 68213 4 Secretary... 94. cc os oe BoA Gin. oo! vicabatcmad 2017 4 |— 703 10 8 To Income :— | Dividends on Stock celts 5 RCRA || 182 11 5 Interest on Deposit .. 50.0 ound 3 | 12 peli Subscriptions :— ee Sans Governors’ Life-Compositions. . Ta eerie 7140/0! 10 Governors’ Annual .. ob Mee pe 320.0080 } Members’ Life-Compositions Aoleino. Woduecd. ac 763 0 0 Members’ Annual .. .. «. Hh Ho. Og FEEIENCSs (1) 4,729 4 0 Establishment :— | iain 6g." o dd } 100 0 0 Journal :— | Advertisements... AID 4417 2 | Sale of ‘Hints on Butter Making”. PY REX) | Sale of ‘Rot in Sheep’ ze 6 0 0 7219 11 | Chemical :— | Laboratory Fees 123 15 6 Veterinary :— | Professional Fees . a aanl| 910 0 | London Exhibition .. .. .. ned 285 3 4 Total Income 5 soy pels ein ep atele ge set || Ate . 6,515 5 9 | To Carlisle Meeting .. .. Spar we 62 . b= ot 6,540 12 10 | | } | | i} | | i] | cL) | £12,759 93 BALANCE-SHEET, | To Capital :— LIABILITIES. | £ 8. d. 7 ich | Surplus; sist December; 1879! ¢<) cities ee) so 0 of oe) dS,204010mes | Surplus of Income over Expenditure during the | Half-year, viz.:— 8. d. | Income .. «ce cc oe o6 c8 ce eo ef 5,015 5 4 Expenditure... «2 «s «8 «oo of eof oe 4,352 11 1 | 1,162 14 8 Se Sa OR Deduct half-year’s interest and depreciation en 237 15 0 Country Meeting Plant .. .. «2 «. «- Me ‘ } | £19,329 10 0 QUILTER, BALL, CROSBIE, GLEGG, & WELTON, Accountants. SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. FROM Ist JANUARY TO 30TH JUNE, 1880. * Value at 97 = 12,0571. 8s. 1d. Mem.—The above Assets are exclusive of the amount recoverable in respect of arrears of Subscription to 30th June, 1880, which at that date amounted to 24811. Examined, audited, and found correct, this 30th day of August, 1880, FRANCIS SHERBORN, A. H. JOHNSON, HENRY CANTRELL. By Expenditure :— £s. a. £ 8. d. £ 8 d. Establishment :— Salaries, Wages, &c. Memeemise, cer «er ee 692,70) (0 House :—Rent, Taxes, Repairs, &c. .. .. «. 44313 1 Office: —Printing, Postage, Stationery, &c... .. 258 0 8 Journal ;— SHES 2) Prinwogand Stitching sc. so. oc e« o» S19 17 % Postage and Delivery Ssigkaiee ware sig se. 's 210 0 0 Literary Contributions Ad) CO= og) mined 5610 0 Woodcuts .. . we c : Lib 0 Printing ‘ Rot in Sheep’ . 3D odesoc, eke 2de 6212 0 Paper on ‘ Rot in Sheep’ 20 0 0 Translating ‘ Hints on Butter Making’ "into Welsh 5 0 0 Chemical :— 935 14 7 Salaries .. ar od 6 oes cre | xiii) Fittings for Laboratory, ie. & ica, Ge od 43 4 4 Chemical Apparatus, Xc.. a F 54 6 0 Petty Payments Git och Mth ase : 30 0 0 Veterinary :— BUDE Ones The Brown Institution for Investigations to 125 0 0 June 30,1880... .. «. Doe mune tid IBrizeniande Medals’ “<6. cj Mais) ste cel) sie. e's 4712 0 Fees to Examiners .. .. .. .. 2110 6 194 2 6 Botanical :— Consulting Botanist’siSalary .. ..° so. «oc «+ ec 0 ee 50 0 0 Education :— WeGsiGOUMAMINEIS ae BNE Carr. J. H. Epwarps HEaTHcorte, Beare tsto Rogert G. F. Howarp. | Ayrshires. Hackneys. | ANDREW ALLEN, Joun B. Boorn, | WILLIAM BRAKENRIDGE. Roper Crakk, Galloway. Grorce Hiee1ns. | MAXWELL CLARK, Isaac WALTON. CATTLE. | Polled Angus or Aberdeen. A.W eee THomAS FERGUSON, WILLIAM WALKER. J. W. CruicKSHANK, A, METCALFE. | = Stewards, Judges, §c., at Carlisle. xlix Short Wools. SHEEP. | Southdowns, Hampshires, and other | GEORGE JONAS, Leicesters and Lincolns. Joun P. CLarK, Groree H, Sanpay. Hucu PENroLp. Shropshires, Border Leicesters and Cheviots. C. R. KEEtine, Tuomas MANSELL. WILLIAM GRIEVE, GrorGcr TORRANCE. Black-faced Mountain, Herdwick, and Lonk. Cotswolds, Kentish, Romney Marsh, JAMES ARCHIBALD, Devon, and other Long-woolled Breeds. Hueu P. Hoime, Walls Gagne JOHN INGLEBY. Ad be INE, J. SELMES. PIGS, Oxford Downs, JAMES EDWARDS, W. D. Lirtie, THomAs GIBBONS, W. Parsons. SaMUEL WALKER. INSPECTORS OF SHEARING. WILLIAM JoBsoN, | J. E, RAWLENCE, | J. B. WorkMAN, JUDGES OF BUTTER. G. W. Burrows, | Witii1am MAXWELL, | JAMES WATSON. JUDGES OF IMPLEMENTS. Steam Ploughing and Cultivating Machinery. JOHN HEMSLEY, | J. W. Kisser, ‘ JOHN STEPHENSON. Miscellaneous. Henry CANTRELL. | Sasven Rownanpson, | JOHN WHEATLEY. JUDGES OF FARMS. Herpert J. Lirrtr, | MTxomas P. Ournwarre, | WiLutam J. Brown. AWARDS OF PRIZES. Nore.—The Judges were instructed, in addition to awarding the Prizes, to designate as the Reserve Number’ one animal in each Class, next in order of merit, if it possessed sufficient for a Prize; in case an animal to which a Prize was awarded should subse- quently become disqualified. Prizes given by the Carlisle Local Committee are marked thus (*). HORSES. Agricultural Stallions—Four Years old and upwards. Tue Hart or EviesmERE, Worsley Hall, Manchester: First Prize, 40/., for “ Admiral,” bay, 4 years-old; bred by Mr. J. Milner, Treales, Kirkham ; sire, “Honest Tom” (1105); dam by “‘ British Ensign” (272), Tue Stanp Stup Company, Stand, Whitefield, Manchester: Sxconp Prizu, 201., for “ Young Champion,” chestnut, 13 years-old; bred by Mr. T. Stokes, Caldecot, Rockingham; sire, “ Stokes’s Champion ;” dam, “‘ Depper ” by “King George.” LAWRENCE Drew, Merryton, Hamilton, Lanarkshire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Lord Harry,” black, 6 years-old; bred by himself; sire, Drew’s “ Prince of Wales;” dam, “ Mary.” Agricultural Stallions—Three Years old. Tar Hart or Eviesmere, Worsley Hall, Manchester: First Prizx, 30/., for “Samson 4th,” bay; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Samson” (1980) ; dam by ‘“ Honest Tom” (1105). Caprars Wititiam Hammonp Berrts, Frenze Hall, Diss, Norfolk: Szconp Prize, 20/., for “ Strawberry Wonder,” roan; bred by Mr. Beart, Norfolk ; sire, Marsters’s “‘ Hngland’s Wonder.” Agricultural Stallions—Two Years old. Tue Hart or ELtesmERE, Worsley Hall, Manchester: First Prize, 30/., for “ Worsley Wonder,” bay ; bred by Mr. J. Fryer, Chatteris, Cambs; sire, “British Wonder” (278); dam by “ Honest Tom” (1121): and Srconp Prue, 20/., for “ Prime Minister,”’ bay ; bred by Mr. J. Tibbet, Doddington, Cambs ; ‘sire, ‘‘ Lord Beaconsfield ” (115); dam by “ Matchless” (1581). Tue Sranp Srup Company, Stand, Whitefield, Manchester: Turrp Prizr, Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. li 107., for “*Crowland Hero,” bay; bred by Mr. Horn, Frampton, Lincoln- shire; sire, Gant’s “ Honest Tom ;” dam by “ Brown George.” Cartes Marsrers, Saddlebow, King’s Lynn, Norfolk: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for ‘ West Norfolk Wonder,” chestnut; bred by Mr. Hughes, Welshpool; sire, Marsters’s ‘“‘ Hngland’s Wonder.” Clydesdale Stallions—Four Years old and upwards. Davip Rippett, Blackhall, Paisley, N.B.: First Prize, 40/., for “ Darnley,” bay, 8 years-old; bred by the late Sir W. Stirling Maxwell, Bart., Keir Mains, Dunblane, N.B.; sire, ‘ Conqueror ;” dam, “ Peggie.” Witt1am Morrat, Blackford, Carlisle: Sreconp Prizz, 20/., for ‘ Prince Henry” (1257), bay, 4 years-old; bred by Mr. R. Willie, Machireoch, Campbeltown, N.B.; sire, “ Prince David” (643); dam, “ Maggie,” by “ Ploughboy (590): and Tuirp Prize, 10/., for “* Young Baldie” (1353), bay, 7 years-old; bred by Mr. J. Henderson, Kelloeside, Sanquhar, Dumfriesshire ; sire, “ Garibaldi 3rd” (316). Tne Bowness Entrre Horst Company, Rogersceugh, Carlisle: the Meserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Prince of Kirkbean,” bay, 8 years- old; bred by Mr. Barbour, Gillfoot, Kirkcudbright; sire, “‘ Lord Clyde,” dam by “Merry Tom” (536). Clydesdale Stallions—Three Years old. Anprew Mowytceomery, Boreland, Castle Douglas, N.B.: First Prizz, 30/., for ‘‘ Prince Imperial” (1258), brown; bred by Mr. J. Cunningham, Tarbreoch, Dalbeattie, N.B.; sire, “Dandy Jim” (221); dam, “‘Tar- breoch Jean” (75) by “ Clausman” (150). P. anp J. CRAwrorp, of Brydekirk Mains, Annan, N.B.: Suconp Prize, 20/., for “Silver,” bay ; bred by Mr. Portaeous, Kirkland, Stranraer; sire, “ Lord Lyon ;” dam by “ Clansman.” James Wayte, Aldboro’ Hall, Darlington, Co. Durham: Turrp Prize, 10/., for “* Pointsman ” (1236), bay ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Tam O’Shanter ” (851); dam, “ Rose,” by ‘‘ Lord Derby (485). Clydesdale Stallions—Two Years old. Anprew Montcomery, Boreland, Castle Douglas, N.B.: First Prize, 30/., for “'The MacGregor,” bay; bred by Mr. R. Craig, Flashwood, Dalry, Ayrshire; sire, ‘ Darnley” (222); dam, “Sally” (60) by “ Prince Charlie” (629). Anprew MacDowatt, Auchtralme, Stranraer, Wigtownshire: Sxconp Prize, 201., for “ Collingwood,” bright bay; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Glenlee,” dam, “ Nell,” by “ Farmer.” Davip Ripprtx, Blackhall, Paisley, N.B.: Turrp Prizm, 10/., for his bay ; bred by the Marquis of Londonderry; sire, “What Care I;” dam, “ Countess.” Wititam Miniter, Pond Cottage, Whitehouse, Aberdeenshire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “Sefton,” bay; bred by Mr. G. Wilson, Whiteside, Alford, N.B.; sire, ‘“‘ Victor;” dam, “Jane” by “Samson.” Suffolk Stallions—Four Years old and upwards. RicHarD GARRETT, Carleton Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk: First Prize, 401., for “ Cupbearer III.” (566), chestnut, 6 years-old; bred by the late Mr. lil Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. C. Frost, Wherstead, Ipswich; sire, “Cupbearer II.” (542); dam, “ Stutton” (346) by “ Sir Colin” (544). llorace Wotton, Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge, Suffolk: Srcoxp Prizx, 20/., for ‘ Royalty” (1839), chestnut, 9 years-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Magnum Bonum” (1347); dam, “ Duchess” (1332) by “ Warrior” (1353). RicHarp Garrerr, Carleton Hall: Tarrp Prize, 10/., for “ Crown Prince” (564), chestnut, 7 years-old; bred by the late Mr, Blofield, Crown Farm, Leiston ; sire, ‘ Cupbearer ” (565) ; dam, by Barker’s “ Goliath.” Suffolk Stallions—Three Years old. SamuEL Wotton, Butleigh Abbey, Wickham Market, Suffolk: First Prize, 30/., for “ Chieftain ” (1854), chestnut ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Cup- bearer II.” (542); dam, ‘“ Newbourn Princess” (1095), by ‘* Warrior’ (1358). UICHARD GARRETT, Carleton Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk : Seconp Prize, 20/., for “ Zulu,” (571), chestnut ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “‘Cupbearer III.” (566) ; dam,“ Sprite” (845) by “ Talbot” (878). Horack Wo.uton, Newbourn Hall, Wocdbridge: Turrp Prizm, 10/., for “Prince Royal” (1888), chestnut; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Royalty ” (1339); dam, “ Darby ” (1038). Suffolk Stallions—Two Years old. Horace Wouton, Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge, Suffolk: First Prizz, 30/., for “Oriental” (1337), chestnut; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Royalty ” (1339); dam, “ Newbourn Brag” (1035) by “ Royal Duke II.” (1366). Witi1am Witson, Baylham Hall, Ipswich: Seconp Prize, 20/., for ‘ Van- euard,” chestnut; bred by Mr. H. Biddell, Playford, Ipswich. Novert EK. Lorrr, Troston Hall, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Jove,” chestnut ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, Lofft’s “ Young Cupbearer” (842); dam, ‘‘Maggie,” by “* Young Hero.” Thoroughbred Stallions, suitable for getting Hunters. Tue Sranp Srup Company, Stand, Whitefield, Manchester: First Prize, 50/., for ‘‘ Meteor,” chestnut, 7 years-old; bred by Sir George Cholmley, Bart., Rillington, Yorkshire; sire, “ Volturno;” dam, ‘‘Meg” by ‘ King Caradoc.” H. I’. Charge Vyner, Newby Hall, Ripon, Yorkshire: Smconp PrizE, 25/., for “Duc de Beaufort,” chestnut, 11 years-old; bred by Count Lagrange ; sire, “ Ventre St. Gris ;’ dam, ‘‘ Dame d’Honneur” by “The Baron.” Joun Tarr, High Street, Annan, N.B.: Turp Prize, 10/., for “‘ Red Cap Sly,” chestnut, 8 years-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Sincerity;” dam, “ Birkie” by “ Le Maréchal.” Nicnotas Ropert Fiemine, Normanby Hall, Middiesboro’-on-Tees, Yorkshire : the Reserve Number to “The Muleteer,” chestnut, 7 years-old; bred by Mr. J. E. Bennett, Theddingworth, Rugby; sire, “Mogador ;” dam, “Roma,” by “ Oxford.” Thoroughbred Stallions suitable for getting Hunters or Coach-Horses.t Wini1aAM Taytor Suarpe, Baumber Park, Horncastle, Lincolnshire: the + Given by Members of the Camborand Hunt. Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. lili Prize of 105/. for ‘ Merry Sunshine,” bay, 10 years-old; bred by Mr. Merry, Russley Park, Hungerford; sire, “'Thormanby ;” dam, “Sun- beam” by ‘‘ Chanticleer.” WiurtraAm Armstrona, Strickland Gate, Kendal, Westmoreland: the Reserve Number to “ Westerhall,” brown, 10 years-old; bred by Mr. J. Borth- wick, Lyneholm, Langholm, N.B.; sire, “Laughing Stock;” dam, “* Herie” by “ Malcolm.” Stallions suitable for getting Coach-Horses. Tue Sranp Stup Company, Stand, Whitefield, Manchester: First Parizr, 25/., for “ Conservative,” bay, 3 years-old; bred by Mr. W. J. Atkinson, Newland, Hull; sire, ‘“‘ Young Candidate ;” dam by ‘“‘ Young Wyndham :” and Seconp Prize, 15/., for “ Liberal,” bay, 4 years-old; bred by Mr. W. Dickinson, Stamford Bridge, Yorkshire ; sire, ‘‘ Roseberry ;” dam by “Omar Pasha.” CuristopHeR W,. Witson, High Park, Kendal: the Reserve Number to “Volunteer,” rich bay, 3 years-old; bred by Mr. W. Taylor, Osgodby, Selby, Yorks.; sire, “ Young Candidate;’ dam by Mr. Swinbanks’s “ Paulinus.” Stallions suitable for getting Hackneys above 14 hands and not exceeding 15 hands 2 inches. Joun Burron Barrow, Ringwood Hall, Chesterfield: First Prizz, 20/., for “Young Perfection,” brown, 6 years-old ; bred by Mr. J. Utting, Melton Parva, Norwich; sire, “ Old Perfection ;? dam by ‘“ Don Carlos.” CaristopuerR W. Witson, High Park, Kendal: Ssconp Prize, 10/., for “‘ Star of the Garter,” bay, 5 years-old; bred by Mr. Cook, Thixendale; sire, “ Bay President ;” dam, ‘‘ Evening Star” by ‘* Wildfire.” Ture Stanp Srup Company, Stand, Whitefield, Manchester: Tuirp Prize, 5l., for “Star of the Hast,” chestnut, 8 years-old; bred by Mr. Cook,. Thixendale, Yorkshire; sire, ‘‘ Charley Merrylegs;” dam by ‘ North Star.” Witi1amM Fratrnersy, Escrick, York: the Reserve Number to “ Prince Arthur,” chestnut, 3 years-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Gladstone ;” dam, “ Rose” by ‘ Achilles.” Pony Stallions, above 13 hands 2 inches and not exceeding 14 hands 2 inches. CuRIsToPHER W. Wixson, High Park, Kendal: First Prize, 15/., for “ Little: Wonder,” brown, 8 years-old; bred by Mr. Armes, Norfolk ; sire, “Confidence :” Sreconp Prize, 10/., for “ Lord Derby,” brown, 6 years- old; bred by Mr. W. Coker, Walsingham, Norfolk; sire, “ Perfection :” THirp Prize, 5/., for ‘ Nobleman,” black, 6 years-old; bred by Mr. Youngman, Wyndham, Norfolk; sire, “Confidence :” and the Reserve Number to ‘Sir Douglas,” brown, 5 years-old ; bred by Mr. E. Christian, Milntown, Ramsay, Isle of Man; sire, “Sir George.” Agricultural Mares and Foals. Tae Hart or Eviesmere, Worsley Hall, Manchester: Firsr Prize, 307., for “ Damsel,” brown, 7 years-old; bred by Mr, Colteman, Dry Dodding- ton Lodge, Lincolnshire ; sire, ‘‘ Jericho Hero;” dam by Barnes’s old “ Roan Horse ” (foal by “ British Simon”): and the Reserve Number and Highly VOL. XVI.—S. 8. e liv Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Commended for “Flora,” brown, 7 years-old; bred by Mrs. Millhouse, so Hall, Hinckley; sire, “A 1.” (1). Foal by “Royal George” 1892). ‘ Clydesdale Mares and Foals. Davin Rivet, Blackhall, Paisley, Renfrewshire: Frrsr Prizx, 30/., for his bay, 3 years-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Darnley ;’ dam, “Emma.” Foal by “ Top Gallant.” Roserr Freprick, Drumflower, Dungarit, Wigtownshire: Szconp Prix, 20/., for “ Young Mary,” bay, 7 years-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Prince phalip ;” dam, “‘ Mary,” by “Loch Fergus Champion.” Foal by “Lord yon.” JAMES Beatriz, Newbie House, Annan, N.B.: Tumrp Prize, 10/., for “ Rosy,” bay, 5 years-old; bred by Mr. Buchanan, Garscadden Mains, New Kilpatrick, N.B.; sire, “ Prince Charlie” (629) ; dam, “ Garscadden Maggie” by “General Williams” (327) (foal by “ Baron Pollock”): and the Reserve Number and Commended for “ Duchess,” brown, 4 years-old ; bred by Mr. R. Wallace, Langbarns, Kirkcudbright; sire, “ Farmer” (288); dam by “ Lord Byron.” Foal by “ Pride of Galloway ” (601). Suffolk Mares and Foals. THe Duke or Hamiiron AND Branpon, K.T., Easton Park, Wickham Market, Suffolk: First Prize, 30/., for “ Belle of the Ball,” chestnut, 6 years-old ; bred by Mr. C. Frost, Wherstead ; sire, “Son of May Duke;” dam by “Hero.” Foal by “The Statesman.” Horace Wotton, Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge, Suffolk: Szconp Prizx, 20/., for “ Empress of Paris ” (1033), chestnut, 6 years-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Royal Duke II.” (1366); dam, “Newbourn Pride” (1046) by Wolton’s “ Monarch ” (1348). Foal by “ Royalty ” (1339). Tue Duxe or Haminton AND Brannon, K.T., Easton Park: Turrp Prize, 10/., for “‘ Bright Diamond,” chestnut, 8 years-old ; bred by Mr. C. Frost, Wherstead ; sire, Wolton’s “ Monarch ;” dam, ‘ Diamond” by ‘Son of Hero.” Foal by “Cupbearer :” and the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Emerald,” chestnut, 6 years-old; bred by Mr. E. Gray, Parham Hall, Wickham Market; sire, Grout’s “Emperor ;” dam, “ Brago” by “ May Duke.” Foal by “ The Statesman.” ’ Agricultural Mares—Four Years old. Tuomas H. Mruter, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lancashire: First Prize, 20/., for “ Princess Dagmar,” bay, 4 years-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, ‘‘ Honest Tom” (1105); dam, “ Princess of Wales,” by “King Alfred.” Tur Hart or Exirsmere, Worsley Hall, Manchester: Szconp Prize, 10/., for “Lady Worsley,” bay, 6 years-old; bred by Mr. Fullard, Thorney ; sire, ‘* Wonder ” (2357). James Proxen, Laigh Langside, Craigie, Kilmarnock: Turrp Prizx, 5/., for “Young Darling,” bay, 5 years-old: bred by Mr. McCulloch, Skaith, Newton Stewart, N.B.; sire, “Lord Lyon” (489); dam by “Loch Fergus Champion” (449). Tuomas H. Minter, Singleton Park: the Reserve Number and Highly Com- mended for “ Topsey” black, 6 years-old ; bred by Mr. Goodhall, Milton, Derby ; sire, Crown Prince” (558). Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. lv Agricultural Fillies—Three Years old. Epwarp Hotmes, Ingol House, Preston, Lancashire: First Prize, 20/., for “ Lady Whitlock,” chestnut; bred by Mr. J. Fairclough, Winn Farm, Out Rawcliffe, Garstang; sire, “ What’s Wanted;” dam, “ Bute” by “* Master of Parts.” Rosert Horstry, Ashill, Thetford, Norfolk: Szconp Prix, 10/., for “Duchess,” chestnut roan; bred by Mr. Mercer, Manea, March ; sire, “Duke.” Tue Hart or Evnesmerr, Worsley Hall: Tairp Prizs, 5/., for ‘‘ Princess Victoria,” bay ; bred by Mr. J. D. Rose, Ramsey, Hunts; sire, “Samson ; dam by “ Honest Tom” (1105). Joun Fox, Corless Mill, Ellel, Lancaster: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “Flower,” bay; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘‘ Argyll; dam, “ Smiler” by “True Briton.” Clydesdale Fillies—Three Years old. Joun Wavvrwt, Inch, Bathgate, Linlitheow: Firsr Prix, 201., for “Louisa,” brown ; bred by Mr. Muredoch, East Haughhead, Uddingston, N.B. ; sire, “‘ Darnley ;” dam, “ Bell” by “ Young Campsie.” Anprew McDowatt, Auchtrolme, Stranraer, N.B.: Szconp PrizE, 101., for “May Belle,” bay; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Glenlee;’’ dam, “ Nell” by “ Farmer.” Rosert Loprr, Whittlebury, Towcester, Northamptonshire: Tutrp Prize, 51., for “ Darling 8rd,” bay ; bred by Mrs. Montgomery, Banks, Kirkcud- bright; sire “Dandy Jim” (221); dam, ‘“ Darling 2nd” by “Loch Fergus Champion ” (449). James Brartiz, Newbie House, Annan, N.B.: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Ada,” light bay; bred by Colonel Williamson, Lawers, Crieff, N.B.; sire “ Bothwell” (110); dam “ Hannah” by “Sir Robert Bruce” (786). Suffolk Fillies—Three Years old. Samuet Totter, Letheringham Lodge, Wickham Market, Suffolk: Firsr Prize, 20/., for “ Princess” (930), chestnut; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Prince Imperial” (1239); dam, “ Depper” (925) by “Canterbury Pilgrim ” (85): and Szconp Prize, 10/., for “ Duchess” (298), chestuut, bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Prince Imperial (1239); dam, “Scot 3rd” (9382) by “‘ Cupbearer ” (416). R. E. Lorrr, Troston, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk: the Reserve Number to “Gem,” chestnut; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “‘ Lofft’s Young Cupbearer ” (842); dam “ Diamond,” by Wolton’s “Champion” (1348). Agricultural Fillies—Two Years old. THE Rey. Vincent O. Hoxcrort, St. Mary’s College, Oscott, Birmingham : First Prize, 20/., for “Empress,” chestnut; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Wynn’s Nonpareil; ” dam, “ Daisy.” Ricnarp Laycock, Winlaton, Blaydon-on-Tyne: Seconp Prizr, 10/., for “Beauty,” chestnut; bred by exhibitor; sire, “All Glory;” dam, “Violet.” Tue Haru or Enresmerr, Worsley Hall: Turrp Prize, 5/., for “Thistle,” chestnut, bred by Mr. Birkett, Flambro’, Notts; sire, “ Hydraulic ” (1130); dam by Shepherd’s “ Admiral.” e 2 Ivi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Tree Dox or Wesrminster, K.G., Eaton, Chester: the Reserve Number to “ Lively,” bay brown; bred by Mr. J. Rowell, Manor Farm, Bury, Hunts; sire, “ Honest Tom ;” dam, “ Diamond,” by ‘‘ Samson.” Clydesdale Fillies—Two Years old. Rosert Murpocu, West Hallside, Newton, Glasgow: First Prize, 20/., for “Princess,” bay, bred by Mr. A. McVicar, Woodend, Bathgate, N.B. ; sire, “‘ Prince of Renfrew” (664); dam “ Susan.” Sir Micwart R. Suaw Stewart, Bart., Ardzowan, Greenock, N.B. : Seconp Prize, 10/., for “ Annot Lyle,” bay; bred by Mr. J. Ross, Titwood, Dunlop, Aryshire; sire, Young Lord Lyon” (994); dam, “‘ Jean” by “Loch Fergus Champion” (449). Lorp Artruur Crcrn, Orchardmains, Innerleithen, N.B.: Tatrp Prime, 5/., for “Kelpie,” light bay; bred by Mr. J. McQueen, Crofts, Dalbeattie ; sire, “ Young Lord Lyon” (994) ; dam, “‘ Darling” (840); by Lorne (499). Wititam Monrcomery, Banks, Kirkcudbright: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “* Mary Kate,” brown; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Young Prince of Wales” (1019); dam, ‘ Darling” (268) by “ Victor 2nd” (1888). Suffolk Fillies—Two Years Old. Witi1amM Tovier, Gedgrave, Wickham Market, Suffolk: First Prize, 20/., for “Shelduck” (943), chestnut; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Standard Bearer ” (1207); dam “‘ Scoter” (942) by Grout’s “ Emperor.” Samvent Touier, Letheringham Lodge, Wickham Market: Seconp Prize, 10/., for “‘ Beacon” (942), chestnut ; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘‘ States- man” (657); dam “ Depper” (925) by “ Canterbury Pilgrim” (85). Agricultural Fillies—One Year Old.* Grorce SHapwick, Aikton, Wigton, Cumberland: First Prize, 10/., for “ Darling,” bay; bred by exhibitor; sire ‘‘ Sovereign ;” dam, “ Fanny ” by “ Walter Scott.” Tuomas H. Mruuer, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lancashire: Srconp Prize, 5/., for ‘‘ Meta,” bay ; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘‘ Lincoln” (1350); dam, “ Jewel,” by “ Honest ‘l'om” (1105): and the Reserve Number to “ Satanella,” black; bred by Mr. J. Cross, Pilling, Garstang ; sire, “Lincoln ” (1850). Clydesdale Fillies—One Year Old. * James Bearrie, Newbie House, Annan, N.B.: First Prize, 10/., for “Duchess,” brown; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Dandy Jim” (221); dam, “ Bess of Annandale” by “ Clansman” (150). Sir Micuaet R. Saaw Srewarr, Barr., Ardgowan, Greenock : Seconp Prize, 51., for “ Leonora,” bay, bred by Mr. J. Ross, Titwood, Dunlop, N.B. ; sire, “Young Lord Lyon” (994); dam, “Jean” by “ Loch Fergus Champion” (449). Rosert Murpocu, of West Hallside, Newton, Glasgow, the Leserve Number and Highly Commended, for “Sheila,” dark brown; bred by Mr, A. Williamson, Big Sypland, Kirkcudbright; sire, “Bonnie Scotland; ” dam, by “ Victor.” Hunter Mares and Foals. Cuartes Heyry Hart, Dunnington Lodge, York: First Prizz, 30/., for Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. vii Achievement,” bay, 10 years-old ; breeder unknown; sire, “ Knowsley ;” dam by “ Laughing Stock.” Foal by “ Murillo.” Tuomas Drxon, Dalton Old Hall, Burton-in-Kendal, Westmoreland : SzconD Prize, 201., for “ Fanny,” bay, 12 years-old; bred by Mr. J. Maudsley, Newton Hall, Kirkby Lonsdale; sire “ Mandracardo,” dam, by “ Dr. Sangrado.” Foal by “Star of Ashton.” Margaret Humpie, Carden, Dalston, Cumberland: Tuirp Prizg, 10/., for “Kate,” brown, 5 years-old; bred by Mr. T. Wills, Oughterby, Kirk- bampton ; sire, “Laughing Stock;” dam, “Dina” by “Contentment.” Foal by “ Lord of the Marches.” GrorRGE THompson Carr, Silloth Farm, Silloth, Cumberland: the Reserve Number to “ Lizzie,” chestnut, 14 years-old; bred by Mr. Brockbank, Moor Park, Maryport ; sire, “ Laughing Stock ;” dam by “ Charley-boy.” Foal by ‘‘ Gladstone.” Coaching Mares and Foals. Joun Kirpy, Burton Fields, Stamford Bridge, Yorkshire: First Prize, 20/., for “ Flora,” bay, 9 years-old: bred by Mr. Bilton, Mowthorp, Castle Howard; sire, “The Earl;” dam by “ Aristocrat.” Foal by “Con- servative.” Norman Storpy, Thrustonfield, Carlisle: Szconp Prizr, 10/., for his bay, 7 years-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Lord of the Marches.” Foal by “Ouragan 2nd.” Joun Witson Hopason, Flatt, Kirkbampton, Carlisle: the Reserve Number to “ Borealis,” bay, 8 years-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Darlington ;” dam, “Bay Leaf” by “Galaor.” Foal by “ Golden Horn.” Hackney Mares and Foals, above 14 hands 2 inches and not exceeding 15 hands 2 inches. Cartes Lancaster, Kilsram Grange, Bedale, Yorkshire: First Prize, 20/., for “ Maid of All Work,” brown, 11 years-old; bred by Mr. Thomp- son, Hurworth, Darlington; sire, “he Norfolk Cob ;” dam by ““McOrville.” Foal by ‘“ Ariel.” Nosert Martin, Scoreby Grange, Flaxton, Yorkshire: Szconp Prize, 10/., for “ Lady Mary,” bay, 10 years-old; bred by exkibitor; sire, ‘Sir Edwin Landseer ;” dam, ‘‘ Lady Superior” by “ Sir Charles.” Foal by Cook’s “* Phenomenon,” Tnomas H. MinuEr, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lancashire: THrrD Prize, 5/., tor “ Belle,” bay, aged; breeder unknown. Foal by ‘“‘ The Squire.” CuristopHER W. Witson, High Park, Kendal, Westmoreland: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Little Wonder,” bay, aged ; breeder unknown. Foal by “Sir George.” Pony Mares and Foals, above 18 hands 2 inches and not exceeding 14 hands 2 inches. CuRIsTOPHER W. Witson, High Park, Kendal: First Prize, 15/., for “ Miss Constance,” chestnut, 8 years-old; breeder unknown. Foal by “Star of the Garter.” Wuutam Trorrer, South Acomb, Stocksfield-on-T'yne : Seconp Prize, 10/., for ‘‘ Lucy,” bay, 10 years-old; breeder unknown. Foal by “ Octavian.” Iviii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. CurisTopHER W. Wi1son, High Park, Kendal: Tutrp Prize, 5/., for “ Dolly,” brown 7 years-old; breeder unknown. Foal by ‘“‘ Sir George.” Joun Ruruerrorp, Blackclough, Cowshill, Darlington, Co. Durham: the Reserve Number to “ Jessie,” bay, 11 years-old; breeder unknown. Foal by “ Earl Granville.” Pairs of Agricultural Horses—Four Years Old and Upwards.* Joun WavbeEtt, Inch, Bathgate, Linlithgow, N.B.: First Prize, 20/., for “Countess,” brown, 6 years-old; bred by Mr. W. Hawsworth, Burton- field, Derby; sire, “ Lofty.” “Mary Gray,” 4 years-old; breeder un- known. THE Hart or Eriesmere, Worsley Hall, Manchester : Seconp Prizs, 101, for “Beauty,” brown, 11 years-old; bred by Mr. Griffin, Borough Fen, Peterborough ; sire, “Comet.” ‘ Diamond,” bay, 6 years-old; bred by Mr. Odam, Farcet, Peterborough ; sire, ‘‘ Matchless.” Agricultural Geldings—Four Years old.* Henry Lawson, Chestnut House, Sutton-on-the-Forest, Easingwold, York- shire: First Prize, 15/., for “Clyde,” chestnut; bred by Mr. Thomas Shipley, Dalton Bridge, Topcliffe, Thirsk, Yorkshire; sire, “ Jock ;” dam by “ ‘True Briton.” Wituiam Beuy, Milltown, Kirklinton, Carlisle: Szconp Prizn, 10/., for “Prince,” bay; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Young Clansman;” dam, « Jess.” Epwarp CHaruton, Shaw House, Stocksfield-on-Tyne, Northumberland : TuirD Prize, 5/., for “ Prince,” bay; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “‘ Hamilton Jock ;” dam, ‘‘ Diamond” by “ All Glory.” Agricultural Geldings—Three Years old.* Rosert Buamrre, Cumdivock, Dalton, Cumberland: First Prize, 15/., for ‘ Charlie,” bay ; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘‘ 'opsman ;” dam, “ Bonny ” by ‘‘ Old England’s Glory.” RicHarpD Grauam, Beck House, Scotby, Carlisle: Szeconp Prizz, 10/., for “ Ben,” brown; breeder unknown; sire, “Sir Arthur ;” dam by ‘‘ Moss- trooper.” Agricultural Geldings —Two Years old.* Grorce ArmstronG, Kirkland, Wigton, Cumberland: First Prize, 15/., for “Tom,” bay ; bred by Mrs. Barns, Green Rigg, Wigton, Cumberland ; sire, “ Simon Pure.” Tuomas H. Mirzer, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde: Szconp Prizz, 10/., for his bay; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Honest Tom” (1105); dam, “ Lofty.” Tuomas Rostnson, Cargo, Carlisle: Turrp Prize, 5/., for his bay; bred by Mr. R. B. Faulder, Yew Tree, Carlisle ; sire, “ Sovereign.” James Morrat, Crosby-on-Eden, Carlisle: the Reserve Number to “Sir Richard,” bay ; bred by Mr. G. Bainbridge, Whamtown, Carlisle ; sire, “ Sovereign ;” dam, “ Rose.” Agricultural Colts or Geldings—One Year old.* CHARLES Marsters, Saddlebow, King’s Lynn, Norfolk: First Prize, 10/., Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. lix for “ The Coming Wonder,” chestnut colt; bred by Mr. Green, The Bank, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire. Joun WuitenEaD, Medlar Hall, Kirkham, Lancashire: Szconp Prize, 52., for his black colt ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “‘ Lincoln ;” dam, “ Jessie ” by ‘Sir Colin.” P. and J. Crawrorp, Brydekirk Mains, Annan, Dumfries: the Reserve Number to ‘* Queensberry,” bay colt; bred by Mr. James McQueen, Crofts, Dalbeattie, Kirkcudbright ; sire, “‘ Pride of Clyde ;” dam, “ Sally.” Clydesdale Colts or Geldings—Oue Year old.* Joun Wappewt, Inch, Bathgate, N.B.: First Prizz, 10/., for his brown colt; bred by exhibitor; sire, “‘ Prince Charlie;” dam, “Maggie” by “Galloway Bob.” James McQueen, Crofts, Dalbeattie, N.B.: Srconp Prize, 5/., for “ Robin Hood,” bay colt; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Pride of Clyde” (600); dam, Darling ” (340) by ‘‘ Lorne” (499). Joun M. Martin, Auchendennan Farm, Balloch, N.B.: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for ‘‘ Peter Peebles,” bay colt; bred by ex- hibitor ; sire, “‘ Prince Charlie” (628); dam, ‘“ Ranee” (244) by “ Black Prince” (52), Hunter Mares or Geldings, up to 15 stone—Five Years old and upwards.* CuRistopHER W. Wiuson, High Park, Kendal: First Prizn, 20/., for “ Rossineton,” bay gelding, 9 years-old ; breeder unknown; sire, “‘ Cain.” Witi1am Henry WAKEFIELD, of Sedgwick, Kendal, Westmoreland: Srconp Prize, 15/., for “The Banker,” bay gelding; 12 years-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Best Returns ;” dam, “Sall ” by “ Emperor.” Joun C. StrAKeER, Stagshaw House, Corbridge-on-Tyne: Turrp Prize, 10/., for “ Gambler,” chestnut gelding, 7 years-old; breeder unknown; sire, ““Knave of Hearts.” Joun Mercatr, Prizett, Kendal: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “The Colonel,” dark brown gelding, 6 years-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Best Returns ;” dam, “ Fanny.” Hunter Mares or Geldings, up to 12 stone—Five Years old and upwards.* JoHN Biencowr Cookson, Meldon Park, Morpeth, Northumberland: Firsr Prize, 25/., for “‘ Old Boy,” black gelding, 10 years-old ; breeder unknown ; sire, “ Champagne.” Joun Rickersy, Wallhead, Carlisle: Szeconp Prizk, 18/., for ‘“ Kate,” chest- nut mare, 6 years-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, ‘“‘ Laughing Stock ;” dam, “Bony Kate” by “ Clansman.” Tom Monxgousr Caruisue, Tarraby, Carlisle: Tuirp Prize, 10/7. for “Wallace,” black gelding, 6 years-old; bred by Mr. R. Harrison, Thistle- bottom, Caldbeck, Cumberland ; sire, “ Kingmoor.” Joun Brown, Wiggenby, Wigton, Cumberland: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Baronet,” brown gelding, 6 years-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Motley ;” dam by “ Galaor.” Ix Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Hunter Mares or Geldings—Four Years old.* Francis JoHN SNowBatu, Seaton Burn House, Dudley, Northumberland : First Prize, 20/., for “ Flower Girl,” chestnut mare; bred by the late Mr. G. Easby, Wilstrop, Yorkshire; sire, ‘‘ Highthorn;” dam by “ All Fours.” TEASDALE Hivron Hurcuryson, Manor House, Catterick, Yorkshire: Smconp Prize, 10/., for “ Winesour,” black gelding ; bred by Mr. Barker, Attley Hill, Cowton, Yorks.; sire, “ East Coast.” Witi1am Anperson, Houchton, Carlisle, Cumberland: Tuirp Prizx, 5/., for “The Mystery,” chestnut gelding; bred by Mr. Mulcahy, Bally- nooran, Clonmel, Ireland ; sire, “The Fenian ;” dam by “ Tipple Cider.” Joun StocKDALE, of New Cooper, Aspatria, Cumberland : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Polly Perkins,” dark-brown mare ; bred by Mr. W. Parkin, Blaithwaite, Aspatria; sire, Kingmoor ; dam, “Judge.” Hunter Mares or Geldings—Three Years old.* Tuomas Drxon, Dalton Old Hall, Burton-in-Kendal, Westmoreland: Irrsr Prize, 15/., for “May Fly,” black brown gelding ; breeder unknown ; sire, “ Loaf Sugar ;” dam by “Sincerity.” Francis JoHN SNowBaLt, Seaton Burn House, Dudley, Northumberland : Seconp Prizz, 10/., for “ Adolus,” dark brown gelding; bred by Colonel Hall, Highington, co. Durham; sire, “ East Coast;” dam by “ Father of the Turf.” Mary Exvizazetu Tyson, the Manor House, Dalton-in-Furness, Lancashire : Turrp Prizn, 5/., for “ Juliet,’ bay mare; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Gamester ;” dam by “The Abbot.” Tuomas Ropson, Cundall Lodge, Boroughbridge, Yorkshire: the Meserve Number and Highly Commended for “Cyprian,” black gelding; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Highthorn ;” dam, ‘Queen of Spades” by “ King of Hearts.” Hunter Mares or Geldings—Two Years old. * Joun CastLeHow Topprn, Musgrave Hall, Skelton, Cumberland: First Prize, 10/., for “ Clarion,” bay gelding ; bred by exhibitor ; sire “ Clare- .mont ;” dam “Jewel” by “ British Yeoman.” Y Tuomas Drxon, Dalton Old Hall, Burton-in-Kendal, Westmoreland : SEconD Prize, 5/., for “Miss Fanny,” bay filly; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Redbourne ;” dam, “ Fanny ” by ‘‘ Mandracardo.” Ricuarp HawkripeeE, 2, South Crescent, Ripon, Yorkshire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Newby,” black gelding; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “‘ Duc de Beaufort;” dam, “ Fanny ” by “ Despatch.” Hunter Mares, Colis, or Geldings—One Year old.* Tuomas Heatu Foprn, Givendale Grange, Boroughbridge, Yorkshire: First Prize, 101., for “The Marquis,” chestnut colt ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Duc de Beaufort ;” dam, ‘‘ Bright Hyes” by “ Rataplan.” Joun Witson Hopeson, Flatt, Kirkbampton, Carlisle: Seconp Prize, 5/., for “‘ Rose of Athol,” bay filly; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Claremont ;” dam, “ Borealis” by “ Darlington.” Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Ixi Mary Ayn Bert, Horsegills, Kirklinton, Carlisle : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Jack,” chestnut gelding; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Ouragan 2nd ;” dam, “Kate.” Coaching Mares or Geldings—Four Years old and upwards.* Messrs. CARLISLE AND Bett, 6, Lonsdale Street, Carlisle: Frrsr Prize, 15/., for “The General,” bay gelding, 5 years-old; bred by Mr. J. Graham, Holme Gate, Carlisle ; sire, “ General Benefit.” Joun Mercaur, Prizett, Kendal, Westmoreland: Srconp Prize, 10J., for “The Major,” dark brown gelding, 7 years-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Best Returns ;” dam, “ Fanny.” Witit1am Bern, Thomas Close, Penrith, Cumberland: Txrrp Prize, 5/., for “Prince,” dark grey gelding, 6 years-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “British Prince ;” dam by “ Galaor.” “ Fisherman.” Gxorcr Hopeson, Layrickstone House, Kirkbampton, Carlisle: the Reserve Number to “ Baronet,” bay gelding, 4 years old; bred by exhibitor; sire, Coaching Mares or Geldings —Three Years old. Joux Kirsy, Burtonfields, Stamford Bridge, Yorkshire: First Prize, 15/., for “ Duke of Connaught,” bay gelding; bred by Mr. T. Dickinson, Acres House, Naburn, Yorks. ; sire, “Selby ;” dam by “ Belthorp Paulinus.” JouN Graincer, Fenton, How Mill, Cumberland: Srconp Prize, 10/., for his dark brown gelding ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Golden Horn ;” dam, “Jean” by Laughing Stock.” Tuomas BackuHousr, Newton Arlosh, Silloth, Cumberland: the Reserve Number to “ Sir Garnet,” bay gelding ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Ouragan 2nd ;” dam, “ Borealis” by “ Darlington.” Coaching Mares or Geldings—Two Years old.* WiniramM Buanp, Lancaster: First Prize, 10/., for his dark brown filly ; bred by exhibitor; sire, Rococo. Tut New Srup Company, Burgh-by-Sands, Carlisle: Seconp Prize, 5/., for “Princess,” bay filly ; bred by Mr. J. Hodgson, Kirkbampton, Carlisle ; sire, “ Ouragan 2nd ;” dam, “ Borealis” by ‘“ Darlington.” Henry Fraron Moncrisr, Sosgill, Cockermouth, Cumberland, the Reserve Number to “ King Charles,” chestnut gelding; bred by Mr. J. R. William- son, Pardshaw, Cockermouth ; sire, ‘‘ Kingmoor.” Hackney Mares or Geldings, exceeding 15 hands up to not less than 15 stone.* CuristoPpHER W. Witsoy, High Park, Kendal, Westmoreland: First Prize, 20/., for “ Lady Walton,” brown mare, 6 years-old; bred by Mr. Stiraker, Walton, Yorks. ; sire, “ Denmark ;” dam by “Old Rattler.” Hackney Mares or Geldings, exceeding 15 hands, up to not less than 12 stone.* CuristoPpHER W. Witson, High Park, Kendal, Westmoreland: Firsr Prize, 20/., for, and Seconp Prize, 10/., for ‘ Lady Silvertail,” roan mare, 7 years-old ; breeder unknown; sire, ‘‘ Denmark” : and T'H1rp Prize, 5/., for Ixii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. “Sunbeam,” bay gelding, 9 years-old ; breeder unknown ; sire, “ Bay President.” Sinas GrorcE Saut, Millhouse, Carlisle: the Reserve Number to “ Norna,” chestnut mare, 6 years-old; bred by Mr. T. Jefferson, Hall Flate, Scaleby,” Carlisle ; sire, “ Kingmoor ;” dam by “ Laughing Stock.” Hackney Mares or Geldings, above 14 and not exceeding 15 hands, up to 15 stone.* CHRISTOPHER W. Wiuson, High Park, Kendal, Westmoreland: First Prize, 20/., for “Charles 3rd,” chestnut gelding, 5 years-old; bred by Mr. J. Crompton, Thornholm, Burton Agnes, Yorks. ; sire, “‘ Denmark ;” dam by “St. Giles.” Joun Caren, Crown Hotel, Langholm, Dumfriesshire: the Reserve Number to “‘ Eskdale,” brown gelding, 6 years-old; bred by Mr. Hill, Crosslands, Ecclefechan, Dumfries. Hackney Mares or Geldings, above 14 and not exceeding 15 hands up to 12 stone.* JoHN Rostnson, Cleveland House, Coltman Street, Hull, Yorks: First Prize, 20/., for “ Warter Lily,” dark chestnut mare, 4 years-old, bred by Mr. Rickell, Warter Wold, Pocklington, Yorkshire ; sire, “ Denmark ;” dam by ‘‘ General Giles.” Francis Cook Marrurws, Easterfield House, Driffield, Yorkshire: Szconp Prizz, 10/., for ‘‘ Zephyr,” roan mare, 5 years-old; bred by Mr. Moore, Burn Butts, Cranswick, Hull; sire, Triffett’s ‘‘ Fireaway.” Wii11aM Boottoy, Springfield, Ulverstone, Lancashire: TorrpD Prizp, 5/., for his chestnut gelding, 5 years-old; bred by Captain Porter, Newbarns, Barrow-in-Furness ; sire, ‘‘ Abbot.” CuristorpHerR W. Wison, High Park, Kendal: the Reserve Number to “ Rod in Pickle,” brown mare, 5 years-old ; breeder unknown ; sire, “ Fireaway.” Pony Mares or Geldings, above 13 and not exceeding 14 Hands.* Wi.1am Fosrer, Grove Villas, Pontefract, Yorkshire: First Prize, 15/., for “Novelty,” brown gelding, 7 years-old; breeder unknown. Joun Rosryson, Cleveland House, Coltman Street, Hull: Szconp Prize, 10/., for “Lord Silvertail,” brown roan gelding, 5 years-old; bred by Mr. Stubbs, Clifton, Yorkshire; sire, “ Denmark.” CuristopHer W. Witson, High Park, Kendal: Turrp Prize, 5/., for “ Little Jack,” bay gelding, 5 years-old; breeder unknown; sire, ‘‘ Confidence.” James Morrart, Crosby-on-Eden, Carlisle: the Reserve Number to “imma,” chestnut mare, 5 years-old; bred by the late Mr. Arm- strong, Cross Hill, Carlisle, Cumberland ; sire, “ British Monk;” dam, “ Maggie.” Pony Mares ov Geldings, above 12 and not exceeding 13 Hands.* Wit11aM Fosrerr, Grove Villas, Pontefract, Yorkshire: First Prize, 15/., for “ Wonder,” bay gelding, 7 years-old; breeder unknown. Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Ixiii JosepH CLEMENTSON, Pringle House, Skelton, Penrith, Cumberland: Srconp Prizk, 10/., for “Captain,” bay gelding, 4 years-old; bred by Mr. G. Nelson, Dale Head, Martindale, Westmoreland ; sire, “Stainmore Hero ;” dam, “ Nelly.” Wittam Larne, St. James’s Road, Carlisle: Tumrp Prize, 5/., for “ Prince,” brown gelding, 3 years-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Jack’s Delight ;” dam, “ Fanny.” Anprew Doster, Becton, Lockerbie, N.B.: the Reserve Number to “ Deoy- nock,” brown gelding, 5 years-old; bred by exhibitor; dam, “ Black Bess.” - Pony Mares or Geldings, not exceeding 12 Hands.* Wi.1am Foster, Grove Villas, Pontefract, Yorkshire: First Prize, 10/., for “ Prince,” chestnut gelding, 7 years-old ; breeder unknown. JoHN BLENcowE Cooxson, Meldon Park, Morpeth, Northumberland: SEconp Prize, 51, for “Tommy,” black gelding, 5 years-old; bred by the Marquis of Londonderry, Seaham, Durham. Joun Rosrnson, Spencer Street, Carlisle: the Reserve Number to “ Mop,’ dark chestnut gelding, 10 years-old; breeder unknown. > CATTLE. Shorthorn Bulls above Three Years old. JouN Vickers, Mown Meadows, Crook, Durham: First Prizes, 30/., and the CHAMPION PrizE of 25/.,¢ for “Duke of Howl John” (83,674), white, 6 years, 2 months, 3 weeks, 2 days-old; bred by Messrs. Vickers, Howl John, Stanhope, Durham: sire, “ White Duke” (82,849); dam, “ Belle Cceur-de-Lion,” by “ Knight of Richard Cceur-de-Lion” (20,080) ; g. d., “ Belle Vue,” by ‘“‘ Baron Stapleton” (15,627); gr. g. d., “Red Rosette” by “ Royal Buck” (10,750); gr. g. g. d., by “ Hamlet” (8126). Tomas Wits, Jun., Manor House, Carperby, Bedale, Yorkshire: Szeconp Prizz, 20/., for “ Vice-Admiral” (89,257), roan, 3 years, 10 months, i week, 5 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Admiral Windsor” (82,912) ; dam, “‘ Windsor’s Hyacinth,” by “ Windsor’s Prince” (32,164) ; g. d., “Camelia Windsor,” by “ Windsor Fitz-Windsor” (25,458) ; gr. g. d., “Camelia,” by “Royal Alfred” (18,748); gr. g. g. d., “ May- flower,” by “‘ Knight of the Garter” (13,124). THE EArt or ELLESMERE, Worsley Hall, Manchester: Turrp Prize, 15/., for “ Attractive Lord” (32,968), red and white, 6 years, 1 month, 1 day-old ; bred by Mr. T. Pears, Hackthorne, Lincoln; sire, “ Knight of Killerby ” (28,999); dam, “ Attraction,” by “Robin” (24,968); g. d. “Alice Buckingham,” by ‘‘ Royal Buckingham” (20,718); gr. g. d., “Anna Maria,” by “ Sir Roger” (16,991) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Adelaide,” by “The Squire” (12,217). JoHN Retry, Maulds Meaburn Hall, Shap, Westmoreland: FourtH Prize, 10/., for “Bright Duke ” (37,892), dark roan, 4 years, 1 month, 5 days- old; bred by Messrs. Dudding, Panton House, Wragby, Lincolnshire ; t Given by S. P. Foster, Esq., for the best Shorthorn Bull in the Show. Ixiv Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. sire, “Pluto” Ve 050); dam, “ Bright Duchess,” by ‘Grand Duke 15th” (21, 852); g Ge, Ch, Bright Halo,” by “ Breast Plate » Gig, mart Foun (25 Ok “ Bright neg by “British Prince” (GAIIOR fn m5 ep Gly © Bright Morn, 5 Vee 6 Vanguard ” (10,994). Tuomas Wiis, Jun., Manor House, Carperby, Bedale, Yorkshire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Rear-Admiral” (37,310), roan, 5 years, 3 weeks, 2 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘‘ Admiral Windsor ” (82,912); dam, “ Windsor’s Hyacinth,” by “ Windsor’s Prince” (82,164); g. d., “Camelia Windsor,” by “ Windsor Fitz~Windsor ” (25,458); gr. @. d., ‘ Camelia,” by “ Royal Alfred” (18,748); gr. g. g. d., “ Mayflower,” by “ Knight of the Garter ” (13,124). Shorthorn Bulls above Two and not eaceeding Three Years old. Tuomas Netson, Bewaldeth, Keswick, Cumberland: First Prize, 25/., for “ Prince Imperial” (42,184), roan, 2 years, 3 weeks, 1 day-old; bred by Mr. Thomas Lambert, Elrington Hall, Haydon Bridge, Northumberland ; sire, ‘Prince Regent” (29,676); dam, ‘‘ White Socks,” by ‘“ Beauty’s Butterfly (23,399); ¢.d., “Trip the Daisy,” by “ Ivanhoe” (14,7385) ; gr. g. d., “Splendour,” by “Snowy Down ” (8607); gr. g. g. d. “ Angela,” by “* Prince Albert” (4778). Witi1aM Hanbury, Green Head, Milnthorpe, Westmoreland : Srconp Prize, 15/., for “* Master Harbinger” (40,324), roan, 2 years, 7 months, 1 week, 6 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “‘ Alfred the Great” (82, 121) ; dam, “‘ Harl’s Flora,” by “ Earl of Eglinton” (23,832); g.d., “ ¥lora Cobham,” by “ Marquis of Cobham ” (22,299); gr. g. d., “ Flower of Fitz-Clarence,” by “Alfred Fitz-Clarence” (19,215); gr. g. g. d., “Miss Nicety,” by “ Veteran ” (13,941). Tuomas WiLLIs, Jun., Manor House, Carperby, Bedale: Turrp Prizm, 10/., for “Blag Officer” (89,882), white, 2 years, 7 months, 1 week, 5 days-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Rear-Admiral” (87,310); dam, “ Bashful Bride,” by eke C@ Bs ee a e. d., ‘Blushing Bride,” by “ Fitz- Clarence” (14, ee “ Maiden’s Blush,” by « Gipsy King ” (11,352); gr. g. “ Maid i Masham,” by “ Bernardo” (8885). (OBERT ‘TAYLOR, Grose Tees Crosby Ravensworth, Westmoreland: Tuirp Prize, 10/., for “ Prince Louis,” rich roan, 2 years, 3 months, 3 weeks, 1 day-old; hred by Lord Moreton, Tortworth Court, Gloucestershire ; sire, ‘‘ Oxford’s Prince” (84,998) ; dam, “ Lady Louisa’s Duchess 6th,” by “Sixth Duke of Oneida” (80,997); g. d., “ Lady Louisa’s Duchess 4th,” by “Grand Duke 15th” (21,852); gr. g. d., “Lady Louisa,” by “ Archduke 2nd” (15,588); gr. g. g. d., “Lucy Long,” by “Duke of Glo’ster” (11,382). THE DUKE or RicuMonD AND Gorpon, K. G. , Gordon Castle, Fochabers, N.B. : the SLeserve Nwmber and Highly Commended for “Arthur Benedict” (40,986), roan, 2 years, 4 months, 3 weeks, 5 days-old; bred by Mr. W. Linton, Sheriff Hutton, York; sire, “ Paul ee » (38,854) ; dam, tf Maleta,” by “Sir Arthur Ingram ” (32, 490) ; “Maid of Honour,” by “ Sergeant nae (CASSIE) 8 ae fap ls White ’ Rose,” by “ Magnus Troil” (14, 880); gr. g. g. d, “Miss Henderson,” by “ Magnus Troil” (14,880). Shorthorn Yearling Bulls, above One and not exceeding Two Years old. Tuomas TowneLEy TownELey-Parker, Cuerdon Hall, Preston, Lancashire : First Prizg, 25/., for ‘Oxford Rose,” roan, 1 year, 9 months, 3 weeks, 1 day-old ; bred by Mr. J. J. Sharpe, Broughton, Kettering ; sire, “ Baron Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Ixv Shendish 2nd” (41,061) ; dam, “Julia 15th,” by “ Claro’s Rose” (25,784); e. a, “Julia 11th,” by “Satan” (27,480); gr. g. d., “Julia 9th,” by “Lord Chancellor” (20,160); gr. g. g. d., “Julia 1st,” by “ Henry 5th ” (19,944). Davm Pues, Manoravon, Llandilo, Carmarthenshire: Seconp Prize, 15/., for “ Sir Charles,” red and little white, 1 year, 9 months, 3 weeks, 6 days- old; bred by Mr. Hugh Aylmer, West Dereham Abbey, Stoke Ferry, Norfolk; sire, “Sir Wilfrid” (87,484); dam, ‘‘ Lady Mayoress,” by “ Hieh Sheritf ” (26,392); g. d., ‘Lady Leonora 2nd,” by ‘“ Emperor of the North” (28,888); gr. g. d., “Lady Leonora,’ by “Sir Samuel ” (15,302); gr. g. ¢. d., “Lady Leonora,” by “ Prince Alfred” (13,494). Samuen Porter Foster, Killhow, Mealsgate, Carlisle: THirp Prize, 10/., for “Oxford Duke of Killhow 2nd,” roan, 1 year, 4 months, 3 weeks, 4 days- old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Duke of Ormskirk” (86,526); dam, “Grand Duchess of Oxford 18th,” by “ Baron Oxford 4th” (25,580) ; o. d., “Grand Duchess of Oxford 11th,” by “Grand Duke 10th (21,848) ; er. «. d., “Grand Duchess of Oxford 5th,” by “ Priam” (18,567); gr. g. g. d., “Countess of Oxford,” by “ Earl of Warwick” (11,412). JosepH AND Dantet Drxon Lazonpy, Calthwaite House, Calthwaite, Pen- rith: Fourta Prizz, 5/., for “Royal Windsor,’ dark roan, 1 year, 8 months, 2 days-old ; bred by exhibitors; sire, “ Bright Duke” (37,893) ; dam, “ Lady Windsor,” by “Royal Fantail” (82,383); g. d., “Ormolu Alexandra Windsor,” by “ Prince of Wales” (24,851); gr. g. d., “Ormolu Windsor,” by “Imperial Windsor” (18,086); gr. g. g. d., * Ormolu Gwynne,” by “ Master Hopewell” (14,929)., Joun Ournwatte, Bainesse, Catterick, Yorkshire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Lord Zetland,” roan, 1 year, 2 months, 2 weeks, 5 days-old; bred by the Earl of Zetland, Aske Hall, Richmond, York- shire; sire, “ Royal Windsor” (29,890) ; dam, “ Florella,” by ‘“ George Peabody ” (28,710); ¢. d., “ Floss,” by “‘ Windsor Augustus ” (19,157) ; er. g. d., “ Flirt,” by “ Cobham” (14,287) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Wood Nymph,” by “ Ravensworth” (10,681). Shorthorn Bull Calves, above Six and not exceeding Twelve Months old. TraAsDALE Hitton Hurcurnson, Manor House, Catterick, Yorkshire: First Prize, 20/., for “ Knight of Kars,” red and white, 8 months, 1 week, 5 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ British Knight” (33,220); dam, “Lady Graceless,” by “M. ©.” (81,898); g. d., “Lady Grace,” by “K.C. B.” (26,492); gr. g. d., “Lady Graceful,” by “ Knight Errant” (18,154); gr. g. g. d., “Lady of the Manor,” by “Baron Warlaby ” (7813). Joun Strong, Culgaith, Penrith, Cumberland: Seconp Prize, 15/., for “ Gold- smith,” white, 7 months, 3 weeks, 5 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Harl of Doune” (86,579); dam, “ White Baroness,” by “ Pure Gold” (32,226); g.d., “ Baroness,” by “ Kdwin” (26,171); gr. g. d., “ Kickie,” by “ Young Baronet” (33,088); gr. g. g. d., by “ Rejected” (15,399). Mrs. Entzaneta A. Foruereiit, Uldale Hall, Carlisle: Tatrp Prizr, 102, for “St. Swithin,” roan, 11 months, 2 weeks, 2 days-old; bred by Mr. John Fothergill, Uldale Hall, Carlisle; sire, ‘“‘ Wetherby Winsome” (85,971); dam, “Seraphina 28th,” by “ Highth Duke of York” (28,480) ; g. d., “Seraphina 25th,” by “ Kighth Duke of York” (28,480); gr. ¢. d., “ Seraphina 19th,” by “Imperial Oxford” (18,034); gr. g. g. d., “ Sera- phina 11th,” by “May Duke” (13,320). Ixvi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Bengamin St. JoHN Ackers, Prinknash Park, Painswick, Gloucestershire : Fourtu Prizx, 51. for ‘Lord George Hamilton,” roan, 10 months, 1 week, 5 days-old; bred by exhibitor 5 sire, “ Lord Prinknash 2nd ” (88,653); dam, “Princess George,” by “County Member” o 268); g. d.,\ “ Georgie’s Queen,” by “ Brigade Majer (21,312); g oe dy « Georgie,” by “ Prince George” (13, S10);, gre oidsae Hopeful” by * Hopewell ” (10,382). Wr1ram Hanptry, Green Head, Milnthorpe, Westmoreland: the Reserve Number and Commended for “ Crown Prince,” white, 9 months, 5 days- old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Alfred the Great” (36,121) ; dam, “‘Nicety,” by “Earl of Derwent” (28,503); g. d., “Earl’s Flora,” by “ Farl of Eglinton” (23,832) ; gr. g. d,, “ Flora Cobham, ” by Marquis of Cebham ” (22,299); gr. g. ¢. d., Blower of Fitzclarence,” by “ Alfred Fitz-Clarence ” (19,215). Shorthorn Cows, in-milk or in-calf, above Three Years old. TEASDALE Hitron Hurcuiyson, Manor House, Catterick, Yorkshire: First Prizx, 20/., for “ Grateful,” roan, 7 years, 6 months, 5 days-old, in-milk, calved Feb. Ist, 1880, and in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘“‘M. C.” (81,898) ; dam, “ Gerty 3rd,” by “ Knight of the Shire” (26,552); g. d., “ Gerty,” by “ Vain Hope” (23,102); gr. g. d., “ Garland,” by “Grand Master” (24,078) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Bridget,” by “ Highthorn” (13,028). Bengamiy St. Jonn Ackers, Prinknash Park, Painswick, Gloucestershire: Seconp Prize, 15/., for “Princess Georgie,” roan, 5 years, 11 months- old, in-milk, calved August 19th, 1879 ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, ‘‘ County Member” (28,268); dam, “ Georgie’s Queen,” by “Brigade Major” (21,312); g. d., “Georgie,” by “ Prince George” (18, 510); gr. g. d., “ Hopeful,” by “ Hopewell” (10,332); gr. g. g. d, «¢ Warrior ” (12,287). Tue Eart or TANKERVILLE, Chillingham Castle, AImwick, Northumberland : Tuirp Prize, 10/, for ‘‘ Gaiety 3rd,” roan, 5 years, 8 days-old, in-milk, calved Noy. 18th, 1879, and in-calf; bred by Mr. George Angus, of Broomley, Stocksfield-on-Tyne; sire, ‘‘Ben Brace” (80,524); dam, “Gaiety,” by “Merry Monarch” (22,349); g. d., “Rachel,” by ‘“ Mo- narch’ (18,412); gr. g.d., “ Young Matchless,” by ‘“‘ Duke of Tyne” (12,773); gr. g. g. d., “ Matchless,” by ‘“‘ Young Hector” (7074). Witttam Laneuorn, East Mill-Hills, Haydon Bridge, Northumberland : Fourtu Prize, 5/., for “ Diadem 2nd,” roan, 4 years, 5 months, 2 weeks, 2 days-old, in-milk, calved May 10th, 1879, and in-calf; bred by Mrs. Eshton, Chesterwood Grange, Haydon Bridge; sire, “‘ Lucky Lad ” (84,714) ; dam, “ Diadem Ist,” by “‘ Wild Boy ” (25,447) ; g. d., “ Dinah 4th,” by “ Pizarro” (20,497) ; gr. g. d., “Dinah 3rd,” by “‘ Master Annan- dale” (14,916) ; gr. g. g. d., “Dinah 2nd,” by “ Earl” (13,850). Tue Duke or NorruyumBertANnd, Alnwick Castle, Northumberland : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Lady Jane,” roan, 3 years, 9 months, 2 weeks-oid, in-milk, calved April 6th, 1880; bred by exhi- bitor; sire, ‘ Fitz-Roland ” (83,936); dam, “Janet,” by “ Mayor of Windsor ” (31,897); g. d., “ Young Dairymaid, ” by “ Foxton ” (23,979) ; gr. g. d., “ Dairymaid,” by cs Melsonby” (18,380); gr.g. g. d., “ Young Jessy,” by “ George 8rd” (16,147). Shorthorn Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding Three Years old. TraspaLe H, Hurcurnson, Manor House, Catterick, Yorkshire: First Prize, Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Ixvil 20/., for “ Gainful” roan, 2 years, 8 months, 1 week, 2 days-old, in-calf ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “King Alfonso ” (36,832); dam, “ Grateful,” by “M. C.” (81,898); g. d., “Gerty 3rd,” by “Knight of the Shire” (26,552); gr. g. d., “ Gerty,” by ‘“‘ Vain Hope” (23,102); gr. g.g.d., “Garland,” by “ Grand Master ” (24,078). Wititram Lanauorn, East Mill-Hills, Haydon Bridge, Northumberland : Sreconp Prizn, 15/., for “Lady Anne,” roan, 2 years, 6 months, 2 weeks, 2 days-old, in-calf; bred by Mrs. Eshton, Chesterwood Grange, Haydon Bridge; sire, “ Prince Regent” (29,676); dam, “ Diadem Ist,” by “ Wild Boy” (25,447); g.d. “Dinah 4th,” by “Pizarro” (20,497); er. g. d., “Dinah 38rd,” by “ Master Annandale” (14,916); gr. g.g. d., “Dinah 2nd,” by “ Earl” (13,850). Davin Puau, Manoravon, Llandilo, Carmarthenshire: Tatrp Prize, 10/., for “Tulip 4th,” roan, 2 years, 4 months, 5 days-old, in-calf; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Falmouth” (38,268); dam, “ Tulip,” by “ Prince of the Empire” (20,578); g. d., “Topsy,” by “ Briton” (17,463); gr. g. d., “Tabby,” by “ Puritan” (20,614); gr. g. g. d., “ Topsy 2nd,” by “ General” (16,100). JAMES Wuyter, Aldborough Hall, Darlington: Fourrn Prize, 5/., for “Gaiety 6th,” roan, 2 years, 1 month, 1 week-old, in-calf; bred by the executors of Mr. G. Angus Broomley, Stocksfield-on-Tyne ; sire, “‘ Ben Brace” (30,524); dam, “Gaiety,” by “Merry Monarch” (22,349); g.d., “ Rachel,” by “ Monarch” (18,412); gr. g. d., “‘ Young Matchless,” by “Duke of Tyne” (12,773); gr. g. g. d., “ Matchless,” by “ Young Hector” (7074). Evan Battie, Dochfour, Inverness, N.B.: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “Sweet Pea,” red and white, 2 years, 5 months, 2 weeks, 4 days-old, in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘“‘ Oliver Cromwell ;” dam, “Pretty Gold,” by “Flower of the Forest ” (33,948) ; g. d., “ Marigold 13th,” by “Gold Digger” (24,044); gr. g. d., “ Marigold 6th,” by “Young Pacha” (84,057); gr. g. g. d., “Marigold 2nd,” by “Lord of Lorn ” (18,258). Shorthorn Yearling Heifers, above One and not exceeding Two Years old. Lorp FirzHarpiner, Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire: First Prizr, 20/., for “‘ Lady Wild Eyes 15th,” red and white, 1 year, 10 months, 1 week-old, in-calf ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Duke of Connaught” (383,604); dam, “Lady Wild Eyes 6th,” by “‘ Second Duke of Tregunter ” (26,022); g. d., “Lady Wild Eyes 3rd,” by “Cherry Grand Duke” (23,554); gr. g. d., “Lady Wild Hyes 2nd,” by “‘ Touchstone” (20,986); gr. g. g. d., “ Lady Wild Eyes,” by ‘“‘ Weathercock ” (9815): and SrconpD Prizx, 15/., for “Dowager 2nd,” roan, 1 year, 10 months, 4 days-old, in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Duke of Connaught” (83,604); dam, ‘ Bora,” by “Second Duke of Airdrie” (19,600); g. d., “Darling,” by “ Fourth Duke of Oxford” (11,387); gr. g. d., “Darlington 4th,” by “Sir Hugh” (12,082); gr. g. g. d., “ Darlington 2nd,” by “ Percy ” (9472). JONATHAN PEEL, Knowlmere Manor, Clitheroe, Yorkshire: Tump Prizx, 107, for ‘Casquette,” roan, 1 year, 9 months, 4 weeks, 1 day-old; bred by Mr. W. 8S. Woodroffe, Beaumont Grange, Lancaster; sire, “ Knight of Knowlmere 2nd” (31,542); dam, ‘‘Cosette 8th,” by “Baron Stackhouse” (80,488); g. d., “Cosette 4th,” by “The Premier” (27,640); gr. g. d., “Cosette 2nd,” by “Columbus 2nd” (17,588) ; gr. g. g. d., “Cosette,” by “ Coriolanus ” (12,638). Ixvili Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Joun Enwett, Timberley, Castle Bromwich, Warwickshire: Fourtn Prize, 5l., for “ Empress Eugenie,” roan, 1 year, 1 month, 3 weeks, 2 days-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Bur ghley ‘Telemachus ” (39,5 524); dam, ‘ Em- press 2nd,” by “ Waterloo Prince” (30,279) ; g.d., “ Oxford Duchess,” by “Don Windsor 2nd” (21.550); gr.g.d., “ Empress,” by “ Oxford Duke” (15,036); gr. g. g. d., “ Emma 4th,” by “ Emperor” (6978). CLEMENT ee Newcastle-on-Tyne: the Reserve Number and [Highly Commended for “ Alice Smeaton,” roan, 1 year, 11 months, 1 week, 5 days-old; bred by Mr. Robert Bruce, Great Smeaton, Northallerton, Yorkshire; sire, “ Hyperion” (84,196); dam, “ Alice Lee,” by ‘“ Baron Killerby ” (27,949) ; g. d., “ Lady "Alc 2,” by “Lord Charles ” pies gr. g. d. “Lavinia Alice, ” by “Duke of Bedford” (23,722) ; gr. g. 2. d., « Alice Lisle,” by “ Sionet Seal ” (18,824). Shorthorn Heifer Calves, above Six and under Twelve Months old. Bengamin Sr. Jonn Ackers, Prinknash Park, Painswick: Firs Prize, 20/., for “ Lady Georgina Newcomb,” roan, 11 months, 2 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘ Lord Prinknash 2nd” (88, Goa) be “ Lady Georgina Turbitt, ”» by “County Member” (28,268); g. “ Patience Heatherstone,” by “British Crown” (21,322); gr. g. d., "Virtoo by “ Valasco” (15,443) ; gr. g. g.d., “ Lady Georgina,” by Knight Errant” (18,154), The Rey. Ropert Bruck Kennarp, Marnhull, Blandford, Dorset: Sreconp Prize, 15/., for “ Blossom 5th,” roan, 11 months-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Lord Fitzclarence 24th” (40,1638); dam, “ Blossom 8rd,” by “Grand Duke of Oxford” (28,763); g. d., “ Blossom,” by “ Earl of Darlington” (26,636); gr. g. d., “ Belinda,” by “Sir Roger” (16,991) ; er. g. g. d., “ Berrington Lass,” by “Sir Walter 2nd” (10,834). JosEPH STRATTON, Alton Priors, Marlborough, Wilts,: Tutrp Prize, 10/., for “ Kthelberta,” roan, 7 months-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Proteus ” (40,552) ; dam, “ Minerva,” by “ Eighth Duke of York” (23,808); g. d., “ Huropa,” by “ Windsor Castle” (21,118); gr. g. d., “ Lilla,” by “Hermit” (14,697); gr. g. g. d., “ Hurydice 2nd,” by ‘Lord of the Manor (14,836). 5 Puarmie Ascrort, Rufford, Ormskirk, Lancashire: Fourrn Prizx, 5/7, for “ Oxford Maria 2nd,” roan, 8 months, 1 day-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Barrington King % ae 3834); dam, “Oxford Maria,” by “‘ Duke of Oxford ” (31,004) ; ie Maria 7th,” by “Stockbum Lad” (30,024) ; gr. g. d., Maria 3rd, , is “ Oxford ” (20, 449); gr. g. g. d., “ Young Maria,” by “ Valentine ” (17,161). Tur DuKE oF RicuMonD AND Gorpon, K.G., Gordon Castle, Fochabers, N.B., the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Lady Violet,” roan, 11 months, 8 weeks, 5 days-old; bred by exhibitor 5 sire, ‘ Royal Hope” (82,392); dam, “ Lustre 19th,” by “ Montrose” (34,873); g. d es Oxford Lustre,” by “ Fifteenth Duke of Oxford” Gs ae er. g. d., “Tustre 5th,” by “Prince Arthur” (16,723); gr. g. g a Lustre 3rd,” by “ Magnum Bonum ” (13,277). Hereford Bulls above Three Years old. Aaron Roaers, The Rodd, Kineton, Herefordshire: First Prize, 25/., for “ Grateful,” 7 years, 1 week, 1 day-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Sir Thomas” (2228); dam, “Lady Lizzie,” by “Jupiter” (8191); ¢. d., Award of Live-Stoch Prizes at Carlisle. Ixix “Lady Court Lass,” by “ David” (1204); gr. g. d., “Lady Court,” by “Mameluke” (1807). Witi1am Taytor, Showle Court, Ledbury, Herefordshire: Seconp Prize, 15/., for “Thoughtful” (5063), 5 years, 9 months, 6 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Mercury ” (8967) ; dam, ‘“ Young Beauty,” by “Sir Francis” (3438); g. d., “Beauty,” by “ Holmer” (2048); gr. g. d., “ Hazel,” by “ Tomboy ” (1097). FREDERICK Piatt, Barnby Manor, Newark, Notts, the Reserve Number to * Hartington” (5358), 3 years, 11 months, 2 weeks, 5 days-old; bred by Mr. B. Rogers, The Grove, Pembridge, Herefordshire ; sire, “The Grove 8rd” (5051); dam, “ Gay,” by “Longhorn” (8216); ¢. d., “ Gay,” by “Matchless” (2110); gr. g. d. “ Gay,” by “ Trusty ” (2847). Tereford Bulls, above Two and not exceeding Three Years old. Joun Huncerrorp ArkwricHt, Hampton Court, Leominster, Herefordshire : First Prize, 25/., for “‘Conjuror,” 2 years, 10 months, 3 weeks, 5 days- old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Concord” (4458) ; dam, ‘‘ Ivington Lass a ie “Bayleaf” (8675); g. d., “ Ivington Lass,” by “ Dan O’Connell ” 1952). Epwarp Lister, Cefn Ila, Usk, Monmouthshire: Srconp Prize, 15/., for “Taurus,” 2 years, 6 months, 2 weeks, 2 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ May Duke (5463) ;” dam, “ Vesta,” by “ Chanter” (38738); g.d., “Teda,” by ‘ Chorister”, (8021); gr. g. d., “ Young Venus,” by ‘ Earl Derby 2nd ” (2510). Hereford Yearling Bulls, above One and not exceeding Two Years old. Saran Epwarps, Wintercott, Leominster, Herefordshire, First Prizn, 25/., for “President,” 1 year, 11 months, 3 weeks, 1 day-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “‘ Royalist (4921); dam, “‘ Plum 8rd,” by “ Commander” (4452); g. d., “Plum,” by ‘“ Comet” (2469); gr. g. d., “Gem,” by “ Adforton” (1839): and Srconp Prizx, 15/., for “ Landlord,” 1 year, 10 months, 3 weeks, 6 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Royalist” (4921); dam, “ Laura,” by “ Winter de Cote” (4253) ; ¢. d., ‘‘ Lovely 2nd,” by ‘‘ Tomboy ” (8465); gr. g. d., “ Lady Grove,” by “ Adforton ” (1889). Frepertck Piatt, Barnby Manor, Newark, Notts: Txrrp Prizes, 5/., for “Horace 4th,” 1 year, 11 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, ** Horace ” (8877); dam, ‘‘ Nutty,” by “ Cholstrey ” (1918); g. d. “Nutty,” by “Lord Clyde” (2084); gr. ¢. d., “Nutty,” by “Lord Clyde ” (2084). Wit1iam Taytor, Showle Court, Ledbury, Herefordshire : the Reserve Number to “ Trafalgar,” 1 year, 9 months, 2 weeks, 6 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, Thoughtful” (5063); dam, “Monkton Beauty 8rd,’’ by “ Mer- cury ” (3967); g. d., “ Young Beauty,” by ‘‘ Sir Francis ” (8488) ; gr. g. d., “Beauty,” by “ Holmer (2043), Hereford Bull Calves, above Sia and not exceeding Twelve Months old. Hersert RicharpD Haut, Ashton House, Leominster, Herefordshire: Frrst Prize, 15/., for “ Dale Tredegar,” 10 months, 2 weeks, 3 days old; bred by Mr. H. J. Bailey Rosedale, Tenbury ; sire, “Tredegar” (5077); dam, “‘ Rosa Lee 2nd,” by “ King of the Dale” (8891); g. d., “Rosa VOL. XVI.—S.S. bes Award of Live-Stoch Prizes at Carlisle. Lee,” by “Sir Thomas ” (2228); gr. g. d., ‘“ Rose,” by “ North Star’ (2188). Jomy Hunerrrorp Arkwricut, Hampton Court, Leominster: Srconp Prizn, 10/., for “ Broadward,” 11 months, 1 week, 3 days-old; bred by ex- hibitor; sire, “Ivington Boy” (4662); dam, “Annie,” by “Dan O'Connell” (1952); g. d., “Amaranth 3rd,’ by “ Philip” (8314); gr. g. d., “ Amaranth,” by “ Luck’s All” (1643). THomAS JAMES CARWARDINE, Stockton Bury, Leominster: THrrp Prize, 5/., for “ Kimbolton,” 11 months, 2 weeks, 5 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Rodney” (4907); dam, ‘‘ Damsel,” by “Longhorns” (4711): g. d., “‘ Hthel,” by “ De Cote” (8060); gr. g. d., by “Sir John 2nd” (8455): and the Reserve Number to “Lord Kilburn,” 11 months, 3 weeks, 6 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Rodney” (4907): dam, ‘“ Cherry,” by “ De Cote” (8060); g. d., “Lilac,” by “Heart of Oak ” (2085), gr. g. d. by “ Counsellor” (1939). Hereford Cows, in-milk or in-calf, above Three Years old. Tuomas Myppueron, Beckjay, Aston-on-Clun, Salop: First Prize, 20/., for “ Nanette,” 4 years, 3 months, 2 weeks, 3 days-old; in-milk; calved January 38rd, 1880; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Baron 4th” (4326); dam, ‘“ Miss Nobble’em,” by “Nobleman” (2652): g. d. by “Jerry ” (976); gr. g. d. by “ Beefy Ben” (1869). SaraH Epwarps, Wintercott, Leominster, Herefordshire: Srconp Prizs, 15/., for “ Perfection,” 5 years, 6 days-old; in-milk; calved September 18th, 1879; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Commander” (4452); dam, “ Princess 2nd,” by “Leominster 3rd” (8211); g. d., “ Princess,” by “Tomboy” (8546); gr. g. d., “ Pinkey 2nd,” by “ Adforton” (1839). Witiram Tayvior, Showle Court, Ledbury, Herefordshire: the eserve Number to ‘‘ Modesty,” 4 years, 10 months, 2 weeks, 3 days-old; calved September 15th, 1879, and in-calf; bred by exhibitor ; sire, ‘‘ Tredegar” (5077); dam, “ Lovely,” by “Tenant Farmer” (2806); g.d., “ Browny,” by “Twin” (2284). Hereford Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding Three Years old. Tuomas Fenn, Stonebrook House, Ludlow, Herefordshire: First Prize, 151., for “ Downton Rose,” 2 years, 11 months, 5 days-old; in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Blakemere ” (5227); dam, “ Rose of the Teme,” by “Silver Chief” (495); g. d., “Queen of the 'l'eme,” by “Severus 2nd” (2749); gr. g. d., “ Victoria,” by “ Wilson” (4250). Jouxn Huneerrorp Arkwright, Hampton Court, Leominster, Herefordshire : Seconn Prize, 10/., for “Gaylass 4th,” 2 years, 10 months, 3 weeks, 6 days-old; in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Ivington Boy” (4662); . dam, “Gaylass 2nd,” by “Sir Hungerford” (3447); g. d., “Gaylass,” by “ Riff Raff” (1052); gr. g. d., “ Gaily,” by “ Young Quicksilver.” Freperick Piarr, Barnby Manor, Newark, Notts: the Reserve Number to “Primrose 4th,” 2 years, 11 months-old; in-calf; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Horace (3877);” dam, ‘ Primrose,” by “ Wolverhampton Boy ” (4198); g. d. “ Primrose,” by “Triumph ” (2836); gr. g. d. “ Stately,” by ‘Lelltale (1757). Hereford Heifers, above One and not exceeding Three Years old. Freperrcx Puart, Barnby Manor, Newark, Notts: First Prize, 15/., for Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Ixxi “Tady 3rd,” 1 year, 9 months, 3 weeks, 4 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Horace” (8877); dam, “Lady,” by “Orleton (8293); g. d., “Lady,” by Cholstrey” (1918); gr. g.d., “Lady,” by “ Lord Clyde” (2084). JoHN Huneerrorp ARKWRIGHT, Hampton Court, Leominster: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Antoinette,” 1 year, 11 months, 2 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Ivington Boy” (4662); dam, “Miss Abigail 2nd,” by “Sir Oliver 2nd” (1783) ; g. d., “ Miss Abigail.” Hereford Heifer Calves above Six and under Twelve Months old. JonN Huneerrorp ArkwricHTt, Hampton Court, Leominster: First Prize, 15/., for “ Pearl 3rd,” 11 months, 1 week, 4 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Ivington Boy ” (4662); dam, “ Pearl 2nd,” by “ Sir Hungerford” (8447); g, d. “Pearl,” by “Sir Oliver 2nd” (1733); gr. g. d., “ Welcome,” by “ Mortimer” (1328). THoMAS JAMES CARWARDINE, Stockton Bury, Leominster: Szeconp Prize, 10/., for “ Juliet,” 11 months, 3 weeks, 3 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Anxiety,” (5188); dam, “ Rosaline,” by “‘ De Cote” (8060); g. d. by “ Heart of Oak” (2035). Thomas Fenn, Stonebrook House, Ludlow: Turrp Prize, 5/., for “* Countess. of the Teme 2nd,” 10 months, 3 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Romulus” (5542); dam, “ Maid of the Teme,” by “Silver Chief,” (4952); ¢. d., “ Lady of the Teme,” by “Severus 2nd” (2747); gr. g. d., “ Victoria,” by ‘‘ Wilson ” (4250). Witr1am Taytor, Showle Court, Ledbury, Herefordshire: the Reserve Number to 11 months, 6 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘“ Horace’” (8877); dam, “ Monkton Beauty 3rd,” by “Sir Francis” (8438); g. d.. “Young Beauty,” by “Sir Francis” (8488); gr. g. d., “Beauty,” by “ Holmer” (2043). Devon Bulls, above Three Years old. Viscount Fatmours, Tregothnan, Probus, Cornwall: First Prize, 25/., for- “Master Molesworth,” 3 years, 11 months, 2 weeks, 3 days-old; bred bv exhibitor; sire, “Master Flitton” (1160); dam, “Christmas Rose” (3280), by “Sunflower” (937); g. d., “Rosa Bonheur” (3009), by “Corrector ” (809); gr. g. d., “ Picture 4th ” (2224), by Davy’s “ Napo- leon 8rd” (464). Water Farruine, Stowey Court, Bridgwater: Szconp Prizx, 15/., for “Lord Newsham” (1391), 3 years, 7 months, 3 weeks, 6 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, ‘“‘ Master James (1404) ;” dam, “ Famous” (4448), by “Son of Lord Quantock” (874); g. d., “Famous” (1965), by “ Duke of Chester ” (404); gr. g. d., “Famous” (1319), by “Sultan ” (318). Devon Bulls, above Two and not exceeding Three Years old. Viscount Fatmourn, Tregothnan, Probus, Cornwall: First Prizz, 257., for “Sir Michael,” 2 years, 10 months, 2 weeks-old, bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Sirloin” (1443); dam, “Water Lily” (5050), by “Jonquil” (1181); g. d., “ Watercress” (4006), by “Sunflower” (937); gr. g. d., * Cheesewring” (2572), by “ Protector” (711). Grorce Turner, Great Bowley, Tiverton, Devon: Srconp Prizg, 15/., for “ Aqualate,” 2 years, 11 months-old; bred by Sir Thomas Boughey, Bart., Aqualate, Newport, Salop. : je Ixxil Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Wixtram Rotues Fryer, Lytchett Minster, Poole, Dorset : the Reserve Number to “ Shamrock,” 2 years, 4 weeks-old; bred by Mr. R.’B. Warren, Child Oakeford, Blandford ; sire, “ Lord Salisbury” (1393); dam, ‘‘ Lovejoy” (2657), by “Viscount Portman” (1289), g. d., “ Rusty” (8033), by “ Prince of Wales” (910) ; gr. g. d., “ Ruth” (8034), by “ Lord Derby” (667). Devon Yearling Bulls, above Two and not exceeding Three Years old. Witi1aAm Rories Fryer, Lytchett Minster, Poole: First Prize, 25/., for “Magnolia,” 1 year, 11 months, 1 day-old, bred by exhibitor; sire, “Young Palmerston” (1251); dam, ‘‘ Queen Anne” (4887), by “ Duke of Plymouth” (1080); g. d., Queen” (4886): and Seconp Prize, 15/., for “Sweet William,” 1 year, 10 months, 1 week-old; bred by Viscount Portman, Bryanston ; sire, “ Young Palmerston ” (1251) ; dam, “ Famous” (4450), by “Duke of Plymouth” (1080); g. d., “ Famous ;” gr. g. d., “Fruitful” (8524), by “ Exeter ” (1098). Devon Bull Calves, above Six and not exceeding Twelve Months old. Mrs. Marra Lanepon, Flitton Barton, North Molton, Devon: Frrst Prize, 15/., for “‘ Duke of Flitton 15th,” 8 months, 1 week, 2 days-old, bred by exhibitor ; sire, ‘Lord Bath;” dam, “ Actress 7th” (8148), by ‘‘ Duke of Flitton 6th” (1070) ; g. d. “ Actress 38rd” (2749), by “ Duke of Flitton 8rd” (826); gr. g. d., “ Actress” (1749), by “ Palmerston ” (476). WatrTEeR Fartuinc, Stowey Court, Bridgwater, Somerset: SzconD Prize, 10/., for ‘‘ Prettyface’s Duke,” 10 months, 1 week, 3 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, ‘‘ Master Flitton ” (1405); dam, “ Prettyface” (3803), by “ Lovely Duke ” (1152); g. d., “ Prettyface ” (8804), by “Sir George” (925); gr. g. d., “ Young Pink” (2929), by ‘ Viscount ” (746). Witi1AM Routes Fryer, Lytchett Minster, Poole, Dorset: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Carlisle,” 11 months, 3 wecks, 3 days-old; bred by Viscount Portman, Bryanston, Blandford; sire, “The Count ” (1460); dam, “ Sugar Candy.” Devon Cows, in-milk or in-calf, above Three Years old. Mrs. Maria Lanepon, Flitton Barton, North Molton: First Prize, 201., for “ Temptress 7th ” (5001), 4 years, 1 month, 2 weeks, 2 days-old; in-milk ; calved April 23rd, 1880; bred by exhibitor ; sire, ‘“‘ Duke of Flitton 10th ” (1074); dam, “‘lemptress 5th” (8963), by “ Duke of Flitton 5th” -(1069); ¢. d., “Temptress 2nd” (8070), by “Duke of Cornwall” (820), gr. g. d., “ Gold Medal Temptress” (1672), by “‘ Napoleon 3rd” (464). Water Fartuine, Stowey Court, Bridgwater: Szconp Prizz, 10/., for “ Prettyface 2nd ” (4858), 3 years, 9 months, 2 days-old; in-milk; calved August 6th, 1879, and in-calf ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Master Willie” (1168), dam, ‘‘ Prettyface” (3803), by ‘‘ Lovely’s Duke ” (1162); ¢. d., “ Prettyface ” (8804), by “‘ Sir George” (925); er. g. d., “ Young Vink” (2929), by “ Viscount ” (746). Wit11am Routies Fryer, Lytchett Minster, Poole: the Reserve Number and TTighly Commended for “ Azalea” (4055), 3 years, 1 month-old ; in-milk ; calved April Ist, 1880; bred by Viscount Portman, Bryanston, Bland- ford ; sire, “The Earl” (1464) ; dam, ‘‘ Bluebell” (4114), by “‘ Emperor ” (1096); g. d., “ Broad” (4152). Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Ixxili Devon Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, above Two and not exceeding Three Years old. Watrer Farruine, Stowey Court, Bridgwater, Somerset: First Prize, 15/., for “ Famous 2nd,” 2 years, 8 months, 3 weeks, 3 days-old; in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Master Willie” (1163); dam, “ Famous” (4448), by “Son of Lord Quntock” (784); g. d., “ Famous” (1965), by “ Duke of Chester (404); er. g. d. “ Famous” (1891), by “ Sultan” (318). WitrAm Rotirs Fryer, Lytchett Minster, Poole: Suconp Prizx, 10/., for “ Kalmia,” 2 years, 11 months, 8 weeks, 1 day-old ; in-milk and in-calf ; bred by Viscount Portman, Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset; sire, “The Earl” (1464); dam, “Quail” (4880), by “Emperor” (1096); g.d., “ Queen” (4886): and the Reserve Number to ‘* Bouquet,” 2 years, 10 months, 8 days-old, in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, “The Earl ” (1464) ; dam, “ Balsam” (4056), by “‘ Emperor” (1096) ; g. d., * Blanche ” (3215), by “ Prince Albert” (907); gr. g. d., “ Beauty.” Devon Yearling Heifers, above One and not exceeding Two Years Old. Water Farruine, Stowey Court, Bridgwater: First Prizz, 15/., for “Famous 3rd,” 1 year, 7 months, 4 weeks, 1 day-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Royal Aston” (1487); dam, “ Famous” (4448), by “Son of Lord Quantock ” (874) ; g.d., “ Famous” (1965), by “ Duke of Chester ” (404) ; gr. g. d., Famous ” (1819), by “Sultan ” (3818). Witi1am Routies Fryer, Lytchett Minster: Ssconp Prizy, 10/., for “ Fuchsia,” 1 year, 4 months, 1 week-old; bred by Viscount Portman, Bryanston, Blandford; sire, “ Flower’s Duke” (1341); dam, “ Young Fancy,” by “ Triumph 8rd” (1475); g.d., “Fancy :” and the Reserve Number to “ Hyacinth,” 1 year, 7 months, 2 weeks, 1 day-old, bred by exhibitor; sire, “Sultan” (1455); dam, “Balsam” (4056), by “Em- peror ” (1096); g.d., “Blanche” (3215), by “Prince Albert” (907) ; gr. g. d., “ Beauty.” Devon Heifer Calves, above Six and under Twelve Months old. Witttam Roxies Fryer, of Lytchett Minster: First Prize, 15/., for his “Daphne,” 9 months, 3 weeks, 5 days-old; bred by the late Mr, J. A. Smith, Bradford Peverell, Dorchester; sire, “Jonquil” (1365); dam, “ Fancy” (44804), by “Major” (1155); g. d., “ Fancy 2nd” (8474), by “Duke of York” (1085); gr. g.d., “Fancy” (2693), by “Earl of Exeter.” Watrter Farraine, Stowey Court, Bridgwater: Szconp Prizg, 10/., for his “Lady Currypool 2nd,” 10 months, 2 weeks, 4 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Lord Newsham (1391) ; dam, “Lady Currypool,” by “ Profit’s Duke” (1194). ALFRED CHARLES SKINNER, Pound Farm, Bishop’s Lydeard, Taunton, Somerset: the Reserve Nwmber to his 10 months, 4 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Duke of Farrington (1323) ; dam, “ Duchess 3rd ” (4418), by ‘Sir Wroth” (1451); g. d., Boucher’s “ Duchess ” (4123). Sussex Bulls, above Three Years old. Epwarp and ALFRED StTanrorpD, Eatons, Ashurst, Steyning, Sussex: First Prize, 20/., for “ Paris” (857), red, 3 years, 11 months, 4 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitors ; sire, “ Bedford” (316); dam, “ Rosedew 1st ” (2129), by Ixxiv Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. “ Dorchester (325) ; g. d., “ Rosedew ” (2128), by “ Young Westminster (159.) Joun and Atrrep Heasman, Angmering, Worthing, Sussex: Suconp Prize, 10/., for “ Hereford” (263), red, 4 years, 9 months, 1 day-old; bred by exhibitors ; sire, “ Leopold” (228); dam, “Sandgate ” (1661). Sussex Bulls, above Two and not exceeding Three Years old. JAMES Stewart Hopeson, Lythe Hill, Haslemere, Surrey: First Prize, 20/., for “Oxford” (3804), red, 2 years, 9 months, 2 weeks, 4 days-old; bred by Mr. A. Agate, Broomhall, Horsham; sire, “Berry” (259); dam, “Honesty 2nd” (1618), by “ Alfred 2nd” (177); g.d., “Honesty ” (1333), by “Grand Duke” (183); gr. g. d., “Honesty” (443), by “ Unicorn ” (15). Epwarp and ALFRED STANForD, Eatons, Ashurst, Steyning: Sxeconp Prize, 10/., for “Southampton,” red, 2 years, 10 months, 2 weeks, 4 days-old ; bred by exhibitors; sire, “ Bedford” (3816); dam, “ Rosedew 1st” (2129), by “ Dorchester” (325); g. d. “ Rosedew” (2128), by “ Young Westminster ” (159). Aurrep AGAtTr, Broomhall, Horsham, Sussex: the Reserve Number to “Berry Ist” (292), red, 2 years, 9 months-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Berry” (259); dam, “ Actress 4th” (1676), by “‘ Grand Duke” (183), Sussex Yearling Bulls, above One and not exceeding Two Years old. Joun and AtrreD Heasman, Angmering, Worthing: First Prizx, 15/., for “ Royal Kilburn,” red, 1 year, 10 months, 38 weeks, 2 days-old; bred by exhibitors; sire, “‘ Hereford” (263); dam, “ Cherry” (1244), by “ Wil- liam” (139) ; g. d., “ Leicester ” (1120). Atrrep AgaAtsr, Broomhall, Horsham: Srconp Prizx, 10/., for “‘ Frankenstein 2nd” (328), red, 1 year, 11 months-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Berry” (259); dam, “ Young Gentle” (17387), by ‘“ Frankenstein” (181). Buake Duke, Lyminster, Arundel, Sussex: the Reserve Number to “ Pro- tector,” red, 1 year,6 months, 1 week, 5 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire,“ His Grace ;’ dam, “ Beauty,” by ‘‘ Bacchus ;” g. d., “ Damsel the Younger,” by “ Young Barton.” 5 Sussex Cows, in-milk or in-calf, above Three Years old. Epwarp and Atrrep SrTanrorD, Hatons, Ashurst, Steyning: Firsvr Prize, 20/., for “ Hardy,” (2039), red, 10 years, 2 weeks, 4 days-old; in-milk, calved November 10th, 1879; bred by exhibitors; sire, “ Young Westminster” (159); dam, “ Mayflower” (1190). -JAMES Stewart Hopason, Lythe Hill, Haslemere, Surrey; Szconp Prize, 101., for “ Young Daisy” (2178); red, 5 years-old; calved Sept. 29th, 1879 and in-calf; bred by Mr. John Turvill, Hartley Park Farm, Alton, Hants; sire, “ ‘fom; dam, “ Daisy.” Sussex Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, above Two and not exceeding Three Years old. Joun and AtrrepD Heasman, Angmering, Worthing: First Prize, 15/., for “ Peace,” red, 2 years, 9 months, 2 weeks, 6 days-old ; in-calf; bred by Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Ixxv exhibitors ; sire, “ Croydon” (245); dam, ‘“ Snowdrop” (1727), by “ Heerton ;” g. d.,. “ Leicester” (1120), by “ Prince Arthur” (129) ; gr. g. d., “Plymouth” (1024), by “The Duke” (97). Buaxe Duxe, Lyminster, Arundel: Srconp Prizx, 10/., for “Lofty the Younger,” red, 2 years, 3 months, 4 days-old, in-calf; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Hereford ;” dam, “ Young Lofty,” by “Challenger the Younger ;” g. d., “ Lofty by Selmeston.” Aurrep Agate, Broomhall, Horsham: the Reserve Number and LHighly Commended for “ Lucy érd,” red, 2 years, 2 weeks-old; in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Berry” (259); dam, “ Lucy 2nd” by “ Alfred 2nd” (177). Sussex Yearling Heifers, above One and not exceeding Two Years old. Joun ‘and Atrrep Herasman, Angmering, Worthing: First Prizz, 15/., for their red, 1 year 11 months; bred by exhibitors; sire, “ Hereford” (263); dam, “Snowdrop” (1727) ; g.d., “ Leicester” (1120), by “ Prince Arthur” (129). Buake Duxe, Lyminster, Arundel: Szconp Prizz, 10/., for his “ Royal Princess,” red, 1 year, 10 months, 1 day-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Hereford ;” dam, “ Duchess,” by “Sir Roger;” g. d., “ Lofty,” by “ Selmeston.” Atrrep Agatr, Broomhall, Horsham: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his “ Actress 5th” (1397), red, 1 year, 10 months, 1 week, 4 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Berry” (259); dam, “ Actress 4th ” (1676), by “ Grand Duke” (183). Longhorn Bulls, Two Years old and Upwards. Masor-Gen. Sim F. W. Firzwyeram, Bart., Leigh Park, Havant, Hants: First Prize, 20/., for “ Prince Victor” (164), brindle and white, 6 years, 3 months-old; bred by Mr. Shaw, Fradley Old Hall, Lichfield; sire, ( ned of Upton 7th” (76); dam, “ Princess,” by “ Burberry’s Pride ” 21). RicHarD Haut, Thurlston Grove, Derby: Seconp Prize, 10/., for “ Earl of Fradley 1st” (62), brindle and white, 5 years, 4 months, 1 week, 2 days- old; bred by Mr. Shaw, Fradley Old Hall, Lichfield; sire, “ Earl of Upton 7th” (76) ; dam, “ Fidget,” by “Sir Oliver” (200); g.d., “ Lily 2nd,” by “ Hagley Hero” (163); gr. g. d., “Lily 1st,” by “ Burbery’s Pride” (21). Tue Dvuxe or BuckrxeHam AND CHANDOS, Stowe, Buckingham: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “Earl of Temple,” brindle and white, 5 years, 10 months, 2 weeks, 4 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Conqueror 3rd ;” dam, ‘“ Duchess,” by “ Boycott ;” g. d., “ Diadem,” by ‘‘ Tamworth ;” gr. g. d., “ Dolly.” Longhorn Bulls, under Two Years old. Sm Joun Harpur Crewe, Bart., Calke Abbey, Derby: First Prizn, 151., for “* Harlequin,” brindle and white, 1 year, 6 months, 1 week, 1 day-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Abbot of Calke;” dam, “ Gaudy,” by “ Tippoo ;” g. hn “Sparkenhoe Lass,” by “Emperor ;” gr. g. d., “Old Spondon,” by “ Curzon.” Ricuarp Hatt, Thurlston Grove, Derby: Srconp Prizr, 101, for “The Monk,” brindle and white, 1 year, 6 months, 4 days-old; bred by Mr. Ixxvi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Tomlinson, South Wood, Ticknall, Derby; sire, “ The Abbot of Calke” (220); dam, “‘ Countess,” by “ Duke 2nd” (56); g. d., “ Loophorns 3rd,” by “ Conqueror 2nd ” (87); gr. g. d., “ Loophorns 2nd” by “ Duke” (55). Witiram Joun Lecu, M.P., Lyme Park, Disley, Cheshire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Lord of Lyme,” brindle and white, 1 year, 2 months, 1 week, 4 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Earl of Pengwern” (67); dam, “Light of Other Days 2nd,” by Earl of Upton 6th” (75); g. d., “Tulip,” by Brown’s “ Kenilworth” (18); gr. g. d., “ Lupin,” by “ Canly ” (28). Longhorn Cows, in-calf or in milk, Thiee Years old and upwards. RicHuarp Hat, Thulston Grove, Derby: First Prize, 20/., for “ Bodelwyd- dan 2nd,” brindle and white, 4 years, 2 months, 1 week, 2 days-old ; in-milk ; calved February 29th, 1880; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Earl of Upton 8rd” (72); dam, “Maid of Bodelwyddan,” by “ Messenger” (183); g. d., “Lady Whitacre,” by Warner’s “ Bull” (247); gr. g. d., “Lily,” by Weston’s “ Bull” (2638): and Srconp Prize, 101., for “ Pale- face 2nd,” red and white, 5 years, 2 months, 2 weeks, 5 days-old; in-milk, calved June 2nd, 1880; bred by Mr. Shaw, Fradley Old Hall, Lichfield ; sire, “ Earl of Upton 7th” (76); dam, “ Tidy,” by “ Sir Oliver ” (200); g. d., “Lily 2nd” by “ Hagley Hero” (103); gr. g. d., “ Lily 1st,” by “ Burbery’s Pride” (21). RicHarD Hemmina CuapMan, Calke, Derby: Tutrp Prize, 5/., for “ Lady Upton 77th,” red and white, 7 years, 1 week, 6 days-old; calved April 2nd, 1870, and in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, “‘ Twopenny ;” dam, “ Fillpail,” by “ Sampson ;” g. d., “ Old Fillpail,” by ‘ Curzon ;” gr. g. d., “ Cherry,” by “ Young Roll-right.” Longhorn Heifers, under Three Years old. Tue DuKe or BuckINGHAM AND CHANDOS, Stowe, Buckingham: First Prize, 15/., for “ Lady Aston,” red and white, 2 years, 11 months, 2 weeks, 1 day-old; in-calf; bred by exhibitor ; sire, ‘ Earl of Wigston ;” dam, “ Lady Arden 2nd,” by Twycross’s “ Bull” (240); g. d., “ Faithful,” by ‘‘ Old Messenger ;” gr. g. d., “ Weston Lady.” Masor-Gren. Sir F. Firzwyeram, Bart., Leigh Park, Havant: Seconp Prize, 10/., for “ First Link,” red and white, 2 years, 3 months, 1 week, 6 days-old; in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Prince Victor (164); dam, “ Upton’s Last Link Save One,” by “Shakespeare” (196); g. d., “Lady Cake,” by “Earl of Warwick” (77); gr. g. d. “Old Brindled Beauty,” by “ Sparkenhoe” (206): and 'Tuirp Prize, 5/., for “ Fortu- nate,” red and white, 2 years, 3 months, 1 week, 6 days-old; in-calf, bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Prince Victor” (164); dam, ‘ Fair,” by “Sampson Ist ” (192); g.d., “Curly Coat,” by “ Sparkenhoe ” (206) ; er. g. d., “ Lady,” by “ Perfection ” (161). Sin Joun Harpur Crewe, Bart., Calke Abbey, Derby: the Reserve Number and Highly Oommended for “Tulip 19th,’ red and white, 1 year, 5 months, 4 weeks, 2 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Earl ot Weston;” dam, “‘lulip 10th,” by “ Earl of Upton Ist;” g. d., “Tulip 5th,” by “Upton ;” gr. g. d., “ Tulip 4th,” by “Sampson.” Jersey Bulls, Two Years old and upwards. Wi.u1am ArkwricHut, Sutton Scarsdale, Chesterfield, Derbyshire: First Prize, 201., for “ Gray of the East” (284), blue-grey, 2 years, 4 months- Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Ixxvil old; bred by Mr. John Le Brocq, St. Clements, Jersey ; sire, “ Napier ;” dam, “ Lily.” Francis Le Broce, Augerez, St. Peter’s, Jersey: Sxconp Prize, 10/., for “Farmer's Glory ” (276), grey, 2 years, 4 months-old; bred by Mr. F. Becquet, Chestnut Farm, St. Peter’s, Jersey ; sire, “ Grey King” (169); dam, “ Bonheur” (1651). Joun Le Bron, St. Ouen’s, Jersey: Tutrp Prize, 5/., for “ Loyal Saturday ” (215), fawn, 2 years, 3 months-old; bred by Mr. Philip Vantier, Val de la Mare, St. Ouen’s, Jersey ; sire, ‘‘ Browny” (158); dam, “ Orange” (1079). GeorcE Simpson, Wray Park, Reigate, Surrey: the Meserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Milkboy,” silver-grey, 2 years, 5 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Pride;” dam, ‘“ Milky,” by “ Ducal;” g. d., ‘* Milk- girl,” by “ Banboy; gr. g. d., “ Milkmaid” by “ Jack Weller.” Jersey Bulls under Two Years old. Wittram Henry WAKEFIELD, Sedgwick, Kendal, Westmoreland: First Prize, 15/., for “ Aldston 38rd,” silver-grey, 1 year, 7 months, 2 weeks, 6 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Gladstone 2nd ;” dam, “ Grisette,” by ‘“ Yankee;” ¢. d., “ Queen of the Valley.” JoHN Le Broun, St. Ouen’s, Jersey: Seconp Prize, 10/., for “Sir Harry ” (314), light grey, 1 year, 7 months, 1 week, 2 days-old; bred by Mr. Philip Le Feuvre, St. Ouen’s, Jersey ; sire, “ Grey King ;” dam, “ Nilly.” Grorce Simpson, Wray Park, Reigate: Tuirp Prizp, 5/., for ‘“‘ Nimrod,” grey, 10 months 1 day-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Prince Albert Victor ;” dam, ‘‘ Nanette,” by “Gipsy King;” g, d., ‘ Nannie.” Robert Loper, Whittlebury, Towcester, Northamptonshire: the Jeserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Pride of Stoke,” whole colour, 1 year 11 months, 1 week, 4 days-old; bred by Mr. J. EH. Coleman, Stoke Park, Slough ; sire, Mr. Simpson’s “ The Pride ;” dam, “ Pretty Maid. Jersey Cows, in-ealf or in-milk, Three Years old and upwards. Groree Simpson, Wray Park: Firsr Prize, 20/., for “‘ Her Majesty,” fawn, 8 years, 2 months-old; in-milk; calved April 28th, 1880; bred by Mr. K. Hubert, St. Ouens, Jersey ; sire, “ Jack ;” dam, “ Camille :” and Seconp Prizu, 10/., for ‘‘ Milky,” silver-grey, 5 years, 10 months, 3 weeks, 1 day- old; in-milk; calved June 9th, 1879, and in-calf (due to calve before the Show); bred by Mr. Walter Gilby, Hargrave Park, Stanstead, Essex ; sire, “ Ducal;” dam, “ Milkgirl,” by “ Banboy ;” g. d., ‘‘ Milkmaid,” by “Jack Weller;” gr. g. d., “ Grasshopper,” by “ Omar Pasha.” Wut1ram Farnett Watson, Redlees, Isleworth, Middlesex: Turrp Prize, 5l., for “ Rose,” silver-grey, 6 years, 3 months, 3 weeks-old; in-milk ; calved July 20th; bred by exhibitor, James AsuHcrort, Grange House, Oakhill Park, Old Swan, Liverpool: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Souris,” silver-grey, 3 years, 2 months, 4 days-old; calved June 1, 1879; in-calf (due to calve before the Show); bred by Mr. A. L’Heron, St. Helier’s, Jersey; sire, “ Apollo” (108); dam, “ Brunette” (142). Jersey Heifers under Three Years old. Francis Le Broce, Augerez, St. Peter’s, Jersey: First Prize, 15/., for Ixxvili Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. “Longueville Belle,” grey, 2 years, 4 months, 4 days-old; in-calf; bred by Mr. P. Laurens, Longueville, St. Saviour’s, Jersey; sire, “ Coeur de Lion” (140) ; dam, “ Josephine.” Grorce Srupson, Wray Park: Seconp Prix, 10/., for “Temptation 3rd,” silver grey, 2 years, 1 month, 8 weeks, 2 days-old; in-calf (to calve before the Show); bred by Mr. J. Le Brun, St. Ouen’s, Jersey ; sire, «6 Grey King ;” dam, “ Temptation,” by “Prince ;” g. d., “ Touch-me- not.’ Francis Le Brocg, Augerez: TurrD Prizx, 5/., for “Lily,” grey, 2 years, 4 months-old; in-milk; bred by Mr. J. Le Quesne, St. John’s, Jersey ; sire, “ Virtumnus” (161); dam, “‘ Buttercup.” GEORGE Simpson, Wray Park: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Sans-Souci,” grey fawn, 2 years, 2 months, 3 weeks, 8 days-old; in-calf (to calve before the Show); bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Pretty Boy ; dam, “Sanspareil,” by “Sir William ;” g.d., “Lady Superior,” by “ Hero 2nd;” gr. g.d., “ Jeannette.” Guernsey Bulls, above One Year old. JAMES JAMES, Les Vauxbelets, Guernsey: First Prizn, 15/., for “Squire of Les Vauxbelets,” red and white, 2 years, 7 months, 4 weeks, 1 day-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘Royal Duke;” dam, “ Valentine Ist,” by “ Forester ;” g. d., “ Rosy.” Rorert N. G. Baker, Heavitree, Devon: Seconp Prize, 10/., for “ Billy,” red and white, 2 years, 10 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by Mr. John de Garis, St. Peter’s, Guernsey; sire, “ Rover;” dam, “Blanche,” by “ Prince.” Guernsey Cows, in-calf or in-milk, above Three Years old. Rosert N. G. Baker, Heavitree, Exeter: First Prize, 201, for “ Nancy 2nd,” yellow and white, 5 years, 9 months, 2 days-old; in-calf (to calve before the Show); bred by exhibitor; sire, “Johnnie ;” dam, “ Nancy 1st,” by “‘ Champion.” JAMES James, Les Vauxbelets, Guernsey: SeconpD Prizz, 10/., for “ Rose- bud,” red and white, 6 years, 4 months-old; in-milk; calved July 6th, 1879, and in-calf (to calve before the Show); bred by exhibitor; -sire, “ Lord of the Isles ;” dam, “ Bo-Peep;” g. d., ‘‘ Dairymaid.” Rosert N. G. Baker, Heavitree: the Reserve Number and Highly Com- mended for “Dolly,” red and white, 4 years, 6 days-old; in-milk ; calved March 25, 1880; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Johnnie;” dam, “ Nelly.” Guernsey Heifers not exceeding Three Years old. JAMEs JAmEs, Les Vauxbelets: First Prizes, 18/., for ‘‘ Florence 2nd,” fawn, 2 years, 11 months, 1 week, 2 days-old; bred by Mr. W. M. Jones, La Marcherie, Guernsey ; sire, “ Billy ;” dam, “ Florence 1st.” RosErt N. G. Baker, Heavitree: Seconp Prize, 10/., for “ Buttercup,” red and white, 1 year, 8 months, 3 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Prince Charlie;” dam, ‘Primrose :” THirp Prizsn, 5/., for “ Nancy 8rd,” red and white, 2 years, 1 month, 6 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Prince Charlie 1st ;” dam, “‘ Nancy 2nd,” by “ Johnnie :” and the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Nelly,” yellow and white, 2 years, Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Ixxix 11 months, 5 days-old; in-milk; bred by Mr. C. Le Page, St. Andrew’s, Guernsey ; dam, “‘ Prettymaid.” Norfolk and Suffolk Polled Bulls, Two Years old and upwards. Tuomas Lronarp Patmer, Wilby, Attleboro’, Norfolk: Fmsr Prize, 15/., for “Davyson 38rd,” red, 6 years, 11 months-old; bred by Mr. J. Hammond, Bale, East Dereham; sire, “The Baron” (9); dam, “ Davy 7th,” by “ Young Duke” (234). Aurrep Taynor, Starston Place, Harleston, Norfolk: Szconp Prizz, 10/., for “ King Charles” (329), red, 4 years, 1 week, 3 days-old; bred by the late Mr. J. Foster Palmer, Wilby, Attleboro’, Norfolk; sire, “ Davyson 8rd” (48); dam, “ Young Spot,” by “ Wilby Chapman” (228); g. d., “Spot ” (558), by “ Wonder” (231); gr. g. d., “ Rose,” by “ Elmham Bull.” Rosert Emuyn Lorrt, Troston Hall, Bury St. Edmund’s, Suffolk: Turp Prize, 5/., for “Stout,” red, 2 years, 11 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Donald” (291); dam, “ Handsome 5th.” JoHN Hammonp, Bale, East Dereham, Norfolk: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Davyson 6th,” red, 3 years, 2 months-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “‘ Davyson 4th;” dam, “ Davy 19th.” Norfolk and Suffolk Polled Bulls, not exceeding Two Years old. . ; JoHN Hammonn, Bale, Dereham, Norfolk: First Prizn, 15/., for “ Davyson 7th,” red, 1 year, 7 months-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Davyson 5th ;” dam, “‘ Davy 17th,” by “Tenant Farmer.” JEREMIAH JAMES CoLMAN, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich: Szconp Prizez, 10/., for “ Ben,” red, 1 year, 9 months, 1 week, 3 days-old; bred by Mr. B. Brown, Wellingham, Fakenham; sire, “ Robin Hood ;” dam, ‘‘ Rose 5th,” by “ Norfolk Duke;” ¢. d., “ Rose 2nd,” by “Tenant Farmer.” ALFRED Taytor, Starston Place, Harleston, Norfolk: the Reserve Number to ‘*Starston Prince,” red, 11 months, 2 weeks, 2 days-old; bred by exhibi- tor; sire, ‘“‘ King Charles” (329); dam, “Nettle” (1049), by “ Easton Duke” (61); ¢. d., “ Nancy R. 2,” by “Richard 2nd” (178); gr. g. d., “Lovely 2nd,” by “ Richard 2nd” (178). Norfolk and Suffolk Polled Cows, in-calf or in-milk, Three Years old | and upwards, JEREMIAH JAMES CoLMAN, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich: Firsr Prizz, 15/., for “ Fanny,” red, 8 years, 10 months, 2 weeks-old; in-milk; calved December 22nd, 1879; bred by the late Lord Sondes, Elmham Hall, East Dereham; sire, “‘ Hero 3rd;” dam, “ Madam Freeman.” AurreD Taytor, Starston Place, Harleston : Srconp Prize, 10/., for “ Flirt,” (894), red, 8 years, 11 months, 5 days-old; in-milk; calved November 8th, 1879, and in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Easton Duke” (61); dam, “Sly,” by “Sir Edward Ist” (197); g. d., “Strawberry 2nd,” by “Richard 2nd” (173); gr. g. d., “Tiny,” by “ Laxfield Sire” (101). Robert Emuyn Lorrt, of Troston Hall, Bury St. Edmund’s, Suffolk: Tarp Prize, 5/., for ‘“ Poppet 2nd,” red, 5 years, 8 months, 4 days-old; calved June 6th, 1879, and in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Cherry Duke” (82); dam, “ Poppet 1st U 43.” Ixxx Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. THE Duxe or Hamiuron anp Branpon, K.T., Easton Park, Wickham Market, Suffolk: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended tor “ Ruby,” red, 6 years, 2 months, 2 days-old; in-milk, calved September 1879, and in-calt; bred by Sir E. C. Kerrison, Bart., Oakley Park, Scole, Suffolk ; sire, “ Marquis 8rd;” dam, “ Queen 2nd,” by “ Major” (109) ; g. d., “Queen.” Norfolk and Suffolk Polled Heifers, wnder Three Years old. JEREMIAH JAMES CoLMAN, M.P., Carrow House: First Prize, 15/., for “Silence,” red, 2 years, 6 months, 2 days-old; in-calf; bred by exhibi- tor; sire, “ Disraeli ;’ dam, “Silent Lass,” by “ Powell ;” g.d., “Silence,” by “ Rifleman ;” gr. g. d., Silence.” Joun Hammonp, Bale, Dereham, Norfolk: Srconp Prizr, 10/7., for “ Davy 24th,” red, 2 years, 8 months-old; in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Davyson dth;’ dam, “ Davy 15th,” by “Tenant Farmer.” JEREMIAH JAMES Co~MAN, M.P., Carrow House: Turrp Prizs, 5/., for “Cherryleaf,” red, 1 year, 8 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor ; ats, “ Beau ;” dam, “Cherry 5th,” by ‘‘ Norfolk Duke;” g. d., “Cherry 2nd.” Tuomas Lronarp Patmer, Wilby, Attleboro’, Norfolk: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended to “ Buxom,” red, 1 year, 11 months, 3 days-old; bred by the late Mr, J. F. Palmer, Wilby; sire, “ Davyson ord” (48) ; dam, “Cheerful,” by “ Young Major” (285); g. d., “Spot,” by “ Wonder” (281); gr. g. d., “ Rose K. 19.” - Ayrshire Bulls, above Two Years old. Tur Douxe or BuccLeucn anp QuEENSBERRY, K.G., Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfries: First Prizz, 20/., for ‘“ Morning Star” (43), white and dark brown, 4 years, 1 month, 1 week, 3 days-old; bred by Mr. William Hunter, Craighead, Abington, Lanark; sire, “ Chieftain ;’ dam, “ Queen Mary,” by “The Duke;” g. d., “ Duneaton Beauty,” by “ Invincible :” and Seconp Prize, 10/., for “ Lord of the Isles,’ white and dark brown, 3 years, 2 months-old; bred by Mr. Wm. Boyd, Bongany, Girvan, Ayrshire. Ayrshire Cows, in-calf, or in-milk, above Three Years old. Tue Duxe or BucciEucH AND QUEENSBERRY, K.G.: First Prize, 15/., for “ Juno 5th of Drumlanrig,” brown and white, 3 years, 4 months, 1 week, 3 days-old; in-calf (due to calve before the Show); bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Righead of Drumlanrig” (51); dam, “ Juno of Drumlanrig ” (222) : Srconp Prize, 10/., for “ Lady Jane,” red and white, 4 years, 2 months- old; calved May 12, 1879, and in-calf (due to calve before the Show); bred by Messrs. R. and 8. Howie, Drumter, Fenwick, Ayrshire ; sire, “ Drumter” (15); dam, “ Betsey :” and Tuirp Prize, 5/., for “ Blackstone,” white and brown, 3 years, 3 months-old; in-calf (due to calve before the Show); bred by Mr. Andrew Allan, Munnoch, Dalry, N.B.; sire, “ Winton ;” dam, “ Blackstone,” by “ Shankston.” James Duncan, Benmore Kilmun, Greenock, Argyleshire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his brown and white, 6 years, 3 months-old; in-calf (due to calve before the Show); bred by Mr. Alexander Young, Carnwath, Lanark ; sire, “ Lord Lorne.” Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Ixxxi Ayrshire Heifers not exceeding Three Years old. Tur Duxe or Bucchruch AND QuUEENSBERRY, K.G.: First Prizs, 15/., for “ iva of Drumlanrig,” white and brown, 2 years, 3 months, 1 week, 5 days- old; in-calf; bred by Mr. John Gilmour, Kells, Southwick, Kirkeud- bright; sire, “ Prince Charlie ;” dam, ‘Snowdrop :” Szconp Prizz, 102., for ‘ Pearl,” white and red, 2 years, 8 months, 1 week, 3 days-old ; in- calf; bred by Mr. Andrew Allen, Munnoch, Dalry, N.B.; sire, “‘ Winton” (64); dam, ‘‘Davies:” Tuirp Prize, 5/., for “ Belle of Drumlaurig,” red and white, 2 years, 4 months, 2 days-old ; in-calf; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Orchardton ;” dam, “Stately:” and the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Beauty of Drumlanrig,” white and red, 2 years, 4 months, 5 days-old; in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘“‘ Burntwoodhill of Drumlanrig” (6); dam, “ Barclay 4th of Drumlanrig” (51). Polled Galloway Bulls, above Two Years old.* Peter Morton anp Sons, Pedder Hill, Longtown, Cumberland: Firsr Prize, 20/., for “ Prince Charlie of Pedder Hill,” black, 3 years, 7 months, 2 weeks, 2 davs-old ; bred by exhibitors; sire, ‘ Mosstrooper of Pedder Hill ;” dam, “ Agnes of Pedder Hill.” James Lirryn, Fauld, Longtown, Cumberland: Srconp Prizz, 10/., for “ Liddesdale” (1031), black, 4 years, 5 months, 5 days-old; bred by - Mr. James Graham, Parcelstown, Longtown; sire, ‘‘ Sim of Whitram ”’ (562); dam, “Semiramis 4th” (1422), by “ Willie of Westburnflat ”’ (523); g. d., “Rose of Galloway” (1811), by “Sir James of Balig” (587); gr. g. d. “Semiramis,” (703) by “ Guardsman” (28). Sir Freperick U. Granam, Bart., of Netherby, Lonetown, Cumberland: Tutrp Prize, 5/., for “ Harden” (1151), black, 3 years, 4 months, 3 weeks, 2 days-old; bred by Mr. James Graham, Parcelstown, Long- town; sire, “Sim of Whitram” (562); dam, “Mary of Parcelstown ” (1420), by “ Willie of Westburnflat” (523); g. d. “ Queen of Cullock ” (1815), by “Sir Walter ” (536) ; gr. g. d., “ Agnes of Meikle Cullock” (220), by “ Wellington ” (22). James CunNInNGHAM, Tarbreoch, Dalbeattie, Kirkcudbright: the Reserve Number to “Knowsley” (1850), black, 3 years, 4 months, 1 week, 1 day-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Chieftain of Dramlanrig” (752); dam, “‘ Lady Stanley 2nd” (2858), by “ Pretender” (617); g. d., “ Lady Stanley ” (1670), by “ Hossack” (1319) ; gr. g. d., “ Jane of Breckonhill” (8354), by “ Emancipation ” (1318). Polled Galloway Bulls, above One and not exceeding Three Years old.* Rosert JARDINE, M.P., Castlemilk, Lockerbie, Dumfriesshire: Firsv Prize, 201., for “ Beaconsfield,” black, 2 years, 5 months, 4 weeks-old ; bred by the Duke of Buccleuch, Thornhill, N.B. Tue Duxe or BuccLruch anp QureEnspeRRy, K.G., Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfries: Seconp Prizx, 10/., for “Stanley of Drumlanrig” (1348), black, 2 years, 5 months-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Chieftain of Drumlanrig” (752); dam, “ Lady Stanley of Drumlanrig” (2858), by “ Pretender ” (617) ; g. d., “ Lady Stanley ” (1670) by “ Hossack ” (1319) ; gr.g. d., “ Jane of Breckonhill” (8354), by ‘‘ Emancipation ” (1818). Joun Mirxrcax, Wedholme House, Abbey Town, Carlisle: Tatrp Prize, 57., for “The Mackintosh 2nd” (1341), black, 2 years, 3 months, 4 weeks, 2 days-old; bred by Mr. James Graham, Parcelstown, Longtown, Cum- Ixxxii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. berland ; sire, “Sim of Whitram” (562); dam, “ Hannah 5th ” (1421) ; by “ Willie of Westburnflat” (523); g.d., “ Hannah 3rd ” (1819), by “Bob Burns” (235); gr. g.d., “ Hannah ” (213), by “ Brother to Moss- trooper ” (67). Tuomas GraHam, Beanlands Park, Irthington, Carlisle: the Reserve Number to “Chief of Errington 3rd” (1338), black, 2 years, 5 months, 1 week, 3 days-old; bred by Mr. James Graham, Parcelstown, Longtown, Carlisle; sire, “ Sim of Whitram ” (562); dam, ‘‘ Semiramis 6th ” (1425), by “ Willie of be ” (628); g.d. “ Semiramis 2nd” (1821), by “ Glenorcky ” ee aes Gh Rose of Galloway ” (13811), by “ Sir James of Balig ” 537). Polled Galloway le Bulls, above One and not exceeding Two Years old.* James CunnincHam, Tarbreoch, Dalbeattie, Kirkcudbright: First Prize, 15/., for “ Prince Victor” (1473), black, 1 year, 2 months, 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Larriston ” (1080) ; dam, “ Mary Douglas of Lawshall” (3276), by ** Bob of Denton Hall” (823). Tae Duxe or BuccLEUCH AND QuEENSBERRY, K.G., of Drumlanrig: Srconp Prize, 10/., for ‘“ Harden 2nd” (1458), black, 1 year, 4 months, 3 weeks, 1 day-old; bred by Mr. James Graham, Parcelstown, Longtown, Cum- berland ; sire, “ Sim of Whitram ” (562); dam, “Mary of Parcelstown” (1420), by “‘ Willie of Westburnflat ” (523); g. d., “ Queen of Culloch ” (1815), by “Sir Walter” (586): gr. g. d., “‘ Agnes of Meikle Culloch ” (220), by ‘“ Wellington” (22): Turrp Prizz, 5/., for “Macbeth” (1465), black, 1 year, 2 months, 2 weeks, 3 days-old; bred by exhi- bitor; sire, ‘Black Prince of Drumlanrig” (546); dam, “ Ilythia of Drumlanrig” (1307), by “ Border Knight” (539); g. d., “ Miss McGill” (1802), by “ Freebooter” (208); gr. g. d., “McGill” (240), by ‘ Bar- salloch” (92). JAMES SHENNAN, Balig, Kirkcudbright: the Reserve Number to his “ Nor- mandy ” (1533), black, 1 year, 4 months-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Duke of ene 22166) sdamy << Jenny Norman 38rd” (2650), by “ Norman ” (529) ; “ Jenny Goat” (1847), by “The Goat ” (527) ; or. g. d., “Jenny ae % (1884), by “ Bob Burns ” (235). Polled Galloway Cows, in-milk or in-calf, above Three Years old.* ~ Ture DuKE oF BuccLEUCH AND QUEENSBERRY, K.G.: First Prizz, 20/., for “ Princess of Culmain ” (2995), black, 4 years, 4 months, 3 weeks, 4 days- old; in-milk; calved January 15th, 1880; bred by Mr. Maxwell Clark, Culmain, Crocketford, Kirkcudbright; sire, “‘ Black Prince of Drumlan- rig” (546) ; dam, “Blossom of Culmain” (2775), by “ Mangerton ” (525) : SECOND Prizg, 10/., for “ Hannah 8rd of Drumlanrig” ‘(2620), black, 5 years, 6 months-old ; ; in-milk ; calved January 4th, 1880 ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Black Prince of Drumlanrig ” (546) ; dam, “Tuna of Drumlanrig” (1382), by “ Havelock ” (644); rear (ol Hannah of Tarbreoch ” (2617 7), by “ Sir John the Graham ” (522); gr. g. d., “Queen of Culloch” (1815), by “Sir Walter” (536): Tuip PRUE, 51. for “Fanny 2nd of Drumlanrig ” (2628), black, 5 years, 5 months, 3 weeks, 2 days-old; in-milk ; calved January Ist, 1880 ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Black Prince of Drumlanrig” (546) ; "dam, “ Fanny of Drumlanrig ” (1684), by “ Freebooter ” (208) : and the Reserve Number for “ Lady Stanley of Drumlanrig” (2858), black, 6 years, 1 month, 2 weeks, 3 days-old; in-milk ; calved January ‘ 2nd, 1880; bred by Mr, James Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Ixxxiii Cunningham, Tarbreoch, Dalbeattie; sire, ‘‘ Pretender” a. dam, “ Lady Stanley ” (1670), by ‘“ Hossack” (1319); g. “Jane of Breckonhill” (8354), by “‘ Emancipation” (1318); gr. g. a3 “ Rosy of Breckonhiil’’ (8353), by “‘ Black Jock of Pedderhill ” (1316), Polled Galloway Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, above Two and not exceeding Three Years old.* JAMES SHENNAN, Balig, Kirkcudbright: First Prize, 15/., for “Jenny Duke,” black, 2 years, 5 months, 2 weeks, 1 day-old; in-calf; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Duke of Drumlanrig ” (667) 5 dam, “ Jenny Norman 3rd” (2650), by “ Now i eek BES lA “Jenny Goat” (1347), by “The Goat” (527); gr. g “ Jenny ‘Burns ” (1834), by “ ob Burns” (235). Tuer DuKE or BuccLEucH AND QUEENSBERRY, K.G.: SEconp Prizx, 10/., for “ Bessie 2nd of Drumlanrig” (8411), black, 2 years, 4 months, 2 weeks- old; in-calf; bred by exhibitor ; Sire, <6 Black Prince of Drumilanrig ” (546) ; dam, “Bessie of Drumlanrig” (2183), by ‘Statesman ” (630) ; g. 4, es Countess of Blaiket ” (1582), by ‘“‘Clansman of Blaiket” (629) 3 g. d., “Maggie of Blaiket” (1579), by “ Sir Walter” (536): and cep Prize, “Blas for ‘‘ Helena of Drumlanrig ” (3412), black, 2 years, 5 months, 3 weeks, 4 days-old; in-calf; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Black Prince of Drumlanrig ” (546) : dam, “ Harriet 6th of Drumlanrig ” (2646), by “ Marquis Elrig ” (842); g. d., “ Harriet 2nd of Drumlanrig” (2178), by “Son of Sir John the Graham” (1115); gr. g. d., “ Harrict of Drumlanrig ” (1636), by “ Heir-at-Law ” (815), CHRISTOPHER GRAHAM, Breckonhill, Longtown, Cumberland: the Reserve Number to “ Lizzie of Breckonhill,” black, 2 year's, 8 months, 2 weeks- old; in-calf; bred by Exhibitor; sire, “ Captain ;” dam, “ Daisy,” by “ Hmancipation ;” g. d., “‘ Rosy,” by “‘ Black Jock.” Polled Galloway Yearling Heifers, above One and not exeeeding Two Years old.* JAMES CUNNINGHAM, ‘Tarbreoch, Dalbeattie, Kirkcudbright: First Prize, 15/., for “‘ Lady Stanley 6th,” black, 1 year, 5 months, 1 week, 3 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Queensberry “O27; .damyycs Lady Stanley 8rd” (2861), by "Pretender ;” g. d., “Lady "Stanley »” (1670), by Satlossackis (USO) ores cee deae Jane of Breckonkill ” (8854), by “ Emancipation” (1318): and Szconp Prizr, 10/., for “ Mary 6th of Tarbreoch,” black, 1 year, 5 months, 1 week, 2 days-old ; bred by ex- hibitor; sire, “The Mackintosh ;’ dam, ‘‘ Bridesmaid of Tarbreoch” (1674), by “Observer” (728); g. d., ‘‘Mary 2nd of Tarbreoch,” by “Balig ” (729). THe Duxe or Bucciruch AND QuEENsBERRY, K.G.: Tarrp Prize, 5/., for “Nightingale 2nd of Drumlanrig” (8653), black, 1 year, 5 months, 4 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Sir William of Drumlanrig”’ (1039); dam, “ Nightingale of Drumlanrig” (1656), by “ Prince Bis- mark” (699); g. d., “Maid Marion 4th” (1668), by “Sir John the ae ” (622); gr. g.d., “ Maid Marion 2nd” (2907), by “ Glenorcky ” 521), JAMES SHENNAN, Balig, Kirkcudbright: the Reserve Number to “ Lucy of Balig 8th ;” black, 1 year, 5 months, 4 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Duke of Drumlanrig” (667); dam, “ Lucy of Balig 3rd” (1396), Ixxxiv Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. by “ Norman” (529); g. d., ‘‘ Lucy of Balig” (1340), by “ Bob Burns” (235); gr. g.d., “Flora McDonald” (860),'by “ Geordie of Rigeford ” (234). Polled Angus or Aberdeen Bulls, Two Years old and upwards.* Nosert ANpERSON, Daugh, Tarland, Aberdeenshire: First Prizn, 20/., for “Prince Albert of Baads,” black, 3 years, 3 months, 2 weeks, 2 days- old; bred by Mr. George Reid, Baads, Peterculter, Aberdeenshire ; sire, ( Bachelor ” (690); dam, ‘‘ Kate of Baads” (1947), by “ President 4th” 368). Tue Marquis or Huntiy, Aboyne Castle, Aberdeenshire: Szconp Prize, 10/., for “ Monarch,” black, 4 years, 83 months, 1 week, 6 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Pluto” (602); dam, “ Madge” (1217), by “ Major of Tillyfour” (509); g. d., ‘Ruth of Tillyfour” (1169), by “ Black Prince of Tillyfour” (866); gr. g. d., “ Beauty of Tillyfour 2nd” (1180), by ‘“‘ Young Jock” (4). Tne Earn or SrratuMore, Glamis Castle, Forfarshire: Tarrp Prize, 15/., for “ Bombastes” (1548), black, 2 years, 3 months, 2 weeks, 4 days-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘“ Neptune” (1152); dam, “ Beauty of Garline ” (1247), by “ Victor of Ballindalloch” (403) ; ¢.d., “ Jemima” (1245), by “ Peter of Mulben” (497); gr. g. d., “Corskie 2nd” (1047), by “Son of Beauty ” (98). GrorGE Hamiutron, Skene House, Aberdeen: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “His Excellency,” black, 3 years, 5 months, 1 week, 2-days old; bred by the Earl of Fife, Duff House, Banff; sire, “Young Viscouut ” (786); dam, “ Violet of Montbletton” (1399), by “Squire” (436); ¢. d., “Lady Ida” (1021), by “Black Diamond” (464); gr. g. d., “ Mayflower 2nd” (1020), by “The Earl” (291). Polled Angus or Aberdeen Bulls, not exceeding Two Years old.* Hexry D. Apamson, Balquharn, Alford, Aberdeenshire: First Prizz, 20/., for ‘‘ Knight of the Shire,” black, 1 year, 5 months, 3 weeks, 5 days- old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Dragon” (1178); dam, “ Pride of Mulben 3rd ” (38249), by “ Elgin” (724); g. d., “ Pride of Mulben 38rd,” by “ Jim Crow 4th” (852); gr. g.d., “Pride of Aberdeen 5th,” by “ Bright” (454). Tue Earu or Arruig, K.T., Cortachy Castle, Kirriemuir, Forfarshire: Szeconp Prize, 10/., for “ Ericson” (1624), black, 1 year, 8 months, 3 weeks, 3 days-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘‘ Challenger ;” dam, “ Hrica 4th,” by “Trojan ;” g. d., “ Erica 2nd,” by “Chieftain ;” gr. g. d., “Erica,” by “ Cupbearer.” JoHN Hannay, Gavenwood, Banff, N.B.: Tarrp Prize, 52, for “ Proud Viscount ”’ (1264), black, 1 year, 6 months-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Young Viscount” (736); dam, “ Lilias of Tillyfour” (1795), by ‘‘ Black Prince of Wester Fowlis ” (619) ; g. d., “‘ Pride of Aberdeen 5th” (1174), by “Bright” (454); gr. g.d., “Pride of Aberdeen” (531), by “ Hanton ” (228). GEORGE WILKEN Forses, Waterside, Aberdeenshire: the Reserve Number to “ Waterside General” (1546), black, 1 year, 11 months, 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “‘ Carlos” (673) ; dam, ‘‘ Asloon Mary ” (2064). Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Ixxxv Polled Angus or Aberdeen Cows, in-calf or in-milk, Three Years old and upwards.* Hnyry D. Apamson, Balquharn, Alford, Aberdeenshire: First Prizz, 20/., for “Sybil 2nd ” (3526), black, 4 years, 2 months, 3 weeks-old ; in-milk ; calved March 11th, 1880; bred by the late W. McCombie, Tillyfour, Aberdeen; sire, “Sir Garnet” (684); dam, “Sybil 1st of Tillyfour,” by “Sir William ” (705); g. d., “ Fancy” of Baads, by “ President 4th” (868). GrorcE Ret, Baads, Peterculter, Aberdeen: Seconp Prizz, 10/., for “ Isla” (1965), black, 6 years, 1 month, 2 weeks, 1 day-old; in-milk; calved February 20th, 1880; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Sir William” (705) ; dam, “ Fancy” (1948), by “ President 4th” (368); g. d., “ Maggie.” Winitam Marsuatt Sxinner, Drumin, Ballindalloch, Banffshire: THirp Prize, 5/., for “Sunshine 2nd” (38333), black, 4 years, 5 months, 5 days- old; in-milk ; calyed April 10th, 1880; bred by exhibitor ; sire, ‘ Byron” (639) ; dam, “Sunshine Ist” (1693), by “ Baronet of Drumin” (637) ; g.d., “Beauty of Drumin” (959), by “ Marshall” (399); gr. g.d., “ Ruby ” (951), by “Jim Crow ” (344). Polled Angus or Aberdeen Heifers, under Three Years old.* Tre Eart or Atri, K.T., Cortachy Castle, Kirriemuir, Forfarshire: First Prize, 15/., for “Pavilion” (8772), black, 2 years, 2 months, 3 weeks, 1 day-old; in-calf; bred by Mr. John Hannay, Gavenwood, Banff; sire, “Young Viscount ;” dam, “ Patience of Corskie,” by “Clansman ; g. d., “Heather Bell,” by ‘‘ Marshall;” gr. g. d., “Rose of Drumin,” by “ Defiance.” Henry D. Apamson, Balquharn, Alford, Aberdeenshire: Sxconp Prize, 10/., for “‘ Pride of Aberdeen 19th,” black, 2 years, 1 week, 4 days-old; in-calf; bred by exhibitor; sire, “‘ Dragon” (1178); dam, “ Regina,” by “Jim Crow” (350); g.d., “Pride of Aberdeen 3rd,” by “ Black Prince” (366) ; gr. g. d., “ Pride of Aberdeen,” by ‘‘ Hanton” (228). JoHN Hannay, Gavenwood, Banff: Tarrp Prizs, 5/., for “‘ Waterside Annie 2nd,” black, 2 years, 7 months-old; in-calf; bred by Mr. George Wil-- ken, Waterside, Alford, Aberdeenshire; sire, ‘‘ Carlos” (673); dam, “Waterside Annie” (8205), by “Charlie 2nd” (1238); g. d., “ Ann of Campfield” (2175), by “Charlie” (840); er. g.d., “ Violet of Camp- field ” (2178), by “‘ Charlie” (840). Tue Hart or Straramore, Glamis Castle, Forfarshire: the Reserve Number to “ Viola,” black, 1 year, 6 months, 4 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “St. Clair” (1160); dam, “ Violet of Montbletton” (1399), by “Squire” (4386); g. d., “Lady Ida” (1021), by “Black Diamond” (464); gr. g. d., “ Mayflower 2nd” (1020), by “The Earl” (291). Pairs of Dairy Cows of any breed, in-milk,* James Wart, Knowefield, Carlisle, Cumberland: First Prize, 20/., for “Tresine,” black, 4 years, 2 months-old. “Silene,” red, 4 years, 2 ~ months-old. Breeder unknown. Dairy Cows of any breed, in-milk.* Lorp FrrzHarpincE, Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire: First Prize, 102., for VOL. XVI.—S. 8. g Ixxxvi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. his fancy roan cross-bred shorthorn, 6 years-old; calved March 27th, 1880; breeder unknown. Wi11am Sawer, Threlkeld, Keswick, Cumberland: Szconp Prize, 5/., for his roan shorthorn, 5 years, 8 months-old ; calved June, 1880; bred by exhibitor. SHEEP. Leicester Shearling Rams. TEASDALE Hitton Hurcuinsoy, Manor House, Catterick, Yorkshire: First Prize, 20/., for his 1 year, 8 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Royal Liverpool ;” sire of dam, ‘ Prince Charlie.” HeEsDEN Borton, Manor House, Barton-le-Street, Malton, Yorkshire : Szconp Prize, 10., for his 1 year, 3 months-old ; bred by exhibitor. TEASDALE Hiiton Hutcurxson, Manor House, Catterick : Tatrp Prize, 5/., for his 1 year, 8 months, 3 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “‘ Royal Liverpool.” Ernest Francis Jorpan, Eastburn, Driffield, Yorkshire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 1 year, 8 months-old ; bred by the executors of the late Francis Jordan. Leicester Rams of any other age. TraspALE Hinvron Hutcutnson, Manor House, Catterick, Yorkshire: First Prize, 20/., for his 2 years, 3 months, 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire of dam, ‘“ Royal Liverpool.” HrspEN Borton, Manor House, Barton-le-Street: Srconp Prize, 10/., for his “ Aggrayation,” 3 years, 3 months-old; bred by Exhibitor. TEASDALE Hinron Hurcurinson, Manor House, Catterick: THirD Prizs, 5/., for his “ Doncaster,” 8 years, 8 months, 3 weeeks-old; bred by Mr. Borton. HespEen Borton, Manor House, Barton-le-Street: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his “Lord Kilburn,” 2 years, 3 months-old ; bred by exhibitor. ? Leicester Hwes—Pens of Five. Witi1Am Brown, High Gate ‘House, Holme-on-Spalding-Moor, Yorkshire : First Prize, 15/., for his shearling 1 year, 8 months-old; bred by ex- hibitor. Ernest Francis Jorpan, Hastburn, Driffield, Yorkshire: Szeconp Prizz, 102., for his 1 year, 3 months-old; bred by the executors of the late Francis Jordan. GerorGE TurNER, jun., Thorpelands, Northampton: Tuirp Prize, 5/., for his 1 year, 8 months, 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor. Border Leicester Shearling Rams. Tue Hon. Ropert Barttrs Hamivron, Langton House, Dunse, Berwick- shire: First Prize, 20/., for his 1 year, 3 months, 3 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Ixxxvii Witr1Am Witsoy, Wolfstan, Ormiston, Haddingtonshire: Srconp Prize, 102., for his 1 year, 8 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, ““Castlemain ;” sire of dam, ‘‘ Oldhamstocks.” Samuet Jaok, of Mersington, Coldstream, N.B.: Tutrp Pru, 5/., for his 1 year, 3 months, 8 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. JAMES Metvin, of Bonnington, Wilkieston, Mid-Lothian: the Reserve Nwm- ber and Highly Commended for his 1 year, 8 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. Leicester Rams of any other age. ANDREW Smiru, Castlemains, Gifford, Haddingtonshire: First Prizz, 20/., for his “Ralph,” 3 years, 8 months, 8 weeks-old; bred by the late Marquis of Tweeddale, Newhall, Gifford. Rosert Watson, Stone House, Hayton, Carlisle: Szconp Prizez, 10/., for “Henry the 8th,” 3 years, 8 months-old ; bred by Mr. George Simson, Courthill, Kelso, Roxburghshire. SamMvet Jack, Mersington: Turrp Prize, 5/., for his 2 years, 3 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. Witrram Drynine, Nilstone Ridge, Langley Mills, Northumberland: the Reserve Number and WHighly Commended for “ Nelson,” 2 years, 3 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Torrance.” Border Leicester Shearling Ewes—Pens of Five. Rosert Watson, Stone House, Hayton, Carlisle: First Prius, 15/., for his 1 year, 8 months, 3 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Henry 8th.” James Nispet, Lambden, Greenlaw, Berwick: Srconp Prizz, 10/., for his 1 year, 3 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. Wittiam Dryninc, Nilstone Ridge: the Reserve Number to his 1 year, 3 months, 1 week-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Foster.” Cotswold Shearling Rams. Ropert Jacopzs, Signett Hill, Burford, Oxon: First Prize, 20/., for his 4 year, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor: and Seconp Prize, 10/., for his 1 year, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by Exhibitor. THomAsS Brown, Marham Hall, Downham Market, Norfolk: Tutrp Prize, 51., for his 1 year, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor: and the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 1 year, 4 months, 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor. Cotswold Rams of any other age. RusseLL Swanwick, the Royal Agricultural College Farm, Cirencester, Gloucestershire: First Prizn, 20/., for his about 2 years, 5 months-old ; bred by exhibitor. Tuomas Brown, Marham Hall: Srconp Prizz, 10/., for his 2 years, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. Russet Swanwick, the Royal Agricultural College Farm: Turrp Prize, 51., for his about 8 years, 5 months-old; bred by exhibitor. Tomas Brown, Marham Hall: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 2 years, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. g 2 Ixxxvill Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Cotswold Shearling Hwes—Pens of Five. THoMAS and StrpHeN GroreE Ginter, Kilkenny Farm, Faringdon, Oxon : First Prize, 15/., for their 1 year, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitors: and Srconp Prizz, 10/., for their 1 year, 4 months, 3 weeks-old; bred by exhibitors. Lincoln Shearling Rams. Henry Suitu, The Grove, Cropwell Butler, Nottingham: Frrst Prizm, 207., for his 1 year, 4 months-old: Seconp Prizn, 10/., for his 1 year, 4, months-old: T’'Hrrp Prize, 5/., for his 1 year, 4 months-old: and the Reserve Number to his 1 year, 4 months-old; all bred by exhibitor. Lincoln Rams of any other age. Henry Smire: First Prize, 20/., for his 2 years, 4 months-old; bred by Mr. Robert Wright, Nocton Heath, Lincoln; sire, “ Black Knee :” and Srconp Prize, 10/., for ‘‘ Maréchale Bazaine,” 3 years, 4 months- old; bred by the late Mr. W. F. Marshall, Branston, Lincoln. WittiaM Savacn, Hanging Bank, Penrith: Tuirp Prizm, 5/., for his 2 years, 3 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. Joun Byron, Kirkby Green, Sleaford, Lincolnshire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 3 years, 3 months-old; bred by exhibitor. Lincoln Shearling Ewes—Pens of Five. Joun Prars, Mere, Lincoln: First Prize, 15/., for his 1 year, 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor. Joun Byron, Kirkby Green, Sleaford, Lincolnshire: Szconp Prizx, 10/., for his 1 year, 8 months, 2 weeks old; bred by exhibitor. Joun Pears, Mere: Turrp Prize, 5/., for his 1 year, 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor. JosEPH Sepewick, Lambrigg, Kendal: the Reserve Number and Highly Com- mended for his 1 year, 8 months-old ; bred by exhibitor. Oxfordshire Down Shearling Rams. Joun TREADWELL, Upper Winchendon, Aylesbury, Bucks: First Prize, 201., for his about 1 year, 4 months, 2 weeks-old: Srconp Prizu, 10/., for his about 1 year, 4 months, 2 weeks-old: and ‘lHirp Prize, 5/., for his 1 year, 4 months, 2 weeks-old: and the Reserve Number for his about 1 year, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; all bred by exhibitor. Oxfordshire Down Rams of any other age. Joun TREADWELL: First Prizz, 20/., for “ Prince of Wales,” about 2 years, 4 months, 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “The Swell,” sire of dam, “Guildford :” and Szconp Prizu, 10/., for “Prince of the West,” about 2 years, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “The Swell.” Grorcr ApAms, Pidnell Farm, Faringdon, Berkshire: the Reserve Number and Hiyhly Commended for “ Kilburn,” 2 years, 4 months, 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Royal Oxford ;” sire of dam “ Clarence.” Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Ixxxix Oxfordshire Down Shearling Ewes—Pens of Five. Freperic Street, Somersham Park, St. Ives, Hunts: First Prize, 15/., for his 1 year, 5 months-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Royal Bristol.” Southdown Shearling Rams. H.R.Y. tar Prince or Wass, K.G., Sandringham, Norfolk: First Prize, 201., for his 1 year, 4 months-old; bred by His Royal Highness: and Seconp Prize, 10/., for his 1 year, 4 months-old; bred by His Royal Highness. Huau Gorrince, Kingston-by-Sea, Brighton, Sussex: Tarrp Prize, 5/., for his about 1 year, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. Lorp WaLsineHaM, Merton Hall, Thetford, Norfolk: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 1 year, 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor. Southdown Rams of any other age. Tar Duke or RichmMonpD AND Gorpon, K.G., Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex : First Prize, 20/., for his 2 years, 4 months-old; bred by exhibitor. Wit1i1am Riepen, Ashcroft, Kingston-by-Sea, Shoreham, Sussex: Seconp Prizx, 10/., for his 2 years, 4 months-old; bred by exhibitor. Hueu Gorrines, Kingston-by-Sea, Brighton, Sussex: Turrp Prize, 5/., for his about 2 years, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. Sir Nicnonras Wiii1AM THrocxmortoy, Bart., Buckland, Faringdon, Berks: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 2 years, 4 months- old; bred by exhibitor. Southdown Shearling Ewes—Pens of Five. Lorp WaAtstncHAM, Merton Hall, Thetford, Norfolk: Frrst Prize, 15/., for his 1 year, 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor. JEREMIAH JAMES Cotman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich: Sreconp Prize, 10/., for his 1 year, 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor. Srr Nicnotas W. Tsrockmorton, Bart., Buckland: Tuirp Prize, 5/., for his 1 year, 4 months-old; bred by exhibitor. H.R.H. roe Prince or Wates, K.G., Sandringham: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 1 year, 4 months-old ; bred by His Royal Highness. Shropshire Shearling Rams. Joux Wuiteroot Minton, Forton, Shrewsbury: First Prize, 201., for his 1 year, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘‘ Marquis of Bath ;” sire of dam, “‘ Bedford Hero.” Maria Barrs, Odstone Hall, Atherstone: Szconp Prizz, 10/., for her about 1 year, 4 months-old; bred by exhibitor. Joun WuitEroot Mrixtov, Forton: Tuirp Prizg, 5/., for his 1 year, 4months, 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Marquis of Bath ;” sire of dam, “‘ Bedford Hero.” James Lenox Narer, Louchcrew, Oldcastle, co. Meath, Ireland: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 1 year, 3 months, 2 wecks-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Quality ;” sire of dam, “ Longbow.” xe Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Shropshire Rams of any other age. Marta Barrs, Odstone Hall, Atherstone: Frrsrt Prizn, 20/., for her about 2 years, 4 months-old; bred by exhibitor. Ricuarp Txomas, The Buildings, Baschurch, Salop: Srconp Prizs, 10/., for his about 2 years, 4 months-old; bred by exhibitor. James Lenox Narr, Loughcrew, Oldcastle, co. Meath, Ireland: Tamp Prizn, 51., for “ Sir Guy,” 2 years, 3 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Sir Gray ” sire of dam, “ Longbow.” Joun W. Minton, Forton, Shrewsbury: the Reserve Number and [Highly Commended for his 2 years, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by Mr. Bromley. Shropshire Yearling Ewes—Pens of Five. GrorGE GRAHAM, The Oaklands, Birmingham: First Prizn, 15/., for his 1 year, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “‘ Georgius.” Joun Epwarp Farmer, Felton, Ludlow, Salop: Saconp Prizz, 10/., for his about 1 year, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. JosrPpH Bracu, The Hattons, Brewood, Staffs.: Turrp Prize, 5/., for his 1 year, 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor. ; Joun W. Minton, Forton, Shrewsbury: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 1 year, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. Hampshire and other Short-woolled Shearling Rams. ALYrRED Morrison, Fonthill House, Tisbury, Wilts: Firsr Prize, 20/., for his Hampshire Down, 1 year, 5 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor : and Srconp Prize, 10, for his Hampshire Down, 1 year, 5 months, 1 week-old ; bred by exhibitor. Henry Lampert, Great Abington, Cambridge: Tuirp Prizn, 5/., for his Hampshire Down, about 1 year, 4 months, 2 wecks-old ; bred by exhi- bitor: and the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his Hamp- shire Down, about 1 year, 4 months, 1 week-old ; bred by exhibitor. Hampshire and other Short-woolled Rams of any other age. Frank R. Moors, Littlecott, Pewsey, Wilts: First Prizs, 20/., for his Hampshire Down, 2 years, 4 months, 38 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. Wittram Newton, Gould’s Grove, Benson, Qui tae. : SEconD Prizx, 10/., for his Hampshire Down, 2 years, 5 months, 2 weeks-old ; bred by Mr. A. Morrison, Fonthill House, Tisbury, Wilts. AtrreD Morrison, Fonthill House, Tisbury: Tarrp Prizz, 5/., for his Hampshire Down, 2 years, 5 months-old; bred by exhibitor. Henry Lampert, Great Abington: the Leserve Number and Highly Com- mended for his Hampshire Down, about 2 years, 5 months, 2 weeks-old ; bred by Mr. J. Rigg, Wrotham Hill Park, Sevenoaks, Kent. 05? Hampshire and other Short-woolled Shearling Ewes—Pens of Five. Fraxk R. Moors, Littlecott, Pewsey, Wilts: First Prizn, 150. for his Hampshire Down, about 1 year, 4 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhi- bitor. Henry Lamrert, Great Abington, Cambridge: Srconp Prize, 10/., for his Hampshire Down, about 1 year, 5 months-old; bred by exhibitor. Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. xci Wrtr1am Nrewron, Gould’s Grove, Benson, Oxon: Tutrrp Prize, 5/., for his Hampshire Down, 1 year, 5 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. Cheviot Shearling Rams. Tuomas Extiot, Hindhope, Jedburgh, N.B.: First Prize, 10/., for his 1 year, 3 months-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Clansman.” JoHuN Rosson, Birness, Otterburn, Northumberland: Srconp Prizz, 5/., for his 1 year, 3 months-old; bred by exhibitor: and the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 1 year, 3 months-old ; bred by exhibitor. Cheviot Rams of any other age. Tuomas Exuior, Hindhope, Jedburgh, Roxburghshire: First Prize, 10/., for his 2 years, 3 months-old; bred by exhibitor: and Seconp Prizg, 5/., for “Clansman,” 4 years, 3 months-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘“‘ The Gentleman.” Joun Rosson, Birness; the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “The Masterpiece,” 4 years, 3 months-old; bred by exhibitor. : Cheviot Shearling Ewes—Pens of Five. Tomas Exxiot, Hindhope, Jedburgh, Roxburghshire: First Prizx, 10/., for his 1 year, 3 months, 1 week-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Sir Walter.” Joun Rosson, Birness: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 1 year, 3 months-old ; bred by exhibitor. Black-faced Mountain Shearling Rams. James Morrat, Gateside, Sanquhar, Dumfries: First Prizr, 10/., for his 1 year, 2 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. James Crate, Monktonhill, Monkton, Ayrshire: Szconp Prize, 5/., for his “The Law,” 1 year, 2 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. CHARLES Howaston, Glenbuck, Muirkirk, Ayrshire: Turrp Prize, 3/., for his 1 year, 3 months-old; bred by exhibitor: and the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 1 year, 3 months-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, ‘“‘ Beaconsfield,” sire of dam, ‘‘ Black Diamond 1st.” Black-faceé Mountain Rams of any other age. James Morrat, Gateside, Sanquhar, Dumfries: First Prize, 10/., for “ Wee Twin,” 3 years, 3 months-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Speckie;” sire of dam, “ Gareland Mark.” CHARLES Howarson, Glenbuck, Muirkirk, Ayrshire: Seconp Prize, 5/., for “Black Diamond 6th”; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Beaconsfield ;” sire of dam, “‘ Black Diamond the Ist”: THtrp Prize, 32., for ‘“‘ Beaconsfield,” 3 years, 3 months-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “‘ Alston ;” sire of dam, “Black Diamond”: and the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Blind-man’s Brother,’ 2 years, 3 months-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “‘ Beaconsfield ;” sire of dam, “ Black Diamond the 1st.” Black-faced Mountain Shearling Ewes—Pens of Five. Cartes Howatson, Glenbuck, Muirkirk, Ayrshire: First Prize, 10/., for 1 year 3 months-old; bred by Exhibitor; sire, ‘‘ Beaconsfield.” xCil Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. MarrHew Henperson, The Hope, Allendale Town: SEconp Prize, 5/., for his abeut 1 year, 2 months-old; bred by Mr. Robert Lee, The Hope, Allendale Town: and Turrp Prize, 8/., for his 1 year, 2 months-old; bred by Mr. Robert Lee, The Hope, Allendale ‘lown. Joun Irvine, Shap Abbey, Shap, Westmoreland, the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 1 year, 8 months-old; bred by exhibitor. Herdwicks, Shearling Rams. Epwarp Hawett, Lonscale, Keswick: Frrsr Prize, 10/., for his 1 year, 2 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor; sire “‘ Royal George.” GxEoRGE Browne, Troutbeck, Windermere, Westmoreland: SzconD Prize, 5/., for “‘ Wansfell,” 1 year, 3 months-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Bowe ;” sire of dam, “ Dodgson :” and TH1rp Prizz, 3/., for ‘‘ Beaconsfield,” 1 year- old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Bowe ;” sire of dam, “‘ Dodgson. Epwarp Hawet1, Lonscale: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for ‘‘ Oswald,” 1 year, 2 months, 1 week-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Dash.” Herdwicks, Rams of any other age. Joun Newsy, Muncaster Head, Holm Rook, Cumberland: First Prizg, 102, for “ Just in Time,” 4 years, 8 months, 1 week-old; bred by exhibitor. Epwarp HaweE Lt, Lonscale : Secon Prizg, 5/., for “‘ Flockmaster,” 5 years, 2 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘‘ Collingwood.” Epwarp NEtson, Gatesgarth, Battermere, Cockermouth: THirp Prize, 3/., for “Toby Smart,” 7 years-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Gatesgarth Boggle ;” sire of dam, “ Mango:” and the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Beggar Lad,” 3 years-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Bustoo ;” sire of dam, ‘* Mango.” Herdwicks, Shearling Ewes—Pens of Five. Epwarp Hawett, Lonscale, Keswick: First Prize, 10/., for his 1 year, 2 mouths, 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Royal George.” Witi1am Leatues, Lamplugh Hall, Cockermouth, Cumberland: Srconp Prize, 5/., for his 1 year, 8 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by Mr. G. Browne, Troutbeck, Windermere. Epwarp Netson, Gatesgarth, Cockermouth, Cumberland: Tuirp Prize, 3/., for his 1 year, 1 month-old; bred by exhibitor. Tuomas ArysworTH, The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 1 year, 2 months-old ; bred by exhibitor. Herdwick Ewes—Pens of Five, with their Lambs.t JoHN Newsy, Muncaster Head, Holm Rook, Cumberland: THE Prize of 107. 10s. ; bred by exhibitor. Epwarp NEeE.son, Gatesgarth, Buttermere, Cockermouth: the Reserve Number ; bred by exhibitor. Lonks, Shearling Rams. JONATHAN PEEL, Knowlmere Manor, Clitheroe, Yorkshire: First Prize, 10/., for his 1 year, 3 months, 1 week-old; bred by exhibitor. + Given by Lord Leconfield. Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. xclii Davi Lamperr anv Son, Bank House, Silsden, Leeds: Szconp Prize, 5/., for their 1 year, 2 months, 3 weeks-old; bred by Mr. W. Anderton, Sheriff Bingley, Yorks. Freperick Harrison, Long Lee, Keighley, Yorkshire: Tutrp Prize, 3/., for his 1 year, 2 months-old ; bred by exhibitor. Davip Lampert And Son; the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for their 1 year, 2 months, 8 weeks-old; bred by Messrs. J. Green and Son, Low House Farm, Silsden. Lonks, Rams of any other age. JONATHAN Pert, Knowlmere Manor, Clitheroe: First Prizx, 10/., for his 3 years, 8 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. Davin Lampert Anp Son, Bank House, Silsden, Leeds: Seconp Prize, 5/., for their 2 years, 2 months-old; bred by Messrs. John Green and Son, Low House Farm, Silsden: and Tuirp Prize, 3/., for their 4 years, 3 months, 1 week-old; bred by Mr. John Widdop, Howdengate, Silsden. Lonks, Shearling Ewes—Pens of Five. Davi» Lambert AND Son, Bank House, Silsden, Leeds: First Prize, 10/., for their 1 year, 2 months-old; bred by Messrs. John Green and Son, Low House Farm, Silsden: and Seconp Prize 5/., for their 1 year, 2 months-old; bred by Mr. William Duerden, Town House, Nelson, Lancashire. Freprrick Harrisox, Long Lee, Keighley: Tarrp Prizz, 3/.; bred by ex- hibitor. Long-woolled Rams, not qualified for the preceding Classes. Wi.t1am and GrorcEe Birp, Volis, Kingston, Taunton, Somerset: First PrizE, 10/., for their Devon Long Wool, 1 year, 5 months-old ; bred by exhibitors; and Seconp Prize, 5/., for their Devon long-wool, 1 year, 5 months-old; bred by exhibitors. Joun Wiis, Jun., Carperby, Bedale, Yorks.: the Reserve Number to his Wensleydale Long Wool, 1 year, 3 months-old; bred by exhibitor. Long-woolled Rams of any other age, not qualified for the preceding lasses. WitriAm and Grorce Brrp, Volis, Kingston, Taunton: First Prizz, 10/., for their Devon Long Wool, 2 years, 5 months-old ; bred by exhibitors : and Srconp Prize, 5/., for their Devon Long Wool, 2 years, 5 months- old; bred by exhibitors. Joux Wiis, Jun., Carperby, Bedale: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his Wensleydale Long Wool, 2 years, 4 months-old; bred by Mr. Joseph Raw, Carperby, Bedale. Long-woolled Shearling Ewes, not qualified for the preceding Classes— Pens of Five. Joun Wiis, Jun.: First Prize, 10/., for his Wensleydale Long Wool, 1 year, 3 months-old; bred by exhibitor. xclv Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. PIGS. Large White Breed—Boars, above Six Months and not exceeding Twelve Months old. Tue Earn or ELLesMERE, Worsley Hall, Manchester: First Prizx, 10/., for his 11 months, 3,days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Tiger 2nd ;” dam, “ Lady Worsley,” by Peter the Great”: and Srconp Prizs, 5/., for his 11 months, 3 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Tiger 2nd;” dam, “Lady Worsley,” by “ Peter the Great.” Large White Breed—Boars, above Twelve Months old. Tue Haru or ExvtesmMEere: First Prize, 10/., for “Samson 4th,” 3 years, 6 months-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Samson ;” sire of dam, “ York- shire Lad.” SANDERS Spencer, Holywell Manor, St. Ives, Hunts: Seconp Prize, 5/., for “ Sampson 6th,” s year, 11 ‘months, 3 weeks, 6 arg bred by exhibitor; sire, “Sampson 2nd ;” dam, “ Giantess.” Large White Breed—Pens of three Breeding Sow Pigs of the same Litter, above Three and not exceeding Six Months old. THE Hart or ELLesmere, Worsley Hall, Manchester: First Prize, 10/., for his 5 months, 3 weeks, 4 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘ Joseph ;” sire of dam, “ Prince.” Rozsert Tommas, Winson Green, Birmincham: Srconp Prizz, 5/., for his 5 months, 3 weeks, 2-days old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Billy ;” dam, “Maida,” by ‘“ Samson.” ALFRED CROWTHER, Star Inn, Bridge Street, Bury, Lancashire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 5 months, 3 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, ‘Samson ;” dam, ‘“ Lancashire Lass 2nd,’ by Nelson. Large White Breed—Breeding Sows. Tur Ear. or Eviesmere, Worsley Hall, Manchester: First Prizx, 10/., for his 5 years, 6 months-old; bred by Mr. M. Walker, Derby ; sire, “Samson ;” sire of dam, “ Victor 2nd”: and Srconp Priz#, 5/7. ; age and breeder unknown. x ALFRED CrowTHER, Star Inn, Bridge Street, Bury: the Reserve Number and Highly Co minended for Princess,” 1 year, 10 months, 2 wecks-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Hero;” dam, “ Empress. Small White Breed—Boars, above Six and not exceeding Twelve Months old. ‘ne Eart or Extrsmerr, Worsley Hall, Manchester: First Prize, 10/., for his 11 months, 2 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Marquis ;” dam, ‘ Whartfdale Queen.” SanpErs Spencer, Holywell. Manor, St. Ives, Hunts: Szconp Prize, 51., for “ Sobersides,” 11 months, 3 weeks, 6 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; SH Sire, Pats’? dam, ‘Oh. Yes,2 ‘by “The Czar.” Small White Breed—Boars, above Twelve Months old. Tur Ear or ELLESMERE: First Prize, 102., for “ Robin Hood,’ 1 year, Award of Live-Stoch Prizes at Carlisle. xev 9 months, 3 weeks-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “‘ King of the Peacocks ;” sire of dam, “ Toxophilite ” : and SECOND Prize, 51., for “The Swell, ¥ 2 years, 10 months, 3 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor ; ; sire, “ XL;” dam, “* Nelly Farren.” Small White Breed—Pens of Three Breeding Sow Pigs of the same Litter, above Three and not exceeding Six Months old. Tue Earn or EvLesmere: First Prizz, 10/., for his 5 months, 3 weeks, 2 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “‘ Marquis;” dam, ‘‘ Curly.” Rosert Tommas, Winson Green, Birmingham: Srconp Prize, 5/., for his 5 months, 2 weeks, 4 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘ Wonder ;” dam, ‘* Venus,” by “ Dwarf.” Small White Breed—Breeding Sows. Sanpers Spencer, Holywell Manor, St. Ives, Hunts: First Prizz, 10/., for his 11 months, 3 weeks, 6 days-old, in-pig; bred by exhibitor; sire, « Pat ;” dam, “Oh Yes,” by “The Czar.” Puinie Ascrort, Rufford, Ormskirk, Lancashire: Srconp Prizz, 5/., for “ Nellie,” 1 year, 6 months-old; bred by Mr. Samuel Wilson, Tanner’s Farm, Ramsbottom, Lancashire; dam, “* Worsley,” by ‘‘ Darby Boy.” Cuartes Etmurrst Duckerine, Northorpe, Kirton Lindsey, Lincolnshire : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his 1 year, 6 months, 2 days-old; bred by exhibitor. Small Black Breed—Boars, above Twelve Months old, Tae Rey. Winti1am Hooper, Chilfrome Rectory, Dorchester, Dorset: Firsv Prize, 10/., for “ Gipsy King,” 1 year, 1 month, 1 week-old; bred by exhibitor ; : ’sire, “ Sultan.” Cuartes Eimutrst Ducxerine, Northorpe, Kirton Lindsey, Lincolnshire : SeconD Prize, 5/., for his 1 year, 9 months, 2 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor. Small Black Breed—Pens of Three Breeding Sow Pigs of the same Litter, above Three and not exceeding Six Months old, Tae Rev. Witt1am Hooper, Chilfrome Rectory, Dorchester: First Prize, 10/., for his 8 months, 2 weeks, 5 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Black Prince ;” dam, “ Aunt Sally.” Small Black Breed—Breeding Sows, Cartes Exmurest Duckertne, Northorpe, Kirton Lindsey: Frrst Prize, 10/., for his 1 year, 8 months, 1 week-old; bred by exhibitor: and SeconD Prize, 5/., for his 1 year, 8 months, 1 week-old ; bred by exhibitor. Berkshires—Boars, above Six Months and not exceeding Twelve Months old. Epwarp Tomes, Shilton, Bampton, Oxfordshire: First Prizz, 10/., for “Surprize,” 11 months, 3 weeks, 2 days-old; bred by Mr. William Tombs, Shorts, Lechlade; sire, ‘‘ Hercules,’ dam, ‘‘ Langford Lass,” by “ Trumpeter.” XCVi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. Russett Swanwick,Royal Agricultural College Farm, Cirencester, Gloucester- shire: Seconp Prizx, 5/., for his 6 months, 2 weeks-old ; bred by ex- hibitor; sire, “Spiteful 2nd ;” dam, “ Dark Hopeful,” by “Sully 7th.” Berkshires—Boars, above Twelve Months old. Epwarp Toms, Shilton, Bampton: First Prize, 10/., for “Tim Whiffler,” 2 years, 3 weeks, 4 days-old; bred by Mr. William Tombs, Shorts, Lechlade ; sire, “ Timothy ;” dam, “ Langford Lass,” by “Trumpeter.” RusseELL Swanwick, Royal Agricultural College Farm: Srconp Prize, 5/., for “Duke of Newport,” 1 year, 11 months, 2 weeks, 2 days-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Spiteful 2nd ;” dam, “ Sally 22nd,” by “ Oxford.” Berkshires—Pens of Three Breeding Sow Pigs of the same Litter, above Three and not exceeding Six Months old. THe Executors oF THE LATE ArtTHuR STEwarT, Saint Bridge Farm, Gloucester: First Prize, 10/., for their 5 months, 3 days-old; bred by patter; sire, “Scothern;” dam, ‘“ Lady Kingscote 2nd” by “ Prodi- gal.” RUSSELL SwaNWIcK, Royal Agricultural Collece Farm: SEconp Prize, 5/., for his 4 months, 3 weeks-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Spiteful 2nd ;” dam, “Stumpy 10th,” by “ Emulation.” Berkshires—Breeding Sows. Tue EXEcurors or THE LATE ARTHUR SrewaRT: First Prize, 102., for their 1 year, 5 months, 1 day-old; in-pig; bred by tke late Arthur Stewart ; sire, “ Prodigal ;” dam, ‘Sister A.” by “Sir Leonard.” RussELL Swanwick: Seconp Prize, 5/., for his “Sally 11th,” 1 year, 8 months-old; in-pig; bred by exhibitor; sire, “The Wizard ;” dam, “Sally 10th,” by “H. 2.” Tue EXecuToRS OF THE LATE ARTHUR STEWART: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for their 1 year, 5 months, 2 days-old ; in-pig; bred by the late Arthur Stewart; sire, “ Prodigal ;” dam, “ Cirencester,” by “* Royal Pennant.” Other Breeds—Boars, above Six and mot exceeding Twelve Months old. WiLiiAM Sruister, 43, Middle Hillgate, Stockport, Cheshire: First Prize, 10/., for “Torthey,” white, 11 months, 1 week, 4 days-old; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “ Bruce ;” dam, ‘“ Woodland Mary.” Joun and Joserx Nurraut, 18, Long Field, Haywood, Lancashire: SEcoND Prize, 5/., for “ Hero,” white, 9 months, 1 week, 5 days-old; bred by exhibitors ; sire, “Gladstone ;” dam, “ Snowdrop,” by “‘ Albert.” Other Breeds—Boars, above Twelve Months old. THE Earu or ELLESMERE, Worsley Hall, Manchester: First Prize, 10/., for “ King Duncan,” white, 2 years, 4 months-old ; bred by exhibitor ; sire, “Scottish Chief ;” size of dam, ‘“ Duke of Lancaster.” RopeRT Tommas, Winson Green, Birmingham: Seconp Prizx, 5/., for “ Punch,” white, 1 year, 10 months, 1 week, 3 days-old; bred by ex- hibitor; sire, “ Esau ;” dam, “ Eva,” by “ Duke of York.” Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Carlisle. xcvil JouN and Josepn Nurratt, 13, Long Field, Haywood, Lancashire: Sprcrat Prize, 3/., for “ Bill,” white with blue spots, 2 years, 4 months-old ; bred by Mr. Samuel Wilson, Ramsbottom, Lancashire; sire, “ Bill;” dam, “ Duchess,” by “ Dreadnought,” Other Breeds—Pens of Three Breeding Sow Pigs of the same Litter, above Three and not exceeding Six Months old, ‘ne Eart or Eiiesmerez, Worsley Hall: First Prize, 10/., for his white, 5 months, 3 weeks, 4-days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “ Peter ;” sire of dam, ‘‘ Shorthead.” AtFrrEeD CrowrueEr, Star Inn, Bridge Street, Bury, Lancashire’:’Srconp Prize, 5/., for his white, 5 months, 3 weeks, 1 day-old; bred} by exhi- bitor; sire, “Star ;” sire of dam, “ Albert.” Other Breeds—Breeding Sows. THe Hart or EtesmMereE: First Prizez, 10/., for “Lady Worsley,” white, 3 years, 2 months, 2 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, ‘‘ Peter the Great ;’ dam, “ Queen Bee.” Sanpers Spencer, Holywell Manor, St. Ives, Hunts: Seconp Prizz, 10/., for his “Silver Hair,” white, 1 year, 11 months, 3 weeks, 6 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Sampson 2nd;” dam, “ Oh Joy,” by “ Hero.” ALFRED CrowTHER, Star Inn, Bridge Street, Bury, Lancashire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for ‘‘ Duchess 2nd,” white, 1 year, 8 months, 4 days-old; bred by exhibitor; sire, “Albert;’ dam, “Duchess Ist,” by ‘ Bill 1st.” BUTTER. Six lbs. of Fresh Butter. CuRISTOPHER Minuican, Johnby, Greystoke, Penrith: First Prize, 6/.t ARABELLA Prescott, Birchen Farm, Tenbury : Seconp Prize, 51. ANNE Ropinson, Weathericks, Clifton Dykes, Penrith: Tnirp Prize, 4/.+ Rosert Corvin, Thwaite Hall, Greystoke, Penrith: Fourru Prizx, 3/.* Mary Dosson, Greens Burn, Brampton, Cumberland: Firtx Prizes, 2/.* One Firkin of Butter.* CuRisTopHER Mitiican, Johnby, Greystoke, Penrith: First Prizn, 6/. Hannan Warson, Easton, Burgh-by-Sands, Carlisle: Szconp Prize, 57. Tuomas TweEppte, Asherton Castle, Brampton, Cumberland: Tuirp Prize, Joun Barxer, Rangleton, Carlisle: Fourtu Prize, 31. Mary Ann Fenton, Red Kirk, Annan, N.B.: Firra Prize, 21. + Given in plate by J. A. Wheatley, Esq. X¢CVill Award of Prizes at Carlisle. IMPLEMENTS. J. and H. McLargn, Leeds, Sprcran Sinver Mepat for their Patent Broad- side Steam Digger ; invented by T. C. Darby, of Chelmsford. G. W. Murray and Co., Banff Foundry, Scotland, Smver Mrpat for their Two-Row Potato Planter. JouN Crowiry and Co., Meadow Hall Ironworks, Sheffield, Smiver Mrpau for their Patent Horse Gear. BarrorD and Prrxrns, Peterborough, Smiver Mepar for their Self-lifting Apparatus, applied to Steam Cultivating Implements. CuarLes Burrett and Sons, Thetford, Norfolk, Smver Mepat for their Universal Ploughing and Traction Engine. (Everitt’s Patent.) Nanper and Nanper, Wantage, Berks, Smver Mepat for their Steam Elevator attached to Threshing Machine. FARM PRIZES. Arable or Mixed Farms, above 200 acres. Wiii1am Hanpiry, Greenhead, Milesthorpe: First Prize, 40/.* JosePpH LowtxHian, Winder Hall, Tirril, Penrith: Szconp Prizz, 20/.* Wiii1am Arxinson, Burneside Hall, Kendal: Sprctan Prize, 10/7. Arable or Mixed Farms, not less than 50 and not over 200 acres. Tuomas Donaxp, Sandon House, Abbey Town, Silloth: First Prizn, 35/.* Tor EXECUTORS OF THE LATE RowLAND Parker, Moss End, Burton, West- moreland: Seconp Prizz, 20/.* Wirtt1am Benson, Boonwood, Gosford : SpectaL Prizr, 107. Stock or Pastoral Farms, above 200 acres. Witiiam Leaturs, Lamplugh Hall, Cockermouth: First Prize, 35/.* James Mouncey, High Laton, Cockermouth: Szconp Prizu, 20/.* Ce) AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. Examination Papers, 1880. EXAMINATION IN AGRICULTURE. Maximum Numesr or Marks, 200. Pass Numsper, 100. Tuesday, April 13th, from 10 a.m. till 1 p.m. 1. In selecting a farm for profitable occupation of from 300 to 400 acres in extent, what considerations would chiefly guide you in your selection— 1st. Supposing such farm to be wholly or chiefly arable, 2nd. If such farm were all in grass, 3rd. If mixed in the proportion of one-half or two-thirds grass ? 2. What special features should a farm have to render it suitable for the production of milk for sale ? 3. What prices per lb. of cheese and butter would pay as well as selling milk at 8d. per imperial gallon at the farm, or contiguous rail- way station ? 4. What sort of arable land most needs conversion into permanent pasture ? 5. Describe strictly the operation of seeding down permanent pasture, and its after treatment. 6. What is the cheapest mode of improving poor rough pasture on clay soil already drained, or not requiring drainage? 7. State the advantages of feeding cattle with cake whilst at grass— Ist. For producing beef, 2nd. For producing milk. 8. Prime fodder and roots having been unusually scarce in the past winter, state what kinds and proportions of purchased foods may have been most usefully and economically given, and the weekly cost in each case of such extra food— 1. To dairy cows in full milk, 2. To young growing cattle, 3. To fattening beasts. 9. Describe shortly an economical method of rearing calves. 10. If on a strong or loamy soil oats or barley be sown after wheat, describe the best time and mode of sowing, and state what artificial manure is suitable for application to the crop. c Agricultural Education—Examination Papers, 1880. 11. What are the chief agricultural uses of lime, and to what soils is its application most beneficial ? 12. Describe shortly the cultivation of mangolds, swedes, and white turnips, and state what soil and climate are most favourable to each crop. 13. What are the chief advantages of the use of the mowing machine, and the reaping machine ? 14. What artificial manures are most beneficially applied to the wheat-crop ? State the quantities and probable cost of each manure and the best time of application. 15. State for what purposes you consider that pigs may profitably be kept, and what changes the great increase in the importation of foreign bacon is bringing about in our pig breeding and feeding. 16. Contrast the merits of the following breeds of sheep :— The Lincoln, the Cotswold, the Southdown, and the Shropshire. 17. Describe the special merits of the following breeds of cattle :— Shorthorns, Herefords, Ayrshires, Channel Islands. 18. State the advantages of covered yards for cattle in winter as compared with open yards. EXAMINATION IN CHEMISTRY. Maximum Numser or Marks, 200. Pass Numpsr, 100. Wednesday, April 14th, from 10 a.m. tili 1 p.m. I. General CHEMISTRY. 1. Describe the chief characters of the following elements—nitro- gen, sulphur, lead, copper. What compounds do they severally form with oxygen ? 2. State the chemical composition (or the chief components) of chalk, charcoal, flint, gypsum, oyster shells, bricks, water.. Explain how hard water differs from soft water. 3. What is meant by neutralising an acid? Calculate how much dry carbonate of soda is required to neutralise a solution containing 100 ers. of nitric acid, and how much to neutralise a solution con- taining 100 grs. of phosphoric acid; and send up your calculation. (C>N:O7R2 Neat eat eb 231 723): 4. Describe a method of determining the amount of moisture present in the atmosphere at any time and place. How do you account for the comparative dryness of a N.E. wind ? 5. Describe and explain ordinary methods of preparing (1) chlorine, (2) sulphuretted hydrogen, (3) caustic potash. Explain the chemical Agricultural Education—Examination Papers, 1880. ei action of each of these substances with each (separately) of the other two. 6. What are the principal products of combustion of (1) a coal fire, (2) a candle, (3) a lucifer match? In making coal-gas considerable quantities of ammonia are procured : what becomes of the elements of the ammonia when the coal is burnt in an ordinary fire? 7. State the relations between cane-sugar, grape-sugar, and starch. By what chemical tests can. they be distinguished? Explain the chemical changes effected in the fermentation of beer. 8. What are the distinctive characters of colloid and crystalloid substances? Give examples of such substances. To which class do you refer sugar, gum, aluminium hydrate, nitre, ferric hydrate, sulphate of ammonia, respectively ? 9. What are fatty acids, and what are the properties on account of which they are called “acids”? Explain their relation to fats. II. AcRricvLTuRAL CHEMISTRY. Wednesday, April 14th, from 2 p.m. till 5 p.m. 1. Describe the process of paring and burning and of clay-burning. What are the changes which take place in burning clay ? 2. Mention some of the chemical and physical peculiarities of clay and sandy soils, and show how these peculiarities affect the rational cultivation of stiff clay land and light sandy soils. 3. Write a short paper on the composition of lime, chalk, marl, and shell-sand, and their application in agriculture. 4, What are the effects of salts of potash, nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and superphosphate of lime on the mixed herbage of permanent pasture ? 5. Mention the general composition of soot. How do you deter- mine its agricultural and commercial value, and for what crops is it most suitable as a manure? When should it be applied to the land ? 6. How much have you to pay for the unit per cent. of nitrogen in nitrate of soda guaranteed to contain 95 per cent. of pure nitrate of soda, and costing 19/. 10s. per ton, and in sulphate of ammonia, containing 24 per cent. of ammonia, and also costing 19/. 10s. a ton ? 7. Write a short paper on butter-making. 8. Give an account of the causes of the benefits of growing clover as a preparation for the succeeding wheat-crop. 9. Point out the more striking differences in the composition of the following feeding stuffs :—beans, indian corn, rice meal, oats, linseed-cake, decorticated and undecorticated cotton-cake. VOL. XVI.—S. §. h cll Agricultural Education—Examination Papers, 1880. EXAMINATION IN MECHANICS AND NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Maximum Number or Marks, 200. Pass Numper, 100. Thursday, April 15th, from 10 a.m, till 1 p.m. 1. State the conditions of equilibrium of three forces acting on a particle. Show by a construction or otherwise how forces of 12, 15, and 24 units must be adjusted so as to keep a particle at rest. 2. State briefly how force is transmitted along a thread. A body weighing 5 lbs. hangs from an end of a thread; if I push my finger against the thread so as to bring the upper part into an inclined position, while the lower part (of course) hangs vertically, how would the pressure on my finger be found? In what position would the pressure exactly equal the weight? 3. The handle of a hammer is 15 inches long and weighs 4 lb. ; the head weighs 2 lbs.; the centre of gravity of the handle is in its middle point, and that of the head is } inch from the end of the handle; where will the centre of gravity of the hammer be ? 4, It has been ascertained that a man acting on a winch can do work at the rate of 1,200,000 foot pounds of work in a day of 8 hours. If two men can lift a ton through 15 feet in 10 minutes, by means of a properly constructed crane, how much of their work is wasted on friction ? 5. When is the velocity of a body said to be uniformly accelerated ? Tf the acceleration be 10 when the units are feet and seconds, what distance will the body describe while its velocity is increased from 11 feet a second to 44 feet a second. If the mass of the body is 100 Ibs. what force would be required to produce the acceleration ? 6. Describe the hydrometer in any one form. An ordinary hydro- meter, whose stem is of uniform section, sinks to a certain point A in distilled water, and to another point B in a liquid whose specific gravity is 0°96; find, in terms of A B, the distance from A to the surface when the hydrometer is placed in a liquid whose specific gravity is }4ths. 7. Distinguish between heat and temperature. Mention any cir- cumstances in which heat may be communicated to a body without changing its temperature. 8. State the relation between the volume, pressure and temperature of a given quantity of gas. A cubic foot of dry air is inclosed, without compression or rarefaction, when the thermometer stands at 60° F. and the barometer at 30 inches ; if the temperature of the air is raised to boiling point without change of volume, what pressure does it exert per square inch on the surface that incloses it ? 9. Describe briefly the steam indicator, and how the indicator dia- gram is drawn and what it indicates. Agricultural Education—Examination Papers, 1880. — cili EXAMINATION IN MENSURATION AND SURVEYING. Maximum Noumser or Marks, 100. Pass Numper, 50. Thursday, April 15th, from 2 p.m. till 5 p.m. 1. Find the area, in acres, &e., of a border 40 ft. wide which goes all round a rectangular field 500 yards long and 330 yards wide. 2. Calculate, in tons per acre, the weight of a quarter of an inch rainfall. (A cubic foot of water weighing 1000 oz.) 3. State the rules for finding the volume and surface of a cylinder and cone. How would you deduce the volumes of the parts into which a cone is divided by a plane parallel to its base ? 4, Reckoning that a horse can draw a ton weight, in addition to that of the vehicle, how many horses should be set to draw 25 fir trunks, each 32 feet long and 18 inches in diameter at the base. (Specific gravity of fir wood being 0°64.) 5. A rectangular heap of stones is formed on a base 20 feet long and 8 feet wide; the slope on all sides is one vertical to one hori- zontal ; if it is made as high as possible what are its dimensions and volume ? 6. There are four points A, B, C, D, marked on the ground, e.., by flag staffs or by trees, and the area of the ground inclosed by A BC Dis required ; it is found impracticable to measure the sides of the quadrilateral figure ; accordingly the diagonal A C is measured, and it is required to mark on it the feet (M, N) of the perpendiculars drawn to it from Band D. How could this be done? And if done, how would it help you to find the required area ? 7. In the last example suppose that A C is 1200 yards, A N 500 yards, N M 240 yards, and M C 460 yards, M B 520 yards, N D 380 yards, draw the figure A B C D to scale, note the lengths of the sides, and determine its area. Supposing that the determination of the positions of M and N are liable to small errors (say of a few feet), why should this cause more of error in the plotted lengths of the sides, than in the calculated area? 8. The angles of a triangle are measured and are found to be 81° 50’, 28° 40’, and 69° 30', and the shortest side is 520 feet; draw the triangle to scale and calculate the length of the longest side. 9. Describe briefly the method of determining the levels of points along a given line, as along a road. What is a contour line ? EXAMINATION IN BOOK-KEEPING. Maximum Nomper or Margs, 200. Pass Numser, 100. Friday, April 16th, from 10 am. till 1 p.m. Journalise and post in proper technical language and form the fol- 10.74 cly Agricultural Education—Examination Papers, 1880. lowing imaginary transactions, and draw out from the ledger a “ Trial Balance,” a “ Profit and Loss Account,” and a “ Balance-sheet.” STATEMENT or AFFAIRS OF JoHN Squire, lst January, 1880. Liabilities. SUS de Amount due to Thomas Moxon... ee oO) 0) Amount due to Bank for overdraft on current account 1235 6 8 Amount due to P.Squireforloan.. .. .. .. . 500 0 0 Balance being’surplus’ 2. ("9.90 2°... 1, Pee £3302 16 8 Assets. Estimated value of Corn unthrashed .. .. .. « £95110 O Estimated value of Live Stock .. ... .. «=. (2 J687T ORO Estimated value of Dead Stock .. .. « .. «= 650 0 0 alance.of Petty Cash =... 2.50%... -) gesce eee 14 6 8 £3302 16 8 1880. Jan. 1.—Sold to John Newham 150 qrs. Corn .. .. 3875 0 O » 2.—Sold to Henry James Live Stock .. .... Tis 0) 0) » 5.—Borrowed of P. Squire for 3 months at 5 per cent. and paid into Bank 2) te ee OOD Ce » «@—Drew from Bank for Petty Cash .. .. .. 65 0 0 » 9.—Sold to James Howard 20 qrs. Corn .. 315. 5d 10) » 11.— Bought Live Stock of James oe paid him by cheque - 680 0 0 ,, 14.—Sold to Thomas More 55 qrs. Corn fs, Mee 68 15, 0 . 17—Received of John Newham his acceptance due 20th Feb. £355 0 0 And icheq we tor uereee =.. 9) os: 20" O/@ 375 0 0 ,, 18.—Bought of Thomas More Linsecd Cake se CoO 8 ,, 19.—Paid by cheque for Rates and Taxes .... Las 16028 ,, 20.—Received cheque of Thomas More for balance of account, viz., for Wheat sold to him .. £68 15 0 Less Maize purchased from him TO-ARY 6 Meee sees ser oe 26 93 <4 ——— 4211 8 ,, 21.—-Discounted John Newham’s ac- ceptance for £355, receiving cheque for rs) ak feet RO GMa Charged by Bank for discount 10 13 0 Agricultural Education—Examination Papers, 1880. cv 1878. Jot a Jan. 23.—Sold 50 qrs. Corn and received cheque .. 102 10 0 » 26.—Paid by cheque to Thomas Moxon... .. 305 0 O 5 27.—Sold to Henry James Live Stock mh ae ZO OMG », 28.—Sent Henry James for his accept- ance drafifor .. .. .. £560 0 0 Received back from him draft for £560 duly seeenies and cash . A: « £0000 960 0 0 Paid from Petty Cash for labour .. .... 54 14, 6 » ol.—Interest accrued to date on loan from P. Squire at 5 per cent. on £500 for half-year .. £1210 0 On £1500 for 26 days... 5 oy. 0 ———— 1815 0 Depreciation of Dead Stock at 5 per cent. per annum ss... 214 2 Estimated value of Corn unthrashed at this date... .. Mat Satan ADO Er Om O Ditto ditto Live Stock .. .. .. 1330 0 0 Ditto ditto Maizeonhand .. ... oO 0 Ditto ditto Linseed Cake sina 53 0 0 EXAMINATION IN GEOLOGY. Maxum Noumper or Marks, 100. Pass Numper, 50. Friday, April 16th, from 2 p.m. till 5 p.m. 1. Give the physical characters and approximate chemical com- position of six of the chief rock-forming minerals. 2. By what agencies are rocks disintegrated or weathered ? Give some examples of the decay of rocks. 3. Tabulate the sub-divisions of the Cretaceous rocks and place alongside their general lithological characters. Name some of the characteristic fossils. 4, What is Boulder clay ? Explain its origin. How does it differ from the ordinary clay deposits of the regular stratified rocks ? 5. Mention the principal economical substances obtained from the Carboniferous rocks of Great Britain. 6. Upon what formations are the chief clay vales of England situated ; and what are their distinctive agricultural characters ? > 7. What is peat? How has it been formed? Mention the principal occurrences of peat in the British Islands. 8. Define, conglomerate, flagstone, warp, pan, septaria, and explain their origin. evi Agricultural Education—Examination Papers, 1880. 9. How may the geological structure of a district influence the origin of springs? Mention some good examples. 10. Give the geological position of the following :—Fuller’s-earth, Gypsum, Alumshale, Kentish rag, Firestone, Carstone. 11. Name some characteristic genera or families of fossils which distinguish the Secondary from the Palceozic rocks. 12. Name the specimens on the Table. EXAMINATION IN BOTANY. [It is expected that Eight Questions at least will be answered.] Maxinum Noumper or Marks, 100. Pass Numper, 50. Saturday, April 17th, from 10 a.m. till 1 p.m. — 1. Give the characters by which you distinguish a plant from an animal, 2. What is the function of the epidermis? Are any plants without epidermis ? What part or parts of a plant are never covered with epidermis ? 3. What is the nature and function of the contents of the green cell of the leaf? 4, Describe the elements of a vascular bundle in a Monocotyle- donous stem,—give a diagram. 5. What is the method of the growth of the root, and wherein does it differ from the growth of the stem ? 6. Give a short account of the life history of Ergot. 7. What is the nature of the organs in which the starch is stored in the turnip, potato, onion, Kohl-rabi, and carrot? 8. Give the technical names and Natural Orders of puck-wheat, maize, cow-grass, rib-grass, carrot, and turnip. 9. Give the principal characters of the Natural Order Leguminose, and specify the plants of this Order grown by agriculturists. 10. Name and describe in systematic language the plants labelled A, B, and C. EXAMINATION IN ANATOMY AND ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. Maxum Noumper or Marks, 100. Pass Numper, 50. Saturday, April 17th, from 2 p.m. till 5 p.m. 1. Give a general description of the Circulation of the Blood, and name the several forces which are employed in effecting it. Agricultural Education—Examination Papers, 1880. evil 2. State how the heart mechanically assists in passage of the blood as the central organ of the circulation. 3. Name the changes which take place in the blood in the systemic and pulmonic circulation, and say how arteries are to be dis- tinguished from veins. 4, Name the blood vessels which exist in the Fetal Calf which do not act as carriers of blood after birth, and state the reason of their presence in the foetus, and their subsequent obliteration. 5. By what means is the birth of a foetus effected, and in what respect do throes differ from ordinary muscular contractions ? 6. Give an example of a voluntary and an Involuntary Muscle, and state the differences to be observed on a microscopic examination of the fibres of each. (i CrE MEMORANDA. AvDpREsS oF Letress—The Society’s office being situated in the postal district designated by the letter VV, Members, in their correspondence with the Secretary, are requested to subjoin that letter to the usual address. GENERAL. Meeting in London, May 22nd, 1880, at 12 o’clock. MEETING at Derby, July, 1881. GENERAL MEETING in London, December, 1881, at 12 o’clock. Monruty Councit (for transaction of business), at 12 o’clock on the first Wednesday in every month, excepting January, September, and October: open only to Members of Council and Governors of the Society. ADJOURNMENTS.—The Council adjourn over Passion and Easter weeks, when those weeks do not include the first Wednesday of the month; from the first Wednesday in August to the first Wednesday in November ; and from the first Wednesday in December to the first, Wednesday in February. OrricE Hovurs.—10 to 4. On Saturdays, 10 to 2. Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs.—Members have the privilege of applying to the Veterinary Committee of the Society, and of sending animals to the Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, N.W.—(A statement of these privileges will be found on page cix in this Appendix.) CHEMICAL ANALYsIS.—The privileges of Chemical Analysis enjoyed by Members of the Society will be found stated in this Appendix (page cx). BoTanicaL PrrvitecEes.—The Botanical and Entomological Privileges enjoyed by Members of the Society will be found stated in this Appendix (page cxiii). SuBscRIPTIONS.—1. Annual.—The subscription of a Governor is £5, and that of a Member £1, due in advance on the Ist of January of each year, and becoming in arrear if unpaid by the Ist of June. 2. For Life——Governors may compound for their subscription for future years by paying at once the sum of £50, and Members by paying £10. Governors and Members who have paid their annual subscription for 20 years or upwards, and whose subscriptions are not in arrear, may compound for future annual subscriptions, that of the current year inclusive, by a single payment of £25 for a Governor, and £5 for a Member. PAYMENTS.—Subscriptions may be paid to the Secretary, in the most direct and satisfactory manner, either at the Office of the Society, No. 12, Hanover Square, London, W., or by means of post- office orders, to be obtained at any of the principal post-offices throughout the kingdom, and made payable to him at the Vere Street Office, London, W.; but any cheque on a banker's or any other house of business in London will be equally available, if made payable on demand. In obtaining post-office orders care should be taken to give the postmaster the correct initials and surname of the Secretary of the Society (H. M. Jenkins), otherwise the payment will be refused to him at the post-office on which snch order has been obtained; and when remitting the money-orders it should be stated by whom, and on whose account, they are sent. Cheques should be made payable as drafts on demand (not as bills only payable after sight or a certain number of days after date), and should be drawn on a London (not on a local country) banker. When payment is made to the London and Westminster Bank, St. James’s Square Branch, as the bankers of the Society, it will be desirable that the Secretary should be advised by letter of such payment, in order that the entry in the banker’s book may be at once iden- tified, and the amount posted to the credit of the proper party. No coin can be remitted by post, unless the letter be registered, New Memsers.—Every candidate for admission into the Society must be proposed by a Member ; the proposer to specify in writing the full name, usual place of residence, and post-town, of the candidate, either at a Council meeting, or by letter addressed to the Secretary. Forms of Proposal may be obtained on application to the Secretary. *,* Members may obtain on application to the Secretary copies of an Abstract of the Charter and Bye-laws, of a Statement of the General Objects, &c., of the Society, of Chemical, Botanical, and Veterinary Privileges, and of other printed papers connected with special departments of the Society’s business. ( Giz, 3 Members’ Weterinary Privileges. I.—Visits oF THE VETERINARY INSPECTOR, 1, Any Member of the Society who may desire professional attendance and special advice in cases of disease among his cattle, sheep, or pigs, should apply to the Secretary of the Society, or to the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College, and Consulting Veterinary Surgeon, Camden Town, London, N.W. 2. The remuneration of the Consulting Veterinary Surgeon or Inspector will be 2/7, 2s, each day as a professional fee, and the charge for personal expenses, when such have been incurred, will in no cases exceed one guinea per diem. He will also be allowed to charge the cost of travelling to and from the locality where his services may have been required. These charges may, however, in cases of serious or extensive outbreaks of contagious disease, be reduced or remitted altogether, so far as the Members of the Society are concerned, at the discretion of the Council, on such step being recommended to them by the Veterinary Committee. 3. The Inspector, on his return from visiting the diseased stock, will report to the Member, and, through the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College, to the Committee, in writing, the results of his observations and proceedings, which Report will be laid before the Council. 4, When contingencies arise to prevent a personal discharge of the duties, the Consulting Veterinary Surgeon may, subject to the approval of the Committee, name some competent professional person to act in his stead, who shall receive the same rates of remuneration. I1.—ConsvLtTaTIons wiTHovuT VISIT. Personal consultation with Veterinary Inspector .. saps, Ode Consultation by letter Be oC oc ae 10s. 6d. Post-mortem examination, and report thereon .. 2 21s. A return of the number of applications from Members of the Society during each half-year is required from the Veterinary Inspector. III.—Apmisston or Diszasep ANIMALS To THE RoyAL VETERINARY Cottecr, Campren Town, N.W.; Investigations anD Reports. 1. All Members of the Society have the privilege of sending cattle, sheep, and pigs to the Infirmary of the Royal Veterinary College, on the following terms ; viz., by paying for the keep and treatment of cattle 10s. 6d. per week each animal, and for sheep and pigs, 3s. 6d. per week. No. 2. A detailed Report of the cases of cattle, sheep, and pigs treated in the Infirmary of the College or on Farms in the occupation of Members of the Society, will be furnished to the Council quarterly; and also special reports from time to time on any matter of unusual interest which may come under the notice of the Officers of the College By Order of the Council, H. M. JENKINS, Secretary. ( cx) Members’ Prtbileges of Chemtral Analpsis (Applicable only to the case of Persons who are not commercially engaged in the manufacture or sale of any substance sent for Analysis). Tue Council have fixed the following rates of Charges for Analysis to be made by the Consulting Chemist for the bond-fide and sole use of Members of the Society ; who, to avoid all unnecessary correspondence, are particularly requested, when applying to him, to mention the kind of analysis they require, and to quote its number in the subjoined schedule. The charge for analysis, together with the carriage of the specimens (if any), must be paid to him by Members at the time of their application : No. 1.—An opinion of the genuineness and value of bone-dust or oil- cake (each sample) ‘ 5s. », 2.—An estimate of the value (relatively to the average samples in in the market) of sulphate and muriate of ammonia and of the nitrate of potash and soda “6 5s. », 3.—An analysis of guano; showing the proportion of moisture, organic matter, sand, phosphate of lime, alkaline salts and ammonia, and an estimate of its value, provided the selling price of the article to be analysed be sent with it .. 10s. », 4—An analysis of mineral superphosphate of lime for soluble phosphates only, and an estimate of its value, provided the selling price of the article to be analysed be sent with it .. 5s. », 3.—An analy sis of superphosphate of lime, showing the propor- tions of moisture, organic matter, sand, soluble and insoluble phosphates, sulphate of lime, and ammonia, and an estimate of its value, provided the selling price of the article to be analysed be sent with it bc ; 10s. » 6.—An analysis, showing the value of any ordinary artificial manure 10s. » 7.—An analysis of limestone, showing the proportion of lime .. 7s. 6d. », 8.—An analysis of limestone, showing the proportion of magnesia, 10s.; the proportion of lime and magnesia .. 10s, » 9—An analy sis of limestone or marls, showing the proportion of carbonate, phosphate, and sulphate of lime and magnesia, with sand and clay Ee 10s. ,, 10.—Partial analysis of a soil, including determinations ‘of clay, sand, organic matter, and carbonate of lime .. as oe 10s. ,, 11.—Complete analysis of a soil . £3 », 12.—An analysis of oil-cake or other substance used for feeding purposes, showing the proportion of moisture, oil, mineral matter, albuminous matter, and woody fibre, as well as of starch, gum, and sugar in the aggregate; and an estimate of its value as compared with pure linseed-cake .. fe 10s. ,, 18.—Analysis of any vegetable product a0 C 10s. pola —Analysis of animal products, refuse substances used for manures, &c. from 10s. to £1 ,, 15.—Determination of the “ hardness” of a sample ‘of water before and after boiling.. 5s. », 16.—Analysis of water of land- -drainage, and of water used for irrigation . fe are Ab ob spilt —Analysis of water used for domestic purposes ee 30 o. ol LOR. ,, 18.—Determination of nitric acid in a sample of water .. x6 10s. » 7 19.—Personal consultation with the Consulting Chemist. (The usual hours of attendance for the Director, Monday ex- cepted, will be from 11 to 2, but to prevent disappointment, it is suggested that members desiring to hold a consultation with the Director should write to make an appon une 5s. 5, 20.—Consultation by letter an 5s. ,, 21.— Consultation necessitating the writing of three or more letters 10s. The Laboratory of the Society is at 12, Hanover Square, London, W., to which address the Consulting Chemist, Dr. Au GUSTUS VoELcKER, F'.R.S. requests that all letters and parcels (postage and carriage paid) from Members of ‘the Society, who are entitled to avail themselves of the foregoing Privileges, should be directed. ( cxi_ ) GUIDE TO THE PURCHASE OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES AND FEEDING STUFFS. Frepinc CAKES, 1. Linseed-cake should be purchased as “ Pure,” and the insertion of this word on the invoice should be insisted upon. The use of such words as “ Best,” “ Genuine,” &c., should be objected to by the purchaser. 2. Rape-cake for feeding purposes should be guaranteed *‘ Pure” and purchased by sample. 3. Decorticated Cotton-cake should be guaranteed ‘‘ Pure,” and purchased by sample. 4, Undecorticated Cotton-cake should be guaranteed “ Pure,” and purchased by sample. N.B,—AIl feeding cakes should be purchased in good condition, and the guarantee of the vendor should be immediately checked by a fair sample (taken out of the middle of the cake) being at once sent for examination to a competent analytical chemist. 'The remainder of the cake from which the sample sent for examination had been taken should be sealed up in the presence of a witness, and retained by the purchaser for reference in case of dispute. ARTIFICIAL MANURES, 1. Raw or Green Bones or Bone-dust should be purchased as “ Pure” Raw Bones guaranteed to contain not less than 45 per cent. of tribasic phosphate of lime, and to yield not less than 4 per cent. of ammonia. 2. Boiled Bones should be purchased as “ Pure” Boiled Bones guaranteed to contain not less than 48 per cent. of tribasic phosphate of lime, and to yield not less than 1? per cent. of ammonia. 3, Dissolved Bones are made of various qualities, and are sold at various prices per ton ; therefore the quality should be guaranteed, under the heads of soluble phosphate of lime, ¢nsoluble phosphate of lime, and nitrogen or its equivalent as ammonia. The purchaser should also stipulate for an allowance for each unit per cent. which the dissolved bones should be found on analysis to contain less than the guaranteed percentages of the three substances already mentioned. 4. Mineral Superphosphates should be guaranteed to be delivered in a sufficiently dry and powdery condition, and to contain a certain percentage of soluble phosphate of lime, at a certain price per unit per cent., no value to be attached to ensoluble phosphates. 5. Compound Artificial Manures should be purchased in the same manner and with the same guarantees as Dissolved Bones. 6. Nitrate of Soda should be guaranteed by the vendor to contain from 94 to 95 per cent. of pure nitrate. 7. Sulphate of Ammonia should be guaranteed by the vendor to contain not less than 23 per cent. of ammonia. 8. Peruvian Guano should be sold under that name, and guaranteed to be in a dry and friable condition, and to contain a certain percentage of ammonia. N.B.—Artificial manures should be guaranteed to be delivered ina sufficiently dry and powdery condition to admit of distribution by the drill. A sample for analysis should be taken, not later than three days after delivery, by emptying several bags, mixing the contents together, and filling two tins holding’ about half a pound each, in the presence of a witness. Both the tins should be sealed, one kept by the purchaser for reference in case of dispute, and the other for- warded to a competent analytical chemist for examination, ( exit) INSTRUCTIONS FOR SELECTING AND SENDING SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. ARTIFICIAL MANURES.—Take a large handful of the manure from three or four bags, mix the whole on a large sheet of paper, breaking down with the hand any lumps present, and fold up in tinfoil, or in oil silk, about 3 oz. of the well-mixed sample, and send it to 12, Hanover Square, Lonpon, W., by post: or place the mixed manure in a small wooden or tin box, which may be tied by string, but must not be sealed, and send it by post. If the manure be very wet and lumpy, a larger boxful, weighing from 10 to 12 oz., should be sent either by post or railway. Samples not exceeding 4 oz. in weight may be sent by post, by attaching two penny postage stamps to the parcel. Samples not exceeding 8 oz., for three postage stamps. Samples not exceeding 12 0z., for four postage stamps. The parcels should be addressed: Dr. Aucustus VorELcKER, 12, HANOVER Square, Lonpon, W., and the address of the sender or the number or mark of the article be stated on parcels. The samples may be sent in covers, or in boxes, bags of linen or other materials. No parcel sent by post must exceed 12 oz. in weight, 1 foot 6 inches in length, 9 inches in width, and 6 inches in depth. SOILS.—Have a wooden box made 6 inches long and wide, and from 9 to 12 inches deep, according to the depth of soil and subsoil of the field. Mark out in the field a space of about 12 inches square; dig round in a slanting direction a trench, so as to leave undisturbed a block ef soil with its subsoil from 9 to 12 inches deep ; trim this block or plan of the field to make it fit into the wooden box, invert the open box over it, press down firmly, then pass a spade under the box and lift it up, gently turn over the box, nail on the lid and send it by goods or parcel to the laboratory. The soil will then be received in the exact position in which it is found in the field. In the case of very light, sandy, and porous soils, the wooden box may be at once inverted over the soil and forced down by pressure, and then dug out. WATERS.—Two gallons of water are required for analysis. The water, if possible, should be sent in glass-stoppered Winchester half-gallon bottles, which are readily obtained in any chemist and druggist’s shop. If Winchester bottles cannot be procured, the water may be sent in perfectly clean new stoneware spirit- jars surrounded by wickerwork. For the determination of the degree of hardness before and after boiling, only one quart wine-bottle full of water is required. LIMESTONES, MARLS, IRONSTONES, AND OTHER MINERALS.— Whole pieces, weighing from 3 to 4 oz., should be sent enclosed in small linen bags, or wrapped in paper. Postage 2d., if under 4 oz. OILCAKES.—Take a sample from the middle of the cake. To this end break a whole cake into two. Then break off a piece from the end where the two halves were joined together, and wrap it in paper, leaving the ends open, and send parcel by post. The piece should weigh from 10 to120z. Postage, 4d. If sent by railway, one quarter or half a cake should be forwarded. FEEDING MEALS.—Abont 3 oz. will be sufficient for-analysis. Enclose the meal in a small linen bag. Send it by post. On forwarding samples, separate letters should be sent to the laboratory, specifying the nature of the information required, and, if possible, the object in view. H. M. JENKINS, Secretary. ( cxiii_ ) Members’ Botanical and Entomological Privileges. The Council have fixed the following Rates of Charge for the examination of Plants, Seeds, and Insects for the bonda-fide use of Members of the Society, who are particularly requested, .when applying to the Consulting Botanist, to mention the kind of examination they require, and to quote its number in the subjoined Schedule. The charge for examination must be paid to the Consulting Botanist at the time of application, and the carriage of all parcels must be prepaid. I. BOTANICAL. No. 1.— ave’ agts ey Cava A Ea: d . Ong er i 7 Heat he ve! bease wo vite ‘bi veces ’ - er ‘ ; Lo » 7 if i , } ' > on 4 Lg . , 4 ¥ + i : : = * ‘ + wakes ale a: Sikes MUM mab kL) oe 1 hae ont 4e7.ai eases tone 15E FL wilt ps put? Aviat) 6° Saat Bre Ee : - ve rm? 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