Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/journalofroyalag2191 roya THE JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. SECOND SERIES. VOLUME THE NINETEENTH. PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE library ISEW ■ ORK botanical, C p U.DEN LONDON : JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1883. These experiments, it is true, are not east; still they are in the power of every THINKING HUSBANDMAN. HE WHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT ONE, OF HOWEVER LIMITED APPLICATION, AND TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND OF THOSE WHO COME AFTER. TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT BE EXPECTED. THE FIRST CARE OF ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR SCIENCE SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FORMS OF SUCII EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE THE EXECUTION OP T1IESB AMONG THEIR MEMBERS. Von Tuaer, Principles of Agriculture. LONDON.' PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. MAR 17 ISIS ( iii ) CONTENTS OF PART I., VOLUME XIX. Second Series. Statistics : — PAGE Meteorology for the year 1882 i-xi Report on the Hay-harvest forecasts for 1882 xn-xv Imports of Corn, &c., British Wheat sold, and Average Prices xvi-xx Number of Beasts exhibited, and the Prices realised for them at the Christmas Markets, since 1843 xxi Acreage under each description of Crop, Fallow, and Grass ; and Number of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs in Great Britain and Ireland, 1880, 1881, and 1882 xxn, xxm Importations and Average Prices of certain Foreign and Colonial Productions xxiv Statistics of Dairy Produce, and Prices Current .. .. xxv-xxix ARTICLE PAGE I. — Half-bred Horses for Field or Road : their Breeding and Management. By Earl Cathcart 1 II. — Shorthorns in Scotland and Ireland. By James Macdonald, Editor of ‘ The Farmers’ Gazette,’ Dublin 55 III. — Report on Wireworm. By Miss Eleanor A. Ormerod, Honorary Consulting Entomologist to the Society .. .. 104 IV. — Supplementary Memoranda to the Report of the Royal Com- mission on Agriculture by certain of the Commissioners 144 V. — Dairying in Denmark. By H. M. Jenkins, F.G.S., Secretary of the Society, and Editor of the * Journal ’ 155 VI. — Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping. By H. M. Jenkins, F.G.S., Secretary of the Society and Editor of the ‘ Journal ’ 184 VII. — Diagrams showing the Fluctuations in the recorded Weekly Average Prices of Wheat from 1863-1882 inclusive. By Henry Allnutt, 3, Holland Road, Kensington 206 VIII. — Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments conducted at Woburn on behalf of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, during the year 1882. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S., Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society 209 IX. — Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1882 .. .. 235 X. — Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1882 .. .. 248 XI. — Annual Report of the Consulting Botanist for 1882. By W. Carruthers, F.R.S. ' 257 XII. — The late C. E. Amos, C.E., formerly Consulting Engineer to the Society. By Sir B. T. Brandreth Gibbs, Vice- President of the Society 263 17 CONTENT?, ARTICLE PAC.F. XIII. — The late Joseph Shuttlcvorth 270 XIY. — The Natural History of the Liver-Fluke and the Prevention of Rot. By A. P. Thomas, M.A., F.L.S., Balliol College, Oxford; Professor of Natural Science in the University College, Auckland, New Zealand 27G Additions to the Library in 18S2 300 APPENDIX. FACE List of Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1883 .. i Standing Committees for 1883 iii Report of the Council to the General Meeting, December 7, 1882 .. v Distribution of Members and Council x Half-yearly Cash Account from 1st July to 31st December, 1882 .. xii Yearly Cash Account from 1st January to 31st December, 1882 .. .. xiv Country Meeting Account : Reading, 1882 xvi Memoranda of Meetings, Payment of Subscriptions, Ac. xviii Members’ Veterinary Privileges xix Members’ Chemical Privileges ' xx Guide to the Purchase of Artificial Manures and Feeding Stulls .. .. xxi Members’ Botanical and Entomological Privileges xxiii DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. The Binder is desired to collect together all the Appendix matter, wilh Homan numeral folios, ami place it at the end of each volume of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Statistics Ac., which are In all cases to be placed at the beginvivg of the Volume; the lettering at the back to includ-1 a statement of the year as well as the volume; the first volume belonging to 1839-40, the second to 1841, the third to 1842, the fourth to 1843, and so on. In Reprints of the Journal all Appendix matter and. in one instance, an Article in the body of the Journal (which at the time had become obsolete), were omitted ; the Roman numeral folios, however (for convenience of reference), were reprinted without alteration in the Appendix mutter retained. Wheat Tables for the years 1365 to 1882 to follow page 208. METEOROLOGY ; IMPORTATIONS OF GRAIN ; SALES OF BRITISH WHEAT ; PRICES OF CORN AND OTHER PRODUCE; AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS; AND STA- TISTICS OF DAIRY PRODUCE. [The facts are derived chiefly from the Meteorological Reports of Mr. Glaisher, and the Returns of the Board of Trade and of the Inspector- General of Imports and Exports.] METEOROLOGY.— 1882. First Quarter ( January , February, March). — The mean reading of the barometer during the quarter was 30- 03 inches, and was more than a quarter of an inch above the mean reading for the corre- sponding period of 40 years. The weather in January was remarkable for very high readings of the barometer and high mean atmospheric pressure for the month; total absence of snow, the very few nights on which the temperature on the grass was below 32°, and consequently very few and slight frosts, and almost total absence of north and north-east winds. It was a mild pleasant month, being very warm during the first fortnight, and the last 5 days with a rainfall below the average ; at the end of the month all agriculture was a month in advance, and many flowers were in blossom in addition to the usual January flowers. The weather in February was mild and pleasant, with a high barometer continuing till near the end of the month, and a high temperature from the 11th day; vegetation was very forward at the end of the month. The weather in March was singularly mild and pleasant, being exceptionally warm during the first 20 days, and quite genial ; on the 21st and 22nd, a little snow was general over the country, and the temperature on the 21st, 22nd, and 23rd was slightly below the average, but it became warm again on the 24th. The weather from November to this time was most favourable for farming work, and at the end of the quarter vegetation was very forward. VOL. XIX.— S. S. A ( II ) The mean temperature of the air for the quarter was 42°*7, and exceeded by 4° the average for the corresponding period in 111 years. The rainfall measured at Greenwich during the quarter was 3'63 inches, and was nearly an inch and a half below the average amount in the corresponding periods of 66 years. The recorded amount showed a deficiency of about half an inch in each of the three months of the quarter. Rain was measured at Greenwich on 10 days in January, 8 in February, and 11 in March; in all, on 29 of the 90 days of the quarter. At 42 stations of observation the recorded rainfall of the quarter ranged from 2*96 inches at Bournemouth, to 12T3 inches and 12*83 inches respectively, at Cockermouth and Stonyhurst. The number of hours of bright sunshine recorded at Greenwich during the quarter was 179*7, against 172*0, the average amount recorded in the corresponding quarters of the four years 1878-81. Second Quarter (April, May, June'). — The mean reading of the barometer during the quarter was 29*737 inches, and was 0*046 below the mean reading for the corresponding period of 40 years; the mean showed an excess in May, but was below the average in April and June. The weather in April was generally warm till towards the end of the month, with frequent rain, the total being in excess of the average, but not more than was needed, the three preceding months having been drier than usual. The atmospheric pressure was in excess of the average till the 10th, and generally in defect after- wards. The prevailing winds were from the S., S.W., and W. On the 28th there were violent gales of wind and squalls passing- over Jersey and Guernsey, and on the 29th a severe gale passed over the South of Wales and the South of England, which proved to be very injurious to fruit trees, and the foliage of trees through- out its course. This gale was thought to be in some places as severe as that of October 14th, 1881. The observer at Osborne says, twelve large trees were overturned ; the observer at South - bourne says, houses were unroofed. At all places the leaves of trees on the S.W. or windward side were spoken of as blackened, as if by frost, or as if scorched by fire ; this effect was attributed by several observers to saline matter carried by tho wind. The gale entirely changed the appearance of the country over which it passed, but it did not extend far north. At Cambridge there was a gale after 3 p.m. ; at Oxford a storm from 5 p.m. to 9 p.m. ; at. Lowestoft a gale after 4 p.m.; at Hull the day was fine with showers; at Bradford the day was fine throughout ; at Stonyhurst ( III ) there was a snowstorm, and snow fell at Liverpool and Bolton. The instances of rain exceeding an inch in one day, were on the 1st at Plymouth, on the 12th atTotnes, on the 13th at Stonyhurst, on the 25th at Caterham and London, on the 29th at Wrottesley, Bolton, and Bradford, and on the 30th at Halifax. The weather in May, with the exception of about a week in the beginning of the month, was warm and genial. The fall of rain at most places was less than the average. The atmospheric pres- sure, except from the 20 th to the 26 th, was generally above the average. The month was favourable to all growing crops, grass abundant ; there was no instance at any of the stations of a fall of rain to the depth of an inch on one day during the month. The weather in June was cold and unseasonable throughout, the temperature, with the exception of 2 or 3 days at the beginning of the month, was below its average. The atmospheric pressure was below its average from the 3rd to the 14th, and from the 18th to the 24th ; the weather was variable ; the fall of rain was in excess of the average, it was a wet, ungenial month, and bad for hay-making, and proved to be the coldest June since 1871. The mean temperature of the air for the quarter was 53o-0, and exceeded the average for the corresponding period of 111 years by 0°-7. The amount of rain measured at Greenwich during the quarter was 6T3 inches, and was about the third of an inch below the average amount in the corresponding periods of 66 years. The amount in May was 0-71 of an inch below the average, whereas an excess of 0-65 and 036 of an inch respectively was recorded in April and June. Rain was measured at Greenwich on 13 days in April, 11 in May, and 19 in June ; in all, on 43 of the 91 days in the quarter. The number of hours of bright sunshine recorded at Green- wich during the quarter was 5106, showing an excess of 48-7 hours upon the average amount recorded in the corresponding quarters of the five years 1877-81. Tlnrd Quarter {July, August, September ). — The mean reading of the barometer was 29'709 inches, and was 0086 below the mean reading for the corresponding periods of 40 years ; the mean read- ing for each month was below the average. With the exception of the first three days, which were fine and warm, the month of July was cold ; the maximum temperature in the month, at many stations south of latitude 52°, did not rise above 73° or 74°, and it exceeded 78° at a very few places indeed over the country ; it was in this respect a great contrast to July A 2 ( IV ) 1881, in which month the temperature exceeded 90° on two days, and was above 80° on many days. The atmospheric pressure was generally below its average, and rain fell in showers on 17 to 20 days at stations situated in the south of England, the number gradu- ally increasing to 25, and to 29 at northern stations. The wind was mostly from the S.W., frequently blowing strongly, and there was almost a total absence of wind from the east. The month was cold, wet, and ungenial — a bad month for haymaking, and many fields remained uncut at the end of the month. The month of August was moderately fine at the beginning, but cold and showery from the 14th ; the maximum temperatures in this month were low, at many stations not reaching 80° during the whole month, and the stations at which it exceeded 80° were few in number. The fall of rain was generally less than the average. The atmospheric pressure was above its average till the 11th, and was, with the exception of the 17th, constantly below it during the remainder of the month. The weather in the month of September, during the first week was moderately fine, but from the 7th was cold and unsettled ; the highest temperature reached in the month was less than 70° at several stations, but exceeded 70° generally; the mean temperature of the month was lower than of any other September back to 1863, excepting that of 1877 ; the atmospheric pressure was constantly below its average from the 10th to the 29th; rain was generally less than the average, but was above at a few stations. The month on the whole was cold, and the air more humid than usual, parti- cularly in the Midland Counties, and in the early afternoon hours, causing harvest operations to be slow. Upon the whole the unsettled weather which began in June continued till the end of this quarter ; the number of days within these four months which could be described as summer-like have been very few. The mean temperature of the air in the quarter was 58°T, and was 1°‘6 below the average for the corresponding period in 111 years. The amount of rain measured at Greenwich during the quarter was 6-01 inches, and was nearly an inch and a half below the average amount in the corresponding periods of 66 years. The deficiency of rainfall was 1'29 inches in August, and the fall was slightly below the average in each of the other months of the quarter. Rain was measured at Greenwich on 19 days in July, 15 in August, and 14 in September; in all, on 48 of the 92 days in the quarter. At 39 stations of observation the recorded rain- ( V ) fall of the quarter ranged from 4-73 inches at Boyston, to 15*55 inches at Barnstaple, and 16*34 inches at Stonyhurst. The number of hours of bright sunshine recorded at Greenwich during the quarter was 420*4, and was identical with the number in the corresponding period of last year ; the average amount in the third or summer quarters of the five years 1877-81 was 412*6 hours. Fourth, Quarter ( October , November, December). — The mean reading of the barometer during the quarter was 29*560 inches, and was 0*191 below the mean reading for the corresponding periods in 41 years ; the mean reading for each month was below the average, the largest deficiency occurring in December. The first half of the month of October was warm, and the second half cold. The atmospheric pressure was above its average for the first 10 days, and below it afterwards. Bain fell at most stations in the Southern and Midland Counties to more than double the average ; lowlands were flooded ; there was a gale of wind on the 24th, with snow at many places ; the fall of rain on this day was heavy, and exceeded 1 inch in depth at several stations. The month of November was warm during the first 10 days, cold from the 11th to the 21st; then warm and cold alternately. Through- out this month the atmospheric pressure was low ; the weather was unsettled and changeable, and farm work was almost at a stand- still, owing to the wetness of the land. December. — Till the 15th day the weather was foggy and very cold, at times severely so, snow falling frequently ; it was warm from the 16th to the end of the month, remarkably so from the 26th. The atmospheric pressure was almost continuously below the average. The mean temperature of the air in the quarter was 44c*8, and. was 1°*2 above the average for the corresponding period in 111 years. The rainfall measured at Greenwich during the quarter was 9*39 inches, and was two and a quarter inches above the average amount in the corresponding periods of 66 years. The rainfall in October was equal to 5*42 inches, and 2*62 above the average ; whereas the amounts measured in November and in December were both slightly below the average. Bain was measured at Green- wich on 23 days in October, 19 in November, and 17 in December; in all, on 59 of the 92 days in the quarter. The number of hours of bright sunshine recorded at Greenwich during the quarter was 134*3, and was 24*6 below the average number recorded in the five preceding corresponding periods. ( YI ) Diagram representing the Annual Rainfall at Greenwich during each Year for Eighteen Years, from January 1, 1865, to December 31, 1882 — in continuation of Diagram II. in vol. ii. of this Journal (Second Series), Part I. p. 70. Id. 36 33 34 33 32 3i 3° 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 l8' 17 l6 15 The mean rainfall at Greenwich for the period (1865-82) was 26'2 inches. The largest rainfall was in the year 1879, and amounted to 31 '3 inches. The lowest was 18‘5 inches, and occurred in 1870. The extreme amount of range was, therefore, 12-8 inches. Fall of Rain in Inches at Greenwich. 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 29-0 }0"1 28-4 25-2| 24-0 18-5 22*J jo*o 29 *4 1 20*0 28*2 24*2 26*9 I I 29*2 91*9 29*8 2J*2 25*2 With reference to the rainfall in 1872, Mr. Glaisher reports that the fall in January was large, being as much as 1-7 in. in excess, but in February less rain than the average fall was mea- sured to the extent of 0-8in. In March the amount again exceeded its average, but only to the amount of 0’5 in. ; and in the next three months the falls were slightly in defect in April and June, but in excess to almost the same amount in May. In July the amount was nearly the same as its average, in August slightly in excess, but in September as much as 1-0 in. in defect. The rainfall, how- ever, in these months was much heavier in the Northern than in ( YII ) the Southern Counties, and harvesting was frequently interrupted both in August and September by heavy rains and frequent thunderstorms, so that by the end of September very little pro- gress had been made either in the north of Ireland or in Scotland, where operations were still further checked by sleet and snow. In the next three months the frequency of rain was a most remarkable feature. During this period it fell on no fewer than 67 days, a larger number than had been previously experienced at Greenwich since the year 1815. The total amount was large, amounting to 11-32 inches, a quantity no less than 4'2 inches in excess of the average. In 58 years this fall has but once been exceeded in the corresponding three months, viz., in 1821, when it was 11-47 inches, or 0-15 in. greater; and back to 1815 there is only one other year in which a greater quantity xthan 11 inches was recorded, viz., in 1852, 11-13 inches. This unusual frequency of rain was general over the country. At Stonyhurst, rain fell on 89 days, and at Guernsey on 80 days, whilst the general average over the country was 67 days. The amount at Guernsey was very remarkable, being as much as 25j inches. The mean amount from all the stations was 13-97 inches, being more than double the fall in the corresponding period of 1871, which was 6"09 inches. The total rainfalls for the year 1872 ranged from 65-4 inches at Allenheads, to 28-5 inches at Eoysion, and the number of rainy days from 319 at Stonyhurst, to 156 at Holkham. In the year 1879 there was an excess of rain in every month excepting March, and the last three months of the year; this excess being particularly great in the months, May to August. The greatest total fall in the year was 56-77 inches at Sharpies near Bolton, the next in order being 47-71 inches at Helston, 42-4 inches at Stonyhurst, and the least was 26-19 inches at Carlisle; the next in order being 27-10 inches at North Shields, and 27-41 inches at Lowestoft. The greatest number of days on which rain fell was 240 at Bradford, 225 at Bywell, 223 at Stonyhurst, and 215 at Truro. Table I. — Meteorological Observations recorded at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in the First Six Months of the Year 1882. ( VIII ; Weight of Vapour In a Cubic Foot of Air. Dlff. from average of 41 years. ^ t/i in 2obb + + + o + . re m o as • . • £b o O O + + o + 1 1 i D 3 • vO 00 O M) fl o re J M O M ^ fA ^ o r*\ Elastic Force of Vapour. Dlff. from average of 41 years. ^ M M re a o O o ~ o o o + + + re r^ O O + OO O ^ . m re O a o o o b o o + + + M o o + S 0> s N CO vD p re rr\ ar\ J n n n boo ON r*N re O m oo vO p r->* t-* nO „ re fA ia boo oo re r'N o Temperature of O J3 C as ■*» g o : : : o • • “ •* to 1 >» *3 Diff. from average of 41 years. vr\ 0> o • • • 0 O r» 1 + + ON o + v£5 vO 1 — ° O M r'N 1 + 1 ON 0 1 | i B 3 m vrs ° ^ h r» re OO O Nf ° re r^. m re ON + 3 "o CU £ Q Dlff. from average of 41 years. LA M so o • • re rv> -3* + + + r-t + O' O re O • • • M LH O + + 1 1 M OO ° r- oo O r«A *v> ON oo rr\ NO ° re o O Tj- ^ LAN o a © T3 as Li a as > w Diff. from average of 41 years. re OO re ° re re V + + + M rA + re o • . + + 7 NO o + 1 O ^ iA o c\ o rr\ rf o Nt' fA tA ® iA O ^ rf iA tA r» ON h 3 Diff. from average of 41 years. M r^ o • • • re re rj- + + + ON re + OO ON ° O ^ re + + I M o + Diff. from average of 111 years. O' ‘i O' o . . • n fA + + + O + OO O f''* o • • • m re m + + 1 o + 9 9 3 ^ oo o o • • • O « vO t>» re On la vr» ° f-* vO ^ VA o rr> VA 1882. Months. January .. February . . March a 08 S . o >H ZX 2< wS 3 •**1 3 ^ CO 0 2 3 Note.— Id reading this Tuble it will be borne in mind that the minus sign ( — ) signifies below the average, and that the plus sign (•+■) signifies above the average. Table II. — Meteorological Observations recorded at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in the Last Six Months of the Year 1882. ( IX ) Weight of Vapour In a Cubic Foot of Air. Diff. from average of 41 years. f'O M T*- g o o o & i i i r*A 0 1 *-* M O “boo “ + i o o I a . tA vO O Hi ^ ^ V ■ef V oo so ® • • ^ ^ re re o r*A Elastic Force of Vapour. Diff. from average of 41 years. rr\ *h re M m re ° ° O •Hobo 1 1 1 o> o 0 1 O re so M M O O O O •2 o o o + 1 + O O o + d . $ a vD O' OO O O STA rt ^ o o o o> r*A O O ^ k-A r/A rv> re • rs^ re re “boo fA SO re o Temperature of Water of the Thames. ° ‘ • * • ° • • • rrs 1 tao a <2 ►» *oS ft Diff. from average of 41 years. tI* O' o> O • n o o i i i T oo c O 0 M M « 1 1 1 § a vO OO Tt* ° oo oo r-. r a re oo O * • * r*A r/A 0 vr> n UA sO vO o • oo rs vj" rr fA re a .2 % a. ► W Diff. from average of 41 years. re re O O • • M C« 1 1 I saa T re m vta ° ~ O O + i + *-r\ o + fl eg V a sO rr\ O O • • vO O re kA tA VA o k-o re re o o os M os rrv M r*A 5 Diff. from average of 41 yeais. OO g October . . November . . December .. CD ft cS sgj- Highest 46" 6 sr\ r* c» 0 t-< » O ° tj- fA re, fi N fA Lowest 23-7 Number of Nights It was Above 40°. O sr\ 2 00 3 w r*-\ r* m c< a O I * CO Between 30° and 40°. o o o (i M H a 0 3 C/3 VO A* US a 5 - At or below 30°. ►h ur\ sO M M M 2 3 rf W m r>. 0 M 2 00 GQ ** Daily Horizontal movement of the Air. CO U"\ C> V sO ON ■'tf- g A IA t 5) tA VA VA N*- UN U-\ . O OO r+\ 2 -tf* r*s as kA VA Fs «**S US Reading of Barometer. Diff. from average of 41 years. on oo r->* *- sO ON d r1" r ? ~ o o b + + + M VO H & Note.— In reading this Table it will be borne in mind that thejdws sign (+) signifies abate the average, and that the minus Bign (-) signifies below the average. Table IV. — Meteorological Observations recorded at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in the Last Six Months op the Year 1882. C XI ) Reading of Thermometer on Gross. * 59 3 55 O' ao d tA tA *D fl; OO ’so »A — VAN ° ^- oo van ^ Highest 54' 2 *9 © •= ^ 5 *5 *39 si * 0 0 0 ° O d' O' »vn 2 o 9 S' O A* fVN o oo O r* m «s 1 « % “ Number of Nights it was © a* O oo f*N c« s 2 s o CG kt rv r— P 0° I " CG Between 3U° and 40°. M l>» M r* 2 O' rf o o d d d 1 CG ^ o §o* JZ 3 O O -• 1 w CG ~N ,4- a cc S* Dally Horizontal movement of the Air. ® IA fA CO — O O r« ^ c« r« P VAN £ r« m O' O' OO ^ o ^ OO — c* 'T c* s § £ s £ s ^ Rain. Dlff. from average of GG years. — £ o •S o o 1 1 1 a ?• 3 M M T c< van r* O *-> r* ■2 r» o O + 1 1 VAN a r 3 d • + p o = < kA C O P ^ (i w rt i ° w o c« O' OO =- rj- i-i VAN C* d i s ” o Weight of a Cubic Foot of Air. DifT. from average of 41 years. . O d M £ “ + + M + . (S ^ VAN “III 1 3 S . OO O' T}- w a* «v> U) kA kA VA O Ar> VAN . OO Tj- £ «^N Tt- -tf- tX VAN VAN VAN r*N VAN Reading of Barometer. Dlff. from average of 41 years. O' n rx O' ^ M d O O d "boo 1 1 1 o oo O 0 1 fA rx N VAN d O g O f^N ~ o o o i i i O' 0 1 d 1 s O O O ■<*- oo fl 1^1^° O' O' O' r* r* M O' o r>» O' c< O r* AA VAN A/ N C' g O VAN O' O O' c« c» o o VAN O' c* Degree of Humidity. Dlff. from average of 41 years. n ^ + + + r*N + c» r* «vn + i + M + P eJ © oo O van oo oo co CO O d OO OO O' OO OO 1882. Months. July .. .. August September 2 5 o s October November December ® a 3 | Glastonbury • ) 47 41 IO 2 83 Ireland, N ( Antrim, Hollymount, andi 1 Moynalty j 47 33 14 6 80 Ireland, S (Monevgall, New Ross, andl \ Ardfert Abbey .. 63 29 8 •• 92 Mean for all districts, 1882 5° 37 II 2 87 „ „ 1881 29 47 21 3 76 “ The remarks made by Mr. Smith (for the Hon. P. Egerton) and by Mr. Mitchell, of Drynie, Inverness, are worthy of note (see remarks on detailed table). “ I am, &c., “ (Signed) Fredc. Gaster. To R. H. Scott, Esq., “ Secretary , Meteorological Council.'' ( XIV ) HAT HAEVEST Beturn showing the Number of Forecasts sent to each OTHERWISE OF Districts. To whom sent. Addresses. 0. Scotland, N. 1. Scotland, E. 2. England, N.E. .. 3. England, E. 4. Midland Counties 5. England, S. 6. Scotland, W. .. 7. England, N.W. . . 8. England, S.W. .. 9. Ireland, N. 10. Ireland, S (— Melville, for the! | Rev. Dr. Joass J. R. Mitchell W. S. Macdonald G. Johnstone J. Wilson J. Turner (W. Birlibeck \Sir J. B. Lawes, Bart (Professor Ohm .. Charles King, for the) Duke of Somerset . /C. Whitehead .. \E. P. Squarey .. J. S. R. Balliugal C. H. H. Wilsone, of Dalnair (the late) . G. W. Wray .. . F. Harrison, for the! Earl of Derby . . / |J. F. Smith, for the) Hon. P. Egerton (R. Neville .. J. Harle, for the Earl) of Ducie . . T. Dyke .. .. Colonel J. P. Turbei . vill W. M. Kirk, per J Hanson . . Rev. A. Brown .. C. C. Hamilton .. W. Bradshaw, for T Crosbie . . ID. A. M‘Cready ID. A. Mil ward . Dunrobin Gardens, Golspie Drynie, Inverness Craigielaw, Longniddry Glands, by Forfar . . Woodhorn Manor, Morpeth The Grange, Ulceby . . Thorpe, Norwich .. Rothamsted, Harpenden Royal Agricultural Colleg Cirencester Gerrard’s Cross, Bucks Barming House, Maidstone The Moot, Downton, Wilts Eallabus, Bridgend, Islay Endrick Bank, Drymen Leyburu, Yorkshire Knowsley Gardens, Prescot Tatton Park, Knutsford Butleigh Court, Glastonbury Whitfield, Falfield, R.S.O. .. Long Ashton, Clifton, Bristol Ewenny Priory, Bridgend,! Glamorgan / The Bush, Antrim The Manse, Ilollymount, Co.l Mayo / Cherry mount, Moynalty, Co.l Meath.. .. / Ardfert, Co. Kerry Larchvale, Moneygall, King’s! Co / Kilkenny ( XV ) FOEECASTS, 1882. OF THE UNDEEMENTIONED PERSONS, WITH THE SUCCESS OE THE FORECASTS. 1 No. of No. of Percentages. 1 Fore- Fore- Remarks. casts | casts Complete Partial Partial Total sent. checked. Success. Soccess. Failure. Failure. 3o 30 36-7 43A 16-7 3'3 | Mr. Mitchell says : “ Reports very 30 29 58-6 27-6 13-8 .. 1 correct on the whole, except j that thunder-storms are not (. foretold.” 30 29 55 ’2 3i*o io*3 3-5 3° 29 58-6 31-0 10*4 — 3° 29 34*5 51-7 10-3 3‘5 30 29 44-8 41-4 13-8 30 29 51-7 32-0 13-8 3'5 30 23 60 -8 I7‘4 21-8 •• 30 29 58-6 34'5 6-9 • • 3° 23 30-4 56-5 8-7 4‘4 30 29 55-2 31-0 6*9 6*9 30 29 51*7 38^0 10-3 •• 30 22 40-9 45*5 9*2 4-5 30 29 4i'3 5i*7 3*5 3‘5 30 29 5I-7 34"5 13-8 .. 30 29 55-i 38 *o 6-9 1 Mr. Smith says that the forecasts 58 29 44-8 52-7 1 were looked for by all the resi- 3 0 j dents, and that they have been [ a great boon to the farmers. 42 30 53*3 40*0 6-7 42 41 51-2 36-6 9*8 2-4 42 41 36-6 4i-5 29-5 2-4 42 41 46-3 48-9 4-8 •• 30 29 31-0 44*3 20-7 35 30 29 55-i 20-7 13-8 10*4 30 29 55-i 34-5 6-9 3'5 30 29 75 ‘9 23-8 10-3 .. 30 29 62*0 38-0 .. .. 30 30 50*0 36*7 I3-3 •• ( XVI ) CORN : Importations, Sales, and Prices. Table V. — Quantities of Wheat, Wheatmeal, and Flour, Barley, Oats, Peas and Beans, Imported into the United Kingdom in the Year 1882. 1882. meat. Wheatmeal and Flour. Barley. Oats. Peas. Beans. January .. February March April May June cwts. 4,612,057 4,625,345 4,874,488 4,841,876 4,118,270 4,546,257 cwts. 738,599 814,563 1,082,243 955,075 1,005 ,224 962,475 cwts. 1,280, 293 959.485 1,068, 500 1,066,124 1,048,493 925,955 cwts. 726,230 459,494 697,128 627,200 1,329,426 1,280,628 cwts. 44,232 72,417 112,912 233,233 211,771 339,643 cwts. 145,203 190,051 96,997 117.274 2n ,293 232,201 In first Sixl Months / 27,618,293 5,558,179 6,348,850 5 , 120,106 1,014,208 993,019 July.. August . . September October . . November December 5,569,960 7,462,798 8,071,886 6,761,008 4,132,113 4,555.964 1,046,392 1,138,926 1,175,216 1,261,493 1,292,616 1,555,883 810,543 816,284 826,956 U737,oi7 2,358,466 2,621,734 1,589,246 1,668,953 1,247,625 986,226 1,172,898 1,861 ,097 249,750 76,459 63,827 74.8ir 311,272 309,870 301,884 140,577 59,391 105,298 1,608,858 313,266 In last Six'! Months j 36,553,329 7,470,526 9,171,000 8,526,045 1,085,989 1,081,274 Year .. 64,171,622 13,028,705 15,519.850 13,646,151 2,100,197 2,074,293 Note. — The average weights per quarter of corn, as adopted in the office of the Inspector-General of Imports and Exports, are as follow : — For wheat, 485J lbs., or 4J cwts. ; for barley, 400 lbs., or 31 cwts. ; for oats, 308 lbs., or 2f cwts. Corn has been entered by weight instead of measure since September, 1864. No duty has been charged since 1st June, 1869. Table VI. — Computed Real Value of Corn Imported into the United Kingdom in each of the Seven Years, 1876-82. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. Wheat Barley Oats Maize Other kinds Wheat Flour Other kinds 1 of Flour / £. 23,140,766 3,745,420 4,619,427 12,744,432 2,555,397 4,729,206 U.474 £. 33,820,084 5.396,791 4,998,864 9,851, 236 2,321,922 6,803,327 17,284 £. 27.397,487 5.545,802 4,553,946 12,589,422 1,463,433 6,790,320 32,214 £. 31,329,500 4,798,923 4,500,760 9,802,249 1,634,064 8,505,308 25,585 £. 30,604,285 4,998,442 4,946,440 11,141,642 1,920,787 8,721,269 36,845 £. 31,466,804 4,069,402 3,781.013 10, 392,460 1,617,820 9,205,807 24,007 £. 34,237,0 5,54i,4 4,603,9 6,522,0 1,637,2 10,631,9' 21,9 Total of \ Com . . / 51,550,122 1 63,209,508^8,372,624 60,596,389 62,369,710 60,557.313 63, '95,* ( XVII Tabt.f, VII. — Quantities of British Wheat Sold in the Towns from which Returns are received under the Act of the 27th & 28th Victoria, cap. 87, and their Average Prices, in each of the Twelve Months of the Years 1870-82. Quantities in Quarters. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. First month .. Second month Third montli ) (five weeks) / Fourth month Fifth month .. Sixth month \ (five weeks) j Seventh month Eighth montli Ninth month 1 (five weeks) / Tenth montli Eleventh month Twelfth month 1 (five weeks) 1 quarters. 154.367 188,539 208.367 160,868 174,153 188, 6ii 90,626 88,030 I 3 1 4 , 3 2 7 216,393 192,440 225,254 quarters. 152,557 173,729 213,718 150,012 132,231 122,390 77,674 89,759 225,659 217, 046 175,262 212,627 quarters. 146,848 164,387 174,025 146,933 166,909 137,981 82,597 119,611 272,699 329,564 2l6, 187 276,943 quarters. 183,223 237,861 234,469 197,918 “7,295 229,307 105,139 71,525 75,374 96, 261 156,218 207, 5ir quarters. I 24,422 142,857 136,613 106,170 104,125 127,132 71,622 54.641 153,752 197,757 172,153 218.641 quarters. 122,533 119,219 164,942 120,177 130,235 113,386 57,333 49,329 197. 351 231,960 194,080 215,547 quarters. 181,182 175.829 169,155 142,321 I43,86r II2,8l8 51,130 42,363 229,765 217,416 192,704 245,290 Average Prices per Quarter. 1876. 1877. . 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. s. d. s. d. 8. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. First month . . 44 11 5i 7 51 11 39 3 46 2 42 7 45 8 Second month Third month I 43 4 5i 8 51 5 38 0 44 0 41 10 46 0 (five weeks) 1 43 1 5i 1 49 8 39 7 56 5 42 ii 44 9 Fourth month 44 11 53 4 5i 3 41 0 48 2 44 8 46 2 Fifth month .. Sixth month 1 45 ° 65 10 51 11 40 10 45 4 44 6 47 4 (five weeks) / 47 ° 64 6 48 0 41 8 45 1 44 9 47 4 Seventh month 48 6 62 9 44 11 44 6 43 9 46 8 48 10 Eighth month Ninth month ) 46 4 64 j 1 44 7 49 4 44 0 48 7 50 O (five weeks) / 46 8 59 1 44 1 47 7 41 9 5i 4 44 0 Tenth month . . 46 7 53 7 39 7 48 10 41 4 47 0 39 8 Eleventh month Twelfth month 1 48 0 52 3 40 r 49 4 43 7 45 ri 40 TO (five weeks) / 49 9 5i 6 40 8 46 7 44 2 44 7 41 5 VOL. XIX. — S. S. p. ( XVII l ) Table VIII. — Average Prices of British Corn per Quarter (Imperial measure) as received from the Inspectors and Officers of Excise accord- ing to the Act of 27th & 28tli Victoria, cap. 87, in each of the Fifty- two Weeks of the Year 1882. Week ending Wheat. Barley. Oats. Week ending Wheat. Barley. Oats. 8. d. 8. d. 8. d. 8. d. s. d. 8. d. January 7- 44 9 31 IO 20 3 July 8.. 47 7 27 4 24 6 January 14.. 45 5 32 9 20 3 July 15 .. 48 5 26 5 25 3 January 21 .. 46 I 33 2 20 1 I July 22.. 49 2 27 8 24 6 January 28.. 46 3 33 4 20 4 July 29.. 5° O 27 I 25 9 February 4-. 46 I 33 2 20 9 August 5 . . 5 1 3 29 J 25 3 February ir .. 46 5 32 5 20 8 August 12.. 5° 6 26 7 22 I I February 1 8 . . 46 O 31 10 21 I August 19.. 50 5 26 1 24 5 February 25.. 45 7 31 4 20 7 August 26.. 47 IO 30 4 24 9 March 4.. 44 9 30 8 21 8 September 2 47 3 36 2 23 6 Marcli 11 .. 44 9 3° 5 21 I September 9 45 9 36 O 22 9 March 18.. 44 7 3° O 21 o September 16 44 5 36 II 22 O March 25 .. 44 5 3° I 21 1 September 23 42 I 36 I 21 4 April 1 .. 45 I 3° II 21 6 September 30 40 4 34 IO 20 2 Average °f 1 Average of j Winter > 45 5 31 9 20 II Summer i 46 9 28 7 22 6 Quarter ) Quarter ) April 8.. 45 5 30 O 2 r 3 October 7 . . 39 6 34 4 19 IO April 15 •• 45 II 28 7 21 7 October 14.. 39 2 34 O 19 I April 22 .. 46 3 28 9 22 3 October 21.. 39 7 34 5 19 9 May 29.. 46 1 I 30 7 22 5 October 28.. 40 3 34 4 19 10 May 6.. 47 2 28 5 22 8 November 4 40 II 34 5 20 2 May 13.. 46 II 28 9 21 8 November 1 1 40 I 1 34 I 20 7 May 20 .. 47 O 27 i r 23 O November 18 40 8 34 4 20 6 May 27 .. 48 I 28 4 22 7 November 25 40 II 34 4 20 4 ’ June 3-. 47 7 28 4 33 3 December 2 4i 5 34 6 20 7 June IO .. 47 9 27 5 23 9 December 9 4i 8 34 5 20 9 June 17.. 47 5 26 6 23 2 December 16 4i 6 33 8 20 9 June 24.. 46 1 I 27 6 23 7 December 23 41 6 33 2 22 O July I .. 46 1 1 25 10 23 J I December 30 40 II 32 8 20 5 Average of ) Average of J Spring \ 47 3 3° 6 23 7 Autumn i 40 8 34 o 20 4 ( XIX ) 1'ahle IX.— Quantities of Wheat, Barley, Oats, Peas, Beans, Indian Corn or Maize, Wheatmeal, and Flour, Imported in the Five Years 1878-82 ; also the Countries from which the Wheat, Wiieatmeal, and Flour were obtained. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. Wheat from — cwts. cwts. cwts. cwts. cwts. Russia 9,032,930 7.975,144 2,880, 108 4,018,895 9,571,021 Denmark * * T * * Germany 5,118,135 3,616,419 1,608,275 1.361,724 3,083,921 France 11,200 17,793 1,446 6,693 7,379 Turkey and Roumania . . 240, 105 170,354 127,140 248,387 721,030 Egypt 217,498 2,064,397 1,590,957 1,070,488 174,862 United States 28,963,901 35,976,805 36,089,869 36,038,074 35,059,623 Chili 50,573 1,372,461 1,343,860 i,09r,803 1, 656,361 British India 1,819,304 887,256 3,247,242 7,308,842 8,477,479 Australia 1,459,850 2,245,657 4,267,743 2,978,130 2,475,127 British North America.. 2,603 ,586 4,676,686 3,893,544 2,860,854 2,684,828 Other countries .. 294,561 365,168 147,120 58,779 259,991 Total Wheat 49,811,643 59,368,140 55.197,304 57,042,669 64,171,622 Barley 14,162,028 11,541,098 11,685,527 9,811,051 15,519,850 3ats 12,765,789 13,482,607 13,862,430 io,336,795 13,646,151 Peas 1,804,733 1,916,777 2,141,438 1,972,724 2,100,197 leans . . 1,870,508 2,310,101 2,574, 759 2,070,199 2,074,293 ndian Com, or Maize 41,631,348 36,078,586 37,153,658 33,429,722 18, 25 5, -285 -Vheatmeal and Flour from — Germany 1,118,761 914,483 977,756 1,388,218 1,990,403 France 696,059 355,229 279,435 203,296 220, 269 United States 3,635,200 6,863,172 6,908,352 7,696,415 7* 7^7,262 British North America . . 294,448 460,435 5 2 r, 702 260,342 339,305 Other countries 2,079,531 2,137.239 1,903,337 1,812,139 2,701,466 Total Whcatmeal and\ Flour / 7,823,999 0 0 00 10,590,582 11,360,410 13,028,705 idian Com Meal .. .. 41,679 37,080 55*379 25,137 16,422 * Included under “ Other Countries.” VOL. XIX. — S. S. C ( XX ) Table X. — Average Prices of Consols, of Wheat, and of Meat ; also the Average Number of Paupers relieved on the last day of each Week ; and the Mean Temperature, in each of the Twelve Quarters ending December 31st, 1882. Average Prices. Pauperism. Quarters ending Consols (for Money). Minimum Rate per Cent, of Discount charged by the Bank of England. Wheat per Quarter in England and Meat per lb. at the Metro- politan Meat Market (by the Carcass). Quarterly Average of the Number of Paupers re- lieved on the last day of each week. Mean Tempe- rature. Wales. Beef. Mutton. In-door. Out-door. 1880 £• s. d. O Mar. 31 98 3*00 45 1 Ad.— lid. Mean 5! d. Aid.— bid. Mean b\d. 182,836 595,908 39-8 June 30 9»I 2*93 46 I 4§rf. 8 Id. Mean 6§d. id. — 95 J. Mean 7 jjrf. 168,661 555 .^6 52-4 Sept. 30 98 2*50 43 0 A\d. 7 Id. Mean 6 d. 4|io 4 6 — 6 O 1858 6,424 3 4 — 5 O 1878 6,830 4 6 — 6 O 1859 7,560 3 6 — 5 4 1879 5,620 4 0 — 6 4 i860 7,860 3 4—5 6 1880 7,660 4 0 — 6 O 1861 8,840 3 4 — 5 O 1881 8, 150 4 0 — 6 2 1862 8,430 3 4 — 5 0 1882 7,370 4 8 — 6 4 Table XII. — Average Prices of British Wheat, Barley, and Oats, per Imperial Quarter, in each of the Twenty Tears 1863-82. Year. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Year. Wheat. Barley. Oats. s. d. 8. d. d. s. d. 8. d. s. d. 1863 44 9 33 TI 21 2 1873 58 8 40 5 25 5 1864 40 2 29 II 20 1 1874 55 9 44 II 28 IO 1863 41 10 29 9 21 10 1875 45 2 38 5 28 8 1866 49 II 37 5 24 7 1876 46 2 35 2 26 3 1867 64 6 40 0 26 I oc VI • 1 56 9 39 8 25 II 1868 63 9 43 0 28 1 i 1878 46 5 40 2 24 4 1869 48 2 39 5 26 O 1879 43 10 34 O 21 9 1870 46 IO 34 7 22 10 1880 44 4 33 I 23 I 1871 56 10 36 2 25 2 188 1 45 4 35 II 21 9 1872 57 0 37 4 23 2 1882 45 I 31 2 21 10 C 2 ( XXII ) Table XIII. — ACREAGE under each Description of Chop, Fallow, and Ireland, Gbeat Bbitain. Descbiption of Chops and Live Stock. 1880. 1881. 1882. Corn Crops : — Acres. Acres. Acres. Wheat 2,909,438 2,805 ,809 3,003,960 Barley or Bere 2,467,441 2,442,334 2,255,269 Oats 2,796,905 2,901,275 2,833,865 Rye 40,781 4G567 56,553 Beans 426,667 440,201 436,882 Peas 234,470 216,790 246,851 Total Corn Crops .. .. 8,875,702 8,847,976 8,833,380 Green Crops : — Potatoes Turnips and Swedes Mangold and Beetroot 550,932 2,024,207 343.116 17,082 579,334 2,035,642 348,872 15,519 541,064 2,024,326 333.645 13,442 Carrots and Parsnips Cabbage, Kohl-rabi, and Rape .. 161,575 143,128 149,941 Vetches, Lucerne, and any other crop) (except clover or grass) / 379,741 388,073 413,242 Total Green Crots .. .. 3,476,653 3,510,568 3,475,660 Other Crops, Grass, &c. : — Flax 8,985 6,534 5,220 Hops 66,705 64,943 65,619 Bare fallow or uncropped arable land 812,566 795,809 784,425 Clover and artificial and other grasses'! under rotation J 4,434,339 4,342,285 4,327.392 Permanent pasture, meadow, or grass) not broken up in rotation (exclusive) of heath or mountain land) . . . . ) 14,426,959 14,643,397 14,821,675 Live Stock : — No. No. No. Cattle 5,912,046 5,911,642 5,807,491 Sheep 26,619,050 24,581,053 24,319,768 Pigs 2,000,842 2,048,090 2,510,402 Total number of horses used fori agriculture, unbroken horses, | and mares kept solely for breeding J 1,421,180 1,424,938 -u VI 00 Acreage of orchard, or of arable or grass-) land, used also for fruit-trees .. •• Acreage of woods, coppices, nnd plan-) tations / ” ( XXIII ) and Grass, and Number of Cattle, Sheer, and Pigs, in Great Britain in 1880-82. IBELAND. United Kingdom, including the Islands. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1880. 1881. 1882. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. 148,636 154,009 152,720 3,065,895 2,967,059 3,163,899 218,579 211,150 187,805 2,695 ,°o° 2,662,927 2,452,077 I.38r,943 1,392,365 I»397,3°4 4,191,726 4,306,391 4,244,639 7,108 7,459 7,772 47.937 49,084 64,382 9.5M 10,904 ia,058 : 436,36 r 45I,3'0 447,115 594 99° i , 160 235,177 217,926 248,084 1,766,424 1,776,877 1,756,819 10,672,086 10,654,697 10,620, 196 820,728 854,294 837,919 1,380,578 2,443,434 1.388,307 302,768 295,235 293,978 2,336,499 2,342,045 2,328,880 41,510 44, 862 36,306 385,348 394,651 370.974 3,799 4,072 3,394 21, 402 20,012 27,271 42.35° 34,34° 42,605 204,016 177,560 192,638 36,204 36,194 34, 752 418,450 426,509 450,187 i.24',359 1,268,997 1,248,954 | 4,746,293 4.803,211 4,748,257 157,534 147,085 I 113,502 166,521 153,624 118,722 .. • • • • 66,705 64,943 65,619 15,366 21,186 21,263 828 , 778 817,698 806,167 1,909,907 1,998,402 i.96i,773 6,389,225 6,384,172 6,333.064 10,261,266 10,091,688 10,110,079 24,717,092 24,767.767 24,963,205 No. No. No. No. No. No. 3,921,026 3,954,479 3,986,847 9,871.153 9,905,013 9,832,417 3,561,361 3,258,583 3,071,493 30,239,620 27,896,273 27,448,220 849,046 1,088,041 1,429,930 2,863,488 3,149,173 13.956,495 499,284 489,458 482,469 1,929,680 1,923,619 I,9°5.3l? •• • • •• •• •• •• ( XXIV ) Table XIV. — Certain Articles of Foreign and Colonial Production Imported in the Years 1879-82; and their Quantities. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. Animals, Living : Oxen, Bulls, and Cows, number 208,720 350.950 282,691 309,360 Calves ,, 39072 38,999 36,683 34,340 Sheep Lambs } 944,869 940,991 935,244 1,124,391 Swine and Hogs.. animal] tons / 52,267 51,030 24,273 15,670 Bones (burnt or not, or as charcoal) 65,067 79,74° . 65,007 54,401 Cotton, Raw cwts. J3 > I7I.°43 1,694,051 14,547,283 14,952,724 15, 794, 566 Flax 7 7 1,896,249 1,781,762 1 , 966,969 Guano 76,945 78,965 50,072 45,095 Hemp 7 * 1,204,036 1,320,731 1,475,421 146,710 1,354,407 Hops 7 7 262,616 196,688 315,377 Hides untanned : Dry 7 7 545,373 660,198 554D34 576,45 r „ „ Wet .. 463,086 584,693 457,295 613,593 Petroleum tuns 170,831 152,672 234,968 gallons.- 59,135,384 Oilseed Cakes tons 216,002 243,998 220, 790 390,252 Potatoes cwts. 9,352,236 9,420,623 4,034,577 2,997,514 Butter 7 7 2,045,606 2,319,802 2,046,421 2,167,428 Cheese , , 1 , 789,168 i, 773,5o 3 1,834,480 1,692,495 Eggs great hundreds 6,388,838 6,228,437 6,306,645 6,757,234 665 ,885 Lard cwts. 838,897 929,616 855,792 Bacon , , 3,996,922 4,370,860 938,269 3,858,855 2,348,060 Hams 7 7 906, 121 747,009 548,507 Salt Beef 7 7 242 ,864 289,422 248,698 227,748 Salt Pork 7 7 400,591 384,057 349,709 266,259 Clover Seeds , , 345,206 271 ,609 279,925 354,869 Flax-seed and Linseed qrs. 1,665,333 1,712,576 1,829,838 2,437,918 547,679 Rape , , 365,340 400,694 373,028 Sheep and Lambs’ Wool .. lbs. 411 ,106,627 460,337,412 447,044,809 483,954,318 Table XV. — Quantity and Value of Meat Imported in the 6 Years, 1877-82. QUANTITIES. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. Cwts. Cwls. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Beef, Salted or Frosh . . 678,505 723,558 806,462 1,008,089 r, 061, 467 688,407 Moat, „ „ 130,178 145,493 151,505 148,788 177,931 13,016 Total 808,683 869,05 I 957,967 1,156,877 1,239.398 701,423 Meat, Preserved other- 1 wise than by salting / 469,003 438,903 566,758 655 ,600 575,929 559,812 Total Meat 1,277,686 1,307,954 1,524,725 1,812,477 1,815,327 1,261,235 VALUES. £. £. £. £. £. Beef, Salted or Fresh . . 1,686,392 388,933 1,753,066 426,864 1,919,922 436,317 2,399.324 2,644,165 1,773,537 Moat, „ „ 428,285 515,812 - 39,981 Total 2,075,325 2,179.930 2,356,239 2,827,609 3,159,977 1,813,518 Meat, preserved other-) wise than by salting ) 1,434,234 1,313,541 r, 688, 321 1,903,036 1,638,938 1,692,772 Total Meat 3,509,559 3.493.471 4,044,560 4,730,645 4,798,915 3,506,290 C XXV ) The quantity of meat imported in 1879 was 1,524,725 cwts., being an increase over that of the previous year of 216,771 cwts. ; in 1881 the quantity had still further increased to 1,815,327 cwts. ; in 1882, however, it was no more than 1,261,235 cwts., or 554,092 cwts. less than in 1881, and was about the same as the quantity imported in 1877, from which there had been a steady rise. In 1882 there was an increase, compared with the previous year, in the number of oxen, bulls, and cows of 26,669, and there was a decrease in swine and hogs of 8603 ; the number of sheep had increased by 189,147, and the number of calves had decreased by 2343. In 1880 the average price of beef per lb. was 6Ac?., of mutton per lb. 6|d., showing an increase over the previous year of 9 per cent, and 4 per cent, respectively. In 1881 the average price of beef per lb. was 5|d. ; of mutton per lb. 7 id., showing a decrease in the price of the former— as compared with the year 1880 — of 4 per cent., and an increase in tbe price of the latter of 4 per cent. ; in 1882 the average price of beef rose to 6|d., and that of mutton to 7|d., which prices showed percentages of increase of 4 and 9 respectively, compared with the prices in 1880. STATISTICS OF DAIRY PRODUCE. The following remarks relating to Butter and Cheese are ex- tracted from ‘ The Grocer ’ : — Cork Butter Market. — The actual working of this market was very uneventful during the past year, compared with some former years. During the month of January, as stocks ran down, prices ran up, and seconds, which were quoted 124s. on January 2nd, were 144s. on the 31st of same month. Thirds advanced from 104s. to 121s., and fourths from 72s. to 99s. In February, seconds went to 150s., and thirds to 130s.; and in March seconds touched 157s., and thirds 135s., fourths going as high as 109s. In April, when supplies began to increase, firsts fell from 156s. to 109s., and seconds from 150s. to 102s. The lowest point for the year was touched by firsts, at 101s., on May 23rd. Seconds were at their lowest on May 16th, when price quoted was 92s. ; and on August 7th, thirds touched their lowest price for the year, which was 87 s. The prices of “ superfine mild ” were quoted during the year at a steady figure over the values of firsts, but “fines” and“milds” very often caused a loss to producers by being quoted at less money than their relative qualities in salt butters. The tendency of demand is becoming stronger each year in favour of mild-cured ( XXVI ) butters, and if the standard of the mild-cured brands of Cork were raised, and inspection more even, there is no reason why Cork mild- cured butters should not obtain the same high prices as French or Danish. Contrary to general expectation, Cork prices remained stationary all through the past summer. From May until September the fluctuations did not exceed 5s. per cwt. on any quality. It was only in October that the price of firsts advanced, and the advance in seconds did not take place till the month of December. In the months of November and December the supplies collapsed most suddenly and unexpectedly — so much so, that before it was under- stood that supplies were exhausted, merchants had let their stocks run out, believing they could .replace them later on. This they were unable to do, and the end of the year left the trade of Cork with a smaller stock to meet their winter demands than has teen known for many years past. As it is with the Cork merchants, so also is it with very many of their customers, who in former years held heavy stocks at Christmas, and who now have to face three months of extreme scarcity with empty cellars. So far as we can ascertain, all the other Irish markets are equally bare of fino butters, and therefore we shall be very much surprised if we do not see extreme prices quoted for Cork butters this winter. Irish Butter. — The quantities of Clonmelsand Carlows on offer in the early part of the year 1882 were small from the first week in January to the end of April ; quotations were from 116s. to 128s., according to repute of brands. The new season’s butter began in May with prices at 106s. to 112s., and only varied from 2s. to 4s. to the end of August, being then 116s. The highest price in October was 128s.; November, 132s.; December, 140s.; the demand far from active. The year began without any first Corks on offer; seconds, the first week in January, 127s.; the first week in February, 130s. to 148s.; thirds, the first week in January, 127s.; the first week in February, 110s. to 128s. The new season began in May with firsts, 114s. ; seconds, 104s. ; thirds, 97 s. ; at the end of the month firsts were 107s. ; seconds, 100s. ; thirds, 95s. ; then to tho first week in September they had varied little. In the middle of October firsts were 10s. higher; seconds, 7s. ; thirds scarcely altered. At the end of December firsts were nominally 148s. ; seconds, 120s. to 133s.; with thirds a moderate extent of business was transacted at 106s. to 110s. Foreign Butter. — Tho demand throughout the year has rested upon finest qualities. Best Danish, the first fortnight in January, 1358. to 170s. ; tho first week in February, 135s. to 160s. ; early in ( XXVII ) March, 148s. to 168s. In April, best varied from 150s. downwards 1o 136s.; in May, 125s. to 112s. ; then to the middle of August the top quotations were 114s. to 11 8s. In the beginning of September the highest prices were 130s. to 134s. ; at the end of October, 4s. to Gs. higher ; at the end of November they had steadily advanced to 152s., and continued at about that price to the third week in December, with only a small quantity on offer. In the beginning of the year best Normandys were 144s. to 150s., and continued at about those prices to the middle of March ; at the end of April, with increased supplies, they weie 115s. to 123s.; at the end of June, with an increased supply of first English, the top quotations were 110s. to 114s.; the lowest points were 100s. to 106s. in the middle of July. In August they had advanced 6s. ; in September the month began with the highest price for best, 116s. ; at the end of the month, it was 128s. ; in October, 2s. more. In November, best had advanced to 140s. ; the middle of December, 150s. In- ferior qualities throughout dull sale. Dutch, as usual, very fluc- tuating market. In January, the top price, 150s. ; in February, 160s.; in March it varied from 142s. to 156s. April began with 140s. for best; in May it had descended to 100s., and varied little to the third week in September, when the price had advanced to 122s., and then to the third week in December prices varied from 130s. to 140s. The weather from May to September was very favourable for vegetation, and the result was an increase in the quantity of fresh English offered for sale; after that a continuation of wet weather materially lessened the autumn make. The supplies of butter from America have throughout the season been unusually small. Cheese. — Has varied very little in price. Best Cheddar and • Cheshire, 'early in the year, 76s. to 78s.; from July to the end of the year, Cheddar, according to quality, from 64s. to 80s. ; and Cheshire, for the chief part of that time, from 70s. to 80s. Best American cheese, from the beginning of the year to early in May, from 64s. to 68s. ; second qualities chiefly, from 30s. to 60s. ; the new season’s make then began to arrive, and prices may be quoted generally from 58s. to 60s. for best, and from 30s. to 54s. for lower qualities ; then for the September make prices gradually advanced from 64s. to 72s. Inferior qualities still pressed for sale at from 20s. to 60s. ( XXVIII ) The following Quotations, &e., are extracted from ‘ The Grocer.’ Table XVI. — Average and Current Prices of Butter and Cheese on 1st Saturday in January of each Year, from the latest actual Market Salbs. Average Annual Price in the 5 years, 1875-79. Current Price, Current Price, Current Price, Current Price, 1st January, 1st January, 1st January, 6 th January, 1880. 1881. 1882 1883. Per cwt. Per cwt. Per cwt. Per cwt. Per cwt. Butter : s. s. s. s. s. s.- s. s. s. Carlow, finest, F.O.B Ui to 144 126 to 140 120 to 140 112 to IJ3 120 to I40 , , Landed Cork, lsts us , , 148 Ii6’ ,, 141 . , 148 14; .. 141 •• 140 120 ,, 156 , , 2nds . . • . Gi ,, H7 Ml .. U2 ,, U5 129 ,, I?I , , 3rds, new 108 4 , IOQ II? ,, IO? , , . , 131 .4 113 120 , , . . , , 4tllS Limerick 90 .. 9‘ 96 >. 78 82 ,, . , 9> .. 92 124 129 • •• •• Foreign : Friesland IJ2 117 128 ,, H4 120 ,, HO 125 144 125 ,, 136 Jersey, &c 94 114 125 ,, 136 no 125 no ,, 140 HO >4 134 Kiel US 164 • . Normandy . . . . 92 ,, 151 I2Q , , 146 108 » t 140 American . . . . 81 , , 121 90 ,, U5 95 ,, 125 60 , , 122 Bosch 65 95 65 84 5° 85 60 , , 90 Cheese : English Cheddar, ) fine, new f , , good, new Red Somerset Loaf. . 7* 9° 72 ,, 86 76 .. 90 76 82 C4 OO CO 0 77 78 ,, 87 74 .. 76 ,, 82 74 .. 78 74 . r 76 White or yellow ,, 87 Cheddar Loaf . . ) Scotch Cheddar 164 , , 189 Cheshire, new.. 78 ,, 86 64 86 74 .. 88 72 >» 82 68 , , 80 , , good ditto Wiltshire, new 51 .. 7i .. . 7° >» 79 62 , , 76 7° , , 80 <■4 ,, 74 62 ,, 72 , , good ditto i North Wilts Loaf, new 60 , , 68 7* ,, 81 72 82 76 ,, 84 74 . . 76 Derby , , , , 74 ,, 64 7° 74 76 84 60 , , 74 72 ,. 76 Foreign : American, fine 6? .. 67 64 68 68 72 60 , , 68 62 , , 70 , , good Gouda 41 .. 59 56 .. 60 5<> 66 I 42 60 46 , , 53 52 , , 61 56 ,, 62 60 ,, 66 56 ,, 62 54 ... 62 Edam, new . , . . 56 6; 56 ,, 64 62 ,, 68 I 57 .. 64 56 , , 64 Gruyere, new . . 76 85 7t .. 78 62 .. 82; 72 75 1 72 .. 75 Table XVII. — Quantity and Value of Butter Imported from Denmark, 1865-81. Years. Quantities. Computed Real Value. Years. Quantities. 1 Computed Real Value. Cwts. £. Cwts. £. 1865 65,555 362,440 ' 1874 226,053 1,363,433 1866 67.305 319,528 1875 206,171 1,275,870 1867 80,589 422,479 1876 205,195 1,311,234 1868 79,437 471,262 1877 210,322 1,347,791 1869 103,613 574,981 1878 242,427 1,517.467 1870 127,013 767, 190 1879 281,740 1,673,452 1871 140,851 803,226 || 1880 300,157 i,777,!76 1872 173 .574 1,009,322 1881 279,625 1,691,894 1873 201,558 1,203,459 ( XXIX ) Table XVIII. — Quantity aud Value of Buttek Imported from the United States, Belgium, France and Holland ; and of Cheese Imported from the United States and Holland, 1867-81. Years. UNITED STATES. Butter. Cheese. Quantities. Computed Real Value. Quantities. Computed Real Value. Cwts. £. Cwts. £. 1867 39,035 113,290 526,740 1,470,017 1868 .. 7,117 37,279 489,117 1,439,380 1869 •• 17,203 84,603 487,870 1,612,325 1870 .. 16,915 80,928 555,385 1,861,263 1871 .. 83,775 394,359 731,326 2,014,805 1872 .. 45 , 765 199,679 598,198 1,701,435 1873 .. 43,406 199,639 790,238 2,353,181 1874 .. 36,307 188,769 849,933 2,589,776 1875 .. 40,331 205,900 958,978 2,786,027 1876 118, I3r 593,122 936,203 2,564,977 1877 .. 188,491 920,561 1,082,844 3,129,829 1878 .. 2i9,794 998,766 1,345,745 3,306,612 1879 •• 301,054 1,243,075 2,214,959 2,467,651 1880 .. 277,790 1,343,967 1,171,498 3,411,625 i88r 174,246 845,125 1,244,419 3,555,702 Years. BELGIUM.— Buttes. FRANCE.— Buttek. Cwts. £. C wts. £. 1867 .. 80,754 470,464 450,693 2,265,147 1868 .. 70,456 405,987 393,578 2,156,824 1869 .. 85,789 481,609 407,432 2,231,450 1870 .. 84,408 516,643 289,692 2,672,899 1871 .. 94,539 523,460 304,683 1,636,006 1872 .. 74.I91 409,555 355,089 2,926,795 1873 •• 76,610 439,501 446,550 2,409,861 1874 .. 76,723 465,517 723,251 3,944,233 1875 .. 79,95° 499,028 567,560 3,387,219 1876 65,309 419,209 622,488 3,732,405 1877 .. 58,200 378,435 606,762 3,654,488 1878 80,073 499,889 555,272 3,179,326 1879 .. . 63,032 391,166 438,725 2,264,591 1880 .. 53,259 302,993 532,649 2,826,586 1881 .. 50,118 285,606 496,724 2,720,831 HOLLAND. 'I ears. Buttes. Cheese. Cwts. £. Cwts. £. 1867 .. 326,217 1,733,459 332,628 961,245 1868 343,322 1,992,414 329,565 959,547 1869 4I5U76 2,253,420 426,913 1,262,101 1870 ., 406,795 2,388,459 422,553 1,204,830 1871 .. 390,616 1,986,708 348,148 954,236 1872 .. 269,091 1,358,579 329,535 942,537 1873 .. 279,004 1,453,875 336,654 1,013,233 1874 .. 351,605 2,8/7,755 398,888 1,164,921 1875 .. 357,106 1,917,910 370,123 I,078,594 1876 402 , 984 2, 252,909 330,435 949.413 1877 .. 372,134 2,084,686 342,980 984,855 1878 .. 460,601 2,494,903 355,159 1,018,669 1879 .. 655,377 3,331,149 275 ,°39 *743,207 1880 .. 810,509 4,076,399 288,666 810,590 1881 .. 745,536 3,745,885 264,626 747,°52 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. ' I. — Half-bred Horses for Field or Road : their Breeding and Management. By Earl Cathcart. General Introduction. Froai an agricultural point of view that thoroughly English production, a sound and shapely thoroughbred horse, is not a mere galloping dice-box, but he is one of God’s precious gifts to the nation ; a noble animal, certain, in great measure, to beget in his own similitude admirable creatures, to be thank- fully used in our service — for our comfort and pleasure in peace, for our credit and advantage in commerce, and for our indi vidual efficiency, and it may be for the national safeguard in war. Horses, as old Fuller says, are men’s wings. I have, in short, the good fortune to treat on a subject that comes home to the bosom and business of almost every Englishman. It is only with a view to scientific accuracy that it is necessary to define the term Half-bred — which is not rendered literally. In the language of horsemen that term implies only some stain in the traceable pedigree hardly to be detected : in appearance and qualities a horse may be, to all intents and purposes, thoroughbred, yet, from some slight stain in the pedigree, unqualified for entry in the Stud-book. I am not the parent of this Paper, I am not its sponsor, not even the literary accoucheur. I may be likened to a connoisseur, who takes pleasure in ticketing and in duly arranging the valuable contributions which, by the favour of many friends, he has acquired for his collection. It came to pass in the routine business of the Journal Com- mittee that on this subject a Paper was wanted ; and in the har- monious division of labour it fell to my lot to seek for a suitable writer to entrust with a difficult and important, perhaps too VOL. XIX. — S. S. B 2 Half-bred Horses for Field or Road: long-neglected, subject. I soon found it was almost impossible to get any one practical writer — for practical arts must be chiefly taught by men having practical experience — to undertake the wide subject in its completeness ; but, without hesitation, most of my friends expressed a willingness to contribute. I reported to my colleagues accordingly, and by their desire it was that I undertook to do my best in this matter. I do not now appear, and I wish this to be fully understood, in the character of a volunteer. I have said that a paper is wanted. Nearly twenty years have elapsed since Mr. Dickenson’s,* Mr. Gamgee’s, and Mr. Spooner’s valuable contributions appeared in this ‘Journal.’ About the same time, and at my request, Mr. Wilkinson, principal Veterinary Surgeon of the Army, wrote on Cavalry Remounts. Since then, namely the years 1863-5, the ‘ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society ’ has contained no special Paper on the present subject. The feeling out of doors may be gathered from a typical letter now before me, dated January 12th last, and addressed to the Secretary. The letter, in the ordinary course of the Society’s business, covered a subscription from a practical man : and it is just one of those little bits of reality that in few words brings home conviction : — “ The Council should publish some good papers on breeding nag-horses, special reference being had to best strains in York- shire and Norfolk. Horses seem ignored. A wider scope in the half-yearly Papers would be welcome.” Two authorities are mentioned by name, either of whom, it is said, could write a splendid article on Breeding Hunters. “ What a delightful article could be written on the hunting stallions of Yorkshire, exemplifying the bad as well as the good points : a similar article on roadster stallions ! You would be doing a decided service to the members of the Royal Agricultural Society if you could in any- way further the profitable breeding of hunters and roadsters.” The retrospect for a period of twentyyears — 1863-83 — of the Reports of the Royal Agricultural Society’s Stewards and Judges on superior horses is exceedingly unsatisfactory. Un- doubtedly the weakest part of our organisation is to be found in the various classes of horses claiming blood. At Newcastle : “ Riding in the Ring was a novelty that gave great satisfaction.” In 1868, at Leicester, in a fox-hunting country: “Stallions were * ‘ On tlie Breeding of Horses ; a Letter addressed to the Bight lion. J. E. Denison, by W. Dickenson.’ Journal Boy. Agri. Soe., vol. xxiv., 1863. ‘ The Breeding of Hunters and Boadsters. ’ By J. Gamgee, sen. Ibid. ‘ Supply of Horses adapted to the requirements of the English Army, with Notes on the Bcmount System in the French Army.’ By J. Williamson. Ibid. ‘ On Cross-Breeding in Horses.’ By W. C. Spooner, journal Boy. Agri. Soc., vol. i., New Series, 1865. their Breeding and Management. 3 a moderate lot, Hunters especially disappointing.” The next year, at Manchester: “above average;” “good action, no breed- ing ; good breeding, no action.” Distressing ! The thorough- bred horses exhibited are not like the bulls we admire, of faultless type. Reference is made to a letter on the subject of Half-bred Horses for Road and Field, which, dated June 1, appeared in the ‘Times,’ and was addressed by the Speaker Deni- son to Lord Zetland. In 1870, at Oxford : “ inferiority generally prevails.” Wolverhampton, the next year, was cheerful, as com- pared with “ Motley’s ” walk-over at Plymouth. “ The Show at Hull in 1873 was not grand for Yorkshire.” At Taunton, in 1875, it was said that in Somersetshire the thoroughbred horse was almost as unknown as the Dodo : as a feature two jack- asses competed for a 50/. prize! At Birmingham, in 1876, the weight-carrying hunters were a good class. Bristol, 1878, appears to have been fairly satisfactory. The great Exhibition at Kilburn in 1879 was specially reported upon by Mr. Francis Lawley : the Judges said it was the best exhibition of horses ever held in England. In 1881, Mr. Whitehead, the Senior Steward, reported on the show of horses at Derby : now, if there is one man more than another who, in the best sense of the phrase, could “ make bricks without straw,” it is my very able friend last named. One thousand pounds was offered in prizes, yet all that could be reported is that influenza kept horses away: 256 were entered, 192 only appeared: thorough- breds— never a strong class at a Ro_yal Show — were now a very bad lot ; and the stallions for getting hunters were few in number, and inferior in quality : a week, the Steward observed, is a long time in which to expose valuable horses to risk, variable weather, and draughty boxes. The most noteworthy feature was the sensational antics of the hackney and pony stallions, and their leaders. By way of culmination, a high authority, Mr. Hutchinson, of Manor House, Catterick, a Judge at Reading last year, 1882, is admirably outspoken : — “ Mr. Grout’s hackney, ‘ Fashion ’ * was generally admired : otherwise the number of exhibits was limited, and the quality below expectation. The hunter stal- lions were a moderate lot, calculated to do more harm than good. Unless the Royal Agricultural Society can attract better hunting sires, prizes should be abandoned.” The causes of failure, as suggested, are threefold: — (1) unworthy prizes; (2) long detention ; and (3) expenses. Foreigners come with high expectations, they are naturally disappointed — consequently as a horse-breeding nation our prestige is lowered. * For 1 Fashion,’ see post, p. 27. 4 Half-bred Horses for Field or Road : Let us return for a moment to Mr. Francis Lawley and his special report on Kilburn in 1879. Mr. Francis Lawley * is a Yorkshireman of great natural ability and high cultivation. He has great and varied experi- ence in this and other countries ; and by birth, inheritance, edu- cation and taste, he is, in the largest sense of the word, a con- summate horseman. As I understand him, in writing of the “ equine aristocracy ” he implies that many notable breeders are opposed to exhibition. Costly shows must be arranged to attract the “splendid shilling”: horses are always popular, and attract not an agricultural public only, but everybody. Our American cousins, who have beaten us in trotters, run us hard with thoroughbreds : query, should the Society not encourage and cultivate trotting qualities? London carriage-horses are now foreigners. The Royal Society should formulate points, and not leave all to the Judges: a standard is wanted; and, moreover, the tendencies of various strains should be studied. Reference is then made to the revival of coaching ; but coaching stallions are no longer of the Cleveland type. More, Mr. Lawley thinks, might be done by the Royal Agricultural Society to teach farmers how to utilise their half-bred mares. The really practical question is, how to raise hunters worth at 4 years old from 1007. to 1507., the consideration being the cost, the market, and the ruinous fees charged for service. Enduring hacks of the old sort are now only to be found in very few hands — wheels being everywhere preferred : very different from the good old time when men rode and did not rail ! The fancy type in an equine prize list should be excluded in favour of a valuable coaching or, rather, omnibus type of horse. The crying evil is, professional exhibitors going the rounds with veteran champions — stallions that never get a hunter, or hunters that were never hunted. The Royal Agricultural Society has just received from the French Ministry of Agriculture the Annual Report of the Manage- ment of the French IVa-tional Studs. f Few people really grasp the idea, but steam and railways have had an extraordinary effect in breaking down the barriers of .ages, and in promoting free association, all tending to the almost sudden geographical * “ Report upon the Exhibition of Horses at Kilburn.” By tho Honourable Francis Lawley. Journal Roy. Agri. Soe., vol. xv., New Series, 1879. The reader should consult the text, of which the above is only an unworthy precis. I should mention tho Highland Society lias had a recent paper on “ Breeding and Rearing Horses for Farm, Road, or Field.” By W. T. Paterson. Trans. Highland and Agricultural Soc., Fourth Series, vol. xiv., 1882. It is only a short paper of 7 or 8 pages. Hunter-breeding in Scotland rather deprecated. Mentions Mr. Wilson, of Kendal, as breeding from the thoroughbred mare and Norfolk horse. — C. f 1 Ministerc do 1'Agriculturo, Direction des Haras, Bulletin.’ Paris, 1882, which see. their Breeding and Management. 5 distribution of the thoroughbred and other English horses. In Prussia, I am told, every horse must have a Government certifi- cate of soundness, otherwise he may serve no mares other than his owner’s. This official publication is noteworthy in many respects, especially as showing the great importance attached by Continental nations to the breeding and improvement of superior half-bred horses. It consists of nearly 200 imperial octavo pages, and embraces exhaustive official reports on the stud institutions and establishments of Austria and Hungary ; four pages of admirably engraved illustrations of the brands or marks for. horses which distinguish the various studs in Austria and Hungary. There are also three large folded sheets, a plan of a stud farm, showing the position of the various studs, and coloured maps of Austria and Hungary. The French system is founded on the Law (in regard to studs) of the 29th May, 1874. Glancing rapidly over the pages of the Report, I observe the Inspector-General of Military Remounts refers to a fact well within our own experience, that, as com- pared with those which remain at home, travelling stallions have far greater powers of procreation. The French average appears to be for thoroughbred horses under fifty mares each. He greatly favours the proposition that army remounts should be purchased at three years old, thus anticipating the equine demands for trade and commerce which now sweep the markets of everything desirable ; thus to the exclusion of the middleman, promoting advantageous direct trade between the Government and the breeder. By purchasing remounts at three years of age, foreign purchases, it is argued, may be avoided. The Inspector- General would select a proportion of army mares suitable for breeding, and amongst breeders distribute them in districts w here improvement is most necessary. Of thoroughbred stallions, 218 were English, 187 Arab, and 63 Anglo- Arab. Thirteen horses during the year were purchased in England : two thoroughbred, eight Norfolk, one American trotter, two Welsh trotters. The Welsh horses are highly spoken of, as bred on both sides from trotters, as hardy, and of good shapes and paces. Reference also is made to the effect on French markets of horses imported from America via Antwerp and England. There is a disturbing export trade in valuable horses, Boulonnais and Percherons, from France to America. Only carthorses that can trot are officially encouraged, and even the artillery require in addition a dash of blood. It requires years for English and Eastern horses and mares imported into France to acclimatise.* In round * Acclimatisation as tending to variation or to sterility. Exhaustive inquiry should be made as to effects in every part of the world where English thorough- bred is established. — Art. Acclimatisation,” Current Ed., Encycl. Brit. Bead art. “ Charmoise Sheep,'’ Jour. It. A. S. E. vol. xiv. 1853, p. 214. — C. 6 Half-bred Horses for Field or Road : numbers the State stallions served 129,000 mares, and got 77,000 foals. Trotting races, it is observed, offer an important means of testing half-bred horses ; trotting races afford the breeder a standard and an aim, and they direct attention to trotting sires. The mission to Austria and Hungary was in 1881. The Report, like everything of the sort that is French, is admirably complete and admirably clear. In Austria proper English thoroughbreds multiply more and more, to the exclusion of the Oriental races. Many famous English names appear in the lists of stallions with the note “ born in England !” Of 1881 State stallions, 69 were English thoroughbreds, 749 English half-bred, 145 Norfolk, 382 Arab half-bred. In Hungary proper, of 1620 stallions, 73 were English thoroughbreds, 571 English half-bred, 54 Norfolk, and 439 Arab half-bred. The Hungarians have a stud-book. They have a great society for the import and sale of English horses and mares : it encourages racing and trotting races ; fox-hunting has been introduced ; and last, but not least, at Ruda-Pesth the Hungarians have created a great centre and focus for their horse trade, and the Magyar language containing no word expressive enough, or sufficiently confidence-inspiring, they have named it “ Tattersall’s.” * Concerning science, there are more things than are dreamt of in our philosophy. Nature and the horse-breeder are no doubt sometimes at cross-purposes ; all-bountiful Nature ordains for the general good of the world-spread equine race ; men strive for their own narrow interests. There is amongst us no man, however experienced, however practical, who, thinking, presumes to say to the flowing tide of modern science, “ hitherto shalt thou come, but no further ” ! The all-con- taining Book of Nature is open spread out before every one of us ; let us reverentially search its ample endless pages, and according to our several lights read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest. I cannot cite chapter and verse ; I cannot expound the laws of Nature ; I cannot preach to evolve truths from Nature’s teeming pregnant texts — would that I could ! Charles Darwin, that “ Gamaliel ” at whose feet I would have sat, could only spell out and exactly decipher here a word and there a line. But as the gathered wisdom of many gleanings, I, though ignorant, think I may venture to suggest one word that certainly will not be found in that law-containing Book of Nature, it is — in the sense of accident, haphazard, or fluke — the misguiding word chance. “ It is interesting,” says the Philosopher, f “ to contemplate a tangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with * “ Ce Tattersall (on lo nomme uinsi) cat lo centre du commerco hippique do la Hongrie.” f Charles Darwin ; ‘ Origin of Species ; ’ the Conclusion. their Breeding and Management. 7 birds singing on the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent upon each other in so complex a manner, have all been produced by laws acting around us. These laws, taken in the largest sense, being Growth with Reproduction ; Inheritance which is almost implied by reproduction ; Varia- bility from the indirect and direct action of the conditions of life, and from use and disuse ; a Ratio of Increase so high as to lead to a struggle for Life, and as a consequence to Natural Selection, entailing Divergence of Character and the Extinction of less-improved forms. Thus, from the war of nature, from famine and death, the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the production of the higher animals, directly follows. There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one ; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being evolved.” And now, courteous reader, in regard to what the elder D’Israeli might have called these curiosities of equine litera- ture, I have taken you fully into my innermost confidence. I have only further to premise that, except Messrs. Tattersall, no one writer has seen the other’s work ; all have written freely and independently. — You will, I am sure, readily credit me when I say that it delights me to step aside to present to you my very able and most practical friends. I Mr. Lumley Hodgson. Should a stranger ask me, Who is Mr. Lumley Hodgson of Highthorne ? the idea would instantly flash across my mind — this person who so inquires is not a Yorkshireman. Mr. Lumley Hodgson is a Yorkshire squire born and bred ; a noted sports- man ; one who has had a long lifetime’s practical experience as a successful breeder of horses. The ‘ Report of the Royal Commission on Agriculture of 1881’* describes him in highly complimentary terms : — “ Mr. Lumley Hodgson of Highthorne is a close observer, and a shrewd practical man ; he has been a landlord for sixty years, during forty of which years he has also been, as he is at present, a large tenant-farmer.” I am personally indebted to this kindly gentleman, who immediately, Report of Mr. Coleman, Assistant Commissioner, p. 160. 8 Half-bred Horses for Field or Road : and in the most friendly and neighbourly manner, met my request, and favoured me with a characteristic letter, together with a large parcel of papers — printed and MS. — from which, with his correction and approval, I have prepared the following Paper : — “ Highthorxe, May 30, 1882. “ Dear Lord Cathcart, “ I enclose you my evidence,* and that of many of the most experienced men both of the old and present time. You will see that all who, like myself, have had experience in knowing what the stallions, mares, hunters, hacks, harness-horses, soldiers’ horses, and racehorses of forty, fifty, and sixty years ago were, before railways and foreigners — the one taking away the best and soundest mares and stallions, the other making people think there would be no demand for inferior horses — prevented people breeding, and those who continued, after selling their best mares, found it an unprofitable business, are all of one opinion, that horses are neither so good in quality, nor so good to find as for- merly. Young people who never saw the old class of horse, say they are superior, and much improved. I have no hesitation in saying there were formerly better horses travelling the country and that would serve half-bred mares than you can now find at the fashionable studs. See the comparison of those named in my letters. My memory has become treacherous, and you will get more information from the evidence before the Lords’ Com- mittee and the different letters enclosed in the parcel | I send your Lordship than anything I can write now, even if I had time. When Phillips, J the most experienced man I know, was- going to be examined before the Lords’ Committee, he wrote to ask me to give him my opinion, and it was in consequence of his showing my letter to Lord Rosebery that I was much sur- prised by being suddenly called upon to give evidence : I was the only man who recommended the dealer’s licence to be taken off, and the tax to be taken off farmers’ young horses ; people were annoyed at being called upon for 12/. 10s. by the tax- * Report, Lord’s Committee on Horses, Session 1873, known as Lord Rosebery's Committee. t “ The old Sportsman ” of * Sporting Gazette,’ March 2-1, 1877 [pencil — “ I don't think I could ever write your Lordship so good a letter as this”]. Other letters and papers in print and MS. Correspondence, local Yorkshire papers, private letters. Letter to Phillips, 1873. 4 Sporting Gazette,’ March 22, prefaced, “ the letter of an eminent authority.” t Mr. Henry Richard Phillips, of Wildsden Paddocks, formerly a dealer in horses and army contractor, a man of great experience both in the home and export trade; experienced, as he told the Lords’ Committee in 1873, in every capacity connected with horses of every class, from troopers to hunters. It is said that the greater part of the unrivalled English stud of Napoleon III. was selected by Mr. Phillips. their Breeding and Management. 9 collector when they sold horses, and by having to pay a duty upon young horses, as soon as they were broken : these things seriously discouraged the breeding and grazing of horses. “ You will not have patience to wade through all the papers and letters I received and had to write when the subject was first agitated ; but the evidence before the Lords’ Committee will be sufficient to convince any one old enough to recollect the old style of horse, that Phillips and myself were right in saying that really good sound horses were more plentiful and much easier to find formerly than now. I shall be glad if you find any useful information for the purpose desired. Keep the papers and letters as long as you like, and make any use of them you please. “ Yours faithfully, “ Lumley Hodgson.” The following is Mr. Lumley Hodgson’s contribution : The foundation of all improvement is judgment in selection : if I liked my horse and mare, I have rarely been disappointed ; like breeds like in all animals. Good horses, no doubt, are scarce ; it is because we have useless brutes to breed from. Such stallions as now travel the county would ruin any man : on the other hand, a good wide short-legged thoroughbred horse will improve any breed. The best way, in my opinion, to keep an unsound stallion off the road would be this — supply a better ! People, however, are too apt to blame even a good stallion for the faults of their badly-bred curby-hocked mares. It is when carthorses are down in the market that the farmer takes to blood and to breeding superior horses. Breeding is one thing, management another. A man may be successful as a breeder, yet fail as a manager ; that is, in breaking and making handy — manners ; as in man, manners vastly go to make the horse, it is commonly said a quarter of the value of a riding- horse depends on his manners. * There was the famous York- shire Parson on his horse “ Calamity,” spilt in the streets of York, when the Parson said it would delight the Dissenters. Since I can recollect, a really good horse has always fetched a good price ; yet, speaking generally, no essentially valuable animals have had in their breeding so little pains bestowed upon them. Experience teaches me that, if properly carried out, horses may be bred with almost as much certainty as other * Sir. Milward, a late friend of mine — famous for his ponies — told me he attributed much of his success to having an old groom with two sons ; all three had hands’ The best ponies, he said, were from Shropshire and Cheshire. The Norfolk ponies had not first-rate shoulders. The ponies were picked up for him here and there by a dealer. He said, “ I hate the term Cob ; under 14-2 is a pony, over that a hack.” — C. 10 Half -hr ed Horses for Field or Road: kind of stock — not by haphazard, hut on system. One really good horse will leave more money than a whole field full of cattle ; but I am sure of this, nothing will bring a farmer to a stone-heap sooner than stocking his farm with a lot of worthless horses. I remember, as a boy, old Kirby of York buying such horses of my father to go to Russia as you rarely see now, as compared to the modern thoroughbred — wider, different shoulders, and better limbed. The retrospect of nearly fifty years teaches me that foreigners have purchased our best mares and best stallions : foreigners will have none other than well-shaped, well-legged, and well-actioned horses. There is now-a-days a scarcity of really good horses in hands that will sell them. There are more thoroughbred hunters now, but they are not so good as those I remember when ridden by the Duke of Portland, Lord Fitzwilliam, Lord Scarborough, my father, the Duke of Grafton, Lord Lonsdale, and many others. These horses were wider, shorter legged, firmer, and better than the steeple-chasers of the present day. Formerly, second horses in the hunting-field were unusual, and not wanted. When I was a boy, there were perhaps only two or three places in a fence you could get through : modern hunting, with its trimmed and jumpable fences, is more like steeple-chasing. Improvement in my time has brought much undrained land into cultivation, and fitted it for sheep, where previously horses and cattle only were bred : Dickenson, the job-master,* used to say that in Yorkshire the sheep have eaten the horse ! On many small holdings now con- solidated, small farmers worked useful mares, and bred valuable foals. Influenza has had a discouraging effect. It came with the potato-disease and the foot-and-mouth disease in 1845, and has been more or less prevalent ever since, causing in horses many roarers. I never had a roarer before, j" and have never been with- out one since. In 1861-2 influenza broke out amongst 28 such horses of mine as now you rarely see. Formerly in the every- day business of life much more was expected of a horse in the way of condition, endurance, and stamina. If in the present * Mr. Dickenson, I knew — lie was a remarkable man, because be was an exact man ; in his own hand he kept a record of every horse of the thousands ho must have owned during his long and successful career. “ Breeders of cattlo and sheep,” ho said, “ keep their best females, but as regards horses only the unsaleable remain. Select your mares at two years old ; make up your mind what you want — in breeding have an aim. The best hacks are by a thoroughbred out of a pony mare.” Dickenson held the horse that walks well can trot and gallop. — C. f This statement is noteworthy. “ltoaring”is a disease decidedly on the increase, particularly among thoroughbred horses. Colts “roar ” before they arc backed ; the disease is said to prevail more in Yorkshire than elsewhere. Horses are more subject than mares. I quote from a recent work, the latest I have, * The Horse-owners Safeguard.’ lleatley. Blackwood & Son, London, 1882. — C. their Breeding and Management. 11 the increase in the value of cattle, would, he believed, amount to Shorthorns in Scotland and Ireland. 67 25 or, perhaps, even 30 per cent, of the current average price. The improvement began to appear even earlier than thirty years ago, but it was only within the past fifteen years that it could be said to have made rapid progress. It was evident that the improvement was in the main due to the influence of Shorthorn blood, for the change in the form and character of the stock consisted in a gradual and easily-recognisable approach to the type and attributes of the Shorthorn. The experience in Scotland has been very similar ; and in some parts of that country, where formerly they found little or no favour, Irish cattle are now held in high esteem. The Kincardine Farmers’ Club discussed the question of “Our Cattle Supply” at its meeting in December last, 1882. It was stated that that part of the country was mainly indebted to Ireland for its supply of store-stock, and all admitted that Irish cattle had exhibited great improvement in recent years. One member remarked that Irish cattle were now as well bred as any they could produce at home, and that the only drawback to the trade was the bad treatment which the cattle had to undergo in the course of their journey from Ireland to Scotland. There is no need, however, to go outside Ireland for proof of the good work which Shorthorns have accomplished amongst its herds of cattle. Of this there is within the Green Isle itself more than sufficient evidence. It will be shown that the breed was early introduced into the counties of Wexford and Wicklow. Forty years ago the cattle in those counties, as in most other parts of Ireland, were more useful for dairy purposes than for the production of beef. They were wholly of the old Irish sort, of mixed breeding and varying type, black, brindled, or brown in colour, thin and irregular in frame, light-fleshed, and very slow in growing and fattening ; and when ripe for the butcher at a pretty long age, generally four or upwards, would have weighed about 5 cwt. — a large portion much less. Few pure specimens of this variety are now to be seen. The Shorthorn has driven them out of existence, bringing in their stead a larger, better-shaped, thicker-fleshed, and more precocious, and alto- gether greatly superior race of stock, partaking largely of the colour, lorm, and general character of the Shorthorn. Improve- ment became widely apparent soon after 1852, and has been making progress ever since. There is, perhaps, no part of Ireland better stocked with good cattle than these counties, and in the main this is due to the strong Shorthorn influence radia- ting lrom such centres as Coollattin, Vinegar Hill, The Island, rhorneville, Bally hyland, Lisnevagh, if Man. Observations regarding Rooks. Remedies made use of. Amount of Loss to Observer, or in his Neighbourhood. Injury more or less than in previous Year ? Remarks. Did not see the None; been here Not much. Half More on this Did not have Wireworm Rooks where only three crop of Car- farm. for fifteen years at Ballis the Wire- worm was. years and never had much attack before. rots lost. Maughold. Soil more loamy and stony on the hill. Rooks swarm- None tried ; Turnips in the More on my At Thie Yane the soil is ing on the never suffered neighbour- land. in part rather heavy. part where to such an hood suffered in part rather sandy the Wireworm was before we - thinned. extent before. a little. and peaty. The Wire- worms are not found there. Just when Liquid manure. Crops not suf- Less than usual. Have found a good Wheat is Have tried fered on the When crops method to keep off peeping in this 8 or 10 whole. are earlier rooks to run a reel of bruit they do years, and than usual cotton all round hedge harm by pul- never found worm does of field and across field, ling it up. it fail to kill Wireworm. less harm. just above corn. Rooks are al- ways on the crops when the worm is in them. Have tried salt, which I think the best re- medy. Rooks injured Have used Gas- About 2 Bolls Injury much Have observed Wire- turnips much Lime with ( per acre ) less than in worm do less injury both before advantage. Wheat ; and some former after a soft mild winter and after 1| tons Tur- years. than after a hard frosty thinning. nips. About same loss in some neigh- bouring farms. one. Have seen Rooks pull up the plant after being thinned, and pick out the worms. Rolling Wheat early in spring is best. Have tried salt with little effect. This neighbour- hood has suf- fered very little. No injury by Soot and rolling the ground early in the morning when the dew is on. Not aware of any loss this season. About J of the Less than in Part of the field was Kooks this season. portion of the crop affected. former years. dressed with seaweed for the green crop pre- vious to the field be- coming Lea ; that part was uninjured. a portion with patent manure, and about 2 acres with patent manure, and dirty salt, this last and fly, and had the best crop. 140 Report on Wireworm Table III. — Isle Parish of Observer. Crop Injured and Manure and Date of Sowing Nature of Crop Nature of Soil. Preparation of and Weather at preceding. Land. Time. Ballaugh Turnips suffered Sandy Seaweed put Turnips sown VI. slightly. under Pota- toes (not for Turnips). about end of May. VII. No injury .. Last year Tur- "Wheat from be- nip crop a ginning of comparative Dec. "Wea- failure where ther favour- patent ma- nure only was used. able. Kirk Very little, if any .. • • M .. . . Michael. I. II. No money loss Light and sandy Patent bone- Inj ured about but some Tur- soil. No Tur- dust manure, no farmyard 2nd week in nips pulled up nips noticed June, unin- by Rooks (after pulled up on manure, and jured about Oats). heavier land. on heavier land farmyard 25th May. manure. III. Potatoes after Light mould Extra crop of Planted about Barley. blackish loam. Seaweed on it, and ploughed under. Farm- manure heavy. 5 th of Apri in fine wea thcr. • German .. No injury .. Patrick .. No injury .. Soil dry .. Land prepared 1 I. in time, with Lime, Sea- weed, and farm-manure. II. Very little . . Heavy soil .. .. .. III. Immaterial . . L Report on Wireworm. 141 >f Man. Observations concerning Rooks. Remedies used. Amount of Loss to Observer, or in his Neighbourhood. Injury more or less than in previous Years ? I Rooks are sure to appear wliere there is Wireworm, but not much elsewhere. .. .. Turnips slightly attacked. Less. As good a season free from cutting as I think we ever had. Rooks and Jack- daws come occasionally. Do 1 ittle if any harm. Have found soot serviceable in garden culti- vation. Have not heard of loss in neighbour- hood. Very much less. Rooks always Sufficient rol- Some injury to The best remedy I know appear on the ling is, I turnips, of and have tried is j crop about the think, the amount not rolling ; but the gene- same time as Wireworm in- jury. best remedy. known. ral impression here is that salt sown in with the seed or sometime previous is very good. ! Rooks on the land within a few days after thinning. None No money loss to observer, very trifling to neighbours. Should say less. No injury to com has come under my notice. When Wheat is just in bruit, they come for the grain not the grub. None Trifling . . Not more than average. “Skerries” the worst attacked Potatoes. Sometimes destroyed in the spring, but most damaged in August. Our crops have many times suffered in- jury from Rooks. We hardly ever suffer from Wireworm in this neigh- bourhood. This year the rooks have destroyed most of our Potatoes, and many a year they have de- ; stroyed acres of our ; Turnips. Rooks did much injury to tur- nips before I had means of preventing them. No damage of any conse- quence, ex- cepting to turnips by rooks. No injury to my Turnip 11 crops by Wireworm within the last forty ■ years. Salt .. .. Very much less. Rooks possibly often on the look out for Wire- worm, but have not noticed the following jji crop the least affected f even on the spot most attacked by Rooks. Rooks are the greatest pests. Even Turnips larger than an egg I have seen pulled by them. Have about 150 acres under white crop : but scarcely the 8th of an acre spoiled. 142 Report on Wireworm. Table IV. — Isle Parish of Observer. Crop Injured and Nature of Crop preceding. Nature of Soil. Manure and Preparation of Land. Date of Sowing and Weather at Time. San ton .. No injury this year. Have found peat soil most liable to wire- worms. Sowed this year with the drill, and did not do so for- merly. .. Braddan .. I. Slight to Oats sown in Ley field. Sandy 17th March .. II. No injury. Land Good brown Mostly, use town Oats, 20th to previously, pas- earth. Sub- and farm- end of March ; ture ; Turnips and Potatoes. soil shale or rotten stone. Light or shal- low spots at- tacked first. manure mixed. Barley about middle of April. Wea- ther dry. Onchan . . Much less than usual. Find Wireworm most trouble- some on light land. In March. Wca- . ther dry. Lonan No injury this year. .. .. Maughold Injury to Potatoes, Turnips, and Oats, about a quarter. Light stony Farmyard and Oats about 16th I. sharp soil. patent, for green crop. March. Green crops 8th and 10th May. II. Oats after Grass, and Swedes after Wheat, slightly injured. Peat Limed six years ago. Swedes manured with 3 cwt. super- phosphate, and 3 cwt. Kainite. Oats, 18th Mar., Swedes, 1st week in June. ! III. No injury tocrops, Turnips after Oats, Barley after Potatoes, Oats on Ley. Partly loam clay and gra- velly soil. Barley well limed, Tur- nips on patent manure. IV. Turnips 1 crop; Peat and clay. Well limed for Injured and uu- Potatoes bad ; No difference Turnips and injured sown Barley rather as to amount Potatoes. Pa- about same bad ; Oats slight attack. of attack. tent manure as top dressing. time ; weather wet. V. Very little. Tur- Light soil. Writh Both farm and Uninjured in nips ; previous us peat on patent and May, injured | crop Oats, which the hills is some seaweed about the be- . 1 were very badly clearest from in the field ginning of attacked. the worm. which was not attacked. June. Report on Wireworm. 143 f Man. Observations concerning Rooks. Remedies used. Amount of Loss to Observer, or in his Neighbourhood. Injury more or Less than in previous Years? Remarks. • • •• Have found soot and gas lime the best remedy. In the neighbour- hood wheat suffered sown on clay land which had lain in grass. • • • • Rooks on the crops at sow- ing time. No remedy tried Very slight in- jury in neigh- bourhood. Less Some years rooks do great injury by pul- ling Turnips to get at Wire- worm. Guano sown on a wet day been found effectual in attack on light hill soil. Oats after pas- ture crop chiefly in- jured in the neighbour- hood. Less Observed on Have tried gas- Turnips and Fewer com- Oats newly lime with very Lea Oats suf- plaints of sown, and Turnips fresh thinned. satisfactory results. fered much. Wireworm this year than usual. .. .. .. No attack known of. .. .. Would have Have tried salt On B’corteen Less than last There was a previous been about, and tobacco about half Tur- year when green-crop to half the but kept them by way of ex- nips, I have about 6 tons Wireworm loss Oats, the rest on land away all the periment, and was half the broken for the first time. found the latter kill.the worm. Turnips where should be 15. crop. time; the former was the worst attacked. Rooks observed Do not know of Two acres of Injury rather I think that as farmers on neighbour- any remedy. Swedes almost greater this now leave their land ing land just after Swedes were thinned. destroyed. year. longer in grass, this may account for in- creased destruction by Wireworm. They have time to increase as birds do not readily get at them. Have tried salt and nitrate of soda, but not been success- ful. Do not know of loss in the neighbour- hood. Rooks on crop Salt and soot About 25Z. to Greater than when quite young. with varying success. self. usual. Some years are Salt and rolling Very much less this year. Believe the worms work very mischie- vous, they come just after sing- ling and go right where the worm is. whilst crop is in bruit. Lime sown before ploughing. most in dry weather. Have seen gas-lime used with good effects, not a Wireworm after it. 144 Supplementary Memoranda to the Report of IV. — Supplementary Memoranda to the Report of the Royal Com- mission on Agriculture by certain of the Commissioners. Prefatory Note.* The conclusions arrived at by the Royal Commission on Agriculture were, as a matter of history, recorded in our last Publication : in like manner, and in continuation, the Council has now sanctioned the publication of the “ Supplementary Memoranda.” As a matter of historical record, the Council exceptionally publishes controversial views, which, according to the best traditions f of the Society, would otherwise be cer- tainly excluded. The prolific and harmonious union of “ Prac- tice with Science ” has, happily, produced an infinite variety of unmistakably kindred agricultural subjects, clamorously and exclusively demanding all our care, energy, and space. Nor is a wise and time-honoured limitation to be at any time regretted, because, busily operating altogether without our sphere, there are other and special organisations which advantageously camp upon and fully depasture the whole of the vast unfenced domain that may be aptly described as the all-important, yet unsettled, shifting, debatable ground of current politics. 1. — By Lord Vernon. I regret to be unable to concur with my colleagues in that portion of the Report which refers to the question of compensation for exhausted improvements. On this subject I have deemed it right to express my independent opinion. This, with an outline of the mode in which it might, in my judgment, he carried into effect, I have now the honour to submit. 1. The principle of compensating 'outgoing tenants for the unexhausted value of improvements which they have made on their farms appears to be accepted by all witnesses who have been examined on the subject, partly on the ground of fairness towards the tenant, but partly also on the broader ground that unless such compensation is secured to him the maximum fertility of the soil of the country cannot be uninterruptedly maintained. 2. Whilst, however, all the witnesses agreed on the principle of compensa- tion to outgoing tenants for unexhausted improvements, they differed in their opinions as to the mode in which it should be secured. Some contended that the obligation to compensate them should be made absolutely compulsory by legislation, but others expressed the opinion that liberty of action between landlord and tenant should not be interfered with.} 3. 1 concur in the opinion of several witnesses of wide experience, who urge that, while due regard should be had to the interest of the outgoing * By Earl Cathcart, Chairman of the Journal Committee, j- ‘Journal,’ New Series, 1874, vol. x. p. 529. } 56,892 (T. Rigby). 33,025-26 (J. Coleman). 33,375-77 (J. Bowen Jones). 36,554 (J. C. Shepherd). 4247 (E. P. Squarey). 47,012-17, 47,151-56 (W. C. Little). 47,588-92 (R. C. B. Clough). 48,375-77 (S. Miller). the Royal Commission on Agriculture, Sfc. 145 tenant, equal regard should be had to that of the outgoing tenant’s suc- cessor in the farm, whether such successor he the landlord or the incoming tenant. In practice, the incoming tenant has usually to bear the weight of the payments to the outgoing tenant ; and, when such payments are heavy, the incoming tenant not only requires a larger capital to enable him to com- mence farming, but also suffers from the inconvenience of having a considerable part of his capital locked up for a period more or less long.* * * § 4. It would also seem to be fair and reasonable that the rights of the land- lord, whether he be the successor in the farm or not, and the tenant at the determination of a tenancy should be correlative ; that is to say, that as the landlord should be placed under an obligation to compensate the outgoing tenant for unexhausted improvements effected by him, so the tenant should be placed under an obligation to compensate the landlord for waste, for dilapidations, and for any other matters done or omitted to be done by him whereby the farm has been deteriorated.f 5. As the law now stands, outgoing tenants may be compensated for their unexhausted improvements — By (A) Private agreement. (B) The custom of the country. (C) By the Agricultural Holdings (England) Act, 1875. But it is contended that this state of the daw is not satisfactory for, amongst others, the following reasons : — As regards A, because tenants are not in a sufficiently good position to be able to contract with landlords on equal terms.J As regards B, because “ custom,” even when liberal, is not always suffi- ciently comprehensive to embrace all improvements^ And as regards C, because the Act is permissive and not compulsory. 6. Although every outgoing tenant is, in my opinion, entitled to be com- pensated for the beneficial value of the improvements which he may leave upon his farm of which he has not reaped the entire fruit, landlords and tenants should be left perfectly free to make such arrangements as regards compensation as may seem to them to be desirable. 7. In the absence of any agreement on the part of a landlord to compensate an outgoing tenant for the beneficial value of purchased feeding-stuffs and manures other than nitrogenous manures which that tenant has applied to his farm, compensation should be secured tohirn by Act of Parliament, which Act should be applicable to Scotland as well as to England. The Act, how- ever, ought not to define or enumerate improvements, nor prescribe any limit of time within which any class of them should be deemed to continue unexhausted. But it should provide, — (1.) That where an outgoing tenant has made improvements upon his. farm which are in their nature lasting, such as those called “ im- provements of the first class” in the Agricultural Holdings Act, 1875, with the previous consent in writing of the landlord, but not otherwise, he should be entitled to payment for their value at the time of quitting his farm, without any limitation of time as to the maximum period of their duration, but to the extent only that they add to the letting value of the farm ; || and * 4071-75 (W. Sturge). 4240-4212 (E. P. Squarey). 47,225-28 (TV. C. Little). 4510, 4042-47 (T. Huskiuson). 7079-70S2 (Mas. Martin). t Agricultural Holdings Act, clause 19. 52.112 (H. Overman). 32,732-33 (J. Coleman). 47,201 (TV. C. Little). 5242-51 (C. Kandell). 1 58,773-74 (J. Howard, M.P.). § 49,322 (TV. Frankish). || 39,219 (A. Bruce). VOL. XIX. — S. S. L 146 Supplementary Memoranda to the Report of (2.) That tlie same rule should apply where the outgoing tenant has made improvements upon his farm, the effect of which, though not so lasting, yet continues for some time, such as those called “im- provements of the second class” in the above-mentioned Act; for it has been proved by the evidence not only of scientific hut also of practical witnesses, that the application to the land of substances enumerated in the second class of improvements in the Agricultural Holdings Act, if made judiciously, may be far more beneficial to the landlord or incoming tenant than is provided for in that Act ; and that, on the other hand, no benefit, but possible injury, may accrue to the landlord if the tenant should have improperly used or applied them.* * * § 8. The differences of soil and climate and the varying duration of the action of manures, preclude the possibility of prescribing accurately any limit of time for their exhaustion which is generally applicable throughout the country. f 9. 't he principle which the Agricultural Holdings Act J prescribes for ascertaining the amount of the tenant’s compensation in respect of the appli- cation to land of purchased artificial or other purchased manure, and in respect of the consumption on the farm by cattle, sheep, or pigs, of cake or other feed ing-stu ft's not produced on the farm, viz , “such proportion of the sum properly laid out by the tenant on the improvement as fairly represents the value thereof at the termination of the tenancy to an incoming tenant,” appears to me to be eminently just. But as scientific and other evidence goes to show that nitrogenous manures, such as nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia, do not convey any permanent or lasting fertilising property to the land, but merely cause it to produce a larger crop in the year in which they are applied, no compensation should be allowed to an outgoing tenant in respect of the application to the land of such manures. § 10. It has been pointed out by several witnesses, |j that it is very difficult to ascertain the intrinsic value to an incoming tenant of the unexhausted residue of purchased manures and feeding-stuffs, which, as a rule, have been applied to the land or consumed by the live stock of the farm respectively many months before, and are necessarily underground, and consequently not visible or tangible at the time of valuation. The genuineness of these sub- stances— many of which, when offered for sale in the market, are often adul- terated and sold at a price greatly in excess of their true value — and their proper use, increase the difficulty in arriving at an equitable valuation between an incoming and outgoing tenant as regards them. 11. For these reasons it seems to follow that the amount of compensation to be awarded to an outgoing tenant in respect of the use of purchased artificial or other purchased manures or feeding-stuffs converted into manure can be more correctly ascertained by a valuation of the crops of the farm to which they have been applied, than by taking into account the actual outlay upon them, or otherwise estimating their unexhausted value ; the crops being visible and tangible, which is not the case with the manures or feeding-stuffs * 57,507-18 (The Hon. Ed. Coke). 57,005-67 (Sir J. B. Lawos). 57,157- 7,102 (Dr. Yoelcker). f 43,722-24 (Earl of Airlie). 40,973 (W. C. Little). 00,869, 00,903 (J. Prout). % Agricultural Holdings Act, 1S75, clause 9. § 35,308 (S. Rowlandson). 49,349-50 (VV. Frankish). 57,001-9 (Dr. Voelcker). 42,346-50, 42,405 (J. Biggar). 30,236 (T. Mylne). 11 39,220-23 (A. Bruce). 66,885 (J. Clutton). 40,777-80 (J. Melvin). 43,939 (J. W. Barclay, M.P.). 45,280 (P. McLagan, M.P.). 50,958-02, 50,984, 57,343 (Dr. Yoelcker). 68:21G (II. M. Jenkins). 67,719-27 (J. Coleman). the Roijal Commission on Agriculture , Sfc. 147 when once used.* To ascertain the amount of such compensation I recom- mend the following procedure : — I. In the case of yearly tenancies, the length of notice to determine the tenancy, to be given by either the landlord to the tenant or by the tenant to the landlord, should be not less than twelve calendar months in every case. II. If the parties cannot, at the time when notice is given, in the case of a yearly tenancy, or at the commencement of the last year of the tenancy in the case of a lease, agree upon the amount of compensation, such amount should be determined by valuation. III. If the parties concur, a single valuer should be appointed by them jointly to make the valuation. If they do not, each party should at the time when notice is given, or at the commencement of the last year of the tenancy, as the case might be, or within fourteen days after, appoint in writing a valuer, and the valuers should apply forth- with to the Inclosure Commissioners to appoint an umpire, and upon such application the Inclosure Commissioners should make the appoint- ment ; but the umpire should not be called upon to act except the valuers differed. The decision of the valuers or the umpire, as the case might be, should be final. IY. The valuation should be made during the year preceding the end of the tenancy, and not as at present after the tenancy has enpired. The valuer, valuers, or the umpire, should in that year visit and inspect the farm, as often, and at such reasonable times, as may he necessary to enable them to form an accurate judgment of the state and condition of the farm, and of the crops thereon ; they should take cognisance of the acts of husbandry performed, of the manures, whether artificial or otherwise, and feeding-stuffs used or remaining for use, and of any special circumstance by which the interest of the outgoing tenant or his successor may he effected. Y. The valuer, valuers, or umpire should compare the bulk of the crops of each kind upon the farm with the average crops in the district on similar land, and in ascertaining the amount of compensation should have regard to such comparison. YI. The tenant should be required to give the valuer, valuers, or umpire, due notice of the intended application of manures to each crop ; and to hand to them, or him, the receipts for the money paid for all manures and feeding-stuffs for the use of which he claims compensation. VII. The valuer, valuers, or umpire should have power to take samples and have analyses made of the manures used and feeding-stuffs consumed upon the farm ; and the tenant should be required to afford them opportunity to take such samples. VIII. In all other respects the valuation might follow the ordinary mode of procedure used in arbitrations. 12. Considering the difference of local circumstances, the customs of the country, although sometimes very erroneous, appear to afford the only prac- ticable method for the valuation of tillages performed for the benefit of the outgoing tenant’s successor, of hay, straw, and other severed crops left on the farm, and of the young seeds growing thereon. In these respects such cus- toms cannot well he interfered with, but all payments under them should be proportionate to the benefit to be derived by the incoming tenant. 13. Inasmuch as a fair valuation of unexhausted improvements is of great pecuniary importance to both the outgoing tenant and his successor in the * 46,971 (W. C. Little). 57,668 (Sir J. B. Lawes, Bart.). 66,879 (J. Clutton). 67,725-26 (J. Coleman). L 2 148 Supplementary Memoranda to the Report of farm, it is essential that all such valuations should he conducted by men of honour and independence, who combine practical experience with scientific knowledge.* In order to secure this, valuers should hold some official certi- ficate for their fitness to perform their duties. (Signed) Vernon. 2. — By Mr. Stansfeld. I greatly regret that my unavoidable absence from the last sitting of the Commission compels me to make a reserve upon some points, not of primary importance, in the Report of my colleagues, with which, generally, I cordially concur. 1. I approve of the suggestion that the cost of in-maintenance should he placed on rates or local taxes equitably adjusted according to means and substance ; but I think that to defray them out of the Consolidated Fund would lead to an increase of centralisation and to extravagance. 2. The inclination of my opinion is in favour of the repeal of the law of distress. 3. I do not think it possible to indicate accurately the true composition of manufactured articles by their designation. I do not think that there is any analogy between fraudulently adulterated articles, such as some artificial manures, feeding-stuffs, and seeds, and beer brewed not exclusively from malt and hops. It is part of the acknowledged policy, both of past and present excise laws, that beer should be so produced, and it is, and long has been, so produced in large quantities subject to excise duty and supervision. (Signed) James Stansfeld. July 12, 1882. 3. — By Mr. Chaplix. Ecing in accord generally with the views of my colleagues, I have signed the Report, but I wish to put on record my conviction that, if further bad seasons follow upon those which have produced such general distress, this counfry must be prepared either to witness the partial, if not the general, collapse of the agricultural interest, or else to provide relief of a more definite and immediate character than has been hitherto proposed. With respect to certain portions of the Report, I desire to submit the following observations : — As regards the recommendations on the subject of Local Taxation, I think the proposed relief should not be limited to the maintenance of the indoor poor, as defined in the Report, but should be extended to other objects of national interest, which are now, either partly or wholly, a charge on local rates. Considering the prominence which has been given to foreign competition as a leading cause of agricultural distress, and the place it holds in the evidence of so many witnesses, I think it has scarcely received sufficient notice in the Report, and I desire to state the reasons which have led me to concur in omitting to offer any definite proposal on the subject. Witnesses of experience, f who have been examined before the Commission, * 01,902-01,914 (Sir E. C. Kerrison, Bart.). G2,799 (Sir J. Caird, K.C.B.). 07,727 (J. Coleman). f 13,415. 44,923-4. 44,977. 35,S84. 51,003-4. the Royal Commission on Agriculture, 149 have expressed the most confident opinions that American wheat and American beef could and would he sold in future in this country at prices at which, according to the evidence we have taken, English agriculturists would he unable to produce English wheat and English beef at a profit upon farms of average quality, even supposing they were held rent-free. American beef, it was said, would pay the exporter at Gd. a lb. delivered in England,* whilst wheat would realise a profit at prices which were variously estimated, ranging between 42s. and 44s. a quarter as the highest, and 33s. and 32s. as the lowest, price which was named in all the earlier evidence which we have had upon the subject. It is impossible to doubt that, at prices such as these, American competition would exercise a most disastrous influence upon the future production of wheat and beef as an industry in England. One witness stated this conviction, in which I concur, that at 35 s. a quarter wheat-growing in Great Britain must cease to be an industry at all.f Nor does it appear from any evidence before us that there are any sub- stitutes to take its place to any appreciable extent. In reference to this subject, the Report expresses the opinion with regard to “ market-gardening ” and “ dairy-farming,” that, while there is room for some expansion in the milk-trade, and while the production of vegetables and fruit may, under certain conditions, be encouraged with advantage, these branches of agricultural industry are equally dependent upon their locality and access to a market, and it is only to a limited extent and within a limited area that a trade in these commodities could be conducted with a profit. In that opinion I entirely concur. No other branch of agricultuial industry is suggested by the evidence as capable of being profitably sub- stituted for the growing of wheat and the production of beef in those districts where the soil is not adapted for the production of barley and of sheep ; and under these circumstances it would appear that a permanent com- petition with America in respect to these commodities, at the prices indicated by many of the witnesses whom we have examined, would be fatally injurious to the chief industry of England, in some of the largest and most important agricultural districts of the country. Whether, however, a competition at such prices is likely to be permanent is a matter which is open to much question, and, after carefully weighing the evidence which we have taken, I incline to an opposite opinion ; otherwise I should have felt it my duty to submit a definite proposition with regard to it. Undoubtedly for a time the prices of home produce were seriously depressed by American competition, and the Report very justly and prominently refers to it as one of the principal causes of agricultural depression in the past. But, on the other hand, it must be observed that the prices which are being realised for English wheat and English beef to-day are very different from the future standard of those prices as indicated by the evidence which has been referred to ; and it cannot be denied that the opinions which were so confidently expressed upon this subject are not supported by the facts, as to prices, at the present time. Moreover, American competition, so far as it affects the price of English products, instead of increasing, would appear to be steadily diminishing, espe- cially with regard to meat and some of the more recent evidence (in particular that of Mr. Clay, our American Sub-Commissioner, specially charged to obtain information on this subject) affords ground for the belief that this decrease in competition, especially in wheat, is likely to be maintained. * 21,724-6. 21,744-62. 9,583. 9,619-20. t 51,004. I 65,018. 65,034. 65,219-20. 63,232-6. 150 Supplementary Memoranda to the Report of Mr. Clay lays stress upon the fact that both the value of land and the price of labour in the West of America has very materially risen, and he expresses the opinion “ that the farmers of the West cannot possibly produce wheat so cheaply as they did ” in consequence of this rise ; * and it is undoubtedly the case that, so far from being permanently lowered, the prices of English beef aud English wheat, from whatever cause, have risen rather than fallen, in spite of American competition, since this inquiry began. Looking to these facts, as well as to some of the latest evidence on American competition which has come before the Commission, it would seem that the fears which were at one time entertained in many quarters in regard to it have been to some extent without foundation, and that, with a return of favourable seasons, there is reason to hope that the English agriculturist will be able to successfully compete with any. competition from abroad which, as far as we can judge, he may be called upon to undergo. If this hope, howrever, is to be fulfilled, it is essential that he shall be no longer prejudiced by the continued grant of preferential rates now allowed to foreign produce by some of the leading railway companies. There are other matters dealt with in the Report to which I should have wished also to refer, and more especially to the subjects of the Agricultural Holdings Act of 1875 and of compensation for unexhausted improvements ; but as I agree in the main with the recommendations contained in the Report, I am unwilling to add to the length of this Memorandum. Henry Chaplin. 11th July, 1882. 4. — By Mb. John Clay. Though signing the Report, I find it incumbent on me to dissent on several points under the following heads : — 1. Compensation for unexhausted improvements and increased fertility. 2. Rent. 3. The law of entail. 4. The law of distraint and the Act of Sederunt of 1756 in Scotland. 5. The right of tenants to assign their leases under certain circumstances. 6. The management of landed estates. 7. Emigration. My motive for this dissent is for the purpose of advocating the adoption of more decisive remedial measures than are suggested in this Report, because I think that unless these are adopted, not only will landed pioprietors and tenants continue to suffer from agricultural depression in its various phases, but also the country at large. 1. With regard to compensation for unexhausted improvements and in- creased fertility, notwithstanding the full and distinct evidence taken by the Commission proving that the farmer is entitled to the most complete and absolute security for the capital he has invested in the cultivation of the land, the Report does not specify or indicate any sufficient means of affording such absolute security, or of giving the tenant that protection to which he is entitled, nor does it recommend any effectual measure to secure the whole interest of the tenant in his improvements, including his interest in his tenure. More particularly, while agreeing with the Report that legislative provision should be made for securing to tenants compensation in respect to their outlays, I go further, and think that the result of a tenant’s energy and industry expended in improved fertility are as much capital as the cash he invests, and are as much entitled to legislative protection. Thor remedy * 65,001. the Royal Commission on Agriculture, 151 proposed in the Report appears to me to be inadequate. It is proposed to make the English Agricultural Holdings Act compulsory where compensation is not otherwise provided for, with the qualification that no compensation should be paid by an incoming tenant, except for outlays which are of value to him in the future cultivation of the farm, and that the compensation clauses should depend upon the additional value given to the holding. The Agricul- tural Holdings Act has admitted a principle, but the allowances arranged for by it are inadequate, and do not embrace increased fertility and value arising from the skilful and thorough cultivation of the land, and by its being kept in high condition. Most buildings are good for 50 years, while by the Act 20 only are allowed. Most drainage works are good for 30 years, and 20 only are allowed. Most manures are good for longer periods than the Agricultural Holdings Act allows, and some are not allowed for at all ; while high cultiva- tion, cleanness, and condition of the soil are ignored. The compensation to be paid for improvements is naturally a charge upon the landlord’s interest, and ought not to be a burden upon the capital of the incoming tenant, the landlord obtains an article of enhanced value and will recoup himself by the increased rent which an incoming tenant will be willing to pay for the ameliorated condition and increased fertility of the subject he hires. The Agricultural Holdings Act is deficient in securing to the landlord the dilapidations that the tenant has caused to his property, and is justly entitled to compensation for the same on the same principle and mode as the outgoing tenant is allowed for his ameliorations. Compensation for ameliorated condition being admitted, the Report should, in my opinion, have recommended a course by which values should be assessed. The natural course seems to me to be by arbitration, with a referee appointed by the Government in each district to act as oversman in case of the arbiters differing in opinion, such referee to be a practical agriculturist engaged in farming; or, the appointment of a referee might be placed under the juris- diction of the Enclosure Commissioners. In concluding this subject, 1 may refer to the following authorities : — The Duke of Richmond and Gordon, in moving the Agricultural Holdings Act on 14th April, 1876, said, “ The Government have thought that a measure should be brought in to secure the tenant the capital he has invested in the soil, and give the tenant that protection to which he is entitled ; on the other hand, it does not invade the rights of the landlord, which in this country have always been held sacred.” The Earl of Beaconsfieid, upon the same occasion, characterised the measure “As protecting the tenant’s investments in the soil by placing him in a juster position, and inducing him to apply capital to the soil, an application which it is in the interest of all classes to encourage.” When moving for the appointment of the Royal Commission on Agriculture in 1879, his Lordship also used the following remarkable words : “ I would be deeply disappointed if one result of the labours of the Royal Commission is not to afford the tenant the most complete and absolute security for the capital he has invested in the cultivation of the land.” Mr. Gladstone said at Leeds in 1881, “ It is of capital and immediate importance for the farmers to see that effectual and not abortive measures are taken to secure the whole interest of the tenant, not a part of that interest, but the whole interest in his improve- ments, and his interest, as the law may define it, in his tenure.” 2. With reference to the subject of rent, ample evidence has been given before the Commission on this most important subject, its increase during the last 25 years, and the great losses that tenant farmers have sustained thereby. The Report does not sufficiently deal with this increase as an important factor in the agricultural depression, and one which has helped to bring about the 152 Supplementary Memoranda to the Report of present crisis in- the agriculture of the country, a crisis which for intensity, acuteness, and extent, has never before been experienced in this country, and one which involves the very basis of the country’s welfare and prosperity. Our Sub-commissioners have corroborated the existence of this most unfortunate state of affairs in nearly every county of England and Scotland, and I am certain that if the seventh year, 1881, was taken into account, the losses in that year would be by far the heaviest, and if the history of the agriculture of this countiy for the last seven years was written, that of the past year would form one of its blackest pages. Both arable and hill fanners are in the same condition ; for the high rents, the deficiency of marketable produce, and the increased cost of labour, have brought many of them into the bank- ruptcy list, while many others have been brought to that position that they have not capital left for the ordinary cultivation of the soil. Hill farmers, on the other hand, have heen able to hold out longer, but tow, with the price of wool reduced to one-half of the former average price, which formed part of the .sheep-farmer’s basis for calculating the rent which he could afford to pay, his prospects are almost as dark as those of the arable farmer, especially if the serious decrease of stock, and the damage that was done to the flocks by the unparalleled severity of winter of 1880-81, are taken into account. The well-known definition of rent is “the surplus yielded by the land after all legitimate expenses connected with its cultivation, interest on capital, and reward for industry, have been sufficiently allowed for." IV hen there is no surplus, the rent has to be paid out of the tenant’s capital, when an unpre- cedented succession of bad seasons occur, such as we have lately experienced, for which no human calculations could have been made ; it is only a question of time how long the present tenants can have it in their power to pay any rent at all. A re-adjustment of rent is most urgently required by the large majority of the farmers in the country, and it is for the interests not less of landlords than of tenants that a re-adjustment should take place at once to meet the altered circumstances with which farmers have now to contend. The Report, in my opinion, should distinctly recommend such re-adjustment of rent for the adoption of the landlords. An abatement of rent for one or two years will not meet the difficulty, or allow tenants to recoup themselves and do justice to the land ; what is required is a permanent reduction of rent to give the tenants some hope of regaining their lost capital, and an impetus to increase the fertility of their farms by the continued high cultivation of the land. Sir James Caird puts the rise of rent in England for the last 18 years at 21 per cent., and in Scotland at 26 per cent., but I have no doubt that if we went back 25 years the rise would be 25 per cent, for England, and 30 per cent, for Scotland. The case is so urgent and pressing that nothing less than a reduction of rent of from 20 per cent, to 30 per cent, will save the present tenantry from ruin ; and in cases, on estates where the fatal policy of rack-renting has been adopted, in that case, 35 per cent, will not meet the tenants’ requirements. Evidence has also been given that rents have been unduly forced up by class laws, false and inflated competition, also by the letting of farms by tender, and screwing out of tenants more than what could honestly be paid from the produce of the soil. 3. The abolition of the law of entail should have been recommended in the Report, for it prevents landlords who hold their estates under entail from making sufficient allowance for the younger members of the family and from having the interest that they would otherwise have in the permanent im- provement of their properties, and the law on that account prevents the free progress of agriculture, and will continue to do so more than ever under the altered circumstances of the present time. This law has had a direct influence in retarding the skilful cultivation of the soil, for it has the effect of inducing the Royal Commission on Agriculture, Sfc. 153 a proprietor to prefer an indifferent tenant, who for a few years may promise to give a little higher rent for a farm, to a good tenant who will permanently increase the value of it. The result is that in the case of a 300-acre farm, worth 10,000/. sterling, let in the way I have indicated to an indifferent tenant, the market value of the land at the end of the had tenant’s occupancy, is reduced to 7000/. sterling, whereas if it had been let to a good tenant, the market value would have been raised to 12,000/. or 13,000/. sterling. Thus the agriculture of the country at large suffers from the law of entail, for there can he no doubt that it is for the benefit of the landlord as well as the country that the land should be kept in as high a state of fertility as possible, and that every law which interferes in any way with a high state of cultivation being maintained should be abolished. The Report should also have recommended a law regulating the easy and cheap transfer of land for the whole of Great Britain. 4. The Report should have recommended the total abolition of the law of distraint and the Act of Sederunt of 1756 in Scotland, for by these most unjust laws the rents of farms have been raised far above their real value, and farmers have had to offer higher, and in most cases excessive rents, and more particu- larly is this the case in regard to small farms, because there is greater compe- tition for these than for larger farms. Landlords trusting to these Jaws accept tenants with insufficient capital and men who know nothing about the culti- vation of the soil, whom, without these laws, they would not take, and thus the rent of land is artificially raised far beyond what can be legitimately paid. The real question at issue is whether there is anything in the relation of a landlord to his tenant which entitles the landlord in equity to have his rent paid in preference to the other debts of his tenant ? Looking to the general interests of the community, these laws should be abolished, for their direct tendency is to drive away capital from the soil. I am clearly of opinion that the operation of these laws has been one of the chief causes of the present deplorable state of agriculture in this country. 5. The Report should, in my opinion, have recommended power being given to a tenant or his representatives to assign a lease under special circumstances, such as at the death of the tenant, or his insanity, or permanent disability from ill-health, to a suitable tenant farmer to be approved of by the landlord, the landlord, however, to have only one veto, and after the landlord has exercised such veto once, the matter to be referred to the judge ordinary or the sheriff in Scotland without power of appeal from the decision of either of them. And in case of the bankruptcy of a tenant his trustee should he entitled to take his place in the lease, and to dispose of it to a suitable and responsible assignee to be approved of as above for the benefit of the. creditors. 6. The management of landed estates, regarding which explicit and valu- able evidence has been given before the Commission, has been completely ignored in the Report. This, in my opinion, is a great omission, for the management of estates is one of the most important subjects upon which evidence has been given, and one which bears directly on the present lament- able state of agriculture in this country ; ample evidence has been given to the Commission of the appointment of men to the management of estates who are unfitted for such a position from their want of practical knowledge of agriculture. Lawyers are often employed as land agents and factors for estates, and although they may be most excellent men in their profession, yet from this want of practical knowledge of agriculture and out-door manage- ment generally, there is not so much hope of the improvement of an estate but rather the reverse where it is placed fully under their charge. They are not so capable of giving the proprietor sound advice with regard to the choice of tenants and the improvement or management of the farms upon the estate, 154 Supplementary Memoranda, 8fc. and are more inclined to draw money from the estate than to lay out any upon its improvements ; they view most things through the medium of the law, and hence often disturb that kindly feeling that should exist between landlord and tenant. Stringently drawn leases, hard-and-fast law, are not the best ways to further the lauded interest and the profitable cultivation of the soil. It also happens that the management of an estate in Scotland is placed in hands of lawyers in large towns who are apt to employ men of the same pro- fession in small towns in the country who have also little knowledge of practical agriculture in preference to experienced local estate factors who are practically acquainted with the management and cultivation of the soil. These estates themselves suffer from more ways than one, and the tenants upon them also suffer. I am strongly of opinion that the Report, after the distinct evidence upon that point, should have called attention to the subject, and recommended lauded proprietors to employ in the management of their estates local factors who are practically acquainted with agriculture, and who know how to encourage its advancement in every way. It is gratifying to see from evidence that several of our largest and best pro- prietors form an exception to the above rule, for they employ both trained and practical men as managing factors on their estates, greatly to their own advantage and to that of the tenants and labourers. 7. Emigration. — Evidence has been given that farmers’ sons and agricul- tural labourers are leaving the country in increasing numbers, and it is highly probable that this exodus will continue unless a prospect of higher remuner- ation to both classes can be held out. A growing scarcity of labour and the withdrawal from the country of large numbers of young farmers is a serious evil threatening the future of our agriculture ; and it must be borne in mind that while it is easy to drive off those whose experience and taste fit them for the successful cultivation of its soil, it is very difficult to recall them, and almost impossible to replace them. John Clay. 5. — By Mr. Howard. "With the exception of the recommendation as to the Law of Distress, the Report has my full concurrence. I consider the Law of Distress of no ad- vantage to the best and largest landlords, who, seldom, if ever, avail themselves of their powers ; it is only of service to those landlords who, with this State guarantee, secure from tenants they would not otherwise have selected a high rent, paid in many cases at the expense of others. It is a preferential law unfair to other creditors, and, in my opinion, should be abolished. Charles Howard. 6. — By Mr. Paterson. Though signing the Beport, I find it incumbent on me to enter my dissent to the proposals in regard to the maintenance of the in-door poor, and in regard to the Law of Distress. While agreeing in the principle of rating personality for the maintenance of the poor, and for other burdens at present levied entirely on real property, I am unable to agree in the proposal of throwing the support of the in-door poor in England and Scotland on the Consolidated Fund, for by so doing a heavy burden would devolve on Scotland for the support of the poor of England. Dairying in Denmark. 155 To meet the charge on the Consolidated Fund it would he necessary to increase the income-tax, and, if this were done, and an extra rate levied on Scotland as well as England for this purpose, the former country would be called on to pay a sum equal to one-half of the entire cost of its own poor, and equal to three or four times the amount annually expended on in-door relief in Scotland. The principles of the Poor Law Acts for the two countries are totally different, and it does appear to me that, if the in-door poor or the whole poor of England are to be supported out of the Consolidated Fund, the only equitable mode of meeting the cost will be by an extra rate of income-tax levied in England alone. With regard to the Law of Distress in England and the Act passed in 1880 for the purpose of abolishing Hypothec in Scotland, I am certainly of opinion that fresh legislation is required, and I trust it will culminate in the total abolition of both laws. Robert Patterson. V. — Dairying in Denmark* By H. M. Jenkins, F.G.S., Secretary of the Society and Editor of the ‘ Journal.’ Preface. Since my report on the farming of Denmark, which was published in the second part of the Society’s ‘Journal’ for 1876, the dairying of that country has been very much improved, both in the manipulation of the milk and the provision made for its production. It has therefore been deemed desirable to reprint here the report on Danish Dairying which I made to the Royal Commission on Agriculture. That having been decided upon, I take the opportunity of calling attention in this preface to the widely different details of the process of manufacture in the cases of fresh butter and keeping butter respectively. The former may be termed a wet process, and the latter a dry one. In addition to that difference, it appears that to make the best fresh butter, hard pressing seems unnecessary, but to make the best keeping butter it is deemed to be essential. But whether butter be intended for immediate or for future consumption, it is always made in Denmark (except by one firm and their clients) from cream which has been taken from sweet milk, but which has afterwards been artificially soured. I commend all these varying details of the manufacturing process to the careful study of dairy-farmers and of managers of dairy-factories. H. M. J. * Reprinted from the Report on Denmark to the Royal Commission on Agriculture. 156 Dairying in Denmark. 1. Dairy Cattle. — In Denmark, as now restricted in area, the only native breed is the black and white Jutlander, which combines a certain adaptability for feeding purposes with a con- siderable share of dairy properties. This breed is very gene- rally met with in that part of the Cumbrian peninsula which is still included in the Kingdom of Denmark, but it is rarely seen on the Danish islands. The dairy breed, par excellence , is the Angeln, the original home of which was in North Schleswig ; and until the separation of the Duchies from Den- mark, it also could properly be termed a native race. But although the original home of the breed has been separated from the little kingdom the Angeln cattle have for very many years been almost the only breed kept on the Danish islands, where dairy-farming, in the form of “ high dairying,” as it may be termed, attains its highest development. A somewhat coarse variety of the breed is said to be indigenous to the island of Fyen, and many agriculturists give to it the distinction of a separate name taken from its island home. The Angeln cattle, when pure, are self-coloured ; either more or less light or dark red, the muzzle being of a much darker hue than the rest of the head. In size and conformation they approach most nearly to the Jerseys or Alderneys. A com- plete description of the breed, with illustrations, will be found in my previous report on the Agriculture of Denmark.* English- men had an opportunity of seeing some excellent specimens of this and the Jutland breed at the Royal Agricultural Society’s International Show at Kilburn, in 1879, but I am not aware that their adaptability to our climate, and other circumstances, was tested by purchases made on that unique occasion. On dairy-farms calves are seldom allowed to suck their dams ; in fact, there must be some very unusual circumstance to account for this system being practised. Formerly all the calves, except about 10 per cent, of the heifers, were slaughtered imme- diately after birth ; but now a more enlightened system is gaining ground, and a fearful waste of meat is therefore being slowly diminished. Calves get whole milk for four or five days or even a week, and afterwards those that remain get skim-milk with a diminishing proportion of whole milk up to two or three months, by which time meal has gradually been substituted for a portion of the skim-milk. They are generally kept in the cow- house until they are over a year old ; thus, being calved in the winter months — November to March inclusive — they would not be turned out much until May of the following year, when they could be properly classed as yearlings. Most of the smaller Journ. Royal Agric. Soe., 2nd scries, vol. xii. pp. 3-14 et seq. Dairying in Denmark. 157 farmers put heifers to the bull at 15 months old, but the more advanced farmers prefer to wait another year. This practice is in direct opposition to that of the Jersey breeders, most of whom hold that for milking purposes both bulls and heifers should be used as early as possible. This divergence may, however, be due to differences in the climate of the countries where the two breeds are kept. During the summer the cows are tethered in lines on the after- math of first year’s seeds, and the whole of the second and third Year’s grass ; but they are rarely put on permanent pasture, and then only on the aftermath. It is very striking to see from 50 to 200 or more cows, all of one colour, tethered in one or two long: lines in a larse field of seeds. Water is carted to them at stated times twice a day, and they are also milked twice a day in the fields as they stand. In the winter they are entirely kept in the cow-house, and fed on chopped hay and straw, corn in the form of meal, bran, and cake. As a general rule, the allowance of meal, bran, and cake commences, soon after calving, with about 4 lbs. per head per diem, increasing gradually to 8 lbs., and in some cases even more. Most farmers think a great deal of the value of bran and rape-cake for milch-cows, but palmnut-cake or palmnut-meal is also extensively used. Linseed-cake is not held in much repute by dairy-farmers, and those who use it do so very sparingly, as its tendency is to produce an oily consis- tency in the butter, which is very prejudicial to its value in the market. About one-half of the artificial food is meal obtained by grinding oats and barley produced on the farm, and the remaining half generally consists of about equal parts of bran and oil-cake. Of late years the system of keeping the cows in the stalls during a portion of the summer has found increasing favour with the best farmers, and they have modified their rotations accordingly. Thus the practice of keeping artificial grass down three years has been changed to that of a two years’ ley ; and the year in the rotation thus gained has been utilized by inserting a crop of vetches, oats, barley, peas, &c., mixed together, between the successive crops of cereals, which formerly were almost universally taken for three or four years following. Part of this mixed grain and pulse crop is cut green for early summer feed, and part left to ripen for use in the stalls when the cows return after their restricted sojourn on the artificial pastures. 2. Keeping (or Sour-cream ) Butter. — This is the real Danish butter of commerce — in my opinion the best winter butter that comes to the English market. The following detailed descrip- tion of its mode of manufacture will probably surprise many persons, therefore I will preface it by saying that it is an 158 Dairying in Denmark. accurate record of what I have seen done on many Danish farms. The milk is weighed as it is brought into the milk-cellar, the produce of each cow being weighed and entered separately. It is then put into the cans or other vessels in which it is to be set for cream. As a rule, deep cans plunged in ice, or a mixture of ice and water, are used, especially in the summer, their place in winter being in some dairies taken by the shallow round wooden tubs, known as the Holstein system. There are, however, “ running-water dairies,” where the deep cans are plunged in a tank through which cold water flows continually. Other dairies, again, are furnished with the rectangular shallow “ Destinon ” troughs ; but until recently the Swartz system was steadily driving all other methods out of the field. Now, however, the centrifugal cream separators are competing with the Swartz system, and probably most new dairies will be fitted with these machines, to the exclusion of all other means of obtaining cream from milk. The Swartz cans were originally long and narrow with rounded ends, and these are still seen in dairies which have been specially fitted with tanks appropriate to this system. But in other dairies, into which the system has been, as it were, imported, cylindrical cans are used and plunged in huge tubs filled with ice and water. If large cans are used, it is calculated that 1 lb. of milk requires 1 lb. of ice to keep it at the required temperature for 12 hours ; but with cans of a smaller diameter | of a lb. of ice is sufficient for 1 lb. of milk. In the best dairies the cream is taken off after 12 hours standing, and the milk is skimmed a second time after remaining another 12 or 24 hours ; but the two skimmings are never mixed together. The cream first taken off is used for making butter for market, and the second skimming for household purposes, or an inferior quality of butter. Each skimming of cream is weighed, and the quantity duly entered by the chief dairymaid. It is then put to sour — a process which varies much on different farms. The most usual practice is to warm the cream to about 63° F. and then to add from 2 per cent, to 3 per cent, of buttermilk, which is well mixed with the cream. Some dairymaids add only 1 per cent, of buttermilk, and some as much as 5 per cent. ; but pro- bably the temperature of the milk-cellar and other circumstances necessitate variations in this as in other dairy practices. Not a few dairymaids prefer to save some sour cream from each day’s churning: to mix with the sweet cream to be soured for the next day ; and others again prefer a mixture of sour cream and sweet milk ; but in these cases the quantity used is not so large as when buttermilk is employed, generally not more than from 4 per Dairying in Denmark. 159 cent, to 1 per cent., but occasionally as much as 2 per cent, of the mixture. Whichever of these methods is employed, it is quite obvious that the germs of fermentation have a continued relationship. In other words, the souring material of to-day is a lineal de- scendant of that used yesterday, that of the day before, and so on. It may seem strange that continual “in-and-in breeding” of such microscopic organisms should act prejudicially upon the quality of the butter, but in practice this is found to be the case, so in well-managed dairies a new stock of souring material is obtained every month, by letting some milk or cream become sour without artificial aid. Indeed, so important is this matter considered that a new process has recently been advocated, and is now being tested on a large number of the best farms. A covered can is filled with new milk and warmed up to 104° F. (32° R.) ; it is then placed in a large cubical box thickly lined with hay (in fact, a rough kind of Norwegian oven), and locked up ; at the end of 24 hours, when required for use, the can is taken out, and it is found that the milk has become sour and its temperature has fallen to 68° F. (16° R.). This sour milk is then used to sour the cream which will be churned the next day, and as a fresh supply of souring material is made daily the danger of inherited defects is removed. O The souring material having been added to the cream in a kind of barrel with a movable lid, through a hole in which projects the handle of the stirring-stick, it is left for about 24 hours, being occasionally stirred with the stick without remov- ing the lid. It is then brought to the requisite temperature and placed in the invariable upright Holstein churn. The cream is generally put into the churn at a low tempera- ture, 55° F. being not unusual, and 57° rarely, if ever, exceeded. But it must be remembered that the upright Holstein churn is used, and that this machine has a very small dashboard power in comparison with its size. Therefore, the deficiency in power is compensated for by driving the dashboard at a high speed, generally between 120 and 150 revolutions per minute. The consequence is that when the butter “ comes,” which it does in between 30 and 40 minutes, the temperature has increased by 4° to 5° F., making it at the finish from 60° to 62° F., which is quite high enough to ensure the production of good butter, and its due proportion to the quantity and quality of the cream. Churning is stopped when the butter-grains are no larger than grains of mustard-seed ; in fact, as soon as they are distinctly formed. It is one of the advantages of the Holstein churn that by means of a small hole in the top, fitted with a sliding lid, 160 Dairying in Denmark. the progress of the churning can be observed as often as desired, without stopping the churn. A thermometer can also be inserted in another hole, and thus the gradual rise in temperature can be noted. The butter having “come,” it is carefully removed from the churn in the following manner : — The dairymaid takes a hair sieve, dips it into the churn, and brings up about a pound of butter in granules. She holds it for the buttermilk to drain off, and by gently tipping the sieve first to one side and then to the other, she gradually gets rid of most of the buttermilk, and also brings the granules into a loose roll. This preliminary and very simple operation is a good index of the skill of the dairymaid. Properly and gently done, the butter is drained of a large proportion of the contained buttermilk, it is fairly consolidated, and, more important than all, its grain is not broken. A careless or too energetic dairymaid will obtain none of these advantages, and will irreparably spoil the butter. The roll of butter is then gently deposited on the side of the kneading-trough ; and when the whole of the “ make ” has been similarly dealt with, the process of working or kneading com- mences. The dairymaid has close at hand three cans and a cloth, which she makes frequent use of as follows : — Premising that her hands are perfectly clean, she begins by thoroughly wiping them with the damp cloth. She then swills them well in the can which contains hot water ; then plunges them into, and keeps them for some moments in, the second can, which contains cold water, or, preferably, a mixture of ice and water, and finally rinses them in the third can, which contains buttermilk just taken from the churn. Having thus prepared her hands, she proceeds to work the butter as follows : — One of the rolls is set on end, and gently but firmly pressed against the side of the trough, with one hand placed crosswise over the other, until it forms a flat cake. This is then rolled up, and set on end again, when the process is repeated, and so on until the butter has been thoroughly squeezed and consolidated, and most of the buttermilk expressed without injuring the grain of the still tender butter. Generally this first working necessitates seven times rolling and pressing; but the number varies from 6 to 12 on different farms and at different times of year. After the last pressing the butter is loosely rolled and care- fully placed on a board ; and when the whole of the “ make ” has been thus dealt with, the board and the butter are carried to the small weighing-machine, which is a necessary article of use in every Danish dairy. The tare of the board being known, the weight of the butter is easily arrived at, and is duly entered by the dairymaid on the line on which she has, in other Dairying in Denmark. 161 columns, already entered the quantity of milk, weight of cream, &c., so that she can see in a moment how much milk or cream she has used to make a pound of butter. She can also calculate to a nicety how much salt she requires to use according to the usual percentage found to be desirable, or stipulated for by the butter-merchant. This is generally from 3 to 1 per cent. Salting is done by carefully uncoiling each roll of butter, and spreading it out in its cake-like form on the bottom of the kneading-tub, until about one-half the number have been thus treated. They should be placed close together, so as almost to overlap. The salt is then evenly sprinkled over the butter, and the remaining rolls are uncoiled, and placed upside down on the others. The dairymaid next takes a wooden knife and cuts pieces of a convenient size, vertically, out of the salt-and-butter sandwich. She then works each piece precisely in the same manner as before, and for about as many times, taking the same precautions as before to keep her hands clean and cool, and with only a butter flavour. In this way she thoroughly incorporates the salt with the butter, and expresses any lingering buttermilk, while still carefully preserving the grain of the butter. When it has been sufficiently worked in this way, she brings the butter into a “ saddle ” shape, so as to expose as much of its surface as possible to the cooling influences to which it will next be subjected. These saddle-shaped pieces of butter are, in the best dairies, placed in a long wooden box fitted with movable laths resting on a ledge about a couple of inches from its solid bottom. This arrangement not only admits of drainage from the butter, but it also allows a current of air to sweep beneath as well as above and around the butter. The box is covered Avith a tin tray filled with ice ; and thus the butter is left to harden for about two hours, as a rule. Where ice is not used, the butter is covered with a cloth, and left in the coolest available place for as long as four hours in summer, but in winter not longer sometimes than one hour. The test adopted to ascertain whether the butter is ready for the next operation is its comparative brittle- ness. If the pieces of butter can be broken short off, they are ready for the final working. The butter is worked for the last time before it is packed, either by being passed through a mechanical butter-worker, or by a repetition of the hand process already described. Some few years ago the use of the circular butter-worker on large farms, and of the small longitudinal butter-worker on small farms, was almost universal ; but at the present time many farmers have abandoned the use of these machines. I was at some pains to ascertain the reason, but was not completely satisfied with the result of my inquiries. However, the con- VOI, XIX. — S. S. M 162 Dairying in Denmark. elusion I arrived at was that good dairymaids believed that they could work the butter more completely with the hand, while preserving its grain, than could be accomplished by means of the mechanical butter-worker ; and, on the other hand, bad or inefficient dairymaids used the machine recklessly, and over- worked the butter at its final stage, so that the merchants had ground for complaint, and discouraged its use. When the butter-worker is properly used, the butter is not touched by the hand ; but, by means of wooden patters or spatulae, it is passed under the rollers about a dozen times, sometimes more and sometimes less, according to the temperature and the size of the machine. With a small machine the butter requires to be passed under the rollers more often than with a larger and more powerful machine. The making of the butter being now completed, nothing remains to be done but packing it for market. This is a very simple operation, but is conducted with the same regard for cleanliness and neatness as every other operation in a Danish dairy. The butter is simply rammed, by means of a wooden pestle, into a new keg, at the bottom of which is placed a piece of clean linen lined with salt ; and when the keg is full, a similar piece of linen covered with salt is put on the top of it, before the head is fixed in, which is not done until just before the butter is sent to the merchant or factor to whom the butter made on the farm is always consigned. 3. Sweet-cream Butter. — Some five or six years ago sweet- cream butter was made on many large farms in Denmark. In fact, this method of treating cream was regarded as an advance upon the sour-cream method. At the present time, however, it may be safely stated that sweet-cream butter is rarely, if ever, made in Denmark except for Messrs. Busck, jun., and Co. (Scandinavian Preserved Butter Company), for the purpose of being packed in hermetically sealed tins for exportation to tropical countries. It is possible that some smaller companies may adopt the same system, but all those whose managers I have seen now adopt the sour-cream method. This latter has the uncontested advantage of yielding from 3 to 4 per cent, more butter, with, it is alleged, better keeping qualities, and no inferiority in other respects. On the other hand, Mr. Busck pays his clients for the best sweet-cream butter, provided that it is made according to his directions, which include the dietary of the cows, about 20 per cent, more than is paid for the best sour-cream butter. Thus, in the first week of June in 1881, Mr. Tesdorpf was receiving 108s. per cwt., less 2£ per cent, commission, for first quality sour-cream butter, and 128s. per cwt. net for first quality sweet-cream butter. In the same week Dairying in Denmark. 163 the best Cork butter was quoted in the ‘ North British Agricul- turist,’ which I saw at his house, at 101s. per cwt. It should also be added that the sweet-cream butter entails very little expense for casks, as they are returned carriage free, while the casks con- taining the sour-cream butter are exported with their contents, and consequently never seen again. There is nothing special in the method of manufacture of sweet-cream butter, except that the milk must be set in ice, and the cream churned immediately after skimming, with only the exception that the evening’s skimming may be kept until the next morning, provided that the cream is put into a deep can, and kept in ice during the night. Previous to being put into the churn the cans containing the cream should be placed in a bath of warm water, the temperature of which must not exceed 100° F., until the cream is warmed up to 55° F., but not more. During the process of churning the temperature may increase to 59° F., but not higher ; and in this, as in all other operations, the system already described under the head of sour- cream butter is closely followed, with one exception, namely, that no water is allowed to come in contact with the butter, not even for washing small particles off the dasher or the side of the churn ; they must be removed by washing with buttermilk, or by using a small lump of butter as a kind of magnet to which they will adhere. Mr. Busck will not accept butter made from cream obtained by the separator ; but as this implement becomes better known, it is doubtful whether he will be able to maintain this position without losing the support of those of his present clients who are not shareholders in his company. On all farms where sweet-cream butter is made, the cream from the second skimming, which is taken twelve or twenty-four hours after the first, is made into sour-cream butter for domestic use or for the ordinary market. 4. Fresh Butter. — This is rarely a product of Danish farms ; but as there is one very notable exception at the well-known farm of Overod, where the butter for the Royal Family of Denmark is made, I will describe the process as I saw it carried out, merely premising that the farmer’s wife (Mrs. Hanna Neilson) informed me that several of her old pupils pursued the same method in different districts of Denmark. The quan- tity of butter made is not large, considering the supply of milk to the farm, as the greater portion is used in making different kinds of native and foreign cheese, as will be subsequently described (p. 166, et seq.). The evening’s milk is put into deep cans, which are plunged in a trough packed as closely as possible with small lumps of M 2 164 Dairying in Denmark. ice, so as to keep the milk at a temperature under 40° F. Next morning the milk is carefully skimmed, and the cream is turned into a deep can, and warmed up to about 63° F., more or less, according to the temperature of the milk-cellar. In winter the cream is warmed up to as much as 65° F. Then, as the cream has been taken off the milk in a perfectly sweet con- dition, as much as 5 per cent, weight of buttermilk is added to it, for the purpose of starting vigorously the “ souring ” of the cream. The temperature of the cream is afterwards kept low by immersing the cream-can in a cold-water bath, in which it remains covered up for twenty-four hours, and when put into the churn it has a temperature of only 51J° F. (8£° R.). Churning begins at 5.30 A.M., and is done in an ordinary Holstein churn of small size, but fitted with a plug at the bottom, the use of which will be presently seen. The churning is done by two of the girl-pupils, who turn the handle fifty-five to sixty times per minute — a speed which corresponds with double the number of revolutions of the dasher inside the churn. The butter comes in about forty minutes, and the churning is arrested as soon as examination shows that the butter has formed little seed-like granules — the smaller the better. But it would indicate great inattention, and cause a serious depreciation of quality, if the butter were churned into particles larger than a grain of mustard-seed. The butter having thus “ come,” the churn and its contents are lifted on to a table, this cumbrous method being necessary in consequence of the shape and construction of the upright Holstein churn. The part of the base of the churn in which the plug already mentioned is situated overhangs the edge of the table, so that it may be partially withdrawn to let out the buttermilk. This being done, and the buttermilk received in a can through a hair-sieve, which arrests any small particles of butter that may escape with it, the churn is partially filled with clear cold water, which is withdrawn in the same manner as the buttermilk. This process is repeated four times, and the last water comes out of the churn nearly as clear as it was when put into it. The butter is thus thoroughly cleansed of its butter- milk, and is besides consolidated into one firm mass of granules. It is then taken out of the churn with wooden patters, and, after being left to drain for five minutes, is still further consolidated to express the water remaining in the interstices between the granules, this being done always with the patters, so that, in fact, the butter is never touched with the hand. It is then placed in a trough, in one or several lumps according to the quantity made, covered over with a clean cloth, and left for an hour to become firm, ice being used in summer to facilitate this Dairying in Denmark. 1(15 important stage in the process of butter-making. The butter is afterwards worked in a longitudinal butter-worker until all the liquid mixture of buttermilk and water has been, as far as possible, pressed out. It is then put in white porcelain pots, each holding a pound, stamped with the Danish Crown, and covered with a nice-fitting lid, being then ready to be sent to the King’s Palace, or to be sold at Mrs. Nielson’s shop in Copenhagen. On farms where only a small portion of the butter is intended for immediate consumption as fresh butter, while the rest is made into keeping butter, the process of washing is varied as follows: — The butter having “come” as usual, the lid of the churn is taken off and the churn tipped to a convenient angle in the ordinary way. The butter is then taken out in small portions by means of a sieve, through the meshes of which most of the buttermilk drains away. The sieve and the contained butter are then plunged in a bucket of clear cold water, then raised out of the water to allow of drainage, and this is repeated three or four times, or as often as may be deemed necessary. The washing by this method is nearly as effective as the washing in the churn, and is exceedingly convenient on a large dairy-farm, where it is desired to make only a proportion of the butter into “fresh” for immediate consumption. 5. Cleanliness. — Whatever method of butter-making is adopted, excessive cleanliness in every particular is all but uni- versal in Denmark. The wooden implements and machines are most carefully cleaned after use, generally by first rinsing in cold water, then by successive scrubbings with hot water, and finally by rinsing copiously with cold water again. Further, one of the most elementary practices, known to every Danish dairy- woman, is, that no matter how clean a wooden implement may be, even if it is only a spoon, yet before it is allowed to touch the butter it must be first well rinsed in scalding water, and after- wards in cold water. This preparation prevents the butter sticking to the wood, and renders the various operations easy, neat, and clean, thus avoiding any undue pulling about of the butter to the injury of its “grain,” — that precious quality which, when once destroyed, can never be repaired or replaced. In fine weather the churns and milk-cans of all descriptions are dried in the open air, but in wet weather they are dried under cover, but out of doors if possible. On the other hand, the “ butter-working ” utensils are generally left to dry in the butter-cellar. It should be remarked that the washing or cleansing is done in this cellar, where the milk is set for cream and the butter is stored in kegs, ready to be sent to market. No taint of an}’ kind is allowed to come into this sanctuary, which, 166 Dairying in Denmark. like the cheese-room, is always under lock and key, and receives the personal supervision of the head dairymaid, who is, except on very large farms, and frequently even then, the farmer’s wife or daughter. 6. Skim-milk Cheese. — The exact process of manufacture of skim-milk cheese varies on nearly every farm in Denmark that I visited, so far at least as regards the temperature at which the rennet is added, and the proportion of butter-milk mixed with the skim-milk. As a general rule, however, I inferred that the richer the skim-milk, the smaller the proportion of butter-milk added to it, and the higher the temperature at which the rennet was added. But this statement is subject to many exceptions. Still it may be sufficient for the purposes of this report to state that in a Swartz dairy about 7 per cent, of butter-milk would be added if sour-cream butter is made, either entirely or as the pro- duct of a second skimming after sweet-cream butter ; but more sweet-cream than sour-cream butter-milk can be used. In a Holstein or a “ running-water ” dairy, where the skim-milk is richer in cream, not more than from 3 to 6 per cent, of butter-milk would be added ; while, where centrifugal separators are used, from 10 to 15 or 20 per cent, of butter-milk is mixed with the exceptionally poor skim-milk which is left after the extraction of the cream by this method. This addition of butter-milk to skim-milk is one of the peculiarities in the manufacture of Danish skim-cheese, and the variations in prac- tice just indicated show that the true principles of the use of butter-milk for this purpose have not yet been clearly made out. Rennet is added at temperatures varying from 22° to 32° R. (81£° to 104° F.), according to the time of the year and the richness of the skim-milk ; the richer it is in cream, the higher the temperature it will bear without becoming hard. About 86° F. may be quoted as a very usual temperature. After the rennet and the colouring matter are added and well mixed with the warm mess, it is covered with the boarded top of the cheese- tub, and left about half an hour, occasionally not more than twenty minutes. When the curd is fairly formed, it is carefully and slowly cut vertically with a long wooden knife into strips about three inches wide. These are similarly cut across, so as to form pillars with a cubical section. Great care is taken not to break the curd during his operation, but to keep in it the little richness that it contains. Afterwards, a shovel-shaped curd-breaker, made of wood and wicker-work, is used ; at first very gently to break the pillars of curd into shorter pieces, then by bringing some of them above the surface of the whey to make them break them- selves against the wicker-bars by the force of gravity ; and Dairying in Denmark. 167 finally, by gradually increasing force, ending in a rapid stir- about motion, to get the curd into a tolerably minute state of subdivision. The whey having been drawn off as completely as possible, the curd is gathered into the middle of the tub, and boards and weights placed on it to express as much of the remainder of the whey as can be got out by these means. In primitive districts the dairymaid stands on the board and stamps it with her feet alternately. Salt is then added in small quantity, unless, as is sometimes the case, the cheeses are afterwards kept in a salt- bath ; and sometimes cummin or carraway-seeds are mixed with the curd at this stage, if the taste of the farmer’s customers requires the addition of such a flavouring material. Curd-mills are seldom used, but the curd is laboriously picked to pieces with the fingers. Finally, the curd is put into moulds, pressed for a short time, and turned two or three times, by which means the remaining whey is expressed, and the cheese brought into its permanent form. It is then stamped with the name of the farm, the date, and its number for the year, placed in its cloth and permanent mould, and kept under the press for twenty-four hours. As before stated, on some farms it is afterwards put into a salt-water bath, generally for three days. It is, perhaps, needless to say that the cheese-rooms are models of neatness and cleanliness, that the greatest possible attention is paid to the regulation of the temperature and to the ventilation, and that every cheese is turned daily. The cheeses are sold when from three weeks to three months old, but between two and three months is the most usual age, and prices vary from 22 to 32 ore per Danish lb., or from less than 3d. to more than 4 d. per lb. avoirdupois. It will thus be seen that the manufacture of skim-cheese in Denmark has not yet been reduced to such a definite system as the making of butter ; but there can be no doubt that the same spirit of investigation — fostered as it is both by the Government and the Royal Agricultural Society of Denmark- — will shortly place this branch of dairy manufacture on a scientific basis equal to that which the butter-making of the country has now for some years attained under the same influences. It may, how- ever, be remarked that while Danish butter is an article of diet — unfortunately not yet easily attainable by the masses in consequence of trade tricks — thoroughly appreciated by the English people, Danish skim-cheese does not commend itself to the English palate, and therefore has an interest only as an indication of the manner in which skim-milk may be utilised profitably by the dairy-farmer. The German method of making skim-milk cheese, which was exhibited at the Royal Agricul- 168 Dairying in Denmark. tural Society’s Show at Derby in 1881, appears to me much more worthy of imitation by our English butter-makers as a profitable means of using skim-milk, by converting it into an article of food that will keep well, and command a ready sale at remunerative prices. 7. Children's Milk. — Under this name (in Danish, of course), the Scandinavian Preserved Butter Company (Messrs. Busck, jun., and Co.), sell in Copenhagen a special milk in sealed bottles, both directly to the consumer and indirectly through the agency of most respectable druggists. It is claimed that the milk produced under the company’s regulations for this purpose is specially suitable for infants and young children, invalids, and aged persons, as being richer in sugar, and not so rich in nitrogen as milk produced in the ordinary manner. I regret that I was unable to obtain a certified analysis of the milk in comparison with that obtained from the same breed of cow under ordinary conditions. The cows used for producing this milk must be approved by the company’s veterinary surgeon. In summer they must be fed entirely on clover and artificial grass ; and in winter on hay, oats, bran, and straw. No cake or roots are allowed. As soon as the milk is brought to the farm-house it is run through one or two of Lawrence’s refrigerators ; in summer two are gene- rally used, with a view to economise ice. The temperature is thus quickly reduced to about 40° F. or 41° F., and the milk is then put into small cans, holding only about two gallons each, and sent at once by rail to Copenhagen. The price paid by the company to the farmers is Id. per gallon in summer, and 9fZ. per gallon in winter; and the company charge the public about Is. per gallon in summer and proportionately in winter ; not a high price, after all. Assuming that the virtues of the milk thus produced are what they are claimed to be, everything must depend upon the good faith of the farmer in carrying out his instructions. I was informed, indeed, that there are only two or three farmers in the district round Copenhagen who would undertake to comply with the regulations, and who at the same time could be trusted to fulfil loyally their engage- ments. The farm I visited belonged to Mr. Petersen, near Taastrup. 8. Dairy Factories. — These establishments abound in Den- mark, and more particularly in the island of Fyen ; therefore it is necessary to give a brief description of two or three of them, in order to complete the subject of Danish dairy-farming. The factories are very seldom on the co-operative principle, in fact I have not seen a single co-operative factory in Denmark. The milk is bought from surrounding farmers, but is generally sent Dairying in Denmark. 169 for by the proprietor of the factory. Thus at Maeslev, near Odense, the capital of Fyen, is a factory where the milk of about 300 cows is dealt with. The price given is from 7J to to 8 ore per litre, or 4 \d. to 4 %d. per gallon, which is a high price for Denmark. Two Laval separators of the old pattern * are used. They are worked by a three-horse power vertical engine by Marshalls, of Gainsborough, and the proprietor states that the engine is sufficiently powerful to work a third separator as well as the churn. There was nothing in this factory other- wise worth notice for its excellence ; on the contrary, the arrangements left much to be desired. The proximity of such a good market for skim-milk as Odense naturally is, had made the people somewhat careless about the manufacture of skim- cheese, which was only made occasionally, and then, as it seemed to me, rather badly. From 8 to 12 per cent, of butter- milk was added to the skim-milk for cheese-making, as the separator so entirely denuded it of cream. Altogether this was not a model factory, and I left it under the impression that the proprietor would not make it pay. A much better arranged and better managed dairy-factory I visited in the island of Laaland, at Holeby. Here the milk of about 500 cows is dealt with, and the average receipts amount to about 1100 gallons daily, the price paid being 6J ore per litre, or 4 d. per gallon ; but at the time of my visit (September 1881) there was some talk of 7 ore per litre, or 4 \d. per gallon being demanded. Two Danish separators (Nielsen and Peter- sen) are used, and a four-horse power steam-engine is found amply sufficient to drive them and two large churns simul- taneously. The milk is warmed to its natural temperature before being put through the separators. Two per cent, of butter-milk is added to the cream to sour it in twenty-four hours, so that the cream of yesterday is being churned at the same time as the separators are obtaining the cream from the milk of to-day. The proprietor finds that these separators take the cream so completely out of the milk, that he is obliged to add from 25 to 35 per cent, of butter-milk to the skim-milk in order to get any flavour at all into his skim-cheese. The temperature at which the rennet is added is also very high, namely, 100° F. to 104° F. (30°-32° R.), and the curd is cut in a quarter of an hour. The highest price which he can get for his cheese is about 25 s. per cwt., but possibly the somewhat peculiar method of manufacture pursued may have something to do with this low price. It should, however, be remembered that these centri- * For a comple description and illustration of this machine, see ‘Journal of tho Royal Agricultural Society,’ 2nd series, vol. xv., Part II., pp. 705, tt seq. The new machine is described and illustrated in vol. xviii., Part II., pp. 010 aud 620. 170 Dairying in Denmark. fugal separators are things almost of yesterday ; and that a sufficient time has not yet elapsed to enable dairymen to find out exactly how best to treat skim-milk which is so entirely deprived of its cream as that which has passed through a well- managed separator. A multiplication of descriptions of dairy-factories would serve no practical purpose, therefore I will now give a sketch of an establishment where milk is bought on a large scale, in addition to that given by a large herd kept on the farm. There are a very large number of home-farms where this system is pursued, both landlord and tenant, or, more correctly, both pro- prietor and peasant, finding the system mutually profitable. At Auno, one of the home-farms on the picturesque estate of Hofjaegermester von Oxholm, near Vordingborg, in the south of Sealand, about 160 cows are kept, and milk is bought from the surrounding farmers. A new dairy has recently been built on the slope of a hill, advantage having thus been taken of geo- graphical contour to save labour. The receiving room for the milk is on the highest level ; after each can has been weighed, tested, and the result entered, the milk is turned into a huge vat, where it can be warmed to the required temperature by a coil of steam-pipes in the space between the true and false bottom. This vat is divided into two portions, simply as a matter of convenience, because when milk is scarce, the whole of it would be inconveniently large, and it is fitted with a gauze cover to keep out the flies. A pipe at the bottom, furnished with a tap, leads to a small cistern in the next room, the floor of which is at a lower level than that to the receiving-room. In this room are three Lefeldt * separators of the new type, and they receive the milk from the cistern by means of pipes fur- nished with taps, which radiate from the small cistern just mentioned. These pipes are movable, and can be taken to pieces to enable them to be cleaned, and, as a matter of fact, this is done immediately after the cream has been separated from each delivery or “ meal ” of milk. The cream from the separators is received into the ordinary deep cans, and the skim- milk flows through conduits into a cheese-vat or vats in a third chamber at a still lower level than that of the separator-room. Before following the skim-milk, it may be as well to state that Mr. von Oxholm is perfectly satisfied with the Lefeldt machines, cumbrous though some may consider them, and not- withstanding that they cost altogether when in position and fit for working about 100/. each. In the two previous cases the pro- prietors of the factories were equally well satisfied with their * For a description and figure of (his machine, are ‘ Journal of the Koyal Agri- cultural Society of England,’ 2nd scries, vol. xvii., l’art II. Dairying in Denmark. 171 type of separator ; and as the rival claims have not yet been submitted to the test of a thoroughly competent and impartial bench of judges, after a sufficiently accurate and prolonged trial, I refrain from expressing any opinion on the subject, regarding it as still an open question. There can, however, be no doubt that by the use of these machines the quantity of butter obtained from a given quantity of milk of a definite composition is largely increased, but necessarily, en revanche , the quality of the skim-cheese is much impoverished. Thus Mr. von Oxholm obtains now 1 lb. of butter from between 26 and 28 lbs. of milk, whereas 1 lb. of butter to 30 lbs. of milk is generally considered a very good average in ordinary practice with a skilful dairy- maid. On the other hand, he finds a difficulty in getting 25s. per cwt. for his skim-cheese. Returning now to the practice in the dairy, the skim-milk flows, as stated, into the cheese-vat by its own gravity ; it is then heated to about 82° F., instead of about 89° F., which was the rule when the Swartz system of setting the milk was used. From 12 to 14 per cent, of butter-milk is added to the skim- milk before the rennet is added at the temperature just stated. It will thus be observed that although the systems of cheese- making pursued at Auno and Holeby are as opposite as the poles, the result in price is about the same in each case. After the cheese has been made, the whey is drawn from the tubs by means of a tap, and flows directly through a hair-sieve into the pipe which leads to the whey-cisterns under the piggery. The three kinds of separators already mentioned are the only varieties of this machine that I have actually seen at work in Denmark, and they are now more or less known in England, having been all exhibited at the Country Meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society of England by the Aylesbury Dairy Com- . pany. There are, however, two other varieties of separator which I have seen in a factory in the now German province of Holstein ; therefore I may be excused for giving a brief notice of them in this place, as it is quite possible that some speci- mens are in use in Denmark on farms or in factories which I have not visited. The first of these, the Fesca, is not unlike the Lefeldt separa- tor in some respects, being boxed in ; and it is like the old Lefeldt in requiring to be stopped from time to time in order to be re-charged. When necessary, the milk is warmed to a tem- perature of 82° F. in a vessel attached to the separator and sur- rounded by a steam-jacket ; from this vessel it flows direct into the cylindrical box or drum where the separation takes place by the usual centrifugal action. Only the skim-milk flows away through a tube which taps the outside rim of the contents of 172 Dairying in Denmark. the box, the cream gradually accumulating in the centre of it. After a certain time the box becomes full of cream, when the machine is stopped and the cream flows out through the same tube as that which carried off the skim-milk while it was in motion. A small quantity of cream clings to the floor of the collector, and is carried away by the first portion of skim-milk after each stoppage of the machine, whilst upon opening the machine to clean it, after the whole of the milk has been dealt with, this adhering remnant of cream must be washed out care- fully with skim-milk. A structural peculiarity of the drum of this machine consists of three horizontal plates extending almost to its circumference, and turning with it. These plates are said to facilitate the separation of the cream, to aid in keeping it inside the drum while it is in motion, and at the same time to facilitate the exit of the skim-milk. The speed at wrhich this machine is driven is said not to exceed 1200 revolutions per minute. The remaining separator to be noticed differs essentially from all others in having its plane of revolution vertical instead of horizontal. The drum is very thin in proportion to its diameter, and contains a ring of metal perforated in two places. The milk enters the interior of the ring, and is there partially separated by the rotatory motion going on, so that the partly skimmed milk first enters the drum, where a final and complete separation takes place. The skim-milk passes through two small tubes into an outer ring, and is there brought into contact with a spoon terminating in a pipe, by which means it is drawn off. A similar arrangement draws the cream from the centre of the drum, and by varying the length and diameter of the two small tubes previously mentioned, the greater or less completeness, of the separation may be regulated. The action is thus exactly the same in principle as that of the Danish separator, but the position of the drum is at right angles to it. If it be wished to stop the machine, as much of the cream and skim-milk as is possible is drawn off by the spoons and their pipes, and the supply of milk having been stopped they are removed. The aperture of the drum is then closed by a cover, which can be pressed against the face of it w'hile it is still in motion, and fits so as to be quite air-tight. The speed causes a small vacuum in the drum, so that when the motion is stopped, the skim-milk in the outer ring rushes back into the interior of the drum. These machines are very large, powerful, and somewhat costly, but it is claimed for them that they require for the work done only one-half the proportionate power.* * For an illustration of this machine, see vol. xviii., l’art II. of the 2nd series of this Journal, p. 621. Dairying in Denmark. 173 9. Pig-feeding. — The profitable utilisation of the “refuse” materials, or “ offal,” of the dairy, is often a most difficult pro- blem ; and unless solved in a practical manner, the results of the dairying operations bring a loss instead of a profit to the dairy- farmer, no matter how skilfully his butter may have been made, or how high the market price of the day for the best product may have been. I have already given a sketch of the first pro- cess adopted in Denmark for converting the most valuable of the dairy “ offal ” — skim-milk — into a marketable commodity in the form of skim-cheese. But there still remains a considerable quantity of butter-milk and all the whey to be dealt with, and in Denmark these “ refuse ” products are used almost entirely for the purpose of mixing with meal as a feeding-material for pigs. Pigs are generally fed on Danish farms, and fed off at from six to eight months old, but of course there are many variations of practice. As a rule, a good farmer, who sells his pigs at about seven months old, weighing 160 to 180 lbs., or a little more, live-weight, will turn off as many pigs per annum as he has milch- cows. This is considered very good practice if skim-cheese is also made as already described ; and it is by no means unusual on farms where no more calves are reared than are necessary to replace cast cows, and where the pigs are sold at the age and weight just indicated, in which case they are generally killed and cured for exportation to England. In some districts, and even on some isolated farms, the pigs are kept until they are older, heavier, and fatter, and then of course so many pigs in proportion to the number of milch-cows cannot be fed off. These larger and fatter pigs are from eight to nine months old, and weigh from 200 to 250 lbs., live-weight : they are invariably sold to go to Hamburg, whence they are sent to the southern districts of Germany, where fat bacon is in better request than in most districts of the United Kingdom. The good understanding that exists between the Danish farmer and the butter-merchant prevails to some extent between the former and the pig-dealer, who is generally also the bacon- curer. If the pigs sent are too fat for the English market, or if the flavour of the bacon is too pronounced in consequence of the excessive use of any special food, not only is the price given affected, but the curer or dealer gives an explanation of the reason for the diminished return, and offers advice with a view to the improvement of the quality of the product in the future. In fact, inferior qualities of all dairy products, especially butter and bacon, have a powerful rival on the other side of the Atlantic ; but first-rate goods are scarcely affected by American com- petition. Therefore it pays all parties concerned to help the 174 Dairying in Denmark. farmer to produce a first-rate article ; and fortunately the Danish farmer is generally ready enough to listen to the representations made to him by those who are accustomed to feel the pulse of the best market in the world — England. As a rule the food of the pigs consists of equal parts of barley- meal and maize-meal mixed with whey, and either soaked for 24 hours or steamed or boiled in the dairy refuse. Maize is, of course, by far the cheaper food, but its too exclusive use gives a disagreeable taste to the bacon : and this is one of the points on which the curers are most particular. Some farmers use a larger proportion of barley-meal, especially when their crop of barley is light or discoloured, and therefore not suitable for brewing purposes. The quantity of meal given to pigs varies from 4 lb. per head per day, in their infantile state, to as much as 6 lbs., or else, as the French say, a, discretion , during the last six weeks of their existence. At the time of my visit the top market price for good pigs, about seven months old, weighing on the average about nine score, live-weight, was as nearly as possible 21. per cwi., at which price I was assured that they paid very well. It can easily be understood that the foregoing sketch of the ordinary methods of utilising skim-milk, butter-milk, and whey, are subject to variations owing to local circumstances. Thus, in the west of Jutland, where dairying is not so important a department of the farm as on the east coast of the peninsula, and in the Danish islands, the small farmers buy young pigs to fatten for their own requirements, and the large farmers find it more profitable to keep a large number of breeding sows, and sell their produce young at good prices to their neighbours, than to fatten older pigs on the usual system. Again, where there is a good demand for calves, either for rearing on account of their excellent qualities — inherent or inherited — the skim-milk is turned to a more profitable purpose in that direction than by giving it to feeding pigs. But it very rarely happens in Den- mark that there is any market of importance for skim-milk or butter-milk as food for the people. In fact, it will strike most English dairy- farmers as inexplicable, that small Danish farmers are willing to sell their milk to their larger neigh- bours at such low prices as I have just quoted, in describing a few of the dairies which depend either wholly or in part for their supply of milk upon that which is purchased from the sur- rounding farms. Some farmers feed a much larger number of pigs up to the usual weight by an additional expenditure of capital in feeding stuffs, or by using an enormous proportion of the home-grown crops for pig-feeding. For instance, at Juellinge, the home- Dairying in Denmark. 175 farm of Lehnsgreve Kraeg-Juel-Wind-Friis, there are 140 cows, but the tenant manages to fatten about 210 pigs, or 14 per cow, up to at least 14 cwt. each per annum, by using between 43 and 50 tons of meal in addition to the whey and butter-milk. The account of this operation would probably stand thus : — £ s. d. Receipt : 210 pigs at 1£ cwt., 315 cwt. at 27 G30 0 0 Expenditure : 50 tons meal (half barley and half t q q maize) at, say 81. per ton / Balance to pay for whey, buttermilk, and attendance £230 0 0 In this account I have taken the maximum quantity of feeding stuff and the minimum weight of the pig ; so in actual practice the account would doubtless be somewhat more favourable. It is generally reckoned that it takes 3 lbs. of meal to make 1 lb. of pork, so that 50 tons of meal should make 333 cwt. of pork, live-weight, instead of 315. This difference alone would increase the calculated profit by 36?. 10. Pig Killing and Curing Establishments. — A great many of these establishments are scattered throughout Denmark. In Copenhagen itself there are two of considerable magnitude, but the processes employed differ considerably in detail, although they are necessarily the same in principle. Messrs. Hansen have killed as many as 26,000 pigs in a year, besides buying in the market a very large number already killed ; but they say that the trade has recently fallen off to a woful extent, because most Danish farmers with whom they deal make their pigs too fat for Messrs. Hansen’s customers. The farmers decline to alter their practice, because they can always sell fat pigs at a good price in Hamburg, whence they go to the Rhine Provinces, France, and elsewhere. They also complain that merchants like Messrs. Hansen and Messrs. Hayman want to stop the pig- feeding process at the very moment when it begins to be most profitable, and so convinced are they of the truth of their con- tention that they have not yet been tempted to sell leaner pigs for higher prices per lb. American bacon has not hitherto competed seriously with Danish, as the former shrinks so much in cooking; and in the year 1880 Danish was fetching on the London market just double the price of American. At the factory of Messrs. Hansen, the following are the essential features of the curing process : — the pigs having been killed, they are singed by means of a movable semicylindrical frame containing about 120 gas jets ; afterwards the carcass is divided into sides, and the head taken off ; and then the sides are 176 Dairying in Denmark. put into a pickle consisting of salt and water, ice, and saltpetre (the latter to give colour to the meat). This mixture of course has a very low temperature, probably not more than 70° F., but the warmth of the carcasses soon raises it. It is not allowed, however, to rise higher than 40° F., more ice being added as required to keep it down to that temperature. After the curing is finished, the sides are taken out and dried, and subse- quently packed in bales containing four or six, according to circumstances. The heads are separately pickled in halves, and go to Ireland, where they find a ready sale. About 40 pigs can be killed and dressed per hour, and as many as 400 to 500 have been dealt with in one day, but these are unusual figures. In the winter many of the pig-carcasses are scalded, especially those bought ready killed. These are chiefly used for making salt pork, and they weigh from 110 to 130 lbs. per carcass dead-weight ; but the summer pigs, whether for pork or bacon, weigh from 150 to 170 lbs. per carcass, which is, of course, a very heavy weight for the English market, in its present mood. A barrel of pork consists of 50 pieces of 4 lbs. each, and Messrs. Flansen do a large trade in provisioning the Navy and mer- chant vessels. It may be added that the Navy pork is packed in much stronger casks than those used for the mercantile marine, and that the former cost about twice as much as the latter. Cui bono ? Messrs. Hayman’s establishment is much larger than the one just noticed, and presents several peculiarities of practice ; thus, the pigs are singed in a cylinder surrounded by a coal fire instead of by gas ; the carcasses then ascend by a wire railway to a loft capable of storing 1000 ; here they are cut up, and then sent to the curing tubs. At this establishment the temperature of the pickle is never reduced below 42° F. ; and, after having been pickled, the sides and joints are stored in a chamber cooled by means of ice laid on the iron ceiling. The walls of this chamber are double, and the intervening space is filled with cut straw. Mr. Hayman has also had great difficulty about the fatness of the pigs ; but two or three years ago he surmounted it by inducing his clients to use boars which he obtained from Mr. James Floward, M.P., of Clapham Park, Bedford ; and this strain of blood has now the first reputation in Denmark. Pigs that are too fat to be cured into bacon for the English market, Messrs. Hayman send alive to Manchester, Birmingham, and other manufacturing centres, where they are readily bought ; while the fattest of all are sent to Hamburg, whence they go, as already stated, to South Germany, and also to Holland. Messrs. Hay- man agreed with Messrs. Hansen that the Hamburg competition Dairying in Denmark. 177 had seriously reduced their business in pigs and bacon, and also that the heads are sent to Ireland, where they are easily sold at about one-half the price of bacon. As an example of a provincial pig-killing and curing esta- blishment I may notice the “ Svineslagterei ” at Holstebro, in Jutland, the advertisements of which are to be seen at most of the railway stations in that part of Denmark. The proprietors ask specially for long and half-fat pigs weighing from 1^ to 2 cwt. They keep a breeding stock of Howard’s blood, and sell young boars to their clients at cheap rates in preference to realising higher prices for them from other farmers who dispose of their fat pigs elsewhere. They consider that this strain pro- duces more lean in proportion to fat than the general run of pigs bred and fed on Danish farms, and they claim for them early maturity to the extent that the pigs are fit for market at five months old or a little more, instead of the usual term of seven months. With all their care, however, they sometimes receive pigs which are too fat for the English market, and these they keep in a well-arranged piggery near the railway station, feeding them on until they have sufficient to fill a railway truck — about 30 — when they export them to Hamburg. The killing and curing are done very systematically as follows : — The pig, having been seized by one leg by a suitable apparatus, is hoisted up head downwards, stuck in the usual manner, and passed on by a sky-railway to the scalding room : having been scalded, the carcass travels onwards to a table where two men scrape it and take off most of the hair and bristles, and after- wards pass it on to the singeing-room, which is at present rather primitive in consequence of there being no gas-works at Hol- stebro. The carcasses are therefore singed by being surrounded with ignited straw, and this method is found in practice to produce a good result. Cutting up follows as already described, and great attention is paid to the manner in which this is done, as a careless cutter will take off from the high-priced parts a large amount of flesh which may properly be left on them, thus increasing the weight of the lower-priced joints. In this, as in other businesses, inattention to these details not unfrequently means the conversion into a loss of what might otherwise be a profit. A novel feature in connection with this company is the esta- blishment in the town of Holstebro of a shop where the “ offal ” of the pigs is sold direct to the consumers. A good demand is found to exist at the reasonable prices which are charged, but which give the proprietors a return of 20 per cent, more than they could get by selling the offal en masse in the usual way. YOL. XIX.— S. S. N 178 Dairying in Denmark. A REMARKABLE DAIRY FARM. This farm is remarkable in many ways, and will thoroughly well repay the time and expenditure necessary to visit it by any landlord or tenant farmer who wishes to understand how dairy- ing may be profitably pursued on arable land. For some years, in several reports published in this ‘Journal,’ I have over and over again shown, by descriptions of actual facts, how “ arable-land dairying,” as I have termed it, is carried on in different continental countries. But on this farm the system thus designated by me is pursued to an extent that is almost incredible to an Englishman who is accustomed to associate dairying with permanent pasture, for there is not an acre of permanent grass on the whole farm. More than that, the following description will show what can be done by a clever and energetic farmer’s wife, in spite of all difficulties incident to an ignorance of foreign languages, weights, and measures, and in face of the too frequent prejudice against innovations on the part of the farmer himself. The farm, known as Havartigaard, situated at Overod, near the railway station of Holte, about 15 English miles north of Copenhagen, consists of nearly 170 acres of land, all arable. It belongs to Mr. Neilson, who about thirty years ago kept about a dozen cows on a somewhat smaller acreage, and sold most of his produce, straw included, in Copenhagen at remunerative prices. With the introduction of what I have found it con- venient to term “ high dairying ” this system was changed by the energy and perseverance of his wife. She visited Sweden and Germany, and learned how to make butter on the Swartz system, and skim-cheese and whey-cheese as practised in those countries. Then, although entirely ignorant of any language but Danish, except a smattering of German, she visited England, France, Switzerland, and Holland ; and so thoroughly studied the dairy-practices of those countries, that to this day she makes butter on the Norman system, Camembert and Brie as the best representatives of French cheese, Cheddar and Cheshire cheese as made in England, Edam as made in Holland, and Gruyere as made in Switzerland. But her faculties are not only imitative, for she has the ability to vary her processes so as to make her cheeses, when necessary, more to the taste of her customers than the actual pure makes would be. She is also a merchant and a shopkeeper, buying her milk of her husband and her neighbours, and selling her cheese and butter at her shop in Copenhagen, the King of Denmark himself being regu- larly supplied by her, and her butter being therefore stamped with the Royal arms. When 1 add that dairy-work begins at 5 A.M. and is finished at 1 I\M., that Mrs. Nielson is in her Dairying in Denmark. 179 shop at Copenhagen from 2 to 8 r.M., and catches the 9 P.M. train from Copenhagen to Holte, it will be admitted, I feel sure, that such industry richly deserves the success and the reputation which Mrs. Nielson has achieved. In brief, it is not too much to say that “ Hanna Nielson ” is regarded as by far the most remarkable woman of her class throughout the little country to which she does so much credit. The farm is cropped on the following 8-course shift : (1) and (2) seeds after rye, (3) mixture of barley and oats, (4) roots, (5) barley, (6) oats, (7) half bare-fallow and half clover sown in the oats, (8) rye sown out with seeds. From 30 to 40 milch- cows are generally kept ; and at the time of my first visit, in June 1881, there were actually 30 cows in-milk and a number of cows and heifers just about to calve. The system adopted is to buy in-calf cows and heifers in Copenhagen, and to keep them only for the season, feeding them well, and selling them off more or less fat when they run dry, or give too little milk to be profitable as dairy cows. The actual process of butter-making is described on pp. 163 to 165 ; and it is only necessary to add with regard to cheese- making that most kinds of cheese are made from a mixture of the morning’s whole milk with the skim-milk of the previous evening. For the Danish variation of Derby cheese, the milk is raised to 86° F. ; and after the curd has been cut in our usual manner, the mess is rewarmed to about the same temperature as before, and the curd is left to cook until the whey begins to turn sour. The succeeding processes need not be described, as they differ very slightly from those usually practised in this country. It may be remarked, however, that Mrs. Nielson uses small cheese-tubs, and makes comparatively small cheeses, for Cheddar or Cheshire makes. Her kitchen, in which cheese- making and cooking go on simultaneously, can scarcely be 16 feet square, and yet I have seen three kinds of cheese — Derby, Edam, and Camembert — being made there simul- taneously. The milk for Edam cheese is raised to 90° F. before the rennet is added, and twenty-five minutes are allowed to elapse before the curd is cut. Camembert cheese is made by adding the rennet at 95° F., and allowing the curd to remain undisturbed for five hours, the vat being all the time perfectly covered, and otherwise protected from smells and the influence of the external air. In fact the Camembert system is faithfully copied in all respects, except that the cheeses made are much larger than the French ones. The making of whey-cheese requires a little more detail to enable a description of it to be understood. It is a “ refuse ” product, which is rarely made as such in Denmark, although a N 2 180 Dairying in Denmark. skim-milk imitation of it is frequently made on Danish farms, and is known as “ Appetit ost ” (“Appetite-cheese.”) Whey- cheese proper is essentially a product of Norway and Sweden, where it is largely made, as also is a much appreciated pungent cheese made from skimmed goats’ milk. Mrs. Nielson has devised a means of combining the excellencies of the true whey- cheese with a certain amount of richness in quality and piquancy in flavour, by adding to the whey a proportion of cream taken off goats’ milk. This cream having been added to the whey, the mixture is poured into shallow open pans, and slowly evaporated by being heated nearly to boiling-point on the hot plate of the cooking stove, and continually stirred to prevent the least suspicion of burning. Each pan requires the undivided attention of one girl until the whey has evaporated to such an extent that only a syrupy mass is left, when Mts. Nielson devotes her personal attention to the most critical part of the process, as indeed she does in the case of all the products of her dairy. After gradual cooling, accompanied by continual stirring, the whey-cheese appears as a more or less brown and pasty mass, which has to be well worked with a wooden pestle in a large wooden bowl, to prevent the sugar of milk from forming large crystals. This is the laborious part of the process, and each of the girls in the dairy takes a short turn at it, working with a will to make the mass as smooth in the grain as possible. When quite cold and sufficiently worked, the whey-cheese is transferred to a mould, which is here a rectangular box ; this is then subjected to pressure for about twenty hours, when the cheese is taken out and trimmed, being then transferred to the curing-room, where it remains for one or two weeks, according to circumstances, after which it is sent, like the other products of the dairy, into Copenhagen, for sale at Mrs. Nielson’s shop. The commercial aspect of this dairy may be briefly noticed. As already hinted, Mr. Nielson himself takes no part in the dairying operations, and originally had no faith in their success. H is wife therefore began by buying from him the milk at what he regarded as a remunerative price ; and this plan has been followed ever since, except that now, as she buys a large quantity of milk from surrounding farms, she pays her husband no more and no less than any other purveyor of the raw material to the dairy. Last June the price was about 5 d. per gallon, which is very moderate for the neighbourhood of the capital ; but it must be remembered that then the price of butter was very low, as, indeed, it usually is, speaking comparatively, at that season of the year. This, then, is the prime cost of the milk. The cost of manufacture, which is the next element in the Dairying in Denmark. 181 question, is reduced to a minimum in consequence of Mrs. Niel- son’s extended reputation as a first-rate dairy-woman. She generally has about a dozen farmers’ daughters as working pupils, who are boarded and lodged in the farm-house, re- maining for various periods extending from six weeks to two years. The pupils who remain only for a short time, pay for their instruction a considerable amount relatively, but they all work as hard as an ordinary dairymaid could be expected to. Their usual length of stay is six months, and vacancies in their ranks are always immediately filled up. I inquired the position of the parents of these girls, and learnt that most of them were peasant-farmers, keeping from ten to fifteen cows, but some have larger farms. One girl was indicated to me whose father kept forty cows ; she was about to be married, and her parents thought her fortunate in being able to learn under Mrs. Nielson how the dairy of her future home could be turned to the most profitable account. Mrs. Nielson’s only daughter — a married woman, whose only child is again a little girl — also helps in the -dairy, but chiefly devotes her time to the housekeeping. Each pupil has five cows allotted to her in rotation, and the results of the several milkings are carefully noted, the produce of each cow being entered separately morning and evening, together with the name of the milker. Mrs. Nielson thus has a practical means of knowing whether her pupils can perform satisfactorily one of the most important, as it is one of the most fundamental and most neglected, operations connected with dairy-farming. The knowledge that the results of their milk- ings are “ booked,” also produces a spirit of emulation amongst the girls which gives far better results than any system of supervision. Yrery little need be said about farm-labour, as its cost is included in the price given for the milk ; still, it may be interesting to state that so near Copenhagen the labourer’s wages are 2s. 3d. per day in the spring (of course much less in the winter), and 2s. 7 \d. per day in harvest-time. Unmarried labourers, sleeping in a room off the stable and fed in the farm- house, receive in money up to 81. or even 9 1. per annum, but nearly the whole of this is reckoned as for their summer-work, as during the long winter they are considered to be almost sufficiently paid by being boarded and lodged. The third element in every manufacturing business is, of course, the price received for the manufactured article. When one has to deal with articles like butter, and many descriptions of cheese, the prices of which vary continually in sympathy with the seasons, the fluctuations of the popular taste, and other causes, it would be delusive to quote prices per lb. at any 182 Dairying in Denmark. particular date. Mrs. Nielson makes for sale at her own shop in Copenhagen, and she can feel the pulse of her own market from day to day, and make accordingly. Moreover, she obtains the middleman’s and retailer’s profits as well as the manufacturer’s. What I therefore desired to know was, what relation does the gross return from the sale of the manufactured article bear to the price of the raw material? Mrs. Nielson told me, much to her husband’s amazement at her answering such a question in his presence, that, as a general rule, she received between two and three times as much for the cheese and butter as she gave for the milk used in making them ; but that with Camembert and whey-cheese she could realise about three and a half times the cost of the milk. It would therefore pay her best to make nothing else but Camembert, if there were a sufficient demand for it ; but Mrs. Nielson is too shrewd to glut the market with any one of her dairy products ; she rather aims to keep up the demand for them all, and thus to sustain the prices at a highly remunerative figure. The annexed tabular form (p. 183) is a translation of the one in use in Mrs. Nielson’s dairy. It is the foundation of her book-keeping, which is done entirely by herself — the form being filled up in the dairy by the pupil in charge of it for the time being. I mention this so specially, not because it is any- thing exceptional, but because I have been so often twitted with recommending farmers to pay clerks to keep their books, when I have referred to the admirable manner in which farm-accounts are kept in continental countries, generally by the farmers wife. The farm-house and farm-buildings are quite typical of a modern Danish peasant-farm. Mr. Nielson erected these build- ings a few years ago at a cost which he estimates at about 2000/. If he is correct in his statement, the steading is cheap at the money, although the price is 12/. per acre, which is too high for England, but not excessive for Denmark, where the long and severe winters require more protection to be provided both for crops and cattle than is necessary in our climate. The farm-house and main buildings form a hollow square, as is generally the case in the north of Europe ; with the single exception of the Netherlands. But it should be remarked that on this farm the manure is not kept in the central court-yard or “ barton,” but is stowed in a “ back yard ” outside the hollow square, being flanked also by the pig-sties and goat-house. The object of this arrangement clearly is to keep all pungent and deleterious smells as far away from the dairy as possible, and the example thus illustrated may be commended to the attention of the majority of dairy-farmers in the United Kingdom. Near Table XI. — Blank Form of Dairy Register kept at Havarthigaard, Overod, Denmark. 183 Dairying in Denmark. /A i 1 a co a 3 a ^ H ft Q o s Lbs. a a “ 3 «S3 a CO H a 'TOM TO»L Lbs. 03 a > i«wna Lbs. O ◄ ft TiTTH raPIS Lbs. < o 'MIIIM “<1518 Lbs. o 0 ■MIIIM aI°MAV Lbs. < w •asaaqo Lsiiai £ 03 6 !zi o'* •asaaq;} Lbs. a a a 03 si o a 03 a d o 523 ft •21l!M TOOL j§ O S3 0 .ft o 55 w MI!IM .a a S •iaqAV £ •3IT!K opriAI • .ft -3 a in •3uinjnnf> or jg ft >o nreaJO jo airpraadurej, P* a a •qi!H rapiS •Jaiincr -qr T 03 O °J TO01 jo ^ijirenf) Si •3S33H0 IV J 30 SOMDI 33V K0H3 aSNIViSO A3H^V ft a H H ft •jojjna £ O S-> 03 a* « •parauiins 3(I!K Lbs. . s . a a a w <* a o 2 ft6 55 C g d Lbs. •?0S 3nTM Lbs. -ft 0 d ga ■UBOStnijogjo Falir. a a a » cs ■qi!H 3IotlAA Lbs. a ft a h H '•TOTO tom jo S3 a ft a 55 to d <13 d £ 3 £ Lbs. ■< a a H ft go 1 J§ 3 o '3H!H jqSnog Lbs. a o ft H o» a "TOM TO*°9 .ft •aanpoj^ araojj Lbs. *3inw «sa^°o Lbs. a hurj Lbs. i d 523 o a o iti •o raraj Lbs. co a a rft o Lbs. a *g out?,£ £ O a a -a •qi!W TO»L Lbs £ o 0 •y mrej £ ft a O •3II!K oiPIS Lbs, i'UXlVj UM() £ •51I!H 3I°qAV Lbs *C3 O 6 ft sT o d d H B •Ljq o ft o a 0 £ £ a 'TOM TO»L o o •Jinw «i a a 3 fti o ■3U!M rains i h-3 Date 3 W ■J1I!M 3I°qAV 3‘ 184 Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping. the “ kitchen-passage,” where the churning is done, is an ice- cellar, but its capacity is obviously insufficient for the annual requirements of the dairy. Therefore in the winter a bay in the barn is well lined with straw, so that when subject to the full weight of the ice it shall be at least a foot thick ; the ice being stowed is then covered with a similar layer of straw, and thus can be kept with little loss until another supply can be obtained. On most well-regulated farms it is desired to make up every winter the supply of ice to a quantity, sufficient to last two years, so as to provide against the contingency of a “ green winter.” Another point worthy of notice is the manner in which the various “ cheese-rooms ” or “ cheese-cellars ” are divided and separated from one another. Thus there are two with separate entrances, but which can be warmed by one stove set in the partition wall ; then there are again two, leading from one to the other, where heat is not so much an object as a certain amount of dampness. In the first of these is an ordinary copper, by means of which the air can be made sufficiently moist, if need be, to insure the development of th e fungi which are essential to the proper ripening of Brie and Camembert cheeses in their first stage, and beyond is the room for curing the whey-cheese, which may be isolated from, or connected with, the room just mentioned, as the circumstances of the season require. It need scarcely be added that the arrangements for admitting or excluding light and air are both simple and effective, nor that every window and ventilating aperture is also fitted with wire gauze to prevent the incursions of flies, which are the greatest nuisance with which the dairywoman has to contend, especially during the curing of fine soft cheeses. As on all dairy-farms, the cheese-rooms are kept carefully locked, and on entrance to them you are politely requested to be quick in your movements, so that the door may be rapidly closed after you, and no flies admitted to leave a souvenir of your visit. VI. — Notes on Continental Poultry -keeping. By H. M. JENKINS, F.G.S., Secretary of the Society and Editor of the ‘ Journal.’ The Journal Committee have desired me to draw up a short paper on Continental Poultry-keeping, as supplementary to Mr. Pope’s article “ On the Poultry of the Farm,” and to Mr. Druce’s description of “ A Poultry Farm in Huntingdonshire,” both Notes on Continental Poultry -keeping. 185 published last year.* I have therefore reprinted the excellent contribution to the subject by my friend Mr. C. L. Sutherland, from his Report on West-central France to the Royal Commis- sion on Agriculture, as well as quotations from my own Reports to the same Commission, and notes derived from other sources. The text up to which I shall write may be thus stated : — In the same manner as the successful cultivation of land requires a rotation or at least an alternation of crops, so does successful poultry-keeping require a rotation or at least an alternation of land. Nothing poisons land so quickly as poultry ; and it is my belief that the failures of large “ poultry- farms,” as they have been termed, are chiefly due to the fact that the necessity of shifting the poultry from one spot to another in a systematic (not a haphazard) manner has either not been sufficiently kept in view or has been impossible. Change of ground for poultry is of course well known as neces- sary to their being successfully kept, but the reasons generally given by writers are somewhat different from the cardinal principle which I conceive to be involved. Thus, Mr. Baily commences his well-known book f as follows : — “ Just as change of air is at times necessary to the human being in order to preserve or regain health, so is fresh ground necessary for poultry. The constant occupation of the same spot becomes injurious to them.” This sentence embodies a very prevalent view, while I maintain that a large number of fowls kept on a limited area require a systematic change of land for the reason which I have already given. Mr. Sutherland remarks, in the following quotation from his Report, that “ so well is the necessity for change of ground understood in the districts where poultry-raising is a special industry, that great sacrifices are made by the breeders to secure fresh ground on which to rear their chickens,” — a statement which comes very near my own, with the exception that I insist upon the necessity of a systematic change instead of a haphazard one, and for poultry of all kinds -and ages instead of simply for chicken. A “ poultry-farm ” may, however, be successful as such without being so in a pecuniary sense ; and on this point it is my conviction that “ commercial ” poultry will only pay as an -accessory to something else, whether it be a farm or a house- hold— to eat scraps which would be otherwise lost, and to utilise time which would be otherwise wasted. Where there are large poultry farms that have paid for any length of time, so far as my experience goes, they are either establishments * ‘Journal of the Koyal Agricultural Society of England,’ Second Series, vol. xviii., pp. 104 and 503. t ‘Fowls.’ By John Baily. This is a very practical book from the English point of view, and its price (2s. 6 d.) brings it within the reach of every farmer. 186 Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping. where Show poultry of high-priced strains are bred (as at Crosne), or they are adjuncts to a farm or a forest (as at Svendborg). One other remark may be received with surprise by some readers, namely, that in my opinion it is a mistake to assert that poultry-keeping is so much more general in France than in England. It is, no doubt, impossible to prove the accuracy of this opinion, because in England we have no poultry statistics ; but we do know the number of fowls kept in France and kin Ireland, and the number of eggs imported into the United Kingdom. In fact, the formidable total of these importations is continually quoted to show that our poultry-keeping is lamentably deficient. The agricultural territory of France is rather more than 120 million acres, and the latest official statistics show that there are nearly 43 million fowls in the country, or in round numbers one fowl to three acres of land. The total area of Ireland is nearly 21 million acres, of which three-fourths (15,304,235) are cultivated ; and in 1882, according to the official statistics, the Green Isle possessed nearly 14 million head of poultry, or about one head to one and a half acres of the total area, and nearly one to each acre of land that may be deemed “ agri- cultural.” If we suppose that the Irish “poultry” includes ducks, geese, and turkeys, which in France number 9 millions, and thus raise the total head of “ poultry ” to 52 millions in that country, still the number kept in Ireland per acre of cultivated land would be more than double that kept in France. With regard to England, as already stated, we can only guess either way. My belief, however, is that poultry-keeping is more general in England than in France; but that in this country the fowls are kept chiefly for the sake of their eggs, even by comparatively poor people ; while in France they are kept for the sake of the money which the eggs and chicken will sell for, even by comparatively well-to-do people. A little consideration will show how largely eggs in France are sold either for exportation to England or consumption in Paris or other large towns, although the official statistics on the subject do not bear out the commonly quoted statements. It is quite certain, however, that the number of fowls given in the last official census is what has been already stated by me, and is repeated below by Mr. Sutherland ; and the approximate production of eggs per annum is officially given as nearly 1800 millions, or the large average of 91 per laying hen. Now in 1882 we imported about 800 million eggs, of which about one- half came from France, while the latter country itself imported about one-third of the number of eggs which she exported to all countries, her total imports having been about 200 millions, and Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping . 187 her total exports 600 millions. The result goes to show that the average consumption of eggs in France would be about 40 per head per annum, if the whole of the number laid and imported could be eaten. But as this is impossible, it may be regarded as near the mark, in view of the large consumption of poultry in France, if I estimate the consumption of eggs in that country at 20 per head per annum, looking at the remain- ing half as used for the production of chicken. If I am right, and if the official statistics are to have any weight attached to them, we English people import more eggs per head annually than the total consumption of eggs in France. As an illustration of the unreliability of the current assertions on poultry statistics I may quote Madame C. Millet-Robinet’s statement as to the consumption of eggs and poultry in Paris : “ Je sais par les tableaux officiels qu’en 1853 Paris a consomme 174 millions d’ceufs et pres de 11 millions de kilogrammes de volailles.” * This would make an average consumption of about 120 eggs per annum per head of the population of the French capital ; whereas the National French Agricultural Society issued an official report in 1880 in which it is stated that the consumption of eggs in Paris was 24 per head per annum in 1859 and 32 in 1878.f My late friend, Mr. Gibson Richardson, in his well-known work entitled ‘ The Corn and Cattle-producing Districts of France ’ (p. 168), very nearly doubles the statement of Madame Millet-Robinet with regard to the consumption of eggs. “ The excess of production is astonishing when it is considered how large is the home demand, eggs and poultry entering into daily consumption in France far more than in England. Hardly a meal is ever eaten in France at any table, above the very poorest, without eggs or poultry forming part of it; and it is quite credible that Normandy alone furnishes from one to two million head of poultry of various kinds to the Paris market yearly, and yet falls behind the supply from other provinces, besides providing for its own large local consumption. Six millions of eggs are sold weekly in the Paris market — not all for direct consumption ; an important portion, indeed, is purely for manufacturing purposes. Many are used in pastry and for glazing ornamental cakes and sweetmeats. One large pastrycook buys as many as two millions in the year for these purposes. A large dealer uses half a million, of which he separates the white from the yolk — * ‘ Basse-cour, pigeons et lapins.’ Neuvieme Edition, 1881, p. 13. t ‘Enquete sur la situation de l'agriculture en France in 1879, faite a la deraande de M. le Ministre de l'agriculture et du Commerce.’ Yol. ii. 1880, p. 213. The eminent Perpetual Secretary of the Society, my friend M. Barrel (who is an Honorary Member of this Society), assures me of the reliability of the figures given in the “ Enquete,'’ and says that the writers to whom I refer are mistaken. See also next page. 188 Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping. the white being sent to the manufacturing districts in the north, and the yolks being employed in dressing skins for gloves. The yolks not required by the pastrycooks are salted down, and find a sale in Belgium. With all this large surplus production, the agricultural writers are continually urging that more atten- tion should be paid to poultry-rearing. They declare that the production might be easily doubled.” In the “Enquete” previously quoted the official character of the figures is thus announced: “ Les donnees suivantes ont ete i’ournies pai la statistique municipale de la Ville de Paris it Vannuaire du Bureau des longitudes, pour les objets de con- sommation soumis aux droits d’octroi et entres dans la capitale.” To these official figures should therefore be added the number of eggs which are the produce of Paris-kept fowls ; but this element in the question does not add more than one or two eggs consumed per head of the population per annum, to the number already given. Before casting any doubt upon the returns relating to eggs on account of their being below the popular estimate, it may be well to consider what the official statistics reveal respecting the consumption of poultry in Paris. It appears that this amounted to about 22 lbs. (10'05 kilos) per head in 1859 (about double that stated by Madame Millet- .Robinet as the consumption of poultry in 1853), and to more than 25 lbs. in 1878. Considering that this means about i lb. of poultry per week spread over the whole population of Paris, and that it equals one-fourth of the consumption per head of butchers’ meat in England, the quantity must be regarded as exceedingly large. Passing from this matter to the practical details which are more especially the subject of this paper, I would make a few prefatory remarks on the number of eggs which an average hen may be expected to lay in the year under ordinary circum- stances. The last-published Agricultural Statistics of France give, as already stated, the average number as 91 eggs per laying hen per annum; but they vary from 133 in the depart- ment of the Bouches du Rhone, with its southern climate and aspect, in addition to its rich soil, down to 62, or less than one- half, in the central and arid department of the Creuse. Many circumstances contribute to the laying qualities of hens in dif- ferent districts, more especially breed, soil, and climate; but when all other circumstances are equal, the age of the hens is a factor of the first importance. M. Barral has calculated that a hen produces 80 eggs in its first year, 120 each in its second and third, and 80 in its fourth. After this period its produc- tiveness rapidly decreases, and in France hens are rarely kept after their fifth year. Taking into account all the circumstances in France, I do not believe that in our climate an average of Notes on Continental Poultry -keeping . 189 more than 80 eggs per hen per annum can be reckoned upon ; and Madame Millet-Robinet considers 90 far too high for France, while it will be seen (p. 206) that less than 50 is the result on a poultry farm in North Germany, where accurate accounts have been kept for some years. The influence of climate upon the productiveness of poultry is, in fact, most important ; and if we consider how very much more suitable for poultry-keeping is the comparatively dry and continental climate of France than the humid and insular climate of England, it will be easy to understand what an excellent basis exists for that careful attention to details which has made French poultry-keeping famous in this country, and which probably justifies Air. Sutherland’s assertion, in a recent letter to me, that “ a greater measure of success attends the keeping of poultry in France than in England.” The main object of this paper is to draw special attention to the details of the practices of a few of the best poultry-keepers in some con- tinental countries, without attempting anything like an exhaus- tive treatise on the subject. Given a determination to keep fowls, the fowl-house must be appropriately furnished, the run must be laid out as a miniature garden and farm, with trees and shrubs, corn and grass and green stuffs, and all must be as carefully attended to as if the stakes were sovereigns instead of halfpence. The maintenance of the healthiness of the runs is a matter of the greatest importance. Fowls should always have access to grass, which they eat almost continually ; they must also have a sandy spot available to “ fair e poudrette M. Jacque* insists that when the run is small it should be turned over every month, especially during the summer, to prevent unhealthy smells from the excretions. Not only this, but grain should be sown, so that the decomposing dung may be utilised, and the fowls have an opportunity of scratching up a dainty in the shape of germinating corn, of which they are excessively fond. He even goes so far as to recommend that corners of the run should be temporarily fenced off for this purpose and used in rotation. The interior of the fowl-house requires equal care. Its floor should always be above the level of the surrounding land, and it should be scrupulously cleaned out every morning. If the floor is of any porous material, such as sand, it should be com- pletely removed and renewed at least every three months. Of course, if the fowl-house is movable this can be best done by altering its locality. Disinfectants should be used liberally, plenty of air without draughts should be given, warmth in winter should be ensured by means of straw often renewed, and * ‘ Le Pou’ailler.’ 190 Notes on Continental Poultry -keeping. in fact as much care should be taken of the health and comfort of poultry as of human beings. Mr. Sutherland gives the following account of poultry- keeping in France in his Report to the Royal Commission on Agriculture : — “ The chief breeds of poultry are the Houdan, La Fleche, La Bresse, and Creve-cceur. It is a commonly received idea in England that there exist in France huge poultry farms, where fowls are kept by several hundreds, and it has been over and over again urged on English farmers to adopt this poultry- farming on a gigantic scale as some sort of means of alleviating the present depression, and enabling them to make money. A long acquaintance with the chief French poultry-breeding districts, as well as answers to inquiries I have from time to time made on the subject, enable me positively to deny the existence of such establishments. The greatest number of heads of poultry that can be kept profitably on a single farm varies from 200 to 300. If a greater number than this is kept the ground becomes poisoned, and it is found impossible to rear chickens. Whenever large poultry farms have heen started in England, as for instance at Bromley, in Kent, they have failed, and chiefly owing to the above reason, a reason perfectly -well known to and understood by all practical poultry keepers. The manner in which so many fowls are reared and eggs produced in France is as follows, independently, of course, of climatic influences, which must be held to be of some little account : — Every peasant proprietor, every lordier, with perhaps two or three acres of land, keeps fowls, the produce from which is collected by dealers, who scour the country. In this way a very large number of fowls in the aggregate is kept, but they are scattered about all over the country, and so well is the necessity for change of ground understood in the districts where poultry raising is a special industry, that great sacrifices are made by the breeders to secure fresh ground on which to rear their chickens. « At Houdan, in the Seine-et-Oise, which I visited on the 2Gth of March, 1880, the poultry-breeding industry may be seen in full force. Houdan fowls alone are kept, and it is calculated that the pullets, when well fed, will commence to lay at five months old. Artificial incubation is not generally practised, but it is considered that it will come into use as soon as the means for hatching a larger proportion of the eggs can be dis- covered. At present it is found, in the case of incubators, that the embrvo is very apt to perish on the 18th or 19th day. The majority of breeders adopt the plan of placing twenty-five fowls’ eggs under a young turkey hen. When it is desired that the turkey hen shall commence to sit, be it January or June, she is Notes on Continental Poultry -keeping. 191 placed in a suitable box almost entirely covered by a board, and some dummy eggs are put under her. She is generally kept in the dark. She soon takes to the dummy eggs, which are then removed, and twenty-five fowls’ eggs are placed beneath her. She is taken off the eggs once a day to feed, and carefully re- placed, not on the eggs but in front of them, and she then, after the manner of turkeys, carefully hooks them underneath her with her beak. When the chicks ( poussins ) are hatched they are removed from under her, to be either sold or sent off at once, or to be brought up by another turkey hen, which is perhaps an indifferent sitter, and which, in lieu of sitting, has from 80 to 100 chicks given her to bring up. Orders are kept on hand for these poussins, which, within twelve hours of being hatched, are despatched all over France in well-ventilated boxes holding from twelve to twenty each, and at the following prices, viz. : one dozen, 12s.; 25, 22s. 5 d. ; 50, 44s.; 100,80s. The hen turkey which hatched out the chicks is then provided with twenty-five more eggs, upon which she at once sits, and this process I was assured is carried on six, seven, and eight times in succession. Young turkey hens are preferred to old birds for the purpose. Such a thing as a coop is rarely to be seen. In the morning, as soon as it is light, the doors of the sheds, in which the young chicks with their foster-mothers — the in- differently sitting turkey hens — have passed the night, are thrown open. The inmates are driven out mostly by old women with long poles, who conduct the whole lot gently into some covert, or along the country lanes, where the chicks can find plenty of insect life, the old ladies sitting with their work and keeping careful watch over their charges. The food consists chiefly of barley-meal and buckwheat meal for the chickens that are being fattened, and sometimes mechanical contrivances are adopted for administering it. Such a machine on a large scale may be seen at work at the Jardin d’Acclimata- tion in Paris. At thirteen weeks old the chickens are sold fat and alive in the Houdan market to the Paris merchants, who live in the neighbourhood of Houdan, and who kill and forward them to Paris. At the time of my visit (March) they averaged 2J kilos (5£ lbs.) at four months old, and the market price for such a fowl at Houdan was 8^ francs (6s. 9c?.), and at Paris 12 francs (9s. 7c?.) Twenty francs (16s.) are sometimes obtain- able in Paris for a veritable poularde du Mans. From the profit of the Paris merchant, however, it is calculated that at least 20 per cent, must be deducted for the expenses of freight, Paris octroi (3d. for each 2 lbs.), salesman, storing, &c. In April the price at Houdan is as high as 10 francs (8s.). After that and through the summer the price descends to 5j francs (4s. 5c?.). “ When fowls are kept in store condition their food consists 192 Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping. of oats, barley, and buckwheat, with bran given in the form of bran mash, pollards and middlings being sometimes added. In many cases ducks are kept entirely on wheaten bran and water. It may be useful to English poultry breeders to know that scalded bran in winter given to fowls is a cheap way of increas- ing the animal heat, and materially increases the production of eggs. In Poitou, where no special attention is given to poultry raising, it is customary to feed the young ducks and geese on boiled nettles, as well as on the young leaves of the elm and the lime, mixed with curds, the nettle being often specially cultivated for the purpose. “ Hardly a menu in Paris is complete without the word chapon. Whilst a great many real capons find their rvay to Paris, it is certain that a large proportion of so-called capons are merely cockerels which have not been operated on. How- ever, there is no doubt that the operation is much practised, as it is found that capons fatten more rapidly than cockerels. The operation is performed mostly by unskilled and self-taught peasant women — female fingers being smaller and better suited for such delicate work — and a very small proportion of the birds is lost. At the same time it is not an operation which should be attempted without practical instruction from an ex- perienced person. Full details of the French system of caponisingp are given in Tegetmeier’s ‘ Poultry Book,’ and an American, calling himself ‘ Farmer Miles,’ has lately been given instruc- tion in the operation in England. Capons are sometimes used for bringing up young chickens. “ Duclair ducks having attracted some attention in England, and being thought by some persons to be a distinct variety, it may be as well to mention that, while they have a great reputa- tion for early laying and early maturing, they have all the appearance of bad Rouens, with which variety they evidently have close affinity. Their colour is a black brown with white breasts, the drakes having green beaks and the ducks black. They breed tolerably true to feather, but are apt to throw white flights, which are not admissible. “ In the coloured atlas, entitled ‘ La France Agricole,’ by M. Gustave Heuze, the following numbers are given for the whole of France,* viz. : — Fowls 42,856,790 Geese 3,881,557 Turkeys 1,760,506 Ducks 3,610,841 “The best book on French fowls is by M. C. Jacque, and is * These numbers arc taken from the last published Agricultural Census of France. — II. M. J. Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping . 193 called ‘ Le Poulailler.’ There is also another good work on the subject by Mdlle. Millet-Robinet. In the special official report of the National Society of Agriculture for 1879 it is stated that ‘ the raising of fowls has made great progress. The poultry yard, a mere accessory before 1861, has become an important factor in many of the farms during the last few years.’ “ The following particulars of a poultry yard near Angers, attached to the Chateau de Varennes, belonging to an English gentleman famed for his kindness and hospitality, may not be without interest. The yard is a gravel yard 50 X 35 yards, faces south, and is a veritable sun-trap. The poultry are kept specially for the use of the chateau, and are all crossbred French and English. The stock consists of about 180 laying hens and 12 cocks, with perhaps 20 ducks and 10 turkeys in addition. In 1879, 13,341 eggs were laid,* while 40 adult cocks and hens, 97 ducks, 25 turkeys, and 171 chickens were killed for the table. The yard has the great disadvantage of having no grass run attached to it, but it is re-gravelled three times a year. It has been in use for three years. The food for the poultry is simply unlimited wheaten bran, mixed with kitchen water. The tatting fowls have in addition oats, buckwheat meal, and middlings. The whole is under the management of a capital Scotchwoman, and the results seem to speak for themselves.” In his well-known ‘Poultry book ’ | Mr. Tegetmeier thus transcribes, from a report by Mr. Geyelin, the way in which turkeys are taught to hatch fowls’ eggs : — “ At any time of the year, turkeys, whether broody or not, are taught to hatch in the following manner : Some addled eggs are emptied, then filled with plaster of Paris, then placed into a nest ; after which a turkey is fetched from the yard and placed on the eggs, and covered over with lattice. For the first forty-eight hours she will endeavour to get out of her confinement, but soon becomes reconciled to it, when fresh eggs are substituted for those of plaster of Paris : the hens will continue to hatch, without inter- mission, from three to six months, and even longer ; the chickens being withdrawn as soon as hatched, and fresh eggs substituted. After the third day the eggs are examined, and the clear eggs withdrawn, which are then sold in the market for new-laid ; but as they may be soiled or discoloured from having been sat upon, they clean them with water and silver sand to restore their original whiteness. The turkeys are taken off their nest once a day to feed and to remove their * An average of 74 per laying hen. — H. M. J. t Published by Eoutledge and Sons, and illustrated by Harrison Weir. VOL. XIX. — S. 8. O 194 Notes on Continental Poultry - keepin rj . excrements from the nest, but after a while they cease self- feeding, when it is necessary to cram them, and to give them some water once a day.” Mr. Tegetmeier’s book contains a great amount of valuable information on poultry-keeping in France, and especially with regard to the characteristics of the chief breeds and the prepara- tion of poultry for the table ; but on these points I must refer the amateur to the book itself. The following statement from my Report on the North of France to the Royal Commission on Agriculture is fairly indi- cative of the manner in which the capons and poulards are fed in the district of Le Mans : — “ The breed of poultry called La Fleche is considered by many competent judges the very best for the table ; it is said that a fat capon will weigh up to 13 lbs., and a ‘ poularde ’ up to 9 lbs., at the age of eight months. Fattening commences when the birds are four to five months old ; they are kept in a dark place, but are fed in the light twice a day, early in the morning and again in the afternoon. The food consists of a thick paste made into a bolus, about 2-g- inches long and about a third of an inch in diameter, and composed of buckwheat-meal one-half, barley one-third, and oats one-sixth. Before being given this food the fowls have a little water or milk, and then manage to take a dozen or more of these boluses. One person can cram from 80 to 100 fowls in a day, and the fattening process occupies about six weeks.” Every one who has visited the annual “ Concours d’animaux Gras ” at Paris must have been struck at the display of dead poultry. In previous papers I have enlarged upon the clever manner in which French people turn their products to the best advantage, and they are encouraged to exhibit the results of their skill by the offer of prizes by the Government at the various “ Concours.” It ought to be worth consideration by the Smithfield Club whether a small sum offered as Prizes for the best trussed specimens of Poultry would not be a departure from ordinary practice that would be justified by its success. In the meantime I ought to mention that Mr. Tegetmeier has of late years devoted much attention to the subject of “ table fowls ” in England, and by his lectures and writings has done a great deal to instruct poultry -keepers about it. I have thus described a well-known establishment where poultry of pure breeds and fancy strains are bred and reared for sale to amateurs : — “ The very remarkable poultry establishment of M. Lemoine, at Crosne, near Montgeron, deserves more than a passing notice, Notes on Continental Poultry -keeping . 195 “ The preceding view, which I have borrowed from M. Lemoine’s little book, ‘ Elevage des Animaux de Basse-cour,’ published by Masson, Paris, gives a fair idea of the fowl-houses and their little parks at Crosne. It will be noticed that the O 2 considering the increasing importance which attaches to poultry- farming in England. No less than twenty-six different breeds of poultry are kept, quite distinct, each in a kind of paddock of its own, surrounded by wire fencing, and containing a square grass-plot with a gravel walk surrounding it, and a border con- taining flowers on the other side of the gravel walk, while on the grass plot there are a few young trees, both conifers and deciduous. The young chicken also have access to a large lawn and to a wood which surrounds it ; there are plenty of shrubs and flowers round about, and M. Lemoine thinks that variety of circumstances is essential to the proper rearing of chicken, so that they may be able to choose their own resorts. The chicken are further allowed to eat as much as they like and when they like, but the hens are fed twice a day. Variety in the composition of the food is held to be necessary to early maturity, successful production of eggs, and easy fattening. The food given consists of a mixture in equal parts of wheat, oats, barley, maize, and buckwheat bruised together. For the chicken it is given in the form of pudding, but to the breeding fowls it is given as crushed grain. Fig. 1- Yiew of Fowl-houses at Crosne. 196 Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping. houses are on poles about a yard above the ground ; their floors are strewn with ashes. M. Lemoine considers that several matters are essential to the successful rearing of poultry. Clean- liness is the fi^st, dryness in every way is also very important ; light and ventilation, not neglecting warmth, are also necessary. “ The fowl-houses are cleaned out twice a week, and the turf in the little paddocks, as well as the gravel-walks, are renewed every other year to prevent them from becoming sodden with excretions and from giving rise to emanations. The Houdan is considered by M. Lemoine to be the best breed in every respect, except that the hens are bad mothers ; therefore Cochin China hens are kept to sit on Houdan eggs. Each breed, how- ever, has its special excellencies and defects, and requires special treatment. La Fleche is the breed which is said to fatten most easily, but Houdan chicken can be fattened for the market at three to four months old. M. Lemoine exhibits largely, and has won an immense number of prizes both for his fowls and his method of housing and managing them.” In the notice of his home farm prepared for the ‘ Concours Regional of 1868,’ the Marquis d’Havrincourt gives the follow- ing brief account of his poultry-keeping : — “ I am extremely fond of this part of the farming, which is so often neglected in the north (of France) ; but as 1 cannot make it a speciality I am obliged to confine myself to the breeds which are the most profitable and the most hardy. The breeds which I keep, then, are the Houdan, la Fleche, the Dorking, la Caussade, Hergnies, as well as various crosses between them. The beautiful Crevecceur does not succeed here, because, owing to the dust, their crest becomes charged with earth, and destroys their eyes. Ordinarily, as on all farms, the poultry are in the farmyard, on the manure-heap and the roadways, and under the sheds, as well as, in my case, under the small special shelters for them which I have constructed over sandy places, and where they can retire at any time. In these they always find open troughs full of water, and covered ones which are used for their food. “ Immediately after harvest I shut up the ordinary fowl- house, and bring close to it a travelling one. The fowls roost in the latter, and the following morning they and their habita- tion are transported to the fields in charge of a woman, being brought back again in the evening. The number of eggs rapidly increases, and as a rule soon becomes doubled. The fowls find in the fields corn, green food, and insects, and become extraordinarily healthy. Sometimes I send them also into the fields which are being ploughed, and there they eat the larva; Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping. 197 and worms in the newly turned-up furrows. In the evening they return to their vehicle, as if it were their ordinary fowl- house. They always lay in it and never go far off. “ For breeding purposes the fowls are put to lay in a special establishment constructed outside the farmyard, of which the following is a plan : — Fig. 2 — Plan of Poultry-runs at Havrincourt. “ I have thus six small fowl-houses placed back to back and forming the centre of the small separated runs which surround them, and which communicate with one another by doors situated at the points of contact between the fences and the fowl-houses. The greater the area which can be given to these runs the more fitted they are for their purpose. It will be understood at once how economical such an arrangement is with regard to feeding, cleaning, &c. The entire establishment is surrounded by a paling about 8 feet high, there being 198 Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping. approximately 14 inches between the laths, but duplicated to the height of 16 inches, so as not to allow the young chicks to get through. The palings between the runs are similarly constructed. Each building is surrounded by open ground and by walks which have been excavated to the depth of 10 inches, and afterwards filled in with coal-cinders covered with sand. The cinders facilitate the drainage of the water, dry the plots of land, and enable the fowls to avoid the dust which is so pernicious to them. The remainder of each run is laid down in grass sheltered by shrubs. “ The ‘ furniture ’ of each run consists of the following : * — “ (1.) A breeding cage, having a zinc roof, and comprising two divisions separated by bars or wires. The hen with its brood is put in one of the compartments, but the chicken can pass through the spaces into the other, above which is a large pane of glass or window, which keeps the chicken warm while there, as well as if they were under the hen. Each compartment has its door, which also is furnished with a small grating, in which, at night and in cold weather, a pane of glass can be slipped. At first the cage is kept shut, because young chicken are required to be kept warm, while they can obtain air through the little grated windows. Afterwards the door of one of the compartments can be opened, so that the chicken may go in and out. Several of these breeding cages may be put in one run, provided that the hens cannot get out to fight one another, or to kill the chicken belonging to the occupant of another cage. “ (2.) A stone trough (b) contains pure water, but inclined in such a manner that the chicken cannot drown themselves. “ (3.) A corn-bin (g), with a cover in the form of a roof to preserve the grain from the rain, and prevent the fowls from making it dirty. “ (4.) A small trough (m), in solid stone, sunk in the earth, to receive the steeped bran and cooked food which would rot the bin G. “ (5.) An umbrella-shaped shelter (p) to the fowls against the rain and the sun, which enables them always to find a place where they can lfaire poudrette .’ It is understood that this is the ‘ toilette ’ of fowls, and that it is with the dust which they disperse over their bodies, and which they shake off directly afterwards, that they free themselves from the little insects which annoy them. “ The fowl-houses and annexed runs are chiefly used in the * I have somewhat abbreviated the original descriptions. — II. M. J. Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping. 199 spring. In each compartment I place a cock and six hens of the same breed, chosen as the best specimens in my yard. The eggs of these hens I have hatched in order to preserve the pure breeds, only that I take care not to use for this purpose eggs that have been laid until after an interval of at least six weeks after the separation of the breeds ; because the breeds are all mixed in the farmyard, and the influence of the male remains at least six weeks. Similarly I take care to cut one wing of each fowl to prevent its flying over the paling.” The Marquis finds this arrangement equally serviceable for rearing and for breeding, as all the chicken are well under control, and can be kept separate according to age, or breed, or any other category required. Later in the year he also uses it for fattening ducks, geese, and turkeys, which are rarely con- fined entirely, as fowls generally are for that purpose. He adds that the great difficulty in his district has been to find servants who understand the rearing, and especially the fattening, of poultry. In fact, he states emphatically, “ Ce type ny exists plus .” Consequently he engaged a woman from the district of Bresse, who has produced on his farm the true “ poulardes” of her own country. To blanch their flesh after they have been killed, her practice has been to wrap them in linen very tightly sewn, and then to soak them for ten or twelve hours in weak milk and water. I should add that when I visited the Marquis d’Havrincourt in 1878, I found that his system of poultry-keeping was re- markably successful, and quite worthy of any eulogy that he had claimed for it. The following quotation from my Report on Denmark to the Royal Commission on Agriculture, illustrates in a some- what different fashion the same principle that the habitation of fowls must be systematically changed ; and it may be further re- garded as a favourable example of the manner in which poultry- keeping might be profitably extended in this country. There are many thousands of acres under wood and underwood where a large stock of poultry might be usefully as well as profitably kept, if once the cardinal and essential principles of the business were thoroughly grasped by the managing mind. But without such a clear idea being inculcated into the person in authority, if not previously possessed by him, it need scarcely be said that any attempt to increase the rental of woodlands by poultry-keeping would end in disaster. Still, a perusal of the following extract will show how simple is the process when once it is understood, and how successful it has been in the instance mentioned. “ At the present time the attention of English farmers is being 200 Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping . strongly directed to the necessity of adding the culture of fruit and vegetables and the breeding and feeding of poultry to their ordinary farm-practices. Therefore it may be worth while to give a brief account of an estate near Svendborg, in the south of Fyen, where these matters are at least as important as the production of corn and milk. The farm itself consists of 200 acres of land cropped in the usual manner, but there is a con- siderable extent of woodland all round it belonging to the same owner, a Mr. Weber, who was formerly a large merchant. Much of the forest land has been converted into orchard during the last eleven years. To enable this to be done a licence had to be procured, setting forth precisely what areas may be dis- afforested in any year and under what conditions. After the land is cleared, large fruit-trees, such as apples, pears, plums, and cherries, are planted 25 feet apart, the intervening spaces being used for bush-fruit, nursery-ground, &c. As the trees and bushes grow, the alternate rows of bush-fruit and the nursery plants are removed ; and after a further interval it becomes necessary to take away the remaining bush-fruit. The earliest planted orchards are now in this condition, therefore it is not yet possible to give any definite statement as to the financial results of the experiments, if planting for profit on so large a scale can be thus designated. It may, however, be said that Mr. Weber is quite satisfied with the results which have been already obtained, and that he is making more new orchards, as he can obtain the licenses to do so. Most of the fruit goes to Copenhagen, where it is sold at remunerative prices ; but it is hoped soon to find a better market for apples and pears in London. The climate of even this part of Denmark is too late to enable fruit-growers there to compete with French or even English growers of soft fruit on the London market. The winter of 1879-80 destroyed a large number of apple-trees in this district, chiefly of French sorts, just as it did in France, but this calamity is looked upon as quite exceptional. “ The poultry-keeping is, however, the most remarkable feature of this establishment. There are 20 breeds kept, and the total number of fowls is 600. Of these, 300 are laying-hens, 200 pullets and chicken, and 100 cocks and cockerels. Not more than 50 to 60 cocks are in use at one time, the system being to put one cock to five or six hens. Of the twenty breeds kept, Spanish, Houdan, Crevecceur, and most English breeds are preferred, but Dorkings and the Asiatic breeds will not stand the snow, as it affects their feet. The average number of eggs is 2000 per month, making a total average of 80 per hen per annum. Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping. 201 “ Each breed has a house with a separately fenced-off run laid out as a garden and plantation, on the French system, with paths, grass, deciduous and evergreen shrubs ; and in addition, from August to February, which is out of the breeding season, all the fowls have the run of the orchards and forests except when the weather is too inclement. Although there are but 20 breeds kept, there are 24 separate houses and separately fenced- off runs, so that there are always four being renovated and dis- infected. The earth of the runs is dug up twice a year and sown with grass-seeds or buckwheat, not for the sake of the crop but as a means of keeping the land disinfected. The sitting hens have a separate establishment, consisting of a circular building with an entrance-passage and a central lobby, from which access is had to six separate compartments, each containing a dozen nests. There are in this building the necessary adjuncts to such an establishment, including par- ticularly a spacious infirmary, where any diseased fowls may be treated, and also separated from the rest. Gapes seldom occur, but an ophthalmic disease is rather troublesome. All the houses are kept sweet and clean by the plentiful use of lime as a whitewash, carbolic acid being also used largely as a dis- infectant. “ The food is given twice a day, and when the fowls are in the orchards and forests the blast of a trumpet at the regular hours rapidly brings them together. Barley, oats, maize, and buck- wheat, mixed together in various ways, are chiefly used as food ; but the mixture is changed every three months, as by this means the number of eggs laid is found to increase. During moulting, horseflesh is also given. “ No turkeys are kept to sit on the eggs, as is so generally the case in France, but an incubator is used as an adjunct to the hens, some eggs being partially hatched in it before they are put under bad sitters. Mr. Weber is so well satisfied with the success of his poultry-farm, which has now been established four years, that he intends making others at separate places in the centre of new orchards in connection with the dwellings of the under-bailiffs.” The following sketch of another type of continental poultry- keeping is very interesting from several points of view, especially on account of the means adopted for hatching eggs, the curi- ously low prices of the eggs, fowls, and food, and the care with which the accounts have been kept, to say nothing of the remarkable results which have been inferred from the figures. All these matters can be easily discounted by practical poultry- keepers in England, and I reproduce the following very abbre- 202 Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping . viated statement on account of the lessons which it contains, without in the least concealing the differences in circumstances which render their applicability to this country a matter of some difficulty. The account to which I have just referred was written by Mrs. Ida Bergell, who gave the financial results of her ex- perience of poultry-keeping during five consecutive years in the ‘ Landwirthschaftliche Jahrbiicher’ for 1882. She has no model farm, and has not kept fancy-birds, her fowls having been originally of the native breed, but subsequently crossed with the Cochin-china. Mrs. Bergell recognises the division of poultry into three classes, namely, (1) laying fowls, (2) rearing fowls, and (3) meat-making fowls. She regards the ordinary domestic fowl of the country as being surpassed, in the third category, only by the French breeds of Crevecour, Houdan, and La Fleche ; however, in her opinion, it stands in the first rank, and is followed by the Cochin-china. This last-named breed, however, has the reputation of being good sitters, and as this was the unique fault of the country breed, she thought that by crossing the two she would achieve a decided success. This experiment did not succeed, because the Cochin-china breed could not stand the cold Mecklenburg climate. A more profitable attempt was made with Spanish and Italian fowls, the inconvenience arising from their disinclination to sit being overcome by a contract being made with the villagers, whereby each household must annually allow their broody hens to sit upon the eggs delivered to them for that purpose. Payment was made for each chicken hatched at Id. per head, and for each duckling at the rate of nearly 1 \d. In this way the wives of the labourers obtained a small income, and Mrs. Bergell a considerable stock of young poultry. The only drawback was that the crosses ultimately adopted did not weigh more than from 5 to 6 lbs. per bird when fattened, while the Cochin-china crosses weighed generally from 8 to 10 lbs. when ready for the market. The fowls were fed twice a day with a mixture con- sisting of maize, and the tailings of wheat, oats, barley, &c. ; while during the day they picked up their living in the manner to which they seem born. The details, as regards the fowls, are given in the following Tables (pages 203 to 205). From Table I. it appears that the average value of the stock of poultry was 9 1. 12s. lOffi per annum, and from Table II. that the average profit during the five years was 51. 14s. Ad. per annum. But then only 15s. a-ycar is charged for a girl’s Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping . 203 Table I. — Inventory from March 1st, 1875 to March, 1880. Year. Number. Kind. Value per Head. Total Value. s. cl. £ 8. d. v 1875 40 Ducks 2 0 4 0 0 7 Drakes 2 3 0 15 9 14 Cocks 1 0 0 14 0 66 Hens 1 0 3 6 0 50 Pigeons 0 15 0 9 10 o 1876 26 Ducks 2 0 2 12 0 12 Drakes 2 3 i 7 0 12 Cocks i 0 0 12 0 91 Hens i 0 4 11 0 10 Hens i 6 0 15 0 50 Pigeons • 0 15 0 10 12 0 1877 21 Ducks .. .. 2 3 2 7 3 6 Drakes 2 3 0 13 6 48 Hens 1 0 2 8 0 7 Hens 1 6 0 10 6 9 Cocks 1 0 0 9 0 70 Pigeons 1 0 0 7 8 3 1878 32 Ducks 2 0 3 4 0 8 Drakes 2 3 0 18 0 64 Hens 1 0 3 4 0 7 Hens 1 6 0 10 6 2 Cocks 1 0 0 2 0 7 1 Cocks (Half-bred Cochin- 1 \ china J 2 0 0 14 0 3 Cocks (Cochin-china) 3 0 0 9 0 80 Pigeons • 1 5 0 10 6 6 1879 26 Ducks 2 0 2 12 0 8 Drakes 2 3 0 18 0 66 Hens 1 0 3 6 0 7 Hens 1 6 0 10 6 20 Cocks 1 6 1 10 0 100 Pigeons - • 1 10 0 10 0 0 Grand Total 48 4 0 Average 9 12 10 1S80 34 Ducks 2 0 3 8 0 9 Drakes 2 3 1 0 3 33 Hens 1 0 1 13 0 7 Hens 1 6 0 10 6 8 Cocks 1 3 0 10 0 1 Swan 6 0 0 6 0 120 Pigeons • 1 15 0 9 2 9 Table II. — Receipts and Expenditure connected with the Poultry-yard, from 1875-7G to 1879-80 inclusive. 204 Notes on Continental Poultry -keeping. h*n ->N HtfJ Ci O Ci CO o o 1© c© o C£> Ci O Ci l© Ci O (M i© CO Ci X TJM t> i© cm CO CO 1C (M (M lO I> rH lO o CO CO io (M CO rH ,H CC CM rH rH rH i »— i rH rH rH rH rH rH rH ^ o i© h CO o i/o rH O -f o rH rH O CO c: o CO C5 r* rH C5 L- CM rH rH w « 5 6 g hh sB X! a m o to "S £ o "S o = fn .5 10*0 . © © l *-£ to . ci ci - 1 O? c - to r© ^ „ CD ^3 5U o r pH 53 © > •S-S .-©m fcJD O •S g w r-3 C O O '42 vr ■s.s r^3 O >< P? © H S3 5 ® 2 5 .Sr a >SS. 1 ® * WH "5 "3 "o 'o HEh 5^3 Cm Pm MS O > to o pH I t- ■ O T* O O l> Ci r-1 l> CM i© CO CO H rH rH «*l i© TtH CO CO -if CO CM hn HtNH|N HmHn r^; zd co o Ci Ci Ci O Ci i© CO CO o CO CO l> O Ci a © Ci CM ^ CM rH CO Ci CM CO CD CM CO CO CO cm r- rH Ci © © CO CM i© CM rH rH r-i rH rH rH rH rH r-H O i© Ci O Ci i© CO CM o O rH rH O rH r* CO © CO CM r-i rH rH rH CM ih CM CM rn rn rH . • HH • • * • • • * • ►— • O »• © . ao . • ^2 eo 05 •r5_w l : : co : : • r© CO • ci , • CO : : : co Eh pc 03 H ci ci C3 c© Ch . ^ • . w - O * >» Pm : 53 -g S |P to © s fcc s _ o c. © si © -rM PH ^ i3 Cm C * HW "cs -■8 *g Ifi c3 . as t0_ © CM C- © pH © rz © .43 p3 rC 53 rl © £ 5C, O hW >>2 © ® *H O 3 pH J. t- CD I— CO grf „ ><2 • r4 . M rC ^5 13 •33 © P 53 2 Q C ci . to O S N C _ QC t- I ■3 Pm O X HW 1° tL-~ S>« Pm I o l- © .t: Ph ^ _ a _£ Cm O M H W T3 - .s & A rC © r—H S3 cQ 03 . w to if — tX) © ^ .Cm© © H © c © __ c •72 ° S Cm © M HW Table III. — Produce of Hens in Eggs and Chicken in eacla Year, from 1875 to 1879 inclusive. Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping 205 •9 § jjjw A co eo O <+* O co co CO CO o c* o o S3 5 > < > <1 CO rH O o5 C3 t> t> © c+j r> co co co to to rH CO »-H O O r-H (M O CO of eo IQ ci o H o CO price of a chicken, about 8 d. 206 Statistics of the Corn Trade. wages to feed and otherwise look after the poultry, collect their eggs, &c., although the average number kept was 86 fowls, 37 ducks, &c., and 70 pigeons. Of course it must be borne in mind that prices in Mecklenburg are very different from what they are in England ; but it is curious to find so accomplished and accurate a bookkeeper as Mrs. Bergell calculating the profit on the basis of Table II. alone. She rejoices in calculating that the average net profit of the five years was 59*3 1 per cent, of the value of the stock (namely, 56'57 in 1875-6, 38'84 in 1876-77, 111-29 in 1877-78, 64-80 in 1878-79, and 40-49 in 1879-80), and so, no doubt, it was, as an accessory for the utilisation of things and time that would otherwise have been wasted. But it would be a lamentable mistake to infer that if she increased her stock indefinitely on the same land, her profits would continue as great in proportion to the capital employed. Table III. (p. 205) shows that the average number of eggs obtained from each hen was under 50, and that the price ob- tained for them was only about \d. each, while that received for chicken was not more than 8c?. On the other hand, the price of the corn given them, nearly half a bushel per hen (exactly 17^ litres), is given at only Is. 3d. per annum. VII. — Diagrams showing the Fluctuations in the recorded Weeklg Average Prices of Wheat from 1863-1882 inclusive. By Henry Allnutt, 3, Holland Road, Kensington. The following Diagrams showing the fluctuations in the weekly imperial average price of wheat per quarter, in each year from 1865 to 1882, have been prepared differently from those which were compiled in previous years for this ‘Journal,’ and which do not give a correct idea of the amount of the fluctuations ; 'the intervals between the dots (ascending or descending) in those diagrams were of uncertain value, the distances being solely influenced by the number of quotations in the prices.* In the diagrams drawn by me for the subsequent years, 1865 to 1882, inclusive, the intervals between the horizontal lines are all of equal value, viz. 4 d. Thus, if the rise in the price in the week has been 6c/., it is shown by a space and a half; or, if the fall has been 2s., the drop from one dot to the other equals six lines or spaces. Thus the fluctuations are drawn in proportion to the amount of the rise or fall. The figures on each side of the diagrams are shillings, and * See the Journals of the Society for the years 1850 to 18G5 inclusive. Statistics of the Corn Trade. 207 if it is desired to know the price at any one of the dots, it can be easily seen by means of its position on or between the lines. Each of the diagrams for 1865 to 1882 includes the last week in each preceding year ; and the first week in the year in advance is also given. These outside dots form a key, by means of which the series of diagrams could be mounted on paper to follow each other in an extended form, in which case a panorama would be given, showing the weekly fluctuations for many years. The annual average for each year is shown by a black line across each diagram. A diagram is also given showing the annual average price of wheat from 1864 to 1882 inclusive. The averages for the past four years have been very near each other— 1879, 43s. lOrf. ; 1880, 44s. Ad. ; 1881, 45s. Ad., and 1882, 45s. Id. The average for the past 25 years was 50s. Id. The greatest extreme or range of fluctuation was 25 s. 2d. in 1868, and the smallest 6s. 3d. in 1864. The highest annual average in the past 25 years was 64s. 5 d. in 1867, and the lowest 43s. 3d. in 1864. The highest weekly average was 74s. Id. on 9th of May, 1868, and the lowest weekly average 37s. Id. on the 22nd of February, 1879 ; that of the 24th of December, 1864, was very close to the former, being 37s. 10c?. Table showing in what Months in the past Twenty-five Years the Price of Wheat has been Highest and Lowest. Months. Highest Price. Number of Years. Lowest Price. Number of Years. January 1858-62-63 .. .. 3 1859-65-71 .. .. 3 February 1874 i 1860-70-76-77-79-81 6 March . . . , ,, ,, ,, 1867-75 2 April 1SS0 i 1866-72-73 .. .. 3 May 1859-68-77-78 4 June 1871 1 # . July .. .. „ 1861 1 August . . 1864-69-70-72-75-82 6 September . . 1860-73-81 .. .. 3 1880 1 October 1867 1 1863-7S-82 .. .. 3 November 1879 1 1874 1 December 1861-65-66-76.. .. 4 1858-62-64-68-69 .. 5 Years 25 Years 25 208 Statistics of the Corn-Trade. Highest Price. — During the past 25 years wheat has been at its highest price for six years in the month of August ; four years each in May and December; three years each in January and September; one year each in February, April, June, October, and November ; and the prices never have been highest in March or July. Lowest Price. — During the past 25 years, it has for six years been lowest in February, five years in December, three years each in January, April, and October, two years in March, and one year each in July, September, and November, and lastly, it has never been at its lowest price in May, June, or August. The imports in the present diagrams are shown in cwts. instead of quarters as previously, in consequence of corn having been entered by weight instead of measure since September, 1864. The average weights per quarter of corn, as adopted in the office of the Inspector-General of Imports and Exports, are as follow : — For wheat, 4851, lbs., or 4^ cwts.; for barley, 400 lbs., or 3-f cwts. ; for oats, 308 lbs., or 2f cwts. TABLES showing Average Price of Wheat from Government Returns , 18f>5 to 1882. 1865 . — WEEKLY AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT FROM GOVERNMENT RETURNS. Plate A ◄ M * e ◄ « & 2 Cm ti a * “'N O f*$r*r* Plate B. Wheat. Barley-. Oats. Beaks. Peas. Maize. Flour and Meal. Average of Year 99 77 379 27 7 cuts. cuits. cuts. cuts. cwts cuts. cuts. Import of United Kingdom 23 7S6329 3933363 3 399.S36 7329773 7277,833 79322,363 9972236 Plate C. 18 6 8 . — WEEKLY AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT FROM GOVERNMENT RETURNS. Plate J) < H 2 ft z. < tc D s % J cn /. < u: 5^ a 5 5 it ^ cS <1 is?' S5 *T § fl a I ? \ -I *1' A A N § !| ◄ -d © 4-> ■H a fc> Cm O *-* s- O 0. a 1870. WEEKLY AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT FROM GOVERNMENT RETURNS. PUlto F • _k Wheat. Bakley. Oats. Beaks. Peas. Maize. Flour ahd Meal. Average of Year 7677 3/ 7 22/0 cud. ord. cu'd. cuid. cu'd cw>d. cwts. Import of United Kingdom 3090/220 72/7 327 70 330630 7,306796 / 799 33/ 76,736.763 7.003,909 WEEKLY AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT FROM GOVERNMENT RETURNS. Plate G. i. "T a ■ X. & jif 6. S2 V IS- IS o N ,1 K' $* J I* ?l * * T3 P fa,te H "'heat. Barest. Oatb Beams. Peas. Maize. Flour a*» Meal. Average of Year .... 37 C 37 + 23 2 CH'tl- act!. cwtt. acts acts- acts. acts. Import of United Kingdom 77,996226 73676 77C 77367636 2937,377 7.297/676 27363337 7396639 1873 . — WEEKLY AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT FROM GOVERNMENT RETURNS. Plate I. «« Average of Year . . S5 9 77- // 2870 ctrti. cwlt cwti cwti cwti- cuts. cwtt. Import of United Kingdom 17,779,760 /> 335,396 7 1,3X7.768 2363,767 Id W,900 '7, 633.625 6229666 Plate K. 1876 . — WEEKLY AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT FROM GOVERNMENT RETURNS. Plat* L. f&' fi- g's *f ?$> v J 5^ fi ,1 % «r < *» «M o FN -Q 0 o ■d S3 a P 7,3/¥ // 6'3S,527 /3,36'2,/3/> 3/27/73// 2M, /Sg 37,7*3,63# /0, 5 90,332 Plate Q. *4 M 5^ |v a 0 ■a * l cwts. superphosphate of lime . . . . | jThe same minerals as in 8a, and 400 lbs.) ammonia-salts ) 200 lbs. sulph. potash, 100 lbs. sulph. soda, 100 lbs. sulph. magnesia, 3) cwts. superphosphate of lime . . jThe same minerals as in 9a, and 550) lbs. nitrate of soda (in spring) . . . . J No manure (having received manure as 10b in each of the five preceding seasons) Farmyard-manure, estimated to contain’ nitrogen = 100 lbs. ammonia, made' from 672 lbs. decorticated cotton-cake, 1075 lbs. maize-meal, 8064 lbs. tur- nips, 134 1 lbs. wheat-straw, as food ; and 1747 lbs. wheat-straw as litter. Weight about 4 tons No manure (having received manure as 11b iu each of the five preceding seasons) . . Farmyard-manure, estimated to contain) nitrogen = 200 lbs. ammonia, made from 1344 lbs. decorticated cotton- cake, 2150 lbs. maize-meal, 16,128 lbs. turnips, 2688 lbs. wheat-straw chaff, as food; and 3494 lbs. wheat-straw l as litter. Weight about 8 tons Dressed Corn. Weight. Number of Bushels. Weight per Bushel. Straw, Chaff, &c. lbs. 705 12-3 lbs. 57-25 cwts. qrs. lbs. 18 1 25 1866 32 58-3 31 2 20 1496 26 57-3 32 0 22 844 14-9 56-5 18 3 24 2098 35 T 59-6 37 3 8 1910 32 'S 58-8 39 0 21 736 13-2 55-5 18 0 16 776 13-3 58 17 2 6 2568 43-5 59 55 0 6 688 12-2 56 18 1 8 2112 35-8 58-8 49 2 22 874 15-6 55-75 19 0 22 952 16-6 57 24 1 S96 15-3 58-5 20 1 2 1254 21 G 58 30 3 14 214 Report on the Field arid Feeding Experiments at Woburn. much as in the preceding season, and 18 cwts. 1 qr. and 25 lbs. of straw. Again, whilst in 1881 plot 2, manured with salts of ammonia without any minerals, yielded nearly 32 bushels of dressed corn, and only 20 cwts. 3 qrs. and 24 lbs. of straw and chaff, the same plot in 1882 produced the same quantity, that is, 32 bushels of dressed wheat, and as much as 31 cwts. 2 qrs. and 20 lbs. of straw and chaff — or nearly one-half more than in 1881. On comparing the relative proportions of grain and straw on plot 5 (manured with minerals and salts of ammonia) in 1881 and 1882, 1 find that with 39T bushels of dressed corn, 30 cwts. and 13 lbs. of straw were grown in 1881 ; whereas last year,, with 35-1 bushels of corn, 37 cwts. 3 qrs. and 8 lbs. of straw, or about cwts. more straw, were produced on the same plot. The differences in this respect are specially marked on the plots which were manured with nitrate of soda, with or without minerals. Thus nitrate of soda alone in 1882 produced 26 bushels of dressed wheat, and the great quantity of 32 cwts. and 22 lbs. of straw; whilst in 1881, only 27 cwts. 2 qrs. and 20 lbs. of straw, and as much as 41 bushels of dressed wheat, were grown on the same plot. On comparing the yield of corn and straw on plot 6 (manured with minerals and nitrate of soda in 1881 and 1882), I find that in the former year the plot yielded only 36 cwts. 3 qrs. and 19 lbs. of straw, and 45-2 bushels of dressed wheat per acre; whereas last season the same plot produced only 32’8 bushels of dressed corn, and as much as 39 cw ts. and 21 lbs. of straw', or several cwts. more straw than was obtained with the larger produce of dressed wheat in 1881. Without a single exception, all the plots last season yielded much more straw in proportion to corn than in the preceding season. Comparing the plots upon which nitrate of soda was used with those dressed with salts of ammonia, the proportions of straw were greater on the nitrated plots than on those manured with salts of ammonia, and the amount of dressed wheat was greater on the latter than on the plots manured with nitrate of soda. Altogether, nitrate of soda had a less favourable effect upon the wheat-crop of 1882 than salts of ammonia, either alone or in conjunction w ith mineral manures. In 1881, on the contrary, nitrate of soda, either alone or in conjunction with mineral manures, gave better returns than, salts of ammonia alone, and than minerals and ammonia-salts. If I am not mistaken, nitrate of soda, when applied in consider- able quantities to wheat in a wet and cold season, does not Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 215 produce as good an effect as salts of ammonia. In such seasons nitrate of soda appears to expend its fertilising powers more in producing straw than corn, and on the whole to be a less beneficial manure for wheat than salts of ammonia. However, it would be dangerous to express too confident an opinion on the relative merits of nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia as nitrogenous manures for wheat. As far as my experience goes, I can only state the fact that in one season a spring top-dressing of nitrate of soda has a better effect upon wheat than sulphate of ammonia, and in another season the reverse is the case, showing clearly how desirable it is to persevere with systematic field experiments, and not to be content with a few haphazard experimental field-trials, which in many cases do more harm than good, if the results obtained are interpreted by an incautious and inexperienced experimenter. The second unmanured plot (No. 7), with one exception, due to the accidental depredations of the wire-worm, in the. previous five years gave a better crop than the first unmanured plot (No. 1), and these two plots have maintained the same character in the sixth season of continuous growth of wheat, when the pro- duce of dressed corn on plot No. 7 was about 1 bushel more than on plot No. 1. Purely mineral manures, as in former seasons, had but a slight effect on the last season’s wheat-crop ; and on plot 4 they gave only about 2 bushels more dressed corn than the average pro- duce of the two plots which for the last seven years had not received any kind of manure. On the other hand, ammonia alone on plot 2 gave 32 bushels of dressed wheat per acre, that is, an increase of about 250 per cent, of dressed corn over the average produce of the two con- tinuously unmanured plots (plots 1 and 7), amounting to 12f bushels per acre. A less favourable but still very marked result was obtained on plot 3, top-dressed in spring with nitrate of soda, and other- wise left unmanured for the last seven years. The best wheat was grown on plot 5, manured in autumn with minerals, and top-dressed in spring with salts of ammonia. The wheat from this plot weighed 59’6 lbs. per bushel, and the yield per acre was 35 bushels in round numbers. The propor- tion of straw to corn on this, as on all the other plots in relation to the corn, was unusually and excessively high last season, especially on the nitrate-of-soda plots, as already pointed out. I need hardly repeat in this Report that the experiments on the continuous growth of wheat and barley which wTere begun seven years ago are not instituted with a view of giving practical illustrations of profitably growing corn-crops on light 216 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. land. They were undertaken with the object of throwing light on the intricate and difficult question of the gradual exhaustion of soils by corn-crops. It is hoped that, by studying the special lunctions of various nitrogenous and mineral manures, in the course of time data will be furnished which will materially help agricultural economists to entertain more correct views on the subject of the unexhausted value of dung and of artificial manures than is the case at present with the majority of agri- cultural writers, land valuers, land owners, land agents, tenant- farmers, and others interested in this important question. For. the past five years two of the experimental plots, I may remind the reader, were manured with excessively large quan- tities of mineral and nitrogenous manures. One of these plots, in addition to 3J cwts. of good mineral superphosphates, 200 lbs. of sulphate of potash, 100 lbs. of sulphate of soda, and 100 lbs. of sulphate of magnesia per acre, applied every year in autumn or early in spring, was top-dressed in spring with 400 lbs. of salts of ammonia per acre; and another plot was similarly dressed with the same minerals and 550 lbs. of nitrate of soda per acre, containing as much nitrogen as the 400 lbs. of ammonia salts on plot 8. Two other plots were manured every year with good rotten dung. On one of these plots about 4 tons of dung per acre, specially prepared, and estimated to contain 100 lbs. of ammonia per acre, had been applied for the last five years ; and on the second (plot 11), double the quantity of dung per acre, cal- culated to contain 200 lbs. of ammonia, had been used every year. With a view of determining experimentally to what extent nitrogenous, or readily soluble, manures like nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia, applied to corn-crops in the preceding year, were taken up by the plants, and carried off in the crop, or wasted in land drainage, the quarter-acre plots 8 and 9, heavily manured every year with expensive mineral and readily soluble nitrogenous fertilisers, were divided in two equal parts of one-eighth of an acre each. Both halves were dressed with the usual quantity of mineral manures, but only one-half, or one- eighth of an acre, was top-dressed in spring with nitrogenous manures. Plot 8b (one-eighth of an acre) was top-dressed on the 7th of April, 1882, with ammonia-salts, at the rate of 400 lbs. per acre ; and plot 9b on the same day was top-dressed with nitrate of soda, at the rate of 550 lbs. per acre. The two plots Nos. 10 and 11, dunged every year in the previous five seasons, were divided into two equal halves of one-eighth of an acre each. No dung was put upon one-half, and the usual quantity on the second half. By this arrangement it appears to me possible to ascertain in Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 217 the course of some years to what extent good farmyard-manure parts with its fertilising properties in a single season ; and how many years it will take practically to exhaust the fertilising properties of a definite quantity of good dung of known com- position. The results obtained last season on plots 8, 9, 10, and 11 are most instructive, and Table I., showing the produce of con- tinuous wheat in the sixth season, 1882, is well worthy of an attentive study. Referring, in the first place, to the plots 8 and 9, manured heavily with mineral and soluble nitrogenous manures, it will be seen that on the half-plots which were merely manured wTith mineral manures, the produce in corn and straw was not larger than on the plots upon which, for the last seven years, wheat was grown without any manure whatever. Singularly enough, plot 8a yielded almost exactly the same produce as the adjoin- ing continuously unmanured plot 7, and plot 9b almost exactly the same produce as the unmanured plot 1. Although these plots had been heavily dressed in each of the preceding five seasons with nitrate of soda or with ammonia- salts, the produce was reduced to the level of the continuously un manured plots as soon as the nitrogenous manures were with- held the next season. The yearly and liberal supply of mineral manures did not raise the produce in wheat, and the results on plots Sa and 9a clearly show that there was no available residue of nitrate of soda or salts of ammonia left in the land from the previous applications of these readily soluble nitro- genous manures. On the second half of plot Sb, manured with minerals or ammonia-salts, the produce of dressed corn, it will be seen, was 43^ bushels, weighing 59 lbs. per bushel, and that of straw 2 tons 15 cwts. and 6 lbs. The addition of ammonia-salts to the minerals, which alone produced only 13’3 bushels of dressed corn and 17 cwts. 2 qrs. and 6 lbs. of straw, thus more than tripled the wheat- crop. On plot 9b a similarly large increase was obtained by the application of nitrate of soda. Minerals without nitrate on plot 9a produced only 12*2 bushels of dressed wheat, weighing only 56 lbs. per bushel, and 18 cwts. 1 qr. and 8 lbs. of straw per acre. The same amount of mineral manures, with the addition ol 550 lbs. of nitrate of soda per acre, raised the crop to 35'S bushels of dressed wheat, weighing 58'8 lbs. per bushel, and 49 cwts. 2 qrs. and 22 lbs., or nearly 2J tons of straw per acre. It is scarcely needful to state that in actual practice nobody would think of applying to the land such large quantities of ammonia-salts or nitrate of soda as those which were applied 218 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. to the land on plots 8b and 9b. On these plots very heavy crops of wheat were grown in the five preceding years, considering the light character of the experimental field and the succession, of bad seasons ; and abnormally large quantities of readily soluble nitrogenous saline manures were applied in the experi- ments, partly with a view to exhaust the land, if possible, more rapidly than under ordinary conditions, and partly for the purpose of demonstrating the fact that excessive doses of nitrate of soda or salts of ammonia cannot be applied to corn-crops without incurring a great loss. Turning in the next place to the results which were obtained on plots 10 and 11, it will be seen that on both plots the halves which received no dung for the wheat-crop of 1882, the yield both of corn and straw was greater than on the continuously unmanured plots, or on the plots which were manured with minerals only. Thus plot 10a, dunged in each of the five previous seasons with about 4 tons of good farmyard-manure, but not dunged for the wheat-crop of 1882, 15-6 bushels of dressed corn, and 19 cwts. and 22 lbs. of straw were produced, or about 3 bushels more dressed corn than the average yield of the two continuously unmanured plots 1 and 7 ; whilst the application of about 4 tons of dung per acre on plot 10b raised the produce of dressed wheat only I bushel above the produce of plot 10a, but gave a large increase of straw. On plot 11a, manured at the rate of about 8 tons of farmyard- manure in the five preceding seasons, but not dunged for the wheat-crop of 1882, practically the same quantity of dressed wheat and about 1 cwt. more straw than on the corresponding plot 10a were obtained ; whilst the application of about 8 tons of dung on plot 11b for the crop of 1882 raised the produce of dressed corn to 21 ’6 bushels, and that of straw to 30 cwts. 3 qrs. and 4 lbs. In comparison with the average yield of the two continuously unmanured plots 1 and 7, the dung on plot 11b gave an increase in round numbers of 9 bushels of corn and 22^ cwts. of straw per acre. These experiments clearly show that the dung applied on plot 10a and plot 11a in previous years left some, but not a considerable, manure residue in the land, and that this residue apparently was not larger on the plot which was manured previously to 1882 with about 8 tons of dung annually than on the plot which received only half the quantity of the same dung. Future experiments on the dunged plots, it is expected, will show how long and to what extent the manure residue will be perceptible on plots 10a and 11a, which will not be dunged in the succeeding seasons. As far as present experience goes, a smaller amount of nitrogen, in* the shape of nitrate of soda or Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 219 sulphate of ammonia, has a more powerful effect on the produce of wheat in the first season than a much larger amount of nitrogen in the shape of farmyard-manure ; but in the case of artificial manures the nitrogen is at once exhausted, while, although there is an available residue of the dung, in all pro- bability a large percentage of it will never be recovered in the successive wheat-crops. The Experiments on the Continuous Growth of Barley. The mineral manures were sown broadcast on the 14th of March, 1882, and the barley — Chevalier Barley — was sown on all the experimental plots on the 25th of March, 1882, at the rate of 9 pecks per acre. The nitrate of soda and salts of ammonia, mixed for the sake of better distribution with about three times their bulk of dry sand, were sown by a broadcast manure-distributor on the 27th of April. Well- rotten farmyard-manure, estimated to contain nitrogen . equal to 100 lbs. of ammonia per acre on plot 10b, and 200 lbs. of ammonia per acre on plot 11b, was put on the land on the 26th of January, 1882. Four bullocks, which made the dung, when put into the feeding-boxes on the 21st of November, 1881, weighed — cwts. qrs. lbs. No. 1 9 12 „ 2 9 0 2 „ 3 9 16 „ 1 9 2 26 Total weight of four bullocks) q- -i o on the 21st Nov., 1881 .. J 'J‘ In the course of three weeks the four bullocks consumed — cwts. qrs. lbs. Decorticated cotton-cake 2 2 0 Maize-meal 4 0 0 White turnips 30 0 0 Wheat-straw chaff 500 And they were supplied during that period with 6^ cwts. of wheat-straw, cut into chaff about 3 inches long, which was used as litter. The dung was removed from the feeding-boxes on the 22nd of December, placed in a covered hovel, and allowed to rot until the 26th of January, when it was weighed. With the consumption of the above-named quantities of food and wheat-straw chaff used as litter, the four bullocks produced 29 cwts. and 25 lbs. of rotten dung. 220 Report on Ike Field and Feeding Fxperiments at Woburn. On the 13th of December, 1881, when the bullocks were removed from the feeding-boxes, their weight was as follows : Gain in Live-weight from Nov. 21 to Dec. 13, 1830 (3 weeks). No. 1. bullock cwts. qrs 9 3 . lbs. 5 .. cwts. qrs. ..0 2 , lbs. 3. 9 5> j> 9 3 3 .. .. 0 3 1 „ 3. „ 10 0 2 .. 0 2 24 Total gain in 5> >> 10 1 3 .. .. 0 2 5 ) 3 weeks : tal weight of four bullocks] on the 13th Dec., 1881. | [39 3 13 o 2 5 J 2 cwts. 2 qrs. 5 11 The four bullocks, according to these data, increased in weight at the rate of 95 lbs. per week ; or on an average each bullock increased in weight 23§ lbs. per week, or about 3j lbs. per day. On the 19th of July, 1882, I took in the field the following notes respecting the appearance of the barley on the several plots. The unmanured plots looked remarkably well, considering that barley had been previously grown on them for five years in succession. The plots dressed with nitrate of soda, or with salts of ammonia only, appeared about equal, and much better than the unmanured or the dunged plots. Minerals alone (plot 5). The barley was not stronger than on the unmanured plots, but was lighter in colour, and more manured. The plots manured with minerals and the smaller quantity of nitrate of soda (plot 6), or with minerals and ammonia-salts (plot 5) were about equal. The barley on both plots was very strong, and the best of the several plots. On the two dunged plots the barley was not so strong as on the plots which had been top-dressed in spring with nitrate of soda, or with ammonia-salts. Plot 8a (minerals without ammonia). Barley not much better than on the unmanured plots. Plot 8b (minerals and large dose of ammonia-salts). Barley down on the ground. Plot 9a (minerals without nitrate of soda). Not much better than the unmanured plots. Plot 9b (minerals and large dose of nitrate of soda). Barley very luxuriant, a good deal down on the ground, though scarcely as much as on plot 8b. The barley was cut on the 21st of August, 1882 ; and, rain intervening, the cutting was finished on the 25th of August. Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 221 It was carted, stacked, and thatched in good condition on the 30th of August, 1882. It was threshed out in the field on the 15th of November, and the straw weighed at the time of threshing ; the corn was weighed and measured on the 23rd of November, when the results embodied in Table II. (p. 222) were obtained. It will be noticed that in 1882 the plots which in the prece- ding five years had been annually manured with a heavy dressing of mineral manures and a large dose of ammonia-salts, — or with minerals, and as much as 550 lbs. of nitrate of soda, — per acre, were divided in two, as were also the two dunged plots 10 and 11. On one-half of the plots 8 and 9 minerals alone were used last season, and the other halves were dressed with minerals and ammonia-salts (plot 8b), and with minerals and nitrate of soda (plot 9b). On plots 10a and 11a no dung was used, and the plots 10b and 11b were manured with the usual quantity of rotten dung. The barley-crop on the whole yielded rather better than in the preceding season, and produced a superior quality of corn, weighing from 2 to 4 lbs. more per bushel than the barley grown in the same plots in 1881. Last season appears to have been more favourable on the Woburn Experimental fields to the growth of barley than to that of wheat. One of the unmanured plots (plot 1), which had grown five crops of dressed barley in succession before, produced 33'2 bushels of dressed corn, weighing nearly 52 lbs. per bushel, and 20 cwts. 1 qr. and 11 lbs. of clean straw. The second unmanured plot (plot 7), which generally yields not so well as plot 1, gave 27^ bushels of dressed barley, weigh- ing only 50'2 lbs. per bushel, and 19 cwts. 3 qrs. and 17 lbs. of straw. Plot 1 appears to be naturally more productive than plot 7. The average produce of the two unmanured plots 1 and 7 in round numbers was 30 bushels of dressed corn and 20 cwts. of straw. Nitrate of soda without minerals (plot 3) gave an increase, over the average yield of the two unmanured plots, of nearly 20 bushels of barley, and 114 cwts. of straw. Ammonia-salts alone (plot 2) also largely increased the barley-crop ; but the increase was 5 bushels of dressed corn less than in the adjoining plot 3, which was top-dressed in spring with a quantity of nitrate of soda, containing as much nitrogen as the ammonia-salts, with which plot 2 was top-dressed in spring on the same day on which the nitrate was sown on plot 3. 222 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. Table II. — Produce of Continuous Barley. Sixth Season, 1882. Produce per Acre. Dressed Corn. Plots. Manures per Acre. Straw, Chaff. Number Weight &C. Weight. of per Bushels. Bushel. lbs. lbs. cwts. qrs. Ih9. 1 Unmanured 1723 33-2 51-9 20 1 11 2 200 lbs. ammonia-salts, alone 2309 44-8 51-5 29 2 0 3 275 lbs. nitrate of soda, alone j 200 lbs. sulphate of potash, 100 lbs. I 2594 49-8 52-1 31 2 10 4 sulph. of soda, 100 lbs. sulph. mag-1 1 nesia, 3) cwts. superphosphate of lime) 1203 23-1 52 15 2 24 1 200 lbs. sulph. of potash, 100 lbs. sulph. j | of soda, 100 lbs. sulph. of magnesia, | 1 3.J cwts. superphosphate of lime, and I 2590 47-6 54-4 33 14 O [ 200 lbs. ammonia-salts J /200 lbs. sulph. of potash, 100 lbs. sulph. ) 6 I of soda, 100 lbs. sulphate of magnesia, | | 3£ cwts. of superphosphate of lime, 1 ) and 275 lbs. nitrate of soda . . . . I 2743 50 • 5 54-25 36 0 24 7 Unmanured 1 200 lbs. sulph. of potash, 100 lbs. sulph. 1 1383 27-5 50-2 19 3 17 8a < of soda, 100 lbs. sulph. of magnesia,) | 31 cwts. of superphosphate of lime .. ) 1998 37-7 52-9 25 0 26 8b ( The same minerals as in 8a, and 400 lbs j 1 ammonia-salts j (200 lbs. sulph. of potash, 100 lbs. sulph. 1 2756 52-7 52-3 50 3 18 9a < of soda, 100 lbs. sulph. of magnesia,) | 3J cwts. of superphosphate of lime . . ) 1988 37 53-7 19 0 20 9b |The same minerals as in 9a, and 550 lbs.) \ of nitrate of soda J No manure (having received manure! 3442 66-8 51-5 48 3 14 10a as 10b in each of the five preceding seasons) ) 2092 39-6 52-8 19 1 20 (Farmyard-manure, estimated to contain) 0 nitrogen = 100 lbs. of ammonia, made from 072 lbs. decorticated cotton-cake, 10b 1075 lbs. maize-meal, 8064 lbs. tur- nips, 1344 lbs. wheat-straw chaff, as food ; and 1747 lbs. wheat-straw as 2136 40-7 52-4 23 2 12 l litter. Weight about 4 tons .. No manure (having received manure 11a as 11b in each of the five preceding seasons) 2056 38-3 53-75 21 1 18 (Farmyard-manure, estimated to contain) nitrogen = 200 lbs. ammonia, made from 1344 lbs. decorticated cotton- Ub < cake, 2150 lbs. maize-meal, 16,128 lbs. turnips, 2688 lbs. wheat-straw chaff, as food; and 3494 lbs. wheat-straw , as litter. Weight about 8 tons 2212 411 53-S 22 0 22 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 223 In conjunction with minerals, nitrate of soda also gave a heavier crop on plot 6 than salts of ammonia and minerals on plot 5, which produced 47^ bushels of barley, weighing 54 4 lbs. per bushel, and 33 cwts. 3qrs. and 4 lbs. of straw ; whilst plot 6 gave 501 bushels of dressed corn, weighing 54^ lbs. per bushel, and 36 cwts. and 24 lbs. of straw. Although the same nitro- genous top-dressings were applied to the Experimental wheat- plots, the ammonia-salts last season had a better effect upon wheat than nitrate of soda. Comparing the produce of plots 8a and 9a with the average yield of the two unmanured plots 1 and 7, it will be seen that 7 bushels more barley was grown on plot 8a, and 7-7 bushels more on plot 9a, than on the average upon the unmanured plots. In the case of the barley-crop, the large quantities of minerals annually applied to plots 8 and 9 thus appear to have left a residue of available mineral plant-food, which has had a favourable effect upon the sixth barley-crop. On the other hand, the same minerals applied in the same quantities to the Experimental wheat-plots 8a and 9a, as has been shown before, did not raise the produce in the slightest degree above the yield of wheat on the unmanured plots 1 and 7. The addition of a large dose of nitrate of soda to the minerals on plot 9b had the effect of largely increasing the barley-crop. On this plot, it will be seen, the heavy crop of nearly 69 bushels of dressed barley and about 49 cwts. of straw was grown per acre. A very heavy crop was also grown on plot 8b, manured with minerals and ammonia-salts, containing as much nitrogen as the nitrate of soda employed on plot 9b, but the produce of dressed corn on plot 8b was 14 bushels less than on plot 9b. With regard to the plots 10a and 11a, from which the dung was withheld in 1882, but which had been manured with rotten dung annually for the five previous barley-crops, it appears that the residue of the dung applied in previous years increased the yield of barley in 1882 to the extent of 9-6 bushels on one of the plots, and of 8-3 bushels on the second plot, above the average yield of the continually un- manured plots 1 and 7. The farmyard-manure which was applied last January on plots 10b and 11b slightly raised the produce of dressed corn above the produce of plots 10a and 11a, which were not dunged in 1882 ; but the effect of the dung is more manifest in the increase of straw than in corn, especially on plot 11b. For the present season farmyard-manure has been applied 224 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. to the 10b and 11b plots both for wheat and barley, and withheld from the corresponding A plots, which course it is hoped will throw some light on the unexhausted manurial properties of the dung which has been applied annually for each of the five previous wheat- and barley-crops. In concluding this portion of my Report, I would also observe that whilst last season the artificial manures had a better effect upon the barley than the dung, the latter increased the produce of 1881 to a greater extent than in 1882. The Experiments in Rotation. Rotation No. 1. — 1877, seeds ; 1878, wheat ; 1879, mangolds ; 1880, barley ; 1881, seeds. Wheat, 1882. — The seeds (white Dutch clover) were fed-off by sheep, which were taken off the land on the 7th of October. The land was ploughed up at once, and got ready for the wheat (Browick wheat), which was drilled in on the 23rd of October at the rate of 8 pecks per acre on all the four acres under experiment. The mineral manures required for plots 3 and 4 were applied on January 28th, and the top-dressings of nitrate of soda were sown on these plots on the 25th of April. The wheat germinated well, and in about a fortnight after sowing appeared above ground, and grew well throughout the winter and the early part of the spring. Towards the middle of June it came into ear, and promised to yield a heavy crop on all the four acres. At that time the wheat on plot 3, top-dressed with nitrate of soda, looked stronger and more luxuriant than that on the remaining three acres. Unfortunately, want of sunshine and excess of rain during the summer months sadly interfered with the ripening of the wheat-crop. The wheat on the four acres in Rotation was cut on the 14th of August, carted and stacked on the 22nd of August, 1882, and threshed out in the field on the 25th of October. The straw was weighed in the field at the time of threshing, and the corn was kept in the granary in properly labelled bags until the 2nd of November, when it was hand-winnowed, weighed, and measured. Table III. shows the produce of each of the four acres under experiment. The quality of the Rotation wheat was rather better on plot 1 (seeds -fed-off by sheep, which consumed decorticated cotton- cake) and on plot 2 (seeds fed-off by sheep, having maize- meal as additional food) than on plots 3 and 4, top-dressed in spring with nitrate of soda. Table III. — Produce of Wheat (Rotation No. 1), in 1882, after Seeds fed on the Land in 1881. Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 225 *55 Cl 2 is & C* O • 2 tl* o C5 CO CO CO ^ s .Zi -*-> £ Q a, « o ® ® OJ t> o BO ^ H *•$ II YOL. XIX. — S. S. 226 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. The wheat on plot 1, it will be seen, weighed 6T3 lbs- per bushel, and on plot 2 nearly 61 lbs., whereas on the two plots top-dressed with nitrate of soda it weighed 1 lb. less per bushel. On the whole, the quality of the wheat was superior to that in the Rotation Experiments of the preceding year. On the other hand, the yield of corn was considerably less last season on all the four acres than in 1881, when from 14 to 19 bushels more wheat were grown than last season. The nitrate of soda on plot 3 appears to have done more harm than good, for the yield of dressed wheat on that plot was less than on any of the remaining three acres. On all the four acres the quantity of straw reaped was much greater last season than in 1881. Thus plot 1, which in round numbers produced 14 bushels less head-wheat than the corre- sponding plot in No. 4 Rotation the preceding year, grew 8 cwts. 3 qrs. and 20 lbs. more straw than plot 1 in the Rota- tion wheat in 1881. On all the four acres more straw was grown in 1882 than on the four acres of the Rotation wheat of 1881. Rotation No. 2. — Four acres: 1877, mangolds; 1878, barley;. 1879, seeds ; 1880, wheat ; 1881, mangolds ; barley, 1882. Barley, 1882. — The mangolds grown in 1881 were fed-off on the field in spring ; the land was ploughed in the beginning of April, and the barley drilled in on the 22nd of April, 1882. White Dutch clover was sown between the barley in May, no manure was applied to plots 1, 2, and 4. On plot 3 the barley was top-dressed on the 13th of June with 124 lbs. of nitrate of soda, containing one-third as much nitrogen as the manure from 1000 lbs. of decorticated cotton-cake. With the exception of a small piece of the barley field fed-off last by the sheep, where the barley, owing to the treading of the sheep in wet weather, was backward, the rest of the field grew a splendid crop of barley. The barley was cut on the 11th of September and carted in good condition, and stacked on the 15tli of September. It was threshed out in the field on the 27th of October, and j the corn, after having been stored in the granary, was winnowed, measured, and weighed on the 23rd of November. The results of the harvest are shown in Table IV. It will be seen that by far the best crop was obtained on the cotton-cake plot, No. 1. This plot produced 47*6 bushels of dressed head-corn, weighing nearly 52 lbs. per bushel, and 1 ton 14 cwts. and 24 lbs. of straw ; whilst the maize plot, No. 2, yielded 44'5 bushels of head-corn and 1 ton 13 cwts. 3 qrs. and 27 lbs. of straw, or about 3 bushels less head-corn than the cotton-cake Table IV— Produce of Barley (Rotation No. 2), in 1882, after Mangolds fed on the Land. Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 227 228 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. plot. Nearly the same weight of corn and straw as on the maize plot was grown on the unmanured plot 4, upon which the clover had been fed-off by sheep which received neither maize nor decorticated cotton-cake as additional food. The top-dressing of nitrate of soda on plot 3 appears to have done some harm to the barley, for more straw was grown on that plot than on any other of the four acres of the Rotation barley. On this plot the produce of head-corn was 42'6 bushels, or 5 bushels less than on the cotton-cake plot 1, and that of straw was 1 ton 16 cwts. 1 qr. and 4 lbs., or 2 cwts. and 8 lbs. more than on plot 1. On the whole, the Rotation barley-crop in 1882 was fully as good as in the preceding year. Rotation No. 3. — 1878, seeds ; 1879, wheat ; 1880, man- golds ; 1881, barley. Seeds, 1882. — The clover — white Dutch — was fed-off by sheep in the course of the growing season. On one acre, 672 lbs. of decorticated cotton-cake were consumed ; on the second acre, 728 lbs. of maize-meal ; on the third and fourth acres neither cake nor maize was given to the sheep which fed- off the clover on plots 3 and 4. Fresh water was supplied to all the sheep in the field. Forty sheep— ten on each acre — were put on the clover on the 22nd of May ; and by the 23rd of June the sheep on plot 3 had eaten down the clover, on plot 4 on the 26th of June, and plots 1 and 2 on the 28th of June. They were weighed before they were put on the Rotation clover, and again when they were taken off. The following results were obtained : — Tlots 1. 2. 3. 4. Increase In Live- weight. Fed-off by 10 sheep, each sheep receiving about * lb. decorticated cotton-cake per day ; 10 sheep on the land 37 days Fed-off by 10 sheep, each sheep receiving about j 5 lb. of maize -meal per day; 10 sheep on the} land 37 days J j Fed-off by 10 sheep, without other food ; 10 sheep) on the land 32 days J j Fed-off by 10 sheep, without other food ; 10 sheep) 1 on the land 35 days j lbs. 152 1201 1021 82* The clover was somewhat immature, and not over-abundant, when the sheep were put upon it for the first time. This explains the greater increase of live-weight of the sheep which consumed cake or corn as additional food. The sheep which received decorticated cotton-cake made the largest increase in live-weight, and on plot 4 they did the Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 229 worst. Forty sheep were again put on the clover on the 2nd of July, after having been weighed. They were taken off from plots 1 and 2 on the 31st of July, and from plots 3 and 4 on the 29th of July. When weighed, they gave the following results : — Increase or decrease in Live-weight. Plots. lbs. 2 (Fed-off by 10 sheep, eating about 4 lb. of decor- ' < ticated cotton-cake per sheep per day ; on land ( 29 days „ j Fed-off by 10 sheep, eating about £ lb. of maize- ( meal per day ; on land 29 days o j Fed-off by 10 sheep, without other food ; on land ' ) 27 days . j Fed-off by 10 sheep, without other food ; on land ' | 27 days J + 53 ^ + 77| } + m J - 191 When the sheep went over the clover the second time the clover was rather hard and bitter, and the sheep trod down a good deal of it, and those which received neither cake nor corn did not do well. The sheep on plot 4, it will be seen, lost weight. In the interval between the 31st of July and the 14th of September the clover had grown sufficiently to be fed-off, and had formed fairly well-ripened seed ; and as the fixed allowance of decorticated cotton-cake and maize had not been consumed, fifteen sheep were put on plot 1, sixteen on plot 2, and six on plot 3, and the same number on plot 4. All the sheep were put on the clover on the 14th of September, and taken off from plots 1 and 2 on the 6th of October, and from plots 3 and 4 on the 7th of October, and weighed, when the following results were obtained : — Plots. 2 (Fed-off by 15 sheep, receiving decorti-) I cated cotton-cake ; on land 22 days ( 2 (Fed-off by 16 sheep, consuming maize-) ( meal ; on land 22 days J 2 (Fed-off by 6 sheep, without additional) ( food ; on land 23 days J 4 (Fed-off by 6 sheep, without additional) ( food ; on land 23 days j Increase in Live weight. lbs. lbs. ozs. 1394 or 9f 0 per head* 203f or 12 11 47 or 52 or 8f 0 The following tabular statement gives a summary of the results, and shows the number of sheep fed on each acre, the quantity of purchased food consumed (if any), the number of 230 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. sheep fed in the field, the number of days they were on the land, and the total increase in live-weight produced : — Increase in Live-weight. Plots. lbs. (Fed-off by sheep, with 672 lbs. decorticated cotton- 1 1. 1 cake; 10 sheep on land 88 days, and 5 sheep > 3141 ( 22 days J 2. (Fed-off by sheep, with 728 lbs. of maize-meal;) 1 10 sheep on land 88 days, and 6 sheep 22 days J 401£ 3. (Fed-off by sheep, without other food; 10 sheep) ( on land 59 days, and 6 sheep 23 days .. .. f 1981 4. (Fed-off by sheep, without other food; 10 sheep) ( on land 62 days, and 6 sheep 22 days .. .. \ 1151 The sheep which received no other food than the white clover, on plots 3 and 4, produced an average increase of 156f lbs. per acre ; whilst with the addition of 6 cwts. of de- corticated cotton-cake, they gained 344^ lbs. in weight, or 187^ lbs. more than the former. They thus paid well for the expenditure of 6 cwts. of decorticated cotton-cake. A still more favourable result was obtained on plot 2. On this plot, by the use of 6^ cwts. of maize-meal, the sheep gained 401J lbs., and thus produced 245 lbs. more live-weight than on an average per acre without cake or corn. Last season maize made more meat than decorticated cotton- cake, and the reverse was the case in the corresponding Rotation Experiments in the preceding season. Rotation No. 4. — Four acres ; 1878, mangolds ; 1879, barley ; 1880, seeds ; 1881, wheat. Swedes, 1882. — In growing mangolds on the four Rotation acres in 1881, some difficulty was experienced in feeding-off the roots on the ground sufficiently early to get the land in fine tilth in time for sowing the succeeding barley-crop ; for it is well known that mangolds, unless perfectly ripe, scour sheep, and therefore require to be stored in covered heaps a couple of months, or longer, before they can be eaten by them on the ground with benefit. Instead of mangolds, it was considered desirable to grow Swedish turnips in 1882, as they may be fed with advantage earlier than mangolds, and enable the land to be prepared earlier than last spring for the barley-crop. The dung for the swedes was made by eight bullocks ; two of which, in addition to 1000 lbs. of mangolds and 1250 lbs. of wheat-straw chaff, consumed 1000 lbs. of decorticated cotton- cake ; two others 1000 lbs. of maize-meal as an additional food ; I Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 23 L the four remaining bullocks were fed upon mangolds and straw-chaff only. The bullocks, when put into the feeding-boxes on the 13th of December, 1881, weighed cwts. qrs. lbs. 19 2 8 — receiving decorticated cotton-cake. 20 1 5 — receiving maize-meal. 19 3 4 — no corn or cake. 19 0 24— The bullocks which were fed only upon mangolds and wheat- straw chaff finished the allotted amount of food on the 1st of February, 1882, and the bullocks which consumed decorti- cated cotton-cake or maize-meal as additional food, on the 28th of January, 1882. When taken out of the pits on these dates the bullocks weighed : cwts. qrs. lbs. 1. Two bullocks, which consumed decorticated cotton- cake as additional food 20 2 5 2. Two bullocks, which consumed maize-meal .. ..21 2 4 3. „ fed without corn or cake 19 1 3 4. „ „ 19 0 21 The first lot gained 109 lbs. in live-weight ; the second lot, 139 lbs. ; the third lost 57 lbs. ; and the fourth lost 3 lbs. All the bullocks, before they were put into the feeding-boxes, were fed upon some corn and cake ; and when the concentrated food was withheld from four of the bullocks, they went back a good deal at first, as they did not take kindly at once to the plainer food ; but gradually they came round, towards the con- clusion of the experiment, and if they had been kept longer in the feeding-boxes they probably would have maintained better their original weight. The dung was turned over once, and kept under cover until the 20th of February, 1882, when it was carted on the field in a rotten condition, and subsequently ploughed in. The mineral manures were applied on the 8th of June, on which date the swedes were sown. The nitrate of soda on plots 3 and 4 was sown by hand round the swedes on the 26th of July, after they had been singled out and had made some progress in growth and had begun to bulb. The roots were taken up in the second week of December, 1881, topped and tailed, and the whole produce of the four acres (bulbs and tops), was weighed, when the results shown in Table V. were obtained : — 1. Two bullocks 9 3. 4. 232 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. Table V. — Pbodece or Swedes, 1882 (Rotation, No. 1), afteb Wheat. Plots of One Acre. i With dung, made from 1350 lbs. straw as litter; 5000 lbs. mangolds; 1250 1 lbs. wheat-straw chaff, and 1000 lbs. i decorticated cotton-cake ' 2 1 With dung, made from 1350 lhs. straw ) as litter ; 5000 lbs. mangolds ; 1250 1 j lbs. wheat-straw chaff, and 1000 lbs. | [ of maize-meal ' Pbodcce pee Acre. Boots. Leaves. tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. 17 624 24123 17 127 240 3 3 With dung, made from 1350 lbs. straw') as litter; 5000 lbs. mangolds; 1250 lbs. wheat-straw chaff; and artifi- cial manure, containing two-thirds as much nitrogen, and the other constituents, of the manure from I 1000 lbs. decorticated cotton-cake ; ’ namely, 248 lbs. nitrate of soda, 100 lbs. of bone-ash (made into superphosphate), 624 lbs. sulphate of potash and 65 lbs. sulphate of mag- , nesia 19 13 1 7 2 9 0 3 4 With dung, made from 1350 lbs. straw') as litter ; 5000 lbs. mangolds ; 1250 lbs. wheat-straw chaff; and artificial manure, containing as much nitro- 1 gen, and other constituents, as the manure from 1000 lbs. maize-meal ;f namely, 80 lbs. nitrate of soda, 16J lbs. bone-ash (made into superphos- phate), 7 lbs. sulphate of potash, and ( 11 lbs. sulphate of magnesia .. ..J 18 3 6 2 6 0 18 A glance at this tabular statement shows that the heaviest crop was obtained on plot 3, manured with mineral manures equivalent to the mineral fertilising constituents in 1000 lbs. of decorticated cotton-cake, and two-thirds of the nitrogen in that quantity of cake. The next best crop of swedes was grown on plot 4, manured with the same amount of minerals and nitrogen contained in 1000 lbs. of maize-meal. On the acre (plot 1) manured with cottoncake-dung, 16 cwts. 2 qrs. and 20 lbs. less roots than on plot 3 were obtained, or 2 tons 6 cwts. 2 qrs. and 21 lbs. less than on plot 3, manured with the larger quantity of minerals and nitrate of soda. Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 233 The maize-dung on plot 2 produced 5 cwts. and 7 lbs. less roots than the cottoncake-dung. Experiments on Barley in Lansome Field. In 1881 experiments were instituted on 4 acres of this field on Swedish turnips grown with soluble and finely ground phos- phatic fertilisers. The following table shows the plan of manuring that was adopted on Lansome-field : — Woburn Root Experiments iu 1881 iu Lansome Field, Crop Swedish Turnips (Gibbs’ Selected Purple-top), each Plot J of an Acre, separated from the rest by paths 24 feet in width. The swedes were fed-off on the land by sheep, with the addition of an equal quantity of cake and corn on each of the ^-acre plots, at the rate of 4 cwts. of barley-meal and 2 cwts of decor- ticated cotton-cake per acre. After ploughing-up the land, weeding, and harrowing, it was in good condition for barley, which was sown on the 5th of May, 1882. The barley came up on the 11th of May, and sub- sequently there was a strong and even plant on all the plots of 234 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. Lansome-field. Towards the end of July the barley looked remarkably healthy and strong, and no appreciable difference could be detected by inspection of the several experimental plots. The barley was cut on the 5th and 6th of September, and carted and stacked in good condition on the 12th and 13th of September, 1882. It was threshed out on the 14th of November ; the straw and chaff were weighed at the time of threshing on the field, and the corn was placed in properly labelled bags in the granary until the 24th of November, when it was winnowed, weighed, and measured, and the following results were ob- tained : — Produce of Barley in Lansome Field in 1882, after Swedes fed-off with Cake and Corn in 1881. Plots i Acre each. Manures used for Swedes. Weight of Barley. Number of Bushels. Weight per Bushel. Straw. Tons. cwts. qrs lbs. lbs. Tons. cwts. qrs lbs. 1 A. ) ( 0 18 1 19 39 53-9 1 8 1 8 1 B. }No Manure .. < 1 5 1 18 52-6 54-1 2 4 2 1 Mean 1 i 1 1 3 18'5 45-8 54 1 16 1 18-5 2 a. 15 cwt. Ground! 1 9 1 6 59-8 54-8 1 17 1 13 2 B. > Coprolites, cost] 1 7 2 2 58-9 53-3 2 10 3 7 Mean ) 1Z. per acre ( 1 8 1 18 59-3 54 2 , 4 0 10 3 A. 15 cwt. Dissolved! 1 2 3 25 47-5 54-1 1 16 2 26 3 B. > Coprolites, cost! 1 6 1 6 55-0 53-5 2 7 0 20 Mean ) 1Z. per acre .. ( 1 4 2 10-5 51-2 53-8 2 1 3 23 4 A. 15 cwt. Redondal 1 4 0 12 50-2 53-8 1 17 3 17 4 B. > Phosphate, cost] 1 5 3 18 53-2 53-6 2 5 O 19 Mean ) 17s. 6d. per acre) 1 5 0 1 51-7 53-7 2 1 3 18 5 A. 1 4 cwt. Precipitated 1 0 18 0 2 37 54-6 1 15 1 26 5 B. i Phosphate, cost] 1 1 0 6 44 53-5 1 15 1 5 Mean ) 1Z. per acre .. | 0 19 2 4 40-5 54 1 15 1 15‘5 6 A. J 3 cwt. Bone Meal, 1 1 4 0 6 49-5 54-4 1 15 0 18 6 B. > cost 22s. 6 cl. per] 1 3 3 4 50-3 52-9 1 18 3 24 Mean j 1 3 3 19 49-9 53-7 1 17 0 7 7 A. 13 cwt. Dissolved! ! 1 2 0 23 46-3 53-7 1 14 1 13 7 B. \ Bones, cost] 1 4 2 26 51-9 53-9 2 3 0 17 Mean ) 19s. 6(Z. per acre) t3 cwt. Dissolved'! 1 3 1 24 -5 49-1 53-8 1 18 3 1 8 A. 1 Coprolites and 1 2 2 7 476 53-0 1 15 2 20 8 B. ] 2 J cwt. of Peru- i 1 6 2 17 55-0 54-2 2 1 1 14 Mean J vian Guauo.cost l 43s. 3xide of iron Alumina Carbonate of lime .. Magnesia f Nitrate of potash JChloride of sodium . . Potash Soda Sulphuric acid Phosphoric acid Insoluble silicious matter • to 2-44 4-48 4-54 2-58 1-50 •17 •04 •81 •58 traces •19 81-92 100-00 * Containing nitrogen *09 Equal to ammonia 'll t Containing nitric acid '09 I Containing chlorine ’02 Mincinl matter soluble in water .. 49 Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1882. 237 The soil readily yielded to cold water \ per cent, of soluble saline mineral matters, consisting of carbonate of soda and potash, chloride of sodium and nitrate of potash. Besides soluble mineral matter, this soil contained f per cent, of organic matter, soluble in water, which gave a brownish colour to its watery extract. No doubt the free alkalies or alkaline carbonates act upon the organic matter, and produce alkaline humates or ulmates, which have a brown colour, and are soluble in water. The proportion of phosphoric acid in the soil is fully equal to the average proportion in good soils ; and the soil contains abundance of carbonate of lime and, in fact, of all elements of plant-food to meet the requirements of cultivated crops. Its sterility thus is not due to deficiency of plant-food or to the presence of a constituent inimical to vegetation, but to the excess of soluble saline constituents, some of which, in a highly dilute condition, are valuable fertilisers. There is rno other plan of reclaiming such sterile soils than to inundate them periodically with fresh water, and gradually to wash out by this means the excess of soluble saline matter. Unfortunately, in places where soils similar in character to this Californian soil occur, a good supply of fresh water cannot be obtained, or the position of the land does not permit of its being irrigated and thoroughly well-drained. Ensilage. — Mr. Gibson, of Saffron-Walden, recently sent me a sample of green rye, which had been preserved successfully by him in silos. It had the following composition : — Moisture 72-50 Lactic acid • 80 * Albuminous compounds 1 • 99 Mucilage, extractive matter, &c 12 • 86 Woody fibre (cellulose) 9 -72 Mineral matter (ash) 2 -13 100-00 * Containing nitrogen -31 Cattle and sheep greedily eat the green food preserved by ensilage, and, judging from all accounts, appear to do well on it. Milch cows, more especially, seem to like ensilaged green food, and to produce abundance of milk. The sample sent to me by Mr. Gibson was well made and free from all mouldiness, which is apt to make its appearance in badly preserved green food. It will be seen that the sample of ensilaged rye contained 72J per cent, of moisture and 27^ per cent, of dry matter. In all other specimens that have been sent to me at various 238 Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1882. times, and which were more or less spoiled, and some rendered quite unfit for feeding purposes, I found the proportion of moisture much higher than in well-preserved green food. Ac- cording to my experience, green food cannot be well preserved in silo, when the proportion of water in it much exceeds 80 per cent. Very succulent and watery green food often contains from 85 to 90 per cent, of water. Such food must be cut in ^-inch or 1-inch bits, and then be intimately mixed with straw-chaff, varying from 10 to 30 per cent, according to the degree of succulence of the green food which has to be placed into the silos. This is an important element in preserving green food by ensilage. If green rye or oats are allow ed to remain in the field until the grain is fully formed, but the kernel is still milky, the proportion of moisture to dry matter in the green rye or oats will not be so large as in green maize or sewage- grass, and the crop will not require the admixture of straw* chaff or similar dry substance. Ordinary grass-crops, or tares and vetches intended for ensilage,* must either be partially made into hay, or, when cut quite green, must be mixed with straw-chaff, or be allowed to become somewhat woody before being put into silos. Another element in successfully preparing green food by ensilage is the exclusion of air from the compressed food. In pressing green food, a moderate pressure may be applied at first, but, as the partially-compressed green food settles dowm, the pressure should be increased. Green food, when well made in silos, has always a more or less acid taste. This is due to the change of a portion of the sugar of the food into lactic acid, an acid which is a good preserver of perishable articles of food, and which also is useful as contributing to the digestibility of coarse vegetable food. Properly ensilaged, green food does not enter into violent fer- mentation, and the compressed food in the silos does not heat to any considerable extent, nor throw off visibly carbonic acid gas, nor lose much in substance by fermentation. * I think it may be useful to draw attention to the fact that the word “ ensilage ” is now used in at least two distinct senses, especially by American farmers. In Europe, when ensilage is spoken of, most people understand that the process or system is referred to : but in America, and in American writings, the word is quite as often used to designate the result of the system as applied to green maize. If a question arose as to any other substance having been preserved in silos, the name of that substance would be prefixed, e.g., Eye-ensilage, Tri- folium-ensilage, &c. This is equivalent to our practice in speaking of bread, by which we mean wheaten bread, or, more correctly, bread made with ordinary wheat-flour. In other cases we should say, rye-bread, whole-meal bread, &c. — Edit. Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1882. 239 Ensilage, probably, may be practised with advantage in localities such as the Highlands of Scotland, where the climate is too cold and wet to allow good hay to he made, and where corn-crops often do not ripen properly. Oats or rye, cut still green and put into silos, in such places would furnish good and wholesome food for stock at times when such food is most wanted. In most localities in England, ensilage is not likely to become a general practice as in some parts of Germany, France, and America. Locust-beans. — The pods of locust-beans contain, as is well known, a high percentage of sugar, but comparatively little albumen or similar nitrogenous matter. Composition of Locust-Beans. Pods and Seeds. Seeds only. Moisture 14-73 14-11 Oil 62 203 ♦Albuminous compounds 5-62 16-94 Sugar 40-01 Woody fibre 5-27 8-81 Mucilage and digestible fibre 30-99 54-50 Ash 2-76 3-61 100-00 100-00 ♦Containing nitrogen •90 2-71 Locust bean-meal is an excellent condimental food, and useful in imparting to straw chaff, or other coarse and unpalatable food, a sweet taste and slightly aromatic smell. Although the pods of locust-beans possess high fattening properties, it would be a mistake to give locust-meal, like bean- or barley-meal, in considerable quantities to fattening beasts or sheep, for the extremely sweet taste of locust-meal makes fattening stock rather too particular in their choice of food, and prevents their eating as much of less palatable but equally nutritious food as it is desirable they should consume. The seeds in the locust-bean pods do not contain any ap- preciable amount of sugar, but a good deal of albuminous matter and mucilage. They are very hard, and swell up in water to a great size ; and when ground into meal, they are far more digestible and nutritious than their hard condition would appear to warrant. Alfala Clover-IIay. — A species of clover-hay has been brought 240 Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1882. under my notice which I have not seen before, under the name of Alfala clover-hay. It had the following composition : — Moisture 12 ’60 Oil and chlorophyl 2 ‘74 * Albuminous compounds 8 ’94 Sugar, gum, &c 5-07 Crude fibre 62 *26 Mineral matter 8'39 100*00 * Containing nitrogen ; 1-43 This rather coarse hay contained a large proportion of crude fibre, and was not equal in nutritive qualities to ordinary good clover-hay. Dari-seed and Millet. — Dari-seed is a species of sorghum, and, like millet-seed, is rich in starch and comparatively poor in albuminoids. A sample of dari-meal and two samples of millet recently analysed by me gave the following results : — Dari-seed. Millet. Crushed. Whole. Moisture Oil * Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming) matters) / Starch, sugar, and digestible fibre "W oody fibre (cellulose) Mineral matter (ash) 12-55 2-93 10-31 70-43 1- 63 2- 15 12-85 3-91 11-25 60-25 7-73 401 13-19 3-83 9-56 57-06 12-51 3-85 100-00 100 00 100-00 * Containing nitrogen 1-65 1-80 1-53 At the present time millet is about 24 per cent, cheaper than oats, weight for weight, and hence the sender of the millet was desirous of obtaining an opinion of the comparative feeding value of good oats and millet. Both dari-meal and millet, it will be seen from the preceding analyses, are rich in starch, but too poor in albuminous or nitrogenous constituents to suit hard-working horses. Millet and dari-meal are better foods for fattening bullocks or for poultry than for working horses, and are decidedly inferior to Indian corn or oats as a food for horses. It is difficult to estimate accurately the comparative value of millet and oats. As far as I can judge, oats of good quality are worth probably 25 per cent. Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1882. 241 more than millet of the quality of the samples recently analysed by me. One of the best meals to mix with dari-meal or millet is bean-meal. Beans contain from 24 to 26 per cent, of albuminous compounds, and are therefore well adapted for supplying the deficiency of these compounds in dari or millet. The quality of dari-seed varies a good deal. Middlings, Sharps, and Bran. — As they may be useful for re- ference, I give recent analyses of these feeding materials : — Middlings. Sharps. Bran. Moisture 12-55 12 80 14-55 Oil 3-46 3 90 313 * Albuminous compounds 14-68 14 62 13 87 Starch, gum, and digestible fibre Woody fibre (cellulose) 61-63 54 61 51-09 4-73 9 22 9-01 Mineral matter (ash) 2-95 4 85 5-35 • 100-00 o o 00 100-00 * Containing nitrogen 2-35 2 34 2-22 As a rule, middlings contain more starch than sharps or bran, and are better food for fattening purposes. The percentage of ash in bran is usually greater than in mid- dlings or sharps ; and it is distinguished from the ash of barley or oats by a much greater amount of alkaline phosphates, which probably is one of the reasons why bran is a very useful addi- tion to the food of milch cows, for I need hardly say that milk is rich in phosphatic constituents. Composition af a Sample of Malt-Combs. Moisture 11 '54 Oil 1-60 *Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) 26 • 81 Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . . . . 46 • 35 Woody fibre (cellulose) 8 '36 fMineral matter (asb) 5 • 34 100 -oc * Containing nitrogen 4 • 29 t Containing sand • 54 Malt-combs are an excellent and readily digestible food for ewes and for lambs. They may also be given with much advantage to milking-cows. About 2 lbs. of malt-combs added VOL. XIX. — S. S. R 242 Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1882. to the food upon which milch cows are fed has been found to increase perceptibly the yield of milk. The manuring properties of malt-combs are fully equal to those of linseed-cake of fair average composition. Home-made Malt. — A sample of home-made malt sent by a Member of the Royal Agricultural Society had the following composition : — Moisture 8*15 Oil 1-67 Glucose 1 • 88 "Starch and dextrin 70 "87 * Albuminous compounds 9 " 81 Woody fibre (cellulose) 5 "07 Mineral matters (ash) 2 • 55 100-00 * Containing nitrogen 1 • 57 Russian Linseed-cake. — Good linseed-cake on an average contains from 26 to 28 per cent, of albuminous compounds. In Baltic linseed-cake the proportion of these compounds usually is higher than in cake made from East India linseed ; and 30 to 33 per cent, of albuminous compounds is not an exceptional percentage in cake made from St. Petersburg or Riga linseed. The highest proportion which I ever found in linseed-cake amounted to 36"62 per cent., and occurred in a sample of Russian linseed-cake which had the following composition : — Moisture 11*13 Oil 10"73 * Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) .. 36 "62 Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre 28 "22 Woody fibre (cellulose) 7 "91 Mineral matter (ash) 5*39 100*00 * Containing nitrogen 5 -86 This was a pure linseed-cake, remarkably rich in albuminous compounds, and contained a full average percentage of oil. It was sold at 11. 15s. per ton, free on rail in London. Poisoning by White-Lead Paint. — A gentleman who lost several yearling calves sent me a white pasty substance, about 1J lb. of which was found in the stomach of two yearlings. The examination of this material showed that it was white- lead paint. Animals appear to be fond of oil-paint, which con- tains lead, for poisoning cases with lead paints have frequently been brought under my notice. Attention is therefore directed Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1882. 243 to the danger of leaving about in places accessible to stock white-lead and other paints which often contain lead. Fish Guano. — Under the name of marine guano, dried and pulverised fish-refuse has been imported from abroad of late in considerable quantities. Dried fish or marine guano has given much satisfaction to farmers who applied it to cabbages, mangolds, autumn-sown wheat, and all crops for which Peruvian guano is used with advantage as a manure. Marine guano varies considerably, as will be seen by the sub- joined analyses, and should always be bought under a guarantee stating the price per unit of ammonia and of phosphate of lime. During the past season it has been sold at about 16s. per unit per cent, of ammonia, and Is. Gd. to 2s. per unit per cent, of phosphate of lime. (F LSH GUAN'O). Polar Fish Guano. 169 326 382 753 762 Moisture 9-30 8-60 7-80 6-31 9-44 ‘Organic matter 62-35 54.70 58-30 ■ 53-19 62-31 Phosphate of lime 23 55 30-61 28-79 31-58 23-65 Alkaline salts 3-71 4-08 3-56 5-81 4-31 Insoluble silica 1-09 2-01 1*55 311 *29 100*00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 * Containing nitrogen 710 5 " 76 5-93 6-94 8*43 Equal to ammonia 8-62 6-99 7-20 8-43 10-24 Bats' Guano. — The following analysis represents the compo- sition of bats’ guano of the best quality : — Moisture 13*80 ‘Organic matter and ammoniacal salts .. .. 74*66 (Including nitric nitrogen *67) Phosphate of lime 4*43 t Alkaline salts 6*17 Insoluble siliceous matter * 94 100*00 * Containing nitrogen (total) .. .. 9-97 Equal to ammonia 12 "09 t Containing phosphoric acid . . . . 2*38 Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime . . 5*19 Total percentage of phosphoric acid .. 4 ’41 Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime .. 9*62 R 2 244 Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1882. Bats’ guano varies much in composition, and consequently may be Worth 11/. to 12/. a ton, or only 5/. to 6/. a ton. The sample to which the preceding analysis refers would not be dear at 11/. a ton ; for it is a manure which is rich in ready- formed ammonia and nitrogenous organic matter, which are readily decomposed in the soil. In addition to the nitrogenous organic matters and salts of ammonia, capable of yielding together 12 per cent, of ammonia, this bats’-dung contains some nitrate of potash and soda, and an amount of soluble phosphoric acid in combination with alkalies, corresponding to 5 per cent, of soluble phosphate of lime in round numbers. It is altogether a high-class artificial manure. Unfortunately the supply of good bats’ guano is very limited. Nitrogenous Refuse Manures. — During the past twelve months the importation of high-class Peruvian guanos, rich in ammonia, has greatly decreased in comparison with the imports of former years. The price of high ammoniacal guano has lately risen from 25 to 30 per cent. Sulphate of ammonia, which at present is worth about 20/. per ton, is likely to advance in price in spring. Nitrate of soda cannot be used with advantage for certain crops, such as hops, and upon soils upon which more slowly acting nitrogenous manures appear to have better effect. It may therefore be of interest to notice the percentage of nitrogen in some refuse manures, the fertilising value of which mainly, if not entirely, depends upon the amount of ammonia which they are capable of yielding on decomposition in the soil. Besides wool-refuse or shoddy, several samples of skin, hair, feather, and leather-refuse, flock-dust, and dried blood, have been sent for analysis, and the following results have been obtained: — Nitrogen equal to Ammonia. Skin-waste 5 67 = 6-88 Leather-dust (white) 3 GG = 4-58 Leather waste (blue) 01 = 8-51 Flock-dust G2 = 9-25 Feather waste G 31 = 7-69 Dried blood 10 99 = 13 = 33 Both the samples of leather-waste were not ordinary tanned leather-waste, but leather prepared without the use of oak- bark, or a tanning material containing tannic and gallic acids. Ordinary leather-wraste has but little or no value as a manure, for the combination of tannic acid with skin, which constitutes common shoe-leather, resists the combined decomposing action of moisture and air in the soil, in a remarkable degree. 1 have kept leather powder even dissolved in a solution of caustic Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1882. 245 potash for years without eliminating from it appreciable quan- tities of ammonia, and have never been able to notice any beneficial effect upon grass-land upon which leather-waste had been applied in large quantities. In buying leather-waste, it is of importance to ascertain beforehand whether the refuse is really untanned skin-waste, which is readily decomposed, or common tanned leather-refuse, which has no material value as a manure. Peat- moss Fibre. — Attention is directed to the nature of peat- fibre as a substitute of straw as litter. A short time ago a gentleman sent me for analysis a sample of peat-fibre, and requested an opinion as to its adaptability for litter in the place of straw, also its manurial value and power of absorbing water as compared with straw. He likewise wished to know whether the peat-fibre was likely to be injurious in any way to animals lying upon it, and whether the manure produced by its use might injure the crops to which it is applied. The peat-fibre, a part of which was light brown and another deeper brown-coloured, and very voluminous, had the following composition : — Moisture 12 ‘80 ‘Organic matter 85 • 1 3 Mineral matter (ash) 2 • 07 100-00 * Containing nitrogen -61 Equal to ammonia -74 Peat-fibre absorbs water to a much larger extent than straw, and possesses the additional advantage of being an excellent fixer of ammonia, in virtue of the humic acids occurring in the peat. Stables and cowsheds in which peat-fibre is used as litter are sweeter than those in which straw is used for the same purpose. Peat-fibre, in my judgment, is not injurious to horses or horned cattle that lie upon it, nor do I think that the manure made by its employment can possibly injure the crops to which it is applied. The direct manurial properties of peat-fibre are insignificant, but, as just stated, it is an excellent material for absorbing the urine, and for absorbing and retaining the most valuable constituents of the liquid and solid excrements of cattle or horses. A Member of the Royal Agricultural Society, who for some time past has used peat-fibre as a substitute for straw, informs me that 1 ton of peat-fibre is equal to nearly 2 tons of straw as litter, and consequently its use effects a considerable saving in 246 Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1882. the cost of making clung in places where straw cannot he pro- duced in sufficient quantities, or where the straw can be sold at a good price. A sample of stable-dung, in the production of which German peat-fibre had been used, had the following composition : — Moisture 70 ‘90 “"Organic matter 25 ’50 Phosphate of lime *76 Alkaline salts, &c 1 • 15 Insoluble siliceous matter 1 • 69 100-00 * Containing nitrogen • 5G Equal to ammonia ✓ • 68 This dung was equal in value to good rotten farmyard- manure. The ‘Journal ’ of the Society for 1882 contains the following contributions of mine : — 1. Annual Report for 1881. 2. Quarterly Reports to Chemical Committee. 3. Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments conducted at Woburn during the year 1881. 4. Field Experiments on Swedish Turnips with soluble and finely ground Phosphatic Fertilizers. 5. Experiments in Warren Field, Crawley-Mill Farm, Wo- burn, on the Manurial value of various Phosphatic Fertilizers. The wheat-crops in the Rotation Experiments at Woburn yielded from 5 to 5^ quarters of good wheat, weighing about 61 lbs. per bushel, and 2\ to 2f tons of straw. The yield of corn in 1882 was less by about 14 bushels per acre than in the preceding year, and on the other hand, the Rotation wheat produced from 8 to 11 cwts. more straw in 1882 than in 1881. The Rotation Barley Field in 1882 yielded as well as in the preceding year, and gave rather a better sample of barley, weighing 2 lbs. more per bushel than in 1881. The best and largest produce in barley was obtained on the acre manured in previous years with dung made by feeding sheep or bullocks with decorticated cotton-cake. In Warren Field the clover, which promised well in the autumn and the early part of winter, suffered greatly from continuous rains, and the imperfectly drained state of the field. The field, moreover, was very foul, and the mild winter and plentiful rain in spring encouraged the growth of surface weeds Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1882. 217 to such an extent, that the clover crop was spoiled more or less on the several plots. Warren Field has been thoroughly drained during the past autumn, and been much improved thereby. The Roots (swedes) in the Rotation Experiments at Woburn were a fine, $ven, and in all respects satisfactory crop. The experimental barley in Lansome Field yielded on an average about 6 quarters per acre of good barley, weighing from 53J to 54 lbs. per bushel, and about 2 tons of straw. In the course of the year I paid twelve visits to the Experi- mental fields at Crawley-Mill Farm. Analyses made for Members of the Royal Agricultural Society from 1st December, 1881, to 1st December, 1882. Feeding-cakes 423 Superphosphates, dissolved hones, and compound) qg<> manures J Guanos 96 Soils 73 Waters 72 Bones 68 ^Nitrate of soda 36 Limestones, chalk, and minerals 35 Refuse manures 32 Feeding-meals 29 Wool-dust and shoddy 24 Manure rape-cake 22 Kainite 18 Fish guano 16 Corn, hay, malt-dust 11 Soot 12 Sulphate of ammonia 10 Milk, cheese, butter 10 Compound feeding-cakes 6 Poisons 5 Dried blood 4 Sewage manures 4 Cattle spices 4 Miscellaneous samples 11 Total 1403 ( 248 ) X. — Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1882. * March, 1882. 1. Mr. Grosvenor Hodgkinson, Balderton, Newark-upon- Trent, sent a sample of manure, described as dissolved bones, which on analysis was found to have the following composi- tion : — Moisture 16 ’95 •Organic matter 28 • 20 Phosphate of lime 7*35 Carbonate of lime, oxide of iron and alumina,) 44.. oq common salt, &c. j Insoluble siliceous matter 3*30 100-00 * Containing nitrogen 1-53 Equal to ammonia 1-86 This manure, it will be seen, contained no soluble phosphate of lime, and only 7 -3- per cent, of insoluble phosphate of lime, and consequently cannot properly be called dissolved bones. It contained much carbonate of lime, common salt, and organic refuse matters, and was scarcely worth 21. 10s. per ton. The manure was offered for sale as Pure Dissolved Bones at GZ. 15s. per ton, but in consequence of the preceding unsatis- factory analysis, no order was given. 2. Mr. M. Savidge, Sarsden Lodge Farm, Chipping Norton, sent for analysis half a cotton-cake, marked “ pure,” taken from a lot of two tons, and informed Dr. Voelcker at the same time that his cattle, which had been eating cotton-cake with roots all the winter, from some cause or other, refused to eat the cake from the two ton lot, a sample of which was sent for analysis. This cake contained in 100 parts — Moisture 11-40 Oil 4'07 •Albuminous compounds 19*31 Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre .. .. 29"33 Woody fibre (cellulose) 19 "87 Phosphate of lime and magnesia 3*50 Carbonate of lime 3 ’71 Sulphate of lime 4 -87 Alkaline salts, &c 1"93 Insoluble siliceous matter 2 "01 100-00 * Containing nitrogen 3-09 These results show that the cake is poorer in oil and albuminous compounds than good undecorticated cotton-cake, Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee , 1882. 249 and that it is not a pure cake, inasmuch as it is mixed with carbonate of lime and sulphate of lime (gypsum). Altogether the cake contained about 10 per cent, more mineral matter than occurs in pure undecorticated cotton-cake. In reply to the usual inquiries, Mr. Savidge informed Dr. Voelcker on February 27th, that he bought the cotton-cake last November, from an agent at Banbury, at 6Z. 5s. per ton, delivered at Chipping Norton Junction, that he made a claim of 4 1. upon the two tons (which has been allowed), and that he would endeavour to obtain the name of the manufacturer and further particulars as soon as possible. June, 1882. Dr. Voelcker reported the following cases : — 1. Mr. Henry Cook, Sussex Farm, Deepdale, Lynn, ordered 40 to 50 tons of Black Sea rape-cake at 51. 2s. 3d. from agents, who bought the cake from manufacturers in Hull. Each cake, Mr. Cook informed me, had “ pure ” branded on one side, but as he did not like the appearance of the cake, he sent me a sample for analysis, and took only 10 tons of it. The following is the composition of the sample sent by Mr. Cook : — Moisture 10*01 •Organic matter 66 '21 Phosphate of lime and magnesia 4 • 24 Alkaline salts, containing phosphoric acid '66 2 • 96 Insoluble siliceous matter (sand) 16*58 100*00 * Containing nitrogen 3*37 Equal to ammonia 4*09 Besides rape, the cake contained apparently a large propor- tion of small weed seeds, the siftings of oily seeds, and dirt and sand. In my judgment the cake was very dear at 51. 2s. 6c?. per ton, for I would not give 31. 3s. for it. 2. The following is the composition of a sample of Manure Rape-cake, sent to me by Mr. H. Sheringham, South Creake, Fakenham, Norfolk. Moisture 8*11 •Organic matter 52*14 Phosphate of lime and magnesia 3*35 Carbonate of lime 4*25 Insoluble siliceous matter 32*15 100*00 • Containing nitrogen 2*74 Equal to ammonia 3 32 250 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee , 1882. The cake was greatly adulterated with sand and earthy matters, and in my judgment was not worth more than about 3s. 3s. per ton. On the 22nd of May, 1882, Mr. Sheringham wrote : — “Dear Sir, — I received your analysis of the rape-cake on Saturday. I am glad to say I have not bought any of the cake, as I waited for your report before doing so, and have now laid it before the merchant of whom I obtained the sample ; he is very much annoyed that the cake should be so different from what it was represented to him to be, and he is in communication with the manufacturers about it. The merchant brought the cake at 4 1. 15s. in Hull, and it is branded pure. — Yours faithfully. “ H. Y. Sheringham.” Subsequently Mr. Sheringham sent me another sample of rape-cake, accompanied by the following letter : — “ S. Creake, Fakenliam, May 26th, 1882. “ Dear Sir, — A copy of the analysis I sent to the crushers of the manure rape-cake, and they have requested a cake to be sent to the Hull borough analyst, before they will acknowledge anything wrong. This was sent yesterday, but a portion of the same cake I reserved, and have forwarded it on by rail to-day to your address. I should feel more satisfied to have your report on the same cake, to stand against theirs. The merchant that sold me the cakes is determined to have justice done, and is on the point of taking legal steps in the matter. — I am, sir, yours respectfully. “ H. Y. Sheringham. “ Dr. Yoelcker.” On analysis of the second sample, the following results were obtained : — Moisture 8 • 55 * Organic mat ter 64 '35 Phosphate of lime 2*85 Carbonate of lime, &c 4 '90 Insoluble siliceous matter (sand) 19 ’35 100-00 * Containing nitrogen 3-24 Equal to ammonia 3-93 The second sample, it will be seen, was not so bad as the first, still it is far from being a pure rape-cake. Mr. Sheringham informs me that he ordered 5 tons of Black Sea rape-cake, at hi. 10s. per ton, on the 10th of May, 1882, from an agent who bought the cake from the manufacturers in Hull. The vessel was loaded at Hull, and the cakes were branded “ Pure ” (with the manufacturers’ initials). After receipt of analysis, Mr. Sheringham complained to the vendor, who forwarded the complaint to the manufacturer, and the result was that the agent obtained redress at 20s. per ton, which he returned to all purchasers of the cargo of cakes. Had these cakes been made from pure seed, the analysis Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee , 1882; 251 would in all probability have been identical ; but in cases where an admixture of sand, weed-seeds, or siftings have been allowed, there may be great variations in the quality of par- ticular cakes taken from the same bulk ; as the sand, weed- siftings, &c., are seldom equally distributed throughout the whole of the make. Attention was called to the impurity of Black Sea rape-cakes in my Annual Report, 1878, vol. xv., p. 350 of the ‘ Journal.’ 3. Rape-cakes and some kinds of feeding-cakes occasionally contain so much wild mustard-seed as to become positively poisonous when eaten by stock in considerable quantities. A case in point has lately been brought under my notice by Mr. George Laing, Wark, Coldstream, who, on the 13th of April, wrote as follows : — “ Wark, Coldstream, N.B., April 13tli, 1882. “ Sir, — To-day I send you by post a sample of feeding-cake for analysis, It is called by the maker ‘ Sweet Rape-cake,’ and is said to be made of rape, locust-beans, and meal. About ten days ago I began to give some two-year- old store cattle one small feed of it per day, they getting a small feed of turnips in the morning, and as much oat-straw as they would eat. After they had had three feeds of the cake, one of them was found dead in the yard close to the water-trough, and other two were very ill, one of which died after a day’s illness, and the other got better. None of the others (there were 50 of them) seemed to be affected in any way. Each one of the three cattle that were taken ill were in different yards, and the weight of cake laid down for each beast was under 14 lbs. I expect that the three cattle must have eaten more than their share of the cake, but even if they had eaten, say 5 lbs., I don’t think they should have died from the effects if the cake is good and digestible. I shall be much obliged if you will give me a full analysis of the cake, and your opinion as to its suitability as a feeding-stuff for store cattle. I may say that since stopping giving the ‘ Sweet-Rape-cake ’ the cattle have all been perfectly healthy. — Yours faithfully,; “ Geo. Laing. “ Dr. Augustus Yoelcker, London.” On analysis, this sweet rape-cake had the following com- position : — Moisture 13 '43 Oil 5-26 * Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) 13 '31 Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre .. .. 48 '43 Woody fibre (cellulose) 14 ‘23 Mineral matter (ash) 5 • 34 100-00 * Containing nitrogen 2*13 This cake, I found, contained a good deal of wild mustard, and I have no doubt cattle eating rather much of the cake will be injuriously affected by the pungent essential oil of mustard, which is gradually developed in the intestinal canal. Judging from similar cases, I consider it highly probable that the 252 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1882. animals which Mr. Laing lost died from inflammation of the intestines. 4. A case of artificial manure of extravagant price was sub- mitted to the Committee, which is not published because the manure was not sold by analysis — but the makers, in a letter of justification, refer to their agents’ commissions as an important element in the price of the manure. The Committee feel that this question of commission to agents is one which consumers and honest manufacturers ought to set their faces against most strongly. The Committee have good reason to know that the worse the manure, the higher frequently is the commission paid, and that this is often as much as from 10 to 20 per cent, of the price of the manure. 5. A sample of manure, said by the makers to be a blood and bone manure, was sent to me by Mr. R. M. Knowles, Colston Bassett, Bingham, Notts. The manure was sold at 4 1. per ton in bags at the works. On analysis, the following results wrere obtained : — Water 29 "49 ^Organic matter 22 • 85 Phosphate of lime 2 "21 Sulphate offline 9 '81 Oxide of iron, &c 6 ‘86 Siliceous matter 28 -78 100-00 * Containing nitrogen 1-06 Equal to ammonia 1-29 This is a poor manure. I would rather have tw-o tons of good rotten dung than one ton of this stuff : I need not say, therefore, that 4 1. is a most extravagant price for this so-called blood and bone manure. On receipt of my report, Mr. Knowles wTrote to the makers, making a very strong complaint. The makers replied that there must be a mistake somewhere, and enclosed the subjoined report and analysis, which differs essentially from the results which I obtained in the analysis of the samples sent to me by Mr. Knowles. “ Gentlemen, — Below please find results of our analysis of the second sample of manure which you handed to us on the 16th inst. Moisture 20-09 *Organic matter 39 " 25 Sulphate of lime 8 'll Alkaline salts 1T3 f Mineral matter 31*39 100-00 * Containing nitrogen equal to ammonia .. 5-032 t Containing phosphoric acid S'OoO Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee , 1882. 253 “The approximate value of the manure per ton calculated from these per- centages is as follows : — £. s. d. Organic matter .. 39 25 at 10 s. per ton 19 12 6 Sulphate of lime .. 8 14 j» 30s. 99 12 4 2 Phosphoric acid . . .. 8 06 99 407. 99 322 8 0 Alkaline salts 1 14 99 27. 99 2 5 2 Ammonia .. 5 03 99 807. 99 402 8 0 £758 17 10 £7 11 9 “ This manure is very good value for 77. per ton, and should work well without either requiring the addition of superphosphate or ammonia salts.” This case clearly illustrates the propriety of buying artificial manures on the strength of a definite analytical guarantee. In many instances which have come under my notice, favourable reports and analyses are presented to buyers of inferior manures which often are not worth the cost of cartage to any distance ; and the only safeguard against imposition in buying manures is not to be led astray by unguaranteed analyses and reports, but to demand an analytical guarantee, and subsequently, on delivery of the manure, to have an analysis made which will show whether or not the dealer or manufacturer has fulfilled his part of the contract. 6. Mr. E. C. Clarke, Manor House, Haddenham, Oxon, sent me a sample of so-called shoddy, which, on analysis, was found to contain only 2-29 per cent, of nitrogen, and to contain hardly any wool-refuse ; it was full of weed-seeds, dirt, and warehouse sweepings. In reply to the usual application for vendor’s name and address, Mr. Clarke wrote : — “ The party who supplied me with the so-called shoddy will take it all back and pay carriage ; so have decided not to trouble more about it.” 7. The following is the composition of a sample of manure, wrongly called bone-dust, sent by Mr. R. Gill, Keele Estate Office, Newcastle, Staffordshire : — Moisture 24 • 61 ^Organic matter 20 ’09 l'hosphate of lime 1 ■ 94 Oxide of iron and alumina 9 ‘04 Alkaline salts and magnesia (chiefly sulphate) 10.o- of soda) j ° Sulphate of lime 16‘04 Insoluble siliceous matter 15 ‘01 * Containing nitrogen . . Equal to ammonia 100-00 1-17 1-42 254 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee , 1882. The manure which Mr. R. Gill sent me, under the name of bone-dust, is not bone-dust, but a poor refuse manure, for which I should be sorry to have to pay 30s. per ton. No further information was obtained from Mr. R. Gill. 8. Mr. A. Warde, West Farleigh, Kent, bought a sample of dried blood, guaranteed to contain 10 per cent, of ammonia, at 10/. per ton. On analysis, only 7^ per cent., or 2J per cent, less ammonia than the guaranteed percentage, were found, for which defi- ciency an allowance of 21. 10s. per cent, was made by the vendors. I append Mr. Warde’s letter. “The Lane House, Brandesburton, Hull, Yorkshire, June 5th, 1882. “ Dear Sir, — Your letter has been sent to me here. I shall not be at home before the 15th or 16th. I bought the manure from an agent of the manu- facturers, living at Tunbridge Wells, but cannot remember his name ; it was guaranteed to me to contain 10 per cent, of ammonia, and as it did not contain it, one quarter of the price was allowed. Now, although the allowance was made, there was great neglect somewhere ; and if I had not have had the manure analysed I should have lost 50s. per ton. I cannot send you the correspondence, and I may say there was no hesitation on the part of the manufacturers in allowing the amount claimed, and they expressed their regret ; but, nevertheless, there was the manure sent out with 25 per cent, less ammonia than it ought to have contained. — Believe me, yours truly, “ A. Warde. “Dr. Voelcker.” 9. Mrs. Prescott, Birches Farm, Tenbury, Herefordshire, sent me a sample of manure, of which she bought two tons, believing it to be sulphate of ammonia. On analysis, the sample was found to contain only 14-29 per cent, of ammonia. Good commercial sulphate of ammonia contains not less than 24 per cent, of ammonia, or 10 per cent, more than the sample analysed for Mrs. Prescott. Assuming ammonia to sell at 16s. per unit per cent., the sample sent by Mrs. Prescott is worth 81. per ton less than good commercial sulphate of ammonia. At the rate of 16s. per unit of ammonia, the sample sent by Mrs. Prescott is worth about 11?. 4s. per ton, and is certainly far too dear at 16/. a ton. In this case the maker issued two circulars with identical testimonials, in the one calling the manure “ . . . . sulphate of ammonia,” and in the other “ . . . . ammonia manure;” the material was invoiced as ammonia manure, and sold without a guarantee. Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1882. 255 December, 1882. Dr. Voelcker reported the following cases : — • 1. A sample of dissolved bones, sent by Mr. Robert Tinnis- wood, Rose Bank, Carlisle, on analysis gave the following results : — Moisture 19 ’01 *Organic matter 18 '89 Phosphate of lime 11 '98 Sulphate of lime 82 "37 Oxide of iron and alumina, magnesia, alkaline) -11.49 salts, &c ) Insoluble siliceous matter 5 '73 100-00 * Containing nitrogen -81 Equal to ammonia 1 ' 02 This manure, it will be seen, contained no soluble phosphate of lime, only 12 per cent, of insoluble phosphates, and not quite 1 per cent, of nitrogen, which was present mainly in the form of shoddy. Such a manure should not be sold under the name of dis- solved bone. It was sold at 71. 10s. per ton on credit, or at 6/. per ton for cash, but was scarcely worth SI. per ton. The name and address of the vendor of this manure was not given by Mr. Tinniswood. 2. A sample of inferior, or adulterated, nitrate of soda, sent by Mr. Jas. Swinnerton, Cauldwell, Burton-on-Trent, had the following composition Moisture 2 ■ 81 Chloride of sodium 9'75 Other impurities -31 Pure nitrate of soda 87 ■ 13 100-00 This nitrate was sold at 15/. 10s. per ton at a time when the wholesale price of nitrate of soda was quoted in Liverpool at 12/. 15s. per ton. Good nitrate of soda usually contains not less than 95 per cent, of pure nitrate. The sample sent to me by Mr. Jas. Swinnerton would be worth 14/. 4s. per ton, supposing good nitrate of soda to be worth 15/. 10s. per ton, which latter price, 256 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1882. however, is fully 21. per ton more than nitrate of soda could be bought for at the time in the retail manure market. 3. Mr. Swinnerton also sent me a sample of turnip manure, which had the following composition : — Moisture .. .. 11 ‘70 ’Organic matter and water of combination .. 20 '62 Monobasic phosphate of lime 5 • 37 Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime phosphate) rendered soluble by acid) Insoluble phosphates 14 ‘70 Sulphate of lime, alkaline salts, and magnesia 38 ‘91 Insoluble siliceous matter 8 "70 lOO'OO * Containing nitrogen -89 Equal to ammonia 1-08 This manure, which was sold at 7 1. 10s. per ton, less 5 per cent, for cash, would not he cheap at 47. 4s. No information was given by Mr. Swinnerton respecting the vendors of the nitrate of soda and the turnip manure. 4. Mr. Faunce de Laune sent me a sample of artificial manure, which he informed me was bought by a tenant at 97. per ton. This manure had the following composition : — Moisture 21-30 ’Organic matter 26" 25 Phosphate of lime 9 • 60 Sulphate of lime, &c 26-40 Insoluble siliceous matter 16 '45 100-00 ’ Containing nitrogen 1-35 Equal to ammonia 1'64 A manure containing as little phosphate of lime and ammonia as the sample which Mr. de Laune sent me is not worth more ^han 37. a ton. In reply to the usual inquiries, Mr. de Laune says : — “I think it advisable at present not to report the name of the firm from whom I sent the artificial manure, as the two tenants are so extremely adverse, and the second one has written a second letter to say he made a mistake, and that it was 3L instead of 91. he was going to pay. It is very difficult to unearth these people, and it does not do to get wrong.” 5. The following is the composition of a sample of guano, which was sent for analysis by Mr. C. P. Noel, Bell Hall, near Stourbridge : — ^°nel (8-40) Annual Report of the Consulting Botanist for 1882. 257 Moisture 11 ‘18 *Organic matter and ammoniacal salts .. .. 19 ‘15 Phosphate of lime 21 • 16 t Alkaline salts, &c 13 '83 Insoluble siliceous matter * .. 34 '68 100-00 * Containing nitrogen 3-96 Equal to ammonia 4'81 f Containing phosphoric acid 1 • 86 Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime .. .. 4*05 Total percentage of phosphoric acid . . .. 11-55 Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime .. .. 25-21 This guano, it will be noticed, contains no less than one-third its weight of useless siliceous matter (stones and sand). I consider the sample to be worth scarcely 8/. 15s. per ton ; it is an imposition to ask 13/. a ton for such a guano. Mr. Noel informed me that three tons of the guano had been bought at 13/. 5s. per ton by Mr. Joseph Patten, of Manor Farm, Bilbroughton, Worcestershire, from a manure company ; but, as the manure turned out very bad, the company allowed back 6/. 5s. per ton. Dr. Voelcker also reported several cases in which, under the name of Black-Sea Rape-cake, inferior manure-cake had been sold, which principally consisted of the siftings of oily seeds, and, in addition to a variety of weed-seeds, contained much sand and dirt. XI. — Annual Report of the Consulting Botanist for 1882. By W. Carruthers, F.R.S. INCREASED attention has been paid to the conditions under which permanent pastures can be best laid down. The memoir by Mr. De Laune, published in the Society’s ‘ Journal ’ in the spring of this year, and the action of the Seeds’ Committee in recommending purchasers of seeds to require a guarantee ac- cording to a published standard, have quickened the interest in this important subject. I have had to deal with numerous inquiries as to the grasses which constitute existing pastures, and I have examined and tested more than 160 samples of grass seeds on behalf of Members of the Society. The standard recommended by the Society was fixed from a consideration of the actual results of my examinations of seeds carried on for many years. The germinating value may no YOL. XIX. — S. S. 258 Annual Report of the Consulting Botanist for 1882. doubt be, under exceptional harvesting conditions, lower than the percentage fixed, without any blame being due to the seeds- man ; but the farmer who has to use the seed should be made aware of this, for if it does not affect the price per pound he has to pay, it must affect the quantity he sows when he has decided what proportion the different grasses shall hold in his mixture. The best seeds bought at a fair price should be better than the recommended standards. As a matter of fact, during the past year, only a very few samples of those seeds, for which a standard of 90 per cent, germinating power was recommended, fell below that standard. These seeds include cereals, green crops, clovers, and Timothy grass. One sample of barley, which looked well, failed to germinate more than 14 per cent., and on dissection I found that the embryos were dead. No doubt the seed, originally good, had been kept so long that the germinating power had been almost entirely destroyed. The clovers considerably surpassed the standard, with the exception of one parcel of alsike, which gave only 48 per cent, of germinating grains. Only two samples of fox-tail were better than 20 per cent, of germinating grains, the moderate standard recommended for this grass. One sample, looking well to the eye, had only eight seeds capable of germinating in the 100. This grass is almost always collected before it is ripe. The seed grower thus secures a bulkier crop, for the seeds of fox-tail easily separate from the stalk as they ripen, and are lost to the collector. The purchaser also gets the white silvery colour in the unripe seeds, which is so much desired. But in getting the desired colour, he gets chiefly chaff. It would be infinitely better if a darker and heavier seed were selected, for this would be found to germinate 80 or 90 per cent., or even more. The two large-seeded fescues, meadow fescue and tall fescue, I have found to be generally adulterated with rye-grass ; yet three samples of tall fescue, and one of meadow fescue, I found entirely free from these seeds. The proportion of rye-grass seed varied from 10 to 50 per cent. One sample offered as meadow fescue contained scarcely a single seed of that grass, but was composed mainly of rye-grass, with some seeds of cocksfoot, crested dogs-tail, and Yorkshire-fog. The presence of so large a proportion of rye-grass is a very serious defect in the great majority of samples of meadow fescue. And the price paid for the adulterated seed should be taken into account. The price quoted for rye-grass in seedsmen’s catalogues of this season is bd. or Gd. per lb., and for either of the fescues Is. Ad. or Is. Gd. In a field of ten acres laid down with the mixture recommended Annual Report of the Consulting Botanist for 1882. 259 by Mr. De Laune * the quantity of fescues would be 90 lbs., the price of which at Is. fid. would be 6/. 15s. If, however, 50 per cent, of this seed were rye-grass, the price ought to be 4/. 10s. And it should be remembered that the merchant who sells fescue, half of which is rye-grass, at Is. per lb., gets the same profit as the merchant who charges Is. fid. per lb. for pure fescue. The buyer should fully realise this. The seeds of the two grasses are so alike in form, size, and weight, that few are able to detect the presence of the rye-grass. My observations lead me to believe that few dealers are aware of its presence in their samples. Fescue seed is largely imported from Germany, and is mixed with the cheaper seed of rye-grass before it reaches the merchant in England. I have reason to believe that large quantities of rye-grass grown in the north of Ireland are an- nually exported to Germany to be employed in adulterating 'these fescues. It is important to the purchaser that he should be Fig. 1. — Rye-grass. Fig. 2. — Meadow Fescue. Both figures ten times the natural size. able to distinguish between the two seeds, and this can easily be done with the naked eye, or at any rate with the help of a small pocket lens. In both grasses several seeds are produced in each * ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society,’ 1882, p. 261. S 2 260 Annual Report of the Consulting Botanist for 1882. spikelet ; in separating from each other when they are threshed or gathered, each seed breaks off at its base from the supporting stalk, and there consequently remains in the inner concave surface of the seeds, the short stalk of the seed that was pro- duced above it on the spikelet. This short stalk supplies a ready means of certainly distinguishing the two seeds, for in the two fescues of which I am speaking it is slender and cylin- drical, nearly equal in diameter throughout its length, and having the upper articulating surface slightly expanded, while in the rye-grass the stalk gradually increases upwards, so as to have a somewhat triangular shape, and it is truncated, without any expansion at the apex. Sheep’s fescue I have found largely adulterated with the seeds of Molinia ccerulea, a grass found in moors all over Britain, but of no value as a pasture grass. It is rejected both by cattle and sheep. This worthless grass or weed is largely Figs. 3 and 4. — Crested Dog's-tail. Figs. 5 and 6. — Cocksfoot. Fig. 7. — Molinia Caerulea. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. G. Fig. 7. All figures ten times the natural size. used for adulterating the smaller seeds. A sample of crested dog’s-tail which passed through my hands contained 50 per Annual Report of the Consulting Botanist for 1882. 261 cent, of Molinia. The seeds of sheep’s fescue, cocksfoot, and crested dog’s-tail are so very different, both in form and colour, from Molinia, that it is hard to believe that any pur- chaser could be deceived by the mixture. The presence of Molinia in the smaller seeds, and of rye-grass in the larger, is due to the intentional and deliberate action of some parties engaged in the seed trade, with the view of making larger profits. I have no reason for supposing that this is done by any connected with the trade in Britain. But as we necessarily depend for a large quantity of our grass seed on foreign growers, I have little doubt that the worthless seeds are introduced before the seeds reach England. Good and pure seeds are, however, to be obtained in the foreign markets. The best samples — in trueness to species, freedom from weeds, and high percentage of germination — that have passed through my hands during the year have been foreign samples. It is greatly to be desired, then, that the buyers employed by the trade should be able to detect the presence of adulteration in samples offered to them. The remedy for these deliberately introduced impurities is in the hands of the trade. No excuse can be accepted for a house selling a mixture, under a specific name, containing 30, 40, or 50 per cent, of a worthless grass, or rather an injurious weed, which they have bought as that particular species, when a little knowledge and a little care would show them the true nature of the mixture. There are impurities present in almost all seeds, from the presence of other grasses and weeds in the fields where the seeds have been grown. These seldom amount to 5 per cent. They may be got rid of by the cleaning machines, which are now used by the best houses. But these accidental impurities do not deserve the condemnation that the deliberate adulteration for gain to the dealer, and great loss to the farmer, demands. On the other hand, the farmer should realise that a good seed can be obtained only by paying a fair price. The sowing on his farm worthless grasses and injurious weeds, which must spoil his pasture and take years and labour to eradicate, is to be avoided, and it should not be regarded with more favour, because the mixture is bought cheap, at 6d. or 8 d. the pound. Such a mixture is dear at any price. The cheque to the dealer does not cover the cost. As long as the produce is found in his meadows the cost is being added to. If the farmer requires a cheap mixture he must expect a worthless one. A strongly recommended and largely advertised mixture which I examined was found to consist of : — Rye-grass, 40 per cent. ; fescues, 23 per cent. ; meadow-grass, 11 per cent. ; foxtail, 8 per cent. ; 262 Annual Report of the Consulting Botanist for 1882. sweet vernal, 7 per cent. ; cocksfoot, 6 per cent. ; florin, 3 per cent. ; Yorkshire-fog, 2 per cent. The number of the different kinds in one hundred grass seeds of the mixture recommended by Mr. De Laune, already referred to, would be : — florin, 22 ; foxtail, 16 ; cocksfoot, 16 ; fescues, 15 ; cat’s-tail, 12 ; rough meadow-grass, 12 ; and crested dog’s- tail, 7. Only by selecting the species of grasses to be used, purchasing them separately, and paying for them a fair price, can a good mixture be secured. Two samples of mixtures supplied to Members as the mixtures recommended by the Society were composed of the same species as the mixture now given, and nearly in the same proportions. In some grasses the purchase of shelled seeds would prevent much disappointment and loss. I have had sent to me a sample of shelled florin, which germinated almost 100 per cent. Several samples in the condition in which this seed is generally purchased had more than half the bulk composed of empty chaff. A sample of Poa aquatica offered to a Member of the Society contained 75 per cent, of chaff. Two samples of florin were considerably ergotted. I am convinced, from the inquiries frequently made to me about injuries to stock, produced by ergot, that the danger from this powerful parasite in pastures is not fully realised. I have prepared for the Education Committee a series of six diagrams exhibiting the principal grasses to be selected and avoided in laying down pastures, giving magnified representa- tions of their seeds, the diseases of wheat, potato, and clover. I trust they may be useful to the Members of the Society. I also prepared for the Journal Committee a paper on Mildew on Wheat, which was published in the last number of the Society’s ‘Journal.’ I have repeatedly visited the farm at Woburn in connection with the experiments being carried on there as to the life of several of the more common natural and, so-called, artificial grasses. The uncertainty as to the duration of the life of cultivated clovers, led to the resolution of the Council to test this by actual experiment on the farm, and further, to determine what species or varieties of red clover had the longest life. In natural pastures two red clovers are found — Trifolium qjratense and Trifolium medium. To the first belong the names red clover and broad clover, and to the other, marl clover, zigzag clover, and cowgrass. But the application of these common names has been very irregular and uncertain. In Morton’s ‘ Cyclopaedia,’ under the article “Trifolium,” Mr. Bentham, in The late C. E. Amos , C.E. 263 the more strictly scientific portion, gives cowgrass as the English name of Trifolium medium ; whereas Mr. Gorrie, in the prac- tical section of the same article, makes it the popular name of Trifolium pratense , and specially of the variety of the species called perenne. The name properly belongs, I believe, to Trifolium medium, but the seed sold under the name of cow- grass is that of Trifolium pratense, the same species as red clover. I have never been able to discover any of the seed of Trifolium medium in commerce. This, which is the true cow- grass, is certainly a longer-lived plant than the other. Its roots are creeping, and its stem takes a fresh turn at every leaf, giving it a zigzag appearance. The produce is said to be less than that of red clover. Though it may not be of equal value in alternate husbandry, it would, perhaps, be a more important ingredient in permanent pasture than the common species. Similar experimental plots have been sown with rye-grasses, for the purpose of determining the duration of their lives. In both clovers and rye-grasses the half of each plot is prevented from seeding by being cut when the flowers appear, a course equivalent, as far as the plant is concerned, to what takes place in pastures on which a full amount of stock is placed. The other half is allowed to go to seed before it is cut, care being taken to prevent any seed being shed on the plot. The plant is thus allowed to carry on its year’s life to the natural end ; and the result of this part of the experiment will show whether the different species and varieties are, in the proper sense, perennial, that is, whether the same plant ripens its seed for several successive years. The experiments are carried on in duplicate, the one set being in light sandy soil, the other in the heaviest land avail- able on the farm. Some plots of the more valuable pasture grasses have been sown alongside these experimental crops. XII. — The late C. E. Amos, CE., formerly Consulting Engineer to the Society. By Sir B. T. Brandreth Gibbs, Vice- President of the Society. ALTHOUGH the primary object of the following brief Memoir is to trace the connection of the late Charles Edwards Amos, C.E., , with the Royal Agricultural Society of England during the period he acted as its Consulting Engineer, it would be manifestly incomplete if it did not contain some prefatory notice of his 264 The late C. E. Amos, C.E. early biography. It is, however, unnecessary to go into any minute details, as these have already been given in a pamphlet that has recently appeared. It will therefore be sufficient here to state that he was born at March, in the Isle of Ely, in 1805, being the son of Mr. Jonas Amos, by Sarah, daughter of Mr. Edward Sharpe, millwright, of that town. He was the eldest of a family of eight children. Shortly after his birth his family removed to Wildmore-Fen, Lincolnshire, where his father became farm-manager to a Mr. Clements ; but the subject of this Memoir remained with his grandfather, by whom he was sent to school ; and although this portion of his education was not comprehensive, his innate love of figures soon began to show itself. Lie was prevented, however, by the bad state of the roads and of the river YValthan in those days from con- tinuing regular attendance at school, and thus in his boyhood spent many hours in his grandfather’s factory, where he im- bibed that predilection for practical mechanics which dis- tinguished him in after-life. He became for a time engaged in farming operations, and when about twelve years old lived on the farm of his father’s uncle, Mr. Edwards, from whom he acquired some useful knowledge of agricultural affairs. His father shortly after accepted the post of farm-manager to Mr. Wm. Bacon, at Upwell. Here the future agricultural consulting engineer went through all the practical operations of the farm, became thoroughly acquainted with agricultural imple- ments, and obtained a knowledge which proved so valuable, not only to himself, but to agriculture generally in later years. For two years he was engaged on the farm of Admiral (then Captain) Morris, of Elm. At the age of about eighteen he apprenticed himself to Mr. John Wilkinson, millwright and machine-maker at Elm. In this position, which he held for about four years, he became thoroughly acquainted with the construction of windmills and sluice-work, threshing-machines, and other mechanism incidental to a country business and an agricultural district. At twenty-two he entered a factory at Ramsey. This business was almost exclusively confined to fen-work, the draining of fens being mainly done by the use of windmills. Finding this class of machinery too limited, and the work too monotonous, for his aspirations, he decided to increase his study of mechanics, and entered the works of Mr. John Clark, of Houghton, Hunts, where he gained additional experience in the construction of corn-mills, water-wheels, windmills, and tannery and brewing implements. He was subsequently engaged to superintend the construction of steam-engines and other machinery for paper- making, and had to execute not only various novelties and The late C. E. Amos, C.E. 265 improvements, but also to design fresh mechanism for the Hatfield Paper Mills belonging to Mr. Creswick, whose engineer he eventually became. In 1834 he married the only surviving daughter of the late Mr. James Chapman, of Hatfield. He afterwards undertook the superintendence and completion of steam-engines and other gear for Mr. Dives’ corn-mills at Battersea. In this work he utilised the principle of “expansion” in working steam-engines, which, although already known, was not much practically employed. The engine appears to have been a success, several of the con- structive details being in advance of the day. Among others whose attention this engine attracted was Mr. James Easton, with whom he eventually, in 1836, entered into partnership. In 1858 the sons of both principals entered the firm. The foregoing is a condensed epitome of Mr. Amos’s general career previous to his connection with the Royal Agricultural Society of England in 1848, when Messrs. Easton and Amos were appointed its Consulting Engineers, on the understanding that one of them should personally attend the Society’s Country Shows. This duty devolved on Mr. Amos, who commenced his duties at the York Meeting in the July of that year. He was subsequently assisted in conducting the trials by the sons of Mr. Easton, and by his own son, James C. Amos, and upon many occasions by his friend the late Mr. Appold. Up to 1847, Mr. Josiah Parkes, C.E., had acted partly in the capacity of a Judge of Machinery and partly as Consulting Engineer. He had during his period of office sought to en- courage any farm machinery which showed the germ of future usefulness ; but so much progress had been made in agricultural machinery and implements, between the Oxford Meeting in 1839 and the York Meeting in 1848, that it became abso- lutely necessary to subject them to more vigorous tests than had hitherto been applied to determine their actual and relative value. I he result of Mr. Amos’s action in this direction became manifest at the first Meeting which he attended. The Report on the Show bore testimony to the improvements introduced, and, whilst suggesting the still further development of them, recorded the benefits obtained by the use of a machine for testing the working of steam-engines and the amount of draught of threshing-machines, chaff-cutters, &c., under the control of Mr. Amos, who was thus early recognised as the Society’s “able and zealous Consulting Engineer.” The above was written, perhaps, chiefly in reference to an adaptation of what was called the Prony Brake, a Dynamometer 266 The late C. E. Amos, C.E. (which was subsequently greatly improved *), and which showed the working power of steam-engines. At its very first stage of working, the opportunity, and indeed almost the necessity, for Mr. Amos to show his energy and exercise his practical skill, in addition to his scientific attainments, became evident. The Brake, as already stated, had not become so perfect as in the form it assumed in after years. It then required the incessant application of manual regulation to secure the engine perform- ing its due amount of duty. The operator who was put to this work was not capable of performing it with the precision necessary to ensure fairness to each exhibitor. The energy of Mr. Amos was equal to the occasion, and was instantly brought into play. Stripping off his coat and rolling up his shirt- sleeves, he worked the adjusting screw with his own hands for hours, being almost saturated to the skin with the soft soap and water of which the lubricator then employed was comjxtsed. He continued this until a suitable working engineer, uncon- nected with any of the exhibitors, could be obtained from the neighbourhood. Having myself witnessed this characteristic incident, I cannot refrain from alluding to it as an example of the manner in which Mr. Amos was ready for any emergency which unexpectedly presented itself amidst the numerous trials that had to be made under sometimes almost insurmountable difficulties, and within the very limited time that could be devoted to the trials of the ever-increasing quantity of machinery that year after year flowed to the Society’s Shows. The Dyna- mometer was improved for the Norwich Show in 1849, and the result the next year proved the value of the dynamometrical tests. The consumption of coal of an engine then was 11 ’5 lbs. per horse-power per hour ; the following year 7*7 lbs., an im- provement of upwards of 30 per cent. ; and two years later it was reduced to 4-66 lbs. Mr. Amos also invented for the Norwich Show a Dyna- mometer for the trials of winch-driven implements. For this he received the special honour of being presented with the Society’s large Gold Medal. The following year an apparatus was brought into use for ascertaining the power consumed by threshing-machines worked by horse-gear. f The result was important, inasmuch as it * It is but justice to state that the Brake was afterwards improved by Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth, who introduced a metal brake-wheel with wood friction-blocks and oil as the lubricator. Credit is also specially due to a Mr. Balk, who was in the establishment of Mesrs. Ransomes and Sims. He invented an automatic means of controlling the brake by using differential levers attached to the ends of the brake straps, thus dispensing with the brakes-man. Mr. Appold, F.R.S., also contributed some improvements. t Seo Society’s * Journal,’ vol. xi., p. 479. The late C. E. Amos, C.E. 267 showed that some of these driven bj four horses required three- horse-power to drive them when empty, thus accomplishing but 25 per cent, of real work. At the Lincoln Show, in 1854, he introduced a rotary Dyna- mometer to indicate the power consumed by any machine driven by steam — practically recording the varying stress on the driving-belt from the steam-engine or other prime mover. This was used in the trials of Fowler’s four-furrow steam- plough, and on the early forms of steam-ploughing apparatus ; but most notably at the great experiments in steam-ploughing on the land of the late Mr. Fisher Hobbs, at Boxted Lodge, in connection with the Society’s Chelmsford Meeting of 1856. The arrangement of this apparatus has thus been shortly described by his son, Mr. James C. Amos, who took an active part, assisting in these the first important recorded trials of steam- cultivation : — “ The special arrangement adopted, viz., a double windlass working a hauling-rope over transversing anchors, enabled the Dynamometer to be placed between the windlass itself and the engine.” The above experiments seem to form a marked epoch in the progress of steam-ploughing, and attracted much attention not only in this, but in other countries. I retain pleasing recol- lections of this occasion, and of assisting in both timing the experiments and in checking the calculations, duties which were rendered doubly agreeable by the interest which Mr. Amos evinced in obtaining the final result. At this same Meeting Mr. Amos brought out an adaptation of Bentall’s Dynamometer for ascertaining the power consumed by horse-ploughs, the alteration being a fresh arrangement, making the working parts much more simple, thus diminishing the chances of error. For the Newcastle Show, in 1864, a Dynamometer was con- structed to test the draught of steam-ploughs, cultivators, and similar implements. By this the actual stress on the steel-wire rope was recorded. This was an important machine, and was described by Mr. Amos himself in the Society’s ‘Journal’ (vol. i. New Series, p. 204). In addition to the foregoing, some minor apparatus were arranged by him for the Society, to mark the stress on plough-anchors and for other purposes. From the foregoing brief summary it must be evident that both the agricultural and engineering world would have been much indebted to Mr. Amos’s talents if they had been devoted to Dynamometers alone ; but he stopped not here, for his inven- tions embraced other branches of engineering and mechanics. The idea of the double-engine system of steam-ploughing appears to have originated in Mr. Amos’s mind ; for he had 268 The late C. E. Amos , C.E. matured a scheme years before the steam-engine was thus used, and which was to have been introduced at the joint expense of himself and Lord St. John. He patented improvements in the Appold Pump for the reclamation and draining of fen-land, used not only in this country, but on West Indian sugar estates; in reclamations in Holland ; in the dockyard at Portsmouth, and elsewhere. It may be only an act of justice to enumerate a few of the principal public works and other matters which have been benefited by his industry and skill, such as general hydro- statics ; the theory of the flow of water through very long mains, and the working out of rules as to the influence of varying land contour and main contour upon such flow ; the supply of towns; the Government waterworks in Trafalgar Square. He was connected with the arrangement of the hy- draulic machinery for raising the tube structures of the Conway and Britannia bridges, which were placed in the hands of the firm by his friend Robert Stephenson in 1846-50 ; the erection of the Royal Albert Bridge at Saltash ; the arrangement of the cable- laying machinery for the old Atlantic cable in 1857, and em- ployed on H.M.S. ‘ Agamemnon ’ and the U.S. frigate ‘ Niagara.' He was the originator of the system of placing the paying-out drums in duplicate, so as to form a self-fleeting windlass, a principle which he had employed some years before in the Rhyl swivel bridge on the Chester and Holyhead Railway. The dynamometer for the Atlantic expedition was also entirely due to Mr. Amos, and this system has been almost universally employed in succeeding submarine telegraph expeditions. He introduced some special features in the machinery for the ship- elevator at the Thames Graving Dock, Victoria Docks. In conjunction with Mr. Francis, manager of the Penrhyn Slate Quarries, he patented a peculiar form of three-cylinder hydraulic engine, actuated by the fall from the Lake Ogwen, working a set of deep-well three-throw pumps, draining the lower adits of the mine ; also a machine for dressing slates, used first at Penrhyn, and since largely in other slate-quarries ; also he made improvements in machinery for the manufacture of lead pipes, in conjunction with Mr. Hanson, of Huddersfield. Mr. Amos formed one of the knot of engineers who, snatching a few hours as often as their own avocations permitted, assisted Mr. Brunei and Mr. Scott-Russell with suggestions for the ultimately successful launch of the ‘Great Eastern’ steamship, the firm of Eastons and Amos having lent all the hydraulic presses, jacks, &c., which they could command. In addition to his engineering business, he was at one period of his life a large paper-maker. The late C. E. Amos, C.E. 269 He was often engaged as a witness in cases of disputed patent right and other vexed mechanical questions ; also as an arbitrator on such matters. He was a member of the Institute of Civil Engineers ; of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, and a member of its Council ; also of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and a member of the Societe des Agriculteurs de France. He conducted the dynamometrical trials of the agricultural machinery shown in the Great Inter- national Exhibition of 1851 in Hyde Park, was a juror at the Paris Exhibition of 1855, and the Universal Exhibition in 1862 at South Kensington. He acted as English delegate to the Agricultural Show at Paris, 1856. He was invited to attend the Universal Agricultural Exhibition of Sweden and Norway, held at Gothenburg in 1871, and received from the Sovereign, Carl XV., the Cross of the Order of Vasa ; also various diplomas and medals were awarded to him. In addition to his official duties in connection with the Royal Agricultural Society of England, his assistance was frequently invited by various Agricultural Societies in England. On his retirement from the office of Consulting Engineer to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, he was elected its Honorary Consulting Engineer. He was a Freemason exalted to the Royal Arch degree in the Grove Chapter, and installed a Knight Templar in the Grove Encampment in 1866. In 1866 both the senior partners of the firm of Eastons and Amos retired. Having become a widower, he in 1360 married the daughter of Mr. E. Porter, of Moore Critchell, Dorset, and leaves a family by each wife. His eldest son, James C. Amos, was associated with him in the firm of Eastons and Amos, the second son being the head of an engineering firm at Hull, and the third studying for the profession of engineer. He also leaves several daughters. He died on the 12th of August, 1882, at his residence at Clapham, in the seventy-seventh year of his age. The foregoing condensed Memoir gives but a sketch of the rise, step by step, of the late Charles Edwards Amos in his professional career, and of the invaluable services which he rendered to the cause of agricultural mechanics, a branch to which he always evinced a particular liking, no doubt the result of early associations. It is evident that it was the com- bination of agricultural knowledge with practical and theoretical engineering that specially fitted him for the important position of Consulting Engineer to the Society, an office which he filled with so much credit to himself, so much to the satisfaction of the 270 The late Joseph Shuttleworth. Society, and with such advantage not only to the agriculturists of the country, but it may confidently be added to the manu- facturers of implements generally. He was ever ready with a word of advice, and many a suggestion for improvements was voluntarily given by him. He always showed himself to be a man of strict impartiality, holding the balance justly amidst the keenest competition between exhibitors, to whom the results of the trials were often of momentous importance. He possessed a naturally genial temperament, and rendered the few minutes of relaxation that could be allowed to intervene amidst the almost incessant work of the trial-days at the Society’s Shows, doubly acceptable to his colleagues by some amusing anecdote or appropriate hon-mot. Of his natural talent it is unnecessary to relate more here. It was, as an Italian would say, in fronte scritto, for seldom would a phrenologist be able to point to one with a more massive brow, or one whose intellectual faculties were more fully deve- loped. In my capacity of Honorary Director of the Shows, having worked with the subject of this Memoir during the entire period of Mr. Amos’s official connection with the Society, and also the Universal Exhibitions both in London and Paris, I cannot refrain from bearing testimony to the merits of one whom I shall ever recollect as a valued colleague, who conferred great and lasting benefits on agriculture, and therefore on the country at large. XIII. — The late Joseph Shuttleivorth. The late Chairman of the Showyard Contracts Committee of this Society was born on the 12th of July, 1819, at the village of Dogdyke, near Lincoln, at which place his father carried on the business of a boat-builder. On leaving school, at fourteen years of age, he commenced learning his father’s trade, and about two years later was sent to take the management of a second boat-building yard belonging to him, near the Stamp End Locks, at Lincoln, on a piece of ground which formed part of the present Stamp End Works. Even at this early period of his life the subject of this Memoir is said to have displayed more than average ability, energy, and pluck ; and subsequently the Lincoln boat-yard was turned over to him and a Mr. Godwin. At that time Mr. Nathaniel Clayton had established himself, in a small way, as an iron-founder, on premises adjoin- ing those of the young boat-building firm ; and after a little while — in the year 1842 — he was joined by Mr. Shuttleworth. The late Joseph Shuttleworth. 271 Neither of the partners possessed much capital, but both be- came skilled in the use of all the tools and appliances required in their trade, and were gifted with rare powers of energy, industry, and perseverance, — qualities which laid the foundation of an enterprise that has become the most extensive of the kind in the kingdom, and whose manufactures are in use almost throughout the civilised world. The late Mr. Shuttleworth, although not without inventive faculties, could not be said to be endowed with the peculiar and rare genius of “ the born inventor.” He possessed in a remark- able degree a perception of the proper proportion of parts, which was intuitive ; and also, when a number of plans were placed before him, his discernment in selecting the best method for accomplishing the object was equally remarkable. His judg- ment in mechanical matters was singularly quick and unerring, _ hence the few mistakes made in the productions sent out from Stamp End. Both Mr. Clayton and the late Mr. Shuttleworth were thorough men of business, and possessed great judgment in mechanical matters ; but in the conduct of their business Mr. Shuttleworth devoted himself more to the mechanical department of their operations, leaving the commercial matters to his partner. The original site of their Works, which now cover nearly four- teen acres of ground, was a plot of land about one and a half acres in extent, of which one acre was under water during the greater part of the year ; but the remaining half-acre sufficed for the wants of the firm in its early days ; and by means of an excellent system the partners made the most of their resources, taking especial pains, from the first, that no work calculated to bring discredit ever left their foundry. Consequently, their failures were few. The first important contract undertaken by Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth was for the Minningsby Boston Water- works, a contract which not only placed them in possession of welcome capital, but which, in consequence of its highly suc- cessful execution, brought them additional orders. Although Clayton and Shuttleworth cannot claim to be the inventors of the portable steam-engine, they are fairly entitled to rank among the most successful improvers of this class of farm machinery ; and the same remark may be applied to the steam threshing-machine. The list of prizes won by the firm at the Shows of the Royal Agricultural Society will ever redound to their honour. In the year 1839, Messrs. Tuxford, of Boston, had prepared plans for a combined engine and threshing-machine, but it was not actually constructed until 1842. At the Society’s Show at Liverpool in the previous year, 1841, a portable engine, manufactured by the Disc Steam Engine 272 The late Joseph Shuttleworth. Company, of Birmingham, was shown by Messrs. Ransomes, of Ipswich ; and in October of the same year a 6-horse portable engine, made by Messrs. Howden, of Boston, was exhibited at the Show of the Lincolnshire Agricultural Society. Four years later, in September 1845, Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth produced their first portable engine (8-horse power). In the next year they turned out two engines, each of 2-horse power, and in the following year eight engines of the aggregate power of seventy-three horses. Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth exhibited in the Showyard of the Royal Agricultural Society for the first time at Norwich, in 1849 ; and they succeeded in carrying off the highest awards — a position which they retained at most of the subsequent competitions in which they participated. At the last-men- tioned date, however, the portable engine had still to undergo manifold improvements before it could find favour in the eyes of farmers. As a matter of historical interest, it is worth while to give here some further figures, which will serve to indicate the progressive demand for the portable steam-engine. Up to 1847, as has been already stated, the number manufactured by the Stamp End firm could almost be represented by the fingers of both hands ; but so rapidly did their utility become recognised, that in 1851 this firm alone sold no less than 140 of these machines. In the following year the sales numbered 243 ; in 1853 they had grown to 293, next year to 363, and in 1855 to 491. At the present time Clayton and Shuttleworth have sent out from their works upwards of 19,000 portable steam-engines, an average of close upon 600 per annum for the whole thirty-three years during which they have been engaged in their manu- facture. Mr. Shuttleworth’s firm, however, did not by any means confine their attention to the construction of steam- engines, their name being equally well and widely known as manufacturers of threshing-machines, of which their total output is stated at no less than 17,000 since 1849, when this addition to the work of their factory was entered upon. It should also be noted that to Clayton and Shuttleworth belongs the credit of introducing a machine for finishing grain for market, they having exhibited one at Lewes, in 1852, before a prize had been offered. They have also earned a just reputation for their portable grinding-mills, straw and hay elevators, self-feeding apparatus, and drum-guards, all of which have been rewarded with “ Royal ” honours. Their works at Lincoln are admitted by qualified judges to be most perfectly organised ; and the rule with which the firm started on their commercial career, to employ only the best material and secure the most perfect workmanship, has been The late Joseph Shuttleworth. 273 judiciously aud rigidly maintained. In addition to their head- quarters at Lincoln, Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth have a large establishment at Vienna, where over 200 hands are em- ployed, as well as smaller works at Pestli, besides offices at London and Liverpool. Owing to the influence of the Stamp End Works upon the city of Lincoln, it has grown to be the chief centre of the agri- cultural engine trade. In Lincoln itself three other large works have sprung up, besides a number of smaller ones ; the popula- tion has increased threefold, and, to quote a local paper, “ the city has advanced as rapidly in material wealth and prosperity as it has done in population.” All this is traceable mainly to the works of Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth. But apart from business relationships, Mr. Shuttleworth was alike active and useful. For years he held a seat on the Town Council of Lincoln, and in 1858—9 he occupied the post of chief magistrate. He was associated, too, with the Volunteer move- ment, having been first elected Ensign, and subsequently ap- pointed to the positions of Lieutenant and Captain. He was a Justice of the Peace, and Deputy-Lieutenant of the county. In 1881 he was elected High Sheriff of Bedfordshire, in which county he had erected a residence. Years ago he took a promi- nent part in the reconstruction of the Metropolitan Railway, of which he was a Director at the time ; and up to the period of his decease, he was a Director of the Great Northern Rail- way Company, as well as the Sutton Bridge Dock Company, the Agricultural Hall Company, and a member of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society. In every one of these under- takings he took a deep and practical interest ; seldom indeed was he missing from his post. On the Council of the Society he served for upwards of a quarter of a century, having been elected in 1856. His services as Chairman of the Showyard Contracts Committee were especially valuable, and on all matters involving large expenditure of money his advice was ever appreciated by his colleagues. He also acted as Steward of Stock at the Country Meetings, 1875-8. The local charities found in him a generous benefactor. He was endowed with singular tact ; was courteous, kind, modest and friendly in disposition and demeanour ; an upright man in all his dealings ; one who set a high value upon his honour. In Mr. Shuttleworth was presented a remarkable instance of how a man, whose early education had been neglected, may by taking pains make up the deficiency. His letters formerly gave evidence of slender educational advantages, but so close had been his observation, that of late years his letters were quite models of composition. A neighbouring landowner — a man of VOL. XIX. — S. S. T 274 The late Joseph Shuttleworth. refinement — on being told that Mr. Shuttleworth had not had the advantages of education in early life, replied, “ I should never have supposed this, for his letters were those of a gentle- man, and so correctly expressed.” Another friend writes that “ he was manly and Englishman-like, never pushing or obtru- sive ; never obtruding his business ; on the other hand, rather pleased than otherwise if it became the subject of conversation. He was, so far as I saw, kind and gentle. 1 never really grasped any salient feature of character — in manner he suggested ‘ I know exactly my own place and position. I respect myself — and respecting myself, and knowing my position, I, relatively and in like manner, know and respect you.’ One principle of his only I recall ; he said, ‘ If I want anything, my invariable rule is this : I enquire which firm is most famous for any particular production, and I send my order accordingly.’ ” Nearly thirty years ago Mr. Shuttleworth formed the desire to possess an estate and a home in Bedfordshire, in which county he had been in the habit of staying with his friend, Mr. James Howard, M.P. About twenty years ago the Colworth property, now owned by Mr. Magniac, M.P., came into the market and was advertised for sale. Mr. Shuttleworth accordingly went to inspect the picturesque spot, close to the Sharnbrook Station on the Main Midland Line, and at once formed a resolution to be- come the purchaser. Finding, however, that Mr. Magniac, sen., who had long occupied Colworth as tenant, was so greatly beloved by his neighbours and all the people about him, and that he was anxious to become the owner, Mr. Shuttleworth said to his friend Mr. Howard, upon his return, “ much as I should like the place, I shrink from the idea of disturbing so good a man ; ” and he added, “ after having partaken of Mr. Magniac’s hospitality I think it only right that I should inform him of my decision not to bid against him.” The late Mr. Magniac told a friend that of all who had visited Colworth on the same errand, Mr. Shuttleworth was the only one who had had the civility and kindness to inform him of his decision. This incident, though simple in itself, throws a light upon the innate goodness of Mr. Shuttleworth, who all through life displayed a similar gentlemanly feeling — and this in a variety of ways. In 1861 he acquired by purchase the estate of Hartsholme, in the neighbourhood of Lincoln, on which he erected a stately mansion. Ten years later he purchased of the late Lord Ongley the manor of Old Warden, in Bedfordshire, and from that time this estate appeared to be the great hobby and pleasure of his life. A considerable portion of his time was spent upon it, and he was unsparing in money and personal trouble in carry- ing out extensive improvements. Although lie did not come The late Joseph Shuttleworth. 275 into absolute possession until three years after entering upon ownership, soon after completing the purchase he altered and enlarged one of the farm-houses, and thither he repaired when- ever his numerous engagements permitted. Here it was that he settled in his mind the whole scheme for the mansion which he subsequently erected, and for the development of the entire property. Amongst other things, he built a new village school, improving here and enlarging there the cottages on the estate. The appended statement by one who had a close acquaintance with Mr. Shuttleworth, will be read with interest as giving a further insight into his character : — “ On coming into possession of the house and gardens he at once had the buildings razed to the ground, and proceeded to erect on the same site a princely mansion. Throughout the -work, even to the minutest parts, he never failed to cause the very best materials and workmanship to be selected : it was characteristic of him to be thorough in all he undertook. Nothing was too trivial to engage his attention. Whatever the cost might be, he would invariably select whatever he considered best adapted for the object in view. “ He had a great love for building, and for improving every- thing about him, and he either entirely rebuilt or remodelled every homestead, as well as replaced with model cottages of the most approved and picturesque design most of the old tenements for the labourers. “ Mr. Shuttleworth had great taste and knowledge of architec- tural details ; some of the old cottages in the village were of an Old English style, though greatly dilapidated ; he had many of these entirely cased with half timber-work, feeling, as he often said, that though they were costly, he had as much pleasure in looking at them as at some favourite picture on his walls. “ He had a great love for pleasure-gardens, and a most culti- vated acquaintance with landscape-gardening. His gardens were very extensive, and were so planted and arranged that the trees and shrubberies were cheerful and effective all the year round. He held that great sanctity attached to a tree, and would never consent to the felling of any tree unless it injured another, and then it was a grief to him to order it to be cut down. He was continually improving and enlarging the shrubberies, and would have everything kept in the most complete and orderly manner all the year round. No part of the buildings or grounds was ever permitted to be untidy, all must at all times be kept fresh and bright. “ It was a characteristic of Mr. Shuttleworth that he would never consent to patch up or repair anything unless it could be T 2 276 The Natural History of the Liver-Fluke made as good as new ; if this could not be carried out, he would have it removed root and branch, and an entirely new arrange- ment made. “ He spent money most liberally, doing all sorts of work for the benefit of his tenants without any charge to them ; and he made so many improvements and embellishments in the village of Old Warden, that, picturesque as it always has been, he left it one of the most beautiful in the county, with its ivy-covered and half-timbered cottages, sloping grassy banks kept at all times neatly trimmed and cared for ; its fine holly hedges, pretty church, and most perfectly kept churchyard, all this paid for by himself. To these works he devoted all his spare time, and it will be easily understood what a great loss his death has been to the whole neighbourhood.” Mr. Shuttleworth was twice married — first to a sister of his friend and partner Mr. Clayton, and secondly to a daughter of Lieut.-Col. Ellison, of Boultham Hall, who survives him. By his first wife he leaves two sons, Alfred and Frank ; the former, having been brought up to the business from youth, became a partner in the firm of Clayton and Shuttleworth, and the latter is a major in the army. The immediate cause of death was congestion of the lungs, which developed inflammation of the heart and other complications, and on the 25th of January, in his sixty-third year, he passed peacefully and quietly away. XIV. — The Natural History of the Liver-Fluke and the Prevention of Rot. By A. P. Thomas, M.A., F.L.S., Balliol College, Oxford ; Professor of Natural Science in the University College, Auckland, New Zealand. LlVER-ROT, although so destructive a disease, is a preventible one. The object of the present paper is to give a popular account of the results of a research into the natural history of the parasite which causes the liver-rot of the sheep and a number of other animals. This research, which has now been completed, was undertaken by me on behalf of the Royal Agricultural Society ol England in June 1880; and the progress of the investiga- tion has been already reported in two papers * contributed to the ‘ Journal ’ of the Society. A short account of the com- pleted research appeared in ‘Nature’ for October 19th, 1882, * “ Report of Experiments on the Development of the Liver-Fluke,” vol. xvii., 1881, April, p. 1 ; Second Report, vol. xviii., 1882, Oct., p. 439. and the Prevention of Rot. 277 and a detailed account intended for scientific readers was pub- lished in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science ’ for January 1883. To this last-named paper I may refer any reader who desires to learn the details of the development of the liver-fluke. The present paper is only intended to give the outlines of the life-history of the fluke in such a way as to enable the farmer and the general reader interested in agri- cultural matters to understand how the parasite is propagated through successive generations, how the sheep incurs the disease by taking in the young fluke with its food, and, lastly, the various methods of preventing the spread of so destructive a disease. Technical terms will therefore be purposely avoided. For the sake of convenience the subject is divided into the following parts : — I. — Nature of the Disease. II. — Life-history of the Liver-fluke. III. — Prevention of the Rot. Part I. — Nature of the Disease. The Rot, liver-rot, fluke disease, coathe, or bane, are all names given to one and the same disease. It is sometimes known as the sheep-rot, since amongst our domesticated animals the sheep is by far the most frequent victim. Very many other animals that eat grass or herbs are, however, subject to the disease, including cattle, deer, horses, pigs, rabbits, hares, kangaroos, camels, &c. ; and even man himself is occasionally attacked. Liver-rot has been known and dreaded from very early times; it was so well known in Shakspeare’s day that an allusion to it occurs in his writings. It is unnecessary for me to enter here into a history of the disease ; for this I may refer to Professor Simonds’s paper.* Many theories have been suggested as to the cause of the disease, several of them being very far from the truth. It is really a parasitic disease, and is caused by the presence, in the bile-ducts of the liver of the diseased animal, of large numbers of a flat worm, known as the liver-fluke (called by zoologists Fasciola hepatica, or less correctly, Distoma hepaticum). The liver-fluke has the shape of a privet-leaf, or of a small sole ; it is pale brown or of a flesh-colour, and is about an inch or an inch and a third in length, and in breadth about half its own length. At one end is a narrower projecting portion, which may be compared to the short thick stem of the leaf; * “The Rot in Sheep.” London, John Murray, 1880. See also ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society,’ Second Series, vol. xvi. Part I., 1880, p. 121. 278 The Natural History of the Liver-Fluke this is the head-part, and at its tip is placed the mouth in the middle of a small sucker or sucking-cup, by which the fluke can attach itself. At the point where the head joins the flat body and on the lower surface is a second sucker — the ventral sucker. The liver-rot caused by these flukes is always common in certain districts of England, and it has been estimated that the average annual loss of sheep in the United Kingdom amounts to no less than 1,000,000. The rot also occurs almost all over the world, extending to Egypt, Australia, Tasmania, and North and South America, and is nearly or sometimes quite as des- tructive in these countries as in the British Isles. Professor Leuckart estimates the average loss per annum in Central Europe alone at 1,000,000 head. But a series of wet seasons always increases the prevalence of the disease. At such times it spreads to districts which are ordi- narily quite free from it. The year 1879 was one of a succession of wet seasons, and the losses during the end of that year and the following spring amounted to no less than 3,000,000 sheep. In his Report to the ‘ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society ’* Mr. Finlay Dun estimates that the same number of sheep died or were sacrificed from rot during the following year. As this is equivalent to the loss during each year of about one-tenth of the total number of the sheep in the United Kingdom, and represents the loss of six or eight millions sterling f per annum, the serious nature of the epidemic will be only too readily seen. Such a loss would be most grievous at any time, but was especially so at a time of bad seasons and wide-spread agri- cultural depression. A portion of the loss falls of course upon the consumer, as is shown by the increase in the price of mutton. Furthermore, the quality of a portion of the supply which comes to the market is necessarily poor. When the disease had spread so widely and had became so exceedingly destructive, it was doubly necessary that we should bestir ourselves and try all possible preventive means. But what were the right measures of prevention ? Here, unfortunately, was the great difficulty. Nothing exact had been found out as to the way in which the fluke entered the sheep, and we had to contend against an insidious enemy who was invisible to us, to strike blindly and in the dark. In this state of uncertainty it was a matter of national * Second Series, vol. xvii. p. 141. t It is very difficult to ascertain the real loss in money, as rotten sheep are frequently sold for food, though at a considerable loss. But in very many instances the animals were sold merely for the price of the skins. and the Prevention of Rot. 279 importance that the whole question should be investigated, in order that it might, if possible, be discovered what were the proper preventive measures to be employed. The Council of the Royal Agricultural Society therefore provided the funds needful to procure costly but indispensable apparatus and material. The investigation thus originated began in the summer of 1880, and was brought to a successful close in the autumn of 1882. What was really known in 1880 came very briefly to the following. The liver-rot was a parasitic disease due to the presence in the bile-ducts of the livers of the diseased animals of great numbers of liver-flukes. Animals were liable to con- tract the rot when allowed to graze on low-lying, wet, or ill- drained lands, and especially on ground subject to floods. So much Avas clearly proved. In addition, it was believed by men of science, from what was known of the animals most nearly related to the liver-fluke, that there rvere larval forms inhabiting some snail or slug, and that the larvae Avere subse- quently taken up by the sheep Avhen grazing. Some had suggested water-snails, others land-snails or slugs, and nu- merous attempts to solve the question had been made by various eminent zoologists ; but all had proved fruitless, and, notwithstanding its great practical importance, the problem remained unsolved. Noav, however, the mystery has been cleared up, and I Avill proceed to explain it in order, step by step, so that I may aftenvards shoAV how and Avhere preventive measures are to be applied. Part II. — The Life-History of the Liver-Fluke. Before giving the life-history of the IRer-fluke, it will be Avell for me to explain a Avonderful peculiarity in the manner of the multiplication and spread of the animals belonging to the group of Flat Avorms of Avhich the IRer-fluke is a member. The fully groAvn adults live as parasites in some kind or other of back- boned animal, such as a sheep, and there multiply by producing eggs. Each of the eggs gh'es rise to an animal, Avhich is neA'er like its parent, never does become like it, and never lives Avhere its parent lives. It enters some snail or slug, and there grows and multiplies, not in the common way by producing eggs, but by giving rise to germs Avithin itself. Calling the animal Avhich is hatched out of the egg the first generation, these germs Avill form the second. There may be a third and a fourth, or even more generations in the snails, all these arising in the same Avay as germs ; but at length a form arises Avhich is destined to leave the snail in some Avay or other, to be sAvallowed by the 280 The Natural History of the Liver-Fluke back-boned animal with its food, then grow much in size, become adult, and reproduce itself by eggs. The snail or slug which harbours the first, second, and following generations is called the intermediate host, the back- boned animal being the ultimate or final host, and there is thus a constant alternation of one generation living its adult life in the back-boned animal, and of one or more generations in the snail or slug. This is an example of what naturalists call an alternation of generations. In the case of the liver-fluke there are at least two genera- tions which live the whole of their adult lives in the particular snail which has now been clearly proved to serve as the inter- mediate host of the fluke. The third generation arises as a germ in the snail, and whilst still a minute larva passes in the manner explained below into the sheep. That is to say, sup- posing we start with the fluke as it is found in the sheep, its child does not grow up into an animal like the parent, nor does the grandchild do so. Both child and grandchild look very different from the true liver-fluke, and live in the snail ; but the great-grandchild, forming the third generation, does, as a rule, grow up into a true liver-fluke and live in the sheep. Wonderful as this may seem to any one who has not studied the marvels of animal life, the fact of alternate generation has been established beyond all doubt, not merely for the liver- fluke, but also for numerous other forms of life, which, how- ever, do not at present concern us. The Eggs of the Liver-Fluke. — The adult fluke, whilst living in the bile-ducts of the sheep or other rotten animal, produces vast numbers of eggs. The bile-ducts (popularly known as the pipes ) become large, and their walls thick, owing to the presence of the parasites. The bile contains numbers of eggs too small to be separately recognised by the naked eye, but which are nevertheless present in such quantities that they give it a dark colour. In some of the small ducts where the eggs have not been washed away by the bile, they may be present in such enormous numbers as to form a stiff dark-brown mass, looking like fine wet sand, and completely blocking up the inside of the duct. The eggs are very minute indeed, being only an inch in length ; but they may be rendered visible to the naked eye by placing some of the dark-brown contents of the bile- ducts into a glass-vessel with water and shaking it up. On now holding the vessel up to the light, the tiny eggs will be seen as brownish specks suspended in the water. If they are very numerous, they will colour the water a light brown, or may even give it a dark coffee-colour. They are a little heavier and the Prevention of Rot. 281 than water, so that if the vessel is allowed to stand for an hour or two all the eggs will fall to the bottom, and leave the water colourless. The number of eggs produced by each fluke is very large, and its fertility has been underrated. In one case I obtained 7,000,000 eggs from the gall-bladder of a single sheep suffering from the rot, and as the liver contained about 200 flukes, this gives an average of 37,000 eggs to each fluke. And these eggs were found in the gall-bladder alone; the liver must have contained at least as many more, and eggs had been passed copiously by the sheep for many months. The number of eggs produced by a single fluke may be safely estimated at half a million, a number more easily spoken of than realised. It is very important that we should know more about the egg , for it forms the starting-point of new generations. But to know more about the egg, it is necessary to see it highly magnified by means of the microscope. Figure 1 shows an egg thus seen. It is an oval body, with a transparent shell, which allows the contents to be distinguished. One end is a little rounder and blunter than the other, and shows a line marking off a rounded portion which forms a lid to the rest of the shell. A little below the lid is a small round mass, which is the present condition of the first generation or animal which will ultimately be developed from the egg. The remaining contents of the egg are simply a store of food for the benefit of this animal. Fig. 1. t'gg of the Liver-fluke examined shortly after it was taken from the liver of a sheep. At the right- hand end of the shell may be seen the line marking off the lid, and a little to the left, the embryo in a very early stage of development. The embryo is surrounded by round masses which serve as food: they are all of them granular, but only three at the left hand side have been fully drawn. Magnified 680 times. (Original.— A. P. T.) So long as the egg remains within the body of the sheep no further change takes place. 282 The Natural History of the Liver-Fluke Under natural conditions, however, the eggs of the fluke are washed away by the bile into the intestine, and, passing through the intestine uninjured, are at length distributed wherever the droppings of the infected animals fall. If they fall on to wet or marshy ground, or are washed by rain into ditches, ponds, or brooks, further changes occur, and in each egg is formed the first generation or animal, which we may term the embryo , so long as it is in the young condition. Not only moisture, but also a certain degree of warmth is required for the growth of the embryo within the egg. A temperature of about 74° to 78° Fahr. is the most favourable, and then the embryo is formed in about two or three weeks ; with less warmth, progress is slower, and with an average temperature of 60° the growth occupies two or three months. Whilst the temperature is very much below this, as in winter time, the egg does not change at all. It will be seen, therefore, that the embryo will not hatch out in the winter time, and that eggs which fall into suitable places at this season will only be hatched out as the warm weather comes on at the end of spring or beginning of summer. But all eggs do not hatch out in the same time ; a certain number are hatched out on every successive day for some weeks or even months, and at the end of this time some of the eggs may remain in the same condition as when just taken from the liver. No explanation can be found in the eggs them- selves of the very variable time required for the growth of the embryo, but the fact is of much practical importance, for eyys scattered over any damp ground may render it dangerous for a long period. Figure 2 shows a fluke-egg at the time when the embryo is fully formed within the shell, and is ready to hatch out. The embryo lies curved on itself at one side of the egg, and on the other side are the remains of the food with which it was origi- nally provided. The head-end of the embryo is directed towards the end of the egg which has the lid ; and between the embryo and the lid is a cushion, or pad of stiff jelly-like substance. It will be seen that the surface of the body is covered with what look like hairs (still more plainly seen in the free embryo, Fig. 3). They are not really hairs, but can be moved ; they are known as cilia, and it is by their means that the embryo swims, for they act as so many paddles in propelling it through the water. Let us watch the embryo as it hatches out. It moves within the egg, the movements becoming more marked, until at last, the body being stretched out suddenly to its full length, so much pressure is brought to bear against the lid that it flies and the Prevention of Rot. 283 open as if moved by a spring. The cushion of jelly-like sub- stance pours out, the embryo thrusts the forepart of its body out of the shell, the cilia (or paddles) begin to move as soon as the water touches them, and the animal, after a short stru, the birth-opening by which the cercarim leave. Magnified 120 times. (Original.— A. P. T.) — W and the Prevention of Rot. 289 upon which they feed. A redia differs from a sporocyst, its parent, in several points. The most important difference is that the former has a mouth and an intestine (Fig. 10, in) shaped like a bottle, whereas the sporocyst has none. Its habits are more active ; towards its hind end are two short projections (Fig. 10, r), which serve as legs of a very simple kind, and prevent the animal from slipping backwards as it moves through the body of its host. If an infected snail which has a clean and transparent shell be chosen, the redia? may be watched by the aid of the microscope as they move inside the living snail. In forcing their way through the body of the snail the para- sites necessarily do a great deal of harm ; so much indeed, that in my experiments in the laboratory I found very few snails live many weeks after infection. In fact, the fluke-disease is, in the laboratory at least, more destructive to the snail than it is to the sheep. Within the redia are found germs, the third generation, which at first are very like those produced in the sporocyst. But later on we see that each germ becomes an animal shaped like a tadpole, with a flat oval body and long slender tail. This animal is usually called a cercaria, the name simply meaning that the animal has a tail. An adult redia, such as is shown in Fig. 10, may grow to the length of one-sixteenth of an inch. It contains about a score of germs in all the different stages of growth ; there are usually two or three so far advanced that they have become tadpole- shaped and are ready to come forth. They escape from the parent by a special opening ( v . Fig. 10), and then crawl or wriggle their way out of the snail. Now these tadpole-like animals are destined to enter the . sheep and there become true liver-flukes, and I shall have to show how they get inside it. When the snails infested with the above-described forms of the liver-fluke are kept in an aquarium, the cercariae or tadpole-shaped larva? may occasionally be found swimming about in the water in a very lively manner. Fig. 11 fp. 290) shows a free cercaria as it appears when swimming. It has a flat oval body about of an inch in length, with a tail more than twice as long. There are two suckers ( y and y) corresponding to those of the adult fluke, and at the sides of the body are many granules arranged in rounded masses ( cy ). The free-swimming life of the cercaria never seems to last long, for on coming in contact with the sides of the aquarium or the water-plants contained in it, the little animal soon comes to rest, draws its body up into a round ball, and exudes from the whole YOL. XIX. — S. S. U 290 The Natural History of the Liver-Fluke Fig. 11. of its surface a gummy substance containing many granules (see Fig. 12), which are the same as those already described as forming masses at the sides of the body of the free cercaria. The tail meanwhile is wagged violently, and before long a more vigorous movement throws it off altogether. The gummy substance hardens on exposure, and the body of the cercaria is thus enclosed in an envelope which protects it from injury. These envelopes are termed cysts (the word cyst meaning a bladder). They are snowy-white, and numbers of them may be found adhering to the walls of the aquarium in which the in- fected snails are kept, or attached to the dark-green leaves of the water-plants. If the snails are crawling on the margin of a ditch or over a damp field, the cercariae on leaving the snail at once proceed to form their envelopes or cysts at the bottom of the grass, and so attach themselves to the stalks, or leaves, near the roots. Fig. 12 shows a cercaria in the act of forming its cyst, and Fig. 13, which is less highly mag- nified, shows three fully-formed cysts adhering to a portion of a grass-stalk. As even the latter figure is magnified to ten times the actual size of the object, the minute size of the cysts will be easily appreciated. They are really only one-hundredth of an inch across. These cysts are the form in which the liver-fluke is swallowed by the sheep, and the animals within them are young flukes. They remain adherent to the grass until the time comes when they are picked up by the sheep feeding on the ground. They may be compared to the pupa; or chrysalides of insects. It must, A free cercaria; (third generation) of the Liver-fluke as it is seen when swimming in the water : y, i/1, the two suckers cor- responding to the suckers of the adult fluke ; in, intestine ; cy. the rounded masses at the sides of the body which provide the material for the formation of the cyst or envelope. Magnified 160 times. (Original. — A. P. T.) and the Prevention of Rot. 291 however, be remembered that whilst the perfect animals emerge from the chrysalides of insects of their own accord as soon as Fig. 12. A cercaria in the act of forming its cyst or enve- lope. Magnified 160 times. (Original. — A. P. T.) Fig. 13. Three cysts of the Liver-fluke attached to a portion of grass-stalk. Each cyst contains a young fluke, which remains quiet until the cysts are swallowed with the grass by a sheep when grazing. Magnified 10 times. (Original. — W. H. J.) they are ready to do so, and live a free-winged existence, the animals will only come fortrh from the cysts of the liver-fluke when the grass or plant to which they were attached has been swallowed by some sheep or other suitable animal. If the cysts are not so swallowed within a few weeks, the young flukes which they contain will perish. The number of cercariae descended from a single fluke-egg cannot be less than 200, and is sometimes much larger. For the rediae forming the second generation, instead of producing cercariae, may, and perhaps as a rule do, give rise to another generation of daughter-rediae resembling themselves, and these then produce cercariae. When this is the case, a single fluke-egg may give rise to more than a thousand cercariae. It will be seen, u 2 292 The Natural History of the Liver-Fluke therefore, that not only does the race of the liver-fluke multiply and increase abundantly in the sheep by producing myriads of eggs, but that there is a further and great increase of the forms within the snail. If only the greatest degree of ordinary increase were reached, a single fluke might give rise to more than a hundred million descendants in the next generation, of liver-flukes proper, inhabiting the sheep. But, fortunately for farmers, the chances are enormously against any such disastrous increase. The habits of Limnceus truncatulus. — The habits of the snail Limnceus truncatulus, which serves as an intermediate host (see p. 280), are of much importance, for they show how the snail is likelv to become infected with the larval forms of the liver- fluke, and also how the cysts are distributed in places where they have a good chance of being picked up by the sheep. Limnceus truncatulus (Figs. 19, 20, p. 302) is a fresh-water snail, with a brown spiral shell ; it is very common, and has a very wide distribution over the world. It is very small, its shell never reaching more than half an inch in length, whilst it is usually much smaller, a common variety in England scarcely ever measuring so much as a quarter of an inch. Owing to its small size it often escapes notice, or is taken for the young of some other kind of snail, so that it has no popular name. Two or three of the kinds of snails most closely allied to L. truncatulus (for instance, Limnceus pereger) may occasionally crawl out of the water for short distances ; but in Limnceus truncatulus itself, the habit is so much more strongly developed, that the snail should be termed amphibious. Indeed it is oftener found out of the water than in it. When kept in an aquarium it quits the water, and as often as it is put back, insists on crawling out again, so long as the necessary strength remains. It is said to breed upon the mud on the banks of ditches. Although so common, it is often very difficult to find, no doubt owing to its minute size and its habit of wandering from the water. As showing how much this snail lives out of the water, it may be interesting to give my own observations. I have related in a former paper that I was quite unable in 1881 to get Limnceus truncatulus for my experiments, nor did I succeed in doing so until July of the following year, when there were floods on the river Isis near Oxford. The waters brought this snail down in vast multitudes, probably from its breeding haunts in marshy places up the river. It was extremely abundant, so numerous indeed, that a single sweep of a small hand-net repeatedly gave me more than 500 examples, and this was in a ditch where the year before I could not obtain a single L. trun- catulus. All along the margins of the ditches the ground was and the Prevention of Rot. 293 covered by them, and they were found abundantly on the flooded ground. On returning three weeks later to the same ditch I was unable to find a single example alive in the water. As I had not suffi- cient leisure on this visit to examine the ground near the ditch, I returned for the purpose of doing so eight days later. There had been dry weather since the flood, but early that morning heavy rain bad fallen, and I found numbers of specimens of L. truncatulus on the gravel of a path near the ditch, and these seemed to have crawled out of the grass when revived by the rain. At the roots of the grass, all along the margin of the ditch, others were found in abundance. Some few shells were quite empty, but the majority contained the dried remains of the snail, which had shrunk far back into the spire of the shell. Most of these appeared to be quite dead, but were, however, merely dormant, for on placing them in water the tissues imbibed moisture and assumed their natural bulk ; and after a few hours the snails had regained their full activity, and were seemingly none the worse for their prolonged drying up. To test the power of resisting drought possessed by the snail, I collected a number of specimens, and placed them in an open vessel on a shelf in a dry laboratory, in a position where the sun fell upon them for an hour or so daily. I found that rather more than half of them withstood twenty-six days of this treatment, and some few revived after more than six weeks. That the snails can live on moist ground, quite away from any quantity of water, for considerable periods, is sufficiently proved by the fact that I have kept them alive for eleven weeks on moist grass and moss, even when infested with the larval forms of the liver-fluke. It is clear, therefore, that the kind of snail under consideration may be brought in great quantities by floods, and may be left on the fields when the waters pass away. The snails thus left continue to wander and feed, so long as the bottom of the grass remains moist. Their numbers are recruited from surrounding ditches and streams. Even on land tvhich is not liable to floods this snail may exist in large quantities, having crawled from the ditches, ponds, streams, and marshy spots, through the moist grass. A drought may render the snail dormant, but, unless continued too long, it revives at the first shower of rain. If there are fluke-eggs on the ground, the embryos hatched out of these will gain entrance to the Limnceus truncatulus living in wet places. Owing to the habit which this par- ticular snail has of living so much out of the water, either on the banks of ditches, or further away towards the centre of the fields if they are damp enough, the cercariae (the larval forms 294 The Natural History of the Liver-Fluke destined to enter the sheep) will, on leaving their host, form their cysts on the grass in the places where they will have the best chance of being transferred to the sheep grazing on the ground. Man himself sometimes serves as host to the liver-fluke, and in this case the cysts containing the young flukes are probably eaten with watercress. Growth and Duration of Life of the Fluke in the Sheep. — From observations which I need not describe here, as they have been given in a former Report,* it appears probable that at least six weeks elapse from the time the fluke is swallowed by the sheep before the parasite becomes adult and begins to produce eggs. A very great increase in bulk occurs, for when the young fluke is introduced it is perhaps only ^jth of an inch in length, whereas the adult fluke reaches an inch or an inch and a third. A change occurs also in the form of the body, as will be seen from Figs. 14, 15, 16, and 17 ; it is due to the more rapid growth of the hind part of the body, which contains the reproductive organs (Fig. 18). Of great practical import- ance is the question how long the fluke remains alive within the sheep. For it will depend upon the length of this period whether or not it is worth while trying to keep the in- fected animals alive until the life of the fluke has reached its natural limit. The liver-fluke is supposed by some to pass out of the sheep at the beginning of summer. If this were the case, its life would not last more than three-quarters of a year. Gerlach states that the fluke always passes out in the months of June and July, but Pech f says that he has seen flukes pass out from rotten * ‘Journal of the Itoyal Agricultural Society,’ 1S81, p. 25. f ‘ Der Thier-arzt,’ 1873, p. 87. Figs. 14, 15, 16. Three young flukes from the liver of a sheep to show the change in lorm during growth. All are magnified 7J- times. Fig. 14 (on the left) represents the smallest fluke I have ever found in a sheep ; it was only ^ of an inch in length. Fig. 15 (in the centre) shows the shape of a fluke *- of an inch loilg, and Fig. 16 (on the right) shows a fluke which lias reached ‘ of the full ‘length of the adult animal. (Original. — A. P. T.) and the Prevention of Rot. 295 sheep in autumn and winter, and suggests that they may have lived in the sheep more than a year. I have examined the Fig. 17. ,.'.y An adult fluke showing the branched digestive tract: y, the oral; y', the ventral sucker; in, the branched intestine. In the centre, between the two main branches of the in- testine, lies the chief trunk of the water- vessel. Twice the natural size. (Original. — W. H. J.) Fig. 18. .■■'V r\ Another view of an adult fluke, showing the re- productive organs : y , the oral ; y\ the ventral sucker ; Od, the oviduct ; Ov, the ovary ; Vt, the vitellarium or gland that forms the granular yolk-cells surrounding the embryo in the egg ; Te , the anterior ; Te\ the posterior testis ; their ducts run forwards. The generative opening is in front of the ventral sucker. Twice the natural size. (Original. — W. H. J.) droppings of sheep in June, sent by the kindness of a veterinary surgeon, which were asserted to contain dead flukes, but the so-called flukes proved on microscopic examination to be masses of discoloured mucus. From my own observations I am able to say that the flukes do not always pass out from the sheep in the summer time. There is no time of the year when sheep-livers, containing flukes which are clearly several months old, cannot be obtained. In a former Report * a case was described in which the flukes within a sheep were proved to have lived for a longer period than one year. The animal took the rot in * ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society,’ 1881, p. 26. 296 The Natural History of the Liver-Fluke the autumn of 1879, and when it was killed on the 18th of December, 1880, its liver was found to be still full of flukes. Summary of the Life-History. — The adult fluke in the liver of the sheep produces enormous numbers of eggs, which are dis- tributed with the droppings of the sheep. If these eggs have moisture and a suitable degree of warmth, they continue to live, and in each is formed an embryo. The embryo leaves the egg and swims in search of the particular snail, Limnceus trun- catulus , within which its future life and growth takes place. The embryo bores into the snail, and then grows into the form which is called a sporocyst. The sporocyst gives rise to the second generation. This generation is known as redia. The rediae in turn produce the third generation, which has the form of a tadpole, and is called cercaria. The cercariae quit the snail, and enclose themselves in envelopes or cysts, which are attached to the grass. When the grass to which the cysts adhere is eaten by the sheep, or other suitable host, the young liver-fluke comes out of the cyst and takes up its abode in the liver of its host, and the fatal circle is thus completed. It will be seen, therefore, that the fluke-disease is a disease which alternates between a particular snail and the sheep. A sheep cannot take the infection directly from another sheep, nor can one snail take it directly from another snail. The sheep, by spreading the eggs of the fluke, gives the infection to the snail, and the snail in turn, by harbouring and distributing the cer- cariae, conveys the infection to the sheep. Part III. — The Prevention of Rot. Now that we have followed the whole of the life-history of the parasite, and know where it is to be found and to be fought, at all the stages of its varied existence, we are in a position to discuss the important practical bearings of the question. We may therefore proceed with the consideration of the preventive measures, which, if carefully carried out, will, it is believed, enable us to reduce the losses to a comparatively insignificant amount ; and eventually, if all farmers will combine their efforts, totally stamp out the disease, so that it may become altogether a thing of the past. Let me first state the conditions necessary for the existence of liver-rot, as proved by the foregoing research, and discuss the measures which will prevent the conditions being satisfied, and therefore prevent the disease itself ; and lastly give a summary of the preventive measures. The conditions necessary for the existence of liver-rot in any given locality are as follows : — and the Prevention of Rot. 297 1. There must be fluke-eggs on the ground. 2. There must be wet ground or water during the warmer weather for the eggs to hatch in. 3. A particular snail called Limnceus truncatulus must be present. 4. Sheep or other animals must be allowed to feed on the same ground, without proper precautions being taken. If any one of these conditions remains unsatisfied there can be no fluke-disease or liver-rot in the locality. Let us consider these conditions in detail. ls£ Condition. There must be fluke-eggs on the ground. — We have already seen that the fluke whilst in the liver of the sheep, rabbit, or other animal, produces vast quantities of minute eggs, and that these pass into the intestines and are distributed in myriads wherever the droppings fall. So that wherever fluked sheep are kept, there wre shall have fluke-eggs. In some districts the fluke is always to be found, though in dry seasons it may become scarce. Still a few exist, and these are quite sufficient to keep up the breed until a wet season occurs, when, under the favourable influence of moisture, they increase so rapidly as to produce a devastating outbreak. But the fluke disease may appear in quarters where it wras previously unknown, and surprise is frequently expressed at the way in which it suddenly breaks out in isolated flocks. The infection, however, may be introduced in many ways. Eggs may be brought in manure ; or adhering to the feet of men, horses, or dogs ; or they may be conveyed by running water, and espe- cially by floods. Rabbits and hares, too, have much to answer for in distributing the parasite. The same account is given everywhere of the way in which rabbits suffer from rot, and in some neighbourhoods about Oxford they wrere almost exter- minated by it in 1879-80. I have received on several occasions fluked rabbits, and have known them to contain each as many as forty or fifty flukes. Wherever they go, and they often wander far from home, the eggs of the fluke are distributed in their droppings. In a case where infection had suddenly broken out in an isolated flock of sheep at Wytharn, near Oxford, I was able to show that the rabbits from the neighbouring woods had introduced the disease. So wonderfully fertile is the liver-fluke that, if every egg were safely hatched out and the full average multiplication in the snail were attained, a single rotten sheep might pass enough eggs to eventually give the rot badly to all the sheep in England, some thirty millions in number. Fortunately the chances are very greatly against any flukes being reared from any particular egg. Still we must do all we can to increase these adverse 298 The Natural History of the Liver-Fluke chances, and must begin the prevention of rot by waging a war of extermination against the eggs. If we can destroy or, better still, render impossible the production of nine out of every ten fluke-eggs which are annually scattered in England, we shall so mitigate the rot, that instead of a sheep being infested with two or three hundred flukes, it will on the average contain only twenty or thirty. Now whilst two or three hundred flukes would destroy a sheep, twenty or thirty will do comparatively little harm. The production of fluke-eggs may of course be prevented by killing the sheep as soon as it is known that it is suffering from the rot. Extreme as this measure may seem to some, if the sheep are at all badly rotted it will prove the most economical in the end, especially if the disease is discovered at an early stage. It is better to lose a little at the outset than to run the risk of having finally to sell the sheep for little more than the price of the skin. The quality of the meat will be only slightly deteriorated at first, and there will then be no objection to its use for food. But as the disease advances, the meat will become less and less wholesome, and at last become totally unfit for human consumption. There is no cure known for the rot, for the fluke inhabits the liver, an organ which can only be reached through the blood, and it is impossible to prescribe any drug which will harm the fluke without harming the sheep at the same time. It is quite true that if the sheep does not contain too many flukes, it may recover when the natural life of the fluke comes to an end, provided its strength is kept up by a liberal diet. But the life of the fluke may last so long (see pp. 294-5), that even if this method prove successful, it will be very costly, and it is scarcely worth while making the attempt, unless the sheep be of a specially valuable breed, or unless there is reason to believe that it contains only a small number of flukes. If the owner decides to try to keep the infected flocks, they should not be allowed to remain on wet ground, for then the fluke-eggs would have a favourable place for hatching, and the result might be a harvest of death reaped in the following season. If rotten sheep are kept at all, let them be placed on dry ground, where the eggs cannot meet with the moisture neces- sary for their development, and where there is no chance of their being washed into ditches, ponds, or streams. A brook may easily carry the eggs down with its current to land lying at a lower level. If there is reason to suspect that a flock of sheep is attacked with liver- rot, either one of the most suspicious-looking should be killed, and its liver examined for flukes ; or if a microscope and the Prevention of Rot. 299 is available, the point will be more readily decided by taking a very small quantity of the droppings of the sheep on the point of a penknife, mixing it with a little water on a glass-slide, and examining for fluke-eggs. If the animal contains many flukes, even so small a quantity of the droppings will show several eggs, easily recognized as eggs on account of their perfectly definite shape and yellowish-brown colour. This method of course will only serve to prove the presence of the flukes when the disease has been taken for some time, for the fluke does not begin to produce eggs until it has been in the sheep some six weeks. The manure of fluked animals must never be placed on wet ground. If the sheep are kept in a yard, the manure should be collected, and a little coal-tar oil may be added to prevent the development of the eggs ; or it should be kept for a considerable time before it is spread on the fields. The livers of rotten sheep should be destroyed, for they contain enormous numbers of eggs ; perhaps the simplest way of getting rid of them will be to bury them deep. When livers are not very much injured by the fluke, they are often given to dogs, and there is no great objection to this, provided they he well cooked first. Other- wise, if they are given in a raw state, the contained eggs will pass uninjured through the dog, and be distributed by it. 2nd Condition. There must be wet y round or water during the warmer weather for the eggs to hatch in. — If the eggs of the liver-fluke are to be hatched, they must be in water, or at least be kept moist, during some weeks of warm weather, or even for some months if the temperature be lower. If the eggs are once thoroughly dried, their vitality is destroyed, the side of the shell being usually crushed in. Ground is often, with reference to the rot, spoken of as “ sound,” or, on the contrary, as “ rotting.” When the droppings containing fluke-eggs fall on to a field, the rain will distribute the eggs over the surface, washing them down to the roots of the grass. If the soil is light and sandy or porous, the ground will be “ sound,” for the water will filter into the earth, leaving the eggs on the surface, where they will get dried, and so be destroyed. If, on the other hand, the soil is heavy and clayey, so that the rain-water does not sink into the earth, but flows along the surface, the ground is “ rotting.” For, as the water flows over the surface, it carries the fluke-eggs along with it, and deposits them in ditches, holes, marshy places, furrows where the water stands, all of them places where the eggs will hatch. The obvious remedy for this evil is to drain the land thoroughly and efficiently, and this will not only do much to 300 The Natural History of the Liver-Fluke prevent the rot, but will have the further advantage of greatly improving the herbage. Where it is not practicable to drain the land at once, either salt or lime may be scattered over the surface. Both these substances will destroy the embryos of the fluke, and at a later period the cysts when attached to the grass. And, still further, they will destroy the snails which serve as hosts to the inter- mediate forms of the liver-fluke. The freedom from rot of sheep feeding on salt-marshes is well-known, and is now shown to be due to the poisonous action of the salt on the embryos, sporocyst, redia, cercaria, and cyst, and to its similar action on Limnceus truncatulus itself.* Even a weak solution of salt in water (containing only f per cent, of salt) proves fatal to this snail. Dressings of salt have the advantage over lime in not spoiling the grass for immediate use, whereas lime will do so. It may, however, at times be better for the land itself that lime should be applied. It will be for the farmer to decide which dressing should be used. It is naturally of much importance that the salt, or lime, should be distributed at the right time of the year, when fluke- germs and snails are present in the greatest numbers. The snail buries itself in mud, or soil, in the winter-time, and owing to the cold no embryos are hatched out at that time. If the weather be warm in April, it is possible that a few may be hatched out towards the end of the month, but they will not be numerous. In May, however, greater numbers will be hatched, and still more in June and July. These two months are the time of the year when the snails are most liable to be infected. As more eggs are distributed through the whole of the summer by fluked animals, it is clear, of course, that the production of embryos, though in less numbers, will continue from August until the time when the development is checked by autumnal cold. Even under the most favourable circumstances it will be seven weeks before the cercariae are formed within the snail so as to be ready for transference to the sheep. Animals may take the rot as early as June, but this is not of frequent occurrence. In July, however, the germs or cysts on the grass become more numerous, though still comparatively scarce. In August more will be found, but it is in the months of September and October that they are most numerous. These are the most dangerous months. The Northumberland farmers hold that the end ol * It may be worth noting that water-cress should be steeped in salt and water before it is eaten, so ns to guard against any possible infection from adhering cysts of the liver-fluke. and the Prevention of Rot. 301 October is the most fatal time for their district. In November the germs are less numerous, and rot is less frequently taken, though there are one or two instances in which the disease has O # m been clearly proved to have been taken as late as the beginning of December. Some farmers are inclined to place the dangerous period earlier in the year, dating from the time of a flood in June or July. It may be quite correct to attribute the outbreak to the flood, but the date of the flood may simply be the time when the snails are infected, and not when the sheep take the rot. The cercariae would probably be matured some two months later, so that the true date of the infection of the sheep would be August or September. In the case of snails which become infected late in the year, , the different generations will not have time to grow, multiply and become mature before the cold of the closing year drives the snail into its winter quarters, and suspends for the time the life of the parasites. It is a question of some interest whether the snail and its included parasites can together survive the winter and complete their growth in the following spring. If the parasites are numerous or are far advanced, the snail is so much weakened that, fortunately for us, it will probably suc- cumb to the rigours of the winter. But there can be little doubt that some few will retain their vitality throughout the winter, and with the return of milder weather a fresh start will be made, and that at length the forms destined to be transferred to the sheep will be matured. Some of the cases of early infection in June are probably due to parasites which have survived the winter in the snail. June and July are then the principal but not the only months in which we are to wage war against the embryos ; the latter part of August, September and October, are the months in which especially to destroy the germs on the grass ready for transference to the sheep. 3rd Condition. A particular snail called Limnceus trunca- tulus must be present — There seems to be only one snail in England * which can serve as host to the intermediate forms * The snail L. truncatulus has a very wide distribution, being found, according to Dr. Gwyn-Jeffreys, throughout Europe, in North Asia, Morocco, Algeria, Madeira, and (doubtfully) Guatemala. The liver-fluke, however, has a much wider distribution, and it follows that there must be in certain countries, supposing L. truncatulus to be really absent, another snail which can replace it as host. Thus the fluke is found in the United States, where L. truncatulus is said not to occur, though several other kinds of snails belonging to the genus Limnxus are found. In Australia the fluke occurs both in sheep and in human beings. L. truncatulus is stated not to exist there, but eleven kinds of Limnxi are recorded. It is probable that in both these countries some other species of Limnxus serves as host. 302 The Natural History of the Liver-Fluke of the liver-fluke. Consequently, wherever this snail is absent there can be no liver-rot, and if we could succeed in extermi- nating it, we should render it impossible for the disease to exist in England. Fig. 19. The snail, Limnceus trunca- tulus , which serves as hust to the sporocy6t, redia, and growing cercaria of the Liver-fluke. The drawing is magnified, and the true length is shown by the line at its side. (Original — A. P. T.) The snail, however, is small, and hence difficult of detection, so that all we can hope to do is to limit its numbers in any given locality. There are several ways in which this may be done. First of all, the land should be well drained. I have known an instance in which Limnceus truncatulus was found in a small boggy place towards the middle of a field, and was there the means of propagating the fluke. When, however, the marshy place was drained, the snail disappeared from the ground, and with it the fluke-disease. A dressing of lime or salt will, as already mentioned, destroy the snails, and, if applied to the ground for this purpose, it should be scattered especially on or near any marshy places, or along the margins of ditches, ponds, or streams, out of which the snail will naturally crawl. A flood may bring the snail down in quantities, and scatter it broadcast over fields which were previously free from it (see p. 292). The snails may be infected before they are brought down by the flood, and infection be thus introduced into new areas ; or they may become infected subsequently, if there are eggs on the ground. They are drifted everywhere. Flooded land should therefore have the salt or lime scattered over the whole of its surface when the waters have gone down. 4th Condition. Sheep or other animals must be allotvcd to feed on the same ground , without proper precautions being taken. — If Fig. 20. Limnceus trunca- tulus, of natural size. (A. P. T.) and the Prevention of Rot. 303 any ground is likely to give the rot to sheep, the simplest plan would, of course, be not to allow them to graze upon it, but to keep them on drier and safer land. But such advice would seem a mockery in certain districts, where all the land is more or less unsound. A great deal of such ground would probably be found to be heavy, and in urgent need of drainage. But it must always be remembered that even a sound porous soil may become dangerous in a season of excessive wet, if it lies so low that it becomes clogged with water which cannot be carried off fast enough by the rivers, or if it is flooded. If it is necessary to send sheep on to dangerous ground, great care should be exercised in observing the following precau- tions : — Salt or lime may be scattered on the surface at the proper . season, to destroy the germs, as already explained. Salt should also be used in another way. It has long been known that salt is a preventive when given to the sheep with their food, but many farmers have been slow to use it. There are two reasons for its action. First, it acts injuriously upon the germs of the liver-fluke which may be swallowed ; and secondly, it improves the general health of the sheep, enabling them to digest the germs better. In addition to the salt, dry food should be given, as this will, by keeping them in good health, greatly improve their chance of digesting the young flukes. If the salt be mixed with the dry food, each sheep is more likely to secure its proper proportion, and no more, than if lumps of rock-salt are simply put dowTn for the sheep to lick when they please. Care must, however, be taken that breeding-ewes do not get too much. It will scarcely be necessary to give salt to them after November, so far as this particular purpose is concerned, for there will then be very few of the germs or cysts about on the grass. In this connection may be mentioned an experiment recently tried by Mr. T. P. Heath, veterinary officer for Exeter and Devon, and published in the ‘ Western Morning News ’ for Oct. 14th, 1882. It is especially valuable on account of its definite and exact nature. No sheep had been kept in safety on or near Mr. Heath’s farm within living memory. A number of unaffected sheep were selected, and divided into two flocks. One flock was kept as all other farmers’ sheep are kept ; to each sheep of the other flock was given a quarter of an ounce of common salt, well mixed with half a pint of oats every day that they fed on the permanent pastures. Whilst they were feeding on turnips, vetches, &c., this corn and salt allowance was entirely dispensed with. All the sheep were killed in summer. 304 The Natural History of the Liver-iluhe The half fed with corn and salt were quite sound ; the other half had flukes in their livers, so that they could not have been kept through another winter. Mr. Heath had no cause of complaint with his speculation, as the subject of his experiment realised a profit of about 50s. per head, and the cost of corn and salt did not exceed 3s. each. Sheep must not be allowed to graze too closely, for they are then specially liable to take the rot. Not only does close- grazing imply that food is scanty, and that the health, and therefore the digestive power, of the sheep is likely to suffer in consequence, but the sheep will pick up more fluke-germs. The snail, in crawling about in the grass, keeps, as a rule, at the bottom, close to the roots ; the cercariae accordingly, on leaving the snail and proceeding to form their cysts or envelopes, will attach themselves to the stalks of grass or other plants, close to the ground. Hence the closer the sheep grazes, the more of these cysts it is likely to pick up. There are many instances on record, and I have myself met with others, in which “ hog- jawed” sheep, which are unable to graze closely, have escaped infection when all the rest of the flock have been rotted. The special liability of sheep to the fluke seems in some measure to be due to the fact that it can graze more closely than any other domestic animal. Summary of Preventive Measures. — I may now give a summary of the preventive measures which have been suggested above. 1. All eggs of the liver-fluke must be rigorously destroyed ; manure of rotten sheep, or other rotten animal, must not be put on wet ground. 2. If sheep are rotten, let them be sent to the butcher at once, unless they are specially valuable and are not badly fluked. If kept, they must not be put on to wet ground. 3. Care must be taken to avoid introducing eggs of the fluke, either with manure, or with fluked sheep, or in any other way. Rabbits and hares must not be allowed to introduce the eggs. 4. All heavy or wet ground must be thoroughly drained. 5. Dressings of lime or salt should be spread over the ground at the proper seasons to destroy the embryos, the cysts of the fluke, and also the snail which acts as host. 6. Sheep must not be allowed to graze closely, for the more closely they graze, the more fluke-germs will they pick up. 7. When sheep are allowed to graze on dangerous ground, they should have a daily allowance of salt, and a little dry food. If all farmers will unite in carrying out the above preventive measures, suggested by the knowledge of the life-history of the parasite, there is no reason why the fatal ravages of the de- and the Prevention oj Rot. 305 structive fluke should not be so restricted that the losses would at once be reduced to a comparatively trifling amount. There is at present one obstacle in the way of the total extermination of the fluke. So long as rabbits and hares have free liberty to convey the infection from one district to another, there will always be a danger of a fresh outbreak in places where the fluke had for the time been driven out. And for rabbits in a state of nature we cannot adopt preventive measures in the same way that we can for domesticated animals, so that on wet waste lands the breed of flukes may be constantly kept up. Very much, however, may be effected by united action ; and if the preventive measures which are now suggested are strictly carried out by all, we shall hear no more of disastrous outbreaks of the sheep-rot, and something at least will have been effected towards raising the fortunes of British agriculture. In concluding, I desire once more to express my thanks to all the gentlemen who have so readily and courteously assisted my investigations upon their fields. It gives me much pleasure to take this opportunity of thanking Dr. Acland for kindly per- mitting me to use the Sanitary Laboratory of the Oxford Museum for my experiments, and Professor Moseley for kindly placing all apparatus in the Anatomical Department at my disposal. To my friend Mr. W. Hatchett- Jackson, Natural Science Lecturer of St. John’s College, Oxford, I am especially in- debted, for he has most kindly come to my aid when prevented by my departure for New Zealand from revising the present paper, and has, by undertaking the revision of the proofs of both figures and text, and by making for me some additional drawings, rendered its earlier publication possible. VOL. XIX, ■S. F. X ( 306 ) ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY IN 1882. I.— PERIODICALS PRESENTED TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY. Presented by the respective Societies and Editors. A. — English, American, and Colonial Periodicals. Aberdeen sb ire Agricultural Association. Annual Report, Season 1881. Agricultural Economist. Vol. XIII. 1882. Gazette. 1882. Almanack. 1883. Agricultural Returns of Great Britain. 1882. Statistics, Ireland, 1882. Agricultural Students’ Gazette. 1882. American Agricultural Association, Journal of the. Yol. II. Nos. 2, 3 and 4. 1882. American Agriculturist. Yol. XLI. 1882. Athenaeum. 1882. Bath and West of England Society, Journal of the. 1882. Bell’s Weekly Messenger. 1882. Bristol Mercury. 1882. Chemico- Agricultural Society of Ulster, Journal of. 1882. Clydesdale Stud Book. Vol. IV. Coates’s Herd Book. Vol. XXVIII. 1882. County Gentleman. Vol. XX. 1882. Economist. Vol. XL. 1882. English Cart-horse Stud Book. Vol. III. Essex Standard. Vol. LII. 1882. Farm and Home. 1882. Farmer. 1882. Farmer’s Herald. 1882. Field. 1882. Geological Society, Journal of the. Vol. XXXVIII. 1882. Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, Transactions of the. Vol. XIV. 1882. Illinois Railroad and Warehouse Commission ; Report for 1881. Illustrated Journal of Agriculture, Montreal. 1882. Institution of Civil Engineers, Proceedings of the. 4 Vols. 1882. of Mechanical Engineers, Proceedings of the. 1882. — of Surveyors, Transactions of the. Vol. XIV. 1882. Investor’s Monthly Manual. 1882. Irish Farmer. 1882. Farmer’s Gazette. 1882. Ironmonger. 1882. Ironmongers’ Diary and Text Book. 1883. Additions to the Library. 307 Journal of Forestry. Yol. YI. 1882. Land. Vol. II. 1882. Agents’ Record. 1882. Live-Stock Journal. 1882. Almanac. 1883. Maine Board of Agriculture. 1881. Mark Lane Express and Agricultural Journal. 1882. Massachusetts, Agriculture of, 1881. Meteorological Society, Quarterly Journal of the. 1882. Midland Counties’ Herald. 1882. Nature. 1882. New Jersey State Board of Agriculture. Report for 1882. Newcastle Courant. ' 1882. North British Agriculturist. 1882. Pennsylvania, Agriculture of. 1881. Polled Herd Book. Yol. Y1I. 1882. Prairie Farmer. 1882. Queensland, Statistics of the Colony of. 1881. Royal Dublin Society, Scientific Transactions of the. 1882. Royal Geographical Society, Proceedings of the. 1882. Royal Institution of Great Britain. Vol. IX. 1881-2. Royal Manchester, Liverpool, and North Lancashire Agricultural Society, Journal and Prize List. 1882. Royal United Service Institution, Journal of the. 1882. Society of Arts, Journal of the. 1882. South Australia, Royal Agricultural and Horticultural Society of. Proceedings for year ending March, 1881. Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom from 1871 to 1880-81. Society, Journal of the. 1882. Sussex Association for the Improvement of Agriculture. Annual Report, Season 1881. Tasmania, Statistics of the Colony of. 1881 ; and Census, 1881. Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom, Accounts relating to the, 1882. Veterinarian, The. 1882. Veterinary Journal. 1882. B. List of Foreigh Periodicals. Berlin. Landwirthschaftliche Jahrbiicher. Band X. Supplements, 1882. . . Band XI. Hefte 1-6, and Sup- plement. 1882. . Journal fiir Landwirthschaft. 1882. Hefte 1-4. Bogota. El Agricultor. Serie 3% No. 1-7. 1881. . . , No. 8-12. 1882. . Memoria del Secretario de Fomento. 1881. Brussels. Journal de la Societe centrale d’Agriculture de Belgique. 10 Parts. 1882. Buenos Aires. Anales de la Sociedad rural Argentina. Vol. XV. 1881. . . Vol. XVI. Nos. 4-17. 1882. 308 Additions to the Library. Christiania. Tredie Beretning om Bygd0 Kongsgaard. 1882. Kopenhagen. Tidsskrift for Land 0konomi. 5“ Roekke. 1“* Bind. 4d* Hefte, 1882. Leemvarden. Friesch Rundvee-Stambock. Yol. III. 1882. Madrid. Estadistica de la Produccion de los Montes Publicos, 1866-70. 1882. Milan. Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere. Rendiconti. Serie II. Vol. II. Fasc. 11-16. 1869. Munich. Zeitscbrift des Landwirthschaftlichen Yereins in Bayern. 1881. Paris. Annales Agrcnomiques. Tome 7“'. Fasc. 1 and 4. 1881. . . Tome 8me. Fasc. 1-4. 1882. . Annales de l’lnstitut National Agronomique. 4m' Annee. No. 5 1882. . Journal d’Agrioulture Pratique. 1882. . Journal de l’Agriculture. 1882. . Bulletin de la Societe des Agriculteurs de France. 1882. . Minist^re de PAgriculture. Bulletin. 1” Annee. Nos. 1-4. 1882. . Revue des Industries Cbimiques et Agricoles. 4”’ Annee. Nos. 56-58. 1882. Rome. Annali di Agricoltura. 10 Parts. 1881-2. . Notizie intorno alle condizioni dell’ agricoltura negli anni 1878-79. Vol. I. 1881. Rouen. Extrait des Travaux de la Societe Centrale d’Agriculture du departe- ment de la Seine-lnferieure. Cahiers 198 and 199. 1882. Solothurn. Schweizerisches Heerdebuch. Erster Band. Berners-Fleckvieh- Race. 1880.’ Strasbourg. Bulletin Trimestriel de la Societe des Sciences, &c., de la Basse Alsace. Vol. XVI. 1882. Vienna. Illustrirte Garten -Zeitung. Hefte 6-9. 1881. II.— BOOKS PRESENTED OR OTHERWISE ADDED TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY. Names of Donors in Italics. A. English, American, and Colonial Books and Pamphlets. Appleton, Francis H. Address before the Essex Agricultural Society, Mass. Sept. 1882. Atwater, Prof. W. 0. Fertilizers. Blake, J. 11., C.E., F.G.S. On the Conservancy of Rivers, Prevention of Floods, Drainage, and Water Supply. Burrows, Alfred J. The Agricultural Depression and How to Meet It. Crops of the Farm, The. Floods, A Contribution towards the Discussion on the Controlling and Regu- lation of. Hazard, Willis P. How to Select Cows ; or the Guenon System simplified, explained, and practically applied. Henry, Prof. W. A. Experiments in Amber Cane, and the Ensilage of Fodders, at the Experimental Farm. Houghton Farm (U.S.A.) Experiments with Indian Corn, 1880-81. Jleath, <7. P. The Sheep Mortality of 1879 and 1880. Live-Stock of the Farm, The. Additions to the Library. 309 Meteorological Society . Reports on the Phenological Observations, 1880 and 1881. Notes on tbe Agriculturists of the District of Aurungabad. Ormerod, Miss E. A. Report of Observations of Injurious Insects during 1881. . Report of Observations of Attack of Turnip Fly in 1881. . Effects of Weather on Insects. Parry , Albert IF. The Use of Steam Road Rollers. Rich, IF. E. On Dynamometers, Friction Brakes, and other testing apparatus belonging to the R.A.S.E. Richmond, Virginia : Advantages as a manufacturing and trading centre. Roth, H. L. Continental Irrigation. Soil of the Farm, The. Simpson, Pinder. Simpson’s Improved Farm Account Book. Smithsonian Institution. Report for 1880. . Publications of the Bureau of Ethnology. . Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collection, 469. . List of Foreign Correspondents. Statistics of Agriculture, with special reference to the Fertilizer Trade of Balti- more, &c. Baltimore Chemical and Fertilizer Exchange. Thurber, Dr. George. Silos and Ensilage. United Stales Department of Agriculture. Special Reports, Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54. . Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the year 1880 ; Preliminary Report for 1882 ; and Report for the years 1881 and 1882. Florida: its Climate, Soil, Pro- ductions and Agricultural Capabilities. Whitehead, Charles. Hop Cultivation. B. Foreign Books and Pamphlets. Barral , J. A. Conference sur les applications de l’electricite a l’agriculture. Paris, 1881. . Conference sur le Phylloxera. Paris, 1882. . Eloge biographique de Leonce de Lavergue. Paris, 1882. Bary, A. de. JEcidium abietinum. Leipzig, 1879. . Zur Kenntniss der Peronospora. Leipzig, 1881. Berendt, G., and L. Didk. Lichtenrade geognostisch und agronomisch bearbeitet. Berlin, 1882. , and E. Laufer. Gross-Beeren geognostisch und agronomisch bearbeitet. Berlin, 1882. Cazeneuve, A. Rapport sur le Concours International de la Societe Royale d’agriculture d’A ngleterre. Lille, 1880. Couvidon, H. Les B coles d’agriculture pratique et la culture de la vignc en Bgypte. Port Said, 1881. Durund-Claye, A. Btat de la question des Eaux d'Bgout. Nancy, 1877, and Paris, 1881. . Experiences sur les affouillements. Paris, 1873. . Le Materiel et les Precedes des Industries Agricoles, &c (Paris Exhibition Reports). Paris, 1880. . Les travaux d’Assainissement de Danzig, Berlin, Breslau. Paris, 1881. 310 Additions to the Library. Durand-Claye, A. Memoire sur le dessechement du lac Fucino. Paris, 1878. . Note sur l’utilisation agricole des Eaux d’lSgout de la Yille de Paris. Paris, 1870. . Situation de la Question des Eaux d’l5gout. Paris, 1873 and ’74. F/eischmann, W. Bericht iiber die Werksamkeit des Meierei-Institutes Raden im Jabre 1879. Rostock, 1880. . Bericht des milchwirthschaftlichen Yereines. Bremen, 1882. Gatellier, E. Etude sur le prix de revient des fumiers. Meaux, 1882. Gilbert, F. H. Recherches sur la culture des Prairies artificielles en Picardie. Paris, 1880. Giammaria, N. Analisi della Soja hispida. Naples, 1881. Giglioli, J. Sulla resistenza di alcuni semi all’ azione prolungata di agenti chimici. Naples, 1881. . Sullo svolgimento dell’ idrogeno arseniato. Naples, 1881. -. and F. Sails. Analisi di venti varieta di maccheroni. Naples, 1881. Giunti, M. Alcuni metodi di analisi quantitativa del latte. Naples, 1881. . Ricerche sulla diffusione del Rame nel regno animale. Naples, 1881. . Del guano di Pipistrelli. Naples, 1881. Herden, E. Lehrbuch der Dungerlehre. Hanover, 1879-81. Janke, H. Die Yorausbestimmung des Geschlechts beim Rinde. Berlin, 1881. Joly, V. Ch. Note sur deux Societes d’Horticulture aux Etats-TJnis. Paris, 1881. Larnbl, J. B. Die Grundrente als Zweck aller Landwirthschaft und Vieh- zucht. Prague, 1880. Lavalard, E. Rapports sur les operations du service de la Cavalerie, Ac. Compagnie generale des Omnibus de Paris. Paris, 1881. Lavergne, L. de. Essai sur l’Economie rurale de l’Angleterre. 5th Edition. Paris, 1882. Presented by the Editor, Mans. E. J. Lesage. Lecouteux, E. Le ble, sa culture intensive et extensive. Paris, 1882. Liburnan, J. B. L. Bericht fur den zweiten internationalen Meteorologen- Congress. Vienna, 1879. Presented by B. E. Scott, Esq. Marchand, E. Constitution des eaux potables. Havre, 1877. . De l’utilite de la verification du lait. Rouen, 1880. . Instruction sur l’emploi du lacto-butyrometre. Paris, 1S78. . Les champs d’experiences. Rouen, 1881. . Note sur la composition du lait. Paris, 1878. . Sur les precedes employes pour operer l’analyse chimique du lait. Paris, 1879. Merino, M. G. y. Las epidemias de las plantas en la costa del Teru. Lima, 1878. Olivera, E. Estudios y viages agrfcolas. 2 vols. Buenos Aires, 1879. Philippe, J. De la variole du Cheval. Rouen, 1880. Raimondi, A. El departamento de Ancacho. Lima, 1873. . El Peru. Tomo II. Lima, 1876. Bibeiro, J. S. Historia dos estabelecimentos scientificos, &c. Ac. Portugal, vols. viii. and ix. Lisbon, 1879 and 1881. Bossi, F. Analisi di alcune Sanse. Naples, 1881. . Estrazzione dell’ alcool dalle Oarrubbe. Naples, 1881. . Importanza del panello di cotone. Naples, 1881. . Produzione dei fichi secchi in Italia. Naples, 1881. Additions to the Library. 311 Rossi, F. Sulla determinazione dell’ acido fosforico nel Guano di Pesce. Naples, 1881. and M. Carlucci. Maturazione dei frutti. Naples, 1881. Sassen, A. Een tweetal machtige, buitenlandsche landbouw-vereenigingen. Schmidt, C. Chemische Untersuchung der Schwarzerden. Dorpat, 1881. Souza, P. de. Contabilidad Rural. Montevideo, 1882. Thoms, G. Die Ersebnisse der Diinger-Controle, 1880-81. Dorpat, 1881. . Die kiinstliche Dungemittel. Dorpat, 1881. . Die landwirthschaftlich-chemiscke Versuchs- und Samen-Control Station zu Riga. Riga, 1S82. Ulivi, P. G. Nuove nozioni di fisiologia apistica. Forli, 1881. Veris, R. Analisi chiinica dei vini della provincia Leccese. Naples, 1881. . Analisi di quattro formaggi ovini della puglia. Naples, 1881. VUmorin , //. Les Produits agricoles non alimentaires. (Paris, Exhibition Reports). Paris, 1881. Wollny, E. Conferenz fur land- und forstwirthschaftliche Meteorologie. Heidelberg, 1880. Ziindel, A. La Distomatose, on cachexie aqueuse du Mouton. Strasbourg, 1880. Tiie Tear when Elected. 1879 1855 1857 1861 1863 1868 1854 1860 1839 1856 1858 1861 1873 1861 1839 1867 1847 1848 1858 1872 1848 1852 1859 1855 1881 1877 1880 1875 1871 1874 18S3 1882 1860 1871 1882 1873 1876 1879 1875 » T] retire t Kopal Agricultural &octetp of (England. 1883. JJreiStDent. of RICHMOND and GORDON, K.G., Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex. C truest eta. H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G., Marlborough House, Pall Mall, S.W, Acland, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., M.P., Killerton, Exeter, Devonshire. Bridport. General Viscount, Cricket St. Thomas, Chard, Somersetshire. Dent, J. D., Ribston Hall, Wetherby, Yorkshire. Kingscote, Colonel, M.P., Kingscote, Wott on-under- Edge, Gloucestershire. Lichfield, Earl of, Shugborough , Staffordshire. Macdonald, Sir Archibald Keppel, Bt„ Woolmer Lodge, Liphook, Hants. Marlborough, Duke of, K.G., Blenheim Park, Oxford. Postman, Viscount, Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset. Powis, Earl of, Powis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire. Rutland, Duke of, K.G., Belvoir Castle, Grantham, Leicestershire, Wells, William, Holmewood, Peterborough, Northamptonshire. T7tce43rf£ttlent£(. Bedford, Duke of, K.G., Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire. Cathcart, Earl, Thornton-le-Street, Thirsk, Yorkshire. Chichester, Earl of, Stanmer Park, Lewes, Sussex. Devonshire, Duke of, K.G., Holker Hall, Lancashire. Eversley, Viscount, Heckfield Place, Winch field, Hants. Gibbs, Sir Brandreth, 13, Pelham Crescent, South Kensington, S.W. TLebrison, Sir Edward C., Bart., Brome Hall, Scole, Suffolk. Lathom, Earl of, Latliom Hall, Crmskirk, Lancashire. La wes, Sir John Bennet, Bart., Rothamsted, St. Albans, Herts. Richmond and Gordon, Duke of K.G., Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex. Vernon, Lord, Sudbury Hall, Derby. Wynn, Sir W atkin Williams, Bart., M.P.,Wynnstay, Ruabon, Denbighshire. ©tijer fHraberes of Council. Allender, G. Mander, Solna, Roehampton, Surrey, S.W. Arkwright, J. Hungerford, Hampton Court, Leominster, Herefordshire' Ashworth, Alfred, Tabley Grange, Knutsford, Cheshire. Aylmer, Hugh, West Dereham, Stoke Ferry, Norfolk. Bowes-Jones, J., Ensdon House, Montford Bridge, R.S.O., Salop. Chandos-Pole-Gell, H., Hopton Hall, Wirkswortli, Derbyshire. Clay, Charles, Walton Grange, Wakefield, Yorkshire. Coxon, John, Freeford Farm, Lichfield, Staffordshire. Druce, Joseph, Eynsham, Oxford. Egerton (of Tatton) Lord, Tatton Park, Knutsford, Cheshire. Emlyn, Viscount, M.P., Golden Grove, Carmarthen, S. Wales. Evans, John, Uffington, Shrewsbury, Salop. Feversham, Earl of, Duncombe Park, Helmsley, Yorkshire. Foster, Samuel P., KiUhow, Carlisle, Cumberland. Frankish, William, Limber Magna, Ulceby , Lincolnshire. se Members of the Council whose names are prefixed by an asterisk rotation in July, but are eligible for re-election in May. XIX.— s. s. a List of Officers. Tear when .Elected. 1881 1879 1874 1876 1878 1869 1874 1881 1865 1874 1880 1879 1857 1881 1861 1875 1867 1871 1869 1875 1874 1878. 1874 1882 1875 1883 1881 1874 1845 1871 1871 1882 1870 1865 1878 £>cmtan> ant) (SrUttor. H. M. JENKINS, 12, Hanover Square, London, W. Consulting Chemist — Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S., 12, Hanover Square, W. Consulting Botanist — W. Carruthebs, F.R.S., F.L.S., Central House, Central Hill, Norwood, S.E. Consulting Veterinary Surgeon — Professor James Beart Stmonds, St. John’s Villa, Ryde, Isle of Wight. Honorary Consulting Entomologist — Miss E. A. Ormerod, F.M.S., Dunster Lodge, Spring Grove, Islewortli. Veterinary Inspectors — The Officers of the Royal Veterinary College. Consulting Engineer — W. Anderson, 3, Whitehall Place, S.W. Surveyor and Superintendent of Works — Wilson Bennison, 62, Ashley Road, Crouch Hill, N. Consulting Surveyor — George Hunt, Evesham, Worcestershire. Seedsmen — Thomas Gibbs and Co., Down Street, Piccadilly, W. Publisher — John Murray, 50, Albemarle Street, W. Bankers — The London and Westminster Bank, St. James’s Square Branch, S.W * Those Members of the Council whose names are prefixed by an asterisk retire by rotation in July, but are eligible for re-election in May. Gilbey, Walter, Elsenham Hall, Essex. *Gorringe, Hugh, Kingston-by-Sea, Brighton, Sussex. Hemsley, John, Shelton, Newark, Notts. ♦Howard, Charles, Biddenliam, Bedford. Howard, James, M.P., Clapham Park, Bedfordshire. * Leeds, Robert, Keswick Old Hall, Norwich. Lindsay, Colonel Sir R. Loyd, M.P., Lockinge Park, Wantage, Berkshire. ♦Little, Herbert J., Coldham Hall, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire. * Lopes, Sir Massey, Bart., M.P., Maristow, Roborough, Devon. * Martin, Joseph, Highfield House, Littleport, Isle of Ely, Cambridgeshire. Moreton, Lord, M.P., Tortworth Court, Falfield, R.S.O., Gloucestershire. Neville, Robert, Butleigh Court, Glastonbury, Somersetshire. ♦Pain, Thomas, Audley's Wood, Basingstoke, Hants. *Parker, Hon. Cecil T., Eccleston, Chester. Randell, Charles, Chadbury, Evesham, Worcestershire. ♦Ransome, Robert Charles, Ipswich, Suffolk. ♦Ravensworth, Earl of, Ravensworth Castle, Durham. Rawlence, James, Bulbridge, Wilton, Salisbury, Wilts. ♦Ridley, Sir M. White, Bart., M.P., Blagdon, Cramlington, Northumberland. *Russell, Robert, Horton Court Lodge, Dartford, Kent. Sanday, George Henry, Wensley House, Bedale, Yorkshire. ' Sheraton, William, Broom House, Ellesmere, Salop. ♦Spencer, Earl, K.G., Althorp, Northampton. Stafford, Marquis of, M.P., Trentliam Hall, Stoke-upon-Trent, Staffs. Stratton, Richard, The Duffryn, Newport, Monmouthshire. Sutton, Martin J., Westwood House, Tilehurst, near Reading. Thorold, Sir John H., Bart., Syston Park, Grantham, Lincolnshire. Tubbervill, Lieut.-Col. Picton, Ewenny Priory, Bridgend, South Wales. ♦Turner, George, Great Bowley, Tiverton, Exeter, Devonshire. ♦Turner, Jabez, Norman Cross, Yaxley, Huntingdonshire. ♦Wakefield, William H., Sedgwick, Kendal, Westmoreland. Warren, Reginald Augustus, Preston Place, Arundel, Sussex. Whitehead, Charles, Banning House, Maidstone, Kent. ♦Wilson, Jacob, Chillingham Barns, Alnwick, Northumberland. Wise, George, Woodcote, Warwick. ( iii ) STANDING COMMITTEES FOR 1883 dFtnance Committee. Kingscote, Colonel (Chairman). Frankish, W. Bridport, General Viscount. Randell, Charles. Ridley, Sir M. White, Bt. &ouse Committee. Chairman of Finance Committee (Chairman) Gibbs, Sir Brandreth. The President. Randell, C. Bridport, General Viscount. Wilson, Jacob. journal Committee. Cathcart, Earl (Chairman). Ridley, Sir M. White, Bt. Thorold, Sir John H., Bt. Bowen-Jones, J. Chandos-Pole-Gell, H. Dent, J. D. Frankish, W. Hemsley, J. Howard, J. Little, H. J. Ransome, R. C. Turbervill, Lieut.-Col. Wells, W. Whitehead, Charles. Cijemtcal Committee. Wells, William (Chairman). Howard, C. Bedford, Duke of. Little, H. J. Vernon, Lord. Neville, R. Emlyn, Viscount. Turbervill, Lieut.-CoL Lawes, Sir J. B., Bt. Voelcker, Dr. A. Macdonald, Sir A. K., Bt. Wakefield, W. H. Arkwright, J. H. Warren, R. A. Bowen-Jones, J. Whitehead, Charles. Dent, J. D. j^eetrg anti ^lanLUteeaScS Committee. Whitehead, Charles (Chairman). Carrcthers, W. Vernon, Lord. Frankish, W. Thorold, Sir J. H., Bt. Little, H. J. Gibbs, Sir Brandreth. Parker, Hon. C. T. Arkwright, J. H. Torbervill, Lieut.-Col. Bowen-Jones, J. Voelcker, Dr. 'F'eteunarg Committee. Egerton, Lord (Chairman). Bridport, General Viscount. Moreton, Lord. Stafford, Marquis of. Gibbs, Sir Brandreth. Ridley, Sir M. White, Bt. Thorold, Sir J. H., Bt. Allender, G. M. Ashworth, A. Brown, Professor. Fleming, George. Foster, S. P. Harpley, M. J. Kingscote, Colonel. Parker, Hon. C. T. Robertson, Professor. Sanday, G. H. Sanderson, Dr. J. Burdon. Simonds, Professor. Stratton, R. Wakefield, W. H. Wilson, Jacob. J£tofM9ri$eg Committee. Wilson, Jacob (Chair- Coxon, John. Sanday, G. H. man). Bridport, Gen. Viscount. Emlyn, Viscount. Moreton, Lord. Gibbs, Sir Brandreth. Arkwright, J. H. Ashworth, A. Aylmer, H. Chandos-Pole-Gell, H. Frankish, W. Gilbey, Walter. Gorkinge, H. Hemsley, J. Howard, C. Martin, J Pain, T. Parker, Hon. C. T. Randell, C. Sheraton, W. Simonds, Prof. Stratton, R. Turner, George. Wakefield, W. H. Wise, G. The Stewards of Live- Stock. a 2 IV Standing Committees for 1883. Hemsley, J. (Chairman). Bridport, Gen. Viscount. Vernon, Lord. Moreton, Lord. Thorold, Sir J. H., Bt. Gibbs, Sir Brandreth. Allender, G. M. Anderson, W. Ashworth, A. implement Committee. Bowen-Jones, J. Frankish, W. Gorringe, H. Howard, C. Howard, J. Martin, J. Neville, R. Parker, Hon. C. T. Ransome, R. C. Sanday, G. H. Sheraton, W. Stratton, R. Tdrberyill, Lieut.-Col. Turner, Jabez. Wilson, Jacob. The Stewards of Imple- ments. ©cneral ©orb Committee. Dent, J. D. (Chairman). Bridport, Gen. Viscount Feversham, Earl of. Moreton, Lord. Ravensworth, Earl of. Vernon, Lord. Ridley, Sir M. White, Bt. Gibbs, Sir Brandreth. Ashworth, A. Aylmer, H. Booth, J. B. Bowen-Jones, J. Chandos-Pole-Gell, H. Duncombe, Admiral the Hon. A. Foster, S. P. Frankish, W. Gorringe, H. Hemsley, J. Howard, C. Kingscote, Colonel. Neville, R. Parrington, T. Randell, Charles. Sanday, G. H. Sheraton, W. Stephenson, Marshall. Turbervill, Lieut.-Col. Wakefield, W. H. Wells, W. Whitehead, Charles. Wilson, Jacob. The Lord Mayor ;of York. The Town Clerk of York. Contracts Committee. Randell, Charles (Chairman). Gibbs, Sir Brandreth. Allender, G. M. Frankish, W. Hemsley, J. Howard, C. Ransome, R. C. Sanday, G. H. Stratton, R. Wilson, Jacob. Committee of Selection. Cathcart, Earl (Chair- Bowen-Jones, J. Foster, S. P. man). Chandos-Pole-Gell, H. Wakefield, W. H. Ridley, Sir M. W., Bt. And the Chairmen of the Standing Committees. Moreton, Lord (Chair- man). Thorold, Sir J. H., Bt. Bowen-Jones, J. Vernon, Lord (Chairman). Bridport, Gen. Viscount. Macdonald, Sir A. K., Bt. Thorold, Sir J. H., Bt. CBueation Committee. Carruthers, W. Dent, J. D. Kingscote, Colonel. Little, H. J. Satin Committee. Allender, G. M. Bowen-Jones, J. Chandos-Pole-Gell, H. Kingscote, Colonel. Parker, Hon. Cecil T. Turbervill, Lieut.-Col. Voelcker, Dr. Neville, R. Parker, Hon. C. T. Stratton, R. Voelcker, Dr. Cattle ©lagtte Committee. The whole Council. *** The President, Trustees, and Vice-Presidents are Members ex officio of all Committees. ( v ) ftopal Agricultural £>orietp of (England. GENERAL MEETING, 12, Hanover Square, Thursday, December 7th, 1882. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. DURING the year 1882 the number of Governors and Members of the Society has been increased by the election of 4 Governors and 453 Members, and diminished by the death of 11 Governors and 267 Members, the resignation of 149 Members, and the removal of 163 Members by order of the Council. The Society now consists of 80 Life Governors, 71 Annual Governors, 2919 Life Members, 4869 Annual Members, 19 Honorary Members, making a total of 7958, and showing a decrease of 164 during the year 1882. The Council have lost two of their oldest and most valued Members since the last Annual Meeting in May, namely, Lord Chesham, one of the Trustees of the Society, and Mr. C. E. Amos, a Member of the Council, and for many years the Consulting Engineer of the Society. The vacancy reported at the Annual Meeting as having been caused by the death of Mr. Aveling has been filled by the elec- tion of Mr. John Coxon, of Freeford Farm, Lichfield, the vacancy in the list of Trustees by the election of Mr. Dent, and the existing vacancy is still under the consideration of the Council. The half-yearly statement of accounts to the 30th of June last has been examined and certified by the auditors and accountants of the Society, and has been published in the ‘Journal’ for the information of Members of the Society. The funded capital of the Society remains the same as at the Annual Meeting in May, namely, 18,423Z. Is. 9 d. New Three per Cents., and the balance of the current account in the hands of the Society’s bankers on the 1st instant was 3220 l. Os. 2d. vi Report to the General Meeting. The success of the Reading Meeting was seriously interfered with by the wet weather during the first two days, but, owing to the fine weather on the three following days, the Meeting did not entail a much greater loss than can be covered by the surplus of the Society’s ordinary income over its expenditure. The persistent rain during the week preceding the Show, which continued almost incessantly for some time afterwards, made the competition for Mr. Martin J. Sutton’s Prize “ for an efficient and economical method of Drying Hay or Corn-crops artificially ’r a very laborious and costly proceeding. As none of the machines entered for Trial were capable of making hay in wet weather or of drying corn efficiently, the award of the Prize was withheld. A complete Report on this competition, written by Mr. W. C. Little, one of the Judges, was published in the last number of the ‘ Journal.’ The Trials of Cream Separators in competition for the Gold Medals offered were marred in consequence of an injunction in Chancery having been applied for against the Society, as well as against the Exhibitors of some of the competing machines. Although the application was not successful, it caused some of the competitors to withdraw the implements which they had entered for Trial. The Judges, however, were enabled to award the Gold Medal in the Class for Separators to be worked by Horse-power. The offer for special Prizes for an efficient portable Straw- compressing and Binding-machine, to be worked in conjunction with a Threshing-machine, and for the best Milking-machine, to be tested during six consecutive months, produced no com- petition. The same result followed the offer of the Gold Medal for the most efficient and economical Apparatus for excavating Field-drains. The Council have resolved to repeat the offer of a special Prize for a Straw-compressing and Binding-machine for competition at the York Meeting. The Prizes offered by the Reading Local Committee for the best-managed Farms in Berkshire, or situated within 20 miles of the Town Hall of Reading, produced a good entry in the Class of large Farms, but only one in that of small Farms. The Report of this competition, written by Mr. J. H. Blundell, one of the Judges, was published in the last number of the ‘ Journal.’ In conjunction with the York Local Committee, the Council Report to the General Meeting. vii have decided to offer Prizes for Farms in the County of York in three Classes, and they are glad to report that nineteen entries have been made. The Council have decided to increase the number of Classes of Live Stock, and the amount of money to be offered for com- petition next year, as compared with the Reading Prize-sheet, in consequence of the geographical situation and the agricul- tural importance of the County of York. They have been liberally seconded by the York Local Committee and the York- shire Agricultural Society, who have jointly offered Prizes in numerous classes for Horses : — Hunters, Hackneys, Ponies, Harness Horses, Coach Horses, and Clevelands — as well as for Shorthorn Families, Dairy Cattle, and Wensleydale Sheep, together with Champion Prizes for Shorthorn males and females. The Hereford Herd-book Society have offered Prizes for Here- ford Families. The Council have decided to offer Prizes for “ Shire ” Horses as distinguished from “ Agricultural,” in the old sense of that term ; for Welsh, Ayrshire, Galloway, and Polled Angus or Aberdeen Cattle ; and for Border Leicester, Cheviot, and Black-faced Mountain Sheep. The Council have accepted with thanks the offer of a member of the Society to give Prizes for small Dairies as follows : — (a) For the best equipped Dairy suitable for a farm on which not more than twenty milch cows are kept, and where the principal object is Butter-making, 50 1. (b) For the best equipped Dairy suitable for a farm on which not more than twenty milch cows are kept, and where the principal object is Cheese-making, 50 1. They have also decided to erect and equip in the York Showyard a Working Dairy similar to that at Carlisle, to be worked by the Society. The Council have decided that the York Meeting shall com- mence on Monday, July 16th, and close on the following Friday evening. The Council have received an invitation from the Mayor and Corporation of Shrewsbury to hold the Show of 1884 on the race- course near that town, and a Committee of Inspection has been appointed to examine the site and other accommodation offered by the authorities. The number of samples sent to the Society’s Laboratory for analysis during the past year has exceeded by 345 that of the year preceding, and amounts this year to 1403. The experi- viii Report to the General Meeting. ments at Woburn have not only been continued as in previous years, but have been extended, with a view to test the longevity of certain Clovers and Grasses, and of determining whether low- priced barley can be economically used as food for stock. The Veterinary work of the Council has been of unusual magnitude and importance during the past year. Three very important investigations have been progressing on behalf of the Council, namely, (1) the investigations into the Life-history of the Liver-Fluke of Sheep, by Mr. Thomas, of Balliol College, Oxford, who proposes to give as complete and as simple an account of his researches as the nature of the subject permits in the next number of the ‘Journal (2) an investigation into the possibility of preventing the different forms of Anthrax by inoculation with cultivated Virus, by Dr. Roy, at the Brown Institution ; (3) Experiments as to the possibility of mitigating the severity of attacks of Foot-and-mouth Disease, and of lessening the danger of infection and the susceptibility of animals, which have been undertaken by Professor Robertson, the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College. The following gentlemen have been appointed Veterinary Surgeons to the Society, in addition to the officers of the Royal Veterinary College : — Mr. C. Stephenson, Newcastle ; Mr. J. S. Carter, Bradford ; Mr. W. Lewis, Crewe ; Mr. D. Gresswell, Louth ; Mr. W. F. Garside, Royal Agricultural College, Ciren- cester ; Mr. T. J. Merrick, Northampton ; Mr. G. A. Banham, Cambridge; Mr. Win. Moir, Cardiff; Mr. W. Penhall, Barn- staple ; Mr. T. D. Broad, Bath ; Mr. Wm. Bromley, Lancaster ; and Mr. Osborn Hills, Leamington. The following are the terms and conditions of the appointments : — Members may obtain the attendance of the Veterinary Surgeon in any case of disease by paying his travelling expenses (which include railway fares, and Is. per mile if by road, including the return journey), and the cost of his visit, which will be at the following rate, viz. : — £ s. d. When the whole day is occupied 1 10 0 When half a day or less is occupied 0 15 0 Personal consultation with Veterinary Surgeon .. 0 10 0 Consultation by letter 050 Post-mortem examination and report thereon .. .. 10 0 A return of the number of applications from members of the Society during each half year is required from each Veterinary Surgeon. The Council desire to draw the attention of the Members of the Society to the paper by Professor Brown, “ On the Dentition of the Animals of the Farm as indicative of Age.” They propose Report to the General Meeting. IX to republish this in the form of a pamphlet, and are considering the re-issue of the illustrations in the form of diagrams. The Council have already issued at a cheap rate a series of six diagrams of injurious insects which have been prepared by Miss Ormerod, the Honorary Consulting Entomologist to the Society ; and they have under consideration a series illustrating the crops, weeds, and vegetable parasites of the Farm, which have been prepared by Mr. Carruthers, the Consulting Botanist. The Council have offered a Prize of 20/. for the best and simplest plan of keeping Farm Accounts, to include a register of all field operations, breeding, feeding, &c. Forty-seven candi- dates have competed, and the award of the Prize is at present under the consideration of the Judges. The Council regret to state that numerous cases of the transfer 1 of Tickets of admission to the Showyard, chiefly by Exhibitors’ servants, have this year been brought before them ; and they have found it necessary, in order to check an evil which appears to be growing, to enact that in future a fine of 1/. in each case of transfer or misuse shall be levied upon the person or firm who is responsible for the proper use of the Ticket. Two entries have been received for the Prizes offered in 1879 for the best new varieties of Seed Wheat produced since that date, and arrangements have been made to have their merits tested in different parts of the kingdom. Thirty candidates were entered for examination for the Society’s Junior Scholarships from the following Schools : — Aspatria Agricultural and Commercial School, 1 ; Bedford County School, 4 ; Devon County School, 2 ; Surrey County School, 22; Public School, Gersa, near Watten, Cathness, 1. The following candidates, arranged in order of merit, have gained Scholarships of 20/. each : — Surrey County School.. F. H. Purchase. Devon County School .. T. B. Potburt. Bedford County School .. J. W. Twinberrow. 55 55 55 J. D. Twinberrow. Surrey County School J. H. Beeves. Bedford County School H. L. Jenkins. 55 55 55 C. G. F. Thonger. Surrey County School .. S. N. E. O’Halloran. 55 55 55 Y. W. Low. By Order of the Council, H. M. JENKINS, Secretary. ( x ) Iftogal Agricultural iroridj) of lEnglanti. 1883. DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY AND OF MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. Number Nomber Districts. COUNTIES. OP IN Members or Council. Members. COUNCIL. / Bedfordshire 122 .. 3 (Duke of Bedford, y.p. ; C. \ Howard ; James Howard. Buckinghamshire 106 Cambridgeshire . . 98 .. 2 J. Martin ; H. J. Little. Essex 243 .. 1 W. Gilbey. Hertfordshire 149 .. 1 Sir J. B. Lawes, y.p. Huntingdonshire . . 47 .. 2 Jabez Turner; W. Wells, t. A' 1 Middlesex .. 425 .. 1 Sir Brandretk Gibbs, y.p. (H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, t. Norfolk 308 .. 4 < Earl of Leicester ; Hugl | Aplmer; Robert Leeds. Oxfordshire 140 .. 2 i Duke of Marlborough, t. ; J \ Druce. Suffolk 156 .. 2 (Sir E. C. Kerrison, v.P. ; R. C \ Ransome. 1794 “ 18 / Cumberland .. .. 201 .. 1 S. P. Foster. J Durham 158 .. 1 Earl of RaYensworth. * \ Northumberland . . 157 .. 2 (Sir M. White Ridley; Jaco \ Wilson. Westmoreland .. 70 .. 1 W. H. Wakefield. 586 — 5 [ Derbyshire . . 224 .. 2 /Lord Yernon, y.p. ; H. Chandot \ Pole-Gell. Leicestershire 102 .. 1 Duke of Rutland, t. «■ Lincolnshire.. 204 .. 2 JW. Frankish; Sir J. 11 \ Thorold. N orthamptonshire 134 .. 1 Earl Spencer. 1 Nottinghamshire . . 177 .. 1 J. Ilemsley. k Rutland 14 .. 855 — 7 Distribution of Members of the Society. xi DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY — continued. Number Number Districts. Counties. OP IN Members of Council. Members. Council. Berkshire 165 .. 2 (■Sir R. Loyd Lindsay; Martin \ J. Sutton. Cornwall 53 [ Devonshire .. 115 .. 3 (Sir T. D. Acland, t. ; Sir M. \ Lopes; G. Turner. Dorsetshire .. 71 .. 1 Viscount Portman, t. D. < ' Hampshire .. 165 .. 3 /Viscount Eversley, v.p. ; Sir A. \ K. Macdonald, t. ; T. Pain. | Kent 402 .. 2 R. Russell ; C. Whitehead. Somersetshire 164 .. 2 Visct. Bridport, t. ; R. Neville. Surrey .. 180 .. 1 G. M. Allender. j Earl of Chichester, v.p. ; Duke Sussex 176 .. 4 1 of Richmond and Gordon, j v.p. ; H. Gorringe ; R. A. ( Warren. Wiltshire 112 .. 1 J. Rawlence. 1603 — 19 (Earl Cathcart, v.p.; Earl of 1 1 Yorkshire 409 .. 5 < Feversham ; J. D. Dent, t. ; ( G. H. Sanday ; Chas. Clay. Gloucestershire .. 214 .. 2 (Lord Moreton ; Col. Kings- i cote, t. 1 Herefordshire 103 .. 1 J. H. Arkwright. J Monmouthshire . . 44 .. 1 R. Stratton. T. < Shropshire .. 371 .. 3 (John Evans; J. Bowen-Jones; \ W. Sheraton Staffordshire 271 .. 3 (Earl of Lichfield, T. ; Marquis \ of Stafford ; John Coxon. Warwickshire 199 .. 1 George Wise. Worcestershire .. 165 .. 1 C. Randell. South Wales 171 .. 2 (Viscount Emlyn ; Lt.-Col. \ Picton Turbervill. 1538 — 14 / Cheshtrf 214 .. 3 /Lord Egerton ; A. Ashworth ; ( \ Hon. Cecil T. Parker. G. I Lancashire . . 292 .. 2 / Duke of Devonshire, v.p. ; Earl \ of Lathom, v.p. North Wales 191 .. 2 (Earl of Powis, t. ; Sir W. W. \ \ Wynn, v.p. 697 — 7 Scotland 128 Ireland 100 Channel Islands 13 Foreign Countries 101 Members without addresses .. 80 Honorary Memeers 19 441 Xll ROYAL AGRICULTURE Half-yearly Cash Accoun Dr. To Balance in hand, 1st July, 1882 Bankers Secretary At Deposit To Income : — Dividends on Stock Interest on Deposit Subscriptions : — Governors’ Life Composition Governors’ Annual Members’ Life-Compositions . . Members’ Annual Establishment : — Rent £ s. d. £ 8. 2,171 5 5 31 9 8 2,202 15 2,000 0 d. £ ' I. i 1 0 4,202 15 268 17 3 22 12 7 40 0 0 30 0 0 665 0 0 770 2 0 1,505 2 0 100 0 0 Journal : — Sales 81 1 0 Advertisements 12114 3 Sale of Pamphlets 9 13 9 Chemical : — Laboratory Fees Veterinary : — Balance of Payments to Brown Institution not expended f 1 ou Professional Fees 1012 0 Farm Inspection : — Prizes given by Reading Local Committee . . .. 175 0 0 Entry Fees for 1883 37 0 0 Education Insect Diagrams . . . Total Income To Reading Meeting . . . . 212 9 0 195 8 9 11 17 0 212 0 0 13 2 5 2,511 9 13,221 4 £19,965 8 Balance-She , To Capital LIABILITIES. Surplus, 30th June, 1882 Less surplus of Expenditure over Income during the Half-year, viz. : — £ j. d. Expenditure 3,579 5 2 Income 2,541 9 0 Deduct half-year’s Interest and depreciation on Country Meeting Plant To Reading Meeting: — Excess of Receipts over Expenditure £ s. d. £ 8. 25,566 10 11 1,037 16 2 24,528 14 9 200 8 9 24,323 C 3S9 ll. \ £24,718 It (JUILTER, BALL, CROSB1E. GLEGG & WELTON, Jccountantc. xm E)CIETY OF ENGLAND. dm 1st July to 31st December, 1882. ixpenditure £ *■ & stabiishment i Salaries, Wages, kc. 805 0 0 House : — Rent, Taxes, Repairs, kc 324 0 2 Office : —Printing, Postage, Stationery, kc 201 6 4 onrnal : — Printing and Stitching 670 1 0 Postage and Delivery 180 0 0 Literary Contributions 168 13 0 Advertising j 736 Woodcuts 116 17 6 Chemical : — Salaries 377 10 0 Apparatus and Chemicals 30 7 7 Petty Payments 25 0 0 Veterinary : — Professional Fees . . . . Botanical : — Consulting Botanist’s Salary Education : — Advertising 12 IS 6 Scholarships 80 0 0 Diagrams of Insects 120 0 0 Farm Inspection : — Prizes 175 0 0 Judges 175 5 1 £ s. 1,330 6 1,142 15 432 17 16 17 50 0 212 18 350 5 d. I £ 6 0 7 6 0 6 1 Or. (. d. Sundries 43 5 0 Total Expenditure . . . . Stock : — Purchase of £1486 19s. 6d. New 3 per Cents. Reading Meeting York Meeting Balance in hand, 31st December : — . - Bankers Secretary 13,326 11 3 709 7 4 818 9 8 31 14 8 3,579 5 2 1,500 0 0 14,035 18 7 850 4 4 £19,965 8 1 st December, 1882. ASSETS. 7 Cash in hand f New 3 per Cent. Stock 19,9101. Is. 3d. cost* y Books and Furniture in Society’s House . .* y Country Meeting Plant At Debit of York Meeting . . * Value at 101 = 20,1091. 3s. 3d. Jtem — The above Assets are exclusive of the amount recoverable in respect of arrears of Subscription to 31st Dec., 1882, which at that date amounted to 13221. £ s. d. 850 4 4 19,177 17 1 1,461 17 6 2,528 14 9 £ S. d. 24,008 13 8 709 7 4 £24,718 1 0 Examined, audited, and found correct, this 5th day of March, 1883. FRANCIS SHERBORN, A. H. JOHNSON, | Auditors on behalf of the Society. XIV Dr. ROYAL AGRICULTURE Yearly Cash Accor £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. To Balance in hand, 1st Jan. 1882 Bankers 562 9 0 Secretary • • 25 9 2 587 18 To Income : — Dividends on Stock 539 9 1 Interest on Deposit Account • • 22 12 7 Subscriptions : — Governors’ Life Composition 130 0 0 Governors’ Annual 300 0 0 Members' Life-Compositions 1,520 0 0 Members’ Annual 4,684 4 0 6,634 4 0 Establishment : — Rent • • 200 0 0 Journal : — Sales 155 16 9 Advertisements ° 252 6 8 Sale of Pamphlets 9 13 9 417 17 2 Chemical : — Laboratory Fees . • • 369 11 9 Veterinary : — Balance of payments to the Brown Institution) not expended ) Professional Fees 13 4 6 14 9 6 Education : — Sale of Insect Diagrams • • 13 2 5 Farm-Inspection : — Prizes given by the Readin g Local Committee . 175 0 0 Entry Fees for 1883 37 0 0 212 0 0 Sundries 2 0 0 London Exhibition 45 4 0 ■ Derby Meeting . , 233 14 1 Reading Meeting • • 20,557 13 1 Total Income • • 29,261 1 Sfl 1 ■ 1 I £29,849 1 0 XV SCIETY OF ENGLAND. 1st January to 31st December, 1882. Cr. Jj xpenditure : — itabiishment: — > Salaries, Wages, kc House : Rent, Taxes, kc Office: Printing, Postage, Stationery, &c. . jumal : — Printing and Stitching i i Printing Advertisements Postage and Delivery Advertising Literary Contributions Wood Engravings Printing Pamphlets hemical : — Salaries Apparatus and Chemicals ■ Petty Payments .'eterinary: — Prizes and Medals Fees to Examiners Professional Fees On Account of Investigations . . . . 3otanical : — Consulting Botanist’s Salary Seeds Education : — Fees to Examiners Printing and Advertising Scholarships Prizes Diagrams of Insects . Farm Inspection : — Prizes Judges Advertising. . Sundries Subscriptions (paid in error) returned . . London Meeting Derby Meeting Reading Meeting York Meeting . Total Expenditure . . . Stock: — Purchase of £1486 19s. 6 d. New 3 Per Cents. Balance in hand, 31st Dec. 1882 :— Bankers Secretary ’)’*]* £ 8. d. £ 1. d. £ d 1,601 13 4 875 6 11 458 14 9 2,935 14 0 1,232 13 0 47 is 6 380 0 0 32 13 1 267 13 0 133 3 6 10 15 0 2,109 16 1 816 0 0 51 14 0 30 0 0 897 14 0 47 12 0 22 2 3 29 11 6 200 0 0 299 5 9 100 0 0 5 12 4 105 12 4 36 15 0 69 4 6 80 0 0 25 0 0 120 0 0 330 19 6 175 0 0 175 5 1 49 8 3 399 13 4 * • 25 6 8 . # 4 0 0 • • 50 14 6 • 92 16 0 • • 19,538 12 0 • • 709 7 4 • • • • 27,499 11 6 * • • 1,500 0 0 818 9 8 • • 31 14 8 850 4 4 £29,849 15 10 XVI COUNTRY MEETING Receipts SobscrlptiorL from A rr.-ssfocs so Skav Tori by Payment ................ AifmfsBicsns by Stance Tickets AiimisEccs So Ssanii at Horse Rfnir .................. Aimisscns so Dairy ...................... Sole of Cstalcgnes ....................... Entries in. Implement Cataloene A ffvertf semen fn Stock Catalogues .................. Implement Eikfbisors' Payment far SfaetAIin^ .............. San-Members"' Fees for aury of Implements ............... Fees for entry of Live-Stack, fc. ................... Fees for Horse Boies ini Stalls Premium. for Supply of Eefcesfcmens Premium, for Qnak Booms, Lavatories, fc. Fines for Soc-Esinbtncn of Live-Stack Reference Somber Fines . Sates of Batter . ....................... Trot is of Ejyiryers. £o. — Sals of Barley, S9if. Ij. ~.L ; Hay. S8J. -j. ; SedfejES asd Sv;ers. ii. £ L | i * so « 73S * 3 15 619 t 325 • ' 1 «.i"> :i s» * 5a§ j 175 I 3s:C • «» § 125 11 2 2 * 22 . 32 t sis.os 12 i UCCOUNT, READING, 1S82. xvn Expenditure. „ £ s. d. how Yard A\ orks : — By Timber and Joinery 4,281 15 5 „ Ironmongery, 1271. 8s. 2d.; Hurdles, 137/. 6s. i-d 264 14 10 „ Bricks and Cement and Bricklayers 45 5 6 „ Paints, Oils, Glass,r&c 62 13 3 ,, Canvas, 1334/. 10s. 8d. ; Felt, Baise, &c., 118/. 4s. lOd 1,452 15 6 „ Railway Charges, kc., 241/. 2s. lid. ; Horse Hire, 68/. 11s. 6d 309 14 5 „ Coals, la/. 3s. 9d. ; Insurance. 15/. 16 s 33 18 9 „ Postage and Stationery. 38/. 13s. 6 d. ; Hire of Furniture, 5/. Is 43 14 6 „ Sundries 63 12 11 „ Wages 1,324 3 1 ,, Superintendent of Works — Salary and Expenses 653 2 7 „ Depreciation of Plant 421 14 5 Per Contra: — By Sale of Materials 2,600 0 0 „ Work for Exhibitors and Purveyors . 1,063 9 4 „ Local Committee for Platforms and Trial Fields 79 16 9 udges.— Implements, 72/. ; Stock, 281/. 19s. Id. * Engineers, 143/. 11s. 5d. ; Assistants and Labourers, 59/. 14s. 4d. > nspectors. — Veterinary, 76/. 6s. ; Shearing, 18/. 6s. 8d £ s. d. 8,350 5 2 3,743 6 1 Police.— Metropolitan Clerks and Assistants:— Bankers’, 23/. 2s. ; Secretary’s and Stewards’, 80/. 5s. 6d foremen and Assistant-Foremen ■ Yardmen, Grooms, Foddermen, Labourers, Ac Money Takers and Money Changer, 3SZ. 6s. 6d. ; Doorkeepers, 41/. 5s Stewards’ Expenses, 160/. 17s. Id. ; Assistant-Stewards, 48/. 0s. 6d laggings for Stewards, Implement Judges, and other Officials Refreshments and Allowances Catalogues. — Implements, 337/. 8s. Id. ; Stock, 281/. 17s. ; Awards, 24/. 9s. 11 ; Plan of Yard, 25/. ; ) Packing and Carriages, 121. 16s. ; Commission on Sales, 41/. 12s. 6d 5 I Printing, 575/. 7s. lOd. ; Advertising and Bill Posting, 6691. 4s. lid 1 : Postage, Telegrams, Stationery, Carriage, kc I Repairs, Insurance, and Carriage of Testing Machinery Dairy: — Hire of Engine, 351. 12s.; Steaming Pans, 3/.; Tank, 3/. 10s.; Coals, 3/. 7s. 5d. ; 1 Belting. 10/. 11s. 3d. ; Milk, 51/. 0s. 5d. ; Shutting, Pulleys, Chains, and other Iron Work, 21/. 6s. ; > Petty Payments, 3/. 0s. 5d ) Horse and Carriage Hire Official Luncheon, kc. foumeys previous to Show, 7/. 19s. 8d. ; Official Staff, 32/. 13s. -.a : Hay, 222/. ; Straw, 3261. 0s. 6d. ; Green Food, 177/. 19s. 6d. ; Insurance, 1/. 5s. ; Advertising for ) Tenders, 5/. 6s. 2d 1 I Fire Engines and Extincteurs, 21/. 11s.; Hire of Chairs, 161. 5s. 5d. ; Hire of Harmonium, 1/. Is. Telegraph Extension, 3/. 2s. 3d. ; Hire of BoyB, 7/. 6s. ; Gratuities, 21. 15s Rope, 21. 10s.; Brushes, Chloride of Lime, Washing, Soap, &c., 3/. 0s. 7d. Horse Standard, 21. 15s. 4d. ; Veterinary Medicines, Newspapers, and Sundries, 71. 12s. 6d. Bee Exhibition Rosettes, 171. 17s. 3d. ; Medals, 51. 8s Stock Prises* t Trials of Haydryers, kc. — Grass, 423/. 4s. ; Barley, 444/. 9s. 3d. ; Judges, 2751. 10s. 7d. ; Engineers, 42/. ; Assistant Steward, 75/. 12s. ; Foreman, 281.0s. 9d.; Labour, 2421.3s. 8d. ; Police, 191. 13s. 9d. ; Surveyor, 131. 2s. 6d. ; Lodgings, 36 1. f s. 6d. ; Refreshments, 861. ; Carriage Hire, 60/. 9s. 6d. ; Horse Hire, 2491. 17s. 6d. ; Hire of Engines and Drivers, 85/. 3s. 6d. ; Carriage of Reapers, 7/.; Carriage of Haymakers and damage, 211. 14s. 7d. ; Sledges and Sweeps, 12/.; Rakes and Forks, 6/. 7s. 3d.; Sacks, 91. 12s.; Coals, 15 1. 14s. 9d. ; Straw, 211. 15s. 6d. ; Thatching and Fencing, 331. 12s.lld.-, Thermometers and sundry small implements, 71. 17s. 6d. ; Canvas, kc.. Hi. 7s. Id. ; Carriage, 71. 5s. ltd.; Sundries, 3/. 2s. Id By Balance * Exclusive of 6771. given by the Reading Local Committee, 751. given by two Members of Council, and 3ul. by the Hereford Herd Book Society. ,106 19 1 353 19 1 203 5 9 94 12 8 429 2 3 103 7 6 93 16 2 193 2 4 79 11 6 208 17 7 219 9 0 170 10 0 723 3 6 12 9 105 2 1 54 18 1 131 i 6 85 16 0 52 18 6 40 13 0 732 ii 2 33 17 5 13 3 3 5 10 » 10 7 10 30 0 ’ 0 23 5 3 :,013 0 0 !,241 2 0 £15,803 1 10 . 19 10 3 £15,822 12 1 VOL. XIX. — S. S, b ( xviii ) MEMORANDA. Address of Letters. — The Society’s office being situated in the postal district designated by the letter W. Members, in their correspondence with the Secretary, are requested to subjoin that letter to the usual address. General Meeting in London, May 22nd, 1883, at 12 o’clock. Annual Excursion to Woburn, Thursday, June 7th. For particulars apply to the Secretary pre- vious to June 6th, after which no tickets will be issued. Meeting at York, July 16th, 1883, and four following days. General Meeting in London, December, 1883, at 12 o’clock. Monthly Council (for transaction of business), at 12 o’clock on the first Wednesday in every month, excepting January, September, and October : open only to Members of Council and Governors of the Society. Adjournments. — The Council adjourn over Passion and Easter weeks, when those weeks do not Include the first Wednesday of the month; from the first Wednesday in August to the first Wednesday in November ; and from the first Wednesday in December to the first Wednesday in February. Office Hours.— 10 to 4. On Saturdays, 10 to 2. Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs. — Members have the privilege of applying to the Veterinary Committee of the Society, and of sending animals to the Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, N.W.— (A statement of these privileges will be found on page xix in this Appendix.) Chemical Analtsis. — The privileges of Chemical Analysis enjoyed by Members of the Society will be found stated in this Appendix (page xx). Botanical Privileges. — The Botanical and Entomological Privileges enjoyed by Members of the Society will be found stated in this Appendix (page xxiii). Subscriptions. — 1. Annual. — The subscription of a Governor is £5, and that of a Member £1, due in advance on the 1st of January of each year, and becoming in arrear if unpaid by the 1st of June. 2. For Life. — Governors may compound for their subscription for future years by paying at once the sum of £'50, and Members by paying £10. Governors and Members who have paid their annual subscription for 20 years or upwards, and whose subscriptions are not in arrear, may compound for future annual subscriptions, that of the current year inclusive, by a single payment of £25 for a Governor, and £5 for a Member. Payments. — Subscriptions may be paid to the Secretary, in the most direct and satisfactory manner, either at the Office of the Society, No. 12, Hanover Square, London, W„ or by means of post- office orders, to be obtained at any of the principal post-offices throughout the kingdom, and made payable to him at the Vere Street Office, London, W.; but any cheque on a banker's or any other house of business in London will be equally available, if made payable on demand. In obtaining post-office orders care should be taken to give the postmaster the correct initials and surname of the Secretary of the Society (H. M. Jenkins), otherwise the payment will be refused to him at the post-office on which such order has been obtained; and when remitting the money-orders it should be stated by whom, and on whose account, they are sent. Cheques should be made payable as drafts on demand (not as bills only payable after sight or a certain number of days after date), and should be drawn on a London (not on a local country) banker. When payment is mode to the London and Westminster Bank, St. James’s Square Branch, as the bankers of the Society, it will be desirable that the Secretary should be advised by letter of such payment, in order that the entry in the banker’s book may be at once iden- tified, and the amount posted to the credit of the proper party. No coin can be remitted by post, unless the letter be registered. New Members. — Every candidate for admission Into the Society must be proposed by a Member; the proposer to specify in writing the full name, usual place of residence, and post-town, of tho candidate, either at a Council meeting, or by letter addressed to the Secretary. Forms of Proposal may be obtained on application to the Secretary. *.* Members may obtain on application to the Secretary copies of an Abstract of the Charter and Bye-laws, of a Statement of the General Objects, Ac., of the Society, of Chemical, Botanical, and Veterinary Privileges, and of other printed papers connected with special departments of the Society’s business. ( six ) i¥lemt)erai, Uttennarg Jlrfottegcs, I. — Visits of a Pbofessoe of the Royal Veterinary College. 1 . Au y Member of the Society who may desire professional attendance and special advice in cases of disease among his cattle, sheep, or pigs, should apply to the Secretary of the Society, or to the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, London, N.W. 2. The remuneration of the Veterinary Surgeon or a visiting Inspector will be 21. 2s. each day as a professional fee, and the charge for personal expenses, when such have been incurred, which will in no case exceed one guinea per diem. He will also be allowed to charge the cost of travelling to and from the locality where his services may have been required. These charges may, however, in cases of serious or extensive outbreaks of contagious disease, be reduced or remitted altogether, so far as the Members of the Society are concerned, at the discretion of the Council, on such step being recommended to them by the Veterinary Committee. 3. The Consulting Veterinary Surgeon or visiting Inspector, on his return, will report to the Member, and, through the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College, to the Veterinary Committee, in writing, the results of his observations and proceedings with reference to the disease ; which Report will be laid before the Council. 4. When contingencies arise to prevent a personal discharge of the duties, the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College may, subject to the approval of the Veterinary Committee, name some competent professional person to act in his stead, who shall be remunerated at the same rate. II.— CONSULTATIONS WITHOUT VISIT. Personal consultation with Veterinary Inspector 10s. 6d. Consultation by letter 10s. 6 d. Post-mortem examination, and report thereon 21s. A return of the number of applications from Members of the Society during each half-year is required from the Consulting Veterinary Surgeon. III. — Admission of Diseased Animals to the Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, N.W. ; Investigations and Reports. 1. All Members of the Society have the privilege of sending cattle, sheep, and pigs to the Infirmary of the Royal Veterinary College, on the following terms, viz. by paying for the keep and treatment of cattle 10s. 61. per week each animal, and for sheep and pigs, 3s. 6 d. per week. 2. A detailed Report of the cases of cattle, sheep, and pigs treated in the Infirmary of the College, or on Farms in the occupation of Members of the Society, will be furnished to the Council quarterly ; and also special reports from time to time on any matter of unusual interest which may come under the notice of the Officers of the College. IV. — Visits of Provincial Veterinary Surgeons. The following Veterinary Surgeons have been appointed, at different centres in England and Wales, for the purpose of enabling Members of the Society to consult them with regard to the diseases of cattle, sheep, and pigs. Mr. C. Stephexsox, Sandyford Villa, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Mr. Joseph Carter, 38, Great Horton Road, Bradford. Mr. Walter Lewis, 1, South St., Nantwich Road, Crewe. Lincolnshire District (va- cant). Mr. W. F. Gaeside, Royal Agricultural College, Ciren- Mr. T. J. Merrick, North- ampton. Mr. G. A. Baxham, Downing Street, Cambridge. Mr. Charles Moie, Cardiff. Mr. Wm. Pex'hale, Barn- staple. Mr. Thomas D. Broad, Broad Street, Bath. Mr. Wm. Bromlet, Lancastei . Mr. Osboex Hills, 1, 3, 5, and 7, South Parade, Learning- ton. Members may obtain the attendance of a Provincial Veterinary Surgeon in any case of disease by paying his travelling expenses (which include railway fares, and Is. per mile if by road, including the return journey), and the cost of his visit, which will be at the following rate, viz. : — £ s. d. When the whole day is occupied 1 10 o When half a day or less is occupied .. .. .. .. .. ..0150 Personal consultation with Veterinary Surgeon 0 10 0 Consultation by letter .. .. .. ..050 Post-mortem examination and report thereon 10 0 A return of the number of applications from Members of the Society during each half year, em- bodying a statement of those cases which may be of public interest, is required from each Provincial Veterinary Surgeon. These half-yearly reports should reach the Secretary by the end of May and November respectively. By Order of the Council, H. M. JENKINS, Secretary.. Members’ $)rtbfoges of ©fjemfral &nalp$fc. {Applicable only to the case of Persons who are not commercially engaged in the manufacture or sale of any substance sent for Ajtalysis.) The Council have fixed the following rates of Charges for Analysis to be made by the Consulting Chemist for the bona-fide and sole use of Members of the Society ; who, to avoid all unnecessary correspondence, are particularly requested, when applying to him, to mention the kind of analysis they require, and to quote its number in the subjoined schedule. The charge for analysis, together with the carriage of the specimens (if any), must be paid to him by Members at the time of their application : No. 1. — An opinion of the genuineness of bone-dust or oil-cake (each sample) 2s. 6 d. 2. — An estimate of the value (relatively to the average samples in the market) of sulphate and muriate of ammonia and of the nitrates of potash and soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5*. 3. — An analysis of guano ; showing the proportion of moisture, organic matter, sand, phosphate of lime, alkaline salts and ammonia, and an estimate of its value, provided the selling price of the article to be analysed be sent with it .. .. .. .. .. .. 10s. 4. — An analysis of mineral superphosphate of lime for soluble phosphates only, and an estimate of its value, provided the selling price of the article to be analysed be .sent with it .. .. .. .. .. 5». 5. — An analysis of superphosphate of lime, showing the proportions of moisture, organic matter, sand, soluble and insoluble phosphates, sulphate of lime, and ammonia, and an estimate of its value, provided the selling price of the article to be analysed be sent with it .. 10s. 6. — An analysis, showing the value of bone-dust or any other ordinary artificial manure, provided the selling price of the manure to be analysed be sent with it .. .. .. .. .. .. 10s. 7. — An analysis of limestone, showing the proportion of lime . . ..Is. 6 d. 8. — An analysis of limestone, showing the proportion of lime and magnesia 10s. 9. — An analysis of limestone or marls, showing the proportion of carbonate, phosphate, and sulphate of lime and magnesia, with sand and clay 10s. 10. — Partial analysis of a soil, including determinations of clay, sand, organic matter, and carbonate of lime . . .. .. .. .. 10s. 11. — Complete analysis of a soil .. .. .. .. .. .. £3 12. — An analysis of oil-cake or other substance used for feeding purposes, showing the proportion of moisture, oil, mineral matter, albuminous matter, and woody fibre, as well as of starch, gum, and sugar in the aggregate ; and an opinion of its feeding and fattening or milk- producing properties .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 10s. 13. — Analysis of any vegetable product .. .. .. .. .. 10s. 14. — Analysis of animal products, refuse substances used for manures, &c. from 10s. to £1 15. — Determination of the “ hardness ” of a sample of water before and after boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5s. 16. — Analysis of water of land-drainage, and of water used for irrigation £1 17. — Analysis of water used for domestic purposes .. .. .. .. £1 10«. 18. — Determination of nitric acid in a sample of water .. .. .. 10*. 19. — Examination of Viscera for Metallic poison .. .. .. .. £2 2*. 20. — Examination of Viscera complete, for metals and alkaloids .. . . £5 5*. 21. — Personal consultation with the Consulting Chemist. (The usual hours of attendance, Monday excepted, will be from 11 to 2, but to prevent disappointment, it is suggested that Members desiring to hold a consultation should write to make an appointment) . . 5*. 22. — Consultation by letter .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 5*. 23. — Consultation necessitating the writing of three or more letters . . 10a. The Laboratory of the Society is at 12, Hanover Square, London, W., to which address the Consulting Chemist, Dr. Avgcstus Voelcker, F.K.S., requests that all letters and parcels (postage and carriage paid) from Members of the Society, who are entitled to avail themselves of the foregoing Privileges, should be directed. ( xxi ) GUIDE TO THE PUECHASE OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES AND FEEDING STUFFS. Feeding Cakes. 1. Linseed-cake should be purchased as “ Pure,” and the insertion of this word on the invoice should he insisted upon. The use of such words as “ Best,” “ Genuine,” &c., should he objected to by the purchaser. 2. Rape-cake for feeding purposes should be guaranteed “ Pure ” and purchased by sample. 3. Decorticated Cotton-cake should be guaranteed “ Pure,” and purchased by sample. 4. Undecarticated Cotton-cake should be guaranteed “ Pure,” and purchased by sample. ~ N.B. — All feeding cakes should be purchased in good condition, and the guarantee of the vendor should be immediately checked by a fair sample (taken out of the middle of the cake) being at once sent for examination to a competent analytical chemist. The remainder of the cake from which the sample sent for examination had been taken should be sealed up in the presence of a witness, and retained by the purchaser for reference in case of dispute. Artificial Manures. 1. Raw or Green Bones or Bone-dust should be purchased as “Pure” Raw Bones guaranteed to contain not less than 45 per cent, of tribasic phosphate of lime, and to yield not less than 4 per cent, of ammonia. 2. Boiled Bones should be purchased as “ Pure ” Boiled Bones guaranteed to contain not less than 48 per cent, of tribasic phosphate of lime, and to yield not less than 1| per cent, of ammonia. 3. Dissolved Bones are made of various qualities, and are sold at various prices per ton ; therefore the quality should be guaranteed, under the heads of soluble phosphate of lime, insoluble phosphate of lime, and nitrogen or its equivalent as ammonia. The purchaser should also stipulate for an allowance for each unit per cent, which the dissolved bones should be found on analysis to contain less than the guaranteed percentages of the three substances already mentioned. 4. Mineral Superphosphates should be guaranteed to be delivered in a sufficiently dry and powdery condition, and to contain a certain percentage of soluble phosphate of lime, at a certain price per unit per cent., no value to be attached to insohible phosphates. 5. Compound Artificial Manures should be purchased in the same manner and with the same guarantees as Dissolved Bones. 6. Nitrate of Soda should be guaranteed by the vendor to contain from 94 to 95 per cent, of pure nitrate. 7. Sulphate of Ammonia should be guaranteed by the vendor to contain not less than 23 per cent, of ammonia. 8. Peruvian Guano should be sold under that name, and guaranteed to be in a dry and friable condition, and to contain a certain percentage of ammonia. N.B. — Artificial manures should be guaranteed to be delivered in a sufficiently dry and powdery condition to admit of distribution by the drill. A sample for analysis should be taken, not later than three days after delivery, by emptying several bags, mixing the contents together, and filling two tins holding about half a pound each, in the presence of a witness. Both the tins should be sealed, one kept by the purchaser for reference in case of dispute, and the other for- warded to a competent analytical chemist for examination. ( xxii ) INSTRUCTIONS FOR SELECTING AND SENDING SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. ARTIFICIAL MANURES. — Take a large handful of the manure from three or four bags, mix the whole on a large sheet of paper, breaking down with the hand any lumps present, and fold up in tinfoil, or in oil-silk, about 3 oz. of the well-mixed sample, and send it to 12, Hanover Sqtjabe, London, W., by post : or place the mixed manure in a small wooden or tin box, which may be tied by string, but must not be sealed, and send it by post. If the manure be very wet and lumpy, a larger boxful, weighing from 10 to 12 oz., should be sent either by post or railway. Samples not exceeding 4 oz. in weight may be sent by post, by attaching two penny postage stamps to the parcel. Samples not exceeding 8 oz., for three postage stamps. Samples not exceeding 12 oz., for four postage stamps. The parcels should be addressed: Dr. Augustus Voelcrer, 12, Hanover Square, London, W., and the address of the sender or the number or mark of the article be stated on parcels. The samples may be sent in covers, or in boxes, bags of linen or other materials. No parcel sent by post must exceed 12 oz. in weight, 1 foot 6 inches in length, 9 inches in width, and 6 inches in depth. SOILS. — Have a wooden box made 6 inches long and wide, and from 9 to 12 inches deep, according to the depth of soil and subsoil of the field. Mark out in the field a space of about 1 2 inches square ; dig round in a slanting direction a trench, so as to leave undisturbed a block of soil with its subsoil from 9 to 12 inches deep ; trim this block or plan of the field to make it fit into the wooden box, invert the open box over it, press down firmly, then pass a spade under the box and lift it up, gently turn over the box, nail on the lid and send it by goods or parcel to the laboratory. The soil will then be received in the exact position in which it is found in the field. In the case of very light, sandy, and porous soils, the wooden box may be at once inverted over the soil and forced down by pressure, and then dug out. WATERS. — The water, if possible, should be sent in a glass-stoppered Win- chester half-gallon bottle, which is readily obtained in any chemist and drug- gist’s shop. If Winchester bottles cannot be procured, the water may be sent in perfectly clean new stoneware spirit- jars surrounded by wickerwork. For the determination of the degree of hardness before and after boiling, only one quart wine-bottle full of water is required. LIMESTONES, MARLS, IRONSTONES, AND OTHER MINERALS.— Whole pieces, weighing from 3 to 4 oz., should be sent enclosed in small linen bags, or wrapped in paper. Postage 2d., if under 4 oz. OILCAKES. — Take a sample from the middle of the cake. To this end break a whole cake into two. Then break off a piece from the end where the two halves were joined together, and wrap it in paper, leaving the ends open, and send parcel by post. The piece should weigh from 10 to 12 oz. Postage, 4 d. If sent by railway, one quarter or half a cake should be forwarded. FEEDING MEALS. — About 3 oz. will he sufficient for analysis. Enclose" the meal in a small linen bag. Send it by post. On forwarding samples, separate letters should be sent to the laboratory, specifying the nature of the information required, and, if possible, the object in view. H. M. JENKINS, Secretary. Winters’ Botanical anti Entomological ^ribiltges The Council have fixed the following Eates of Charge for the examination of Plants, Seeds, and Insects for the bond fide use of Members of the Society, who are particularly requested when apply- ing to the Consulting Botanist, or to the Honorary Consulting Entomologist, to mention the kind of examination they require, and to quote its number in the subjoined Schedule. The charge for examination must be paid at the time of application, and the carriage of all parcels must be prepaid. .. I. BOTANICAL. No. 1. — A report on the purity, amount and nature of foreign materials, perfectness, and germinating power of a sample of seeds . . . . 5s. 2. — Detailed report on the weight, purity, perfectness, and germinating power of a sample of seeds, with a special description of the weeds and other foreign materials contained in it . . .. .. .. 10s. 3. — Determination of the species of any weed or other plant, or of any epiphyte or vegetable parasite, with a report on its habits, and the means of its extermination or prevention .. .. .. 5s. 4. — Report on any disease affecting the farm crop . . . . . . 5s. 5. — Determination of the species of a collection of natural grasses found in any district of one kind of soil, with a report on their habits and pasture value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10s. N.B. — The above Scale of Charges is not applicable in the case of Seedsmen requiring the services of the Consulting Botanist. II. ENTOMOLOGICAL. 6. — Determination of the species of any insect, worm, or other animal which, in any stage of its life, injuriously affects the farm crops, with a report on its habits and suggestions as to its extermination 2s. 6 cl. INSTRUCTIONS FOR SELECTING AND SENDING SAMPLES. In sending seed or corn for examination the utmost care must be taken to secure a fair and honest sample. If anything supposed to be injurious or useless exists in the corn or seed, selected samples should also be sent. In collecting specimens of plants, the whole plant should be taken up, and the earth shaken from the roots. If possible, the plants must be in flower or fruit. They should be packed in a light box, or in a firm paper parcel. Specimens of diseased plants or of parasites should be forwarded as fresh as possible. Place them in a bottle, or pack them in tinfoil or oil-silk. All specimens should be accompanied with a letter specifying the nature of the information required, and stating any local circumstances (soil, situation, &c.) which, in the opinion of the sender, would be likely to throw light on the inquiry. Parcels or letters containing seeds or plants for examination (Carriage or Postage prepaid) must be addressed to Mr. W. Carruthers, F.R.S., Central House, Central Hill, Norwood, S.E. Parcels or letters containing insects, or plants apparently infested with insects, sent for examination, must be addressed to Miss Ormerod, F.M.S., Dunster Lodge, Isleworth. The Council give notice that the following is the standard which is adopted by the Consulting Botanist in his examination of seeds : — 1. That the bulk be true to the species ordered. 2. That it contain not more than five per cent, of seeds other than the species ordered. 3. That the germinating power shall be, for cereals, green crops, clovers, and timothy grass, not less than 30 per cent. ; for fox-tail, not less than 20 per cent. ; and for other grasses not less than 70 per cent. The Council recommend that purchasers should require a guarantee in accord- ance with this standard. They also strongly recommend that the purchase of prepared mixtures should be avoided, and that the different seeds to be sown should be purchased separately. H. M. JENKINS, Secretarg. ' ' ■ . THE JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. SECOND SERIES. VOLUME THE NINETEENTH. PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1883. 1'iiese expedients, it is true, are not east; still they are in the power of every THINKING HUSBANDMAN. HE WHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT ONE, OF HOWEVER LIMITED APPLICATION, AND TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND OF THOSE WHO COME AFTER. TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT BE EXPECTED. THE FIRST CARE OF ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR SCIENCE SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FORMS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE THE EXECUTION OF THESE AMONG THEIR MEMBERS. Von Thaer, Principles of Agriculture. London: printed by william clowes and sons, limited, stamfokd street AND CHARING CROSS. ( »» ) CONTENTS OF VOLUME XIX. Second Series. Statistics : — Meteorology for the year 1882 Report on the Hay-harvest forecasts for 1882 Imports of Corn, &c., British Wheat sold, and Average Prices Number of Beasts exhibited, and the Prices realised for them at the Christmas Markets, since 1843 Acreage under each description of Crop, Fallow, and Grass ; and Number of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs in Great Britain and Ireland, 1880, 1881, and 1882 xxii, xxm Importations and Average Prices of certain Foreign and Colonial Productions ... xxiv Statistics of Dairy Produce, and Prices Current .. .. xxv-xxix ARTICLE PAGE I. — Half-bred Horses for Field or Road : their Breeding and Management. By Earl Cathcart 1 II. — Shorthorns in Scotland and Ireland. By James Macdonald, Editor of ‘ The Farmers’ Gazette,’ Dublin 55 III. — Report on Wireworm. By Miss Eleanor A. Ormerod, Honorary Consulting Entomologist to the Society .. .. 104 IY. — Supplementary Memoranda to the Report of the Royal Com- mission on Agriculture by certain of the Commissioners 144 V. — Dairying in Denmark. By H. M. Jenkins, F.G.S., Secretary of the Society, and Editor of the ‘Journal’ 155 YI. — Notes on Continental Poultry-keeping. By H. M. Jenkins, F.G.S., Secretary of the Society and Editor of the ‘ Journal 5 184 . VII. — Diagrams showing the Fluctuations in the recorded Weekly Average Prices of Wheat from 1863-1882 inclusive. By Henry Allnutt, 3, Holland Road, Kensington 206 VIII. — Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments conducted at Woburn on behalf of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, during the year 1882. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S., Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society 200 IX. — Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1882 .. .. 235 X. — Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1882 ., .. 248 XI. — Annual Report of the Consulting Botanist for 1882. By W. Carruthers, F.R.S. 257 XII. — The late C. E. Amos, C.E., formerly Consulting Engineer to the Society. By Sir B. T. Brandreth Gibbs, Vice- President of the Society 263 PAG H I-XI XII-XV XVI-XX XXI CONTENTS. IV ARTICLE PAGE XU I. — The late Joseph Slmttleworth 270 XIV. — The Natural History of the Liver-Fluke and the Prevention of Itot. By A. P. Thomas, M.A., F.L.S., Balliol College, Oxford; Professor of Natural Science in the University College, Auckland, New Zealand 270 Additions to the Library in 1882 300 XV. — New Determinations of Ammonia, Chlorine, and Sulphuric Acid, in the Bain- Water collected at Kothamsted. By Sir XVI. — The Nitrogen as Nitric Acid, in the Soils and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rotliamsted. Bv Sir J. B. Lawes, Bart., LL.D., F.B.S., J. H. Gilbert, Pli.D., LL.D., F.R.S., XVII. — The Progress of Fruit Farming. By Charles Whitehead, F.L.S., F.G.S., of Banning House, Maidstone 308 XV11I. — On River Conservancy, and the Cause and Prevention of Floods. By W. H. Wheeler, Mem. Inst. C.E., Boston, Lincolnshire 388 XIX. — Recent British Weather. By G. J. Symons, F.R.S 411 XX. — Report of Feeding Experiments on Sheep, conducted at Crawley -Mill Farm, Woburn, with Linseed -cake and Barley-meal, Linseed-cake and Malt, Linseed-cake and Pea-meal. Bjr Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S., Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society 422 XXI. — The late Lord Vernon. By W. Wells, Holmewood, Peter- borough, Ex-President of the Society .„ 433 XXII. — Report on the Exhibition of Live-Stock at York. By S. P. Foster, of Killhow, Carlisle, Senior Steward 444 XXIII. — Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at the Society’s Meeting, 1883. By William Macdonald, Editor of the * North British Agriculturist,’ Edinburgh 449 XXIV. — The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. By Thomas Bell, of Hedley Hall, Gateshead-on-Tyne 506 XXV. — Report of the Senior Steward of Implements. By J. Bowen- J ones, of Ensdon House, Shrewsbury 581 XXVI. — Report on Implements at York. By John Coleman, of Holly croft, York 582 XXVII. — Report on Wheat-Mildew. By W. C. Little, of Stag’s Holt, March, Cambridgeshire 634 XXVIII. — Report of the Judges of Book-Keeping^ .. 693 XXIX. — On Sweet Vernal Grass and Golden Oat Grass, and their Adulteration. By William Carruthers, F.R.S. .. .. .. 702 CONTENTS. V APPENDIX. PAGE List of Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1883 i, xxv Standing Committees for 1883 iii, xxvii Report of the Council to the General Meeting, December 7, 1882, and May 22, 1883 v, xxix Distribution of Members and Council x Half-yearly Cash Account from 1st July to 31st December, 1882, and from 1st January to 30th June, 1883 xii, xxxiv Yearly Cash Account from 1st January to 31st December, 1882 xiv Country Meeting Account : Reading, 1882 xvi List of Stewards and Judges, and Award of Prizes at York .. .. xxxvi Agricultural Education : Examination Papers, 1883 lxxxix Memoranda of Meetings, Payment of Subscriptions, &c xviii, xcix Members’ Veterinary Privileges xix, c Governors and Members’ Chemical Privileges xx, ci Guide to the Purchase of Artificial Manures and Feeding Stuffs xxi, cii Members’ Botanical and Entomological Privileges xxiii, civ DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. The Binder is desired to collect together all the Appendix matter, with Roman nnmeral folios, and place it at the end of each volume of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Statistics &c., which are In all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Volume; the lettering at the back toinclud? a statement of the year as well as the volume ; the first volume belonging to 1839-40, the second to 1841, the third to 1842, the fourth to 1843, and so on. In Reprints of the Journal all Appendix matter and, in one instance, an Article in the body of the Journal 1, which at the time had become obsolete), were omitted ; the Roman numeral folios, however (for convenience of reference), were reprinted without alteration in the Appendix matter retained. Wheat Tables for the years 18G5 to 1882 to follow page 208. Table IV. to face page 536. Table VII. to face page 542. t JOURNAL OF THE LOYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. XV. — New Determinations of Ammonia, Chlorine, and Sulphuric Acid, in the Rain-Water collected at Rothamsted. By Sir J. B. Lawes, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S. ; J. H. Gilbert, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. ; and R. WARINGTON. Introduction 313 The Ammonia in Rain 313 1. In Daily Rainfalls 314 2. In Monthly Rainfalls 319 The Chlorine in Rain 325 The Sulphuric Acid in Rain 328 Summary of Results 330 In a Report recently made in this ‘Journal,’ “On the Amount and Composition of the Rain and Drainage- Waters collected at Rothamsted ” (vol. xvii., 1881, p. 241), an account was given of various investigations on the composition of the rain- water collected in the large rain gauge at Rothamsted. These investigations embraced determinations of ammonia made at Rothamsted in 1853-4 ; determinations of ammonia and nitric acid by Professor Way in the rain of 1855 and 1856 ; determinations of total solid matter, hardness, organic carbon and nitrogen, ammonia, nitric acid, and chlorine, made by Dr. Frankland in samples of rain collected in 1869-70 ; and lastly, determinations of chlorine made at Rothamsted in 1877-80. We have now to give a further account of work carried on in the same direction. The Ammonia in Rain. It will be recollected that a considerable difference was shown to exist between the results of the earlier and later determina- tions of ammonia. The earliest Rothamsted determinations, YOL. XIX. — S. S. Y 316 New Determinations of Ammonia, Chlorine, and Table I. — The Daily Eainfall, and tlie Amount of Nitrogen as Ammonia per Million of Rain, from June 22, 1881, to January 5, 1882. Nitrogen Nitrogen Date of Collection. Rainfall, as Direction Date of Collection. Rainfall, as Direction Dew, or Snow. Ammonia per of Wind. Dew, or Snow. Ammonia per of Wind. Million. Million. 1881 Inches. 1881 Inches. June 22 0 023 0-350 s. Aug. 30 1-000 0-070 w. 23 0-061 0-329 w. 31 0-310 0-206 N. 9 9 25 26 o-ooi 0-177 0-156 s. s.w. Sept. 1 0 015 1-400 N. * > ) 9 27 28 0-015 0-092 0*576 s. w. Whole \ Month / 5-817 0-183 29 o-ooi w. 9 » * * Sept. 9 0-014 0-721 N.W. July 6 0-304 0-700 s.w. 3 0-012 0-947 N.W. 7 0-169 0-268 N.W. 4 0-018 0-782 N. 8 o-ooi # . s.w. 5 0-004 N.E. 9 0-087 0-309 w. 6 0-460 0-144 S.W. 10 0-013 0-604 s.w. 7 0-098 0-247 N.W. 12 0-004 , , s. 8 0015 0-535 S.W. 13 0-004 s.w. 11 0-017 1-153 N. 16 0015 2-676 N.W. 12 0-024 1-071 N.W. 20 0 034 2-368 N.W. 13 0-046 0-398 S.W. 22 0-006 s. 14 0-007 1-235 w. 23 0-030 1-688 s.w. 15 0-004 1-482 S.E. 24 0-124 0-384 s.w. 16 0-005 1-565 W. 25 0-020 1112 s.w. 17 0-007 5-490 S. 27 0-014 1-441 s.w. 18 0011 3-129 S. 28 0-007 s.w. 19 0-067 0-391 S.W. 29 0-286 0-il7 N.W. 20 0-007 1-976 S.E. 31 0-492 0-120 s. 21 0-276 0-239 E. Aug. 1 0152 0-100 s. 9 • 22 23 0-011 0-292 0-700 0-425 W. N.E. mole \ 1-762 0-380 25 0-737 0-098 S.W. Month ) 26 0-006 0-439 S.W. 27 0-005 0-885 s.w. Aug. 2 0-029 0-721 N.W. 28 0-006 0-906 N.W. 5 0-004 2-141 S. 29 0-008 1-647 E. 9 0-923 0-104 w. 30 0-007 2-635 E. 10 0-006 0-824 s.w. Oct. 1 0-007 2-471 N. 11 0-042 0-576 g 12 0-165 0-141 S.E. Whole ) 2-171 0-306 13 0-600 0-166 W. Mouth / 14 0-026 0-247 N.W. 16 0-070 0-371 S.W. Oct. 2 0011 1-400 N.E. 17 0-090 0-257 W. 3 0-007 1-318 N.E. 18 0-245 0-120 W. 4 0-004 1-894 N.E. 19 0-302 0-103 S.E. 5 0-007 1-647 N.E 20 0-030 0-782 S.W. 6 0-022 0-885 W. 22 0-285 0-453 S.W. 7 0-038 1-647 N.W. 23 0-018 1-235 E. 8 0-303 0-211 N.W. 24 0-675 0-244 s.w. : 9 0-149 0-466 N.W. 25 0-094 0-313 s. 10 0-012 0-782 W. i 26 0-615 0-131 s.w. 11 0 005 0-659 S.W. 27 0-211 0-233 w. 12 0-021 0-604 S.W. 9 » 29 0-062 0-272 s. 13 0-114 0-384 W. Sulphuric Acid, in the Rain-Water collected at Rotliamsted. 317 Table I. ( continued ). — Tbo Daily Rainfall, and the Amount of Nitrogen as Ammonia per Million of Rain, from June 22, 1881, to January 5, 1882. Date of Collection. 1881 14 15 16 17 18 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Whole \ Month / Nov. Rainfall, Dew, or Snow. Inches. 0-769 0-008 0-004 0-006 0-008 0-004 0-280 0-032 0-982 0-150 0-020 0-029 0-013 0-015 0-006s 0-017/ 0010/ 3 046 0-037s 0-064 0-293 0-137 0-031 0-011 0-018 0-005 0-005 0-060 0-007 0-005 0-011 0-432 0-015/ 0-051 0-041 0-186 0-169 0-008 0-035 0-643 0-347 0-713 0-006 Nitrogen as Ammonia per Million. 0 085 0-343 0- 313 1- 647 0-659 0- 247 1- 647 0-312 0-214 0-453 0-329 0-604 0-713 0-844 0-556 0-618 0-307 0-988 0-288 0-494 0-181 0-412 0-467 4-255 4-941 4-392 0- 321 1071 1- 976 1-318 0-124 0-535 0- 371 1- 235 0-165 0-216 0-316 0-288 0-119 0-132 0-043 0115 Direction of Wind. S.W. w. N. E. E. N.E. S.E. E. E. E. N.E. N.E. N.E. N.W. N.W. N.W. S.E. S.E. S.E. S.E. S.W. w. S.E. S.E. S.E. S.W. S.W. N.W. N.W. S.W. S.W. s. S.E. S.W. S.W. S.W. S.W. S.W. S.E. S.E. S.W. S.W. Nitrogen Date of Collection. Rainfall, as Direction Dew, or Snow. Ammonia per of Wind. Million. 1881 Inches. Nov. 29 0-015/ 0-247 S.W. ,, 30 0-009/ 1-071 S.E. Dec. 1 0-121 0-302 S.E. Whole \ Month / 3-475 0-239 Dec. 2 0-166 0-357 S.W. ,, 3 0-022 0-508 S.E. ,, 4 0-008/ 1-318 S.E. ,, 5 0-062 0-275 S. ,, 6 0-194 0-103 S.E. ,, 7 0-536 0-070 S.W. ,, 8 0 012/ 0-259 S. ,, 9 0-044 0-362 w. ,, 10 0-004/ 2-471 N.E. ,, 11 0-076s 0-577 N.W. ,, 12 o-no 0-494 N.W. ,, 13 0-086 0-329 N.W. ,, 14 0-011/ ,, N.W. ,, 15 0-260 0-300 S.E. ,, 16 0-213 1-400 S. ,, 17 0-342 0-196 S.W. ,, 18 1-252 0 058 N. ,, 19 0-005/ 0-137 S.W. ,, 20 0-366 0-099 S.W. ,, 21 0-424 0-079 S.W. ,, 22 0-007 0-309 S.W. ,, 23 ,, 24 | 0-018/ 1-029 N. S.E. ,, 26 0-031 0-590 S.W. ,, 27 0-002 S.W. ,, 28 o-oio 1-771 S.W. ,, 29 0-005 1-853 S.W. ,, 31 0-112 0-346 S.E. 1882 Jan. 1 0-005 1-281 S.W. Whole \ Month J 4-383 0-230 Jan. 2 0-184 0-118 S.W. ,, 3 0-290 0-124 S.W. ,, 4 0-013/ 0-357 N.W. ,, 5 0 134 0-172 S.W. 318 New Determinations of Ammonia, Chlorine, and in the colder months (October to January) of the period, we find that the deposits below 0'04 inch show on an average a considerable preponderance of ammonia in the warmer months, while several of the small groups of heavier rainfalls show a preponderance of ammonia in the colder months. That the atmosphere is far richer in ammonia in summer than in winter is undoubted : but it by no means follows that a summer rainfall should always contain more ammonia than a winter rainfall of similar amount, both occurring under similar condi- tions as to previous washing of the air. If the atmosphere was at the same temperature at both seasons this would indeed necessarily be the case, but with a fall of temperature the rain becomes capable of taking up a larger proportion of the atmo- spheric ammonia. The proportion of ammonia in rain should theoretically be highest when, by a sudden change of tempera- ture, a cold aqueous deposit is formed in a previously warm atmosphere ; such conditions occur with changes of wind from south to north, or when dew is deposited on a clear night following a warm day. The influence which the direction of the wind has on the proportion of ammonia present in rain can only be very par- tially studied from the data before us. The difference in the in- fluence of warm and cold winds is apparently similar to that already noticed as characterising the seasons of summer and winter. The smaller aqueous deposits are, as a rule, dis- tinctly richer in ammonia with a south wind, but the same effect is not perceptible in the case of the heavier rainfalls. Dr. Frankland had called attention to the possible contamina- tion of the rain-water from impurities on the surface of the rain- gauge. During the present series of determinations all bird- marks were wiped off as soon as noticed, their occurrence being at the same time recorded. It is difficult to perceive any con- nection between these marks and the proportion of ammonia in the rain. Without going into detail, it may be mentioned that these marks were most abundant from August 1 to 8, and that during the whole of September and December not one was noticed. In Table II. will be found a summary of the results obtained from the analyses of the daily samples of rain ; the rainfalls are grouped according to quantity. The average composition of each group of rainfall, and the general average at the foot of the Table, are calculated so ajs to represent the composition of the waters if mixed together. Thus, if the whole rainfall of the period had been united in one volume, it would have contained 0 248 of nitrogen as ammonia per million of water. The other average compositions given in this Report will be calculated in Sulphuric Acid , in the Rain-Water collected at Rothamsted. 319 Table II. — The Average Amount of Nitrogen as Ammonia in Daily Rainfalls of different Quantity, from June 22, 1881, to January 5, 1882. Number of Examples. Average Quantity Nitrogen as Ammonia, per million. of each Rainfall. Average. Highest. Lowest. Below '01 inch 35 Inches. 0 006 1-536 | 5-491 0115 From '01 to 02 inch . . 27 0-014 1-141 4-255 0-247 From -02 to 04 inch . . 19 0-028 0-924 2-368 0-247 From "04 to 06 inch . . 5 0-045 0-571 1-235 0-362 From • 06 to 08 inch . . 8 0-065 0-359 0-577 0-272 From '08 to 10 inch . . 6 0-091 0-338 0-576 0-247 From • 10 to 20 inch . . 18 0-151 0-232 0-494 o-ioo From '20 to 30 inch . . 11 0-266 0-360 1-400 0-117 From '30 to 40 inch .. 7 0-325 0-229 0-700 0-099 From ’40 to 70 inch .. 9 0-542 0-138 0-244 0-070 From "70 to 1 00 inch .. 5 0-825 0 138 0-312 0-043 Above 1 • 00 inch 2 1-126 0-063 0-070 0-058 152 0-142 0-248 5-491 0-043 a similar manner, unless the contrary is stated. It will be noticed that several small deposits were left unanalysed during the earlier part of the investigation. If we assume for these the composition proper to their quantity and season, the average composition of the whole rainfall from June 22 to January 5, amounting to 21 '645 inches, becomes 0’254 of nitrogen as ammonia per million of water. 2. Ammonia in Monthly Rainfalls. — A mixed sample, repre- senting the rainfall of each month, has been regularly prepared by placing in a carboy a fixed proportion (1 gallon for every inch) of the rainfall of each day. In June 1881 determinations •of ammonia were commenced in these monthly mixtures, and have now been continued for rather more than two years, each mixture being analysed as soon as possible after the termination of the month of collection. A considerable number of monthly mixtures of rain-water, made previously to June 1881, were also analysed in this month ; these samples were in many cases of considerable age when analysed. All the analyses of monthly mixtures will be found in Table III. (p. 321) ; the results relating to old samples are separated by a thick black line from those obtained by the analysis of fresh samples. It is clear that the determinations in the monthly mixtures can only be of value if the ammonia originally in the rain remains unaltered till the analysis of the mixture can be made. In our former Report it was assumed that the ammonia in rain- water would diminish on keeping, that it would, in fact, pro- 320 New Determinations of Ammonia, Chlorine, and bably be nitrified. We must thus in the first place consider what evidence we have as to the permanence of ammonia in the rain-water samples. From the daily analyses of rain-water already given, the composition of the water for each month, July to December 1881, has been calculated, correction being made for the few rainfalls left unanalysed. The calculated composition of the monthly mixtures is compared below with their actual com- positions when the mixture was completed ; and further, with the results of an analysis of these mixtures made in December 1882. Month (1881). Nitrogen as Ammonia, per million of Rain. Calculated from daily Determinations (corrected). Determined in Mixture at end of Month. Ee-analysis, Dec. 18o2. ^ July 0-399 0-618 0-638 August 0 183 0 178 0 172 September 0-309 0-350 0-288 October 0-309 0-214 0-255 November 0-239 0-237 0-226 December 0-231 0-196 0-175 Numerical Mean . . 0-279 0-299 0-292 On looking at these figures it appears that the ammonia in the rain-water possesses considerable permanence ; in one or two cases only is there any distinct diminution of ammonia by keeping, while in the case of the July water a considerable rise has taken place. Further re-analyses of old samples of rain- water, which we need not give in detail, show that a considerable diminution of ammonia by keeping is rare, and the increase of ammonia more common. In fifteen monthly mixtures of rain- water the mean alteration in composition during 1 to 1^ year was, in fact, from 0’457 to 0'478 of nitrogen as ammonia per million of water. The rise in ammonia, which is observed in some of these cases, is probably due to the decomposition of the nitrogenous organic matter contained in the rain. That the ammonia in rain should be apparently so little liable to nitrification will probably excite surprise ; it must be recol- lected, however, that the rain-water in question contains a very distinct amount of lead in solution, derived from the gauge in which it is collected, and this is very probably fatal to the life of the nitrifying organism. In Table III. the means calculated from the determinations in Sulphuric Acid, in the Rain-Water collected at Rothamsted. 321 Table III. — The Amount of various Monthly Rainfalls, and the Amounts of Nitrogen as Ammonia per Million of Rain, and per Acre, 1878-83. Mean. Month. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. June, 1881, to May, 1883. 1878 to 1883, Rainfall — Inches. January 2-849 0-550 1-139 1-572 3 304 2-438 1-883 February 3-799 2-901 3-705 2-020 4 344 3-182 3-354 March . . 0-977 1-183 1-128 1-566 0 885 1-225 1148 April 4-093 2-790 2-161 0-997 3-925 1 477 2-701 2-574 May - 3-481 0-742 1-376 2-068 1 886 1-977 1-911 June 5-551 1-966 1-633 3-926 2-780 3-269 July ,, 5-261 1-762 2-087 1-925 3-037 August .. . . 5-817 2-075 3-946 3-946 September 1-462 3 131 5-858 2171 2-287 2-229 2-982 October .. 0-815 5-939 3-046 6-517 4-782 4-079 November 3-475 3-443 3-459 3-459 December 0-823 3-472 4-383 3-283 3-833 2-990 Total .. •• •• 34-798 34-477 34-632 Nitrogen as Ammonia, per Million of Rain. January 0-219 0-495 0-659 0-422 0-213 0-280 0-320 February aa 0-298 0-371 0-467 0-227 0-199 0-208 0-314 March . . 0-357 0-638 0-371 0-313 0-856 0-507 0-483 April 0-466 0-617 0-881 0-604 0-319 0-576 0-389 0-533 May •• 0-470 1-276 0-631 0-535 0-412 0-476 0-557 June 0-384 0-508 0-412 0-445 0-436 0-425 July , , , . 0-309 0-618 0-503 0-556 0 413 August .. 0-178 0-453 0-250 0-250 September 0-576 0-412 0 160 0-350 0-401 0-377 0-318 October . # 0-988 0 165 0-214 0-254 0-241 0-251 November 0-237 0-137 0-187 0 187 December •• 1-038 0.162 0-196 0-360 0-266 0-289 Average •• - •• •• 0-343 •• 0-316 0-340 Nitrogen as Ammonia, in Lbs. per Acre. January 0-141 0-062 0-170 0 150 0-159 0 155 0-136 February 0-256 0-243 0-391 0-104 0-196 0-150 0-238 March . . 0-079 0-171 0-095 0-111 0-171 0-141 0-125 April 0-432 0-389 0-431 0-136 0-283 0-192 0-238 0-311 May 0-370 0-214 0-196 0-250 0-176 0-213 0-241 Juno # # 0-482 0-226 0-152 0-395 0-274 0-314 July . , , , 0-368 0-246 0-238 0-242 0-284 August .. 0-234 0-213 0-224 0-224 September 0 191 0-292 0-2i2 0-172 0-208 0 190 0-215 October 0-182 0-222 0-147 0-375 0-261 0-232 November . . 0-186 0-107 0-147 0-147 December 0 193 0-127 0-194 0-267 0-231 0-195 Total .. •• .. 1 .. 2-701 •• 2-466 2-662 322 New Determinations of Ammonia, Chlorine, and monthly mixtures are arranged in two columns ; one including only recent analyses, in which the ammonia was determined shortly after the completion of each mixture ; the other including also the analyses of older samples, not analysed till June 1881. The average amount of nitrogen as ammonia in the freshly analysed samples is 0'316, and in the whole series of samples 0340 per million. The ammonia is thus somewhat higher when the determina- tions in the old samples are included in the average, a result which perfectly agrees with what has just been stated as to the increase in the quantity of ammonia by keeping. In Table IV. the whole of the determinations in monthly mixtures are grouped according to the quantity of the rainfall, and the results for the summer months (April to September) are given separately from those of the winter months (October to March). Table IV. — The Average Amount of Nitrogen as Ammonia in Monthly Rainfalls of different Quantity, in Summer, Winter, and the Whole Year. Summer Months. Winter Months. Whole Year. Nitrogen as Nitrogen as Nitrogen as Groups of „j Ammonia. Ammonia. m Ammonia. Rainfall. — Mean Mean £ Mean Rain- »— < Kain- Cm Rain- i «3 fall. Per Lbs. fall Per Lbs. a fall. Per Lbs. w Mil- per Mil- per W Mil- per lion. Acre. lion. Acre. lion. Acre. In. lbs. In. lbs. In. lbs. Below 1 inch . . 2 0-87 •890 •175 5 0*81 ■750 •137 7 0-83 •792 •148 1 to 2 inches. ... 7 1*65 •527 •197 5 1*32 •468 •139 12 1*51 •506 •173 2 to 3 inches. ... 7 2-23 •537 •272 3 2*59 •278 •163 10 2*34 •451 •239 3 to 4 inches.. .. 4 3*62 •410 •335 8 3*44 •263 •205 12 3-50 •314 •248 Above 4 inches . . 5 5*32 •287 •346 4 5*30 •206 •247 9 5*31 •251 •302 25 2*80 •423 •268 25 2*69 •296 •180 50 2*74 •361 •224 The gradual decrease in the proportion of ammonia per million of rain as the rainfall of the month becomes greater, is plainly shown by these figures ; the quantity of ammonia brought down per acre nevertheless rises with each increase in the quantity of rainfall ; but, taking the figures for the whole year, it requires the rainfall to be increased about sixfold, in order to double the quantity of ammonia contributed to an acre of land. The higher proportion of ammonia in summer, and the larger quantity contributed per acre in the rainfall of this season, is very evident, and requires no comment. We have now described the results afforded by the new determinations of ammonia in rain. The analyses of daily rainfalls, extending over rather more than six months, have Sulphuric Acid , in the Rain-Water collected at Rothamsted. 323 yielded an average of 0’254 of nitrogen as ammonia per million of rain. Determinations in fresh monthly mixtures, extending over two years, have given an average of 0‘316 ; and determina- tions in fifty monthly mixtures, rather more than half con- sisting of old collections, an average of 0'340 of nitrogen as ammonia per million of rain. It is quite evident that the results now obtained, while they agree well with those given by Frankland’s analyses, are much lower than those furnished by the earlier analyses made at Rothamsted, or by Professor Way. Can there be any error in the recent determinations tending to deficiency ? Professor J. W. Mallet has lately called attention to the necessity of supplying the condenser with ice-cold water when distilling ammonia, if loss is to be avoided. Thus, when distilling 1 milligram of ammonia from 500 cubic centimeters of water in the ordinary way, he found a loss of 14'5 per cent., and when distilling 0-5 milligram, a loss of 7 per cent., the temperature of the distillates being 27° to 28° C. The temperature of our dis- tillates may in summer time be as high as the point just named ; there seem, however, no grounds for supposing that an appreciable loss of ammonia has occurred. In the first [place, the quantity of ammonia in the retort has not exceeded 0T milligram, and has therefore been much below that mentioned by Professor Mallet. Further, in a determination made in June with a supply of iced water, the distillate having a temperature of 11° C., there was no appreciable difference in the amount of ammonia found from that obtained in a determination made in the ordinary way with a distillate at 25° C. The evidence thus points to the conclusion that the early determinations of ammonia in rain erred on the side of excess. The method employed at Rothamsted in 1853—4 is given in detail in the Report of the British Association for 1854. The method used by Way in 1855—6 is described in the volume of this ‘ Journal ’ for 1856, p. 159. To enter upon a full discussion of these methods would lead us into chemical details unsuited to the present paper. It may be stated, however, that in both cases the ammonia was determined alkalimetrically, a method admittedly less delicate than the more modern Nessler process. Again, it has been stated by Schloesing, that by the use of a glass condenser the distillate may acquire alkali from the glass, and it is obvious that, so far as this may have happened, the effect would be to give high results by the alkalimetric method. There is also the further question whether a larger proportion of the nitrogenous organic matter was not converted into ammonia, and determined as such. Assuming, then, the new determinations to be substantially 324 New Determinations of Ammonia, Chlorine, and correct, what estimate can be given of the amount of combined nitrogen annually furnished by the rain at Rothamsted ? If we take the results of the daily determinations during six months, June to December 1881, as representing half a year, then the nitrogen as ammonia supplied in the rain in the course of one year will amount to 2-374 lbs. per acre. If we take the results furnished by the analyses of fresh monthly mixtures during two years, the annual amount becomes 2 466 lbs. per acre. If the analyses of old monthly mixtures are included, the quantity of nitrogen as ammonia becomes 2-662 lbs. per acre per annum. The quantities shown by these three methods of estimation agree well together, but the first will probably most nearly represent the ready formed ammonia supplied by rain ; we have learnt, indeed, that in the case of the Rothamsted rain-water, collected in a leaden gauge, the quantity of ammonia tends to increase with the age of the wTater, a part of the organic nitrogenous matter present in the rain doubtless undergoing decomposition, ammonia being produced. The two series of determinations of nitric acid in Rothamsted rain, made by Way and by Frankland, have been described in the earlier Report. Way’s results of two years’ (1855-6) analyses of rain, gave a mean of 0"12 of nitrogen as nitric acid per million of water ; equal to 0-75 lb. of nitrogen per acre for the years in question. Frankland, using a more modern method of analysis, found a nearly similar proportion of nitric acid in rain-water. The numerical mean of 34 determinations in rain, excluding dew, gave 0T4 of nitric nitrogen, while the average amount in 28 rainfalls of which the quantity was known, was 0- 149 of nitric nitrogen per million of water. If wTe reckon the present average rainfall at Rothamsted (about 29 inches) on the latter estimate, the quantity of nitrogen as nitric acid annually supplied in the rain becomes nearly 1-0 lb. per acre. The total nitrogen as ammonia and nitric acid is thus about 3'3 lbs. per acre per annum. We have yet to take account of the nitrogenous organic matter present in rain-water. The mean quantity of nitrogen in organic combination found by Frankland in 69 samples of Rothamsted rain was 0T9 per million of water, while the average amount in the mixed rainfall of 56 collections of known quantity was 0"165 per million. Taking the last-named estimate, and with an assumed rainfall of 29 inches, the quantity of nitrogen as organic matter annually contributed in the rain becomes 1- 08 lb. per acre. In the case of Frankland’s analyses, however, the samples of rain-water were of some age, and a part of the organic nitrogen had doubtless become ammonia. Sulphuric Acid, in the Rain-Water collected at Rotkarnsted. 325 Bearing this fact in mind, we may probably take 4-5 lbs. per acre as the best estimate we can at present give of the total combined nitrogen annually supplied in the Rothamsted rain- fall. This is only about two-thirds as much as the earlier results indicated as due to ammonia and nitric acid alone ; but it is not improbable that, in their case, a larger proportion of the nitrogen of the nitrogenous organic matter was converted into ammonia, and estimated as such, than in the recent determi- nations. In addition to the combined nitrogen carried down from the atmosphere in rain, we have to consider any gain to the soil or to the crop by direct absorption of ammonia or nitric acid from the air. As far as any gain from the atmosphere to the plant itself is concerned, there is very little direct experimental evidence on the point, but such as is available would lead to the conclusion that its amount is practically immaterial. As to the amount of gain by absorption by the soil, there is, unfor- tunately, no direct or satisfactory evidence at command. From such evidence as does exist, we are disposed to conclude that with some soils the amount will probably be greater, and with others less, than that supplied by the rainfall. The Chlorine in Rain. Determinations of chlorine in monthly mixtures of rain-water have been carried out at Rothamsted since June 1877 ; the results obtained up to the close of 1880 were published in the previous Report on Rain and Drainage. The determinations have been continued by means of the volumetric method before described, further experience with this method showing that it gave results almost identical with those obtained by the gravi- metric method. We need not discuss in detail the results obtained in in- dividual months, which will be found in Table V. (p. 326), but turn at once to the columns showing the mean results of the six years’ observations. In the account given of the earlier results of this investigation it was pointed out that the winter rainfall was far richer in chlorine than the summer rainfall ; we are now able to take a step further, and show the general character writh respect to chlorine of each month in the year. The minimum amount of chlorine occurs in the rain of July. In August and September there is a distinct but not a very large increase in quantity. In October and November a great rise occurs, the quantity of chlorine contained in the rain being three times as large as during the two pre- ceding months. After this period of maximum there is a fall, 326 New Determinations of Ammonia , Chlorine, and Table Y. — The Monthly Rainfall, and the Amount of Chloeine in the Rain, during Six Yeaks, 1877-83. Month. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. R ainfall — Inches . January .. 1 750 2 849 0 550 1 139 1-572 3 304 1 861 February .. 1 804 3 799 2 901 3 705 2-020 4 344 3 096 March 0 977 1 183 1 128 2 153 1-566 0 885 1 315 April.. 4 093 2 790 2 161 0 997 3-925 1 477 2 574 May .. 4 976 3 481 0 742 1 376 2-068 1 886 2 422 June .. 1 435 2 505 5 551 1 966 1 633 3 926 2 836 July .. .. 3 284 0 656 4 244 5 261 1 762 2-087 2 882 August 2 596 4 976 6 558 1 069 5 817 2-0/5 3 849 September. . 1 529 1 462 3 131 5 858 2 171 2-287 2 740 October 1 950 2 987 0 815 5 939 3 046 6-517 3 542 November.. 5 159 4 545 0 814 2 919 3 475 3-443 3 393 December .. 2 279 1 601 0 823 3 472 4 383 3-283 2 640 Total . . 18 232 32 332 36 038 33 966 31 657 34-769 11 896 33-150 Chlorine per Million of Rain. January . . 2-91 3 04 3-20 10-00 1-70 3 00 3-53 February .. ,, 0-50 1 83 3-20 3-45 2-50 2 25 2-41 March 4-00 5 80 2-90 1-95 3-75 8 85 4-04 April . . 0-55 1 67 1-73 3-20 2-60 1 60 1-71 May .. 0-91 1 40 3-43 2-38 1-60 1 40 1-46 June .. 1-95 1-48 0 80 2-47 1-63 0-80 1-27 July .. 0-24 4-31 0 80 0-64 0-67 1-60 0-86 August 0-95 1-16 0 85 1-30 0-53 1-68 0-94 September . . 1-73 2-28 1 05 0-97 0 -75 1-15 1-17 October 3-40 2-58 2 65 300 4-20 2-28 2-91 November.. 1-97 1-83 9 38 2-95 2-70 4-30 2-89 December .. 1-96 3-00 5 75 1-70 1-80 1-60 2-09 Average 1-64 1-64 1 •75 2-01 2-32 215 2 73 1-99 Chlorine in Lbs. per Acre. January .. 1 15 1 96 0 40 2 58 0-60 2 24 1-49 February .. 0 20 1 57 2 10 2 89 1-14 2 21 1-69 March 0 88 1 55 0 74 0 95 1-33 1 77 1-20 April .. 0 51 1 05 0 85 0 72 2-31 0 53 1-00 May . . 1 03 1 10 0 58 0 74 0-75 0 60 0-80 June .. 0 63 0 84 1 01 1 10 0 60 0-71 0-82 July .. .. 0 18 0 64 0 77 0 76 0 27 0-76 0-56 Amrust 0 56 1 31 1 26 0 31 0 70 0-79 0-82 September. . 0 60 0 75 0 74 1 29 0 37 0-60 0-73 October 1 50 1 74 0 49 4 03 2 89 3-36 2-34 November.. 2 29 1 88 1 73 1 95 2 12 3-35 2-22 December .. 1 01 1 09 1 07 1 34 1 79 119 1-25 Total .. 6 77 12 02 14 30 15 45 16 62 16-89 7 35 14-92 Sulphuric Acid, in the Rain-Water collected at Rothamsted. 327 but the chlorine remains high throughout the winter months, the diminution towards the summer period not commencing till April. The rain of March has yielded the highest proportion of chlorine per million of water, but this is partly due to the small rainfall of the month. Rather more than two-thirds of the annual supply of chlorine is contributed by the winter months. In the next Table the chlorine determinations in 72 monthly rainfalls are grouped according to the amount of the rainfall, and according to the season of the year. Table VI. — The Average Amount of Chlorine in Monthly Rain- falls of different Quantity, in Summer, Winter, and the Whole Year. Groups of Rainfall. Summer Months. Winter Months. Whole Year. & a cS {4 w Mean Rain- fall. Chlorine. <3 & a C!j y W Chlorine. P< a 03 y w Mean Rain- fall. Chlorine. Per Mil- lion. Lbs. per Acre. Rain- fall. Per Mil- lion. Lbs. per Acre. Per Mil- lion. Lbs. per Acre. Below l inch . . 1 to 2 inches . . 2 to 3 inches . . . . 3 to 4 inches . . Above 4 inches . . 3 10 9 5 9 In. 0*80 1*56 2*30 3*55 5-26 3.58 1-74 1*40 1*25 0-81 lbs. 0*65 0*61 0*73 1-01 0*96 6 9 7 8 6 In. 0*81 1*52 2*59 3-44 5*15 5'76 3*46 2-65 2*82 2-23 lbs. 1-06 1*19 1.55 2-20 2-59 9 19 16 13 15 In. 0-81 1*54 2*43 3*48 5-22 5*04 2-55 1*98 2*20 1-37 lbs. 0*92 0*89 1-09 1-74 1*61 36 2-88 1*21 j 0-79 36 2*64 2*84 1-70 72 | 2*76 1*99 1*24 The results do not fall into a very regular series. It would appear that in summer the supply of chlorides is very limited, for a lar°:e increase in the rainfall is attended with but little rise in the quantity of chlorine brought upon an acre. In winter, on the other hand, the supply of chlorides in the atmosphere is so constantly renewed, that an increased rainfall results in a considerable addition to the supply per acre. The rather wide irregularities in the composition of the groups of rainfall for the whole year, are principally due to the different proportion of summer and winter months which enters into the various groups. The large excess of chlorides found in winter rain is probably due in great measure to the chlorides volatilised during the combustion of fuel ; the excess in question is too uniform to be dependent chiefly on the action of strong winds blowing from the sea ; it is also remarked in calm months as well as in stormy weather. Exceptionally high results are, however, probably due to storms. When we turn to the nice gradations observed among the summer months, it is difficult not to believe that the temperature of the air has some influence on the results. 328 New Determinations of Ammonia, Chlorine, and In the more rarified atmosphere of summer, gaseous diffusion will probably be more active, while the power of transporting minute solid particles will be diminished. It is difficult to ascertain the influence which the direction of the wind has had on the composition of a monthly rainfall ; a partial study has been made of the data at our disposal, but with no definite result. The amount of chlorine annually contributed by the rain to the land at Rothamsted has amounted to 14-92 lbs. per acre on an average of six years ; this amount is equal to 24-59 lbs. of pure common salt, an amount of chlorides greater than that which is contained in most farm-crops. It was pointed out in the previous Report that the chlorine determinations in the rain agreed with those made in the drainage-waters from the three drain-gauges, containing unmanured and uncropped soil. During the six years 'now in question, the average quantity of chlo- rine annually found in these drainage-waters has amounted to 15’30 lbs. per acre. Tee Sulphuric Acid in Rain. An attempt has been made during the last two years to deter- mine the amount of sulphuric acid contained in the rain at Rothamsted. The investigation has been attended with several difficulties, and the question cannot as yet be considered as satisfactorily answered ; the results are nevertheless of interest. As it was feared that the rain furnished by the large rain- gauge would not be suitable for determinations of sulphuric acid, partly from the presence of lead in the water, and partly from the possible oxidation of sulphur in the vulcanised caoutchouc tube conducting the rain to the measuring cylinders, an independent collection of rain was made for the purpose of the present investigation. The new collector consisted simply of a large glass funnel, placed in a bottle, which was sunk up to its shoulder in the ground in the neighbourhood of the large rain-gauge. The rain was allowed to accumulate in the bottle, and was removed at the end of each month. The water thus collected was apt to contain insects in summer time. At the Rothamsted Laboratory no attempt has been made to determine the amount of sulphuric acid present in the rainfall of each month ; the determinations have been made in mixed samples of water representing the rainfall of the six summer and of the six winter months. Approximate determinations of sulphuric acid in forty monthly mixtures of rain-water collected in the large gauge at Rothamsted have, however, been made by Dr. W. J. Russell, who is at present investigating the chemistry of rain. Sulphuric Acid, in the Rain-Water collected at Rothamsted. 329 The method of determination at Rothamsted has been to con- centrate about 15 lbs. of rain in a glass retort, adding a little hydrochloric acid at the last ; then filtering, precipitating the sulphuric acid with chloride of barium in the usual manner, and collecting and weighing the precipitate. Working in this manner, four mixed samples of rain-water, representing the fall during two summers and two winters, have given the following results. The sulphuric acid is reckoned as anhydride (S03). Table YII. — The Amount of Sulphuric Acid in the Rainfall of the Six Summer and Six Winter Months of Two Years, 1881-3. Sulphuric Acid. Peuiod of Collectiox. Rainfall. Per Million of Rain. In Lbs. per Acre. Rain from Glass Funnel. Rain from Large Gauge. Rain from Glass Funnel. Rain from Large Gauge. April to September, 1881 Inches. 13-76 2-64 3-97 lbs. 8-2 lbs. 12-4 October to March, 1881-2 15-80 2-29 3* u6 8-2 13-1 April to September, 1882 16-37 2-07 4-15 9-9 15-4 October to March, 1882-3 21-78 2-15 3-99 10-0 19-7 Average per annum 33-89 2-41 3 95 18-5 30-3 It will be noticed at once that the rain-water furnished by the large gauge has yielded considerably more sulphuric acid than that collected in glass vessels only. There can be little doubt that the former results are in excess of the truth. Dr. Russell informs us that in his experience vulcanised caoutchouc is a constant source of sulphuric acid. We w ill confine our attention, therefore, to the results shown by the rain-water collected in the glass funnel. The sulphuric acid (SOs) contained in the rain-water col- lected in glass vessels has averaged in two years 2-41 per million of water, amounting to 18'5 lbs. per acre per annum. This quantity would appear to be about sufficient for the demands of ordinary cereal crops, though unequal to the requirements of turnips. The distribution of the sulphuric acid in the different seasons is apparently quite distinct from that of chlorine. Of the latter, two-thirds of the annual amount was furnished by the winter months ; while the sulphuric acid is pretty equally distributed in summer and winter, according to the analyses of rain from the large rain-gauge, and rather preponderates in the summer, according to the results from the glass-funnel collections. It is quite possible, however, that the latter results may err somewhat VOL. XIX. — S. S. z 330 New Determinations of Ammonia , Sfc., at Rothamsted. on the side of excess in summer time, owing to evaporation taking place in the collecting-bottle. A part of the sulphuric acid in the Rothamsted rain will be due to coal-smoke, and a still smaller portion derived from sea-spray. The considerable amount of sulphuric acid found in the summer rain points, how- ever, to a further source, most active during high temperatures. This indication is quite in accordance with the opinion held by Dr. Angus Smith, that the sulphuric acid in rain is largely derived from the products of the decay of animal and vege- table matter, which is of course most active in the warmer months. Before leaving the subject, we may notice that the proportion of chlorine to sulphuric acid in sea-water is stated at about 100 : 12 ; while the proportion in the winter rain at Rothamsted has been 100 : 78, and in the summer rain 100 : 194. Summary of Results. 1. 152 analyses of rain, snow, dew, and hoar-frost, repre- senting the daily collections from June 22, 1881, to January 5, 1882, gave an average of 0"248 of nitrogen as ammonia per mil- lion of water; the extremes observed were 5-491 and 0-043. The variations are dependent on the richness of the atmosphere in ammonia, and on the quantity of the rainfall, the smaller deposits containing the most ammonia. 2. Analyses during two years of fresh monthly mixtures of rain gave an average of 0"316 of nitrogen as ammonia per mil- lion. Analyses of fifty monthly mixtures, a considerable number of them old, gave a mean of 0'340. The rain collected in the leaden gauge at Rothamsted generally tends to increase in ammonia by keeping. The rainfall of summer is generally richer in ammonia than that of winter. 3. The nitrogen as ammonia annually supplied by rain per acre, reckoned from the daily determinations of six months, is 2-374 lbs. ; from the analyses during two years of fresh monthly mixtures, 2'466 lbs. ; from the analyses of fifty monthly mix- tures, many of them old, 2’662 lbs. The nitrogen as nitric acid is apparently, from Frankland’s and Way’s results, about TO lb. per acre, and the nitrogen, as organic matter, a similar quantity. The total combined nitrogen in the annual rainfall at Rothamsted would thus be about 4-5 lbs. per acre. 4. Six years’ determinations of chlorine in monthly mixtures of rain give an average of T99 per million of water, or 14-92 lbs. per acre, equal to 24-59 lbs. of pure common salt. Two-thirds of the chlorides fall in the six winter months, October to March. Nitrogen as Nitric Acid , in the Soils, 8fc., at Rothamsted. 331 TheTninimum quantity falls in July; the maximum in October and November. 5. Determinations of sulphuric acid in the rain of two years have given a mean of 2*41 per million (reckoned as anhydride), or 18-5 lbs. per acre per annum. The sulphuric acid occurs in nearly equal quantity in summer and winter. XVI. — The Nitrogen as Nitric Acid, in the Soils and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. By Sir J. B. Lawes, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., J. H. Gilbert, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., and R. WAEINGTON. Contexts. PAGE Introduction 331 Method of Soil-sampling, and of Analysis 332 History of the Soils examined 333 The Nitrogen as Nitrates in Soils of various History .. 337 1. Nitrates in Fallow Land 338 2. Nitrates in Land growing Cereal Crops .. .. 343 3. Nitrates in Land growing Leguminous Crops .. 361 Summary of Results 365 In the previous Report in this ‘ Journal,’ “ On the Amount and Composition of the Rain and Drainage- Waters collected at Rothamsted ” (xvii. [2] 241, 311 ; xviii. 1), an account was given of the quantities of nitrates and chlorides found in the drainage-waters from the uncropped and unmanured soils forming the three soil drain-gauges at Rothamsted. An account was also given of the amount of nitrates, chlorides, and other constituents found in the drainage-waters from the variously manured plots in Broad balk Wheat-field. Various important conclusions were drawn from these analyses of drainage-waters, and especially from the amount of nitrates present, which varied greatly according to the cropping and manuring of the land. We now propose to proceed a step further, and describe the results which have been obtained by actual determinations of nitrates in soils of various history. The matter at our disposal embraces miscellaneous deter- minations of nitrates and chlorides in various soils on the Rothamsted Farm, both fallow and cropped ; and also a series of determinations of nitrates and chlorides in the soils of the variously manured plots of the Experimental Wheat and Barley fields. The examination of these soils has, in the great majority of cases, been confined to the depth of 27 inches from z 2 332 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid , in the Soils the surface. Of the amount of nitrates or chlorides which may be present in the lower depths of the subsoil, under various circumstances, we have as yet but little information. In the present paper attention will be confined to the amounts of nitrates found in the soils. Method of Soil-sampling, and of Analysis. The samples of soils have, with few exceptions, been taken in the manner first adopted at Rothamsted in 1356, and uniformly employed since, though not hitherto described in this ‘Journal.’ A rectangular tube, made of stout sheet iron, 6 inches square and generally 9 inches deep, having a strong rim outside its upper edge, is driven into the soil until the upper edge is level with the surface of the land. The contents of the tube are carefully removed without disturbing its position, and constitute the sample of the first 9 inches of soil. If a sample of the second 9 inches is to be taken, the empty iron tube is covered with a lid, and the soil surrounding it cleared away down to the level of its lower edge ; the tube is then again driven into the soil, till its upper edge is at the level which its lower edge pre- viously occupied ; the contents of the tube are now a sample of the second 9 inches of the soil. By proceeding in this way samples may be taken to any desired depth. An iron tube 12 inches square is sometimes used for taking a sample of the sur- face soil when this is covered with vegetation. By this method of sampling the soil and subsoil are obtained in their true proportion. The samples taken also represent a known area and depth of soil ; the results of their analysis consequently admit of comparison with each other ; the con- stituents found can also be reckoned into pounds per acre. It is much to be desired that the taking of soil-samples with the spade should be entirely discarded. Samples so obtained represent variable depths and no definite area, and they can only by accident include the true proportion of soil and subsoil ; the results of their analysis are consequently of little value for purposes of comparison or calculation. Both surface-soil and subsoil being more or less irregular, it is always necessary to take samples from several places in the same plot or field. The samples of the surface-soil are, as a rule, kept separate, a mixed sample being made of a part only, and the remainder reserved for reference or separate analysis. The samples of subsoil are generally at once mixed. Each sample is weighed in the field as soon as collected ; it is then broken into small pieces, spread on trays, and dried in a stove-room at a temperature of about 55° C. (131° F.). The and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. 333 soil when dried is further pulverised ; all stones retained bv a sieve with ^-inch meshes are removed, and all visible roots ; the remaining soil is then finely powdered, and stored in bottles for analysis. The stones, roots, and fine soil obtained from the original sample are all weighed. The immediate drying of the soil is absolutely necessary, if it is desired to ascertain the quantity of nitrates present in the land from which the sample was taken, as the production of nitrates takes place with considerable rapidity in a moist soil freely exposed to air. The soil must not, however, be dried at too high a temperature, or loss of nitrates may occur.* To ascertain the quantity of nitrates present in the soil, 200 to 400 grams of the finely-powdered soil are extracted with water on a vacuum filter. The nitric acid is determined in the watery extract by a modification of Schloesing’s method, the details of which have been described elsewhere, f History of the Soils Examined. It will be convenient to bring together under one head the necessary descriptions of the various soils in which nitric acid has been determined. All the fields we have to mention form part of the Rothamsted Farm. The soil is in every case a more or less heavy loam, with flints ; having a deep clay subsoil, resting on chalk. In one instance only was the chalk reached at the depth of 6 feet. Samples were in every case taken from several places in the field or plot, and the analyses made on mixtures of these samples. Little Hoos Field. — Sampled September 26-29, 1877. This field is not part of the strictly experimental land. In 1877 the crop was barley, in half of which clover had been sown. The division of the field we are here concerned with had grown cereal crops for eleven years, the last nine crops being barley. During the last seven years the annual manuring consisted of superphosphate, with 2 or 2£ cwts. of nitrate of sodium. Samples of soil were taken in four places from each division of the field ; the sampling was carried to the depth of 54 inches. Agdell Field. — Sampled September 2T-25, 1878, and Sep- tember 8, 1882. In this field systematic experiments upon the ordinary four-course rotation have been conducted since 1848. We are only here concerned with two divisions of the field, representing respectively the highest and lowest condition * 1 Trans. Chem. Soc.’ 1S82, p. 351. t Ibid. pp. 315, 351 . 334 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid, in the Soils of the soil. In the first division the turnips are manured with 200 lbs. of ammonium-salts (equal parts sulphate and chloride), 2000 lbs. rape-cake, 3J cwts. superphosphate (200 lbs. bone-ash and acid), 300 lbs. sulphate of potassium, 200 lbs. sulphate of sodium, and 100 lbs. sulphate of magnesium. The turnips are fed on the land, and the three following crops are unmanured. In the second division the turnips are manured with 3J cwts. of superphosphate only, and are carted off the land ; all the following crops are unmanured. In 1878 each division of the field was half in beans and half in fallow. Samples of soil were taken both from the bean land, and from that left as bare fallow through the summer ; each plot was sampled in three places,, but only to the depth of 18 inches. In 1882 the soil bearing the fully-manured rotation was again- sampled ; it wras then half in clover and half in fallow. The clover-land, and that under bare fallow, were each sampled in three places, to the depth of 27 inches. Hoos Field. — 1. Wheat and Fallow. — Sampled September 28, 1878, and March 29, 1881. The experiment with alternate wheat and fallow', both unmanured, has been in progress since 1851. Samples of soil w’ere taken in September 1878, from three places, to the depth of 18 inches, both on the wheat and fallow land. In March 1881, the wheat land was again sampled in five places, to the depth of 27 inches. 2. Clover-land. — Sampled March 29, 1881, and July 26-31, 1882. This portion of the field has been devoted to experi- ments with clover since 1849 ; but, owing to the repeated failure of the crop, the land has very frequently been in the condition of bare fallow ; one crop of wheat and three of barley have also been taken. The five plots from which samples of soil were taken in 1881 had been manured either with super- phosphate ; or with the sulphates of potassium, calcium, and magnesium, with chloride of sodium ; or with mixtures of these manures ; but they had received no nitrogenous manure since the commencement of the experiment in 1849. In March 1881, single samples of soil were taken from each plot to the depth of 27 inches. The analyses were made on a mixture of the five samples. In July 26-31, 1882, samples of soil were taken from two portions of two of the above five plots. The two portions with which we are at present concerned grew respectively Bokhara clover ( Melilotus leucantha), and white clover ( Trifolium repens ). Both of the plots had been manured with the sulphates of potassium, calcium, and magnesium, and chloride of sodium, with superphosphate ; no nitrogenous manure had been applied. and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rotliamsted. 335 Samples of soil were taken from two places on each plot to the depth of 54 inches. 3. Barley-land. — Sampled February 24 to March 7, 1882. A large part of Hoos Field has been continuously cropped with barley since 1852. Particulars as to the manures applied, and the produce obtained on those plots with which we are at present concerned, will be found in Table I. The “ mixed mineral Table I. — Manuring and Annual Produce per Acre of certain Plots in Hoos Barley Field. Average Produce, Produce, 30 years, 1852-81. 1881. LOT. Manuring. Total Total Dressed Produce Dressed Produce Com. (Corn and Corn. (Com and I Straw). Straw). Bushels. lbs. Bushels. lbs. 1 0. Unmanured 17? 2150 17? 1609 2o. Superphosphate 23 2604 19* 1822 3o. Sulphates of Potassium, Sodium, Magnesium 19? 2296 17? 1709 4o. Mixed Mineral Manure 24i 2753 17? 1770 1 A. 200 lbs. Ammonium-salts 30f 3612 33? 3249 2 A. „ Amm.-salts, and Superphosphate 44? 5368 43| 4195 3 A. „ „ , and Sulp.Pot., Sod., Mag. 331 4023 37? 3776 4 A. „ „ , and Mixed Minerals . . 44 j 5534 42? 4392 1 AA. 275 lbs. Nitrate of Sodium 34? 4147 34? 3762 2 AA. „ Nit. Sod., and Superphosphate .. 40? 5784 43* 4141 3 AA. „ „ , and Sulph Pot., Sod., Mag. 34? 4421 36j| 4152 4 AA. „ „ , and Mixed Minerals .. 47? 6007 47* 5114 1 c. 1000 lbs. Rape-cake 43J 5243 41? 4576 2 c. „ „ , and Superphosphate .. 45 5515 48 5240 3 c. „ „ , and Sulph.Pot.,Sod.,Mag. 41* 5168 40* 4417- 4 c. „ „ , and Mixed Minerals .. 45* 5661 45 4778 7 1 Unmanured (Farmyard-manure, 1852-71) 34i* 4020* 29? 3063 7 2 14 tons Farmyard-manure 40 6040 53* 5707 * Average produce of 10 years (1872-81) without manure. manure” consists of superphosphate, with the sulphates of potas- sium, sodium, and magnesium. The ammonium-salts are a mixture of equal parts sulphate and chloride. The manures are all ploughed-in in the spring, before sowing the barley. The samples of soil were taken between February 24 and March 7, 1882, from four places on each plot, to the depth of 27 inches. 336 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid, in the Soils Clay Croft and Foster s Field. — Sampled October 3—4, 1881. These two fields are under the ordinary cultivation of the farm. The preceding cropping in each case had been — barley with guano in 1880, barley with superphosphate and nitrate of sodium in 1879, wheat with nitrate in 1878. Foster’s Field had received dung in 1877 ; Clay Croft being at the same time fallow". Both fields were in bare fallow" when sampled. Samples were taken in each case from three places, to a depth of 27 inches. Broadbalk Field. — Sampled October 10-18, 1881. This field has been continuously cropped with wheat since 1843—4 ; the manuring and average produce of the plots with which we are concerned at present will be found in Table II. The “mixed mineral manure ” and the “ ammonium-salts ” are similar to those applied to the barley in Hoos Field. The ammonium- Table II. — Manuring and Annual Produce per Acre of certain Plots in Broadbalk Wheat-Field. Average Produce, 1852-81. Produce, 1881. Plot. Mxxvrixg. Dressed Cora. Total Produce (Cora and Straw). Dressed Com. Total Produce (Com and Straw). 2 14 tons Farmyard-manure Bushels. 33* lbs. 5696 Bushels. 30* lbs. 4274 3 Unmanured 13$ 2108 13* 2009 4 Unmanured 14 2228 12* 1591 5a Mixed Mineral Manure 15$ 2394 12* 1715 6 a 200 lbs. Ammonium-salts and Mixed Minerals 23$ 3954 21$ 2928 7a 400 lbs. 32* 5710 27* 4007 8a 600 lbs. „ „ „ 36$ 6778 32* 5255 9a 550 lbs. Nitrate of Sodium and Mixed Minerals 36$ 6903 35* 5911 9b 550 lbs. Nitrate of Sodium, alone 23$ 4293 22* 3241 10 a 400 lbs. Ammonium-salts, alone 204 3450 18* 2465 10 b 400 lbs.' Ammonium-salts, alone 23i 3923 19* 2658 11a 400 lbs. Amm. -salts, and Superphosphate . . 26$ 4387 22 3020 12 a „ „ , Superphos. Sulp. Sodium 31* 5326 25$ 3409 13 a „ „ , Superphos. Sulph. Potass. 31 5472 28$ 4056 14 a „ „ , Superphos. Sulph. Mag. 31$ 5465 28$ 4015 15 a „ ,, , Mixed Minerals (*) 30f 5289 25* 3452 16 a Unmanured since 1865 C) Hf 2356 13$ 1720 17a Mixed Mineral Manure (3) (\ 15$ 2549 13$ 1752 18 a 400 lbs. Ammonium-salts (3 t5; 29* 5145 31* 4437 19 1700 lbs. Rape-cake (6) 28* 4758 24* 3353 (') For 1872, and previously, 400 lbs. Sulphate of Ammonium, with Mixed Minerals. (2) Average produce of 17 years, 1865-81, without Manure; previously manured with 800 lbs. Ammonium-salts and Mixed Minerals. (3) The Manures on these two Plots alternate each year. (4) Average produce of Mineral Manure, alternating with Ammonium-salts. (5) Average produce of Ammonium-salts, alternating with Mineral Manures. (6) For 1878, and previously, 300 lbs. Sulphate of Ammonium, 500 lbs. Rape-cake, with Superphosphate prepared with Hydrochloric Acid. and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. 337 salts and nitrate of sodium are applied as a top-dressing in March. On Plot 15 the ammonium-salts have since 1878 been ploughed or harrowed-in in autumn. The farmyard-manure and rape-cake are also applied in autumn. During twelve seasons, 1808—79, the straw of the preceding crop was returned to the land in the form of chaff in the A division of Plots 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, and on 17 or 18, according to which of the two received mineral manure only. On Plot 15a the straw was returned during six seasons, 1874-9. The effect of the straw on the produce has been very small. Further particulars of the manuring will be found in the previous Report. The samples of soil were taken between October 10 and 18 from six places on each plot, to the depth of 27 inches. In most cases in which a plot consists of two “ lands,” only the A division was sampled. Geescroft Field. — Sampled April 9-13, 1883. This field has been cropped with beans since 1847, but in the later years the produce has much fallen off, and wet seasons have so interfered with the cultivation that the experiment has been discontinued. Since 1870, small crops of beans have been obtained in 1874, 1875, 1877, and 1878; and the usual manures have been applied in 1875, 1876, and 1878. In 1879, 1880, and 1881 the land was ploughed several times, but no seed sown. In 1882 the land was ploughed in February ; grass-seeds were sown in September, which failed. In April 1883, samples of soil were taken from most of the plots, in two or four places, and in some instances to the depth of 72 inches. The Nitrogen as Nitrates in Soils of various History. In the previous Report the three drain-gauges at Rothamsted, containing uncropped and unmanured soil, were described, and the results of the systematic analysis of the drainage-waters during the last four years were given. We are now able to give the mean results of six years, May 1877 to April 1883. The nitrogen as nitrates has averaged, in the case of the soil 20 inches deep, 42 ‘5 lbs. ; in that of the soil 40 inches deep, 36T lbs. ; and in that of the soil 60 inches deep, 4T9 lbs. per acre per annum. The mean of the three results is 40’2 lbs. This quantity will represent the mean annual production in the soils in question, if we assume that no loss of nitrates by reduction has taken place. The soils of the drain-gauges cannot, however, at present be taken as representing land in good agricultural condition. The soils have undergone no tillage during 13 years, saving the small disturbance resulting 338 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid, in the Soils from the removal of weeds ; they were also subjected to loss of nitrogen by oxidation and drainage for seven years before the systematic examination of the drainage-waters commenced. It is thus extremely probable that the annual production of nitrates was larger in the earlier history of the soils than at present, and the results of the earlier analyses of the drainage-waters, given in the previous Report, support this conclusion. One fact is plainly shown by the monthly analyses of the drainage-waters from the soil-drain-gauges, namely, that nitri- fication is far most active in summer-time. The drainage- waters are at their minimum strength in the spring months. It is generally in July that the first great increase in the pro- portion of nitrates is observed. As the process of nitrification has been shown to be greatly favoured by a rise in temperature up to 98° Fahr. (37° C.), we may assume that it is most active during the months of July and August, if the rain is sufficient to keep the soil in a moist condition. In Tables III., IV., VI., and VIII. are given the quantities of nitrogen as nitrates which have been found in various soils and subsoils on the Rothamsted Farm. The previous history of these soils has been already described. We will first consider the results yielded by uncropped land. 1. Nitrates in Fallow Land. In Table III. (Nos. 1, 2, 7, 3), we have determinations of nitric acid in four soils in fair agricultural condition, which had been cultivated as bare fallow during the summers of 1878, 1881, and 1882. The samples of soil were taken in September or October, before any considerable loss of nitrates by autumn drainage had taken place. In these four soils the nitrogen as nitrates amounts respectively to 58'8 lbs., 56-5 lbs., and 59’9 lbs. per acre in the first 27 inches, and to 48 ’8 lbs. in the first 18 inches from the surface. When no excess of rain has fallen during the summer months, the nitrates in a fallow soil are chiefly found in the first nine inches, where nitrification principally occurs ; but if much rain has fallen, especially in the later summer months, the nitrates are found at a lower level, and a part will have passed below the depth (27 inches) to which the soils were sampled. The Agdell fallow in 1882 is an example of the former, while the fallows in Clay Croft and Foster’s Field in 1881 are examples of the latter conditions of season. In 1882 only O'll inch of water passed through the 20-inch drain-gauge in the two months preceding soil- sampling ; but in 1881, 3’58 inches passed. and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. 339 Table III. — The Quantity of Nitrogen as Nitrates found in Fallow and Cropped Land variously manured. Nitrogen as Nitrates in Lbs. per Acre. No. Previous Cropping and Manuring. First Nine Inches. Second Nine Inches. Third Nine Inches. Total. Clay Croft Field : sampled October 3, 1881. 1 Fallow (ordinary cultivation) 1G-4 2G-5 15-9 58-8 Foster’s Field : sampled October 3, 1881. 2 Fallow (ordinary cultivation) 14 -6 24 "G 173 56-5 Agdell Field : sampled September 24-25, 187 8. 3 Fallow (Rotation fully manured) .. 300 18-8 not taken 48-8 4 Beans „ „ „ .... Fallow (Rotation, superphosphate only) 12 1 8-4 20-5 5 223 14-0 ?> 36-3 G Beans ,, „ „ 7-2 3-3 V 10-G Agdell Field: sampled September 8, 1882. 7 Fallow (Rotation fully manured) .. 40-1 14-3 5-5 59-9 8 Clover „ „ „ .... a 11-4 4-8 3-4 19 -G Hoos Field : sampled September 28, 1878. 9 FaUow (unmanured land) 28-5 5-2 not taken 33-7 10 Wheat „ „ 2-6 trace 2-6 Hoos Field : sampled March 29, 1881. 11 Wheat (unmanured land) 7-5 3-6 3-4 14-5 12 Clover (superphosphate and alkalies) 12-3 8-4 18-2 38-9 It is obvious that the quantity of nitrate found in a soil at the end of a summer’s fallow does not represent the whole quantity of nitrate formed in the soil in the course of a year ; a part of this has been already removed by drainage, and has passed into the subsoil. The experiments at Rothamsted afford some means of estimating this loss by drainage. The fallows we have just men- tioned followed crops of barley. We may assume that in July, after the blooming of the barley, the soils to the depths in 340 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid , in the Soils question contained little or no nitrate, and that from this time forward the formation of nitrate was more or less active. The first running of the drain-pipes in Broadbalk Wheat-field informs us when drainage may be supposed to have commenced in the soils in question. The composition of the drainage- water from Plot 6 in the same wheat-field will furnish a very moderate estimate of the strength of this drainage-water through the autumn and winter months, while the measured drainage from the drain-gauges will give a fair estimate of its quantity. After March 1, the mean amount of nitrate passing away in the drainage from the 20 and 40-inch drain-gauge soils will furnish a low estimate of the loss suffered during the spring and summer months. These estimates lead to the following figures : — Season 1880-1. Season. 1881-2. Nitrogen as nitrates in drainage, August to February „ „ March to Sept, or Oct. „ in soil, September or October Lbs. 17-0 14-8 57-7* Lbs. 19-0 7-6 59-9 Total production of nitrogen as nitrates 89-5 86-5 * Mean of the quantities found in Clay Croft and Foster’s fields. It may be fairly urged that these estimates of the quantity of nitrates formed per acre during: a season of bare fallow must err on the side of excess, as they assume the existence of absolutely no nitrate in the soil at the commencement of the fallow, and also take no account of any drawing up of nitrates from the subsoil during dry weather, by which some of the previous loss to the upper layers may be recovered. On the other hand, the esti- mates of the loss by drainage are intentionally kept extremely moderate. On the whole, the evidence at our command leads to the conclusion that the quantity of nitrates produced in one of the Rothamsted soils in good agricultural condition, culti- vated as bare fallow, will be equal to about 80 lbs. of nitrogen per acre. The time available for nitrification in a season ot fallow is, however, greater than a year ; it actually amounted to about 15 months up to the time of soil-sampling in the season 1880-1, and to about 14 months in 1881—2. Of the quantity of nitrates produced in extremely dry seasons we have as yet no experience. We have spoken above of the effect of bare fallow in soils in good agricultural condition. In Table III. (Nos. 5 and 9) will be found determinations of nitrates in two soils of very low agricultural condition, which had been cultivated as bare fallow in 1878. The quantity of nitrogen as nitrates found was and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rotliamsted. 341 respectively 36-3 lbs. and 33 7 lbs. per acre, to the depth of 18 inches only. Both amounts are smaller than those found to the same depth in soils in good agricultural condition. The richness of the soil in nitrifiable matter has thus a great in- fluence on the quantity of nitrate produced. The fallow soils we have just mentioned were many of them very free from weeds, and none were very foul. In ordinary practice the land to be fallowed is often so foul that the nitric acid formed during the first summer and autumn will be taken up by the weeds as fast as it is produced. When, as is often the case, such land is not ploughed till the following spring, the loss of nitrates by drainage will be far smaller than on clean land. Some further determinations of nitrates in uncropped soil will be found in Table IV. The previous history of Geescroft Field Table IV. — The Quantity of Nitrogen as Nitrates, in Lbs. per Acre, in Cropped and Uncropped Land, variously Manured. Little Hoos. Sept. 1877. Hoos Field, July 1882. Geescroft Field, April 1883, nncropped land, previously Beans. Barley. Nitrate and Superpkos. Bokhara Clover. Mineral Manure. White Clover. Mineral Manure. No Manure. Formerly Mineral Manure. Formerly Nitrate and Minerals. Formerly Farmyard- Manure. lbs. lb-. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1st, 9 inches 15*7 3-4 8-G 4’2 3-5 33 13-6 2nd, 9 inches i-i 1-0 3-0 5-4 6 7 60 8-7 3rd, 9 inches i-i 0-6 1-9 4-7 5-1 4-2 7-3 4th, 9 inches 1-4 10 31 2-7 26 3-9 8-4 5th, 9 inches 1-2 0-8 4-4 32 1-7 1-9 4-4 6th, 9 inches 1-4 1-7 5-3 2*2 1-4 2-2 2-0 7th, 9 inches not not not 3-0 11 1-5 1-7 8th, 9 inches sampled sampled sampled 3 * G 1-3 1-7 4-0 Above 27 ins. 17-9 5*0 13-5 14.3 15-3 13-5 29-6 Below 27 ins. 4-0 3-5 12-8 14-7 8-1 11-2 20-5 Total .. 21-9 8*5 26-3 29 0 23-4 24-7 50-1 has been already given (p. 337). The surface soil of the plot formerly manured with farmyard-manure is rich in nitrogen, and compares perfectly in this respect with the farmyard- manure plots in Broadbalk Wheat-field and Hoos Barley-field. The soils of the other plots are very low in nitrogen, and in a decidedly impoverished condition. During the summer of 1882, the land was without a crop. It was ploughed and harrowed in February, and then left untouched till September, when it was again harrowed and rolled, and grass-seeds sown, which failed. The samples of soil were taken on April 9-13, 1883. 342 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid , in the Soils Samples of soil taken at this time of the year, after the autumn and winter rains, seldom contain large quantities of nitrates near the surface. In the soils of Hoos Barley-field, sampled in March 1882 (Table VIII.), the nitrogen as nitrates amounted on the permanently unmanured plot to 15’7 lbs. in the first 27 inches; in the plots receiving only ash-constituents, to 183-23-5 lbs. ; in the farmyard-manure plot to 44T lbs. ; and in that which had received farmyard-manure for twenty years, but not for the last ten years, to 37 5 lbs. per acre. Compared with these quantities, the 143 lbs. found in the first 27 inches of the unmanured land in Geescroft, and the 293 lbs. in the plot formerly receiving farmyard-manure, are perhaps what we might expect, seeing that the drainage during the autumn and winter of 1882-3 was considerably greater than that of the pre- vious year.* What, however, has become of the very con- siderable quantities of nitric acid which must have been pro- duced in these soils during the last four years, in each of which the land was without a crop, and was frequently ploughed? How is it that larger quantities of nitrates are not found in the subsoil ? It is in the soil of the plot which was formerly heavily dressed with farmyard-manure that we should expect to find the largest accumulation of nitrate. This plot lies, however, near to the hedge green, and in taking the samples of soil, elm-roots were found down to the fifth nine inches from the surface: it is possible, therefore, that in this case the nitrates had been more or less removed from the subsoil. Omitting this plot from con- sideration, the facts furnished by the remaining plots still seem to point to a disappearance of nitrates in the subsoil. With the evidence at our command as to the production of nitrates in other exhausted soils at Rothamsted, we can hardly estimate the annual production of nitric acid in the soils in question as equal to less than 30 lbs. of nitrogen per acre. Taking even the excessive amounts of drainage shown during the last few years by the drain-gauges, the water percolating down- wards from such a soil will contain an average of at least 7-5 parts of nitrogen as nitric acid per million of water. The field being pipe-drained at a depth of 3-4 feet, the quantity of water passing downwards will be diminished, but it is a question whether its average strength can be reduced thereby. Now the soil and subsoil of the unmanured plot in which nitrates were determined contained an average of 800,000 lbs. of water per acre in each nine inches of depth. We should * The drainage shown by the 60-inch drain-gauge during seven months, August to February 1881-82, amounted to 12-515 inches ; and in eight months, August to March 1882-83, to 17 • 514 inches. and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. 343 I expect, therefore, on the above suppositions, to find about 6-0 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrate in each depth of the soil, or 48 lbs. in all. A glance at the figures shows at once that a considerably smaller quantity is actually present in each of the three plots, and that the deficiency is most marked in the lower layers of the subsoil. It is a question, therefore, whether the nitrates produced in the surface soil have not suffered partial reduction in the lower layers of the clay subsoil ; but the evidence on the point is confessedly very incomplete. 2. Nitrates in Land growing Cereal Crops. In the previous Report it was shown that nitrates are always found in the drainage- waters of Broadbalk Wheat-field during the winter months. It was also shown that a large proportion of the ammonium-salts applied as manure is speedily nitrified , after their application to the land. A good example of the latter fact is afforded by the analyses of the drainage-waters of Plot 15 (see Table V., p. 346), to which 400 lbs. of ammonium-salts per acre were applied on October 27. It was further stated in the previous Report, that as the development of the wheat-crop proceeds, the assimilation of nitrates by the growing plant becomes so active, that in summer nitrates are not found in the drainage-waters of many of the plots in the Experimental Wheat-field. The plots which exhibit for a time a drainage free from nitrates are those which receive no nitrogenous manure, or which receive 200-400 lbs. of am- monium-salts with all the ash-constituents required by the crop. In a season very favourable to early growth, as 1882, the nitrates may disappear from the drainage-waters of the un- manured plots by the end of April ; while in a very unfavour- able season, as 1879, the disappearance may not occur till the beginning of June. The nitrates disappear from the drainage of Plot 6, receiving 200 lbs. of ammonium-salts with ash-con- stituents, soon after their disappearance from the drainage of the unmanured plots. On Plots 7 and 13, with 400 lbs. of ammo- nium-salts and the necessary ash-constituents, the disappearance of the nitrates from the drainage-waters is later, and small quantities may continue to be found for some time. The quantity of nitrates which disappears from the soil in early summer is in some cases truly astonishing. In the case of the plots receiving a spring-dressing of ammonium-salts it may apparently amount to more than the quantity of nitrogen found in the crop at harvest. It must be recollected, how- ever, that the crop as harvested does not represent the whole plant — the roots, stubble, some of the lower leaves, and shed 344 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid in the Soils corn, being left behind in the soil. We must also take into account the presence of weeds, which doubtless actively assimi- late the nitrates of the soil. It is possible, however, that when ammonium-salts are applied as a top-dressing in spring the whole of the ammonia does not rapidly change into nitrates, either from actual loss as ammonia, or from the presence of conditions unfavourable to rapid nitrification. It will be recollected that the calculations given in the previous Report (Table LI.) showed a considerable annual deficiency of nitrogen where 400 lbs. of ammonium-salts were applied in the spring, but none on Plot 15, where the salts were ploughed-in in the autumn. To return from this necessary digression. The facts stated above point to the conclusion that in the case of land growing cereal crops, no nitrates, or very small quantities only, will be found in the first 27 inches of soil by the end of June, excepting in those cases where the quantity of nitrates in the soil has been greater than the crop has had power to appropriate. The assimilation of nitrogen by a cereal crop practically ceases when blossoming is completed ; from this point onward, therefore, nitrates may begin again to accumulate in the soil. If sufficient rain falls to keep the surface moist, we may expect nitrates to appear in the soil towards the end of July, or in August, and the soil at harvest may contain nitrates which a month previously had no existence. After harvest, if sufficient rain occurs, and especially if the land is ploughed, nitrification will actively continue. We may suppose that generally the maximum contents of nitrates will be reached about the end of September, and that from this time the quantity in the upper layers of the soil will in most cases tend to diminish, production being checked by the fall in temperature, while the removal of nitrates by drainage will in most seasons then become active. The foregoing sketch of the course of change of the nitrates in a soil cropped with wheat or barley is founded mainly on the evidence furnished by the analyses of the drainage-waters. We have now to consider the evidence afforded by the analysis of the soils. In Table III. (No. 10) will be found a determination of nitrates in the soil of a poor wheat-stubble in Hoos Field. The wheat had been grown, in alternation with fallow, for many years without manure. The crop was cut on Aug. 13, 1878 ; it yielded 19f bushels of dressed corn. The soil was sampled on Sept. 28. The first 18 inches of soil contained only 2‘6 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrates. We have in the same Table (No. 11) a second determination of nitrates in the same soil, made in March 1881. The wheat-stubble of the previous year had been left unploughed up to the time of sampling. The nitrogen as and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rotliamsted. 345 titrates was now 11*1 lbs. per acre in the first 18 inches, and 14*5 lbs. in the first 27 inches of soil. In Table IV. we have a determination of nitrates in a barley- stubble in Little Hoos Field. The land had grown 9 crops of barlt-j in succession with artificial manures alone, chiefly nitrate of sodium and superphosphate. The crop was cut on Aug. 14-21, 1877 ; it amounted to 48 bushels. The samples of soil were taken Sept. 26—29. The land had not been ploughed at the time of sampling. The nitrogen in the form of nitrates is here 15'7 lbs. per acre in the first 9 inches. It seems im- probable that this nitrate was a residue of the 2^ cwts. of nitrate of sodium (44 lbs. of nitrogen) applied as manure ; the greater part of it had more probably been produced in the soil since Midsummer, especially as the rainfall in July and August was ■considerable. On a duplicate plot in the same field, in which clover had been sown with the barley, only 6T lbs. of nitrogen . as nitrates were found in the first 9 inches of soil. The young ■clover had thus evidently continued to take up nitrates from the soil after the growth of the barley had ceased. The chief interest of the experiment centres, however, in the analyses of the subsoil, which in this case was sampled to an unusual depth. The insignificant amount of nitrate found — only 63 lbs. of nitrogen per acre in 45 inches of subsoil — presents a vivid picture of the exhaustion of soil-nitrates which may take place during the growth of a vigorous cereal crop. We turn now to Broadbalk Wheat-field. A plan of this field, showing the position of the plots, and the system of drain- pipes, has been given in the previous Report. Samples of soil were taken from many of the plots in October 1865, and in some of these nitric acid was determined in the following year by Dr. Pugh’s method. The quantity of nitric acid found was large ; but as the soils had been stored in a moist condition, nitrification had probably taken place after the collection. The plots of Broadbalk Field were again sampled in October 1881. The manuring of the field, the average produce of each plot, and the produce of the particular harvest (1881), after which the soil was sampled, have been already given in Table II. From the end of March to the end of July the weather had been decidedly dry. The wheat was cut on Aug. 8—11. Im- mediately after followed a deluge of rain, amounting in the whole month to 5-817 inches. The crop was not carted till Aug. 29-Sept. 1, and was greatly damaged. In September the rainfall was 2T71 inches. The land was scarified in the be- ginning of the month, and ploughed towards the end of it. The samples of soil were taken between October 10 and 18, the sampling being interrupted by heavy rain on the 14th. The VOL. XIX. — 8. S. 2 A 346 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid, in the Soils land was again ploughed and harrowed on October 27-29, and wheat drilled on all the plots. Before calling attention to the quantity of nitrates found in the soils of the different plots at the time of sampling, it will be well to consider the evidence afforded by the composition of the drainage-waters collected during the same season. The drains in Broadbalk Field are from 2 feet to 2 feet 6 inches below the level of the land ; whilst the nitrates have been determined in the soil to approximately the same depth, namely, 27 inches. The composition of the drainage-waters will be found in Table V. The thick black line shows the interval, October 10-18, in which the samples of soil were taken. Table V. — The Nitrogen as Nitrates, in the Drain age-Watebs of the Plots in Broadbalk Wheat-Field, from March 1881 to January 1882. March 5, 6. 7, Mixed. August 30. Dec. Plot. A.M. 6 30. P.M. 2-3. Sept. 25. Oct. 14. Oct. 23. Nov. 25. Nov. 27. Dec. 7. 17, 18, 20, 21, Mixed. Jan. * Farmyard-mauure applied Oct. 27. f Ammonium-salts applied Oct. 27. X Rape-cake applied Oct. 28. The last running of the drains preceding the harvest of 1881 occurred on March 7. The top-dressings of ammonium-salts, and of nitrate of sodium (see Table II.), were applied to their respective plots on March 12. No running of the drain-pipes occurred till after harvest, on Aug. 30. The drain-pipes of Plots 3&4, 5, 16, and 17, receiving no nitrogenous manure, all ran on Aug. 30; the water contained a and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. 347 very small amount of nitric acid, amounting in the mean to barely 1*0 of nitrogen per million. The water from Plot 6, manured in the spring with 200 lbs. of ammonium-salts per acre, contained at the same time T9 of nitrogen per million. The waters from Plots 12, 13, and 7, receiving 400 lbs. of am- monium-salts, contained respectively 2'3, 2-4, and 4T of nitrogen per million. With the evidence already before us, it scarcely admits of doubt that nitrates must have practically disappeared from the upper layers of the soil of the unmanured plots during the preceding summer ; also from the soil of Plot 6 ; and probably, though less certainly, from Plots 13 and 7. The small amounts of nitrate appearing in the drainage-waters from these plots on Aug. 30, are therefore in all probability due to nitrification recommencing in the soils as they became saturated by the heavy rains of August. Nor is the fact that the waters from * Plots 6, 12, 13, and 7, contain more nitrate than those of the unmanured plots, conclusive evidence that there was a residue of nitrate present through the summer in these cases ; for wherever nitrogenous manure is applied, and larger crops are annually produced, there the soil is richer in nitrogenous organic matter (the residues of previous crops), and in consequence yields a larger quantity of nitric acid when nitrification sets in. That the nitrates in the waters of the plots already named were not derived from the washing out of a residue of nitrates, but from fresh nitrification, is further shown by the fact that the pro- portion of nitric acid rapidly increases with each running of the drains, till a maximum is reached on Oct, 23. W hen we turn to the drainage of Plot 10, which had received 400 lbs. of ammonium-salts, like Plots 7, 11,12,13,14,15, and 18, but without any of the ash-constituents required for the crop, a very different state of things is manifest. Here the crop has been unable to assimilate all the nitrates at its disposal, and a considerable residue has remained in the soil throughout the summer. The first drainage-water from this plot is thus rich in nitrates, containing 20’3 of nitrogen per million, and the proportion is found to have decreased instead of increased by October 23. The soils of Plot 9 — on which nitrate of sodium, half with and half without ash-constituents, is applied ; Plot 8 — where as much as 600 lbs. of ammonium-salts with ash-constituents are applied ; and, to a less extent, Plot 11 — wnere potash is omitted in the manure — are in a condition more or less similar to Plot 10. In all these cases there is a considerable residue of nitrate remaining unassimilated by the crop, which appears in the drainage-water on the first running of the drains. 2 A 2 348 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid, in the Soils We now turn to the determinations of nitric acid in the soils of the various plots in Broadbalk Field. We must, however, at starting beg the reader to remember the considerable difficulty of the task we have attempted. The mean composition of the soil of a plot 352 yards long has to be calculated from samples taken from six holes equally distributed in its length ; that the mixture prepared from such samples should sometimes fail to represent accurately the average composition of the soil is surely to be expected. In two instances in Broadbalk Field, and one in Hoos Field, the surface soil from individual holes has contained so high a proportion of nitric acid and chlorine, as to lead to the supposition that the sample had been taken from a spot contaminated by the droppings of horses when ploughing ; or where possibly a bag of manure had been set down and emptied during sowing. In these cases the results given have been obtained from a mixture of five holes, or, in the case of Hoos Field, of three holes only. There is also always some difficulty in preserving a large number of soil- samples, in this case 160, entirely free from accidental contami- nation before they are put into bottles ; and in one instance, that of the third depth of the unmanured Plot 16, it has been necessary to exclude the results of the analysis from the table, the nitric acid found being far larger than seemed possibly consistent with the truth. A small amount of error will, indeed, distinctly affect the result ; the addition of one grain of nitric nitrogen to 1144 lbs. of soil would, in fact, make a difference of 1 lb. per acre in the quantity calculated for a depth of 27 inches. It is clear, therefore, that it will be unsafe to found conclusions on small differences between different plots ; we must rather aim to seize the main features of the results. In calculating the results of the analyses into pounds per acre, it has been assumed that the weight of soil per acre in the first 9 inches is 2,552,203 lbs. ; in the second 9 inches, 2j706,573 lbs. ; and in the third 9 inches, 2,750,601 lbs., these weights being the mean of all the samples taken on the present occasion, excluding only the surface soil of Plot 2. The analysis of this soil (receiving farmyard-manure) is reckoned on 2,456,509 lbs., the weight calculated from its own samples. It is of interest to note, that even among the artificially manured plots there is an obvious tendency to give lower weights of surface soil the heavier the crops, that is, the greater the root development, and the amount of crop-residue. Hence the calculation of the analyses relating to the soils of such plots on the rather higher average weights, will so far give results some- what in excess ; whilst those relating to the poorer plots will be proportionally low. and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. 349 In Table VI. will be found the quantities of nitrogen as nitric acid existing in the first, second, and third 9 inches of soil in the various plots of Broadbalk Field, when sampled on October 10-18, 1881. In the same Table are given the estimated quantities of nitrogen as nitrates removed from each plot in the drainage-water after the first starting of the drain-pipes on August 30. The estimates are calculated from the composition Table VI. — Nitrogen as Nitric Acid in tbe Soil and Subsoil, and in the Drainage-Water of various Plots in Broadbalk Wheat-Field, in lbs. per Acre. In the Soil when Sampled October 10-18, 1881. Estimated as removed in Drain- age, August 30— January 31. Estimated in Soil Plot. Total Excess over : — if no First Second Third Twenty- Before After Drainage before Nine Nine Nine Soil Soil Total Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Plots 3 & 4 Plot 5a. Sampling. Sampling. Sampling. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 2 300 15-4 6-8 52-2 35 '8 27-9 # , . . 3 4 9-7 9-2 5-3 40 2-8 1-8 17-8 150 - — 6*5 - 9*3 } 13 10-3 11-6 17-7 5a 12-6 71 4-6 24-3 7-9 1-3 11-9 13-2 25-6 6a 16-5 7-5 4-7 28-7 12-3 4-4 1-5 16*0 17-5 30-2 7a 22-8 11-3 5-7 39-8 23-4 15*5 [3-5] 20-6 24-1 43-3 8 a 211 13-9 7-8 428 26-4 18-5 ? 30-1 9 a 19-7 10-0 8-2 37-9 21-5 13-6 25-2 9b 16-3 20-1 17-7 54-1 37-7 29-8 i ? *• *• 10 a 10 b 14-2 13-4 11-9 9-0 7-3 5-9 33-4 28-3 17-0 11-9 9-1 4-0 } 7-0 24-1 311 37-9 11a 17-9 9-3 3-6 30-8 14-4 6*5 4-7 22-8 27-5 35-5 12 a 15-3 10-3 4-4 30-0 13-6 5-7 2-7 18-1 20-8 32-7 13a 131 8-9 2-6 24-6 8-2 0-3 2-7 16-7 19-4 27-3 14 a 16-1 8-7 3-6 28-4 12-0 4-1 ? 17-1 15 a 13-4 10-7 4-1 28-2 11-8 3-9 . , . , 16 a 10-6 5-0 [2-3] 17-9 1-5 - 6-4 i-7 8-7 10-4 19-6 17 a* 10-3 7-5 3-4 21-2 4-8 - 3-1 2-6 10-3 12-9 23-8 18 A* 11-4 8-4 5-2 25-0 8-6 0-7 ? 13-2 . . . . 19 141 130 7-1 34-2 17-8 9-9 •• •• •* * The manures on Plots 17 and 18 alternate. This year Plot 17 had received only Mixed Mineral Manure, and Plot 18, 400 lbs. of Ammonium-salts. of the water issuing from the drain-pipes (Table V.), the quantity of the drainage being assumed as equal to that shown by the 60-inch soil drain-gauge. The amount removed in drainage before the samples of soil were taken is given separately in Table VI. ; and in the right-hand column this amount is added to that found in the soil, thus showing, as far as in our power, the amount of nitrogen as nitric acid which would have been present in the soil if no drainage had occurred. In the case of several of the plots no drainage before soil-sampling 350 Nitrojen a? Nitric Acid, in the Soils is recorded, the pipes, in fact, did not run. In all these cases loss of nitrates by drainage and diffusion doubtless took place, though we have no means of estimating the quantity actually passing below the first 27 inches of soil. Evidence that the amount passing into the subsoil by drainage and diffusion may in some cases considerably exceed that estimated from the com- position of the pipe-drainage, is afforded by results obtained relating to the amount of the chlorides present in the soil. As a very considerable amount of drainage took place in Broadbalk Field after the samples of soil were taken, it is obviously of interest to compare the results of the analyses of the soils with those of the subsequent drainage-waters. If the drainage-waters fairly represent the condition of the first 27 inches of soil on the different plots, the quantities of nitrate found in the waters should show a similar relation between themselves, as exists between the nitrates found in the soils of the corresponding plots. This comparison of the results of the soil-analysis with the composition of the subsequent drainage from the same plot, indeed brings to view some facts which would otherwise escape attention. Turning now to the details of the soil-analyses, we observe, first, that the nitrates are most abundant in the first 9 inches of depth ; the mean proportion at the three depths (excluding Plot 9b) is, in fact, as 100, 59, and 31. The nitrates have, in fact, mainly been produced near the surface, in most cases quite recently, and are now gradually passing downwards. The case is quite different, however, on Plot 9b, where more nitrate of sodium has been applied than the crop could make use of; here the nitrates are present in largest quantity in the second and third depths, and a part has probably passed to a still lower level. A large portion of this nitrate has existed in the soil ever since the application of the manure in March, and has since then, and especially since the removal of the crop, been moving slowly downwards by diffusion and drainage. From a similar cause, the quantity of nitrate in the lowest depth of Plots 8a, 9a, and 10a is also above the average. Passing next to the quantity of nitrate found in the various plots, we observe that the unmanured soils of Plots 3, 4, and 16a, yield the lowest amounts, namely 17*8 lbs., 15 0 lbs., and 17*9 ibs. of nitrogen as nitrates per acre. Plot 5a, continuously manured with ash-constituents, yields 24-3 lbs. ; this amount, however, bears a higher relation to that contained in the subsequent drainage than is shown by the adjoining Plots 3, 4, 6a, and 7a. Plot 17a, also receiving ash-constituents alone during the year in question, yields 21*2 lbs. per acre. Of the effect of the various ash-constituents in promoting nitrification and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. 351 in the soil, or on the migration of soluble matters, we have at present no certain information. When we turn to Plots 6a, 7a, and 8,V, receiving respectively 200 lbs., 400 lbs., and 600 lbs. of ammonium-salts, with all the necessary ash-constituents, we find 28’7 lbs., 39-8 lbs., and 42-8 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrates per acre, the quantities increasing with each addition to the manure. The quantity of nitrate in the soil of Plot 8 A bears a low relation to that found in Plots 6a and 7 a. In the case of Plot 8 A we are unable to form an estimate of the quantity of nitrate lost by drainage before the sampling of the soil, as the drain-pipe did not run till afterwards ; the quantity lost by drainage and diffusion may well, however, have been greater than on Plot 7. The nitrate in the soil of Plot 8a is also very low in relation to that found in the subsequent drainage from the plot. If the proportion between the nitrate in the soil and that removed in the subsequent drainage were the same as on Plots 6a, 7a, and 9ab, the soil of Plot 8a would contain about 56 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrates. It seems possible that in this case an unusually large amount of nitrogen may have nitrified on the plot after the samples of soil were taken ; nitrates might thus appear in the drainage which did not exist in the soil at the date of sampling. In the soil of Plot 9a, where nitrate of sodium equivalent to 400 lbs. of ammonium-salts is applied with ash-constituents, the nitrogen as nitric acid is 37’9 lbs., a quantity quite similar to that found in Plot 7a, receiving the corresponding amount of ammonium-salts, and the same ash-constituents. On Plot 9b, where the same quantity of nitrate of sodium is applied, but without ash-constituents, the nitrogen existing as nitrates rises to 54T lbs., a large residue of nitrate unused by the crop clearly remaining in the first 27 inches of soil. On Plots 10a and 10b, receiving 400 lbs. of ammonium-salts, without ash-constituents, there is deficient produce, and there will be a proportionally large amount of nitrate annually derived Irom the manure unused by the crop. The quantities found in the soil to the depth of 27 inches are nevertheless not relatively large — namely 33-4 lbs. and 28-3 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrates. The smaller amount is found in the soil of Plot 10b, where, owing to a residue of long previously applied ash-constituents, the crop is always rather better, and would therefore leave rather more crop-residue. In these facts there would seem to be evidence that the whole of the soil-nitrates found was not due to crop-residue, but partly to manure-residue also. That the amount remaining within the range of the soil-sampling was not larger on either plot, is consistent with the fact that there is a greater loss by drainage from these than from any of the other 352 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid, in the Soils plots receiving the same amount of ammonium-salts, as shown by the estimates for two years, as given in our former Report, and by the composition of the drainage previous to the soil -sampling, as given in Table VI. of the present Report ; and it is to be sup- posed that more has also passed below the drain-pipes, and the range of the soil-samples. Plots 11, 12, 13, 14, and 7, all receive 400 lbs. of ammonium- salts, and all the same amount of superphosphate, with the addition of sodium-salt to Plot 12, potassium-salt to Plot 13, magnesium-salt to Plot 14, and sodium- potassium- and mag- nesium-salt to Plot 7. Thus the conditions of the several plots as to soluble matters within the soil are very different. On Plot 11, with superphosphate, there is more produce than on Plot 10 without it, and therefore more crop-residue ; but still there will be an excess of nitrates directly derived from the ammonium-salts, compared with the amount on either Plots 12, 13, 14, or 7, where there is considerably more growth. The quantity of nitrogen as nitrate found in the soil to the depth of 27 inches is, however, only 30*8 lbs., or about the same amount as on Plots 10, 12, and 14. But both the previous and the recent records show a greater loss in the collected drainage of Plot 11 than of the other plots of the series under considera- tion, and there will doubtless be on the average more loss below the level of the drains, and of the range of the soil-sampling. Plots 7 and 13, both receiving potash, yield the heaviest crops of the series. If therefore the nitrates found to the depth of 27 inches depended wholly upon the amount of crop-residue, we should expect to find the largest amount in the soil of both these plots. The fact is, however, that the smallest amount within this series (24'6 lbs.) is found in the soil of Plot 13, with potassium, but without sodium- and magnesium-salts, and the largest amount (39-81bs.) in that of Plot 7, with sodium and magnesium, as well as potassium-salt applied. Even assuming there may be some error in the actual figures (and by com- parison it would be judged that those for Plot 13 may be too low), the direction of the difference is in accordance with the estimates of average loss by pipe-drainage, Plot 13 showing more loss than Plot 7 ; whilst on the other hand, with the much higher amount of nitrates found in the soil of Plot 7 at the time of sampling, its immediately succeeding drainage is stronger. The conclusion is, that there is upon the whole a greater tendency to passage downwards by drainage, and less to retention within the first 27 inches of soil on Plot 13 than on Plot 7. Whether this be due to more free movement down- wards, with the different conditions within the soil dependent on the different supply of saline matters, we have not the means and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. 353 of deciding. Plot 7 should, it is true, have a somewhat greater accumulation of crop-residue, and should therefore yield rather more nitrates from that source. But only a small proportion of the excess of nitrogen as nitrates, which the figures as they stand show in the soil of Plot 7 to the depth of 27 inches, could be so accounted for. It is very probable, indeed, that a portion of the exdess of nitrates found in the soil of Plot 7 is due to less free passage downwards, from whatever cause. In addition to the various conditions above alluded to affecting the amount of nitrates produced, and their tendency to remain at higher, or to pass to lower levels in the soil, the very different condition as to moisture of the different plots after harvest must not be overlooked. Thus, it is estimated that more water, equal in amount to some inches of rain, has been evaporated from the soils yielding the heavier than from those yielding the lighter crops. This implies, of course, that much less subsequent rain will be required to bring the soil to an equal degree of saturation, and so far as it is dependent on this, to cause an equal passage downwards, in the case of soils giving the poorer than of those giving the heavier crops. Then there is also the possibility of a different mechanical condition of the soils of different plots. On Plot 19, manured during the three preceding seasons with rape-cake only, we find 34-2 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrates, a quantity considerably larger than that contained in the adjoining plots manured with ammonium-salts. As the rape-cake only slowly decomposes in the soil, a part of the nitrates found will in this case be due to the nitrification of a residue of the manure. A still more striking example of the production of nitrates from organic manures is afforded by Plot 2, which receives annually fourteen tons of farmyard-manure : here the quantity of nitrate in the soil amounts to 52*4 lbs. of nitrogen per acre, exceeding, in fact, every plot excepting that manured with an excess of nitrate of sodium. The origin of the very considerable quantities of nitrates found in the soils of Broadbalk Field will require but little explanation after what has been already stated. The nitrates found in these soils in October have been produced by the nitrification of the original nitrogenous humic matters of the soil ; or from the decay of crop-residues (roots, leaves, and stubble) ; or from the nitrification of organic nitrogenous manures, as rape-cake or farmyard-manure ; or, possibly from the oxidation of residues of ammoniacal manure not previously nitrified ; or they consist in part of residues of nitrates which have remained in the soil through the summer. Of the quantity of nitrates produced solely from the oxidation of nitrogenous humic matters, including crop-residue, we have examples in the 354 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid , in the Soils case of Plots 3 & 4, 16 A. 5 A, 17 A, and probably of several others. Whether any of the nitrate on such plots as 7 A and 9a, was due to a residue of nitrate left unused by the crop, must remain doubtful, but the amount of such residues can hardly be very large. Plot 9b affords a capital example of a large residue of nitrate left unappropriated by the crop. In Plots 2 and 19 we have examples of the influence of farmyard-manure and rape- cake in increasing the amount of nitrates produced in the soil. The amount of nitrification observed was probably in all cases considerably above the average, being largely due to the early saturation of the soil by the heavy rains of August. As the nitrogenous organic matter in the soil was clearly the principal source of the nitric acid it contained, and as this nitrogenous organic matter is largely derived from the residues of previous vegetation, it will be of interest to compare the amount of nitric acid found in certain typical plots with the amount of nitrogen found by analysis in the first 9 inches of soil, and with the average amount of produce which the soil of each plot has yielded. This comparison will be found in Table VII. The nitrogen contained in the surface soil of each Table VII. — Nitrogen as Nitrates in Broadbalk Soil, October 1881, for 1000 of Soil Nitrogen, and of Average Produce. Plot. Manuring. Nitrogei For 1000 of Soil Nitrogen. a9 Nitrates In Soil. For 1000 Average Produoe. Average 30 Years 1852-81. Average 2Years 1880-1. 3&4 Unmanured 6-7 7-6 8-6 6 a 200 lbs. Ammonium-salts, Mineral Manure 10-2 7-3 7-3 7 a 400 lbs. „ „ „ „ 12-9 7-0 7-8 8 a 000 lbs. 13-3 6-3 6-7 9a 550 lbs. Nitrate of Sodium, Mineral Manure 12-4 5*5 6-1 9b 550 lbs. Nitrate of Sodium 19-9 12-6 20-4 2 14 tons Farmyard Manure 11-4 9-4 10-1 plot was ascertained from the analysis of the same samples in which nitric acid was determined. The produce includes corn and straw. The nitrogen as nitric acid is that present in 27 inches from the surface. In the above Table we really compare the quantity of nitric acid produced during two months in the field (plus residues of nitrates in certain cases), with the total nitrogen contained in the surface soil, and with the amount of previous produce on the wr and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. 355 same plot. The figures would be more exact if we knew in every case the quantity of nitric acid lost by drainage before the samples of soil were taken for analysis, as this quantity of nitric acid has clearly to be credited to the soil or manure of the plots in question. We are, however, only able to make this correction in the case of three- of the plots mentioned in the Table. It will be more convenient, therefore, to confine ourselves to the figures deduced from the actual determinations of nitric acid in the soils.* On the permanently unmanured Plots 3&4, 1000 of total soil nitrogen has yielded 6’7 of nitric nitrogen ; and on the unmanured Plot 16a it has yielded 6‘6. On the very moderately manured Plot 6a, yielding nearly twice the produce of the un- manured land, the product in the same time has been 102 of nitric nitrogen per 1000 of soil nitrogen. This increased capa- city for producing nitrates is shown by every plot in the field yielding an increase of produce, the lowest proportions being 8T per 1000 in the case of Plot 13a, and 7‘6 per 1000 in the case of Plot 17a. Plot 5a, manured with ash-constituents alone, shows 9'7 per 1000 ; the amount of nitric acid found in this soil, judged by the evidence of the drainage-water, seems to be rather high. We have, further, an indication that with a rise in productiveness over that shown by Plot 6a we have a further rise in the facility with which soil nitrogen is oxidised ; the product of 1000 of soil nitrogen on Plots 2, 7a, and 9a being 11*4, 12*9, and 12'4. The high figure shown by Plot 8a, and the still higher figure shown by 9b, are of course due to a larger residue of nitrates in the soil. The lact indicated by the above calculations is one of great practical importance. Soil contains nitrogenous matters which nitrify with different degrees of facility. The bulk of the nitrogenous matter of soil is only capable of very slow oxida- tion, but a smaller proportion is far more readily converted into nitric acid. In thoroughly exhausted land the easily nitrifiable matter has to a large extent disappeared ; in soil in good agricultural condition it is being continually renewed by fresh crop-residues, or by the application of organic manures. This easily nitrifiable matter constitutes a chief part of the floating capital of the soil, on which its immediate productive- ness depends. The larger quantity of more inert nitrogenous matter constitutes the sunk capital which only very slowly becomes available. * In the case of Plots 3&4, 6a, and 7a, the corrected proportion of total soil nitrogen to nitric nitrogen will be 1000 to 7-3, 10 • 7 and 14*0; and the corrected proportion of produce (average of 30 years) to nitric nitrogen, 1000 to 8-1, 7-6 and 7-5. 356 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid , in the Soils The facts shown by the other columns of Table VII. are nearly related to those just mentioned. When we see that the average of 30 years’ produce of corn and straw on the un- manured plots stands to the amount of nitrogen oxidised in this soil to nitric acid as 1000 : 7-6 ; that on Plot 6a, with nearly double the produce, it stands as 1000 : 7’3 ; and on Plot 7a, with more than two and a half times the produce, as 1000 : 7*0, it is surely evident that the capacity for producing nitrates rises side by side with the increase of crop ; that, in fact, the crop- residue annually left in the soil constitutes in most cases the chief material out of which nitrates are produced.* Recent crop- residues are not, however, in any case the sole source of soil nitrates ; if this were so, it is clear that the figures given in the Table would be in all cases identical, while in fact the pro- portion of nitric acid produced per 1000 of crop decreases some- what with each additional increment of crop. This is, however, what must naturally be expected. The nitric acid which is produced is derived partly from the old nitrogenous capital of the soil, and partly from comparatively recent crop-residues ; in the case of the unmanured plots the influence of the old nitro- genous capital of the soil is shown to the largest extent, while on the plots of heaviest produce (9a and 8a) it has least influence on the result. On Plots 2 and 9b we need hardly remark that the manure furnishes a considerable source of nitrate over and above the crop-residue. Before leaving the results furnished by Broadbalk Field, we must look for a moment at the general relation of the nitrate con- tained in the subsequent drainage to that shown by analysis as existing in the soil. Taking an average of all the plots in which the composition of the subsequent drainage admits of estimation, we find that for 100 lbs. of nitrate existing in the soil in Octo- ber, 60*2 lbs. have been removed in the course of 3^ months’ drainage (8*2 inches), or have passed below the level of the drain-pipes. The amounts of nitrates passing into the subsoil will really be in excess of these estimates, but they are the only figures at command. VVe may now pass to the determinations of nitric acid made in the soil of various plots in the Experimental Barley-field. The manuring of the plots with which we are at present concerned, and their average produce during 30 years, 1852-81, have been already given in Table I. (p. 335). The crop of 1881 was cut on August 5 and 8, and carried on August 18. The land was then scarified, and afterwards ploughed in the beginning * The vegetable matter resulting from dead weeds will participate with the residue of the crop iu affording material for nitrification ; this residue of wocds must always be included in the idea of crop-residue. and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. 357 of October. Towards the end of February 1882 the land was harrowed and rolled. The samples of soil were taken between February 24 and March 7. The quantity of nitrogen as nitric acid found in the soils and subsoils of the various plots will be found in Table VIII. Table VIII. — Nitrogen as Nitrates in the Soil and Subsoil of various Plots in Hoos Barley Field, March 1882.* Nitrogen as Nitrates in lbs. per acre. Plot. Maxciuxg. First Second Third Total Nine Nine Nine Twenty- Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lo. Unmanured 5-9 4-7 . 5-1 15-7 2o. Superphosphate 6-4 5-7 6-3 18-4 3o. Sulphates of Alkalies 6-1 5-7 6-5 18-3 4o. Mixed Mineral Manure 7-5 9-7 [6-3] 23-5 Mean of Series . . 6-5 6-5 6-1 19-0 1 A. 200 lbs. Ammonium-salts .. 6-1 8-3 7-0 21-4 2 A. Ditto, with Superphosphato 7-4 11-5 8-2 27-1 3 A. Ditto, with Sulphates of Alkalies 7-5 6-2 5-6 19-3 4 a. Ditto, with mixed Min. Manure 8-1 5-8 8-9 22-8 Mean of Series .. 7-3 8-0 7-4 22-7 1 aa. 275 lbs. Nitrate of Sodium . . 9-7 6-8 9-0 25-5 2 aa. Ditto, with Superphosphate 7-8 10-4 8-3 26-5 3 AA. Ditto, with Sulphates of Alkalies 7-8 6-2 8-1 22-1 4 AA. Ditto, with mixed Min. Manure 9-4 5-7 6-2 21-3 Mean of Series . . 8-7 7-3 7-9 23-9 1 c. 1000 lbs. Rape Cake 10-6 13-7 7-9 32-2 2 c. Ditto, with Superphosphate 7-5 13-1 7 8 28-4 3 c. Ditto, with Sulphates of Alkalies 10-6 11-2 9-5 31-3 4 c. Ditto, with mixed Min. Manure 8-2 11-5 8-7 28-4 Mean of Series . . 9-2 12-4 8-5 30-1 71 { Unmanured, 1872-81 (Farmyard-1 manure, 1852-71) J 14-8 11-8 10-9 37-5 72 14 tons Farmyard-manure 18-6 14-6 10-9 44-1 The experimental difficulties referred to in the case of Broad- balk Field have proved equally great in the investigation now before us ; we must be content, therefore, to seize the general features of the results, without expecting perfect accuracy in 358 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid, in the Soils every detail. The result of the analysis of the third depth of Plot 4o (Table VIII.) has been rejected as plainly excessive, and the figure found for Plot 2o substituted. In calculating the results of the analyses into pounds per acre, the weight of fine soil in the first 9 inches of the plots of the O A, and AA series, has been taken as 2,527,879 lbs., this being the mean weight actually found in the 0, A, AA, and AAS series. The first 9 inches of soil of the plots of the C series (rape-cake) have been taken as 2,361,461 lbs., the mean weight in this series. For the first 9 inches of Plots 71 and 72 (receiving farmyard-manure) their own weights have been taken. In the case of all the subsoils, 2,593,853 lbs. have been taken as the weight of fine soil in the second depth, and 2,661,134 lbs. as the weight in the third depth, these being the mean weights of all the series above mentioned. In considering the results of the analysis of the soils in Hoos Field, we must bear in mind the time of year at which the samples were taken. We have not to do, as in Broadbalk, chiefly with a recent production of nitrates, formed in the soil at the end of summer and early autumn, but with the nitrates left in the soil after the washing of the autumn and winter rains. The total amount of drainage passing through the 60 inch drain- gauge during the seven months from August to February was, in fact, 12‘5 inches. Of the quantity of nitrates which has passed into the subsoil by drainage during this period, we get some idea from the results already given relating to Broadbalk Field (Tables V. and VI.). It naturally results from the washing out to which the soils have been subjected, that the nitrates are found more evenly distributed than was the case in the Broadbalk samples. In Broadbalk Field, omitting Plot 9b, the nitrates were distributed throughout the first, second, and third 9 inches of soil in the proportion of 100, 59, and 31. In Hoos Field the nitrates are distributed through the same three depths in the proportion of 100, 102, and 88. There are only four plots in Hoos Field (Plots lo, 4o, 4a, and 72) where the manuring has been identical with plots in Broadbalk (Plots 3&4, 5a, 6a, 2); in each of these cases the nitrates found in Hoos Field are distinctly below those found in Broadbalk ; a result partly due to the washing of the Hoos soils by the autumn and winter rains, but also partly to the smaller residue left in the soil by a barley-crop. The four plots in the O series, which have received no nitrogenous manure for 30 years, give a mean of 19 0 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrates in 27 inches of soil. The entirely un- manured plot gives 15*7 lbs. The four plots in the A series, receiving respectively the and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. 359 same ash-constituents as the four in the o series, but with 200 lbs. of ammonium-salts in addition, give a mean of 22-7 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrates in 27 inches. The four plots in the AA series, also receiving the same ash-constituents as above, but with 275 lbs. of nitrate of sodium, give a mean of 23’9 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrates in 27 inches. The four plots in the C series, with the same ash-constituents, and 1000 lbs. of rape-cake, give a mean of 30T lbs. of nitrogen as nitric acid to the same depth. There can be no question that the nitrates found in the soils of the O series have been produced by the oxidation of the nitro- genous organic matter of the soil. In the A and AA series there can be little doubt that a large portion of the nitrates has a similar origin ; Plots 1 and 3 in these series are the only ones in which it seems probable that any residue of nitrates derived from the manure can have remained in the soil through the summer. In the plots of the C series, on the other hand, a part of the nitric acid is apparently due to the rape-cake applied as manure, which only slowly decomposes in the soil. The plots which have received rape-cake for 30 years show, in fact, a higher average amount of total nitrogen in the soil than any other plots in the field, with the exception of those receiving farmyard-manure. The considerable amount of nitric acid in the plot manured with rape-cake in Broad balk Field has been already noticed. There is thus, notwithstanding the comparatively washed- out condition of the plots when sampled after the autumn and winter rains, still a sufficiently marked difference between the mean amount of nitrates found in the soils of the different series, to be traceable to their different conditions of manuring, and the varying amounts of crop and crop-residue. From the same cause the differences among the plots w ithin each series are also small ; but there are indications that these too are dependent on the varying conditions of manuring and growth. In series O, A, and AA, the plots 2 and 4 receiving superphosphate, which yield the largest crop and crop-residue, are those which generally contain the largest quantity of nitric acid. With more growth there would also be more evaporation ; the soils after harvest would therefore be drier, in some cases considerably so, and hence it would require so much more subsequent rain to cause the same amount of passage of nitrates downwards, and the nitrates would accordingly remain in a greater proportion within the range of the soil-sampling. Among the plots of the 0 (Rape-cake) series a contrary result is observed. Plots 1 and 3, with somewhat less growth, never- 360 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid, in the Soils theless show rather more nitrates than Plots 2 and 4 ; which would seem to be due to a greater residue of manure in the former plot. The plots receiving farmyard-manure give the largest amounts of nitrates. On Plot 72, where 14 tons of farmyard-manure have been applied annually for 30 years, the nitrogen in the form of nitric acid amounts to 44T lbs. per acre to the depth of 27 inches. Of great interest, too, is the result presented by Plot 71. Here 14 tons of farmyard-manure were applied for 20 years, but the land during the next 10 years was unmanured, and continually cropped with barley. The effect of the previous manuring is still abundantly shown in the barley-crop (see Table I.), and the land is found to contain 37’5 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrates, a quantity larger than on any other plot, excepting that still receiving an annual dressing of farmyard -manure. The relation between the quantity of nitrogen as nitrates found in 27 inches of the barley soils, and the total quantity of nitrogen present in the surface-soils of the same plots, is shown in Table IX. The relation of the nitrates to the average total produce of the land is also shown. Table IX. — Nitrogen as Nitrates in Hoos Field Soils, March 1882, for 1000 of Soil Nitrogen, and of Average Produce. Plots. Manuring. Nitrogen as Nitrates in Soil. For 1000 of Soil Nitrogen. For 1000 Average Produce. Average Fourteen Years 1868-81. Average Two Years 1880-1. lo Unmanured 0-7 9-4 8-4 1—4 A Ammonium-salts, -with and without Minerals 8-8 5-5 5-1 1-4 A A Nitrate of Sodium „ „ „ 8-7 5-3 4-9 1-4 c Rape Cake „ „ „ 10-0 6-2 5-5 7* Farmyard-manure 9-9 7-2 6-7 The comparison between the quantity of total nitrogen in the surface-soil, and the quantity of nitrates existing in the land, is not so striking as in the case of the wheat-field, partly because in the present case the nitrates were to a considerable extent removed by drainage before the samples of soil were taken. The results, however, are in the same direction as before. Any in- crease in the produce of the land is attended with an increase in the amount of nitrates produced within the soil, due therefore to an increased amount of crop-residue. Where rape-cake or and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. 361 farmyard-manure is applied there is not only a nitrifiable crop- residue left in the land, but also a residue of nitrogenous organic matter from the manure, which still further adds to the I quantity of nitrate produced. The relation between the previous amount of crop and the quantity of nitrate in the soil is far less marked than in the wheat-field. This is partly owing to the comparatively washed- out condition of the barley land, but mainly to the much smaller residue left in the soil by barley than by wheat. In the wheat- field the percentage of nitrogen and carbon in the soil of each plot is plainly related to the quantity of crop annually pro- duced. In the barley-field considerable variations in crop are attended with only small alterations in the quantity of nitrogen and carbon in the soil. The recent crop-residues being smaller in the barley-field, a larger proportion of the nitrate is due to the old nitrogenous capital of the soil, or in some cases to residues of manure. The connection between the amount of crop and the production of nitrates is best seen when reference is confined to the last two crops of the field. The relation between the results of different plots is similar to that shown in the^wheat-field. (Table VII.) 3. Nitrates in Land growing Leguminous Crops. Several determinations have been made of the quantity of nitrates existing in soils which have grown leguminous crops ; to these we must now call attention. In Table III. will be found determinations of nitrates in two soils in Agdell Field which had grown beans. On the fully manured rotation the bean-crop yielded 26 J bushels of corn; the total crop contained about 66 lbs. of nitrogen. The soil gave in the first 18 inches 2(V5 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrates ; the other half of the land, which was in bare fallow, yielding at the same time 48'8 lbs. On the rotation manured with superphosphate only, the produce was 7f- bushels of corn, and the total crop contained about 26 lbs. of nitrogen. The soil yielded 10'6 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrates in 18 inches, the cor- responding bare fallow containing 36‘3 lbs. The bean-crops were cut on Aug. 24, the soils were sampled on Sept. 24-25, 1878. A part of the nitrates found in these soils would pro- bably be produced in the month of August, when the rainfall was very excessive (nearly 5 inches), or in September. In Table III. will also be found a determination of nitrates in the same field after a crop of clover in 1882. The clover was grown on part of the fully-manured rotation plot. The crop, in two cuttings, yielded 83§ cwts. of hay, estimated to contain VOL. XIX. — S. S. 2 B 362 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid , in the Soils nearly 200 lbs. of nitrogen. The clover land, and the cor- responding bare fallow, were sampled on September 8, before the clover land had been ploughed. The clover land con- tained in 27 inches 19'6 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrates, while in the soil of the corresponding bare fallow 59 9 lbs. were found. It is clear that in each of these comparative determinations between beans and fallow, or clover and fallow, we must not assume that the crop had at command the whole quantity of nitrates found in the fallow soil, as the production of nitrates in it would be considerably favoured by the summer tillage, a condition which was, of course, wanting in the case of the cropped land. Though, however, we may not credit the crop with having assimilated the whole difference observed between the nitrates of the cropped and uncropped land, there can be no doubt that in every case a considerable quantity of nitrate has been taken up from the first 27 inches of soil, the depth to which the sampling was confined. Considerable additional quantities of nitrate would probably be obtained from the lower depths of the subsoil, especially in the case of the clover crop. In Table IV. determinations of nitrates are given in two plots in Hoos Field, which had frequently grown leguminous crops, and which now failed to grow red clover. One plot had just grown a small crop of white clover, amounting to 24 cwts. of hay per acre ; the other had just produced an enormous crop of Bokhara clover, yielding in one cutting 125£ cwts. of hay per acre, and containing about 144 lbs. of nitrogen. The samples of soils were taken on July 26—31, 1882, immediately after the removal of the crops ; the sampling was carried to the depth of 54 inches. The whole amount of nitrogen as nitric acid found in this depth was 26'3 lbs. per acre in the case of the short-rooted white clover, and 8‘5 lbs. per acre in the case of the deep-rooted Bokhara clover. In the first 27 inches of depth, the white- clover soil contained 13’5 lbs., and the Bokhara-clover soil only 5 lbs. In the second 27 inches, the white-clover soil contained 12-8 lbs., or nearly as much as the first, and the Bokhara-clover soil only 3'5 lbs. It is obvious that the Bokhara clover had withdrawn nitrates to the full depth examined, and it had doubtless done so to a lower depth still. We have here again evidence that a leguminous crop, and especially one having a wide distribution of roots, assimilates the nitrates of the soil ; and in the case of such a plant as the Bokhara clover, a great depth of the subsoil is clearly brought under contribution. We have one experiment yet to mention. It is well known that a clover lay is a good preparation for wheat ; this is doubtless chiefly due to the gradual nitrification of the nitro- genous residue left behind by the clover. An illustration of and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. 363 the different condition of land in March after a wheat and after a clover crop, will be found in Table III. (Nos. 11, 12) ; the comparison is, however, not perfect, as the clover land had been ploughed the preceding October, while the wheat- stubble was untouched. The clover land yielded 38'9 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrates in the first 27 inches, and the wheat land only 14 5 lbs. The evidence relating to the amount of nitrates in the different soils seems to point to the conclusion that, in the case of cereal crops, the nitrates of the soil are a sufficient source of the nitrogen of the crops. Can the same be said with regard to beans or clover? That these crops do assimilate nitrates in considerable quantity is sufficiently established. A good crop of red clover may, however, in land in favourable condition, but without the direct application of manure, yield from seed sown in the spring of the previous year, hay containing 200 lbs. of nitrogen per acre, and also leave much nitrogenous crop-residue in the surface-soil. Again, the Bokhara clover, grown in Hoos Field, in a soil on which red clover had frequently failed, yielded, during five successive years, 1878-82, without any application of nitrogenous manure, an average of about 93 lbs. of nitrogen per acre per annum. These quantities much exceed the amounts which, according to our present knowledge, can be furnished by nitrates in the soil. Our information as to the amount of nitrates available in the lower layers of the subsoil is, however, as yet very limited. On this point it may be stated that determinations made in samples collected this year (1883) to the depth of 108 inches in the white-clover soil, have shown more than 50 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrates per acre below 45 inches of depth. On the other hand, adjoining land in fallow, which had been alternately wheat and fallow without manure for about 30 years, showed less than 20 lbs. in the corresponding layers. The question obviously arises whether leguminous crops do not find in the soil suited to their growth some other source of nitrogen than nitrates. The very large amount of nitrogen taken up by these crops would, on this supposition, be due to their possession of a power of utilising nitrogen existing in the soil in a condition of combination, as well as of distribution, not available to cereal crops. We have now completed our account of the quantity of nitrates found at various depths, and at various seasons, in cropped land subjected to a great variety of manuring. Before concluding, we must say a few words as to the bearing of some of these results upon the important questions raised in the last section of the previous Report on Rain and Drainage. 364 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid , in the Soils An attempt was there made to correlate the amount of nitro- gen applied in the manure, recovered in the crop, and passing away as nitrates in the drainage-water, in the case of many of the experimental plots in Broadbalk Wheat-field. The cal- culations showed that wherever a large quantity of ammonium- salt was applied, a considerable part of the nitrogen of the manure was unaccounted for in the crop, and in the drainage from the plot, and the amount unaccounted for was the larger in proportion to the quantity of ammonium-salt applied. A similar calculation made regarding the chlorine supplied by the manure showed that it also was only partially accounted for in crop and drainage. It was assumed that the composition of the pipe- drainage did not afford full information as to the amount of nitric acid and chlorine that was passing downwards, and that if this amount were fully known, the unaccounted-for loss of nitrogen and chlorine would, more or less, entirely disappear. Some of the new results described in the preceding pages support the explanation thus offered. Where large amounts of nitrates are present in a soil, the composition of the pipe- drainage doubtless fails to represent the whole amount of nitrate which passes downwards into the subsoil. The evidence is by no means so clear as to what proportion of a dressing of nitrate of sodium or ammonium-salts remains in the soil unused by the crop. The nitrates found in the soil after harvest are, in fact, largely due to the nitrification of nitrogenous organic matter in the soil, and it is impossible to discriminate between the nitrate so produced, and that remain- ing in the soil as a residue of manure. Much has been said in these pages of the passage of nitrates into the subsoil ; and in wet seasons, such as we have lately suffered, the quantity of nitrates passing downwards from arable soils in good agricultural condition must generally have been very large. Indeed, it would appear that under certain circum- stances the quantity of nitrates in the subsoil may considerably exceed the quantity near the surface. As, however, our ex- amination of soils has in most cases been confined to the depth of 27 inches, we have as yet very imperfect information as to the quantity of nitrates which may exist in the lower layers of the subsoil under varying conditions of cropping, manuring, and season. The agricultural importance of these subsoil-nitrates is also at present not clearly determined. Are we to regard the nitrates in the lower layers of the subsoil as preserved intact, subject only to further removal by drainage, as available for the nourishment of deeply-rooted crops, and capable of being brought again near the surface when the evaporation of water becomes considerable during the growth of a vigorous crop in and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. 365 summer-time ? Or are the nitrates passing below a certain level liable to be destroyed by chemical reduction, of which action some examples were given in the previous Report? It may well be, that in subsoils of different character, and in different conditions of saturation with water, one or other of these re- sults may occur, but the information at present at command on the subject is very limited. A further examination of the composition of subsoils at low depths is now in progress at Rothamsted. Summary op Results. 1. The soils of the three drain-gauges, 20, 40, and 60 inches deep, which have now remained without manure and without crop for thirteen years, have, during the last six years, yielded nitric acid in the drainage-water, equal to an average of 40-2 lbs. of nitrogen per acre per annum. The production of nitrates is greatest during summer. The minimum amount in the drainage- water occurs in spring ; the maximum in July, or in the first month afterwards in which considerable drainage occurs. 2. In three soils at Rothamsted, in fair agricultural condition, cultivated as bare fallow since the harvest of the previous year, 56'5, 58-8, and 59'9 lbs. of nitrogen as nitric acid per acre were found in September or October, to the depth of 27 inches. If the summer has been dry, the nitrates are near the surface ; after much rain they are at a lower level. If the amount of nitrates which it is estimated have passed by drainage below 27 inches during the season of fallow (15 months) is taken into account, the total production of nitrates corresponds to about 80 lbs. of nitrogen per acre. When the soil is in a poor agricultural condition, the production of nitrates during fallow is much less. 3. In exhausted land, but left uncropped four years (Geescroft Field), only very small quantities of nitrates were found in the subsoil to a depth of 6 feet. The subsoil was, however, saturated with water, and it seems possible that a portion of the nitrates had been destroyed by chemical reduction. 4. The results relating to land growing cereal crops, receiving no excess of nitrogenous manure, show that only very small quantities of nitrates will remain in the uper layers of the soil through the summer, the crop having assimilated the nitrates formerly present. If rain follow after harvest, and especially if the land be ploughed, a considerable formation of nitrates will occur. Nitrates will continue present throughout the winter, notwithstanding loss by drainage, slow production being always in progress. In late spring or early summer, the nitrates will again disappear if the land is once more under crop. 366 Nitrogen as Nitric Acid , in the Soils 5. The soils of the various plots in Broadbalk Wheat-field were sampled in October 1881 to the depth of 27 inches. There had been much rain after harvest, and the conditions were very favourable to nitrification. The nitrates were chiefly near the surface, the distribution in the three depths, each of 9 inches, being on an average as 100, 59, and 31. 6. The unmanured plots contained lS'O-l?^ lbs. of nitrogen as nitric acid per acre to the depth of 27 inches. Plots manured with ash-constituents alone, 2T2-24-3 lbs. Plots receiving 400 lbs. of ammonium-salts, or 550 lbs. of nitrate of sodium per acre, with ash-constituents, 24'6-39’8 lbs. With the same nitrogenous manuring, without ash-constituents, 28-3-54T lbs. With 1700 lbs. of rape-cake as manure, 34‘2 lbs. With 14 tons of farmyard-manure, 52'2 lbs. The rape-cake and farmyard-manure were applied the preceding autumn ; the ammonium-salts and nitrate of sodium in March. 7. On plots receiving no nitrogenous manure, or not excessive quantities of ammonium-salts or nitrate of sodium, the nitrates found were doubtless due to the nitrification of nitrogenous matters in the soil, consisting partly of the original stock of humic matter of the soil, but mainly of more recent crop and weed-residues. The quantity of nitrate found, generally bore a distinct relation to the quantity of the preceding crops. Where an excess of nitrate of sodium had been applied (Plot 9b), a considerable residue of unused nitrate was found in the subsoil. Where rape-cake or farmyard-manure had beeen applied, the nitrates present were partly derived from the nitrification of residues of these manures. 8. Comparing the quantity of total nitrogen in the first 9 inches of the Broadbalk Wheat-field soils with the quantity of nitric acid found to the depth of 27 inches, it appears that the nitrogen of permanently unmanured land nitrifies with more difficulty than the nitrogen of land that has yielded large crops, or has received rape-cake or farmyard-manure. The old nitrogenous capital of the soil is thus more slowly oxidised and converted into plant-food than the more recent residues of crops or of organic manure. 9. In the soils of Hoos Barley-field, sampled in March 1882 to the depth of 27 inches, the nitrates had been distributed by the autumn and winter rains ; they occurred in the first, second, and third 9 inches in the average proportion of 100, 102, and 88. 10. The unmanured plot contained 15'7 lbs. of nitrogen as nitrate per acre. The plots receiving ash-constituents alone, a mean of 20T lbs. The plots receiving 200 lbs. ammonium-salts, or 275 lbs. nitrate of sodium per acre, with or without ash- and Subsoils of some of the Fields at Rothamsted. 367 constituents, a mean of 23'3 lbs. Plots receiving 1000 lbs. of rape-cake, with or without ash-constituents, a mean of 30T lbs. The plot receiving 14 tons farmyard-manure, 44T lbs. The residues of the rape-cake and of the farmyard-manure added considerably to the quantity of nitrate produced. The influence of crop-residues in increasing the production of nitrate is not so marked as in the wheat-field, barley leaving a smaller residue in the soil than wheat. 11. A comparison of the quantity of nitrate found in soils cropped with beans or clover, with that found in corresponding land in bare fallow, showed that nitrates are assimilated by leguminous crops. A similar result appeared when the com- parison was made between a vigorous deeply-rooted leguminous plant (Bokhara clover) and a delicate short-rooted one (white clover), the former taking more nitrate from the subsoil than the latter. 12. The quantity of nitrogen in luxuriant leguminous crops appears too great to be accounted for by the quantities of nitric acid at present recognised in soils. We have however as yet very limited information as to the quantity of nitric acid in the lower layers of the subsoil. The question remains whether leguminous crops have the power of utilising nitrogen existing in the soil in a condition of combination (as well as of distribution), not available to cereal crops ? 13. The results relating to the soils in the Broadbalk Wheat- field, together with those relating to the pipe-drainage-waters, confirm the conclusion put forward in the former Report — that the estimates of loss by drainage founded on the amount of water passing through the 60-inch soil drain-gauge, and on the composition of the pipe-drainage in the wheat-field, are too low ; it appearing that considerably more nitrates pass into the subsoil than such a calculation shows. 14. It is a question whether, under some circumstances, and especially if the subsoil is saturated with water, nitrates which have passed into the lower layers of the subsoil are not there destroyed by reduction ; or whether, and to what extent, the nitrates which are not reduced, or not finally lost by drainage, return upwards in dry weather, or are available to plants of deep-rooting habit and vigorous growth. ( 368 ) XVII. — The Progress of Fruit Farming. By Charles White- HEAD, F.L.S., F.G.S., of Banning House, Maidstone. The increase of the acreage of fruit-land in England, according to the Agricultural Returns, was 26,696 acres between the years 1872 and 1882. It will be seen by an analysis of these Returns that an increase has taken place in twenty-four counties, and a decrease in the remaining counties. The most important additions to the acreage have been made in five of these counties, which have been distinguished for several centuries as fruit-growing counties, viz. — Gloucester, Hereford, Kent, Somerset, and Worcester, in the following order: Names op Coontt. Increase of Acreage from 1872 to 1882. Hereford Acres. 5944 Kent 5362 Somerset 4324 Worcester 4290 Gloucester 3251 In Devonshire, which has long been celebrated for its fruit- production,* the increase only amounted to 358 acres in the same period, owing probably to the fact that the many late wet seasons have been especially injurious to the apple-crop in this county. No important additions have been made to the fruit- acreage in any other county which would tend to show that the occupiers of land were seriously thinking of adopting fruit- culture as a possible means of improving their position. This is somewhat remarkable, and is additional evidence of the fact that English farmers are slow to embark upon what they term “ new-fangled ” schemes. It is not by any means because the soil and climate of other counties are unsuitable for fruit- growing that fruit-cultivation has not been adopted, for almost all sorts of fruits are successfully grown in the gardens in all but the most northern districts ; and in all but these there are parts, and large parts, of all the counties of England where the most useful fruits might be successfully grown. But it is difficult to induce farmers to make experiments of this kind, even though experts may tell them that all the conditions essential to ensure success are. present; and they shake their heads dubiously when they are reminded that the kinds of fruit suitable for market Records show that apples were cultivated in Devonshire in 1520. The Progress of Fruit Farming. 369 purposes are produced abundantly in their own kitchen-gardens close to their houses, and that it would pay to cultivate them upon an extended scale. Besides the prejudice against new undertakings, farmers proper, in many cases, object to become fruit-growers, as many object to become vegetable- growers, because it is not their legitimate business, which is, they say, to produce corn and meat, milk, butter, cheese, and wool, as their forefathers did. Many have not the capital to spare for planting fruit-trees, whose return is somewhat slow. Here and there a landowner has done this, notably Lord Sudeley, in Gloucestershire, to whose enterprise detailed references will be made ; but a grand opportunity has not been generally taken advantage of in this country. In the mean- time, the foreign cultivators have been equal to the occasion, and have extended the acreage of fruit-land enormously, and are sending quantities of fruit into the English markets, increasing year by year. A calculation has been made as to the time for which the food production of this country would keep its mighty population from starvation if its ports were closed to the importation of all foreign supplies. A few weeks alone, it is said, would reduce the English to the famished condition of a besieged army. How long, it may be asked, would the 187,553 acres of fruit-land in Great Britain supply its inhabitants with fruit, and the various confections and compositions made from fruit ? They would be utterly insufficient ; as even now, with the very extensive consignments from various lands, fruit is sometimes so dear as to be beyond the reach of all but the rich. Taking into consideration the extraordinary increase in the demand for fruit for eating in its raw state, for cooking, for the making of jam, and for other purposes, during the last twenty- five years, and more particularly during the last ten years, the addition to the acreage of fruit-land in England of 26,696 acres since the year 1872, is ridiculously small. It is generally acknowledged that fruit, vegetables, and milk, are becoming year by year more essential elements of the diet of all classes ol the community. The temperance movement also has already increased the demand for these articles of diet, and will increase it considerably more, especially as regards fruit ; for persons who indulge in alcoholic stimulants rarely take fruit or jam, or conserves made of fruit. An important proportion of the increased fruit consumption is due to the demand for jam for home and foreign consumption. Jam is becoming a common article of food throughout the country. As our dairies cannot lurnish butter for those who are unable to give from Is. 5 d. to Is. 8 d. per lb. for this luxury, they use jam for themselves and their children. This can now be bought in most village 370 The Progress of Fruit Farming. grocers’ shops at from Id. to 9 d. per lb., owing mainly to the energy of French, Belgian, Dutch, German, and American fruit- growers. Jam-factories are being established in various parts of this country, and new processes have been introduced to help and improve the manufacture of jams and preserves of all kinds. There is yet a vast difference in jam. The real jam is made of good freshly picked fruits, which are not mashed up into a mess, but are preserved whole, so that specific fruits may be identified. Beach’s jam is of this character, and is acquiring a deserved reputation. It is made of fresh fruit grown in England, and is not boiled down, but steamed. Glucose is avoided, and nothing but the finest sugar is used, and no adulteration is practised, as the fruits remain whole and perfectly distinguishable. But there are jam-makers and jam-makers. There are jam- makers and smashers, although the latter title is repudiated as a calumny upon the trade. The former make it as careful housekeepers make it ; the latter mix up fruit of all kinds and qualities into a heterogeneous compound. The first of these take sound, fresh, whole fruit. The others boil down over-ripe and under-ripe fruits of all sorts, particularly apples of low quality, sometimes mixed with marrows and other vegetables when fruit is scarce ; and thus with a few seeds and essences make any jam to order. For jam-making, fruit of all qualities and description is cleared off in a wonderfully rapid manner. When there is a short crop, the demand for jams and preserves sends up the prices of fruit to a figure far beyond the reach of ordinary consumers, as in the last season, for example, when damsons and plums were making 4 d. per lb. wholesale, and black currants from 4 \d. to 5 d. per lb. In full fruit seasons, jam-makers buy up fruit, and, having reduced it to pulp, put it into large jars or vessels of various kinds, without sugar. If the air is carefully excluded, this pulp will keep for some time, until a scarcity of fruit happens again. It is, in fact, the adoption of the principle of ensilage to fruit. This is adopted in other countries. Large quantities of apricot pulp are sent from France at an average price of about 5 d. per lb. A few fruit-growers in England have tried this practice in abundant seasons, and have been enabled to keep their fruit until it was wanted. Some jam-makers take the pulp from the fruit-growers. Others pulp the fruit themselves, and it is satisfactory to find that in many large-! centres of production jam-factories have been established to which the producers can send both fruit and pulp. In not a few districts, where jam-factories do not exist, it is becoming the custom to sell fruit by contract in large quantities to agents, or to principals, of jam-factories, and to fruit-dealers. Another good feature in the fruit-trade is that The Progress of Fruit Farming. 371 growers are getting more into the habit of sending their fruit direct to the retail shops in London and in other large towns ; and of supplying co-operative stores, either by contract or by' agreement, to take current market prices, thus, as in the former case, saving the expense of the middleman. It is also the practice of some growers to consign their choicest dessert-fruit, carefully and tastefully packed, to retailers in large cities. It is most desirable, in the interests of consumers and producers, that this system should be largely extended. Not a few gentle- men also, having greenhouses and hothouses, and a staff of gardeners, like to turn an honest penny, and combine the useful with the beautiful, and send the choicest fruits and flowers to some of the chief London shops. Notwithstanding the importation of fruit from divers parts of the world, the prices, taking the average of seasons, are very high, and the prices of fine fruit for dessert purposes place it beyond the means of all but those who have plenty of money. It may seem strange that fruit should be so dear as it was in 1882, for example, when it is seen that the amount of raw fruit sent into this country during this year was 4,045,691 bushels, of the value of 1,718,909?., independently of the large quantities of fruit in the form of pulp, or dried by the sun or by artificial processes. The annexed return will show the amount of raw fruit sent into England in 1871 and in 1882 respectively, and the various countries from which it was sent : — 1871. 1882. Namb of Cocstet. Number of Bushels. Value. Number of Bushels. Value. Germany Holland Belgium France Portugal, Azores, and Madeira Spain and Canary Islands United States British North America . . British West India Islands .. Other Countries Channel Islands 69.519 160,392 276,286 354,606 73,979 59,712 56,441 55,150 10,063 12.520 £ 22,104 59,542 95,822 214,542 57,081 48,795 40,604 37,004 10,750 9,863 515,604 444,886 593,158 524.683 133,124 462,082 1 ,065,076 222,128 20,168 14,197 50,584 £ 151,096 182,876 669,164 335,543 81,245 277,757 387,190 90,077 15,810 7,581 20,574 Total 1,128,568 596, 107 4,055,691 1,718,907 When it is remembered that the population of Great Britain was over thirty-two millions at the recent Census, the amount of the importation of raw fruit appears comparatively of small im- portance. It is estimated that the annual average amount of fruit 372 The Progress of Fruit Farming. produced in this country is not more than 9,000,000 bushels. But not nearly all this is available for actual consumption as food, as the apples and pears grown for cider and perry must be deducted, and these form a considerable portion of the whole — a third at the least — seeing that in the cider-making counties gar excellence , viz. Devon, Hereford, Somerset, and Worcester, there are 95,521 acres of fruit-land out of the total number of 187,553 acres of fruit-land in the United Kingdom. There are no statistics showing what proportion of this fruit-land, or orchard-land, as it is for the most part, produces cider and perry-fruit, though no doubt it forms a large part of its yield. In Gloucester, again, cider is extensively made. A little is made in seasons of heavy crops in Kent, but it is not of first-rate quality, and the quantity made is becoming smaller year by year. In Dorset, Monmouth, Salop, and Wilts, the fruit-land consists mainly of apple-orchards planted with trees of second-rate kinds of fruit, the greater part of which is made into cider for the farm hands. With regard to the importation of foreign fruit, much of this arrives in the English market before the home-grown fruit is ripe, therefore it does not come directly into competition with it — at least in the case of most of the “ soft ” fruits, as currants, gooseberries, and strawberries. It is different, however, with apples, of which large quantities are sent from Canada and the United States, and reduce the value of English apples considerably in some seasons. Greengages and plums are occasionally sent from Belgium, Holland, and France in such quantities as to materially affect the prices, especially of second- rate samples. The finest foreign plums come from mid-central France before English plums are ripe. Those that come into competition with English plums are of a common description produced in Belgium, Holland, and Normandy, but they tend to depreciate values in the same way as a supply of sprats makes herrings cheap. Large quantities of indifferent plums, known as “ Swetchens,” are brought from Holland, by water, from Amsterdam and Rotterdam, at excessively low rates. These are sold at St. Katharine’s Wharf direct from the steam- boats, and are used principally for jam and cooking purposes, making from lfd1. to 1 ^d. per lb. Greengages of poor quality are also sent from Holland, making from If d. to 2 d. per lb. A few are taken for eating, though the great bulk of this fruit finds its way into the jam-factories. Cherries arrive first from Algiers and Spain, long before English cherries are ripe. These are rather colourless and flavourless, and of a common character. When these are over, very much better cherries arrive from Avignon and other parts of southern and mid-central France, and arc succeeded by ordinary growths from Angers and Normandy, which are 37$ The Progress of Fruit Farming. brought to London at something under half a farthing per lb. for carriage ; while for cherries sent to London from Sittingbourne, in East Kent, and Maidstone, in Mid-Kent, about 40 miles, the charge for railway carriage amounts to close upon a farthing per lb. Black currants and red currants come from France, Holland, and Belgium only a very short time before these fruits are ripe in England ; they are much inferior in quality to the English, as are the gooseberries which are imported in con- siderable quantities from France. It is evident from the appearance of these fruits sent from foreign countries that the soil and climate are not nearly so well adapted for their pro- duction as those of this country, and that home-growers need not fear that they will be beaten, as far as quality is concerned, in respect of them, or, indeed, of any of the soft fruits. In the matter of pears, however, the case is different. French pear- growers undoubtedly produce better fruit than any others. The pears that are grown in the districts round Nantes and Angers, and in parts of mid-central France, are finely shaped, of taking appearance, and excellent flavour. Pears begin to arrive from France about three weeks before English pears are ripe, and the supply frequently lasts until the ensuing spring. Producers of pears in France are most careful and diligent in their cultivation, and in the selection of the best sorts, and those to follow in a regular order of ripening, and they do not crowd them into the market directly they are picked, as is too much the fashion with the home pear-growers. Pears are grown in France in many fashions, — upon standards, bushes, pyramids ; upon cordons, lateral, oblique, and diagonal ; en gobelet, en vase , en touffes, and in other ways. The pruning is attended to with great pains and skill by the small proprietors who are the chief producers of fruit in France, among whom “ exists a wide- spread intelligence, and a keen sense of what is profitable and useful for the land cultivated by them as a garden of necessity.” * The greater part of the fruit that is exported from France is collected by agents or dealers, who attend certain markets, depots, or centres to which the fruit is brought by the growers, and sort it, and classify it, and carefully pack it for the English markets. Sometimes railway arches are used for receiving and packing the fruit. Much judgment and skill are employed in sorting and packing, so that buyers in London have great con- fidence in the consignees. Certain trade-marks become known and inquired for day after day, and fruit is frequently sold without being seen, the buyers being quite satisfied with the * ‘ Report on Fruit Culture on the Continent, 1868.’ By the Rev. T. Collings Brehnut. 374 The Progress of Fruit Farming. note of advice. It has become so general to consign fruit to England, that it is stated that frequently the markets in French towns are badly supplied. A friend who has lived in France for many years says that the increase in the production of fruit during the last twenty years is astonishing ; yet to obtain his supplies he was compelled to send into the fruit market before 5 o’clock A.M., or the fruit would have been all sold and cleared off for consignment to England. A French writer, skilled in horti- culture and agriculture, remarks that the cultivation of fruit in France has greatly increased, but that the demand has by no means been satisfied. He estimates that more than twenty-three millions of pounds of fresh fruit are annually consumed in Paris alone in various forms ; although the Parisians are by no means a fruit-eating people. He counsels the French cultivators to plant fruit-trees, and in answer to the question which is frequently asked, “ If all the world plant fruit-trees, what is to become of the fruit ? — it will fetch a poor price : ” he replies : “ This is a gross error ; the more the production increases the greater will be the consumption. We produce ten times more fruit than we did forty years ago, and has the price decreased in any degree ? ” Then he goes on to advise the cultivators not to centre their efforts upon producing wheat and oats upon land that will grow fruit. “ What,” he asks, “ will corn pay him ? ” He answers, “ Nothing. The cultivator is a manufacturer ( fabricant ), and it is his duty to abandon a certain production that does not pay for another that will pay.” * This advice has been taken, as any one can clearly see by the increase in the importation of fruit from France in the last few years. It is cited here, as it is pecu- liarly applicable to English farmers, upon many of whose farms fruit that would pay might be cultivated in the place of corn that does not pay. Let America grow the wheat as long as she will, while English farmers endeavour to turn their land to better account. We have allowed foreign fruit-cultivators to steal a march upon us. Though the importations of fresh fruit have been quadrupled since 1871, the increase in the acreage of English fruit-land during this period is equal only to about 16 per cent. Foreign producers discovered, some years back, that there is a practically unlimited market for fruits. Their fruits have improved in appearance and quality in the past ten years, though, with the exception of apples and pears, they are not equal to the fruit grown in England, whose soil and climate are suitable for the production of fine-flavoured and good-sized fruits. * ‘Arbres Fruitiere. Culture et Taille rationelles et c'conomiquee.’ Far V. Lebeuf. The Progress of Fruit Farming. 375 It must be asked, seeing that the British cultivator has these advantages, whether he lacks energy and the spirit of enter- prise, or capital ? Or is it owing to the nature of the English land laws that he does not adapt his modes and systems to meet altered and altering circumstances, like the Continental and the American farmers? Not only are the French, the Belgians, and the Germans, increasing the area of fruit-land, and im- proving their methods of cultivation, but the Americans are also planting fruit, and are adopting, with characteristic zeal, new and improved systems of packing and preserving it. In the Report of the American Commissioner of Agriculture for 1878, it is stated that there were more than two millions of acres under cultivation as apple-orchards, and that in twenty years the value of the products had increased from 1,320,000Z. to over 10,000,000Z. “ The abundance of the fruit-crop,” the Commissioner writes, “ is one of the most gratifying results of the progress of agriculture in this country. The demand for fruit in the markets at home and abroad has been equal to and is increasing with the supply. The prices have been generally remunerative both to the grower and the dealer, and yet low enough to be within the reach of all. The daily use of fruit as food by our people is greatly to be desired.” * Besides apples and many other small fruits, the peach-crop of the United States is estimated at the annual value of 11,500,000Z. ; so that it is not surprising that there is occasionally a superabundance of fruit, especially of peaches and apples, upon which pigs are fed. This waste has been in a great degree obviated by the ingenuity of the Americans in preserving the fruits and drying them. At Baltimore particularly, as well as in other cities which are centres for the accumulation of fruit, large establishments have been built and furnished with the most improved machinery and appliances for the rapid drying and evaporation of the watery parts of fruits. By an ingenious process the water is slowly separated from the solid parts, which at the same time undergo a chemical change, the acid and the starch being con- verted into grape-sugar. The Commissioner of Agriculture in the Report alluded to says of this : “ The proof of the pudding is in the eating, and it is said that an apple-pie made from fruit evaporated by these processes cannot be distinguished from one made from fresh fruit, and yet only one-half of the quantity of sugar is required to sweeten it ; and the same fact is true in regard to tomatoes, and all fruits and vegetables.” f * ‘ Animal Report of the United States Commissioner of Agriculture, 1878.’ + Op. cit., p. 385. 376 The Progress of Fruit Farming. Iron stoves, and machines constructed on the principles de- scribed above, for drying fruit, but portable and costing only about 15/., are used in many districts in the country far from towns. These will, it is said, thoroughly and perfectly dry as much fruit as a family can peel and slice in a day. All kinds of salads and delicate vegetables — such as onions, peas, asparagus, celery, Lima beans — are preserved by these new processes fresh and “dehydrated,” like the fruits of all seasons of the year, for all the markets of the world, returning, when placed in water, at any time when desired for use, to their original fulness, colour, flavour, and other properties. “ In short,” to use the words of the Commissioner of Agriculture, “ the trade in ‘ dehydrated * and preserved vegetables and fruits of all kinds has assumed enormous proportions, giving employment to thousands of per- sons, realising valuable profits, and supplying business through every artery of trade.” Not only this, but the trade in fresh vegetables and fruits has been lately increased in an astonishing degree by the adoption of refrigerators on the railway-cars and steam-boats, by which these products are conveyed to all parts of the United States, as well as to foreign countries. Much fruit is produced in Canada. The acreage of fruit-land has been extended largely in the last fifteen years, and the greatest interest is taken by the Government and by the farmers themselves in the promotion of this industry. The main part of the fruit-land is in Ontario, or Western Canada, in which it is said that any fruits can be grown that are produced in the temperate zone. There is a large Fruit-growers’ Association in Ontario devoted to the improvement of the cultivation, packing, and preserving of fruits. In 1880 a Commission was appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor to inquire into the progress of agri- culture, and in the Report of the Commissioners most valuable information as to fruit is contained, which is not only most useful and deeply interesting to Canadian cultivation, but also to all other fruit-producers. Very fine apples are grown in Ontario, better it is alleged by the Canadians than those that are grown in the United States. It is said that when Canadian apples are good the Americans buy them, and brand them “ American,” and when they have indifferent samples of their own growth, they brand these “ Canadians.” Canadian apples have undoubtedly a great reputation in the English markets. A large fruit-grower in Ontario, in his evi- dence before the Commission, says : “ There is nothing to prevent our apples from competing successfully with the English apples in England, if they are properly sent. We have beaten The Progress of Fruit Farming. 377 them in their own market with the Ribston Pippin. It sells in England at ol. per barrel.” * Another apple, called the “ Swayzie Pomme Grise grown chiefly in the Niagara district, has made the highest price obtained for Canadian apples in England, as much as 51. per barrel having been made in Covent Garden Market. | This apple, of fine aromatic flavour, was probably introduced into Canada, where it has been long known, from France. Andre Leroy mentions it as a dessert-apple of the highest quality in his ‘ Dictionnaire de Pomologie,’ and Dr. Hogg says that it is a first-rate apple, and Forsyth believes that the trees were brought from Canada into this country. Not only do the Canadians exercise the greatest skill in the cultivation of apples, but they understand the art of storing them. The most approved plan, according to the evidence given to the Commissioners, is to place them in cellars well drained and ventilated, in which the temperature is maintained at from 32 to 35 degrees. In a lecture upon fruit-growing in Massachusetts, by Mr. Slade, he said that “ one of the least expensive, most efficient and commodious fruit cellars that I ever examined, comprised a portion of a barn cellar. It was under a hay-barn a hundred feet in length, with the walls and floor cemented. There were double doors at the entrance, and the two windows, north and south, were protected by shutters. I was in this cellar early in the spring, and found the temperature at 38°, while outside it was 63°. The bins were filled with apples, and although they exposed to view 125 surface yards, I failed to find a single specimen showing any signs of decay. To manage a fruit cellar successfully requires skill, judgment, and a constant supervision. The light should be admitted sparingly, the air kept pure, and the temperature low and uniform.” Mr. Brown, of Lunenberg, remarked, in the discussion upon this lecture, that he had not yet succeeded in keeping apples in large quantities all the year round, but that he could keep them up to June or July.J The apples are put upon wooden shelves in some cases, though many prefer to pack them in the barrels as they are picked, and to store them in these until they are wanted. Re-packing lor market is well done. Choice dessert-apples are wrapped singly in coloured tissue-paper, and the bottoms, sides, and tops of the barrels are also lined with tissue-paper. Apples of ordinary quality are packed in buckwheat chaff, and care is taken to take out the culls and any fruit that is unsound or specky. The following description of the selection and packing * ‘ Report of the Ontario Agricultural Commission of 1SS0.’ t A barrel contains 3 bushels. t ‘ Report of the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture for 1881 VOL. XIX. — S. S. 2 C 378 The Progress of Fruit Farming. of this fruit will, it is thought, give many valuable hints to English growers : — “ If apples are to be packed in the orchard,” says one of the witnesses before the Ontario Com- mission, “ a tent should be put up to shade the fruit from the sun, with a table under it ; nail strips of wood round it, to keep the fruit from rolling off. Cover it with woollen cloth, so that the pickers may empty their baskets without injuring the fruit ; let the packers select the fruit, rejecting every apple that is under size, spotted, or wormy, or deformed in any way. Don’t be tempted to put medium and large-sized apples in the same barrel. Pick the apples carefully, lay them down, don’t throw them the whole length of the arm into the basket so that they will rattle against each other, empty them gently upon the table for selection.” * The reason why Canadian and American apples make such high rates is, that they, as a rule, come to market in admirable order and in regular succession, and they frequently arrive when the supply of English apples is exhausted. It is a very weak point in the English system that the fruit-growers, and especially the large fruit-growers, do not pay sufficient attention to the storing, pack- ing, and selecting fruit for market. Indeed, many of the large growers do not store it at all, their great object being to get rid of it as quickly as possible. This entails an enormous waste in the case of apples and pears, because they are bought by persons, in most instances, who have neither capital nor any means of storing. The apples are roughly handled by the labourers while full of juice, and while their skins are tender; no pains are taken in sorting. They are roughly packed and banged about, while yet unripe, in frequently shunted luggage trains, so that they positively are unfit for keeping, and therefore they must be sold for speedy consumption, or for jam-making. Thus much fine dessert-fruit is sacrificed. It is absurd to say that English fruit will not keep as well as that of America and Canada if it is properly treated. It is equally absurd to say that England cannot produce as good apples as these countries, and that their fruit is deliberately preferred. English fruit-growers should not fold their hands and allow Transatlantic energy and perse- verance to take quiet possession of the trade. A few changes only are necessary. Certain improvements in the system should be made, to effect which we might well take a leaf out of the book of our American cousins. These remarks apply not only to apples, but also to soft fruits. If it is desired to retain the present market for these, and to extend their production, as it might be extended far beyond its present ‘ Report of the Ontario Agricultural Commission of 1880,’ p. 54. The Progress of Fruit Farming. 379 limits, something like the American plan must be adopted, either of having central preserving factories for canning, drying, and preserving the fruit in various ways, and for boiling down pulp without sugar, and keeping it until there is a demand, and for making jam ; or that the growers themselves should have these appliances, or combine to establish them in con- venient centres. England has a vast advantage over other countries in the preserving of fruit with sugar, and in the manufacture of jam — that is, fruit boiled down or steamed down with sugar — on account of the cheapness of sugar, caused by the action of free trade. In the United States the price of sugar is from 6rf. to 8rf. per lb. In France the price ranges from 5 d. to fir/. per lb., and in Germany, Holland, and Belgium, it is relatively dear. Partially preserved fruits come from all these countries. They are not preserved in sugar, but are merely dried by the sun or by artificial processes. It is necessary to apply sugar to the great bulk of the preserved fruit that is sent from America, before it is cooked or eaten. English growers have also this advantage over foreign growers, in being able to send their fruit comparatively fresh to the jam-manufacturers. It is most essential to the production of really good jam that the fruit should be in a good state, not sweated, nor bruised in long transits. English fruit, fresh, whole, and ripe, is therefore vastly preferred by the makers of the best jams to Continental fruit which has been heated, and has lost all its freshness before it reaches the coppers ; and it is believed that jams, warranted to be made from English fruit in the heart of fruit-producing districts, would be taken by the public in preference to all others. Considering these advantages, the manufacture of jam could be largely extended in this country if fruit-growers would produce plenty of fruit, and join together to put up suitable buildings for converting it into pulp or jam. Lord Sudeley, who has lately planted fruit-trees most extensively upon his estate in Gloucestershire, has, with much foresight, turned some farm- buildings into a convenient place for manufacturing jam and preserving fruits upon a large scale, or for pulping them, or for packing them in a fresh state for market, so long as the market prices are profitable. Now if it pay, as it assuredly will pay, to have a jam and pulp factory upon 500 acres of fruit-land upon Lord Sudeley ’s estate, it would certainly be more profitable and advantageous to all concerned to establish factories upon a larger scale in neighbourhoods where there are thousands of acres of fruit-land, as, for example, in or near Maidstone, and in or near Sittingbourne, and in or near Farningham, the respective centres of the fruit-growing industries of Mid, East, and West Kent. Attempts were made to start a jam- 2 C 2 380 The Progress of Fruit Farming. making company in Maidstone last year ; but it failed, as the fruit-growers and landowners did not evince the slightest interest in the undertaking. In Lord Sudeley’s case, a barn and other buildings have been turned into a factory at a comparatively small cost. This has been let to Mr. Beach, the well-known manufacturer of pure jam, for ten years, who has arranged to take all the fruit grown on 500 acres at fixed rates, and will either steam it down, or pulp it, or sell it fresh, as he may deem expedient. This factory is now in working order, and was inaugurated this summer by a capital crop of strawberries, estimated at 10 tons. About 100 tons of fruit will be grown on the estate this year, which is a capital quantity, considering that no fruit-trees were planted until the autumn of 1880. The expense of the carriage of fruit in this case is saved, also the commission of salesmen, which are most important items in seasons of large crops, and, when fruit is cheap, amount to from \d. to ^ d . per lb., and even more where the market is distant. In these jam-factories, other modes of preserving fruit might be adopted besides that of making jam, such as that of bleaching and drying apples, which holds in the United States and Canada. “ A fruit-drying establishment,” says a witness before the Ontario Commissioners, “ has been recently started in St. Catherines, with a capacity to dry 150 bushels of apples a day. The apparatus used consists of an upright frame or box built over a furnace, and on each side there is a belting like a straw carrier. As the fruit rises on the slabs, it is subjected to the hot air of the furnace. The temperature required is from 160° to 170°. The fruit comes out all dried, and is packed in 501b. boxes.* Without any doubt the insufficient means for the distribution of fruit tend to lower prices, and to prevent a more general increase of the acreage of fruit-land. Gluts occur from time to time in some of the large fruit markets, entailing considerable losses upon producers. This is not by any means an indication that there is too much fruit-land in the country, but that the system of selling it is wrong. As it has been pointed out in a former article in this ‘ Journal,’ f it may happen that at Covent Garden fruit may be dirt-cheap, while at St. John’s Wood the usual high figures are ruling. This is the direct result of the fashion of consigning fruits of all kinds as fast as they ripen to a few central markets ; a most extravagant fashion, and ad- vantageous neither to the producers nor to the consumers. It is believed that the fruit-trade is conducted upon as unsound principle as the fish-trade, whose rottenness has been recently * ‘ .Report of the Ontario Agricultural Commission, 18S0.’ t “ Fruit Growing in Rent.” I5y Charles Whitehead, vol. xiii. 2nd Series, R.A.S.E. Journal. The Progress of Fruit Farming. 381 •exposed. The difference between the prices paid to the pro- ducers and those paid by the consumer is unreasonably great. A direct supply to the consumers or to retail shops is urgently wanted. This would not be difficult with respect to the finer fruits and hard fruits. It is now done to some extent in Kent, and to a considerable extent in Worcestershire. Many of the fruit-growers in the famous Evesham district advertise their fine plums in the ‘Times’ and other papers. It is very frequently a great boon to numbers of housekeepers to know where to get good fruit both for eating and preserving, and especially when it is offered at a fair price. Some of the Co-operative Supply Associations afford admirable media for the distribution of fruit, and contract with the growers to furnish them with fruits in due season. The Parcels Post offers . admirable advantages for the distribution of fruits, and will enable those who prefer their fruit fresh to have it direct from the growers day by day.* Contracts for this purpose will be made with growers ; and while the charges of commission agents and of retailers will be avoided, the fruit will arrive comparatively fresh, not having been exposed in markets and shops, and not having been picked over by various hands more or less dirty. Convenient packages, either baskets or boxes, for juicy fruits and for harder kinds will be necessary. These will probably soon be forthcoming, and it is fully expected that a very large trade will be carried on, if the growers promptly seize the opportunity. In the case of apples and pears it is most imperatively neces- sary that the growers should change their practice, and store the best eating and cooking apples as the Americans and the Canadians store them, and supply the markets as they ripen. If they wish to compete successfully with foreign producers, this must be done. Inferior apples, which are not wanted for cider, or for which there is no demand for mixing up with other fruits for jam, should be dried after the American plan, either in thin slices called “ chips ,” or “ sliced fruit,” or as “ cored quarters,” or “ uncored quarters.” In the counties where cider and perry are made, apples and pears of all kinds can be utilised when there is a glut in the market ; though this has not happened for some years. The demand for well-made cider and perry has perhaps decreased locally in a degree, owing to the labourers being better able to afford to buy beer, and the preference for it among them ; but the general demand has increased at least 50 per cent. Considerable quantities are sent * The low rates now charged by the Railway Companies for small parcels, by reason of the competition of the Post Office, will also much expedite the distri- bution of fruit. 382 The Progress of Fruit Farming. to Ireland to be distilled into whiskey. “ Champagne cider/' a sparkling well-made cider of wine-like quality and appearance, is largely and profitably manufactured in parts of Devonshire, and meets with a ready sale. Much improvement is required in the making of cider, even in the reputed cider districts, and in turning it to the best account. A good deal of cider is made in America ; and vinegar, which is said to be scarcely inferior to the best white-wine vinegar, is extensively produced from it in America and Canada. A better kind of cider is also made in New Jersey, and is sent to New York to be turned into cham- pagne. The area of land in England which yields fruit fitted for making really good cider is limited, being confined to certain strong loamy and loamy clay soils of the Old Red Sandstone formation, in parts of Devonshire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire, and Somersetshire. Cider is made in other counties, as Dorset- shire, Gloucestershire, Hampshire, Kent, and Shropshire ; but it is of indifferent quality, and the amount made is gradually de- creasing, as beer is preferred. It is quite a mistake to suppose that good cider can be made in any district where apples grow plentifully, and that the same kinds of fruit will make equally good cider wherever they can be grown. The Fox whelp, Skyrmes’ Kernel, Cockagee, Styre, Redstreak, Thousand Pound, Duffling, and other apples famous in Herefordshire and Somerset- shire for their cider-making qualities, would not make much better cider in Kent or Dorsetshire than the ordinary native sorts. Nor is it the fault of the manufacture that the Dorsetshire, Hampshire, and Kentish cider is comparatively thin and tart. It is because the soil is not suitable for the production of fine cider-fruit. As the finest Golding hops can only be produced upon certain soils confined to few districts, so apples and pears suitable for the finest cider and perry can only be grown in peculiar places. In these the growers have practically a monopoly, and might, it is believed, make more of this than they do at present, and improve the product by adopting better processes of manufacture. Good bottled-cider is dearer than the finest bottled-beer and stout. Perry is still dearer, and some- times it is impossible to get it good. In Devonshire the pro- portion of cider-fruit to dessert-l'ruit is about 90 percent. Com- petent authorities state that the cultivation of the Devonshire orchards remains just as it was a century ago. The trees are so close together that the grass under them is almost worthless, and they are in far too many cases unpruned, moss-covered and decaying. Some growers have recently planted or filled up orchards with new sorts of sour apples, which, blossoming late, are more likely to escape the May frosts. They are probably also induced to do this in consequence of the demand for common The Progress of Fruit Farming. 383 apples for jam and preserve-making, and the saving of trouble and risk which cider-making entails, as the fruit is sold by the ton on the trees to the agents of the jam-makers. New sweet sorts, of a late habit, have also been planted for cider, to avoid the action of spring frosts. In Somersetshire there have been rather more movement in the introduction of new sorts, and considerable additions to the acreage, in which the trees have been judiciously selected, more carefully planted, and not put so closely together. In Worcestershire fruit-bushes have been extensively planted, either alone, or with plums, damsons, and apples over them. Plum and damson-trees have been preferred generally to apples, as coming to bear more quickly. The sorts chiefly planted are the Pershore, Egg, Victoria, Early Prolific, with goose- berries and black currants under them. The extension of the fruit acreage has been larger in Herefordshire in the last ten years than in any other county, and mainly consists of grass-land planted with apple and pear-trees of approved sorts for cider- making and dessert purposes. Heading old trees has been carried out here and there, and grafting with new quick- bearing kinds. One enterprising landowner planted several acres with Lord Suffield apple-trees, an early cooking apple, much grown in Kent, and considered as good as the Keswick Codlin by many persons ; but finding they did not do so well as he wished, he headed them and grafted them with the Ecklinville Seedling, a cooking apple of vigorous growth and a free bearer, whose fruit ripens by the end of August, at a time when there is no foreign competition. These trees, grafted in 1881 with grafts not so thick as a pencil, have fruit upon all of them this season. This apple is not yet generally known ; when it is, it will without doubt be largely planted.* There are in this county, and in the western part of Worcestershire, many orchards in a wretched condition, just as in Devonshire and Somersetshire, with closely interlaced trees spoiling the grass beneath and bearing fruit only in their upper branches. It is not satisfactory to note that so much of the finest fruit-land in the kingdom, situated in these cider-making counties, is in a sadly neglected state, and not producing a tithe of what it should and would if it were properly cared for.f However, there are signs that this * Another fine apple of brilliant colour, and a good bearer, — the Worcester Peannain — is being largely grown in many fruit-growing districts. This apple is ripe in September. The trees are hardy and good bearers, and do well as bushes. t In a much-quoted article in ‘ Macmillan’s Magazine’ for August, 1879, this passage occurs. “ Is it not piteous to see in some of our counties the large old trees, picturesque certainly at all times, and gloriously beautiful when laden with their blossom, dying away for want of proper manuring and pruning, and pro- ducing in the best season only small and inferior fruit ? ” 384 The Progress of Fruit Farming. is being altered. A few landowners and tenants are setting an example which, it is hoped, may be generally followed. Here and there, also, fruit-bushes have been planted, chiefly goose- berries and black currants, which thrive remarkably well in the better soils of this county. The recent plantations of fruit in Gloucester principally consist of plum and damson-trees, with black currants and gooseberry-bushes planted under them. In Kent, also, plum and damson-trees of the Crittenden sort have been extensively planted with gooseberry and red-currant-bushes upon the lighter soils, and black-currant-bushes upon those more heavy and clayey. A good deal of land has been planted with black currants in the Weald of Kent. Cherry orchards have been extended in East Kent, and apple-trees have been put in in various parts of the county. The cultivation of raspberries has largely increased, especially in the Sevenoaks and Farningham district, and in that near London, where strawberries are also abundantly grown. Near Southampton large additions have been made to the strawberry plantations, and the cultivation of this fruit is increasing in Cheshire, Cornwall, and Scotland, and in other districts remote from towns. The facilities of railway transport render it possible to supply customers at long distances with fresh fruit packed, in boxes containing punnets. In a most interesting and instructive work recently published in America, entitled ‘ Truck Farming at the South,’* it is stated that in Norfolk, Virginia, the largest strawberry farm in the world is located, one cultivator having 250 acres planted with this fruit. Shipments are made to New York and other Northern towns, and high prices are made, as the fruit comes early. A favourite way of planting fruit on the heavier Kentish soils is to put apple and damson-trees alternately with hops, the trees being 18 feet apart in the rows, and the rows 24 feet apart. After fourteen or fifteen years the hops are grubbed, and the land is laid down to permanent pasture. This is a good method on land where hops will not do well for more than for fifteen to twenty years, as in parts of the Weald of Kent, Herefordshire, Sussex, and Worcestershire. In some cases bush trees, or dwarf trees of apples, pears, plums, damson, and cherries have been planted, and the practice is gradually extending. It is being adopted by fruit-growers near London, and generally in gardens where vegetables are grown, and to some extent by lruit-farmers. These, as well as pyramids, take up but little space, come into bearing directly, and grow fine fruit. As a * ‘ Truck Farming at the South. A Guide to the raising of Vegetables for Northern Markets.’ By Ur. Oeniler. New York, 1883. The Progress of Fruit Farming. 385 description of these trees and of their advantages was given in a late number of this ‘Journal,’* it will not be necessary to allude to them further here. Seeing that planting land with fruit-trees improves its value in an important degree, and for a long period, it is strange that landowners have not largely embraced so good an opportunity of increasing the value of their estates. It is exceptional to find any one who has done this upon a large scale. Lord Sudeley, to whom reference has previously been made, is the only landowner who has taken up the question in a thorough and business-like manner. He has already planted 500 acres, and is intending to plant 200 acres more at once. The land is a fairly free-working, moderately good soil on the Lias formation. It was deeply steam-ploughed and well manured, and standard trees of apples, pears, cherries, plums, and damsons were put in 16 feet apart: 3000 apple-trees were planted of the best sorts, including Lord Suffield, Keswick Codlin, Grenadier, Cox’s Orange Pippin, Cellini, Warner’s King : 812 pear-trees have already been put in — -Beurre de Capiaumont, Easter Beurre, Louise Bonne, Jargonelle, Beurre d’Amanlis, Doyenne d’ Ete, and other choice varieties. There are 32,000 plum-trees of 44 different kinds, such as Diamond, Pond’s Seedling, Early Orleans, Greengage, Victoria, Autumn Compote. Of damson-trees, there are 0000, nearly half of which are the sort known as Crittenden’s, so largely grown in Kent, and the remainder are the Shropshire Prune, Cheshire, Common Prune, and Black. Only 522 cherry-trees have been hitherto put in, as Lord Sudeley is not quite certain as to whether they will flourish at Toddington. These are of the best kinds, such as the late and early Bigarreau, Black Heart, Kentish, and Flemish, and at present are looking very well. Gooseberry or currant-bushes, and strawberry-plants, are set between the standards, and in some cases raspberry-canes are put between the gooseberry and currant-bushes. There are over 50 acres of black currants, raspberries, and strawberries, by themselves, without standards. There are 100 acres of straw- berry-plants in all, and 60 acres of raspberry-canes. Some of the apple-trees are pyramids, which do very well. Lord Sudeley has not yet planted bush-trees in any large quantity, but he intends to plant 80 acres of plums in this way, by which the expenses of staking are avoided, and injury from wind, and these trees come into bearing more quickly than standards. The strawberries are the kinds known as the Stirling Castle and the American Scarlet, brought from Isleworth, where they * ‘ Hints on Vegetable and Fruit Culture.” By Charles Whitehead. Vol.xviii. 2nd Series. 386 The Progress of Fruit Farming. are highly esteemed for preserving. Gooseberry-bushes number 130,000, and consist of no less than 45 varieties. Those, how- ever, which have been planted for the main crop are the War- rington, Lancashire Lad, Lancashire Prize, Crown Bob, and Whitesmith. No less than 228,000 black-currant-bushes have been put in of the leading kinds, such as Lee’s Prolific, Bald- win’s Black, Black Naples, and Prince of Wales. Black currants appear to thrive well in the soil and climate of Toddington, and bid fair to be fertile sources of profit, for no fruit is in greater demand, or gives a better return, when the bushes are planted on suitable land and properly managed. The raspberries are chiefly Carter’s Falstaff ; and the red currants the Raby Castle and Scotch Red. Those who know anything about fruit-growing will say that nothing could be more judicious than the selection of the sorts of the various fruits ; and those who have seen the manner in which the plantation has been formed, the cultivation, the Jam Factory — which has been described above, making the grower independent of markets — and the general arrangements, hold that nothing could have been better conceived and carried out. It is unique. There is nothing like it in this country in point of extent and order. There may possibly be larger fruit farms in America, but none like it, as it were, in a ring fence, and with such a varied assortment of fruits. Belts of poplars, Scotch firs, and other quick-growing trees have been placed round the plantation to shelter it from the prevailing winds. Beds of osiers have been formed on the banks of the little stream Isbourne, which have taken so well that all the baskets required for the fruit are now made on the estate. Ten acres more are to be planted at once with osiers. A nursery for raising trees and bushes has been formed in a convenient and well-sheltered spot, where standards, pyramids, bush-trees of all sorts and sizes are seen, well-grown, well-trained, and worked upon the most ap- proved stocks, as well as all descriptions of fruit-bushes. This is most economical in the first cost of the trees, and prevents possible loss and disappointment through getting trees that are not true to name, or that have been badly worked and trained, and starved on poor land, or land exhausted by continuous cropping. It is a great mistake to think that it is better to have young fruit-trees and bushes from poor soils. Like all young things under the sun, they require generous nurture, or they become stunted and prone to canker and premature decay. The owner of this plantation got his fruit-trees from the very best sources and paid full prices, and is rewarded by having a perfectly vigorous and healthy lot of trees and bushes ; so much so, that at this time, among the 40,000 plum and damson-trees, there are not five in a thousand that have gone wrong. The selection of The Progress of Fruit Farming. 387 fruit-trees is a most important factor in the success of fruit- plantations. Many who have been inspired with the laudable intention of planting fruit have been estopped with grief, because they had not courage enough in the first place to give high prices for the best sorts of trees, strong and healthy ; nor in the second place to carry out the planting thoroughly well. To succeed in this, as in most other agricultural ventures, not a little capital and no end of judgment are essential. It makes one gnash the teeth to note the manner in which some set about fruit-growing, who buy whatever trees come to their hands most easily, and above all, most cheaply, and stick them in a pasture, putting a few thorns round them to keep animals off. Probably no stakes are provided, and on passing by two years after, it is found that the trees are barked and bitten, that they are twisted and bent in every way, and the would-be fruit- grower declares in disgust that he has had enough of this game. Or another sets the trees on arable land in pretty much the same fashion, and goes on ploughing and harrowing and sowing almost as if they were not there, and wonders that they have become in two years or so, cankered, distorted, stunted objects. A third plants standards on ordinary arable land, and puts bush- l'ruits beneath them as thickly as he can, and crops the inter- stices with mangolds, potatoes, cabbages, until the trees bear, without manure, or without extra manure, wholly ignoring the fact that the fruit-trees require every atom of fertility that the soil and the heavens above can supply. Naturally the results of these experiments prevent the extension of fruit-growing in the neighbouring districts. On the other hand, the Toddington plantation is a standing example of success, and should serve to encourage waverers and those disheartened. It will be gathered from the foregoing pages that rather more attention is now being paid in this country to fruit-growing, and that some progress has been made during the past few years both as regards planting fresh land and, in a degree also, the improvement of existing orchards and fruit-plantations. That this recent increase in the plantations is utterly inadequate and insufficient goes without saying ; while the amount of improve- ment to the existing orchard and fruit-plantations must appear ridiculously small to those who know the state in which thousands of acres are still allowed to remain with the trees unpruned, covered with moss and lichens, and the ground unmanured. It is high time that this state of things were changed, and that fruit-growing were seriously adopted by British agriculturists. ( 388 ) XVIII. — On River Conservancy, and the Cause and Prevention of Floods. By W. H. Wheeler, Mem. Inst. C.E., Boston, Lincolnshire. The frequent floods of the last few years have called prominent attention to the conservancy of the rivers of this country. There is scarcely a river valley in England which has not suffered, and that is not subject to inundations. The consequence of any prolonged downfall of rain is the submergence of hundreds of square miles of the richest land in this country, and the number and frequency of these floods prove them to be an evil which demands a remedy. Those whose occupations have caused them to travel throughout the length and breadth of England must frequently have observed, when passing through the river valleys and low-lying districts, the whole country, as far as the eye could see, resembling an inland sea, — the hedges often entirely submerged, houses and farm-buildings standing like islands in the midst of the watery plain ; all communication by road stopped, and the trains frequently with difficulty continuing their way through water reaching nearly up to the carriage floors. The ordinary sluggish current of the river has become a rapid stream, bearing on its surface cocks of hay or sheaves of corn, and occasionally the bodies of dead animals, which had been swept away before they could be rescued from the fields. This picture is not an isolated one, but such occurrences have been frequent and widespread. The damage has in many cases been most disastrous, not only from the immediate loss of crops, but from the injury done to the land by soddening it and rendering it difficult to work in the winter season, and thus disturbing the ordinary course of cropping ; also by washing out the manure and destroying the condition of the land. In summer the grass-land is rendered useless by the deposit of earthy matter left on the herbage, and the poached condition of the land makes it unfit for the stock ; even in winter, when floods, if not of too long continuance, may do good to grass-land, in some cases, by their long duration, and in others by the deposit of ferruginous and siliceous matter con- tained in suspension, they have been most detrimental to the pastures. By frequent and long continuous flooding, the quality of the pasture becomes deteriorated, the fine grasses dying oft’, and being succeeded by coarse and non-nutritious herbage. These losses cannot be regarded as affecting only the persons more immediately concerned, but become a matter of national concern, and tell seriously on the food-producing resources ol the country and the national wealth. On River Conservancy, Sfc., and Prevention of Floods. 389 To give any estimate of the actual loss incurred would be impossible, but an idea of its magnitude may be gathered from examples where the amount has been to some extent ascertained. Mr. Brundell, in his evidence before the Committee of the House of Lords, stated that the estimated damage of a flood which occurred in Yorkshire, in July 1872, to one district situated on the River Don, amounted to 70,000/. ; and that, in other districts on the same river, it could not be put at less than hundreds of thousands of pounds.. Mr. Tarbotton stated that, by the flood in the Trent, which occurred in July 1875, thousands of acres of crops were destroyed, a large number of cattle endangered, and immense damage done by the houses and factories of the lower part of Nottingham being flooded. The damage was so great that he found it impossible to place a money value on it. These floods on the Trent are frequent, and the towns of Leicester and Burton-on-Trent are also subject to inundations from the same river. Isolated attempts at self-protection in these places has only rendered the flooding at other points worse. In the basin of the Aire and Calder, by a flood in October 1866, the whole river-valley was inundated, several people and cattle were drowned, crops were destroyed, and some portions of the towns of Leeds, W akefield, Huddersfield, Barnsley, and Dewsbury flooded to a depth of from six to eight feet, the estimated damage amounting to nearly a million of money. In the West of England the floods in Somersetshire on the Parrott are notorious. On the W ye and the Lug, in Hereford- shire, Mr. Lloyd stated to the Committee that the roads were sometimes blocked up by the water for nine weeks together : that for miles the basin of the valley is nothing but a sea of water, the area of land thus affected not being less than 8000 acres. In July 1875, a summer flood washed all the hav- crops away from the meadows lying along the river, besides other various damage. In the East of England, along the four rivers emptying into the Wash, the flooding is frequent and constant. A short con- tinuance of rain places the wrho!e valley of the Ouse from Bedford to Earith under water, the floods rising above the top of the hedges, and stopping all communication by road. In the Nene the same flooding occurs from Northampton to Peterborough. On the Welland scarcely a season passes without most disastrous inundations. In 1880, no less than four floods occurred, namely, in July, September, and October. The whole of the hay-crops were floated away from the meadows along the river ; several villages were flooded, the water rising in the streets to a depth of from three to four feet, and inundating the houses ; the 390 On River Conservancy, traffic on the main line of the Great Northern Railway was stopped, and the lower part of the town of Stamford flooded several feet deep. The flood in September was nearly as disastrous, the sheaves of corn floating about in the fields, and the stackyards being flooded sufficiently deep to seriously injure the ricks. In October the river was again unable to contend with the water poured into it ; thousands of acres were flooded, the water standing up to the bands of the sheaves. It was im- possible to harvest the corn, which was left to rot in the fields ; and even after the flood subsided, the lands were so saturated that they could not be ploughed for the autumn wheat-sowing. On the Witliam, in the same year, a very large area of land was covered with water at harvest time ; river banks were broken, part of the city of Lincoln inundated, and the works of some of the large agricultural implement works brought to a standstill. On the same river, in 1877, many thousands of acres were submerged, crops destroyed, tenants ruined, and a loss incurred estimated at 100,000Z. Hundreds of houses in Lincoln were then submerged, and the comfort and health of the inhabitants were sacrificed. Similar instances in other parts of the country could be mul- tiplied to an extent which would render the account appalling ; sufficient have, however, been given to afford some general idea of the enormous loss to the country which is continually occurring from the want of a proper system of management and control over the rivers. These floods are not mere passing evils due to abnormal causes, but are constantly recurring, and are succeeded bv droughts, when the want of water is almost as greatly felt as its excess. Owing to their magnitude, and the causes from which they arise, these floods cannot be grappled with by private enterprise, and can only be adequately dealt with by some com- prehensive Imperial enactment. If it had been practicable to regulate the rivers and prevent flooding, by any combination of the landowners whose estates have suffered, there is no doubt this would have been done long ago. The extensive works that have been carried out for the reclamation of waste lands, and more especially in the drainage of the Great Level of the Fens, where upwards of two millions of money have already been expended in embanking, straightening, and deepening the rivers, and controlling the discharge of the water, show what can be accomplished when the circumstances will allow of improvements being effected. It is neither money nor energy that is required, but a strong enactment fixing the liability of maintenance on a representative governing body, laying down certain fixed principles as to taxation, and giving and the Cause and Prevention of Floods. 391 the conservators power of dealing with rights and privileges which have been allowed to spring up to the public disadvantage. The enormous cost of obtaining Acts of Parliament for the improvement of only portions of a river stand forth as a bar to improvement, except in the most extreme cases. These costs must in the preliminary stage be guaranteed by the landowners, in case of failure to obtain an Act giving the necessary power of taxation, a risk not lightly to be incurred, considering the immense number of interests on every river, and the spirit of opposition on the part of any body of Commissioners when there is the chance of privileges being interfered with. It has been stated that the contests over the jurisdiction of the lower section of one of the second-class rivers on which improvements have recently been carried out have cost 100,000/. during the last fifty years ; and that the cost of obtaining Parliamentary powers for the improvement of the outfall of another river draining a large section of the Midland district has amounted to 150,000/. during a like period. On the Don it cost 7000/. to obtain an Act to improve only twelve miles of the river, 3000/. being spent by the opposition, or about one-third of the total cost of the works. An unopposed Act costs nearly 1000/., and the smallest opposition, if carried on only in one House, trebles or quadruples this amount. It frequently happens that the different sections of a river are under separate jurisdictions ; perhaps with intervening sections with no jurisdiction. Some portions may have been canalised, others subject to the rights of millers. The channel may belong to one set of commissioners, the banks to a different set, or even divided in short lengths, with a liability to maintain and repair devolving on the riparian proprietors, and mea- sured by yards. Take, for example, the river Aire from Skipton to Keighley, the Aire-dale Drainage Commissioners control the channel, then follows an intervening space with no control beyond that of the individual wills of the riparian pro- prietors through whose land the river passes ; from Leeds a Navigation Company has possession, and from the end of their jurisdiction to the outfall into the Ouse there is again no con- trolling power. The consequence is that the improvements made and maintained in the upper portion, and the requirements of the navigation of the middle portion, subject the intervening country to constant floods. On the Nene, over a distance of thirty miles from Peterborough to the sea, there are at the present time no less than fourteen different bodies having control over either the banks or the channels. On the river Witham, between Grantham and the sea, there are seventeen sets of trustees or commissioners who claim jurisdiction over some part 392 On River Conservancy , of the stream, and exclusive of the commissioners having control over the interior drainage areas. Mr. Tarbotton, in his evidence before the Committee of the House of Lords, drew attention very forcibly to this difficulty of dealing with rivers under present circumstances, and stated that, although the Corporation of Nottingham had spent a considerable amount of money in improving their section of the Trent, the town was still liable to floods, from the condition of the river outside their boundaries. The same is the case at Leicester with the Soar. Here is an evil of a very grave character that demands a remedy. There is not wanting a precedent for the action now required to be taken up by the Legislature. The highways of the country were at one time in a most wretched condition. There was, as in the case of rivers, the liability ratione tenurte of adjoining proprietors to maintain roads running past their property, and of parishes to have certain statute duty done, and of pro- prietary roads, similar to canals, but there was no generally organised and compulsory system of maintenance. As the popu- lation increased, a better and more extended system of loco- motion became necessary, and the wretched condition of the highways could no longer be tolerated. Attempts were first made to provide a remedy by statute duty, and direct lines of communication were opened out by the enterprise of private individuals combined together in the form of trusts. In the reign of William the Fourth this anomalous condition of affairs was at last remedied. A general highway Act was passed, pre- vious statutes were amended, and the law relating to highways placed on a satisfactory basis. The responsibility of their maintenance was clearly defined, and a remedy in case of default provided ; the money required for the purpose of repairs was raised by a regular system of taxation, spread over all lands and buildings whether directly benefited or not. As the roads are the great highways for traffic and locomotion, so are rivers the great highways for passing the rainfall from the land on which it falls to its ultimate destination, the sea ; and, as no land is exempt from rainfall, it is contended that there can be no injustice in making all pay its fair share towards main- taining the channels in efficient condition. With increase of population the circumstances of the country- have altered, and greater efficiency is demanded in the manage- ment of every branch of social economy, involving the imposition of burdens which in a more tolerant age were not required. The organization of a system of rural police, greater attention to the preservation of health, and the compulsory education of the rising and the Cause and Prevention of Floods. 393 population, have added new duties and fresh taxation on the country. Higher cultivation of the land demands more protection from floods and droughts, and , the cost of providing more efficient waterways has become a necessity. Although rivers may at times occasion disastrous havoc, yet on the whole they are productive of universal benefit. In a variety of ways they promote every interest of civilized life, but especially that of agriculture ; they provide a constant supply of one of the first necessaries of existence, both of animal and plant life ; a cheap means of moving heavy produce ; an eco- nomical power for working mills and other machinery ; and they yield in the fish which inhabits them a wholesome and useful supply of food. Cause of Floods. In dealing with the question of improved river conservancy, it is necessary to consider whether floods are more frequent and more serious in their character than they used to be, or whether those of the last few years are due to an excessive fall of rain, which, being abnormal in character, is only temporary, and therefore does not demand any permanent remedy. Although there was some slight division of opinion on the part of the witnesses who appeared before the Committee of the House of Lords on River Conservancy as to the cause of floods, the testi- mony was unanimous that they were both more frequent and more disastrous in their character than formerly ; and that although in some cases the floods did not last so long, yet the water rose to a much greater height during the time they lasted than was formerly the case. There is also to be taken into consideration the fact, that owing to the much higher system of cultivation which is now pursued, land is much more seriously damaged than it would have been under other circumstances ; and as the loss is so much heavier, the greater is the necessity for improved drainage and the prevention of floods. A higher system of cultivation also demands that all stiff lands shall be thoroughly drained with tiles. This means that the ditches and smaller arterial drains shall be kept well scoured out, so that the tiles may have a free discharge ; the brooks and larger arterial drains must be improved and kept in order, so that the water from the ditches may have free escape ; and thus it happens that over the whole cultivated portion of a watershed, the great object is to void the excess of rainfall as rapidly as possible, and prevent its standing in hollow places or choking the pores of the earth. The consequence is that the rivers receive a much larger quantity of water in a less space of time than that for which they were VOL. XIX. — S. S. 2d 394 On River Conservancy, originally adapted ; and being unable to hold the water sent to them within their banks, it overflows the lower lands. This effect is enhanced by the improvements which are made by riparian proprietors to protect their land from flooding, by embanking, diminishing the flood-area in their own locality, and driving the water on to the low lands of their neighbours. Again, the increase of population and the demand for land have caused the reclamation of large tracts which were once commons and peat mosses. These were formerly in an undrained state with many low parts ; and while dry in summer, became, after heavy rain, reservoirs to hold the rainfall and regulate the supply to the rivers. The stubbing of woodlands has had the same effect, as the soil in which trees grow absorbs and retains an immense amount of water. The question whether tile-drainage has added to the in- crease of floods, is one that has caused a division of opinion ; it being maintained by some that, by drying the land, it makes it more porous and absorbent, and, like a dry sponge, ready to receive and hold the rain. If, however, under-drainage does not void the water off the land more quickly, of what use is it ? Taking two arable fields situated side by side, one drained by tiles and the other undrained, except by top grips, — in a wet season, from the former, after a heavy rain the water will, in a very short time, begin to run out of the pipes into the ditches in a continuous stream ; whereas, from the undrained land, no visible discharge will take place. On the former land, work could be resumed in a very short time ; whereas, on the latter, if clay, it would be several days before the land would be workable, and only when by the evaporation caused by the sun and wind, or by slow and imperceptible percolation into the subsoil, the water due to the rain had passed away. The argument that pipe- drained and steam-cultivated land, by being rendered more porous, and consequently more absorbent, is calculated to hold more water, is good so far as it relates to the result in dry weather. However, floods do not generally occur under these circumstances, but only after a continuance of rain, when absorbent lands have become saturated and the natural level of the water in the ground has been raised to the level of the under-drains ; after this has taken place the whole of the surplus rainfall must be discharged more rapidly, from the facilities afforded by a perfect system of drainage. On land undrained, and with the subsoil not broken up by cultivation, the rain lodges on the surface and in the furrows, and slowly finds its way by percolation through the pores of the earth to ditches choked with weeds, and so arrives at the river by degrees long after the water from the drained land has passed and the Cause and Prevention of Floods. 395 away. In an undrained field the water may be seen standing on the surface and in the furrows and hollow places for weeks ; whereas, in an adjoining field, properly drained and cultivated, not a drop of water will be seen, the whole of it having been passed away through the pipes. The rainfall being thus discharged more rapidly into the rivers, the question requires consideration as to Avhether the rivers are in a better or worse condition to receive it than formerly. To this there can be only one answer — that in the majority of cases they are worse. The mere fact of the floods bringing down the bulk of the rain-water rapidly, and leaving little to maintain a steady and continuous stream during the rest of the year, is detrimental to the condition of the channel. The growth of weeds is encouraged ; and the absence of a sufficiently strong current allows of the deposit of alluvial matters washed into the stream, which would otherwise be carried away to the estuary. The condition of the River Ouse, the receptacle for the drainage-water from 700,000 acres of land, may be quoted as an illustration of our rivers generally, it being described by Mr. Coote as gradually growing up without any effort to check the evil, or any authority with power to do so. The navigation has been nearly destroyed by the railways, and the owners of water-mills do what is right in their own eyes, restrained only by the common-law rights of their neighbours above and below. To which may be added from the Report of Mr. Abernethey on this river, “ the obstructions to the free passage of the water arising from want of attention to the conservation of the river-channel increase year by year, and also as a consequence the area of low lands liable to inun- dation ; and, unless this evil be vigorously dealt with, the river channel will be gradually filled up by silt and weeds, and the whole valley of the Ouse subject to the passage of flood-water without control.” A further illustration may be taken from another correspondent of the ‘ Times,’ who, writing on the same subject, says, “ the condition of some of the smaller rivers is deplorable. Their channels are generally an alternation of weed-choked swamps, and nearly impassable rapids, with here and there a rare oasis of deep steady stream, the conse- quence of the needs of some mill-owner.” Abandoned navigation works have also added to the unsatis- factory condition of river channels. Previous to the intro- duction of railways, the system of conveyance of goods by water had been very greatly developed, and wherever the natural capabilities of a river were such that they could be adapted for this purpose, the stream had been canalised, 2 D 2 396 On River Conservancy, and locks and weirs constructed for holding the water ; but the greater facilities afforded by railways have almost entirely diverted the traffic. The proprietors of these navigations have suffered seriously by the loss of the dues ; and although unable to fulfil the duties belonging to a proper maintenance of the streams, they still cling to the remnant of traffic left, and would offer great obstruction to any scheme of improvement which did not offer to reimburse them for their lost rights. So long as these navigations were maintained in order, the shoals dredged out, the weeds cut or kept down by the traffic of the boats, and the staunches and weirs kept in good order and properly attended to, the rivers were in a fair condition to discharge the flood- waters ; but since the navigation has ceased, there are no funds to maintain the works in an efficient condition, or to alter and improve the weirs so as to adapt them to modern requirements of drainage. In some cases the canals have been entirely aban- doned by their original owners, the Acts of Parliament obtained for this purpose making no provision for restoring the rivers to their original condition. Thus, on the Ivel, a tributary of the Ouse, the navigation Trust created in the reign of George II. was abolished in 1876 ; the works have been all abandoned, the locks and weirs allowed to go to ruin, the channel has diminished one- half in width and one-half in depth, and the bottom is gradually being raised to the level of the land. A miller, to protect his supply of water, has placed a solid dam across the stream, and nobody has now sufficient power over the river to prevent him. In like manner the Lark, another canalised river, is said to be almost entirely silted up since the navigation ceased. Another cause of floods is undoubtedly to be traced to the condition of bridges. In many cases these are utterly in- adequate to take the water in times of flood, and form a permanent block to its flow. Even where the arches are of sufficient capacity, they have often been allowed to become blocked up, and otherwise unsuited for the free flow of the water. As a rule, the duty of maintaining bridges over public streams devolves on the county ; but this duty only relates to maintaining the roadway, and not the waterway, and there is nobody whose duty it is to compel the removal of obstructions, or to undertake to raise the funds and carry out improvements necessary to render many of the older bridges adapted to the altered condition of the streams and rivers. Present Condition of Legislation. . The ownership in the bed and banks of a non-tidal stream of water is in the proprietors of the adjacent lands up to the and the Cause and Prevention of Floods. 397 middle of the stream, but neither proprietor can use the stream so as to interfere with the natural How of the water to the injury of the other riparian proprietors above or below. He is entitled to the use of the water as a natural incident to the right of the soil itself, as he is to all other advantages belonging to the land of which he is the owner ; and he has the right to have it come to him in its natural state in flow, quantity, and quality, and to pass from him without obstruction. He may use the water for turning mills, or other similar purposes, and may divert it over his own estate, or for purposes of irrigation, pro- viding he again returns it to the stream with no other diminu- tion than that due to the evaporation and absorption attendant on irrigation ; but he has no right to interrupt the regular flow of the stream, if he thereby interferes with the lawful use of the water by other proprietors, and inflicts upon them a sensible injury. Thus, a riparian proprietor would not be entitled him- self to establish, or permit others to establish, water-works for the supply of a town, and by so doing divert permanently a portion of the stream from its natural course, to the damage of other riparian proprietors. On the other hand, he is bound to submit to receive all water that comes to him in a natural way, even although it may flood his land. Unless the flow of the stream is increased or diverted by some unauthorised act, he has no remedy, but must submit to what is the result of natural causes ; but a riparian proprietor will be liable to his neighbours for damage if he diverts or interferes with the stream, or brings upon his land water which does not naturally belong to the stream, and thereby causes damage. And if, without wilfulness or negligence, he uses the stream in the ordinary way, though mischief thereby ensue to his neighbours, he will not be liable. Thus where a stream becomes by natural causes choked with weeds or deposit, and in consequence overflows adjacent lands, there is no common-law remedy to compensate the owner who may be damaged. A riparian proprietor also has the right to protect his lands from floods by embankments, provided such works do no injury to other lands ; but he is not entitled to con- struct works, the direct effect of which would be to divert the scour of the water from his own banks, and throw it on that of his neighbour. In tidal rivers the ownership of the bed of the stream, so far as it is covered by a medium high tide, is in the Crown, under the management of the Board of Trade, ex- cept where special grants have been made to Lords of the Manor, adjoining proprietors, or bodies of conservators ap- pointed by Act of Parliament. The Crown is also, by virtue of the office of Lord High Admiral, entrusted with the Conservancy of all navigable rivers, and has power to 398 On River Conservancy , prevent wilful obstructions, but there is no duty on the Crown by common law to cleanse or keep free from silt or deposit the bed of a navigable stream. Neither is there any liability at common law on the owners of a bed of a navigable river, or in a body of proprietors when the same is vested in them for the purposes of navigation only, to keep the channel clear of natural obstructions, or to remove weeds, although floods may be caused thereby. In fact there appears at the present time to be no authority or person on whom devolves the duty of maintaining the rivers of this country in efficient condition, except where some portion of the channel has by the enterprise of the landowners in its neighbourhood been vested in Commissioners created by special Act of Parliament, or where the rivers have in certain districts been placed under a Commission issued by the Crown under a statute passed in the reign of Henry VIII.* Even where legislation has been effected, it only applies to a section of the river where some body of proprietors, more enterprising than their neighbours, have obtained special Acts, enabling them to carry out works creating separate rights and interests which become the cause of great complications, and stand in the way of any future general scheme of improvement. Thus it occurs that on some rivers the banks are vested in one set of trustees, and the channel in another, and even the rights over the channel are divided between navigation and drainage trusts. The number of these private Acts now in force amounts to between 2000 and 3000. With regard to the banks of the river, it occurs in some cases that the maintenance of these devolves on the riparian proprietors, ratione tenurce, and they are divided in short sections, each proprietor being responsible for his own length. The difficulty of getting a number of persons to carry out works simultaneously, or to deal rapidly and effectually with a bank that is liable to be broken in a flood, is obvious, and to this cause may be traced many serious disasters which have occurred. The earliest attempt at legislation with regard to the rivers and watercourses of this country was in the reign of Henry VIII., when, in consequence of the frequent representations to the Crown of the condition of certain low fen lands on the east and south coasts, — from the breaking of the protecting banks, and choking up of the drains and watercourses by means of which a great deal of this land had been rendered uninhabitable, — a statute was enacted, under which power was permanently given * The author is indebted for the principal part of tho information here given to ‘ The Law of Waters,’ by Coulsan, published in 1880. and the Cause and Prevention of Floods. 399 for the issue of Commissions of Sewers. This statute was amended in the reign of William IV., but the principle of its original constitution remained unaltered. The purpose for which the Courts of Sewers were created was the preservation of marsh and low lands, and the maintenance of the sea-banks, and other defences, and the removal of impediments and obstructions made in the streams or sewers by the erection of mills, mill-dams, weirs, gates, &c. They were to have survey over “ all walls, fences, ditches, banks, gutters, gates, sewers, callies, ponds, bridges, rivers, streams, watercourses, &c.” Romney Marsh, a tract of low land in the county of Kent, seems to have been the first to have benefited by this Act ; and the rules there adopted for the guidance of the court formed the precedent for subsequent courts ; and it is to places of this description, and the Fens and marsh lands on the East Coast, that the action of these Commissions is confined. They have no general control or jurisdiction over the watercourses of the country. They exist principally for the maintenance of existing works, but have power to construct new works, when necessary, for the more effec- tually defending and securing any lands within their juris- diction against the interruption or overflowing of the sea, or for draining and carrying off the superfluous water ; but such new works cannot be made without the consent of the owners or occupiers respectively of three-fourths of the lands lying within the district proposed to be charged with the cost. The court has power to raise money for the maintenance of existing, or for the construction of new, works, by an acreage tax on lands lying within the level. Under the Land Drainage Act, 1861, Commissioners of Sewers may be issued for districts where they have not formerly existed, under the authority of a provisional order issued by the Inclosure Commissioners and confirmed by Parliament ; but the machinery for obtaining such an order is too complicated, and the power given too limited, to be applicable to any extensive area or to effective drainage by means of arterial streams. The next legislative attempt to deal with drainage was an Act passed in the present reign (10 & 11 Viet. cap. 38) ; but this only related to the drainage of estates, and gave proprietors power, under certain conditions, to improve the outfalls of their drainage by opening out or improving the watercourses passing through lands lying below them ; or, by summary proceedings before two justices, procuring the clearing or scouring out of the channel of any stream where the proprietor has failed or declined to do so. In 1861 a most valuable and important Act was passed 400 On River Conservancy, (25 & 26 Viet. cap. 33), the object of which w as to facilitate the formation of drainage Trusts, without the great expense attending a special Act of Parliament. This Act gives all the powers and facilities necessary for dealing with the main drainage of land, and the improvement of the smaller class of rivers, brooks, and streams ; and it is a matter of surprise that it has not been more generally taken advantage of. If the several watersheds of the tributary rivers were formed into districts under the powers of this Act, and a general body of Commissioners were formed by representatives from these smaller districts for the management of the whole main river, with power to levy contributions for general improvements and maintenance, the rivers of the country could, without any com- plicated system of representation, be placed in a thoroughly safe condition. This principle has long been carried out in the drainage of the Fens, the evil there, however, being that the system is only applied to a section of the river instead of the whole. To take an example : the Fen Acts relating to the River Witham extend over a length of about thirty miles between the towns of Lincoln and Boston. The fen land between these points is divided into six districts, each having its own Commission for the management of the interior drainage works, the number of members being regulated by the number of parishes in each district, each parish selecting one representa- tive. These Commissioners elect from amongst themselves members to represent them at the Board of General Com- missioners, which consists of thirty-three members, thirty-one being furnished by the districts, and the remainder by the towns of Lincoln and Boston. The General Commission has the con- trol of the River Witham and its banks, and certain main drains in the district, and power to levy taxes for the works necessary to maintain them in efficient condition. This organization has, during a long series of years, proved itself thoroughly efficient, as far as it goes. Subsequent Acts (27 & 28 Viet. cap. 14, and 40 & 41 Viet, cap. 31) have been passed with reference to the improvement of drainage, but these Acts only deal with the drainage of land and the improvement of estates, by the construction of reservoirs and works necessary for the water-supply of the landowner’s own estates or the adjacent villages. The Rivers Pollution Act, passed in 1876, prescribed penalties for putting solid matter into any public stream so as to interfere with its free flow, and for polluting it by the discharge of sewage, or of the refuse water from mines. Full particulars of these several Acts, and the method of obtaining provisional orders under the Land Drainage Act of and the Cause and Prevention of Floods. 401 1861, were given in the article by me on “Arterial Drainage and Storage of Water,” in Part I. of the 14th volume of the ‘ Journal,’ and it is therefore needless to refer to them in greater detail here. It is sufficient to say that these Acts give all the facilities that are required for obtaining the necessary powers for dealing with the tributary streams, watercourses, and drains ; but they now require to be supplemented by a General Act, constituting Boards for dealing with the main rivers into which these tributaries discharge. In 1877, owing to the constantly increasing complaints as to the damage caused by flooding, a Committee of the House of Lords was appointed, at the instance of the Duke of Richmond, “ to inquire into the operation of existing statutes in regard to the formation of and proceedings by Commissioners of Sewers and Conservancy, Drainage and River Navigation Boards ; to con- sider by what means such bodies may be more conveniently and inexpensively constituted, their procedure improved, and their powers enlarged so as to provide more efficiently for storage of % water ; the prevention of floods, and the discharge of other functions appertaining to such boards.” A large body of evidence was taken, and the Committee reported : That floods have been more frequent and of longer duration in recent times than formerly : That, amongst the causes assigned for this, prominence was given by the witnesses to the adoption of the system of subsoil-drainage : That, if the channels and outfalls of rivers be properly cared for, water flow- ing into these rivers may reasonably be expected to be discharged in sufficient time to prevent serious damage to agricultural lands by floods : That floods of moderate duration are not always prejudicial, but that injurious consequences arise when the water is suffered to stagnate upon the soil : That with regard to the Acts now in force relating to the appointment of commissioners and the Land Drainage Act, 1861, although large powers of executing works and rating have been conferred upon the persons charged with the execution of these general Acts, their duties have only been indicated in a vague and general manner ; and that certain powers are wanting which are essential for the maintenance of an adequate system of drainage ; and further, that the constitution of these authorities is npt compulsory, and that there is an absence of responsibility which may be held to account in a great measure for the present neglected state of the rivers. The Committee further arrived at the conclusion that rivers differ so widely in their characteristics that it is im- practible to prescribe any general scheme of conservancy which would be applicable to all rivers without exception, and that the particular measures which should be adopted for keeping the 402 On River Conservancy, main channel in a satisfactory condition must be left to be determined by a consideration of the circumstances of each separate case ; that they concurred with the almost universal opinion of the witnesses, that in order to secure uniformity and completeness of action in dealing with each river, each catch- ment area should be placed under a single body of conservators, who should be responsible for maintaining the river from its source to its outfall in an efficient state. That with regard to tributary streams these might be entrusted to district committees acting under the general direction of the conservators. The Committee further recommended that action for the formation of Conser- vancy Boards should emanate from the landowners, and that the scheme for each district should be settled after local inquiry bv a Government Inspector. That great caution should be exercised in dealing with prescriptive rights of mill-owners and others, in respect to dams and weirs, as the evidence pointed to the conclusion that weirs and dams, when properly constructed, are not necessarily prejudicial. That with regard to the principle of assessment for laying the rates, they were of opinion that the principle adopted under the statute of Henry VIII., of taxing in proportion to the benefit conferred in each particular case by the works of conservancy, appeared to work unfairly and to be incapable of general application : and that of taxing equally all riparian lands, included within a certain level, seemed likewise open to objection ; and therefore they had come to the^conclusion that the rates should be distributed over the whole area of a water-shed, the lands and houses below the flood-level being rated at a higher amount than those above, and other graduations and exceptions made to meet particular cases. That the basis of taxation should be the rateable value, and that towns and houses should contribute to the rates ; and that they saw no injustice in rating uplands to the maintenance of a channel to which they contribute their quota of water. Several attempts have since been made by the Government and also by private members to pass an Act of Parliament founded on these recommendations ; but the pressure of other business has hitherto prevented any measure being carried. None of the Bills which have been brought forward have contained measures for placing the rivers of the country on as satis- factory a footing as the highways, or making Conservancy a compulsory measure ; but they have left the initiation of pro- ceedings to the voluntary action of the landowners in the district draining by each river. The main features of the Bills promoted by the Government, and amended in conformity with the expression of opinion of the Committee to which the one brought in 1881 was referred, and the Cause and Prevention of Floods. 403 may be generally summarised by stating : — That their purpose was the conservancy of rivers and the protection of lands from floods. The Act might be set in motion as regards any particular river on the application of not less than twenty owners and occupiers of land in the river basin, amounting in rateable value to 2000/., or by any Sanitary or Conservancy Authority. On receipt of such an application, the Local Government Board would send an Inspector to the district to hold a public inquiry, and to report as to the limit of the district, and the expediency of its division into lowlands, midlands and uplands ; as to the proportions to be paid by each ; as to whether any lands should be exempt wholly or partially from taxation, from having already executed works. The Local Government Board then would issue a provisional order defining the limit of the district, the constitution of the Conservancy Board, which was fairly to represent the taxpayers, and, if necessary, for dividing the river basin into districts. This order subsequently would be confirmed in the usual way. Land subject to ordinary floods and damage therefrom would be regarded as “ lowlands lands occa- sionally subject to floods, or to the destruction by floods of the outfalls of their drains, as “ midlands,” and the remainder of the district as “ uplands.” The rate on uplands would be limited to one-tenth of the rate in the pound paid by the highest rated districts. The Conservancy Board, when formed, would have power to do all works and acts necessary and incidental to the proper maintenance of the river, and to compensate persons injured by the works. The money required would be raised by a precept on the overseers of the poor, and the rate would be payable by the owner of the lands rated. Provision would be made for the repeal of local navigation or other Acts, and for repealing or modifying existing Commissions of Sewers, Drain- age and Conservancy Trusts. Special provisions would also be made with regard to the Fenlands on the east side of England. Hitherto there has been no special department of the Govern- ment which has had more immediately under its care the rivers and streams of this country, but the carrying out of the laws enacted under such Acts as are in existence is divided amongst the Board of Trade, which has the care of navigable streams ; the Inclosure]Commissioners, who have the management of pro- ceedings under the Land Drainage Acts ; and the Local Govern- ment Board, of the River Pollution Act. This latter depart- ment is to be entrusted with the carrying out of the Conservancy Act, should one ever be passed, but it will then have only a divided jurisdiction with the Board of Trade and the Inclosure Commissioners. In Holland, France, and Italy, distinct departments are 404 On River Conservancy , formed, having control over the Hydraulic Works of these countries. In Holland the Acts of the department are princi- pally directed to the maintenance of the banks and drains to which the country owes its safety. In Italy the principal object is irrigation, by means of which the land in places has been raised immensely in value. In France this subject has, from the earliest times, received attention ; and the principle of the Roman law is there adopted : that the ownership of all rivers, together with their beds and shores, was vested in the people. No one can hinder the navigation of a river, or alter its course, or raise obstacles to its flow, or commit any act that may prejudice the rights of others. Acting on this principle in 1789, all concessions which had been granted by the land- owners in virtue of their supposed feudal rights of erecting mills, fishery weirs, and other obstructions, were annihilated ; and all prescriptive rights as regards rivers of France were for ever abolished. All rivers, both navigable or otherwise, and all streams possessing a character of general utility were declared to he the property of the nation. The owner of an estate traversed by a running stream is allowed to make use of the water of such stream for the purpose of irrigation, but he may not divert it altogether, and is bound to return the water, after he has used it, into the old channel at the point where his property ends. While thus the general law of France as regards rivers and watercourses is in a more favourable condition for their con- servancy than that of England, and whilst the Government offers the assistance gratuitously of an able staff of engineers, and of a department specially formed for the purpose, yet, owing to the want of practical energy in the country, the voice of lamentation is constantly heard complaining of inundations which spread disaster and devastation of a more ruinous charac- ter even than those in this country. No sufficient efforts are made to husband this surplus of water by the formation of reservoirs, or other means of storing the water, for the irrigation of the arid districts during the scorching heats of the dry season.* The difficulty of legislating on this subject in this country arises not only from the necessity of dealing with, and com- pensating, existing interests and prescriptive rights which have gradually sprung up; but also of providing the means for carrying out the necessary works of improvement, and reinedy- * A general description of the rivers of Franco and the laws relating thereto will be found in an article in the ‘Journal’ of the Society, by Mr. F. R. de la Trehonnnis, for 1802, entitled “ The Water Economy of France in its relation to Agriculture,” from which the information here given has been obtained. and the Cause and Prevention of Floods. 405 ing the neglect of past ages, and adapting the rivers to modern requirements. On the one hand it is contended that as the rivers are the natural outlets for the surplus rainfall which falls on every acre of land, all lands should pay in proportion to their rateable value. It may be true that moorland or pastures in a high district require no drainage, and would be equally serviceable whether rivers existed or not ; but against this it is urged that, as this land sends its water on to the lower plains, it ought to bear its share of maintaining the water- courses in the same way that it contributes towards highways, towards the maintenance of the poor, of education, &c., none of which are requisite for land which has no houses on it, and the only road required is one sufficient to drive the mountain sheep over occasionally. Exemption is further pleaded for the high lands on the ground that, being situated far away from flooded districts, the rainfall escapes from them, and under no circum- stances can they be flooded ; that they have an ancient and prescriptive right to the rivers ; and that, if the lands at the lower end are inundated occasionally, they are only in the condition in which nature made them, these low lands being the sinkholes to receive the water poured from the adjacent high land ; and that, if for the individual profit of the owners they have been embanked and cultivated, it has been done at their own risk, and they must now take the consequence. Therefore, to put these high lands under taxation, for the improvement from which they will not benefit, would be an arbitrary and unjust interference with private rights. To this it is replied ; that it is the action of the owners of the high lands that has brought about the necessity for further legislation and consequent taxation. By improved drainage the rainfall is voided more quickly, and poured more rapidly into the lower reaches, and where these have been improved, the works were designed for a natural escape of the rainfall ; and that it is only due to the more rapid discharge, owing to improvements carried out on the high lands to meet the requirements of the modern system of agriculture, that they have now become inefficient ; while it is not asked that the high lands should pay for works which are solely for the improvements of these low lands, yet they should bear their fair share of maintaining the water- way in a condition to carry off the rainfall poured into it. That the great improvements which have in most cases been carried out by river authorities at the outfalls may fairly be set against any prescriptive right of drainage by the owners of high lands. That if these high lands are far above and away from the portion of the river where floods occur, it may fairly be answered that an outfall for the rainfall is an absolute 406 On River Conservancy , necessity ; that without an outfall, their works of under-drainage and improvement would be rendered abortive ; that whether the water from their drains soaks into the ground or passes away along the ditches and watercourses, its ultimate destination is the river, the great highway for the water ; the further, there- fore, the lands are removed from the outfall, the greater the length their rainfall will have to travel over, and the greater their mileage rate. The further land is removed from the out- fall the more river it requires. A field lying near the sea may get rid of its rainfall by a passage through a water-way to be measured by chains, whereas another plot of land near the source only returns its rainfall to the sea after a passage of many miles. Acre for acre the rainfall may be the same, and an acre at the source of a river may discharge the same quantity as a corresponding area at the outfall, yet the duty required for the removal of the former is so much greater as its distance is from the point of discharge. The proprietors of the lower lands, who have in many cases, at great cost to themselves, improved the outfalls of their rivers, and so facilitated the discharge from lands lying above them, further contend that it would be unfair, in assessing the rates to pay for improving a portion of the river lying above that on which their works are situate, not to give any credit for the amount already expended, which otherwise would have required to be done. To meet these various demands, the Bills brought in bv the Government divide the watershed into high lands, medium lands, and flood lands. The former being taxed only to one-tenth the amount of the latter, and the proportion of taxation of the two latter to be determined by the Government Department entrusted with the carrying out of the Act, after local inquiry by their Inspector sent down to settle the details for each river. Works for tee Improvement of Rivers. While it is impossible to lay down any general scheme for the improvement of all rivers alike, there are certain general principles that should always be kept in view. These may be stated as follows : — That the improvement of a river should be progressive from its outfall to its source. That it should be of sufficient capacity to carry off the rainfall of the district without flooding the lands through which it passes. That the flow of the upland water should be equalised as much as possible throughout the year. and the Cause and Prevention of Floods. 407 In the lower or tidal portion ample capacity, combined with efficient scour, should be given, and every facility afforded for the free flow of the tidal water, and the low-water level of the sea brought as far up the river as practicable. By this means a large reservoir is secured for the reception of the downfall- water in times of floods, which then fills the place Avhich, under ordinary circumstances, is occupied by the salt water carried up and down by the tides. A river should not only be of sufficient capacity from its outfall to its source to carry off the rainfall of the district with- out flooding the lands through which it passes, but the water- level should be kept sufficiently low to allow of the thorough drainage of all lands within the basin. Exceptions to this rule may be made in the case of areas lying at so low a level, that the cost of adapting the outfall to their efficient drainage would involve works of such magnitude, that it would be more econo- mical to remove the water off. them by steam-power. There are also occasional floods which occur only at such long intervals, and are then of such short duration, that in such cases it mav be found desirable to run the risk of flooding rather than incur an enormous expense in protecting the land. Again, there is along the valleys of all rivers a great deal of low-lying land that, as pasture or meadow, is not damaged, but rather benefited by occasional flooding in winter ; where the owners have con- verted such areas into arable land, they can only ask to be pro- tected from summer floods, and carnot expect the rest of the level to be taxed to prevent flooding in winter, which is injurious owing to their own mistaken action. The space occupied by the water in a river due to the normal flow is so small as compared to the flood area, that if the channel be adapted for. the latter, it would be so large as to be unable to maintain itself in efficient condition, owing to the growth of weeds and the accumulation of deposit from the want ol scour, and there would also be the waste of a very large area of land. To meet this difficulty, the channel of a river flowing through a cultivated river-valley should therefore be divided into two sections ; the lower one being adapted to carry the normal flow, with side slopes as steep as the nature of the soil through which it passes will permit ; the upper, or flood section, having the sides laid at a slope sufficiently flat to allow grass to grow, and of the grazing of sheep and cattle, the flood-banks being set back sufficiently far to allow room for the greatest floods likely to occur. Bridges and other openings must, of course, be adapted to the flood discharge. By these means, the ordinary flow of the water being retained in as small a compass as possible, a deep stream would be maintained, the weeds 408 On River Conservancy, would be less likely to grow or shoals to accumulate, and provision would be secured for flood-water without loss of pro- ductive land. Great stress was laid by some of the witnesses who gave evidence before the Committee of the House of Lords on River Conservancy as to the advantage of embanking to prevent floods, as against deepening the channel ; but it is submitted that the two works should go on together. By dredging out and deepening the channel, the level of the water is kept lower, and there is less risk consequently of flooding from a breach of banks, while at the same time material is provided for the formation of the protecting banks. With the view of equalising the flow of the upland water as much as practicable throughout the year, it is desirable that, while provision is made for getting rid of the rainfall as rapid ly as possible in times of flood, the regulation of the water- supply should be aimed at, rather than the mere voidance of the water. If all the water due to the winter rainfall is dis- charged at once, the lands drained would probably suffer far more loss from droughts in summer than ever the floods would have occasioned. Water is required not only for the growth of vegetation, but for drinking and other purposes, and may be made valuable as a mechanical aid in carrying on the work of the farm. Water is obtained for drinking principally from wells and springs, which are fed from supplies stored up in the pores of tlie material composing the crust of the earth and in the cavities of rocks, and a certain proportion of the rainfall must be allowed to soak into the ground during wet weather to feed them, and to maintain a constant stream of water down the rivers and their tributaries during the dry season. In chalk districts and where the rocks are porous and absorbent, the greater portion of the rainfall is taken up in this way, and the absence of streams in a chalk district is thus accounted for. In lime and sandstone districts this condition of the substrata might be taken advan- tage of much more largely than it is, by carrying shafts through the upper impervious strata to the lower porous rock, and thus causing these to act to a certain extent as flood regulators, and providing more abundant and constant supplies to the springs. There are also many valleys where, at small expense, embank- ments could be thrown up and reservoirs formed, which could be made available for the water supply of villages and farm- steads, and at the same time frequently could be made orna- mental adjuncts to parks and pleasure-grounds. The embank- ments for such reservoirs need not necessarily be of great height, but, where a valley is long and continuous, could be made in and the Cause and Prevention of Floods. 409 steps, and they need not necessarily be perfectly watertight, the object being to equalise the downward flow of the stream as well as storage. Such reservoirs scattered over the tributaries of a river would, while affording a supply of water, tend to equalise the downward flow in heavy rains, and check to a certain extent the liability of the main streams to floods. To prevent flooding entirely by means of reservoirs is utterly impracticable. The enormous area required to hold the flow of even a small river would involve a waste of land that would be utterly out of proportion to the damage done by flooding, or to other means that might be adopted for securing the same end. In the original design for the drainage of the Fens large tracts of land were left at the lower pares of the rivers, and running parallel with them, the flood banks being set a con- siderable distance back from the channel, — these “ Wash-lands ” being intended as receptacles of the water in times of flood. Now, owing to obstructions which have been made at their lower ends, these form large reservoirs, which are filled when the main channel is insufficient to carry off the downfall water. The washes on the Nene and Welland cover an area of 5000 and 3000 acres respectively ; and although these rivers drain only a small tract of comparatively flat country, yet when these washes are covered four feet deep, they only make provision for a fall of a little over one-third of an inch of rain. This fact should be sufficient to show that it is out of the question to depend on reservoirs alone as flood-regulators, as has so frequently been advocated. If, in the anxiety to provide a remedy for floods, the river channels are so deepened and improved that the water-level of the soil is lowered without adequate provision for holding it up in summer, the consequences may be found to be very serious. The soil will then become so drained, that the moisture will sink so far below the roots of the plants that capillary action will fail to bring it to them. A great deal of undeserved blame has been thrown upon millers for holding up the water in the rivers for working their mills ; but there can be no question that the value of the meadows found frequently by the side of such streams is due entirely to the moisture obtained from the water thus held up. There are many light soils, notably the black peat lands and the lands in Holland, which are only rendered fit for cultivation by means of the water which is held up in the drains which intersect the district. This keeps the under- stratum of the soil sufficiently moist in hot weather to feed the growing plants. For purposes of irrigation, also, water requires to be maintained at a uniform level in the river channels. The value of vr~_ :r for this purpose is hardly sufficiently recognized YOL. XIX. — S. S. * 2 E 410 River Conservancy , and Cause and Prevention of Floods. in this country ; but the high rents which the water meadows command in Devonshire, the value of irrigated lands in Italy, Spain, and even in Norway, and the rich meadows which are periodically covered with water from the overflowing of some rivers, clearly prove that water has a fertilizing power inde- pendent of climate, and beyond that of the moisture supplied to the growing vegetation. As a source of power, water is most valuable, and might be used far more extensively than it is as an aid to the working of farms. Threshing, grinding, chaff-cutting, &c., could as well be done by a water-wheel or a turbine as by a steam- engine, and at far less cost ; but to make the rivers available for this purpose, it is necessary to hold the water up for the purpose of obtaining the required head and supply. For all these reasons great caution requires to be exer- cised before the weirs and other works of abandoned navi- gations are removed, or the rights of millers purchased with a view to improving the rivers. Attention should be more directed to obtaining a complete control over these weirs, and having them placed in the hands of the body responsible for the proper conservancy of the river, so as to regulate their discharge, not with the view of any private interest, but for the good of the whole watershed. It is an error to suppose that weirs are necessarily detrimental to the discharge of a river in flood time. Weirs, if properly constructed, and of sufficient capacity, are aids rather than hindrances to the free flow of the water. The still pond of water which they hold up converts the action of the downward current into something of the nature of a wave, and saves the friction caused by the water having to over- come the obstacles in the bed of a stream, at one time dry and at another time a torrent, washing the stones and soil on its bed into alternate shoals and deep cavities, and destroying its character as an efficiemt water-carrier. The wrater coming into a river having a weir, at the first of a flood, instead of entering a channel almost dry and rushing along it in a raging torrent,, encounters instead a quiet pool of water, gently raises its level, and passes on in a steady gradually deepening stream, moun- ting over the crest of the weir, if it be a fixed one, or otherwise passing freely through its openings. Where water is thus permanently held up, the drainage of the adjacent country can be provided for by carrying the water, either by side cuts running parallel with the main stream or other arterial drains, to a point below the pond, and thus obviating any objection that could be urged against this system on the score of drainage. In all works for the improvement of rivers, water should be Recent British Weather. 411 regarded as a most useful servant, but one that requires to be kept well under control ; and the remedy required for dealing with the present disastrous condition of our rivers, by which so much flooding and loss are occasioned, is that these should he placed under a proper system of management, with a repre- sentative body responsible for their care and maintenance in efficient order ; and that, while the tributary streams may be left to be dealt with under the machinery provided by the existing law, legislation is required for the main streams, which must be dealt with from their source to their outfall by one uniform and adequate system. XIX. — Recent British Weather. By G. J. Symons, F.R.S. Just as in the million-peopled capital of the British Empire one never sees two faces precisely alike, though all are composed of the same features, so no two seasons are alike, though the same general characteristics are to be found in all. Hence arises the extreme difficulty of rigorously accurate com- parison between different seasons, when based only upon the averages of observations during long or short periods. And yet these are the best guide, for mere general impressions are useless, except in years of altogether exceptional weather such as 1860, or the autumn of 1852. Records of weather made without reference to instruments, depend partly on the physical and social status of the man who makes them. A man in the prime of life, in vigorous health, and with a comfortable balance at his banker’s, will give a very different report upon a season to that which would be given by perhaps his nearest neighbour, who might be weighed down by age, sickness, or poverty. Nor can reliance be placed upon recollections of bygone seasons, except (as before observed) in very marked cases. Certain facts as to the extraordinary lateness of the harvest in one year, or the wonderful yield of another, remain firmly impressed upon the memory : but less marked seasons succeed one another so rapidly, that their features are soon blurred and forgotten. I therefore propose in this article to base my remarks almost entirely upon actual instrumental records, although, as I have already pointed out, the general result of a season is based upon so many separate conditions that it is impossible to individualize them. It may be well to give a specimen of the sort of difficulty to which I refer. There may be two Augusts, with practically identical mean temperature and total rainfall ; one may be a month of equable temperature, and constant 2 E 2 412 Recent British Weather. drizzle, the other cold and wet at first, then dry and brilliantly hot : the results produced would not only be widely different, but they would also be different according to the characters of the months which had preceded them. Fortunately there is a tendency in climate to take up, and hold for a considerable time, types of weather. Cold and wet generally go together in summer, while warmth and wet go together in winter, and there are several similar connections which might be mentioned — and hence we shall find that, in spite of all drawbacks, actual numerical data will agree with popular impressions as regards marked seasons, and hence may be trusted as correcting doubtful opinions respecting ordinary ones. In the present notice it will tend to simplify matters if I separate the consideration of the two principal factors of climate, heat and rainfall. Tempekatuke. Thanks, chiefly to Mr. Buchan, but also to the observers who furnished the data, we possess now a very fairly approximate knowledge of the average temperature of each month, and of the year, over the whole of the British Islands. Extreme accuracy in the present paper is not needed, but rather a broad general view of the facts, and this may be given very briefly. The mean annual temperature of Penzance may be taken as 52 \ and 1° may be deducted for each hundred miles further north — e.g., York is about 260 miles north of Penzance, and Edinburgh about 410. Therefore ° O Penzance 52 ‘0 Penzance 52 '0 Correction for 260 miles = — 2 ■ 6 Correction for 410 miles — 4 • 1 Mean temp, of York .. .. 49’4 Mean temp, of Edinburgh .. 47‘9 Mr. Buchan’s Map gives .. 49 ‘0 Mr. Buchan’s Map gives .. 47 "7 Agreements quite near enough for ordinary purposes. There is another circumstance which affects temperature quite as much as latitude, and it is the altitude of the locality above the sea-level. Everybody has a vague idea that high localities are cold ; but everybody does not know the precise amount of cooling due to any given altitude — it may be taken as 1° for each 300 feet. Flence follows the rough general rule that every 300 feet of elevation is equivalent to going 100 miles further north ; and thus we see one reason why the high lands (1000 to 2000 or more feet) of Yorkshire and Derbyshire cannot bring to per- fection crops and fruits which flourish on the low lands of the north of Scotland. Recent British Weather. 413 Tables of temperature relating to Camden Square, in the north of London, and to Greenwich, lend themselves more readily to my present object than any others ; but as it may be alleged that observations from the outskirts of a great city are scarcely suitable for agricultural purposes, I will begin by a brief com- parison of some of the principal facts relating to 1882 at the two metropolitan and at two widely-distant country stations — both nearly in the same latitude. Table I. — Temperatures in 1882. Stations. Absolute. Average. Mean. Max. Min. Max. Min. Strathfield Turgiss, Hants Eoss, Hereford o 83- 7 84- 1 o 18-0 19-6 o 57-9 57-1 o 41- 3 42- 3 49° 6 49-7 Greenwich Eoyal Observatory London, Camden Square .. 81-0 80-8 22-2 24-5 57- 8 58- 2 42- 6 43- 1 49-7 503 This indicates that the metropolitan stations are on the average a few tenths warmer than other places in the same latitude, but that for all practical purposes the town and country stations agree. Curiously enough, in 1882, the maximum tem- peratures at the metropolitan stations are below those at the country ones ; this is unusual, for the records from Greenwich have often exceeded those at any other station in the country. Having now got the coast cleared from preliminary difficulties, I may begin to attack the question of whether recent years show exceptional departures from the average of long series of previous years. In the first place, I have compiled from various publications by Mr. J. Glaisher, F.R.S., the following table of the mean temperature of each of the last 112 years, as observed at Green- wich since 1841, and as computed for previous years from observations made in the Metropolis. (Table II., p. 414.) The first feature which that table renders evident is the con- siderable difference between the average of the first 50 years (47°-9) and the last 50 years (49° -3), a rise of very nearly 1 J degrees. Mr. Glaisher believes that this is a real rise. As, how- ever, the fact has been doubted, and the whole question of secular change of temperature is now being investigated, and as we are concerned rather with the temperatures of the last quarter of a century than with that of remote periods, we may confine our attention to the 43 years from 1840 onwards. The average of this period is about 490,3, and an examination of Table II. will 414 Recent British Weather. Table II. — Mean Temperature of each Year at Greenwich, from 1771 1< 1882, both inclusive. 1770. 1780 1790. 1800. 1810. 1820. 1830. 1840. 1850. 1860. 1870. 1880 O O O O O O O O O 0 48-8 48-1 48-3 48-7 47-4 47-8 47-8 49-3 47 0 48-7 49- 1 45-4 49-8 48-1 490 49-6 49-3 50-4 48-7 49-2 49-4 48-7 48- 2 47-1 45 '5 48-0 48-0 46-5 51-0 491 49-6 50-6 495 50-7 49- 3 46-6 48-0 47-9 48-2 47-2 47-3 490 49-4 477 503 48-9 4 47-7 45 -1 48-9 49-5 45-8 48-3 51-0 48-7 48-9 48-5 49-3 5 50-0 46-5 47-2 47-7 490 49-6 49-2 47-6 47-1 50-3 49-2 6 48-3 45-8 47-8 50-5 46-4 49-9 481 51-3 490 49-8 50 1 7 48-2 48'1 47 2 48-3 47-7 48-5 473 49-6 510 48-6 49-4 8 49-2 47-9 48-6 48-1 50-8 50-1 46-4 50-2 49-2 51-5 49-6 9 51-2 46-7 45 -7 48-0 493 46-6 4/ *7 49-9 50-7 49-5 46-2 Aver- age |48'2 472 47-8 48*5 481 48-8 48-6 49-3 49-3 49-4 49- 1 (Note. — It will be observed that in order to ensure compactness in the table, the year have to be read off by the top and side figures — eg., the first entry 45° ■ 4 is for 1771, th next 47° '1 for 1772, and so on, the values for each decade being arranged in one column and the average for the ten years given at the bottom.) show, that with the exception of the one cold year, 1879, and one hot one, 1868, the temperatures of the past twenty years have been singularly near the average. This is clearly indicated by the following diagram, in which the values in Table II. for 1840 and for each subsequent year are laid off, upwards in years of which the temperature was above the average, down- wards in years in which it was below it. I may mention that 1868 was the hottest year of the whole 112, and 1879 the coldest since 1814. 51 50 49 45 47 46 45 It appears legitimate to conclude that the records of mean temperature show no recent variation which can be regarded as important. It is therefore necessary to turn to more detailed records. Recent British Weather. 415 I will first take the mean temperatures of recent summer months. The mean temperature of the air at 9 A.M. daily is very nearly the same as the mean of the extremes, or as the mean of any number of equidistant observations. The following are the values for Camden Square : — Months. June. July. August. Summer. Average 1859-78 O 61-7 o 64-9 o 63 4 63° 3 Maximum .. . . jye.fr 06 66-0 70-4 67-4 67-4 1868 1868 1871 1868 Minimum .. . . j year 66 57-1 59-2 59-4 58-8 1860 1879 1860 1860 A little additional evidence is afforded by these figures, but the following table puts the matter much more strongly. Table III. — Difference of Mean Temperature at 9 a.m. in each of the Summer Months of the last Ten Years from the Average of the Twenty Years 1859-78. Year. June. [ July. August. Summer. O o o o 1873 — 3 + -3 + -3 + 1 1874 - 11 + 1-8 - 11 - 1 1875 + '3 - 3-6 + 1-0 - -8 1876 - -6 + 2'5 1- 1-4 4- 11 1877 + 2-8 - 1-5 + 14 + '9 1878 + 11 + ‘6 + '7 + ‘8 1879 - 3-0 - 5-7 - 1-7 - 3-5 1880 - 2-8 - 2-2 0-0 - 1-7 1881 - 1 + 16 - 32 - -6 1882 - 2-6 - 33 - 2-3 - 2-7 Mean - -6 - 10 - 3 - -6 This shows that while the decrease of the mean temperature of the year during the last decade (as shown by Table II.) was merely about 0o,2, or practically nil, the falling off in June was more than half a degree, and in July amounted to lo,0, which, as already remarked, is equivalent to moving the country 100 miles further north, or raising it 300 feet. It may, moreover, be mentioned that out of the 24 Junes, 1859-82, there were 10 below 61°-2, and of these 5 occurred in the last 10 years. Of the corresponding 24 Julys, 10 were below 630,5, and of these 5 occurred in the last 10 years. Of the corresponding 24 Augusts, 10 were below 63O-0, of these 4 occurred in the last 10 years. 416 Recent British. Weather. Therefore, whichever way these figures are considered, the same general feature becomes evident, viz., lower summer temperature than usual. If we turn to tables of extremes, we learn a somewhat similar lesson. On the average of the 20 years, 1859-78, the temperature on some one day during each year reached 88°-4. Table IV. — Highest Temperature in Shade, in each of the last Ten Years, and Number of Days on which it exceeded 80°. Year. Date. Absolute Maximum Temperature. Days above 80°. 1873 July 22nd o 90*1 10 1874 July 20th 90-8 16 1875 August 16th .. 86-1 8 1876 July 15th 92-6 25 1877 July 31st 87-1 16 1878 June 26th 86-5 12 1879 July 30th 80-2 1 1880 September 4th 88-3 5 1881 July 15th 94-6 19 1882 August 6th 80-8 2 1883* June 29th 85-6* 4* * Up to July 26tli. Out of the 24 years there have been 12 in which the extreme temperature did not reach the average, and of these 6 have been in the above 10 years, being of course more than there should have been, but only one more. The extremely low maxima in 1879 and 1882 are without precedent, except in the sunless summer of 1860, when the absolute maximum was 76°T in May. A very good notion of the warmth of a summer is afforded by the number of days on which the temperature exceeds 80° ; the 20 years average is 17, it will be seen above that the average has been reached only twice during the last 10 years, and the average is 11 instead of 17. Rainfall. As already pointed out in an earlier part of this article, it is not so much the total quantity of rain which falls, as its distri- bution, which is of vital moment to agriculture. The total fall has, however, during the last few years been so excessive, that 1 feel bound to treat the subject rather fully. At the same time, as it is impossible to give here all the steps which have been necessary preliminaries to the calculations and conclusions which 1 intend to give, 1 am obliged to insert merely a precis Recent British Weather. 417 of the preliminary stages, and to refer those interested, to the annual volume in which they are fully described.* Fairly trustworthy records of rainfall have been kept at two or more stations in every year from 1726 onwards. In the Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science for 1866, I gave a series of calculations whereby I had ascertained the relative rainfall of every year from 1726 to 1865. In the above-mentioned work this calculation is extended to 1882, and a diagram is given illustrating the relative wetness of each of the 157 years. This diagram, which is chiefly applicable to central England, shows a group of 4 consecutive wet years, 1734-7 ; of 4 very wet years, 1773-6 ; of 5 slightly wet years, 1827-31, and of the unprecedented number of 8 con- secutive wet years, 1875—82. As it shows that on the average the excess has been rather more than 14 per cent, per annum, it follows that in the last 8 years there has fallen rather more than the average fall of 9 years. This excess has heen greater in some parts of the country than in others, and although the determination of the areas over which it has prevailed with various degrees of intensity is rather laborious, it seems likely to be of primary importance to the agricultural interest, as it is quite possible that these areas may be found to have features of resemblance to those where sheep- rot and other causes of agricultural depression have been most prevalent. It is a fortunate fact that the rainfall during the ten years, 1860-9, was very nearly the same as the average of a long period of years. It was perhaps one or two per cent, in excess ; but it may for all practical purposes be regarded as very near the truth. In Table V. (pp. 419-421) only those stations are quoted at which the rainfall was regularly recorded during the ten years, 1860-9, and also during the years 1875-82. As, for the present purpose, I wish to show primarily the areas over which the excess has been most severe, the table does not give actual rainfall, but percentage of excess. For instance, at the first station the mean ratio of rainfall for 1875-82 is given as 115 ; that is to say, the fall during those eight years has been 15 per cent, above the average, and therefore (8 X 15 = 120) in those eight years there has been a total excess of 120 per cent. Or, to put it in its simplest form, during the last eight years there has fallen one and one-fifth more than the average ; we have, therefore, had the average rainfall of 9 years and 2 months deposited in 8 years. It will be noticed that there are in the * ‘ British Kainfall,’ 1882. London : Stanford. 418 Recent British Weather. table several stations where the ratios are much higher, four exceeding 130, and at these stations the last eight years have had the average rainfall of nearly 10J years. No wonder that there have been Bills brought before Parliament for the regula- tion of floods. As regards the localities which have suffered most, it will be found, by plotting these values on a map, that they are generally higher in the Midland and Western Counties of England than anywhere else. In Cheshire there has scarcely been any excess, and in the North of Lancashire, in Cumberland, and in West- moreland there has been a marked deficiency. This deficiency also prevailed, but only slightly, along the West of Scotland ; but I should be extremely glad of additional records from that district. In the East of Scotland and in Ireland there has been a slight excess. Perhaps there are few localities whence stronger evidence of the wetness of recent years could be produced than from the station at Saul Lodge on the Gloucestershire shore of the Severn. Mr. Clegram, C.E., thus epitomizes some of the facts. “The total rainfall of 1882, 40‘40 in., is the greatest for 25 years, exceeding even 1872 by L44 in. “ There is no record of any approach to so continuous a wet period as the last six months of 1882, when 25'27 in. fell, which is 0-85 in. more than the average yearly fall of the 13 years, 1858-70. “ The rainfall has been recorded here for 25 years, the average of the whole period is 28-03 in. ; the first 13 years were 3'61 in. below, and the last 12 years 3-92 in. above that average, giving a difference of 7'53 in. between the two periods.” In corroboration of the above, the figures from Clifton may be quoted. “ The total rainfall of 1882, 48’28 in., is the greatest for 30 years. “ The rainfall has been recorded here for 30 years, the average of the whole period is 34’32 in. ; the average of the last 11 years has been 4 85 in. in excess.” Hence we arrive at two broad results : — I. That recent years have been characterised by low summer temperatures. II. That, concurrently with the above, the rainfall has been greatly in excess, especially in the Central and Western Counties of England. Recent British Weather. 419 Table Y. — Kelation of Kainfall during the Eight Years 1875-82, to the Average of the Ten Years 1860-9. COUNTY. Station. Observer. Mean Ratio of Rainfall, 1875-82. per cent. Middlesex London, Camden Square G. J. Symons, Esq., F.R.S. 115 Surrey Wey bridge Heath (Bartropps) Mrs. Harrison 111 Wimbledon ri . Devas, Esq 116 Kent Kew Observatory The Kew Committee 119 Maidstone (Hun ton Court) .. Mr. P. Goddard 105 Greenwich (Royal Observatory} The Astronomer Royal 108 Sussex, West .. Chichester (Chilgrove) .. J. W. Woods, Esq 110 Arundel (Dale Park) Mr. E. Sandford 109 , , East . . Maresfield (Forest Lodge) . . Capt. W. Noble .. .. no Berks Reading (Englefield) R. Benyon, Esq. 135 Long Wittenham Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck 117 Herts Bayfordbury W. C. Baker, Esq 117 1 9 St. Albans (Gorhambury) Mr. J. Thompson 118 Hemel Hempstead (Nash Mills) Messrs. J. Dickinson and Co. 123 1 » Tring (Cowroast) H. Thomas, Esq., C.E. 122 Hitchin W. Lucas, Esq 120 » » • • • * Royston H. Wortham, Esq 112 Bucks High Wycombe H. S. Wheeler, Esq. 112 Oxford Banbury (High Street) .. T. Beesley 124 Northampton Northampton (Althorp House) C. S. Groom, Esq 129 Bedford . . Wellingborough E. Sharman, Esq 128 Cardington Mr. J. McLaren 127 Cambridge Ely (Stretham) Mr. H. Walters 125 Wisbech (Bank House) .. A. Peckover, Esq 121 Essex Braintree (Booking) S. Tabor, Esq 119 Suffolk . . Bury St. Edmunds (Westley) R. Burrell, Esq 119 >5 • • „ „ (Barton Hall) Mr. W. Allan 120 ) 5 •• „ „ (Culford) .. Mr. J. Smith 115 Norfolk . . Norwich (Cossey) H. Culley, Esq 123 n • • „ (Honingham Hall) .. Lady Bayning 126 j ) • • • • Holkham J. Davidson, Esq 119- Hunstanton Hall Mr. Nisbet 134 Wilts Salisbury Plain (Chitterne Ho.) R. Hayward, Esq 112 ) 1 •• Swindon (Pen Hill) H. Arkell, Esq. 115 Devon Tavistock Library Mr. R. Westington .. 122 Bovey Tracey J. Divett, Esq 114 J ) • • Exeter (Devon and Exeter Inst.) Mr. E. Parfitt 112 Barnstaple Mr. E. Knill 111 Cornwall Penzance (South Parade) W. H. Richards, Esq. 117 ) 5 • • • • Somerset . . Bodmin (Castle Street) .. Capt. Liddell, R N 111 E. Harptree (Sherborne Res.) Bristol Water Works 112 Gloucester Clifton (South Parade) .. Dr. G. F. Burder 118 Hereford Ross (The Graig) H. Southall, Esq 122 Shropshire Shrewsbury Messrs. Marshall and Co. 134 Worcester Oswestry (Hengoed) Rev. A. R. Lloyd 114 North wick Park Rt. Hon. Lord Northwick 126 . >» Tenbury (Orleton) T. H. Davis, Esq 115 Leicester . . Thornton Reservoir F. Griffith, Esq., C.E. 120 i j • • • • Belvoir Castle W. Ingram, Esq 123 Lincoln .. Spalding (Pode Hole) .. Mr. A. Harrison 114 » ) •• Boston W. H. Wheeler, Esq , C.E. 126 420 Recent British Weather. Table Y. — Relation of Rainfall during the Eight Years 1875-82, to the Average of the Ten Years 1860-9 — continued. County. Station. Observer. Mean Ratio of Rainfall, 1875-82. Lincoln . . Lincoln M. S. and'L. R. Co per cent. 133 Gainsborough 110 Grimsbv 121 Appleby Rev. J. E. Cross 121 Notts New Holland M. S. and L. R. Co 120 Worksop 99 99 .... 129 Derby 5 J •• • • Eetford 115 Chesterfield 121 Kilnarsh (Norwood) 127 Chapel-en-le-frith 100 Woodhead Station 104 Cheshire .. Bosley Minns • . . . . . 113 • • „ Reservoir ,, ,, . . 115 » * • • • • Macclesfield (Park Green) Mr. J. Dale 107 Bollington (Sponds Hill) M. S. and L. R. Co 100 ) 9 Whaley 99 99 .... 103 , , • • • • Marple Aqueduct 99 99 • • • • 105- ., Top Lock Godley Reservoir 107 J. F. Bateman, Esq., F.R.S. 108 Mottram (Matley’s Field) M. S. and L. It. Co 107 Arnfield Reservoir J. F. Bateman, Esq., F.R.S. 120- Rhodes Wood Reservoir 103 J > * * Lancashire Woodhead Reservoir .. .. 102. Denton Reservoir 110 Gorton 107 9 9 • • Manchester (Ardwick) . . J. Casnrtelli, Esq 117 9 9 • • ,, (Piccadilly) M. S. and L. R. Co 104 » * • • „ (Fairfield) .. H. H. Watson, Esq 93- Bolton-le-Moors (The Folds) 99 ) ) • • „ „ (Belmont) .. R. H. Swindlehurst, Esq. 114 „ „ (Heaton) .. 99 99 •• 102 Rochdale (Nayden Dane) J. Diggle, Esq., C.E. 104 9 9 Ormskirk (Ruft'ord) J. Porter, Esq 107 9 J •• Blackpool (South Shore) G. Sharpies, Esq 113 Clitheroe (Downhum Hall) .. R. Assheton, Esq 103 Mr. W. Fox 99 York, W. It. Monk Coniston Park V. Marshall, Esq 8G Sheffield (Broomliall Park) .. D. Doncaster, Jun., Esq. .. J. Gunson, Esq 11G „ (Redmires) 120 Tickhill G. G. Phillips, Esq 125 9 9 • • Rastrick A. Clay, Esq 110 Halifax (Warley Moor) J. A. Paskin, Esq., C.E. .. 111 9 9 • • „ (Midgley Moor) 99 99 •• 10G- 9 9 •• Leeds (Leventhorpe Hall) . . J. T. Leather, Esq., C.E. 112 „ (Holbeck) Messrs. Marshall and Co. 123 York, E. It. " Arncliffe Yen. Archdeacon Boyd .. 109 Hull (Beverley Road) .. II. Smith, Esq 118 York, N. It. .. Malton H. Hurtley, Esq 109 Northumberland Allenheads Mr. J. Charlton 95 9 9 Bywell Mr. W. J. Tone .. .. 114 Recent British Weather. 421 Table V. — Relation of Rainfall during the Eight Years 1875-82, to the Average of the Ten Years 1860-9 — continued. j County. Station. Observer. Mean Ratio of Rainfall, 1875-82. Northumberland North Shields (Rosella Place) R. Spence, Esq per cent. 113 Stamfordham Rev. J. F. Bigge 116 * J Cumberland . . Ilderton (Lilburn Tower) E. J. Collingwood, Esq. .. 121 Borrowdale (Seath waite) Mr. Dixon 84 Keswick J. F. Crosthwaite, Esq. .. 94 Bassenthwaite (Mirehouse) . . H. A. Spedding, Esq. 90 > J Westmoreland Cockermouth (Whinfell Hall) W. Robinson, Esq 88 Kendal (Kent Terrace) .. R. J. Nelson, Esq 97 Glamorgan . . Cardiff (Ely) J. A. B. Williams, Esq., C.E. 116 Carnarvon Llandudno (Warwick House) Dr,. Nicol 110 Kirkcudbright Cargen [Dumfries] P. Dudgeon, Esq 97 Roxburgh Kelso (Springwood Park) Mr. P. Reid 118 Selkirk .. .. Selkirk (Bowhill) Mr. J. Mathison 108 Peebles . . N. Esk Reservoir [Penicuick] Mr. J. Garnock 109 Edinburgh Lanark . . Inveresk Mr. McAuslane 108 Hamilton (Both well Castle) . . Mr. A. Turnbull .. .. 103 Renfrew . . Airdrie (Hillend Reservoir) Mr. W. Ritchie 116 Ryat Lynn J. M. Gale, Esq., C.E. .. 103 Waulk Glen 92 Stirling .. Middleton 97 Falkirk (Iverse) A. Brown, Esq. 98 Argyll .. Lochgilphead (Poltalloch) . . Mr. J. Russell 98 Kinross .. Appin (Aird’s) R. Macfie, Esq. 88 Loch Leven Sluice Mr. W. Clark 112 Perth Aberfoyle J. M. Gale, Esq., C.E. 92 5 » •• Dunblane (Kippenross) .. P. Stirling, Esq 98 Lanrick Castle Mr. J. Beers: 96 Forfar Bridge of Turk J. M. Gale, “Esq., C.E. .. 116 Craigton J. Watson, Esq., C.E. 124 • Hill Head 124 Kincardine Arbroath A. Brown, Esq., LL.D. . . 108 The Burn [Brechin] Col. Mclnroy 111 Aberdeen Braemar J. Aitken, Esq. 108 * 5 • • • • Elgin Aberdeen (Rose Street) A. Cruickshank, Esq. 111 Gordon Castle Mr. Webster 110 Inverness Inverness (Culloden House) . . D. Forbes, Esq 96 Sutherland Golspie (Dunrobin Castle) . . Mr. D. Melville 120 Orkney . . Shapinsay (Balfour Castle) .. Col. Balfour 94 Cork Pomona (Sandwick) Rev. C. Clouston, LL.D .. 95 Cork (Royal Institution) Dr. Caulfield 113 ■ King’s County Tullamore Id. J. B. Kane, Esq., C.E. 115 Wicklow .. Bray (Fassaroe) R. M. Barrington, Esq. .. 104 Armagh .. Armagh Observatory Belfast (Queen’s College) Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. 104 Antrim . . Mr. W. Taylor 103 ( 422 ) XX. — Report of Feeding Experiments on Sheep, conducted at Crawley-Mill Farm, Woburn, with Linseed-cake and Barley- meal, Linseed-cake and Malt, Linseed-cake and Pea-meal . By Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S., Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society. With the approval of the Chemical Committee, a few feeding experiments on sheep were made by me last winter and spring at Crawley-Mill Farm, Woburn. They had for their object to test practically the comparative feeding and fattening value of barley and malt as an additional food to roots, chaff, and a moderate daily allowance of linseed-cake. In connection with the feeding experiments with barley and malt, another lot of sheep were fed upon roots, hay- and straw- chaff, and a moderate allowance of linseed-cake and pea-meal. Thirty young growing strong sheep-tegs, about 10 months old, were weighed and then arranged into three lots. Each pen of ten sheep weighed very closely the same, as will be seen by the following figures : — Table I. — Weight of Each Lot of Sheep at the Commencement of the Experiment. Pex I. Pex II. Pen HI. cwts. qrs. lbs. cwts. qrs. lbs. cwts. qrs. lbs. 0 3 18 0 3 22 0 3 91 1 0 8? 0 3 18? 0 3 18 0 3 26 1 0 19? 0 3 23 0 3 15 1 0 0 1 0 14 1 0 6? 0 3 27* 1 0 8? 0 3 IS? 0 3 18} 0 3 18 0 3 H* 0 3 23? 1 0 7? 1 0 26* 0 3 25* 0 3 23? 0 3 12 0 3 24? 0 3 18J 0 3 18 0 3 15? 0 3 25* 9 2 27? 9 2 27* 9 2 26* As the sheep were young, it was considered undesirable to force them on too rapidly, but to feed them steadily. For this reason they were supplied, for the first eight weeks, with only a small quantity of cake and corn, in addition to swedes and hay- and straw-chaff. The feeding experiments were carried out in the open, on a light sandy field called Flill Field, at Crawley Farm, in which a healthy and well-matured crop of Swedish turnips had been grown in 1882. All the sheep were allowed to help themselves ad libitum 423 Report of Feeding Experiments on Sheep, Sfc. with swedes, cut into slices, and hay- and straw-chaff. The hay- and straw-chaff were mixed in equal proportions, and weighed quantities of the mixed chaff were placed before the sheep, and periodically a heap of roots was weighed out, from which the sheep were supplied and allowed to eat as much as they liked. As regards roots, hay- and straw-chaff, all the sheep were treated alike. As concentrated additional food, all the sheep were supplied during the first eight weeks with £ lb. of good linseed-cake per head per day. In addition to the cake, the sheep in Pen I. had |lb. of barley-meal per head per day ; those in Pen II. the malt and malt-dust produced from £ lb. of the same kind of barley as that upon which the sheep in Pen I. were fed ; and in Pen III. the sheep had ^ lb. of pea-meal (from old peas) per head per day. It is impossible to malt properly a small quantity of barley. A maltster in the neighbourhood of Woburn for this reason was requested, before putting the usual quantity of 15 quarters of barley on the malt-floor, to reserve a sufficient quantity of the barley to furnish a full store for the requirements of the whole experimental period. The malt and malt-dust produced from 15 quarters of barley were weighed, and from this weight the quantity corresponding to the amount of barley consumed in the course of the experi- ments was readily calculated. Both the barley and the malt and malt-dust were ground into- meal, and in this state given to the sheep. Eight cwts. of barley-meal, it was ascertained, produced 6 cwts. 2 qrs. and 20 lbs. of ground malt and malt-dust, in the condition in which the latter was consumed by the sheep, which shows in round numbers a loss in weight of 16 J per cent., which the barley sustained in the process of malting. Or, in other words, 140 lbs. of barley-meal corresponded with 117 lbs. of malt and malt-dust, in the condition in which both were given to the sheep. The barley-meal had the following composition : — Moisture 18 ■ 10 Oil 1-67 * Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) .. 9 "56 Starch, sugar, and digestible fibre 63 "39 Woody fibre (cellulose) 4- 73 f Mineral matters 2 -55 100-00 * Containing nitrogen. 1 • 5d f Including sand and silica -55 The malt produced from this barley, fresh taken from the kiln, contained only 4J per cent, of moisture ; but after it was ground into meal, and had been exposed to the air for some days, 424 Report of Feeding Experiments on Sheep it was found to have absorbed about 5 per cent, more moisture, and then had the following composition : — Composition of Malt. Moisture 9 '35 Oil .. 1-97 * Albuminous compounds (flesli-forming matters) .. 11 -37 Sugar 13 '85 Dextrine, starch, and digestible fibre 54 ’42 Woody fibre (cellulose) 5'53 ■(■Mineral matters (ash) 3 • 51 100-00 * Containing nitrogen 1-82 t Including sand and silica 1-45 The malt, it will be seen, contained a considerable proportion of sugar and a little more nitrogen than the barley from which it was made. An average sample of malt-dust (malt coombs) had the following composition : — Moisture 10-51 Oil *77 •Albuminous compounds (flesh- forming matters) .. 24-41 Dextrine, sugar, starch, and digestible fibre . . . . 47'19 Woody fibre (cellulose) 10-28 Mineral matters (ash) 6-84 100-00 * Containing nitrogen 3 • 88 It will be seen that malt-dust was very rich in nitrogenous organic matters, and also much richer in mineral matters than either malt or barley. The ash of malt-dust, moreover, contains a good deal of phosphoric acid, for in the 6'84 per cent, of the ash which the malt-dust furnished, on analysis 1 found 1-74 per cent, of phosphoric acid. For these reasons the malt-dust was given together with the malt in the feeding experiments on sheep w-ith malt and barley. With regard to the loss which barley sustains in the process of malting, I would observe that the loss is chiefly due to the expulsion of moisture in kiln-drying the malt. Barley on an average contains from 16 to 18 per cent, of moisture, and malt taken fresh from the kiln only about 4£ per cent. Roughly speaking, 100 lbs. of barley, containing 18 per cent, of moisture, may be assumed to make from 75-7 7 £ lbs. of malt, containing 4£ per cent, of moisture and about lbs. of kiln-dust, or the loss in weight on an average amounts to about 20 per cent. Of this loss in weight, I find, however, only conducted at Crawley-Mill Farm, Woburn. 425 5 per cent, consists of dry and mainly carbonaceous matter, which is dissipated in the form of carbonic acid in the process of germination on the malt-floor. In considering the comparative merits of barley and malt for feeding purposes, it should be borne in mind that, in the process of malting, barley loses about 5 per cent, of dry feeding substance, and that the cost of malting probably will not be less than 2s. Gd. per quarter of barley. It is scarcely necessary to direct attention to the fallacies in- cluded in the results of feeding experiments in which equal quantities, by weight, of barley and malt were given to sheep or oxen, or in which a different kind of barley, probably an inferior feeding barley, has been given to one set of animals ; and malt, produced from first-class barley, to another lot. In all comparative feeding experiments with malt and barley the same kind of barley ought to be employed, and the malt and malt-dust be given together in proportion to the weight of the barley from which they had been produced. The linseed-cake used in the sheep-feeding experiments had the following composition : — Moisture 11 '05 Oil 12-03 ‘Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . . 35 • 12 Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre 22 • 86 "Woody fibre (cellulose) 10 "73 Mineral matter (ash) 8 • 21 100-00 * Containing nitrogen 5-62 This cake, it will be seen, was both rich in oil and albumi- nous compounds, and decidedly a linseed-cake of superior quality. The pea-meal was made from old peas, and had the following composition : — Moisture 13 '70 Oil 1-43 ‘Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . . 22 * 69 Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre 52-96 Woody fibre (cellulose) 5*57 Mineral matter (ash) 3*65 100-00 * Containing nitrogen .. .. 3-63 The feeding experiments were begun on the 23rd of December, 1882, and continued until the 17th of February, or for a period of eight weeks, after which the sheep were weighed, and the following results obtained : — VOL. XIX. — S. S. 2 F 426 • Report of Feeding Experiments on Sheep, Table IT. — Weights of tlie Three Lots of Sheep after Eight Weeks Feeding. Pen 1. Pen II. Pen III. Additional Food in Linseed-cake Linseed- cake Linseed-cake and Barley. and Malt. and Peas. cwts. qrs. lbs. cwts. qrs. lbs. cwts. qrs lbs. f 1 o 144 1 0 174 1 0 234 / 1 o n l i 0 1 0 81 1 1 24 1 0 44 1 0 8 1 1 31 1 1 1 1 0 26 Weight of Sheep . . . . .. 1 1 0 25 1 04 1 0 1 0 141 2? 1 0 1 1 18f 184 1 o 74 1 0 104 1 0 41 1 0 21 1 0 224 1 0 114 \ 1 o 54 1 0 13 1 1 19 1 0 1 1 2 14 1 0 54 Total weight of 10 sheep on of February, 1883 .. the 17thj 11 2 41 11 3 31 11 3 31 Weight of the sheep on of December, 1882 . . the 23ruj 9 2 27f 9 2 274 9 2 264 Increase in Live-weight of 10 sheepl in 8 weeks 1 cwts 1 qrs. lbs. 3 44 cwts. qrs. lbs. 2 0 3f cwts. qrs. lbs. 2 0 4f Or in lbs 2004 lbs. 227 f lbs. 228f lbs. Accordingly, the average increase of i each sheep per week was .. .. J 2 lbs. 8 ozs. 2 lbs. 134 ozs. 2 lbs. 13f ozs. And the daily average increase per^ 73 ozs. 6 • 5 ozs. 6-53 ozs. sneep was i 5' It thus appears that the sheep in Pen I. fed upon linseed-cake and barley as additional food, increased less in weight than those in Pen II., which had been given the same amount of linseed-cake, and malt and malt-dust, corresponding to the barley-meal consumed by the sheep in Pen I. It will further be noticed that the sheep in Pen III., fed upon the same quality of linseed-cake as the others, and pea-meal equal in weight to the quantity of barley-meal consumed by the sheep in Pen I., did lully as well as those in Pen II. During the period of eight weeks the ten sheep in each of the three pens consumed the following quantities of food : Pen I. — 78 cwts. of sliced swedes, 1 cwt. hay-chaff, 1 cwt. of wheat-straw-chaff as bulky food, and 140 lbs. of linseed-cake and 140 lbs. of barley-meal. Each sheep in Pen I. accordingly con- sumed per day 15 '6 lbs. of swedes, 3 ’2 oz. of hay-chaff, 3’2 oz. of straw-chaff, and £ lb. ol linseed-cake, and ^ lb. of barley-meal. Pen II. — 78 cwts. of swedes, 1 cwt. of hay-chaff, 1 cwt. of wheat-straw-chaff, and 140 lbs. of linseed-cake, and the malt and malt-dust from 140 lbs. of barley. Each sheep on an average had a daily allowance of 15‘6 lbs. of swedes, 3 2 oz. of hay- chaff, and 3'2 oz. of wheat-straw-chaff, ^ lb. of linseed-cake, and the malt and malt-dust from ^ lb. of barley. 427 conducted at Crawley-Mill Farm, Woburn. 'Table III. — Statement of Quantities of Food consumed by each Pen of Sheep. Food Consumed by Ten Sheep in each Pen. 2nd Period (2 Weeks), February 17 to March 3, 1882. 3r»i Period (2 Weeks), March 3 to March 17, 1883. 4th Period (2 Weeks), March 17 to March 31, 1883. Pen I. Linseed-cake 70 lbs. 105 lbs. 140 lbs. Barley-meal 70 lbs. 105 lbs. 140 lbs. Swedes 12 cwts. 1 qr. 13 cwts. 2 qrs. 12 cwts. 2 qrs. 4 lbs. Bay-chaff 35 lbs. 33 lbs. 35 lbs. Wheat-straw-chaff 35 lbs. 33 lbs. 35 lbs. The Average Daily Allowance per Sheep was : Linseed-cake £ lb. f lb. 1 lb. Barley-meal i lb. f lb. 1 lb. Swedes 9-7 lbs. 10-8 lbs. 10 lbs. Hay-chaff 4 oz. 3-77 oz. 4 oz. Wheat-straw-chaff 4 oz. 3-77 oz. 4 oz. Pen H. Linseed- cake 70 lbs. 105 lbs. 140 lbs. Malt and Malt-dust 58| lbs. 87£ lbs. 117 lbs. Swedes 12 cwts. 1 qr. 13 cwts. 2 qrs. 12 cwts. 2 qrs. 4 lbs. Hay-chaff 35 lbs. 33 lbs. 35 lbs. Wheat-straw-chaff 35 lbs. 33 lbs. 35 lbs. Average Daily Consumption per Sheep : Linseed-cake b lb. fib. 1 lb. Malt and Malt-dust 6 * 68 oz. 10 ’02 oz. 13 -36 oz. Swedes 9-7 lbs. 10-8 lbs. 10 lbs. Hay-chaff 4 oz. 3-77 oz. 4 oz. Straw-chaff 4 oz. 3-77 oz. 4 oz. Pen IH. Linseed-cake 70 lbs. 105 lbs. 140 lbs. Pea-meal 70 lbs. 105 lbs. 140 lbs. Swedes 12 cwts. 1 qr. 13 cwts. 2 qrs. 12 cwts. 2 qrs. 4 lbs. Hay-chaff 35 lbs. 33 lbs. 35 lbs. Wheat-straw-chaff 35 lbs. 33 lbs. 35 lbs. Average Daily Food per Sheep : Linseed-cake 4 lb. | lb. 1 lb. Pea-meal ... 4 lb. | lb. 1 lb. Swedes 9-7 lbs. 10-8 lbs. 10 lbs. Hay- chaff 4 oz. 3-77 oz. 4 oz. Straw-chaff 4 oz. 3-77 oz. 4 oz. Pen III. — 78 cwts. of swedes, 1 cwt. of hay-chaff, 1 cwt. of wheat-straw-chaff, and 140 lbs. of linseed-cake, and 140 lbs. of pea-meal (old peas) ; or each sheep on an average had a daily 2 F 2 428 Report of Feeding Experiments on Sheep , allowance of 15 '6 lbs. of swedes, 3- 2 oz. of hay-chaff, 3 ‘2 oz. of wheat-straw-chafif and ^ lb. of linseed-cake, and ^lb. of pea-meal. After the first period of eight weeks, the daily allowance of linseed-cake of £ lb. was increased to ^ lb. per sheep, and that of barley- and pea-meal was also increased from \ lb. to ^ lb. per head per day ; and the sheep in Pen II. received \ lb. linseed-cake and the malt and malt-dust from l lb. of barley. Upon this allowance of concentrated food they were kept for the next two weeks. In the following fortnight the additional food was further increased to | lb. of cake and f lb. of corn per head per day, and in the succeeding two weeks, or the fourth experimental period, 1 lb. of cake and 1 lb. of barley-meal per sheep per day were supplied as concentrated food to Pen I. ; 1 lb. of linseed-cake and malt and malt-dust, produced from 1 lb. of barley, was given to the sheep in Pen II., and those in Pen III. received during the same period 1 lb. of linseed-cake, and 1 lb. of pea-meal. In the course of the second, third, and fourth periods, each continuing for two weeks, each pen of ten sheep consumed the quantities of food shown in Table III. (p. 427). On the 31st of March, 1883, after having been under experi- ment for 14 weeks, the sheep were again weighed, with the following results : — Table IY. — Weight of Sheep in each Pen on March 31st. Pen I. Pen II. Pen III. Additional food in Linseed-cake Linseed-cake Linseed-cake and Barley. and Malt. and Pea-meal. cwts. qrs. lbs. cwts. qrs lbs. cwts. qrs. lbs. / 1 0 131 1 0 24 1 0 12J 0 3 24 1 1 in 1 0 13£ 1 1 13* 1 1 8 1 0 13J 1 1 2 1 0 16J 1 1 5f Weight of Sheep 1 1 1 81 1 24f 1 0 1 2 2 H 1 1 1 8 0 214 1 0 Ifif 1 0 14£ 1 2 8 1 0 24 1 0 25 1 1 12 1 1 0 1 1 2 1 1 141 1 0 26J 1 1 0 1 1 7£ Total weight of 10 sheep on the) 31st March, 1883 / On the 17th of February, after the) 12 1 13 12 1 21J 12 3 4i 1st experimental period of 8 weeks,! tho sheep weighed ) 11 2 4 11 3 3| 11 3 3i They consequently gained in thel cwts i 0 qrs. lbs. 3 9 cwts. qrs 0 2 lbs. ITS cwts. 1 qrs. lbs. 0 1 succeeding 6 weeks / Or in lbs I 93 lbs. 73§ lbs. 113 lbs. And each sheep on an average gainedl 1 lb. 8‘8oz. 1 lb. 3-48 oz. lib. 1413 oz. in weight per week / conducted at Crawley-MiU Farm, Woburn. 429 It thus appears that, although in the first experimental period of eight weeks the sheep fed upon linseed-cake and barley-meal did not increase as much in live-weight as those fed upon the same quantity of linseed-cake and malt and malt-dust corre- sponding to the barley consumed by the sheep in Pen I., the difference in the weight of the sheep in Pens I. and II. was nearly effaced by the greater weight of the sheep in Pen I. in the following six weeks. It further appears that the sheep in Pen III., fed upon linseed-cake and pea-meal as additional con- centrated food during the last six weeks, increased more in weight than either the sheep in Pen I. or in Pen II. On looking at the table of results showing the increase in live-weight of each of the three lots of sheep, it will be seen that in the first eight weeks, when the sheep consumed more swedes per week than in the following six weeks, and with an allowance of only ^ lb. of cake and ^ lb. of barley or pea-meal, or malt and malt-dust from ^ lb. of barley, the increase in the weight of the sheep, amounting in the case of Pen I. (linseed-cake and barley) to 2^ lbs., in Pen. II. (linseed-cake and malt) to 2 lbs. 13J ozs., in Pen III. (linseed-cake and pea-meal) to 2 lbs. 13f ozs. per week, was considerably higher than in the following six weeks, when the daily allowance of cake and corn was doubled in the first fortnight, then tripled in the next two weeks, and in the last two weeks quadrupled. Thus the weekly increase in the weight of each sheep in the second period of six weeks amounted on an average per sheep in Pen 1. to 1 lb. 8'8 oz., Pen II. to 1 lb. 3 48 oz., and in Pen III. to 1 lb. 14T3 oz. In these experiments a fair and moderate allowance of linseed-cake and meal, and swedes supplied ad libitum , together with some hay- and straw-chaff, certainly gave a better result, at less cost, than a more liberal or excessive allowance of such con- centrated foods. I may add that the sheep were regularly sup- plied with fresh water, and would remind the reader that the sheep were tegs, only about ten months old. Comparing the weight of each lot of sheep when they were put up on the 23rd of December, 1882, with the weights on the 31st of March, 1883, or after 14 weeks, it will be seen that the total increase in the live-weight in the 14 weeks was as follows : — 10 Sheep in Pen I. gained in 14 weeks . „ Pen II. „ „ „ Pen III. lbs. 2931 3011 3411 Or, in round numbers, the 10 sheep in Pen I. (linseed-cake and barley) gained per week 20 lbs. 15 oz., or nearly 21 lbs. In Pen II. (linseed-cake and malt) 10 sheep gained in weight 21£ lbs. per week. 430 Report of Feeding Experiments on Sheep , In Pen III. (linseed-cake and pea-meal) the 10 sheep in- creased 24^ lbs. in live-weight per week. The differences in the increase of the weight of the sheep in, Pens I. and II. indeed are so small, that they may be regarded as due to purely accidental circumstances over which the experimenter has no control. The only legitimate conclusions, that can be drawn from the preceding experiments are : 1st, that barley-meai and linseed-cake given to young growing sheep in moderate proportions, together with roots and some hay- and straw-chaff, is as good a food as the same feeding-mixture in which the same amount of barley is used in a malted state ; 2ndly, that linseed-cake and pea-meal, in equal proportions, and used at the rate of \ lb. each per head per day, in conjunction with some hay- and straw-chaff' and swedes, given ad libitum, is a better food for young sheep than either a mixture of linseed- cake and barley-meal, or linseed-cake and malt. Before disposing of the sheep, it appeared to me interesting to ascertain how the three pens of sheep would get on if they were kept for another fortnight on the maximum allowance of cake and corn upon which they were fed during the last fortnight of the experimental period of 14 weeks. The sheep in Pen I., however, did noteat all the barley-meal, and also left some of the hay- and straw-chaff which was given them, and what they left over was weighed back from time to time. The sheep in the two remaining pens consumed all the con- centrated food with which they were supplied. The following quantities of food were consumed in the fortnight between the 31st of March and the 14th of April by each pen of 10 sheep : — Table Y. Pint I. Pun 11. Pen III. Linseed-cake 140 lbs. 140 lbs. 140 lbs. Barley-meal 115 lbs. , , Malt and Malt-dust , , 117 lbs. Pea-meal , . , , 140 lbs. Swedes 15 cwts. 3 qrs. 15 cwts. 3 qrs. 15 cwts. 3 qrs> Hay-chaff 34 lbs. 37 lbs. 37 lbs. Wheat-straw-chaff 34 lbs. 37 lbs. 37 lbs. On an average each Sheep consumed per day : Linseed 1 lb. 1 lb. 1 lb. Barley-meal 13-1 oz. Malt and Malt-dust (from HO lbs.) barley) j tl 13 '36 oz. Pea-meal .. 1 lb. Swedes 12 lbs. 14'1 oz. 12 lbs. 14'1 oz. 121b. 14-loz. Hay-chaff 3'8 oz. 4-2 oz. 4 • 2 oz. Wheat-straw-chaff 3-8 oz. 4‘2 oz. 4 • 2 oz. conducted at Crawley-Mill Farm, Woburn. 431 The sheep did remarkably well during the last two weeks of the sixteen weeks during which they were under experiment, as will be seen by the following weighings, which were made at the conclusion of the experiments on the 14th of April : — Table VI. — Weight of the Sheep on the conclusion of the Experi- ments, on the 14th of April, 1883, after a period of Sixteen Weeks. Pen- I. Pen II. Pen III. Additional Food in Lin seed -cake Linseed-cake Linseed-cake and Barley. and Malt. and Peas. cwts. qrs. lbs. cwts. qrs. lbs. cwts. qrs. lbs. / 1 1 13? 1 0 20* 1 1 1* 1 1 24* 11 0 1 1 23? 1 0 8? 1 1 7? 1 1 7 1 1 6* 1 1 20? 1 1 2* Weight of Sheep i 1 1 0 1 20? 4? 1 1 3 1 2 11? 1 1 25* 1 1 1 1 1 25* 1 1 14 1 2 16 1 1 16* 1 1 19 1 1 21 1 1 9 1 1 21* 1 1 21* \ 1 1 4 1 1 7 12 5 Total weight of 10 sheep on the 14th) of April, 1883 j 13 0 21 13 2 13? 14 0 12? The weight of the 10 sheep in each) pen on the 31st of March was .. / 12 1 13 12 1 21* 12 3 4? The 10 sheep in each pen conse-'i cwts. qrs. lbs. cwts. qrs. lbs. cwts. qrs. lbs. quently increased in weight during 1 0 3 8 1 0 193 1 1 8 the 5th period of the experiments, | extending over 2 weeks . . . . J Or in lbs 92 lbs. 131? lbs. 148 lbs. 1 0 sheep gained per week 46 lbs. 65-875 lbs. 74 lbs. Or each sheep increased per week . . 4 6 lbs. 6‘58 lbs. 7-4 lbs. Or per day •657 lbs. •94 lbs. 1-06 lb. In the fifth period the sheep in Pen II. (malt and linseed-cake) made nearly 1 lb. of live-weight per day, and did much better than those led upon linseed-cake and barley-meal as additional concentrated food. Linseed-cake and pea-meal given during the last fortnight at the rate of 1 lb. each per day, produced a daily increase of fully 1 lb. per sheep. The increase in the weight of the sheep, in comparison with their weight a fortnight ago, was so considerable, that in order to check the correctness of the weighings, all the sheep were weighed a second time two hours after the first weighings were made, and results were obtained which differed but little from those of the first weighings. At the conclusion of these feeding experiments, extending over sixteen weeks, the weight of each pen of 10 sheep, as just stated, was — 432 Report of Feeding Experiments on Sheep, Sfc. Table YII. Pen I. Pen II. Pen III. Linseed-cake Linseed-cake Linseed-cake and Barley. and Malt. and Peas. cwts. qrs. lbs. cwts. qrs. lbs. cwts. qrs. lbs. Weight on April 14th When the 10 sheep were pui. up for] 13 0 21 13 2 131 14 0 12i experiments on the 23rl of Dec.,) 1883, they weighed ) 9 2 27f 9 2 271 9 2 26 J The sheep consequently increased ini weight in 16 weeks / cwts. qrs. lbs. 3 1 21J cwts. qrs. lbs. 3 3 13f cwts. qrs. lbs. 4 1 13J Or in lbs 3851 ibs. 433f lbs. 489J lbs. It will be seen that the 10 sheep in the second pen, fed upon linseed-cake, malt, and malt-dust, made 48J lbs. more live- weight in sixteen weeks than the 10 sheep in Pen I., which received linseed-cake and barley in the place of malt. The sheep in Pen III., which received per head per day 1 lb. of linseed-cake and 1 lb. of pea-meal in the course of the last four weeks of the experiments, in sixteen weeks produced 56 lbs. more live-weight than the sheep in Pen II., and 104J lbs. more than the 10 sheep in Pen I. According to these data, each sheep, on an average, increased in weight : — Per Week. Per Day. lbs. oz. Pen 1 2' 4 .. .. 5J Pen II 2 '71 .... 6 '19 Pen III 3-06 .... 7 (6‘9964> It is strange that the sheep in Pen I. picked up the whole of the daily allowance of 1 lb. of linseed-cake, but refused to eat along with it the whole daily allowance of 1 lb. of barley-meal, whilst those in Pen II. ate up all the cake (1 lb. per head per day) and all the malt and malt-dust from 1 lb. of barley. On the whole, taking into consideration that, for some reason or other, the sheep did not eat all the barley-meal with which they were supplied in the course of the last fortnight of the expei iments, the differences in the feeding properties of barley, and of the malt and malt-dust produced from the same quantity of barley, in these experiments were but trifling. A better additional food to swedes and chaff than either linseed-cake and barley, or linseed-cake and malt, for young fattening sheep appears to be a mixture of linseed-cake and pea-meal. 12, Hanover Square, Atigust 1883. ( 433 ) XXI. — The late Lord Vernon. By W. Wells, Holmewood, Peterborough, Ex-President of the Society. SUFFICIENT time has perhaps now elapsed since the sudden and lamented death of Lord Vernon, to ensure that an attempt to give some short record of his life and estimate of his character, even by one who had with him a warm and unbroken friendship of many years, shall at least be calm and impartial. The unexpected death of men of greater eminence in the State has often occurred without so wide and general a feeling of a public loss being evinced as when, on the morning of the 2nd of May, it was publicly announced that Lord Vernon had died the previous evening. His life, especially in his later years, though one of unceasing activity, and of earnest determination to do his best in whatever work he was engaged in, was yet so little obtrusive, so free from any desire on his part to attract popularity, that this wide-spread manifestation of grief was a remarkable evidence of the general appreciation of his singularly sterling character. Augustus Henry, sixth Baron Vernon, was born on the 1st of February, 1829. For a short time only he served in the Navy ; and between his leaving that branch of the Service and his join- ing the Scotch Fusilier Guards, he was at Magdalen College, Cambridge, though not long enougn to take his degree. He remained in the Guards until 1851, in which year he married the third daughter of the first Earl of Lichfield. He succeeded his father in 1866. In 1859 he contested the Division of South Derbyshire in the Liberal interest, losing the seat by one vote, that vote, in point of fact, being his own, which he omitted, or declined to record for himself. Although the incidents of an election held so long ago can have but little interest now, yet a hustings answer given at the time by Lord Vernon, seems so characteristic of his own life as to be worth recording. Being asked what he would give as an equivalent for the ballot, his reply was, “ Honesty and straightforwardness and then he added : “ If it should please you to send me to Parliament as your representative, I will act the part of a free and independent member, not fol- lowing this or that minister because he is a minister, but voting in favour of measures rather than men. I pledge myself to do my duty, honestly, diligently, and assiduously, studying to promote to the utmost of my ability not only the local interests of this county, but the common good of our common country.” Though by no means a strong politician, Lord Vernon gave his support generally to the Liberals, with whom his sympathies 434 The late Lord Vernon. undoubtedly were, and with whom he always wished to act. But his loyalty to them in recent years was put to many a severe strain, so severe indeed that, on several important occa- sions, he found himself unable to support the measures of the present Government. For some years before his father’s death, the entire manage- THE LATE LORD VERXON. ment of the VViddrington property, near Morpeth — since sold — had been placed in his hands ; and probably he then acquired that liking for agriculture and country affairs, which led him sub- sequently to devote to them so much of his time and energies. It was in 1859 that Lord Vernon was elected on the Council of The late Lord Vernon. 435- the Royal Agricultural Society, and from that time forward his interest in the Society and work for it were unremitting. He acted as Steward of Implements at Canterbury in 1860, at Leeds in 1861 — where the senior Steward especially called attention to how much the Society was indebted to the exertions of the Hon. A. Vernon in superintending the trials of Steam-ploughs — and again at Battersea in 1862. He was elected President of the Society in 1871. His devotion to his three years’ duties as Steward of Implements had given him a taste for agricultural machinery, and a considerable insight into their merits and defects, while his^ management of the Widdrington estate had included the intro- duction of the use of the steam-plough ; so that on his accession to the Presidency of the Society, he offered at the Show at Wolverhampton a Prize of 100/. “ for the best combination of machinery for the Cultivation of the Soil by Steam-power, the cost of which shall not exceed 700/.” Those who were in office with him, will well remember his unflagging watchfulness over the very important trials of implements that were conducted in that year, which embraced Traction-Engines, besides Steam- cultivating Machinery — the former quite a new feature in con- nection with the Society’s Shows. One result of Lord Vernon’s Presidency was the conviction he at that time arrived at — a conviction in which he was sup- ported by the opinion of others in the Council — that the whole question of the receipts and expenditure of the Society should be considered, with a view of securing, if possible, “ equal results at less cost.” To this end a Special Committee, known by the name of Lord Vernon’s Committee, was appointed in November 1871, which, receiving suggestions from the repre- sentatives of the several departments of the Society, was enabled to present a report that laid the foundation for many changes, combining efficiency and economy in the working of the Society. In the Chemical Department, from the first, Lord Vernon took an active interest. Placed on the Chemical Committee the year after he joined the Council, he brought to it a certain amount of useful knowledge, having learned under Professor W. Allen Miller, of King’s College, the rudiments of Analytical Chemistry. Those were the days when probably the consciences of the vendors of artificial manures and feeding-stuff’s were at their lowest level, and when it seemed to several members of the Council that the good old rule of caveat emptor was hardly a sufficient pro- tection to many members of the Society. No one was more impressed with the magnitude of the evil, and with a desire to- find a remedy, than Lord Vernon; and, with others specially interested in the work of the Chemical Department, he warmly 436 The late Lord Vernon. supported the resolution, proposed by Lord Lichfield in 1879, for the publication, in the Society’s ‘ Journal ’ and in the agricultural newspapers, of reports of sales of inferior or adulterated manures or feeding-stuffs, which were brought under the notice of the Consulting Chemist by members of the Society. It was not long before the Society was called upon to defend the publication of what they considered such a case. The action was tried at Leeds in 1872, before Mr. Justice Blackburn, and although it wras decided in favour of the Plaintiffs, the Society never regretted the course they had adopted. Their conduct wTas warmly approved by the members of the Society ; and from that time forward it was recognised that the Council had entered upon a course of unflinching antagonism to those dealers who acted against the spirit of the resolution just stated. Caution, however, in dealing with such cases is very requisite, and the responsibility- — -after what had occurred at Leeds — of in- volving the Society on inadequate grounds in heavy expenses, be- came no trifling one. But, trifling or not, Lord Vernon was always ready to bear his own, and more than his own, share of it. His indignation was with difficulty restrained as the report of some flagrant cases were read out, and he was apt to be almost im- patient if, as he was ready to think them, too timid counsels sometimes prevailed. As might have been expected from his activity when acting as Steward of Implements, his interest in the Implement Committee was unceasing. One of the results of “ Lord Vernon’s” Committee was a remodelling of the scheme for implement trials, so that only those implements of the most recent invention, and the manufacture of which seemed the most backward, were retained on the official list for trials in rotation. The present position, of being almost embarrassed by the perfection to which agricultural implements have arrived, and of the necessity for an occasional pause in their trials, in order, as it were, to give time for the ingenuity of the makers to bring out something with a substantial claim to novelty, is very different from the state of things some thirty or even twenty years ago, when threshing-machines, reapers, mowers, drills, and other implements, were only in the first stage of their invention, and were brought before the public with all their juvenile imperfections. It was under such circumstances that Lord Vernon’s ever- wakeful sense of justice led him, while giving every credit to the few large firms for the ingenuity they showed, and the heavy expenses they incurred in producing these implements, to fear lest any such system of trials as then existed, should uninten- The late Lord Vernon. 437 tionallv give an undue advantage to the larger manufacturers, and cast the efforts of smaller men into the shade. His proposals, as already indicated, resulted in a considerable reduction of the list of standard implements put down for trial in rotation, coupled with an enlarged power to the Stewards to select for trial, in either the current or any future year, such new implements as might seem to them and the Judges at any Country Meeting, to promise well for the benefit of the English farmer. Without attempting to give a complete statement of the operations of this plan, it may he useful to recall the attention of the members of the Societv to the fact that self-binding- reapers have since been tried twice, and hay-drying machines once ; although under the old system of a fixed rotation, neither of these novel inventions could have been subjected to such exhaustive trials as have been given them recently. At the Society’s International Exhibition at Kilbum, in 1879, Lord Vernon accepted the position of Chairman of the Com- mittee appointed to receive and entertain foreigners of distinc- tion, or those having special recommendations to the good offices of the Society. L nder his guidance visits were paid on three days respectively to the Royal Farms at Windsor, to Woburn Abbey, and to Rothamsted, of the pleasure of which all who were present spoke most warmly, attributing much of the success to the kindness and good management of Lord Vernon, who cemented some old, and established several new, friendships among the foreign guests who followed him. It was in this year also that, after an interv al of seventeen years, he was asked to undertake a second time the office of Steward of Implements. He had considerable hesitation in accepting the post ; and, coming as it did at the moment when he was fully occupied with the work of the Royal Commission, to which he had been appointed in August, there can be no doubt it was a severe tax upon his strength. During the Reading Show, for instance, he was frequently at work at five in the morning on his Royal Commission task, in order that he might have the day clear before him for his steward’s work — unusuallv heavy that year, owing to the protracted trials of Hay- and Corn- Drying Apparatus. Coming from, and living in a dairy county like Derbyshire, Lord ^ ernon was sure to take a great interest in all that per- tained to that branch of agriculture ; and long before the recent depression had turned the attention of farmers in general, and arable farmers in particular, to the production of more butter and cheese, and less corn, he had been busying himself in giving a helping hand to the introduction of cheese factories into his county. 438 The late Lord Vernon. In 1868 he moved the ‘Journal’ Committee of the Royal Agricultural Society to make inquiries into the working of these factories in America; and in 1870 we find him subscribing to the starting of one in Derby, about the same time as the Hon. E. Coke set up his at Longford in the same county. In December of the same year, the chair was taken by Lord Vernon at the Society of Arts, when Mr. Jenkins delivered a lecture on Cheese Factories. The success which has attended these undertakings is well known ; and to Lord Vernon, as one of the first pioneers of the movement, no inconsiderable share of the credit is due. Only two years ago Lord Vernon established at Sudbury a butter-factory — one of the first of the kind in England. Owing to the novelty of the undertaking, many difficulties had to be encountered ; and it required all his patient perseverance and -close personal attention to bring it into working order. It has been greatly appreciated by his tenants and neigh- bours, to whom a ready and steady sale for their milk is invalu- able ; and, with some new machinery and improvements sug- gested and introduced by the present Lord Vernon, and under the management of his brother, the Hon. W. Vernon, it is rapidly becoming an important concern. His tenants at once showed their complete confidence in their landlord’s judgment, and, at the risk of offending their former customers in the trade, without hesitation agreed to supply the milk at market price. They have never since regretted their decision, and they now obtain a regular and steady sale, with a certainty of payment. During the year of his presidency of the Society, in 1871, some of the hardest work that ever fell to his lot was performed by Lord Vernon in connection with the fund raised to supply to the French peasants the seed which the ravages of the German war had, over large districts, deprived them of. Lord Vernon con- sented to preside at a preliminary public meeting, and to act as Chairman of the Fund afterwards. In such work as this, all his sympathy and energy were sure to be fully engaged ; and during the greatest part of the year his labour was incessant in the cause. Ably supported by his inde- fatigable lieutenant, Mr. Jenkins, and his co-Secretaries (Sir Brandreth Gibbs and Mr. W. H. Delano), who were foremost in giving shape to the suggestions originally brought forward by Mr. Howard, and loyally helped by his colleagues on the Committee, Lord Vernon toiled on day after day, often from morning to evening, writing, organizing, and meeting the ever- new difficulties which the nature of the undertaking presented. t An article by Mr. Jenkins in vol. viii. of the ‘ Journal,’ gives The late Lord Vernon. 439 full details of all that was done ; and it is only necessary to say here, that for the succour thus promptly and liberally afforded, the French nation showed themselves to be adequately grateful. It is interesting at this moment to give the following extract from a letter to Mr. C. Randell from the Comte de Paris, dated only in September, in which, referring to a subscription he sends for the Vernon Memorial, he says : — “ I avail myself of this opportunity to pay a tribute to the memory of one who has shown his active sympathy towards my country in the days of our disaster, and whose intelligent and practical charity has made his name popular in many French villages. The two following letters express the feelings of the French Government of the day, and of M. Thiers, then President of the French Republic : — Mon cher Lord Vernon, — Londres, 26 avril. Vous savez combien le Gouvernement francais est dedreux de perpetuer le souvenir des services que la Societe des Secours en Semences a rendus aux Agriculteurs francais dans ces deux dernieres annees. Dans cette pensee, M. le Ministre de l’Agriculture et du Commerce a fait frapper une medaille en or qu’il me prie de vous transmettre. II m’est agreable d’etre encore, dans cette circonstance, l’organ de la reconnaissance de mon gouvernement, et de pouvoir y joindre le temoignage de mes sentiments personnels de haute estime pour le President et les membres du Comite' des Secours aux Agriculteurs francais. Veuillez, mon cher Lord, Me croire votre tout devoue, Ch. Gavard. Je joins la medaille a cette lettre. My Lord, Versailles, le 30 novembre 1871. L’ceuvre du Comite qui s’est charge, sous votre direction, de venir aux • secours des agriculteurs francais victimes de la guerre en leur faisant distribuer des semences, a rendu a la France de trop grands services, pour que le President de la Republique ne fut pas desireux de vous dormer un temoignage de sa gratitude. Le President m’a charge de vous offrir une porcelaine de Sevres. Je m’empresse de vous transmettre ce souvenir et je me telicite d’etre, en cette circonstance, l’interprete du Chef de l’Etat, et d’avoir cette occasion de vous exprimer, my Lord, mes sentiments personnels de haute consideration. Le Ministre des Affaires Etrangeres, Remus at. A Lord Vernon, President du Comite pour la distribution de Semences aux Agriculteurs frangais. ^ To the latter of these letters the record of a curious agricultural circumstance may be added. The “ porcelaine de Sevres ” con- sisted of a beautiful series of seven pieces illustrating a wild- boar hunt, and they arrived in due course at Dover, most care- fully packed in hay. There the Veterinary Inspector of the Privy Council impounded them, for fear of introducing cattle- plague into England, as the fatal rinderpest was then raging in 440 The late Lord Vernon. France, having been carried there by the German armies. It would require many pages to describe the efforts made, and the precautions taken, by all parties concerned to liberate this hand- some gift from the clutches of the Veterinary Inspector, whose devotion to his duty was of course commended by none more than by Lord Vernon himself. A striking illustration of how much his own individual work was recognised and appreciated by those for whom it was under- taken, is given in the following extract from a letter: — “When we were at Tours, an old French peasant and his wife drove in from the country to thank him in person. Their story was a touching one. They had been very well off till the time of the war, when they paid a heavy sum to buy their only child off from serving in the army. A second conscription obliged him to go, and he was killed. They meantime had had their crops ruined, and but for the help of the seed-fund would have failed alto- gether.” The same letter mentions there having been much disappointment at Tours because Lord Vernon was too unwell at the time to accept an invitation to a public dinner which they were very anxious to give in his honour. When in 1875 a fund was raised by the Lord Mayor for the. relief of the sufferers by the disastrous inundations in the valley of the Garonne, Lord Vernon joined the committee, and gave much valuable assistance and advice, especially insisting that all English subscriptions should be distributed by English agents. As a fitting sequel to the thought and labour he had bestowed for so many years on agricultural and other cognate subjects, he was appointed a member of the Royal Commission on Agriculture in August 1879. To accept any appointment meant with Lord Vernon that he would give his whole care and attention to it ; and it may be well imagined how soon he became absorbed in the work of the Commission. Lasting, as it did, for nearly three years, it is not too much to say that it seemed hardly ever out of his thoughts. Besides the scrupulous pains which, as mentioned by the Duke of Richmond (p.442), he took at the sittings of the Commission in framing his questions — frequently written out beforehand — so as to extract the truth from whatever source it could be arrived at, his corre- spondence and interviews with tenant-farmers, land-agents, and others, were incessant ; and that his views were well thought out and independent is best shown by his having, while agree- ing with the rest of the Report of the Commission, produced a Supplementary Memorandum on the vexed question of unex- hausted improvements. It was on the basis of this memo- randum that he framed his Bill for the Amendment of the The late Lord Vernon. 441 Law relating to Agricultural Holdings. Upon the drawing-up of this measure he had spared neither time nor thought, and it was to have been brought forward by him at the afternoon sitting of the House of Lords on the 1st of May, only an hour or two after the sudden and fatal attack occurred. It has been noticed, in general terms, how wide-spread and deep the expressions of grief were when his untimely death became known ; and although it would be out of place to refer in much detail to the many written tributes to his memory of a public nature, and still more so to those from private and intimate sources ; yet, as evidence of the singular esteem and affection in which he was held by all with whom he was brought into contact, a few extracts from some of the many letters of sympathy which were written at the time of his death may be permitted. From France the Marquis de Dampierre writes on the part of the “ Societe des Agriculteurs de France:” — “ J’ai cede au premier elan de mon coeur en exprimant notre douleur de la perte de l'homme eminent qui avait su, en France comme en Angleterre, s’attirer le respect et l’affection de tous. . . . “ Le prochain numero du Bulletin de la Societe des Agricul- teurs de France contiendra une courte notice sur Lord Vernon, et donnera l’extrait d’une lettre, it mon adresse, qui correspond bien aux sentiments de ce noble cceur.” The extract from the ‘ Journal de 1' Agriculture de France ’ of May 10, 1883, is as follows : — “ Nous avons ete douleureusement emus en apprenant la mort de Lord Vernon, arrivee subitement a Londres ce ler mai courant. Son nom etait doublement sympathique a la France ; d’abord, a raison des services qu’il a rendus a l’agriculture en general ; ensuite et surtout, a cause des secours qu’il a donnes a nos campagnes lors des desastres de l’invasion. . . . Dans la seance de la Societe Royale du 2d mai, le President, M. le Due de Richmond, a rappele les grandes qualites de l’esprit et de cceur, que possedait le defunt. Sa mort prematuree, a-t-il dit, est une perte nationale. La France, pouvons-nous ajouter, partagera le deuil de 1’ Angleterre, car elle perd en Lord Vernon, un ami et un bienfaiteur.” The press in his own and neighbouring counties lament his loss in a warm and generous manner. The editor of one paper, writing privately, says — “ I feel I may be permitted to express, however inadequately, the deep personal esteem and respect with which I regarded him. . . . The loss is such that it affects society at large ; and, indeed, my experience does not extend to another case in which the public feeling has been more heart- felt and deep.” YOL. XIX. — S. S. 2 G 442 The late Lord Vernon. On belialf of tbe Derbyshire Agricultural Society the chair- man writes — “ During the 18 years Lord \ ernon had been a member of this Society his energies were ever directed to its advancement, and his great practical knowledge, coupled with his clearness of judgment enabled him thoroughly to appreciate the wants and necessities of the farmers. ... In all questions arising: between landlord and tenant his manner was always so courteous, and his judgment so dispassionate, that his decision was accepted not only without a murmur, but with gratitude.” A well-known Queen’s Counsel writes to a legal friend of the family — “ His loss will be greatly and widely felt, and in the Midland counties no one can well fill the vacancy his un- timely death will cause.” “ What I look back to with most pleasure is the evenness of his disposition and the patience and fairness of his judgment.” This paragraph from the letter of a well-known statesman gives a singularly true description of his well-balanced and conscien- tious mind, and of the feelings of confidence and affection that any intercourse with him produced — feelings which are well illustrated in two letters of sympathy, written, the one on behalf of his old tenantry in Northumberland, the other by one of his fellow-workers on the Seed Fund. The first says— “ Rest assured that the love and respect we all cherished for Lord Vernon and the family will never be effaced, and though con- nections which once existed are now severed, yet the recollection of his Lordship’s ever kindly interest in us, and anxiety for our welfare, are too vivid to be easily erased from our memory.” The second says — “ Having been associated with him in the distribution of the French Peasant Farmers’ Seed Fund in 1871, and of the Inundation Fund in 1875, I have never worked with or under any man who more thoroughly won and preserved the sympathy and affection of his subordinates.” At a meeting of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society on May 2nd, the Duke of Richmond, as President, on taking the chair said : “ Before proceeding to the ordinary business of the Council, I must call your attention for a moment to one of the saddest calamities that it has been my misfortune to hear of ; that is, the very sudden death of our dear lamented friend, Lord Vernon. I am sure that all of us who have worked with him on this Council appreciated his great virtue, his good habits of business, and his courtesy of demeanour on all occasions ; and I can assure you that I feel his loss more acutely, perhaps, than many others, because for three years I sat with him in constant consultation on the Royal Agricultural Commission, and upon all occasions on that Commission I had the greatest possible assistance from him, the most loyal consideration for every- The late Lord Vernon. 443 thing which I suggested or put forward ; and though we did not always agree upon everything, as was to be expected in such a large inquiry, I always found in him the most fervent, honest, straightforward friend that anybody could wish to have. Active as he has always been upon this Council, energetic as he has been on all occasions regarding everything connected with the welfare of this Society, and agriculture generally, I consider it to be a national loss that he has been so early cut off in what 1 must say was a very useful career ; and I cannot but think that his energy in the subject which he had recently taken up has been the cause of his sudden decease. I believe that the Bill which he had drawn up, and which only yester- day he was to have brought before the House of Lords, was too great a strain upon his brain, for up till two o’clock yester- day he was apparently in good health, and at eight o’clock he was no more. I did not think it would be right or proper that we should meet to do the ordinary business of the Council without expressing our sincere and earnest regret at so great a calamity.” It would be a mistake to think that what related to agriculture directly or indirectly engrossed Lord Vernon’s attention to the exclusion of other subjects. Even without referring to the management of his own collieries, to which he gave the most minute and watchful attention, he found time to take a pro- minent part in county affairs of whatever kind. He was a Governor of the important Repton School, had been Chair- man of the School Board for some years, and this is how he is spoken of by one of his fellow-workers there : “ Lord Vernon’s death is a national loss, but it touches us here very nearly ; no one can in any sense replace him.” An Oxford friend, a man of high standing in the University, in alluding to his loss, adds that it had been his intention to have proposed his name on the first opportunity for the distinction of an hon. degree ; and this perhaps is a fitting place to men- tion that, with the assistance of Sir James La Caita, he com- pleted the elaborate and expensive edition of Dante which had been begun by his father. Only a few copies of this very fine work were printed and sent to certain public and to a few private libraries. If, as all that has been said abundantly shows, there was in Lord Vernon’s character something which made even those who had with him mere business transactions, feel at once drawn towards him, and prompt to claim him as a friend, it can be well imagined how warm were the more intimate relations of his life, among his immediate neighbours, his tenants, and his employes. 2 G 2 444 Report on the Exhibition of Live-Stock at York. Those who had the privilege of seeing him in his home must often have been struck, for instance, by the bond of friendship which existed between the Hall and the village. The two seemed rather to be one large family, with him at its head — all having common interests, common joys, and common sorrows. And as at Sudbury, where everything tending to the comfort as well as the moral well-being of his tenants and poorer neighbours, including the excellent school, was sedu- lously promoted ; so also at Poynton, in Cheshire, where his collieries were situated, the like vigilant care in the same direction wras exercised. Among the colliers at Poynton he was very popular, and an interesting account is given in a Stockport paper of' a threatened strike being avoided by his personal influence. “ He met,” the account says, “ a deputation of the men, listened patiently to all the arguments that could be adduced on behalf of the miners, pointed out the mistakes they had made, and the result was a reconciliation, the full import of which can scarcely be appre- ciated by those unacquainted with the consequences of a work- man’s strike.” And it may well be added here, that perhaps one of the most touching letters of condolence received by the family on Lord Vernon’s death was from a working miner at Poynton. Such, then, is a very brief outline of the life and character of one whose earnestness in the discharge of his duties, and of his self-imposed tasks, to the utmost of his abilities, was very remarkable ; and if occasionally a disposition arose to look upon his anxiety as extreme, and his conscientiousness as excessive, it was quickly lost in admiration of the noble spirit and generous motives which produced in him those feelings of perhaps over-sensitiveness. But the quality and value of a man’s career must be judged mainly by the effect it leaves on the minds of his fellow-men ; and Lord Vernon had this seal set on his — that in his death he was as much and as widely regretted as in his life he had been honoured and beloved. XXII. — Report on the Exhibition of Live-Stock at York. By S. P. Foster, of Killhow, Carlisle, Senior Steward. The Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society held on the Knavesmire at York, and so looked forward to with feelings of mingled hope and doubt, will long be remembered ; for was it not one of the greatest exhibitions of live-stock ever held, whether we consider quantity or quality ? 445 Report on the Exhibition of Live-Stock at York. The Show, as usual, opened on the Saturday (14th of July), but on that day the Implement Yard was the only part to which the public could gain admittance. On Sunday the excellent institution of holding Di vine Service in the Yard was again adhered to, when the large marquee was crowded with an attentive congregation, composed of a few members of the Local Committee and their friends, a few Members of Council, and some hundreds of grooms, herdsmen, and shep- herds ; in fact, I think that every tongue, whether from south or north, east or west, in Great Britain, with additions from the Emerald Isle, had one if not more representatives, a result which proves the popularity of this appropriate service ! His Grace the Archbishop of York preached, and gave much good advice to all, his sermon being listened to by the congregation with marked attention. On Monday began the real work of the week, i.e. the judging of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs ; but it is not my duty to write a long and full account of the live-stock, and I think it is fortunate for the readers of the ‘ Journal ’ that a description, by a more practised hand, will be given of the greatest and most successful collection of stock for exhibition got together for many years. The Prince of Wales, who was the guest of Sir G. Wombwell, again did all that was possible to make the Show a success, and right royally was he received by the good people both of county and city, nothwithstanding that his arrival took place at the time of a perfect downpour. This year his Royal Highness paid a longer visit to the Show than of late he has been able to do, so at his command the cattle were first brought before him as at an ordinary parade, and not the prize animals alone shown to him, which was the case at Derby and Reading. After the parade of cattle, an adjournment was made for luncheon ; but his Royal Highness was soon again in the Grand Stand, from whence he reviewed the whole of the horses, between five and six hundred passing before him in one continual stream. The Prince having expressed a desire to see all he possibly could, that master of detail, Mr. Jacob Wilson, arranged that the sheep should be in position on either side of the principal avenue as his Royal Highness drove down ; these instructions, as is well known, were carried out by M r. Gorringe, one of my many able colleagues, the result being that a parade of sheep before the Prince was successfully inaugurated. After the cattle parade, and before luncheon, his Royal Highness attended the General Meeting of Members of the Society, and in a telling speech, amidst the greatest applause, gave our noble President a title, acknowledged by his Grace to be the proudest title he could 446 Report on the Exhibition of Live-Stock at York. bear, namely, that of the “ farmer's friend.” I think I hear many say, “ the truest and most appropriate title.” It was next proposed that Sir Brandreth Gibbs should be President for the ensuing year, and the reception of that gentle- man proved that there were not two opinions as to the selection by the Council of their President-elect being endorsed by the Members of the Society. I am glad to be able to record that a hearty vote of thanks was passed to the Railway Companies ; and I believe I cannot be contradicted when I say that never did the Railway Com- panies do their work in a better style ; and well was the vote of thanks deserved, that was so ably acknowledged by Mr. Dent, the Chairman of the North-Eastern Railway, who himself last year at Reading occupied the position of President of the Society. On the evening of Wednesday the 18th, the Lord Mayor and Corporation of York held out the right hand of hospitality and “ good fellowship ” towards the Society, by entertaining at a banquet at the Mansion House the noble President and the Council. Perhaps the greatest feature of this Show, as compared with the previous one held at Reading, was that this can indeed be called a great “ horse show and I think the owners of all stock will admit that the cart horses alone were a grand sight, and that Class 1, the Shire Horse Class, stands in its right place at a Royal Show as the greatest of English cart breeds. At the same time, Thoroughbred Stallions for getting Hunters were a great improvement on the previous year ; while Hunters, I heard a well-known Judge remark, kept on getting better and better, as class followed class. It will be remembered by all who stood round the large horse ring on the Monday, that the first prize for thoroughbred horses for getting hunters was awarded to Messrs. Dodgson and Thompson for “ Mulatto and many will regret that the Stewards were compelled, on a protest being lodged against him, to give the coveted red card to Lord Scarborough for “ Discord,” a useful horse, but without the substance and power of “ Mulatto.” Now let me give a few words about the cattle. Shorthorns, Herefords, and Polls (Angus) were well represented, as also Devons and the Channel Islands breeds. Shorthorns, as is generally the case, were by far the most numerous, and certainly there were some animals of great excellence ; but I think that, if we take the numbers shown in the Hereford Classes and compare them with the numbers shown in the Shorthorn Classes, the Herefords had the pull ; this is 447 Report on the Exhibition of Live-Stock at York. probably to be accounted for by many breeders of Shorthorns preferring to keep their animals in breeding condition at home, rather than run the risks of long journeys, bad weather, and disease, while the owners of the white faces may not be desirous of hiding their “light under a bushel.” It may not be out of place to mention that during the last few years, in which I have been a Steward of the Society, I have often heard the remark, that better prizes are offered for Shorthorns than for other breeds ; but if we look at the numbers entered, it will at once be seen that the boot is on the other leg, for the Shorthorns entered at York were 129, while of Herefords, Devons, and Polled Angus, altogether, we only had 112 entries. Again, last year, in the West of England, there were 127 Shorthorns entered, as against 11(3 Elerefords and Devons ! There was not a class for Polled Angus at Reading. It will not be forgotten that last year many said, “ how the Sussex Cattle have improved of late years !” I think this remark might have been endorsed at York. Sheep were again a good show, but the premiums, both for quality and quantity, again, I understand, must be given to the Shropshires, — the Southdowns, however, running them very close. In point of numbers, the pigs were above the average : taking them according to the Catalogue, the Large Whites did not muster as strong as might have been expected, considering that the Show was held in their own country ! There were, how- ever, fine specimens, and great praise is due to the breeders for the improvement in quality and fineness of bone especially apparent in some of the sows. The competition amongst the younger pigs of this breed was considerably reduced by dentition disqualifications. In the Middle Whites there were a number of most useful pigs. This breed appears to be growing in favour, as the “ happy medium ” between Small and Large Whites, and are now quite establishing for themselves a distinctive type. The Small Whites, though fairly strong, were not a large gathering ; one well-known yard being unrepresented, owing to the difficulty of transit occasioned by “ the foot-and-mouth regulations.” The Blacks were a full entry, and some good pigs were shown. The Berkshires were by far the strongest part of the Pig Classes ; in point of numbers they almost doubled any other breed, and came from all parts of the country. As was to be expected in so large an entry, great variations were found in point of merit ; at the same time, with a few exceptions, they all showed the firm flesh for which this breed is so noted, and were also true to types and markings. Under the head of Other Breeds 448 Report on the Exhibition of Live-Stock at York. there was nothing worthy of note except some curious specimens of the “old Tamworth breed,” one young pig certainly showing great size for his age! The new system of having separate Judges for White and Black Pigs is decidedly a step in the right direction, but I would suggest three Judges in each divi- sion, not three and two. I am greatly indebted to the pen of Mr. Ashworth for the account I have given of the pigs, and I hoped to have added a few lines by Mr. Gorringe about the sheep, a subject with which he is so well acquainted, but unfor- tunately the printer cannot wait. I have no doubt, however, that these classes, and for the matter of that all others, will be thoroughly described by the official reporter a few pages further on. The weather was, taking one day with another, good and bad together, favourable ; but on the Tuesday, just as the Prince came, and the last hour that the Show was open on Friday, visitors learnt that it can rain at York as easily as at Kilburn or Carlisle. It was certainly very fortunate that the tremendous wet of the dying hours of the Show, and of the two following days, did not come sooner, for I am told that the “ Knavesmire ” gave indications on the morning of the 21st as to the state it could have got into had it been compelled to appear during the Show week with its “ great-coat ” worn out ! The Local Committee deserve more than a few words of thanks, for doubt- less they had many ups and downs to contend against, that we know not of. Before I send off these few lines to Hanover Square, may I ask our noble President to allow me to thank him for his great kindness to me during the time I have had the honour to work under him as Steward of the Royal Agricultural Society, and also to thank my companions in Stewardship for all their aid, including with them our good friends the Assistant Stewards? It is not for me to speak of the work done by our indefatigable Secretary, either as regards the Stock Yard, or in superintending the rearing of his favourite child, “the Dairy,” but I should like to thank him and the whole of his staff for their uniform courtesy to me during my term of office. I must not forget to mention that the building of the stables, &c., again showed the skill of Mr. Bennison’s hands. My work is now done ; but I must ask that all my short- comings may be excused, and especially so poor a Report, it being but the effort of a “ three-year-old,” pushed, perforce, by the exigencies of the Society, to early maturity, instead of the work of a well-developed Steward of four years’ standing. ( 449 ) XXIII. — Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at the Society's Meeting, 1883. By William Macdonald, Editor of the ‘ North British Agriculturist,’ Edinburgh. DESPITE the deterring effects of restrictions on the movements of stock, arising from the existence of a considerable amount of foot-and-mouth disease in various parts of the kingdom, the York Show, held on the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th of July, will take its place among the most successful the Society has had. This is saying a great deal, when it is remembered that heavy showers characterised the weather of the second day, and a deluge of rain that of the closing day ; that no little dread of disease naturally existed among pedigree stock-owners, and that agriculturists have passed through a long period of great depres- sion. Of the agricultural disasters of recent years, it is true, there was little or no trace in the Showyard. If one were to judge by what he saw at York, it might be assumed that the worst was past, and that that worst had not, after all, been so bad. Well, it should not be too much to expect that the worst is over ; but, as to the magnitude of the depression, it would be misleading to estimate that by what turns up at a national Show. Be that as it may, it is so far comforting to find so much vitality and confidence still in agricultural quarters as was manifested at the York Meeting. The live-stock showed no falling off, neither did the attendance of visitors. Both in respect of the character of the bestial collection and of the patronage of the public, the York Meeting is likely to be pointed to with a considerable degree of satisfaction for years to come. The magnificence of the site on Knavesmire, the railway and other accommodation, and the admirable manner in which the Yard was laid out, as well as the precision with which the arrangements were carried into effect by the officials, are matters on which all concerned can reflect with pride and pleasure. The authorities of the ancient city of Y ork rose to the occasion, and gave the foremost Agricultural Society a welcome worthy of the town and of the Exhibition. Any report of the Show would be incomplete without refer- ence to the success of the precautions taken by the Council of the Society to prevent the spread of disease. Early in the summer the Council were confronted by the facts that foot-and- mouth disease had a considerable hold of the country, was pre- valent in some parts of the county in which the Show was to take place, and had occasioned restrictions on the movement ol stock which, if not partially relaxed, would have proved almost fatal to the Exhibition. Those best able to form an accurate 450 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at opinion on the subject, however, were satisfied that, with due care, there was no occasion to postpone the Show. The Council took that view, in the belief that the precautions they were about to adopt would prevent the occurrence of the Show from augmenting the amount of foot - and - mouth disease. The Council, as the result of much consideration and forethought on the part of the Society’s responsible officials, and at much expense, succeeded in (1) purchasing the grazing rights of the 300 acres called Knavesmire (on which the Show took place), with the view of keeping it clear of cattle, sheep, or pigs from the 4th of June till after the Show; (2) closing the Railway siding at which the stock were to be received and despatched for a similar period ; and (3) closing the York Cattle Market from the 21st of June till after the Exhibition. No cattle, sheep, or pigs were to be admitted from an infected area. The Council submitted these arrangements to exhibitors, to the Privy Council, and to local authorities throughout the kingdom, and were able to assure all, that there had for a long time been no disease within the jurisdiction of the City of York, nor very near the town. The result of the labours of the Council and the Secre- tary in this matter was that exhibitors came forward with a considerable degree of confidence ; that local authorities agreed to allow stock to return to their respective homes from the Show, on the receipt of a certificate from the Secretary, countersigned by one of the Society’s Veterinary Inspectors, to the effect that there was no disease in the Yard, and that the particular animals were healthy. With these precautions rigidly carried out, it is gratifying to the Society, and satisfactory to all concerned, that no outbreak of disease has been traced to the movements of stock involved by the Show. The collection of the British breeds of stock was better than might have been expected. Saving alone Ivilburn, it may be doubted if ever the Society had a Show that embraced such a good representation of so many different varieties of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs. In no section of the Show was there so much improvement as in that of horses. The Society popularised the classification of the heavier breeds, and increased the prize-money somewhat, while, thanks to the liberality of the Local Com- mittee and of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, greater induce- ments than usual were offered, and not in vain. Seldom, if ever, has the Society had such a splendid show of horses, both heavy and light-legged. The Cattle sections were more remark- able for generally well-sustained merit than for the super-excel- lence of any one variety. Sheep, more particularly of the Down order, were fully up to the average ; and pigs, as was looked for in York, were creditably represented. the Society's Meeting , 1883. 451 A careful perusal of the Catalogue and a glance at the following detailed Report will convey some instructive and gratifying facts. In the first place, a very large proportion of the animals exhibited were bred by the exhibitors. This was so as regards cattle, while very few of the sheep and pigs have ever changed hands, and many of the horses were bred and reared by their present owners. In the next place, an astonishingly large number of the prize-winners in the younger classes are the produce of males and females still in Showyard trim, and adorned by prize-tickets at this very Meeting. This favours the belief that high feeding is not so detrimental, in skilful hands, to successful breeding as is generally supposed. Preparation for modern Showyards is a severe ordeal, and only good-con- stitutioned animals can endure it. It leads to many breeding mishaps and failures ; but when one finds the sires and dams of so many of the prize-winners themselves in the prize-list as was the case at York, one is forced to the conclusion that successful showing and breeding go hand in hand to a considerable extent, and to a larger degree than is commonly imagined. Overfeeding has been disappearing somewhat in recent years. There is still too much of it, though rather less at York than usual. The Society is to be congratulated on its choice of Judges. In many of the classes the task of a Judge was an arduous one. The awards on the whole, however, were judi- ciously made. Turning to my descriptive notes of the different breeds, I begin, as the Catalogue does, with HORSES. As before stated, the exhibition of horses was one of the best yet witnessed in England. The great size and early develop- ment of the Shire and Agricultural colts and fillies were fitting subjects of remark. The clean hardy bones, free pasterns, and fine action of the Clydesdales had to be pitted against the greater weight and earlier maturity of the corresponding breeds across the Border. The good-wearing legs and portly bodies of the Suffolk, and the great activity of many of the hunting horses and hacks, riveted attention, no less than did the symmetry and quality of several of the ponies. Shire Horses. The Aged Stallion Class was small, but very good. Lord Ellesmere’s first horse was “ Exchange ” (2421), bred by Mr. Stanley, and very heavy for a five-year-old. He has more feather than the rest, and is powerfully coupled, but bad in 452 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at action. By many, Mr. Shaw’s second horse, “Cromwell” (2415), from Lancashire, would have been preferred. He was first at Reading, has good clean bone, strong build, splendid neck, and moves better than the first. Mr. Pole-Gell’s third is a neat, if not very heavy, four-year-old chestnut, bred by Mr. Kent, Lincolnshire. He stands well on nice legs, and appears to advantage in motion. Three-year-olds were stronger in numbers, and quality was not deficient. The Hon. Mr. Coke’s chestnut “ Certainty,” bred by Mr. Tinsley, Lincolnshire, is an animal among a thousand. He shows muscle and general development, that are not often visible in older animals. He was first at Reading, and has gained in all a dozen first prizes. Well-sustained as merit was in the class, he was abreast of the others, and moved so well that he very properly got the cup as the best entire horse of the breed. “ Esquire,” of Lord Ellesmere’s, bred by Mr. Blunt, placed second, has immense forearm and bone, with more feather than is common among Shires, while his buttock is grand, and character good. His head may be rather heavy for some tastes, but he is an animal of great substance. To him fell first honours at London in the spring. Mr. Forshaw’s third, bred in Lincolnshire, is compact in build, with better bone than some of the others, and easy action. He stood first among all ages at Doncaster, beating Lord Ellesmere’s first aged horse. Lord Egerton’s Reserve colt, bred by Messrs. Waring, Lancashire, is a tidy bay, son of the celebrated prize-horse “ What’s Wanted.” Still larger were numbers, and correspondingly greater was size, in the Two-year-old Colt Class. The Judges, as they say themselves, had no sinecure here. A satisfactory first was found, however, in Mr. Elsey’s handsome bay colt, bred by Mr. King, Lincolnshire, and sired, like Mr. Coke’s champion colt, by “Lincolnshire Tom” (1367). This colt is wonderfully ripe, strong in bone, good in feet and feather, and in general features not unlike a Clydesdale, but bigger and better matured than animals of the Scotch breed usually are at the age. The biggest colt in the class, if not in the Show, for a two-year-old, was Mr. Welcher’s second, of Mr. Betts’s breeding, and also sired by “ Lincolnshire Tom.” He has monster legs, measuring below the knee 12J inches. His thighs and forearm are very strong, but his hocks are too fleshy. He has gained eight first prizes, and is an extraordinary colt for size and substance. Mr. Bacon’s third, an active well-put-together colt, of his own breeding, is the best “ stepper ” of the three, and has good pasterns and feet. The Lion. Mr. Coke’s Reserve black colt, bred by the exhibitor, has excellent feet and pretty good form. the Society's Meeting, 1883. 453 Lord Ellesmere furnished a capital leader in a well-filled class of Shire Mares, with foal at foot, in the shape of a seven- year-old brown “ Darling,” bred by Mr. Kelsall, and sired by “ England’s Glory.” She is a really good all-round mare, heavy in body, with legs to harmonise, good feather, and excellent feet. She would pass in appearance for a Clydesdale, and has an exceptionally promising foal at foot. The second mare, owned by Mr. Gilbey, is a nine-year-okl black, of Mr. Stokes’s breeding. She is a thick, well-put-together mare, of a fine, old, very durable stamp. Of her foal by the second-prize horse “ Cromwell,” great things are naturally expected. A grand- daughter of “England’s Glory” is Mr. Miller’s third twelve- year-old bay mare “ Trimmer,” from Singleton Park, and bred by Mr. Richardson, Cambridgeshire. She is strong on the back, and good in the legs. Her tail, however, is too small for such buttocks. Lord Ellesmere’s Reserve mare is fifteen years old, and moves well, though now looking a little the worse for wear. Her breeder was Mr. Martin, Wainfleet. If she had not had good pasterns, she would not have worn so well. One of the gems of the Meeting was the Hon. Mr. Coke’s first three-year-old black filly, bred by Mr. Lawrence, Lan- cashire, and sired by “ Lincoln ” (1350). The symmetry of her body was as noticeable as her size, sound feet, and good legs. She moves nicely, and repeated her Derby, Reading, and London firsts easily, making her sixteenth victory. Lord Elles- mere’s second has a frame and features not unlike the biggest and best-bodied Clydesdales. Mr. G. Taylor’s third, or Re- serve filly is not so heavy as the others, but she is evidently made of good useful material. The Two-year-old Filly Class was both large and remarkably good. Mr. Shaw’s first, “ Sun- flower,” bred by Mr. Fisher, Lancashire, is a beauty, and her symmetry and quality have not been procured at the expense of size. She has grown so well, that in dimensions she would not be a poor apology for a fully-developed mare. In bone, feather, and feet, she approaches the Clydesdale features, with more muscle and flesh than they generally display at the age. Mr. Coke’s second is a granddaughter of “ England’s Glory,” and is wonderfully up on all her points for a two-year-old. Bred by Mr. Blackley, Northamptonshire, she had not much to spare with Lord Ellesmere’s massive third chestnut of Mr. Brown’s breeding, or with Mr. Gil bey’s black fourth, admirably coupled, and descended from Mr. Blundell’s stud. The whole class was deservedly commended. The Judges’ Report of Shires will be found after my notes on the Agricultural Classes, which were judged by the same bench. 454 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at Agricultural Horses. These newly opened classes, confined to animals not eligible as Shires, Clydesdales, or Suffolks, were not very well filled. Mr. Riddell’s first aged horse is a five-year-old bay of Mr. Drew’s breeding, sired by “Prince of Wales,” and out of the English-bred mare “ Sheba,” which got the cup as best cart- mare or gelding at the Liverpool Royal in 1877. This is a well-proportioned horse, not unlike his sire, with splendid legs and feet, and was beautifully brought out, as Mr. Riddell can so well do. Sir Robert Loyd Lindsay’s second is a six-year-old ponderous chestnut, bred by exhibitor, but not so blooming as Mr. Riddell’s horse. The Messrs. Stanford’s pair of three- year-olds had the class to themselves, and are of hardy-looking type. Mr. Cheer’s first two-year-old black, of Mr. Cogswell’s breeding, is a well-furnished, substantial, free-moving son of the prize-horse “British Wonder” (278). About the other four in the class there was nothing remarkably fine. Nor was competition keen in the Mare and Foal Class. Mr. Lowe’s first, bred by the exhibitor, is a six-year-old roan-coloured shapely mare, likely to breed good cart-horses. Mr. Charlton’s second is a compact brown, which has won prizes in the north of England. Fillies were better represented, Mr. P. Blundell’s leading three-year-old, bred by Mr. Chapman, is an up-standing bay of firm build and good action, with feet and legs calculated to wear. Mr. D. Riddell’s second, bred by Mr. McTier, Dumfriesshire, is a brown with strong back, good head, and a deal of Clydesdale character. The Messrs. Stanford’s third, bred by themselves, is half-sister to the first three-year-old colt. Mr. Machin’s first two-year-old filly, bred by the exhibitor, is a fairly good daughter of “ Honest Tom” (1105); but there was not great merit in the class. Three-year-old Agricultural Geldings, for which prizes were offered by the Local Committee, were very good, at least as far as the prize-tickets went. Judges’ Report on Shire and Agricultural Horses. Class 1. Shire Stallion foaled in 1876, 1877, 1878, or 1879. — There were only three entries in this class, and this is not surprising, when it is considered that few Stallions, which have had a successful season, are fit to show in the middle of July. All of them came into the riDg, and we awarded first prize to No. 1 ; second to No. 3 ; and reserve number to No. 2. Class 2. Shire Stallion foaled in 1880. — This class contained nine entries. All of them were shown, and as each one possessed qualities of a high order we had some trouble, after awarding the first prize, in making our selections for the second and third. The first prize fell to No. 12, to which horse we also awarded the Champion prize ; second prize to No. 7 ; third prize to No. 10 ; highly commended and reserve number to No. 5. the Society's Meeting, 1883. 455 Class 3. Shire Stallion foaled in 1881. — This was a very large and good class. Out of the twenty-four entries seventeen were shown, and nearly all of these were very fine animals. Our duties, therefore, were necessarily heavy. "We at the finish selected No. 30 for first prize ; the second prize fell to No. 22 ; third prize to No. 23 ; highly commended and reserve number to No. 27 ; and No. 36 highly commended. Class 10. Agricultural Stallion, not qualified to compete in any of the preceding classes, foaled in 1876, 1877, 1878, or 1879. — There were only three entered and shown in this class, and we awarded first prize to No. 78 ; second prize to No. 76. Class 11. Agricultural Stallion foaled in 1880. — This class contained three entries, two of which were shown. The first prize fell to No. 79, and the second to No. 80. Class 12. Agricultural Stallion foaled in 1881. — Only five out of the ten ;■ entries were shown, and we selected No. 84 for first prize, No. 82 for second prize, and No. 89 for third prize. Class 17. Shire Mare and Foal. — This was a good class in point of numbers, and also in quality as far as regards the mares. It generally happens that good mares have only ordinary foals, and there was no exception to this rule amongst those shown. There were ten entries and nine exhibits. The first prize went to No. 156 ; second prize to No. 150 ; third prize to No. 147 ; highly commended and reserve number to No. 155 ; and No. 148 commended. Class 20. Agricultural Mare and Foal. — This class had four entries, and three exhibits. The three shown were extraordinarily fine animals. No. 178 took first prize; No. 177 second prize; No. 179 highly commended and reserve number. Class 26. Shire Filly foaled in 1880. — In this class there were five entries, all of which were shown. A greater number might reasonably have been expected, but the quality of the animals exhibited in some measure compen- sated for the lack of entries. Each one did credit to the judgment of the exhibitor. The first prize fell to No. 213 ; second prize to No. 211 ; highly commended and reserve number to No. 214. Class 27. Shire Filly foaled in 1881. — There were sixteen entries, and fourteen exhibits in this class. These were probably the best lot of animals of the breed ever exhibited in any Showyard, and we had considerable trouble in making our selection. After awarding the three prizes, we felt compelled to recommend a fourth, and we also commended the whole class as an extra- ordinarily fine lot of animals. No. 219 took first prize ; No. 228 second prize ; No. 235 third prize; No. 229 highly commended and reserve number; and Nos. 223 and 226 highly commended. Class 31. Agricultural Filly foaled in 1880, not qualified to compete in the preceding Classes. — In this class there were six entries and five exhibits. Those shown were very good representative animals, and the three selected well deserved prizes. No. 257 took first prize ; No. 260 second prize ; No. 259 highly commended and reserve number. Class 32. Agricultural Filly foaled in 1881. — Only three out of the seven entered came into the ring. We awarded first prize to No. 265, and second prize to No. 266. No. 263 was disqualified by the veterinary surgeon, leaving two very moderate animals to take the prizes. Class 31. Agricultural Oelding of any breed foaled in 1880. — This was a very good class, and we had considerable trouble in making our selection. There were nineteen entries, and all came into the ring. First prize fell to No. 297 ; second prize to No. 299 ; highly commended and reserve number to No. 300 ; and No. 304 was commended. The Champion Prize for Shire Stallions fell to No. 12, the chestnut horse which took first prize in Class 2. 456 Report of the Live-Stocli exhibited at In concluding this Report we would observe that the competitions in the foregoing classes must always form an important feature in the Annual Show, and the Society is to he congratulated on having this year secured such a large number of entries. The number which actually came before us in the ring was ninety-seven, and it is perhaps not too much to say that a finer lot of animals was never before exhibited at any similar meeting. We must also be allowed to add that the arrangements made for our con- venience and assistance were admirably carried out; and it was due to this alone that we were able to finish our labours in one long day instead of being engaged two days, as was anticipated from the large number of entries. William Littley. James Martin. Alexander Turnbull. Clydesdales. This breed has probably never mustered better, and rarely so well, on English soil. They were beaten in size, substance, and early development by the English breeds. The Scotchmen, how- ever, consoled themselves with the cleaner legs, superior pasterns and feet, together with the better action which the Clydesdales exhibited. Mr. Riddell’s first aged stallion had no difficulty in his class. He is no other than “ St. Lawrence,” the Glasgow prize- horse of the last two years, bred by Mr. Drew, and sired by “Prince of Wales.” Considering that he was not quite through with a hard season’s work, he was shown in good bloom. He has great muscle, firmly-knit frame, and good quality, with fair size, plenty of feather, and splendid feet. He was “going” a little wide behind, which Clydesdale judges seem to dis- like more than Englishmen do. The second horse was Mr. Montgomery’s “Manfred” (758), of Sir M. Shaw Stewart’s breeding, which was second three-year-old at the Glasgow Highland Show last year. “Manfred” is out of a “Prince of Wales” mare, and is rather high on the leg, but his pasterns and action are excellent. Mr. Moffat’s third is a well-furnished seven-year-old bay of good feather and muscle, bred in Camp- beltown, and second winner at the Carlisle Royal Show in 1880. Mr. Collings’ Reserve black horse, of his own breeding, had for sire and dam Royal winners, the former having been Mr. Richard Tweedie’s “Tam o’ Shanter ” (851), that has left a large number of fine stock in the Darlington district. Three-year-olds were a small but select Class. Mr. Mont- gomery’s first, of Mr. Rennie’s breeding, is not heavy below the knee. He is not big anywhere, but be is very nice, and was shown in the pink of condition. His owner knows his busi- ness too well to go far from borne with a doubtful card. All that style, smartness, good carriage, fine-set hocks, long pasterns, and hair of the right sort, could accomplish was available. the Society's Meeting , 1883. 457 These good qualities, however, were all required to atone suf- ciently for the lack of size, to win the cup given by the Clydes- dale Horse Society, for the best stallion or colt, over such a thick substantial specimen of a cart-horse as “ St. Lawrence.” The Marquis of Londonderry’s second colt is a heavier bay than the first, was bred by the exhibitor after the well-bred sire “ What Care I,” and out of a Lochfergus champion mare. Mr. Moffat’s third bay is of a good old Galloway type, bred by the Duke of Buccleuch, and very compactly put together. The Aldborough commended colt is a neat even brown, bred in Perthshire. Mr. McCowan’s victorious colt in a good class of two-year-olds was bred by Mr. Houston, sired by the famous prize-horse, “ The Macgregor,” and comes beautifully down to the ground. His pasterns, hocks, and feet apparently belong to an animal that is calculated to improve with age. The Hon. Mr. Waldegrave Leslie’s second colt, of Urie breeding, was the second yearling at Glasgow last year, has good legs if not very strong bone. His body is well grown, and the feather and feet helped him in the contest. Mr. Rodger’s third colt, of his own breeding, is above the average size, and carries his legs well under him. The commended pair from Aldborough are fair, the better of the two having been bred in Forfarshire, and the other by the ex- hibitor, after “Tam o’ Shan ter.” Mares and Foals engaged the attention of the Judges for a considerable time. The first one, from Newton Airds, Dum- fries, was bred at Keir, and is of the “ Lochfergus Champion ” strain. She has hard, flat, clean bone, fair build, and moves satisfactorily. Her good parts were visible to the skilled eye, but her position would have been rendered more distinct if she had been rather better brought out. Mr. Charlton’s second mare, a six-year-old bay of Mr. Jobling’s breeding, is a deep- bodied, short-legged, active-looking sort. She had more bloom than the first, and had a very fine foal at foot ; but the first had the best of it in pasterns, on which Scotch judges lay so much stress. Mr. Rodger’s third is a four-year-old shapely brown, of his own breeding, displaying good legs, with, however, toes slightly pointed out, which breeders do not like. Her promising foal is sired by “ The Macgregor,” and her dam, shown unsuc- cessfully at York, was first Highland Society’s mare at Kelso in 1880. The Marquis of Londonderry’s fourth is a strong hand- some three-year-old daughter of Mr. Drew’s “ Prince of Wales,” and bred at Merryton. Among those “ left out in the cold ” was the Messrs. Stanford’s “ Lady Strathmore,” a five-year-old bay, bred by Col. Williamson, of Lawers, and a noted prize-winner in the South of England. The Three-year-Old Filly Class, as the Judges observe, was YOL. XIX. — S. S. 2 H 458 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at the best of the breed. Three of the best of the age in Scotland headed the class. Mr. Martin’s first and third fillies are a mag- nificent pair. They have been in the leading three throughout the season, and have changed places several times. They have been sold at 800 guineas for exportation to Australia. General regret was expressed at the loss of such animals to this country. The first one is the lighter of the two, but she is the sweeter, and moves to perfection. When in action her fine pasterns come into play beautifully ; and it is a treat to see her trot. Bred by Mr. Milroy, Gladenoch, she is sired by the distin- guished horse “ Lord Lyon,” and has won many a prize. The third filly was bred by the exhibitor after the noted “ Crown Prince,” and out of a “Tintock” mare. She has more substance, heavier muscle, and better feather than the first, but does not move so gracefully. Mr. Lucas’s second filly is not so large in size as the other two, but she is quality all over, was bred by the Earl of Strathmore, and sired by “ Lord Lyon.” The Orchard- mains fourth filly, bred by the noble exhibitors, has good feet and form, and was sired by “Farmer” (288). Mr. Loder’s commended filly is a daughter of Mr. Riddell's “ Darnley,” out of a prize-winning mare. Mr. Martin’s “ Lord Lyon ” filly got easily the 25/. Champion Prize offered by the Clydesdale Horse Society for the best mare or filly. Two or three of the best five Two-year-Old Fillies of the season came before the Judges. Mr. McCowan’s first, bred by Mr. Ure, Wheatlands, sired by the Dunmore “ Prince Charlie,” has great thighs and pasterns, good hocks and graceful action. She has carried everything before her this year, but got beaten at the Highland Show the following week, rather unexpectedly, by Mr. Riddell’s “ Queen,” only third at York. The latter is fully as fat as the other, and, being a daughter of “ Darnley,” she is handsome in body, but has not such good feet as the winner. Mr. Matthews’s second is a stylish bay daughter of “ Lord Lyon.” Mr. Loder’s Reserve filly, of his own breeding, is a daughter of “ Druid,” the Champion Clydesdale at Kilburn. “ Druid ” and “ Darnley ” sired the commended fillies. Report of the Judges of Clydesdales. Clas3 4. The Judges have to report regarding Class 4, Aged Stallions, that the quality of the exhibits was on the whole fair, the first-prize horse being an animal exhibiting several of the best points of the breed, although lacking in one or two important features. The other prize-winners were fair repre- sentatives of the breed. Ci.ass 5. The animals exhibited in this class were generally of superior quality ; the first-prize animal being an extra good representative of the Clydesdale breed. In style and quality and gay carriage he was not excelled by any other animal in the Yard, and was consequently, without hesitation, 459 the Society's Meeting , 1883. awarded the Champion prize, as the best male Clydesdale exhibited. The second-prize animal in this class is a good promising horse ; while the third shows strength and quality. Class 6. Two-Year-old Clydesdale Stallions. — The first- and second-prize animals in this class were excellent colts : the others were only an aver- age lot. Class 18. This was a large class and fairly representative of the breed. With the exception of one or two animals, the whole class was of excellent merit, and we consider them valuable brood mares. Class 28. This class was par excellence the class in the Showyard. The three first animals are perhaps as good as anything of the Clydesdale breed seen in any Showyard for many years. The Judges placed five animals in this class, and without exception all the five were good, and even superior mares. The Judges awarded the Champion prize for the best female Clydes- dale in the Yard to No. 237, and think her perhaps the best Clydesdale mare exhibited this season. Class 29. This class of Two-Year-old Fillies was of good quality. The first-, second-, and third-prize animals were of great merit, and the reserve number filly was also a useful mare, of good size, and looked like improving. Peter Anderson. David Buchanan. Suffolk. This useful Eastern breed compensated in quality for some shortcomings in numbers. The Judges’ Report is so minute and exhaustive, that space would only be wasted by any remarks of mine. It may be stated, however, that the Suffolk foals were bigger than many of those of other breeds. The attention of the reader is invited to the excellent Report of the Judges, appended. Report of Judges of Suffolk Horses. We report a good exhibition of animals of the true characteristic of the breed, considering the distance of the Showyard from the Eastern Counties and the curtailing of the number and amount of the prizes offered. The number of animals exhibited will compare favourably with the entries of other breeds of horses. The very wholesome rule of some local societies in refusing to give prizes to any but animals free from hereditary unsoundness is bearing useful results, as we can report that, excepting in one class, we did not require the services of the veterinary surgeon ; and perhaps the unsoundness there may be attributed to the desire of the owners of the animals to show them in such high condition. We regret that no prize was offered for Gast Mares, as these, not being pulled down with foals upon them, generally present the best specimens of any breed, and are mostly animals in the prime and full bloom of life. Class 7. Aged Stallions. — There were three before us. To No. 61, the Duke of Hamilton’s “ Eastern Emperor,” we awarded the first prize — a very grand horse, but wanting in quality for a Suffolk ; to No. 62, Mr. Woltou’s “ Chieftain,” we gave the second prize — a horse of immense size, but full of good quality and Suffolk character ; had his hind-quarters been equal to his fore-end, he would have been a very hard horse to beat in a Showyard. No. 60 appeared so out of sorts, and had so many suspicious-looking scars on him, that we declined giving him the reserve number, notwithstanding that offhand his form was quite equal to that of the prize horses. 2 n 2 460 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at Class 8. Stallions, Three Years old. — No. 66, Mr. Wol ton’s “ Big Ben,” claimed the first prize. We saw no particular merit in him, but as Nos. 64 and 65 were decidedly lame, and as the veterinary surgeon declined to pro- nounce them sound, we felt bound to disqualify them, and so No. 66 came in for an easy win. Class 9. Stallions, Two Years old. — The first prize went to No. 69, Sir R. Wallace’s “ Banner Bearer,” a colt with plenty of bone and heavy quarters, hut hardly so good on his back ; the second prize to No. 75, Mr. Toller’s “ Verger,” a very large heavy colt, but rather weak on 'his ankles — quite an old-fashioned sort ; No. 74, Mr. Wolton’s “ Gambler,” the reserve and highly-commended, is a very good-looking colt ; Nos. 67 and 70 were given highly-commended cards — all the others were most deservedly commended. Ail the animals present in this class we considered very good, and, excepting No. 72, of perfect Suffolk character. Class 19. Mares and Foals. — We had no doubt in awarding to No. 171, Mr. H. Wolton’s “ Queen of Newbourne,” the first prize, regarding her as a very superior mare of full size and superb quality ; to No. 172, Sir R. Wal- lace’s “ Jessie,” we gave the second prize— she is a four-year-old mare with a foal upon her ; and, holding her own against full-aged mares, shows her of good merit. She is a little weak on her fore-legs, but being a young growing mare may perhaps improve there. No. 173, the reserve and highly-commended, is a very pretty showing small mare, having true Suffolk character ; No. 174 was a small mare, and not being in show condition, she did not look to advantage with those that were; No. 175, a strong useful mare, but not having smartness or quality enough, will never please Suffolk horse-fanciers. Class 30. Fillies, Two Years old. — No. 253, the Duke of Hamilton’s “ Gaudy Poll,” had no difficulty in claiming the first prize, although she is a little calf-kneed ; No. 255, the second-prize filly, owned by Mr. Byford, is a good strong animal, and looks more like doing hard work than being in a Show- yard — with her white legs she will never be quite a favourite with Suffolk men — (this was the only animal in the Suffolk classes in the Show so marked) ; No. 251, the reserve ; Nos. 254 and 252 call for no remarks. Manfred Biddell. Wm. Thompson. Hunters. In the midst of a great hunting and horse-breeding country, a very large and superior exhibition of Thoroughbreds and Hunters was expected, and anticipations must have been real- ised. It is somewhat strange that the first ticket, carrying with it a premium of 100/., should have fallen, in a good class of thoroughbred stallions, to an animal bred in Aberdeen. This horse, owned by Messrs. Dodgson and Thompson, Lancashire, is very strong on the back, well-turned over the buttock, well up in the withers, and a good mover. For some irregularity in the pedigree he was afterwards disqualified, and the second horse of Lord Scarborough’s promoted. The latter is a seven-year-old bay upstanding horse, bred by Mr. Thomas Brown, Newmarket, and very stylish. He has great muscle and splendid action. Colonel Barlow’s third is very big to be only four years old, and was bred by the Duke of Westminster. He is full of spirit, the Society's Meeting , 1883. 461 fine in the bone, and grand in muscle. A durable, handsome horse is Mr. Carr’s fourteen-year-old chestnut “ Rattle,” bred by Sir Tatton Sykes, and well known in the Showyard. Several of the unsuccessful horses would not have disgraced first tickets. The Hunter Mare and Foal Class was not particularly good. Mr. Dixon’s veteran twenty-one years old chestnut, of his own breeding, has kept together admirably, and has credit in getting second at such an age. Her foal at foot by “ Mapleton ” shows that her breeding properties have been as well preserved as her good looks. Mr. Wright’s first, bred by Mr. Spencer, is a twelve-year-old chestnut, of rare action and strong body. The third mare, owned by Mr. Nalton, and bred by Mr. Duffitt, is also a chestnut, well up in years. All the winners, curiously enough, were of one colour, and advanced in age. Handsome premiums offered by the Local Committee drew out large entries in nine classes of Hunters, from heavy-weight matured hunters down to yearlings. The Judges had very hard work, especially in the four-year-olds, which were an extra- ordinary class. In the heavy weights, five years old and over, Mr. Andrew Brown won with “ Waterford,” a brown power- fully-built five-year-old, of the Marquis of Waterford’s breeding. The quality and sprightliness of this horse were as noticeable as his bone, breeding, and strength of body. Of the same age, colour, and ownership, was the second, also a gelding of fine quality, and bred in Ireland by Dr. Nickle, Meath. Mr. Brown exhibited five beautiful hunters, which made a marked impres- sion on the critical onlookers. Mr. John Robinson’s “ Elegant,” a powerful chestnut gelding, also five-year-old, made a close third. It too was bred in Ireland by Mr. Trew, Kildare. In such a good class it is a great honour to the Emerald Isle to have bred the best three — all very pretty, and admirably adapted for crossing country. Mr. Bayly’s fourth is a straight, dashing, seven-year-old black gelding, whose breeder is unknown. Many good animals were beyond the reach of the tickets. The Light-weight Hunters were numerous, and included several very clever specimens. A seven-year-old chestnut gelding of Major Thwaites was popularly first, being a great beauty, and very stylish in action. Mr. Letts’s second is a six-year-old bay mare, with light flinty bone, and much spirit. It was bred in the county of York. Mr. Jacob Smith’s third is a six-year-old brown mare, which, like Mr. Robinson’s five-year old commended gelding, is distinguished in the Catalogue by the “ breeder unknown.” Of the thirty-three four-year-old geldings entered, no fewer than fourteen were absent. The nineteen that paraded before the Judges contained an amount of high merit not often attained. All the more honour, then, is it to Mr. John B. Booth 462 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at to carry the chief prize with a bay of great proportions and much quality. His breeder seems to be unknown, but he is far from disgraced. Mr. T. H. Hutchinson’s second is a stylish, admirably-equipped chestnut, bred by Mr. Fisher, Blackpool, and sired by that grand old getter “ Laughing Stock.” Mr. Brown’s third is a smartly got-up grey, bred by Mr. Little, Lincolnshire, and sired by “ SnowTstorm.” Four-year-old mares were not so good. Mr. Garbutt’s first carries its head nicely, and has a strong loin, with active hardy-looking limbs. It was, like Mr. Curry’s second, bred in Yorkshire, and is all that could be wished in quality. Mr. Wood’s third is a clean- limbed sprightly bay, bred by the exhibitor ; while Mr. Stephen- son’s fourth displays high breeding, and was bred by the late Lord Lamerton, sired by “ Paragon.” A pair of handsome Irish-bred three-year-old geldings of Mr. Andrew Brown’s failed to get further than Reserve in their class, which was a very good one, and was topped by a beautiful brown of Mr. Nicholson’s, bred by Mr. Gromet, Cum- berland, and well grown for its age. It has the makings of a first- class hunter, having bone and body to harmonise. Mr. Peacock’s second, bred by Mr. Milner, is very promising, and was sired by “ Haphazard.” Mr. Darrell’s third was bred by the exhibitor, and may be further heard of. Three-year-old fillies were not strikingly fine. Mr. Whitehead’s first — a smart neat chestnut of his own breeding — is a daughter of “ Highthorne,” and was one of the nicest youngsters in the Show. The second is also a stylish chestnut, owned by Mr. Mitchelson, and bred in York- shire, sired by “ Conductor.” The Two-year-old Gelding Class wras stronger. Mr. John B. Booth bred the chestnut son of “ Castlereagb,” with whom he deservedly won first honours. This gelding has great promise, and in such good hands may be favourably heard of again. Mr. Wright’s second, also bred by the present owner, is a worthy son of “ Silvester.” Mr. Goode- son’s first filly, bred by the exhibitor, is a well-balanced active youngster. Mr. John T. Robinson’s second is a tidy daughter of “ Bondsman,” and was bred by the exhibitor. Mr. Carr’s leading yearling, of his own rearing, was sired by “ Gladstone,’’ and stands well up for its age. Lord Middleton’s second, bred by his Lordship, walks out hopefully. Judges' Report on Hunters. We consider the Show of Hunting Horses generally very good, especially the young classes — far superior to the average of Royal Shows. Class 13. Thorough-bred Stallions. — This was a large class, and of fair average merit. Class 21. Mare and Foal. — With the exception of those placed, there was nothing much worthy of notice. the Society's Meeting, 1883. 463 Class 40. Mare or Gelding up to 15 stone. — Although a large class, the animals exhibited didn’t run back as well as might have been expected. Nos. 329, 332, 314, 31G, were horses of considerable quality and merit. Class 41. Hunters up to 12 stone. — Well filled, amongst which were some useful horses, especially Nos. 359 and 340. Class 42. Gelding foaled in 1879. — A very good class, and quite ahead of any of the former classes. No. 367 was a wonderfully nice blood-like hunter, and does great credit to the land of his birth and the judgment of his present owner. No. 393, a county-bred horse, followed close on his heels ; No. 401, backward in condition, with time must come out a valuable animal. Class 43. Mare foaled in 1879. — A very fair class, but nothing like up to the form of the colts. Class 44. Gelding foaled in 1880. — Another very good class, well filled, and full of promising colts ; those placed being of a very high standard. Class 45. Fillies foaled in 1880. — Though not so well represented, this class included Nos. 456 and 453, both extremely good fillies, the winner very much out of the common, being one- of the best animals brought before us. Class 46. Gelding foaled in 1881. — Again, quite up to the mark ; the three animals placed would do credit to any ring. Class 47. Filly foaled in 1881. — Not so well filled as the last, but quite up to the standard of the colts, the winner being a rare long and low sort. Class 48. Gelding or Filly foaled in 1882. — Short in numbers, hut on the whole a good average class. The Judges beg to remark that they could hardly account for the falling-off in the number of entries in the two younger classes. It almost appeared as if breeding hunters is not now so popular amongst the Yorkshire farmers as formerly. H. A. F. Luttrell. H. Reginald Corbet. J. Wm. Hope. Coaching and Cleveland. Here, again, the liberality of the Local Committee had its deserved effect. The Coaching Stallion Class was not very good, yet Mr. Kirby’s “ Nobleman,” a fast-looking bay of Mr. Appleyard’s breeding, was a nice specimen. Mr. Reader’s second is also young, and was bred by the exhibitor from a mare that has gained many prizes. Mares and foals were good, though few. Mr. Kelsey’s first is a six-year-old bay, bred by the exhibitor, and likely to breed valuable harness-horses, coming as she does from one of the best studs of the kind in Yorkshire. Mr. Kirby’s second is bearing up well for a twelve-year-old. Mr. Pelch’s Cleveland mare would Lave stood closer competition, being strong and handsome. The three classes of Coaching Fillies were not numerously Idled, the average in the class being about four. The prize- winners were of fair merit. Those in the two-year-old and yearling classes were bred by the exhibitors, but the three-year- olds were not. Mr. Kirby’s first three-year-old coaching gelding is a handsome good-moving horse. The others in the Gelding Classes were of about average merit. Mr. Fisher’s first brown 464 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at mare in harness was good, but those beside her only middling. The winners in the Harness Class under 14-2 hands were active and useful specimens. Judges' Report of Coaching and Cleveland Horses. Our Report of Coaching and Cleveland Bays is thus : — Class 14. Coaching Stallions. — A bad class. Class 22. Coaching Mare and Foal. — Good class. Class 23. Cleveland Bays.- — Only one entry ; very good. Class 33. Coaching Filly. — Good class. Class 34. Coaching Filly.— A bad class. Class 35. Coaching Gelding or Filly. — Good class. Class 36. Coaching Gelding. — Good class. Class 37. Coaching Gelding. — Good class. Class 58. Harness Mare or Gelding. — A bad class. Class 58. Harness Mare or Gelding. — Very good class. John S. Stowell. W. Robinson. Hackneys and Ponies. Many very serviceable and very fast animals appeared in these classes. Mr. Grout’s five -year -old brown stallion “Fashion,” of Mr. Wortley’s breeding, and a grand mover, of admirable build, easily added another to his list of first honours, including the first prize at Reading. Mr. Martin’s second is a firmly-built clever four-year-old, of his own breeding, and has Avon seventeen prizes. Mr. Anderson’s fine pony-stallion, of Mr. CoAvton’s breeding, is A'ery neat and compact, full of action and character. Mr. John M. Martin’s second is the plump, hand- some broAvn of his oavii breeding, sired by “ Derby,” Avhich Avas first at Glasgow. Mr. Robert Martin’s first hackney mare, Avith foal at foot, is a thirteen-year-old broivn of his oivn breeding, and of a good old type — able to carry a heavy A\reight, and pass the milestones quickly. Mr. Hammond’s second is a siveet little grey of rare action, and six years old. Mr. Moore’s third is only four years old, and Avas bred by the exhibitor. Mr. Glos- sop’s first pony-mare is an eight-year-old broivn, bred by the late Mr. Winter, and, though very neat and active, Avas never shown before. She has Avorked hard the last five years in single and double harness, and looks nothing the Avorse. Mr. Gled- hill’s second is a lively little thirteen-year-old, the winner of many prizes. These two Avere decidedly ahead of the others. The prize-Avinners in the Heavy-weight Hackney Class Avere strong, well-furnished, sivift animals, offering one another keen competition. Mr. Robinson’s Avinner was bred by Mr. Crow, Lincoln. In a good Class of Light-weight Hackneys Mr. Bentley had an obvious first in the form of a six-year-old bay gelding, the Society's Meeting, 1883. 465 of great activity and quality. The second, though bigger, has not the quality of the first. Three-year-old geldings and fillies mustered very well. The geldings of this age formed the best of the Hackney Classes. Mr. Verity’s first is an exceedingly clever handsome animal, bred by Mr. Robinson, Sledmere, and much admired. Mr. Fewson’s first filly is sweet and promising. She is sired by the same horse, “ Lord Derby,” as was Mr. Dunn’s second gelding. In the younger Hackney Classes, as also in the two Classes of Ponies, there was, as will be observed by the Judges’ Report appended, a great deal of merit. Judges' Report of Hackneys and Ponies. Class 15. Hackney Stallions, above 14 hands 2 inches, and not exceeding 15 hands 2 inches. — We had no hesitation in awarding the first prize to No. 138, “ Fashion,” a dark brown with grand action, and altogether a very superior animal. No. 139 is a nice horse, and we considered him well worthy of the second prize. No. 132 was disqualified for lameness, and we therefore awarded the third prize to No. 133, as being the next best in the class. Class 16. Pony Stallions, above 13 hands 2 inches, and not exceeding 14 hands 2 inches. — This was a good class. No. 142, to which we gave the first prize, is a nice upstanding animal, with good and true action. The next in order of merit we placed Nos. 145 and 144, and highly commended No. 140. Class 24. Hackney ( Mare and Foal), above 14 hands 2 inches, and not ex- ceeding 15 hands 2 inches. — This too was a very good class, and included some good mares and foals. Class 25. Pony ( Mare and Foal), above 13 hands 2 inches, and not ex- ceeding 14 hands 2 inches. — Nos. 204 and 205 were both good exhibits, and by far the best in their class. Class 49. Hackney {Mare or Gelding) up to 15 stone. — To Mr. Eobinson’s black gelding, No. 498, we awarded the first prize, and the second and third to Nos. 502 and 501, which were not much inferior in merit. Class 50. Hackney ( Mare or Gelding) up to 12 stone. — The bay gelding, No. 508, is an exceptionally good one, and a nice mover. No. 515, to which we awarded the second prize, is a grand goer, but lacks quality. No. 514 is a handy little mare, and a good third. Class 51. Hackney ( Gelding ) foaled in 1880. — This on the whole was the best class we had before us, and well deserving of a third prize. No. 519 is a good horse, but out of his class. Class 52. Hackney {Filly) foaled in 1880. — This was a fairly 'good class, but rather mixed. Class 53. Hackney {Gelding) foaled in 1881. — This was also a good class, but needs no special comment. Class 54. Hackney {Filly) foaled in 1881. — This lot was good throughout. Class 55. Hackney {Gelding or Filly) foaled in 1882. — -There were only three exhibits in this class, and we awarded the first prize to No. 556, a well- shaped chestnut gelding ; and the second to No. 558. Class 56. Pony {Mare or Gelding), above 13 hands and not exceeding 14 hands 2 inches. — No. 561, “Lady Silver,” is a nice mare with good action, and some quality about her, but a bit fietsome. No. 560 moved better than most of the others, and, like No. 561, shows more quality. No. 567 (reserve) is of a heavier stamp, but a nice goer. Class 57. Pony {Mare or Gelding), not exceeding 13 hands. — No. 578 is a 466 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at capital pony, but not so high in his action as No. 575, to which we gave the second prize. We may remark that the entries in the various classes (except No. 55) were well filled, and in most of them the exhibits were especially good. William B. Turner. George Higgins. Wm. Flanders. CATTLE. Shorthorns. The display of this premier breed of cattle did not on the judging-day strike the casual visitor as remarkably fine. It improved, however, on acquaintance ; and as the contents of the long rows of shedding were carefully inspected, the opinion became general that the collection of the favourite “ red, white, and roan ” was fully up to the average of recent years. The appearance of the Shorthorns daily in the parade-ring tended to confirm the belief that the York muster would bear comparison, especially in the younger female classes, with the Shorthorn entry any year since Kilburn, if not before. The Class of Bulls over four and under seven years old was not large. The entry numbered eleven, but threeVere absent. The best-bred animals in the class, as far as straight breeding is con- cerned, were not the best-looking. They were Sigismund Cath- cart de Trafford’s four-year-old, white, “ Wild Prince,” of Lord Lathom’s breeding, of the “ Wild Eyes” tribe crossed by Oxford bulls ; and Mr. William Handley’s six-year-old, roan, “ Hesperus ” (39,994), of Mr. William Aylmer’s breeding. The former is a big, lengthy bull, with a deal of gaiety, but he is rather heavy in bone, not very strong in the back, nor very neat at the tail. Accordingly he was passed over by the Judges. “ Hesperus,” of Mr. Aylmer’s “ Maid ” family, crossed with good Booth bulls, was more fortunate, but had to be content with a Reserve. He was bare in hair and not in high con- dition, but his masculine head, good crest, fine forearm, and fair character, justified his selection for fourth place. The first bull, Mr. Outhwaite’s “ Lord Zetland,” at once asserted his position. Bred by the Earl of Zetland, this mas- sive, grandly haired, four-year-old roan, had for his sire the celebrated prize bull “Royal Windsor” (29,890), of Carperby breeding, and the sire of a great many national prize-takers. The son has more substance and better-packed hind-quarters than ever the father possessed, but the latter was sweeter about the head, and altogether rather more of what is termed “ the gentleman.’" “Lord Zetland’s” dam’s sire was “ George Peabody” (28,710), the Society's Meeting , 1883. 467 a Sittyton “ Butterfly ” bull, of great scale, which won several prizes when in the possession of Sir William Forbes, Bart. The pedigree is of a somewhat mixed nature, with a leaning to Booth. The horn of “ Lord Zetland ” is not nice, the neck is rather short, and the bone is big ; but his loin, rib, hind-quarters, flank, and thighs, are almost perfection. He easily repeated his Derby and Reading firsts, and, notwith- standing his rough head, some good judges would have given him a little more at York than he received. The second bull also leans to the Booth side. He is “ Hovingham,” a ponderous white, bred by the exhibitor, Sir W. C. Worsley, Bart., is nearly four years old, and was sired by Mr. Linton’s well- known prize-bull, “Sir Arthur Ingram” (32,490), while the dam’s sire was no other than the noted prize-winner “ Lord Irwin ” (29,123), also of Mr. Linton’s breeding. “ Hovingham ” handles pleasantly, has a good outline, and great scale, though he is not so well made up as the “ Bainesse ” bull, very properly placed before him. The white is, in at least one respect, a remarkable animal. It is freely said, and often I fear with truth, that prize-animals do not reproduce themselves satisfac- torily : “ Hovingham ” is an exception in that he is the son and grandson of two first-prize Royal bulls, and is the sire of Mr. Rowley’s champion bull at the York Show, to be described presently. Mr. Robert Thompson’s “Beau Benedict ” (42,769), lrom Inglewood, Penrith, and bred by Mr. Linton, of Sheriff Hutton, is a four-year-old lengthy roan, which was Reserve at Reading and second at Derby, sired by the Killerby “ Hecuba ” bull, “ Paul Potter ” (38,854). Mr. Thompson’s bull has a deep chest, good forearm, and “ nice-touching ” flesh. His flank might be fuller, however, and his rump less inclined to be gaudy. It is wrorthy of record that the three money-prizes were awarded to animals bred in Yorkshire, of good old material, topped by bulls more or less directly of Booth descent. A con- siderable quantity of “ Oxford ” blood is in the veins of a heavy, well-grown, four-year-old roan of Mr. Swann’s, from Bedlington, Northumberland, and bred by Sir W. C. Trevelyan, Bart., but he lacked the finish and quality of several of the winners. The leader in the Three-year-old Bull Class was not so easily selected as in the senior Class. Mr. Foljambe’s white “Bright Helm,” from Asberton Hall, bred there, which was so much admired at the top of his class at Reading, has not gone on quite so well as could have been desired, and Mr. Wakefield’s “ Baron Sedgewick ” (44,373) accordingly proved a more dangerous opponent than he has yet done to the white. The white is of the “ Aylesby Bright” tribe, with, however, a “ Grand Duke” cross on, as the sire of his dam. The sire of the bull was 468 Rej)ort of the Live-Stock exhibited at Mr. J. B. Booth’s “Titan” (35,085). “Bright Helm” has beautiful quality of flesh, very attractive head and neck, with charming bone, and much gaiety. He falls off a little behind the “ hooks ” or “ huggings,” and might be better covered over the chine. His quality and splendid character eventually availed him once more, and he got to the front. “ Baron Sedge- wick,” bred by the spirited owner of Sedgewick Hall, after a Holker-bred Barrington bull, is a roan of great substance. With a masculine head he combines wealth of flesh, thickness over the crops, width of rib, and massiveness of thighs, which arrest attention. The forearm is strong and neatly fitted in — symptoms of good constitution. On the hind-quarters he is not so square or “ pointy ” as he should be, but he has few faults, and made a very creditable second. His pedigree is not a very valuable one, as fashion goes, but, as is often said in Aberdeen- shire, he carries “ a good pedigree on his back.” Mr. William Forster’s third bull, from Bull’s Hill, Northumberland, bred by Mr. Bell, The Nook, Cumberland, is heavy for age, deep in carcass, long in frame, and carries a thick coating of flesh under somewhat hard hair. His sire was the “ Lady Bates ” bull, “Baron Turncroft Bates 3rd” (39,443), of the Rev. P. Graham’s breeding ; and the dam traces back through some “ Butterfly ” blood to the fine old Southwick herd. The Reserve ticket was awarded to Mr. C. W. Brierley’s “ Rosedale Oxford,” a long-quartered red-and-white, bred by the exhibitor after “Oxford Duke 10th” (38,830), and mostly of “Bates” blood. He was first in the Aged Class at this year’s Bath and West of England show, and has a magnificent front, with strong hind- quarters. His neck-vein is splendid, and under-line inviting, but his loin is not strong enough for such ends. The Prince of Wales’ Kingscote Honey light-roan bull, “ Harry Hot- spur” (44,922), from Sandringham, placed third last year, had gaiety and straightness to keep his position, but he has not widened in frame, and, despite good quality, he only got com- mended. This distinction was bestowed on a long-quartered and by no means over-fed red-and-white Aylesby “ Waterloo” bull, of Mr. J. C. Toppin’s, bred by Mr. Meade Waldo. Three of the twelve entered were absent, including the Duke of Northumberland’s roan, “ Shylock ” (45,585), which could not be sent on account of disease restrictions. Of the dozen entered in the Two-year-old Class, ten put in an appearance, and formed one of the best classes in the Show. The first was not difficult to pick out. Mr. Rowley’s tidy roan of Sir W. C. Worsley’s breeding, already referred to as the son of the second-prize aged bull, “ Hovingham,” has thriven beyond recognition since he was purchased from the breeder last autumn the Society’s Meeting , 1883. 469 at 40 guineas. First in his class he clearly was. His head is proportionate and well set on ; legs beautifully in below him ; thighs full ; loin, rib, and rump fascinating ; while his gait is stylish and quality exceedingly good. On the top of the shoulders he is a little low, but he has few if any decided faults. The Judges gave this youngster the cup as best male Shorthorn. At first many looking on thought the “ Bainesse ” old bull should have had the trophy, but a closer inspection on subsequent days convinced several that the Judges could not be said to have erred. On the dam’s side this beautifully brought-out bull traces back to the late Mr. S. Wiley’s grand old blood. In hair, quality, and compactness he resembles the “ Earl of Derby ” bulls of the deceased veteran breeder. The Duke of Portland’s second, of Mr. J. R. Singleton’s breeding, is “Grand Ruth” (46,459), a large- sized shapely white, well clad with good-handling flesh, and gay in the ring. The hind-quarters, however, are plainer than the winner’s. The third one, from East Hill Mills, North- umberland, owned and bred by Mr. Langhorn, was not popu- larly placed. Probably some of his critics, however, did not observe that he was only twenty months old, or fully six months younger than most of the others. Yet it was not so much his lack of size that was complained of as his bareness of flesh along the back, and somewhat ungainly horn. His flank, under-line, and thighs are excellent, and he has masculine character ; still he was not a favourite with many for third honours. The sire of his dam was “Prince Regent” (29,676), whose stock, it may be remembered, carried so many prizes at the Carlisle Royal in 1880. The York Show was distinguished by the presence of more of the aristocrats in the Shorthorn arena than has been the case for several years. A “ Duke ” bull from Wetherby, bred by and the property of Colonel Gunter, adorned the Two-year-old Class, and a good “ Duke ” he is. The produce of a “ Duchess ” cow and of a “Wild Eyes” bull, preceded by two “Oxford” crosses on the male side, “Duke of Tregunter 9th” (46,272) — such is his name — is a lengthy, square-quartered, deep- chested, red and white, with a head and neck indicative of his high breeding. His flanks are well filled, thighs full, skin pleasant to touch, and masculine character good. Over the back and ribs he was not so uniformly coated as several of his opponents, and the Judges, having had no “ respect of person,” so to speak, relegated the “ Duke ” to fourth or Reserve. The public would not have frowned though this animal had been at least one step higher. A “ Lady Worcester ” red-roan up- standing bull from Hindlip, shown and bred by Sir Henry Allsopp, Bart., and tracing back to that marvellously fine cow, 470 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at old “ Clear Star,” followed the “ Duke” in the prize-list. The last four crosses in this bull’s pedigree are “Dukes,” so that the animal partakes largely of the “ Duke ” character. He has a good head, fine crest, straight lines, and excellent skin. Mr. Willis’s commended roan from Carperby, bred there, is of his famous prize-winning and stock-getting “ Windsors.” Of quality this youngster is not deficient, but he lacks wealth of flesh and width of frame, though he is true on the side-view. Still, he is not quite up to the average Carperby showyard bull standard. Mr. Ackers’s red and white “Trojan,” which led at Reading, moved badly, and showed unevenness of flesh, which induced the Judges to give him no ticket. The Yearling Bull Class was the largest, if not quite the best, of the males. Twenty -four were entered, and all were shown except three. The Judges had hard work in this class. Many of the critics looking on thought that the tussle for first ticket should have been between Mr. Stratton’s roan— that eventually did win — and Mr. D. Pugh’s light roan, that got only third. When in motion the last-named was rather the favourite, as he has a broad deep frame, well covered with flesh, a beautiful head and neck, and much gaiety. A close examination, how- ever, such as the Judges had, revealed a little weakness on the back when the animal stands. Whether that was sufficient, considering the many grand features of the bull, to justify the selection of two before him, is pretty much a matter of opinion. Though he had been either first or second, there could not have been much occasion for grumbling. He was bred by Mr. Pugh, after the West Dereham Abbey bull, “ Sir Charles,” of Mr. Ayl- mer’s “ Lady ” family, and second yearling at the Carlisle Royal. The dam was Reserve heifer at Kilburn, and was sired by the “ Aylesby Flower ” bull “Falmouth” (38,268), which cost 280 guineas as a youngster at the memorable Aylesby sale in 1875. “Sir Charles” cost 200 guineas, and the two bulls, though now well up in years, are still doing good service in the carefully-managed and valuable herd of Mr. Pugh. Mr. Richard Stratton’s first bull has all the compactness of build, symmetry, and quality, which characterise the Stratton cattle, with more size and masculine character of head than they often display when so young. Sired by the prize-bull “ Rover ” (43,924), this year- ling was bred by the exhibitor ; he has a beautifully set-on shapely head, well-fleshed back, nicely laid-in shoulders, straight legs, and deep thighs, with, however, a tendency to get proud at the tail-head. Between the roans came a heavy if somewhat oxy- looking red of Mrs. Atkinson’s from Sedgewick. This bull is very big for age, and carries a great deal of natural flesh under a skin a trifle too thick. His contour is pleasing, and his head the Society's Meeting, 1883. 471 sweet-looking, if not so masculine as it should be. This fault, however, may mend with age. He was bred by Mr. Drewry, at Holker, out of a “ Wild Rose ” cow, which was bought at a sale near Preston. His sire was an “ Oxford ” bull, his grandsire and great-grandsire “Duke” bulls, used in the Duke of Devon- shire’s magnificent herd. Mr. John Foster’s Reserve bull is a finely-topped red and white, bred by the exhibitor, not very high in condition, but straight in top and under-lines, and sired by the prize-bull “ Kalamazoo ” (40,093). The others in the class included three promising youngsters — a “Gazelle,” a “ Cold Cream,” and a “ Prunette ” — from Sandringham, a “ Lady Bates” from Low Hill, &c. Cows and heifers were relatively better represented than bulls. The Cow Class occupied the attention of the Judges for fully an hour. Often when so much time is taken the awards are not very satisfactory. It was so on the 16th of July. From the beginning of the Show till the end the favourite cow among the experienced onlookers was Mr. T. H. Hutchinson’s beautiful four-year-old “ Gratia,” of his own breeding, after the Killerby bull “ Pluto ” (35,050), out of a cow by the Killerby bull “ M. C.” (31,898). The other sires constituting the last four were no other than the Warlaby “ Knight of the Shire ” and “Vain Hope” (23,102). She is thus well-bred, and is quite as good-looking as she is fashionably descended. She was the first two-year-old heifer and Champion female at Derby, and third cow at Reading — one from the same herd, “ Gainful,” having been first on the latter occasion. The great length of her frame, and grandeur of her shoulders, bosom, and brisket, with the massiveness and depth of her hind-quarters, make her appear a little slack on the loins. She is not, how- ever, far gone there, and then what a noble bearing she has ! What fine bone, wealth of flesh, and feminine character she displays ! In her appearance there was, perhaps, more of “ the lady ” visible than in that of any other cow or heifer of the breed. Yet she only got Reserve, or fourth, which was gene- rally regarded as a mistake. The three cows placed before her are good, thick, round- ribbed, substantial animals, partaking largely of what is recog- nised in England as “ the Scotch type.” It would ill become me to leave readers to infer that the cow s are any the wrorse for that resemblance. They may be all the better, but they are not square enough in the quarter, nor sufficiently developed on the more inviting points of a Shorthorn, to have, in the opinion of many people, beaten “ Gratia.” Mr. C. W. Brierley’s tidy white “ Snowflake,” rising five years old, and bred by the exhibitor, which made a good fight at Reading for only “ reserve,” was 472 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at in better luck at York. She is sweet in front, and has an ad- mirably sprung rib, with great wealth of flesh over the crops, but defective hind-quarters and legs. Still, she is a thick, deep, well- furnished cow, descended from some fine old Angus or Tyneside blood, and the best of the three prize-winners. Mr. D. A. Green’s second cow is not yet four years old, and for her age she is well grown. Bred by the exhibitor, she is largely of “ Bates ” blood, has the best rib, perhaps, in the class, a magnificent loin, and good neck-vein. Mr. Sharp’s third cow is a sweet-looking four-year-old, bred by the exhibitor from his “ May Duchess ” family, crossed with “ Duke ” and “ Oxford ” bulls. She handled well, has fine hair, charming under-line, and much quality. She was third in the Heifer-in-Milk Class at Reading, and looks as if higher honours were in store. Highly com- mended tickets were deservedly given to Mr. Pugh’s four-year- old roan, first at Reading, of his own breeding, got by the “ Flower” bull “ Falmouth,” and Mr. Harris’s “Ringlet 7th,” of “ Peepy ” descent. Mr. Pugh’s cow has great width in front, and handles well, with immense thickness behind the shoulder ; but she is deficient on the rump or hind-quarters. Mr. Harris’s was bred by Mr. T. H. Miller, Singleton, and is a good spe- cimen of his well-known prize-family, whose name the cow bears. She is good on the loin and rib, but rather low in front. Five of the fourteen entered in the Cow Class were absent. Cows or Heifers, in milk, calved in 1880, formed a small Class, but at least two of the animals were very good. Mr. Ackers’s “ Lady Carew 9th,” of his own breeding, sired by the Christon bull “ Lord Prinknash 2nd ” (38,653), and belonging to a well-known prize-family, confirmed her premier place of 1882. In front of the “ hooks ” she is covered admirably with the very finest of flesh, and the nice soft hair enhances the charm with which one handles her. A good feminine head and neck are backed by slanting shoulders, on which flesh was better taken on than is the case with probably any other Shorthorn in the Yard. Behind the shoulder she is developed to perfection. On the rump, however, she is bumpy, and she does not walk so easily as could be wished. Withal she is a wonderfully good animal, a little more like what one expects to find in Smith- field, perhaps, than Mr. T. H. Hutchinson’s second, “ Good Tidings,” of his own breeding, and out of the same cow as “ Gratia.” The Catterick heifer has undeniable Booth — I may almost say Warlaby — character, and, not being very forward in condition, fascinated the breeder’s eye, especially walking. Standing wide in the chest, she has a splendid head, attractive colour, and is grandly furnished without being in any way overdone. Mr. Gibson’s highly commended heifer is a heavy the Society's Meeting , 1883. 473 red, of the late Mr. John Lynn’s breeding, rather bumpy at the tail. She is chiefly of Bates blood, and so is Mr. Brierley’s commended, “ Miss Doncaster.” After the first two there was nothing superfine in the Class of five from an entry of seven. Two-year-old heifers furnished perhaps the best Class of the breed, and it embraced the Champion female Shorthorn. Nineteen were catalogued, but only twelve came before the Judges, who had no difficulty in assigning the first ticket to Mr. Hutchinson’s “ Lady Pamela,” of his own breeding, and par- taking rather less of YVarlaby blood and type than some of the Catterick exhibits. She was the best yearling at Reading, and has given a good account of the year. Her head might be carried better, but there is no gainsaying her grandeur over the chine, great breadth of middle, and substance generally. She got the Cup as best Shorthorn female — an honour which would have been in my opinion as fittingly “ Gratia’s.” The Duke of Portland’s second heifer, bred by his Grace, leans Bates-ways, is very large in size and heavy in flesh, with, however, a rather thick skin. Her length, wealth, and good under-line, seemingly carried her into a better position than her “ touch ” warranted. There is more of the female in the pretty pair of roans belonging to and bred by Sir Frederick Smyth, Bart., which came third and fifth. The third, a handsome “ Winsome,” sired by the “Oxford” bull “Wild Oxonian” (40,927), was second at Reading ; she has a charming countenance, and a deep covering of flesh over the foreribs and chine. The fifth, a massive roan, of the “ Lady Ashton ” family, is rather big in the bone, but well fleshed, and, like her companion, nicely brought out. The grandsire of the latter was the 4500-guinea bull, “ Duke of Connaught ” (33,604). Sir Hussey Vivian’s roan, “ Maid of Glamorgan,” bred by the exhibitor, of mixed blood, as distin- guished from line-breeding, repeated her Reserve position of 1882, and is likely to make a good cow, being already well gone in calf. Among the unsuccessful were a “ Lally ” from Low Hill and a “ Kirklevington ” from Wetherby. The latter is of a good type, but, not being in high condition, she was hard on the back. Nearly as great merit was illustrated in the Yearling Heifer Class, where from an entry of twenty-five there were eight absen- tees. A few were of only moderate quality, but the majority were of exceptional merit. Mr. Wakefield’s “ Gusta 4th,” a red and white of his own breeding, after’fa Holker bull, was a distinct first. Of fair size, she is as plump and ripe to all appearance as a Devon, and retained a beautiful coat of hair. Mr. Pugh’s second, roan, covers a great deal of ground for her age. She had for sire the West Dereham Abbey bull “ Sir Charles,” already referred to, and for dam a cow of the “ Cazarina ” family. VOL. XIX. — S. S. 2 I 474 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at The yearling is heavy in carcass and full of good Booth cha- racter, though already a trifle patchy at the tail. Of less scale but more beauty is Mr. Ackers’s “ Western Georgie” that stood third. Long level quarters, fine bone, rare quality, and sweet- ness, would justify any owner in expecting more than third for such a little beauty. In the company in which she appeared at York, however, it was difficult to make further way for her. Her dam was “ Vain Countess,” by the Warlaby “ Knight of St. Patrick ” (38,520), which was bought at the Lethenty sale, and is of the Killerby “ Georgie ” tribe. The Reserve roan, from Ingle- wood Bank, bred by Mr. Thompson, is a symmetrical promising daughter of the third-prize aged bull, “ Beau Benedict.” Mr. Earle’s fifth is long, but somewhat plain-looking. The Havering Park and Brandsby commended heifers inherit a good deal of Bates blood through the sires. A Siddington from Low Hill did not escape notice. For the family prizes there was better competition than is generally the case. The Sandringham first family were irre- sistible, consisting of “ Diadem,” a red and white eleven-year- old cow and her four daughters, three of which are already cows, and all good-looking. The matron was bred by Mr. Fisher, Pitlochry, and was bought at his remarkable sale in 1874 for the late Rev. Mr. Micklethwait, Norfolk, at a high price. She is of the Windsor Cold Creams — Knightley’s topped with Booth, — and retains much of the fine milking properties imparted to the tribe by the impressive bull “ Earl of Dublin.” The old cow wears well and milks deeply. She and her daughter, “ Diadem 3rd,” were purchased at Mr. Micklethwait’s sale some years ago by Mr. Beck for the Prince of Wales, and the purchase has proved a lucky one. The daughters, sired by good Booth bulls, are big handsome animals — generally improvements on the dam. Mr. Scoby’s second family was “ Duchess of Yetholm,” a twelve-year-old red and white cow, of Sir W. C. Trevelyan’s breeding, and her four daughters, also good animals, but not so uniform in character and quality as the first family. Mr. Foljambe’s third family is “ Cressida 4th,” a massive eight-year- old of the Rev. T. Staniforth’s breeding, and her three daughters, all bred by the exhibitor. The animals in the Family Class were in a refreshingly moderate state of feeding. Judges' Report of Shorthorns. The Judges of Shorthorns, in presenting their Report, have to state that the Show as a whole may be considered an average one, though, with two or three exceptions, there was nothing shown of very extraordinary merit. Amongst the old bulls were several well-known prize-winners. Class 62 was the best Bull Class, and included some young bulls of con- the Society's Meeting, 1883. 475 siderable promise, especially No. 620, whose excellent symmetry and fine quality, combined with great evenness of flesh, left little to be desired. No. 627 was also a very good young bull. No. 623, the youngest bull in his class, giving some of his opponents ten months, had excellent hair and quality of flesh, good hind-quarters, but was light in his crop, with a plain head. The reserved number (No. 625) was the oldest bull in the class ; he had great growth and general development, but was rather high in the legs, hair a little harsh, and flesh inclined to patchiness along the back. The old Cows were a difficult class to judge ; none of them being first-class animals, and by no means coming up to the standard of excellence expected at a Eoyal Agricultural Society’s Show. No. 664 had a very bad rump and coarse hind-legs; but having capital flesh, well defined fore-quarters, with a robust constitution, she was considered entitled to the first prize in her class. Class 65 was fairly good, though the drooping hind-quarters of the first- prize Heifer took much from her otherwise great merit. Class 66 was excellent, and in No. 690, the winner of the first prize, con- tained the best Shorthorn in the yard ; the winners of the second and third prizes, together with the reserved number and highly-commended heifers, were all animals of great promise. Class 67 was good in point of numbers, and also contained some very nice young Heifers, especially the first-prize animal, No. 707. The show of Families was very interesting, and in the first-prize lot de- monstrated how the original can be improved by judicious crossing. There was also another pleasing feature in this class, viz. all were shown in fair breeding condition, and apparently without forcing of any sort. H. W. Beauford. E. W. Meade-Waldo. W. Parker. Herefords. Merit was more remarkable in the section devoted to the white-faces than numbers were. This celebrated grazing breed has in recent years grown rapidly in popularity for American ranching purposes. Prices have risen almost in keeping with the demand, and are now high. Nevertheless the shipments to America annually reach several hundred head. Just after the York Show, 200 Herefords were despatched to Mr. Burleugh, in the United States. The Earl of Coventry’s five-year-old, “ Fisherman,” of Mr. T. Rogers’s breeding, which was second at Reading, was alone in the Aged Bull Class. He has grown in his fifth year, has a deep chest with colossal proportions, and fine character. To all appearance he was the heaviest beast in the yard. Only three two-year-olds were entered. Mr. Arkwright’s first bull, bred by the exhibitor, is out of “ Rose- bud,” a cow that when ten years old cost 150 guineas at the sale of the breeder, Mr. Tudge. “ Rosebud ” was a Royal winner, and produced this bull when she was fourteen years old. He is long in the quarters, with nicely laid-in shoulders and a very attractive outline. A little more width might improve him, but 2 i 2 476 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at he is smart and stylish, with unmistakable evidence of high breeding. Mr. Taylor’s second bull from Showle Court, of Mr. Carwardine’s breeding, has plenty of substance but less quality than the first. The second, however, was good enough to justify the special recommendation of the judges for a money prize to him. In a good class of yearling bulls there was striking evidence of the early maturing, properties of the Hereford. Mr. Carwardine’s first youngster, of his own breeding, is by the same sire, “ Lord Wilton” (4740), as the second two- year-old, while both were out of half-sisters. The yearling’s loin development and evenness of flesh were remarkable for the age. He was only third at Hereford shortly before, where Mr. A. E. Hughes’s “Washington,” now second, was also then second. The first at Hereford was not at York. The second bull, bred at Wintercott, handles nicely for a Hereford, and carries much good flesh. He is higher at the tail than the first, and was considered fairly beaten. Mr. Turner’s third, from The Leen, bred by the exhibitor, is a son of the prize cow “ Helena,” and is particularly good over the crops and full in the neck vein. Mr. Hall’s Reserve yearling is a promising son cf “ Lord Wilton,” already alluded to; while Lord Coventry’s commended bull is a lively-looking son of the first aged sire. One of the most impressive sights in the great Yard presented itself in the Hereford Cow Class. Three cows of the calibre of Mr. H. W. Taylor’s “Modesty,” “Adelaide,” and “Rosamond,” which made a sweep of the money prizes in the order named, are very rarely seen in one man’s possession. They were all bred, too, in the far-famed Showle Court herd. The first led this year as last, obviously. She is an eight-year-old of immense scale, and laden with flesh of the richest nature, evenly taken on. In high condition as she is, she breeds regu- larly, having had a very pretty heifer calf six weeks old at foot. Her sire, as well as the sire of the second cow, was the famous prize bull “Trevelyan” (5077). “Adelaide” is six years old, and is full sister to “ Modesty.” The second is not so well covered over the shoulder as the first, but she is very massive and feminine-looking. “ Rosamond ” is also six years old, and though proud on the rumps, she is good forward. Mr. Tudge’s Reserve cow “Mermaid,” six years old, and bred by Mr. Robinson, was second last year, and has great size but less quality than the winners. Only three heifers in-milk entered the ring, but they were all good. Mr. Hughes’s first, of Mrs. Sarah Edwards’s breeding, was second last year. She has grown in wealth since, and displays marvellous thickness of flesh over the ribs and crops, with a stylish head. Fat as she is, she has begun breeding, and has an astonishing show of milk. Her hind- the Society's Meeting, 1883. 477 quarters droop rather much, even for a Hereford, but she is grand forward. Mr. Tuclge’s second has a shapely frame laden with flesh and fat. Bred by the exhibitor, she is already in full milk. Mr. Hall’s first two-year-old heifer, bred by the exhibitor, was one of the plums of the breed. Rarely is a Hereford seen with so much sweetness and quality. To both ends she falls off a little, but her middle is one of the finest imaginable. Of “ Lord Wilton’s ” good-getting properties she affords additional proof. Mr. Platt’s “ Prettymaid 4th,” bred by the exhibitor, placed second, is bigger than the first, but not so nice. She is very strong over the loin and back. The other two ticketed were of full aver- age merit, and were bred by the exhibitors. Mr. Platt’s winning yearling, bred in the herd, is half-sister to the second two-year- old, but is more symmetrical. With size and substance she combines squareness of quarter and development of points that at once arrest the eye. The second, from The Leen, is truly marked, and is good under the hand. Mr. Fenn’s third and fourth, bred by himself, are sired by “ Downton Boy” (5877). Mr. Carwardine’s fifth was sired by “Lord Wilton.” Several good heifers were commended. The family groups, for the prizes offered by the Hereford Herd-book Society, made an imposing array. The Earl of Coventry’s first family was headed by that grand old cow, “ Giantess,” now in her twelfth year, bred by Mr. Tudge, Adforton, still fresh and level, and very big. Her following consisted of a four-year-old cow and a handsome twenty-months-old bull, both bred to Lord Coventry. Mr. Hall’s second family were younger and the same in number, all bred by the exhibitor. Mr. Wm. Tudge’s third were of his own breeding, and Mr. Platt’s group was led by a fine cow, hailing from Showle Court. Judges' Report on the Herefords. Considering the distance from the home of the Herefords, together with the prevalence of foot-and-mouth disease, and the great drain there has been on them for exportation, there was a very fair muster of the red with white faces. Although the Old Bull Class failed to bring out more than one animal, that ene was a good representative of the breed, and would have taken a very good bull to have beaten him. Only two Young Bulls came out in Class 70, but those were both well worthy of first aud second prizes in a good class. “ Rose Cross ” is probably one of the best young sires we have left in England, and “ Franklin ” has been hard at work, which pays the owner much better than excessive feeding aud no stock. The Yearling Class generally brings out a few “ stars.” Mr. Carwardine’s “ Monarch ” is a diamond of the first water, and “Washington,” from the Wintercott herd, is a no mean rival ; “ Hogarth,” a son of “ The Grove 3rd,” 478 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at is third on the list, and is very neat and compact, although not quite hig enough for his age, and there are some other good specimens. It is seldom that four better Cows appear before the Judges than the three from Showle Court and Mr. Tudge’s “ Mermaid the latter, although a very massive grand-looking cow, lacks quality, and had to give way to the three of Mr. Taylor’s, each of them worthy of first honours. Class 73. Three fairly good Heifers ; the first and second prize animals were each shown with a calf at foot. The only other exhibit was a very level good- fleshed heifer, and will no doubt be heard of at the Christmas Fat Stock Shows. Mr. Hall’s “ Dorothea ” easily won first prize in the Yearling Heifer Class, and might be called one of the “ gems of the Showyard the second, Mr. Platt’s “ Prettymaid,” and one or two others, were worthy of special mention in this class. Perhaps there were few better Heifers in the Showyard than Mr. Platt’s “ Primrose 5th,” first in Class 75, very level, of good size and quality, and looking likely to develop into a grand heifer. “Portia,” daughter of “The Grove 3rd,” was second ; there were also a pair of Mr. Fenn’s, and some others, worthy of mention. Class 69. One exhibit. — A very good animal. Class 70. Two exhibits. — Two fair animals, first-prize winner being of good quality. Class 71. Eleven exhibits. — A good class, including several very promising young Bulls, especially the first- and second-prize takers. The third-prize winner is very neat, but rather small for his age. Class 72. Five exhibits. — A very good class. No. 746, the reserve num- ber, is of great scale, but handled rather coarsely. Class 73. Three exhibits. — The first- and second-prize animals had good calves by their sides ; the reserve number is a grand level Heifer, but we con- sidered her more suitable for a Fat Stock Show. Class 74. Six exhibits. — A fair class. No. 755, which won first prize, is a very superior Heifer. Class 75. Ten exhibits. — A very good class, commended nearly throughout. The first prize is a beautiful Heifer, and the second is of grand quality. Class 76. This Family Class brought out four lots, all of great merit. Lord Coventry’s exhibit we considered entitled to the first prize, being more in number, besides the general excellence of each animal. Mr. Hall’s “ Lovely,” with yearling heifer and bull calf, was a good second; Mr. Tudge’s and Mr. Platt’s were both good families. John H. Yeomans. Wm. Groves. Devons. This charming South of England breed, which is still honoured with the leading place in the Smithfield catalogue, was not so well represented as it is when the Show is nearer the “ Devon Country.” The bulls were generally bigger than usual, but scarcely so plump and beautiful. Mr. Perry’s first aged bull, bred by the exhibitor, is nearly six years old and wears admirably. He handles very firmly, is wide and deep forward, and padded over the loins, crops, and rumps with the richest of meat. He was the sire of the commended three-year-old from the same 479 the Society’s Meeting , 1883. herd — a good, sappy, useful bull. Viscount Falmouth’s second, “Sir Michael,” six years old, and bred by the exhibitor, is very near the ground ; fine on bone and rich in quality. On the back he shows a tendency to give way since he stood first at Reading. The Reserve bull from the same herd is a compact four-year-old, with splendid loin, bred by the exhibitor, and sired, like the first, by the prize bull “ Sirloin ” (1443). Sir W. Williams’ commended bull is a stylish three-year-old of Mrs. Langdon’s breeding. Mr. Perry’s first two-year-old was sired by the leading old bull, bred by the exhibitor, uniformly growrn and wrell fleshed, though for some people’s taste rather strong in the horn. Mr. Howse’s second, of Mr. Coles’s breeding, was only twenty-one months old, and for his age is one of the biggest of his breed that has been shown for some years. Mr. Herbert Farthing’s first yearling of his own breeding is well up on all his points, and is likely to be heard of again. Mr. Skinner’s second is a plump little representative of the celebrated Stowey Court blood. The same exhibitor’s first in a small class of cow s is a deeply fleshed four-year-old, bred by the exhibitor, and first three-year-old at Reading. She is far above the average size for a Devon, and is by no means devoid of quality or character. Mr. Howse’s second cow is a five-year-old, bred by her present owner; she stands high with a good covering over the chine, but has rather bare shoulders. Sir Wm. Williams had credit in topping probably the best class of the breed in the Show, with a round-ribbed, admirably clad three-year-old heifer of Mrs. Langdon’s breeding. She shows quality and maturity all over, and is a worthy member of the well-known prize family of “Temptresses.” Mr. Howse’s second heifer, of his own breeding, was first at Reading, and is still good, though not so near perfection as the first. Mr. Fryer’s highly commended heifer of Lord Portman’s breeding was second at Reading. The Reserve was “ Sally,” a sym- metrical heifer of Mr. Skinner’s, bred by Mr. Walter Farthing. Her half-sister triumphed in the two-year-old class, and is also owned by Mr. Skinner, whose cattle displayed more Devon character than some of the others. Of the distinguished “ Moss Rose ” tribe of Stowey Court, the first two-year-old wras one of the most symmetrical Devons in the exhibition, and is above average size. Mr. Skinner’s first yearling at Reading was unsuccessful. “ Mignonette,” of Mr. Fryer’s breeding, has grown very uniformly, and deserved her second ticket. The third from the same herd is by the same sire, “ Viceroy ” (1661), and looks like making a good cow. The star in the Yearling Class was the little beauty shown and bred by Sir Wm. Williams, of similar blood to that of the first three-year-old. 480 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at The females were not so uniform in size, set of horn, and character, as they generally are. Judges' Report of Devons. In the majority of the classes the number of animals exhibited was smaller than on many former occasions, which may perhaps to some degree be accounted for by the distance from the district in which Devon cattle are produced. In the various Classes of Bulls, although there were a few good specimens, we think that on the whole they were not quite up to the standard of former years. In the Cow and Heifer Classes the above remarks apply generally, but in Classes 81, 82, and 83 (those of heifers), there were some very meritorious animals. H. W. Keary. Kichard Hamshar. John Risdon. Sussex. No breed of cattle in the United Kingdom has made such marked improvement, in its Showyard representatives at least, during the last seven or eight years, as this variety. The vast progress has been evidenced both in the Smithfield and the Royal exhibitions. The Sussex Cattle have not only improved in size and shape, but decidedly also in quality, wealth, and levelness of flesh. With something like the scale and outline of the Shorthorn, the Sussex breed approach the Devon in uniformity and quality of flesh. They are, indeed, grand beef- producing cattle, and deserve a wider hold than they yet possess of this meat-raising country. The Messrs. Stanford’s “ Gold- smith ” (391), of Mr. G. Smith’s breeding, is a magnificent six-year-old bull, first at Reading, and easily first this year again. With a brisket well down to the ground, the ponderous bull is no more noteworthy in respect of size, width, and length, than for levelness and accumulation of flesh. He is astonish- ingly coated, and retains his bloom wonderfully. The same exhibitors’ successful three-year-old is shapely and well covered on the shoulder. Bred by the exhibitors ; he is straight, stylish, and plump as a Devon. Mr. Stewart Hodgson’s second bull, bred by the exhibitor, is very large in size for his age, but he does not walk so gracefully as the first. The Messrs. Stanford’s first and second bulls, calved in 1881, were both bred by the exhibitors, and headed the Yearling Class at Reading, in different order, how- ever, from that of York. The first one this year is a smart son of the monster old bull above described. Mr. Agate’s Reserve bull curiously took the same position last year against the Messrs. Stanford’s pair, which are well furnished, good, sub- stantial bulls. 481 the Society's Meeting , 1883. Merit was higher in the female than in the male classes. Mr. Hodgson’s successful cow is “ Laura 5th ” (2412), a four-year- old of his own breeding, and first winner at the recent Bath and West of England Show. She is covered with flesh that in quality would not disgrace a Devon, and in quantity would adorn a Hereford or a Shorthorn. Mr. Green’s second is a six-year-old, which was second at Reading, was bred by Mr. Lansdell, and has a beautiful head, though a less evenly fleshed frame than the first. The other cows were fair. The Messrs. Stanford’s fine three-year-old heifer is “ Dorset 8th,” bred by the exhibitors, and very firm under the hand, with a compact body and nice under- line. Her sire was the first old bull at Reading. She stood Reserve, and has now changed places with Mr. Agate’s “ Honesty 6th,” of his own breeding. Mr. Hodgson’s fine heifer, calved in 1881, bred by the exhibitor, was only twenty months old, but showed remarkable maturity, as well as no little quality and character. The Messrs. Stanford’s second was the favourite at Reading. She is still pleasing on the chine and ribs, and claims for her sire the first old bull. The first one has all the gaiety and style of a Shorthorn. Mr. Agate’s third is big for her age, and well fleshed, and, like the other winners, bred by the exhibitor. The victorious yearling, owned and bred by Mr. Vickress, riveted attention on account of her great length, squareness of quarter, evenness of flesh, as well as wealth of it. Few animals of any breed of the age would scale with her, and withal she is sym- metrical. The second, from the same herd, is somewhat stubby in the head, but well down on the thighs. Mr. Hodgson’s third is higher on the leg than those preferred by the Judges. In the classes of this breed, as well as those of Devons and Herefords, there were not many animals unadorned by prize or commended tickets. Judges' Report on the Sussex. In the Classes of Bulls there was only one animal calling for special notice, and the remainder must be described as considerably below his standard. The Females were on the whole good, and included many animals of great merit, and we express a hope that the breed of these very useful cattle will increase, and that they will continue to make as much improvement in the future as they have made in the past. H. W. Keary. lllCHARD IIaMSHAR. John Risdon. Norfolk and Suffolk Polled. This valuable grazing and beef-producing variety deserves greater popularity than it has yet enjoyed. The turn-out at \ ork was calculated to spread the fame of the breed. If the 482 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at kindly feeding and good flesh-forming properties of the Red Polls were only better known, the demand for them would rapidly increase. Mr. Austin’s “ Shylock,” of the late Mr. Palmer’s breeding, rising four years old, was, on account of his superior quality and uniformity, selected for first honours in the Aged Bull Class in preference to Mr. Hammond’s five-year-old “ Davyson 7th,” of his own breeding. The latter was first last year, and is a heavy animal, well descended, but he is not so level and smart- looking as the first. Mr. Taylor’s third bull, of his own breed- ing is only a two-year-old, and was thus somewhat handicapped. On the back he is well covered, but his underline is defective. The other four bulls in the class got commended tickets, a fact which attests the high merit of the class. Yearling bulls were not so good. Mr. Colman’s first is a long-sided, big, straight- topped animal, bred by the exhibitor. If this bull fills out properly with age he will be an old bull of great size and sub- stance, with fair quality. The second bull of Mr. Haggard’s, bred by Mr. Biddell, is also well grown for his age, but is not so nice as he might be. Mr. Loffts’ third, bred by himself, is not quite up to the Troston standard. Females were better than the males, at least in the younger classes. Mr. Colman’s first cow is rising four years old, was bred by the exhibitor, has a strong loin, well padded with beef, square hind-quarters, full brisket, and wealthy bosom. Nor is she devoid of character and quality. The second, from the same herd and by the same sire — “ Rufus ” (188) — is only two and a half years old, and heavy in calf. She is well coated over with flesh, especially on the shoulder, and pleases the eye, but does not fill the hand quite so well as the first. Mr. Taylor’s third, of Mr. Palmer’s breeding, is of the “Davy” tribe, and has accumulated a considerable quantity of fine-handling flesh over the chine. With one exception the others in the class were good enough to secure commended tickets. Mr. Hammond was ill to shake off in the Yearling Heifer Class. Two-year-old heifers competed with cows, as did two-year-old bulls with the aged of this breed. It would have been better if two-year-olds and yearlings had been bracketed, if only two classes could be allowed for each sex. Mr. Hammond’s first and second yearlings were a well-developed pair, bred by the exhibitor, of the “ Davy ” family, and sired by the second-prize aged bull, also of that family. The first is as firm under the hand as a Devon, and already carries a great deal of meat on the crops and back. The second is massive, but not sweet. Mr. Taylor’s third, of his own breeding, is large in size and level in flesh. Five of the remaining nine were commended. the Society's Meeting , 1883. 483 Judges' Report of Norfolk and Suffolk Polled. In the Class of Old Bulls there were many good animals, and we are sorry that we cannot apply the same remark to the other Class of Young Bulls. The Female Classes contained some extremely good Cows and Heifers, and we are glad to see that this very useful breed of cattle are apparently increasing and improving. H. W. Keary. Eichard Hamshar. John Eisdon. Welsh. Very few animals of this old-established and hardy race of stock were entered. Eight appeared in the four classes, and all were ticketed. Lord Harlech and the Earl of Cawdor had the best of them. The former’s first bull in the senior class was surprisingly developed for a three-year-old. It was bred by the exhibitor ; this bull had as noble a head as might be expected in a West Highlander, while a well-balanced frame was as evenly covered with flesh as a Polled bull’s would be. He has won several prizes. Lord Cawdor’s second bull, also three years old, is fleshy, but not so strong on the back as the first. Lord Harlech’s yearling bull is half-brother to the three-year-old ; and though not wide in rib, he is good on the back and fair in the quarter, with a fine glossy skin. Perhaps the prettiest animal of the breed was Lord Cawdor’s seven-year-old cow “ Leonora,” bred by the exhibitor, and full of quality. She looks all over a milker, having a little white at the udder, which in black cattle has long been regarded as evidence of good lacteal qualities. His Lordship’s heifer was bred by Mrs. Williams, Carmarthenshire, and has attractive Welsh character. Judge's Report of Welsh Cattle. It is much to be regretted that this hardy breed was not more largely represented, but the quality of the few animals shown would go far to account for the high esteem in which “Welsh Blacks” are held by Mid- land graziers and West-end butchers. In Class 91, for Bulls Two Years old and upwards, the first prize went to a three-year-old of great size and merit, with good thick flesh ; and a pro- mising Young Bull, under Twelve Months old, took the prize in Class 92. Only two Females were shown in Classes 93 and 94, the Aged Cow being a grand specimen. It is hoped that the newly established Herd-book may be the means of inducing more breeders from the Principality to compete in the showyard. John Williams. Polled Angus or Aberdeen. No breed of cattle has risen so much in value during the last three years as this one. In the rank and file, so to speak, the 484 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at advance in market value has since 1878 been nearly 100 per cent., while for the very best bred families the rise has been double that amount. The late Mr. M‘Combie’s achievements at the Paris Exhibition in 1878, securing the principal group prizes open to all comers with his “ black skins,” gave the breed a great “ lift ” in distant lands as well as at home. The Americans were captivated by the fine flesh-forming and early- maturing qualities of the breed, as also by the absence of horns. The result has been a large and yearly growing demand for Northern Polls to cross the Atlantic. As much as 500 guineas has been paid for one female for exportation, and about that figure has oftener than once been paid by home breeders. The display at York would have been much larger and better but for the risks of disease and the uncertainties of the return journey to Scotland. Only two animals came direct from Scotland ; but so many Polls have in recent years gone to establish herds in England, that a fair appearance was made. It is doubtful if more than one or two of the Polls at York would have found their way into the prize list at the Inverness H ighland Show the following week, and certain it is that none of the English exhibits would have got to the front at the High- land capital. The York entry, however, was not to be despised, especially as over-feeding was almost avoided. Mr. Rouse’s first Bull over Two Years old is a six-year-old, bred at Drumin, Banffshire, and descended from the Rothiemay “Georgina” family. He did good service in the herds of Lord Lovat and Mr. Robertson, Aberlour Mains, and has thriven well since he crossed the Border last year. In the flank he is light, but atonement for that is offered in excellence of loin and abundance of flesh on the top. There w as not much between the Bradley Plall entry and Mr. Egginton’s two-year-old that followed. The latter is the thicker in the middle, and has a good front. He was bred by the late Mr. Walker, Montbletton, and cost 97 guineas last autumn. His sire was the 255-guinea bull “Young Hero,” and his dam a member of the “Lady Palmer- ston” family, that averaged over 200 guineas a head at the Montbletton sale in September last. Mr. Wallis’s bull, that ranked third, has more length, and fully as much style as the other, but he is weaker in the middle. He was bred at Ballin- dalloch, of the prize-winning “Sybil” tribe, and had for sire the National Society’s first-prize bull “Justice.” Yearlings were numerically stronger. A stiff pull ensued for the first ticket between Mr. Wilken’s “Mayflower” bull, of Lord Tweed- mouth’s breeding, and Mr. Wallis’s “Jilt” bull, of his own breeding. The latter, descended from one of the best Ballin- dalloch, Tillyfour, and Keillor families, is good along the back, the Society's Meeting , 1883. 485 fair in his quarters, but roughish in the neck, and finished second best. Mr. Wilken’s cost 110 guineas last spring, and had for dam one of the late Mr. M‘Combie’s famous “ Paris ” group, while the sire was the son of another of that distinguished lot. This yearling is above the average size, and has no very decided defect, if not much that could be called grand. He was fairly enough first. Mr. Stephenson’s third and fourth bulls, bred by himself, were strong and well fleshed— the former beinsr an “ Erica ” and the latter a “ Ruth.” The “ Erica ” one has strong massive quarters, but rather a weak back. The other would be improved by more spring of rib. There was evidently only one house-fed animal in the Cow Class, and she was considered by the Judges to be too fat. There were fatter animals in the prize list, but not of that breed ; and the rest having been moderately fed, her high state of obesity was all the more pronounced, and the Judges set Mr. Wilken’s exhibit aside accordingly. Seven of the ten cows entered were paraded. There was nothing like a clear first in the lot. Eventually the Judges settled on a Rothiemay-bred eight-year-old of Mr. Egginton’s, with round ribs, level loin, good hind-quarters, and feminine head and ear. Her breeding qualities were certified by the calf at foot, and still more impressively by the excellence of her two-year-old daughter, which topped a good class, and had also a nice calf at foot. Mr. Stephenson’s second cow, bred at East Tulloch, Stonehaven, has more substance than the victor, being very thick behind the shoulder, but not so long in the quarter. The third, from Bradley Hall, bred at Rothiemay, is one of the Ballindalloch “Nosegays,” and had the best head and neck in the class, with good quarters, but she had not strength enough on the loins to take a higher place. The others in the class were fairly good. The Two-year-old Heifer Class was, like that of cows, perplexing to judge. Considerable allowance must have been made, and not improperly, for Mr. Egginton’s first heifer, already alluded to, being under milk. In the circumstances she is of large size, and has good quarters, though a little bareness over the chine. Milking so early would aggravate, if not occasion, the latter. Mr. Wallis’s “ May Queen,” of the Advie “ Old Rose ” tribe, and a 225-guinea purchase at the Advie sale last autumn, had possibly the best body of any animal of the breed in the Show. Her quarters are shapely and well packed ; loin, rib, shoulders, and back are quite in harmony with the proportionate quarters. She is too short of neck, however, for a female, and lost the first ticket on that account. Mr. Stephenson’s third is a large-sized daughter of the second prize cow. She is heavier than her opponents, but rather plainer. Mr. Greenfield’s fourth heiler 486 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at was the youngest in the class, and smallest. It was bred by Mr. Hannay, Gavenwood, Banff, of the “ Westertown Rose ” tribe, and had a beautiful head and neck, with deep massive quarters. Its coat of hair was rather heavy, and an attempt to “ curl ” had the opposite effect from what the attendant intended. Through the liberality of the Polled Cattle Society, prizes were offered for yearling heifers, and they formed probably the best class. Mr. Wallis got to the front at last. His first heifer is a thick substantial shapely “ Pride,” of Mr. Hannay’s breeding, and is well set on short legs. She has a splendid head and ear, and, barring a tendency to rise at the tail, would be diffi- cult to beat. Mr. Stephenson’s second, of his own breeding, is a daughter of his second-prize cow, by a Ballindalloch “ Erica ” bull. The cross of the latter has sweetened the produce as compared with the two-year-old heifer. What the yearling may want in size it makes up for almost in symmetry and quality. Major Godman’s third heifer is nice along the back, and steps out gaily. Five recently established English herds thus carried all the prizes save one, and a very creditable start they have made. Judges' Report of Polled Aberdeen and Angus Cattle. The entries of the Aberdeen and Angus Polled breed numbered 32 ; of these 22 were forward. Class 99. Bull calved in 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880, and 1881. — There was nothing in this class very superior, but all the exhibits were good fair speci- mens of the breed, and well deserved the awards made. Class 100. Bull calved in 1882. — A good fair class all over, but contained no animal of any very marked or special merit. The prize-winners were in our opinion worthy of their honours. Class 101. Cow or Heifer in-milk or in-calf, calved previously to or in 1880. — A good average class, but contained no one that could be termed a really first-class animal. The Judges had some difficulty in placing the awards made in order, on account of the varied nature of the merits of the greater number of the animals. They thought it their duty to dis- qualify and set aside No. 900, as over-fed, and showing more of a fat animal than a breeding one. Class 102. Heifer calved in 1881. — In this class the Judges placed first a heifer in-milk with calf at foot, as, with this disadvantage to her appearance, she was considered to be possessed of most merit. Both the second and third prize heifers were possessed of considerable merit, but were of very different types. The reserve number, 907, had more the characteristics of a Galloway than a Polled Angus and Aberdeen, and this fact weighed with the Judges in not placing her higher. Class 103. Heifer calved in 1882. — The whole exhibits in this class were good fair animals, and probably the best average in point of merit of all the classes. The first prize animal was a really good heifer, and the Judges con- sidered the whole well worthy of the awards made. The Judges desire to remark, speaking generally, that the whole of the entries forward of this breed appeared to be very creditable specimens, and all 487 the Society's Meeting, 1883. healthy and useful, with the exception in Class 101, already mentioned, and were well worthy of the awards made. George J. Walker. Wm. Whyte. Galloways. The classes of this old-established Border grazing breed were fairly filled. Merit was not throughout sustained, but several of the best animals of their day were exhibited. On the Galloway herds there have been heavy drafts for exportation in the course of the last two years. The hardiness and heavy coats of hair of these cattle adapt them for the exposure during winter to which American ranche cattle are subjected. They have increased materially in value, and are destined to rise further as their grazing capabilities become wider known on the other side of the Atlantic. The Judges in their official report appended go so fully into the merits of the prize-winners that only very little can be added. The first aged bull, from Tarbreoch, whence many a fine animal has come, has had a very successful Showyard career, and has proved himself an impressive sire ; and he is still as fresh and fit as ever, though six years old. He has gained the highest honours in Scotland, and had no difficulty at York, looking, as he was, as level and wealthy of flesh, and almost as blooming as ever. The breeder is Mr. James Graham, Lynefoot, Carlisle, and the sire was the celebrated getter, “Sim of Whitram ” (562). Mr. Villiers’s second bull is a four-year-old, bred by Messrs. Shennan, Balig, and was first as a yearling at the Carlisle Royal. He is not so heavy as the first, but he comes well down to the ground, and displays some of the best characteristics of the breed. Mr. McCowan’s third is a three-year-old, bred by Mr. James Graham and sired by the first-prize bull. Very massive hind- quarters and well-clad back are his ; while the Duke of Buccleuch’s fourth of the same age, and bred by the exhibitor, carried a great deal of flesh and hair. The Tarbreoch first yearling, bred by Mr. McTurk, is of good blood, and if not in high condition, has plenty of frame and not a little promise. The Duke of Buccleuch’s second, bred by the exhibitor, is out of a “ Lady Stanley” cow — a Tarbreoch family at the top of the tree - — and after the fourth prize aged bull. In this yearling are illustrated some of the cherished points of the breed. The duke’s herd had the credit of producing Mr. McCowan’s third bull, a promising stirk. The fourth prize fell to a young breeder — the Rev. John Gillespie, Mouswald, who as Editor of the Galloway Herd Book, and in various other capacities, has latterly done more to popularise his favourite breed than any 488 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at other man. One of the pair of young bulls which he exhibited got Reserve, which is a fair success, considering the material against which he had to contend. The Duke of Buccleuch’s first cow in a good all-round class is a seven-year-old, thick-quartered, deep-ribbed animal, bred at Culmain, and not unknown to Showyard honours. The third, from the same herd, bred by Mr. Routledge, is a ten-year-old, and wears wonderfully. The Tarbreoch second is a four-year- old, bred at Kirklands, and of moderately good quality. Mr. McCowan’s first heifer, bred by Mr. W. Shennan, does not lack the leading features of the race, and may be heard of as a cow. The second, from Tarbreoch, is well bred, and was calved in the herd of the Messrs. Nivison, Lairdlaugh. Report of the Judges of Galloways. We found the exhibition of Galloways good on the whole, especially con- sidering the distance of the Show from the headquarters of the breed. The Aged Bulls were really good, and we commended the entire class. The first-prize animal, No. 922, is a first-rate specimen of this breed, being excellent in almost every point. The second one, No. 921, shows very good quality, and is specially good in his fore-quarters. The third, No. 919, is a level symmetrical bull all over, and promises to improve with age. The representation of Yearling Bulls was a good one, most of the animals being full of promise. The one placed first, No. 929, was easily a winner. He is a massive good hull, and appeared in excellent bloom. No- 925, to which the second ticket was awarded, shows much symmetry ; while the third, No. 926, is good in almost all his points, and seems very promising. Of the eight Galloway Cows submitted to our inspection, half-a-dozen constituted a really good lot. The first-prize cow, No. 931, is a remarkably good one, combining substance and quality in a large degree. The second, No. 936, is a cow of much quality ; while the one to which the third ticket was assigned, No. 932, has many excellent points, though her long age of eleven years told against her in the competition. There were only two Heifers brought before us, and they were both good, though different types of animals. The one which we placed first, No. 938, is a heifer of very superior quality, while the second, No. 939, is a strong well-developed animal. Thos. Gibbons. M. Clark. James Hamilton. Ayrshires. Though this renowned dairy breed was meagrely represented in number, a few of the choicest sorts were forward. The first aged bull, as the Judges remark, is one of the best that has been exhibited for many years, and has never been beaten. With some of the best points of the Ayrshire he unites a degree of size rarely seen. In nobility of gait, or in fact fierceness of countenance, he would not have been a lame apology fora Chilling- ham wild white bull. Since the York Show, this animal, chiefly the Society's Meeting, 1883. 489 owing to his temper, has been sent to the butcher. No animal for some years has made a close second to Mr. Bartlemore’s bull, hut the Duke of Buccleuch’s second at York, bred by the exhibitor, and only three years old, followed creditably, being good on the top and stylish in head and neck. Mr. Bartlemore’s first yearling, bred by Mr. Jack and sired by the old bull, is small, but very well bred and a likely winner in the future. The Duke of Buccleuch’s first cow is a tidy three-year-old, bred by the Duke ; carries a good milk-vessel very gracefully, and has fine bone and quality. The second is a five-year-old, also bred by the Duke, who owns the best herd of the kind in the country. Mr. Wilson’s winning heifer is a beauty, and the Duke’s second shows high breeding. Judges' Report of the Ayr shires. The Ayrshires, though few in numbers, made a creditable appearance. The first-prize Aged Bull, No. 941, is a beast of very exceptional merit, and seldom, if ever, has a better representative of the breed been seen any- where. The second-prize one, No. 943, though relatively inferior, has good points. The first-prize Yearling Bull, No. 944, though not large, possesses fairly good quality, and is a moderately good animal. No. 945 was placed second. As a class, the Cows were fairly good. We awarded the first ticket to No. 950, a cow which shows all the characteristics of a good Ayrshire. The second. No. 952, possesses great style, and shows superior breeding, while the third, No. 947, though apparently a good cow, appears at a disadvantage from having very recently calved. The first-prize Two-Year-old Heifer, No. 953, is a remarkably good beast, showing very superior quality and great symmetry ; while the one placed second, No. 955, is moderately good. James Hamilton. Thos. Gibbons. M. Clark. Jeeseys. So far from the headquarters of this valuable dairy breed, the display, though not so good as at Reading, was on the whole satisfactory. The extraordinarily high prices lately paid — into the four figures — for Jerseys in America, freshens the interest in the breed in this country. Accordingly the Jersey stalls were thronged daily. The first-prize aged bull is a three-year-old of Mr. T. W. Walters, from Radford, Dawlish, and bred in the island from which the breed derives its name. He is truly marked, and of superior quality. Mr. Sutton’s second, also bred in the island, being a year older, is bigger, and also well-bred. The third, owned by Mr. Firman, and bred at headquarters, has a characteristic head and good skin. Being only three years old he was in bloom. Mr. Arnold’s leading yearling, bred in Jersey, has a thorough-bred look VOL. XIX. — S. S. 2 K 490 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at and fine quality, with sweet bone. The Wray Park second bull, of Mr. Simpson’s own breeding, was in the same position at Bridgwater. He is a grey, of fine quality, and more than average promise. The Duke of Portland’s third, bred by his Grace, is a dark brown, with a good skin, and fair size. Cows mustered very well. Mr. Arkwright had a deserving first in a five-year-old light-coloured cow, bred in Jersey, and of beautiful hue, with marvellous milk-veins, and hard clean- cut features. Mr. Simpson’s second is a three-year-old grey, bred at Wray Park, and of exceptional quality, with fine bone and wiry frame. She was first at the Bath and West of England Show, and third at Reading. Mr. Arkwright’s third cow is a beautiful four-year-old fawn, bred in Jersey, and possessed of many of the points so much desired in a cow of the sort. No fewer than six of the remaining fifteen were commended, and they merited the distinction. Mr. Corbett’s successful three-year-old heifer is a tidy fawn, bred in Jersey, sharp along the top, hard on the rump, sweet in the skin, and well coloured. Mr. Ashcroft’s second, of Mr. Simpson’s breeding, ran the winner very closely. She is a grand milker, and has already had two calves, being the dam of the first yearling heifer. The commended heifer from Wray Park is of a fine old true-breeding sort, being in direct descent from “ Milk Girl,” bought for 150 guineas at Mr. Gilbey’s sale. “ Milk Maid,” of the same family, went to America at 165 guineas. Mr. Cornish’s third heifer, bred by the exhibitor, is a sweet little thing, evidently milking deeply, and uniformly marked. Mr. Streatfeild’s Reserve heifer is bigger than some of the others, and by no means deficient in character. The Wray Park first two-year-old is a charming grey, bred by Mr. Simpson, and already in-milk. She was second at Reading and first at Bridgwater, and is full of promise, having a skin like a glove, and very well-defined features. The third, from the same renowned herd, is a surprising milker ; though only two years old she has produced as much as 14 quarts of milk per day, and is likely to be an acquisition to the herd. Mr. Arkwright’s second is a silver-grey, bred by himself, with more substance than most of the others, but, for a Jersey, not quite sharp enough on the chine. Mr. Cornish’s Reserve heifer is a smart silver-grey fawn, bred in the island. Mr. Ashcroft’s first yearling, referred to above, is a great beauty, likely to rival her dam, the second-prize three-year-old. Yorkshire herds got in at last. Lord Fcversham’s and Lady Hawkes’s second and third yearlings, bred by the exhibitors, promise fairly for the future. 491 the Society's Meeting , 1883. Judges’ Report of the Jersey Cattle. Taken as a whole, there is nothing remarkable to report in reference to the Jerseys exhibited, although it must be noted that some classes were vastly superior to others. Perhaps this may be accounted for by the fact that in the northern district this breed of cattle is not so generally kept as it is in the south. The total entries numbered 72. In Class 112— for Bulls born from 1877 to 1881 inclusive — there were nine animals. No. 957 took the first prize. This bull shows good quality, and has some good symmetrical points, but he lacks fineness to some extent. The second prize is of well-bred appearance. No. 956, the third prize, was shown with too much flesh, which tended rather to spoil than improve his appearance. The reserve number went to No. 963, a useful bull. Class 113. Bulls calved in 1882. — This class was represented by ten entries, of which No. 974, a promising young animal, took the first prize ; No. 967 the second ; and No. 969 the third — this bull, though somewhat deficient in form, is notably rich in quality. . The reserve was given to No. 972. Class 114. Cows in-Milk or in-Calf, born in 1879, or before. — This is the largest class, there being nineteen entries, and among these some good specimens of milking cows. No. 979 took the first prize ; No. 977 the second; and No. 981, the third; No. 976 being the reserve. Nos. 978 and 983 were highly commended. All these are excellent animals. Exhibitors should clearly understand that the Jersey is essentially a dairy-cow, and that however well shaped she may appear, if she fails in her milk and butter-producing properties, she must be discarded. It is useless to exhibit large fleshy animals, or yet animals with bad udders ; these can never obtain distinction in the prize-ring. Class 115. Cows or Heifers in-Milk or in-Calf, born in 1880. — There were only seven entries. The prizes were awarded as follows : — No. 1001, first prize ; No. 997, second ; and No. 1010, third. The reserve, No. 998. Though a small class it was one of the best. Class 116. Heifers barn in 1881. — Entries fifteen. The first prize, No. 1002, is a good heifer, and so are Nos. 1005, 1003, 1001, which took second and third prizes, and reserve number respectively. Class 117. Heifers calved in 1882. — In this class there were twelve entries, and they were on the whole a decidedly inferior lot. With one exception, the difficulty experienced was in finding animals for the prizes offered. In this class there were heifers exhibited which, through over-feeding, had lost the most important features and essential characteristics of the breed. There was also one which, through having the foundation of a very ill-shaped udder, lost its chance for a prize, but which otherwise might have been considered a good animal, and might have been entitled to the first place in the class. C. P. Le Cornxj. G. W. Baker. C. Stephenson. Dairy Cattle. There was nothing of surpassing merit in these classes. The detailed Report of the Judges is appended. Report of the Judges of Dairy Cattle. Class 118. — Twelve animals put in an appearance in competition for the handsome prizes offered by the York Local Committee. There was naturally great diversity of breed and character under the open conditions of the compe- 2 k 2 492 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at tition. We had no difficulty in selecting for the first prize No. 1031, an ex- cellent specimen of a rent-paying cow, combining with perfect milking cha- racteristics a well-developed frame, and every indication of breeding highly profitable grazing stock. The second prize we awarded to a fine old white cow, of true Shorthorn type, and excellent milking qualities. She bears evidence of having been a highly profitable auimal, and five years ago she would have been bad to beat. The third prize we awarded to a very useful general-purpose young cow, which, though not then in milk, bore evidence of being good at the pail. For the reserve number we selected a very thin cow, standing over an extraordinary udder. Class 119. — This class greatly disappointed us. We hoped to have seen twenty-five or thirty competitors. Instead of this, only two Heifers entered the ring, and neither of them came up to our ideas of a Royal first-prize dairy heifer. We therefore awarded only the second prize to a pretty little Short- horn, endowed with moderate milking properties. William Stratton. Thos. Bowstead. SHEEP. Excepting Shropshires, the display of sheep was not quite equal to that of some former years ; but on the whole it was a full average, and clipping seemed to have been better accom- plished than formerly. Leicesters. Mr. Hutchinson endeavoured to keep the first place in the Two-shear Ram Class with a symmetrical animal that was the first shearling at the Yorkshire Show last year. A big, wide- ribbed, nice-handling sheep of Mr. George Turner’s, bred at Thorplands, was victor. He showed good character and fair quality, and covered more ground than the handsome if rather short Catterick sheep that followed. The latter has a good leg of mutton, fair wool, and turns pretty well. The Messrs. Linton’s third or Reserve sheep, of their own breeding, is wealthy both in wool and mutton, and several serviceable stylish sheep were commended. Numbers were greater in the Shearling Class, where Mr. Hutchinson was triumphant with a finely balanced, tastefully shown sheep, sired by the second shearling at the Derby Royal, and third two-shear at Reading. Two from the same flock were commended, and the three displayed sym- metry and quality which could not be overlooked by the judges. Mr. AYm. Brown’s second is true in form and of good character, with a well-covered top and good wool. Mr. Jordan’s third and fourth, bred, like the other winners, by the exhibitor, have splendid wool, nice heads, and good covering below. Their ribs are nicely rounded and their style is inviting. The same ex- hibitor’s first Shearling Ewes were well clad under, wealthy to handle, and lively in head and ear, with excellent skins. The the Society's Meeting , 1883. 493 Messrs. Linton’s second were large-framed nicely furnished gimmers ; and Mrs. Herrick’s commended ones were well brought out. COTSWOLDS. So far from the stronghold of this heavy breed, the display was all that could have been expected. Four good tups tried their mettle in the Two-shear Class, all bred and shown by the two exhibitors. Mr. Swanwick had the best of the encounter, as he has often before now had with large, lengthy, long-woolled specimens. His first tup had thickened since the Bridgwater Show at the end of May, where he was only Reserve. Size and quality had both increased in the interval. The Messrs. Gillett’s second ram, also full of substance and heavy woolled, was first at Bridgwater. There was not, however, much to choose between the pair. Shearlings offered stiffer competition. There the visitor found eight or nine very fine sheep from the flock of Mr. Thomas Brown, of Marham Hall. They could not all get tickets, but they left very little to their opponents, which is saying a great deal, when it is remembered that the antagonists were Messrs. Swanwick and Gillett. The four leading tickets were secured by Mr. Brown, leaving only a high commendation to Mr. Swanwick. The Marham prize shearlings combined size and wealth of mutton with good contour and true Cotswold character, while the dry climate of the East had favoured the preparation of Mr. Brown’s sheep for the exhibition. They were very creditably shown indeed. The Messrs. Gillett’s shearling ewes had no opposition, but both pens were so level and so good that the two money prizes were awarded, and oppo- nents would have had hard work to win. Lincolns. A larger show of these grand wool-growers was expected. Quality, however, left very little to be desired. Mr. Robert Wright and Mr. Henry Smith had a pair each in the Two-shear Tup Class, all bred by the exhibitors and all good. They got slice about of the honours ; Mr. Wright leading. The latter’s sheep proved admirably under the hand, had splendid wool, and was first at the Lincolnshire Show and at the Yorkshire last year, as well as first at Lincoln this year. Mr. Smith’s second sheep has great thickness of mutton on the rib and back, and had not been shown before. Though other competitors appeared in the Shearling Tup Class, the two just named got all the tickets, except one commended. Mr. Smith turned the tables here, 494 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at getting first with his level, massive, stylish ram, which was first at Lincoln and Doncaster a week or two before. This shearling was a pronounced victor. As at both those Shows, however, Mr. Wright followed with a sheep of great carcass and fine wool. In a select Class of Shearling Ewes, Mr. Wright won Avith his wealthy handsome gimmers, which topped their class at Peterborough, Doncaster, and Lincoln. Mr. Pears, with his second Lincoln pen, followed the Norton Heath lot at a respect- able distance. All the prize sheep — indeed, all the entries, with two exceptions, in the LongAvoolled Classes — Avere bred by the exhibitors. As Leicesters, Cotswolds, and Lincolns Avere judged by one trio, the Judges’ Report of the three breeds may be given here. Judges' Report of Leicesters, Cotswolds, and Lincolns. Leicesters. Class 120 was very good, but one or two good sheep in other respects were deficient in wool underneath. The Shearling Rams were well represented. Shearling Ewes were very good ; we commended the whole class. Cotswolds. Class 126. Only three entries, and call for no particular comment. Class 127 was well represented, and contained some very useful sheep. Lincolns. Some very good sheep, but short in numbers. Skelton Jefferson. Thos. Porter. Charles Clarke. Border Leicesters. This breed was under the average, alike in numbers and merit. One two-shear ram Avas entered, but not sent. Half-a-dozen shearlings were not difficult to judge. Mr. Wood’s first sheep has a good skin and fair character, but he Avas not in high condition, fortunately, shall it be said, for the man Avho uses him this year. Mr. TAventy man’s second has a Avell-covered head and fair coat, but he is not very strong in the neck. Mr. Whyte’s commended tups Avere only moderately good specimens ; the first gimmers, however, had good strong coats and fair character. The other LongAvoolled sheep referred to in the subjoined Report were not very noteAvorthy, excepting a pair of Merino rams bred and OAvned by the Duke of Manchester, and of Australian extraction. 495 the Society's Meeting , 1883. Judges' Report of Border Leicester s and Longwools. The Border Leicesters were a very poor show, and badly represented, pro- bably owing to the restrictions. The Longwool Sheep were few in number, but of good quality. George Rea. William Ford. Wensleydales. This valuable crossing breed made a good appearance. The first winners, and even some other lots, were stylish upstanding sheep, with strong coats and moderately fleshed backs. A cross between these tups and half-bred or blackfaced mountain ewes, in the northern counties of England, produces capital lambs. Mr. Lambert’s first two-shear ram, bred by Mr. Joseph Row, Car- perby, though somewhat hard on the top of the shoulder, was of splendid quality. Mr. Willis’s second ram is bigger, but not so sweet. Mr. Lambert’s first shearling was perhaps the best speci- men of the breed in the Show, being shapely and uniform in coat and covering. He was bred by Mr. Pilkington. Mr. William Raw’s second is well-grown, good in wool, and was bred by the exhibitor. The prize gimmers of Mr. Pilkington are big sappy sheep, with open wool and better covered heads than the tups. Judges' Report of Wensleydale Sheep. In the Two-Shear Class 132, the Bam that obtained the first prize we con- sidered of extraordinarily good quality, but somewhat light in bone. The second was big in bone, but not so good either in quality or wool. In the Shearling Class 133, the first prize was awarded to a Bam good in every respect. The second prize was a very useful sheep, but somewhat short of quality. The whole class was worthy of notice. Pen of five Shearling Ewes, Class 134. — The first prize was awarded to five ewes full of bone and size, but somewhat short of quality. The same remark applies to the second prize. The Wensleydale Sheep are a most useful class, and the first prize Bams in their different classes are splendid animals to cross with either the half-bred or blackfaced mountain sheep. John Inglebt. Robert Hutchinson. Oxford Downs. This improved and improving breed, happily, was not so deficient in quality as in numbers. Mr. Brassey’s pair of two- shear rams, bred by the exhibitor, are descended from former Royal winners, and have plenty of size, with nice heads and fair coats. The first shearling from the same distinguished flock is a good specimen of early mutton and heavy growth of wool, bred by 496 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at the exhibitor. Mr. Treadwell’s second and third rams are well furnished both with mutton and wool, and stand nicely on their legs. Mr. Brassey’s shearling ewes were beautifully brought out. The growth of bone, flesh, and wool was remarkable, while the symmetry and quality attracted the eye of Mr. McLennan, who purchased both pens at high prices for ex- portation to Buenos Ayres. Mr. Frederick Street’s third gimmers have plenty of size, but not the finish of the first and second pens. Judges' Report on Oxfordshire Downs. After the prominent position taken by this breed of sheep at the Meeting held at Reading last year, we regret that so few entries came before our notice to-day, but doubtless the long distance from the districts in which they are mostly bred has been the cause of such a small display. We feel there is nothing of especial merit in the various classes to call for any particular remarks, but undoubtedly the best specimens are amongst the two prize pens of shearling ewes. A. F. Milton Deuce. W. D. Little. Shropshires. Of this rising and already very popular breed there was a better representation tlian of any other fleecy variety. The judging of the ninety odd entries of Shearling Rams, for instance, was a severe task ; but the gentlemen in office bestowed great care and no little time on their duties. The Two-shear Class was not so large nor so difficult to judge. Here Mr. Thos. J. Mansell brought further honour to the Dudmaston flock. His beautiful and rarely covered little sheep, which was first, in a monster Shearling Class at Reading, and whose letting price last season was 165 guineas, came out to try his fortune again, in company with a more lengthy sheep from the same flock, but bred by Mr. C. Wadlow, Bridgnorth. The pair were invincible. Opinions differed, however, as to which should be first. The Judges gave the preference to the greater size and gaiety displayed by the Bridgnorth sheep. His skin was not quite so good as that of the second, and the latter had the better rump and more quality, but the other sheep had the best of it in front. Some tup-breeders who are good judges would prefer to use the second ; yet the first is a great gay sheep that cannot be readily set aside. Mrs. Barr’s third sheep, bred by the exhibitor, has a covering of head that would please the most fastidious, while his size and character merited his position. Mr. Loder’s fourth displays good breeding, and is descended from Mr. Beach's stock. Ten of the ninety-two pens for Shearling Rams were empty, the Society's Meeting, 1883. 497 but there was ample material left to perplex the Judges. The struggle closed, as in the previous class, with a double victory to one exhibitor. It was more remarkable in the one case than the other, however, as the shearlings were much more numerous than the two-shears and more nearly equal in merit. Lord Chesham’s pair, bred in the old Latimer flock, accomplished a wonderful performance. The first one was as ripe almost as a pear. On the back he handled charmingly ; his rump was neat and well covered ; his head attractive, bone fine, and character perfection. Since then he has been purchased by that good all-round judge, Mr. Randell, at 100 guineas. The sire of the first shearling was “ Dudmaston,” a celebrated sheep of Mr. Mansell's breeding. The second, whose sire was also “ Dudmaston,” is bigger than the first, but he is not quite so plump and full of quality. Both have good skins. The second may beat up on the first by another year, being a stylish, handsome, outcoming sheep. He has been purchased bv Mr. Darling, of Beaudisant, Lichfield, at 100 guineas. The other two of the four sheep from the same flock were commended, and a beautiful quartette they were. The third sheep, from Hattons, bred by Mr. Beach, was not in very high condition, but he is naturally an animal of great substance and true type. He is wide between the ears, long in the quarters, splendid in the neck, though not very well sprung in the rib, while he might stand a little better on his hind-legs. Altogether he is a stylish sheep of grand character. Mr. German’s fourth sheep had a truly covered head, and well- ileshed carcass. He was sired by a Dudmaston sheep, and is evidently well bred. The Dudmaston shearlings were not up to the usual standard of excellence. They were rather small, and not so forward in condition as they generally are, but there was no defect in type or character. Mr. Mansell, Jun., got a highly commended ticket for a level, well-brought-out, lengthy sheep ; not, however, very strong in the neck, but nicely covered in the head. He was commended for a sweet sheep, carrying good wool and a well-covered head. The Duke of Portland’s commended pair look like making good old sheep. The commendations extended over sixteen, and did not even then embrace all the good sheep. Shearling Ewes, if not so large an entry as Shearling Tups, were nevertheless very fine, and nearly uniform in type and quality. Mrs. Beach’s first pen are big sappy gimmers, bred by the exhibitor. They resemble one another almost as closely as five peas would do, and have beautiful heads and striking character and quality. Mrs. Barr’s second are almost similar in type, pleasing to the eye, and satisfactory under the hand. The Oaklands third pen exhibited the striking features of that 498 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at fine old flock. Lord Chesham’s Reserve gimmers are very sweet, and ten good pens were commended. More than half the twenty-five pens were therefore ticketed, and deserved the honour. The Shearling Classes of both sexes were exceptionally meritorious. Judges’ Report of Shropshires. Class 140. Two-Shear Ram. — This class was short in number, only seven animals being exhibited. The prize animals fairly represented the breed. Class 141. Shearling Ram. — It gives us great pleasure to bear our testi- mony to the excellence of this grand class of sheep, represented by eighty- seven entries. They have never previously been more uniform in character. The first- and second-prize animals show beautiful form, and have well-covered frames. The third-prize sheep is possessed of great style, and carries a strong head and neck. We felt it our duty to highly commend and commend no less than sixteen entries. Class 142. Pen of Five Shearling Ewes. — This class contained more than twenty entries, comprising over one hundred animals, and was generally admired. Mr. Beach’s first-prize pen were of beautiful style and quality, pos- sessing the chief characteristics of the true Shropshire. The second-prize pen were of uniform character with well-developed frames. Altogether, we consider the exhibition equal to that of any previous year. John Coxon. Thos. Instone. SOUTHDOWNS. Among these there was a great deal of nearly equal merit. The similarity of type rendered judging very difficult, and the destination of the tickets somewhat uncertain. The most re- markable event in this section was the comparative failure of Lord Walsingham’s sheep in the various classes to get any of the money prizes. Only commended tickets reached his Lordship’s animals this year, which is a very unusual circumstance. The first two-shear ram, bred at Sandringham, and exhibited by His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, is a very handsome ripe animal ; he is mutton almost from heels to ears, and was brought out very tastefully. The dam was a prize-winner, and the son was first at Bridgwater, first and champion at the Norfolk County and Winchester Shows, and was successfully used in the flock last season. At Reading last year he was second to a tup of Lord Walsingham’s, now passed over. Mr. J. J.Colman’s second, bred by the exhibitor, is a compact, richly furnished, deep-carcassed sbeep, and a former winner. The Goodwood third ram, bred by the noble Duke, is shapely, and carries his mutton very well. For his weight of bone he displays a considerable quan- tity of fine handling meat, and very fair wool. Mr. Carew- Gibson had to be content with a highly commended ticket for a substantial two-shear ram. He, however, was more fortunate, 499 the Society's Meeting , 1883. because probably more formidable, in the Shearling Class, getting second and third in good company. His second shear- ling is a lengthy upstanding stylish sheep, with a well-carried head, and fine quality along the back. The third is a smart sheep, and has been, like the other, a winner at some district Shows. Mr. Chapman’s first shearling was the winner at Bridgwater, has a splendid rib, shoulder, and chest, and is of superior quality ; he is, in short, a beauty, and was not grudged his place. Sir ffm. Throckmorton’s second at Bridgwater was unable to get a place ; but one from the same flock, not ticketed at the Bath and West of England Show, was commended at York. Mr. Colman’s fourth sheep is rather smaller in size than several of the others, but in symmetry and quality he was not wanting. The Duke of Richmond and Gordon’s highly commended pair from Goodwood, the place of their birth, show much of the fine old Southdown characteristics. Six very even sheep of Lord Walsingham’s were highly commended. Though, comparatively speaking, in the shade for the time, the Merton sheep were greatly admired for their true character and style. The Prince of Wales’s highly commended ram is a little beauty. Fourteen in all were commended. All along the line Lord Walsingham’s bad luck seems to have followed him. In a good Class of Shearling Ewes the most that the Merton well-bred pen could get was a highly commended card. His Lordship’s gimmers, however, were hardly as well covered as some of the rival pens. Mr. Colman’s winners were abreast of the others in respect of quality, wealth of mutton, and light- ness of offal. Their uniformity of type, too, enlisted the admi- ration of visitors. Mr. Chapman’s second were well matched, and had been very carefully tended. The third and fourth pens were composed of well-bred and generally well-furnished gimmers. Hampshire Downs. The exhibitors of this valuable early maturing sheep were few in number. Mr. Alfred Morrison carried the three leading tickets for Aged Tups, all bred by the exhibitor, and of consider- able size and good covering below. The first one has a grand neck, strong rump development, and fair style. First and third for shearlings also awaited Mr. Morrison. The winner has the symmetry and quality of a Shropshire, with greater size. Mr. Barton’s second has good wool, and a heavy carcass of fine mutton, with fair character. Mr. Parson’s first shearling ewes handled well, are good in the legs, and nice in the head. Mr. Lambert’s second lot, bred by the exhibitor, are nicely matched and good in coat. 500 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at Report of the Judges of Southdoums and Hampshire Downs. Southdowns. The classes of Southdowns were well filled — all the principal flocks being represented — considering the great distance the Show was held this year from the South Downs. Class 144. Shearling Rams. — There was a large show in this class, num- bering thirty-four entries. The Judges had very great difficulty in awarding the prizes, there being such uniformity of character in the animals exhibited. Class 143 — Two-Shear Rams — comprising seventeen entries, which the Judges considered very representative, many of the older flocks being amongst the number. Class 145 — Five Shearling Ewes — comprising ten entries. This class the Judges commended, considering they were most evenly matched. Hampshire Downs (badly represented). Class 146. Two-Shear Rams. — There were eight entries ; only five exhi- bited. First prize a remarkably good sheep. Class 147. There were eleven entries ; only five exhibited. Class 148. Very good; only three entries. H. Harwood. John G. King. Cheviots, Blackfaces, &c. The collection of Cheviots was neither large nor very fine. The Messrs. Robson’s prize sheep, however — and the two brothers took all the prizes — were of full average merit, including several tups that won last year, and again, since York, at Border Shows. They showed good old Northumberland blood, having nice heads, fair wool, and gaiety. The Blackfaced Mountain Breed was pretty well represented from the Northumberland and Cumberland hills. Mr. McCracken’s first two-shear ram, bred by the exhibitor, is a squarely-made-up, shapely, dark-faced sheep, with well-filled face, flat horns, and good wool. He got the cup at last year’s Northumberland Show. Mr. Dodds’s second has a good face, horn, and wool. Mr. Armstrong’s first shearling is dark in the face, strong in the horn and wool, and well up in the body. Mr. Irving’s second and fourth are stronger in coat, and fairly grown. Mr. McCracken’s third is thick forward, and hard in the face and legs. Mr. Henderson’s second gimmers were stronger than the first, but not so sweet, nor so hard and dark in the face. Some useful mutton-making sheep appeared among “ Other Short-woolled Breeds.” Report of the Judges of Cheviots, &c. Cheviots were few in number, and nothing among them calling for special remark. the Society's Meeting, 1883. 501 Black-faced Bams of both ages were good, more especially the Dinmonts. Ewes were superior of their class. The Suffolks were very superior in the Shortwoolled Breed. The Suffolk Shearling Ewes were a very nice pen. Robert Paterson. John Clay. Report of the Inspectors of Shearing. We have, as your Inspectors of Shearing, carefully looked over and examined the whole of the sheep as placed before us in the Yard, and have to report that we found them as a whole well and fairly shorn. There were a few cases we considered necessary to look over a second time ; they were not, however, unfairly shorn to the same extent as in former years, and we were not warranted in recommending disqualification in any case. The attention of your Inspectors was drawn to the use rather freely of wool shears, for dressing sheep in the Yard, and we venture to recommend that you prohibit their use. William Jobson. J. B. Workman. PIGS. In this section, which was creditably filled, the vexed question of dentition as an indication of age was raised, though to a much smaller extent than on some former occasions. The Inspectors — Professors Brown, Duguid, and Robertson — re- ported that two pens of Large White Pigs and three of the Medium White Breed, as well as two lots of young pigs still with their dams — one in each of these breeds — indicated by the state of dentition that the animals were above the age stated in the certificates of entry, and they got no prizes. Many good pigs were unable to find their way into the prize list. White Breeds. In the Aged Boar Class of the large variety, Lord Ellesmere wTas invincible. His first boar is very thick, of great size and length, but only middling quality. The winner is a two-year- old ; the second, also from Worsley, and bred by his Lordship, is a year older and bigger, but not strikingly fine. His Lord- ship was fairly beaten in the one-year-old class of boars by an evenly grown pig of good quality and great scale, owned and bred by Mr. Duckering. Lord Ellesmere’s second is a well- furnished level pig of moderate quality. The Breeding Sows were relatively better than the Boars, and formed a grand class. Lord Ellesmere got first for “ Queen,” a three-year-old of his own breeding, and a former winner. She is very heavy and full of quality. His Lordship’s third sow “ Countess,” bred by the exhibitor, and also three years old, is evidently a splendid 502 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at breeder, and lacks neither dimensions nor quality. That Mr. Nuttall’s second sow, a two-year-old of his own breeding, was good enough to come in between such a fine pair as Lord Ellesmere’s, is convincing testimony of her unquestionably high merits. Five were commended. Pigs of the produce of 1883 were not so good. Yet Lord Ellesmere’s prize lots were strong shapely youngsters, that may improve with age. The entries in the Middle White Classes were fair, and their quality superior. Lord Ellesmere’s first aged boar is “ Prince,” a three-year-old son of “ Peter,” a capital getter, and grandly furnished. His features at once commanded attention. Mr. Ascroft’s second is a well-fleshed pig, but not very close on the winner. The three pigs commended were of full average quality. Lord Ellesmere's first and second one-year-old boars are symmetrical, and carry a great load of meat for the size of their bone. They were bred at Worsley; the second having been sired by the first three-year-old boar just described. The Class of Sows was not large, but very good. Excellent as it was, Lord Ellesmere’s three-year-old “ Princess,” of his own breeding, and sired by “ Peter,” was a positive winner. She is not quite new to fame, and is of unusual features and quality. She is full sister to the first-prize boar, and is a valuable breeder. Mr. Dixon’s second is a three-year-old of great substance, and was bred by Mr. Dickson, Crocky Hill. Lord Ellesmere’s prize young pigs, sired by “ Peter,” would have given a good account of themselves in stiff competition, which, however, they had not to encounter. The Small White Breed Classes were well filled with plump grand meat-producing pigs. The Judges, however, it will be observed, were of opinion that many of the animals were verging on the Middle Breed. Messrs. Wilson, Crosby and Co.’s first is a beautiful two-year-old, bred by Mr. Sanders Spencer, and full of the best character. Lord Ellesmere’s second, of his Lord- ship’s breeding, is a twenty-months-old, of rare symmetry, and great thickness of flesh and fat. His Lordship’s first and second one-year-old boars are compact and full-fleshed, with fine bone and great quality. They are full brothers, and are by the same sire as the second boar in the previous class. The third pig, owned by Wilson, Crosby and Co., followed very closely, and was bred by Lord Ellesmere after the same sire as the first and second. The first and second sows, nearly two years old, from Worsley Hall Home Farm, were first-class specimens, having extraordinary quality and great wealth of carcass. The only exhibit in the Young Pig Class was Mr. Nuttall’s moderately good lot, to which only second prize was awarded. 503 the Society's Meeting, 1883. Judges' Report of While Breed Pigs. Class 157. First prize awarded to a good pig, a little coarse in quality ; the remainder of the class were moderate. Class 158. First prize was a good pig all round; remainder were very poor. Class 159. First and second pigs were very good and full of quality, also the reserve number. This class was very good, deserving a general commendation. Class 160. A had class. Class 161. First prize was full of merit, superior to the remainder, which included useful animals. Class 162. Prize went to a fair good pig. Class 163. The prize Sow in this class is one of the best animals we saw, and well deserved the premier honour in a small class of good quality. Class 164. No competition. The only pen exhibited was of good quality, and was awarded first prize. Class 165. Only three pigs were of the true type of the Small Breed, the remainder of the class approaching the Middle Breed. Class 166. Same remarks in the preceding class will apply to these. Class 167. First, second, and reserve number were of extraordinarily great merit. The remainder of the class were good, but we thought they were showing a tendency to the Middle Breed. Class 168. A poor class, only one pen being present, to which the second prize was given, not having sufficient merit for the first prize. John Angus. Petek Eden. Joseph Smith. Black Breeds. The Aged Boar Class of the Small Black Breed was indiffer- ently filled. Mr. Benjafield’s first boar, two years old, and bred by the exhibitor, is a firm-fieshed, handsome animal, decidedly ahead of his competitors. The Duke of Hamilton’s second is a twenty-one-month-old fairly furnished pig, bred by the exhibitor. His Grace’s first one-year-old boar is well set on his legs, broad in the back and full in the hams, with splendid breed characteristics. Major Dod’s second is a gay, strong-backed, massive pig, bred by the exhibitor. The others in the class were so good that the J udges bestowed a general commendation upon them. The Breeding Sow Class was of full average merit, though the Judges regretted the absence of litters in so many cases. Mr. Smith’s first is “ Prin- cess,” a two-year-old, well-grown, handsome sow of his own breeding. The Duke of Hamilton’s second, also two years old and bred by the exhibitor, is a well-proportioned animal of good character. The Duke’s first young pigs are of extra- ordinary promise, and would have been difficult to beat in any company. The others in the class were fairly good. Probably the best represented breed was that of Berkshires. Mr. Russell Swanwick’s first two-year-old boar, bred by the exhi- bitor, is a very fine pig, full of the cherished Berkshire features, 504 Report of the Live-Stock exhibited at and splendidly shown. Mr. Humfrey’s second is a massive shapely pig, not so nice about the head as the winner. The third and fourth pigs had several very good points, as well as some defects, as will be seen by the Judges’ Report. The victor in a large Class of One-year-old Pigs, belonging to the Executors of the late Mr. Stewart, is a very handsome pig, with fine hair and quality. He was fatter than Mr. Tombs’s second, which is an animal of rare shape and plenty of character, bred by the exhibitor. Mr. Swanwick’s Reserve pig, if not big, is very well bred, and handsome, with about as much gaiety as a pig could have. Of this breed, again, females were superior to males. The Sows were an admirable lot. Mr. King’s first, only eighteen months old, was faultless, and had astonishing quality and symmetry, considering that she was heavy with pig. Mr. Tombs’s second sow, two years old, and bred by the exhibitor, had less bloom, which was attributed to her having recently nursed a litter of pigs. The commended sows were of good Berkshire character, with plenty of size. Young pigs were exceedingly good, and the whole class was commended. Mr. Willis’s first had very little pull of Mr. Swanwick’s second. Both lots were first-class, and the Judges hesitated, but eventually gave preference to the greater equality of the first lot. Some good porkers were shown successfully in the “ Any Other Breed ” classes. Report of the Judges of Blade Breeds of Pigs. Class 169. With the exception of the first-prize animal, a moderate class. Class 170. The whole class was highly commended ; the first-prize animal was of very good true type, and the second was a well-topped pig. Class 17 1. As in previous years, there was an absence of litters, watch is to be regretted, as giving less opportunity of judging of the merits of oreeding sows. Class 172. With the exception of the first prize, which was a remarkably good pen, nothing specially to notice. Class 173. Good class ; first prize an extra good pig ; second, very heavily fleshed, but with a coarse head ; third was somewhat coarse in hair and bone ; highly commended had excellent quality, but with drooping quarters and small hams. Class 174. Very good class, though the first prize was, if anything, fat for work ; the second pig was of a thorough good type and in working condition, which is much to be desired ; the reserve number, though not large for his age, was very neat and stylish. Class 175. A grand class. The first prize was perfect in all points, and heavy in-pig ; the second was in somewhat rougher condition, due to having recently reared a litter of pigs ; third, or reserve, was an excellent model, and well merited a prize, though not as yet having bred. This class especially deserved a third prize. Class 176. The whole class was highly commended. First and second pens were of nearly equal merit ; the former very level, giving them the advantage. 505 the Society's Meeting , 1883. Classes 177, 178, 179, call for no special remark. Class 180. First prize the best pen of the age that came under our notice. Richard Fowler. Jas. Edwards. Report of the Inspectors of Dentition of Pigs. Having examined the pigs in Pens 1481, 1482, 1503, 1504, and in 1508, we are of opinion that the state of dentition indicates that the animals are above the age stated in the Certificates of Entry. We are also of opinion that the young pigs with the breeding sows in Pens 1472 and 1505 are above the age of two months. Wm. Robertson. William Duguid. G. T. Brown. DAIRY PRODUCE. Butter. This valuable article of diet was an object of attraction, and as to quality, of great admiration. The Judges very properly gave the display of Butter a high character. Report of Judges of Rutter. We, the undersigned Judges of the Butter and Cheese Show, beg to express our great satisfaction with the exhibits of sweet butter, and have to say it has taxed our discrimination severely to determine which was the best, and regret we cannot exercise our powers in further rewarding the numerous competitors and exhibitors. We also regret having to disqualify No. 15, through having salt mixed in it. G. W. Burrows. John Robinson. Anthony Graham. Cheese. July is not the best month of the year for showing cheese ; nevertheless, a better display might have been expected. The prize samples were fair for the period of the year, but the section, as a whole, was not very creditably filled. Report of the Judges of Cheese. With respect to the exhibits of Cheese, we regret to report very small show in that department, and we had to exercise our powers of ingenuity to give any prizes at all. We consider it is a great reflection upon Yorkshire to have made such a small and poor exhibit, especially when we see the great advance made in Scotland and other countries, where the make has con- siderably improved, and the tendency is still in that direction. G. W. Burrows. John Robinson. Anthony Graham. 2 L YOL. XIX. — S. S. 506 ■The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. BEE-KEEPING, &c. The Apiarian department was thronged with interested visitors throughout the week, and the movements of the “ busy bee ” were watched very closely. Report of the Judges of Hives , Honey , and Bee-keeping Appliances. The exhibition of Bee-Hives and Bee Appliances showed a decided advance upon former years, many of the Hives entered for competition being ex- cellent in construction as well as reasonable in price. Bee-keeping is extending so rapidly in every part of England, and its benefits, not only in increasing the supply of food raised in our own country but also in aiding the fertilization of flowers and fruits, are now so generally recognised, that the winner of a prize at the Eoyal is certain to sell a large number of hives, and the competition in consequence is very close. The amount of honey ex- hibited was not so large as it would have been had the Show been held later in the season, and scarcely afforded an index of the large harvest that has been secured this year. The public interest in the various Bee Appliances, Manipulations and Lectures in the Bee Tent was very great. Many persons had travelled long distances to learn all they could about bees, and remained in the Bee Tent almost all the day. Instances are becoming common of tenant farmers who are adopting bee-keeping as a part of their ordinary occupation, particularly if they grow white clover, mustard, or other plants from' which the bees obtain honey in any quantity, and some of these are said to secure good profits. The increase in the supply appears to be creating a demand, and as the honey obtained under modern and improved methods is more attractive and more marketable, there is less difficulty in securing a sale at a remunerative price. . The assistance rendered by this Society to the British Bee-keepers’ Association enables the latter to bring the benefits of rational and modernised bee-keeping before a class of the community whom otherwise the Association could scarcely reach, and in this way the agricultural interest is directly benefited. The Addresses delivered during the Show at various intervals each day by experienced lecturers, and their practical illustrations of the management of bees, together with their explanations in reply to inquiries, diffuse an amount of information, and moreover create an interest, which justify the hope that before many years bee-keeping in England will not be inferior, either in skill or means, to the art as practised either on the Continent of Europe or in America. Edward Bartrum, M.A. William N. Griffin. John M. Hooker. XXIV. — The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. By THOMAS Bell, of Hedley Hall, Gateshead-on-Tyne. The area of competition for the liberal prizes jointly offered by the Local Committee and the Royal Agricultural Society of England for the best-managed farms in the district of the York Meeting was confined to the county of York. This, the largest county in England, is by no means a limited area ; it is as large as any other two counties in Great Britain ; nearly as large as The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 507 Wales, more extensive than many German dukedoms, and very nearly as large as modern Belgium. The extent of the whole county is 5979 square miles. The turnpike and highway roads have an aggregate length of nearly 11,000 miles. Yorkshire does not depend on its extent alone for its great- ness. It may fairly be said to he rich in all that makes a county famous. It abounds in historical associations. The ancient Britons had a town at York. For three hundred years York, or Eboracum, was the great Roman city in Britain. The Caesars, then Emperors of the world, during part of that time held their court at York, which we are told was the scene of imperial marriage festivities as well as royal obsequies. The district suffered greatly for its determined opposition to William the Conqueror. All down through the ages, whenever wars in England are chronicled, wre almost invariably read of battle- fields in Yorkshire. Not less interesting is this district to the student of eccle- siastical lore. The special glory of York is its cathedral. Well may the natives be proud of York Minster, it is a structure of almost unrivalled grandeur and dignity. Strangers driving through the county are again and again delighted by dropping down on the ruins of an abbey surrounded, as they generally are, by the richest of green pastures. What visions rise to the eye of the imaginative mind round the remains of those once magni- ficent piles ! The modern history of the county, though more prosaic than that of the remote past, is not less famous. The arts of war have fortunately given place to those of peace. The manu- factures of Yorkshire are now of world-wide importance, and on their prosperity depends very much the welfare of British agriculture. The woollen mills of Leeds, Bradford, Halifax, Vi akefield, Huddersfield, &c., have not participated in the general revival of trade throughout the country to the extent that the exigencies of the English flock-masters would seem to demand. We are told that the changes of fashion have created a demand for fine short-wools, such as are grown in the colonies, and that the English long-wool is at present an almost un- marketable commodity. Certain it is, that the present price of wool is a sore subject with many English farmers, more especially those who have old stocks on hand. So long, however, as the mills keep going, the industrial population creates a demand for other products of the farm, which, though it does not compensate the farmer for the fall in the price of wool, maintains that of other agricultural commodities. The immense coal-fields of the West Riding, said to extend over not less than 600 square miles, have no doubt been the 2 L 2 508 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. chief factor in developing these industrial enterprises, which have multiplied to an enormous extent the population of many of the hills and valleys of West Yorkshire. The mineral resources of the county are as varied as they are extensive. The Cleveland hills have been called the “ new iron- fields of England.” Middlesborough has grown as rapidly as a Western American city, and is now the metropolis of the iron- trade. Lead-mines have been successfully worked in the moor- lands and in the dales. Deposits of alum-shale have given rise to manufactures of alum near Whitby, Lofthouse, and Guis- borough. In that district we find what is perhaps the most beautiful of all its products, viz. “ Whitby jet.” The most popular attraction to those who live outside the county is the enjoyable summer resorts to be found both inland and on the coast. Scarborough is pronounced “ the queen of watering places.” Nature and art have combined in rendering the surroundings of her coast as charming and enchanting as the most ardent votary could w ish. Redcar, VVhitby, and Bridlington have a smaller radiance, but have, nevertheless, a fair quota of admirers. Harrogate and Ilkley are famous for their mineral springs, and are not so much dependent on “the season” for their visitors. Owing to the great extent of the county, it has been divided into three parts ; the East, North, and West Ridings, which are really, for many purposes, shires in themselves. The name of one of the varieties of areas with which England is blessed is known in the county as a “wapentake,” of which there are twenty-six in the shire. This word is not used further north, nor have I heard of it except in Lincolnshire. It is said to be used in place of “ hundred,” and is derived from “ wcepen,” a weapon, and “ taecan,” to teach. Mr. Coleman, in his exhaustive report to Her Majesty’s Royal Commission on Agriculture, treats of the county in seven divisions, “ according to well-marked surface geological charac- ters,” viz. : — No. 1, Holderness ; No. 2, The Wolds ; No. 3, The Oolite Series ; No. 4, Vale of York ; No. 5, Magnesian Lime- stone ; No. 6, Coal and Iron-fields; No. 7, Mountain Limestone. In that truly admirable report, the geological formations, physical outlines, and general agricultural features are so well described, that any attempt in that direction in this Report would certainly suffer by comparison. The varieties of soil, climate, and elevation, have, as a natural consequence, been productive of systems of farming differing from each other as widely as any one system of English farming can differ from another. The large arable farms of the Wolds of the East Riding, — where sheep are looked upon as having The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 50i) “ golden feet,” and where straw in some cases is a nuisance difficult to be got rid of, — contrast strangely with the grazing farms on the hills and in the dales of the YVest Riding, where the plough is an obsolete implement, and where cattle are treated to the roughest prison allowance in the matter of beds, having to rest their bodies on the bare stones. Journeying through the East Riding along the Vale of York, by rail from York to Hull, the traveller will notice a range of hills to the left, running apparently parallel to the railway. These are the Yorkshire Wolds, which extend from Hull to Scarborough, and are famous in the annals of British agriculture. The district, which is bounded by the Humber on the south, the German Ocean on the east, and the base of the Wolds on the west, is called Holderness, or “ Hollow-derness.” Much of this district, from Hull along the banks of the Humber, is warp- land reclaimed from the sea ; and, though heavy strong land to work, in favourable seasons it grows very good crops. The highest point in Holderness is only about 100 feet above the sea. On these higher grounds the soil is more friable, and is well adapted for growing roots. In driving through this district around Hedon, the Judges found the best grain-crops that they met with in Yorkshire. Many of the farms seemed well laid out, carefully fenced, with suitable buildings, and a good proportion of excellent grazing land. Mustard is grown for the mustard mills to some extent in this district. The Judges bad their attention directed to some fields where the crop was in flower ; but in no case was it grown on a competing farm, nor had they before them in any instance any speciality, such as liquorice, chicory, &c., although in some districts these plants are exten- sively cultivated. It will be readily inferred — the soil and situation of the Wolds being so different from those of Holderness — that the systems of agriculture pursued in the two districts are equally varied. On the Wolds the motto is, “ grow all the seeds you can, all the turnips you can, and all the sheep you can ; ” while in the deep lands of Holderness, wheat-growing and cattle feeding are the farmer’s mainstay. Turnips in Holderness are almost in- variably grown on the flat, sown by a drill which deposits artificial manure and seed at the same time — a safe system in a dry season ; while in the Wolds the practice is to ridge with double plough, put foldyard-manure in the ridges, sow in artificial manure by hand, cover these by splitting the ridges, and deposit the seed with a double ridge-drill. All over the county the first-sown turnips had done badly ; the dry cold weather in May had either prevented the seed from vegetating, or had assisted the fly to carry off the young plants. The country 510 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. from Bridlington to Scarborough is, however, an exception to this otherwise general rule. Mr. Robinson, of Sands House, Bridlington, had some excellent swedes, and all along the coast the plants appeared healthy and vigorous. Fallows all over the county bore strong testimony to the effects of the late wet seasons in the harvest of couch, w hich was almost everywhere being gathered. Some of the competing farms were like their neighbours in this respect. On completing the inspection of one farm, the concluding note in the book of the Judge, whose pet aversion in matters agricultural is “ twitch,” runs thus : — “ A waste of time and loss of money inspecting such a disgracefully filthy farm.” This farm has, however, some redeeming features. Notwithstanding the friction that has arisen in some quarters, the confidence of the tenantry in their landlords, and the mutual good feeling which prevails, were in many cases very marked. Proof of this w as not far to seek, wrhen on farm after farm the Judges found substantial permanent improvements in the shape of buildings, fences, draining, road-making, &c., done in no meagre fashion, entirely at the expense of the tenants without any more security than is afforded by six months’ notice to quit. Yearly tenancies, so far as came under our notice, seem to prevail almost universally ; notwithstanding which, the farmers have expended much more capital and labour than is usually done by tenants, the cases of Mr. Hutchinson and Mr. Watson being remarkable examples. Though not carried to the same extent, the same improving spirit prevailed on several of the other competing farms. These enterprizing men dropped occa- sional hints that, though they had great confidence in their land- lords, they would welcome a good measure to secure to tenants “ fair and reasonable ” compensation for their improvements. After inspecting several improvements of this nature on one of the farms, the following conversation ensued : — Judge. — “ Have you no security or agreement for compensation for all this ? ” Farmer. — “ Not a penny.” Judge. — “ Do you think you are safe in doing these things?” Farmer. — “ It’s all right ; Squire’s the best landlord in the kingdom.” Judge. — “ But he may die.” Farmer. — “ Doesn’t matter a bit, as long as there’s one o' t’ owld stock left.” It is much to be regretted that the liberal prizes offered failed to elicit a single competition from any of the charming “dales” in the North Riding. These dalesmen and their cattle are so famous all through the north of England, that their The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. 511 system of cattle-raising and general farm management could not fail to be interesting. These dales are watered by the tributaries of the Ouse, running nearly east and west. The valleys are most fertile, the hillsides afford good grazing, and the high lands, which stretch out to the heathery watersheds, make excel- lent sheep-runs. These sylvan-shaded streams, which purl so sweetly in the ear of the summer tourist, occasionally behave like roaring madmen, and carry havoc and destruction through the generally peaceful valleys. The river Swale gives its name to one of the richest of these dales. The flood which swept through Swaledale in the beginning of this year will be long ' remembered. The following account is taken from a local paper, and is not overstated : — “ The remains of a heavy fall of snow had been lodged in masses on the distant hills. On the 28th of January the rain began to fall heavily, swelling the hillside rivulets and gills to streams ; and the river crept stealthily over the low-lying meadow-lands. A south-west wind sprang up, driving the rain into the bedded masses of snow, percolating through them, tossing their sides, struggling and forcing its way beneath them, till, with a roar and a rush, they entered the gills and becks like miniature avalanches, and, like wild, seething rivers, came tearing down the hills, sweeping thousands of tons of massive boulder-stones, gigantic mounds of hillock, deposits from the lead-mines which abound in the dale, millions of tons of debris — consisting of sand, soil, timber, trees, roots, rubble, and tangled grasses — into the Swale, making it into a boiling ocean, which rushed and roared triumphantly over the rich meadow fields, hurling down miles of strongly-built stone fencing, and adding to its heterogeneous freight of debris by tearing at the stout, massive bridges, till with a fiendish roar it swept them away. When the waters sank in the evening, the inhabitants beheld their dykes demolished, hundreds of yards of land had dis- appeared, flocks of sheep were missing, and over all the inun- dated meadows a pernicious deadly settlement of sand and soil was deposited, which for years to come meant ruin to their land. The poisonous nature of this deposit is caused by the lead- mines. Fields that have never been flooded before have a •deposit of sand not less than three feet deep. Over one field is strewn a huge shoal of stones, the size of large turnips.” A portion of the valley of the Swale is exceptional in its land division. There are a number of large landowners in the valley, but a considerable quantity of land is in small holdings, varying from 1J to 10 acres. A field containing 2 acres, which took the hard-earned savings of an ordinary lead-miner to the amount of 404/. to purchase, is so covered with layer 512 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. upon layer of boulders and debris, that the cost of the removal is estimated at more than the land is worth ! In addition to the demolition of the bridges, long lengths of highway have been entirely swept away, and their site become part of the river bed. This state of things has given rise to an important question, which is at present arousing considerable attention, “ Whose duty is it to make new roads where the highways have disappeared ? ” The Highway Board objects to make a new road by the riverside, because unless they embanked the river, which would involve an enormous expense, the next flood might repeat the disaster. A deviation road has been surveyed, leaving a good margin between the river and the proposed road, but the landowners will not sell the land for the purpose. The Highway Board, unlike Rural Sanitary Authori- ties, have no compulsory powers to take land, and consequently there is at present a dead lock. If the Highway Board were compelled to embank the river to protect their road, the embank- ment would, of course, protect the landowners’ property. The following report of this case has been supplied to the writer by an influential farmer in the district : — “ The corpus of the road having been completely washed away, brings us under the division in the case of ‘ Regina versus Hornsea,’ which was that the corpus of the road having been entirely washed away by the sea, the Highway Board was not bound to make a new road. Although basing our case on the above, our Board is willing to purchase the land, make the road, and pay all surface damage assessed by arbitration. This we could do with the consent of all the landowners, by applica- tion to Quarter Sessions, at a trifling cost ; but the landowners refusing their consent, our only course is to apply for a special Act of Parliament, which, if opposed, would probably cost 1000/. The Highway Board considers that, seeing under the advice they have taken they are not bound to make a road at all, they are not justified in spending an entire 1000Z. in apply- ing for a special Act to compel the landowners. There are no com- pulsory powers to take land in the Highway Acts, such as are granted to Rural Sanitary Authorities, which is evidently an omission, and ought to be altered. “ Then again, under the Act of 1878 the cost of all this will fall upon the whole district, and not upon the township, so that parties forty miles away will have to pay their full quota, the same as the ratepayers in the village of Brompton. “ We estimate the full cost of this at not less than 2500/. to 3000/. if we have to go to Parliament. Supposing we had to embank the river by building a sea-wall, it would cost some thousands more, having to contend with about 14 feet of water, The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 513 and a cliff 20 feet deep of gravel on 4 feet of sand. The cost of repairing the damage in Swaledale above Richmond will be from 500/. to 700/. One great injustice in all this is that the rate- payers have to provide the money to replace the roads and bridges, which upholds the landowners’ property at its full value at principally the expense of the tenants, the landowners, with few exceptions, getting off scot-free. The rateable value in the Richmond Highway District is 150,207/. Brompton-on-Swale is about a mile to the west of Catterick Station, and about one and a half to two miles north-west of Mr. Teasdale Hutchinson’s farm.” Wensleydale gives its name to a breed of long-woolled sheeps which is much used in the North and West Ridings. They are bigger sheep than Leicesters, and are general favourites over the district for crossing with Cheviot or Scotch black-faced ewes. The shearling ram of this breed, which gained the prize at the York Show, was a really excellent sheep, combining great frame writh good quality, clean-legged, well woolled, and of vigorous and active habit (see p. 495). There appeared to be considerable haziness in the minds of some of the competitors as to the breed of sheep found on their I farms. Those who kept a flying stock generally reported their sheep to be “ Bamshires,” which, after several inquiries, was found to be a contraction of “ Bamboroughshire,” a district on the east coast of north Northumberland. These sheep, as a rule, had been obtained in York market. The ewes were drafts from north-country flocks of Border Leicester and the various crosses of Leicester-Cheviots, and the hoggs were the produce of such ewes. In the East Riding, where regular breeding flocks are kept, the principal breed is Leicester, with a confession to a strain of Lincoln in it. Shropshire and Oxfordshire Down rams have been occasionally used, and, where the produce is sold as fat lambs, the cross is well spoken of. Where these crossbred lambs have been wintered, the sheep are said to be not quite so heavy as the pure breed, but the mutton commands a higher price per pound. On the first inspection in January, sheep folded on turnips were in a most miserable plight on several of the competing farms ; being confined in small folds, with such a weight of mud adhering to their legs and bellies, that they could scarcely drag their feet out of the knee-deep puddle from which there was no escaping. A more unnatural life than to compel sheep to lie on a mixture of nearly equal parts of soil and water it is difficult to imagine. The Judges were curious to find out the effect of this treatment on breeding-ewes that were getting no dry food, and had no outrake. The result was what they anticipated. At the next visit in April doleful reports were given of a most trying 514 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. lambing-time, and large numbers of dead or weakly lambs. The close folding of ewes was perhaps more resorted to last winter than is the custom in ordinary seasons owing to the extraor- dinary crop of turnips which it was thought would be difficult to get consumed. A breed of sheep called “ Lonks,” found in the hills of the West Riding, lead a totally different life from that I have been describing. This breed much resembles the Scotch black-faced ; but they are larger, and the wool is not quite so hairy. Judging from the height of the stone walls which appeared to be neces- sary to set bounds to the roving propensities of these moun- taineers, we gathered that this breed, unless very strongly guarded, only fed and slept where they had a mind to. Indeed, after seeking for some time in vain for a flock of newly bought Lonk wethers, we were told that they were “ very likely in the hay-field.” The produce of the cross between Lonk ewes and Oxford Down rams is evidently a great success. Some female yearlings of the second cross were really handsome sheep, coming out quite of Oxford Down character. Grey-faced ewes (cross between Scotch black-faced ewes and Leicester, or Wensley- dale, rams) are favourites on the grazing farms in this district. They are said to be very prolific, and to make excellent nurses. The prevalence of foot-and-mouth disease, the consequent stop- ping of markets, and restrictions upon the movement of animals, with the general scarcity and high price of store cattle, made it a difficult task for those who had not been in the habit of winter- ing their summer-grazing cattle to obtain their supplies during the spring months of this year. As a rule, it is much safer to buy in the autumn or early winter cattle that are intended to be fattened on the pastures in the ensuing season. The wintering of a large number of cattle implies making a large quantity of bay. On the grazing farms in Skipton in Craven, the plough is almost unknown, hay is therefore the sole dependence for winter feeding. The system of storing it is peculiar to the district. A combination building — hay-barn and byre — appears to be essential, and such buildings are sometimes located on various parts of the farm. Large doors, capable of admitting a load of hay, are usually placed in the centre of the building. The cattle lairs are at the ends ; they are boarded over, and the lofts above the cattle are filled with hay. Alter the lofts are full, the centre, where the loads were admitted, is also filled. This system has no doubt partly arisen from the difficulty of pro- curing thatch, and the prevalence of storms. The cattle tied up in these places, as a rule, have neither crib nor manger, the hay being placed in front of them on a simple continuation of the bare flags on which they stand. The question of Book-keeping, which very properly formed The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. 515 a part of the inquiry, proved generally a crucial test. Only in exceptional cases, to which reference will be made hereafter, does there appear any approach to regular stocktaking. Unless this be done annually, it is obvious that a definite statement of either profit or loss for a given year is impossible. Cash accounts of receipts and payments were general, and these were placed at our disposal. Y\ e gathered that It orkshire farmers have evi- dently not suffered so much as their brethren have done in some other districts. This has been due no doubt to the price of the meat which they so largely produce, and to some extent also probably to potatoes, to which one farmer at least attributed some measure of his success. 1879 was generally pronounced a disastrous year, and as a rule no headway had been made in recent years, but rather the reverse. \ arying percentages of returns of rent had been made at rent days : had this not been done, some of the tenancies would have been terminated. With scarcely an exception, the •competing farms appeared to be fully rented. In a few instances the difficulty of dealing with clay lands was evident. When they had been laid to grass, the farmers had been hard hit by losses from fluke ; and when cultivated, the crops had been by no means remunerative. The course of cropping pursued everywhere, except in the Wolds, admitted of successive white crops : a practice almost universally prohibited in the more northern counties. On the heavy lands this system has evi- dently arisen from the uncertainty of the root-crops, and also from the fact that such soils are not easily exhausted. The diffi- culty in pursuing this course is to maintain cleanliness, especi- ally in wet seasons. Where this essential condition was fairly carried out, the capabilities of the soil — when assisted by a moderate top-dressing — to produce a second white-straw crop did not appear to be at all impaired. When such was followed by a fallow, it was said to ensure a good clover plant. W ith the exception of the fallows on the Manor House Farm, Catterick, no steam-cultivation came under inspection. One competitor, who had employed a set rather freely some years ago, used strong language when describing results, concluding by the remark, “ He wished the whole darned thing had been at the bottom of the Ouse.” Complaints loud and deep were met with, at every turn, of the sufferings entailed directly or indirectly by foot-and-mouth disease. On one farm a flock of 200 hoggs had been purchased in April at 60s. each, and had broken down immediately on arrival. On another, a flock of ewes on being brought home to lamb, caught the disease on the w ay, and consequently came out in May with a small crop of lambs, many of the ewes lame, and all out of sorts. Owing to restrictions upon the movement of 516 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. animals, difficulty was often experienced in obtaining the usual quota of stock. When such measures are found to be absolutely necessary to preserve the healthy flocks and herds on British homesteads from contagion, we need not wonder that the mani- fest hardship and suicidal injustice of allowing diseased cattle to he landed on our shores was universally denounced in the strongest possible terms. The influence which the numerous spirited local agricultural societies exert throughout the country, owing to the large amount of money in the aggregate distributed in prizes, creates an evi- dent spirit of emulation amongst the farmers, and fires them with that keen desire for “ blood ” in sires which evidently exists, whereby their different breeds of cattle, sheep, and horses are improved. This naturally leads up to the classical home of the Shorthorn. Through the kindness of Mr. Wm. Booth, the Judges had the opportunity of inspecting the grand herd of Shorthorns at Warlaby, where they were agreeably surprised to find many of these large - framed, heavy -fleshed cattle, showing excellent dairy qualities ; so much so, that one of my colleagues has since hired a bull from Warlaby, to go to his large dairy herd in Dorsetshire. The production of such a herd, and the blood which it has disseminated, not only throughout the kingdom, but through every civilised cattle-raising country in the world, deservedly immortalises the name of Booth. For some generations it has been the philanthropic custom at Warlaby to give the inhabitants of the district free service of their cows by a “Booth” bull. It is on record that in one season four hundred cows ranked on this free-list ; but so much has the system of farming changed in the matter of breeding and dairying, that comparatively few now avail themselves of this privilege. As an illustration of the dire effect of foot-and-mouth disease in a breeding herd, a cow was pointed out as the only heifer- calf that could be saved in a whole season when an outbreak occurred at Warlaby, and for this cow an offer of 2000/. had been refused. One of the Judges, who has strong sporting proclivities, re- marked several times during the inspection, that the Hares and Rabbits Act had not by any means exterminated fur in York- shire. We heard no real complaints of game damages ; but on one farm wire-netting was placed between the woods and the crops. On another, a portion of a wheat-field, adjoining a wood, was much eaten ; and a third tenant, who had evidently worked hard for a crop of mangolds, was reluctantly obliged to charge the hares with nipping off a large number of his young plants. The cordial relations existing between the tenants and their The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 517 landlord or his agent on these estates evidently covered some sinning in this respect. The system of boarding the farm-labourers, which was almost invariably met with, and their bill of fare — meat three times a day — was a surprise to our colleague from the far south, who remarked that it presented a striking contrast to the life of a Dorsetshire farm-labourer in the matter of beef-eating-. The Judges appointed to inspect the competing farms were invited to meet the Secretary. Mr. 11. M. Jenkins, at \ ork, on Mondav evening, Januarv 15th. Mr. Jenkins was prevented bv sudden illness from keeping this appointment, but a care- lull v prepared order of procedure awaited us, which was literallv followed throughout the first inspection. The local talent who sketched the route must have been well up in the geography of the county. Emerging from the Station Hotel in the grey dawn on the morning of the 16th of Januarv, we were met at the door by a choking fog, which called forth the remark, It is as bad as the Hall at Islington when a fog visits a Smithfield Show." Four farms were inspected during the day, and after a return journey of seventeen miles, driven in the dark, confidence in our programme was established. The competition was limited to tenant-farmers paving a bona fide rent for at least three-fourths of the land in their occupation, the whole of which required to be entered on the certificate. The Judges were instructed to take into full consideration anv special advantage one competitor might have over another, and were also to consider seven points, which have repeatedlv ap- peared in this ‘ Journal in the reports of previous farm-prize competitions. On page 518 will be found a Schedule of the farms in York- shire entered for competition, with the unanimous award of the Judges appended. The second inspection was commenced on April 23rd, when all the competing farms were revisited. Owing to the frost and snow, which came of “ winter lying in the lap of spring," farm- work was much behindhand. A considerable breadth of spring corn remained to be sown, and work was every where at high pressure on the arable farms. It was a time when the Judges had the best opportunities to judge of the normal condition of the farms in point of cleanliness. Xone of the corn was suffi- ciently forward to cover weeds, and the fallows were either in process of cleaning, or showing what they required in that line. Fat hoggs were still receiving sliced roots on several of the iarms, and this, in some cases, on land which was to be worked lor barlev. On the grazing farms in the W est Riding, lambing was scarcely finished. We found a good crop of lambs there, Table I.— Schedule of Farms Entered for tlio Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883, 518 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. o < 25 Bl B ^ o > H O 03 s . rJ rfi -5 25 o _ to c5 25 ci o • . rM < o Benjamin Beevers, of Clay Shed Farm, Escrick, York 127 Heavy 1st Prize. Charles Buckle, of Bilton, York 134, Light. William Scarth Dixon, of West Moor House, Marton, Middlesboro’ .. 131 Heavy. Uttley Hartley, of Watkinson Hall Farm, Halifax 47 Light. Joseph Horner, of Morton, Bingley, Yorks 135 Light and Heavy 2nd Prize. The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 519 but grass was by no means plentiful. For this reason, most of the grazing cattle were still confined to the byres, getting hay and water, in some cases with the addition of a little cake. A third inspection was made immediately before the York Show. A few of the farms that were clearly out of the running were not visited. It is due to the occupiers of these farms to state that there was attached to most, if not all, of their holdings, some points of interest, which would have made it a pleasure to the Judges to have gone over them again ; but the interests of the Royal Agricultural Society had to be placed before personal gratification. On this inspection the farms could not be said to change their actual positions in the race, yet the distance between some of them did become a little more pronounced. The erratic nature of the season had told heavily in the East Riding. In the early part of the week of our visit, the Wolds had been visited by a succession of thunderstorms, which cul- minated in a terrific hailstorm. Evidence of the terrible havoc wrought was only too frequently presented to us. A more detailed account of the effect of the storm will be given in the Report on Mr. Watson’s farm. Speaking of the county as a whole, and excepting some of the competing farms, the grain-crops seen from the route of the Judges were disappointing. The most luxuriant crops which came under our observation were some large fields of potatoes in the Escrick neighbourhood, and their appearance was simply splendid. We at once put them down as grown with “ Cole- man’s recipe.” It would be interesting to know how far we were right in our conjecture. Another remarkable feature of this district was the prevalence of Dutch-barns, covered yards, and commodious comfortable-looking homesteads. We should be wanting in courtesy if we omitted to acknow- ledge the hospitality which everywhere greeted us along the route, also the frankness, and, so far as we know, the honesty which characterised the answers to our inquiries.* Class I. — First Prize. Mr. R. E. Turnbull's Farms: — Twyers Wood and East Parity Burton Constable. The following are particulars supplied by Mr. Turnbull, of the farms he at present occupies. * Application was made to the new Department of Agriculture for the Agri- cultural Statistics for Yorkshire for 18S3. These were eventually promised to bo forwarded by the middle of September, but up to this date, the 10th of October, they have not reached me. Hence in this Report no reference is made to the Agricultural Statistics for Yorkshire.; — T. B. Table II. — Paeticexaes of Me. B. E. Tce>-buxl’s Fabms. Twyebs Woo Xauzs or Fields. Acreage. Crop re 1883. a. r. p. Great South Field 26 3 1 Black Oats, “ Webb's Prolific Tartarian ” .. .. South Cottage Field 10 0 2 Clover Xorth Cottage Field 23 2 10 White Oats, “ Webb's Challenge” West Field 8 3 35 i Tares. — Turnips, “ Sutton’s Green Globe ” : Cabbages, " Robinson’s Drumhead ” Fast Field 6 1 IS White Oats. “ Webb’s Challenge ” (6 acres of White Oats, li Webb’s Challenge.” a*: Preston Twyers 14 1 30 8 acres of Turnips, “ Sutton’s Imperial Green 1 Globe.” and “ Sutton’s Pomeranian White "’ .. Hedon Twyers 6 2 1 White Oats, “ Webb’s Challenge.” Twyers Hill 28 0 33 Pasture ,. Middle Pasture 20 1 31 Pasture Home Pasture 28 g 19 Meadow Paddock 2 0 12 Pasture. Orchard Plantations, &c. 3 2 16 Homestead and Garden 1 2 36 Acres 181 1 4 East Pabk Fabm, Burton Constable, near Hall. East Park 35 0 0 Meadow Calf Paddock 2 0 0 Pasture. South Park 52 0 0 Pasture. West Park 36 0 0 Meadow Deer Paddock 15 2 29 Pasture Acres 140 2 29 Pbestox Fap.m, near Hedon. Leased fro 1st Field 6 2 0 Wheat. “ Hallet's Golden Drop ’’ il acre, “ Webb’s Chevalier” Barley. 1 .. Carrots. “ Sutton’s Long Red ” and “ 3ie 2nd Field 6 0 0 i Yellow.” 1 4 .. Mangolds, “ Sutton's Mammoth Long Be “ G1 >be,” and “ Osheart.” (Swedes. 5 acres. “ Sutton’s Crimson King” 3rd Field G 0 0 •Potatoes. 1 acre, “ Webb’s Schoolmaster’’ an 1 44 Scotch Regent 99 Acres .. 18 2 0 Bcestwick Fabm, near Hedon. Leased for 19 Yea 18 0 0 Swedes, “ Sutton’s Imperial Green Globe ” 0 0 /Swedes, do. do. do Ac. i" Sutton’s Pomeranian White.” 10 0 0 Bariev, 4- Webb's Chevalier.” 2 0 0 Bare fallow 10 0 0 Grass (about 7 acres Meadow). Acres .. 44 0 0 — Fakm, Hedon, near Hull. Leased for 21 Years, from 6th April, 1881. Notes. Drained in 1881 with 3-inch pipes ; limed in 1883 with 5 tons per acre. Drained in 1881 with 3-inch pipes; 4 acres limed in 1882 with 5 tons per acre. Drained in 1S81 with 3-inch pipes; limed in 1882 with 5 tons per acre. Limed in 1882 with 5 tons per acre. 4 acres limed in 1883 with 5 tons per acre. 5 acres drained in 1882 with 3-inch pipes ; 8 acres limed in 1882 with 5 tons per acre. ( 12 acres drained in 1881 with 3-inch pipes; 18 acres limed in 1883, about 4 tons \ lime and 8 tons road scrapings per acre. 10 acres drained in 1882 with 3-inch pipes. {Drained in 1882 with 3-inch pipes ; 14 acres manured in 1882 with about 12 tons farmyard-manure per acre, the whole field manured in 18S3 with about 12 tons per acre. Leased for 5 Years, from 6th April, 1880. Manured each year with about 12 tons farmyard-manure per acre. Manured each year with about 12 tons farmyard-manure per acre. | Manured in 1880 with 5 cwts. bone-meal per acre, and in 1882 with 20 tons \ farmyard-manure per acre. 6th April, 1883 (not in the Competition). Limed in 1882 with about 4 tons per acre. 3 acres limed in 1883 with 5 tons per acre. from 6th April, 1883 (not in the Competition). Manured with 12 tons farmyard-manure per acre and 3 cwts. dissolved bone. Turnips eaten by sheep on the land in 1882. Manured with 12 tons farmyard-manure per acre. 2 M VOL. XIX. — S. S. 522 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883 Fig. 1. — Plan of Twyers Wood Farm. Reference to Plan of Twyers Wood Farm. A. K. P. 1. House and paddock . . Grass 2 0 23 2. South Newlaid .. do. .. .. .. .. .. 15 1 9 3. North Newlaid . . do. . . . . . . . . . . 13 2 8 4. East Newlaid . . do . . . . . . 20 2 29 5. Twyers Hill . . . . do. . . 28 2 11 6. Itedon Twyers .. Arable 6 2 31 7. Preston Twyers .. do 15 0 2 8. Fresh Land . . . . do. . . East Field . . . . fi 121 9. Fresh Land .. .. do. .. West Field .. .. 9 0 23 10. North Cottage Field . . do 23 3 36 11. South Cottage Field .. do 10 1 20 12. Great South Field . . do 27 118 179 0 31 IIedon Road Land. A. It. P. a. Near Field Arable 1 39 b. Middle Field .. do 1 28 c. Far Field do 3 29 18 3 16 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883, 523 Fig. 2. — Plan of Twyers Wood Homestead. ' HORSE POND \ I Reference to Plan of Twyers Wood Homestead, Preston. 1. Cattle-yard. 2. Implement-house. 3, 3. Shelter sheds. 4. Hospital. 5. Straw-barn. 6, 6. Loose-boxes. 7. Chaff-house. 8. Waggon - shed, granary over. 9. Cart-shed. 10. Liquid-manure tank. 11. Straw-shed. 12. Bull-house. 13. Drinking trough. 14. Hay-barn. 15. North cow-byre for 18 cows. 16. West byre for 24 cows. 17. South byre for newly- calved cows and calves. 18. Milk - house, concrete 19. Rain-water tank, (floor. 20. Pulping-house with hay- loft over. 21. Root-house. 22. Boiler. 23. Hay • house for south byre and stable. 24. Draught-horse stable for 6 horses. 25. Poultry. 26. East cow-byre, for new- bought cows. 27. Ca> riage-horse stable. 28. S iddle-room. 29. Store. 30. Coach-house. 31. Office. 32. Front kitchen. 33. Back kitchen. 34. Dairy. 35. I’antry. 36. Coal. 37. Poultry. 38. E.C. 2 m 2 524 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. The two first on the list only were entered for competi- tion. TwYERS Wood Farm, of which a plan is given (Fig. 1, p. 522), is the property of George Dickenson, Esq., of Roos. It is situated in Holderness, about five miles east of Hull, and is intersected by the Hull and Hedon Road, as well as by the Hull and Hedon Railway. The house and homestead stand on the north side of the highway, and are separated from it by a well-kept lawn and garden in front. The house is a square, neat, cosy-looking dwelling, flanked by a productive garden and orchard, and by a trim shrubbery. The homestead has been entirely remodelled and considerably enlarged by Mr. Turnbull, as will be seen from the ground-plan (Fig. 2, p. 523). The whole of the work has been done in a substantial manner ; the arrangement is good ; all the stock can be fed and inspected without the attendant going out of cover. Ventilation without draught has been kept in view, and appears to have been secured. There are no gangways in front of the cows for feeding, which appears to be a drawback ; it is assuredly more convenient and expeditious to feed tied cattle in front than having to carry food up between each pair. The feeding-troughs, as seen in the sketch (Fig. 3), are an excellent arrangement, being simply a semicircle, and are really half 18- in. glazed sanitary pipes. The byres, in which there are stands for 54 cattle, are lime- washed, a “ dado ” of tar is run 4 ft. 10 in. high all round, which — apart from sanitary purposes — from an aesthetic point of view is rather effective. The hay-barn at the back of the square is not filled with hay, but has large doors at each end, which will admit laden waggons. It is used as a shed for hay, straw, &c., in process of being moved or marketed. The open square, surrounded by the stables, byres, &c., has a pavement all round the sides, and dips towards the centre, Fig. 3. — Detail of Feeding Trough. The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 525 a* which point there is a trapped drain to carry off rain- water. On our first inspection some of the buildings were not completed ; and at these points we could gather the amount of labour and expense incurred in ballasting roads and making foundations, seeing the bottomless condition of the unfinished parts. The milk-house, into which all the milk is brought, is a small, simple, yet convenient building, with a copper in one corner for scalding and cleaning vessels, and a large cold-water tank, bath-shaped, on the opposite side, into which churns are plunged to cool the milk before its departure to Hull. The only other building into which milk is received is a small but beautifully equipped dairy, which forms a part of the bailiff’s house, and is used for milk to supply the domestic require- ments of the Twyers Wood household. This department is superintended by Mrs. Turnbull. Another room of this building is used by Mr. Turnbull as an office. The extent of the farm is 181 acres, 3 roods, and 13 perches (exclusive of plantations), of which 96 acres, 2 roods, 17 perches are in tillage. It is leased for 21 years from the 6th of April, 1881, from George Dickenson, Esq., of Roos, Holderness, at a rent of 46s. per acre, the tenant paying the rates and taxes, viz., poor rates, about 2s. in the pound (370/.) ; highway rate, 8 d. in the pound ; rectorial tithe rent-charge, vicarial tithe, and clerk’s dues, 9/. 16s. 9 d. ; income tax, Schedule ‘ B,’ 4/. 18s. Id. ; inhabited house duty, 12s. Qd ; in all, about 7s. per acre. Some of the conditions of the tenancy may be usefully men- tioned : — (a) Sale of Hay and Straw. — The tenant may sell hay and straw on the understanding that he shall first have brought on to the farm 2 cwts. per acre of guano, or its equivalent in other manure for each acre of hay or straw sold. (/>) Solving down to Grass. — “ If the lessee shall sow down any land to grass, the lessor will allow to the lessee the cost price of the seed used for the purpose ; but if any such land, after being sown down as aforesaid, shall be ploughed up again by the lessee, the lessee shall immediately thereafter repay to the lessor the amount previously allowed for seed as aforesaid.” (c) Buildings. — “The lessee shall be at liberty to remove during the continuance of this demise any buildings which shall have been erected by him at his expense, if the lessor shall not, after receiving one month’s previous notice in writing from the lessee requiring him to do so, and before the expiration of the 526 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. said month, elect to purchase the said buildings at two-thirds the original cost thereof.” ( d ) Drainage. — “ In case the lessee shall do any drainage works on the said lands and premises hereby demised, the lessor will allow to the lessee the cost price paid by him, the said lessee, for pipes which shall be actually used in any such drainage works as aforesaid, but exclusive of all cost for labour, leading, and other expenses.” A mainland open drain, about 10 feet deep, brought up from the sea, runs through the centre of the north side of the farm, and is brought up to the north of the steading through the shrubbery. This forms an outlet for the field-drains, and therefore must be kept in good order. This cutting was done about fifty years ago jointly by the owners of the land which it drains. A similar cutting for drainage divides two fields lying on the south side of the main road. Mr. Turnbull has drained about 120 acres of this farm entirely at his own expense, the landlord finding tiles only. The drains are from 8 to 12 yards apart, varying according to the width of the “ lands,” the average distance between the drains is 10 yards, the average depth is 2 feet. Most of the pipes are 3 inches in diameter. For the outlet, an iron pipe is used in all cases, with a trap door (Denton’s Patent), made by Barford and Perkins. The cost of cutting and laying the pipes in the furrows was Is. 6ef. per chain (22 yards), and for the main drain and outfall 4s. per chain. The expense of carting the pipes, carting water for the drains, and superintendence, was estimated to be 1/. per acre. Live Stock. — The following is a list of the number of animals on Twyers Wood on Jan. 22nd, 1883, the time of our first inspection : — Cattle. 32 Shorthorn cows in-milk. 7 „ ,, dried for calving. 2 ,, ,, for fattening. 3 ,, heifers in-milk. 1 ,, „ spring calving. 1 Ayrshire cow in-milk. 3 „ cows dried for calving. 3 „ heifers in-milk. 1 Shorthorn and Galloway cross cow in-milk. 1 Shorthorn Bull, “British Boy” (44463), bred by Air. W. Atkinson, Burneside Hall, Westmoreland; sire, “British Baronet” (39500); dam, “Jenny,” by “ Duke of Kirkby ” (33682). The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. 527 Horses. 6 Cart-horses. 2 Milk-cart horses. 1 Carriage-horse. Pigs. Foicls. 2 Pigs. 50 Fowls. This being essentially a milk farm, I shall give the cows their proper position, and place them first. At our January visit they were, as a matter of course, confined in the byres. From the 21st of October to the 30th of April the cows were allowed daily from 21 to 28 lbs. of hay, one-third long and i two-thirds chaffed ; 3 lbs. of linseed-cake, 3^ to 7 lbs. of rolled oats, and from 56 to 84 lbs. of turnips pulped and mixed with the hay-chaff. The heifers in full milk were allowed about 21 lbs. of hay, long and chaffed, 2^ lbs. of linseed cake, 2J lbs. of cotton-cake or rolled oats, and 56 lbs. of pulped roots. The whole of the cows looked healthy, very clean, and in good milking condition. They were reported to give an average of about 9 quarts of milk per cow per day. The whole of the milking is done by the men on the farm. The milking hours are from 4 to 6 A.M., and 2 to 3.30 P.M. Each man milks from 6 to 8 cows. As the milk has to be sent off early, the milk- ing has to be done by more hands than would be otherwise employed for the purpose. Each milker has a book, in which he enters the produce of each cow. The milk pails are marked on the inside with lines indicating their capacity in quarts up to the several lines ; a register of what each cow gives is there- fore easily obtained. The milk is taken, as drawn from the cows, into the milk-house, and there poured into churns, which are plunged into the cold-water cistern already mentioned. The supply of water for the cistern is obtained from a large under- ground rain-water tank immediately outside the building, and is pumped out of that into the cooler, which Mr. Turnbull says answers the purpose admirably. It is all-important that the milk should be properly cooled before being sent off. Mr. Turnbull supplies the Infirmary at Hull, which takes about 28 gallons per day. The remaining quantity is sent to East Park Dairy in Hull, where it is retailed to consumers. Mr. Turnbull states that he has now no difficulty in disposing of his milk and butter in Hull, but as he had the business to make, it was uphill work for a time. Mr. Turnbull looks upon his dairy business in Hull as part of the available assets of his farm, though he does not include it in his balance-sheet. The connection gained in the way of customers has really an intrinsic value, and would, no doubt, readily realize a con- siderable sum if offered for sale. Mr. Turnbull has, therefore, 528 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. solved the problem of how to bring producer and consumer together by the success of his East Park Dairy in Londesbro’ Street, Hull. The “Dairy Report” of this farm for the month of January, 1883, which is appended (see Table IV., facing p. 536), will be found to be most exhaustive in detail. It was in course of preparation at our first inspection, and was forwarded to the Judges at the end of the month. The report speaks for itself, and does not require either explanation or comment. It is only fair to state, however, that Mr. Turnbull being connected with business which requires him to keep a clerk, he is thus personally relieved from the labour of transcribing these reports; but the Judges have every reason to believe that sufficient personal superintendence is given to the details of the work which the reports record, to justify them in accepting the tables as substantially correct, and as such presenting them to the public. On our second inspection, on the 1st of May, we found 40 cows grazing together on “ Twyers Hill,” where they were having a nice bite of grass. They were one and all in blooming condition. Many of the Shorthorn cows would have graced a showyard ; and for dairy purposes some of the crosses might have been placed before them. Taking them together, they were a grand lot, and great care and judgment were displayed in their selection. They had generally a good show for milk. The best cow in the lot for the Dairy was said to be a cross between Alderney and Shorthorn. A massive blue cow, Galloway and Shorthorn cross, had the credit of being the best milker. She had produced a calf in each of three successive seasons, and had never been dry since having her first calf as a heifer, having always milked through, and was at that time giving 17 quarts per day. It was stated that the cows did well all the spring when fed on swedes grown with farmyard-manure ; but immediately they had swedes grown with artificial manure given to them, they scoured and went wrong. No other cause could be discovered to which the disordered condition of the cows could be attributed. There are, however, so many surrounding circumstances to be taken into account in connection with experiments in feeding, that results can only be said to be confirmed after frequent repetition. The calves from the Twyers Wood cows are reared at Burton Constable. Mr. Turnbull takes an occasional run through Cumberland and Westmoreland for the purpose of buying cows and heifers. Home-bred heifers from Burton Constable are now coming in for cows ; therefore not so much dependence has to be placed 529 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. on importations. We think, however, that Mr. Turnbull will always remain open to buy a good young dairy cow. No sheep have been on the farm for the last two vears. The following live-stock were on the farm at our second and third visits : — May 1. Cattle. 30 Shorthorn cows in-milk. " 7 „ „ for fattening. 1 „ „ dry, for calving. 1 Ayrshire cow in-milk. 1 „ „ dry, for calving. 2 „ heifers dry, for fattening. 1 Shorthorn-Alderney cow in-milk. 1 Shorthorn-Galloway cow in-milk. 1 Shorthorn bull calf under 4 months old. 1 Shorthorn- Ayrshire calf under 4 months old. 1 Shorthorn Cross bull, “British Boy.” Horses. 9 Cart-horses. 2 Milk-cart-horses. 1 Carriage-horse. 2 Pigs. Poultry. 48 Fowls. 6 Ducks. 9 Ducklings. 80 Spring chicken. July 6. Cattle. 28 Shorthorn cows in-milk. 2 „ heifers „ 1 „ -Galloway cowin-milk. 1 „ -Ayrshire cow in-milk. 1 „ -Ayrshire heifer in- milk. 1 Scotch Polled cow in-milk. 1 „ „ heifer, newly calved 5 th July. 3 Shorthorn cows dry, for calving. 1 „ cow dry, for fattening. 1 Kerry heifer in-calf. 10 Shorthorn steers, 2 years old. 1 „ bull, “ Warlock.” Bred by Mr. H. P. Holme, Mardale, Penrith; sire, “Warrior’s Fame” (40889) ; dam, “ Double-bred Bose,” by “Monarch” (31,930). Horses. 10 Cart-horses. 2 Milk-cart-horses. 1 Carriage-horse. 1 Foal. Poultry. 144 Hens and chicken. 46 Ducklings. 6 Ducks. 60 Pigeons. On our third visit, July 6th, the cows were again grazing on “ Twyers Hill.” This field had been covered during the winter with a dressing of lime and soil, which during the damp weather early in May made such a flush of white clover that several of the cows got blown, and required to be watched steadily. One cow was found lying dead, which half-an-hour before was grazing with the rest of the herd. The others that were affected were simply gagged with a piece of wood, to keep their mouths open, which allowed the gas to escape, thereby bringing about a speedy subsidence of the hoven bowels. The usual supply of cake was not given when grass was so abundant. About a week before our visit the rations had been commenced with cake, but no increase of milk had been produced by this added food. The cows were then averaging about 11 quarts per day. 530 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. The cows and heifers here and at Burton Constable are stated to average, one with another, fully 2 imperial gallons per day each, all the year round. Valuing the milk at lOd. per gallon, and the calves at 31. each, the gross value of the produce of the herd is equivalent to over 33 1. per head. From the 1st of May to the 21st of October the cows are out on the pastures day and night, except during milking. The usual summer allowance of cake is from 2^ to 7 lbs. each per day, two-thirds cotton, and one-third linseed from the Driffield Cake Company. From July the cows have a daily allowance of green tares ; and in September and October they have cabbage in addition to cake and grass. Ten Shorthorn steers, two years old, recently bought in the North Riding at 221. per head, were grazing with the cows and getting a linseed-cake each per day. The Judges expressed a unanimous opinion that these cattle were very dear at the price, but they were told that a fair profit could and would be made on an early day. The farm-horses are heavy useful animals in high condition ; they had hitherto been largely employed in carting for the buildings, road-making, tile- and lime-leading ; but that depart- ment of labour was nearly completed, and on our last visit we found them all turned out to grass, — a luxury which, we were told, they had up to that time little enjoyed. The cart-horses are ordinarily allowed 21 lbs. of rolled oats per day, with hay ad libitum ; mixed chopped hay and straw occasionally. When hard worked, a proportion of beans is substituted for a portion of the oats, but the allowance of 21 lbs. is not exceeded. Two milk-cart horses for driving the milk to Hull are allowed 14 lbs. of oats per day, one milk-cart horse is kept at East Park Dairy for delivering the milk from Twyers, and butter from Burton Constable. Two pigs are fed to provide home-fed bacon. Breeding or feeding for sale is not attempted. The same remarks apply to poultry, although spring chicken looked healthy and numerous. Grass Land. — Our observations led us to the conclusion that the character of the grass land, 80 acres in extent, had been very much changed during Mr. Turnbull’s tenure. About 300 loads of tussocks had been pared off Twyers Hill and burnt. The ashes had been used for drilling with turnip manure, and on 18 acres of the grass a heavy coat of lime and road-scrapings had been applied ; 12 acres of this land had been drained in 1881 with 3-in. pipes. The result was apparently very satisfactory ; a clean good herbage covered the field. Half of the adjoining field of 20 acres had also been drained in 1882, The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 531 and though it bore a somewhat coarser herbage, it was evidently improving. Nos. 2 and 3 on the plan (Fig. 1, p. 522), now one field, containing nearly 29 acres, were drained in January 1882. This field was dressed in 1882 with 12 tons of farmyard- manure per acre, and the whole field was again covered in 1883. This season it was meadow, bearing a very heavy crop of grass ; and at the time of our visit was ready for cutting. Between No. 4 pasture and Twyers Hill there had been an ugly, dangerous, deep gutter, surmounted by a high straggling hedge. The gutter had been cleaned out, a large tile laid in the bottom, and the banks filled in. The old hedge had been cut and laid in a truly workmanlike fashion during the winter, and in July had made a wonderful shoot, giving promise of speedily becoming a good fence. It was protected by the cut thorns, which were so strong that they furnished stakes as well. This work was very neatly done, and chiefly by the farm labourers. Another hedge, which had attained a great height, but was not so rugged, had been cut off close to the roots ; it was also protected by stakes and thorns on each side. Though well and neatly done, this is a more questionable improvement. The cutting down of the hedge for a time destroyed a valuable shelter, an important consideration in grazing. These fields are watered by large ponds which are neatly fenced round, one side being left open to admit the cattle. A small paddock of 2 acres adjoining the homestead completes the area of grass land. Cropping. — No regular system of cropping is followed, as will be apparent from the following Table (p. 532), which gives the crops in each field for the past six years. It will be noticed that wheat is frequently followed by oats, and vice versa. We entered the farm, off the main road, first into a clover field of 91 acres. The crop, sown with 21 lbs. of red clover and Hampshire cow-grass, was very heavy ; it was sold as grass at 125. 6f/. per ton, loaded on to waggons in the field and driven off by the purchaser ; it was yielding about 15 tons per acre, estimated to be equal to 3 tons of hay. The stems of the clover were of extraordinary thickness ; no rye grass is sown. A new road through the field has just been completed, made for the purpose of leading 500 tons of manure next winter to the adjoining field on the banks of the Humber. The road has been made with 60 tons of chalk, costing 4s. per ton. This road cut off half an acre which had been sown down about 14 days previous to our visit, with the mixture for Permanent Pasture as recommended by Mr. De Laune in the pages of a recent volume of this ‘Journal.’ In January, some wheat-stubble in the warp land adjoining the Humber was being ploughed with 2 teams of 3 horses each. This field had been drained with 3-in. tiles 2 ft. deep in 1881, and 532 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883 CO CO oo OO pi < « o o £ o A W h) tt Pi <1 o c £ >— < P-. Ph O 6 H PQ Q P3 #g« *3 3 Eh _jO o gt - P" So- ' .^r° J° » s. fce 3 O 56 J^cJC 'rt ~ « O JO .1 02 rO p.S'C <_ „ jo > m c ,r> T g = 02 - ^ cs co g ~ 0„ -S? . d - 6.2 © 3 r3 .<§ J2 6 bfl-£ feoCQ C5 p C3 fcfl ) cj o3 o q i 2 S3 £.1 § -2 2 iO oO'SOf^So c3 > CO ^ The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 533 was dressed last spring with 5 tons of lime per acre. The lime is obtained at Knottingley, and costs at Hedon Haven 10s. per ton ; in January it was lying in large heaps covered with soil, and was applied in the spring previous to the corn being drilled. In July the black oats were coming into ear ; they did not look at all a heavy crop, but were healthy and vigorous, and Mr. Turnbull said would yield 8 quarters per acre. This field was stated to be wretchedly foul on entry, but was now in a very creditable condition. The field north of the Hedon Road, containing 23^ acres, was drained in 1881, had been bare fallow in 1882 after oats, and had received 5 tons of lime as a dressing. Mr. Turnbull had in the autumn intended to sow this field down to permanent grass, and therefore did not plant wheat, which accounts for no wheat crop this season. Having determined to continue it in tillage, Webb’s Challenge white oats were sown, which in July were quite out, and were a magnificent crop. The east field, contain- ing about 6 acres, previously cropped with roots, was also carrying a crop of Webb’s White Challenge oats, which were nearly, if not quite, equally luxuriant. Another 6 acres in Preston Twyers was bearing a big crop of the same sort of oats after mangolds and swedes. The whole of the grain crop consisted of about 70 acres of oats, no wheat or barley being grown this year on Twyers Wood. The remainder of the arable land, with the exception of three acres of spring tares, was in roots ; only a few potatoes are grown for the use of the household. These, with Sutton’s Green Globe turnips and four acres of Robinson’s Drumhead cabbage, cropped a field beyond the railway. Most of this land is lying in high-backed ridges which are not attempted to be levelled. The cabbages were planted three feet apart every way, and the earliest planted were looking as if they would soon cover the whole of the ground. Turnips were sown on the flat 32 inches between the rows, W'hich we thought wider than was necessary. Nine acres beyond the railway were lying with manure ploughed in and rolled down ready for sowing with turnips. This would have been completed some days previous to our visit, but thunderstorms had intervened. Considerable care had been taken in the cleaning of the fallows ; and though they cannot be described as absolutely free from couch, they were in a highly creditable condition, seeing that this was the first oppor- tunity that could be got to clean what had been evidently foul land when taken in hand. The arable fields were cultivated and cropped up to the hedge roots, the corners being dug and cleaned close up. Hedges were carefully trimmed and cleaned, 534 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. ditches and dykes scoured, and the refuse mixed with lime, which, with the accumulated cleanings of former generations piled on the roadside, were made into compost heaps for dressing meadows and pastures. Labour. — The foreman has been at Twyers Wood since January 1881. The hours for labourers who do not milk are from 6 A. 31. to 6 P.3I., with an hour for dinner. No second breakfast or tea-time. The foreman said, “ Three times a day was plenty for any man to be eating that had to work.” Mr. Turnbull supplied the following particulars concerning his labourers: — “My foreman at Twyers has 21s. per week in cash, cottage and garden rent free, free coals and firewood, one pound of butter per week, one quart of new milk per day, and as much skim-milk as he requires for the use of his family and the men that board in his house. He has also potatoes free of charge, and I pay him 9s. per week for each man that he boards.” “ My cattlemen have 30/., and ploughman 25/., a year and free board and lodging. I get the best men I can find. I spare no pains to secure for every department on my farms the best men I can meet with. I cannot speak too highly of the faithful way in which I have been served by my men, especially by my farm stewards, William Watson and Thomas Jordan. As a dairy- woman, Mrs. Watson has few equals. I feel that any success that I have had is greatly due to the energy, ability, and faithfulness with which I have been served at all times by my work-people.” East Park, Burton Constable, is about six miles distant from Twyers Wood, but the two places are worked in con- junction. As already mentioned, East Park supplies the butter sold at the East Park Dairy in Hull. This farm is all grass, and is simply the eastern portion of the fine park at Burton Constable. It contains 140a. 2r. 29p., and is leased for five years from Sir Talbot Constable, Bart., from the 6th of April, 1880, at 40s. per acre, the tenant paying all rates and taxes. “ The tenant to have the right to remove any additional fences made by him.” Burton Constable Park is situate in what is said to be the richest and flattest part of Holderness. It lies nearly equi- distant between Hull and the east coast. This park is famous as having been inhabited by one of the few herds of wild cattle, supposed to be the direct descendants of the ancient Dos urus. Hamilton Smith writes: “The indi- viduals of the Scotch Urus in the Park of Burton Constable The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 535 were all destroyed in the middle of last century by a dis- temper.” Bewick, writing of this race of cattle in 1790, states: « Those at Burton Constable, in the county of York, were all destroyed by a distemper a few years since. They varied slightly from those at Chillingham, having black ears and muzzles, and the tips of their tails of the same , colour. They were also much larger, many of them weighing 60 stone, pro- bably owing to the richness of the pasturage at Holderness, but generally attributed to the difference of kin between those with black and with red ears, the former of which they studiously endeavour to preserve.” I have several times visited the herd of wild cattle at Chillingham, each time with increasing interest, especially when surrounded by them, when they were being fed out of the historic hay-cart. The head of a wild bull, that for eleven years shared the honours of this herd, is now in my possession, and is not a little prized. A most interesting account of Burton Constable, and the lineage of the Constable family, is given in ‘ The History and Antiquities of the Seigniory of Holderness,’ by George Poison, Esq., published in 1841. It contains the following description of the park: — “To George Clifford, Esq., Burton Constable owes a considerable portion of its thriving woods, the result of his unwearied attention to planting and draining during the period of the minority of the present possessor. The lake covers sixteen acres of ground. The circuit of the park and ornamental pleasure-grounds, about five miles and a half. The lake, or sheet of water, is situated a quarter of a mile from the mansion ; it extends along the slope which forms the gradual rise towards Roe Hill, and at one end is terminated by a building called the Menagerie ; the other termination is concealed by a hanging wood, through which it has the appearance of con- tinuing its course. In the widest part is a small wooded island, the resort of swans and wild fowl, which are numerous, from being unmolested. A considerable portion of the park is allotted to fallow-deer, of which there are generally about 500 head. There are two deer paddocks for red-deer, of which there are between eighty and ninety. These are kept for the chase, and have for the last five years been trained and hunted by Sir Clifford Constable. The walled garden, hot-houses, and conservatories, which occupy about seven acres, are situated at a short distance from the head of the lake. There is a good avenue of ancient elms ; and a walk, deeply shaded with horse- chestnuts, runs parallel with it, from whence an excellent view of the house is obtained ; and some idea of its extent may be formed from these points. A beautiful garden has been formed 536 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. on the west lawn, laid out in the French style, ornamented with statues, and many rare and curious birds are kept in roomy aviaries ; others, which have become attached to the place from being regularly fed, are allowed to be at large, and display their native plumage in a climate foreign to their habits. “ The stabling, the kennels, and other buildings, are on a scale quite in unison with an extensive establishment of this description. There are twenty hunters kept in training for the field, and about forty-five couple of dogs. Burton Constable stag-hunting, however, is so celebrated, that it would be impos- sible to dismiss the subject without a passing description of the noble animals which are trained for the sport. The species is the old English red-deer, with the exception of a few, a cross of the bossac mountain-deer ; by which cross the old English breed is greatly improved, and better fitted for the chase. The most suitable age is from four to ten years old. When young they are turned out in some secluded spot, free from observation, and where they have a line of country as much as possible exclu- sively to themselves ; those which are thus trained are found by experience to be the best runners. The method used for pre- paring them for the chase is, to take them from the grass in the month of August, and enclose them in pens, with a shed attached, in as solitary a place as possible ; this also is the time for taking off their antlers. In these pens they are fed in the following manner : — 3 quarts of old oats per diem, for every head, during the first three weeks ; afterwards, 2 quarts, mixed with a small quantity of linseed and isinglass : they are also provided with 1^ lb. of old hay or rye-grass, which is sufficient food for a deer that is to be hunted throughout the season ; with the addition of a few ivy leaves once or twice in the week, and fresh soft water to drink.” Alas ! Sic transit gloria mundi. The Bos urus seems to have anticipated the decline of this once truly magnificent manorial residence, and determined not to survive its downfall. The stables which held these “ twenty hunters ” are now the incon- venient though comfortable home of Mr. Turnbull’s cows. The Riding School, which still contains remnants of its former glories, in the shape of gaseliers, mirrors, stags’ heads, &c., is now a hay and straw shed. The rooms which were wont to contain the superb mountings of four-in-hand teams, and other high-mettled occupants of these stables, are now furnished with pails, churns, and other simple dairy utensils, and the only stamp of nobility left in the place is the present famous butter stamp “ East Park Dairy.” After completing our inspection of the farm and dairy we were shown over the mansion. It is very richly furnished, but TABLE IV.— DAIRY RECORD OF TVVYER3 WOOD FARM FOR JANUARY, 1883. [To fact p. MtJ. QLUXTrrr or milk oivim i> ir t.tcn cow DUitixi) r IU>alUC>lili« dlwU-Cklr*. O.W. 13. 14. 16. ltt. 17. IS. 19. 33. 34. 36. SO. 37. 38. SO 30. 31. Tout* 4 Year* Xoramhor 4 ^ jHImrllmrn anil (tallow*; j April Norambar Oelbrr Aupurt Spring, 1883 Oolntwr tlrptrmher March 0 Da Sjirlfu;, 1»3 Dercmhrr 12 BrltUli liny .. Fuptoraber IS . 1 1 13} 13 12} 1(5 17 17 18 18 17 16J «•'! >3 II II 131 13 13 181 13( 131 1« 1* 1< II >3 13 13 13 13 14 141 131 IS} 14 IS IS IS IS Cl Cl 7 61 (>1| Apr I Xorambrf 10 Manh 0 N' lr nilu r 21 October Nomnber I Oetobor23 . D A |" 'I October III . . Nov tuber 17 October Dotrmbaii I ski October Jfocmlor 3 October 14 Spill.*.. I”' I Vermurr 20 October ISl'tll.Jiill I Aprii . Spti»j. I OKI Slay 20 Dooenibnr Slay SO Do. 31 Docenilier 30 Jununry ■ lull I I January HI 14} 1*1 II 1*1 13 14 12 13 13 13 13 II 12 13( 18 178 || October 21 137 Starch 2 . September . Starch 0 April .. 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 II 10 10 101 10 101 11 12 12 12 12 12 111 >>t 12 10 II 10 12 12 12 10 II 81 8} 81 81 81 II II 10 1» 11 11 111 IS 10 1 10 10 12 13 13 121 12 12 13 14 13 IS 111 11} 11} 12 12 13 13 13 12} April 17 October 20 . Do. 18 . January. 1883 183 14 II 14 10 10 10 4 3} 3} 3} 3} 31 31 3} 74 3} 34 3| 3}' 3} 3} 3} 3} 121 13 13 13 12 121 124! 13 II 12 13 13 14 14 11 11 12 12 12 12 S' SI 13} 13} 131 13}! 14 13} 13} 13 13 1 ■" 14 14 14 14 11 14 14 11 1 11 11 12 12 IS 11 11} 10} 10} 10} 12 8 8 8 8} 0 12} IS 12 14 14 7} 7} 7 7 7 6} 6} 6} 6}j 61 11) 12 3 1 6) (} 6} 5} 6) 6) 61, l!)| 7 . 12) 12) 10 6) 9 3 4) 19 14) 14) 13 13 13 13 IS 14 14) 13 12 1111 11 14 14 II) 12) 13 13 12 ft 8) 8) 7 14 14 IS 14 12 12 12 , 11 12 12} 12 12 *1 4 4) 4) 4) 4) 4) 4} 15 IS IS 13 141 13 12 13) 13) 14 14 15 14} 14 13 13 13 13 12 | 12 | 12 ll)j 364} 12 12 12 1 II) li) 12 12 11} 371) 12) 12} 12 12 12 12 II); 0}! 0 7 7 7} 7) 7). 8 6} 7) 7 7 7 C) 6} 6) 6) 0 6) 0 7 7 6) (■} 6 6) 6} 6 0} 0 . 8 '•* 6} 6 j 0 ' 6 6} 0 6 (5 6) 0} 6) 6) 6} 6} 6 6)1 C 6} 5) S) 6 0 G 3| 6 S . 3} 3} 0 6 G) 3} S 6) 6 5 I 5}l 4} 0 0 6 5j 14 II 14} IS 17 18 7. 9. 0 10. 11. | 12 13. 385 380 , 870 , 371 371 371 S* II II 14}' 14) II) 11 II) 12 II 12 12} 12} 13 II 13 15 14} 431 11} 12 11} 330 12 12} 12) 12) 12 9 0.9 0 9 10 10 17 10 10 8 8 7 7} 7 21!) 7 7 6) 0) 7 199} 0) 0) 61 C) 01 102) 400 401 I 400 800 12249) 14. 18. 18. 17. 18. 19. 20 21. 22 23 24. 26. 28 97. 28. 29. SO. 31. N III): STKAW-YAIIIV l«b ./ taat Oititn* Bab* atm Mil 1 April .. SpriOff. I tun Starch 14 If ibruary February Nh.wthere Dull - KrltUli Doy " (44,40), t«*d by Sir W. Aik lent, DarnraUa Hall. WaatmorelenA Slrr. - 1», it** litri’CMl " (39,300 . Do», - J«ihy.- b, - Duke of KlrVb, * (83^99). CATTLK FOOD ACCOUNT. IVaalptloa of Paul. MocannlUnd. .tortr* ik* ii. u»i,h. mm on u*nu. HI Jamiair, no j M.oLb for 11*1 Ju.a*//. 1M3. Lintrod-cako .. 1 ten 13 cwU. 1 ton Oat* 8 quart* r* 25 quart* n Oatmeal .. 1 aack Sir cilo Turnip* 100 Iona .. StangiJJa ..I SO Iona Oanota 7 Iona Meadow May 18 Iona What Straw 33 Iona Oat Straw j IS torn 1 ton 13} cwla. 24 quarter* } au k 46} ton* 15 too* 15 cut*. 1 ton 1} cat*. 9 quarter* } rock S3} ton* SO tom 4 ton* 3 ton* u*4*i by horaca. 1 1* Ian co uaed by hotter !3 tuna uir»l for Bedding. 11} toua wot to Kami Produce Warehouae, Hull. .K-UOW BISTOSED OP. TIMS TUB MILK-CAKf LOT lAVYKIIS WOOD [. ^tJ'. mi r.:»An t.HRW\ FallrniD), Fattening lV»k a hul oil on th I>\ 80I1I SOUl Junuii y Fattening Fattening Futlcnlng FutU ulng :: - ■; 5: WEATHER REICH T. «*l# of lb* Waiter during U*- Hull b 1 Thick, ml*!y morning, Showery day. Dull and niuty wiailar. Fog* ; «ry dull, j Shnaery. Fine, with feral. her ill .ly ; ihj cold cult! in the •ud‘* ii)* Very firm ilaya r. fir* y morning, dry unlU 3 nr , when II rained. Stormy night ('alio, dear monitor: Foil my net from U»t night'* rain. Very ab.riny alranp -not*; «*/y llttlo rain. South- a cal aloda Maty night. 1 Cold.fetsly mem In f 11 a.M. *uow, ilcrt, and rain. Bo'-arat wind and lair after noon. , Foulii-«<*l wind . »■' rain until night, when It waa a perfect hurricane. Hurd feral and dry day. South-weal *Oii wruth-awt wind*. Hard fn-t Cold a 'Util- w«»t Wind. C'Uur »lur light night j Fro*ly, e"ld, nihly »*»l doll, without rain. Saalb-wcai am! *oulh-cn*t wind*. ! TABLE V. — DAIRY RECORD OF EAST PARK FARM, BURTON CONSTABLE, FOR JANUARY, 1883. 537 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. has not been occupied for fifteen years. It contains, amonj other valuables and rarities, a fine collection of paintings, and what is said to be one of the finest libraries in Yorkshire. The Rev. John Storrer, M.A., in ‘The Wild White Cattle of Great Britain,’ says of this library : “ Therein is a collection of MSS., written about the middle of last century by the learned William Constable, upon various subjects; horses, cattle, agriculture, and county history ; and which, in all probability, contain some valuable references to the herd of white cattle which then inhabited the park. I write this for the benefit of those who pursue such studies after me, the library at Burton Constable being at present a sealed book. This is the only case in which I have been refused information.” This house must have at one time held high rank among “The stately homes of England.” The “tall ancestral trees” are not dependent on frail humanity for their continued existence, and therefore, though they may sigh out wintry dirges over the prevailing desolation, their glory remains. Enough of these echoes of the past : let us come back to the “ living present ” — Mr. Turnbull’s cows and heifers. Butter being now the summum bonum here, it deserves first attention. About 40 cows are milked, but they are chiefly young cows and heifers, and do not produce so much milk as those at Hedon ; the average in January, as will be seen from the appended dairy report (Table V.) for that month, was about quarts per day. In July they were giving 10 quarts each per day. The milking hours here are from 5 to 7 A.M. and 4 to 6 P.M. Each man milks from 12 to 15 cows or heifers. In addition to Watson, the steward, 3 men are regularly employed at East Park. The milk is set in the dairy in leaden bowls, 36 inches by 26 inches, and about 7 inches deep, fixed in shelves. Each lead has a covered plug in the centre ; the milk usually stands 36 hours, in very hot weather 24 hours. About half an ounce of “ Glacialine ” (compound salt) is mixed with 10 gallons of milk, which is said to keep the milk sweet for a longer time. It is then run off, the plug being withdrawn ; the cover, which is indented at the bottom, allows the milk to run through into pails below, but retains the cream. After the milk is all through, the plug is re-inserted, and a pail is placed below to receive the cream ; both plug and cover are then withdrawn, the cream is expedited in its passage to the centre outlet by a piece of fine horn, which is used finally for scraping adhering cream from the sides of t ie leads ; this is done expeditiously, but so effectively that, on VOL. XIX.— S. S. ^ N 538 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. completion, the leads have the appearance of having been washed. Taylor’s Eccentric Churn is used, and butter is usually got with about half an hour’s churning. It is made twice a week, and is made up into long, round, and square pound and half- pound stamps, all bearing the impress “ East Park Dairy ; ” on two occasions we saw about 100 pounds finished off ready for despatch. This department is worked by Mrs. Watson, the foreman’s wife, who must take high rank as an artist in the honourable profession of butter-making. The “ Cooley Creamer ” was tried after the Swartz system, but these churns are now laid aside. With this system it took 14 quarts of milk to make 1 pound of butter, whereas with the shallow leaden bowls 10 quarts gave a pound ; such were the results of two personally superintended experiments. Mr. Turnbull says: “The larger portion of my butter is sold by contract to a provision merchant at Is. Id. a pound, the year round. He offered to take all I produce at this price. My trade mark is ‘ East Park Dairy.’ I have found it a great advantage to have a distinct trade mark of this kind. The butter has gradually risen in price as the brand has become known. The first year the price averaged about Is. 5 d. per pound. The second year I obtained Is. Qd., and now I could sell more than I now produce at Is. Id. the year round.” The plan (Fig. 4, p. 539) will afford a general idea of the posi- tion of the park. The clumps of trees, which stand in small scat- tered enclosures, give a rich sylvan appearance to the landscape. The park has been subdivided by Mr. Turnbull. Two fields, of 35 acres and 36 acres respectively, are meadow, and are dressed each year with about 12 tons of farmyard-manure per acre. The deer park, of 15J acres, always in pasture, was dressed in 1880 with 5 cwt. of bone-meal, and in 1882 with 20 tons of farmyard-manure per acre. Two haystacks were standing, each computed to contain 52 tons of old hay ; one of these was intended for sale. The fences erected were made with creosoted posts and rails, j costing about Is. 6d. per yard fixed, and could be removed on the termination of the tenancy. The following Table (p. 540) shows the number of cattle on East Park at the dates of the several inspections. This Table shows that there were 5 cows and 31 heifers in-milk in January. After a second calf, the cows are usually taken to Hedon. Twelve in-calf heifers, from 18 to 24 months old, were strong, beautiful cattle, and the younger heifers were nothing short in quality. Fig. 4. — Plan of the Home Farm at Burton Constable. 24. East Park. Grass A. R. 2 P. 26 57. Stable Close. Grass 1 20 Xote. — No. 57 id 58. lload . . 2 33 not in ike 64. Deer Paddock. Grass 15 2 29 occupation of 65. Road . , . 2 34 Mr. Turnbull. 7l). Pigeon Cote Field (and buildings). Grass < 0 2 17 151 2 39 2 n 2 Table VI. — Numbeu of Cattle on East Pabk at tlio Date of each Inspection. 540 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. 22111^ ^ca-S cc^pq 2 y-* co 2 w ^ m w. to S3 > to .S *S £ 3* 2 1 •Ssi g a s c « c . 2 i g bc^ 3Q c- .5 =T3 -- a 5 ; s ° 2 s = tes s -* 7^^ V ^ cc ^ © ’lJJiJ=f|l o =£=5 s-. o — .33 © O — s s * rs - S’3'3 m ^2 cc ^ o □2 I I Si I ^ rH 2 OQ C 2 Ci ! 13 § J- m i© »c - * --1 — £ jS oT s-* . ££<2 g^S 0 © *£ 3 © © 1 III Jill* OQ O -< O} HHHNOO S > 1 J1 02 2 3 a ‘-'2 O 33 rs © !§ s.s 1“ Ji ■ :-3C^S*J!S.3ji ■£ * 1; =|s — 1 >-» »-H _JT 'TS *^.i i ~»%st\s • o _ s> - r . - t a a a = s •53 a «3 v " » £ a; o •-= * o = 2 _ s^aw«|*= a . «1 af^ 02 <1 ' ° M 53~3 s=- Bull, “Jack Frost,” by “ Prince 13 Shorthorn Calves in tho Buildings, viz. :- Christine” (vol. xxvi. p. 347), 8 Steers ) Under 3 by “ Royal Butterfly 17 ” 5 Heifers / months old. (22,774); d. “White Frost.” 1 Shorthorn Bull, “ Jack Frost.” Bull, “ Wa flock.” The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. 511 Mr. Turnbull’s system of rearing calves, as illustrated by the young stock on this farm, is so successful, that I must describe it in detail in Mr. Turnbull’s own words: “When a cow or heifer has calved, we place the calf within reach of the cow for about ten minutes, so that she may lick it as nature teaches her to do. If the calf be removed after the lapse of ten minutes, the cow is rarely unsettled for more than a few minutes ; but if the calf is left longer, the cow may be unsettled for days. “We give the calf new milk for the first month, gradually increasing the quantity up to 2 gallons per day. In the next month the calf is fed on boiled skim-milk, 8 to 10 quarts per day ; to prevent the milk being burned, the vessel in which it is heated is suspended in a copper of water. From the end of the second month the calf gets a mixture consisting of two-thirds oatmeal and one-third crushed linseed, made into porridge and mixed hot with skim-milk. The quantity of mixed meal is gradually increased from 1 lb. to 2 lbs. per day. “ The calf is taught to eat sweet hay, crushed oats, and linseed- cake, as early as possible. “ In the early stages of its growth I never allow a calf to be kept more than a few weeks in the same house. I attach great importance to this, and to fresh air without draught, also to regularity in feeding.” The youngest calves occupy the stalls in the stables, and are moved forward and hardened off in sheds as they get older. They were all full of flesh and had beautiful coats. Those in the sheds were getting a little mixed linseed and cotton-cake with hay ad libitum ; a lump of rock-salt and another of chalk were found in every manger. An old shed at one side of the building had been extended I by Mr. Turnbull so as to form nearly a circle, with an open court in the centre. The older heifers were placed here, and, like the rest, were doing admirably. On our last inspection 19 of the oldest calves were out at grass, weaned, and had this I building for a shelter shed, where they were receiving a mixture of cotton- and linseed-cake. Mr. Turnbull had refused an offer of 14£ for the heifers, 8 to 10 months old. 20 heifers, from 15 to 21 months old, were grazing in the Deer Park of 15 acres, (getting nothing but what they pulled, and were in excellent condition. Two of them were nearly due to calve, and the others would come forward at different stages. Heifers in-calf run out on grass both in summer and winter. In winter they are brought into a straw-yard at night, when they are supplied with from 14 to 21 lbs. of hay each, according to their age and size. Heifers due to calve in spring are allowed about 2^ lbs. of linseed-cake each per day for two months previous to calving. 542 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. An Ayrshire-Shorthorn cross, and her calf a few days old, were confined together in a loose box. This cow had a wonderful show for milk ; her calf was allowed to suck for a few days to soften the udder, but this is not generally practised. An attack of milk-fever had been much dreaded in this case pre- vious to calving. A three-gill bottle of linseed-oil had been three times administered at intervals, also 1 lb. of salts and treacle, and a “red drench” (Day, Son, and Hewitt’s). Two quarts of blood had also been taken from the nose. These precautions seemed to imply a quantity of physic ; but the fact was before us that the cow and calf were both in good health, and promised to bring good profits to their owner. During summer, when the cows are at grass, half a stone of treacle in warm water is given from 12 to 24 hours before calving, and a quarter of a stone of treacle in oatmeal-gruel immediately after calving. All cows are bled about two days before they calve by opening the nose-vein ; not a cow has been lost by milk-fever since this practice was adopted. Much has been spoken and written for and against the application of purely commercial principles to farming. In Twyers Wood and East Park farms we have a practical illustra- tion of the working of those principles. Mr. Turnbull was told, when negotiating the lease of Twyers Wood farm, that if he would give a rent of 46s. per acre he might crop the arable land as he liked, and sell what he chose. The landlord so far has certainly not suffered from this freedom of cropping and sale, and the tenant expresses himself satisfied with the results. The annexed stock-taking particulars of valuation and farm balance-sheet (Tables VII. and VIII.) will show that book-keeping is systematically carried out. It is difficult to determine the exact profit or loss on a farm so near the beginningof a running lease ; a certain amount of the capital expended in improvements re- quires to be written off annually, and assets in growing crops are also difficult to estimate; but I think that this balance-sheet conscientiously explains the financial position of Mr. Turnbull’s farming interest ; and as such I give it to the readers of this Report, and leave them to draw their own conclusions from it. It might be stated, in confirmation of Mr. Turnbull’s belief in the profitable nature of his investment in agricultural im- provements at Twyers Wood, that he has recently refused an offer for his lease from a public company, although it would have at once recouped him for all his outlay, and left a balance which, if placed to the credit of an ordinary farmer, would at the present time be considered a tangible improvement in his position with his banker. In regard to the nett value of the growing corn-crops, esti- [To face p. 542. TABLE VII.— PARTICULARS OF VALUATION OF R E. TURNBULL’S STOCK. 1st MAY, 1SS3. C vttle at East Park : — 5 Shorthom Cows in-milk. 5 „ „ dry for calving. 11 Heifers in-mi Ik I Drape Heifer, for fattening. 1 Ayrshire Cow in-milk. 5 „ Heifers 1 „ Drape Heifer, for fattening. 17 Shorthom (in-calf) Heifers, 18 to 24 months old 1 1 „ Heifers, from 9 to 12 months old 1 (Guernsey Heifer, 12 months old 1 Ayrshire „ 12 „ 2 Sliorthorn Steers, about 9 mouths old 8 ,, Heifer Calves, 4 to G months old 5 „ Steer Calves, 4 to G G „ „ „ under 4 „ 5 „ Heifer „ „ 4 1 „ Bull, “ Warlock " 1 „ „ “Jack Frost" Cattle at Twybrs Wood 30 Sliorthorn Cows in-milk. 7 „ „ dry, for futtening. 1 „ „ dry, for calving. 1 Ayrshire Cow in-milk. 1 „ „ dry, for calving. 2 „ Heifers dry, for fattening. 1 Shorthorn Alderney Cross Cow in-milk. 1 „ Galloway „ „ 44 Cows and Heifers Cattle hired odt to Cottagers, Ac. 14 Ayrshires. 6 Killarneys. 1 Kerry. 21 Cows and Heifers . 1 1 Cart Horses @ £50 each (viz., 8 at Twyers Wood, 2 at Burstwick, 1 at East Park). 4 Milk Cart Horses £30 „ (viz., 2 at Twyers Wood, 1 at East Park, 1 at East Park Dairy ). 1 Carriage Horse at Twyers Wood 1 Foal at Twyers Wood 4 (viz., 2 at Twyers Wood, and 2 at East Park) . 48 Hens, Ac., at Twyers Wood G Ducks ,, 9 Ducklings „ 80 Spring Chicken „ 60 Pigeons at East Park Hay and Straw:— ® £3 each © 5*. couple G*. „ I». 1*. „ 1«. } ton at East Park 2 tons at Twyers Wood (l ton Cotton, 1 tou Linseed) Cons, Bran, Meal, Ac. : — Roots :— About 10 tons at East Park Compost ; — About 300 tons © 2*. per ton. 710 0 0 12 0 0 About 05 tons Hay at East Park .. .. .. © £3 10«. per ton 227 10 0 „ 10 „ Straw „ £2 „ 20 ( „ 15 „ „ Burstwick £2 „ 30 ( „ 15 ,. „ Twyers Wood .. £2 „ 30 C 7 4 8 9 0 0 £ 39G9 1 8 TABLE VIII.— MR. R. E. TURNBULL’S BALANCE-SHEET, from 6th APRIL, 1880, to 6th APRIL, 1883. INCOME. EXPENDITURE. Valuation, 1st May, 1883 , Cattle nt East Park and Twyers Wood Farms Dairy Cattle hired to Cottagers Pigs Fowls Hay Klraw Cako Corn and Bran Roots Manure (Compost) Growing Gmfi:n Crops 'lover Meadow Roots .. Estimated value after deducting Rent, Rates, Taxes, and estimated cost of hoeing, harvesting, threshing, and marketing — 08 acres of Oats I 0 do. Wheat } 85 acres @ £8 per aero 11 do. Barley ) 10 do. Green Clover @> £10 per acre 4 du. Green Tares £5 per acre Sale of Cattle Sale of Homes Cost of Soed sown this Spring 100 acres manured for Huy @ £3 10*. per acre 50 acres cultivated and manured for Roots @ £10 per u (Applied to Land) 1880-81 1881-82 1882-83 Sale of Poultry Sale of Corn Sale of Hay Twyers Wood Farm EnBt Park Farm Twyers Wood Far East Park Farm Twyers Wood Fur Sale of Butter Supplied to Farm IIor6es (see Wages, tic.) Received for Hire of Dairy Cattlo Rent Account . Rent Account . . Wages Account East Park Farm Twyers Wood Farm East Park Dairy . East Park Farm Twyers Wood Farm Burst wick Farm . Twyers Wood Farm Twyers Wood Farm ’’ (Amount debited to Mr. Turnbull’s private account for House and Garden! \ (Twyers Wood), £50 u-yonr, 2 years J Kent of Cottages occupied by Workmen, debited to Labour account f Amount debited to Mr. Turnbull’s Private Account for proportion of W i of Coachman and Gardener , I * f d. 2541] 0 0 315 0 0 71 (J It 0 , 12 14 7 1) 227 10 0 80 21 0 0 7 4 8 9 0 30 0 0 100 0 0 20 0 0 2020 '8 11 1150 3 3 4166 13 0 171 0 3 I « "l2 G 28 12 0 59 9 3 49 17 11 4 9 4 34 19 8 10 1 2 192 0 0 520 18 6 28 0 0 157 232 5 3 89 0 10 61 7 296 1 4 1341 11 4 1872 9 8 287 16 0 'Jo- Drainage ® do. Roads “bout 20 do. Implements, 5 per cent, per annum on the expenditure . Equal to — 2J per cent, on £2500, being Capital employed the 1st year 7J do. £5000, do. do. do. do. 10 do. £5500, do. do. do. do. ' £ d. 846 C 0 338 0 0 414 (1 0 12 16 0 26 13 2 53 G 8 78 0 11 134 13 1* 0 10 6 2533 5 Si 1U4 0 0 2637 5 8$ 01 2107 17 8 878 0 0 3173 i3 1400 9 1 3 3171 16 6 382 0 9 412 0 n 67 5 0 15*4 0 6 15 6 10 9 0 3 10 0 37 16 10 2 5 6 1 225 10 0 : 226 14 s* | 316 19 6 224 12 10 307 5 0 290 18 10 302 12 11 249 0 9 550 2 2 409 8 51 1S1 7 1 , 239 15 | 209 17 4 j 130 14 3 153 1 yj 55 " i 2 3 1 69 8 3 106 9 11 62 13 3 126 4 4 61 4 17 16 1 8 8 4 51 35 10 9 125 19 01 107 7 4 1 100 18 11 . 87 11 7 7 14 6 17 5 0 105' 4 1266 14 0 1 20 19 fl 1 100 15 84 0 2 14 4 , S 8 30 4 126 13 6 16 10 52 0 0 37 G 1 24 10 H 96 5 1 62 10 875 0 ) 550 0 0 213 4 6$ 231 10 18S 17 7 112 11 1 41 10 0i 69 9 1 214 17 11 632 10 0 54 7 0 is? 10 0 372 19 9 128 16 5 £ 24,615 19 GJ The Yorhsldre Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 543 mated to give — at the time of taking stock — SI. per acre all round, and so credited in the balance-sheet, Mr. Turnbull writes on the 13th of August: “To-day the promise is that the nett proceeds will largely exceed this estimate. My white oats will probably yield 10 quarters per acre, and I have a good deal of the corn bespoken, for seed purposes, at 30s. per quarter. The straw will average 1^ tons per acre: — £ s. d. 10 quarters oats, at 30s 15 0 0 1£ tons straw, at 40s 3 0 0 Gross proceeds per acre . . £18 0 0 “ The Black Tartarian oats will average at least 8 quarters per acre ; they will be worth 24s. per quarter ; there will be 1 ton of straw per acre, if not more ; corn, 9 1. 12s. ; straw, 21. ; gross proceeds, 11/. 12s. I propose beginning harvest the day after to-morrow/’ Although these farms have been only a comparatively short time in the occupation of Mr. Turnbull, yet, taking them as a whole, they are in a highly creditable condition. Against the whole of the seven points which the Judges were “instructed especially to consider,” the word excellent might be written. In completing the details of what may still remain to enable Twyers Wood to be characterised as a model farm, Mr. Turnbull may yet have to devote a little more of his un- bounded energy. He has now the honour of gaining, and the Judges have great satisfaction in unanimously awarding to him, this well-earned prize. In connection with farming business, Mr. Turnbull originated a system of hiring out cattle to cottagers. The reporting Judge, after hearing the details of the working of this system, re- quested Mr. Turnbull to furnish him with the particulars in writing. Believing that they would prove of considerable interest to many of the readers of this Report, they are ap- pended. HIRED DAIRY CATTLE. Ax Account of the Origin and Working of the Hire System. Seven years ago, when staying at my father’s home at Hackness, near Scarborough, I observed that a cottager, who had had the misfortune to lose his cow, and who was not a member of the district Cow Club, had great difficulty in raising the necessary funds to replace it. His children, in the meanwhile, suffered by not getting an adequate supply of milk. I found, too, that cottagers were often greatly inconvenienced and dis- heartened by their cows not being in-calf. A cow that might have been worth 20/. had it been in-calf, would probably not realise more than half this sum as a store “ drape.” Cow Clubs do not insure against risks of this 544 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. kind, though, they often prove to he very serious in cold wet seasons, such as we have had lately. I observed also that losses were frequently sustained by cows not proving to be good for dairy purposes. The small amount allowed by the Cow Club, in the event of the death of a cow, viz. from 9?. to 12?., or about two-thirds of its value, and the risk which membership involved, kept many cottagers from joining the Club. Several families who had the right to graze a cow in the lanes were unable to take advantage of this privilege, in consequence of their savings being insufficient to buy one. No one can have resided long in the country without observing that the children of cow-keeping cottagers can almost invariably be distinguished by their rosy cheeks. These are the children who, in after life, make the best cattlemen and dairymaids. The advantage and comfort to a country labourer of having a good cow, convinced me that capital could be usefully and profitably employed by purchasing cows and hiring them out, under an agreement, to cottagers and small farmers. In the spring of 1876 I bought nine Kerry heifers, which were near calving, at a cost of 12?. each, and 1 hired them out by the year in the Hackness district. The annual charge made for each heifer was 21. 10s., and the hire, except in one instance, was paid in advance. One of this little herd of Kerries is still hired out. The first cottager to whom 1 explained my proposed system was Alexander Cranstone, of Harwood Dale, a fine old man, who occupied a cottage on the edge of the moor, under Lord Derwent of Hackness. Alec had lost his cow, and had no means to buy another. He thanked me for calling, and invited me to have a cup of tea; but at first he did not fall in with my plan for enabling him to replace his cow. “Ye see, sir,” he said, “the coo wadn’t be me own!” I replied: “The land you occupy is not your own, Alec.” “Vary true,” he said, “but I’m too auld, sir, to tak’ up new plans.” As I was riding away from the cottage, Alec called out from the top of the pasture bank, “I deant think it’s sike a fond idea efther all! Will ye still let me hev a coo, sir?” I consented, for I knew Alec to be a good “ keeper,” and I was convinced that the arrangement would prove mutually satisfactory. That evening Alec selected a promising Kerry heifer, which did credit to- his judgment, for it proved to be an excellent dairy cow. He had it from the spring of 1876 up to the time of his death, which took place a few weeks since. I called to see old Alec in the autumn of 1878; speaking about the cow he said, “ The little coo has paid you, sir, and she has kept me ; so we ought both to be satisfied.” After hiring out the cow to old Alec, I appointed Mr. Richard Marshall, of Hackness, to act as my agent. The first man that applied to him was Mark Jeffels, of Mount Misery, a carrier, who occupied a small moor-edge farm near Hackness. He had been unfortunate, having lost most of his live-stock. At the time he applied to Mr. Marshall for cows, he had only 1 cow, 1 horse, and 12 sheep left. How to meet his rent he knew not ; he had ten young children to maintain, and for their sake he determined, if possible, to overcome his serious difficulties. Mr. Marshall let Jeffels have two cows in 1876, and two additional ones in 1878. The cows proved to be excellent milkers. The profit that lie made by his cows he invested in sheep and calves. I regret to say that in the spring of 1879 Mark died of congestion of the lungs. He had the satisfaction on his deathbed of feeling that by his .perseverance and industry he had made a provision for his wife and children. At the time of his death The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. 545 liis stock consisted of 50 sheep, 3 horses, 2 cows, and G heifers, and some little stacks of corn and hay. in November 1878 my agent hired a cow to John King, of Strensall, near York. King owned a threshing-machine, and was getting on very well ; hut unfortunately he became bound for a brother: the brother failed, and John King was ruined by the failure. He feared the creditors might seize my cow, and to prevent the risk of this, he set off from Strensall one cold winter night and drove the cow to Hackness. He walked forty miles between sunset aud sunrise to save me, as he believed, from the risk of losing the cow. My experience of the cottagers and farmers of the North Riding of York- shire is, that they take quite as much care of a hired cow as if it were then- own; indeed, in proof of this, I may meution that though I have hired out over 150 cows since I established the system nearly seven years ago, I have only lost one of these in calving, and only seven cows have died from every cause, whilst in the hirers’ care. I have received great assistance from my agent, Mr. Marshall. He is a man who never tires of working for the benefit of his poorer neighbours. I am also indebted to Lord Derwent of Hackness for considerately placing his park at my disposal, on reasonable terms, without which I should have found it difficult, before I rented the farms which I now occupy, to carry out the hire-system satisfactorily. My practice has been to purchase 10 or 12 heifers at a time, in the spring and summer months, and to send them to the Hackness Park ; when ready to be hired out, my agent has usually given notice to that effect by having bills posted up on the doors of the blacksmiths’ shops in the villages in the district. Cows that are returned as “ drapes ” I now have fattened on my own farms. In 1878 I made the mistake of buying several four-year-old cows instead of buying heifers only, as hitherto. This mistake cost me fully 100?. A good Ayrshire cow cost, in that year, 20?., whilst a good heifer only cost about 16?. I obtained 5?. for the use of the cows, and 4?. to 4?. 10s. for the use of the heifers. In the spring of 1879 most of the cows hired out in 1878 proved not to be in-calf, and consequently were not worth more than about 10 guineas each as store “drapes;” whereas the heifers, that missed being in-calf, were worth about 12 guineas each, being younger and therefore better adapted than the cows for grazing purposes. After taking hire and interest into account, there wag a loss of about 5?. per head on the cows, but on the heifers there was no loss. It is a very important matter in hiring out dairy cattle to begin by buying heifers. Cattle bred in a district north of the point where they are to be kept will be lound to thrive the best. In Ilolderness, where the pastures are usually good, I find that Cumberland and Westmoreland Shorthorns are well adapted; hut for the lanes of the North Riding, Ayrshire and Kerry cows are more suitable. ' Cottagers can afford to pay a rate of hire equal to one-third the cost of a cow. Cows kept for supplying the hirer’s family with milk and butter are healthier than cows that are kept by milk-sellers; milk-sellers being apt to sacrifice the constitution of their cows in their efforts to stimulate the supply of milk. After paying all expenses, and notwithstanding many mistakes, the capital invested in this business yielded 5 per cent, per annum, on the average, for the first five years. In the sixth year it yielded 15 per cent., and the pro- bability is that the return for the current year (the seventh) will be equally satisfactory. 546 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. I have found that half-bred three-years-old Shorthorn heifers, bred in the district of Killarney are very suitable for hiring out to cottagers. These can usually be purchased in the spring months at from 12?. to 14?. each, carriage paid to Hull. Robert E. Turnbull. Twyers Wood, Hedon, near Hull, 22 nd January, 1883. Class I. — Second Prize. Mr. Davis's Farm , Holme House , Garr/rave, Skipton-in- Craven. This farm presents a striking contrast to its more successful rival. Instead of the rich flat lands of Holderness, we have the mountain crags and rolling hills and valleys of the West Riding. Holme House is situated 8^ miles north-west of the market- town of Skipton. The Settle and Skipton turnpike-road passes through the farm, which is also intersected by the Leeds and Liverpool Canal. A portion of the homestead joins the highway. The farmhouse stands pleasantly on a slight elevation, back a little distance from the turnpike. It is a substantial roomy dwelling, with well-appointed kitchens, into which water is brought from the Gargrave Waterworks. The buildings seem adapted to the requirements of the holding, and do not need to be specially described. There are stands for 32 cattle at the homestead, besides calf-house and stable, and stands for 28 cattle at the hay-barn in the barn- meadow, situated about halfway between the house and the eastward boundary of the farm. The holding, which belongs to Lord Hothfield, consists of 358 acres, all in grass. It has been held by Mr. Davis since the death of his father, which took place in 1869. The executors received notice to quit, and the farm was offered to the present tenant, then 19 years of age, at a rise of 175/. a year. It was taken by Mr. Davis at that rent, and he states that up to 1879 he made his way; but between that time and last year, like many of his neighbours, he “ lost seriously.” The agent took the bad times into account ; and Mr. Davis frankly states, “Altogether, these last few years I consider I have been met fairly by my landlord.” The farm is held under a yearly tenancy, and is not under the Agricultural Holdings Act. The house is 350 feet above the sea, but the highest point of the farm is 800 feet above the sea-level. It will therefore be readily conceived that the land varies much in quality. Indeed, it may be graded by its elevation. The lowest part of the farm, through which the canal passes, The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. 547 lying to the south of the turnpike-road — about 60 acres — is a rich loam, and is excellent feeding-ground. The higher lowlands, of which about 54 acres are in meadow, are not quite so good ; but the latter, with manuring, grow good crops of hay, and the pastures, if they do not quite finish off the feeding-cattle, leave only the polishing to be done in the canal pastures. The “ crag ” of 80 acres, which stretches along the whole of the north side of the farm, rises rather steeply, and, as its name indicates, is interspersed with jutting crags. This is again surmounted by a range of crags, which, though not belonging to the farm, afford shelter from the north winds to the otherwise exposed pasturage. During the winter months no stock is kept on this highest land ; the cattle are occasionally grazed on it in summer, to relieve the other pastures, but its chief stocking is blackfaced ewes. The description of the farm may be given under the seven heads which the Judges were instructed especially to consider. 1st. General Management with a view to Profit. — Only under good management could this place possibly take rank as a prize- farm. It is obvious that the profits depend entirely on the stock ; therefore, very much on how the stock is managed ; and in this department Mr. Davis excels. The stock is varied to suit the gradations in quality of the pastures. The best cattle and earliest lambs are turned on to the canal pastures, as soon as they afford a good bite of grass, and are pushed with cake, to get them finished and off to market. Cake is not given to the cattle in troughs, but simply laid in small heaps on the pastures. The first cut of lambs had been sold the last week in June for 42s. a head ; the mothers were turned out on to the crag, and the next best ewes and lambs then drawn in from the adjoining pastures. Only two cattle had been sold, but these were managed in a similar way. As the fat animals are cleared out, the next best are drawn in. Sheep and cattle are grazed together in all the feeding pastures. The cattle are tied up in the hay-barns, as I said before, lying on the bare stones, with not even a manger to eat from ; their food is simply hay and water, with a small allowance of cake to those most forward. These were, on our visit, on the 30th of April, full of flesh, and in excellent condition for turning out to grass : 11 cross-bred heifers, costing 16Z. each, were already lying out. The quantity of hay grown enables a large proportion of the cattle that are to be fattened in summer to be bought in the preceding autumn, and wintered on the farm. This the Judges considered better management than having so many cattle to buy in spring, when suitable stock is generally difficult to obtain. 548 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. The hay-barns already described are surrounded by a small courtyard, in which watering-troughs are placed. A visit to these troughs twice a-day is the only exercise allowed to the best cattle during the winter months. About one-third of the breeding-ewes are usually sent to turnips for three months. This is a double advantage ; a better crop of lambs is secured, and those of greater strength, while the ewes at home have more room, and thereby have better wintering; besides keeping the pastures cleaner and fresher for the lambing season. On our first visit, 80 greyfaced ewes (mules) were away eating turnips. Unfortunately, this lot on their way home contracted foot-and-mouth disease. Abortion, weakly lambs, chronic lameness, and general loss of condition, were the results ; but only two ewes died. Fortunately, the disease did not spread to any other animals on the farm. The sheep are all smeared in October with a mixture of tar and butter. The materials for the whole flock cost about 8/. To the uninitiated, some explanation of this process may be necessary. A tub containing the preparation is placed by the side of a sheep-stool, on which the operator sits with the sheep lying in front of him. The wool is divided in a straight line from the head to the tail ; the dressing is then lifted with the forefingers of the right hand and rubbed on the skin the Avhole length of the division. Another parting in the wool is then made about two inches from the last, and the operation is repeated until the whole skin of the sheep is thus covered. One man does 10 sheep in a day. This dressing undoubtedly gives greater power of resistance to the sheep against the winter storms than the modern system of dipping. The latter mode has, however, almost entirely superseded both smearing and pouring on the hill farms of the Borders. The Judges can say this for Mr. Davis’s ewe flock, that, with the exception of the greyfaces which had foot-and-mouth disease, they were turned out of hand in spring in good condition, with a fair crop of healthy lambs following them. We were grieved to hear that in 1880 the ewe flock had fluke, and died almost wholesale. At the commencement of the tenancy “ the crag ” was separated from the land below it by a ragged thorn fence, which at best was no certain barrier against the stock descending on to the finer land. This and a number of other fences of the same description were taken out, and stone walls substituted. That around the crag was built by the landlord, the tenant doing the quarrying and leading ; the latter had to be done with sledges, the ground being too steep for carts. On other parts ol the farm the tenant has built about 1300 roods of stone wall entirely at his own expense. The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 549 On the field below the crag there is a “ dene,” or what Border farmers call a “ cleugh,” at the bottom of which ran an old water- course. Only three years ago this was a rookery. Mr. Davis cleared off the wood, put a twelve-inch pipe up the water-course and drained the spongy sides of the “ dene,” which is now a useful pasture and very snug shelter. The uneven nature of the ground makes draining difficult work. A good deal of skill has been displayed in draining those patches that needed it and were likely to pay. Much of the draining has been done by the tenant, but since the bad times came, the landlord has done a portion. A part of the poorest clay-land undrained grows rushes, which detract something from the look of the farm, but this proves that profit is not sacrificed for the sake of appearances. 2. Productiveness of Crops. — Hay, of which 54 acres is grown, is the only crop on the farm except what is,grown in the garden. When we visited the farm in July, cutting had not commenced ; the weather was unsettled, or a start would have been made. Mr. Davis has since reported that the hay was all secured by the 7th of August, the quality being first-rate, and has not been so well got for years. The crop is, however, under the average. 3. Goodness and Suitability of Live-Stock. — As has already been stated, this is Mr. Davis’s forte. The following is a list of the animals on Holme House in spring and summer : — List of Stock, 30th April , 1883. Sheep. 24 Gimmer Hoggs. 5 Earns. 1 Tup Hog*. 20 Ewes, geld and without lambs, through abortion. 173 Ewes, with 240 lambs sucking. 42 Ewes to Lamb. 265 Cattle. 7 Autumn-bred Bull and Heifer Calves 1 Spring-bred Bull Calf. 4 Spring-bred Heifer Calves. 1 Yearling Bull. 18 Two-year-old Heifers, in calf. 20 Cows, bulled to calve during the autumn. 39 Heifers and Cows, for feeding during the summer. 12 Highland Heifers, ditto. List of Stock, 1 1th July, 1883. Shiep. 23 Gimmer Shearli lgs. 5 Earns. 1 Tup Shearling. 20 Ewes, geld. 213 Ewes, with 275 La nbs. 262 Cattle. 7 Winter Calves. 5 Spring Calves. 1 Yearling Bull. 20 Heifers, bulled and for bulling. 21 Cows, bulled to calve in the autumn. 1 Heifer, due to calve. 12 Scotch Heifers, for feeding. 37 Heifers and Cows, for feeding. I 104 102 550 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. List of Stock, 30 th April, 1883 | List of Stock, 11/7* July, 1883 (continued'). (continued). Horses. Horses. 2 Mares, for farm work and breed- Same as before. \r\cr O’ 1 Pony, for running the milk-cart. 1 Cob. 1 Four-year-old Gelding. 2 Two-year-old Carting Colts. 7 The gimmer hoggs were home-bred, chiefly a cross between Scotch blackfaced ewes and Wensleydale rams. The latter are the only kind of rams used on the farm. The hoggs were wintered on the grass ; in summer they were out on the crag, and looked well. About a score of home-bred gimmers are thus brought in for ewes in each year. These “ mule ” ewes make admirable nurses and bring a large proportion of twins. The lambs are, however, not so level as in the first cross ; the best lambs are bred from the mule ewes, but there are often a few ewes that breed back to their mountain ancestors and disgrace the flock. After having had three crops of lambs, these ewes are good to sell for stores. They generally go to Lan- cashire to have another crop, after which they are fattened off. Forty Cheviot ewes, costing 40s. each, were bought in October, and 66 blackfaced ewes off Priesthill cost 33s. The remainder of the ewes are mules of various ages ; the ewes that are not sent to turnips have the run of the grass during winter. After lambing, the blackfaces are turned out to the crag, and make most of their lambs fat. The Cheviot and Scotch ewes are fattened off as soon as possible in the autumn on the low lands. From 10 to 14 milking cows are kept: they prove not the least profitable animals on the farm. In winter they are fed with malt-culms and pea-meal, in addition to hay. In summer they live on the pastures exclusively. In July we found, in addition, 12 grand young cows, due to calve in the autumn, that had been bought, and were intended to be sold before calving ; 20 heifers were also coming forward to calve at different stages ; 10 excellent shorthorn heifers were found in the field hay-barn. They had cost 227. 10s. each, were then ready for turning on to the canal pastures, where we found them in July ready for market. Two had been sold for 297. and 267. respectively, the latter before being ripe, owing to her unsettled behaviour on certain occasions. Sixteen heifers of good quality were running with the bull on the higher low- land, and four which were too young to go with the latter lot were out on the crag. The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. 551 About 12 calves are reared annually. They are timed to come in September and March. The September lot are ready to wean on the arrival of those in March ; the auxiliary food is oatmeal and linseed-cake. Ferns grown on the crag are dried, and make good litter both for the calf-house and stable. The heifer calves are retained for cows, and the steers are sold as yearlings. Two mares are kept to breed and do the farm work. Mr. Davis does not consider horse-breeding to any extent profitable. All the winter keep is needed for the cattle ; and young horses running out take what the ewes should have, besides treading up the pastures. Two very promising two- year-old colts, which had been put out to winter, were running on the crag in July. 4. Management of Grass-land. — As previously stated, much of the farm that needed draining has been done. During the lifetime of Mr. Davis’s father a portion of the clay land that had been under the plough was sod-drained and sown down to grass ; this part of the farm requires re-draining. Sod-draining is much practised in this district. The drains are first cut with an ordinary spade to the depth of 2 feet, the next footing is then taken out with a narrow spade, which leaves a shoulder on which the top sod is laid, the under-footing remaining entirely open These drains on clay subsoils are called “ wedge drains,” and are said to stand good for twenty years or more. Mr. Davis now drains with pipes. A bog in a meadow was being drained at the time of our visit. The drains were 3 ft. 6 in. deep, 7 yards apart, and cost Is. 3d. per rood of 7 yards. Any meadow-ground which requires more liberal treatment is given a good coating of home-made manure as soon as the hay is taken off. This sacrifices the fogg, but it keeps the land warm through the winter months, is nice picking for the hoggs, and ensures a crop of hay for the ensuing year. Gas-lime is brought by the canal. It is used as a compost, mixed with soil, to top-dress the pastures. Mr. Davis states “ that it brings a lot of useful grass, but he finds that it has a tendency to reduce the quantity of fine herbage if put on too strongly, otherwise it suits the strong land of the neighbourhood.” 5. State of Gates, Fences, Roads, and General Neatness. — These were all in fair working condition ; there was no appearance of a spurt having been made to get them up in show form. The roadside hedges had been cut and laid, and were fairly trimmed, and miles of stone walls were without a gap or break. The farm, taken as a whole, and considering character and situation, was presented in a highly creditable condition, though, as previously stated, Mr. Davis does not sacrifice profit for appearance. 552 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 6. Mode of Book-keeping followed. — This is simple, yet explicit. Stock is taken regularly at the end of the year. Every beast is entered singly on the left-hand page of the book ; those bought have the cost of keep added. When sold, the price is entered on the opposite page, which at once shows the profit on each beast. When stock is taken, those not sold are entered on the sale side at the price at which they are valued in the stock- taking account. When the columns are summed up, the balance shows the total profits on cattle for the year, the dairy excepted. The different lots of sheep and other stock are entered in the same manner. The redeeming feature in grazing farming is the absence of items on the expenditure side of the balance-sheet ; 20 1. covers the whole expenses on the farm, other than rent, rates, wages, and artificial food. It was gratifying to the Judges to find that the balance-sheet for last year was satisfactory, and that the good management exemplified on the farms will in average seasons yield a fair profit. The great saving clause in this sort of farm is no doubt the small labour bill. In busy seasons Mr. Davis must do the work of two men himself, otherwise it is difficult to conceive how the farm wages account for the twelve months should stand at only 105/., on a turn-over of above 4000/. Management of the Dairy.' — Though this is strictly a grazing farm, the facilities for dairying which the holding possesses, owing to its contiguity to Gargrave, is not lost sight of. The produce of the cows is sold principally as new milk at lOd. per imperial gallon. On reference to the balance-sheet the Judges found this item realised in 1882 the sum of 211/. Is. [ )d . A little butter is also sold. Class I. — Commended. Mr. Henry Holdens Farm, Halton East, Skipton. This farm, though differing in some respects from Holme House, is of much the same character. Halton East is situated about four miles north-west of the town of Skipton. The house and buildings are in the village of East Halton. This holding consists of 300 acres of meadow and pasture land. It is the property of George Lane Fox, Esq., and has been held for eleven years by Mr. Holden under a yearly tenancy. The time of entry to the land is at the New Year, to the house and buildings on May 13th. It is described on the certificate of entry as “ heavy land in general, with clay subsoil." The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. 553 The house is old, but the buildings are good, well-arranged, and kept in good condition. As usual on farms of this kind, they are scattered ; hay-barns being placed in fields some distance from the house. Mr. Holden has recently built at his own expense a stable and saddle-room, at a cost of 175Z. The farm does not lie well ; 98 acres on the north side, lying up to Halton Moor, are detached from the main portion of the holding ; and again, on the south-east side, there are several small fields detached from each other by intervening land belonging to other proprietors. These latter fields, lying on the outside of the farm, are ridiculously small for grazing ; they were each carrying only about 3 ewes and double lambs. This entails much inconvenience, besides extra work for the shepherds. The fields on the north side are rough useful grazing. The nearest to the house is the pasture for 6 milking cows. The remaining fields were lightly stocked, chiefly with in-calving cows. At our January visit the wettest of these fields was in process of being drained. The main drains were laid with pipes ; the branches, 7 yards apart, with sods ; the whole costing about 4 1. an acre, of which the landlord pays one half. This field was much improved in appearance when we revisited it in July. Mr. Holden has drained a considerable acreage at his own expense, but some additional draining is still required. Draining is usually followed by liming, or a dressing of compost made of lime and soil. About 50 acres have received these applications ; 9 acres that had been drained last year were afterwards dressed with ground bones. A portion of the meadow is dressed with nitrate of soda and superphosphate, which, Mr. Holden states, gives better results than the Peruvian guano previously used. Mr. Holden occupies two other farms, besides 150 acres of his own property. The stock is moved from one farm to another ; it is therefore somewhat difficult to ascertain what number of stock this particular farm actually carries. Cattle. — Not many cattle had been wintered. At the January inspection we took note of only about 30 head, including 11 calves and stirks. This system, though it does not require so much hay to be grown, necessitates buying too many cattle in the spring, which are at that season generally scarce and dear ; and as a rule these do not feed so quickly as those wintered on the farm. In April we were told by Mr. Holden that he had great difficulty in obtaining suitable cattle. The numbers had then risen to 65, and in July they had further increased to 96 head ; the last additions were chiefly Irish heifers of a good sort, but they had cost stiff prices. In July, 9 of the best heifers and 8 ewes with double lambs VOL. XIX. — s. s. 2 o 554 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. occupied the best field of 18 acres. The heifers were nearly fat, and were each having an allowance of 6 lbs. of linseed-cake per day, put down in small heaps on the grass. The best land is calculated to be stocked with rather less than a beast and 2 ewes and lambs for every two acres. This season the farm wras said to be carrying fewer cattle than usual, but no grass was going to waste. Sheep. — Eight score of Cheviot ewes had been bought in October; 100 of these, with 36 mule ewes and 15 hoggs were out at grass in January. Lambing commenced on the 6th of April. The numbers given in July were the following : — 95 Ewes with 190 lambs. 66 „ ,, 66 lambs. 21 ,, off which 21 lambs had been sold first week in July. 7 Barren ewes. 3 Wensleydale rams. These numbers show an excellent crop of lambs. The single lambs were all intended to be fattened. The keeping lambs were castrated the last week in June, and would be sold as stores about the last week in July. Mr. Holden did not show any accounts, but stated that this farm had made a fair profit last year, but had lost him money for three years previously. The whole occupation presented a tidy appearance. Fields were free from thistles ; buildings, roads, fences, and gates were all in excellent condition. An old hedge by the roadside had been taken out and a neat iron fence substituted ; this work was so satisfactory to the agent that he voluntarily paid for the materials used. Although there is nothing about the management of this farm of especial merit, yet, taken as a whole, it was found in a highly creditable condition, and was therefore commended. Class I. Mr. Wm. Taylor's Farm , Nether Poppleton. This, the only other farm which competed in Class I., is of a totally different character from those previously described. It requires to be noticed as the only competing farm on which arable land has to any extent been sown down to grass. It contains 360 acres, of which 110 acres are still arable and 250 pasture ; of this latter portion 112 acres of poor clay land have been laid down to grass in recent years. The landlord found seeds ; and if the land sown down was neither mown nor grazed for the first The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. 555 year, no rent for it was charged. One field had been dressed with 4 qrs. per acre of Vin. bones, supplied by the landlord ; the results were not satisfactory. Richardson’s grass manure, applied at the rate of 6 cwt. per acre, had been used with visible advantage. Some of the first sown-out land had been covered with fold- yard-manure, but the herbage was still thin and poor. Another field which had been sown down two years, had the bags standing in it, containing a sowing of 4 cwt. per acre of bone-meal. The prospect of any of these fields speedily becoming good permanent pasture was not very hopeful, but in their present condition they aie still to be preferred to poor clay fallows, which have of late years brought to their respective occupiers a crop of unproductive labour. Mr. Taylor has suffered the penalty which is generally paid for grazing these newly laid- down clay-lands with sheep in autumn : within the last 10 years he has lost 237 sheep from fluke-rot. The ewes and lambs running on the farm at the time of our May visit were apparently sound and doing well. Like several of the farms we visited, this was indebted to its occupier for several permanent improvements. Mr. Taylor had led all the materials for the commodious buildings ; part of the stones had been brought a distance of 12 miles. He had also made a mile of road leading from the highway to the house. Class II. — First Prize. Mr. Hutchinson, Manor House, Catterick, near Richmond. This farm is on the estate of Sir John Lawson, whose man- sion at Brough Hall lies a short distance outside the western boundary of the farm. The house and buildings may be said to form part of the village of Catterick, which stands on the south side of the river Swale, distant about 5 miles from the town of Richmond. The farm is situated in the beautiful “ Vale of Mowbray,” which is said to commence at Catterick Bridge, and finally lose itself in the great Vale of York ; it is altogether a fine agricul- tural district. When the Show of the Royal Agricultural Society Avas held at York in 1839, a prize was offered by the Yorkshire Agri- cultural Society for the best-managed 100 acres of arable land. This prize was won by Mr. John Outhwaite, of Bainesse, whose farm joins Manor House on the east. Mr. Outhwaite told the Judges, when they called to shake hands with him, that he had for one of his competitors on that occasion a proprietor who 2 0 2 556 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. farmed 1300 acres, and who selected 100 acres of his best land and had it all hand-dug. Manor House comprises 249 acres, 145 of which are arable, and the remaining 104 acres permanent grass. It is held under a yearly tenancy, without any agreement for compensation for improvements, and subject to six months’ notice to quit. The present tenant succeeded his father in 1865. The surface is slightly undulating. The larger portion of the farm is a gravelly soil, but the higher part is a strongish boulder clay-loam, requiring careful treatment for root-growing. The Judges, as I have already stated, were surprised to find so many permanent improvements executed by many of the occupiers of competing farms without any security, but here they were more than surprised. The ground-plan (Fig. 5, p. 557) will give a good general idea of the size and arrangement of the homestead. The stables and boxes, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, have been only recently built, and are completely furnished with Musgrave’s best fittings. No. 21, in the centre of the main block, was formerly an open yard, but was covered in last summer with substantial open slated roofs. The yard is a trapezium, measuring 76 feet X 40, and 66 feet X 49 feet. The roofs are supported by two pillars in the centre, with short brick pillars built on the surrounding walls, and are surmounted by overlapping ventilators. The total cost was 175/. The sheep-houses, No. 31, are substantial stone structures, also comparatively new, as is also the horse-shed, No. 33. The paddock in which this shed stands has been sur- rounded by a stone and lime wall. At the January inspection we noticed No. 46 as a newly erected galvanised-iron stack- shed. The open sides did not please Mr. Hutchinson, and on our next inspection we found this enlarged, by side-walls being run up 6 feet outside the metal pillars, and the eaves extended to rest on these walls ; it was thus wholly closed in. Large sliding doors, to admit laden carts, are placed in the centre of each side. On our July visit it was full of implements, but it can now be used as a sheep or cattle house, will also make a capital lambing-shed, or, as was originally intended, a stack- shed or hay-house. Besides considerable improvements to the old Manor House, the whole of the foregoing buildings, with many additions and re-arrangements to the other portion of the homestead, have been executed solely at the expense of the present occupier, who, having no security beyond six months’ notice to quit, may well be likened to one of his own hunters when following the hounds, taking the bit in his teeth and running straight away, but landing his owner to get the brush. The barn-power was originally a six-horse wheel ; this is still Plan of Homestead at Manor House Farm, CattcricJc. Reference to Plan of Homestead at Manor House Farm, Catterick. 1. New stable-yard. 2. New stable. 3. Saddle-room. 4. Loose-boxes. 5. Chicken-houses. 6. Gateway. 7. Cow-houses. 8. Turnip-house. 9. Loose-box. 10. Steaming-house. 11. Cow-houses. 12. Out-houses. 13. Chopping-shed. 14. Horse- wheel. 15. Pig-house. 16. 1 Straw-barn. 2 Threshing- shed. 17. Steam-engine. 18. Two-stall^d stable. 19. New saddle-room. 20. Fold-yard. 21. Covered-in fold -yards. 22. Chopping-shed. 23. Carthorse stables. 24. Cow-houses. 25. Bull-hou*e. 26. Two-stalled stables. 27. Loose-box. 28. Carriage-house. 29. Cart-sheds. 30. Stack-yard. 31. Sheep-sheds. 32. Paddock. 33. Horse-shed. 34. Gateway. 35. Road t i rough farm. 36. Entrance-road. 37. House. 38. Drawing-room. 39 Dining-room. 40. Smoking-room. 41. Pantry. 42. Cellar. 43. Kitchen. 44. Out-houses. 45. Garden. 46. Galvanized- iron stack shed. 558 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. standing, and is occasionally used as a horse-power for pulping or chaff-cutting when steam is not up. An eight-horse portable engine by Marshall now drives the whole of the machinery, which consists of Hornsby’s threshing- and dressing-machine, grinding-mill, pulper, chaff-cutters, and hoist, — the whole of which are conveniently arranged. The horse-wheel house is lofted, and wil 1 hold a few loads of oats, or anything that has to be chopped. Economy in the use of straw is an important point where such a large head of stock is kept. The covered yards, together with chaff-cutting and pulping, all help much in this direction, and are all highly approved of by Mr. Hutchinson. Cropping. — No definite course of cropping is followed, but the usual rotation is seeds, oats, wheat, roots, barley, which if not sowrn with clover-seeds is again followed with oats. The arable land is cropped this season as follows : — Wheat, 11 acres Barley, 33 „ Oats, 43 „ Turnips, 29 „ Cabbage, 2 acres Potatoes, ^ ,, Seeds, 1(5 ,, Mangold, 2 ,, Wheat. — Webb’s Challenge, grown after oats, after clover. It had been manured with 14 loads of home-made dung, and 3 cwt. of wheat-manure per acre ; was fully shot out on our July inspection, and though not a thick crop, was well headed, and looked like yielding well. Barley. — This was every bit of it a grand crop. “ Kinver Hill” barley, got direct from Messrs. Webb and Son, appeared especially promising, and if well secured will no doubt furnish seed for many Yorkshire farmers. Hallett’s was almost too heavy to stand, and looked very prolific. Oats. — Last year’s clover-lea was limed at the rate of 5 tons per acre. It was then ploughed and pressed, and hand-sown in February. The oats were well up at our April visit ; in July they proved really a splendid crop, only too heavy for standing. An old fence had been taken out, and two acres of tough old grass were thus laid to a tillage-field which was ploughed out in early winter, and in July was carrying a gross though wonderfully level crop. Seven acres of black Tartarian oats, after barley-stubble, dressed with 3 cwt. of Peruvian guano, were not healthy ; a portion of them had lost plant, though the greater part of the break would yield a fair crop. Seven acres of Longfellow’s on the same rotation, with similar treatment, were vastly superior. Another break of barley- stubble that had been originally intended for roots, and there- fore very deeply ploughed, was carrying a fine crop of Webb's white Tartarian oats. The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 559 Seeds. — About one-sixth of these are cut for soiling. The mixture sown for pasture is 8 lbs. of red and 6 lbs. of white clover, with a few pounds of Italian rye-grass added for cutting. Those pastured had carried ten sheep to the acre since the beginning of May, and they were in July going knee-deep in a perfectly level and most luxuriant bed of clover. Roots. — At the January inspection we found the turnips all stored ; and a goodly lot they were. The swedes — judging from the enormous size of those seen in the turnip-houses, which turned out to be no bigger than those hunted out of the heaps at the steading and in the fields— could not have been less than 30 tons per acre. A portion of those on the gravel are eaten off by sheep. The probability is that this season’s crop will not reach half the weight, though fed as richly and cultivated more carefully than the crop of last season. Thirteen acres of the strongest portion of the fallow break were never ploughed, but steam-cultivated 11 inches deep, out of barley stubble, and afterwards cultivated with horse-grubber and drag- harrow. Besides a heavy manuring from the covered yards, 3 cwt. of Peruvian guano and 4 cwt. of dissolved bones to the acre were applied, which is, to say the least, liberal fare. On July the 13th there was a regular plant on this portion just ready for setting out. The remaining fallow was fine friable soil ; when visited on the 26th of April this was ready for ridging up ; potatoes and cabbages had been planted, and a few ridges of swedes already sown : the field looked then in the pink of condition, as fine as meal, not a weed to be seen, and the drills we saw were as straight as the course of a rifle-ball. But, alas for human foresight ! on our return in July we found the turnips sown at our previous visit had been totally eaten off by the fly, and the next half-dozen acres sown were ragged and weak, not having been able to withstand the cold dry weather in May. The later sown part of the field drilled with hybrid and white turnips had a regular plant. By far the most vigorous was a square of 3 acres, which at the time of our January visit was an old grass field not in the occupation of Mr. Hutchinson. It formed an awkward corner in this fallow field. This was pointed out to the pro- prietor, and Mr. Hutchinson was put in possession. At our April visit we found that the fences, and the old trees with which they had been studded, were all cleared out, the field steam- cultivated, limed, and in process of being drained. Horse- cultivation was going on, and the small impression made on the sods by the harrows made this piece a matter of interest 560 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. to the Judges on their next visit. When this occurred in July, to our surprise the only difference that was apparent between this and the field to which it had been laid was, that on the new portion the young turnip plants were thinned and vigorous ; while on the land formerly in tillage the plants were barely fit for thinning. The dressing applied to the new piece, besides the liming, was 3 cwt. of salt, 1 cwt. rape-cake, 1 cwt. guano, and 3 cwt. dissolved bones per acre. Mangolds, of which there were two acres, had not suffered nearly so much as the early swedes. Though they had been kept back by the cold, the plants were strong and healthy. Potatoes are not grown for sale. With the exception of the early-sown swedes, and an acre or two of black oats, the whole of the crops were excellent ; the land was perfectly clean, and cultivated close up to the fences. Two acres of cabbage had suffered from drought, but were like furnishing a lot of autumn food. Draining. — A large portion of the heavy land had been recently drained. A hilly pasture was being drained in July 4 feet deep and 7 yards apart. The money is borrowed, and the interest, 6/. 12s. 6c?. per cent., is wholly paid by the tenant. A brook which intersects the tillage-fields on the south side was attacked last winter, had its course straightened, and the broken banks levelled and filled. In July it looked like an artificial canal, minus the water. Fences. — Miles of old crooked hedges have been grubbed out and levelled. On the tillage land a number of fences have been altogether abolished. Where the clearing off has taken place between arable and pasture land, or through pastures where fences are still needed, strong creosoted post-and-rail fences have been substituted, at a cost of Is. 3d. per yard. These may be counted on to last for 15 years; and though not affording any shelter, they neither harbour weeds nor require cleaning ; and, taken all round, are neat, economical, effective fences. All this has been done wholly at the tenant’s expense. Grass-land. — 14 acres of mowing meadow is all the hay made on the farm. This field is dressed with 1 cwt. of Peruvian guano, 2 cwt. of bones, and 12 cwt. of rape-dust, every alternate year. The old pastures joining the house are covered with a rich herbage and are clean ; not a thistle or a dock, dead or alive, was anywhere visible, and I may here extend this latter remark to include the whole farm. The pastures carry a numerous head of stock ; they are no doubt well supplemented with artificial food, and to this they The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. 561 are largely indebted for the present herbage. The average of the cake and manure hill for the past four years is 418/., not including other foods. These are purchased from H. Richard- son and Co., of York, who, as merchants, have evidently gained the confidence of Mr. Hutchinson. Live Stock. — The character of the horses, cattle, and sheep on Manor House is now so well known throughout the United Kingdom, that it is quite unnecessary for me to make use of superlatives in describing them. 1 think, however, it is due to Mr. Hutchinson that a few of the honours which his animals have borne away from national and local showyards should be recorded here. Prizes icon. — The total amount won in prizes since 1873 by animals belonging to this farm is 6639/. Is. They have won all the last three Champion prizes given at Royal Shows for the best female Shorthorn, viz., Champion Plate of 100 guineas at Kilburn, with “ Gainful ” ; Champion at Derby, “ Gratia ” ; Champion at York, “ Lady Pamela.” Champion for the best Hunter in the yard at the Royal Birmingham, won with “ Jester.” This horse won in the aggregate upwards of 1550/. At the Taunton Meeting, 7 animals were shown, which took 4 first and 3 second prizes. At that Show three first prizes were awarded to Mr. Hutchinson in the different rings at the same time ; viz. first for Shorthorn Cow ; first for Leicester Ram ; first for Three- Year-old Hunter; and the first-prize Aged Shorthorn Bull “Duke of Aosta” at the same Meeting was bred and sold by Mr. Hutchinson. This bull was also the sire of the first-prize two-year-old Bull, and first-prize Yearling Bull. At the Carlisle Meeting three first prizes were won in succession, viz. first for Bull-calf, “ Knight of Kars” ; first for Cow, “Grateful”; first lor Two- Year-old Heifer, “Gainful.” Besides, first and third prizes were won for aged Leicester Rams ; first and third for Leicester Shearling Rams ; and two prizes for Four- Year-old Hunters. At Derby, “Gainful” took third prize; “Gratia” took first for Two-Year-old Heifer, and Champion Cup for the best female Shorthorn. Five sheep took first, second, and third for Shearlings, and first and second for Aged Rams. At Reading, three Shorthorns were shown, which took first and third in the Cow Class, and first in the Yearling Heifers, said to be the largest and best class of yearlings ever shown at the Royal. At the same meeting, the second prize wras gained for a Shearling Ram, and first for an Aged Ram. Such a catalogue of successful exhibits speaks for itself. The following is a list of the number of animals on the farm at the time of our three respective visits : — 562 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. January. April. July. Cattle. Cows in-C,ilf or in-Milk . . 23 2S 29 2-year-old Heifers 7 11 10 Yearling „ 8 4 3 Heifer Calves 8 5 10 Aged Bulls 2 1 1 Young „ 9 13 10 Bullocks 2 Total 59* 02 03 Sheep. Tups f 12 aged 1 l 73 hoggsj 49 31 Ewes 80 75 75 Gimmer Hoggs 54 hoggs 51 51 Lambs 93 99 Total 219 2G8 250 Pigs. Boar 1 1 1 Sows 2 2 6 Stores 15 14 8 Feeding 4 Total 22 17 15 Horses. Cart Horses 7 7 7 Clydesdale Mares . . . . . . 3 3 3 2-year-olds 2 2 2 Foals 3 3 Other Horses 20 10 18 Total 32 31 1 33 Dogs 5 8 Bitches 6 5 Total •• 11 13 * 50 of these were eligible for entry in the “ Shorthorn Herd-book.” Cattle. — In January we found some of the dowagers com- fortably enjoying comparative freedom in the new covered yards. The nursing matrons with their precious charges, and the reigning belles, had each exclusive possession of a white- washed well-ventilated box. It might be invidious to particularise any of these famous beauties, but we may mention the “ G.’s ” and “ Ladies ” as two 563 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. tribes, the members of which rarely fail in distinguishing them- selves. The former is descended from a cow called “ Gerty,” which cost 42 guineas, and from her have descended “ Gratia,” Grateful,” “ Gratification,” and many other “G.’s;” she pro- duced 8 heifer-calves, twice twins in succession. Mr. Hutch- inson’s success as a breeder is not to be attributed to high- priced importations into his herd, but rather to judicious mating. Mention must, however, be made of a particularly sweet two-year-old heifer, recently bought from Mr. St. John Ackers. The Judges were agreeably surprised to find that several of these high-bred cows have a capital show for milk, which is, to say the least, not an invariable characteristic of Pedigree Shorthorns. Though some of the calves were with their dams, a number were reared by the pail. In July, the cattle — excepting some bulls and Show animals — were all out on the pastures. They looked a handsome lot, and in proper breeding condition. A two-year-old bull (“ Riby Star ”), brought from Ireland, is in service at present ; he is out of “ Riby Marchioness,” which cost 1300 guineas at the late Mr. Torr’s sale. Mr. Hutchinson has not had his usual good-fortune with his own young bulls this season. They have suffered from cripple felon, — in other words, chronic rheumatism, — which partially destroys both their appearance and their usefulness. Sheep. — The flock is pure Leicester ; no other sort of sheep are allowed to set foot on Manor House Farm. As might be expected, uniformity of type characterises the flock. Eighty breeding-ewes were acting the part of scavengers on the swede- field when we saw them in January. Tup- and ewe-hoggs were folded on turnips in separate lots. About half a score of tup- hoggs — one of which took the first prize at York for shearlings — were being house-fed : this practice is not followed with females. Three old veteran prize-takers were roughing it in the park, and looked as if they were still good for service in that line. Seventy-five ewes produced 99 lambs. This is not a large crop, but the strain are evidently good nurses ; the lambs were strong and healthy, and in July were having a good time of it on the clover. Even on this luxuriant and truly wonderful pasture the cake-troughs were standing. Several rams have been sold from this flock at 100 guineas each, and one sheep was twice let for the season at that sum. Pigs. — These are chiefly pure Berkshires ; a few of the large white breed are also kept. The stores seemed to pick up a good living in the covered yards. Horses. — Seven work-horses are kept ; they are heavy-legged active animals. Three fine Clydesdale mares are bred from. 5(54 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. One of these was brought from Mr. Tweedie; one is by his famous horse “ Tam o’ Shanter.” Another, with a colt-foal by “Statesman,” was from the Marquis of Londonderry’s stud, by “ The Swell.” Mr. Hutchinson’s successes with horses have been with hunters, as witness “Jester” and “ Glengyle.” A rather strong detachment of these cattle seems to be generally on hand. Two fine chestnuts, three and four years old, were to be shown at York. The latter blemished his knee on the manger, and this prevented his appearance ; the other took second prize. Some young blood relations to “Jester” were running out in the fields ; and these, I venture to say, are likely to give trouble to their competitors in future Showyards. Perhaps I should not omit to notice a kennel of fox-terriers, which are said to be quite as good of their class as the hunters. Fowls, ducks, and geese, are kept, and take form as items of revenue on the balance-sheet. Gates and Fences. — Every gate was fitted So as to be readily opened from horseback, and all were in perfect working order. Fences, ditches, and roads, were as clean as the most fastidious critics could wish, and a general air of tidiness and system pervaded the entire holding. Labour. — As may be expected, this is a heavy item. Last year it reached the aggregate of 542/. 18s. 5 d., exclusive of 15/. for steam cultivation, and 56/. 11s. for blacksmith and carpenter ; the outlay for the past four years has steadily increased, but with all these improvements going on this was to be expected. Most of the men in Mr. Hutchinson’s service have been on the farm for many years, and the adage, “ like master, like man,” is true in their case. Ploughing, sowing, drilling, and thatching, are all alike carefully and well done. Book-keeping. — This is not perfect ; there is no yearly stock- taking, so that the profits for any single year (there are never any losses) cannot be definitely ascertained. Stock-taking on this farm certainly presents some difficulties ; the value of such high-bred young stock is not easily computed, so much depend- ing on how they come out ; and also on customers turning up at the proper time. Stock and crop books appear to be carefully kept ; also a detailed and classified account of income and expenditure. The latter shows a turnover varying from 3000/. to over 6000/. a year during the last four years. The results on the balance-sheet of the cash account indicate good profits ; and further, Mr. Hutchinson states that the whole of the extensive improvements and permanent works executed on the farm have been paid for out of its proceeds. The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition 1883. 565 A large revenue is no doubt derived from selling animals at what are called fancy prices. This may be called Speculation, and not farming ; but it only affords additional proof of profound judgment and careful general management. Is the system pursued on this farm one to be held up as a model to British farmers ? is a question that has been asked. We must leave our readers to answer it, each in his own way. This much is certain, that the foundations of the success achieved at Manor House — which are knowledge, judgment, perseverance, and indomitable energy — are worthy of universal imitation. Class II. — Second Phize. Mr. J. Watson, Wood House, Brough, East Yorkshire. Wood House Farm is situated in the East Riding, on the lower part of the Wolds, about eight miles west of Hull. The house, which is a square modern structure resembling a merchant’s suburban villa, stands on rising ground about a quarter of a mile from the Cottingham turnpike-road, and is approached by a private road, lined on each side by most perfectly kept hedges, of which more hereafter. The farm comprises 600 acres, of which 450 acres are arable and the remainder pasture land. It belongs to the trustees of C. P. Sykes, Esq., of Ray well Hall, a beautiful residence on this estate, the grounds of which lie close up to this farm, and is occupied by Mr. Barkworth, who has also the sporting rights over the estate. It is usually most trying to hold a farm upon an estate on which the game is let to a third party. Notwith- standing, however, the fact that an immense number of pheasants are reared on the skirts of Wood House farm, the relations between Mr. Barkworth and Mr. Watson are of the most cordial character. Mr. Watson has occupied Wood House since 1876. He at present holds four other farms, containing, in the aggregate, about 700 acres of arable and 160 acres of pasture land. He has besides recently given up to his two sons each a large farm fully stocked and in working condition. The soil of this farm, which rests on the Chalk, is light and naturally dry ; draining is therefore unknown. Though not hilly, the surface is undulating. Excellent riding-stables, harness-room, and coach-house, are passed on the way from the house to the steading. The accom- modation for the stock is arranged with a view to the quickest method of getting straw made into manure ; for this reason the 560 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. buildings are not spouted. Two large open folds with shelter sheds are used for cattle-feeding. These are surrounded by the cow-byre, boxes, and stables. There is no fixed threshing- machine, nor much hand-machinery of any kind. Cropping. — As appears to be the fashion in Yorkshire, no fixed plan of cropping is pursued, though a six-course shift is the usual system, commencing with seeds, followed by oats, white turnips eaten off, wheat, swede turnips — one-third drawn, the rest eaten off — then barley and clover. Mr. Watson says that for the last few years he has let a seed- field stand for two years. He finds the best way to do that is to pull turnips off near the homestead and give the land extra manure. Mr. Watson gives as reasons for pulling off turnips, that the land can be sown with barley in good time, and barley sown early is far better in quality and there is more of it ; also, the land near the homestead is stronger, and will grow beans. After harvest, every acre of the barley-stubble, where the turnips were pulled off the previous winter, is manured and sown with beans. After beans come white turnips, which are eaten off with sheep in the autumn and sown with wheat ; it is then very fresh to grow clover-seeds, and no place is found better than this to get a good strong plant. The acreage of the crops for the present year is as follows : — Beans, 15 acres Barley, 101 „ Seeds, 119 „ Wheat, 28 acres. Oats, 142 ,, Turnips or rape, 156 „ Beans were a capital crop in July. They are not hoed, but a few ewes and lambs called weeders are run in amongst them until the stalks get too big to travel amongst without being damaged ; these ewes are said to pick out most of the weeds, but certainly not all. Barley was all a capital crop. Mr. Watson’s motto in regard to change of seed is “ wheat ever, barley never,” and with him this unchanged sort of barley does well ; it is tall, stiff in the straw, and very prolific ; in February, 144 acres were just threshed, yielding 914 qrs., and sold at 35s. per qr. Wheat , after two years’ seeds, was a fair crop, well headed, but not thick. The seeds are ploughed out in the course of the summer, as opportunity offers, and the land is cultivated, manured, and sown in the autumn, if possible. Mr. Watson states that he gets at least 3 sacks more of barley per acre than of wheat, the former selling for 35s. per qr., and the latter for 38s. ; he is convinced that wheat takes more out of the land than barley, and that the land can be kept much cleaner when sown in spring. The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 567 Oats. — Black oats are principally grown. They stand better, grow less straw, and are found to be most prolific. Polish and black oats are sometimes grown together, and are locally known as Watson’s mixture. Sixty-eight acres were sown this spring, after barley ; this was not heavy, but it was a nice level crop. Mr. Watson has not previously grown two white crops in succession, and says he will not do it again. Fifteen acres of black oats were after seeds which had been marled last winter. The first crop after marling is usually lighter, but this was good, though not so heavy as that on an adjoining field. Marling or Chalking. — Some of this work is done nearly every season ; the field just referred to was commenced the last day of the year 1882. A part of the field is selected where the chalk is nearest the surface ; the soil — of which there may be from 3 to 12 inches — is cleared off, and then operations are commenced. The work is occasionally let, but is more frequently done by the farm-horses and men. When let, it costs from 4 1. 10s. to 6Z. 10s. an acre. The chalk is quarried out and reduced into pieces not more than 6 inches square, and simply carted on to the field at the rate of about 40 tons an acre. After having been spread, it is allowed to lie exposed to the atmosphere as long as possible before ploughing, so that it may fall like lime. Its action is most favourable to root-crops, preventing finger-and-toe and other bulbous diseases. After all the chalk required has been obtained, the sides of the pit are neatly sloped in all round, and ploughed over as before, without much apparent difference to the crops. When the fields are pastured, straw is often placed in the bottom of these old chalk-pits ; and in rough weather the stock finds comfortable shelter in them. Mr. Watson has marled about 180 acres of this farm, compensation for which runs out in 12 years. Turnips. — This crop is looked upon as the crowning glory of a Wold farm. On it depends in a great measure the winter food for both cattle and sheep, and also the condition of the land for future crops. Last year the crop was superb. In January we found upwards of 1000 sheep confined to turnips in one field, and Mr. Watson was then almost despairing of their ability to get through the crop. This year the crop has been a source of great anxiety. Swede-sowing commences about the 3rd week in May ; the turnips are all sown in ridges 24 inches apart ; about two-thirds of the entire crop is dunged at the rate of about 10 tons to the acre, with the addition of 3 cwt. of dissolved bones. The remaining one-third of the crop, for which there is no dung, receives 6 cwt. of dissolved bones per acre. At our visit on the 7th of July we saw the fallows under most unfavourable circumstances ; the previous ten 568 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. days had brought a succession of thunder-storms, which cul- minated in a terrific storm of hail on the 4th of July. Though the full force of the storm had spent itself a little to the south of Wood House, yet the farm was dreadfully washed; in the hollows the turnip drills were covered more than level with the soil run off the hill-sides, and one newly ploughed field had a breadth of soil entirely washed off down to the chalk. If further proof had been needed of the violence of the storm, we saw it in the roof of Mrs. Barkworth’s conservatory, which had been completely riddled with the hail. A meter kept in the neigh- bourhood had registered 10^ inches of rainfall in ten days, com- mencing on the 25th of June. A large field of swedes that had been sown more than five weeks was in a wretched plight. The plants had at first been nearly devoured by the fly, and now they were washed and battered almost beyond recovery. Another field sown a little later was a good plant, and nearly ready for thinning. A field of 34 acres was ready for ridging-up when the storms came ; on the 7th of July we found 8 pairs of horses reploughing it. We were told that these light ploughs would turn it over in two days, and the pace looked as if it would be done in that time. Sixteen acres besides this field were still to be sown with turnips, in addition to another field that was to be sown with rape for early feed for the lambs. When we visited this farm in May we found about 600 hoggs — stock ewe and fattening, in one lot — eating cut swedes ; and a large part of the field of 18 acres was still standing to be eaten. Of this field Mr. Watson writes : — “ On the last eaten-off turnip-land it is too late to sow spring corn, and costs more than it is worth. At that time we are busy preparing for sowing turnips again. We let the land remain until a wet day comes, and we can do nothing else ; we plough it over and sow a little rape, and sow the land with wheat in the autumn : this is an excellent way to get good clover, by sowing the seeds among the wheat the following season.” Seeds. — These are all invariably pastured. The mixture sown is white clover and trefoil and a very little Italian rye-grass. No red is sown, as it is said to give sheep the “ yellows.” The first year’s seeds were an excellent pasture carrying a heavy stock of sheep. The second year’s field was not quite so good ; half of it was already ploughed out, in preparation for a wheat crop. Live-Stock. — Sheep are looked upon as having golden feet on the Wolds. Leicester ewes, with a strain of Lincoln, are the foundation of the flock. A Shropshire ram has been occa- sionally used, and the produce is much jneferred by the Hull The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 569 butchers, who are willing to give a penny per lb. more for this cross than for fat Leicester mutton. In January we found : — 303 Ewes in-lamb. 564 Wether and gimmer hoggs. 141 Fat sheep. 6 Rams. Total .. 1014 All these sheep were eating turnips in one field. The ewes were going behind the hoggs and fat sheep. Though the weather had been wet, the whole of them seemed to be doing well. On our visit in May we found : — 557 Ewe and wether hoggs. 247 Ewes with 324 lambs. 37 Geld ewes. Total . . 841 The ewe and wether hoggs and the geld ewes were in one lot eating cut swedes. Those fat were to be sold off the shears when the turnips were finished. The ewes had not been fortunate ; there was a heavy percentage of weakly lambs and too many barren ewes. This the Judges attributed to the big turnip crop and want of dry food. The ewes were on the seed pastures and looking well. On the 7th of July we found : — 245 Ewes suckling 322 lambs. 129 Shearling gimmers for breeding. 133 Feeding shearlings. Total . . 507 302 shearlings had been sold off the shears, and realised 65s. 1 \d. each. Ewes with couples and the feeding-sheep were getting cake on the pastures. Cattle. — In January we found a lot of 28 Irish bullocks feeding in a large open fold. Two of the same lot were in a box ; the 30 cost 22/. each in November. They were a good lot, and most of them were fit for market. Another yard held 10 fat Irish heifers, which had been bought the previous July at 8/. 15s., and were now valued at 201. each. They were fed with cut swedes the first thing in the morning, one linseed-cake each at noon, turnips about 3 o’clock, and a small feed of hay at night, with straw ad libitum. The numbers of the cattle at the time of our several inspec- tions were as follows : — VOL. XIX. — S. S. 2 P 570 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. January. SO Bullocks feeding. 1 1 Heifers feeding. 5 Cows „ 15 Heifers and Cows in- calf. 7 Cows in-milk. 1 Cow suckling 2 calves. 1 Bull. 6 Calves 1 year old. 2 „ 8 months old. 9 „ 6 „ 87 May. 7 Cows in-milk. 2 Cows suckling 2 calves each. 2 Cows suckling 1 calf each. 8 In-calvers. 9 Calves 1| year. 13 Calves under 12 months old. 6 Calves suckling as above. 47 July. 9 Feeding heifers. 1 Bull. 13 Cows suckling. 18 Calves. 6 Cows milking. 1 Calf fed by hand. 13 Calves weaned. 17 Heifers 1J year old. 15 Steers. 1 Cow near calving. 94 The cattle bought to graze on the seed-pastures in summer, and to be fed off in the folds during winter, appear to be bought more with a view to leave money than to please the eye, and therefore do not come up to the quality of the rest of the stock. The cows, heifers, and calves, the regular breeding-stock of the farm, are excellent, wealthy, unpedigreed Shorthorns, with good dairying qualities. These are grazed in the park which lies between Wood House and Ray well Hall. Amongst them the lambs are weaned. Another part, about 5 acres, of the park is cut for hay. The only dairying attempted is supplying the Hall with milk and butter, which yields a revenue of about 70/. a year. Horses. — These consist of 8 pairs for draught purposes ; they are an active, quick-stepping, powerful lot, well adapted for their work ; four two-year-old carting- colts, two foals, and a nag cart-foal have been bred ; besides, a horse is kept for the shepherd, and two nags and a pony are in the riding-stable. Pigs are kept in the open fold during winter, and pick up a good living among the cattle. Eight sows, pigged and with pig, were the breeding-stock in May. Labour. — Mr. Watson kindly made out a statement of his labour account, which should be most interesting if presented verbatim, as follows : — The Cost of Labour per Tear upon Wood House Farm. £ s. d. Foreman’s wage per year 52 0 0 A present yearly 1000 House rent free, milk found for the farm lads, 2 lb. butter per week, and potatoes, worth at the least 10 0 0 I also pay him 9s. per week to board 7 lads, total 163 16 0 Waggoner’s wage yearly 21 00 Second waggoner do 17 0 0 Third lad do 16 0 0 Carried forward 289 16 0 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 571 £ s. d. Brought forward 289 16 0 Fourth lad’s wage yearly 14 0 0 Fifth lad do 12 0 0 Sixth lad do 12 0 0 Least lad do 8 0 0 Shepherd’s wage per year 52 0 0 House rent free 500 1 lb. butter per week and milk found, worth .. 4 0 0 Beast-man, 17s. per week 44 4 0 Extra for harvest 580 6 constant labourers, 40 weeks at 16s. per week .. 192 0 0 Ditto, about 6 weeks hoeing turnips at 8s. per acre twice over, they earn about 28s. per week per man 50 0 0 Ditto, 6 weeks in harvest at 24s. per week, and I pay the foreman 9s. per week to board them, amounting to 33s 60 0 0 1 man slashes the hedges, they cost about 20?. per year 20 0 0 The rest of the hedge-slasher’s time is taken up in cleaning hedges, mending up gaps, &c., and other odd jobs, costs say other 25 0 0 Extra labour, weeding corn, at Is. per acre .. .. 15 0 0 Extra labour on threshing days, about 30 days’ work 20 6 0 A few days before harvest I let the Irishmen who do the harvest work 3000 bundles of straw to draw, at 2s. 6c?. per 100 3 15 0 I also let the said Irishmen, 12 of them, the corn to tie up, stook, fork upon the waggons, load and team upon the stack — the farm lads drive the waggons to and from the field — for 8s. per acre ; they earn upon an average for the last 7 years 9?. per man for about 5 weeks’ labour ; they work very hard indeed. We cut all the com with Bamlett’s reapers (manual delivery) ; every sheaf is tied up and stooked before the men leave the field 108 0 0 Harvest ale costs about 30 0 0 The other part of the year 25 0 0 £995 3 0 About an average cost per year of a little over 30s. per acre. The amount expended upon cake for the last seven years has been on the average 608Z., or about 20s. per acre. The hedges are simply excellent. They are the work of one man who has trained many of them from the time they were planted ; miles of them are perfectly wedge-shaped and without a flaw, clean, and having the land cultivated and cropped up to their roots: 1150 yards of strong iron fencing, costing 3s. per yard, has been erected in the park by Mr. Watson. The gates and roads are in excellent condition. Most of the 2 P 2 572 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. gateways are laid with chalk, and all the gates can be opened on horseback. The stackyard and homestead are the embodiment of tidiness. Order and system seem to pervade the premises. 'Book-keeping . — No annual stock-taking is attempted. But a strict cash account of receipts and expenditure is kept. An interesting record is also kept of any permanent works executed on the farm, with their cost, such as chalking, building, &c. Mr. Watson writes: “ I succeeded to my father’s farm in 1855 at the age of 21. The Russian war was in the way just then, which helped me a good deal. In the year 1859 I took another farm of about 400 acres ; in the year 1866 I took about 100 acres more on a lease for seven years — it was very good grass-land. In 1867 I took about 300 acres more, and I did not take any more until I took Wood House and about 700 acres more at the same time. From 1876 to 1882 I farmed on my own account about 3000 acres.” All this extension of business, and the capital required to carry it on, have been acquired by pure farming, with an entire absence of speculation. Mr. Watson states that he always sells his grain immediately after threshing, and his wool directly after clipping. Arable farming may, therefore, in this case be credited with bestowing on one of its votaries in the person of Mr. Watson a rich pecuniary reward. Class II. — Commended. Mr. William Coverdale, Lund Cote, Kirig Moorside. Lund Cote Farm is situated in the North Riding, 2 miles west of Kirby Moorside. It forms part of the extensive estates of the Earl of Feversham, and comprises 292 acres, of which 232 acres are arable and the remainder pasture land. The farm has been held by the present tenant for a period of thirteen years, and under a yearly tenancy, at a rent which Mr. Coverdale says has been too high for recent seasons. On account of these bad times, 10 per cent, has been considerately returned at rent- days for the past two years. The terms of agreement include a tenant-right of half the cost of the cake consumed during the last year of the tenancy, calculated on the average consumption of the last three years. The land is described in the certificate of entry as “ loam,” resting on limestone and sandstone. There are a few patches of strong clay, part of which requires draining ; but as a whole the soil is that kind of fertile loam which is easily spoiled by being worked out of condition. The fields lie well, are pretty level, but are rather too thickly studded with old trees, which, The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. 573 though a fine feature in the landscape, always appear to a farmer’s eye to be out of place in a tillage field. The homestead is well situated in the centre of the farm. The old thatched farm-house is a relic of a bygone age. Had the farming not kept better abreast of the times than the house and buildings have done, there would have been little to commend. Stones were, however, being laid down for a new house, which is, no doubt, by this time being built. Cropping. — This is literally a corn-farm. About 140 acres, or nearly two-thirds of the arable land, is annually in grain-crop. No regular course of cropping is prescribed or pursued. Part of the clover-leas are sown with wheat, and the remainder with oats. One field of wheat was a thin plant ; several acres were not good enough to stand, and were scarified down and sown with oats. A field of w heat after oats, dressed with soot, at a cost of 20s. per acre, was a really good crop. Barley generally succeeds wheat. One field, dressed with 2 cwt. of guano per acre immediately after the drill, looked especially promising. Another field, grown on wheat-stubble, had no dressing, and was carrying a good level crop, which says much for the natural fertility of the land. The best samples of barley are obtained as a second white crop. After turnips the crop is often too gross. Barley and oats were capital crops all round. One field of black oats after seeds grazed, looked like yielding 10 quarters per acre. The following is the acreage of the several crops grown in 1882 and 1883:— 1882. 1883. Wheat Acres. 50 Acres. 49 Barley 44 55 Oats 42 37 Beans (i Turnips 52 56 Seeds 32 28 It will be seen that potatoes are not enumerated ; only 10 drills were grown this year, and they are not good. Seeds are always grazed with sheep eating cake, and this year they were grand pastures ; they only stand one year. Swede turnips were sown on the flat in 1882, and, owing to the wet season, they were very difficult to clean. This year they were ridged, and the ridges losing their moisture in the dry weather, the seed did not vegetate until the rain came, thus showing how varying seasons may upset the best systems. 574 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. In January we found here, as elsewhere, a grand crop of turnips. In July the prospect for a crop this season was far from good. Sowing had been completed, but no swedes were thinned. White turnips after beans had been sown on the flat, and were appearing above ground. These had been put in with 3 cwt. of bone-meal and 2 cwt. of superphosphate, mixed with 2 tons of ashes drilled with the seed. Nine acres of fallow were intended to be sown with rape. The fallows were all well done. A six-acre field, which has only recently come into Mr, Coverdale’s occupation, showed a good deal of couch in January, but at the last visit the whole was turned out of hand clean, and in fine condition. Live-Stock. — In January we found 140 very good ewes close- folded on a big crop of white turnips, and were not getting any other food supplied to them. Previous to our visit there had been a spell of wet weather, which had converted the sheep- folds on this loamy land into a puddle. The ewes looked uncomfortable ; but the feeding-hoggs in the same field, eating cut white turnips, looked miserable. The mud adhering to the long wool had formed into balls all along the lower line of their bodies ; fresh relays of mud were being added every day, and were getting too heavy for many of the poor sheep to carry ; they did look unhappy. Fifty ram-hoggs were getting cake, 175 feeding-hoggs had turnips and a little hay. At the May inspection the hoggs were still folded on the turnip-land ; they had now comfortable quarters, but many of them were lame, and, as a lot, they did not look well. About 7 scores were sold off the shears shortly after our visit, making an average price of about 50 s. per head. The ewes were looking well, but had been most unfortunate in their crop of lambs : these looked dry in the skin and stunted ; not at all like the produce of such a fine lot of ewes. In July the numbers given were only 108 lambs for 120 ewes. They were then going on good seed- pastures, getting cake. The ewes were big and fat, but the lambs were very uneven. The Judges found that wherever ewes had been folded on turnips without having a run over grass, or supplied with dry food, the crop of lambs, though numerous when dropped, were delicate, difficult to rear, and died off in large numbers. The shearling rams, 40 in number, going in grand clover and eating cake, were not a credit to Leicester and Lincoln crossing : they did not warrant any further experiments in that direction ; at least such was the opinion of the Judges. Ten milking-cows, showing good dairy qualities, are usually kept, and their calves reared. The heifers are brought in for cows, and the steers are fed off at three years old. Eight The Yorkshire Farm- Prize Competition, 1883. 575 capital bullocks were being fattened in an open fold, and were getting, in addition to white turnips, 7 lbs. of linseed-cake and barley-meal each per day. Three had gone off fat out of the lot at 27/. 10s. each. The young stock — excepting calves — were all in open folds, getting a little cake with turnips and straw, and were like growing into useful cattle. Pedigree bulls are used. A four-year-old bull going off fat was by “ 5th Duke of Tregunter,” and a yearling to take his place was by “ 7th Baron Oxford.” A strong contingent of pigs — 38 all told — were chiefly living in the yards amongst the cattle, and were apparently faring well. The draught - horses — nine in number — w ere not heavy animals ; they looked as though they might have a strain of Cleveland blood in their veins. Two two-year-olds, besides, were broken to work ; and four of the mares were bringing foals. The stalls in the stables are made to hold two horses each, which to a Northern farmer always looks a dangerous arrange- ment. The whole of the men working on the farm are boarded in the house.. This system is not thought likely to spread, if the feminine members of the farming community are taken into counsel. The staff here consists of a foreman, five ploughmen, and three labourers ; the latter of whom have 9s. a week and their board. Wages have fallen about 20 per cent, from what they were in the good times. The amount in the aggregate for labour is 270/. per annum. Soot is largely used for dressing corn-crops. The manure bill is under lOO/., and that for cake amounts to nearly 300/. per annum. A complete set of farm-books is kept, showing details of cropping, sales, and expenses. An inventory is taken and a balance-sheet drawn out on the 23rd of March in each year, in which Mr. Coverdale charges the farm with 100/. per annum for personal supervision, and 3 per cent, on a capital of over 4000/. employed. After this had been done in 1883, a small balance had to be placed on the wrong side of the sheet. Class III. — First Prize. Mr. Benjamin Beevers, Clay Shed Farm, Escrich. The competition in this class was limited to farms under 150 acres in extent. Mr. Beevers, who had a clear lead in the competition, is dhe kind of man for whom the prize was evidently intended. He began life as a farm-servant, and, like the energetic yet prudent 576 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. man that he continues to be, he married when very young. The united fortunes of the pair being very limited, draining was resorted to for a living, which led to contracts for draining in winter, and “ beck ” cutting and cleaning in summer. This work brought in some money, and a small holding of 15 acres was taken under Lord Wenlock. There vegetables, chiefly early potatoes, were grown with considerable success. After occupying this place for eight years a shift was made to a 70-acre farm under Lord Leconfield, rented at 50s. per acre. After a year’s trial this was found to be too dear, and was promptly given up. Mr. Beevers entered on his present occupation in 1880, and, though the seasons have been unfavourable, he says he “ has held his own.” There is an air of prosperity about the holding. The crops are good, many of them excellent ; with a few tons of old hay in the stack-yard, the cattle are in good condition, and the horses young and full of life. There was no end of fine poultry running everywhere, and the best litter of pigs we saw during our travels. The farm, which is the property of Lord Wenlock, lies 7 miles south-east of York, and 2 miles from Escrick Railway Station. It consists of 127 acres, of which 55 are arable and the re- mainder meadow and pasture. In the entry-sheet it is correctly described as “ heavy, with a clay subsoil.” The land lying along the side of the Escrick and Wheldrake road, which bounds the farm for about three-quarters of a mile, rises a little. The arable land here is a useful loam, fair corn land, and will grow roots, but is too heavy to allow any of them to be eaten off. A large portion of the grass-land is poor clay, and worth very little. The farm is held under a yearly tenancy, with an agreement for payment of one-third of the last year’s cake bill, and also on a proportionate scale for liming and marling. The labour on permanent works, which is chiefly draining, for which the landlord supplies pipes, is to be paid for on a six years’ scale at the end of the tenancy. The rent has been reduced 20 per cent, owing to the bad times, and this the tenant states has enabled him to hold his own ; some draining has also been done, and a large Dutch barn built, free of interest. The homestead is comparatively new, and is well placed in the centre of the holding, a field-breadth from the highway. The house, which has a neat patch of gay flower-garden in front, is in keeping with its surroundings : the best room is the kitchen. The buildings are commodious and well-arranged. They consist of cow-byre, stable, two boxes, cart-shed, and piggery, and two shelter-sheds for open yards, the latter of The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. 577 which will now require to be covered in, as this place must for the future take rank as a model farm. Mr. Beevers has great faith in potatoes ; last year he grew Magnum Bonums and Champions, which proved very remune- rative. Regents had been chiefly grown previously, but they were not so productive and had more disease. Magnums and Champions are again planted on a 4-acre field, which the tenant has drained. The manure applied was 18 cartloads of foldyard and 4 cwt. of artificial manure to the acre. This field was neatly finished in July ; well set up with the plough, clean, and the plants were growing vigorously, though a very few drills in the middle of the field, owing to some unexplained causes, were patchy. Fallow wheat, of which there were 3 acres, was a really splendid crop ; the best we saw out of Holderness. Four acres after potatoes in the same field was little, if any, behind ; the whole had been dressed in spring with ^ ton of soot and 11 cwt. of salt to the acre ; this had evidently had good results. The variety is “ Scholey’s Square Head,"’ and is sure to yield well. A formerly unproductive corner of this field at the entrance from the road, where a straggling old fence had been grubbed, is now doing duty as a productive vegetable garden. Barley, after turnips — 13| acres — dressed with 21 cwt. of Peruvian guano per acre, was very forward in April ; and was very clean and equally promising in July. The seed was the famous “ Kinver Hill” variety, direct from Webb and Sons. Seven acres of black oats, grown after barley, were equally pro- mising. The stubble had been cleaned and worked last autumn, and the crop had been dressed in spring with 1 ton of soot per acre. The crop from 6 acres of seeds was safe in the hay-shed at our July inspection ; the hay was a little weathered, but strong in the bone. A mixture of nitrate of soda and superphosphate was standing in the field, ready for application, to give the fogg a lift for a second crop : three acres at the foot of this field, which had been too foul to sow with seeds, was being ploughed for the sixth time. Another fallow field of 15 acres, after oats, was not a good subject. Nine acres had been intended for roots, which were all sown excepting an acre that was lying ridged with the tillage sown on it : a heavy thunderstorm had stopped the proceedings and spoiled the piece for roots for this season. Two acres of mangolds had suffered from the drought, and were poor and patchy ; while 4 acres of swedes had been resown with white turnips, and might still have made a crop, if the season had not been most unfavourable for root growing, especially on soils of 578 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition , 1883. this description. Six acres of the same field had been left for bare fallow, and was very foul to begin with. The oat-stubble was skim-ploughed and well harrowed in the autumn. The whole of the fallows were in good order at the July inspection, and reflected great credit on their management. A field of 14 acres of the poorest clay, which lies near to the house, had been sown down to permanent pasture about two years ago. The landlord found the seeds, and also paid for one- half of the dressings of bone-dust ; the herbage is not thick, and will require generous treatment to make a good sward, but it is a great improvement on bare fallow. A meadow field which lies nearest to Escrick was half cut at our visit in July, and on it was the largest crop of grass we had seen, although the hay was perhaps not of the best quality. Half a ton of soot had been sown on an acre in the centre of the field, and had told with marked effect on the crop. The remainder of the field had been dressed with 2 tons of dissolved bones. Excepting a little patch of useful grass near the house, the remaining 27 acres of pasture is poor clay. A field of this rough pasture had been dressed with 4 cwt. of dissolved bones to the acre ; half of it was done in 1880 and the remainder last year, with a ridge left between undressed. This ridge was distinctly noticeable ; the herbage was much coarser, and left uneaten by the stock. Eight dairy cows were in the byre in January ; these were getting daily half of a linseed-cake and a mash of oatmeal mixed with cold water, in addition to turnips and hay, and looked as if they throve on their diet. Some of them were being fattened off, and were in the meantime a source of revenue, being milked and fattened at the same time. About 120/. had been received for stock sold between our April and July visits. From 10 to 12 calves are annually reared. Fourteen young cattle, from 6 to 18 months old, were grazing in the rough field before mentioned, all reared on the farm. Ten very good Shorthorn bullocks and 4 Irish, not so good, were grazing in the newly laid-down pasture. Sheep are a critical stock on this poor clay-land, as the tenant had found out by sad experience. Two years ago a lot of 50 ewes had died nearly wholesale from rot, and this year five out of a score of Cheviot ewes, bought in October, were lost from the same cause. The 15 remaining ewes had 19 lambs, and, with one exception, were doing them well. Four lambs were sold at the end of June, and made 42s. each. Four clever horses work the farm ; three of them reared foals last season, and one foal was bought. These are all growing into horses on the farm. An excellent white sow and her litter of seven were all in 579 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. prime condition, and several “ heavysides ” were made into bacon during: the winter. These, with about 200 head of poultry, are indebted to JNIrs. Beevers and her daughter — worthy women both — for their fine appearance. Cash out of pocket for labour does not exceed more than 20/. a year, inclusive of hoeing and harvest. The whole of the ordinary farm work is done by the tenant, his two sons, and a small boy, who is paid at the rate of 6/. a-year and board. This little concern affords a fine example of a frugal, indus- trious, hard-working family — well backed by the landlord and his agent — making the best of rather a poor farm and greatly increasing its fertility. It would be well for the country if such cases could be indefinitely multiplied. One phase of this question must, however, always be borne in mind. The man who rolls up his shirt-sleeves at half-past four in the morning, and does not put them down until he goes to bed at night, with a family following in his footsteps, must be credited with the labour thus expended, and the farm debited accordingly. Class III. — Second Peize. Mr. Joseph Horner , Morton, Bingley. Morton Farm lies on the hill two miles north of the town of Bingley. The house and homestead are in the village of Morton. This holding may be said to be a conglomeration of atoms. It belongs to no less than six different owners, and lies in as many detached pieces. Forty acres, about two miles distant from the homestead, lie at a high elevation. A six-acre piece of this has been made into meadow', and carries a good crop of grass. The highest land is covered with a rough coarse herbage. Several acres of the best part have been drained and dressed with soil and lime and gas-lime, and have evidently been much improved by the dressing. The road leading to this land is a very steep gradient. It is most heroic work to lead tiles and lime on to the top of this hill. The stock kept there — besides ewes and lambs — consisted of five black calving cows and a young blue bull, by a pedigree Shorthorn bull. The buildings, which are neither compact nor commodious, are made the most of, and are kept clean and tidy. A six-horse portable engine drives a grinding-mill, chaff-cutter, and cake- crusher, and is occasionally let out to thresh for hire. A small portable poultry-house is located in the lower grass fields in summer. Young chicken are thus reared, and get a run out on clean ground. The entire holding, as entered for competition, consisted of 580 The Yorkshire Farm-Prize Competition, 1883. 135 acres, of which 11 acres are arable, and the remainder meadow and pasture land. About 6 acres were sown with Webb’s Black Tartarian oats, and looked a crop that would yield well. Four acres of swedes, mostly thinned before the July inspection, were clean and well -done. Half of a small field of about 1^ acre was potatoes and the remaining half a mixture of peas and beans. The potatoes were very neatly done up, and were a perfectly regular and luxuriant crop. About 16 acres are permanent meadow, and, besides this, 15 acres that were sown down about five years ago were to be cut for hay. The land had come well to grass ; it was a thick herbage, and would yield a large crop of hay of good quality. A large proportion of the pasture land had been dressed with a compost of lime and soil, and had a close fine herbage, thick with white clover, with an absence of thistles or other weeds. During the dry weather the fine pasture had evidently ' | got very bare, but the rain had sent the grass away with a rush, as it was now abundant. The produce of eleven cows, good dairy cattle, is sold chiefly as new milk : about 20 gallons per day are sold at the door, making lOd. per gallon. Butter is also made and sold, and the skim-milk not required for calves and pigs is sold at Ad. per gallon. A grand blue cow had died of milk-fever in early summer. Three useful heifers were in-calf. Four black polled heifers had not grown at our last visit so well as we expected ; they were getting cake, and will no doubt come out nice cattle in the autumn. Heifer calves are reared, and are kept for cows. A well-bred bull is always kept ; the one in service at present is by the “ Earl of Doune ” (36,579), dam by “ Edwin ” (21,671). Forty head of cattle, all told, were all useful stock, and looked like leaving money for keeping. A flock of 50 good Lonk ewes had 64 lambs by an Oxford Down ram. This seemed to the Judges to be the greatest success in crossing that they found anywhere. The second cross were really fine sheep, and had much of the Oxford Down character. The best of the single lambs were fattened. Four had been sold at 45s. each. The ewes with keeping lambs were out on the highest land, and were feeding their lambs well. 48 shearlings were grazing among the cattle on the lower land, and were likely to make useful sheep. An excellent Oxford Down ram, bred by Mr. Fawcett, and descended from the VVinchenden flock, went far to account for the fine lambs we could not cease to admire : 30 three-year-old Lonk wethers, costing a little over 30s. per head, had been bought in to feed off. The fences are all stone walls ; many of them over 6 feet 581 Report of the Senior Steward of Implements. high ; and most of them had been erected by the present tenant and his father. They had been mostly built as substitutes for old ragged thorn fences, were well done, and kept in excellent repair. The farm, as a whole, is very creditably managed, and that, too, under apparently very adverse circumstances. XXV. — Report of the Senior Steward of Implements. By J. BOWEN- JONES, of Ensdon House, Shrewsbury. The valedictory Report of the retiring Steward necessitates no lengthened statement from him, the detailed description of the- Miscellaneous Implements, and of the trial of those selected, having been placed in the experienced and competent hands of Mr. John Coleman, one of the Judges. He has the satisfaction of recording that the Society’s Exhi- bition at York, favoured for the most part by good weather, held on an excellent site in admirable condition, and arranged, both as regards Implements and Stock, with great foresight and judg- ment, proved one of the most instructive and successful meetings the Society has ever known. The Working Dairy, for the first time under the exclusive management of the Society, fully sustained the interest that for the past few years has been manifested in this branch of British Agriculture. The competition for the best equipped Dairy was limited to two entries. The prize of 50/. was taken by Mr. Eduard Ahlborn, of Hildesheim, Germany ; wtr'le his unsuccessful oppo- nents, Messrs. Bradford and Co., were solaced by a silver medal for their excellent Butter-worker. The Stewards somewhat reluctantly endorsed the emphatic recommendation of the Judges in the award of nine other silver medals for Miscellaneous Implements, which completed the maximum number permitted by the Society. They feel that a too profuse distribution of these medals will much diminish the value of their award ; and, while recognising the merit of the inventions receiving such honours this year, they can scarcely imagine all of them to be of equal value to the agricultural community. The Stewards have to express their acknowledgments to the Lord Mayor and Corporation of York, the Local Committee, and the Chairman and Directors of the North-Eastern Railway Company, for their cordial co-operation in promoting the success of the Show. In rendering an account of his Stewardship, the writer desires 582 Report on Implements at York. to express his thanks to all the officers of the Society, and to his colleagues, for their uniform kindness and assistance. One cloud alone has obscured an otherwise agreeable three years of office — the death of Lord Vernon, the last retiring Steward. All connected with the agricultural world lament his loss ; but those alone who had the privilege of personal association with him, who observed his untiring patience, his indefatigable energy, and his conscientious determination to advance ne interests of Agriculture, can fully realise the irreparable gap created by his removal from amongst us. XXVI. — Report on Implements at York. By John Coleman, of Holly croft, York. Judges. T. P. Outhwaite, Goldsborough House, Knaresborough, Yorkshire ; George Gibbons, Tunley Farm, Bath ; and John Coleman, Hollycroft, York. The exhibition of machinery at rest and in motion on Knaves- mire was the most extensive and complete, in every sense, that has been held since the alterations as to fees and the exclusion of duplicates. Derby was very successful in this respect, but York excelled it as to the number both of stands and exhibits. Thus — Stands. Articles. Derby .... 377 5960 York .... 401 6058 It is not, however, by size alone that a judgment should be formed. The quality of the exhibition and its interest in the way of useful novelties are important elements ; and judging by the medals awarded, no fewer than nine in number, for novel or improved appliances, it is evident that implement-makers have not been idle during the past year ; and this activity of design is surely the index of an improved state of trade. By slow, but we trust sure, steps, Agriculture is recovering from the severe trials which have paralysed her movements for some years, and we may hope that the outcome of so much trouble will be a greater demand for such machinery as is proved to be labour-saving and practical. New ideas are constantly coming to the front. Last year we were much excited about hay- dryers. A large trade was driven in some quarters, and all go-ahead people bought a fan, and, either by power or manual labour, tried to convert wet grass into sweet hay. To ascertain Report on Implements at York. 583 how many of these fans have been used this season would be rather interesting. The utter inability of the scheme to effect that which enthusiasts declared it capable of, diverted the atten- tion of the public, in too many instances, from the really useful auxiliary work which a properly driven and constructed fan can effect. The Society were impelled by the force of public opinion to make costly experiments, which, though negative in results, were of great service to its members, and saved them from useless outlay and disappointment. A large sum of money was spent in the Reading meadows, but I cannot think that such outlay was either wasteful or useless, because the large consti- tuency of members look to the Council to carry out from time to time such tests as shall determine the value or uselessness of new inventions. At York there was a distinctly new departure, viz., a Com- pound Condensing Engine for agricultural purposes. This was shown by Messrs. Riches and Watts (Article No. 5139), and as a most important introduction deserves notice. It comprises a tandem engine and vertical boiler, cheap and simple in con- struction. Wherever a run of water is available, this is a most useful engine. It is said to be about 10 actual horse-power, and, costing 150/. complete, it is certainly cheap, and is pro- bably capable of being very much developed. It is fitted with an ordinary jet-condenser and simple air-pump. The merits or demerits of Caloric Engines and Hot-air Engines is a most interesting question. No fewer than eight firms exhibited at York Meeting these comparative novelties ; although several employed the same invention, viz. that known from the name of the inventor as the Buckett Caloric Engine. It is said that with this engine brake trials have shown that an effective horse-power can be obtained by 2'54 lbs. of ordi- nary gas-coke per hour. It requires no water, and therefore, if practical, could be used when water is scarce or bad. And the risk of accidents is, I should imagine, very much less than with water. Of course it may prove quite unsuitable for agri- cultural purposes, but we have in this form engines working up to 16-horse power and down to ^-horse power. It would be very desirable to have reliable information from the Society’s Engineers as to the possible advantage or otherwise of caloric engines. Possibly this could be determined without even a trial. The efforts of the Society might, in my opinion, be advan- tageously directed to test the comparative merits of the various applications of springs to agricultural locomotives. There is very little doubt that an efficient spring adds to the life of these increasingly valuable savers of animal power. The trial 584 Report on Implements at York. system, as it was pursued during the earlier life of the Society,, has very wisely been abandoned. It would be a useless expen- diture of time and money to go over ground which has been so thoroughly investigated ; but it is a most important branch of the Society’s usefulness to guide its members as to the practical value of novel discoveries in mechanical science, and a strong feeling exists that information is urgently needed as to this new introduction in agricultural mechanics. On the occasion of the York Meeting a prize of 25 1. was offered, as at Reading, for the most efficient portable straw- compressing and binding machine, to be worked in conjunction with a threshing machine ; and though on this occasion there were two entries, viz. John S. Ladd and Co.’s Perpetual Press (Article 5003), described in the entry form as a “ Straw-com- pressing Machine, 14 X 18, variable length, extra strength iron- lined, No. 1, extra belt, perpetual press, mounted on wheels for travelling, price 230/.” (this machine, which received a silver medal at the Derby Show in 1881, was illustrated and described in my Report of Miscellaneous Awards, and was farther re- ferred to by Mr. W. C. Little last year) ; and Messrs. J. and F. Howard’s (Article 4609), described in the entry form as a Straw- trussing Machine, worked in combination with a threshing- machine, price 45/. Both were ineligible for the prize : — Ladds’ machine because, just as last year, it was not worked in con- junction with a threshing-machine ; and as the Reading experi- ments showed a consumption of about 8-horse power, it is quite certain that such a combination could not practically be adopted. Messrs. Howard and Co.’s valuable invention because it was not a compressing-machine at all, though an excellent trussing- machine, and as effecting a saving of three to four hands when straw is tied up as threshed, which is the general custom in the county of York, and wherever straw is prepared for sale. The Judges were so satisfied as to the merits of the application, and the ability of the machine to deal with the material as rapidly as it could be put through the drum of the threshing-machine, that they advised the award of a silver medal. It seems probable that the combination which the Society desired to encourage may not be possible, — the power required for such compression as would render the straw sufficiently reduced in size for export purposes being too great to be supplied by an engine having to drive a threshing-machine as well ; but the offer of the prize has not been without fruit, since it has led to the ingenious and successful combination of a threshing and straw-trussing machine, of which I proceed to give a detailed description, which, with the aid of a drawing supplied by Messrs. Howard, will, I trust, be readily understood. Report on Implements at York. 585 It will be seen from the above that the machine is attached to the tail of a portable threshing-machine ; also that the straw as delivered from the end of the shakers falls between two revolving aprons, which carry it forwards and downwards much in the same way as the cut corn is carried up to the binding- table of an American self-binder. The apparatus is light and easily transported, being mounted on an axle and a pair of travelling-wheels. Light movable shafts are attachable to the axle for convenience of transport ; and when the machine is to be set to work, it is simply hooked on to the threshing-machine. VOL. XIX. — S. S. 2 Q 586 Report on Implements at York. Motion is obtained from the shaker spindle by means of chain- gear and sproggle-wheels. The threshed straw, on leaving the shakers, passes between the aprons or conductors to the col- lectors, w hich receive and compress it against w eighted levers, and when the required quantity of straw is collected, to balance and move the weighted levers ; the binding mechanism is thereby started, the pair of binding arms from below the collected straw* rise up, enclose and bind it with two bands, whilst the truss is under compression. In other words, the mechanism is almost exactly similar to that of the Applebv knotter, which is now so frequently adopted for corn-binding machinery ; only the parts are stronger, and the straw is bound with two strings instead of one. The compressors are also more powerful ; but as the straw is fed loose, and more or less twisted, it is not compressed to any great extent. The size of the trusses can of course be regulated by adjusting the weighted levers ; but it is found that trusses of about 18 lbs. weight are the most convenient for general purposes. Messrs. Howard state that the average cost of tw ine to bind a ton of straw is a shilling. I should have thought that it would have been more, calculating the average cost of tying sheaves of corn as w orked out at the trial at Derby ; for though probably each acre of corn would yield 1^ ton of straw, yet inasmuch as there are here two strings to each truss, and, owing to the straw being more or less twisted, the straw cannot be bound so tightly as the sheaves, I should have expected a cost of not less than Is. 6> 2 g O 'S g cs bo t2 S rfl .Jfl fl T3 I S’ x ’E 2 h! H W cc W P3 >> 3 § « -O _. PS T3 fl fl rO cS EH e * 8 h=T bT hcT C3 > t£ a e $ o *§• fts § S M P GO f-t © JM W *P Q yi © P xd CO a c3 — 1 Xr ^ x, o P « £ 43 rid C3 w rH C3 1° a "S «S M J3Q © OT ! § g a > «o o .g <1 P3 Jh O 3 fl 2 S) © <3 to £ <3 Ph O <3 Ph g i M *© JP o h3 g ^ > h3 h3 cq H N CO ^ W O t» CO Q O H N CO ^ 596 Report on Implements at York. hearing from the dairy- woman the reasons for the various operations. The daily programme was as follows : — Working Dairy. 9 a.m. to 11 a.m. — Dairy open for the inspection of Implements used. 11.30 a.m. to 12.30 p.m. — Danish separator at work in the Dairy factory, and Butter made on the Danish system. 12.30 p.m. to 1.30 p.m. — Swedish separator at work in the Dairy factory, and Butter made on the French system. 1.30 p.m. to 2.30 p.m. — Cream separating and Butter-making in the small Dairy. The manufacture of different kinds of Cheese from skim-milk will also he illustrated during a portion of the time when the Dairy is at work. 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. — Dairy open for the inspection of Implements used. Guide to the Working Dairy, Price Threepence. Admission to the Stand at the Working Dairy by Non-transferable Day Ticket, Is. The form of the building and the position of the different machines will be most readily understood by reference to the Plan, &c., taken from Mr. H. M. Jenkins’s admirably written descriptive Guide, which was on sale in the Yard at 3d. The floor was made of artificial stone, and supplied by the Patent Victoria Stone Co., of 283, Kingsland Road, London, delivered at York at 3\d. per superficial foot ; it is composed of fine granite and Portland cement steeped in a solution of silicate of soda, and appears a very durable, clean, and even flooring ma- terial— a point of great importance. The milk is conveyed into the Power Dairy in cans or churns, on small waggons running on a Greig’s Patent Miniature Railway ; which was so contrived that whilst the rails were sunk below the floor, no interstices were left for the accumulation of filth. The tare of each churn was painted on them. They were hooked to a suspended weighing- machine hoisted by means of Brewer’s blocks, and during the operation the gross weight was registered. On arriving at the top platform, the milk was poured into a large tank, holding sixty or seventy gallons. From thence it descends into a receiving tank fitted with a simple warming apparatus, so that the milk may be raised to about70° Fahrenheit — which is the required temperature for the separator (Neilson and Petersen), which was placed on the upper floor. This machine was fully illustrated and described in Mr. Little’s Report of the Working Dairy at Derby. The principal improvement since introduced was a special con- trivance by Professor Fjord for regulating the flow of milk into the separator. This separator is designed to remove the cream from about 120 gallons per hour, with an expenditure of force equal to that of two horses. The cream was delivered into one of Ahlborn's cream cans, and the skim-milk flowed into an ordinary churn. 597 Report on Implements at York. fitted witli a tap, whence it was conveyed to a large Lawrence’s refrigerator, and from thence collected in a large railway churn, which, when full, was placed on the truck and transferred to the cheese-room outside the main building. The skim-milk during the Meeting was partly used as a beverage, and partly for the manufacture of skim cheese on various continental systems. The cream, being always fresh, can either be churned at once, or kept till it is ripe, according as butter for immediate use or for keeping is required. The practice at the working dairy was to keep the cream from the Danish separator until it was ripe, and then churn it in Ahlborn’s Holstein Churn — whilst the cream separated by Laval’s Separator was dealt with at once in a rotary churn, but these arrangements could have been reversed if desired. And it may be as well to point out here as regards the Hand-power Dairy, that whilst the English system of shallow setting was associated with appliances for making butter from ripe cream, the Swartz system of setting milk in deep cans immersed in ice- water was associated with ap- pliances for making butter from sweet cream, but the processes could equally well have been reversed. The cream, then, to return to our description, having been churned in about 20 minutes, was removed by hair sieves, placed in a butter-trough, and worked with wooden hands, — no water being used in order to remove the butter-milk. After having been a short time in the trough, it was put into the butter-worker, a circular revolving table, with a fluted roller also revolving. Here the butter was very thoroughly worked, and when all the butter-milk was expressed, it was re- moved into the hardening-box. And as these useful appliances are novelties in an English showyard, though described by Mr. Jenkins in his “Report on Denmark to the Royal Com- mission of Agriculture,” I give an extract from his report which will be explanatory : — “ Saddle-shaped pats of butter are in the best dairies placed in a long wooden box, fitted with movable laths resting on a ledge about a couple of inches from its solid bottom. This arrangement not only admits of drainage from the butter, but it also allows a current of air to sweep beneath as well as above and around the butter. The box is covered with a tin tray filled with ice or very cold water ; and thus the butter is left to harden for about two hours as a rule.” The butter was finally made up into pounds and half- pounds, stamped with the R. A. S. E. Brand. I have mentioned that the Laval separator was associated with the making of butter from sweet cream. This machine is much smaller than the Danish separator, revolves with greater rapidity, operates on about half the quantity of material in a given time, and takes 1 horse-power to drive. Messrs. Hald 598 Report on Implements at York. and Co., of 24, Great Winchester Street, London, the agents, supplied a specially arranged horse gear, and this is a point which the public apparently did not thoroughly understand at the Show, viz. that, though for convenience steam-power was usually employed, the work could have been equally well done at all times by horse-power. In Mr. Jenkins’s Guide an illus- tration is given showing the horse-gear applied. The Laval separator was fixed to the floor, and the milk delivered by the railway, but first weighed on one of Avery’s platform weighing machines, then raised to the necessary height by one of Rainfortli’s jack-lifters, and placed in a suitable tank, from whence it was supplied to the revolving cylinder by a tap. This machine is so well known, and is so well described in Mr. Jenkins’s pamphlet, that further notice is unnecessary, except, perhaps, to remark that Messrs. Hald and Co. have intro- duced some alterations in the cover, by which the products are dis- charged more readily. A double case allows of hot water being introduced, which warms the cream and causes it to become thicker. The form of the discharge orifices also facilitates the process. The cream from this separator was churned at once in one of Bradford’s Diaphragm Churns. The skim-milk was refrigerated in one of Lawrence and Co.’s machines. The butter when taken from the churn was manipulated with Bradford’s “ Springfield ” Butter-worker, worked either by hand or power. The power was supplied by a twelve-horse power portable engine with plenty of boiler space. A copious supply of hot water was provided by a tank over the engine, fitted with a ball-cock for cold water inlet, a one-inch steam-pipe, perforated, passing round the bottom of this tank. In a few minutes after steam was turned on, 200 gallons of water was raised to boiling heat, and hot water supplied to all parts of the factory. I must not omit to note that Pocock’s Patent Milk-can Cleaner, made by the Reading Iron Works Co., which received a medal last year, was shown in operation. It comprises a tank or trough, with three revolving brushes : the two outer ones in an opposite direction to the centre brush, on which the cans are run, and held for a few seconds by one attendant, while his assistant, standing on the other side of the trough, removes them, and stands them on end to dry. This is an ingenious arrangement ; but in order to insure absolute cleanliness and the destruction of any germs, the cans are placed over a perforated steam cap, supplied by a halfrinch steam-pipe from the boiler. The steam is certain to destroy any germs that might escape the washing and scrubbing process. It is not suggested that the arrange- ment of the working dairy was entirely the best that could be contrived ; but it was arranged so as allow the public to see as 599 Report on Implements at York. much as possible of the various operations. In that part of the building which represented the farm dairy, milk was set in Swartz vats, deep oval cans, skimmed after 12 hours for the production of sweet cream, and in Bradford’s shallow pans on revolving disc-stands for ripe cream. Here the skimming takes place after 22 hours, and the cream is kept for 24 hours. The skim-milk was cooled by passing over Lawrence’s refrigerator. Three churns were shown in work — E. Taylor’s Eccentric, George Hathaway’s Prize Churn, and the American Swing Churn, sold by the Aylesbury Co. A small hardening box wras used, and the Albany Butter-worker, and Ahlborn’s knead- ing boxes, &c. The following very interesting account of the produce of the working dairy, kindly supplied by Mr. Jenkins, may well conclude this branch of my subject : — “ A slight sketch of the work done in the Society’s Dairy may be interesting, as an illustration both of possibilities and diffi- culties. It was intended to commence work with about 200 gallons of milk on Thursday, July 12th, and the contractor delivered exactly that quantity according to arrangement ; but, as some of the machinery was not in working order, it was found necessary to dispose of it otherwise. On Friday, 216 gal- lons of milk were received, and most of it was set for cream, either in shallow pans or in the Swartz deep cans, but the separators were not then ready to work. For the first day to which the public had access to the Implement-yard, 400 gallons of milk had been ordered, and 390 gallons were received. By this time the dairy was in full working order, and everything went well thenceforth, with the exceptions to be mentioned presently. “ The milk received from July 14th until the close of the Show was as follows : — July 14th, Saturday „ 16th, Monday .. .. 403 „ 17th, Tuesday .. .. 373 „ 18th, Wednesday .. .. 467 99 „ 19th, Thursday .. .. 409 „ 20th, Friday .. .. 399 99 Total .. .. 2441 “To this must be added a considerable portion of the milk received on Friday, which was set for cream as already stated ; and it will not be far from the truth if the dairy is debited with a total of 2600 gallons of milk. “It was intended that a complete, record should be kept of the yield of cream and butter from each portion of milk treated in the four different ways illustrated in the dairy ; but, unfor- 600 Report on Implements at York. tunately, the clerk in charge disappeared after Tuesday, the 17th, and although another was put in his place, he did not possess the knowledge of what was required ; and the books of the previous clerk, when recovered, were found too loosely kept to give the results recorded in them any scientific value. “ However, it is quite certain that a total of 686 lbs. of butter was actually sold and paid for, that 48 lbs. was given away in 1 lb. packages, and that cream and milk equal to about another 50 lbs. of butter were sold to the exhibitors of the competing dairies. We thus arrive at a total of 784 lbs. of butter accounted for. But the desire of the public to taste the butter is a factor that should not be forgotten ; and the quantity con- sumed in this way would easily raise the total to more than 800 lbs. of butter made.* “ In a permanent dairy on the old type this result would not be considered anything to boast of, as it represents as much as gallons of milk to 1 lb. of butter ; and in a dairy where cream-separators are exclusively used it would be looked upon as exceedingly bad, and as indicating a defect somewhere. In a Showyard, however, the case is different. First of all, it must be remembered that a large quantity of milk is there required daily for a very short time, and must be bought where- ever it can be obtained. The milk received at York was found very poor in butter-fat, ranging between 6 and 8 per cent. only. Then the separators, under the conditions imposed for the benefit of the public, could not work continuously for more than an hour, and a certain loss of cream was the inevitable result. Again, a large proportion of the milk was set for cream in either shallow pans or deep cans, and the total result just men- tioned is about what would be expected from those methods, by the use of milk so poor in quality. “The skim-milk was partly sold to the Refreshment Purveyors, partly made into two varieties of skim-cheese by a German dairy- man in a detached shed, and partly given to the pigs in the Show- yard. It was considered desirable to show how to make hard skim-cheese and soft skim-cheese — the former having a certain Gruyere character, and the latter (Backstein cheese) a remote re- semblance in flavour, when properly ripened, to the well-known Camembert. The latter experiment was, however, completely frustrated by the voracity of the public on the first shilling day (Thursday, July 19th). During the temporary absence of the attendant, hundreds of people worked their way into the shed and ate up the whole of what had been made in that manner. * On one day about half tho milk did not arrive until late in the afternoon, and liad therefore to bo dealt with in a very hurried and imperfect mauner, thus reducing materially the yield of butter. Report on Implements at York. 601 This alone was registered in the books as 302 lbs., and the public finished this extraordinary gastronomic performance by eating two of the hard cheeses, the weight of which had been entered as 31 and 37 lbs. respectively. “ Fortunately they were stopped at this point, but the Back- stein experiment, as I have said, was at an end. Several of the hard cheeses were, however, taken by one of the Judges of Cheese and Butter — Mr. G. W. Burrows, of 36, Snow Hill — and his report of their reception on the London Market, when they are ripe enough to be sold, will be looked forward to with interest by those who find a difficulty in making a profitable use of their skim-milk. But it is unfortunate that circumstances of weather, and the exigencies of a Showyard, must always prevent a fair trial being given to any system of Cheese-making at one of our country meetings. Such rain, for instance, as fell from Friday evening until Monday morning, almost without intermission, was enough to ruin any newly made cheese kept in a temporary shed. “ It is eminently satisfactory to be able to state that there was but one opinion as to the quality of the butter. Although 800 lbs. made in a Showyard in six days is rather a large quan- tity, there was not the least difficulty in selling it at fair prices wholesale, and high prices retail. The refreshment purveyors had been offered it in certain equitable quantities per diem at Is. 2 d. per lb., and most of them gladly seized the offer. It was considered desirable to reserve a proportion for the public, who willingly paid 2s. per lb. on the first three days, and Is. 6d. per lb. on the shilling days. The Manager of the Station Hotel, belonging to the North Eastern Railway Company, took as much as could be spared, and he stated that the visitors began to complain when they had any other butter given to them after they had once been served with that from the Society’s dairy. But the highest testimony, probably, was that given by those refreshment purveyors who had not agreed to purchase any of the Society’s butter. On the evening of the first day (Monday, July 16th), they begged to be allowed to have some, as the visitors complained so much of the inferior quality of what was served them, as compared with what had been given them at the other sheds.” Silver Medals. The following novelties, in addition to Messrs. Howard’s Straw-trussing Machine, already described, were considered sufficiently meritorious to justify recommendation to the Imple- ment Stewards for Silver Medals, which were granted : — 5061. Threshing Machine, with Exhaust E. Foden, Sandbach, Chester. 227. Steam Plough C. Cattley, York. VOL. XIX. — S. S. 2 R 602 Report on Implements at York. 2551. Screen for Corn, Seeds, &c. .. 5962. Small Dredger 4762. Straw Yealming Machine .. 844. Horse Hoe 2075. “ Albany ” Butter- worker .. 3879. Hope for Steam Cultivation Shield & Crockett, Nottingham. Priestman Bros., Hull. R. Maynard, Whittlesford Works, near Cambridge. Fred. Savage, King’s Lynn, Norfolk. T. Bradford & Co., Manchester. Geo. Cradock & Co., Wakefield. FoderHs Threshing Machine. — The novelty in this machine consists in the employment of an exhaust fan so arranged as to carry out the work usually performed by the first and second winnowers, and which also acts as a chaff-lifter and chaff-cleaner. The advantage is, in the first construction, in the saving of power for a given result — inasmuch as both blast-fans, as well as shafts, pulleys, and straps, are dispensed with, — and in the excel- lence of the work due to the arrangements for regulating and con- trolling the current of air according to the nature of the grain to be dealt with. Minor merit is found in the construction of the scourer or hummeller-chamber, which has a ribbed lining sepa- rate from the casing, and is cast in two parts of half-cylindrical form, capable of being reversed in position, so that when the ribs get worn out on one side, the lining can be removed and reversed, and so present the other edge of the ribs to the scourer. In connection with this portion of the machine must be mentioned a valve on the under-side of the tunnel or creeper by which the grain travels to reach the scourer, by means of which corn can, if required, be withdrawn without passing into the scourer. This is an advantage where the sample contains smut and damp grain, which would, if worked through the scourer in the former case, impregnate the sample through the breaking of the smut balls, and in the latter cause the choking of the cleaner. By means of the drawings used by Mr. Foden in his specification I shall hope to make the character of this valuable and ingenious invention clear and understandable. The blocks for Figs. 4 and 5 have been kindly lent by the editor of the ‘Engineer,’ in whose issue of July 20 a descrip- tion of Mr. Foden’s invention appeared. The easiest mode of explanation -will he to follow the passage of the air, which is drawn into the machine by the inlets a a, Fig. 5, at the base of the exhaust box b, and close to the mouth of the revolving screen d. The air, as it rushes up on its way to the exhaust fan on the opposite side of the machine, meets with the grain, light corn, and such particles of chaff, as have escaped the first action of the wind, as com and chaff fell from the drum into the dressing-chest t, or have been separated from the grain by the scourer p. The descending corn, &c., is weighed by the ascending wind; and the light grain and other light particles are carried along with the cur- rent in the direction of the arrows through the passage c (which is arranged in this case inside the framing c1 of the machine) into the light corn pockets d, when the pressure is reduced owing to the increased area, the 603 Beport on Implements at York. consequence of which is that the light corn, short straws, &c., instead of being carried forward with the air, are liberated, drop down, and reach the light spout l (Fig. 5), and are so separated without going into the circular screen at all. It should here be noticed that the exhaust box b is enlarged con- siderably at the part b1. The object of this is, that any portion of heavy corn which may have been carried up with the lighter portions by the 2 r 2 604 Report on Implements at York. action of the air, when it reaches this point falls back again, owing to the reduced, pressure due to the enlarged area. This is a very ingenious and important detail. In the machine exhibited at York a portion of the wooden coveriDg was replaced by glass, allowing the spectator to witness the balancing action of the wind, which, as will be seen, is under delicate con- trol, so that we have the perfect action of a blower removing light corn before the size of the grains are made the means of separation by the revolving cylinder r. Pursuing our enquiry, we find the air plus the chaff scales, &c., drawn from the pocket d through the tubes d and e into the exhaust fan f. The first winnowing operation is performed in the dressing-chest by means of the fan, which draws the chaff through a pipe or extra chamber, and blows it up a tube to the spouts g g, when it falls into chaff-bags, or is otherwise removed. But as it passes through the fan it is cleaned from dust by means of the perforated casing m m (Fig. 4), and the sliding valve h (Fig. 5) in the air-chamber of the riddle-box, and the air inlet at u (Fig. 4). Fig. 5. — End view partially in section. Reference has been made to the nature of the scourer. The following figures, which accompanied the first specification of Oct. 21, 1881, will more fully explain the details of this important portion of the machine. In Fig. 6, J is the ribbed lining which is secured by bolts l to the outer covering k ; by removing the bolts the lining can be taken out and reversed, and thus its efficiency and durability is doubled. Fig. 7 shows the valve b, which opens outwards, and is useful in the case of wet or smutty grain, which should not go into the scourer c. m is a valve which can be set more or less open, and by which the passage of the corn from the scourer is regu- 605 Report on Implements at York. lated, so that the degree to which the com is scrubbed is to some extent under ' control, although of course this will mainly depend upon the capacity of the box and the rapidity of the supply. More important than the valve are the j dividing ribs or plates fixed at the mouth of the scourer N (Fig. 7) and j j (Figs. 1 4 and 5), which serve to divide the grain and disperse it as equally as may be 1 over the entire surface of the exhaust box b, so that the ascending current may 1 have a uniform influence over the grain as it falls from the scourer. Such is ! a brief description of Mr. Foden’s inventions, which appeared to the Judges to be of great merit, in simplifying without lessening efficiency. That a machine so constructed may be made for considerably less cost than an 1 ordinary finishing machine is evident from the reduction of working parts. Equally apparent is the considerable saving of power in driving a machine in which the gear is so much simplified. Then comes the all-important question ' of efficiency. The Judges tried the machine with wheat and oats, which presented great contrasts as to weight, quantity of chaff, &c., and the results were entirely satisfactory, and in the case of oats the chaff did not contain a particle of grain, whilst the corn was entirely free from chaff. Considering the comparatively light nature of the oats, this fact proves the capability of the machine for delicate adjustment. The Catalogue price of the machines, with a 5-ft. drum, was 155/. Fig. 6. — End sectional view of Scourer. K Fig. 7. — Front sectional view ( enlarged ) of Scourer. 607 Report on Implements at York. Cattley s Steam Plough. — This patent dates back to June 19, 1877, and therefore is a novelty only as regards the Society, not having been exhibited at any meeting prior to York, although a familiar object in the Showyards of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society on more than one occasion. Mr. Charles Cattley, the patentee, is the manager of the York and East Riding Steam Cultivation Company, a position which he has occupied ever since the formation of the company in 1877. His practical experience of the balance plough, which has long been con- sidered as an implement with such serious defects that its employment is now very limited, led him to consider the pos- sibility of a machine free from the inherent defects of the balance principle ; a principle which necessitated unprofitably slow work, as otherwise the effect of the ploughs out of ground and in the air made the machine unsteady, and had a tendency to draw the working ploughs out of the ground — a defect espe- cially noticeable in crossing ridge and furrow, and in ploughing down steep hillsides. To be compelled to travel at two and a half to three miles an hour, when the engine power allowed of double that speed, is a serious drawback, rendering the operation too costly to compete with horse labour, or with the rapid move- ments of the Turning Cultivator, a machine which was intro- duced in 1868 bv Messrs. Fowler and Co., and which has rendered more recent improvement practicable. In Cattley’s plough advantage is taken of the cranked axle which carries the frame to allow of the ploughs being raised out of and dropped into work, and this part of the arrangement is very similar in principle to that of the turning cultivator, which will be readily gathered by reference to Fig. 9, which shows a plan of the front part of the plough, the general form of which will be under- stood by a study of Figs. 8 and 9, giving plan and elevation of the plough. By the help of those drawings (p. 608), kindly lent by the ‘ Field,' in whose issue of Nov. 9, 1868, the plough was described and illustrated, I trust to make the more noticeable features of this invention perfectly understood. By reference to Fig. 8, it will be seen that the machine comprises a strong frame, with two sides sloping away at an angle, and nearly meeting behind. Each side carries a strong shaft, to which are attached the plough frames (three, four, or five in number), which are so made as to slide on the shaft, being attached by set screws. The shafts may be made rotating, and by turning them in one or other direction, the ploughs are turned up from the ground or brought doicn to the ground. It will be understood that these shafts are perfectly independent of each other. They have on their contiguous ends bevel pinions, both in gear with one and the same bevel wheel, Fig. 8. — Plan of Plough. 608 Report on Implements at York. so that when one shaft is turned so as to raise its ploughs, the other shaft will be turned so as to lower the other set. On the other end of each shaft is a disc, having a notch at one end of its Report on Implements at York. 609' periphery, into which, when the shaft is turned so as to bring the ploughshares into their lowest position, a pawl on the frame catches so as to hold the shaft in that position. By this arrange- ment it will be evident that the uplifted ploughs do not act as a counterpoise to those in the ground ; and hence, however rapidly the implement travels, there is no tendency to jerkiness, or jump- ing out of work. The mode of turning the implement and raising the frame by means of the cranked axle are too well known in connection with the turning cultivator to require description. The pawl referred to, as holding the operative ploughs to their work, is released as the implement is being turned ; and the attendant pulls down the uplifted ploughs, which he does quite easily. Formerly, as is shown in the drawing, this was done mechanically by connecting the end of the lever H by chains, a5, working round friction pulleys attached to each end of the rotating shaft to the pulleys, a 3. This answered quite well ; Fig. 10. — Plan of front part of Plough. JL <53 but as an attendant is required for travelling, it was considered desirable to utilize his services, and thus slightly reduce the cost and complication of the machine. Originally, the plough frames or skaifs were of cast iron, and their great weight was objectionable. Now steel is used, and the lowering of the ploughs is a very simple business. It may be as well to very briefly describe the different parts by reference to the letters on the drawings. a a b b show the back and front portions of the frame, carried on a pair of travelling wheels c c, with broad tires ; these wheels are placed under the centre of the frame, and are covered by the ploughs, so that any injury to the surface from the weight of the implement is minimized by the fact that the wheel-tracks are at once destroyed. Moreover, the wheels travel on the hard ground, and the increased surface of the tires causes a distribution of the €10 Report on Implements at York. weight, so that though the plough is considerably heavier than the balance implement, the pressure on the ground is not greater, and it has the great advantage that the wheel does not travel in the furrow. The wheels are on a cranked axle, d, mounted in bearings on the framing, e is the front steering- wheel, mounted on the turning-frame f, worked by a chain,/1, from the hand- steering wheel f. a a are the rotating shafts carrying the ploughs g, and at their ends the bevel pinions a1 gearing into the bevel wheel a2, and on the front end of the said shafts discs a3, which a pawl, a4, engages. As some doubt arose as to the steering properties of the plough, the fulcrum of the lever h was made to shift if required by the pin sliding in a transverse slot h3 (Fig. 10), but prac- tical experience has shown that this arrangement was quite unnecessary, as the steerage is excellent. The depth of the furrow can be varied from four to ten inches by raising or lowering the frame ; this is done by altering the position of a pin in reference to certain holes in the quadrant on the cranked axle: the lower end of the quadrant is also made to come into contact with a stop when in its lowest position. The level position of the plough is secured by making the front portion of the frame adjustable in height on the bearings of the steering-wheel. An arrangement for marking out, and also guiding the steersmen is provided ; and recently two feet have been added, which enable the ploughs to take ground more rapidly, which is a noticeable improvement over the balance principle. The frame is made to receive cultivating tines, so that the implement may be used either for ploughing or cultivating. All that is necessary is to remove the ploughs and fit the cultivating tines into their sockets in the frame. A trial was arranged on Wednesday, July 18th, in a small field at Bishopthorpe, of strongish loam, which was rather hard and dry. The distance between the engines actually worked was 190 yards. This was not a favourable trial, inasmuch as the short distance necessitated such frequent stoppage and slacking at the ends. The mean time of a number of actual runs was 1' 8", which equals a mile in 10£ minutes, or miles per hour. During portions of each run the implement travelled at from seven to eight miles per hour, and was perfectly steady in work, turning over four ten-inch furrows six to seven inches deep with great regularity. Indeed, the work was excellent ; and the limit of speed appeared to be the power of the engines. The average time occupied in turning the plough at the land’s end was 30 seconds. A trial was made by working the plough for half-an-hour, with the following results : — Length of furrow, 9 ‘45 ch. ; width of work, -76 ch. = 0 a. 2 r. 34 • 9 p., which gives la. 1 r. 2 p. per hour. It is fair to assume, as the turnings occupied nearly one- third of the time, that with 400 yards of rope — in other words, double the length of furrow — one-third more work would have been done in the time. If, however, we assume an average of 1^ acre per hour, with a four-furrow plough, we have certainly an efficiency as to quantity double that of the balance-plough ; and I do not believe that even at its slow rate of travel the balance-plough could make such excellent work as was made by Cattley’s plough travelling at fully six miles an hour. Indeed, Report on Implements at York. 611 wires are close together during the operation of screening, which of course is only whilst they are below the spindle. They open sufficiently, when performing that portion of the revolution above the spindle, to allow any grains that are held between the wires to fall away, and thus this screen is self-cleaning, brushes or metal discs being done away with. In two important points, therefore, this screen is a decided advance, viz. in doing away with the internal worm and with the external brush. The screen heads have heavy rims projecting considerably beyond the bosses, which fit loosely upon a disc on the shaft. the rate of speed appeared to have no effect upon steadiness. And all who witnessed this trial must have been as much impressed as the Judges with the great superiority of Cattley’s plough over balance implements. Working so steadily, it is well adapted for shallow work, as it made a good furrow when only four inches deep. This is the first machine that has been made, and both price (150/.) and weight may eventually be con- siderably reduced. Shield and Crockett's Corn-Screen. — This is a circular corn- screen on a novel principle, and highly ingenious, inasmuch as the helical form of the wires and the corrugated outline of the screen secure the passage of the grain with great regularity without the aid of a sheet-iron worm, so that the whole of the interior is screening-surface. But the most noticeable feature is, that the screen is so attached to the spindle that the upper portion is more extended than the lower, and consequently the Fig. 11 . — View of Shield and Crockett's Self -cleaning Corn-screen. 612 Report on Implements at York. They are thus allowed to “ wobble ” on the shaft, which causes the wires of the screen always to be closer together at the bottom than at the top. The appearance of the screen, and the peculiar arrangement of the upper and under surface, will be understood by the drawing on p. 611. The difference of length above and below is about four or five inches. A trial was made with a mixture of grain and weed- seeds, which was quite satisfactory as to efficiency. The price of screen and frame for hand-power is 15 1. Priestman Brothers’ Dredrjer (No. 5962). — Messrs. Priestman Brothers, of Hull, have exhibited their well-known Dredging, Excavating, and Elevating Machines in the Showyard of the Royal Agricultural Society for many years, but this is the first occasion on which they have shown a machine which, both on account of its capacity and price, could be properly regarded as Fig. 12. — Side view of Priestman’ s Dredger. adapted to agricultural work : the larger machines hitherto shown being suitable for contractors’ works, and not for private enterprise. The cleansing and deepening of narrow water-ways, drains, dykes, and small streams, is work of such vital import- ance in flat outfall districts, that the value of any invention which expedites and cheapens such operations cannot easily be 613 Report on Implements at York. overrated. Such a machine was used during last autumn and winter in removing obstructions from the small streams near Minety, on the borders of Gloucestershire and Wiltshire, which constitute some of the sources of the Thames. The valleys in contiguity with these streams had suffered se- verely from floodings for some years ; but so effec- tive was the work, and such the amount of deposit removed, that not a single flood has occurred since the work was done. One great merit of the Dredger is that, worked either from the bank or from a barge, according to the size of the stream, it not only removes the mud, but deposits it on the bank, and thus a double operation is performed — the river-bed is cleaned, and the banks are raised simultaneously. The drawings represent side and end views of one of these dredgers on strong bogie frame, as it would be worked Irom the bank, and moved forwards as the work proceeds ; but it can be equally well fixed on a narrow barge. The weight of the ma- chine is 90 cwts., cost price, 2951. It is carried on a strong wooden bogie on four wrought-iron wheels, 9 inches broad, for travel- ling over soft land, fitted with two cylinders, 4 inches diameter by 7 inches stroke, with all the necessary gear- ing for lifting, lowering, or grab upon a jib, making pillar. The boiler is of ig. 13. — End view of Priesiman's Dredger. and turning round the bucket a radius of 13 feet from the centre the ordinary vertical cross-tube 614 Report on Implements at York. type, with a hot-water feed-tank below. A portion of the exhaust steam is passed into this tank, and the water is taken from it by means of a force-pump worked direct from the engine-shaft, and is put into the boiler at a high temperature. The grab or bucket, of which the following is an excellent illustration (Fig. 14), is capable of holding 3 to 4 cwt. of deposit ; it is faced on the cutting edges with interlocking steel plates, and is a most efficient as well as a very quaint- looking implement, which, as it descends into the water with its formidable steel-teeth in an open position, has been well likened to the jaws of some gigantic animal taking a huge bite out of the soil, a resemblance which is cer- tainly strengthened when it is seen with what rapidity and ease the sides of the grab close on its prey. When the soil is secured by the closing of the jaws, the grab is raised out of the water and rapidly swung round to its destina- tion, when the unloading is even more speedily performed. From a trial made by the Judges, it appears that this machine can make two complete lifts per minute, travelling round half the circle, filling and discharging its load each time. This gives an average work equal to fifteen cubic yards of soil or mud per hour. The working expenses of labour and coals are estimated at If/, a cubic yard, as one man can work the machine. The whole cost, including interest on outlay, depreciation, and reason- able profit, would not bring the cost of removing the mud and placing it on the bank at more than 3d. a cubic yard. And this is possible in a drain full of water, which is a point of great practical importance ; by no other machine of this description can we take the liquid mud from the bottom of the river and place it on the bank at one operation. It should be mentioned that, by the addition of a pulley, this machine can be used as an ordinary engine with great advantage. Maynard’s Straw Yealming Machine. — Mr. Robert Maynard, of Whittlesford Works, near Cambridge, exhibited a complete novelty in the form of a straw yealming or straightening machine, Report on Implements at York. 615 to be used as an assistant mechanical feeder to his large power chaff-cutters. These latter are well known and largely employed on the large stock farms of the Eastern Counties, and as this novel addition saves the labour of three men, at a cost of 221., it was considered worthy of a silver medal. Fig. 15 shows the yealmer attached to a chaff-engine. It will be seen that one man forks the loose straw on to the elevator just as it falls from the shakers of the threshing- machine, or as it is obtained from a stack if the two operations 616 Report on Implements at York. are conducted separately, one feeder is able to take the straw asjdelivered by the yealmer and place it in the box. Figs. 16 and 17 show a side elevation and plan of the machine. Fig. 16. — Side elevation of Maynard's Straw Yealming Machine. Fig. 17. — Plan of Maynard’s Yealming Machine. number of tines or spikes, c. Three such chain-gear compose the elevator-apron, and very efficiently carry up any straw that 617 Report on Implements at York. is thrown on them. As the straw reaches the upper end of the elevator, it is acted upon by two combs, which, by means of cranks, have a backward and forward motion at right angles to the travel of the straw. These combs are remarkably efficient ; and, without any tendency to arrest the motion of the straw, straighten it out most successfully. Its final discharge from the combs, and on to the box of the chaff-engine, is aided by a series of reciprocating forks ; f f are the cranks, with cog- wheels, gg, driven from the chaff-engine. The whole arrange- ment is very simple and effective. In Fig. 17, the positions of the cog-wheels, cranks, and arms of the combs are very clearly shown. Goss and Savage’s Horse Hoe. — This valuable noveltv, ex- hibited by Mr. Frederick Savage, of King’s Lynn, is specially designed for working between the drills of root-crops at the Fig. 18.- — Back View of Hoe. very earliest period of growth ; indeed, where the drill mark is plainly discernible, before the plants actually appear, if desirable and this is possible owing to the form of the side hoes, which YOL. XIX.— S. S. 2 S 618 Report on Implements at York. are so contrived that the soil is drawn away from the drills instead of being, as is generally the case, brought up to and on to the plants. This is a most important matter, as with accurate drilling the ordinary manual work of side-hoeing, which is usually the first operation previous to setting out the plants, is dispensed with. This work costs Is. Gd. to 2s. an acre, and can be done cheaper, better, and more rapidly by the hoe. The hoe was tried in a field of young turnips at Bishopthorpe, on the farm of Mr. A. Lofthouse, and afterwards on an older crop belonging to a cottager, which was in very dirty condition, so that its efficiency, both for close-hoeing in an early stage and for dealing with strong-rooted weeds, was tested to the entire satisfaction of the Judges, who were very favourably impressed with the merits of the implement. Fig. 18 (p. 617) and Fig. 19 (below) will enable the reader to understand the construction of the machine. Fig. 19. — Sketch of Side Hoe. It will be seen from Fig. 18 that the hoe is designed to cover one whole interval and two half spaces, and thus all the ground is disturbed ; and, provided the drilling is accurate, there is no fear of injury to the plants. The outer hoes can be removed, and one space only hoed. This is only necessary if the space between the drills is irregular. The hoe is equally adapted to deal with crops on the ridge or on the flat ; and this is possible, owing to the variation of pitch that can be given to the side hoes. For flat work the front and side hoes are set at one level ; the pitch of the side hoes, to raise the point to a proper height above the ground, and so ensure the soil being drawn away from the drills, is regulated by the slot a in the carrying arm b (Fig. 19). In ridge work the front hoes are lowered to the depth of the furrow, and the side hoes raised in the regulating box c, and adjusted for pitch in the slot a, as before. The hoes may be regulated to suit any width of drill, by Report on Implements at York. 619 sliding the castings to the desired position on the main square bar, and fixing them with set screws — the side hoes are equally capable of regulation, as will be readily seen by Fig. 18. The hoe is well made ; the construction is strong, and the material of the best ; yet, making due allowance for these facts, the price, 13/. 10s., appears unduly high. If some reduction could be made, a large demand might be anticipated. Bradford’s “ Albany ” Butter- Worker. — The form of this novel arrangement will be at once seen by the illustrations, which represent (Fig. 20) the worker as in operation, and (Fig. 21) the same fitted as a table, the roller, & c., having been removed, and placed in standards in the bottom of the frame. The tray reversed forms the top of the table. Fig. 20 — “ Albany ” Butter-Worker. The worker consists of a fluted roller made of sycamore, which operates in a rectangular tray, carried on a strong frame. The tray and frame are made of American maple, — a close-grained, non-absorbent wood, capable of being worked to a beautifully smooth surface. This wood is both cheap and well adapted for the purpose. It is used in Bradford’s Diaphragm Churn, and also for the washing-up tray in the Model Dairy. The carriage carrying the fluted roller works in grooves on the outside of the tray ; both hands are used in the operation. The left hand moves the roller backwards and forwards from end to end of the tray by means of a vertical handle on the top of the carriage, while 2 s 2 620 Report on Implements at York. the right hand revolves the fluted roller by means of a crank handle. The pressure is given by an improved patent wood- spring, which adjusts itself to the quantity or consistency of the butter on the tray. The forward movement rolls out the butter into a fluted layer, and the backward either repeats this rolling- out process, or, as may be desired, rolls up the butter into a lump, ready either to be again operated upon, or to be removed from Fig. 21. the table. During the working the necessary quantity of salt is added, and, by means of the worker, thoroughly incorporated with the butter. The Albany Butter-Worker is simple in construc- tion, efficient in operation, and has the advantage of acting both as a butter-worker, and a table on which the butter may be made up if desired. Price hi. G. Cradock and Co.’s Wire Ropes. — At the Derby Show in 1881, these ropes, made under John Lang’s patent, were exhibited for the first time. The Judges were favourably impressed with the merit of the new invention, but having no actual experience of durability, were not in a position to recommend a medal. The evidence that has been forthcoming in the interval has proved so conclusively the superiority of wear for this rope over the ordinary construction, that on this occasion the Judges had no doubt as to the propriety of awarding a silver medal. The difference in construction and wear will be readily understood by reference to the accompanying illustrations, which represent old and new ropes. These excellent illustrations, which are taken from actual ropes, will speak for themselves. But it may be well to point 621 Report on Implements at York. out, that whilst a soft material like hemp must be twisted in opposite directions, in order that the particles may cohere together, the rigid character of steel renders this unnecessary. In looking at the two ropes, it must be evident that in Lang’s Patent there is a much larger wearing surface, and that more equally exposed to friction. Again, under the ordinary twist, the strands of the rope and the rope itself are “ laid ” in opposite directions, and the wires are worn on the crown of the strand ; a small part only of the rope being thus exposed to Lang’s Patent Wire Rope. Ordinary or Old Construction. friction, the wires on each side of the worn part retain their full strength. The result is that many ropes have to be taken off, consequent upon the wires breaking upon the crown of the strands when otherwise only slightly worn. This is seen in Fig. 25 ; all the broken parts being on the crown of the strands. By Lang’s Patent the strands and the rope are laid in the same direction. There is thus a much larger surface exposed to friction, and the cause of wires breaking upon the crown of the strand is removed. The working of the rope round drums, pulleys, and curves, bends the wires obliquely, and thus the greatest possible amount of wear is secured, since the wires will not break until they become too weak for their work. Messrs. Cradock exhibited at York : — No. 1. A reel containing a piece of worn rope made on the old system, which had been in use 1 year and 5 months, and a piece of worn rope made upon Lang’s Patent, in use 2 years and months, both having been employed upon similar work. This was a most valuable illustration of comparative durability. 622 Repart on Implements at York. No. 2. A coil of rope (Lang’s Patent) which had been in constant use for 2 years and 2 months, having done twice as much work as any previous rope of the old construction under the same conditions. No. 3. A coil of Lang’s Patent plough steel rope, worn down from f to ^ diameter, having done twice as much work as any previous rope of the old construction under the same con- ditions. No. 4. A coil of plough steel rope (Lang’s Patent), 5600 yards long, weighing 6 tons, made for the Earl of Durham. I was informed by the exhibitors that, since the introduction of the rope in 1880, it has been applied at many of the largest colliery and mining works in the country, and I am permitted to intro- duce the following report from Mr. Thomas Watson, the manager of the Stores Department of the firm of Pease and Partners, Darlington : — “ I have pleasure in stating that your ropes of Lang’s Patent manufacture, a great many of which are in use at the collieries and mines here, are giving entire satis- faction, and will bear a very favourable comparison with ropes from other makers in use under the same conditions.” The manager of another large colliery firm states, “ that the £ Lang’s Patent steel wire rope,’ 6200 yards in length, which was supplied last year, has worked for a period of fifteen months on an engine plane which has several curves, and is of varying gradients, to our entire satisfaction.” For agricultural work the rope has not as yet been extensively manufactured. Ploughing ropes have, I believe, been sent out since 1880, and appear to have given satisfaction. There is one other point that should be named as favourable to this patent. It allows of the use of wire of the hardest class, without danger of breaking. The wire that is used averages 125 tons strain per square inch (i.e. 13J wire gauge), the size used for ploughing ropes is equal to 1850 lbs. breaking strain. Roberts' s Rain-water Separator. — This apparatus was illustrated and fully described by Mr. T. F. Jackson in his Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Reading. The Judges were very favourably impressed with the ingenuity of the apparatus, the object of which is to separate the water first collected from a roof — and which, varying in degree according to the situation and period of drought before the rain, contains impurities — from that which falls after the roof is washed clear of such foreign materials. It is not necessary to repeat the description or drawings. It is sufficient to explain that the apparatus is suspended on a pivot, and is divided into compartments, in such a manner that the water passes into the waste-pipe below the machine, until such time as the water, rising to a given height in 623 Report on Implements at York. the receptacle, passes through a hole or holes, which can be regulated to pass more or less rapidly according to whether the situation is town or country, and, accumulating in a large receptacle, overbalances the machine and cants it over to the orifice of the clean-water pipe ; and that, by a very ingenious contrivance in the form of an auxiliary pipe which conveys a portion of water direct into the larger receptacle, the balance is maintained until the rain ceases, when of course the water from the balance compartment gradually finds its way back into the receiver ; and as the weight is reduced, the machine cants over, ready to discharge the first portion of the next rain into the waste. In order that the merits of Mr. Roberts’s Separator might be thoroughly tested, machines were supplied to Mr. Copperthwaite, the Engineer of the North-Eastern Railway, to be used on a building at York Station, as representing to some extent a town roof, and to myself at Escrick Park, as for a country house. Mr. Copperthwaite was able to collect the water in two tanks, and a comparison of results with indications of a neighbouring rain-gauge are given in the following Table : — Date. Weather. Clear Water. Dirty Water. Total. Rainfall by gauge X 1670 gal. Rainfall by gauge. Remakes. 1883. Apr. 16 Rain galls. nil galls. 116 116 116-90 •07 19 Rain 173 34 207 200-40 •12 20 Rain 392 120 512 517-20 •31 21 Rain nil 33 33 41-75 ■023 24 Rain 163 330 493 501-00 •30 Snow-storm. 25 Pair . . 26 Fair . . 27 Fair 28 Rain 135 70 205 217-00 •13 29 Rain 586 100 686 701-40 •42 30 Rain 385 125 510 501-00 •30 May 1 Rain 1G5 155 320 317-30 •19 2 Fair )5 3 Fair 4 Fair 5 Fair 6 Rain nil 15 15 33-40 •02 Hail-storm. 7 Fair . . 8 Rain 160 45 205 250-00 •15 9 Rain nil 182 182 233-80 •14 10 Rain nil 70 70 116-90 •07 11 Rain 175 170 345 417-50 •25 12 Rain 65 45 110 116-90 •07 13 Rain 95 15 110 100-20 •06 14 Rain 18 55 73 75-15 •045 »? 15 Fair New Washer „ 16 Fair put into Se- 17 Fair parator. „ 18 Fair 19 Fair e. 3. 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 j Report on Implements at Yorli. Weather. Clear Water. Dirty Water. Total. Rainfall by gauge X 1670 gal. Rainfall by gauge. Fair galls. galls. Fair Fair Fair Fair Fair . . Bain . . 00 Or 105 190 217-10 •13 Fair Fair .. Fair .. Eain . . 15 60 75 116-90 •07 Fair Fair Fair Fair Fair Fair F air Fair Fair . . Fair .. Fair Fair . . Fair Fair . . Eain . . 45 68 113 133-60 •08 Eain . . 155 102 257 283-90 •17 Eain .. nil 10 10 41-75 •025 Eain . . 200 45 245 2S3-90 •19 Fair Eain .. 35 20 55 66-80 ■04 Eain . . nil 13 13 41-75 ■025 Eain . . nil 22 22 30-06 •018 Fair Eain . . 130 80 210 217-10 •13 Eain . . nil 45 45 33-40 •02 Eain .. nil 20 20 33-40 •02 Eain . . say 1240 65 1386-10 •83 Eain . . 340 160 500 434-20 •26 Eain .. 505 25 530 501-00 •30 Fair Eain . . say 1310 105 1503-00 •90 Eain . . 245 55 300 350-70 •21 Fair . . Eain . . 724 125 849 968-60 *58 Eain . . 235 120 355 367 "40 •22 Eain . . 95 95 190 183-70 •11 Fair Fair Fair Fair . . . . Eain . . 30 25 55 50 10 •03 Eain . . nil 25 25 33-40 •02 Eain . . 105 50 155 83-50 •05 Fair .. 5409 1335 6744 7144-26 4-27S Remarks. 85 days Report on Implements at York. 625 It will be seen from the above valuable records that the quantity of waste water over the whole period amounted to about 20 per cent., or one-fifth of the rainfall. But if we eliminate the heavy rainfalls of June 26th and 30th, then the waste was nearly 30 per cent., viz., 2859 gallons of stored water, and 1165 gallons of waste water; and by reference to the table it will be seen that the lighter the rain the greater the waste. Take as an example the 14th and 15th of June. On the first day '08 fell after 14 days of dry weather. Of a total of 113 gallons, only 45 gallons of clear water was secured, and 68 gallons went down the waste. The roof would then be washed ; but on the following day, when the rain was more considerable, viz. T7, of the 257 gallons which passed through the machine, 102 were dirty and 155 clean, so that in these two days out of a total of 370 gallons, 170 gallons would be lost, except we have a tank for dirty water, which, of course, would require frequent cleaning out. The reason why the proportion of waste is so much greater when the rainfall is light in character and small in volume is, that a great deal of water trickles through the machine before the requisite quantity reaches the counterbalancing-chamber ; and on the cessation of the rain, if only for an hour, the machine returns to its original position, because the water in the counterbalancing-chamber passes slowly away through the holes and is discharged. Hence, with occasional showers, a large portion of the water, which may be very precious, is wasted, although perfectly clean, inasmuch as the roof has been washed by previous rain. In the case of a real soaking rain, the Separator answers admirably, but unfortunately this is just the time when a little waste would not be material. If this tendency to too great waste could be obviated, as we think possible, then the Separator would acquire great additional value, and for use in smoky towns could be highly recommended. I much question if it is adapted for the roofs of agricultural buildings. It must also be borne in mind that, in order to use this machine, all the spouting must be so arranged as to bring the whole roof- discharge to one point, and the tank must be so far below the spouting as to allow of the fixing of the apparatus. Then, lastly, cannot the object be sufficiently obtained for ordinary agricultural purposes by passing the water from the tank through a filter-bed of gravel without any waste at all. It should be explained that during the heavy rains of 26th and 30th Jan. the clear- water tank overflowed from incapacity to hold the quantity of rain. Therefore the amounts were calcu- lated from the rainfall, and are a close approximation of the reality. At Escrick Park the water was discharged into small tubs and overflowed into drains. Samples of the clean and 626 Report on Implements at York. dirty water were taken, with a view to analysis ; but on several occasions during showery weather little difference was per- ceptible, and observation fully confirmed the experience of Mr. Copperthwaite, derived from actual measurement. The Society are much indebted to this gentleman for thus enabling the Judges to arrive at conclusions which they regret were not more favourable to Mr. Roberts’s ingenious apparatus. The value of such in densely crowded and dirty towns will indeed be great whenever he is able to reduce the proportion of waste water, and I am glad to hear that the Sanitary Association has awarded him a silver medal. Messrs. F. and J. S. Bust, of Winterton, Lincolnshire, ex- hibited a power “ Ensilage ” Cutter, so arranged that the cut material could be delivered direct into the silo. The fly-wheel, being provided with a series of fans, and working in a close- fitting cover, to which air is admitted below, acts as a blower, and throws the cut grass for a considerable distance — of great value in filling a silo. The fly-wheel carries 5 knives, which work very close to the face of the box. The feed-rollers are specially arranged to prevent clogging, and apparently this is a highly efficient cutter, but the question arises, for what crops it will be required ? Inasmuch as nearly the whole of our storage material is grass, which packs closely, and cuts out easily, why go to the expense of reducing such material by passing it through a chopper? We can understand that where coarse woody material is used, such as corn-stalks, then a powerful cutter may be very necessary. This firm also exhibited a Chaff Elevator and a Salt Sprinkler. The former consists of a long chamber in com- munication with a small fan, which forces the chaff out of the spout with great violence, and is said to convey it to a distance of 15 feet, a useful appendage to their power chaff-cutter, where the store-room is at an elevation from the ground. The salt- sprinkler consists of a small box, fixed at the head of the chaff elevator, with a revolving spindle furnished with a number of short arms, and a false bottom, the opening of which can be regulated according to the quantity of salt which is to be added. The salt mixes with the chaff as the latter falls from the elevator into the sacks. The advantage of using a certain proportion of salt with the food for all our farm stock should be more generally recognised. Sheep-stock, especially, have been preserved in health during recent wet seasons by this means, and this simple method of adding the salt is very practical and efficient. The cost of the Salt Sprinkler is 4/. 10s. Mr. Thomas Constantine Fawcett, of Burmantofts Foundry, Leeds, who is well known in connection with brick-making machinery, exhibited a complete novelty in a Safety Valve for Fiors. fuul.27. — Fawcett. and Har area re’s Patent Sat'rtu-valve, for Steam-hnih-rg Fig. 26. — Transverse Section. Fig. 27. — Longitudinal Section. « o .. Yalvo case, fixed to the top of the boiler, and containing tho J d. Low-water float. valve and end of the outlet pipe to furnaces. e. High-water float. ■ Outlet pipe to convey steam to furnaces. ! f. Lever with floats at ends for lifting valve at high or low water, . Dead weight on safety valve spindle. I a, Boiler furnace, 628 Report on Implements at York. Steam-boilers (Fawcett and Hargreave’s Patent). The valve itself is an ordinary dead-weight safety valve, but is attached to a lever inside the boiler, with floats at either end, which cause the valve to lift when the water is either at too high or too low a level. The valve is contained in a lock-up box, and the liberated steam, instead of escaping into the air, finds its way by a pipe to the crown of the flue, discharging its steam over the hottest part of the fire, and thus at once damping down the fire. If the escape is due to too high pressure, the damping down of the fire at once has the desired effect of lowering the pressure of the steam ; fuel is economised, and directly the steam discharge ceases, the fire brightens up again. If it occurs from either the water being too low or too high, the engine-driver’s attention is directed to the fact, and he regulates the pnmps accordingly. The drawings and details on p. 627 will fully explain this very ingenious invention. It will be gathered from above that the safety valve of Messrs. Fawcett and Hargreaves not only provides for the escape of steam which otherwise might become dangerous, but utilises the steam to correct the cause of excessive pressure, and thus prevents useless consumption of fuel, and at the same time the noise of the escaping steam calls the attention of the engineer to the reason for the escape. If by any carelessness the driver was absent and the water had become too low, and might, if unchecked, result in an accident, it is quite evident that long before any of the heating surfaces could be uncovered the fire would be extinguished ; and therefore, so long as the apparatus is in working order, its action is perfect. The danger of automatic appliances is that they tend to make the attendants careless, and, being entirely depended on, if through any cause they fail to act, accidents may occur. It is not, however, easy to see how such simple mechanism could get disarranged, and we think, for fixed boilers especially, the arrangement is excellent. The price for a single flue boiler is 10Z., for a double flue boiler, 12Z. fV. Liplitfoot, of Stockton-on-Tees, exhibited an Improved Potato Riddler, which has this advantage over circular revolving screens like that of the East Yorkshire Wagon Co., exhibited at Reading, and figured and described in the * Journal ’ of last year, that diseased potatoes can be hand-picked off the screen. By means of two screens we get a triple division, viz., best, seed, and small. The arrangement will be gathered from the drawing, which gives an excellent miniature of the machine (Fig. 28). The two screens work backwards and forwards, or rather to and fro across the frame, running in a groove on friction wheels ; the requisite shaking motion is thus obtained with much less fatigue than when the operator holds the screen or sieve, and has Report on Implements at York. 029' all the weight of the load to agitate. The action is easy and rapid. Three or four movements of the large screen ensure the separation of seed and small, which, falling through the meshes of the sieve, are conveyed by an inclined plane to the second sieve. The best potatoes are delivered into a sack by ilting the screen, and a fresh supply is received. The process is rapid and effectual. The second sieve, after being duly agitated, which allows of the small sets passing through to a basket, is tilted up, and its proceeds delivered into a second sack. The frame, of strong construction, is carried on two Fig. 28. — View of Lightfoot’s Improved Potato Riddler. small iron wheels and axle in front, and raised by handles behind, and so moved like a common two-wheeled barrow. The price is hi. The riddles being loose in riddle-boxes, any sized riddle can be used. Thus for Regents, lf-in. to lj-in. are suitable; for Champions, 2-in. and 1| in. Kidney potatoes may be worked by altering the size of mesh. If potatoes are free Irom disease, the patentee states that 30 cwt. per hour can be screened ; if moderately free, about 25 cwt. Mr. James Coultas, of Grantham, exhibited a patent apparatus by means of which the chimneys of Portable Engines can be raised or lowered with great ease. To show the utility of this novelty it is only necessary to remind our readers that hitherto, when this operation has to be performed, the attendant must get in the top of the engine. The chimney is often very hot, and it is not an easy job either to raise or lower. It is farther possible that an accident might occur during the operation, and there is 630 Report on Implements at York. the continual risk of damage to the working parts of the engine by the carelessness of the attendant. Securely fastened to the smoke-box is an endless screw, worked by a handle, which actuates a small windlass, and thereby winds up the chimney by means of a chain which passes through an eye in a plate at the bottom of the chimney, and is attached to a rod which termi- nates at the top of the chimney. The advantages claimed by the patentee are : — The great saving of time ; prevention of accidents ; no risk of damage to the working-rods and other parts of the engine by the attendant standing on them ; no bolts required for holding •chimney up. The cost of the apparatus complete is 4 1. 17s. Qd. Fig. 29. — Coultas's Chimney Elevator. Messrs. R. J. and II. Wilder , of Wallingford, exhibited a Patent Elevator and Horse Gear which had some novel features. The motion is communicated from the horse gear by a wire rope through an improved clip drum gear. The clips are attached to the drum without nuts or bolts, being hung on and easily removed. This arrangement is possible in the case of drums oi small diameter. There is an ingenious adjustment to compen- sate for the stretching of the rope, by altering the position of one drum. In the elevator, which as to general construction follow.1 631 Report on Implements at York. the ordinary pattern of folding elevators, is a simple and efficient self-acting tightening rod to lengthen the carrying chains for work, by an ad justable screw. The axle of the chain- drum works in a slot, and is capable of moving 10 or 12 inches. The lower end of the rod comes against a stop on the lower half of the frame ; the upper end is in contact with the adjustable screw which actuates the axle of the chain-drum. As the front portion of the elevator is unfolded into position, the rod acting on the screw pushes the chain-drum into a position to insure a proper condition of tension to the travelling chain. The elevator costs 45/. and the horse gear 71. 10s. Mr. Henry Denton, of St. Peter’s Iron Works, Wolverhampton, exhibited a Two-Horse Gear with Intermediate Motion, which may be noticed as an adaptation of the capstan principle to a ‘ horse gear. The bell-cover is cast in one piece with the teeth, but the latter are so arranged that broken teeth can be replaced. The upright shaft is stationary, having a steel boss on the top welded on. A set pin revolves on the boss. The motion is easy, no friction wheels being required. The frame of the intermediate gear is bolted together and bored as a whole, doing away with glands, which cannot be tampered with by the attendant. Of course by this arrangement it is impossible to adjust the brasses ; as they wear away they must be removed and reground. The advantage of this arrangement is therefore somewhat doubtful. Price complete, 14/. 15s. A Steam Digger, by Cobham and Co., of Stevenage, was ordered out for trial, but, unfortunately, a breakage affecting the motion of the diggers prevented the machine being seen in work, although the travelling powers were not impaired. This was the more to be regretted, as there were good points about the machine — notably, compactness of form ; reduction of weight ; distribution of that weight by means of broad travelling-wheels ; independent carriage of the digger proper on small wheels of its own, allowing of equally good work across ridge and furrow, or upon a level surface ; easy detachment of digging- frame, when the engine is available for ordinary farm work, travelling, threshing, &c. All these were meritorious features of this machine, which rendered it very desirable to have carried out careful tests. Mr. Cobham did all in his power to have his machine in working order on Thursday morning, but, notwithstanding indefatigable exertions, the arrangements could not be carried out, which was a great loss for himself and the public. One man can work the machine, with the help of the water-cart lad in starting the engine. As the digger- frame is independent of the engine, and carried on its own 632 Report on Implements at York. wheels, an even depth of work is secured. The Catalogue price of this machine is 600/. It is not usual to notice in the Report the admirable display made by our leading seedsmen, a display which, as a rule, has hitherto been more striking than instructive, especially as regards the specimens of growing grasses. We see most verdant plots, which we are told comprise such and such mixtures, but it is quite impossible to distinguish the com- ponent parts, and beyond an impression of great luxuriance and rapid growth, there is really nothing to be learnt from such speci- mens, which in their preparation have doubtless occupied time and attention. Dried specimens of the grasses are little better, for they do not show accurately distinctive features. Messrs. Carter and Co. deserve recognition for a distinct advance in the art of exhibiting, inasmuch as they showed plots of all the leading nutritious grasses as nearly as possible at the flowering stage, when their distinctive characteristics are most marked, clearly labelled, and in such quantities as allowed of easy study. At another part of the stand were similar specimens of undesirable grasses and weeds of pastures, also shown in a flowering stage. Messrs. Carter and Co. commenced this innovation at the Reading Show last year, but have considerably developed the features of the system. The Scarborough Grain Dryer and Purifier (invented by Edward Keighley'), occupied much of the Judges’ attention, as they were anxious that a thorough trial of so novel an apparatus should be made. Unfortunately, anything like definite results were impossible, in consequence of difficulties in working, due in great measure to the fact, that a new motive power had to be used, as that provided by the patentee was condemned by the Superintendent Engineer as unsafe. In this engine the revolving cylinder was driven by rope-gear, and it was found difficult to rig up the necessary pulleys to fit the fly-wheel of an ordinary portable engine, which was afterwards adopted. The whole affair was very imperfectly constructed ; but it is probable that, if properly' made, it is capable of efficiently dealing with damp grain, and that at a cost that might allow of profitable use on a large scale ; but it is rather a merchant's than a farmer’s implement. Foreign grain that has been under water is frequently on sale at our large ports ; the drying of such might be carried out in Keighley’s machine, a short description of which brings this Report to a conclusion. This apparatus consists of a double-conical cylinder (pen- tagonal), B and C. The two portions are joined together by means of angle irons, D, riveted on the parts, B and C, and bolted together. Through the centre of this cylinder is a 633 Report on Implements at York. hollow shaft on which the cylinder revolves. The hollow shaft supplies steam (or water) to numerous serpentine coils of pipes covered bv plates (having about 120 square feet of surface), these being also fixed upon the shalt and inside the “conical cylinder,” which contains the grain or other material for treat- ment, and which, when turning on its axis, gives such complex motion to its loose contents (the force of gravity and that of cen- trifugal motion being brought into opposition by the shape, speed and position of the machine), that the grain gets rubbed at the same time that it is being dried. The vessel holds about 4J quarters, and the drying is effected partly by the heat developed from the hollow shaft and the serpentine coils of Fig. 30. — Keighley's Grain Dryer and Purifier. pipes, and partly by a blast of hot air (300 to 600 cubic feet per minute), which is blown in through a stuffing-box fixed at the foundation of the cylinder direct upon the grain by a small fan. The products of combustion are conducted from the smoke-box by a long tube, 9 inches in diameter, which, after making the necessary travel, returns to the chimney. Outside this is a larger tube, about 12 inches in diameter, con- nected with the fan and open at one end, close by the chimney. The air in its passage to the fan becomes heated to a high temperature, in which condition it is forced into the cylinder. If cold air is required, the hot air can be shut off from the tube VOL. XIX. — S. S. 2 T 634 Report on Wheat- Mildew. by a damper. This alteration is useful for cooling the corn. The hot air escapes, together with dust, &c., by the strong current, through the open neck at the top of the conical cylinder, along with the evaporated moisture. In the drawing, T re- presents a steam-drying cylinder, into which steam is admitted by holes in the hollow shaft, an alternative arrangement with the serpentine coils of pipes. Inside the conical cylinder are fitted plates, U, for the purpose of lifting and turning the grain, so as to cause it to fall over and over. On the shaft, E, is secured a worm-wheel, V, actuated by a worm, W, fitted on a shaft, X, which works in bearings, Y, cast on the side of the frame, 2, on which frame is secured the bearing, G, which carries the lower half end of the hollow shaft. The hollow shaft is connected with the steam-pipe by a flexible expansion joint, H. The cylinder is provided with an arrangement of sieves, which can also be used as doors for filling or dis- charging contents. These sieves are useful for separating cockles, dirt, &c. It should be mentioned that the invention provides for the application of a jet of steam and a rose of water, which may be desirable in certain cases for cleansing dirty grain, preparing brittle grain for millstones, &c. It is stated by the inventor that in 1881 wheat of Lord Londesborough’s was improved in value 20s. per quarter by being put through this machine. The Catalogue price of the Dryer is 50/. The Judges were inclined to view this invention favourably ; and when it is improved in construction, as to which there is plenty of room, they can readily believe that this machine may be valuable for drying grain. I cannot conclude this brief description of some of the novelties of the Machinery Department of the York Show without expressing our grateful sense of the valuable assistance given us by Mr. Robert Neville, who was at the head of the Engineering Staff ; and our best thanks are due to the Stewards of Implements for their unvarying kindness and ready attention to all our requirements. XXVII. — Report on Wheat-Mildew. By W. C. Little, of Stag’s Holt, March, Cambridgeshire. Among the numerous diseases which affect the cultivated crops of this country, there is probably not one which is more disastrous to the farmer than wheat-mildew is in those parts of the country where it is frequently prevalent. Potato-blight and hop-mould may sometimes entirely destroy crops which are Report on Wheat-Mildew. 635 more costly, and potentially much more valuable, than a crop of wheat ; but the growers of these crops have generally some compensation for their losses ; occasionally they make large profits, and they are therefore better able to bear their loss, and with them the part is often greater than the whole, for not unfrequently a deficient crop realises more money than a full crop would have done, because the price has risen in con- sequence of the short crop ; but the grower of wheat has no handsome profits to fall back upon, and the foreign supply prevents that advance in prices which might in some degree make up for a diminished yield. The yield of his crop may be reduced by 75 per cent, by mildew, and what remains is scarcely saleable. Widely spread as this disease is, and great as is the damage done by it, there would seem to be many farmers who have never suffered serious injury from it, and some who do not even know what it is. It may desirable, therefore, to give some idea of what a mildew year means in the East of England. In 1881 nearly all the white-corn crops in the low lands of Cambs, Hunts, Lincoln, Norfolk, and Suffolk, were more or less mildewed. Many crops of wheat were almost entirely destroyed ; the oats were greatly diminished in yield and quality ; and in some cases the barley was considerably injured. The district most severely injured may be defined roughly by the following boundary : From Cambridge, N.E., to Mildenhall ; thence N. to Stoke Ferry ; thence W. by Downham Market to Wisbech; thence N.W. to Spalding; thence S. by Peterboro’ to Huntingdon, and S.E. to Cambridge again. This area com- prises at least 600,000 acres of land, a large proportion of which is under the plough, and wheat is the staple crop. Probably 25 per cent, of the total area, or 150,000 acres of wheat, are harvested every year in the district described. In the middle of the month of July 1881 there was on all the best wheat- lands of this district the promise of a fine crop, which seemed, as it were, within the grasp of the farmer. Then an attack of mildew came, and the consequence was that the crop of that year was one of the most wretched ever gathered. In a large parish adjoining that in which I live, one which is noted for its fertility, the wheat-crops were described to me by an excellent judge and experienced farmer as being in July as good as anything he had ever seen. At harvest many of the best of those crops, which would under more favourable circumstances have yielded from 40 to 48 bushels to the acre, produced only 5 sacks, or 20 bushels ; and some of the very best yielded only 12 bushels of wheat, which weighed only 2 t 2 636 Report on Wheat-Mildew. 43 lbs. a bushel. On the 15th of July in that year I inspected all my crops, in company with a friend, who, after walking through every field, asked me, “ What is the greatest crop of wheat you have ever grown?” I said: “In 1863 and 1864 I had, on an average of the whole farm, 50 bushels an acre, within a very small fraction.” “ Is there any reason why you should not have as much this year ? ” said he. “ None but the uncertainty of the weather. However, I think I am safe now for 5 quarters round,” was my reply. Three days later, having heard a rumour that mildew had been seen in the neighbourhood, I went over the same ground and found every field attacked with the disease. The result was, that I grew barely 25 bushels of wheat to the acre, and that of wretched quality. What had been throughout the spring and summer the best and most promising crop, yielded barely 20 bushels of 53 lbs. each ( = 17| bushels of 60 lbs.). I sold this wheat at Is. a stone, and realised 31. 16s. an acre, and the straw was literally worthless. It would not be difficult to find instances of even more serious loss than this. On one farm of fairly good land, which I know, the average value of the wheat-crop was only 21. 15s. an acre, a sum which did little more than cover rent, rates, and taxes. In some instances the corn was never threshed, but thrown in sheaf to the pigs ; and probably many farmers would have done a good stroke of business if they had set fire to their most mildewed crops and burnt them as they stood. If we estimate that throughout the district of which I have spoken the wheat-crop was damaged to the extent of 4/. an acre, we have an aggregate loss to the farmers of that district amount- ing to 600,000/. on the wheat alone, leaving out of sight the damage done to other crops. Happily, such visitations as that of 1881 are not frequent, and we must go back some 60 years to find such a general and complete destruction of the corn-crop. One of the oldest farmers in the Isle of Ely tells me that he remembers only one such year, and that was “somewhere in the twenties” (1820- 1829) ; but very considerable damage has frequently been done by this disease. Within my own recollection the years 1850, 1852, 1855, 1859, 1860, 1865, 1872, 1875, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1881, were years of mildew, which was sometimes widely spread, and sometimes only locally and partially developed. It is probable that no part of England suffers so much and so frequently from mildew as the low lands of the Eastern Counties, but there are many districts where the disease is well known and dreaded. Nor is it confined to this country or to this quarter of the globe. It is said, I know not with what truth, to have been Report on Wheat-Mildew. 637 known to the ancient Egyptians.* The Romans offered sacrifices to propitiate their deity Robigus, and avert the disease. In the ‘Annals of Agriculture’ will be found a long account of a visitation which destroyed the crops in Sicily in 1804.f In France, the aid of the Law Courts has within the last few years been invoked to obtain the removal of a barberry hedge which was credited with having produced extensive mildew in the neighbour- ing crops. In the New World we find the State of Massachusetts, as long ago as 1755, making a provincial law for the complete extirpation of barberry bushes, because it had been found that the blasting of wheat and other English grain was occasioned by them and at the present moment the wheat-growers of Australia are anxiously inquiring into the origin and nature of the disease. Considering the wide distribution of mildew, and the fearful destruction which so frequently results from it, it is not surprising that it has long been the subject of inquiry by scientific men. The attention of these seems, however, to have been almost entirely devoted to the biology of the parasitic fungus ( Puccinia graminis), which causes the malady. Im- portant as this branch of the subject is, and much as we owe to the botanists and mycologists who have pursued their investi- ! gations so diligently, I venture to suggest that further inquiry in other directions is desirable ; and since it seems to be admitted that the study of the life-history of this mischievous fungus has suggested no effective means of preventing or mitigating the disease, it is worth while to ask whether the observation and experience of practical farmers cannot furnish some information which may enable the chemist or the physicist to assist them in lessening the damages to which they are now liable. Physicians, when they have to study disorders which affect mankind, or the live-stock of the farm, do not content them- selves with a diagnosis of the disease ; they proceed to ascertain what are the conditions under which the disease is generated, propagated, or malignantly developed ; and they inquire whether any habits of life, any inherited predisposition, any accidental surrounding, either spread the disease or make it more malignant in its character. YVhy should not the same system be followed in the case of plant-diseases ? I have implied in what I have said previously that the observation and experience of farmers may give a clue to * In Wicliff’s Bible, the seven years of scarcity which Joseph foretold to Pharaoh were attributed to Blildew. t Vol. xliv. p. 324. j A copy of this law will be found at p. 692. G38 Report on Wlteat-Mildeic. scientific men for further inquiry. I am aware that, as a rule, iarmers are not scientific observers, and no one would expect to receive from them conclusive evidence ; but if any considerable number should be found to concur in the opinion that some particular system of management increases the chances of mildew, and that a different system has been found less dangerous, it is surely worth while to inquire whether these opinions have any scientific basis. It is certainly no new thing for agricultural chemists to discover that the accumulated experience of generations has enabled farmers to arrive at conclusions which may have been empirically formed, but which are, nevertheless, scientifically sound and good. If I wanted an instance to prove that science may derive some aid from the observations of farmers, I could find it in connection with this very subject. It was by farmers that the association of the barberry with mildew was suspected. At first, as is frequently the case, scientific men derided the idea ; later on, they condescended to examine it more closely ; and within the last few years it has, I imagine, been conclusively proved that, after all, the farmer’s instinct or his observation had led to a right conclusion, and that the barberry-tree does play an important part in the life- history of the mildew fungus. Having laid my views as to the possible benefit to be derived from a collection of the opinions of experienced farmers on this subject before the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, I was requested by the Journal Committee to collect such information as I could, and to lay the result of my inquiries before the readers of this ‘ Journal.’ In order to carry out this object, I drew up, with the assistance of Mr. H. M. Jenkins, the Secretary to the Society, a Circular of Inquiries, a copy of which will be found appended to this paper.* When I prepared this circular I was not aware of the fact which was afterwards brought under my notice, viz. that Arthur Young had in 1S04 issued a similar circular of inquiries on the subject of mildew. As it may be interesting to compare the two sets of questions, I have given a copy of his queries.! My circular having been widely distributed throughout the country, 1 have received from numerous correspondents interesting and valuable communi- cations in reply. I regret, however, to have to state that a large majority of those who received copies of the circular did not give any answer to it. I am quite aware that many of the questions which I asked could only be answered by those who had made careful observa- tions and kept a record of them ; in point of fact they repre- App. I., p. GG4. t App. III., p. CSS. Report on Wheat-Mildew. 639 sent what one would like to know, and what ought to be systematically observed and noted in the future, if we are to discover in what degree the disease is encouraged or pro- moted by the surroundings of the crop and the conditions under which it is grown. I have to offer my thanks to those who did endeavour to assist me. An abstract of the replies will be found in an Appendix * to this paper. I have also abstracted from the ‘ Annals of Agriculture,’ published by the Board of Agriculture, some of the replies which Arthur Young received to his questions eighty years ago, when farmers were still suffering from the virulent attack of mildew which occurred in 1804.f Before proceeding to notice these replies, I purpose to give a brief and popular account of the nature of the disease known as wheat-mildew, and in doing this I shall avail myself of Mr. Carruthers’s paper on the subject contained in last year’s ‘ Journal, ’J and also of a paper contributed to the ‘Gardener’s Chronicle ’ in August 1882, § by Mr. C. B. Plowright, of King’s Lynn, who is well known as an authority on British Fungj, and who has given special attention to this particular disease. Wheat-mildew is caused by a parasitic fungus, known as Puccinia graminis, which attacks both oats and barley, as well as many of the natural grasses of this country. (| This parasite lives within the cellular tissue of the plant, sapping its vitals, and converting to its own use the sap which should nourish and mature the grain. The presence of this fungus in the infested host-plant is evidenced only by its fruit or repro- * App. II., pp. 665-684, t App. IV., pp. 685-690. I ‘ Journal R.A.S.E.,’ vol. xviii. pp. 495-503 : 1882. § ‘-On Wheat-Mildew and its Connection with the Barberry;” ‘Gardener's Chronicle,’ August 1882. || Mr. Plowright gives the following graminis has been known to occur. Phleum pratense. Alopecurus pratensis. „ fulvus. Phalaris arundinacea. Agrostis vulgaris. „ alba. Calamagrostis epigejos. Aira caespitosa. Avena sativa. „ fatua. „ pratensis. „ flavescens. „ elatior. Poa annua. „ nemoralis. „ pratensis. Molenia cserulea. Holcus lanatus. list of grasses upon which Puccinia Dactylis glomerata. Festuca gigantea. v. „ spectabilis. „ tenella. Bromus mollis. ,, tectorum. Triticum vulgare. „ repens. „ caninum. Secale cereale. Lolium perenne. Elymus arenarius. „ glaucifolius. Hordeum vulgare. ,, syivaticum. „ murinum. „ distichum. 640 Report on Wheat-Mildew. ductive organs, which burst through the cuticle and appear in red or black patches, disposed in rather irregular lines on the leaves, straw, or chaff. The life-historj of this fungus is remarkable, as “it has no less than five kinds of repro- ductive forms . . . CEcidium, Spermogonia , Uredo, PucciNIA, and Promycelium Of these five forms three only, CEciDIUM, Uredo, and PUCCINIA, come under the notice of the ordinary observer ; the Qdcidium of Puccinia graminis being the rust which is so conspicuous on the leaves of the common barberry in spring ; Uredo, the dark orange-coloured rust found on the wheat, &c. ; and Puccinia, the mildew. The wheat-rust in question must not, however, be confounded with the spring- rust which has been so common during the last two seasons, 1882, 1883. This rust is earlier in its appearance, and of a much lighter colour than the Uredo of Puccinia graminis. It is connected with another form of mildew, Puccinia ruhigo vera , which is not often injurious to corn-crops, at least in England. It has been observed that years in which rust is prevalent are not always years of mildew ; and in the fen districts, which suffer most from mildew, the prevalence of this spring-rust is believed to be rather beneficial than otherwise, as it reduces the ex- cessive luxuriance, which is the usual result of a mild winter, and which is popularly supposed to make the wheat-crops more liable to mildew. On stronger soils, and where the growth is less luxuriant, this rust is, however, much dreaded ; and it is said that the yield of corn is always much diminished by an attack of it. Mr. Plowright is the only writer on this subject whom I have met with who has pointed out that this common rust is not connected with the destructive mildew Puccinia graminis. To return to the last-named, the real and fatal mildew of our experience. As this is the only form in which the spores (called Teleuto-spores, or rest-spores) are capable of lying dormant, and retaining their vitality for more than a few hours, we may regard it as the culminating point of the series, the final de- velopment of the plant and the completion of the cycle of growth. Starting then from this point, that is, with the blackened straw of the previous year, we find that in the spring the Teleuto-spores are quickened into life, and from them are pro- duced another kind of spores ( Promycelium-spores ), which are said to be unable to retain life and bear fruit unless they can meet with a barberry-tree. Having settled upon a leaf of one of these shrubs, the spore bores into the interior and there de- * Plowright. Report on Wheat-Mildew. 641 velops into mycelium, which in the course, &c., of about eight clays produces rusty patches on both the upper and under sides of the barberry -leaf. From these spots of rust two different kinds of spore are shed, CEcidinm-spores from the under, and Sper- mogonia from the upper side of the leaf ; and it is supposed by Mr. Plowright that they are of different sexes, the smaller spores or Spermogonia playing the part of the male. The CEcidium-spores (perhaps fertilized by the Spermogonia ) are distributed in the air in incalculable numbers, and those which fall on plants adapted to fulfil the office of host-plants, germinate under favourable atmospheric conditions, — that is to say, in damp weather, — and throw out a germ tube which enters the host- plant through one of its stomata or breathing pores. Having effected an entrance, mycelium is again developed in the tissue of the plant (wheat or grass), and the fungus has now obtained possession of a home in which it can complete its life cycle. In the course of ten or twelve days Uredo-spores are produced on the outside of the leaf. These are distributed, and germinate and reproduce their kind. The reproduction of Uredo is repeated generation after generation until the host-plant approaches maturity, when the mycelium throws out Teleuto-spores or mildew, and the life cycle is completed. In the foregoing account the identity of the fungus which produces barberry-rust with that which afterwards produces a rust on wheat, and eventually mildew, is assumed as indis- putably proved. There are, however, circumstances which lead some to doubt whether the barberry-tree is indispensable for the development of mildew. Let it be admitted that the mildew- spores will germinate on the barberry and produce oecidium- spores, which will germinate on wheat and other grasses, and there generate Uredo and Puccinia , does it follow that the bar- berry is the only plant which can act as a foster-parent ? The advocates of the barberry theory adduce facts to prove that mildew is particularly prevalent in the immediate vicinity of such trees, and that the removal of them has at once caused a diminution of the disease.* * Sir Joseph Banks, in the ‘Annals of Agriculture,’ tells of a village in Norfolk “ where barberries abound and wheat seldom succeeds, called by the opprobrious appellation of Mildew Eollesby ” (xliii. p 521) ; and Cooke and Berkeley in their work on ‘Fungi’ (King’s Int. Scientific Series) say There is a village in Norfolk, called Mildew Rollesby, because of its unenviable notoriety in days past for mildewed corn, produced it was said by the barberry bushes, which were cut down, and then mildew disappeared from the corn fields, so that Rollesby no longer merited its sobriquet" (p. 199). The Rev. R. I. Tacon, the present Rector of Rollesby, in reply to some inquiries which I made, says that “ there are no remains of the ditease, as Rollesby is especially noted for its good land and fine crops." Then there is the famous case, so frequently quoted, of the barberry 642- Report on Wheat-Mildew. Now in the fen country, which may be termed the natural home of mildew, the barberry is a scarce tree, and it is probably only to be found in a few ornamental gardens. If a single tree infects a whole field, and if with the removal of that tree the disease disappears, might we not expect to find that districts which had no such tree would at least enjoy a partial immunity? Instead of this, they are peculiarly susceptible to the disease. Is there not some reason to suppose that some plant other than the barberry is capable of fulfilling the office of a foster-parent, or that the fungus can maintain life for more than one season without passing through that stage of existence which is passed on the barberry ? There seems a reasonable probability that both these questions may be answered in the affirmative. A few months ago, when I asked whether any other plant could supply the place of the barberry, I was told that it was exceedingly improbable ; that all the different species of CEcidium frequenting English plants had been identified, and that it was very unlikely that one which could be connected with mildew had been overlooked. In the paper to which I have so often referred, Mr. Plowright gave a list of the varieties of barberry on which the CEcidium of Puccinia graminis is found.* * Having observed in 1882 that the berries of Berberis aqui- folium (syn. Mahonia aquifolium — a variety of the barberry not included in the list referred to) on some shrubs in my garden were covered with a suspicious-looking rust, I mentioned this to Mr. Plowright, and on the 31st of May 1883, 1 supplied him with some berries which appeared to me to be infected with CEcidium. Upon examination they were found to be covered with this rust. A wheat-plant grown in water, under glass, in Mr. Plowright’s study, was infected from one of these berries, and on the 19th of June he sent me a portion of the plant with well- developed Uredo linearis upon it. Later on I found specimens of the same rust on the leaf and leaf-stalk of the Mahonia. Now hedge by the side of the Paris and Lyons Railway, ■which was said to have pro- duced mildew, and the removal of a portion of it (1 kilometre in length) was so beneficial that “ the whole hedge was then removed and the disease disappeared ” (Rev. J. Du Port, ‘On the Fungoid Diseases of Cereals,’ Transactions of tho Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, 1880). * The following is the list : — Berberis vulgaris. B. Aristala. „ ilicifolia. „ amarensis. „ canadensis. „ atropurpurea. „ nepalensis. Mahonia 1 glauca. 1 (In Loudon’s Encyclopedia of trees and shrubs, 1842, this variety is classed in the Berberis subdivision (as distinguished from the Mahonia) under the name of Berberis dealbatu. — W. C. L.) Report on Wheat-Mildew. 643 here was a plant which is tolerably common in gardens, and it had never been suspected of having taken any part in rearing this parasite, much less detected in the very act. Indeed, 1 have been told of a Norfolk gentleman, who after listening to one of Mr. Plowright’s lectures on mildew, went home in great distress, for he had been planting barberries largely, without any notion that he might have been contributing to agricultural distress by propagating mildew. With very great regret he sacrificed his shrubs, and was afterwards told on the best autho- rity that, as they were Bcrberis aquifolium, they were perfectly harmless. If one cecidium-bearing shrub has escaped the notice of the botanists, why not others ? Again, barberries are said to be unknown in Australia, but mildew is found there. Quite recently Mr. Plowright has examined specimens of straw sent over for his inspection from Queensland, and he pronounces the disease to be Paccinia graminis , and he writes to me thus : “ One feels inclined to think that there must be some CEcidium host other than the barberry.” Taking all things into con- sideration, it does seem not improbable that some other plant may take the place of the barberry. It is perhaps worth while to mention that there are some who affirm that the elder-tree will produce mildew, and who assert, as confidently as ever the advocates of the barberry theory have done, that they have traced the disease to some bush of this description, and that they have seen lines of mildew starting from one, just as they are said to have done from barberry-trees. At present, the most careful search amongst the leaves of the elder has not been rewarded with any success. But on the second point, as to the fungus maintaining life for more than one season without resorting to the barberry, a new light has been thrown by Mr. Plowright. It has been said above that the mycelium in wheat, 8cc., produces Uredo- spores until the host-plant approaches maturity. Now if these Uredo-spores can find a succession of suitable plants in a growing state, successive generations of Uredo-spores will be produced throughout the winter. In December 1881 Mr. Plowright found a fresh pustule of Uredo upon Twitch grass, and in January 1883, he sent me similar specimens which he had recently gathered. He also informs me that he has proved that the Uredo of Paccinia rubigo vera , a species nearly allied to P. graminis, will stand a temperature of 23° Fahr. without injury to its vitality. But Mr. Plowright goes one step farther, and ventures to assert the probability that the Promycelium-spores of mildew have the power of entering the wheat-plant, and there producing mycelium, with its successive stages of Uredo and Teleuto-spores, 644 Report on Wheat-Mildew. thus dispensing, for a season at least, with the assistance of the barberry and dropping out of the series the CEcidium and Sper- mogonia stages of the life cycle. It is true that De Bary did not succeed in his endeavours to produce Uredo in wheat directly from mildew ; but this is merely negative evidence. The following Table exhibits side by side (1) the normal and complete cycle of growth of Puccinia graminis, (2) an ab- normal or incomplete cycle, and (3) a possible abnormal cycle : — Puccinia Graminis in its successive Stages of Growth. Seasons. Normal or Complete Cycle. Abnormal or Incomplete Cycle. Hypothetical Abnormal Cycle. Autumn Mildewed straw, black lines, spots, and pat- ches, which are (1) Teleuto-Spores. (5) Uredo-Spores (1) Teleuto-Spores. Winter Of Puccinia Graminis ; continue growth Spring these remain dormant until the spring, when and the process of reproduction, if (2) Promycelium-Spores growing plants of the species capable Promycelium- are produced, and grow- of acting as host- Spores ing on the barberry plants are within which it is thought produce their reach anl may be capable Summer (3) (Eciiuum Spores and (4) Spermogonia. The former (fertilised by the latter ?) germinate on the wheat plant and other grasses, and de- velop mycelium in the cellular tissue of the host-plant, from which spring (5) Uredo-Spores. developing Uredo of entering the Wheat Plant, and there, pro- ducing mycelium and its (5) Uredo. These reproduce the On wheat without without passing parent mycelium, bear- passing through through the ing Uredo-spores gene- the intermediate CEcidium stage, ration after generation, stage of CEcidium and until the host-plant on the Barberry, finally Autumn approaches maturity, when (1) Teleuto-Spores and as the crop ripens (1) TELEUTO-SrORES (1) Tei.euto-Spores are formed, and the cycle of growth is completed. It would seem then that in one way at least, and possibly in two, the mildew-plant can propagate its species without the aid of the barberry-tree. If it can do this for one season, why not Report on Wheat- Mildew. 645 for two or three ? Occasional resort to the barberry may be necessary (unless some other plant will do as well), and renewed life and vigour may result from this resort, particularly if cecidium-spores are a sexual product. I have dwelt at some length on this part of the subject, because hitherto the only practical remedy for the disease which has been suggested has been the extermination of the barberry tree. If other plants can perform the same office, it seems hardly worth while to wage war against this shrub. I cannot consider Mr. Carruthers’s only suggestion by way of remedy, viz., that all mildewed straw should be burned, a practical one, as it would involve the entire destruction of the straw throughout the great wheat-growing district of the fens year after year. I proceed now to notice the replies which I have received to my circular of inquiries, and at the same time I shall avail myself of information which I have received orally from witnesses not less competent to form opinions than those who have done me the honour to put pen to paper. I shall also interpolate the opinions which I myself have formed from observation, and 1 shall notice some of the replies which Arthur Young received from his correspondents some eighty years ago. On reference to my circular * it will be seen that my questions were arranged under the following heads : — I. Districts in which Mildew is prevalent. II. Mildew years. III. Conditions under which the Disease is developed to a great degree. IV. Situation of Farm or Field attacked. V. Climate (6).| VI. Soil (1). VII. Previous Cultivation (7, 8). VIII. Description of Wheat (10). IX. Time of Sowing (2). X. Seed used. XI. Character of Crop. XII. Flowering Period. XIII. First Observation of the Disease. XIV. Time of Harvest. XV. General Observations. I propose to observe generally the order of these questions, but I have found it convenient in some cases to bracket two or three headings. On some points I have little to communicate, * App. I., p. 664. t The Arabic numerals in brackets refer to Arthur Yeung’s questions and the replies thereto. 646 Report on Wheat-Mildew. and I must leave them for observation and investigation in the future. I. Districts and IV. Situations. — In my returns 24 counties are represented, 8 lying in the Eastern Division, 9 in the South- eastern and East Midland, 6 in the Western and South-western, and 1 in the Northern and North-western districts. But some counties, as may be expected, are represented by a much larger number of returns than others. It is impossible from these replies to form any idea as to the extent to which different districts suffer from mildew. In almost every case the disease is recognised as an occasional visitant, but several correspond- ents (Nos. 4, 27, 42, 44, 46, 48, 52, 56, 57, 63, 74, 75) seem never to have had any serious experience of it. These fortunate farmers hail from Berks, Devon, Hereford, Herts, Hants, Kent, Leicester, Lincoln, Norfolk, and Sussex. On the other hand, representatives of Beds, Berks, Bucks, Cambs, Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Hants, Huntingdon, Kent, Lincoln, Norfolk, Somerset, Sussex, Wilts, seem to have suffered seriously. Arthur Young’s returns, which I have noticed, came chiefly from the same counties as mine, but six counties are represented among them which have supplied me with no information. Incidentally, I gather from these that in 1804, parts of Suffolk, Surrey, Glou- cester, Worcester, Stafford, Monmouth, and the West Riding of York, were sufferers from mildew. In my returns the worst accounts from districts outside of the Fen country come from the neighbourhood of Hythe in Kent, Hampshire, the Downs of Wilts and Berks, the lowlands of Somerset, from North Devon, North Cornwall, and the Wolds of Lincolnshire. It would seem that, next to low-lying lands, those of great elevation and exposed situation suffer most ; rvhile the slightly elevated lands are the happy medium. Now, undoubtedly mists and a saturated atmosphere, the conditions under which the mildew spores ger- minate freely, are more common in the vales and on the heights than in the middle zone between the two ; and the fact of mildew being more felt in these situations may seem to support Mr. Carruthers’s conclusion that it depends entirely upon the atmospheric condition at the time when the spores are in the air, to determine whether a crop shall be destroyed or escape ; but this would be a hasty generalisation, and it will, I think, appear clear hereafter that there are other predisposing causes than this liability to moist and misty atmosphere. II. Years of Mildew. — I have stated at page 636, that certain years within my recollection were years of mildew in the Fen country. My correspondents specify as a rule only very recent years; but Mr. Attwater (No. 78) speaks of 1839, 1864, 1865, 1866, as bad years in Wilts. Mr. T. Duckhain, M.P. (No. 42), Report on Wheat-Mildew. G47 mentions 1867 and 1877—1881 as years of serious injury in Here- fordshire. A. Young instances 1780, 1781, 1782, as years of fatal mildew in Suffolk. And in 1804 the visitation was so remark- able as to induce him to issue the circular to which I have referred. Sir Joseph Banks* mentions 1797 and 1800 as years of blight. During the last 45 years the following seem to have been those of mildew more or less : — 1840 1841 .. .. 1845 1839 1848 1849 1850 .. .. 1852 1853 !! 1855 1859 1800 .... ,. ,, 1865 • • • • 1871 .. .. .... .... 1875 .. .. 1877 .. !. 1879 1880 1881 It would almost seem from these notices that there is tendency towards a repetition of the mildew year after year until the disease has spent its force — this tendency being arrested by exceptionally fine and favourable seasons ; and this would well agree with Mr. Plowright’s theory of reproduction of Uredo without the aid of the barberry-tree. But probably a closer examination of the meteorological phenomena of the years in question than I am able to give, might afford some clue to the solution of the problem. I shall have some further remarks to make on this point under heading V. III. Conditions under which Mildew is developed to a great or injurious degree. — This heading really includes all those which follow, and must be considered hereafter. V. Climate. — Upon this point the only replies which I have received refer to spring frosts, heavy rain-fall, and violent changes of temperature, as encouraging mildew. Young’s cor- respondents appear to have attached great importance to spring frosts ; and certainly in the Fen country popular opinion supports the view that crops which are cut by late frosts are much more susceptible of mildew than those which have, from some cause or other, withstood these frosts. I remember that in 1865 some fields in my own neighbourhood which were cut down to the ground by a frost which occurred about the 1st of May, were those which suffered most from mildew. Although the quantity of rainfall must be considered an important feature in the problem, it does not seem that the prevalence of mildew is consequent on excessive rainfall so much as on rain after hot weather. In 1850 I remember my father’s foreman attributing the mildew to hot rains, which he said “ scalded the wheat.” In 1852 we had very hot weather, and frequent thunder-storms with heavy showers. 1860 and 1879 were wet and cold years, and mildew * ‘ Annals of Agriculture,’ vol. xliii. 648 Report on Wheat- Mildew. was much less conspicuous than in 1852 or 1881. In the last- named year we had, from the 3rd of July to the 5th, warm days, the last of these days being remarkably hot ; on the night of the 5th we had a thunder-storm with heavy rain, and the tem- perature dropped at Cambridge from 89° in the shade in the day- on the 5th, to 46° at night on the 6th.* On the 16th, mildew was observed on some cottage allotments in this parish ; and on the 18th, as 1 have stated previously, 1 found it everywhere on my farm. Now I believe that 11 days are supposed to be about the time that it takes for the development of the disease after it has entered the wheat-plant ; and there can be little doubt that the mischief was done in the course of a few hours on the 5th, 6th, or 7th of the month. 6. Soil: 7. Previous Cultivation. — It will, I think, be con- venient to consider the influence of soil, cultivation, and manur- ing under one heading, as it is not necessary for the purposes of our inquiry to distinguish between the natural and acquired fer- tility of the land ; between the “ inherent capabilities ” of the soil and that “ condition” which may be the result of good manage- ment. Probably there is no point in connection with mildew on which farmers would be found so unanimous in opinion as that (1) certain descriptions of soil are, in the districts which have come under their observation, more liable to attacks of this disease than others ; or (2) that a particular course of hus- bandry, or a particular application of manures, does promote the disease. It will be worth while, then, to inquire whether there is any general agreement as to the description of soil, the pre- vious crop, and the system of manuring which is believed to develop bad attacks of mildew, and if so, to proceed to inquire whether the opinion has any scientific basis. Soils. — And first as to soil. In the fen country, which I have so often named as very subject to mildew, there are four different classes of soil, known locally as (1) strong, (2) silt, (3) skirt, (4) black fen. Of course, this classification is only a rough one. Some fields contain a mixture of two or three classes, and there are many gradations of texture and tenacity. The “ strong land ” is an alluvial clay, which does not compare in its stiffness with the soil of some of the Midland counties, but it is adhesive enough, and difficult to work in wet seasons. The “ silt ” has a considerable proportion of soft and fine sand ; it is easily worked, and retains moisture. The “ skirt ” land is a mixture of the peat fen soil, with alluvial clay and silt deposited by the tide. The fen land is, in its original state, almost entirely vegetable mould or peat, but the character of it has been almost univer- * ‘ Meteorologica’ Office Daily Weather Reports.’ Report on Wheat- Mildew. 649 sally modified by the application of large dressings of the underlying clay. As a rule it will be found that of these four descriptions of soil the strong land suffers least, the “ silt ” and “ skirt ” land about equally, and the pure peat lands most of all ; but that where these peat lands have been recently clayed, they are much more healthy and less subject to mildew than they were, and even less so than the “ silt and “ skirt ” lands are. In 1881 the comparative immunity from this disease of the strong lands in Marsh-land (Norfolk) was very marked in degree, and that these soils are far less frequently subject to very serious injury than the lighter loams and silt is notorious. Now no theory of altitude, or climate, or humidity of atmosphere can account for the difference which undoubtedly exists. Is it not probable that the cause is to be sought for either in the chemical constitution of the soil or its mechanical condition. Referring to the answers which I have received, I find that a very considerable proportion of those correspondents who specify the soil on which their crops have been mildewed, describe them as clay, loam, alluvial, or strong lands ; while peat, vege- table mould, and fen soils come next in order ; gravelly and light soils being represented by few examples.* Now it would not be fair to take these replies as representative of the whole country, or to press them as conclusive evidence ; but taking them for what they are worth, they do show a remarkable preponderance of opinion in one direction. It may seem at first sight that they tell against the former statement as to the strong lands in the fen country ; but it must be remembered that the fen and peat soils form a very small proportion of the country, and that they may suffer more than the strong lands, though represented by fewer correspondents ; and further, that though they are light lands they differ greatly from most of those soils which are usually described by that epithet. If we turn now to A. Young’s collection of opinions, we shall find a considerable number of them in accord with those which I have collected. It may, I think, then be stated that mildew appears to be much more prevalent on peat and clay soils than on gravel and light lands. * Classified Summary of replies as to Soils : — Soils on which frequent attacks are reported. Loam, clay, alluvial, or strong soils 17 replies Peat, vegetable mould, fen soils .. 5 „ Gravel 1 „ Light soils 1 » Soils on which occasional attacks are reported. 8 replies. 1 1 2 »» H »» YOL. XIX. — S. S. 21 12 , 2 u 650 Report on Wheat- Mildew . Drainage. — It is curious to find that only three of my corre- spondents attribute mildew to want of drainage, but it is certain that the strong lands of Marsh-land, which I have spoken of as fortunate in 1881 and other years, lie in a district which is not well drained — and indeed instances have come under my own notice, within a few miles of my own farm, where wet and cold lands have escaped when better drained lands suffered. Condition. — On this point there is not much direct testimony ; but, as will be seen when we come to consider the question of manures, there is much indirect evidence to the effect that good farming and high condition tend to increase the disease. Mr. Smith Woolley, whose experience in the survey of farms is very large, says expressly, “ On lands liable to mildew I think high farming rather promotes the evil than otherwise and othersf express a similar opinion. Only one correspondent is of opinion that foul and infertile land is most affected. J The mechanical condition of the soil has not been the subject of remark except by one gentleman, who attributes mildew entirely to the effect of frost loosening the soil and exposing the root.§ There is no doubt that wheat on a soil not properly con- solidated has a tendency to become lodged, and such crops are for obvious reasons much more likely to be attacked than those which stand up. Previous Crops. — On this point there is a remarkable con- sensus of opinion as to the prevalence of mildew in wheat sown after clover, no fewer than twenty-one of my correspondents having specified this crop as one which appears to favour the disease, or as having preceded a particular crop which was much injured. Six more name seeds or grass ley as associated with mildew, and three speak of fresh broken up pasture as peculiarly dangerous. One of the latter writes from Marsh-land in Norfolk, and the other from the borders of the Romney Marsh, a some- what similar district. In both districts a considerable quantity of old pasture was broken up in bygone years. Mr. Rigden, of Lyminge, says, “ Mildew has been developed to such an extent on fresh broken-up bottom pastures that corn is only very * No. 68, p. 680. t See Nos. 15, 35; pp. 667 and 671. % See No. 49, p. 674. In 1881 a well-known agricultural correspondent of the newspapers came down to W isbecli to inquire as to the alleged injury done by mildew. He told me that he had quite made up his mind that the disease was caused by bad farming, and that it was only found in foul crops. I had the pleasure of intro- ducing this gentleman to some of the best farmers in the neighbourhood, and ho had an opportunity of testing his theory by actual inspection of the wheat crops of one of our best farmers. Whether he changed his opinion or not I do not know, but I do know that it would be difficult to find better farming or cleaner crops than he saw ; and they were as bad instances of mildew as were ever seen. § No.. 40, pp. 672-3- Report on Wheat- Mildew. 651 sparingly attempted for the first six or seven years. . . . Stale ploughed land is less liable than fresh broken-up land.”* There is a curious difference of opinion as to whether mown or fed clovers are most connected with mildew. Mr. Beadel, of Essex,f is confident that where sheep have been folded heavily upon clover there has been a comparative absence of mildew. On the other hand, Mr. Cranfield, of Hunts,! says, “ Generally the wheat that mildews worst is after clover fed off bare in the summer.” Again, though two bad cases are reported as having occurred after a crop of oats, there are several instances where this crop is spoken of as diminishing the liability, one gentle- man going so far as to say, “ I never saw it in wheat after oats ; ”§ and another, “We never see a trace of the disease after oats.” In my own neighbourhood we have been accustomed to consider wheat after oats or mangolds pretty safe ; hut I am bound to say that in 1881, on my farm and the adjoining one, the worst mildewed crops were grown after oats ; and the next worst on my farm was after mangolds. The mangolds were, however, grown after a crop of rape, and the wheat after oats in a field which I have always found peculiarly subject to mildew. It may be noted that in one case, || where mangolds and cab- bages preceded wheat, there had been an application of decorti- cated cotton-cake as manure. It is not necessary to notice further the crops which are associated with mildew. Probably if we could know all the circumstances of each case we should understand better how it happens that occasionally a crop which as thought a safe one is attacked by mildew. Before proceeding to the next branch of my subject I must * No. 54, p. 676. Analysis of Replies. Name of Preceding Crop mentioned in connection witli attacks of Mildew. Reference to Replies. Clover See Nos. /2, 5, 6, 7, 9. 10, 13, 14, 19,20. 26, 38, \ 42, 45, 51, 55, 58, 60, 66, 69, 84. Seeds, Ley, &c 8, 23, 31, 39, 59, 72. Fresh-broken Pasture . . 43, 54, 64. Tares 60. Beans or Peas 14, 37, 60. Oats 16, 17. Brank 11. Potatoes 17, 60. Mangolds 21, 28, 37. Cabbages 27. Rape or Turnips . . 60, 71, 73, 83. Fallows 60, 64. t No. 37, pp. 671-2. J No. 45, p. 674. || No. 28, pp. 669-70. § No. 64, pp. 678-9. 2 u 2 652 Report on Wheat-Mildew. point out that the views of Arthur Young’s correspondents given in answer to his question, “ Have crops on fallows or layers escaped best ? ” may seem at first sight at variance with those which I have collected, since a majority reply that “ layers escape best but it must be remembered that this is only as compared with wheat after fallows ; that the layers spoken of were generally mixed seeds laid down for two or three years, and that at the present time only a very small proportion of the wheat crop is sown after fallows, so that the experience of the present generation as to wheats grown under such conditions is small. Manures. — I pass on to notice the opinions which have been expressed as to effect of the application of different kinds of manures.* Seven correspondents connect mildew with the application of nitrate of soda, two with nitrogenous manures, one with ammoniacal manures, one suffered after woollen rags, another after soot, another after rape-cake. In six replies farm- yard manure is said to have been used. The effect of the whole of the replies is that where a crop has been stimulated and forced into luxuriant growth it is more liable to fatal injury by mildew. There are one or two bits of evidence in favour of the applica- tion of marl, clay, and sea-sand, which are well worth notice.! I have now placed before the readers of this ‘Journal’ the opinions of practical men as to the influence of soil, cultivation, and manures in promoting mildew ; and I have shown that, though there is considerable difference on minor points, there is a sub- stantial agreement that rich land and land in a high state of cultivation are peculiarly susceptible of disease. It is true that some descriptions of light land contest with clay and loam the pre-eminence, and this circumstance may very well lead us to doubt whether mechanical condition, solidity, texture, or even the Manures applied to Mildewed Crops, or believed to promote the Disease. Reference to Replies. Nitrate of Soda See Nos. 8, 26, 72, 77, 7S, 79, SO. Nitrogenous Manures .. 1,61. Ammoniacal Manures . . 69. Woollen rags 5. Soot 2. Rape-cake 51. Decorticated Cotton-cake . . 28. Heavy folding 54. Excessive manuring 34, 81. Farmyard manure 6, 7, 13, 23, 30, 39. Artificial manure 18, 52, 51, 62. Liquid manure 20. f See Nos. 23, 62, 65 ; pp. 669, 678, 679. Report on Wheat-Mildew. 653 consistency of the soil, are as important as the chemical constitu- tion of it, whether natural or artificial. At this point it will be desirable to inquire whether the popular opinion which I have recorded has any scientific basis. I am fortunate enough to have communications from two recognised authorities to lay before my readers, which, if they are not absolutely in accord in detail, are thoroughly in support of the idea that the chemical constituents of the soil have an important effect in promoting and encouraging attacks of mildew. The first of these is from Sir J. B. Lawes, Bart., who writes to me as follows : — “ Kothamsted, St. Albans, Nov. 22, 1882. “ Dear Mr. Little, “ tJpon reading over your questions respecting mildew, I felt really so ■ashamed of myself for having so little to say upon the subject, that I kept your circular before me, hoping that I might have something to say on the subject. Your letter, however, puts a question to me upon which I have a very decided opinion, although I am bound to say that it has reference to diseases of all sorts which attack our crops, and not in reference to mildew alone. I consider that plants are liable to he attacked by fungi, parasites, insects, &c., in proportion as the soil is deficient in available mineral food. I happened to pass through the fen district in the summer of 1881, and I par- ticularly noticed the dreadful state of the wlieat.in that district ; and as my I own wheat, although not a good crop, had not suffered from mildew, I was anxious to know whether the season in that district possessed any special •character differing from my own. According to my view, fen-land wheat should be specially liable to mildew, as the hr lance of the soil constituents is organic and not mineral. Ordinary arable land, such as mine, contains about 97 per cent, of mineral matter and 3 per cent, of vegetable substance • some of the fen land must have these proportions almost reversed. It is quite possible that when the climate favours mildew it will prevail more or less, but that the extent to which it will prevail will greatly depend upon the relation between the mineral and organic matter in the soil ; and I should be disposed to say that the greater the amount of available mineral matter (potash, lime, silica, phosphate) at the disposal of the plant, the greater would be its power of resistance. I have taken out from our wheat experiments two experiments, on one of which only mineral manures were used, and on the other only ammonia. You will observe that the crop receiving ammonia is generally the larger, which means that the crop is more capable of finding minerals in the soil than ammonia. You will see, however, that the weight of the bushel is generally lower where ammonia is used, and that the proportion of offal com to dressed com, which is a measure of disease of all sorts, is very high in the •ammonia plots. “ Yours truly, “ J. B. Lawes.” The table showing the results of the experiments to which Sir J. B. Lawes refers in the preceding letter is given in •an Appendix to this Report.* It will be sufficient if I give in this place the average results of the thirty-one years, and some ■of the extraordinary variations from this average. * App. V., p. 690. 654 Report on Wheat-Mildew. Dressed Com in Bushels. Weight per Bushel Dressed Com. Percentage of Offal Corn to 100 Dressed Corn. Plot 5* Plot 10 A* Plot 5.* Plot 10 A* Plot 5. Plot 10 A. Average of 31 years,! 1852-1882 .. . j 15-0 20-5 58 -6 56-8 6-9 11-7 Bad years — 1853 .. 10-0 10-0 49-0 49-0 21-0 33 0 1859 .. 20-5 18-75 56-0 51 5 10-5 23-5 1860 .. 15-5 15-0 54-0 49-5 6-5 20-5 1861 .. 15-25 12-75 59-0 55-0 14-75 20-5 1871 .. 12-0 10-00 56-5 53-75 15-0 24-0 1879 .. 5-5 3-75 54-0 49-0 27-0 41-0 Good years — 1854 .. 24-1 34-1 61-0 60-75 5-0 6-5 1857 .. 23-0 29-0 59-0 58-0 4-0 7-5 1863 .. 19-5 39-0 63-0 62-5 3-33 5-5 1864 .. 16-0 32-0 62-0 61-75 4-0 5-5 1868 .. 170 25-0 630 62-0 0-5 6"75 1874 .. 12-5 25-0 59-0 56-5 30 3-5 * Permanent wheat. These plots have been sown with wheat every year. Plot 5 receives every year potash, soda, magnesia, and superphosphate, but no ammonia. Plot 10 a receives salts of ammonia alone. In a second letter Sir J. B. Lawes enforces what he has said before, and gives some particulars of other plots which had been “ well and judiciously manured,” and states distinctly that the remarkable variations in the proportion of offal corn which his figures show “ cannot be accidental,” and he adds, “ we know that in bad seasons the best crops are attacked with mildew if that be the prevailing disease.” “ Eothamsted, St. Albans, Nov. 21, 1882. “ Dear Mr. Little, “ I sent to you on Wednesday the results of growing wheat on land which had received nothing but salts of ammonia for thirty years, and I pointed out that the amount of offal com was to a certain degree the result of mildew, or disease of some sort. Plot a, the experiment referred to, received in 1844 a liberal dressing of potash, soda, magnesia, and superphosphate of lime, since which time it has received salts of ammonia alone. 10 b, next to it, received the same mineral manure in 1844, and then mineral dressings were repeated in 1845 and 1850 ; both experiments have received exactly the same amount of salts of ammonia every year ; one received minerals in 1844, the other minerals in 1844, 1848, and 1850. If you will refer to my records of crops you will find that 1853 and 18G0 were notoriously bad, and the wheat very much blighted with mildew. On referring to my table for these two years I find that the proportion of offal to 100 dressed com was, in 1853, 10 a, 33 ; 10_ b, 1GJ ; in ;18G0, 10 a, 20J ; 10 b, Hi. Such results cannot be accidental. We learn that in bad seasons the best crops are attacked with Report on Wheat-Mildew. 655 mildew if that is the prevailing disease, but the power of resistance to disease is greatly affected by the condition of the soiL In both the years referred to the proportion of offal com to 100 dressed in the same field, did not exceed four and seven, but in these cases the land was well and judiciously manured. Plants are very much like ourselves, their power to escape disease, and to struggle against it when attacked, depend very much upon their state of health. “ Yours truly, “ J. B. Lawes.” I have now to present some very important communications which I have received from Dr. Voelcker. The first is as follows : — “Royal Agricultural Society of England, “ Laboratory, 1 2, Hanover Square, London, W. “ Nov. 22, 1882. “ Dear Mr. Litti.e, “ I believe the soil has a great deal to do with mildew. Only about a fortnight ago I sent a report to Mr. John Oxley, Stowe, Buckingham, who sent me a soil upon which his wheat (and also beans) became more or less blighted during the last six or seven years. “ He grew plenty, but not good healthy straw, but at a certain stage it got blighted, and the com was miserable. “ The composition of the soil is so instructive that I give it to you. If you should make public use of it I should require to ask Mr. Oxley’s permission. “ The soil in a perfectly dry state contains in 100 parts : — ^Organic matter and combined water 12 '97 Oxide of iron 6*50 Alumina 9 • 03 Carbonate of lime 1'07 Sulphate of lime '51 Magnesia ’56 Potash 1 • 07 Soda -18 Phosphoric acid '10 Insoluble silicates 68 ' 01 100-00 * Containing nitrogen '45 Equal to ammonia '55 “ The soil was a very stiff clay soil, resting on a nasty yellow-coloured still stiffer clay subsoil, which unfortunately came to within four inches to the surface. “ I give you an abstract of my Report : — Your soil is unusually rich in nitrogenous organic matters, and it also contains more potash than most clay soils, which accounts hilly for the fact that your wheat and beans got blighted, and made lots of straw and haulm in wet and cold seasons like those we have had for the last six or seven years. On the other hand, your soil is very deficient in phosphoric acid, and not over rich in lime.’ “ This is a very instructive case, for it confirms the frequent observations which l have made in various parts of England, namely, that an excess ot available nitrogenous food (be it nitrate of soda, ammonia salts, or organic matters which are readily decomposed in the soil) appears to me to have a decided tendency to cause mildew in wheat. On the other hand, phosphate of 656 Report on Wheat-Mildew. lime, of which there always is a considerable residue in the land when a crop of mangolds is heavily manured with bone-manures or guano, as is now almost invariably the case, has a tendency to produce early maturity. “ I do not know any crop which exhausts the land as much of available nitrogen as a crop of mangolds, or, speaking generally, a root-crop. On the other hand, a good crop of clover leaves on the land an enormous quantity of nitrogenous food, as 3’ oil will see if you turn to my paper in the ‘ Journal ’ on “ Clover as a preparatory crop for Wheat.” I have a very strong conviction that an excess of nitrogenous food in the soil as manure renders wheat liable to the attack of mildew ; for I know as a fact that an excess of nitrogenous food retards in a marvellous manner the ripening of corn crops, and is in all very warm seasons, or in hot climates, but most objectionable in cold soils, and cold and wet seasons, and because the nitrogenous food, as we all know, at first causes great luxuriance of growth, especially if the early part of summer is warm and promising, and the weather then suddenly changes and turns cold and wet. “ Of course the mischief done by an excess of nitrogenous food in the soil is greater on a cold clay soil than on a lighter and naturally warmer and natu- rally well-drained soil. However, even on our light Woburn land I have noticed for several years that the plots which were manured with a heavy dose of nitrate of soda, or with ammonia salts, were more blighted than others manured with less nitrate or ammonia salts. “ My impression is that a sudden check, by cold or continued wet weather, has a decided tendency to favour the attack of mildew in wheat, and that this tendency is greater in highly manured land than in poorer soils, or at all events on land which is manured with too much nitrogenous food, or on land naturally rich in such food. “ Believe me, dear Mr. Little, “ Yours faithfully, “Augustus Voelcker.” This direct confirmation of the suspicion that certain soils were peculiarly liable to mildew, and that under a particular treatment that liability was greatly increased, seems to me to be very notable. In order to ascertain whether the soils with which I have to do were similar to the Bucks soil, of which Dr. Voelcker has written in the preceding letter, 1 sent him four samples of soil from my own farm, representing four different classes of soil which are found in this neighbourhood. With the permission of the Chemical Committee of the Society, these were analysed, and the result communicated to me for the purpose of this paper. A few words as to the agricultural characteristics of these soils may be necessary before Dr. Voelcker’s analysis is examined. No. 1 represents the medium strong soil of this district. Like nearly all the soil on my farm, it has been deposited by the tide. It is not nearly so tough and heavy as much of the Marsh- land district, and it can generally be ploughed with two horses. No. 2 represents another and lighter alluvial deposit, in which a soft sand is present in sufficient quantity to make the land work freely in almost all seasons. This description of land is known locally as “ silt.” Table stowing the Previous Cropping of tho Land from which Samples of Soil wore taken for Analysis. Report on Wheat-Mildew. 657 — a §2 1 f 'S | <5 1 Jo ^ £ O 3 > -3 O Cw CO 3 -4-J 35 33 ~.i ^ ~ cs 3j — o c5 i 33 3 ^ A ^ .F . 2 o ^ =3-2 < 3 £ g cr- o ®GQ > > o ® £ 2 c 33 -= Cw .J 3 — O £0 r° 3 PH 33 _ -3 s - 3 ^ w H .3 O o « S 3 3 - - jg 3 g 5 - - a. 3. • 3 ! 3 £ ! a oa j aj *2 *£ S g F fl‘ *3 "3 c3 .5 3 g 3 ‘t . I'*!! '-s 1 a 1 § to ,.2 c5 c2 2 CC ^ O — w 3 -3 3 5 efc o - F ! F0 c3 a <5 <*- .2 < O r3 ^ w -.2 o £2 tf ~ «J £ Ph^i o fto 3 a 33 3 * O 33 ' 3 O o s o *P ^ fi -*_T^3 bO *“Hn - o 3X« o *3~« H X S ^ c ■+J o p3 ._ = K g c o •* a c C £ c = « * ~ « •'* c.2 . O r/ go 2 33 : 3 3 , >-»32 o 2 o CO 3 CO 4J 2 S !© ^ 5 £ t2 o o „ 3 m w P< S ^33 © >% cn } l o s c g ' 5 3 'm 50 3 5 a F 3 ° 3 ^ S - ps< S I S o c3 . ®c> § ' 5 g t3 co S -2 £ jT 3 03 ® 33 (jj 33 "3 eg *2 .2 ^o_ • - O C* CO fcJD to 0* O 3 3 » . g-l'-s § . 3 S § O S £ 5 §-!■§ ; a ° o 2 .3 C*w o ^-3 33 2c .g >»? 2 ^■S-a £,3 if SB a „ o s o t.5 oa ■« „ o 5? 3 ’—• O >• I °s §=2 a -3 n o tCJ O Cw ^ c Q« s- S to o <3 ^ c J3 OJ o> > ^ c:«Sc«^ * g C2 ~ O 33 •_ ^— < 3 ► 658 Report on Wheat-Mildew. No. 3 is a mixed soil on the lower part of the farm, where the tidal deposit on the top of the peat is thinner. As you pass from the sea inland you traverse first the marsh-land, which may be of the character of No. 1 or No. 2, and next the fen land. On the border-line of these two distinct soils you find a mixed soil which is known locally as “ skirty ” or “ skirt ” land, and the sample No. 3 represents this description of soil. No. 4 is a more exceptional soil. It is taken from the bed of one of the old water-courses which traverse my farm and the district. These runs are called “ dilands.” The corn growing on them presents a very marked and distinct appearance in the spring, when ribands of dark green hue contrast themselves with the lighter green of a healthy crop. In cold and dry seasons the corn on these “ dilands ” will often stand six inches higher than that on the remainder of the field. Later on in the summer the crop on them is almost sure to lodge, and if there is any mildew about, these are the spots where it will certainly appear. It will be seen, then, that Nos. 1, 2, 3, represent considerable tracts, while No. 4 is a peculiar soil limited in its area. The cropping and manuring of the fields from whence these samples were taken are shown on page 657. “ Royal Agricultural Society of England, “ Laboratory, 12. Hanover Square, London, TV., “July 26th, 1883. “ My dear Sib, “ I have now the pleasure of reporting to you the results which I obtained by careful and complete analysis of the four Cambridgeshire soils which you sent me some time ago, and upon which I understand you to say mildew more or less prevails. “ The soils were labelled as follows : — “ No. 1. Medium strong soil of the district. “ No. 2. Lighter soil (called locally, silt). “ No. 3. Mixed soil skirting the fen (called locally, skirty). “ No. 4. Soil from the channel of an old water-course. These runs (‘ di- lands ’ locally) you inform me are very common in your district, which consist of alluvial tidal deposits on the top of peat. “ Fair average samples of the soils were prepared from slices taken down to a depth of twelve inches from the surface, and, after complete drying at 212° F., fully analysed in a perfectly dry state, when the results shown in the Table (p. 659) w'ere obtained. “ No. 1 is a dark-brown coloured alluvial clay-soil, rather stiff, showing streaks or veins of oxide of iron, and thin layers of fine sand or silt. “ No. 2 is a lighter soil, containing more fine sand than No. 1 ; colour dark brown. On the whole it resembles much No. 1 in general appearance, and also in composition. “ No. 3. The mixed soil skirting the fen (skirty) is a dark-coloured (almost black) alluvial clay deposit, rather stiff, showing patches of blue clay here and there, especially in the subsoil, and streaks of oxide of iron. “ No. 4. Is a dark chocolate-brown coloured soil, rather lighter than No. 3, and containing more organic matter (peaty matter) than No. 3. Report on Wheat- Mildew. 65 ^ Results of the Analyses of the Soils Dried at 212° Fahr. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. Medium Strong Land. Light Soil (Silt). Soil Skirting the Fen (Skirty). Dilands. *Organic matter and water of ) combination / 5-65 6-38 13-50 15-23 Oxide of iron 4-53 2-91 5-31 4-03 Alumina 8-13 512 8-52 5-50 Sulphate of lime •25 •22 •69 •59 Carbonate of lime 4*67 2-01 1-80 3-99 Magnesia •50 •23 •50 •26 - Potash •68 •50 •81 •52 Soda •11 •05 •04 •07 Phosphoric acid •18 •15 •23 •25 Insoluble silicates and sand . . 75-30 82-43 68-60 69-56 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 * Containing nitrogen •19 •26 •58 •69 Equal to ammonia . . •23 •32 •70 •84 “ All four soils are richer in nitrogen than most arable soils, and No. 3 and No. 4 are immensely rich in nitrogenous organic matter. “ No. 3 you will notice contains over 1 of a per cent, of nitrogen, and No. 4 in round numbers ^ of a per cent. 7, “ The proportions of nitrogen are fully as great, if not greater, than in the richest arable land, as in the celebrated Russian black wheat soils. “ In a good and warm season, the large proportions of nitrogenous organic matter in soils like No. 3 or No. 4, contribute largely to the heavy crops of wheat, which in favourable seasons can be grown on such soils ; but in cold wet seasons the excess of nitrogenous matters is a great hindrance to the- wheat-crop’s ripening properly, as it is well known that over-luxuriance in the flag and straw of the wheat-crop renders it more liable to become attacked by mildew, on a sudden change of temperature or long-continued wet weather. “Allow me to direct your attention further to the fact that all four soils are rich in potash, which is another constituent which has a tendency to retard the maturity of the grain, and I certainly cannot advise you to use any potash manures on any of these four soils. “ No. 1 and No. 4 you will notice contain from 4 to 4j per cent, of car- bonate of lime, and Nos. 2 and 3 about 2 per cent., and, roughly speaking, none of the soils want any lime, and Nos. 3 and 4 are richer in phosphoric acid than most soils noted for their fertility. “ My impression is that the richness of the soils in nitrogenous matters renders them all more or less liable in cold wet seasons to become attacked by mildew, and all the more so the higher it has been farmed, or the more dung has been applied to the land. It appears to me probable that in bad seasons the wheat on the best land, especially if highly manured, is more liable to suffer from mildew than on soils which are less rich in nitrogenous organic matters ; but so much depends on previous cropping and manuring that the experience of one year on the four different soils which I analyzed for you, may be entirely reversed by that of another season. As I have not an intimate knowledge of the previous agricultural history and physical 660 Report on Wheat-Mildew. properties of these soils, 1 dare not venture to express an opinion as to which of the four is most liable to be attacked by mildew. “ If I may be allowed to hazard any opinion, I should say on No. 2 wheat is more likely to suffer from mildew than on No. 1 ; and on No. 3 soil more than on No. 4. “ Of one thing I feel pretty confident, and that is that dung, nitrate of soda, soot, and sulphate of ammonia, in cold and wet seasons, are likely to do more harm than good to the wheat-crop on your fen-land, especially on land so rich in nitrogen as the soils marked No. 3 and No. 4. “ Soils like No. 3 and No. 4 are so rich in organic fertilizing constituents, that they do not want any manure. The only manure which may safely, and I believe with advantage, be used in cold and wet seasons on these soils, is mineral superphosphate, applied at the rate of about three cwt. per acre, before or at the time of drilling in the wheat. Superphosphate promotes early maturity, and may be useful in checking the attacks of mildew. “ Yours faithfully, “Aug. Voelcker.” “ W. Little, Esq., Stags Holt, March.” These analyses are so fully explained by Dr. Voelcker that they require very little comment from me. The richness of these soils has for some years past shown itself only by the pro- duction of straw. The explanation which Dr. Voelcker gives of the action of nitrogenous organic matter and of potash in retard- ing the ripening of corn throws an entirely new light on the subject ; and the adoption of the farmers’ opinion, that whatever tends to produce over-luxuriance of flag and straw renders the crop more liable to mildew, gives that opinion a scientific basis and support. It is true that Sir J. B. Lawes and Dr. Voelcker do not quite agree about the effect of potash, but in the main their views are the same ; a deficiency of mineral matter means the same thing I suppose as an excess of organic matter, and both of these authorities attribute the liability of certain districts to mildew to this cause. Description of Wheat grown. — In the inquiries which I made I was rather anxious to ascertain whether any sort of wheat was believed to be disease-proof, or more capable of resisting mildew than others. It is well known that one of the old- established wheats in the Fen country, a red wheat with white chaff, is called (or was more frequently called a few years ago) the “ anti-mildew ” wheat. That it does mildew there is no doubt, but it is popularly supposed to have a greater power in resisting disease than any other sort. Rivett’s, or cone wheat, a stiff-strawed, bearded variety, seems to be very rarely attacked ; on the other hand, Talavera wheat is generally supposed to be peculiarly susceptible, and the Velvet Chaffed, or Rough Chaffed, or Hoary White, is in this district thought a dangerous wheat, particularly if sown after clover. I remember that in 1859 I had a portion of a field (that from which No. 1 soil was taken) Report on Wheat-Mildew. 661 sown after clover with this wheat, and the remainder of the field was sown with Browick red. The white wheat was very much mildewed, while the red was not much injured. On my re- marking that this was the case, an experienced farmer said to me, “ It serves you right, you ought to have known better than to sow that sort of wheat after clover.” He himself was a large grower of this wheat, but he never sowed it after clover, and I never did again. The following notes from my replies will give the opinions which were expressed : — Descriptions of Wheat attacked by Mildew or Descriptions of 'Wheat reported as least reported as most susceptible. liable to Mildew. See Nos. See Nos. Scholey’s Square Head /10, 20, 21,49, \ 60, 66, 82. Golden Drop Nursery The finer sorts 41, 49. 11, 73. Rivett’s 21. 8. Lenny’s White 38. White* White (excepting Stand- 1 20, 31. up and Red Chaff/ White) ) 60. Browick 43. Stand-up White . . Talavera 17. 5. Stand-up 60. Rough Chaff, Essex ] Red Chaff White .. 60. Rough Chaff, Hoary > White, or Velvet ear . . ] 41, 49, 54, 5S. Fenton’s White 39. Essex White 71, 72. From these replies it would seem that Scholey’s Square-head, a rather favourite wheat on rich loams, has an unenviable repu- tation ; with me, however, it has certainly suffered less than white wheats. Referring to A. Young’s collection of opinions, it will be seen that it was believed very generally that white wheat suffered more than red, and that bearded wheat and Rivett’s escaped the best. Does it not seem probable that the constitu- tion of some sorts may be more vigorous and the power of resisting disease greater than in other sorts ? Time of Solving and date of Harvest. — There is much evidence in favour of early-sown and early-matured crops. Over and over again one reads the same words, “ late crops are most liable ; ” and one correspondent reports of a farm,f that it had the reputation of growing mildewed corn, and nothing else, but the present occupier having adopted early sowing has suf- * I don’t know whether Shakespeare will be admitted as a credible witness to the peculiar liability of white wheat to mildew ; but he certainly makes one of his characters assert that “the foul fiend ‘Flibbertigibbet’ mildows the white wheat.” — King Lear, iv. 3. t See No. 57, p. 676. •662 Report on Wheat-Mildew. fered no serious loss. Of course, early sowing does not necessarily lead to an early harvest, the date of that being determined by the character of the season ; but as a rule the last sown wheats ripen latest, and as a rule they mildew most ; but here, again, there are exceptions, and it sometimes happens that late wheats escape when others suffer. In 1881 a good deal of spring wheat (the bearded variety), sown in April, entirely escaped mildew. Probably most farmers, if asked whether mildew years were generally late harvest years, would answer yes. And such is the case, but it is not always so. I have been favoured by Mr. Exley, of Wisbech, with a record which he and his father have kept of the date of the first appearance of wheat-ears in the neighbourhood of Wisbech, and the date of the general commencement of harvest, and it is contained in Appendix VI. From this it will appear that the average date for the commencement of harvest is August 10—11, and the average number of days intervening between the first peeping of ears and the beginning of harvest is sixty. Now, if we characterise those harvests which began 7 days before the average period early , and those which began 14 days before the average period very early , and distinguish late and very late harvests in a similar way, we shall find that out of 20 years when mildew prevailed more or less in the district within which this record was made, four (1848, 1859, 1865, 1872) will fall in the “ early" class and four (1855, 1860, 1879, 1880) in the “ late” class, while the remaining years are in no way exceptional. Or, to apply a simpler test, it will be seen that in 10 years of mildew, harvest began before the average date, 4 at about that time, and 6 only after that time. If, again, we examine the period which elapsed between “ earing and shearing,” we shall not find any such decided difference as we should perhaps expect between mildew and other years. Of the 20 mildew years 8 matured in less than the average time (60 days), 11 required more than that time. Quantity of Seed Soivn and Character of Crop Produced: Flowering Period. — Thin-sown crops, and those which from any cause have become thin, are said to be more liable to mildew than those which are fairly and regularly planted. It is well known that on good land, or even ordinary land in good condi- tion, a thin plant, and one which gathers or stools out is charac- terised by gross and luxuriant growth, and these are the crops which by general consent are most mildewed.* Upon the other branches of the subject, such as the date of * See replies, Nos. 1, 2, 3, C, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 31, 33, 35, 42, 43, 44, 55, 58, 59, 60, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 71, 73, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, in Appendix II., pp. 665-684. Report on Wheat- Mildew. 663 first observation of the disease, I have no further information, and I must conclude this paper, which has already exceeded its fair limits, by a few general observations on the results of the inquiry. 1. It would appear that seasons are the chief cause of mildew, and that sudden changes of temperature and rain, accompanied with close still weather, are favourable to the spread of the disease. 2. That low-lying rich soils are most subject to attack. 3. That high farming and too generous manuring, particu- larly with nitrogenous manures, promote mildew. 4. That early sowing is desirable on all lands subject to mildew. 5. That a thin and gathering crop runs more risk of the disease than an evenly planted crop. 6. That while no description of wheat is proof against disease, red wheats are generally less injured by it than white wheats. There are some points on which further inquiry seems desirable, and amongst these I would particularly urge that observations should be made as to the relative amount of evaporation from soils of different descriptions. While I have been most anxious to prove that atmospheric conditions are not the sole governing cause of mildew, I must not be supposed to deny for one moment that a condition of humidity and saturation of the air is required to develop the disease. It may be that upon this depends some of the difference between soils which are similarly situated and farmed in the same manner ; and that a gross and luxuriant growth may occur here without inducing mildew, while there a similar crop, growing on land which rapidly cools the lower stratum of air and thus produces mist, is fatally injured. Again, I think that the exact influence of particular chemical constituents on the tissues of the plant is deserving further inquiry. I have already intimated in the early part of this paper that perhaps we have yet more to learn as to the life-history of the mildew fungus, and I trust that our mycologists will pursue their inquiries with unabated ardour. Although I have not been successful in elucidating all the facts connected with this mysterious and baneful disease, I trust that I may have been able to collect some information which may be useful to other inquirers. I have, in conclusion, to offer my very sincere thanks to all those who have assisted me, including the correspondents who favoured me with replies to my inquiries. My thanks are specially due to Mr. H. M. Jenkins, the Secretary of the Society ; to Mr. Plowright, to whom I owe most of what I know of the mildew fungus ; and also to Dr. Voelcker and Sir John Lawes for their contributions. 664 Report on Wheat- Mildeic. APPENDIX I. MILDEW ON WHEAT. Circular of Inquiries. I. Has your farm, or the locality in which you reside, or any district with which you are well acquainted, been subject to frequent or malignant attacks of Mildew ? II. If so, can you give definite information as to the particular years in > which great injury was occasioned by this disease ? III. Under what conditions have you observed that mildew has been developed to a great and injurious degree ? IV. Situation of the Farm. (a) Elevation. (l>) Open and exposed, or sheltered. (c) Level or inclined, or undulating. (d) Aspect. Y. Climate of the District. (a) Average temperature. (b) Range of temperature (ordinary). (c) Remarkable variations of temperature in the particular season of attack. ( d ) Rainfall (ordinary and extraordinary). VI. Soil of the Field. ( a ) Description. (b) Drainage : — natural or artificial, effectual or imperfect. (c) Condition : — as regards cleanliness, fertility, texture, and solidity. VII. Previous Cultivation of the Field. (a) Crops of the two preceding years in order. (b) Manures : — natural or artificial, and the time of application. VIII. Description of Wheat Sown. IX. Time of Sowing. (a) Date. (b) Early or late for the district. X. Seed used. (a) Quantity sown per acre. ( b ) Have you observed any connection between thick or thin sowing and attacks of Mildew ? (c) Whether home-grown or changed. (d) Whether dressed or not. XI. Character of Crop produced. (a) Full or deficient plant. ( b ) Development : — Gradual and continuous, or sudden and inter- mittent. XII. Flowering Period. (a) Date : — Early or late for the district. XIII. Observation of Disease. (a) Date of first notice. (b) Whether preceded by rust or not. XIV. Harvest. (a) Date : — Early or late for the district. XV. General Observations. Report on Wlieat-Mildeir. APPENDIX II. 665 Abstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed. I. 11. III. IV. Name and Address Reply to Queries as CocKxr. of to Prevalence of Extracts from Replies to other Questions. Correspondent. Mildew. 1. Beds. .. Eve, J. K., Yes .. .. Nitrogenous manures assist the Silsoe, Ampthill. disease, which is most prevalent in late summers. Thin and late crops most liable. .2. Do. .. Street, George, But seldom .. Most where wheat has lost plant Maulden, after clover on light land, and the Ampthill. evil has been increased by the ap- plication of soot, which produced a rapid and luxuriant growth. 3. Berks. Davies, J., Some farms in Developed under great extremes Englefeeld, the locality of temperature and heavy rains. Beading. are subject Thin-sown wheat on land in to the dis- good heart most liable — to be ease. avoided by manuring in the previous winter, and never just before planting, and by early sowing. 4. Do. .. Druce, A. F. M., Fy field, Abingdon. Floyd, T„ Never. A piece of Talavera on light sandy 5. Do. .. Not much un- Frilford, til 1882. soil, lying about 6 feet above Abingdon. the river Ock. The preceding crop was clover, mown once, the aftermath being fed by sheep penned ; afterwards 7 cwt. per acre of woollen rags per acre were applied. The wheat was sown Nov. 4th and 5th, and some Red Lammas wheat was sown in the same field a little later. This wheat was not hurt by mildew; and some red corns, which got mixed with the Tala- vera and grew with it, escaped, while the Talavera was much blighted. Two of my neigh- bours who grew Talavera, say that it was much more affected last harvest (1882) than other sorts of wheat. 6. Do. .. Hutchinson, Yes, on the Soil, loam on peat. In 1879 the N. G., lower land crop attacked followed clover, Thatch am, in 1875, and in 1881 turnips. The clover Neivbury. 1879, 1881. Icy was manured with farm- VOL. XIX. — S. S. 2 x 666 Report on Wheat- Mildew. Abstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence oi Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. I. II. III. IV. Name and Address Reply to Queries as County. of to Prevalence of Extracts from Replies to other Questions. Correspondent. Mildew. 6. Berks. 7. Do. 8. Do. 10. Do. 11. Cam is. Hutchinson, N. Gr., contd. King, J. G., Beedon, Newbury. Lanfear, C., Avington, Hungerford. 9. Bucks.. Fowler, J. K., Aylesbury. Treadwell, John, Upper Win- chendon. Cook, M., LittleDown- ham, Ely. Farm subject to mildew, great injury in 1879, 1880, 1881. In 1879 great injury, and more or less since 1874. My farm occa- sionally suf- fers— parts of the vale are subject — particularly during the last 5 years and especi- ally in 1881. In 1880 I suf- fered con- siderably, and in 1881 slightly. Not to a great extent, with the excep- yard-manure immediately before ploughing. The turnips wen fed by sheep penned at nigh: after spending the day in the water-meadows — thin tillering crops suffer most. Strong red flinty soil. Nurserj wheat sown after broad clover on which sheep had been folded- and farmyard-manure applied- thin crops most liable. The high-lying lands most injuree (200-300 feet above sea). Soi a thin gravel, with a slight mixture of clay. Wheat usuallj sown after grass (one year’s ley) Natural and artificial manure; are applied. Nitrate of sodc makes the plant more liable ix. mildew than any other manure Sorts of wheat — Trump, Bough- Chaff, Golden Drop. The finei sorts most subject — thin sowing or defective plant renders the crop more susceptible. Wheat after mangolds, rape, or turnip; is seldom blighted. Bain afte dry weather and hot sunshim just at the edge of harvest, in variably produce mildew. Wheat after clover is more likeb to mildew than after other crops as the plant is often thin. The worst was a piece of Scholey' Square Head after clover- rather a thin plant. The field in question is partly fe and partly strong “ skirt ” lane The latter is underdrained, an Report on Wheat- Mildew. G67 abstract of Keplies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. I. County. II. Name and Address of Correspondent. nr. Reply to Queries as to Prevalence of Mildew. IV. Extracts from Replies to other Questions. *1. Cambs. Cook, M., contd. tion of one field in 1881. there the wheat was good. On the fen land, which is deficient in clay, the com was “ chicken food.” The preceding crop was Buckwheat — the wheat Nursery. Farmyard and artificial manure applied. '1. Do. .. Es;arr, S., Part of my Disease developed in a crop grow- 1 ' Wryde, Thorney. farm fre- quently at- tacked. ing luxuriantly, and then checked by sudden change of temperature at the flowering period, as in 1881, about the middle of July. Crops on the black soil on gravel most affected — those on strong clay scarcely hurt. '5. Do. .. HolbeD, E., My farm suf- Elevated position, open country, Barton, l'ered in 1880 mixed soil, gravel and white f Cambridge. and 1881. clay, part heavy soil on gault. In 1880 the crop was after one year’s clover; in 1881, after clover, two years’ ley. In both cases yard-manure was applied in 1878 ; there was a full plant. Late-sown wheats are more prone to mildew, as they are generally more luxuriant. :. DO. .. Ivatt, C., Bampton, Cambridge. My farm and the district suffer fre- quently ; 1879, 1880, 1881, had attacks. Low-lying level land, heavy with clay subsoil. Wheat sown after beans or clover. Farmyard- manure applied in the preceding winter. ;. Do. .. Long, H., Shippey, Ely. In 1879, 1881, and in some other years, as 1865, I have suf- fered. Low fen land, with a good bed of blue clay 4 or 5 feet below the surface. Thin and late wheat most mildewed ; the better the land is farmed the more it is subject to this disease. Do. .. Martin, Occasionally, Fen and high land both suffered Joseph, Littleport, Ely. i hut never so seriously as in 1881. in 1881. The worst piece on fen followed oats; on the high land the worst was after turnips — both were white wheat. The fen crop had gathered, that on the high land was a full plant — as a rule late wheats are most liable. 2x2 668 Report on Wheat-Mildew. Abstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence o: Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. I. County. ii. Name ami Address of Correspondent. III. Reply to Queries as to Prevalence of Mildew. IV. Extracts from Replies to other Questions. 17. Cambs. Oldham, E., Wisbech, S. Mary's. Frequently, 1881 the worst year. Rich loam, with silt subsoil slightly elevated above the sur rounding land, but low and flat One field, partly after oats ant partly after potatoes in 1881 yielded only 4 sacks of 14 stone each. The seed, Stand-up White was sown 2-6 Nov. ; it germi nated slowly and came up thin tillered well in spring and lookei rank before coming into ear. attribute the attack to tli heavy rainfall on the 6th July after unusual heat. 18. Do. .. Robins, G. F., Isleham. All fen lands more or less subject to frequent and malignant attacks. In 1872 partial attacks. 1879, 1880, very general. Severe attacks invariably in luxu riant crops ; thin plant mor liable than thick. Soils restin upon chalk have a greater im munity than those on clay artificial manure more injuriou than farmyard-dung. Squar Head is peculiarly liable t mildew, especially if sown late. 19. Do. .. Silcock, E. C., Chettisham, Ely. In 1879, 1880, 1881. Fen land. Badly drained lair most injured ; worst crops afte clover; loss from mildew i 1881, 2j qrs. per acre on th fen lands in this neighboui hood. 20. Do. .. Toller, I., Winfold, Waterbeach, Cambridge. The fens suffer much, espe- cially in 1880, 1881. Fine loam. Wheat after rye-gras and clover affected. Whit wheats more liable than red Golden Drop and Spring Be resist disease best; late-sow and thin-gathering crops mo: liable. Wheat after clover suffei more than after beans or ryi grass. I have noticed milde-. very prevalent after application of liquid manure. 21. Do. .. Topham, J., Thorney. In 1879 and 1881. This district is much more subjet to mildew than the uplands t Huntingdon and Beds. In 181 wheat after mangolds suffert more than that after oats an seeds. In 1881 Square Head wt the worst. Rivett’s only slight! Report on Wheat-Mildew. 669 bstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and tlio Conditions under wliicli it is Developed — continued. I. County. II. Name and Address of Correspondent. III. Reply to Queries as to Prevalence of Mildew. IV. Extracts from Replies to other Questions. .. Cambs. Topharn, J., attacked ; straw enough for 40 i contd. bushels an acre yielded only 21 bushels. L Do. .. West, Samuel, In 1879 fen More damage done in these twc Upwell. farms. In years than in any other during 1881, both fen and high lands equally. the last thirty. !. Cornwall May, John, This neigh- Situation open and exposed, 300 Suffenton, bourhood is feet above the sea. Wheat St. Teatli, subject to generally grown after grass ley Camelford. frequent at- tacks. fallowed — sowing time Oct. — thick sown crops most free. A liberal dressing of sea-sand a great preventive. I have ob- served a field on part of which farmyard-manure with 15 tons of sea-sand was applied ; on the other part farmyard-manure only ; where the sand was used, the straw was brighter and stiffer, and the grain more per- fect ; where no sand was used, the straw became dark with mildew. >. Cumber- Gibbons, T., Occasionally Ten feet above sea, at head of Solway Frith, alluvial soil. Light land frequently under the plough, and badly drained land most liable. LAND. Arthuret, Carlisle. 5. Devon Balsdon, R., Occasionally ; I consider very late and very early Westleigh, great injury sown crops most susceptible. 1. Do. .. Bideford. in 1879, and slight in 1881. The situation is rather exposed and about 100 feet above the sea- level ; the soil clay, with loose “ shale.” Wheat on clover leas dressed with lj cwt. nitrate of soda ; a thin, forced plant de- cidedly most liable. Carter, T. S., Otterton, Budleigh Salterto i. Mildew is quite un- known in this part of our county. 3. Do. Scratton, D. L., Mildew, here I have only suffered seriously once Ogwell, called rust, is rather pre- during the twelve years I have Newton occupied land here. In 1881, Abbot. valent. two fields after cabbages folded 670 Report on Wheat-Mildew. Abstract of Keplies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and tlie Conditions under wliicli it is Developed — continued. i. County. II. Name and Address of Correspondent. III. Reply to Queries as to Prevalence of Mildew. IV. Extracts from Replies to other Questions. 28. Devon 29. Do. .. 30. Dorset 31. Do. Scratton, D. L., contd. Spearing, T. B., Maristow ■ Cottage, Boborough. Buckman, J., Bradford- Abbas, Sherborne. Ellswood, W., Down House , Bridport. My farm is usually free; the worst attack I have known was in 1879. Some mildew this year, and in 1877, 1878, 1879. with sheep, and one after man- golds carted off, were affected to a considerable extent. In both cases I had manured with ground decorticated cotton-cake, and I think the nitrogen in that might be the cause. If in the latter part of May and beginning of June we get very warm and forcing days, and at night a very low temperature, with some degrees of frost, the sudden change causes the life or sap of many plants to exude through the surface, and coming in contact with some particular property in the air, produces life to parasites, on some plants, and insects on others. The disease is developed under the conditions of wet sunless skies— a continual state of damp. We seldom use farmyard-manure direct for wheat or any corn, as it tends to the production of mildew and red rust. The two counties in which I have seen the least mildew are Cheshire and Dorset, and both from the same cause. Cheshire uses much salt in agriculture, and Dorset is midway between the Bristol and the S. Channels, and at this moment our dining-room win- dow is covered with salt. Wo think little of barberry as the cause of mildew. It is usually quite a rare plant. Farm on the coast, 300 feet above the sea. In one field this year (1882) white wheat is badly mildewed, while red wheat in the same field is not affected at all. Both wheats were sown on the same day, the previous crop was one year’s lea penned all over with sheep. Thin plant is most liable, but this year I hat Report on Wheat-Mildew. 671 bstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. I. County. ii. Name and Address of Correspondent. IIL Reply to Queries as to Prevalence of Mildew. IV. Extracts from Replies to other Questions. 1. Dorset Ellswood, W., contd. the disease in a very thick plant. Early-sown wheat less liable than late-sown. B. Do. .. Galpin, G., Tarrant, Keynston, Blandford. When I en- tered this farm in 1868, it had an unen- viable noto- riety as a blighting farm.- It had been badly farmed. In 1869, 1871, 1878, I suffered. The farm is 300 feet above sea, and much exposed. There were numbers of barberry-bushes, which I grubbed up. I think the farm is less subject to mil- dew now than formerly; but whether this is due to the absence of the barberry or to better cultivation I cannot say. I am inclined to think to the latter. A crop which is thin during winter, and then becomes gross and luxuriant in the spring, is very apt to mildew. B. Do. .. Hoddinott, J., Sherborne. Occasionally, as in 1879, 1880, 1881. Stone brash soil, fairly drained. Wheat follows two years’ ley ; thin plant always more liable to attacks. L Do. .. Mitchell, J. H., Deanslease, Wimborne. My farm suf- fers little. In the im- mediate lo- cality, near the sea, they suffer some- times. Land which has been over-dosed with manure and sown late is most liable. 5. Do. . . Parham, G., My farm is A farm near Hindon, Wilts, very Gillingham. not much subject. subject to it. When a thin crop grows fast in summer from being highly manured, the dis- ease is most developed. Clean- liness favours mildew, as foul land is seldom rich in condition. Thick sowing is the best pre- ventive of the disease. o. Do. .. Saunders, J. C., Water combe, Dorchester. Not much known in the locality. We get “rust” a few days before the wheat is fit to cut, following fogs from the sea, which is about two miles distant. 7. Essex Beadel, W. J., Springfield, Chelmsford. Frequent, but not malig- nant; preva- lent during last 5 years. Open level country, mixed soil. Wheat generally grown after clover, beans, peas, or potatoes ; no exception as to mildew after either of the above crops. Where clover or grass seeds have been 672 Report on Wheat-Mildew. Abstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. I. CovxTr. II. Name and Address of Correspondent. III. Reply to Queries as to Prevalence of Mildew. 37. Essex Beadel, W. J., contd. 38. Do. .. Delf, W., Great Bentley, Tendring Hundred. Wheat in this district more or less at- tacked by mildew in 1881, 1882. In many cases the value of the crop was re- duced Jrd. r 39. Hants Manning, E., Titchfield. More fre- quently during the past seven years, and especially in 1879 and 1881. 40. Do. .. Kent, G. E., stubbing ton, Portsea. .. .. IV. Extracts from Replies to other Questions. heavily fed during the summer, mildew is less apparent. In reply to further queries, “My bailiff’s opinion coincides entirely with mine, viz., that where we have folded sheep during the summer heavily upon feeding clover, there has been an absence of mildew compared to wheat . grown either after mown clover, beans, peas, or mangold.” This farm is open, undulating; about 4 miles from the sea- soil both heavy and light. The wheat on both was affected, hut that on the heavy land suffered in a greater degree. Wheat is sown after red clover layer, some of which is mown twice. On the lighter land a mixture of Pacey’s rye-grass, white and red clover, and trefoil is sown ; this is mown once and then fed. Dung is applied sometimes just before ploughing, sometimes on the young layers in the pre- vious winter or spring. The sorts grown are Lenny’s White, Golden Drop, and Burwell Red. Invariably find that Lenny’s White is more free from mildew than the others. Land 10 or 15 feet above sea. Sheltered loam, or loam on gravel. Wheat sown on one year’s ley after barley; dung applied immediately before ploughing. Where wheat is thickest, most mildew found. Fenton’s White attacked, while red wheat and some New Zealand wheat that had been grown in England one year were not mildewed. What somo call blight or mildew is not in my opinion an actual disease. I attribute it entirely to the state of the land at the Report on Wheat- Mildew. 673 Abstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. L County. 40. Hants 41. Do. .. 42. Here- ford. 43. Herts.. ii. Name and Address of Correspondent. Kent, G. E., contd. Stratton, J., Ckilcombe, Winchester. Duckham, T., M.P., Baysham Court, Sellack. Fordham, E. K., AshwellyBaldocJc in. Reply to Queries as to Prevalence of Mildew. This county is perhaps more liable to mildew than any other part of England. This district is not subject to serious attacks. Not very sub- ject. IV. Extracts from Replies to other Questions. time of sowing, or the effect of frost heaving the land and ex- posing the root ; and just before harvest the straw becomes darkened, and, if examined, the straw quite decayed just above the root. The light districts suffer especially when the season is wet and the crop of straw heavy. A weedy crop or a thin are most subject ; frost is, in my opinion, often the cause of the disease. I have seen a field in which was a barberry-bush, and mildew extended its ravages from this spot. This happened whenever the field was planted with wheat (triennially), until the tree was eradicated, since which the corn has not been blighted. Sow early and thickly where mildew is feared; cut the corn imme- diately alter it is seized by the disease. In 1867, after a frost on the 24th June, up to which time there had been a grand prospect, the wheat changed immediately, and the straw was covered with red rust ; the yield was very bad, not one half the previous pro- mise. In 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1881, cold wet seasons, much of the wheat in this dis- trict was mildewed — the low- lying lands are more subject — soil, sandy loam. Wheat is sown after clover ley ; the young clover is folded over in the autumn, and no other ma- nure is applied. Essex Rough Chaff in 1867, and Golden Drop in 1877, in the same field, badly mildewed — a thin plant is most liable. Farm about 145 feet above sea- level ; soil, gravel on chalk marl. 674 Report on Wheat-Mildew. Abstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. I. County. ii. Name and Address of Correspondent. III. Reply to Queries as to Prevalence of Mildew. IV. Extracts from Replies to other Questions. 43. Herts. Fordham, E. K., contd. Wheat grown after clover, beans, or sainfoin ; a thin plant is more liable; unhealthy plants more susceptible of disease. I have observed mildew most in low- lying land, on land lately broken up from pasture, and on late sown and thin crops. I am certain that some sorts of wheat are more subject than others. Browick is the least liable of any variety with which I am acquainted ; over-manuring with nitrate of soda or raw farmyard- dung is a cause. 44. Hunts Battcock, F.,’ Very little Occasionally found on late-sown Hemingford known in or thin wheats, or on land which Abbots, St. Ives. this district. requires draining. 45. Do. Cranfield, W., For 30 vears Clay and loam. If our wheat Buekden , past I have grows fast in spring and gets a Huntingdon. always seen mildew in this part, except in very dry and hot summers. heavy flag, mildew is nearly sure to follow. Generally the wheat that mildews worst is after clover, fed off bare in the summer. I find it no matter whether we sow early or late. 46. Do. .. Spencer, S., Holywell, St. Ives. I have seen so little of mildew that I have no practical in- formation to give. 47. Kent .. Coleman, T., Not very fre- A very good soil on subsoil of Ash by Sandwich. quently. sand. 48. Do. .. Collard, C., Never having suffered any loss from mildew, I must Little plead ignorance about the disease. I do not think Barton, this neighbourhood is subject to it. Rust we Canterbury. sometimes have. 49. Do. .. Goodwin, W. J., My own farm High situation, open and exposed. Wrotliam. and others in this neighbour- hood have suffered Light loam and heavy land on Kentish rag ; some chalk, sand, and clay, all more or less affected in bad years — foul and infertile fields most affected. Velvet-ear, Report on Wheat-Mildew. 675 Abstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and tlie Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. 1. II. III. IV. Name and Address Reply to Queries as COL’XTT. of to Prevalence of Extracts from Replies to other Questions. Correspondent. Mildew. 49. Kent 50. Kent .. 51. Do. .. 52. Do. .. 53. Do. .. Goodwin, W. J., contd. Knights, R., Bobbing Court, Sit- tingbourne. Mono k ton, F., Tonbridge. Neve, George, Sissing- hurst, Staptehurst. Pye, James, Knights- place, Rochester. severely in late wet seasons. In this locality some crops have suf- fered. This district is not gene- rally liable. Fortunately I have never suffered much from mildew. I have never had any damage from mildew, ex- cept in 1880. Golden Drop, and Square Head seem to blight worst. Disease encouraged by a check to vege- tion (as by frost), succeeded by wet of long duration. Rust (the first sign) may be destroyed, or nearly so, by top-dressing with suitable manure, particularly if salt is also used to harden the straw. Soil variable. Generally loam on chalk or gravel. In 1881 a field on the farm was struck. It was half wheat and half barley — both crops were mildewed. The corn was not much injured, but the straw was utterly useless for thatching or sale. The wheat was sown on loam or clay soil — land steam- ploughed after two years’ clover ley. The barley was after wheat following beans. For wheat, 3 cwt. of rape-cake were applied at the time of sowing. For barley, 3 cwt. superphosphate and guano. When the disease has appeared here, it has been when the crop is thin, and it has been forced by heavy dressings of artificial manure into a luxurious growth. Late-sown wheat is more liable than early sown. I grow about 300 acres of wheat on various soils lying between the Thames and the Medway. In 1880, my wheats in the latter part of July looked like grow- ing 6 qrs. an acre ; but the last six days of the month were wet, with thunder. After this, nearly every acre went black, the corn became lean, the straw rotten. The crop, about 4 qrs., weighed about 55 lbs. the bushel. 676 Report on Wheat- Mi Ideiv. Abstract of Keplies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. 1. ii. ill. County. Name and Address of Correspondent. Reply to Queries as to Prevalence of Mildew. 54. Kent Bigden, H., Lyminge, JLythe. The land of blight. 55. Do. .. Stonham, H., Thornham, Maidstone. Have suffered more or less since 1875, and parti- cularly in 1881. 56. Leicester 57. Lincoln Smythies, Kev. E., Hathern, Loughboro'. Bramley, C., Fiskerton, Lincoln. No mildew on my farm, except one year. My farm (clay land) is not subject to mildew. 58. Do. .. Hobson, J. G., Long Sutton. Have suffered frequently in forty IV. Extracts from Replies to other Questions. Mildew has been developed to such an extent on fresh broken up bottom pastures, that corn is only very sparingly attempted for the first six or seven years. I have some high land 600 feet above the sea, some sloping down to the valley, and some flat lands in the valley. On the top of the hills strong clay lies on chalk ; the slopes are light chalk ; the valley rich loam. I have observed that the hills and the slopes are much less subject than the valley; that the stale ploughed land is less liable than fresh broken up land ; very thick and thin plants suffer most. Heavy folding with sheep and large quantities of artificial manure are provo- cative of the disease. The Hoary wheat with us blights most, and the old White Straw always goes best through a blight. My farm lies between the chalk range and the gault. Thin-sown wheat and crops after clover ley which have been thinned by wire-worm are worst. Some varieties are more disease-resist- ing than others. The Bearded April and Nursery are particu- larly so. My brother took a farm ten years ago, which had the reputation of growing nothing else but mildewed wheat; he adopted early sowing, and has had nothing of the kind — at least nothing serious — since. District a dead level, little above the sea, exposed. Soil good, deep, alluvial. Wheat is grown Report on Wheat-Mildew. 677 Abstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. i. ii. HI. IV. COCNTT. Name and Address of Correspondent. Reply to Queries as to Prevalence of Mildew. Extracts from Replies to other Questions. 58. Lincoln Hobson, J. G., contd. 59. Do. Hopkins, T., Limber Magna. 60. Lincoln Martin, G., Huberts Bridge , Kirton. years’ expe- rience. Few years in which wheat on our Wolds is not attacked (more or less) with mildew, but the attacks are not so malignant as to cause serious in- jury- My farm has frequent at- tacks of mildew. after oats, seeds, or potatoes. Thin late crops after clover most disposed to disease. Rough chaffed white wheat is the most sensitive variety. My farm is 420 feet above sea, open and exposed. The soil is a sandy loam on chalk. Wheat is mostly grown after seed-pas- tures (rag grass, white clover, trefoil, alsyke, and rib grass, a little of the other clovers grown for mowing). On my light land I have invariably the worst crop after mowing. Thin wheats, whether from thin sowing or from grubbing, or working out in winter, are always most liable to attack. Crops forced with artificial manures are espe- cially susceptible to the disease. I attribute the little damage generally occasioned in this part of our Wolds by mildew to the fact of the soil being thinner and drier, and more easily affected beneficially by a few days of bright hot weather. On the Wolds between Louth and Horncastle they often suffer almost as much as you in the Fens, their soil being deeper, stronger, and their crops gene- rally ripening slowly, and a full week later than ours. The situation is exposed ; the land level 10 or 12 feet above the sea. The soil is silt, loam, and clay. Wheat after beans, clover, tares, potatoes, cole, and fallows, is more subject to the disease than after oats or mangold. Scholey’a Square Head is more attacked than other sorts; but white wheats are generally more susceptible than red, excepting the Stand-up White, and the Red Chaff White ; but these 678 Report on Wheat-Mildew. Abstract of Keplies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. I. County. ii. Name and Address of Correspondent. III. Reply to Queries as to Prevalence of Mildew. IV. Extracts from Replies to other Questions. 60. Lincoln Martin, G., contd. wheats are not generally grown, as they are not good millers’ wheats. Late harvests are fre- quently accompanied with mil- dew, and thin crops invariably take the disease. 61. Norfolk Cubitt, W., Bacton Grange, N. Walsham. Not often Situation exposed, 20 to 30 feet above sea ; soil good loam ; pro- ductive wheat is generally sown after artificial grasses in the four-year course. Farmyard- dung is applied before plough- ing ; white wheat is seldom grown, as it is far more subject to mildew than red. October- sown wheats produce stiffer and brighter straw than later sown ; thinly planted crops invariably more subject to this disease. No forcing manures, especially those containing an excess of nitrogen, should be used on good soils for wheat. 62. Do. .. Day, G. J., Eorsford, Norwich. My experience is that late-sown and thin-planted wheat is very sub- ject to mildew. Wheat forced by artificial manure is the most of all likely to be affected. A sudden check of N.E. wind after some hot summer days produces the disease. Well marled or clayed farms are least subject. The constitution of the plant is strengthened, and the straw stiffened by such manures. 63. Do.' .. Gayford, T. J., E. Wretham. This district is generally very free from mil- dew. The disease arises from (1) no or imperfect dressing of seed-corn. (2) Cold, wet, windy weather during flowering, or from loss of plant from frost and too rapid growth in spring and summer ; almost invariably top-dressing on thin wheat produces more or less mildew. 64. Do. .. Johnson, W., Lynn. A late harvest, with an absence of sun in July, produces mildew. Fen and skirty land, and fresh broken grass land, are very sus- Report on Wheat-Mildew. 679 Abstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. I. County. u. Name and Address of Correspondent IIL Reply to Queries as to Prevalence of Mildew. IV. Extracts from Replies to other Questions. 64. Norfolk Johnson, W., contd. ceptible, especially if the wheat is sown late and is a thin plant. Wheat after wheat is almost sure to have it ; the same after a naked fallow. I never saw it in wheat after oats ; nor on thin- skinned poor clay, however much out of condition it might be. There is no sort of wheat proof against the disease, unless it be the Old Rivett’s. 65. Do. Morton, J., Stow Bardolph, Downham Market. Very subject, and espe- cially 1881- 1882. Mildew is always found after severe spring frosts. Have never tried thin sowing; but if by any accident the plant is thin, the chances of mildew are much increased. The land heavily clayed suffered in 1881, hut not nearly so much as those lands where claying had been ne- glected. 66. Do. .. Parsons, W. 15., Tilney St. Lawrence, Lynn. On my farm and in this district the disease sel- dom occurs to any seri- ous extent. In 1881 a field of 50 acres was injured in my estimation to the extent of 2 coombs an acre. The farm is open and exposed ; it lies below high-water mark. The soil is deep-stapled loam. The crop in question followed- clover, > partly mown, partly grazed. No manure was applied, but the sheep were fed with cake. Square Head wheat was sown Nov. 5, 6, 9, the usual season. The crop came up thin, but filled up into a very fine crop. Land in a high state of fertility is most liable. We never see a trace of the disease after oats. 67. North- ampton. Rooke, John, Weldon. Not subject to malignant attacks. Where soils contain a superabund- ance of organic matter in a raw or crude state, and the crop is exposed to continuous rains, with damp atmosphere, condi- tions most favourable to the development of mildew seem to be present. Thin-sown crops are more predisposed to attack than those which are thicker. 680 Report on Wheat-Mildew. Abstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. I. II. III. IV. Name and Address Reply to Queries as County. of to Prevalence of Extracts from Replies to other Questions. Correspondent. Mildew. ■67. North- ampton. 68. Notts .. 69. Oxon .. Rooke, John, contd. Smith, Wool- ley T., Stokingham, Newark Dash wood, F. L., Rirtlivgton. No part of my farm is sub- ject in any marked de- gree to at- tacks of mildew. I have not suffered from mil- dew in many seasons. I attribute the immunity en- joyed by this district to its elevated position, and to the abundance of calcareous matter in the soil. General results of my experience: 1. Land on which wheat is most liable to mildew, light peaty soils, or black vegetable mould overlying silt sand or gravel. 2. In the case of arable land traversed by brooks, it is very common to find in the lower parts of the fields adjoining the brook course, portions of land which have been embanked, broken up, and brought into cultivation ; the wheat on such parts is very commonly attacked when the adjoining lands wholly escape; such land is very apt “ to run to straw,” and to lodge, even after it has been many years in cultivation. 3. In the case of all lodged straw, the straw is commonly more or less mildewed. 4. Wet or damp sunless weather is very condu- cive to mildew. I think also the shade of hedgerow timber, woods, and plantations encour- ages it. 5. On lands liable to mildew, I think high farming rather promotes the evil than otherwise. 6. A crop which, having been thinly sown, or having lost root from wireworm or frost, has recovered itself by “tillering” or “stooling,” is more liable to mildew than a crop which was full and regular from the first. Years ago we heard more of dis- eases affecting the wheat crop than we have of late years, ex- cepting the seasons of 1879, 1880, 1881. I attribute many of the diseases of wheat to late Report on Wheat-Mildew. 681 Abstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and tlie Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. I. ii. in. IV. Name and Address Reply to Queries as CODSTI. of to Prevalence of Extracts from Replies to other Questions. Correspondent. Mildew. 69. Oxox .. Dashwood, F. L., sowing, to the want of change of seed, to inclement seasons contd. 70. Somerset 71. Do. .. 72. Do. .. Comer, R., Inglescomle, Bath. Feaver, John, West Camel , Ilchester. My farm and this locality very subject to mildew. Hood, Sir A. H., W. Quan- tockshead, Bridgwater. The district is not much subject to mildew. VOL. XIX. — S. S. and sudden changes of tempe- rature ; also to the top-dressing of thin crops with ammoniacal manures. I also question whe- ther the application of farmyard- manure to clover as a prepara- tion for wheat is not injurious in some seasons. We only suffer from “ rust.” In 1879, 1880, the attacks were very malignant. Where wheat and weather are both sour the disease is most prevalent. The following observations apply to a crop of wheat grown in a field peculiarly subject to mildew. The situation is rather low, fairly sheltered, and sufficiently in- clined to drain well. Soil, rather heavy loam, with cold tenacious subsoil. Wheat followed rape and turnips fed off ; the green crop having been preceded by barley. 21 cwt. of superphos- phate was applied to the green crop, and no manure to the wheat ; 2 bushels of Essex White wheat sown in the first week of Nov. When the plant is thin and gross, it is more liable to attack. In 1819 mildew appeared on one farm at Stringston. The farm is about 150 feet above the sea ; sheltered, moderately level, suf- ficiently drained, clean, and fairly fertile. The field where the wheat was injured is partly heavy stonebrash, partly clay and peat, and the disease was much more serious on the latter soil. Short-eared Essex White wheat was sown (9 pecks to the acre) early in Nov. (this being 2 Y 682 Report on Wheat-Mildew. Abstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. I. County. II. Name and Address of Correspondent. III. Reply to Queries as to Prevalence of Mildew. IV. Extracts from Replies to other Questions. 72. Somerset Hood, Sir A. H., contd. early for the district). The previous crop was seeds after barley. The sheep had cake and corn ; nitrate of soda and salt were applied in April. This is the ouly case which has come within the correspondent’s knowledge. 73. Sussex Colgate, T., Glynde, Lewes. Frequent at- tacks, seldom of a malig- nant cha- racter. Most malignant in 1881. A field which was rye-grass depastured in 1879, and rape in 1880, was sown with Nursery Wheat (3j bushels to the acre), late in January (the usual time for this description of wheat). Good ma- nure and superphosphate were applied for rape, which was folded over. There was a full plant of free growth until at- tacked by the disease. My ex- perience is, however, that thin- sown wheat is most subject to mildew. 74. Do. .. Drewitt, C. J., Drayton , Chichester. The only thing we get approach- ing mildew is a blight, which begins with a kind of red fungus on the straw, then turns black, and the ear produces nothing but very light thin grains. 75. Do. .. King, M., Salvington. The disease is little known here. On one farm near the sea, where a great quantity of straw is often grown, mildew is occa- sionally found if the growth has been very rapid, and there has been an absence of sunshine. 76. Do. .. Tallant, F., Easeboune Priory, Midhurst. These light soils are remarkably free from mildew. 77. Do. .. Wood, W., TJield. Very seldom Wheat is generally grown after a summer fallow and sown early. The disease is found mostly where a crop has been taken in the previous year, or where artificial manure, particularly nitrate of soda, has been applied in the spring. A thin and de- ficient plant is most liable. Report on Wheat-Mildew. 083 Abstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. i. COUN'TT. 78. Wilts 79. Wilts ii. Name and Address of Correspondent. Attwater, J. G., Britford , Salisbury. III. Reply to Queries as to Prevalence of Mildew. This locality has, but not this farm. Carpenter, J., Burcombe, Salisbury. I do not suffer so much as some. IV. Extracts from Replies to other Questions. In 1839 I was on a farm when the wheat and meadow grass were much injured by mildew. The wheat was grown after two green crops in succession. I grew 16 crops of wheat on the Cotswolds, and never had mil- dew. When I entered the farm I was told I should never have it if I kept the hedges clear of barberry-bushes, which of course I did; there I used nitrate of soda and salt freely, and with success. From there I moved to a farm 14 miles north of this, and followed the same course ; got mildew a bit the first season on oats and wheat; not much the second ; tried again, wheat and oats suffered severely ; bar- ley, the straw was worthless and grain inferior. This was 1864, ’65, ’66, and I have not dressed an acre of corn with nitrate of soda for fear since. A large, good, and successful farmer told me that on a strong wheat and bean soil he tried Talavera with great success the first year; sowed all his wheat field with it the next year, when' it was so mildewed that he never would sow that sort again, and he added, that if he had, the last bushel of it he would send to the miller. The following circumstances are favourable to the production of mildew : A wet and sunless summer, a southern aspect, late sowing, a thin plant, and a top-dressing of nitrate of soda. I do not fancy that one sort of wheat is more liable than another, but many of my neighbours declare that Square Head is. 2 y 2 684 Report on Wheat-Mildew. Abstract of Replies received in Answer to Inquiries as to Prevalence of Mildew, and the Conditions under which it is Developed — continued. I. COCSIY. 1L Name and Address of Correspondent. III. R“ply to Qneries as to Prevalence of Mildew. IV. Extracts from Replies to other Questions. 80. Wilts Lywood, E., 1 Maddington , Devizes. The barberry tree, without a doubt, will mildew the wheat in a direct sweep from the shrub across a whole field; this I have seen repeatedly. I have found white wheat blight here when other kinds do not. Thin wheat, and wheat to which nitrate of soda has been applied, and backward wheat, are very apt to have mildew. 81. Do. .. Parham, J. X., Sutton Veney, Warminster. Fonnerly very common, but less so since feed- ing cake and corn, and solving Nursery Wheat. Developed by thin or late sowing, or deficient plant, or by exces- sive manuring. 82. Do. .. Stratton, W., Kingston Deverel. Warminster. My farm and certain fields in this and the next parish have suffered much in past years. From I860 to 1871 the disease was very malignant; bottoms of valleys most liable ; thin plant suffers most. When I suffered most, I was sowing about G pecks an acre. I now sow 10 pecks. 8?. Yorks.. Beckett, B., Driffield. In 1882 I had one field much in- jured. Situation a few yards above sea- level, open exposed country. Soil, clay loam, imperfectly drained. The previous crop, rape and turnips after oats. Square Head wheat sown early in Dec. (rather late), 10 pecks to the acre ; thin crop most liable. 84. Do. .. Illingworth, P., Kewsham, Thirsk. The locality is not subject to frequent attacks of mildew. When wheat is sown on clover leys in a damp situation, mil- dew is more prevalent. If the plant is thiu on the ground, it is more likely to grow gross. The disease is seldom seen where wheat is sown on bean or oat-stubble. 685 Report on Wheat-Mildew. APPENDIX III. P rom a Circular issued by A. Young, as Secretary to the Board of Agriculture in 1804.* Queries. 1. What soils have yielded the crops most affected by mildew ? 2. Have early or late sown crops suffered most ? 3. What situations have been most exposed to it? high and ventilated ■ones, or low and sheltered dales? 4. Have thin or thickly sown crops escaped the best ? and thin or thick from other circumstances, drilling, the red worm, etc. ? o. Has the use of old or new seed been attended with any effect ? 6. If, from your observations, you conceive the cause to be atmospheric — of what sort ? late frosts, fogs, severe or open winters, etc. ? 7. Have crops on fallows or layers escaped the best ? 8. Has manuring, whether by lime, dung, fold, etc., had any effect ? U. Have you made any observations on the barberry, as locally affectin'* wheat ? 10. Has there been any difference from the sort of wheat sown — bearded red, white, spring, etc. ? 11. Has early cutting been found useful? and how early, in point of the milk of the grain being coagulated? 12. What proportion, in your opinion, does the late crop bear to a common average produce ? With any other circumstances which you may think applicable to the inquiry. APPENDIX IV. I. Extracts from ‘ Annals of Agriculture.’ Edited by Arthur Young, Secretary to the Board of agriculture. ■1. Suffolk 2. Essex .. I Nesfield, Bev. 1780, 1781, w., 1782, years \V ickarn- of fatal mil- brook dew in Suf- (in 1784). folk. | Onley, C., Very lately it Glisteud, has affected Braintree the old (in 1784). chalked lands verg- ing towards the hun- dreds of Essex. Spring frosts from 20 May to 10 June cause mildew ; distinc- tion between real and apparent vigour ; luxuriance of growth not a sign of vigour. Very late sown crops are most liable ; a thin crop on loose soil will almost certainly be mildewed, wheat on fallow more subject than on clover -ley, except on very stiff soils. — i. 327. f Lands chiefly subject, such as have clay bottom, moist and heavy surface lands long in tillage most liable. Wheat on fallow more liable than on clover ley ; and land dunged more than Dot dunged, lied wheat or rivets least subject. Early sowing and much seed some security. — i. 331. * Young’s ‘ Annals of Agriculture,’ xliii. 322. t These figures refer to the vol. and page, ‘ Annals of Agriculture.’ (586 Report on Wheat-Mildew. APPENDIX IV. — continued. II. Replies to Queries on the subject of Mildew circulated by Arthur Young in 1804. 3. Beds. Maxey, W., Knotting. (1) Woodlands, new lands broke up from ancient pasture, such soils produce luxuriant growth and later maturity. (2) In general late sown. (3) Low and sheltered. (4) Thick or thin no difference. (7) Fallows generally escape best. (8) Manures which cause early maturity have a good effect. — xliii. 504. 4. Bucks. . . King, Isaac, Wycombe. In this district this year (1804) the worst I ever knew; no soil or management has escaped en- tirely, but the valleys worse than the hills; severe frost in July. — xliii. 458. 5. Cambs. Custance, W., Cambridge. (2) Late sown most. (4) Thin crops best. (8) Land most manured and best done by has been the most affected. (10) Bearded wheat least affected. — xlv. 112. G. Do. Shepard, James, Chippenham, Newmarket. (1) Loose chalky soils; broken up pasture and sainfoin layers not limed or marled. (2) Late sown most. (3) Low and sheltered. (4) Thin plants escaped best. (7) Wheat on layers best. (10) Bearded and white escaped the best. — xliii. 509. 7. Do. Wedd, Nath., Trumpington. (1) Gravelly soils. (2) Late sown crops. (3) The vales. (4) Doubtful; thick sown, r , (7-8) Layers suffered least, folded lands (10) Bearded less injured than white or red; but sirring wheat least of all. — xliii. 328. 8. Cornwall Lord De Duns- lanville, Trehidy. (1) Morestone. (2) Late in general. (3) Low and sheltered vales. (7) Fallows escaped best. — xliii. 472. 9. Essex .. Ambrose, J., Copford, Colchester. (1) Hollow bottom and unsound land. (2) Late sown. (3) Low and sheltered vales. (4) Thick sown have escaped best. (7) Layers best. — xliv. 158. 10. Do. North, John, Ash den, Saffron Walden. (1) Thin staple over chalk, low bottoms covered with black land. (2) Low lands most subject (4) Thick crops escape best. Report on Wheat- Mildew. 687 II. Beplies to Queries on the subject of Mildew circulated by Arthur Young in 1804 — continued. 10. Essex North, J., contd. (7) Layers best. (10) White wheat most affected, rivets least. — xliv. 149. 11. Gloucester Estcourt, T., M.P (1) Stiff moist soils that lie damp. (3) Lowest and most sheltered ; though in some cases very exposed situations. (4) Thinnest escaped equally well with the thickest. W heat after pota- toes less affected. The part most affected was ploughed two furrows deep, a full crop of vetches turned down ; top- dressed in spring with coal ashes ; bearded wheat suffered less than red lammas. — xliii. 323. 12. Do. Lumbers, IL, Wick Risington. (2) Late sown. (3) Low and sheltered. Wheat grow- ing more luxuriantly there. (8) Over-luxuriance produced by ma- nuring, or by green vetches ploughed in. — xliv. 89. 13. Kent G rebell, Allen, Barton, Canterbury. (1) Light and low soils most affected. (3) Low and sheltered vales. (4) Thick crops escaped best. (7) Layers gave crops most free. (10) White wheats suffer most. — xliii. 497. 14. Lincoln .. Amos, W., Brothertoft. (1) Light loamy rich soils. (2) Late soivn. (7) Fallow crops on strong land least affected. — xliv. 76. 15. Lincoln .. Linton, J., Freiston, Boston. (1) Bich argillaceous and loamy soils. (4) The strongest crops. (7) Fallows and layers equally. (8) Not usual to manure wheat land. (10) Bed wheat suffered most this year, the contrary more usually the case. — xliii. 463. 16. Monmouth Berry, Edward, Court St. Lawrence. (1) Rich vale lands well mucked without being limed. (2) Early sown suffered most. (3) Low and sheltered vale. (4) Thin sown escaped best. (7) Fallows best. — xliii. 507. 17. Norfolk Cubitt, John, Southrejrps. (1) Light soils most affected. (2) Divided opinion, but generally thought early sown. (3) Low situations most. (4) Thin crops escaped best. (7) Layers escaped best. — xliii. 461. 18. Do. Johnson, S., Thurning. (4) Thick wheat on foul grassy lands escaped best. 688 Report on Wheat-Mildew. II. Replies to Queries on the subject of Mildew circulated by Arthur Young in 1804 — continued. 18. Norfolk .Johnson, S., contd. (8) In 1803 lands in a high state suffered most. — xliii. 470. 19. Do. Muskett, J., Easton. (1) Deep loamy soils, and such as grow luxuriant crops as new broke lauds, &c. (2) Late sown. (3) Low lands. Small inclosures. (4) Thick wheat has always escaped best. (10) White wheat and spring wheat suffer most. — xlv. 117. 20. Oxford .. Benwell, H., Caversham. (1) Wheat generally mildewed this year, fine loamy soils most. (4) Thinnest plant most favoured, worst farmers have thebestcrops. (6) Great rain just as bloom going off succeeded by hoar frost. (7) Layers and fallows suffered equally. (8) Where no manure applied wheat escaped most. (10) Red chaffed wheat and the Ame- rican egg shell have fared best. — xliii. 459. 21. Stafford Miller, Thomas, Dunstall Iiall, Wolver- hampton. (1) The strongest. (2) Late. (3) Low lands and those hanging north and north-east. (4) Thick sown best. (8) Lime has produced the best crops. (10) Red wheat and bearded the best. — xliv. 425. 22. Suffolk.. Cotton, B., Weybread. (1) Inferior loose soils exposed to a north-east wind. (2) Late sown. (4) Thick and thin equally. (7) Layers escaped best.— kliv. 131. 23. Do. Gwilt, E., lcklingham. (1) Strong soils. (2) Late sown. (3) Sheltered vale. (4) Thick sown. — xliv. 139. 24. Do. Hill, II., Buxhall. (1) The real wheat lands. (10) White has suffered most. — xliv. 154. 25. Do. Simpson, Thomas, Witnesham. (1) Soft spongy lands. (2) Late. (3) Vales if sound escape best. (4) Thick plants escape best. (7) Layers best. (8) Extremely highly manured lands worst. (10) Red escapes best. — xliv. 141. 26. Surrey .. Birkbeck, Rev. Morris, Wanborough. (1) All soils, but perhaps light soils most. (2) Early crops this year, contrary to all expectation. Report on Wheat-Mildew. 689 II. Keplies to Queries on the subject of Mildew circulated by Arthur Young in 1804 — continued. 2G. Surrey .. Birkbeck, Rev. (7) Difference in favour of fallows. — M., contd. xliii. 460. 27.jDo. Tage, T., Cobham. (1) Sand and chalk. (2) Late sown crops. (3) High situations most. (4) Thick sown crops escape best. (6) Frost in end of June the cause. (7) Crops on layers best. (10) Brown American suffered least. — xliii. 460. 28. Sussex .. Turner, R., LurgershaU, Petwortli. (1) No kind of soil escaped. 1804 worse than any other year since 1725. — xliv. 135. 29.' Wilts .. Davies, Thomas, Mischief generally done when in a dry Longleat. time in the Wheat Kerning a misling rain happens. We have known something of this disease for 25 years. Much damage in 1803, and still more in 1804. Whenever a plant of wheat grows on a dunghill the ears are almost always blighted. Tare crops, thin crops, and crops on light land, where the plants have not good firm foothold, seldom miss the blight. Land worn out with cropping or made too light with manure will produce the same effect. — xliii. 456. 30. Worces- Darke, John, (2) Late crops most affected. TERSHIRE Bredon. (3) Low lands. (4) Thick crops more than thin. — xliii. 326. 31. Yorks. .. Lee, John, Lecon field, Beverley. (1) Moor or sand land fresh ploughed. (2) Late crops. (3) Low sheltered vales. (4) Thin. (7) Fallows escaped best. (10) White most affected. — xliv. 140. 32. Yorks., Payne, W., Friclcley, Doncaster. (1) Gravelly and sandy soils. E. R. % (7) Crops on layers best, (10) Difference, if any, in favour of bearded wheat. — xliv. 155. 33. Do. Topham, Edward, The Wolds. (1) Strongest soils suffered most ; best wheat produced on worst land. (2) Early and late suffered equally. (3) Low and sheltered vales most. (7) Crops on fallows escaped best. — xliii. 501. 34. Yorks., Bramley, Richard (1) Disorder prevalent in soils which W. R. Ramsden, Leeds. abound in extra proportions of clay ; soils in a highly improved state. (2) Early sown crops. (3) Low ones. [335. (4) Thick sown most probably. — xliii. 690 Report on Wheat- Mildew. II. Keplies to Queries on tlie subject of Mildew circulated by Arthur Young in 1804 — continued. 35. Yorks., Medley, J., (2) Late sown crops. W. R. Potter Newton, (3) Low and sheltered vales. Leeds. (4) Thin crops escaped most. (10) Red wheat has suffered least. — xliv. 423. APPENDIX V. C< mmunicated by Sir J. B. Lawes, Bart. Table showing ( 1 ) The Produce of Wheat in bushels. (2) The Average Weight per bushel. (3) The proportion of Offal Corn to 100 of Dressed Corn, in Two Plots of Permanent Wheat 1852-1882. (Note. — Plot 5 receives every year Potash, Soda, Magnesia, Superphosphate, but no Ammonia. Plot 10 a receives Salts of Ammonia alone.) Years. Dressed Com in Bushels per Acre. Weight per Bushel of Dressed Corn. Proportion of Offal Corn to 100 Dressed. Plot 5. Plot 10 a. Plot 5. Plot 10 A. Plot 5. Plot 10 A. 1852 17 22 574 55f 74 8 1853 10 10 49 49 21 33 1854 241 34-1 61 604 5 «4 1855 18 20 60 57 44 13 1856 19 24 564 554 94 12 1857 23 29 59 58 4 74 1858 184 23 614 594 3 54 1859 204 185 56 514 104 234 1860 154 15 54 494 04 204 1801 15i 12f 59 55 14| 204 1862 18 23 59 564 54 12 1863 194 39 63 624 3} 54 1804 16 32 62 612 4 54 1865 14 25 61 594 5 94 1866 13 26 60 f 01} 44 1867 9 18 594 572 52 1868 17 25 63 62 24 62 1869 15J 20 56J 542 5 9 1870 18 214 624 002 34 74 1871 12 10 564 532 15 24 1872 124 18 60 562 7 15 1873 124 194 57 50 54 02 1874 124 25 59 564 3 34 1875 9 12| 59 544 74 13 1876 10 12 59 57 3 3 1877 114 17 57 57 4 44 1878 144 27} 58§ 59} 44 42 1879 54 32 54 49 27 41 1880 17 104 59 55 3 104 1881 124 18 58 58 9 10 1882 124 23} 584 602 5 8 1 ears. 1834 1835 1838 1S37 1838 1833 1S40 1S41 1842 1S43 1S44 1845 1846 1847 1S4S 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1S55 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1S65 1S66 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 18S0 1881 1882 Report on Wheat-Mildew. APPENDIX VI. 691 howing the Date of the first Peeping of Wheat Eap.s, and commencement of Harvest in the neighbourhood of Wisbech. iled by Hr. Willi ah Exlet, Merchant, Wisbech. PeepiDg of ■Wheat Ears. Beriming Harvest. May 24 .. July IS June 10 .. Aug. 4 „ 15 .. „ s „ 17 .. „ 16 „ 17 .. „ 14 „ 12 .. „ 9 May 31 .. „ 10 31 .. „ s June 7 „ 9 „ 6 .. „ 11 May 30 .. „ 1 June 16 „ 16 2 55 ** July 30 „ 15 Aug. 4 Mav 29 July 27 June 8 .. Aug. 11 „ 12 .. „ 12 „ 6 .. „ 6 „ 8 .. 51 ^ „ 10 .. „ 10 „ 6 .. ,. s ., 16 „ IS „ 10 .. .. 13 „ 3 .. July 31 2 „ 26 9 51 — - . „ 2S „ 13 .. Aug. 21 „ s .. 9 55 ** May 31 .. 6 „ 29 .. July 29 June 1 Aug. 4 May 31 .. July 29 June 4 Aug. 6 „ 5 .. Aug. 12 May 25 July 17 June S . . Aug. 6 „ 4 •• July 28 „ 7 .. Aug. 10 10 .. 2 „ H •• )! 4 „ 3 .. July 2S ., 3 .. Aug. 6 17 .. „ 7 „ is .. „ 10 51 * • • s July 1 .. Sept. 1 June 19 Aug. IS „ 16 .. „ s „ 3 .. .. 6 Number of Days inter- vening. 55 Very early. 55 54 60 5S 58 Mildew. 71 Mildew. 69 Mildew. 63 66 63 Early. 61 Mildew. 58 Early. 50 59 Mildew. Early. 64 61 Mildew. 61 57 Mildew. 61 Mildew. 63 63 Mildew. Late. 64 58 Early. 54 Very early. 56 Mildew. Early. 69 Mildew. Late. 55 Early. 67 61 Early. 64 59 Mildew. Early. 63 68 53 Very early. 59 54 Early. 64 Mildew. 53 Mildew. Early. 51 55 Early. 64 Mildew. 51 53 Mildew. 62 Mildew. 62 Mildew. Very late. 60 Mildew. Late. 53 Mildew. 64 C92 Report on Wheat-Mildew. APPENDIX VII. Communicated to C. B. Plowright, Esq., by Professor F arlow, of Harvard University, U.S. Province Laws of Massachusetts, 1736-1761, p. 153. Anno Itegni Regis Georgii II., Vicesimo Octavo, chap. x. (published January 13, 1755). An Act to prevent damage to English grain arising from barberry bushes. A\ hereas it has been found by experience, that the blasting of wheat and other English grain is often occasioned by barberry bushes, to the great loss and damage of the inhabitants of this province : — Be it therefore enacted by the Governour, Council, and House of Repre- sentatives, that whoever, whether community or private person, hath any barberry bushes standing or growing in his or their land, within any of the towns in this province, he or they shall cause the same to be extirpated or destroyed on or before the thirteenth day of June Anno Domini One Tbousaud Seven Hundred and Sixty. Be it further enacted that if there shall be any barberry bushes standing or growing in any land within this province after the said 10th day of June, it shall be lawful, by virtue of this Act, for any person whosoever to enter the lands wherein such barberry bushes are, first giving one month’s notice of his intention to do so to the owner or occupant thereof, and to cut them down, or pull them up by the root, and then to present a fair account of his labour and charge therein to the owner or occupant of the said land ; and if such owner or occupant shall neglect or refuse by the space of two months next after the pre- senting said account, to make to such person reasonable payment as aforesaid, then the person who cut down or pulled up such bushes, may bring the action against such owner or occupant, owners or occupants, before any Justice of the Reace, if under forty shillings, or otherwise before the Inferior Court of Common Pleas in the county where such bushes grew, who upon proof of the cutting down or pulling up of such bushes by the person who brings the action, or such as were employed by him, shall and is hereby respectively empowered to enter up judgment for him to recover double the value of the reasonable expense and labour in such service and award execution accordingly. Be it further enacted, that if the lands on which such barberry bushes grew are common and undivided lands, that then an action may be brought as aforesaid, against any one of the proprietors in such manner as the laws of this province provide, in such cases where proprietors may be sued. Be it further enacted, that the surveyors of the highways, whether publick or private, be and hereby are empowered and required ex-officio to destroy and extirpate all such barberry bushes as are or shall be in the highways in their respective wards or districts, and if any such shall remain after the aforesaid tenth day of June, Anno Domini One Thousand Seven Hundred and Sixty, that then the town or district in which such bushes are shall pay a fine of two shillings for every bush standing or growing in such highway, to be recovered by bill, plaint, information, or on the presentment of a grand jury, and to be paid one half to the informer and the other half to the treasury of the county in which such bushes grew, for the use of the county. Be it further enacted, that if any barberry bush stand or grow in an}- stone wall or other fence, either pointing on highway, or dividing between one property and another, that an action may be brought as aforesaid against the owner of tbs said fence or the person occupying the land to which such fence belongs : and if the fence in which such bushes grew is a divisional fence between the lands of one person or community and another, and such fence hath not been divided, by which means the particular share of each person or 693 Report of the Judges of Book-Keeping. community is not known, then an action may be brought as aforesaid against either of the owners or occupants of the said land. Be it further enacted, that where the occupant of any land shall eradicate and destroy any barberry bush growing thereon, or in any of the fences belonging to the same (which such occupant is hereby authorised to do, and every action to be brought against him for so doing shall be utterly barred) or shall be obliged, pursuant to this act, to pay for pulling them up or cutting them down, that then the owner or proprietor of such land shall pay the said occupant the full value of his labour and cost in destroying them himself, or what he is obliged to pay to others as aforesaid ; and if such owner or owners shall refuse so to do, then it shall be lawful for the said occupant or occupants to withhold so much of the rents or income of the said land as shall be sufficient to pay or reimburse his cost and charge arising as aforesaid. This Act to continue in force until the tenth day of June, One Thousand Seven Hundred and Sixty-four. — Reprinted from the ‘ Lynn News/ December 23rd, 1882. XXVIII. — Report of the Judges of Book-Keeping. In compliance with the wish of the Council, that the Judges who examined the large number of systems of farm accounts sent in competition for the prizes offered by the Society, should “ draw up such a plan of keeping those accounts as they would recommend to English farmers,” we, the said Judges, have endeavoured to comply with that desire, and now lay before the Council the result of our consideration of the question. We recommend : — 1. A Diary combining the cash account with a daily record of all farm transactions. 2. A Farm-account book, showing in columnar form all payments and receipts ; and at the end of the book a form of balance-sheet for each year (see pp. 694-701). These two books, correctly kept, would enable the occupier of any farm to see the annual result of his farming. Our object has been to lead those farmers who keep no accounts, or none which deserve the name, to do so in future by placing before them a simple form which they can keep, with the least possible trouble, and which will show what farming does for them in every year. We believe the Council will best promote that object by sanctioning these two books only. It is not that we doubt the value of other books, especially Labour- book, Cash-book, Stock-book, and Ledger, or see reason to recommend any material change in the forms already given, but we fear that to ask the class of farmers whose interests we are considering to go beyond the two first books might deter them from beginning to keep any, and it is not necessary to help those who already keep their farm accounts — they will generally prefer to do so in the form to which they are accustomed. Believing that the two simple forms which we recommend will, BLANK EXAMPLE PAGE OF DIARY. (Book No. 1.) 694 Report of the Judges of Book-Keeping. 'B 'p 3 £ ja *-§P < 2 DP3 co PS fa a H 5* < Q HH PS fa a. p* d ° B OT i* 8 p ca §1 M ^ u S ° o « fa O ■3}®a ri i & i r3 J- ci DAY. Broughl f* ◄ >« Q Q co PS Q Q h-J C/3 fa & 2 Ss fa O P Q <1 02 a H fa 02 is o H Report of the Judges of Book-Keeping . 695 BLANK FORM OF RECEIPTS FROM SALES. (Book No. 2.) 696 Report of the Judges of Book-Keeping, EXAMPLE SHEET OF RECEIPTS FROM SALES. (Book No. 2.) Report of the Judges of Book-Keeping. 697 BLANK FORM OF PAYMENTS. 698 Report of the Judges of Book-Keeping. Report of the Judges of Book-Keeping. 699 To carry forward .. £ , 92 15 0 12 8 0 6(5 18 4 19 11 1 I 49 2 11 32 12 3 25 8 4 298 18 11 BLANK BALANCE SHEET for the Year ending 18 . (End of Book No. 2.) 700 Report of the Judges of Book-Keeping . a O r *3 02 ; >» oj jg : p< ■o ^ . ”5 § g ■ *2 ‘ *0 o P-) r3 p ° • o § a =8 8 o to co m d <3 H o *p £ §'S- o o 3 O Q O > » rt >» PP « o 5 J -£ , m a i § '1m ;^3 a - 3 a >K s !«ah O " H ,d to 3 a >> ci Ph o H -3 C3 2 « <3 Ph .a ^ O •6 ^ d g d 3 in w o £ O to Q O ^ H Pit. EXAMPLE BALANCE SHEET iron the Yeah ending 31st December, 1883. (End of Book No. 2.) Cn. Report of the Judges of Book-Keeping. 701 /. c ~ c — rr o 00 *o o «c i— i r-* H 3 A 2 702 On Sweet Vernal Grass and Golden Oat Grass, will, if known, induce many farmers to keep accounts who hitherto have not done so, and enable those who have kept accounts to do so more easily, we ask the Council to authorise the Secretary to supply all booksellers who desire to publish them with the several forms. They would be more generally adopted by farmers if published in their own localities, than if only obtainable in London. C. Randell. Wm. Frankish. Reginald A. Warren. XXIX. — On Sweet Vernal Grass and Golden Oat Grass, and their Adulteration. By William Carruthers, F.R.S. Sweet Vernal Grass ( Anthoxanthum odoratum, Linn.) Fig 1 a, is one of the most widely distributed of our indigenous grasses. It is found flourishing in all kinds of soils — in rich meadows and dry pastures, in bogs and woods, and on barren hill-sides. It is one of the earliest grasses, showing its flowering heads even at the end of April, and it sends up flowering stems all through the season. Whatever benefit may be derived from its pre- sence in pastures is due to its early foliage, which at the best is but scanty, and is never a favourite food of any kind of stock, though in this early state it is eaten with the other palatable grasses of the pasture. Whether it is better liked by cattle as a food when dry is doubtful, but it is certain that its extremely fragrant odour enhances the money-value of hay in the eyes of both seller and buyer. It is a perennial grass, and deserves a place, though not an important one, in permanent pastures. But the benefits sweet vernal grass may give to a pasture are entirely wanting from the allied species, the seeds of which are very largely sold in its stead. This plant, called Anthoxan- thum Puelii, Lee. and Lam., Fig. 1 h, is an annual grass, found throughout Central and Southern Europe, and extending as far north as Holland and Belgium ; but whether in these two countries it is an introduced or an indigenous plant I have not the means of determining. It is a smaller and more delicate grass, branching very freely from the root, and producing a large number of flowering stems. The plant has scarcely any odour, either when green or dried. The foliage is small, and not abun- dant. The substitution, therefore, of its seeds for the perennial sweet vernal grass is a serious injury, and the increasing pro- portion of samples that have during the year come under my notice prove that this adulteration is on the increase. The introduction of Anthoxanthum Puelii by seedsmen, and and their Adulteration. 703 704 On Sweet Vernal Grass and Golden Oat Grass, its extensive presence in mixtures for laying down new pastures and improving old ones, has led to its appearance over the country in such a way as to puzzle botanists, and to lead to the notion that it is an indigenous grass, which had been over- looked until a few years ago. It was first noticed by Mr. Britten in 1872, at Mobberly in Cheshire, in a field which had been broken up and re-sown with grass some years before. It was next observed by Mr. Townsend, in 1874, in a gravelly field near Netley, in Hampshire ; and since then it has been Fig. 2. — Sweet Scented Vernal Grass, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Linn. Ten times the natural size. a, The seed with its shining striated scales; b, one of the hairy pales, with the jointed hygro- metric awn, covered with hairs, and with curved edges, and an even apex ; c, the “seed” a« offered for sale, consisting of the two pales surrounding the small shining seed, which is 6een between the open edges of the pales. recorded from Staffordshire, Worcestershire, Devonshire, and other places. But in none of the localities is its appearance free from the strong suspicion that it has been introduced with agricultural seeds. Mr. Townsend gave a figure and descrip- tion of the plant in the ‘Journal of Botany’ for 1875, page 1, plate 157. The seeds of the two grasses very closely resemble each other, yet they possess differences which may be detected when they ure carefully examined. and their Adulteration. 705 As offered for sale, the seeds are not naked like those of wheat, but are still covered by two sets of leafy envelopes. J hey are oblong and more or less hairy bodies, with two hygro- metric awns, one being kneed, and the other shorter and straight. The small seed is easily freed from the outer cover- ings, and it is found to be an oval brownish body, with a shining coat. I he coat consists of two thin striated scales, which are so closely wrapped round the seed that it is very difficult to remove them. VY hen the grass is in flower, the 6 c a Fig. 3.— Annual Vernal Grass, Anthoxanthum f'uelii, Lee. ami Lam. Ten times the natural size. a. The seed with its shining striated scales; b, one of the pales, with the jointed hygrometric awn, the hairs along the nerves and margins, and with straight edges and toothed apex; c, the “ seed ” as offered for sale, consisting of the two pales, completely enclosing the seed. scales are more open, and the stamens spring from within them. The hairy awned pales are believed to be aborted florets, one on either side of the central fertile floret, which produces the seed ; and the three florets are enclosed in two unequal-sized white chaffy glumes, which remain attached to the flowering stalk when the seeds are ripe. This description applies equally to the seeds of all species of Anthoxanthum. 706 On Sweet Vernal Grass and Golden Oat Grass, The differences between the seeds of the sweet vernal grass and the annual species employed to adulterate it are not very obvious, yet, when accurately apprehended, they can easily be detected. In the bulk, the seeds of the true vernal grass are darker in colour than those of the other species. The most important characters for distinguishing them are to be seen in the hairy pales or barren florets. In the sweet vernal grass the pales are narrowed or hollowed out in the middle, so that while they overlap at top and bottom, they leave a narrow oval space in the middle, through which the glistening surface of the seed may be seen. In Antkoxanthum Puelii the pales are quite straight-sided, and entirely cover the seed. This difference may be seen in the aspect of the complete seed as offered for sale — Figs. 2 c and 3 c, but perhaps better in the drawings of the separate glumes of each species, Figs. 2 b and 3 b. In the sweet vernal grass the enlarged apex of the pale is evenly rounded, and the edge is uniformly and finely serrate ; while in the allied species the apex has two or three irregular teeth. And further, the hairs on the pales of the sweet vernal grass are scattered irregularly over the surface, while in the other species they are in lines along the midrib and veins, and along the edges. Finally, the seeds free from the hairy pales of the sweet vernal grass are longer and narrower, and darker in colour than those of Anthoxanthum Puelii. In both the outer scale is very large, completely covering the seed and the smaller inner scale. The white seed is of the same form, when denuded of the scales. The Yellow Oat-grass ( Avena flavescens, Linn.) Fig. 4 a, occurs frequently in dry meadows and pastures, and may be grown in almost any kind of soil or situation. It produces a considerable quantity of foliage, and is a favourite food of sheep. It is important as a late grass in pastures, and is therefore a desirable ingredient in mixtures of seeds used for laying down fields. It has fibrous roots, and sends out creeping underground stems by which it increases. The stems of the oat-grass rise to a height of 1 to 3 feet ; the leaves are flat and somewhat hairy, especially on the upper surface. The flowers, which are very small for an oat-grass, are borne on a branched lax panicle. The seeds are enclosed in two pales ; the outer one has the apex bifid and drawn out into two short roughish awns, and it gives off from its outer surface towards the apex a long rough-jointed awn. The inner pale is white and membranous, with a bifid apex ; it is very obvious in the seed being free in its upper portion from the outer pale. There is a small crown of short white hairs at the base of the pales, and the longish stalk or pedicel of the next flower has a continuous series of silvery hairs along its sides. ani their Adulteration. 707 ■* — a, Yellow Oat Grass, Avena flavescens, Linn. ; b. Wavy Mountain llair Grass, Airajlexmsa, Linn. Botli one-third the natural size. 708 On Sweet Vernal Grass and Golden Oat Grass , The seed which is extensively supplied instead of the yellow oat-grass is the Wavy Mountain Hair-grass ( Aira jlexuosa , Linn.), Fig. 4, b, a grass very common on sandy heaths, moors, and hilly pastures, where it often forms a considerable portion of the herbage, and is no doubt of value as an ingredient in such exposed native pastures. It belongs to the same genus as the Hassock grass ( Aira ccespitosa, Linn.), so common in moist rich a be Fig. 5. — Yellow Oat Oras-r, Atena Jiivesctns, Linn. Ten times the natural size, a. Inner surface of the seed, showing the pedicel of the next seed, with a continuous line of hairs on each side ; V, side view, showing the inner chaffy scale ; c, back view, showing the place of attachment of the hygrometric awn, and the smaller awns terminating the outer pale. soils, especially where there is some shade. As the wiry foliage of the Hassock grass is rejected by cattle, it grows in tussocks, which are as objectionable to the sight as they are worthless in the pasture. The seeds of this common grass could not be employed to adulterate the yellow oat-grass without easy detec- tion, for they are much smaller than those of the latter grass. It is obvious that intelligence is somewhere exercised in selecting and their Adulteration. 709 suitable seeds for the purposes of adulteration. It would seem difficult to understand why in this case seed-collectors should gather the seeds of a totally different-looking and worthless grass, when the same labour would secure the seeds of the valu- able yellow oat-grass. The two grasses do not naturally grow together. The seeds are collected separately, and are sold, each pure of its kind, and both as the seeds of Avena Jlavescens. Fig. 6. — Wavy Mountain Hair Grass, Aira Jlexuosa, Linn. Ten times th^ natural size, a, Inner surface of the seed, showing the pedicel of the next seed, with a pencil of hairs on either side ; b, side view, in which the inner pale cannot be seen; c, back view, showing the place ol attachment of the hygrometric awn, and the entire apex of the outer pale. When one examines a little more closely into the relations ol the two seeds, it is however easy to discover the reasons that induce unprincipled merchants to substitute the one for the other. Aira flexuosa seeds abundantly, and its seeds are three times heavier than the seeds of Avena Jlavescens, so that, other things being equal, the labour of collecting 3 cwt. of the one grass would secure only 1 cwt. of the other. But other things are not equal, for the Aira , where its seeds are gathered, grows in 710 On Sweet Vernal Grass and Golden Oat Grass, Sfc. large breadths unmixed with other grasses ; while the seeds of the Arena are collected from individual plants growing amongst other grasses, so that their collection necessarily involves greater labour. Then the price of the seed of Aira Jlexuosa is from 20s. to 30s. per cwt., while the same quantity of Arena flavescens costs from 150s. to 220s. I have reason to believe that less than a hundredth part of the seed sold last year in this country as Arena jlarescens belonged to this species, and that ninety- nine parts out of a hundred were the seeds of this worthless Aira One firm, having a deservedly large seed-trade, had the misfortune this year to acquire Aira Jlexuosa as Arena Jlarescens, without a single seed of the Arena being mixed with it. It is not easy to realise the injury to pastures and the loss to farmers which the distribution of this worthless grass must have unwittingly caused. But the distribution of wavy hair- grass, under the name of yellow oat-grass, has not been confined to one house. The main purpose I have in drawing special attention to these adulterations and substitutions, and giving the accompanying figures by which they may be detected, is to draw the attention of the trade to their parcels, in the hope that they may avoid being imposed upon, and so be prevented from unwittingly purchasing and distributing a worthless weed instead of a valuable grass. The wavy hair-grass has long fibrous soots, a stem from 1 to 2 feet high, and a large number of very narrow bristle- shaped, roughish leaves, the lower and outer ones being longer and more numerous than the upper. The flowers are in a spreading panicle, the branches being hair-like and wavy. The seeds of this grass can be readily distinguished from those of the yellow oat-grass by the twisted awn which springs from near the base of the outer pale. The inner pale is smaller and firmer in texture, and its edges are covered by those of the outer pale. The base of the outer pale is surrounded by a crown of spreading silvery hairs, and two pencils of similar hairs spring from either side of the otherwise smooth persistent stalk, lying on the face of the grain. The figures of the whole grasses described in this paper should enable the farmer to recognise any of them present in his fields. If he accepts the seed on the testimony of the merchant from whom he buys it, without careful examination to discover whether it be the seed he has ordered or not, he ought at least to be able to discover what are the plants that appear in his pasture, from the admirable drawings by Mr. R. Morgan which accompany this paper, even though they are reduced one-third, to suit the pages of the ‘ Journal.’ Year when Elected. 1879 1855 1857 18G1 1863 1868 1854 1839 1856 1858 1861 1873 1861 1839 1867 1847 1848 1858 1872 1848 1852 1874 1855 1881 1877 1880 1875 1871 1874 18S3 1883 1882 1860 1871 1882 1873 1876 1879 fcopal agricultural Soctctp of (CnglanU. 1883-84. JJrcStlJmt. Sir BRANDRETH GIBBS. tEruOttfSi. H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G., Marlborough House, Pall Mall , S.W. Aoland, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., M.P., Killerton, Exeter, Devonshire. Bridport, General Viscount, Cricket St. Thomas, Chard, Somersetshire. Dent, J. D., Ribston Hall, Wetherbj, Yorkshire. Kingsoote, Colonel, M.P., Kingscote, Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire. Lichfield, Earl of, Shugborough, Staffordshire. Macdonald, Sir Archibald Keppel, Bt„ Woolmer Lodge, Liphook, Hants. Portman, Viscount, Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset. Powis, Earl of, Powis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire. Rutland, Duke of, K.G., Belvoir Castle, Grantham, Leicestershire, Wells, William, Holmewood, Peterborough, Northamptonshire. 'Ftce^rcSttfciitsi. Bedford, Duke of, K.G., Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire. Cathoabt, Earl, Thornton-le-Street, Thirsk, Yorkshire. Chichester, Earl of, Stanmer Park, Lewes, Sussex. Devonshire, Duke of, K.G., Holker Hall, Lancashire. Eversley, Viscount, Heckfield Place, Winchfield, Hants. Gibbs, Sir Brandreth, Mossley House, Sinclair Road, West Kensington Park, W. Kerrison, Sir Edward C., Bart., Brome HaU, Scole, Suffolk. Lathom, Earl of, Lathom Hall, Crmskirk, Lancashire. La wes, Sir John Bennet, Bart., Rothamsted, St. Albans, Herts. Richmond and Gordon, Duke of, K.G., Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex. Spencer, Earl, K.G., Althorp, Northampton. Wynn, Sir Watkin Williams, Bart., FL.P.fVynnslay, Ruabon, Denbighshire. ©tljer fHcmbcrS of Council. Allender, G. Mander, Solna, Roeliampton, Surrey, S.W. Arkwright, J. Hungerford, Hampton Court, Leominster, Herefordshire. Ashworth, Alfred, Tdbley Grange, Knutsford, Cheshire. Aylmer, Hugh, West Dereham, Stoke Ferry, Norfolk. Bowen-Jones, J„ Ensdon House, Montford Bridge, R.S.O., Salop. Chandos-Pole-Gell, H., Hopton Hall, Wirksworth, Derbyshire. Clay, Charles, Walton Grange, Wakefield, Yorkshire. Coke, Hon. Edward K. W., Longford Hall, Derby. Coxon, John, Freeford Farm, Lichfield, Staffordshire. Deuce, Joseph, Eynsham, Oxford. Egerton (of Tatton) Lord, Tatton Park. Knutsford, Cheshire. Emlyn, Viscount, M.P., Golden Grove, Carmarthen, S. Wales. Evans, John, Uffington, Shrewsbury, Salop. Feversham, Earl of, Duncombe Park, Helmsley, Yorkshire. Foster, Samuel P., Killhow, Carlisle, Cumberland. XIX. — S. S. c List of Officers. xxvi Year when Elected. 1875 1881 1879 1874 1876 1878 1869 1874 1881 1865 1874 1880 1879 1857 1881 1861 1875 1867 1871 1869 1875 1874 1878 1882 1875 1883 1881 1874 1845 1871 1871 1882 1870 1865 1878 Frankish, William, Limber Magna , Ulceby, Lincolnshire. Gilbey, Walter, Elsenbam Hall, Essex. Gorringe, Hugh, Kingston-by-Sea, Brighton , Sussex. Hemsley, John, Shelton, Newark , Notts. Howard, Charles, Biddenham, Bedford. Howard, James, M.P., Clapham Park, Bedfordshire. Leeds, Robert, Keswick Old Hall, Norwich. Lindsay, Colonel Sir R. Loyd, M.P., Lockinge Park, Wantage, Berkshire. Little, Herbert J., Coldham Hall, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire. Lopes, Sir Massey, Bart., M.P., Maristow, Roborough, Devon. Martin, Joseph, Highfield House, Littleport, Isle of Ely, Cambridgeshire. Moreton, Lord, M.P., Tortwortli Court, Falfield, R.S.O., Gloucestershire. Neville, Robert, Butleigh Court, Glastonbury, Somersetshire. Pain, Thomas, Audley's Wood, Basingstoke, Hants. Parker, Hon. Cecil T., Eccleston, Chester. Randell, Charles, Chadbury, Evesham, Worcestershire. Ransome, Robert Charles, Ipswich, Suffolk. Ravensworth, Earl of, Ravenswortli Castle, Qatesliead, Durham. Rawlence, James, Bulbridge, Wilton, Salisbury, Wilts. Ridley, Sir M.White, Bart., M.P., Blagdon, Cramlington, Northumberland. Russell, Robert, Horton Court Lodge, Dartford, Kent. Sanday, George Henry, Wensley House, Bedale, Yorkshire. Sheraton, William, Broom House, Ellesmere , Salop. Stafford, Marquis of, M.P., Trentham Hall, Stoke-upon- Trent, Staffs. Stratton, Richard, The Duffryn, Newport, Monmouthshire. Sutton, Martin J., Westwood House, Tilehurst, near Reading. Thorold, Sir John H., Bart., Syston Park, Grantham, Lincolnshire. Turbervill, Lieut.-Col. Picton, Ewenny Priory, Bridgend, South Wales. Turner, George, Great Bowley, Tiverton, Exeter, Devonshire. Turner, Jabez, Norman Cross, Yaxley, Huntingdonshire. Wakefield, William H., Sedgwick, Kendal, Westmoreland. Warren, Reginald Augustus, Preston Place, Arundel, Sussex. Whitehead, Charles, Banning House, MaidsUme, Kent. Wilson, Jacob, Chillingham Barns, Alnwick, Northumberland. Wise, George, Charlwood Place Farm, Charlwood, Crawley, Surrey. £cmtan) anK (JBUttor. H. M. JENKINS, 12, Hanover Square, London, W. Consulting Chemist — Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F.R.S., 12, Hanover Square, W. Consulting Botanist — W. Carruthers, F.R.S., F.L.S., Central House, Central Hill, Norwood, S.E. Consulting Veterinary Surgeon— Professor James Beart Simonds, St. John’s Villa, Ryde, Isle of Wight. Honorary Consulting Entomologist — Miss E. A. Ormerod, F.M.S., Dunster Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth. Veterinary Inspectors — The Officers of the Royal Veterinary College. Consulting Engineer — W. Anderson. 3, Whitehall Place, S.W. Surveyor and Superintendent of Works — Wilson Bennison, 62, Ashley Road, Crouch Hill, N. Consulting Surveyor — George Hunt, Evesham, Worcestershire. Seedsmen — Thomas Gibbs and Co., Down Street, Piccadilly, W. Publisher — John Murray, 50, Albemarle Street, W. Bankers— The London and Westminster Bank, S'. James’s Square Branch, S.W. ( xxvii ) STANDING COMMITTEES FOR 1883. dFinaitee Committee. Kingsoote, Colonel (Chairman). Frankish, W. Bridport, General Viscount. Randell, Charles. Ridley, Sir M. White, Bt. 5?ouse Committee. Chairman of Finance Committee (Gherman) Randell, C. The President. 9 Wilson, Jacob. Bridport, General Viscount. journal Committee. Cathcart, Earl (Chairman). Ridley, Sir M. White, Bt. Thorold, Sir John H., Bt. Bowen-Jones, J. Chandos-Pole-Gell, H. Dent, J. D. Frankish, W. eventual Wells, William (Chairman). Bedford, Duke of. Emlyn, Viscount. Lawes, Sir J. B., Bt. Macdonald, Sir A. K., Bt. Arkwright, J. H. Bowen-Jones, J. Dent, J. D. Hemsley, J. Howard, J. Little, H. J. Ransome, R. C. Tdrbervill, Lieut.-Col. Wells, W. Whitehead, Charles. Committee. Howard, C. Little, H. J. Neville, R. Tdrbervill, Lieut.-Col. Voelcker, Dr. A. Wakefield, W. H. Warren, R. A. Whitehead, Charles. J?eetf3 anil IplanDiOigcasleei Committee. Whitehead, Charles (Chairman). Frankish, W. Thorold, Sir J. H., Bt. Little, H. J. Gibbs, Sir Brandreth. Parker, Hon. C. T. Arkwright, J. H. Sutton, Martin, J. Bowen-Jones, J. Turbervill, Lieut.-Col. Cabruthers, W. Voelcker, Dr. Veterinarn Committee. Egerton, Lord (Chairman). Bridport, General Viscount. Moreton, Lord. Stafford, Marquis of. Gibbs, Sir Brandreth. Ridley, Sir M. White, Bt. Thorold, Sir J. H., Bt. Allender, G. M. Ashworth, A. Brown, Professor. Fleming, George. Foster, S. P. Harpley, M. J. Kingscote, Colonel. Parker, Hon. C. T. Robertson, Professor. Sanday, G. H. Sanderson, Dr. J. Burdon. Simonds, Professor. Stratton, R. Wakefield, W. H. Wilson, Jacob. Wilson, Jacob (Chair- man). Bridport, Gen. Viscount. Emlyn, Viscount. Moreton, Lord. Gibbs, Sir Brandreth. Arkwright, J. H. Ashworth, A. Aylmer, H. Chandos-Pole-Gell, H. J?todu:Pri$c£! Committee. Coxon, John. Frankish, W. Gilbey, Walter. Gorringe, H. Hemsley, J. Howard, C. Martin, J Pain, T. Parker, Hon. C. T. Randell, C. Sanday, G. H. Sheraton, W. Simonds, Prof. Stratton, R. Turner, George. Wakefield, W. H. Wise, G. The Stewards of Li Stock. c 2 Standing Committees for 1883 xxviii Hemsley, J. (Chairman). Bridport, Gen. Viscount. Moreton, Lord. Thorold, Sir John H., Bart. Gibbs, Sir Brandreth. Allender, G. M. Anderson, W. Ashworth, A. implement Committee. Bowen-Jones, J. Frankish, \V. Gorringe, H. Howard, C. Howard, J. Martin, J. Neville, R. Parker, Hon. C. T. Ransome, R. C. Sanday, G. H. Sheraton, W. Stratton, R. Turbervill, Lieut.-Coh Turner, Jabez. Wilson, Jacob. The Stewards of Imple- ments. General H>I)vtlus'Imn) Committee. Richmond and Gordon, Duke of (Chairman). Bridport, Gen. Viscount. Powis, Earl of. Moreton, Lord. Stafford, Marquis of. Gibbs, Sir Brandreth. Arkwright, J. H. Ashworth, A. Aylmer, H. Bowen-Jones, J. Chandos-Pole-Gell, H. Coxon, John. Dent, J. D. Evans, J. Everall, P. Foster, S. P. Frankish, W. Gorringe, H. Hemsley, J. Howard, C. Kingscote, Colonel. Neville, R. Parker, Hon. Cecil T. Randell, Charles. Sanday, G. H. Sheraton, W. Turbervill, Lieut.-Col. Wakefield, W. H. Wells, W. Whitehead, Charles. Wilson, Jacob. Wingfield, C. G. Shrewsbury, Mayor of. Shrewsbury, Town Clerk of. ^ijolus^acti Contracts Committee. Randell, Charles (Chairman). Gibbs, Sir Brandreth. Allender, G. M. Frankish, W. Hemsley, J. Howard, C. Ransome, R. C. Sanday, G. H. Stratton, R. Wilson, Jacob. Cathcart, Earl (Chair- man). Ridley, Sir M. W., Bt. Committee of Selection. Bowen-Jones, J. Foster, S. P. Chandos-Pole-Gell, H. Wakefield, W. H. And the Chairmen of the Standing Committees. Moreton, Lord (Chair- man). Thorold, Sir J. H., Bt. Bowen-Jones, J. Parker, Hon. C. T. (Chairman). Bridport, Gen. Viscount. Moreton, Lord. Macdonald, Sir A. K., Bt. Ctiucation Committee. Carruthers, W. Dent, J. D. Kingscote, Colonel. Little, H. J. Sain) Committee. Thorold, Sir John H., Bt. Allender, G. M. Bowen-Jones, J. Chandos-Pole-Gell, H. Parker, Hon. Cecil T. Turbervill, Lieut.-Col. Voelcker, Dr. Kingscote, Colonel. Neville, R. Stratton, R. Voelcker, Dr. Cattle plague Committee. The whole Council. %* The_PiiESiDENT, Trustees, and Vice-Presidents arc Members ex officio of all Committees. ( xxix ) Ropal Agricultural ^ocietp of tifttglanto. GENERAL MEETING, 12, Hanover Square, Tuesday, Hay 22nd, 1883. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. The Council are glad to be able to congratulate the Society upon a substantial addition to the list of Members since the last General Meeting in December, by the election of 389 Members against the resignation of 151 Members, the death of 2 Governors and 70 Members, and the removal of 25 Members by order of the Council. The Society now consists of 78 Life Governors. 71 Annual Governors. 2979 Life Members. 4952 Annual Members. 19 Honorary Members. making a total of 8099, and showing an increase of 141 Members. Since the last General Meeting the death of Mr. Shuttle- worth has deprived the Council of the most valuable aid of a thoroughly practical Member of their body, who for some years had acted as Chairman of the Showyard Contracts Committee. By the recent sudden death of Lord Vernon, the Society and British Agriculture have alike sustained a most severe and un- expected loss. In his several capacities as a former President, as a Vice-President, as a Steward at the Country Meetings, XXX Report to the General Meeting. and as Chairman of important Committees, Lord Vernon has long taken a leading part in the administration of the Society’s affairs. His great and practical philanthropy were signally illustrated by his untiring exertions as Chairman of the French Peasant-Farmers’ Seed Fund after the Franco- German War. The vacancies in the Council caused by the death of Mr. Shuttleworth and Mr. Amos, the latter of which was reported at the last General Meeting, have been filled up by the elec- tion of Mr. Martin J. Sutton, of Reading, and Mr. C. Clay, of Wakefield. The accounts for the year 1882 have been examined and certified by the auditors and accountants of the Society, and have been published in the current number of the ‘ Journal,’ together with the statement of Receipts and Expenditure re- lating to the Reading Meeting. The funded property of the Society has been increased by the investment of 1500/., and now stands at 19,910/. Is. 3c?. New Three per Cents. The balance of the current account in the hands of the Society’s bankers on the 1st instant was 5960/. 17s. 6c?., and 2000/. remained on deposit. ‘ The York Meeting will commence on Monday, July 16th, and will close on Friday, July 20th ; but the Implement Yard will be open to the public on Saturday, the 14th. The Council have accepted the invitation which they received from the Mayor and Corporation of Shrewsbury to hold the Country Meeting of 1884 on the Race-course close to that town. The Country Meeting for the year 1885 will be held in the district which includes North Wales, Cheshire, and Lan- cashire. The Council regret that the competition for the Prize of 20/. offered for the best system of keeping Farm Accounts failed to bring forth any plan which, in the opinion of the Judges, was good enough to be efficient, and, at the same time, simple enough to be adopted by ordinary farmers. The Judges have therefore Report to the General Meeting. xxxi undertaken, at the request of the Council, to draw up such a system as they would recommend. The investigation into the life-history of the Liver-fluke, made at the request of the Council, has been completed by Professor A. P. Thomas, and a plain statement of the results which he has obtained has been published in the recently-issued number of the ‘ Journal.’ The summary of the preventive measures which he recommended was also published several weeks ago in the Agricultural newspapers. The Council have viewed with much concern the renewed spread of Foot-and-mouth disease throughout the country ; and feeling strongly the importance of the question to all stock- owners, and more especially to breeders, a deputation from them recently waited upon the Lord President of the Council to urge upon the Government the necessity of taking such further steps as will prevent this disease being imported from foreign countries. The Medals and Prizes offered by the Society to graduates of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons for proficiency in “Cattle Pathology” have been awarded as follows: — Gold Medal and 201., Mr. W. H. Edgar, Dartford. Silver Medal and 10/., Mr. A. H. Archer, Dunstable. Bronze Medal and 5/., Mr. J. B. Cresswell, Louth. In consequence of the paucity of candidates and the small interest apparently felt by the veterinary profession in these examinations, the Council have, though with much regret, decided to discontinue the offer of these medals and prizes ; but being still anxious to encourage proficiency in the pathology of cattle, sheep, and pigs, they have decided to offer the Silver and Bronze Medals of the Society to the two students who may pass best in that subject at the Diploma examinations of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. The Council are glad to state that the large increase in the number of samples of manures and feeding stuffs, which were sent for analysis to the Society’s Laboratory last year, has up xxxii Report to the General Meeting. to the present time been exceeded, as compared with the equivalent period of 1882. This evidence that the Members of the Society are taking more advantage of the facilities offered them to test their purchases of manures and feeding stuffs by analysis is the more satisfactory, because recent Quar- terly Reports of the Chemical Committee have shown the con- tinued need of such a precaution being taken in many cases. The Council have determined that in addition to the “ Privi- leges of the Chemical Analysis ” as now sanctioned by them, Governors of the Society may be allowed to send to the Society’s Laboratory, for analysis at the scale of fees that may be in force, any manures and feeding stuffs which are to be used by their outgoing tenants. The Annual Excursion of Members of the Society to the Experimental Farm at Crawley, near Woburn, has taken place in the last two years in connection with the Annual Meeting ; but experience having shown that this is too early in the season to allow of a reliable judgment of the crops on the differently manured plots being formed, the Council have thought it best to postpone it this year until June 7th. The Council have much satisfaction in observing that the Members of the Society have more largely availed them- selves of the services of the Consulting Botanist during the current year, especially in connection with seeds for permanent pasture. The details given in the Annual Report as to the impurities and defects in grass seeds are confirmed by the examinations of the past quarter. Miss Ormerod, the Consulting Entomologist, has prepared reports on the insects sent to her by Members of the Society ; and her elaborate memoir on the Wireworm, giving the lile- history of this destructive insect, and suggesting remedial measures against it, is published in the current number of the Society’s ‘Journal.’ Twenty-six candidates entered their names for examination for the Society’s Senior Prizes and Certificates, and of these Report to the General Meeting. xxxm nineteen presented themselves on the 8th instant and four suc- ceeding days. The result of the examination was that the following gentlemen placed in the order of merit obtained First Class Certificates and the Life Membership of the Society, the first four also qualifying for the Prizes as stated below : — Girischandra Bose, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, 25 1. Henry Blair Mayne, College of Agriculture, Downton, Salis- bury, 15/. Arthur Herbert Kerr, College of Agriculture, Downton, Salisbury, 10/. Edward Charles Ozanne, Royal Agricultural College, Ciren- cester, 5/. John Henry Tiffen, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. James Henry Dugdale, Royal Agricultural College, Ciren- cester. i By order of the Council, FI. M. JENKINS, Secretary. XXXIV ROYAL AGRICULTURAL Half-yearly Cash Account Dr. To Balance in hand, 1st January, 1883:— Bankers Secretary To Income : — Dividends on Stock Subscriptions : — Governors’ Annual Members’ Life-Compositions . . . Members’ Annual Establishment: — Rent Journal: — Sales Advertisements Sale of Pamphlets ' . . Chemical : — Laboratory Fees Veterinary : — Professional Fees . . Education :— Sale of Insect Diagrams Reading Meeting . . Total Income £ s. d. 290 0 0 1,396 0 0 3,943 4 3 69 2 5 148 11 5 13 15 3 £ S. d. 818 9 8 31 14 8 290 11 3 5,629 4 3 100 0 0 231 9 1 180 3 6 6 16 14 15 9 64 3 6 Tq York Meeting £ t. d. 850 4 4 6,516 8 10 1,093 5 5 £15,059 18 1 Balance-Sheet, To Capital : — LI AB1LI I'l KS. Surplus, 31st December, 1882 Surplus of Income over Expenditure during the Half-year, viz. : — £ g. d. Income 6,516 8 10 Expenditure 3,618 12 3 Deduct half-year’s interest and depreciation on Country Meeting 1 Plant J £ s. d. £ t. d. 24, ns 1 0 2,897 16 7 27,015 17 7 189 7 0 £27,426 10 7 QUILTER, BALL, CROSB1E, GLEGG & WELTON, Accountants. XXXV SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. '"BOii 1st January to 30th June, 1383. Cr. By Expenditure : — £ j. d. Establishment : — Salaries, Wages, &c 805 o 0 House : — Rent, Taxes, Repairs, &c 422 10 7 Office:— Printing, Postage, Stationery, &c 394 3 5 Journal : — Printing and Stitching 584 7 10 Printing Advertisements 62 18 6 Postage and Delivery 200 0 0 Advertising 10 710 Literary Contributions 71 10 O Engravings.. .. 27 14 6 Pamphlets 10 7 0 Chemical : — Salaries 431 13 4 Petty Payments 26 15 0 Veterinary: — Prizes and Medals 47 12 0 Fees to Examiners 22 12 3 On Account of Investigation ■ . . 50 0 0 Botanical: — Consulting Botanist’s Salary £ s. d. 1,621 14 0 967 5 8 458 8 4 120 4 3 50 0 0 £ d. Education : — Fees to Examiners 52 10 0 Printing and Advertising 3810 0 Prizes 55 0 0 Scholarships 40 0 0 Insect Diagrams 15 0 0 Farm Inspection:— Advertising 63 9 9 Entry Fee returned 200 Subscriptions (paid in error) returned Reading Meeting Total Expenditure By York Meeting .. .. By Balance in hand, 30 th June : — Bankers 3,092 12 8 Secretary 14 18 6 At Deposit 201 0 0 65 9 9 16 4 0 118 6 3 3,107 11 2 2,000 0 0 3,618 12 3 6,333 15 2 5,107 11 2 4:15,059 18 7 30th June, 1883. ASSETS. By Cash in hand By New 3 per Cent. Stock 19,9101. Is. 3d. cost* By Books and Furniture in Society’s House . . By Country Meeting Plant By Deposit Account Less at credit of York Meeting £ s. d. 3,107 11 2 19,177 17 1 1,451 17 6 2,339 7 9 2,000 0 0 £ s. d. 28,076 13 6 650 2 11 * Value at 100f = 19,9591. 16s. 9d. Hem. — The above Assets are exclusive of the amount recoverable in respect of arrears of Subscription to 30th June, 1883, which at that date amounted to 2285 1. 427,426 10 7 Examined, audited, and found correct, this 27th day of August, 1883. _ FRANCIS SHERBORN, ) A. H. JOHNSON. > Auditors on behalf of the Society. C. GAY ROBERTS, J ( xxxvi ) YORK MEETING, 1883. STEWARDS OF DEPARTMENTS. Implements. J. Bowen Jones. Loud Moreton, M.P. Hon. Cecil T. Parker. Stock. S. P. Foster. Jabez Turner. Hugh Gorringe. Alfred Ashworth. Engineering. Robert Neville. Butter and Cheese. G. H. Sanday. Forage. Marshall Stephenson. Finance. Charles Randell. | William Frankish. General Arrangements. Jacob Wilson. JUDGES OF IMPLEMENTS. John Coleman. | George Gibbons. | T. P. Octhwaite. JUDGES OF STOCK, Ac. HORSES. Shire and Agricultural. Willtam Little. James Martin. Alexander Turnbull. Clydesdales. Peter Anderson. , David Buchanan. Suffolk s. Manfred Biddell. William Thompson. Hunters. H. R. Corbett. James Hope. Col. Luttrell. Coaching and Cleveland. William Robinson. John S. Stowell. Hackneys and Ponies. William Flanders. George Higgins. William B. Turner. Stewards, Judges, Sfc., at York. xxxvn CATTLE. Shorthorns. H. W. Beauford. E. \V. Meade-Waldo. William Parker. Herefords and Welsh. William Groves. John Williams. John H. Yeomans. Devons, Sussex, and Norfolk and Suffolk Polled. H. W. Keary. Richard Hamshar. John Risdon. Polled Angus or Aberdeen. George J. Walker. William Whyte. Galloways and Ayrshires. M. Clark. Thomas Gibbons. James Hamilton. Jerseys. G. W. Baker. Col. Le Cornu. C. Stephenson. Dairy Cattle. Thomas Bowstead. William Stratton. SHEEP. Leicesters, Lincolns and Cotswolds. Charles Clarke. Skelton Jefferson. Thomas Porter. Border Leicesters and other Long-wools, William Ford. George Rea. Wensleydales. Robert Hutchinson. John Ingilby. Oxfordshire Downs. A. F. Milton Druce. W. D. Little. Shropshires. John Coxon. Thomas Instone. Southdowns and Hampshires. H. Harwood. John G. King. Cheviots, Black-faced and other Short-wools. John Clay. J R. Paterson. PIGS. White Breeds. John Angus. Peter Eden. Joseph Smith. Black Breeds. James Edwards.- Richard Fowler. JUDGES OF CHEESE AND BUTTER. G. W. Burrows. | A. Graham. [ John Robinson. JUDGES OF BEE-KEEPING APPLIANCES, &c. I Rev. E. Bartrum. | William N. Griffin. | J. M. Hooker. INSPECTORS OF SHEARING. William Jobson. | J. B. Workman. Thomas Bell. JUDGES OF FARMS. | J. Williams Bell. | John Treadwell. ( xxxviii ) AWARD OF PRIZES. Note. — The Judges were instructed, in addition to awarding the Prizes, to designate as the Reserve Number one animal in each Class, next in order of merit, if it possessed sufficient for a Prize ; in case an animal to which a Prize was awarded should subse- quently become disqualified. Prizes given by the Yorkshire Agricultural Society are marked thus (*), and those by the Yorkshire Local Committee thus (f). HOESES. Shire Stallions foaled in either 1876, 1877, 1878, or 1879. The Earl of Ellesmere, Worsley Hall, Manchester: First Prize, 25 1., for “Exchange” (2421), bay; was foaled in 1878; bred by Mr. Stanley, Kirby Bogs, Mansfield, Notts ; sire, “ Cambridge ” (352) ; dam, by “ Warrior ” (2245). Thomas Shaw, The Island, Winmarleigh, Garstang, Lancashire: Second Prize, 15Z., for “ Cromwell ” (2415), brown ; was foaled in 1877 ; bred by Mr. C. Loweth, Holbeach Hurn, Lincolnshire; sire, “Thumper” (2136). IIenrt Chandos-Pole-Gell, Hopton Hall, Wirksworth, Derbyshire: the Reserve Number to “ Hyperion,” chestnut ; was foaled in 1879 ; bred by Mr. Kent, Eastville, Boston, Lincolnshire; sire, “Hydraulic” (1130); dam by “ England’s Glory.” Shire Stallions foaled in the Year 1880. The Hon. E. K. W. Coke, Longford Hall, Derby: First Prize, 20?., and the Champion Prize of 25?., % for “ Certainty,” chestnut ; bred by Mr. C. Tinsley, Holbeach, Lincolnshire; sire, “Lincolnshire Tom” (1367); dam, “ Mettle,” by “ Admiral ” (69). The Earl of Ellesmere, Worsley Hall, Manchester : Second Prize, 10?., for “Esquire” (2744), bay; bred by Mr. W. Blunt, Ashby, Leicester- shire; sire, “William the Conqueror” (2343); dam by “Champion” (419). James Forshaw, Shire Horse Stud Farm, Blyth, Worksop, Notts: Third Prize, 51., for “ Bed Cross,” chestnut ; bred by Mrs. Sargant, Saxilby, Lincoln ; sire, “ Neville’s Emperor ” ; dam, “ Nancy,” by “ Masterman ” (1495). Lord Egerton, Tatton Park, Knutsford, Cheshire : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Waring’s Wonder” (2688), bay; bred by Messrs. Waring, Semer House Farm, Catfortli, Lancashire ; sire, “ What’s Wanted ” (2332) ; dam, “ Smiler,” by “ Honest Tom ” (1105). X Given by the English Cart-horse Society for the best Shire Stallion in the Showy ard. Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. xxxix Shire Stallions foaled in the Year 1881. William Edward Elsey, Baumber, Ilorncastle, Lincolnshire : First Prize, 157, for “Baumber Tom” (2712), bay; bred by Mr. King, Whaplode, Spalding, Lincolnshire ; sire, “ Lincolnshire Tom ” (1367). William Welcher, Griston Hall, Watton, Norfolk: Second Prize, 107, for “Griston Tom” (2797), bay; bred by Mr. J. Brett, Holbeach Marsh, Lincolnshire ; sire, “ Lincolnshire Tom ” (1367) ; dam, “ Gipsy,” by “Sweep 4th” (2083). Sir Hickman B. Bacon, Bart., Tbonock, Gainsborough, Lincolnshire: Third Prize, 5?., for “ Bismarck” (2719), grey; bred by himself; sire, “The Lame Horse ” (2928) ; dam, “ Bounty.” The Hon. E. K. W. Coke, Longford Hall, Derby : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Charter ” (2740), black ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Candidate ” (2405) ; dam, “ Charcoal,” by “ King of the Yale ” (1241). Clydesdale Stallions foaled in either 1876, 1877, 1878, or 1879. David Kiddell, Blackball, Paisley, Renfrewshire: First Prize, 201., for “ St. Lawrence,” brown ; was foaled in 1878 ; bred by Mr. Lawrence Drew, Merryton, Hamilton, N.B. ; sire, “ Prince of Wales;” dam, “Je- mima,” by “ Young Lord Lyon.” Andrew Montgomery, Nether Hall, Castle-Douglas, Kircudbright : Second Prize, 157, for “Manfred” (1758), bay; was foaled in 1879; bred by Sir Michael R. Stewart, Bart,, Ardgowan, Greenock ; sire, “ Keir ” (1167) ; dam, “ Lily ” (650) by “ Prince of Wales” (673). William Moffat, Blackford, Westlinton, Carlisle: Third Prize, 57, for “ Prince Henry ” (1257), bay ; was foaled in 1876 ; bred by Mr. Robert Willie, Machireoch, Campbeltown, Argyleshire; sire, “Prince David” (643) ; dam, “Maggie.” Robert Colling, Hurworth-on-Tees, Darlington : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “David” (1634), black; was foaled in 1879 ; bred by himself; sire, “Tam o’ Shanter ” (851) ; dam, “Welsh Prin- cess” (495), by “ Prince of Wales” (673). Clydesdale Stallions foaled in the Year 1880. Andrew Montgomery, Nether Hall, Castle-Douglas, Kircudbright: First Prize, 207, and the Champion Prize, 257, % for “ Auld Reekie ” (1920), bay; bred by Mr. John Rennie, Craigburn, Falkirk; sire, “Royal Prince ” (1521) ; dam, “ Cameloun Maggie ” (1668), by “ Young Scots- man ” (1028). The Marquess of Londonderry, Seaham Hall, Seaham Harbour, Durham : Second Prize, 107, for “ The Viscount” (2477), bay; bred by himself; sire, “What Care I ” (912) ; dam, “ Countess” (1450) by “Lockfergus Champion ” (449). William Moffat, Blackford, Westlinton, Carlisle: Third Prize, 57, for “Baron of Drumlanrigg,” bay; bred by the Duke of Buccleuch, Drumlan- rigg, Thornhill, Dumfries-shire ; sire, “ Chancellor of Blackball ” (1049) ; dam, “ Nanny of Drumlanrigg ” (1060), by “ Dumbarton Tom ” (254). James Whyte, Aldbro’ Hall, Darlington : the Reserve Number and Com- mended for “ Prizeman,” brown ; bred by Mr. Miller, Over Kinfauns, Perth, N.B. ; sire, “ Dainty Davy ” (214) ; dam by “ Prince Royal ” (2357). 7 Given by the Clydesdale Society for the best Stallion in the Clydesdale Classes. xl Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. Clydesdale Stallions foaled in the Year 1881. Alexander McCowan, Newton Airds, Dumfries, N.B. : First Prize, 15/., for “ The Douglas ” (2060), hay ; bred by Mr. John Houston, Castle- Douglas, Kirkcudbright; sire, “The MacGregor ” (1487) ; dam, “Bet” (1338), by “ Hero” (380). The Hon. G. Waldegraye Leslie, Leslie House, Leslie, Fifeshire, N.B. : Second Prize, 10/., for “ Leslie Chief,” bay ; bred by Mr. A. Baird, Urie, Stonehaven, Kincardine; sire, “Boydston Boy” (111); dam, “ Kate ” (5), by “ McRobbie’s General Moltke.” George Kodger, Newton Bank, Preston Brook, Cheshire : Third Prize, 57., for “Mystic” (2298), bay; bred by himself; sire, “ Drumpellier ” (1428) ; dam, “ Mystery ” (881) by “ Craigie Lea ” (204). James Whyte, Aldbro’ Hall, Darlington: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “Prince of Perth,” bay; bred by Mr. James Gordon, Mains of Airlie, Aly th, Forfarshire ; sire, “ Blantyre ” (1068) ; dam, “ Miss,” by “ Young Baronet ” (919). Suffolk Stallions foaled in either 1876, 1877, 1878, or 1879. The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, K.T., Easton Park, Wickham Market, Suffolk : First Prize, 207., for “ Eastern Emperor,” chestnut ; was foaled in 1879 ; bred by Mr. M. Mumford, Creeting St. Peter, Need- ham Market; sire, “ Bismarck ” (1301) ; dam by “ Harwich Emperor ” (1025). Samuel Wolton, Butley Abbey, Wickham Market, Suffolk : Second Prize, 107., for “ Chieftain ” (1354), chestnut ; was foaled in 1877 ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Cupbearer 2nd ” (542) ; dam, “ Newbourn Princess ” (1095), by “/Warrior” (1353). Horace Wolton, Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge, Suffolk : the Reserve Number to “Vivacity,” chestnut; was foaled in 1879; bred by him- self; sire, “Proctor” (285); dam, “Victoria” (1055), by “Royal Duke 2nd” (1366). Suffolk Stallions foaled in the Year 1880. Samuel Wolton, Butley Abbey, Wickham Market, Suffolk : First Prize, 207., for “Big Ben,” chestnut; bred by himself; sire, “ Due de Paris” (1357) ; dam, “ Ashfield Moggy” (1059), by “Cupbearer” (416). Suffolk Stallions foaled in the Year 1881. Sir Richard Wallace, Bart., K.C.B., M.P., Sudbourn Hall, Wickham Mar- ket, Suffolk: First Prize, 157., for “Banner Bearer,” chestnut; bred by Mr. John Sewell, Butley Mills, Wickham Market; sire, “ Chieftain ” (1354); dam, “Machet 2nd,” by “Standard Bearer” (397). James Toller, Blaxhall, Wickham Market, Suffolk : Second Prize, 107., for “Verger,” chestnut; bred by himself; sire, “Cupbearer 3rd” (566); dam, “ Venture ” (922), by “ Monarch ” (1348). Samuel Wolton, Butley Abbey, Wickham Market, Suffolk : the Reserve Num- ber and Highly Commended for “ Gambler,” chestnut ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Tiptop ” (1367); dam, “Foxhall Chance 2nd ” (1077), by “ Monarch” (1348). xli Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. Agricultural Stallions, not qualified to compete in the preceding Classes, foaled in either 1876, 1877, 1878, or 1879. David Riddell, Blackball, Paisley, Renfrewshire, X.B. : First Prize, 25?., for “ St. Vincent,” bay ; was foaled in 1878 ; bred by Mr. Lawrence Drew, MerrytoD, Hamilton, X.B. ; sire, “Drew’s Prince of Wales;” dam, “ Sheba.” Col. Sir R. Loyd Lindsay, V.C., K.C.B., M.P., of Lockinge Park, Wantage, Berks : Second Prize, 15?., for “ Xetley,” chestnut ; was foaled in 1877 ; bred by himself; sire, “Prince Albert” (613); dam, “Florence Nightingale.” Agricultural Stallions, not qualified to compete in the preceding Classes, foaled in the Year 1881. Edward and Alfred Stanford, Eatons, Ashurst, Steyning, Sussex : First Prize, 20?., for “ The Monarch,” black ; bred by themselves ; sire, “ Young Topsman ; ” dam, “ Mabel,” by “ The Duke and Second Prize, 10?., for “ Beaconsfield,” brown ; bred by Mr. William Stanford, Steyning ; sire, “ The Baronet ;” dam, “ Mrs. Brown.” Agricultural Stallions, not qualified to compete in the preceding Classes, foaled in the Year 1881. John Cheers, The Hough Barrow, Chester: First Prize, 15?., for “Bri- tain’s Wonder,” black ; bred by Mr. Cogswell, Kelsterton, Flints ; sire, “ British Wonder” (278). Abram Briggs Foster, Canwell Hall, Tamworfh, Staffs : Second Prize, 10?., for “Canwell,” brown; bred by Mr. T. Lowndes, Castern Hall, Ash- bourne, Derbyshire; sire, “Wellington;” dam by “Sweet William” (2093). John Milnes and Sons, Brighouse, Yorkshire : Third Prize, 5?., for “ Roan Active 2nd,” roan ; bred by Mr. G. Greaves, Arksey, Doncaster ; sire, “ Roan Active.” Thoroughbred Stallions suitable for getting Hunters. The Earl of Scarborough, Sandbeck Park, Tickbill, Rotherham, York- shire : First Prize, 100?., for “ Discord,” bay ; was foaled in 1876 ; bred by Mr. Thomas Brown, Graham Place, Newmarket, Cambs; sire, “ See-Saw ; ” dam, “ Anthem ” (19), by “ Cathedral.” Colonel Barlow, Hasketon, Woodbridge, Suffolk: Second Prize, 25?., for “Troll,” chestnut; was foaled in 1879; bred by the Duke of Westminster, Eaton Hall, Cheshire ; sire, “ Doncaster ; ” dam, “ Freia,” by “ Hermit.” Thomas Carr, May House, Ombersley, Droitwich, Worcestershire : Third Prize, 10?., for “ Rattle,” chestnut ; was foaled in 1869 ; bred by Sir Tatton Sykes, Sledmere, Malton, Yorkshire ; sire, “ Rataplan ; ” dam, “ Marigold,” by “ Teddington.” VOL. XIX. — S. S. d xlii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. Coaching Stallions.* John Kirby, Burton Fields, Stamford Bridge, Yorkshire : First Prize, 20 1., for “ Nobleman,” bay ; was foaled in 1881 ; bred by Mr. E. Appleyard, Barlby, Yorks ; sire, “ Baronet dam by “ Ebor.” Joseph Reader, Beacon Farm, Holme-on-Spalding Moor, Yorkshire : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Lord Beacon,” bay ; was foaled in 1881 ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Yorkshireman dam, “ Princess,” by “ Speculation.” Francis Henry Stericker, Danby House, Pickering : the Reserve Number to “ Duke of Edstone,” bay ; was foaled in 1881 ; bred by Mr. J. Cousins, Edstone, Yorks ; sire, “ Duke of Ryedale dam by “ Captain Cook.” Stallions suitable for getting Hackneys, foaled in either 1876, 1877, 1878, or 1879. John Grout, Woodbridge, Suffolk: First Prize, 20?., for “Fashion,” brown ; was foaled in 1878 ; bred by Mr. Wortley, Hall Farm, Suffield, Norfolk. Robert Martin, Scoreby Grange, Gate Helmsley, Yorkshire : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Lord Derwent,” brown ; was foaled in 1879 ; bred by him- self ; sire, “ Denmark ;” dam, “ Lady Mary,” by “ Sir Edwin Landseer.” George Bourdass, Hunmanby, Yorkshire : Third Prize, 51., for “ Danegett,” chestnut; was foaled in 1879; bred by Mr. Francis Rickell, Warter, Pocklington, Yorks ; sire, “ Denmark ;” dam, “ Nelly,” by “ St. Giles.” William Askwith, Callis Wold, Bishop Wilton, Wilberfoss, Yorkshire : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Merryman,” chestnut ; was foaled in 1879; bred by himself; sire, “Star of the Garter;” dam by “ Denmark.” Pony Stallions foaled in either 1876, 1877, 1878, or 1879. T. Walker Anderson, Hodsock Lodge, Carlton, Worksop : First Prize, 15?., for “ Nobby,” chestnut ; was foaled in 1878 ; bred by Mr. R. Cowton, Pottle Brampton, Ganton, Yorks ; sire, “ Calcutta ;” dam by “ Old Fire- away.” John M. Martin, Aucbendennan, Balloch, Dumbartonshire : Second Prize, 10?., for “Mars,” brown; was foaled in 1878; bred by himself; sire, “ Derby.” Henry Roundell, Black Horse Hotel, Otley, Yorkshire: Third Prize, 51., for “ Sir Harry,” black; was foaled in 1878; bred by himself; sire, “ Sir George Womb well ;” dam by “ Despatch.” Jonathan Edmund Backhouse, The Rookery, Middleton Tyas, Richmond, Yorkshire : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Sir William,” brown ; was foaled in 1879 ; bred by Mr. Christopher Wilson, Rigmaden, Kendal ; sire, “ Sir George.” Shire Mares and Foals. The Earl of Ellesmere, Worsley Hall, Manchester : First Prize, 20?., for “ Darling,” brown ; was foaled in 1876 (foal by “ Active ” (60) ) ; bred by Mr. W. Kelsall, Bilsborough, Preston ; sirte, “ England’s Glory ;” dam by “ Farmer’s Friend.” xliii Award of Live-Stocli Prizes at York. Walter Gilbey, Elsenham Hall, Essex: Second Prize, 10?., for “Gipsy Queen,” black ; was foaled in 1874 (foal by “ Cromwell ” (2415) ) ; bred by Mr. Thomas Stokes, Caldecote, Rutland ; sire, “ Champion ” (441) ; dam, “ Gipsy,” by “ Prince of Denmark ” (1804). Thomas Horrocks Miller, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lancashire : Third Prize, 5?., for “ Trimmer,” bay ; was foaled in 1871 (foal by “Honest Tom” (1105)); bred by Mr. A. Richardson, Fortrey House, Mepal, Cambridgeshire ; sire, “ Emperor ” (692) ; dam by “ England’s Glory ”(733). The Earl of Ellesmere, Worsley Hall : the Beserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Pink,” chestnut ; was foaled in 1868 (foal by “ Stonton ” (2065)); bred by Mr. D. Martin, Wainfleet, Lincolnshire; sire, “Jolly Samson.” . Clydesdale Mares and Foals. Alexander McCowan, Newton Airds, Dumfries: First Prize, 20?., for “ Bessie ” (1498), brown ; was foaled in 1877 (foal by “ Jacob Wilson ” (2178) ) ; bred by Sir W. Stirling Maxwell, Bart., Keir, Dunblane, Perth ; sire, “Newstead” (559); dam, “Keir Bessie” (194), by “ Lochfergus Champion ” (449)f Edward Charlton, Shaw House, Stocksfield-on-Tyne : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Nannie,” bay ; was foaled in 1877 (foal by “ Merry Monarch ” (538) ; bred by Mr. T. H. Jobling, Stamford, Alnwick, Northumberland ; sire, “Hamilton Jock” (1151); dam, “Black Bess” (183), by “Young Merry Tom ” (1001). George Rodger, Newton Bank, Preston Brook, Cheshire : Third Prize, 5?., for “ Dawn of Mystery,” brown ; was foaled in 1879 (foal by “ Mac- gregor” (1487) ) ; bred by himself; sire, “ Prince Charlie ” (629); dam, “ Mystery ” (881), by “ Craigie Lea” (204). The Marquess of Londonderry, Seaham Hall, Seaham Harbour, Durham : the Beserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Melona,” bay ; was foaled in 1880 (foal by “King of the Clans” (2201)); bred by Mr. Law- rence Drew, Merryton, Hamilton, N.B. ; sire, “ Prince of Wales ” (673) ; dam, “Old Mailie,” by “ Lochend Champion” (448). Suffolk Mares and Foals. Horace Wolton, Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge, Suffolk : First Prize, 20?., for “Queen of Newbourn” (1049), chestnut ; was foaled in 1875 (foal by “ Tiptop ” (1367) ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Captain Snap ” (142) ; dam, “Duchess of Newbourn” (1030), by “ Warrior” (1353). Sir Richard Wallace, Bart., K.C.B., M.P., Sudbourn Hall, Wickham Market, Suffolk : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Jessie,” chestnut ; was foaled in 1879 (foal by “Standard Bearer” (397)); bred by himself; sire, “ Prince Imperial ” (1239) ; dam, “ Brag.” The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, K.T., Easton Park, Wickham Market, Suffolk : the Beserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Smart ” (430), chestnut; was foaled in 1872 (foal by “Statesman” (657) ) ; bred by Mr. Williams, Trimley, Ipswich ; sire, “ Emperor ” (279) ; dam, “ Williams.” Agricultural Mares and Foals not qualified to compete in the preceding Classes. Robert H. Lowe, Bassingfield, Nottingham, First Prize, 20?., for “Flower,” roan; was foaled in 1877 (foal by “Young Champion”); bred by himself; sire, “Samson.” d 2 xliv Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. Edward Charlton, Shaw House, Stocksfield-on-Tyne, Second Prize, 10?., for “ Maggie Moir,” brown ; was foaled in 1877 (foal by “ Thumper ” (2140) ) ; breeder unknown. John Milnes and Sons, Brighouse, Yorkshire, the Eeserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Baroness,” bay ; was foaled in 1876 (foal by “ Northern King ” (2635)) ; bred by Mr. Lawrence Drew ; sire, “ Lofty dam by “ Perfection.” Hunter Mares and Foals. William Wright, Wollaton, Nottingham, First Prize, 20?., fcr “Rosa- mond,” chestnut; was foaled in 1871 (foal by “Silvester”); bred by Mr. Spencer, Pickley Lodge, Northamptonshire ; sire, “ Dalesman ;” dam by “ Catesby.” Robert Dixon, Manor House, Dunnington, Seaton, Hull, Second Prize, 10?., for his chestnut; was foaled in 1862 (foal by “Mapleton”); bred by himself; sire, “Wild Hero;” dam, “Gay Lass.” John Nalton, Copmanthorpe, York, Third Prize, 5?., for “ Jezebel,” chestnut, aged (foal by “ Ambergris ”) ; bred by the late Mr. Duffitt, Whitwell, York ; sire, “ King Caradoc ;” dam by “ Canute.” Ernest G. C. Bomford, Spring Hill, Pershore, Worcestershire : the Reserve Number to “Marguerite,” chestnut; was foaled in 1871 (foal by “Cedric”); bred by the Kev. W. Parker, Comberton, Pershore; sire, “ Wantage.” Coaching Mares and Foals.* Thomas Kelset, Hooke’’ House, Howden, Yorkshire : First Prize, 20?., for his bay ; was foaled in 1877 (foal by “ Wilmelow ”) ; bred by himself ; dam by “ Cyrus.” John Kirby, Burton Fields, Stamford Bridge, Yorkshire : Second Prize, 10?., for “Flora,” bay; was foaled in 1871 (foal by “Young Paulinus”); bred by Mr. James Bilton, Mowthorp, Castle Howard, Yorks; sire, “ The Earl ;” dam by “Aristocrat.” Joseph Header, Beacon Farm, Holme-on-Spalding Moor: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “Bonny,” bay; was foaled in 1863 (foal by “ Landmark ”) ; bred by the late Mr. J. Reader ; sire, “ Cawston ;” dam by “ Lord John.” Cleveland Bay Marcs and Foals.] William Dixon Petch, East Pastures, Skelton, R.S.O., Yorkshire : First Prize, 20?., for “Fanny,” bay; was foaled in 1874 (foal by “Thorn- brough”); bred by Mr. W. Jackson, Ugthorpe, Yorkshire; dam, “Bay Splendour.” Hackney Mares and Foals. Robert Martin, Scoreby Grange, Gate Helmslcy, Yorkshire : First Prize, 15?., for “ Lady Mary,” brown ; was foaled in 1870 (foal by “ Denmark ”) ; bred by himself ; sire, “Sir Edwin Landseer;” dam, “ Lady Superior,” by “ Sir Charles.” Edward B. Hamond, Waterden, Fakenham, Norfolk : Second Prize, 10?., for “Lady Jane,” grey; was foaled in 1877 (foal by “ D’Oyly Confi- dence”); bred by Mr. W. Hamond, PeDsthorpe, Fakenham; sire, “ Hurdle ;” dam, “ Grey Beauty.” Award of Live-Stork Prizes at York. xlv Heni:y Moore, Bum Butts, Cranswick, Hull, Yorkshire : Third Prize, 57., for “ Princess,” chestnut ; was foaled in 1879 (foal by “ Lord Derby 2nd ”) ; bred by himself; sire, “Denmark;” dam by Triffitt’s “Fireaway.” Thomas Cook, Hull, Yorkshire, the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Portia,” bay ; was foaled in 1872 (foal by “ Lord Derwent ”) ; bred by Mr. F. Cook, Fridaythorpe, Yorks ; sire, “ Bay President ;” dam, “Evening Star,” by Cook’s “ Wildfire.” Pony Mares and Foals. William Glossop, Endsleigh, Newland, Hull : First Prize, 157., for “ Polly,” brown; was foaled about 1875 (foal by “Lord Derby 2nd”); bred by the late Mr. W. Winter, Thane, Doncaster, Yorks ; sire, “ Blazeaway ;” dam by “ Squirrel.” Richard Gledhill, Park Road, Bradford, Yorkshire : Second Prize, 107, * for “Lady Downes,” bay; was foaled in 1870 (foal by “Star of the East ”) ; breeder unknown ; sire, “ Alchymist.” William Henry Cook, Blakelow, Nantwich, Cheshire : Third Prize, 57, for “ Kate,” black ; was foaled about 1870 (foal by “ Boy of the Period ”) ; breeder unknown. William R. Trotter, South Acomb, Stocksfield-on-Tyne, the Reserve Number to “ Lucy ; ” bay, aged (foal by “ Fireaway Charley ”) ; breeder unknown. Shire Fillies foaled in the Year 1880. The Hon. E. K. W. Coke, Longford Hall, Derby : First Prize, 157, for “ Chance,” black ; bred by Mr. Lawrenson, Ash F arm, Preesall, Lancashire; sire, “Lincoln” (1350); dam, “Brock,” by “Ploughboy” (1745). The Earl of Ellesmere, Worsley Hall, Manchester : Second Prize, 107, for “ Acorn,” bay ; bred by Mr. G. Momington, Craven Arms ; sire, “ Heart of Oak ” (1009) ; dam, Mornington’s “ Diamond.” Garret Taylor, Trowse House, Norwich, the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “Teuta,” grey; bred by Mr. S. Underwood, Adstone, Towcester; sire, “Farmer’s Glory.” Shire Fillies foaled in the Year 1881. Samuel Shaw, Brooklands, Halifax, Yorkshire: First Prize, 157, for “Sun- flower,” bay ; bred by Mr. John Fisher, Layton Hall, Blackpool, Lancashire ; sire, “ What’s Wanted” (2332); dam, “ Star,” by “Dray- man ” (640). The Hon. E. K. W. Coke, Longford Hall, Derby : Second Prize, 107, for “Czarina,” chestnut; bred by Mr. Williams, Blackesley, Towcester, Northamptonshire; sire, “ Helmdon Emperor” (2799); dam by “Eng- land’s Glory” (745). The Earl of Ellesmere, Worsley Hall, Manchester: Third Prize, 57, for “ Watercress,” chestnut ; bred by Mr. Solomon Brown, Leverton, Boston, Lincolnshire ; sire, “ Hydraulic ” (1130) ; dam by “ Lincolnshire Hero.” Walter Gilbey, Elsenham Hall, Essex, the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Topsy’s Gipsy,” black ; bred by Mr. Peter Blundell, Ream Hills, Weeton, Lancashire; sire, “Honest Tom” (1105); dam, “ Eva’s Topsy,” by “ Drayman ” (670). J xlvi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. Clydesdale Fillies foaled in the Year 1880. John M. Martin, Auchendennan, Ballocb, Dumbartonshire : Fiest Prize, 15?., and the Champion Peize, 25?., J for “Alice Lee,” bay; bred by Mr. James Melroy, Galdenoch, Stranraer, Wigtownshire; sire, “Lord Lvon” (489); dam, “Maggie Lauder” (253), by “ General Williams ” (326). Charles James Lucas, Wamham Court, Horsham, Sussex : Second Prize, 10?., for “Dandelion,” bay; bred by the Earl of Strathmore, Glamis, Forfar, X.B. ; sire, “ Lord Lyon ” (489) ; dam, “ Duchess of Glamis.” John M. Martin : Third Prize, 5?., for “ Diana Yemon,” bay ; bred by himself; sire, “Crown Prince” (207); dam, “Darling” (24 L), by “ Tintock.” Lords Arthur and Lionel Cecil, Orchardmains, Innerleithen, Peebles- shire, the Reserve 2s umber and Highly Commended for “ Contest,” bay ; bred by themselves; sire, “Farmer” (288); dam, “Lily” (485), by “ Crown Prince ” (207). Clydesdale Fillies foaled in the Year 1881. Alexander McCowan, Xewton Airds, Dumfries, X.B. : First Prize, 15?., for “Moss Bose,” bay; bred by Mr. George Ure, Wheatlands, Bonny- bridge, Stirling ; sire, “ Prince Charlie ” (634) ; dam, “ Bosebud ” (1814), by “ Time O’Day” (875). Andrew Baird Matthews, British Linen Co. Bank, Xewtonstewart, Wigtownshire : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Eugenie,” bay ; bred by him- self; sire, “Lord Lyon” (4b 9) ; dam, “Crinoline” (586), by “Xew- stead ” (559). Dayid Beddell, Blackball, Paisley, Benfrewshire, Third Prize, 5?., for “ The Queen,” bay ; bred by Mr. A. Taylor, Belzill, Galston, Ayrshire ; sire, “ Darnley.” Bobeet Loder, M.P., Whittlebury, Towcester, Xorthamptonshire, the Reserve 2s umber and Highly Commended for “ Lioness,” bay; bred by himself; sire, “Druid” (1120); dam, “Lovely 2nd” (1446), by “Lord Lyon” (489). Suffolk Fillies foaled in the Year 1S81. The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, K.T., Easton Park, Wickham Market, Suffolk : First Prize, 15?., for “ Gaudy Poll,” chestnut ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Statesman ” (657 ) ; dam, “ Smart ” (430), by “ Em- peror” (279). William Btford, The Court, Glemsford, Suffolk, Second Prize, 10?., for his chestnut ; bred bv himself ; sire, “ Eeliance ” (239) ; dam, “ Barmaid " (143), by “Active ”(230). Hoeace Wolton, Xewboum Hall, Woodbridge, Suffolk, the Reserve A umber to “Dove,” chestnut; bred by himself; sire, “Baglan” (651); dam, “Duchess of Xewboum” (1030), by “ Warrior” (1353). X Given by the Clydesdale Society for the best More in the Clydesdale Classes. Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. xlvii Agricultural Fillies foaled in the Year 1880, not qualified to compete in the preceding Classes. Peter Blundell, Ream Hills, Weeton, Kirkham, Lancashire : First Prize, 15 1., for “ Miss Stonton,” bay ; bred by Mr. Chapman, Exton, Oakham, Rutland; sire, “Stonton” (2065). David Riddell, Blackball, Paisley, Renfrewshire : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Bessie,” brown ; bred by Mr. J. McTier, Lady field, Dumfries, KB. ; sire, “ Chancellor.” Edward and Alfred Stanford, Eatons, Ashurst, Steynmg, Sussex : Third Prize, 51., for “ Barbara,” bay; bred by themselves; sire, “Young Tops- man ;” dam, “ Bella,” by “ The Duke.” Agricultural Fillies, foaled in the Year 1881, not qualified to compete in the preceding Classes. Richard Machin, Cattal Grange, Green Hammerton, Yorkshire: First Prize, 15?., for “Violet,” bay; bred by himself; sire, “ Honest Tom” (1105) ; dam, “ Jet,” by “ Young Conqueror.” "William Stephenson, Bushy Hill, Newbald, Brough, Yorkshire: Second Prize, 10?., for “ Topsy,” roan ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Young Napo- leon ;” dam by “ "Wellington.” Coaching Fillies foaled in the Year 1880.f "Walter Herbert Septimus Pyman, Moss Brow, WThitby, Yorkshire: First Prize, 15?., for “Darling,” bay; bred by Mr. Beadman, Newbiggin, Whitby, Yorkshire ; sire, “ Lord of the Manor ;” dam by “ Barnaby.” Richard Machin, Cattal Grange, Green Hammerton, Yorkshire : Second Prize, 10?., for bis bay ; bred by Mr. B. Greaves, Spoffortb Haggs, Wetherby, Yorks; sire, “Dart,” dam by “Lord Zetland.” Charles Wainer, Abbey Green, Harome, Newton, Yorkshire: the "Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “Luckshall,” bay; bred by himself ; sire, “ Young Candidate;” dam, “ Old Monarch.” Coaching Fillies foaled in the Year 1881.* William Beckett, Deigbton, Escrick, Yorkshire : First Prize, 10?., for bis bay ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Liberal.” William Dickson, Heslington, York : Second Prize, 51., for “ Lucy,” bay ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Liberal ;” dam, “ Blossom,” by “ Inkerman Hero.” The Executors of the late Mr. W. W. Kirby, North Grimston, York : the Reserve Number to “ Rosemary,” bay ; bred by themselves ; sire, “Volun- teer ;” dam, “ Rosebud,” by “ Lucks All.” Coaching Geldings or Fillies foaled in the Year 1882.* John Hughes, Skirpenbeck, Stamford Bridge, Yorkshire : First Prize, 10?., for “ Gamester,” bay ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Young Candidate dam by “ Palestine.” John Gilliard, Crayke, Easingwold, Yorkshire : Second Prize, 5?., for his bay; bred by himself; sire, “Wonderful Lad;” dam, “Trimmer,” by “ Cromwell.” Joseph Reader, Beacon Farm, Holme-on-Spalding Moor, Yorkshire : the Re- serve Number and Highly Commended for “ Lady Beacon,” bay ; bred by himself; sire, “ Yorksbireman ;” dam, “Bonny,” by “Cawston.” xlviii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. Coaching Geldings foaled in the Year 1880.* John Kirby, Burton Fields, Stamford Bridge, Yorkshire: First Prize, 20?., for “ Grand Duke,” bay ; bred by Mr. Leaper, Beverley, Yorkshire ; sire, “ Cyrus;” dam by “ Venture.” Timothy Cattle, West Field Farm, Norton, Doncaster: Second Prize, 10?., lor bis bay ; bred by Mr. Ness, Sproxton Park, Helmsley, Yorks ; sire, “ Candidate.” George Burton, Thorpe Willoughby, Selby, Yorkshire : the Eeserve Number and Highly Commended for his brown ; bred by Mr. Sykes, Pollington, Selby ; sire, “ Domino dam by “ Gaiety.” Coaching Geldings foaled in the Year 1881.f George Burton, Thorpe Willoughby, Selby : First Prize, 15?., for his bay ; bred by Mr. J. Kirke, Gilberdyke, Brough, Yorks ; sire, “ Prince of Wales;” dam by “Grand Inquisitor.” Francis Beal, Scrayingham, Kirkham Abbey, Yorkshire’: Second Prize, 51., for “Major,” brown; bred by Mr. ft. Hopper, Scrayingham; sire, “ Domino ;” dam by “ Grey President.” John Kirby, Burton Fields, Stamford Bridge: the Eeserve Number and Highly Commended for “ King Harold,” bay ; bred by Mr. John Johnson, Brook Farm, North Cave, Brough, Yorkshire; sire, “The Count;” dam by “Artemis.” Agricultural Geldings foaled in the Year 1880. f William Hurst, Sandal, Wakefield, Yorkshire: First Prize, 20?., for “ Prince,” brown ; breeder unknown. Sir Joseph Whitwell Pease, Bart., M.P., Hutton Hall, Guisboro’, York- shire : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Clyde,” bay ; bred by Mr. James Little, Fauld, Longtown, Cumberland ; sire, “ Clydesdale Hero :” and the Eeserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Major,” bay ; bred by Mr. J. Taylor, Friarland, Ayr, N.B. ; sire, “ Black Watch” (64). Hunter Metres or Geldings, up to 15 stone, foaled in either 1876, 1877, or 1878.f Andrew John Brown, North Elmsall Hall, Pontefract, Yorkshire : First Prize, 40?., for “ Waterford,” brown gelding; was foaled in 1878; bred by The Marquis of Waterford, Curraghmore, Waterford ; sire “ Jerrey- point ;” dam by “ Jemma de Verger ” : and the Second Prize, 20?., ior “ Harvester,” brown gelding; was foaled in 1878; bred by Dr. Nickle, Athboy, Meath, Ireland ; sire, “ Haymaker ;” dam by “ Olimpic.” John Robinson, Cleavland House, Coltman Street, Hull : Third Prize, 10?., for “ Elegant,” chestnut gelding ; was foaled in 1878 ; bred by Mr. Trew, Kildare, Ireland ; sire, “ Master George ;” dam by “ Will Scarlet.” T. Harvey D. Bayly, Edwinstowe House, Newark, Notts : the Eeserve Num- ber and Highly Commended for “ The Bobber,” black gelding ; was foaled in 1876; breeder unknown ; sire, “Barabbas.” Hunter Marcs or Geldings, up to 12 stone, foaled in either 1876, 1877, or 1878-f Major Thwaites, Chevin Grange, Menston, Leeds: First Prize, 30?., for “ Boyal Monarch,” chestnut gelding; was foaled in 1876; breeder un- known ; sire, “ Monarch of the Glen ; ” dam by “ Macaroni.” Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. xlix John Lett, Scampston, Eillington, Yorkshire : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Co- quette,” bay mare ; was foaled in 1877 ; bred by Mr. Coulson, Castle Howard, York ; sire, “ The Mallard;” dam by “ Strathem.” Jacob Smith, Humburton, Helperby, Yorkshire : Third Prize, 51., for “ Sweet- briar,” brown mare; was foaled in 1877 ; breeder unknown; sire, “High- thorn.” John Eobinson, Cleavland House, Coltman Street, Hull : the Reserve Number and Eighty Commended for “ Lord of the Glen,” bay gelding ; was foaled in 1878 ; breeder unknown; sire, “ Glenfillen ;” dam by “ Cain.” Hunter Geldings foaled in the Year 1879. John B. Booth, Killerby, Catterick, Yorkshire : First Prize, 40?.,* for “ Brian Boroimhe,” bay ; breeder unknown ; sire, “ Herbertstown ; ” dam by “ Eedmond o’ Hanlon.” Teasdale H. Hutchinson, Manor House, Catterick : Second Prize, 20?., f for “ Merrymaker,” chestnut ; bred by Mr. Fisher, Blackpool, Lan- cashire ; sire, “ Laughing Stock ;” dam by “ Carbineer.” Andrew John Brown, North Elmsball Hall, Pontefract: Third Prize, 5?.,* for “ Grenadier,” grey ; bred by Mr. W. Little, Bliborough, Kirton Lind- sey, Lincolnshire ; sire, “ Snowstorm ;” dam by “ Croton Oil.” Thomas Darrell, of Spikers Hill, West Ayton, York : the Reserve Number and Eighty Commended for “ Manchester,” bay ; breeder unknown ; sire, “ Syrian ;” dam, “ Fingal.” Hunter Mares foaled in the Year 1879.f William Osborne Garbutt, Morton Grange, Nunthorpe, E. S. 0., Yorkshire : First Prize, 30?., for “ Gladys,” browL ; bred by Mr. Mark Hall, Brot- ton, Yorks ; sire, “ Carbineer.” Henry George Curry, White House, Stockton-on-Tees : Second Prize, 15?., for “ May Queen,” black ; bred by the late Mr. Weighell, Carlton-in- Cleveland, Yorks ; sire, “ Bondsman ;” dam by “ Young Yoltigeur.” William Wood, Habrougb, H lceby, Lincolnshire; Third Prize, 51., for “ My Lady,” bay ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Jarnac ;” dam, “ Castor Oil,” by “Croton Oil.” Christopher Stephenson, Nawortb, Brampton, Cumberland : the Reserve Number and Eighty Commended for “ Siren,” brown ; bred by the late Lord Lamerton, Castle Howard, York ; sire, “ Paragon ;” dam by “ Caradoc.” Hunter Geldings foaled in the Year 1880.* J. Mitchelson Mitchelson, The Hall, Pickering, Yorkshire : First Prize, 25?., for “ Eliezer,” brown ; bred by Mr. Gromet, Pelleter Abbey Town, Cumberland; sire, “Gladstone.” Matthew Dobson Peacock, Woodlands, Harmby, Bedale, Yorkshire : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Chance,” brown ; bred by Mr. J. Milner, Middledale, Kilham, Hull, Yorks; sire, “Haphazard;” dam, “Pi,” by “ Defender.” James S. Darrell, West Ayton, Scarborough, Yorkshire : TniRD Prize, 5?., for “ Mallard,” bay ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Mallard ;” dam by “ Cape Flyaway.” 1 Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. Andrew John Brown, North Elmsall Hall, Pontefract : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ General,” bay ; bred by Capt. Armstrong, B.N., Chaffpool, Ballymote, Sligo; sire, “Sir George;” dam by “Ar- tillery.” Hunter Fillies foaled in the Tear 1880. f George Whitehead, Dighton Grove, York : First Prize, 20/., for “ Wild Briar,” chestnut ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Highthome ;” dam by “ Wild Hero.” J. Mitchelson Mitchelson, The Hall, Pickering : Second Prize, 10/., for “ Dagmar,” chestnut ; bred by Mr.' Hick, Cawton, Gilling, Yorks ; sire, “ Conductor ;” dam by “ George Osbaldeston.” Ernest Bulmer, Newsham, Pickering : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “Gipsy Countess,” brown; bred by Mr. W. Coulson, South Holme, Slingsby, Yorks ; sire, “ Prince Caradoc.” Hunter Geldings foaled in the Tear 1881.* John B. Booth, Killerby, Catterick, Yorkshire : First Prize, 20/., for “Blondin,” chestnut; bred by himself; sire, “ Castlereagh ;” dam, “ Blonde,” by “ The Miner.” William Wright, Wollaton, Nottingham: Second Prize, 10/., for “Silver King,” chestnut; bred by himself; sire, “Silvester;” dam, “Rosamond,” by “ Dalesman.” William C. P. Snowden, Hutton Moor House, Ripon, Yorkshire : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Squashed Strawberry,” chestnut ; bred by Mr. N. Snowden, Hutton Moor House ; sire, “ Due de Beaufort ;” dam by “ Forester.” Hunter Fillies foaled in the Tear 1881. f George William Goodison, Coniston Bank, Ambleside, Westmoreland: First Prize, 15/., for “Daffodil,” bay; bred by himself; sire, “Wester-' hall ;” dam, “ Fanny.” John Thomas Robinson, Leckby Palace, Asenby, Thirsk, Yorkshire : Second Prize, 51., for “ Pay-away,” bay ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Bondsman.” James Naylor, Beck Farm, Cundall, Boroughbridge, Yorkshire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Lady Cavendish,” dark brown ; bred by Mr. W. Naylor, Throstle Nest, Cundall ; sire, “ Baron Caven- dish ;” dam, “ Bonny,” by “ Bewceiphas.” Hunter Geldings or Fillies foaled in the Tear 1882.* George Thompson Carr, The Farm, Sillotli, Cumberland : First Prize, 15/., for his chestnut ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Gladstone.” Lord Middleton, Birdsall House, York : Second Prize, 5/., for his bay ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Happy Land ;” dam, “ Sunrise,” by “ Morocco.” John Pressick Adamson, Wheatlands, Marske-by-the-Sea, Yorkshire : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Southern Cross,” bay, bred by himself; sire, “Morocco;” dam, “Grace Darling,” by “ Young Hippolytus.” Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. li Hackney Mares or Geldings up to 15 stone, foaled in either 1876, 1877, 1878, or 1879.| John Robinson, Cleavland House, Coltman Street, Hull : First Prize, 3 01., for “ Lincoln,” black gelding ; was foaled in 1878 ; bred by Mr. Crow, Lincoln. James Hornsby, Honington Hall, Grantham, Lincolnshire : Second Prize, 10/., for “Hampstead,” brown gelding; was foaled in 1876 ; breeder unknown. Frederick William Burdock, The White House, Downham Market, Norfolk: Third Prize, 51., for “ Nancy Lee,” chestnut mare ; was foaled in 1876 ; bred by Mr. Charles Beart, West Head Farm, Downham Market; sire, “ The Great Gunn.” William Abel Wood, Sutton-on-the-Forest, Easingwold, Yorkshire : the Eeserve Number to “ Bobby Burns,” chestnut gelding ; was foaled in 1879; bred by Mr. John Suggitt, Law Roans Farm, Sutton-on-the Forest. Hackney Marcs or Geldings up to 12 stone, foaled either in 1876, 1877, 1878, or 1879.f John Bentley, Great Driffield, Yorkshire: First Prize, 20/., for “Fashion,” bay gelding; was foaled in 1877 ; bred by Mr. H. Fewson, Struncheon Hill, North Frodingham, Hull ; sire, “ Denmark ;” dam, “ Richmond.” The Stand Stud Company, Stand, Whitefield, Manchester : Second Prize, 10/., for “ British Queen,” strawberry roan mare ; was foaled in 1877 ; bred by Mr. Sindall, Prickwillow, Ely, Cambs. Major Thwaites, Chevin Grange, Menston, Leeds : Third Prize, 5/., for “ Scottish Queen,” grey mare ; was foaled in 1876 ; bred by Mr. W. Collinson, Otteringham, Hull ; sire, “ Lord Derby 2nd.” John Robinson, Cleavland House, Coltman Street, Hull : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Prince Charlie,” chestnut gelding ; was foaled in 1878 ; bred by Mr. Rickell, Waterwold, Pocklington, Yorks ; sire, “ Denmark ;” dam by “ General Giles.” Hackney Gelding foaled in the Year 1880. I Ambrose Verity, 12, Coltman Street, Hull : First Prize, 20/., for “ Gang Forward,” bay; bred by Mr. Robinson, Sledmere, Yorks; sire, “Pluto;” dam by “ Sir Charles.” Isaac Denton Dunn, Marsh House, Keyingham, Yorkshire : Second Prize, 10/., for “Peacock,” bay; bred by Mr. Arthur Fewson, Hedon, Yorks; sire, “ Lord Derby 2nd ;” dam by “ Young Charley.” John Major, Sledmere, Yorkshiie: the Reserve Number and Highly Com- mended for “ Romeo,” bay ; bred by himself. Hackney Fillies foaled in the Year 1880. f Arthur Fewson, Hedon, Yorkshire : First Prize, 15/., for “ Lady Alice,” chestnut ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Lord Derby ;” dam by “ Tom Thumb.” Mansfield Harrison, West End House, Ganton, York : Second Prize, 51., for “Sovereign,” brown; bred by himself; sire, “Denmark;” dam, “ Lady Jane,” by Triffit’s “ Fireaway.” lii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. John Paul Crompton, Thornholm, Burton Agnes, Hull : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Lily of the Valley,” brown ; bred by him- self ; sire, “ Denmark;” dam by “ St. Giles.” [ Hackney Geldings foaled in the Year 1881.* Joseph John Dunnington-Jefferson, Thicket Priory, York : First Prize, 15Z., for bis brown ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Prince Alfred dam, “ Firefly,” by “ Fireaway.” Thomas Nicholson, the Grange, Watton, Hull : Second Prize, 51., for his bay ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Denmark.” Marmaduke Wray, Register Square, Beverley, Yorkshire : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “Crown Prince,” bay; bred by Mr. Stephenson, Barmston, Bridlington, Yorks ; sire, “ Denmark ;” dam by Triflit’s “ Fireaway.” Hackney Fillies foaled iu the Year 1881.t Thomas Horrocks Miller, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lancashire : First Prize, 10Z., for “May,” chestnut ; bred by himself; sire, “ Star of the East ;” dam, “ Kitty.” George Burton, Thorpe Willoughby, Selby, Yorkshire : Second Prize, 51., for his brown ; bred by Mr. Richardson, Everingham, York ; sire, “Denmark ;” dam by “ Bounding Willow.” Thomas Nicholson, The Grange, Watton, Hull: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for his chestnut ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Denmark ;” dam by “ Fireaway.” Hackney Geldings or Fillies foaled in the year 1882.* Thomas Nicholson, The Grange, Watton, Hull : First Prize, 10Z., for his chestnut gelding ; bred by himself; sire, “Denmark;” dam by “ Fugle- man.” Thomas Cook, Hull : Second Prize, 51., for his brown filly ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Black Fireaway ;” dam, “ Rosalind,” by “ Eclipse.” Thomas Horrocks Miller, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lancashire : the Reserve Number to “ Mabel,” bay filly ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Fire- away ;” dam, “ Belle.” Pony Mares or Geldings, above 13 hands, and not exceeding 14 hands 2 inches .f John Robinson, Cleavland House, Coltman Street, Hull : First Prize, 15Z., for “ Lady Silver,” roan mare ; was foaled in 1877 ; breeder unknown : and Second Prize, 51., for “ Lady Rose,” grey mare ; was foaled in 1877 ; breeder unknown ; sire, “ Lord Derby.” James Hornsby, Honington Hall, Grantham, Lincolnshire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Here I am,” brown gelding ; was foaled in 1879 ; breeder unknown. Pony Mares or Geldings, not exceeding 13 handsf Major Thwaites, Chevin Grange, Mcnston, Leeds : First Prize, 10Z., for “Fashion,” black gelding; was foaled in 1875; breeder unknown. Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. liii James Hornsby, Honington Hall, Grantham: Second Prize, 5 1., for his brown gelding, aged ; breeder unknown. Robert Metcalfe, Castlegate, Malton, Yorkshire : the Reserve Number and Iliglily Commended for “ High and Mighty,” brown gelding ; was foaled in 1876 ; breeder unknown. Harness Mares or Geldings exceeding 14 hands 2 inches. \ John Fisher, Manor House, Willerby, Hull: First Prize, 20/., for “Pet,” brown mare ; was foaled in 1877 ; breeder unknown : sire, “ Lord Derby 2nd.” John Fielden, Grimston Park, Tadcaster, Yorkshire : Second Prize, 10/., for “ Brown Bess,” brown mare ; was foaled in 1872 ; breeder unknown ; sire, “ Denmark.” John Burton Barrow, Ringwood Hall, Chesterfield, Derbyshire: Third Prize, 5 /., for “ Ginger,” chestnut mare ; was foaled in 1878 ; bred by Mr. J. Grout, Woodbridge, Suffolk. Mark Pearson, High Street, Knaresborough : the Reserve Number to “ Speciality,” chestnut mare ; was foaled in 1879 ; bred by Mr. J. Stephenson, of Belford ; sire, “ Sir Garnet sire of dam, “ Bay President.” Harness Mares or Geldings exceeding 14 hands 2 inches.^ Frederick William Burdock, The White House, Downham Market, Nor- folk: First Prize, 15/., for “Maritana,” brown mare; age unknown; bred by Mr. F. Lowe, Norwich ; sire, “ Don Carlos.” William Foster, Grove House, Pontefract, Yorkshire: Second Prize, 5/., for “ Pomfret Fancy,” brown mare; was foaled in 1877; bred by Mr. Blenkhorn, Otteringham, Lincolnshire ; sire, “ Lord Derby 2nd.” John Burton Barrow, Ringwood Hall, Chesterfield: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ A 1,” brown gelding ; was foaled in 1879 ; bred by Mr. J. Grout, of Woodbridge, Suffolk. CATTLE. Shorthorn Bulls calved in either 1877, 1878, or 1879. John Outhwaite, Bainesse, Catterick, Yorkshire: First Prize, 25/., for “ Lord Zetland ” (43,596), roan ; was calved April 12th, 1879 ; bred by the Earl of Zetland, Aske Hall, Richmond, Yorkshire ; sire, “ Royal Windsor” (29,890); dam, “Florella,” by “George Peabody” (28,710); g. d., “Floss,” by “Windsor Augustus” (19,157); gr. g. d., “Flirt,” by “ Cobham” (14,287) ; gr. g. g. d., “Wood Nymph,” by “ Ravensworth ” (10,681). Sir William Cayley Worsley, Bart., Ilovingham, York : Second Prize, 15/., for “ Hovingham ” (43,363), white ; was calved October 7th, 1879 ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Sir Arthur Ingram ” (32,490) ; dam, “ Irwin’s Star,” by “ Lord Irwin ” (29,123) : g. d. “ Louise,” by “ White Windsor” (27,803) ; gr. g. d. “ Mushroom,” by “ Earl of Windsor ” (17,788) ; gr. g. g. d. “ Beauty 2nd,” by “ Magnus Troil ” (14,880). liv Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. Robert Thompson, Inglewood Bank, Penrith, Cumberland : Third Prize, 10b, for “Beau Benedict” (42,769), roan; was calved February 2nd, 1879 ; bred by Mr. W. Linton, Sheriff Hutton, York ; sire, “ Paul Potter ” (38,854) ; dam, “ Home Beauty,” by “ Mountain Chief” (20,383) ; g. d., “ Hand-Maid,” by “ May-Day ” (20,323) ; gr. g. d., “ White Bose,” by “ Magnus Troil ” (14,880) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Miss Henderson,” by “ Magnus Troil ” (14,880). William Handley, Green Head, Milnthorpe, Westmoreland : the Reserve Number to “Hesperus” (39,994), roan; was calved June 21st, 1877; bred by Mr. Hugh Aylmer, West Dereliam Abbey, Stoke Ferry, Norfolk ; sire, “ Hyperion ” (34,196) ; dam, “ Maid of Lome,” by “ Royal Brough- ton” (27,352); g. d., “Maid of the Abbey,” by “Prince Christian” (22,581); gr. g. d., “Maid of the Mom,” by “Hildebrand” (18,068); gr. g. g. d., “ Maid of Orleans,” by “ Knight of Windsor ” (16,349). Shorthorn Bulls calved in the Tear 1 880. Francis John Savile Foljambe, M.P., Osberton Hall, Worksop, Notts: First Prize, 25 b, for “ Bright Helm ” (44,455), white ; was calved February 3rd ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Titan ” (35,085) ; dam, “ Bright Duchess,” by “ Grand Duke 15th” (21,852) ; g. d., “ Bright Halo,” by “ Breast Plate ” (19,337) ; gr. g. d., “ Bright Dew,” by “ British Prince ” (14,197); gr. g. g. d., “Bright Mom,” by “ Vanguard” (10,994). William Henry Wakefield, Sedgwick, Kendal, Westmoreland: Second Prize, 15b, for “ Baron Sedgwick” (44,373), roan ; was calved January 30th ; bred by himself ; sire, “Baron Barrington 4th ” (33,006); dam, “ Well Heads Rose 2nd,” by “Sir Arthur Windsor” (35,541); g. d., “Well Heads Rose,” by “Dunrobin” (28,486); gr. g. d., “ Rosebud 2nd,” by “ Albert Victor ” (23,293) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Rosebud 1st,” by “ Squire Stuart” (20,891). William Forster, Bulls Hill, Allendale, Northumberland : Third Prize, 10b, for “Captain Boycott” (46,040), red; was calved October 28th; bred by Mr. G. J. Bell, The Nook, Irthington, Brampton, Cumberland; sire, “ Baron Turncroft Bates 3rd ” (39,443) ; dam, “ Early Rose,” by “ Magician ” (34,570) ; g. d., “ Ella,” by “ Keir Butterfly 8th ” (28,951) ; gr. g. d., “ Miss Eliza,” by “ Rifleman ” (32,304) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Eliza 2nd,” by “Mac Turk” (14,872). Charles William Brierley, Rosedale, Tenbury, Worcestershire : the Reserve Number and Commended for “Rosedale Oxford,” red and white ; was calved September 5th ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Oxford Duke 10th ” (38,830) ; dam, “ Bridal Veil,” by “ Lord George ” (29,107) ; g. d., “Orange Blossom,” by “Albion” (25,500); gr. g. d., “Bride Elect,” by “ Second Duke of Cumberland ” (23,735) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Bridesmaid,” by “ Fourth Duke of Thorndale” (17,750). Shorthorn Bulls calved in the Year 1881. John Rowley, Went Bank House, Stubbs Walden, Pontefract, Yorkshire : First Prize, 25b, and the Champion Prize, 25b, f for “ Self Esteem 2nd,” roan ; was calved September 9th ; bred by Sir William C. Worsley, Bart., Hovingham, York ; sire, “ Hovingham ” (43,363) ; dam, “ Trusty f Given by the York Local Committee for the best Shorthorn Male in the Showyard. Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York . lv Lass,” by “ Sir Robin ” (40,720) ; g. d., “ Conceit,” by “ Earl of Derby ” (21,638); gr. g. d., “Confidence,” by “ Wizard of Windsor ” (21,124); gr. g. g. d., “ Trust,” by “ Sir Charles ” (16,949). The Duke of Portland, Clipstone Park Farm, Mansfield, Notts : Second Prize, 15?., for “ Grand Ruth” (46,459), white ; was calved April 10th ; bred by Mr. J. R. Singleton, Great Givendale, Pocklington, Yorkshire ; sire, “ Lord Surrey ” (43,579) ; dam, “ Mabel,” by “ Chatsworth ” (25,346) ; g. d., “ Maud,” by “ Patriot” (20,475) ; gr. g. d., “ Graceful,” by “ Fer- dinand ”'(12,871) ; gr. g. g. d., “Grace,” by “Surplice” (10,901). William Langhorn, East Mill Hills, Haydon Bridge, Northumberland: Third Prize, 10?., for “ Tambour Major,” roan ; was calved November 8th; bred by himself ; sire, “ St. Swithin ” (43,986) ; dam, “Cowslip,” by “ Prince Regent ” (29,676) ; g. d., “ Trip the Daisy,” by “ Wild Boy ” (25,447) ; gr. g. d., “ Rosebud,” by “ Pizarro ” (20,497) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Rose Maid,” by “ Master Annandale ” (14,916). Colonel Robert Gunter, The Grange, Wetherby, Yorkshire : the Reserve Number and Eighty Commended for “ Duke of Tregunter 9th ” (46,272), red and white ; was calved January 16th ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Duke of Gunterstone ” (43,101) ; dam, “ Duchess 118th,” by “ Eighteenth Duke of Oxford ” (25,995) ; g. d., “ Duchess 112th,” by “ Baron Oxford 6th” (33,075) ; gr. g. d., “ Duchess 110th,” by “ Third Duke of Wharf- dale ” (21,619) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Duchess 94th,” by “ Second Duke of Wharfdale” (19,649). Shorthorn Bulls calved in the Tear 1882. Richard Stratton, The Dufiryn, Newport, Monmouthshire : First Prize, 25?., for “Acropolis,” roan; was calved June 6th; bred by himself; sire, “ Rover ” (43,924) ; dam, “ Maid cf Athens,” by “ Charles 1st ” (33,322); g. d., “Gloucester Maid,” by “Coronet” (23,623) ; gr. g. d., “Duchess of Glo’ster 6th,” by “King John” (14,763); gr. g. g. d., “ Duchess of Glo’ster,” by “ The Red Duke ” (8694). Mrs. Atkinson, Raines Hall, Sedgwick, Milnthorpe, Westmoreland : Second Prize, 15?., for “ Holker 2nd,” red ; was calved February 16th ; bred by Mr. George Drewry, Holker House, Carke-in-Cartmel, Lancashire'; sire, “ Baron Oxford 8th ” (41,057); dam, “Glo’ster Wild Rose,” by “Duke of Glo’ster 7th” (39,735); g. d., “Wetherby Wild Rose,” by “Fifth Duke of Wetherby ” (31,033)'; gr. g. d., “Wild Rose,” by “Knight of the Harem” (24,278) ; gr. g. g. d., “Imperial Wild Eyes,” by “Imperial Windsor ” (18,086). David Pugh, Manoravon, Llandilo, Carmarthenshire : Third Prize, 10?., for “ Baron Manoravon 2nd,” roan ; was calved January 6th ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Sir Charles ” (44,020) ; dam, “ Marchioness Manoravon 4th,” by “Falmouth” (38,268); g. d., “Marchioness Manoravon 1st,” by “Lord Abbot” (29,052); gr. g. d., “Marchioness,” by “Lord Lyons ” (26,677) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Mistress Mary,” by “Baron Warlaby ” (7813). John Foster, Park House, Selby, Yorkshire : the Reserve Number to “Middy,” red and white; was calved October 13th; bred by himself; sire, “ Sailor ;” dam, “ Ruby,” by “ Kalamazoo ” (40,039) ; g. d., “ Brenda 4th,” by “ Lee Boo ;” gr. g. d., “ Brenda 3rd,” by “ Shuttlecock ” (25,126) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Brenda,” by “ Twentieth Duke of Oxford ” (23,778). lvi Aicard of Live-Stock Prizes at York. Skortkorn Coics, in-milk or in-calf \ calved previously to or in the Year 1879. Charles William Brierley, Eosedale, Tenbury, Worcestershire: First Prize, 20 1., for “ Snowflake,” white ; was calved September 11th, 1878 ; in-milk ; calved January 8th, 1883 ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Bolivar’s Fare- well ” (33,173) ; dam, “ Bolivar’s White Tulip,” by “ Bolivar ” (25,649) ; g. d., “ Tulip Flower,” by “ Lord Albert ” (20,143) ; gr. g. d., “ Rachel,” by “ Monarch ” (18,412) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Toung Matchless,” by “ Duke of Tyne” (12,773). Daniel Abbott Green, East Donyland Place, Colchester, Essex : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Gaiety,” roan ; was calved October 26th, 1879 ; in- milk ; calved September 16th, 1882 ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Prince of the Roses ” (42,216) ; dam, “ Gertrude,” by “ Lord Oxford 7th ” (38,645) ; g. d., “ Cambridge Geraldine 3rd,” by “ Lord Cambridge ” (38,588) ; gr. g. d., “ Cambridge Geraldine,” by “ Cambridge Duke 3rd ” (23,503) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Geraldine,” by “ Duke ” (25,924). John Jervis Sharp, Broughton, Kettering, Northamptonshire: Third Prize, 51., for “ May Duchess 15th,” red; was calved June,21st, 1879; calved April 26th, 1882 ; and in-calf ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Duke of Darlington 4th ” (38,138); dam, “ May Duchess 14th,” by “ Imperial Oxford ”(36,785); g. d., “May Duchess 11th,” by “Earl of Oxford” (21,651) ; gr. g. d., “ May Duchess 4th,” by “ Earl of Oxford” (21,651) ; gr. g. g. d., “ May Duchess,” by “ Grand Duke of York” (12,966). Teasdale Hilton Hutchinson, Manor House, Catterick : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Gratia,” roan ; was calved October 7th, 1878 ; in-milk ; calved January 1st, 1883, and in-calf ; bred by himself ; sire, “Pluto” (35,050); dam, “Gratification,” by “M. C.” (31,898); g. d., “ Gerty 3rd,” by “ Knight of the Shire ” (26,552) ; gr. g. d., “ Gerty,” by “ Vain Hope ” (23,102) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Garland,” by “ Grand Master” (24,078). Shorthorn Cows or Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, calved in the Year 1880. Benjamin St. John Ackers, Prinknash Park, Painswick, Gloucestershire : First Prize, 20?., for “ Lady Carew 9th,” red and white ; was calved November 11th ; in-calf ; bred by himself ; sire, “Lord Prinknash 2nd” (38,653) ; dam, “ Lady Carew 3rd,” by “ County Member ” (28,268) ; g. d., “ Lady Jane,” by “ Baron Killerby ” (23,364) ; gr. g. d., “ Miracle,” by “ Prince James ” (20,554) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Heather Bell,” by “ Hero” (18,055). Teasdale H. Hutchinson, Manor House, Catterick : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Glad Tidings,” roan ; was calved December 24th ; in-calf ; bred by himself; sire, “Master of Arts” (34,816); dam, “Gratification,” by “ M. C.” (31,898) ; g. d., “ Gerty 3rd,” by “ Knight of the Shire ” (26,552); gr. g. d., “ Gerty,” by “ Vain Hope” (23,102); gr. g. g. d., “ Garland,” by “Grand Master ” (24,078). Arthur S. Gibson, Bulwell, Notts : the Beserve Number and Commended for “Queen of Stroxton,” red; was calved July 2nd; in-milk; calved No- vember 14th, 1882, and in-calf ; bred by the late Mr. John Lynn, Church Farm, Stroxton, Grantham, Lincolnshire ; sire, “ Cambridge Duke 10th ” (42,867) ; dam, “ Queen of Havering,” by “ Third Duke of Geneva ” (23,753); g. d., “Queen of Oxford,” by “Fifth Duke of Oxford” 1 (31,738); gr. g. d., “ Queen of the Roses,” by “Cambridge Duke 4th” (25,706) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Queen of the OceaD,” by “ Second Duke of Thorn- dale” (17,748). lvii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. Shorthorn Heifers calved in the Year 1881. Tea sd ale Hilton Hutchinson : First Prize, 20?., and the Champion Prize, 25?., f for “Lady Pamela,” roan ; was calved March 17th; bred .by him- self; sire, “ British Knight” (33,220) ; dam, “Lady Pateley,” by “Ve- hement ” (35,853) ; g. d., “ Lady Nidderdale,” by “ Me,rry Monarch ” (22,349) ; gr. g. d., “ Lady Fly,” by “ Champion ” (23,520) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Purity,” by “ Perfection ” (27,059). The Duke of Portland, Clipstone Park Farm, Mansfield, Xotts : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Elvina,” red and white ; was calved August 9th ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Paragon ” (40,440) ; dam, “ Elvira 2nd,” by “ Major Thomdale” (3L,S07); g. d., “Elvira,” by “Mac Turk” (14,872); gr. g. d., “ Juno,” by “ Sheldon ” (8557); gr. g. g. d., “ Flirt,” by “ Young Xewton” (11,853). Sib John Henry Grevllle Smyth, Bart., Ashton Court, Bristol: Third Prize, 51., for “ Ashton Winsome 3rd,” roan; was calved July 21st; bred by himself ; sire, “ Wild Oxonian” (40,927); dam, “Ashton Win- some,” by “ Duke of Glo’ster 7th ” (39,735) ; g. d., “ Winsome 20th,” by “Fifth Duke of Wetherby” (31,033) ; gr. g. d., “Lady Wild Eyes 3rd,” by “ Seventh Duke of York ” (17,754) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Bright Eyes 2nd,” by “ Royal Butterfly 3rd” (18,754). Sir Henry Hussey Vivian, Bart., M.P., Park Le Breos, Swansea, Glamorgan- shire : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Maid of Gla- morgan,” roan ; was calved March 14th ; in-calf ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Rover ” (43,924) : dam, “ Maiden,” by “ Eighth Duke of York ” (23,808) ; g. d., “ Mabel,” by “ James 1st ” (24,202) ; gr. g. d., “ Mi- randa,” by “ Knight of the Lagan ” (20,083) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Moss Rose 4th,” by “ Hickory ” (14,706). Shorthorn Heifers calved in the Year 1882. William Henry Wakefield, Sedgwick, Kendal, Westmoreland : First Prize, 20?., for “ Gusta 4th ;” red and white, was calved January 28th ; bred by himself; sire, “Duke of Holker” (38,153); dam, “ Gusta 3rd,” by “ Baron Barrington 4th ” (33,006) ; g. d., “ Gusta 1st,” by “ Dun- robin” (28,486); gr. g. d., “Lady White,” by “Hamlet” (18,017); gr. g. g. d. by “ Eclipse ” (17,791). David Pugh, Manoravon, Llandilo, Carmarthenshire : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Zoe 2nd,” roan ; was calved January 8th : bred by himself ; sire, “ Sir Charles ” (44,020) ; dam, “ White Zoe,” by “ Falmouth ” (38,268) ; g. d., “Zoe,” by “Marquis 1st” (34,774); gr. g. d., “Czarina 10th,” by “ Duke of Albemarle ” (28,355) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Czarina 9th,” by “ Falconer ” (23,907). Benjamin St. John Ackers, Prinknash Park, Painswick, Gloucestershire: Third Prize, 51., for “ Western Georgie,” roan ; was calved May 3rd ; bred by himself; sire, “Royal Gloucester” (45,525); dam, “Vain Countess,” by “ Knight of St. Patrick ” (38,520) ; g. d., “ Vain Peeress,” “ Sir Windsor Broughton” (27,507) ; gr. g. d., “ Vain Fancy,” by “ King Richard 2nd” (28,984); gr. g. g. d., “Vain Woman,” by “Merry Monarch” (22,349). Robert Thompson, Inglewood Bank, Penrith, Cumberland : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Inglewood Belle,” roan ; was t Given by the York Local Committee for the best Shorthorn Female in the Showy ard. VOL. XIX. — S. S. e lviii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. calved January 3rd ; bred by himself; sire, “ Beau Benedict” (42,769) ; dam, “ Inglewood Pet,” by “ Brilliant Butterfly ” (36,270) ; g. d., “ Love Token,” by “ Grand Duke of Fawsley 3rd ” (31,286) ; gr. g. d., “ Fare- well,” by “Boyal Westmoreland” (35,416); gr. g. g. d., “General's Daughter,” by “ General Haynau” (11,520). Shorthorn Families of Cow , and not less than Two nor more than Four of her Descendants in the Female linef H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G., of Sandringham, Norfolk : First Prize, 50 1., for “ Diadem,” red and white ; was calved May 1st, 1872 ; bred by Mr. D. Fisher, Pitlochrie, Perthshire; sire, “ Fawsley Prince” (31,150) ; dam, “ Diamond,” by “ The Chieftain ” (20,942) ; g. d., “ Damsel,” by “ Lord Hopewell ” (18,239) ; gr. g. d., “ Datura,” by “ Fitz-Clarence ” (14,552); gr. g. g. d., “Duchess,” by “ Duke of Cam- bridge” (12,742). “ Diadem 3rd,” red and white; was calved December 1st, 1876; bred by the Rev. j. N. Micklethwait, Taverham Hall, Norwich ; sire, “ Royal Dublin ” (35,354). “ Diadem 5th,” roan ; was calved November 8th, 1877 ; sire, “ Balmoral ” (36,151). “ Diadem 9th,” roan; was calved December 4th, 1879; sire, “Admiral” (39,353). “Diadem 14th,” white; was calved April 30th, 1882; s. “Admiral” (39,353). Last three heifers bred by His Royal Highness. George Scoby, Beadlam Grange, Nawton, Yorkshire : Second Prize, 20 1., for “ Duchess of Yetholm,” red and white ; was calved January 13th, 1871 ; bred by the late Sir W. C. Trevelyan, Bart., Wallington, New- castle-upon-Tyne; sire, “Third Duke of Wharfdale” (21,619); dam, “Queen of Yetholm,” by “Second Earl of Oxford” (23,843); g. d., “ Princess of Yetholm,” by “ Gipsy Prince” (17,965) ; gr. g. d., “ Young Honeysuckle 2nd,” by “ Daisy Bull 2nd ” (14,364) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Honey- suckle 2nd,” by “ Ravensworth ” (10,681). “Empress of Yetholm,” roan; was calved April 10th, 1879; sire, “Duke of Oxford 27th” (33,709). “ Empress of Yetholm 2nd,” roan ; was calved February 18th, 1880 ; sire, “ Duke of Tregunter 5th ” (33,743). “ Empress of Yetholm 4th,” roan ; was calved August 13th, 1881 ; sire, “ Duke of Tregunter 5th (33,743). “ Empress of Yetholm 7th,” roan ; was calved December 14th, 1882 ; s. “ Baron of Oxford 9th ” (42,738). Produce all bred by himself. Francis John Savile Foljambe, M.P., Osberton Hall, Worksop, Notts: Third Prize, 10Z., for “ Cressida 4th ” (a 3), roan ; was calved June 10th, 1875 ; bred by the Rev. T. Staniforth, Storrs, Windermere ; sire, “ Judge of Assize ” (34,280) ; dam, “ Cressida 4th ” (a), by “ Grenadier ” (21,876) ; g. d., “ Cressida,” by “Cedric ” (19,415) ; gr. g. d., “ Hecuba,” by “ Florian ” (12,887) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Young Cressida,” by “ Duke of Athol” (10,150). “Creusa,” white; was calved March 10th, 1881 ; sire, “ Sir Andrew ” (42,387). “ Clytemnestra,” red and white; was calved February 12th, 1882 ; sire, “ Sir Andrew ” (42,387). “ Chryseis,” roan ; was calved April 17th, 1882; sire, “Sir Andrew” (42,387); g. d., “ Cressida 4th ” (a 3). Produce all bred by himself. George Ashburner, Low Hall, Kirkby Ireleth, Carnfortli, Lancashire : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Bride of Lorn,” white ; was calved May 29th, 1872; sire, “Sockburn Lad” (30,024); dam, “Lady Oxford,” by “Tenth Duke of Oxford” (17,739); g. d., “Lily,-’ by “ Hope ” (13,042) ; gr. g. d., “ Daisy,” by “ Duke of Richmond ” (8000) ; gr. g. g. d., “ Gilliver,” by “ Bachelor” (5770). “ Lady Lorn," roan; was calved September 29th, 1875; sire, “Duke of Oxford” Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. lix (31,004). “ Duchess of Lorn,” roan ; was calved October 23rd, 1878 ; sire, “Duke of Oxford” (31,004). “Countess of Lorn,” roan; was calved October 1st, 1880; sire, “Duke of Oxford 41st” (38,174). All bred by himself. Hereford Bulls calved in either 1877, 1878, 1879, or 1880. The Earl of Coventry, Croome Court, Severn Stoke, Worcestershire: First Prize, 201., for “ Fisherman ” (5913) ; was calved May 25th, 1878 ; bred by Mr. T. Rogers, Coxhall, Leintwardine ; sire, “Conservator” (5265); dam, “ Beauty,” by “ Langdale ” (3203) ; g. d., “ Cockey,” by “ Energy ” (1982) ; gr. g. d., by “ Kinlet” (1293). Hereford Bulls calved in the Year 1881. John Hungerford Arkwright, Hampton Court, Leominster, Herefordshire: First Prize, 20Z.. for “Rose Cross” (7237) ; was calved August 5 th ; bred by himself; sire, “Conjuror” (5264); dam, “Rosebud,” by “Sir Thomas” (2228); g. d., “Rose,” by “North Star” (2138); gr. g. d., “ Rose,” by “ The Grove ” (1764). Henry William Taylor, Showle Court, Ledbury, Herefordshire : Second Prize, 10Z., for “ Franklin” (6961) ; was calved April 14th; bred by Mr. Carwardiue, Stockton Bury, Leominster ; sire, “ Lord Wilton ” (4740) ; dam, “ Coral,” by “ Rodney ” (4907) ; g. d., “ Blossom,” by “ De Cote * (3060) ; gr. g. d., “ Vera,” by “ Heart of Oak ” (2035). Hereford Bulls calved in the Year 1882. Thomas James Carwardine, Stockton Bury, Leominster, Herefordshire : First Prize, 20Z., for “ Monarch ; ” was calved August 12th ; bred by himself; sire, “Lord Wilton” (4740); dam, “Bella,” by “De Cote” (3060) ; g. d., “ Charity,” by “ Heart of Oak ” (2035) ; gr. g. d., “ Luna,” by “ Counsellor” (1939). Allen Edward Hughes, Wintercott, Leominster : Second Prize, 10Z., for “ Washington ; ” was calved May 15th ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Rudolph ” (6660) ; dam, “ Plum 3rd,” by “ Commander ” (4452) ; g. d., “Plum,” by “Comet” (2469); gr. g. d., “Gem,” by “Adforton” (1839). Arthur P. Turner, The Leen, Pembridge, Herefordshire : Third Prize, 51., for “ Hogarth ;” was calved February 20th ; bred by himself ; sire, “ The Grove 3rd ” (5051) ; dam, “ Helena,” by “ Corsair ” (5271) ; g. d. “ Elfrida,” by “ Prince Arthur ” (3345) ; gr. g. d., “ Ella,” by “ Bachelor ” (2941). Herbert Richard Hall, Holme Lacey, Hereford : the Reserve Number to “ Egerton ; ” was calved January 23rd ; bred by Mr. T. D. Burlton, Eaton Hill, Leominster ; sire, “Lord Wilton ” (4740) ; dam, “Alice of Hesse 2nd,” by “ Protector 2nd ” (4878) ; g. d., “ Alice of Hesse,” by “ Minis- ter” (4789); gr. g. d., “Princess Alice 4th,” by “Sir Thomas” (2228). Hereford Cows, in-milk or in-calf, calved previously to or in the Year 1879. Henry William Taylor, Showle Court, Ledbury, Herefordshire: First Prize, 15Z., for “Modesty;” was calved August 14th, 1875, calved May 31st, 1882, and in-calf ; bred by the late Mr. W. Taylor, Showle Court; sire, “Tredegar” (5077); dam, “Lovely,” by “Tenant Farmer” (2806) ; g. d., “ Browny,” by “ Twin ” (2284). Second Prize, 10Z., for e 2 lx Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. “Adelaide;” was calved June 21st, 1877 ; calved May 22nd, 1882, and in-calf ; bred by the late Mr. W. Taylor, Showle Court ; sire, “ Tre- degar” (5077); dam, “Lovely,” bv “Tenant Farmer” (2806); g. d., “ Browny,” by “ Twin ” (2284) : and TniRD Prize, 51., for “ Rosamond ;” was calved August 23rd, 1877 ; calved June 17tb, 1882, and in-calf; bred by the late Mr. W. Taylor, Showle Court ; sire, “ Taunton ” (5035) ; dam, “Monkton Beauty 3rd,” by “Mercury” (3967); g. d., “ "Soung Beauty” by “Sir Francis ” (3438) ; gr. g. d., “Beauty,” by “Holmer” (2043). "William 'Pudge, Leinthall, Ludlow; the Reserve Number and Nighty Com- mended for “ Mermaid ;” was calved March 19th, 1877 ; calved Sept. 26th, 1882, and in-calf ; bred by Mr. S. Robinson, Lynbales, Kington, Here- fordshire; sire, “ Regulus ” (4076); dam, “Mermaid,” by “Luxury” (3233) ; g. d., “ Fairmaid 3rd,” by “ Douglas ” (2505) ; gr. g. d., “ Fair- maid 2nd,” by “ Master Butterfly ” (1313). Hereford Coirs or Heifers , in-milk or in-calf, calved in the Year 1880. Allen Edwards Hughes, Wintercott, Leominster, Herefordshire : First Prize, 15 1., for “ Modesty,” was calved June 6th ; in-milk ; calved February 4th, 1883 ; bred by Mrs. Sarah Edwards, Wintercott ; sire, “Commander” (4452); dam, “Maude,” by “Royalist” (4921); g. d., “ Young Meremaid 3rd,” by “ Leominster 3rd” (3211) ; gr. g. d., “ Young Meremaid,” by “ Adforton ” (1839). William Tudge, Leinthall, Ludlow : Second Prize, 10Z., for “Elsie;” was calved June 9th; in-calf; bred by himself; sire, “ Downton Grand Duke ”(5878); dam, “ Mermaid,” by “Regulus” (4076); g. d., “Mer- maid,” by “Luxury” (3233); gr. g. d., “ Fairmaid 3rd,” by “Douglas” (2505). Thomas Myddleton, Beckjay, Aston-on-Clun, Salop : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Lady Mary 4th ;” was calved June 3rd ; in-calf; bred by himself; sire, “Hartington” (5358); dam, “Lady Mary 2nd,” by “ Sultan ” (4163) ; g. d., “ Lady Mary,” by “ Hermit ” (3160); gr. g. d., “Yale Royal,” by “ Sir George” (2765). Hereford Heifers calved in the Year 1881. Robert William Hall, Ashton, Leominster; First Prize, 15Z., for “ Doro- thea;” was calved September 28th; bred by himself; sire, “Lord Wil- ton” (4740) ; dam, “ Lovely,” by “Preceptor,” (4030); g. d., “ Vanity,” by “ Artist ” (2934) ; gr. g. d., “ Dainty,” by “ Ashton ” (1500). Frederick Platt, Barnby Manor, Newark-on-Trent, Notts : Second Prize, 10Z., for “ Prettymaid 4th ; ” was calved March 17th; bred by himself ; sire, “ Hartington” (5358); dam, “ Prettymaid,” by “Horace” (3877); g. d., “Alice Grey 3rd,” by “Sir Richard” (3460); gr. g. d., “Alice Grey 2nd,” by “Marmaduke 2nd” (2632). Thomas Myddleton, Beckjay, Aston-on-Clun, Salop: Third Prize, 51., for “Lady Mary 5th ;” was calved June 14th ; bred by himself ; sire, “Cap- tain” (5238); dam, “Lady Mary 2nd,” by “Sultan” (4163); g. d., “ Lady Mary,” by “ Hermit” (3160) ; gr. g. d., “ Yale Royal,” by “ Sir George ” (2765). Thomas Fenn, Stonebrook House, Downton Castle, Ludlow : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Downton Beauty ;” was calved April 11th ; in-calf ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Commander ” (4453) ; dam, “ Queen of the Teme,” by “Severus 2nd ” (2747); g. d., “ Victoria,” by “ Wilson ” (4250); gr. g. d., by “ Havelock” (1609). Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. lxi Hereford Heifers calved in the Year 1882. Frederick Platt, Barnby Manor, Newark-on-Trent : First Prize, 15?., for “Primrose 7th;” was calved January 22nd; bred by himself; sire, “ Hartington ” (5358) ; dam, “ Primrose 2nd,” by “ Wolverhampton Boy ” (4198) ; g. d., “ Primrose,” by “Triumph” f2836) ; gr. g. d., “ Stately,” by “Tell Tale” (1757). Arthur P. Turner, The Leen, Pembridge, Herefordshire : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Portia ;” was calved April 13th ; bred by himself ; sire, “ The Grove 3rd ” (5051) ; dam, “ Purity 2nd,” by “ Bachelor ” (2941) ; g. d., “ Purity ” by “ Bolingbroke” (1883) ; gr. g. d., “ Amethyst,” by “ Felix” (953). Thomas Fenn, Stonebrook House, Downton Castle, Ludlow : Third Prize, 51., for “ Downton Beauty 2nd ;” was calved March 10th ; bred by him- self ; sire, “ Downton Boy ” (5877) ; dam, “ Queen of the Teme,” by “ Severus 2nd ” (2747) ; g. d., “ Victoria,” by “ Wilson ” (4250) ; gr. g. d., “ Havelock” (1609) : and the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “Downton Olive;” was calved April 6th; bred by himself; sire, “Downton Boy” (5877); dam, “Lady Olive,” by “My Lord” (2647); g. d., “ Olive,” by “ Sir David ” (349) ; gr. g. d., “ Olive,” by “ Gay ; Lad ”(400). Hereford Families, consisting of Cow and Two of Tier Offspring. % The Earl of Coventry, Croome Court, Severn Stoke, Worcestershire : First Prize, 20?., for “ Giantess ; ” was calved July 4th, 1872 ; bred by Mr. 'Pudge, Adforton ; sire, “ Sir Roger ” (4133) ; dam, “ Haidee,” by “Battenhall” (2406); g. d., “Diana,” by “Carbonel” (1525); gr. g. d., “Young Dainty,” by “The Doctor” (1083). “Golden Treasure ’’was calved May 25th, 1878 ; sire, “ Marechal Kiel ” (4760) ; and “ Good Boy;” was calved November 28th, 1881; sire, “ Fisherman ” (5913); both bred by himself. Robert William Hall, Ashton, Leominster ; Second Prize, 10?., for “Lovely;” was calved March 31st, 1876 ; sire, “Preceptor” (4030); dam, “Vanity,” by “Artist” (2934); g. d., “Dainty,” by “Ashton” (1500) ; gr. g. d., “ Nutty,” by “ Uncle Tom ” (1107). “ Theodora ” was calved September 28th, 1881; sire, “Lord Wilton” (4740), and “Lord Ashton ;” was calved January 28th, 1883 : sire, “ Chancellor ” (5246) ; all bred by himself. William Tudge, Leiutball, Ludlow : the Reserve Number and Highly Com- mended for “ Roseleaf ;” was calved November 20th, 1874; sire, “Lord Hythe ” (3937) ; dam, “ Rosebud,” by “ Sir Thomas ” (2228) ; g. d., “ Rose,” by “ North Star” (2138); gr. g. d., “Rose,” by the “Grove” (1764). “ Prince Rose ” (7191), was calved October 20th, 1881; sire, “Westonbury” (6254), and bull calf; was calved March 3rd, 1883; sire, “ Auctioneer” (5194) or “ Downton Grand Duke ” (5873) ; all bred by himself. Devon Bulls calved in either 1877, 1878, 1879, or 1880. William Perry, Alder, Lewdown, Devon: First Prize, 20?., for “Druid” (1317); was calved October 5th, 1877 ; bred by himself; sire, “Dales- man” (1310); dam, “Dewdrop” (3392), by “Champson” (1035); g. d., “Dairymaid” (3343), by “Baronet” (781); gr. g. d., “Dairy- maid ” (1900), by “ Duke of Chester ” (404). I Given by the Hereford Herd-Book Society lxii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. Viscount Falmouth, Tregothnan, Probus, Cornwall : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Sir Michael ” i(1646) ; was calved August 17th, 1877 ; bred by him- self ; sire, “ Sirloin ” (1443) ; dam, “ Water Lily ” (5050), by “ Jonquil ” (1131); g. d., “Watercress” (4006), by “Sunflower” (937); gr. g. d., “ Cbeesewring ” (2572a), by “ Protector ” (711) : and Third Prize, 51., for “ Plum Pudding ; ” was calved August 30th, 1879 ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Sirloin ” (1443) ; dam, “ Christmas Rose ” (3280), by “ Sunflower ” (937); g. d., “Rosa Bonheur” (3009), by “Corrector” (809); gr. g. d., “ Picture 4th” (2224), by “Davy’s Napoleon 3rd” (464). Devon Bulls calved in the Year 1881. William Perry, Alder, Lewdown, Devon: First Prize, 20?., for “Bravo;” was calved August 30th, bred by himself ; sire, “ Druid ” (1317) ; dam, “Bracelet” (3229), by “Duke of Devon” (1056); g. d., “Bracelet” (2533), by “Duke of Flitton 2nd” (825); gr. g. d., “ Beauty ^ 4th” (1782), by “ Duke of Flitton ” (613). John Howse, Leighland, Washford, Taunton, Somerset': Second Prize, 10?., for “ Master Harry;” was calved September 30th; bred by Mr. H. P. Coles, Glasses Farm, Taunton ; sire, “ King of the Gipsies ” (1580) ; dam, “ Beauty 3rd,” by “ Young Profit’s Duke ;” g. d., “ Beauty ” (4680) ; gr. g. d„ “Beauty.” Richard Bickle, Bradstone, Barton, Tavistock, Devon : the Reserve Number to “ Captain ” (1518) ; was calved January 3rd ; bred by Messrs. Jackman and Bickle, Bradstone Barton; sire, “Dolly’s Duke” (1315); dam, “ Beatrice 2nd” (3187), by “Earl of Hexworthy” (1091) ; g. d., “Beatrice ” (2501), by “ Garibaldi 1st ” (842). Devon Bulls calved in the Year 1882. Herbert Farthing, Nether Stowey, Bridgwater, Somerset : First Prize, 20?., for “ Peer ;” was calved May 4th ; bred by himself; sire, “ Forester” (1560); dam, “ Peeress ” (3746), by “Marquis ”(1158); g. d., “Peeress” (2910), by “ Eclipse ” (835) ; gr. g. d., “ Pearl ” (2908), by “ Wellington ” (752). Alfred C. Skinner, Pound Farm, Bishops Lydeard, Taunton : Second Prize, 10?., for “Lord Somerset ;” was calved October 18th; bred by himself ; sire, “ Lord Stowey ” (1601) ; dam, “ Fancy 3rd ” (4478), by “ Red Prince ” (1432) ; g. d., “ Fancy 1st ” (4476) ; gr. g. d., “ Fancy.” Devon Cows, in-milk or in-calf , calved previously to or in the Year 1879. Alfred C. Skinner: First Prize, 15?., for “Myrtle 7th” (5544); was calved March 4th, 1879 ; in-milk; calved March 12th, 1882, and due to calve in June ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Duke of Farrington ” (1323) ; dam, “Myrtle 1st ” (4765), by “ Squire Winter” (1453); g. d., “Old Myrtle.” John Howse, Leighland, Washford, Taunton: Second Prize, 10?., for “Lily 5th” (5478); was calved March 7th, 1878; in-milk; calved Dec. 29th, 1882; bred by himself; dam, “Lily 3rd” (4683), by “ Robin Hood ” (914) ; g. d. “ Lily 2nd ” (4682) ; gr. g. d., “ Lily 1st ” (4681). John Bradbeer, Pyrland Hall Farm, Taunton : the Reserve Number and Jliyhly Commended for “ Graceful ; ” was calved April 30th, 1879 ; calved March 23rd, 1882, and due to calve May 30th ; bred by himself; sire, “Nelson” (1413); dam “Cherry;” g. d., “Promise;” gr. g. d., “ Old Beauty.” Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. lxiii Devon Coins or Heifers in-milk or in-calf , calved in the Year 1880. Sir William Williams, Bart., Heanton, Barnstaple, Devon : First Prize, 15?., for “ Rosebud ; ” was calved May 25th ; in-milk ; calved Feb. 28th, 1883 ; bred by Mrs. Langdon, Flitton Barton, North Molton ; sire, “ Sir Bevys ” (1644) ; dam, “ Temptress 4th ” (3962), by “ Duke of Flitton 4th.” John Howse, Leigbland, Washford, Taunton : Second Prize 107., for “ Daisy 4th ” (5224) ; was calved April 30th ; in-milk ; calved Jan. 2nd, 1883; bred by himself; sire, “Nelson” (1413) ; dam, “Daisy 1st” (4360) ; g. d., “ Daisy.” Alfred C. Skinner, Pound Farm, Bishops Lydeard, Taunton : Third Prize, 51., for “ Sally ” (5654) ; was calved August 4th ; in-milk ; calved March 3rd, 1883; bred by Mr. W. Farthiug, Stowey Court, Bridgwater; sire, “ Lord Stowey ” (1601) ; dam, “ Sarah ” (4944), by “ Profit’s Duke ” (1194); g. d., “ Sally” (3931), by “Lord Dodington” (665). Devon Heifers calved in the Year 1881. Alfred C. Skinner, First Prize, 15?., for “ Moss Rose 8th ;” was calved February 5th; bred by Mr.' W. Farthing, Stowey Court, Bridgwater ; sire, “ Lord Stowey ” (1601) ; dam, “ Moss Rose 5th ” (4758), by a “ Son of Forester” (1108); g. d., “Moss Rose” (3716), by “Island Prince” (862) ; gr. g. d., “ Modesty.” William Rolles Fryer, Lytchett Minster, Poole, Dorset : Second Prize, 10?., for “Mignonette;” was calved May 28th; bred by bimself; sire, “Viceroy” (1661); dam, “ Musk ” (4762), by “Emperor ”(1096); g. d., “Goldcup” (4536): and Third Prize, 5?., for “Coleus” (5182); was calved January 2nd; bred by himself; sire, “ Viceroy ” (1661); dam, “ Cherry ” (4208), by “ Emperor ” (1096) ; g. d., “ Cherry.” Sir William Williams, Bart., Heanton, Barnstaple : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Fanciful ; ” was calved November 4th ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Young Actor ; ” dam, “ Actress 1 5th,” by “ Jonquil ; ” g. d., “Actress 7 th,” by “ Duke of Flitton 6 th; ” gr. g. d., “Actress 3rd,” by “ Duke of Flitton 2nd.” Devon Heifers calved in the Year 1882. Sir William Williams, Bart. : First Prize, 15?., for “ Fashion ; ” was calved April 26th ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Duke of Flitton 17th ;” dam, “ Temptress 8th,” by “ Duke of Flitton 10th.” John Bradbeer, Pyrland Hall Farm, Taunton : Second Frize, 107.. for “ Young Nellie ;” was calved April 2nd ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Fancy’s Duke 2nd” (1555); dam, “ Nellie,” by “Nelson” (1413). William Polles Fryer, Lytchett Minster, Poole : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Dahlia ; ” was calved March 10th ; bred by himself; sire, “ Poppy ” (1626) ; dam, “ Dowager ” (4406), by “ Duke of Plymouth” (1080) ; g. d., “ Doubleteats” (4405). Sussex Bulls calved in either 1877, 1878, or 1879. Edward and Alfred Stanford, Eatons, Ashurst, Steyning, Sussex : First Prize, 207., for “ Goldsmith ” (391) ; was calved in August 1877 ; bred by the late Mr. George Smith, Paddockhurst, Crawley, Sussex ; sire, “Young Hartley” (444); dam, “Young Golding.” lxiv Award of Live- Stock Prizes at York. Louis Huth, Possingworth Manor, Hawkhurst, Kent : the Reserve Number and Commended for “ Lord Beckley ” (460) ; was calved in December 1879 ; bred by Mr. T. Wilsher, Hays ; sire, “ Willards Hill dam, “ Young Damsel.” Sussex Bulls calved in the Year 1880. Edward and Alfred Stafford : First Prize, 20?., for “ Standen 2nd ” (473) ; was calved November 23rd ; bred by themselves ; sire, “ Gold- smith ” (391) ; dam, “ Strawberry ” (1565). James Stewart Hodgson, Lythe Hill, Haslemere, Surrey : Second Prize, 10?., for “Lord Oxford” (461); was calved December 18th; bred by himself ; sire, “ Oxford ” (304) ; dam, “ Pitcher 3rd ” (2105), by “ Berry ” (259) ; g. d., “ Pitcher 2nd” (1545), by “ Grand Duke” (183) ; gr. g. d., “ Pitcher ” (1434). Thomas Alrert Yickress, Hill House, Slinfold, Horsham, Sussex: the Reserve Number and Eighty Commended, for “ Shirley ” (436) ; was calved July 25th; bred by himself ; sire, “ Berry ” (259) ; dam, “ Sham- rock,” by “ The Bainden Bull ;” g. d., “ Shelly 2nd,” by “ Berry.” Sussex Bulls calved in the Year 1881. Edward and Alfred Stanford: First Prize, 20?., for “ Reading ” (516) ; was calved March 31st ; bred by themselves ; sire, “ Goldsmith ” (391) ; dam, “ Rosedew 5th ” (2289) by “ Clayton ” (319) ; g. d., “ Rosedew 1st” (2129), by “Dorchester” (325); gr. g. d., “Rosedew” (2128), by “ Young Westminster ” (159) : and' Second Prize, 10?., for “ Duke of Ashurst” (457); was calved January 9th; bred by themselves; sire, “Heasman” (392); dam, “Mary Fern 4th” (2263), by “Clayton” (319) ; g. d., “ Mary Fern 2nd ” (2085), by a “ Child Bull ; ” gr. g. d., “ Mary Fern” (1189), by “ Westminster” (138). Alfred Agate, Broomhall, Horsham, Sussex : the Reserve Number and Eighty Commended for “Frankenstein 3rd” (499) ; was calved August 18th ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Frankenstein 2nd ” (328) ; dam, “ Lucy 2nd ” (2065), by “ Alfred 2nd ” (177). Sussex Cows, in-milk or in-calf \ calved previously to or in the Year 1879. James Stewart Hodgson, Lythe Hill, Haslemere : First Prize, 15?., for “ Laura 5th ” (2412) ; was calved Oct. 18th, 1879 ; in-milk ; calved January 19th, 1883; bred by himself; sire, “Oxford” (304); dam, “ Laura 3rd ” (2055), by “ Little Tom ; ” g. d., “ Laura 1st ” (2053), by “ Mottingham 1st ” (190) ; gr. g. d., “ Young Gentle.” Captain Philip Green, Bayham Abbey, Lamberhurst, Sussex : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Buttercup ” (2197) ; was calved April 13th, 1877 ; calved July 22nd, 1882, and in-calf ; bred by Mr. T. B. Landsell, Built Bridge, Lamberhurst; sire, “The Standen Bull;” dam, “Duchess.” Alfred Agate, Broomhall, Horsham: Third Prize, 5?., for “ Daisy 4th” (2819) ; was calved December 30th, 1878 ; in-milk ; calved November 24th, 1882; bred by Mr. F. Allcorn, Huggett’s Furnace, Hadlow Down, Ucktield, Sussex ; sire, “ Sir Harry ;” dam, “ Daisy _ 3rd,” by “ Young Chelsea.” William Stewart Forster, Gore Court, Maidstone, Kent : the Reserve Num- ber and Highly Commended for “ Marygold 4th ” (2082) ; was calved July 1st, 1877 ; in-milk; calved April 17th, 1883; bred by Mr. T. B. Lauds- dell, Bayham Home Farm, Lamberhurst, Sussex; sire, “Tunbridge;” dam, “ Marygold 3rd.” Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. lxv Sussex Coics or Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, calved in the Year 1880. Edward and Alfred Stanford : First Prize, 15?., for “ Dorset 8th ” (2365) ; was calved March 11th; in-milk; calved January 8th, 1883; bred by themselves; sire, “Goldsmith” (391); dam, “Dorset 2nd” (1993), by “Dorchester” (325); g. d., “Dorset” (1991), by “Young Westminster ” Alfred Agate, Broomhall, Horsham : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Honesty 6th ” (2867); was calved Oct. 2nd; in-milk; calved January 15th, 1883; bred by himself ; sire, “Robinson Crusoe 2nd” (361); dam, “Honesty 1st” (1617), by “Alfred 2nd” (177). Sussex Heifers calved in the Year 1881. James Stewart Hodgson, Lythe Hill, Haslemere: First Prize, 15?., for “ Peace 2nd ” (2916) ; was calved October 5th ; bred by himself; sire, “ Royal Kilburn ” (401) ; ” dam, “ Peace ” (2273), by “ Croydon ” (245) ; g. d., “Snowdrop” (1727), by “ Egerton ; ” gr. g. d., “Leicester” (1120), by “ Prince Arthur ” (129). Edward and Alfred Stanford, Eatons, Ashurst : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Magdala 22nd” (2652) ; was calved Jan. 17th ; bred by themselves ; sire, “Goldsmith” (391); dam, “Magdala 9th” (2255), by “Dorchester” (325) ; g. d., “ Magdala 3rd ” (1185) ; gr. g. d., “ Magdala 1st” (1183). Alfred Agate, Broomhall, Horsham : Third Prize, 5?., for “ Young Gentle 2nd” (2973); was calved Jan. 12th; in-milk; calved February 1st, 1883 ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Young Hartley ” (444) ; dam, “ Young Gentle ” (1737), by “ Frankenstein ” (181). Edward and Alfred Stanford : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Magdala” (2653) ; was calved Jan. 20th ; bred by themselves ; sire, “ Goldsmith ” (391) ; dam, “ Magdala 10th ” (2256) ; g. d., “ Magdala 5th” (1220). Sussex Heifers calved in the Year 1882. Thomas A. Vickress, Hill House, Slinfold, Horsham : First Prize, 15?., for “Activity;” was calved February 5th; bred by himself; sire, “Berry 2nd” (415); dam, “Actress 4th” (1676), by “Grand Duke” (183); g. d. “Actress” (1146), by “Westminster/’ (138); gr. g. d. “Prim- rose:” and Second Prize, 10?., for “Confidence;” was calved Feb. 21st; bred by himself; sire, “Berry.” (259) ; dam, “Christmas Rose” (1766); g. d. “Christmas Dark 2nd” (1761). James Stewart Hodgson, Lythe Hill, Haslemere : Third Prize, 5?., for “ Lady Bird 1st” (2875) ; was calved March 1st; bred by himself; sire, “ Oxford” (304); dam, “Pitcher 3rd” (2105), by “Berry” (259) ; g. d., “ Pitcher 2nd ” (1545), by “ Grand Duke ” (183) ; gr. g. d., “ Pitcher ” (1434). Edward and Alfred Stanford : the Reserve Number and Highly Com- mended for “ Magdala 24th ” (2890) ; was calved March 19th ; bred by themselves ; sire, “ Goldsmith ” (391) ; dam, “ Magdala 7th ” (2076), by “ Sir William ”(164). Welsh Bulls calved in either 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880, or 1881. Lord Harlech, Glyn, Talsarnau, Merionethshire : First Prize, 20?., for “Cipher;” was calved July 31st, 1880; bred by himself; sire, “ Black Prince ;” dam, “ Morfa.” lxvi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. The Earl of Cawdor, Stackpole Court, Pembroke : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Yivod was calved June 10th, 1880; bred by Captain Best, Plas-y- Yivod, Llangollen, North Wales ; sire, “ Black Prince;” dam,“ Curley.” Lord Harlech: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “Black Prince;” was calved May 14th, 1877; bred by Mr. John Williams, Gwenhefin, Bala, Merionethshire. Welsh Bulls calved in the Year 1882. Lord Harlech : First Prize, 15?., for “ Zulu ;” was calved July 26th ; bred by himself ; sire, “ Black Prince ;” dam, “ Beauty.” Henry Jones, Cefnprys, Llanuwchllyn, Merionethshire: the Reserve Number and Commended for “ Georgy ; ” was calved February 20th ; bred by Mr. George Rowlands, Hendrefawr, Llanuwchllyn, Merionethshire. Welsh Cows or Heifers, in-millz or in-calf, calved previously to or in the Year 1880. The Earl of Cawdor : First Prize, 15?., for “Leonora;” was calved July 5th, 1876; calved December 8th, 1882, and in-calf; bred by. himself; sire, “ Trabowen ; ” dam, “ Sidas ” (143). Welsh Heifers, calved in the Year 1881. The Earl of Cawdor : First Prize, 15?., for “ Bosal 2nd ;” was calved March 29th ; bred by Mrs. L. Williams, Love Lodge Farm, Llandilo, Carmar- thenshire ; sire, “ Symen 2nd ;” dam, “ Gymras ” (23), by “ Gymro ” (26). Norfolk and Suffolk Bulls, calved either in 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880, or 1881. Charles Austin, Brandeston Hall, Wickham Market, Suffolk : First Prize, 20?., for “ Shylock,” red ; was calved December 18th, 1879 ; bred by the Executors of the late Mr. Palmer, Wilby, Norfolk; sire, “Othello” (532); dam, “Flora,” by“Davyson 3rd ”(48); gr. d., “ Sal 2nd,” by “ Wonder ” (231) ; gr. g. d., “ Sal.” John Hammond, Bale, East Dereham, Norfolk : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Davy- son 7th,” red; was calved Dec. 1st, 1878; bred by himself; sire, “Davyson 5th;” dam, “Davy 10th,” by “Sir Nicholas 2nd;”g. d., “ Davy 3rd,” by “ Sir Nicholas; ” gr. g. d., “ Rose of Hope,” by “ Ham- mond’s Rufus.” Alfred Taylor, Starston Place, Harleston, Norfolk : Third Prize, 5?., for “ Passion ” (714), red; was calved Jan. 2nd, 1881; bred by himself; sire, “ King Charles” (329) ; dam, “ Sly ” (1192), by “ Sir Edward 1st” (197); g. d., “Strawberry 2nd R 2,” by “Richard 2nd” (173); gr. g. d., “ Tiny R 2,” by “ Laxfield Sire ” (101). Robert Harvey Mason, Necton Hall, Swaffham, Norfolk : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Starston Duke,” red ; was calved Nov. 8th, 1879 ; bred by Mr. A. Taylor, Starston, Harleston ; sire, “ King Charles ” (329) ; dam, “ Flirt,” by “ Easton Duke ” (61) ; g. d., “Sly,” by “Sir Edward 1st” (167); gr. g. d., “ Strawberry 2nd,” by “Richard 2nd” (173). Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. lxvii Norfolk and Suffolk Bulls calved in the Year 1882. Jeremiah James Colman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich : First Prize, 15?., for “Francillo” (669), red; was calved January 13th; bred by him- self; sire, “Charles” (469); dam, “Fan” (1506), by “Roundhead” (180) ; g. d, “ Fanny ” (220), by “ Hero 3rd” (87) ; gr. g. d., “ Madame Freeman.” Bazett Michael Haggard, Kirby Cane Hall, Bungay, Norfolk : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Sand Boy,” red ; was calved March 4th ; bred by Mr. H. Biddell, Hill House, Playford, Ipswich, Suffolk ; sire, “ Monarch 4th ; ” dam, “ Currant Wine ” (1424), by “ Iron Duke ” (125) ; g. d., “ Cherry Pie ” (787), by “ Earl of Suffolk ” (297) ; gr. g. d., “ Cherry Lux.” Robert Emlyn Lofft, Troston Hall, Bury St. Edmunds : Third Prize, 51., for “Taurus,” red; was calved Sept. 28th ; bred by himself; sire, “Stout” (581); dam, “Topknott 3rd,” by “Bright” (269): and Re- serve Number to “Orion,” red; was calved Aug. 7th; bred by himself; sire, “ Renaldo ” (556) ; dam, “ Bridesmaid 3rd,” by “ Cherry Duke ” (32). Norfolk and Suffolk Cotes or Heifers, calved previously to or in the Year 1880. Jeremiah James Colman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich : First Prize, 15?., for “ Dolly ” (1463) ; was calved November 3rd, 1879 ; in-milk ; calved No- vember 10th, 1882, and in-calf; bred by himself; sire, “ Rufus” (188); dam, “ Polly ” (1084), by “ Rufus ” (189) ; g. d., “ Lily 2nd” (311), by “ Hero 3rd ” (87) ; gr. g. d., “ Lily ” (310), by “ Hero of Newcastle” (85) : and Second Prize, 10?., for “ Silent Lady ” (1855), red ; was calved December 18th, 1880; in-calf; bred by himself; sire, “Rufus” (188); dam, “ Silent Lass ” (1189), by “ Powell ” (143) ; g. d., “ Silence” (548), by “ Rifleman ” (175) ; gr. g. d., “ Silence.” Alfred Taylor, Starston Place, Harleston, Norfolk: Third Prize, 51., for “ Buxom” (1355), red; was calved July 29th, 1878; in-milk; calved Feb. 18tb, 1883; bred by the late Mr. J. F. Palmer, Wilby, Norfolk; sire, “ Davyson 3rd ” (48) ; dam, “ Cheerful ” (762), by “ Young Major ” (235); g. d., “Spot” (558), by “Wonder” (231); gr. g. d., “Rose” (K 19), by “ Elmham Sire.” William Amhurst Tyssen-Amherst, M.P., Didlington Hall, Brandon, the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Satin ” (T 7. 1837), red ; was calved March, 1879 ; in-milk ; calved December 19th, 1882 ; bred by Mr. T. Fulcher, North Elmham, East Dereham, Norfolk ; sire, “ Robin Hood ”(394); dam, “ Songster ” (1859), by “ Duke of Norfolk ” (295); g. d., “Stranger” (566). Norfolk and Suffolk Heifers calved in the Year 1881. John Hammond, Bale, East Dereham : First Prize, 15?., for “ Davy 37th,” red; was calved in June; bred by himself; sire, “Davyson 7th;” dam, “Davy 21st,” by “Davyson 5th;” g. d., “Davy 7th,” by “Young Duke; ” gr. g. d., “ Davy 2nd,” by “ Sir Nicholas :” and Second Prize, 10?., for “ Davy 38th,” red ; was calved September 14th ; bred by him- self; sire, “Davyson 7th;” dam, “Davy 27th,” by “Davyson 5th;” g. d., “ Davy 5th,” by “ Tenant Farmer.” Alfred Taylor, Starston Place : Third Prize, 5?., for “ Cousin ” (2108), red; was calved April 8th; in-calf; bred by himself; sire, “King Charles” (329); dam, “ Cossette ” (1405), by “Rifleman” (175); g. d., “ Cowslip” (O 3), by “ Bow-bearer” (22). lxviii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. Jeremiah James Colhan, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich : the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Silent Woman ” (2537), red ; was calved December 25th; bred by himself; sire, “Rufus” (188); dam, “Silent Lass” (1189), by “Powell” (14:3) ; g. d., “ Silence” (548), by “Rifleman” (175) ; gr. g. d., “Silence.” Polled Angus or Aberdeen Pulls, calved in 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880, or 1881. Andrew Rouse Boughton-Knight, Downton Castle, Ludlow : First Prize, 20 1., for “ Souter Johnny” (1615), black ; was calved June 24th, 1877 ; bred by Mr. W. M. Skinner, Drumin ; sire, “ Adrian 2nd ” (622) ; dam, “Moonlight” (1479), by “Clansman” (398); g. d. “Georgina 3rd” (1231), by “ Damascus ” (495) ; gr. g. d., “ Georgina of Rothiemay ” (532), by “ Fintray ” (125). Arthur Egginton, South Ella, Hull : Second Prize, 107., for “ Premier of Montbletton” (2288), black; was calved January 21st, 1881; bred by the late Mr. R. Walker, Montbletton, Banff; sire, “Young Hero” (1837); dam, “Lady Palmerston 2nd” (3819), by “Derby of Mont- bletton ” (914) ; g. d., “ Lady Palmerston ” (1398), by “ Palmerston ” (374) ; gr. g. d., “ Lady Alexina ” (1026), by “ Victor of Ballindalloch ” (403). Owen C. Wallis, Bradley Hall, Ryton-on-Tyne, Durham: Third Prize, 57., for “Sea King,” black; was calved January 15th, 1881; bred by Sir G. M. Grant, Bart., Ballindalloch, Elgin; sire, “Justice” (1462); dam, “Sprite” (3796), by “Judge” (1150); g. d., “Siren” (1915), by “Juryman” (404); gr. g. d., “Sybil” (974), by “Black Prince of Bogfern ” (501). Polled Angus or Abwdeen Bulls , calved in the Year 1882. George Wilken, Waterside of Forbes, Alford, Aberdeenshire: First Prize, 157., for “ Strathglass ” (2357), black ; was calved March 19th ; bred by Lord Tweedmouth, Guisacban Home Farm, Beauly, Inverness-shire; sire, “ Heir of Glory ” (1746) ; dam, “ Witch of Endor ” (3528), by “ Valiant” (663) ; “ g. d., “ Mayflower 2nd ” (3521), by “ Emperor of East Tulloch ” (396) ; gr. g. d., “ Mayflower of East Tulloch ” (3519), by “ King Henry ” (390). Owen C. Wallis : Second Prize, 107., for “ Juggler ” (2168), black ; was calved April 24th ; bred by himself; sire, “ King of Diamonds ” (1818) ; dam, “Jemima of Ballindalloch” (4172), by “Editor” (1460); g. d., “Judy” (2996), by “Ballimore” (741); gr. g. d., “Jilt” (973), by “ Black Prince of Tillyfour 2nd ” (1180). Clement Stephenson, Sandford Villa, Newcastle-on-Tyne : TniRD Prize, 57., for “Expert” (2091), black ; was calved March 3rd; bred by himself; sire, “ Juval ” (1883) ; dam, “ Esther of Aberdour ” (4843), by “ Morays- town ” (1439) ; g. d., “ Etta ” (2225), by “ Ballimore ” (741) ; gr. g. d., “Ella” (1205), by “Kildonan” (405): and the Reserve Number to “Referee,” black; was calved June 10th; bred by himself; sire, “Ebony” (1261); dam, “Ethelinda” (3356), by “Donald Bain” (978); g. d., “ Ruth 2nd” (1783), by “Prince of Wales 2nd” (394); gr. g. d., “ Ruth of Tillyfour ” (1169), by “ Black Prince of Tillyfour ” (366). Award of Live-Stock Prizes at York. lxix Polled Angus or Aberdeen Cow or Heifer in-milk or in-calf, calved previously to or in the Year 1880. Arthur Eggerton, South Ella, Hull: First Prize, 15 1., for “Waterlily” (2432), black; was calved January 5th, 1875; in-milk; calved Sep- tember 16th, 1882, and in-calf ; bred by Mr. W. J. Taylor, Glengarry • sire, “Walrus” (592); dam, “Talmage” (2431), by “Statesman of Drumin ” (636). Ci.emext Stephenson : Second Prize, 10?., for “ Abbess 3rd ” (3616), black ; was calved July 6th, 1875; calved September 3rd, 1882, and in-calf; bred by Mr. James Scott, Easter Tulloch, Stonehaven; sire, “Blue Beard ” (648) ; dam, “ Abbess 2nd ” (1969), by “ Cavalier ” (411) ; 31. — Paid wages for month 153 15 0 Paid sundry small disbursements for month (petty cash) 49 15 8 Amount owing to J. Jones, for Rent .. .. 25 0 0 Depreciation of plant, machinery and tools at 5 per cent 50 9 Amount owing to Bankers for interest .. 12 10 0 At this date J. Smith had as under : — Hay and Straw, valued at 1460 0 0 Threshed Corn, valued at 760 0 0 Live Stock, valued at 3450 0 0 Provender and growing crops, valued at 800 0 0 EXAMINATION IN GEOLOGY. Maximum Number of Mares, 100. Pass Number, 50. Friday , May 11th, from 2 p.m. till 5 p.m. 1. Describe the approximate composition and physical characters of six of the chief rock-forming minerals, and mention the chief rocks of which they are constituents. 2. Define the terms, Sedimentary, Eruptive, and Metamorphic rocks. Give some examples. 3. How have the Igneous rocks been classified ? 4. What are calcareous rocks? How would you distinguish them from other rocks ? For what different purposes are they employed ? 5. Compare the Wolds of Gloucestershire with the Wolds of Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, as to their geological, physical, and agricultural characters. 6. Classify the oolitic series of rocks. (1.) Give their lithological characters. (2.) Mention their most characteristic fossils. 7. Define cleavage, foliation, and lamination. Name the kinds of rock which exhibit these structures. 8. What arc necessary conditions for a good water-supply, (1) na- tural and (2) artificial ? 9. Describe the different kinds of fossil fuel found in the British Islands, and give their geological position. Agricultural Education — Examination Papers, 1883. xcvii. 10. Mention the chief Tertiary formations of England. Where do they occur ? Give some account of their nature and fossils. 11. Name the strata in which each of the great classes of Ver- tebrates first appear, and mention the earliest representative genus or genera in each case. 12. Describe the rocks and fossils placed before you. EXAMINATION IN BOTANY. [It is expected that Eight Questions at least will be answered.] Maximum Number of Marks, 100. Pass Number, 50. Saturday, May .12th, from 10 a.m. till lp.m. 1. Describe the structure of the tips of roots. 2. Describe a vertical section through the blade of a leaf, and explain the structure and functions of the stomata. 3. Describe a bud, and explain what changes it undergoes in the course of a year’s growth. 4. WTiat tissues contain nitrogen compounds, and from what sources do plants obtain their nitrogen ? 5. What are the principal constituents of the ash of a plant, and how does the plant obtain them ? 6. What is a hybrid ? State how you would experiment to pro- duce hybrids, and within what limits you might expect to secure them. 7. Explain the life of a biennial plant during its first and second years; mention some biennial plants in cultivation, and give the reason why they are cultivated. 8. Describe three parasitic plants injurious to crops, and state how you would deal with them. 9. What are Gymnosperms ? Explain why they are so called, specify the Natural Orders of Gymnosperms, and give an example of each Order. 10. Give the common and scientific names of eight indigenous grasses, and state the value of each for pasture. 11. Give the principal characters of the following Natural Orders ; — Cruciferse, Leguminosse, Umbcllifcrse, Polyrjonaceee, and Graminese. 12. Specify tlie Natural Orders and describe the plants marked A, B, C, taking the organs if present in the following order : — root, stem, leaves, bracts, sepals, petals, stamens, pistil, fruit, seeds. xcviii Agricultural Education — Examination Papers, 1883. EXAMINATION IN ANATOMY AND ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. Maximum Number of Marks, 100. Pass Number, 50. Saturday, May 12th, from 2 p.m. till 4 p.m. 1. Name the several structures which are blended together in the formation of a tooth. State their relative quantities and how each is recognised on examination with a lens. Describe also the number and position of the incisor teeth of the ox, and say how many per- manent and temporary incisors are present in an animal two years of age. 2. Describe the means by which rumination is carried on, and explain the advantages which the animal organism derives directly from the process. 3. State the position which the liver of the sheep occupies in the abdominal cavity, and how it is maintained in its location. Describe also the function of the gland, and say in what parts of it the para- sites commonly called flukes are met with, and how they gain access to such parts. 4. Name the period of utero-gestation in the mare, cow, sheep and pig, and say how a foetus is nourished in the uterus, and what are the indications of approaching parturition. Add also a description of the position of the foetus during parturition, and the average length of time that natural labour occupies in the several animals which are named above. ( xcix ) MEMORANDA. Address of Letters.— The Society’s office being situated in the postal district designated by the letter W. Members, in their correspondence with the Secretary, are requested to subjoin that letter to the usual address. General Meeting in London, December, 1883. General Meeting in London, May 22nd, 1884, at 12 o’clock. Meeting at Shrewsbury, July, 1884. Monthly Council (for transaction of business), at 12 o’clock on the first Wednesday in every month, excepting January, September, and October : open only to Members of Council and Governors of the Society. Adjournments. — The Council adjourn over Passion and Easter weeks, when those weeks do not Include the first Wednesday of the month; from the first Wednesday in August to the first Wednesday in November ; and from the first Wednesday in December to the first Wednesday in February. Office Hours.— 10 to 4. On Saturdays, 10 to 2. Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs. — Members have the privilege of applying to the Veterinary Committee of the Society, and of sending animals to the Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, N.W. — (A statement of these privileges will be found on page c in this Appendix.) Chemical Analysis. — The privileges of Chemical Analysis enjoyed by Members of the Society will be found stated in this Appendix (page ci). Botanical and Entomological Privileges. — The Botanical and Entomological Privileges enjoyed by Members ol the Society will be found stated in this Appendix (page civ). Subscriptions. — 1. Annual. — The subscription of a Governor is £5, and that of a Member £1, due in advance on the 1st of January of each year, and becoming in arrear if unpaid by the 1st of June. 2. For Life. — Governors may compound for their subscription for future years by paying at once the sum of jfc'50, and Members by paying £10. Governors and Members who have paid their annual subscription for 20 years or upwards, and whose subscriptions are not in arrear, may compound for future annual subscriptions, that of the current year inclusive, by a single payment of £25 for a Governor, and £S for a Member. Payments. — Subscriptions may be paid to the Secretary, in the most direct and satisfactory manner, either at the Office of the Society, No. 12, Hanover Square, London, W., or by means of post- office orders, to be obtained at any of the principal post offices throughout the kingdom, and made- payable to him at the Vere Street Office, London, W.; but any cheque on a banker’s or any ■ other house of business in London will be equally available, if made payable on demand. In obtaining post-office orders care should be taken to give the postmaster the correct initials and surname of the Secretary of the Society (H. M. Jenkins), otherwise the payment will be refused to him at the post-office on which such order has been obtained; and when remitting the money-orders it should be stated by whom, and on whose account, they are sent. Cheques should be made payable as drafts on demand (not as bills only payable after sight or a certain number of days after date), and should be drawn on a London (not on a local country) banker. When payment is made to the London aud Westminster Bank, St. James’s Square Branch, as the bankers of the Society, it will be desirable that the Secretary should be advised by letter of such payment, in order that the entry in the banker’s book may be at once iden- tified, and the amount posted to the credit of the proper party. No coin can be remitted by post, unless the letter be registered. New Members. — Every candidate for admission Into the Society must be proposed by a Member ; the proposer to specify in writing the full name, usual place of residence, and post-town, of the candidate, either at a Council meeting, or by letter addressed to the Secretary. Forms of Proposal may be obtained on application to the Secretary. *,* Members may obtain on application to the Secretary copies of an Abstract of the Charter and Bye-laws, of a Statement of the General Objects, &c., of the Society, of Chemical, Botanical, Entomological, and Veterinary Privileges, and of other printed papers con- nected with special departments of the Society’s business. ( C ) JWem^ler$, UtUrtitara ^rtbt leges* I. — Visits of a Professor of the Royal Veterinary College. 1. Any Member of the Society who may desire professional attendance and special advice in case9 of disease among his cattle, sheep, or pigs, should apply to the Secretary of the Society, or to the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, London, N.W. 2. The remuneration of the Veterinary Surgeon or a visiting Inspector will be 2 1. 2s. each day as- a professional fee, and the charge for personal expenses, when such have been incurred , which will in no case exceed one guinea per diem. He will also be allowed to charge the cost of travelling to and from the locality where his services may have been required. These charges may, however, in cases of serious or extensive outbreaks of contagious disease, be reduced or remitted altogether, so far as the Members of the Society are concerned, at the discretion of the Council, on such step- being recommended to them by the Veterinary Committee. 3. The Consulting Veterinary Surgeon or visiting Inspector, on his return, will report to the Member, and, through the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College, to the Veterinary Committee, in writing, the results of his observations and proceedings with reference to the disease ; which Report will be laid before the Council. 4. "When contingencies arise to prevent a personal discharge of the duties, the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College may, subject to the approval of the Veterinary Committee, name some competent professional person to act in his stead, who shall be remunerated at the same rate. II.— Consultations without Visit. Personal consultation with Veterinary Inspector 10s. 6d. Consultation by letter 10s. 6 d. Post-mortem examination, and report thereon 21s. A return of the number of applications from Members of the Society during each half-year is. required from the Consulting Veterinary Surgeon. III. — Admission of Diseased Animals to the Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, N.W. ; Investigations and Reports. 1. All Members of the Society have the privilege of sending cattle, sheep, and pigs to the Infirmary of the Royal Veterinary College, on the following terms, viz. by paying for the keep and treatment of cattle 10s. 6 d. per week each animal, and for sheep and pigs, 3s. 6d. per week. 2. A detailed Report of the cases of cattle, sheep, and pigs treated in the Infirmary of the College, or on Farms in the occupation of Members of the Society, will be furnished to the Council quarterly ; and also special reports from time to time on any matter of unusual interest which may come under the notice of the Officers of the College. IV. — Visits of Provincial Veterinary Surgeons. The following Veterinary Surgeons have been appointed, at different centres in England and Wales, for the purpose of enabling Members of the Society to consult them with regard to the diseases of cattle, sheep, and pigs. .Mr. C. Stephenson, Sandyford Villa, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Mr. Joseph Carter, 38, Great Horton Road, Bradlord. Mr. Walter Lewis, 1, South St., Nantwich Road, Crewe. Captain B. H. Russell, Veteri- nary Infirmary, Grantham. Mr. W. F. Garside, Royal Agricultural College, Ciren- cester. Mr. T. J. Merrick, North- ampton. Mr, G. A. Baxham, Downing Street, Cambridge. Mr. Charles Moir, Cardiff. Mr. Wm. Penhale, Barn- staple. Mr. Thomas D. Broad, Broad Street, Bath. Mr. Wm. Bromley, Lancaster. Mr. Osborn Hills, 1, 3, 5, and 7, South Parade, Learning- ton. Members may obtain the attendance of a Provincial Veterinary Surgeon in any case of disease by paying his travelling expenses (which include railway fares, and Is. per mile if by road, including the return journey), and the cost of his visit, which will be at the following rate, viz. : — £ s. d. When the whole day is occupied .. .. .. 1 10 0 When half a day or less is occupied .. .. ..0150 Personal consultation with Veterinary Surgeon .. .. .. .. 0 10 0 Consultation by letter 050 Post-mortem examination and report thereon 10 0 A return of the number of applications from Members of the Society during each half year, em- bodying u statement of those eases which may be of public interest, is required from each Provincial Veterinary Surgeon. These half-yearly reports should reach the Secretary by the end of May and November respectively. By Order of the Council, If. M. JENKINS, Secretary.. (Sobernors’ antr Members’ $rftflege0 of (E&emfral analysis. Applicable only to the case of Persons who are not commercially engaged in the manufacture or sale of any substance sent for Analysis.) The Council have fixed the following rates of Charges for Analysis to be made by the Consulting Chemist for the bona-fide and sole use of Members of the Society ; who, to avoid all unnecessary correspondence, are particularly requested, when applying to him, to mention the kind of analysis they require, and to quote its number in the subjoined schedule. Governors of the Society are also allowed to send to the Society’s Laboratory for analysis, at the following scale of fees, any manures and feeding stuffs which are to be used by their outgoing tenants. The charge for analysis, together with the cost of the carriage of the specimens (if any), must he paid to the Consulting Chemist at the time of application : No. 1. — An opinion of the genuineness of bone-dust or oil-cake (each sample) 2s. 6 d. 2. — An estimate of the value (relatively to the average samples in the market) of sulphate and muriate of ammonia and of the nitrates of potash and soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5s. 3. — An analysis of guano ; showing the proportion of moisture, organic matter, sand, phosphate of lime, alkaline salts and ammonia, and an estimate of its value, provided the selling price of the article to be analysed be sent with it . . . . . . . . . . . . 10s. 4. — An analysis of mineral superphosphate of lime for soluble phosphates only, and an estimate of its value, provided the selling price of the article to be analysed be sent with it . . .. .. .. .. 5s. 5. — An analysis of superphosphate of lime, showing the proportions of moisture, organic matter, sand, soluble and insoluble phosphates, sulphate of lime, and ammonia, and an estimate of its value, provided the selling price of the article to be analysed be sent with it . . 10s. 0. — An analysis, showing the value of bone-dust or any other ordinary artificial manure, provided the selling price of the manure to be analysed be sent with it .. .. .. .. .. .. 10s. 7. — An analysis of limestone, showing the proportion of lime .. ..7s. 6 d. 8. — An analysis of limestone, showing the proportion of lime and magnesia 10s. 9. — An analysis of limestone or marls, showing the proportion of carbonate, phosphate, and sulphate of lime and magnesia, with sand and clay 10s. 10. — Partial analysis of a soil, including determinations of clay, sand, organic matter, and carbonate of lime . . .. .. .. .. 10s. 11. — Complete analysis of a soil .. .. .. .. .. .. £3 12. — An analysis of oil-cake or other substance used for feeding purposes, showing the proportion of moisture, oil, mineral matter, albuminous matter, and woody fibre, as well as of starch, gum, and sugar in the aggregate ; and an opinion of its feeding and fattening or milk- producing properties .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 10s. 13. — Analysis of any vegetable product . . . . . . . . . . 10s. 14. — Analysis of animal products, refuse substances used for manures, &c. from 10s. to £1 15. — Determination of the “ hardness ” of a sample of water before and after boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5s. 16. — Analysis of water of land-drainage, and of water used for irrigation £1 17. — Analysis of water used for domestic purposes .. .. .. .. £1 10s. 18. — Determination of nitric acid in a sample of water .. .. 10s. 19. — Examination of Viscera for Metallic poison .. .. .. .. £2 2s. 20. — Examination of Viscera complete, for metals and alkaloids .. .. £5 5s. 21. — Personal consultation with the Consulting Chemist. (The usual hours of attendance, Monday excepted, will be from 11 to 2, but to prevent disappointment, it is suggested that Members desiring to hold a consultation should write to make an appointment) .. 5s. 22. — Consultation by letter .. .. .. .. .. •• •. 5s. 23. — Consultation necessitating the writing of three or more letters .. 10s. The Laboratory of the Society is at 12, Hanover Square, T/ondon, \V., to which address the Consulting Chemist, Dr. Augcstus Voelcker, E.R.S., requests that all letters and parcels (postage and carriage paid) from Members of the Society, win are entitled to avail themselves of the foregoing Privileges, should be directed. ( cii ) GUIDE TO THE PURCHASE OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES AND FEEDING STUFFS. Feeding Cakes. 1. Linseed-cake should he purchased as “ Pure,” and the insertion of this word on the invoice should be insisted upon. The use of such words as “ Best,” “ Genuine,” &c., should he objected to by the purchaser. 2. Rape-cake for feeding purposes should he guaranteed “ Pure ” and purchased by sample. 3. Decorticated Cotton-cake should be guaranteed “ Pure,” and purchased by sample. 4. Undecorticated Cotton-cake should be guaranteed “ Pure,” and purchased by sample. N.B. — All feeding cakes should be purchased in good condition, and the guarantee of the vendor should be immediately checked by a fair sample (taken out of the middle of the cake) being at once sent for examination to a competent analytical chemist. The remainder of the cake from which the sample sent for examination had been taken should be sealed up in the presence of a witness, and retained by the purchaser for reference in case of dispute. Artificial Manures. 1. Raw or Green Bones or Bone-dust should be purchased as “Pure” Raw Bones guaranteed to contain not less than 45 per cent, of tribasic phosphate of lime, and to yield not less than 4 per cent, of ammonia. 2. Boiled Bones should be purchased as “ Pure ” Boiled Bones guaranteed to contain not less than 48 per cent, of tribasic phosphate of lime, and to yield not less than If per cent, of ammonia. 3. Dissolved Bones are made of various qualities, and are sold at various prices per ton ; therefore the quality should be guaranteed, under the heads of soluble phosphate of lime, insoluble phosphate of lime, and nitrogen or its equivalent as ammonia. The purchaser should also stipulate for an allowance . for each unit per cent, which the dissolved bones should be found on analysis to contain less than the guaranteed percentages of the three substances already mentioned. 4. Mineral Superphosphates should be guaranteed to be delivered in a sufficiently dry and powdery condition, and to contain a certain percentage of soluble phosphate of lime, at a certain price per unit per cent., no value to be attached to insoluble phosphates. 5. Compound Artificial Manures should be purchased in the same manner and with the same guarantees as Dissolved Bones. 6. Nitrate of Soda should be guaranteed by the vendor to contain from 94 to 95 per cent, of pure nitrate. 7. Sulphate of Ammonia should be guaranteed by the vendor to contain not less than 23 per cent, of ammonia. 8. Peruvian Guano should be sold under that name, and guaranteed to be in a dry and friable condition, and to contain a certain percentage of ammonia. N.B. — Artificial manures should be guaranteed to be delivered in a sufficiently dry and powdery condition to admit of distribution by tho drill. A sample for analysis should be taken, not later than three days after delivery, by emptying several bags, mixing tho contents together, and tilling two tins holding about half a pound each, in the presence of a witness. Both the tins should be sealed, one kept by the purchaser for reference in case of dispute, and the other for- warded to a competent analytical chemist for examination. ( ciii ) INSTRUCTIONS FOR SELECTING AND SENDING SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. ARTIFICIAL MANURES. — Take a large handful of the manure from three or four bags, mix the whole on a large sheet of paper, breaking down with the hand any lumps present, and fold up in tinfoil, or in oil-silk, about 3 oz. of the well-mixed sample, and send it to 12, Hanover Square, London, W., by post: or place the mixed mauure in a small wooden or tin box, which may be tied by string, but must not be sealed, and send it by post. If the manure be very wet and lumpy, a larger boxful, weighing from 10 to 12 oz., should be sent either by post or railway. Samples not exceeding 4 oz. in weight may be sent by post, by attaching two penny postage stamps to the parcel. Samples not exceeding 8 oz., for three postage stamps. Samples not exceeding 12 oz., for four postage stamps. The parcels should be addressed: Dr. Augustus Voelcker, 12, Hanover Square, London, W., and the address of the sender or the number or mark of the article be stated on parcels. The samples may be sent in covers, or in boxes, bags of linen or other materials. No parcel sent by post must exceed 12 oz. in weight, 1 foot 6 inches in length, 9 inches in width, and 6 inches in depth. SOILS. — Have a wooden box made 6 inches long and wide, and from 9 to 12 inches deep, according to the depth of soil and subsoil of the field. Mark out in the field a space of about 1 2 inches square ; dig round in a slanting direction a trench, so as to leave undisturbed a block of soil with its subsoil from 9 to 12 inches deep ; trim this block or plan of the field to make it fit into the wooden box, invert the open box over it, press down firmly, then pass a spade under the box and lift it up, gently turn over the box, nail on the lid and send it by goods or parcel to the laboratory. The soil will then be received in the exact position in which it is found in the field. In the case of very light, sandy, and porous soils, the wooden box may be at once inverted over the soil and forced down by pressure, and then dug out. WATERS. — The water, if possible, should be sent in a glass-stoppered Win- chester half-gallon bottle, which is readily obtained in any chemist and drug- gist’s shop. If Winchester bottles cannot be procured, the water may be sent in perfectly clean new stoneware spirit- jars surrounded by wickerwork. For the determination of the degree of hardness before and after boiling, only one quart wine-bottle full of water is required. LIMESTONES, MARLS, IRONSTONES, AND OTHER MINERALS.— Whole pieces, weighing from 3 to 4 oz., should be sent enclosed in small linen bags, or wrapped in paper. Postage 2d., if under 4 oz. OILCAKES. — Take a sample from the middle of the cake. To this end break a whole cake into two. Then break off a piece from the end where the two halves were joined together, and wrap it in paper, leaving the ends open, and send parcel by post. The piece should weigh from 10 to 12 oz. Postage, 4 d. If sent by railway, one quarter or half a cake should be forwarded. FEEDING MEALS. — About 3 oz. will be sufficient for analysis. Enclose tho meal in a small linen bag. Send it by post. On forwarding samples, separate letters should be sent to the laboratory, specifying the nature of the information required, and, if possible, the object in view. POISONS. — Before a chemical examination is undertaken, a post-mortem should be made by a Veterinary Surgeon, or at the Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, N.W., and only the necessary Viscera should be sent to tho Laboratory for analysis, with a report on the post-mortem. H. M. JENKINS, Secretary. Jfflmiiens’iSotamcal anti 0ntomologtcar$rtbtleges. The Council have fixed the following Rates of Charge for the examination of Plants, Seeds, and Insects for the bond fide use of Members of the Society, who are particularly requested when apply- ing to the Consulting Botanist, or to the Honorary Consulting Entomologist, to mention the kind of examination they require, and to quote its number in the subjoined Schedule. The charge for examination must be paid at the time of application, and the carriage of all parcels must be prepaid. No I. BOTANICAL. 1. — A report on the purity, amount and nature of foreign materials, perfectness, and germinating power of a sample of seeds .. .. 5s. 2. — Detailed report on the weight, purity, perfectness, and germinating power of a sample of seeds, with a special description of the weeds and other foreign materials contained in it . . . . . . . . 10s. 3. — Determination of the species of any weed or other plant, or of any epiphyte or vegetable parasite, with a report on its habits, and the means of its extermination or prevention . . . . . . 5s. 4. — Report on any disease affecting the farm crop . . . . . . 5s. 5. — Determination of the species of a collection of natural grasses found in any district of one kind of soil, with a report on their habits and pasture value .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 10s. X.B. — The above Scale of Charges is not applicable in the case of Seedsmen requiring the services of the Consulting Botanist. II. ENTOMOLOGICAL. 0. — Determination of the species of any insect, worm, or other animal which, in any stage of its life, injuriously affects the farm crops, with a report on its habits and suggestions as to its extermination 2s. G d. INSTRUCTIONS FOR SELECTING AND SENDING SAMPLES. In sending seed or corn for examination the utmost care must be taken to •secure a fair and honest sample. If anything supposed to be injurious or useless exists in the corn or seed, selected samples should also be sent. In collecting specimens of plants, the whole plant should be taken up, and the earth shaken from the roots. If possible, the plants must be in flower or fruit. They should be packed in a light box, or in a firm paper parcel. Specimens of diseased plants or of parasites should be forwarded as fresh as possible. Place them in a bottle, or pack them in tinfoil or oil-silk. All specimens should be accompanied with a letter specifying the nature of the information required, and stating any local circumstances (soil, situation, &c.) u hich, in the opinion of the sender, would be likely to throw light on the inquiry. Parcels or letters containing seeds or plants for examination (Carriage or Postage prepaid) must be addressed to Mr. AV. Carruthers, F.R.S., Central House, Central Hill, Norwood, S.E. Parcels or letters containing insects, or plants apparently infested with insects, sent for examination, must be addressed to Miss Okmerod, E.M.S., Dunster Lodge, Isleworth. The Council give notice that the following is the standard which is adopted by the Consulting Botanist in his examination of seeds : — 1. That the bulk be true to the species ordered. 2. That it contain not more than five per cent, of seeds other than the species ordered. 3. That the geminating power shall be, for cereals, green crops, clovers, and timothy grass, not less than ‘JO per cent. ; for fox-tail, not less than 20 per cent. ; and for other grasses not less than 70 per cent. The Council recommend that purchasers should require a guarantee in accord- ance with this standard. They also strongly recommend that the purchase of prepared mixtures should be avoided, and that the different seeds to bo sown should be purchased separately. PI. M. JENKINS, Secretary. 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