On

&s

vt

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND.

VOLUME THE TWENTY-SECOND.

PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL
GARDEN
LON DON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

1861.

THESE EXPERIMENTS, IT IS TRUE, ARE NOT EASY}; STILL THEY ARE IN THE POWER OF EVERY
THINKING HUSBANDMAN. HE WHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT ONE, OF HOWEVER LIMITED APPLICATION, AD
TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRACTICE
OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND OF THOSE
WHO COME AFTER. TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT
BE EXPECTED. THE FIRST CARE OF ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR SCIENCE
SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FORMS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE THE EXECUTION OF

THESE AMONG THEIR MEMBERS,
Vox THAer, Principles of Agriculture.

CONTENTS OF VOL. XXII.

STATISTICS :— PAGE
Meteorology, for the six months ending June 80,1861 .. .. MU
Public Health ditto ditto PA tice. AVL
Price of Provisions ditto ditto ve sate ee
Weekly Average of Wheat .. .. .» VIIE
Meteorology, for the six months eading Reape 31, ‘Is61 7 aS
Public Health ditto ditto ree Te Ns
Price of Provisions ditto ditto oe ees rose, ee

ARTICLE PAGH

I.—The Principles which regulate the Breeding of Taree Era,
By Henry Tanner. Prize E ssay

TIJ.—Adulteration of Seeds. By Messrs. William re “Hugh
Raynbird. Prize Essay .. .. 14

I1I.—On the Composition of Cheese, ahaa on Practical Mistakes in
Cheese-making. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker nd gordte pee OO

IV.—Experiments upon Swedes. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker .. 69

V.—On the Improvements in the Farming of Yorkshire since the
date of the last Reports in the Journal. ie William

Wright. Prize Hssay .. .. 87
VI.—Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat {08 Consumption i in
the Metropolis. By Robert Herbert .. .. 131

* YVII.—On the Rearing of Calves. By Thomas Bowick. Bion Bey 136
VIII.—On the Rearing of Calves. By Major S. McClintock .. .. 146
IX.—On Improvements in Agriculture in the County of Notting-
ham since the Year 1800, By John Parkinson .. .. «. 159
X.—The Amount of Capital required for the Profitable Occupation
of a Mixed Arable and Pasture Farm in a Midland eae
By the late Charles Wratislaw. Prize Essay ee re re
XI.—Fifth Report of Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep. by
J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S., and Dr. J. H. Gilbert, F.R.S
1 6 eae fue hea "189
XII.—Report of ee pecans on nee Watanae of Oxen, at Woburn
Park Farm. By J. B. Lawes, F.RB.S., F.C. S., and Dr. J. H.

Gilbert, EUR IS RG: Sete. c. . 200
XIII.—Report on the "Exhibition of live Stock at TTeeda: By W.

Fisher Hobbs, Senior Steward ie . 218
XIV.—Report on the Cheese, Butter, Wool, aad Flax, exhibited p

Leeds, By Henry Ludolf, Steward .. . 282

XV.—The Farming of Hampshire. By Rev. John Wildcat M. x 239
Letter from Lord Palmerston on Broadlands Drainage .. 346
XVI.—On “Pedigree” in Wheat as a Means of Increasing the Wiis

By Frederic F. Hallett .. .. 2 oft
XVII.—On the Composition and anne Valse “of Siew: By ‘
Dr, Augustus Voelcker .. .. .. a0 OE 382

2 ‘XVUI Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat in Consumption i in

the Metropolis. By Robert Herbert Paitiaset” “eat . 418

CONTENTS.

ARTICLE PAGE

X1X.—Laying down Land to Permanent Pasture. By M. H. Sutton 416
XX,—The Water Economy of France in its relation to Agriculture,

By f. R. de laTréhonnais!” 5. 5...) ea) est Uae
XXI.—On the Management of Clover Tavoes the Proper Distance
for Drilling Wheat; and the Ravages of Insects on Pines.

By Charlesbawrénce! 4. is.) (s5 ss | ee eel Reena
XXII.—Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at the

Leeds Meeting. By H. B. Caldwell, Acting Senior Steward 450

APPENDIX.
PAGE
List of Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1861-62 i, xlvii
Standing Committees for 1862 Pec COM MCC CdM hae ode os co, Sabie
Memoranda of Meetings, Payment of Subscription, &e. .. .. .. .. iii, li
Report of the Council to the General Meeting, May 22, 1861 ole ae iv

Half-yearly Balance-sheet, ending June 30,1861 .. .. .. .. vili-ix
List of Stewards, Judges, &c., at the Teeds Meeting .. jouade x
Prize-Awards, &c., of the J meee of Live-Stock : Leeds Meeting baie “ab xi
Special Prizes given by the Leeds Local Committee O50 55 | aC Syibtl
Prize-Awards, &c., of the Judges of Implements: Leeds Meeting .. .. xxxii
Prizes given by the Leeds Local Committee .. .. .. .. «. Xxxvii
Awards of Prizes for Essays and Reports, 1859-1861 .. .. .. .. xxxix
IM UVATS ORION Mel oo 60 bo oo oo oo su no, on ill, Ihe
Rules of Competition for Prize Essays... xliii, Ixx

Report of the Council to the General Meeting, December ae “1861 ak Iii

Half-yearly Balance-sheet, ending June 30, 1861 Pe co ce tatin

Country-Meeting Account: Leeds, 1861... .. .. .. «. os Ix
Metropolitan! Show, 1862. (2 Gqee) sec je) cle) v-ra0t) ecisies NRClst ne Sen
Members’ Dealeees of Chemical eas sis ue Be lke
Members’ Veterinary Privileges .. .. .. .. =. - « Bp be-gul

Cuarter, Laws, Byn-Laws, AND REsoLurions or Councit,
List or GovERNoRS AND MEMBERS

. I
an ee os - - a5 .. XXVII

DIRECTIONS TO ''HE BINDER.

The Binder is desired to collect together all the Appendix matter, with Roman numeral folios, and
place it at the end of each volume of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Statistics
&c., which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Volume: the lettering at the back to
include a statement of the year as well as the volume; the first volume belonging to 1839-40, the
second to 1841, the third to 1842, the fourth to 1843, and so on.

In Reprints of the Journal all Appendix matter (and in one instance an Article in the body of
the Journal), which at the time had become obsolete, were omitted; the Roman numeral folios,

however (for convenience of reference), being reprinted without alteration in the Appendix matter
retained.

Plan of Broadlands Drainage .. .. .. .. «. «. to face p, 345
Dee y Whe Ba Sod da dae pA © 374

. ”

CONTENTS OF PART IL, VOL. XXII.

STATISTICS :— PAGE
Meteorology, for the six months ending June 30,1861 .. .. I
Public Health ditto ditto Ja ay comeiavel
Price of Provisions ditto ditto oad ee ScdihA ae
Weekly Averageof Wheat. .. sp 6s 90s yee de nes oe g WELL

ARTICLE PAGE

I.—The Principles which regulate the Breeding of Farm-Stock.
By Henry Tanner. Prize Essay

IJ.—Adulteration of Seeds. By Messrs. William a (rash

Raynbird. Prize Essay .. .. 14
III.—On the Composition of Cheese, Pa) on Eieetieal Mistakes 4 in
Cheese-making. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker .. ae hae

1V.—Experiments upon Swedes. By Dr. Augustus Veer Ao. (hs)

YV.—On the Improvements in the Farming of Yorkshire since the
date of the last Reports in the Journal. Hy William

Wright. Prize Essay .. .. 87
VI.—Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat vee Consumption i in
the Metropolis. By Robert Herbert .. .. 131

VII.—On the Rearing of Calves. By Thomas Bowick. Prize Basay 136

VIII.—On the Rearing of Calves. By Major 8. McClintock .. .. 146
IX.—On Improvements in Acriculture in the County of Nottine-
ham since the Year 1800. By John Parkinson .. -
X.—The Amount of Capital required for the Profitable Occupation
of a Mixed Arable and Pasture Farm in a Midland aaa

By the late Charles Wratislaw. Prize Essay .. .. .. 167
XI.—Fifth Report of Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep. By
J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.8., and Dr. J. H. Gilbert, F.R.S.,

WOH, 189
XII.—Report of Hig pocirnerils on ie Bpeening: ef een u Welw
Park Farm. By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., EC Se and Dr. J. H.

Gilbert) HRS EC.S. Se - 200
XIII.—Report on the Balabison of ‘ane Stock at eae By W.
Fisher Hobbs, Senior Steward 3 218

XIV.—Report on the Cheese, Butter, Wool, and Flax, exhibited ef
Leeds. By Henry Ludolf, Steward’ 1. ow. -- 202

CONTENTS.

APPENDIX.
PAGE
List of Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1861-62 i
Memoranda of Meetings, Privileges, Payment of Subscription, &c. ae iii
Report of the Council to the General Meeting, May 22, 1861 fei ae iv
Half-yearly Balance-shéet, ending June 30,1861 .. .. .. « vili-ix

List of Stewards, Judges, &c., at the fede Meeting .. Pe mec x
Prize-Awards, &c., of the Judges of Live-Stock : Leeds Meeting Spe ck xi
Special Prizes given by the Leeds Local Committee we | a6. (oe Meee XORVIIE
Prize-Awards, &c., of the Judges of Implements: Leeds Meeting .. .. xxxii
Prizes given by the Leeds Local Committee .. .. .. .. «. XXXVil
Awards of Prizes for Essays and Reports, 1859-1861 .. .. .. .. xxxix
erizes\for Hissays, L862" res) atest ces neil (ola) ce) ton eS
Rules of Competition for Prize Essays .. .. .. «. «. « « Xiiii
Members’ Privileges of Chemical Analysis .. .. .. .. .. « Xiliv
Members’ Veterinary Privileges .. .. «. -» a5 cs ce on eee ehY
Carter, Laws, Byr-Laws, AND REsoLutions or CounciL Sa Ao I
List oF GOVERNORS AND MEMBERS oo jeep) foo) esate atom ame NOOR ET

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

The Binder is desired to collect together all the Appendix matter, with Roman numeral folios, and
place it at the end of each volume of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Statistics
&c., which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Volume: the lettering at the back to
include a statement of the year as well as the volume; the first volume belonging to 1839-40, the
second to 1841, the third to 1842, the fourth to 1843, and so on.

In Reprints of the Journal all Appendix matter (and in one instance an Article in the body of
the Journal), which at the time had become obsolete, were omitted; the Roman numeral folios,
however (for convenience of reference), being reprinted without alteration in the Appendix matter
retained.

STATISTICS

OF

THE WEATHER, PUBLIC HEALTH, PRICE OF
PROVISIONS, &., &c.,

FOR THE SIX MONTHS ENDING JUNE 30, 1861.
Chiefly extracted from the Quarterly Report of the Registrar-General.—

The Corn Returns and Diagram are prepared from Official Documents
expressly for this Journal.

ON

THE METEOROLOGY OF ENGLAND

DURING

THE QUARTER ENDING MARCH 31, 1861.

By JAMES GLAISHER, Esq. F.B.S.,

8EC. OF THE BRITISH METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY.

THE rapid thaw which set in on December 30, 1860, continued
only till the 1st of January, 1861, on which day the temperature
rose to 47°; it fell to 28° by the morning of the 2nd.

From January 2nd the weather was cold; on the 6th, 8th, 9th,
and 10th days the departures below their averages were 12°-4, 11°-0,
10°-4, and 14°-0 respectively, and the average daily deficiency to
the 23rd day was 3°-7; a warm period set in on the 24th, and con-
tinued for the most part till the end of the quarter; the average
daily excess for the 67 days ending March 31 was 3°°3. The cold
of the first half of January this year was more rigorous than in any
corresponding period since 1820.

The mean high day temperature in January was 34° below, in
February 33° above, and in March 27° above, their resyective
averages of the preceding 20 years.

The mean low night temperature in January was 5° below, in
February 32° above, and in March 13° above, their respective
averages. Therefore, both the days and nights in January were
extremely cold, especially at the beginning of the month; and in
February and March both were warm.

The mean pressure of the atmosphere in January was a little
above, and in February and March below, their respective averages
of the past 20 years.

The temperature of the dew-point in January was 5°°3 below, and
in February and March was 5°-0 above, their averages.

The fall of rain in January was 0°5 inch, in February 1°8 inch,
and in March 2:2 inches. The sum for the three months was 4°5
inches, being 0°5 inch below the average.

The temperature of vegetation, as indicated by a thermometer
placed on grass, was below 40° on 84 nights, and above 40° on 6
nights.

The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich for the three
months ending February, constituting the three winter months, was
34°-0, being 4° below the average of the preceding 90 years.

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‘LOST ‘TE HOUV] ONIGNA UALAVNAY THL ONTUNAC YAHLVAAA GH],

.

THE METEOROLOGY OF ENGLAND

DURING
THE QUARTER ENDING JUNE 30, 1861.

Bry JAMES GLAISHER, Esq, F.B.S.,

SEC. OF THE BRITISH METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY,

Tue weather was cold till the middle of May, the mean daily
temperatures of the air for the 44 days ending May 14th being 3°
below the average for this period. The 15th and 16th of May were
warm, followed by 3 cold days. From the 20th of May to the end
of June the weather was generally warm; the average daily excess
of temperature of the last 42 days was 1°.

In June the temperature reached 82° nearly; in the preceding
June the highest point reached was 74°. On June 14th the mean
temperature of the whole day was 67°, exceeding by 44° that of the
warmest day in the preceding year.

The mean high day temperature in April was 12°, in May 1°, and
in June 0°-4 below their respective averages for the preceding: 20
years.

The mean low night temperature in April was 23° below, in May
1°-2 below, and in June 1°1 above their respective averages for the
preceding 20 years.

The mean temperature of April and May was a little below the
average; that of June differed but very little from its average.

The mean temperature of the dew point in April was 0°:3 above,
in May was 1°9 below, and in June was 2°:3 above the average.

The mean pressure of the atmosphere in April exceeded its average
by + inch, in May by } inch, and in June differed but little from
its average pressure.

The temperature of vegetation, as cndiented by a thermometer
placed on grass, was below 40° on 48 nights, and above 40° on 43
nights; thejhighest reading at night ie the quarter was 552°,
and the lowest 14°.

The fall of rain in April was 0°8 inch, in May was 1°8 inch, and
in June was 1°9 inch. The total fall during the quarter was 4°5
inches, being 1:3 inch below the average of the preceding 46 years.

The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich for the three
months ending May, constituting the three spring months, was
46°-7, being 0°:3 above the average of the preceding 90 years.

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‘TOSI ‘0G ANOLE ONIGNT UALUVAH AHL PNIUNA UAULVAAA AH,

( Mh)

STATE OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH.

1st Quarter.—121,713 deaths were registered in the quarter;
this number was rather lower than the number of deaths in the
winter quarter of the preceding year, ‘The death-rate was 2°449 ;
the average rate of the season being 2:480. The increase of the
population in particular parts of the country is uncertain; but,
assuming that the estimated rates of increase are tolerably correct,
the mortality (2°671) in the town districts was (:017) above the
average, whereas the mortality (2°235) in the country districts was
(018) below the average. As at the rate prevailing in the least
unhealthy districts the deaths would have amounted to 88,864, the
unnatural deaths may be set down as about 32,849, referable
directly to the circumstances unfavourable to life in which the
population is living.

2nd Quarter.—The number of deaths in this quarter was 107,721 ;
in the same period of last year it was 110,878. The annual death-
rate for the quarter was 215 to ten thousand persons living, whilst
the average is 221. Both town and country populations have
enjoyed a slightly improved degree of health: the rate of mortality
in town being 228 per 10,000, against an average of 237; and that
in the country 203 against 205. If the rate of mortality of the least
unhealthy districts had prevailed throughout Hngland, the total
deaths would have been 85,823. Consequently 21,898 deaths may
be deemed unnatural.

PRICHK OF PROVISIONS.

1st Quarter—The price of wheat was 55s. 1d. a quarter; and it
exceeded by 10s. 8d., or 24 per cent., the price in the previous
winter quarter. he mean price of beef at the metropolitan markets
was 54d. ; the inferior beef making 4d.,and the superior making 6d.
a pound. The price of mutton was 63d., and ranged in the same way
from 53d. to 7$d. a pound. ‘The best potatoes were 147s. 6d. a ton.

2nd Quarter.—The price of wheat was 54s. 9d. a quarter, and was
higher by 2s. 1d. than in the previous June quarter, and by 7s. 6d.
than in that of 1859. The mean price of beef in Leadenhall and
Newgate markets was 54d.; both highest and lowest prices were
less than in the same quarter of 1860, which also held in respect of
mutton, the mean price of which was 6td. Best potatoes averaged
130s.-per ton; they were dearer than in the same quarter of 1859,
cheaper than in that of 1860.

Gait

THE PRICE OF PROVISIONS.

The AVERAGE Pricns of Consols, of Wheat, Meat, and Potatoes ; also the AVERAGE
Quantity of Wheat sold and imported weekly, in each of the Nine Quarters
ending June 30th, 1861.

eee

Wheat and Average Prices of
Wheat sold Wheat Flour
Average | in the 290 | Gotored for
Average| Price of Cities and
Home Meat per lb, at Leadenhall

Price |Wheat per| Towns in
Quarters | of Gaartan England and | Consumption | ss Newgate Markets Best
: 5 | at Chief Ports is Potatoes
ending Consols in Wales making “" 5¢ Grant Gijsttia Cartons) perriiii
* ne 2),
Mc Mepand Returns, Britain.* vy at Waterside
euley)- Wales = Market,
Average number of Beef. Mutton: Southwark,

Quarters weekly.

1859 Es s. d.
June 30] 923 47 3 96,514 99,533 43d.—63d.| 5d.—7d. | 85s.—r10s.
Mean 52d.| Mean 6d. |Mean 97s. 6d.

Sept. 30 | 953 | 44 ©| 85,707 50,291 | 4¢d.—64d. | 44d —6$d.| 65s.—105s.
z F 1 Mean sid. Mean 52d. Mean 85s.

Dec. 31 | 963 | 43 4 | 127,361 44,911 | 4d.—63d.| 43d.—63d.| 85s.—120s.
Mean 54d.| Mean 5 $d. |Mean 102s.6d.

1860
Mar. 31 948 44 5 | 114,218 22,300 |3$¢d.—63d. | 48d.—62d.| 115s.—145s.
Mean 5}d. | Mean 5$d.} Mean 130s.

June 30} 94% | 52 8 | 101,106 62,272 4ad.— 64d. 54d.— 74d. | 125s,.—160s.
Mean 52d. | Mean 63d. |Mean 142s.6d.

Sept.30 | 932] 59 1 | 66,539 | 139,142 | 4ad.—7d. |52d.—73d. | 125s.—1455.
Mean 52d. | Mean 63d. |Mean 135s.

Dec. 31 932, | 56 9 73,770 | 197,396 | 34d.—64d. | 42d —63d.|115s.—130s.
i Mean 4/d. | Mean 53d. |Mean 122s. 6d.
1861
Mar. 31 | 912] 55 1 | 69,588 | 145,880 | 4d.—62d. | 54d.—72d. | 1408.—1555.
Mean 53d. | Mean 62d. |Mean 147s. 6d.

June 30 | 912 | 54 9 | 65,176 | 134,085 | 42d.—63d. | 54d.—723d.| 120s.—r40s,
Mean 53d. | Mean 63d.| Mean 130s.

Col. I 2 3 4 5 6 7

* Nore.—The total number of quarters of wheat sold in England and Wales for the 13 weeks
ending June 30th, 1859, was 1,254,682; for the 13 weeks ending September 30th, 1859,
1,114,191; for the quarter ending December 31st, 1859 (14 weeks), 1,783,050; for the 13
weeks ending March 31st, 1860, 1,484,837 ; for the 13 weeks ending June 30th, 1860, 1,314,386 ;
for the 13 weeks ending September 30th, 1860, 865,007 ; for the 13 weeks ending December 31st,
1860, 959,006; for the 13 weeks ending March 31st, 1861, 904,649 ; and for the 13 weeks
ending June 30th, 1861, 847,285. The total number of quarters entered for Home Consumption
was respectively, 1,293,925; 653,789; 583,848; 289,906; 809,535; 1,808,848 ; 2,566,145;
1,896,435; and 1,743,100.

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“AIVILUBE TOW

STATISTICS

OF

THE WEATHER, PUBLIC HEALTH, PRICE OF
PROVISIONS, &c., &.,

FOR THE SIX MONTHS ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1861.

Chiefly extracted from the Quarterly Report of the Registrar-General.—
The Corn Returns are prepared from Official Documents expressly for
this Journal,

ON

THE METEOROLOGY OF ENGLAND

DURING
THE QUARTER ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 1861.

By JAMES GLAIS HERS Heo. mass

SEC. OF THE BRITISH METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Tit the 3rd day of August the temperature of the air was gene-
‘ rally a little below the average; a warm period set in on August
4th, and continued till September 11th; from September 12th to
September 27th the weather for the most part was cold, and warm
from September 28th till the end of the quarter. In July the day
of highest mean temperature reached 63°7 only. On August 12th
it was as high as 72°-9, being nearly 12° in excess of the average.
On July 12th the highest temperature reached was 76°9; on
August 12th it was 894°. On September 30 the temperature rose
to 74°, the mean for the day being 61°:5, the only instance, as far
back as 1814, in which the mean temperature of the last day of
September has been as high as 60°.

The mean high day temperature in July was 13° below its
average. In August it was 3°, and in September 1° above their
respective averages of the preceding 20 years.

The mean low night temperature in July was 4° above, in
August 4° above, and in September ?° below their respective
averages.

The mean temperature of the air was 1° below in July, nearly
2° above in August, 4° in excess in September, as compared with
the average of the preceding 20 years.

The mean temperature of the dew-point was {° below in July,
was 1° above in August, and was 3° below in September, their
respective averages.

The mean pressure of the atmosphere was nearly 2-10ths of an
inch in defect in July, was 1-10th in excess in August, and was
1-10th in defect in September, from the average of the preceding
20 years.

The fall of rain in July was 2} inches, in August little more
than 4+ an inch, and in September was 1% inch. The total fall
during the quarter was 44 inches, being 3} inches below the
average of the preceding 46 years. At Rose Hill, near Oxford, on
July 25th, there was a remarkably heavy rain, the fall being 2°9
inches in about 8 hours.

The temperature of vegetation, as indicated by a thermometer
placed on grass, was below 40° on 12 nights, and above 40° on 82
nights.

The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich for the three
months ending August, constituting the three summer months, was
61°-0, being 1°-0 above the average of the preceding 90 years.

XI )

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C xi 5

ON

THE METEOROLOGY OF ENGLAND

DURING
THE QUARTER ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1861.

By JAMES - GLASER isa, 2. has.

SEC. OF THE BRITISH METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY,

Tue warm period which set in on the 28th of September continued
till the end of October. The mean temperature of this month was
54°-9, being in excess of the average of 90 years by 5°-4, of 43 years
by 5°:0, and of the preceding 20 years by 4°°7. A marked change
took place on the Ist of November, and the temperature till the
24th was, with the exception of the 5th and 6th, always below the
average. On the 25th another great change took place from low to
high temperature. This warm period continued to the 24th of
December, the average daily excess being 32°: from Christmas Day
to the end of the year was cold, exhibiting a deficiency of tempera-
ture to the amount of 32° daily.

The mean high day temperature in October was 5° in excess, in
November was 2° in defect, and in December was 1° in excess of
their respective averages.

The mean low night temperature in October was 4° in excess, in
November was 35° in defect, and in December 3° in excess of their
averages.

The mean temperature of the air was 43° in excess in October,

=° in defect in November, and 1° in excess in December, as com-
pared with the averages of the preceding 20 years.

The mean temperature of the dew-point was 5°4 above in
October, 3° below in November, and 0°:4 above in December, their
respective averages. The mean for the quarter was 0°-9 in excess,
therefore the amount of water mixed with the air was greater than
usual.

The mean pressure of the atmosphere was a little in excess in
October and December, and in defect in November, but upon the
quarter it differed very little from its average value.

The fall of rain in October was 0-9 inch, in November 5:2 inches,
and in December 1°3 inch. The total fall for the quarter was 7-4
inches, being about + of an inch more than the average. The fall
in November was the greatest in this month for 45 years, with one
exception, viz., in 1853, when the amount of rain was 6 inches.
The total fall of rain for the year on the ground is 20°8 inches.

The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich for the three
months ending November, constituting the three autumn months,
was 50°-9, being 1°°5 above the average of the preceding 90 years.

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(7 Sy 2)

STATE OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH.

1st Quarter.—The number of deaths registered in the three
months was 100,986, considerably more than in the same quarter of
1860, which was 86,423, but less than in that of 1859. And over
England the fluctuation in the deaths was generally similar to that
which is shown in the aggregate number. The annual rate of
mortality did not rise quite to the average; for the former was
199 in 10,000 of the population, the latter is 202. In the cold
September quarter of 1860 the rate was 171. The mortality in the
country and small towns was 178, whereas that of the large towns
was 221. The respective average rates are 176 and 235: whence
it appears that in an equal number of the population (10,000) there
were 43 deaths more in towns than in country; but the health of
the former was better relatively to their own former experience,
than that of the latter, for the mortality amongst the rural popula-
tion slightly exceeded its average. In 10,000 persons the excess of
deaths over those of the corresponding quarter of 1860, was 37 in
towns, and 19 in the country.

2nd Quarter.—The total number of deaths registered this quarter
was 104,917 ; it was not so great as in the same quarter of 1859, but
greater than in that of 1860. The death-rate for England and
Wales last quarter was 2°061 per cent. of the population, the average
being 2:179. Within eleven December quarters the maximum has
been 2:4; the minimum 1-995. The population that dwell in the
larger towns suffered a death-rate of 2:3; that of country parishes .
and small towns a rate of 1:8, or rather more. ‘The difference may
be stated thus:—If the mortality of last quarter prevailed for a
year, a proportion of the persons who inhabit towns, equal to five
in a thousand, would die, who would survive the close of the year
if their lot had been cast amongst a rural population. But rela-
tively to the standard furnished by the experience of former years
in each of the two classes, the urban population obtained, or, by the
successful application of sanitary science, achieved a greater reduc-
tion of the mortality than that which was obtained in the rural
districts. In the former, from an average of 2°5 the rate was
reduced to 2°3; in the latter it fell from 1:9 to 1°8.

(eon)

PRICE OF PROVISIONS.

1st Quarter.—The average price of wheat per quarter for the
three months ending September 30, was 52s. 1d., which is less by
7s. than it was in the corresponding quarter of the year 1860, but
higher by 8s. than in that of 1859. Both beef and mutton were
cheaper than they were in the same period of 1860: the mean
price of beef in the metropolitan markets being id., of mutton 3d.,
per pound lower. The average price per ton of the best potatoes at
the Waterside Market, Southwark, was 97s. 6d.; being 37s. 6d. per
ton cheaper than in the same quarter of 1860, and 12s. 6d. dearer -
than in that of 1859.

2nd Quarter.—The average price of wheat for the three months
ending December 31, was 59s. 3d. per quarter; thus, it was dearer
by 2s. 6d. a quarter than in the same period of the year 1860, and
dearer by 16s. a quarter than in that of 1859. The means of the
highest and the lowest weekly prices of mutton in Leadenhall
and Newgate markets have not varied in the last three December
quarters; but beef of the inferior quality was dearer by 2d. per lb.
than in the corresponding quarter of 1860. The mean price
of the best potatoes at the Waterside Market, Southwark, was
120s. per ton, being 2s. 6d. a ton less than in the corresponding
period of 1860, and 17s. 6d. a ton dearer than in the same period of
1859.

( XVI )

THE PRICE OF PROVISIONS.

The AVERAGE Prices of Consols, of Wheat, Meat, and Potatoes; also the AVERAGE
Quantity of Wheat sold and imported weekly, in each of the Nine Quarters
ending December 31st, 1861.

Wheat sold | ,Wheat and Average Prices of

Average | in the 290 yhess Mout
Average} Price of Cities and

Gutitets Price |Wheat per| Towns in oer Meat per Ib; at Leadenhall an
ats SS uarEee Wane nabs at Chief Ports} and Newgate Markets Potatoes
ending * of Great by the Carcase). per Ton
Msney) Magland SE Britain.* (by ) at sh ora
‘ Market,
Wales.
Average number of Southwark.
Quarters weekly. Beef. Mutton.
1859 a Gl

i bch
Dec. 31 | 96) | 43 4 | 127,361 44,911 4d.— 63d. | 43d.—63d.| 85s.—120s.
Mean 54¢.| Mean 5 $d. |Mean 102s.6d.

Mar. 31 948 44 5 | 114,218 22,300 | 33d.—63d. | 48d.— 62d. | 115s.—145s.
Mean 5}d. | Mean 5#d.| Mean 130m

June 30} 94% 52 8 | 101,106 62,272 i 54d.— 74d. | 125s.—160s.
Mean 5#d.| Mean 63d. |Mean 142s.6d.

Sept.30 | 933] 59 1 | 66,539 139,142 | 44d.—7d. |54d.—73d. | 125s.—145s.
Mean 53d. | Mean 63d. |Mean 135s.

Dec. 31 | 932 | 56 9] 73,770 | 197,396 | 32d.—6td. | 4¢d.—63d.|115s.—130s.
Mean 47d. | Mean 52d. |Mean 122s. 6d.
Mar. 31 | 912) 55 1] 69,588 | 145,880 | 4d.—6}d. | 53d. —72d. | 140s.—155s.
Mean 5!d. | Mean 63d. |Mean 147s. 6d.

June 30 | 912 | 54 9] 65,176 | 134,085 | 43d.—64d.| 54d.—73d.| 120s.—1I40s,
Mean 53d. | Mean 63d.) Mean 130s.
Sept. 30 | 913 | 52 1] 82,383 | 128,336 | 4!d.—63d.| 42d.—7d. | 85s,—1I0s.
Mean 52d. | Mean 57d. |Mean 97s. 6d.

Dec. 30] 932 | 59 3 | 112,809 | 121,480 | 4d.—6}d. | 48d —63d. | I110s.—130s,
| Mean 5}d. | Mean 5$d.| Mean 120s.

Col. I 2 3 4 5 6 7

* NorE.—The total number of quarters of wheat sold in England and Wales for the quarter
ending December 31st, 1859 (14 weeks), was 1,783,050; for the 13 weeks ending March 31st,
1860, 1,484,837; for the 13 weeks ending June 30th, 1860, 1,314,386; for the 13 weeks
ending September 30th, 1860, 865,007 ; for the 13 weeks ending December 31st, 1860, 959,006;
for the 13 weeks ending March 31st, 1861, 904,649; for the 13 weeks ending June 30th,
1861, 847,285; for the 13 weeks ending September 30th, 1861, 1,070,985; and for the 13
weeks ending December 31st, 1861, 1,466,525. The total number of quarters entered for
Home Consumption was respectively, 583,848; 289,906; 809,535; 1,808,848; 2,566,145;
1,896,435; 1,743,100; 1,668,374; and 1,579,241,

ie Sd Ai i

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

I.—The Principles which regulate the Breeding of Farm-Stock.
By Henry Tanner, M.R.A.C., Professor of Agriculture and
Rural Economy, Queen’s College, Birmingham.

Prize Essay.

Tus careful observer of nature has ample proof that her works
are all carried out in accordance with fixed rules, and no one has
better opportunities for securing this evidence than the agricul-
turist. A modification of circumstances may cause a variation
in the results; still there is, throughout his experience, a thread
of evidence which proves the existence of established laws. The
importance of farm-stock is daily becoming more fully recog-
nised, and truths applicable to the whole class can be traced out
and determined most satisfactorily by attention to individual
specimens. The variation in the feeding capabilities of different
animals is a fact which needs not to be enlarged upon, for every
farmer knows that whilst some animals are such good feeders
that they pay by an increase of weight for all the food which
they consume, others, for the purpose of fattening, would be dear
as a gift. Assuming, then, that such a difference exists, I pro-
pose to show and explain, as briefly as possible, the rules which
govern the results required and the system to be followed in
putting them in practice.

It materially lessens our difficulty to know that in the breeding
of all varieties of farm-stock—cattle, sheep, pigs, &c.—the
results seem uniformly to follow the same fixed but simple laws.
It is an old and approved maxim that “like produces like ;”
but this rule, though generally true, may be misapplied, when
the error will be demonstrated by the contradictory evidence of
practice and experience. If an animal is capable of transmitting
any character to its offspring, it must possess that which it
conyeys, although at times qualities may predominate in the off
spring which were almost latent in the parent. If, therefore,
any quality or character is rendered hereditary, it must corre-

VOL, XXII. B

2 Breeding of Farm-Stock.

spond with that inherent in the parent from which it descended.
If, however, I breed from a female possessing certain qualities
by a male distineuisbed by an opposite character, it is clear that
the offspring cannot perpetuate both of these charackonisties and
the result appears antagonistic to the maxim that “ like produces
like.” This brings us at once to the consideration of one of the
most important principles connected with breeding, namely, that
although “ like produces like” (for it can produce nothing else),
still when the parents possess opposing qualities the preponder-
ance is exercised by that one which possesses the hereditary
tendency in the greatest strength. If, for instance, a cow having
any special peculiarity of form is put to a bull having-the oppo-
site character, the offspring will assume the character of that
parent which possessed the greatest hereditary powers in this
respect, or, in other words, the greatest purity and unity of influ-
ence. If fess hereditary powers are under our control, it is
important to consider by what means they may be increased or
diminished.

In breeding from a ram and ewe possessing a similarity of
type, the produce of such an union will of necessity also possess
the like character, but in a higher degree. Thus the result of
breeding stock of similar character is that these peculiarities are
not only perpetuated but intensified in the offspring. Provided
that the parents possess similarity of type in any given particular,
every successive generation thus produced acquires an increase
of hereditary force, by which we mean the power of imprinting
its own stamp upon its progeny. But in like manner as this
power accumulates when there is a similarity of character, so also
does it diminish when the parents have opposite or antagonistic
characters. Suppose that a well-bred ram, by careful breeding
through several successive generations, has acquired strong and
valuable hereditary powers (which, for illustration sake, we will
represent in figures), say equal to 100. If this seca be put
to a ewe of a totally different character, say having hereditary
power equal to 60, the result would be that the offspring would
still possess the same character as the ram because of his superior
hereditary power; but the hereditary capability of the offspring
would be reduced to say 100 — 6040. Supposing the off-
spring to be a ram, at a subsequent period both the sire and
offspring may appear equally perfect in form and general cha-
racter ; but the power of hereditary transmission baine so much

reater in the sire than this offspring (in proportion of 100 to
40), the former would be far more valuable as a breeding animal,
although the difference in the capabilities of the two ‘would e
entirely hidden or latent. If you breed from animals possessing
a similarity of type, the offspring will possess the same character,

Breeding of Farm-Stoch. 3

but with a greater power for the hereditary transmission of this
character. On the other hand, animals having opposite cha-
racters mutually weaken each other’s influence, and the offspring
only possess the power of hereditary transmission in a reduced
degree.

This power of perpetuating character is not confined to any
one quality, but it extends to every peculiarity of the animal,
whether it be similarity of feature, configuration of the body,
general habit of growth, disposition for fattening, the formation
of milk, healthy constitution, predisposition to disease, tempera-
ment,—all are alike hereditary and are modified in their trans-
mission by the mutual influence of the parents. It would appear
as if every individual point of character were thus controlled and
balanced according to the respective tendencies of the parents,
and that the resultant character represented a series of balances,
sometimes in favour of the male, at other times in favour of the
female. The dam might succeed in communicating the general
form to the body but be unable to overcome the stronger power
of the male over some certain portion of the body. The dam
might be naturally deficient, for instance, in her hind-quarters
and good in other parts, and under the influence of a sire having
a powerful tendency to produce a good hind-quarter she may be
compelled to yield to his superior influence. In certain points of
character, where they corresponded, the influence would be
increased. In some particulars the dam might predominate,
and in other respects the sire might be most influential. ‘Thus
the hereditary powers of carefully-bred stock will represent the
maximum. of good influences and a minimum of those which are
undesirable.

In our wild animals we have natural laws operating whereby
they are preserved from degeneracy. Thus their powers of
vitality are preserved and constitutional disease reduced to its
lowest point. Immediately the male has passed the prime of
life and his natural vigour begins to diminish, he ceases to hold
his position against younger males of more strength. ‘Thus in
the sanguinary conflicts amongst the male animals of wild
species, in which the supremacy is contested, we see one means
established by Nature for securing the perpetuation of the species
to the strongest and most vigorous males. In like manner, those
of unripe age, as well as those which are the subjects of disease,
are held in check by those which are vigorous and healthy, and
the consequence is that a strong constitution is secured to their
offspring. By domestication we interfere with the action of
these natural laws. We seek to establish and perpetuate certain
peculiarities of the animal system which are unnatural, but
which are, at the same time, very desirable for our comfort and

B2

4 Breeding of Farm-Stoch.

prosperity. There are three special objects which the general
breeder seeks to attain with a view to direct profit, each of which
requires a special mode of procedure which cannot be departed
from without loss. These qualifications are—

A liberal production of good milk ;
An economical formation of meat ;
And the preservation of purity of biooal

I shall endeavour to prove that we have these important
points of character far more under our control than is generally
imagined, and that from want of due consideration we often
frustrate and impede our designs.

PropucTion oF MILK.

The milking character of our various kinds of stock takes a
wide range even amongst females of the same class. Apart
from the ftinemee of fps we may remark that the quantity of
milk secreted depends upon the supply of blood which the mam-
mary glands receive as well as upon their activity, whilst its
quality is mainly dependent upon the internal organism of the
animal. We find, as a rule, that those domesceated animals
which exist modes circumstances most nearly approaching to a
state of nature possess the greatest tendency to produce milk.
The formation of milk is a provision of nature to supply food for
the young offspring ; it precedes the birth of the young animal,
and is generally most abundant in those animals which breed
most freely. If, however, by domestication we produce an
animal possessing peculiar qualities which differ from the natural
character of the dam in its wild condition, then the powers of
reproduction are decreased and the energy of the system is also
reduced for the formation of its accompanying product, milk.
Although these two points of character—viz. a disposition to
breed and an aptitude for the secretion of milk—usually increase
and diminish similarly, yet there are good reasons for believing
that, like other functions of the ameicll organism, we may ma-
terially i increase the formation of milk even when the breeding-

owers are naturally weak. In producing animals which differ
materially from the type of the animal in its wild condition, we
find that natural barriers present limits beyond which we cannot
pass, and consequently by degrees we approximate to instances
of barrenness in the offspring. To meet this difficulty we have
to adopt measures for giving increased vigour to the system, or,
as we commonly term it, to strengthen the constitution of the
animal; but what are the measures adopted for this purpose
other than allowing the natural habits of the animal to exert

Breeding of Farm-Stock. 5

their legitimate influence? in fact, retracing some of the steps
previously taken in excess.

The formation of milk we have more under control than the
powers of reproduction ; for when the mammary glands have
been brought into a state of activity by the birth of a calf or
other young animal, then the continuance of the flow will be
influenced by the hereditary character of the parents as well as
by judicious management. This hereditary influence must not
be viewed as confined to the female, for | have not the slightest
doubt on my mind that the constitution of the sire tells power-
fully upon the offspring in this respect. A bull, the produce of
a good milking family, has a tendency to convey this disposition
to his offspring, and greatly to strengthen similar tendencies
which may be hereditary on the side of the dam. On the other
hand, the use of a bull descended from a bad milking-family
leads to the rearing of a class of stock possessing less value for
the production of milk. In too many cases bulls have been
preserved for use in ordinary dairies simply because of their
symmetry or tendency to fatten, without due consideration of
the milking character of their ancestry. With regard to sheep
also, | remember a very striking instance of the loss of milk in
a flock (previously celebrated for their supply of milk) being
traced entirely to the use of a very well-formed ram, bred from
a ewe singularly deficient in milk. In this case all his stock to
the second and third generations possessed or imparted this
undesirable character. A large proportion of the losses in our
flocks and much of the additional labour and expenses occasioned
by ewes being short of milk may be traced to this cause. This
deficiency of milk amongst our ewes is becoming a serious evil
throughout the country: one, no doubt, which has accompanied
the introduction of high-bred sheep—rather, let us hope, by
oversight than as a necessary consequence. Amongst all classes
of pede cows) ewes, and sows—we find a great disposition for
the accumulation of fat usually attended by a deficiency in the
flow of milk; but there does not appear to be any reason
why both of these points of character should not be combined
in the same individual, as we shall subsequently consider more
fully.

The quality of the milk bears an important relationship to the
quantity which an animal produces. The richness of milk
depends upon the quantity of the fatty matter present, which is
more familiarly known as cream and butter. The general struc-
ture of the animal body, together with its mode of living, also
appear to control the value a the product. For the production
of a rich milk two qualifications are necessary in the animal.

The first step is to separate and prepare the fatty and nutri-

6 Breeding of Farm-Stock.

tious elements of food, so as to introduce it into the circulation
with as little loss as possible.

The second step is to separate a large proportion of these
elements in the form of rich milk.

Any circumstance which causes a waste of the fatty and
nutritive ingredients in the food necessarily causes the milk to
be of inferior value. It is exactly the same with the formation
and preservation of the fatty matter of the blood, whether its
subsequent appropriation be as the fat of milk or the fat of the
body ; for that animal which can most economically convert the
fat-producing matter of food into the fatty matter found in the
blood has most successfully accomplished the first step. In the
fattening of a bullock, as well as in the feeding of a milch cow,
the fatty matter of the food has to be taken up into the blood,
and it depends wpon the organism of the animal whether it shall
be subsequently deposited in the form of fat or excreted as the
cream of milk. It is, however, evident that an economical pre-
paration of the materials of the food is equally important for
the formation of the fatty matter of the blood, whatever may be
the form into which the animal system may convert it; and for
this reason those animals which are best adapted for fattening
are also best prepared to fulfil the first condition essential for the
production of rich milk.

We have now to consider the influence of the animal system
upon the rich fatty matter circulating in its blood. The forma-
tion of milk is primarily dependent upon the activity of the
mammary glands, which are naturally excited to action a short
time prior to the birth of the offspring. The energy of these
glands is naturally superior to the tendency which the animal
possesses for the formation of fat ; so much so, indeed, that when
the food is deficient in oily matter fat which has been already
formed is sometimes taken up again into the circulation and sepa-
rated by the mammary glands in the milk. Thus we find that
when these glands are acting in a healthy and energetic manner,
the fatty matter of the blood is freely separated by their agency,
and we have arich milk produced. In very many instances these
glands have assumed an unnatural and torpid condition, have
become less susceptible of the energy usually imparted by the
birth of offspring, and have been influenced by it for a shorter
period of time. In such cases, although the food may have been
well prepared and the blood may travel through the vessels of
the glands richly laden with the elements of milk, yet, from
their torpidity, they may fail to appropriate it as milk, and the
blood may pass on to yield its treasure to other parts of the
body. Our great endeavour should therefore be to encourage a
more active condition of these glands. These organs, in common

Breeding of Farm-Stock. rf

with other parts of the system, are subject to hereditary influence,
and much may be done in this direction to stimulate them to
the performance of their natural functions, whilst a neglect of
this agency will increase and perpetuate an evil which consider-
ably reduces the value of much of our breeding-stock. Not only
may we hope that by judicious management these organs may
again be raised to their natural standard of efficiency, but, like
other parts of the animal system, become even more highly
developed under the fostering care of man. Instances are by no
means rare in which we observe in happy combination an
aptitude for the formation of fat with sufficient energy of the
mammary glands to produce a liberal supply of milk. Generally,
in the case of cows, those that produce butter freely are subse-
quently found profitable for feeding for the butcher. With ewes
thus distinguished the lambs thrive without extraneous supplies
of milk, and they are equally disposed for laying on fat when no
longer intended for breeding. This combination is equally
observable in sows of a like description, which produce large,
healthy, thriving farrows, and make a good return for the food
given them.

ForMATION oF Meat.

When the object to be attained is the production of meat,
many points require consideration. Much will depend upon the
management and attention of the feeder, and in this respect it
has been fully proved that it is essential for the economical pro-
duction of meat that the animal should be kept in a thriving
condition from its birth. Our attention, however, is here specially
due to those consequences which result from the natural cha-
racter of the animal. One of these is the capability of the dam
to nourish her offspring, or, in other words, her power of pro-
ducing a free supply of good milk, to which we have before
adverted. Other points of character being equal, this capacity
for the formation of milk will very powerfully influence the
value of the dam for the purpose of rearing an animal especially
intended as an economical producer of meat. Moreover, besides
this supply of good milk after birth, we must not overlook the
support given by the dam to the “ foetus in utero ”—one that has
many analogies and afiinities to the yield of milk afforded to the
young animal after its birth. A good milker will produce her
offspring fatter, finer, and in better condition than a bad milker ;
whilst a puny calf tells us of a dam which has an overpowering
disposition for the formation of fat. The importance of balancing
these competitive tendencies so as to secure an adequate supply
of milk is of primary importance for the economical breeding of
animals intended to be producers of meat ; whilst as this superior

8 Breeding of Farm-Stock.

milking character is not generally possessed by high-bred stock,
they would, by this rule, be set aside (in the majority of instances)
as not being the best adapted for this object, and practice con-
firms this view. This capability of the dam to nourish and
support the offspring should, of course, be accompanied by a
well-formed and roomy body capable of affording the young
suitable accommodation for their development and growth.

But the chief point we have here to regard is that the progeny
should have, by nature and character, a special capacity for the
economical production of meat, or, in fact, be good machines
for changing vegetable productions of various kinds into animal
matter. Here again the evidence of practice is very decided, as
showing that our well-bred stock will produce more meat from a
given quantity of food than those of inferior quality. I have
shown in other communications* in what manner the system of
management adopted and the peculiar conformation of the body
which is possessed by all well-bred stock—whether cattle, sheep,
or pigs—promotes the economical production of meat. It is
enough for our present purpose to record the fact that the square-
ness of frame, the small proportion of offal, the docile dispo-
sition, and the smallness of the lungs possessed by all animals of
this description are well calculated to favour the production of
the largest quantity of meat of the best quality from any given
quantity of food with the least loss in its conversion. These,
therefore, are most important points of character to be imparted
to any animal which is simply to be used as a means for pro-
ducing a certain amount of animal food. For these reasons, the
dam should be well-formed, healthy, and a good milker, and the
young animal should receive from its parents that conformation
of body and constitution which render our high-bred stock such
economical producers of meat. These are, however, in some
degree antagonistic requirements ; for, as we have before seen,
those animals which possess a strong tendency for the formation
of fat are not generally remarkable for being good milkers: yet
such a combination is desirable if it can ‘he attained, and the
two objects are not irreconcilable. Practically, there will be no
difficulty in selecting a well-formed healthy female, capable of
nourishing her progeny in a satisfactory manner, ond-we must
endeavour to communicate to the offspring those necessary quali-
fications which are deficient in the female by means of the sire.
To accomplish this result, a male should be selected which has
been very carefully bred, and whose ancestry during several
preceding generations nae possessed those qualifications which
distinguish well-bred stock as economical producers of meat.

* ¢ Journal of Highland Agricultural Society,’ No. LXIX., page 321. ‘Journal
of Bath and West of England Agricultural Society,’ vol. vii. page 57. :

Breeding of Farm-Stock. 9

Such a male, in consequence of such parentage, will have con-
centrated within him powers of transmitting this character to
his stock proportioned to the length and purity of his pedigree.
If this male were put to a female possessing hereditary powers
of less powerful character, it is manifest that the male will have
the greatest influence upon the offspring and impart to ita
similar disposition for rapid feeding to that which it possessed.
In this manner we can transmit from the male the predisposition
to form meat economically, whilst in the female we have secured
the means for bringing this character to the fullest and most
vigorous development. The more fully these characters are
possessed by the parents respectively, the more perfect will be
the. result. It is desirable that the female should not only be
competent to produce and freely nourish her offspring, but also
that she should not possess strong hereditary powers to oppose
and counteract the influence of the male. The male should have
the guarantee of a well-guarded pedigree for that unstained unity
of gharacter which by its concentrated energy is so influential
upon the offspring.

Some may, however, anticipate that a similar result would be
attained by breeding from a very well-bred female by means of
an inferior male. ‘This, however, would not be the case, and a
moment’s consideration will show the cause of this variation. In
the former case we have a female capable of fully developing and
nourishing her young, more certain as a breeder, more hardy in
constitution, and consequently more free from the seeds of disease
than in the latter. On economical grounds also the contrast is
great, for by the one plan you require but one valuable and ex-
pensive male animal, whilst under the other system each of the
females has to possess this pedigree value. We have therefore
every inducement to breed from females well adapted to produce
the finest offspring, and to use male animals capable of imparting
those qualities which all will admit are desirable for the produc-
tion of meat. This is no new principle, for it was advocated
more than twenty years ago by the late Lord Spencer, who in the
Ist volume of the Roy alk Agricultural Society’s Journal has re-
corded his conviction that the worse bred the cow may be the
more fully will the calf resemble the bull. An instance illus-
trating this principle came under my notice while I was inspect-
ing one of the late Duke of Bedford’s well-managed farms. 1
was very much struck with the superior quality of about 100 or
120 store pigs, as much alike as possible, and all admirable in
form and condition. I expressed a wish to purchase some for
breeding, but I was told, in a reply characterised alike by candour
and sound judgment, ‘valuable as they are for feeding, they are
worthless for breeding.” Great as was my first surprise, no ex-

10 Breeding of Farm-Stoch.

planation was needed when I saw the parents, The boar was
exceedingly well made, and very fine in quality, with a most
careful pedigree, whilst the sows were large, coarse, and ugly,
but excellent breeders and good milkers, thus producing large
farrows and pushing them rapidly on towards maturity.

An interesting communication appears in the Journal of this
Society (Vol. xiv., p. 214), from M. Malingré-Nouel, bearing
upon this subject. He introduced into France some of our
choicest English rams for the improvement of the native breeds of
sheep, but the lambs obtained were in no way improved by their
use. By long-continued breeding in and in the French ewes had
hereditary featleaeasion more powerful than those of the English

rams, which rendered the influence of the latter quite inoperative.
As soon, however, as some ewes were obtained by crossing dif-
ferent retire ebde the hereditary power became reduond toa
very low degree, and the lambs subsequently produced. by the

inglish rams partook so closely of the character of the sires that
they were considered by good English judges to have been pure-
bred sheep from E Sele

For the economic = production of beef the best stock will be
obtained from good useful dairy cows by the use of bulls of
thoroughly good pedigree. Indeed, I may observe that a bull
can scarcely be too well bred or too good for such a purpose,
provided that the natural vigour of the system be not sacrificed.
The quality and influence of a ‘bull determines’ the nails ae
large number of bullocks, and it becomes a matter of consider-
Biles importance to the reader thus to impart to these a superior
feeding character. When this influence is fully appreciated we
shall not find bulls valued as so much beef, but rather as the
communicators of certain feeding qualities ‘which will render
their numerous offspring either profitable or unprofitable to the
grazier. In the case of sheep, a good supply of milk materially
affects the value of the lambs ; seal too much care cannot be taken
to preserve and encourage this excellent disposition. Combined
with this the ewes should also possess hardy constitutions, and
thus be capable of rearing healthy and thriving lambs. The ram
should regulate the increase of quality, which must be discreetly
governed by the local peculiarities of climate. The parentage of
toca should be investigated with equal if not greater care than
his symmetry and general quality.

There is no variation from these rules even in the breeding of
pigs. Here let the boar be distinguished by good quality and
careful breeding, and the sow able to rear a numerous progeny to
a high degree of "perfection. Thus will a class of stock be pro-
duced eminently adapted for the economical production of meat.

Breeding of Farm-Stock. 11

Purity or Breep.

The production of animals for maintaining and perpetuating
the pure breeds is a course of practice distimat from either of the
preceding systems which we have noticed. In these the produc-
tion of milk and meat respectively modified and regulated our
proceedings, but for the present purpose we have to produce
fixity of type, and to this end we must select animals possessing
the same characteristics and the same affinities, that in each suc-
ceeding generation the same stamp may be the more deeply and
indelibly impressed upon the offspring. When there is any bad
point of character to be overcome it is only to be accomplished
by persevering in the use of a parent having, if possible, an oppo-
site tendency, or at least as little as may be of that which is
objectionable, by which means the evil, if not subdued in the first
generation, will be gradually comeoted by judgment and perse-
verance. The subsequent course of procedure will aim at rendering
the character thus acquired as permanent as possible, Every gene-
ration will have the special character of the breed more and more
powerfully concentrated, and consequently will be more compe-
tent to render these qualities hereditary. We have before seen
that the influence of the parent upon the offspring is dependent
upon the relative powers possessed by each individual. In the
case of pure-bred animals there should be no opposing influence
to weaken the hereditary tendencies of the offspring, but on the
other hand a concurrent and sympathetic nature, so that the here-
ditary character may be confirmed and strengthened. Anything
like a cross should be most jealously guarded against as intro-
ducing a conflict of influences, which impairs the character of the
race,

It may, however, be said that if we do not get fresh blood we
lose size in our stock. ‘This sacrifice is greater in appearance
than in reality, for presuming the opinion to be correct that the
food consumed by animals of equal quality bears a regular pro-
portion to their live weight, and there is good reason to believe
that such is the case, then it is clear that the loss of size does
not render the consumption of food less economical. This dimi-
nished size does not appear in any way to prejudice the stock
produced when such sires are used with females of inferior
quality having a good supply of milk. If we could breed in the
same line and yet not lose size, it would be decidedly advan-
tageous. This is a difficulty which the producer of pure breeding
stock has to combat to the best of his judgment and discretion ;
but on no condition should size be gained by any stain in the
pedigree. It were better to allow the diminished size to con-
tinue, for to maintain it at the cost of pure descent would be to

12 Breeding of Farm-Stock.

sacrifice the main object in view. To meet any drawbacks
attendant upon this maintenance of purity of breed, this stock
should bear such a value, and bring such remunerative prices to
the breeder, as to indemnify him against risk and losses, and
open a fait prospect of profit. The decrease of size may, like
every other point of character, be influenced by discretion in the
management. An instance occurs to my mind of a celebrated
breeder of sheep who was noted for maintaining size with great
purity of descent. He made an invariable rule of purchasing his
rams from a most carefully bred flock, and for twenty-two or
twenty-three years—in fact, up to the time when he gave up
business—he never introduced any other blood, but he was ex-
ceedingly particular in selecting the largest rams, being satisfied
that whether large or small all possessed an equally pure pedi-
gree, His extended experience thoroughly convinced him that
his system was correct.

It has been judiciously remarked that it is much easier to
bring any breed to the highest state of perfection than afterwards
to maintain it in that position. The difficulties are undoubtedly
great, but observation shows that they are not insurmountable.
The relative advantages of breeding in and in and breeding in the
line have scarcely been determined, but it is a subject worthy of
consideration. Mr, Pawlett, a ram breeder of high repute, and
the author of an Essay on Sheep,* says :—

“From along experience and close attention to the subject for more than
twenty years, my mind seems more disposed to favour breeding in and in,
rather than changing from one flock to another. I do not recommend that
animals closely allied should be put together generally, yet I have known a
very good sheep, for instance, produced by putting the son of a ram called A

to a daughter of A in cases where their points would suit each other, and I
should never hesitate to do so.”

Mr. Robert Smith, whose reputation as a ram breeder is equal
to that of Mr. Pawlett, and who is the author of the Prize Essay
on Sheep,f takes a very different view of this question, and
says :—

“ With crossing and breeding in and in I have been lamentably disappointed,
there being no dependance on the first, and no size to be procured in the latter.
Even in ‘ breeding in the line’ much depends upon the union or knowledge of
matching the male and female, particularly if selected from different families
even of the same race, which have been for some time raised in other localities,
and consequently influenced by climate, soil, situation, and treatment. When
using rams of the same flock they should by no means be used nearer than a
third remove in the same line of blood. I have, by repeated experiments, ex-
perienced by the nearer affinities of blood the most decided disappointment,
but have raised some first-rate animals by putting together the third removes
when attention had been previously paid to the sort required, A

mur Boaenal of the Royal Agricultural Society,’ vol. vi. page 362.
+ Ibid., vol. viii. p. 25.

Breeding of Farm-Stoch. 13

In the former case the ram A stands in the relationship of sire
to the two sheep to be bred together ; in the latter case he stands
as grandsire to both. In this way, by diverging from a favourite
sheep, we again converge, and probably produce one or more sheep
of the utmost value to that flock, as presenting some distance in
relationship without any sacrifice of family merit.

With all the advantages derivable from breeding stock with
good pedigree and great fixity of character, we find that not only
are good qualities thus concentrated and rendered hereditary, but
also others of less desirable character which may have been pos-
sessed by the parents. ‘Thus we have in many cases a delicacy
of constitution and a want of energy in the system, which is too
commonly looked upon as a necessary result of high breeding,
but I am inclined to believe that these results are much more
referable to the system of management pursued. ‘The delicacy
imparted to stock by too much protection through the winter
months in warm sheds and buildings, whereby they get glossy
coats, ill prepared to resist atmospheric influences when they are
turned out to grass in the spring, render such stock peculiarly’
delicate. This delicacy, when continued for several successive
generations, becomes constitutional and hereditary. A moderate
exposure to the cold of winter and plenty of exercise will enable
cattle of the purest breed to keep a good rough coat, and although
they may need more food, still this is a sacrifice perfectly insigni-
ficant in comparison to the advantages gained by strengthening
and invigorating the system, instead of fostering a relaxed and
enervated condition of body. Well-bred cattle reared in this
hardy manner possess far more vigorous systems, and it should
be remembered that whilst we concentrate in our stock valuable
powers of hereditary transmission, these only become available in
proportion as we preserve in them that vigour of health which
will enable them to communicate these influences. The capa-
bility of stock for breeding is much reduced by the enfeebled
condition of the body induced by rendering them delicate. This
unfavourable influence is seriously increased by the general course
of management now adopted, and the evil accumulates in a greater
degree with every successive generation. An excessive quantity
of fat in either of the parents is also unfavourable to the exercise
of the breeding powers. These, however, are matters of detail
which should rather be noticed under the general management of
stock, but | have made reference to them because it is essential
that breeding animals should not only possess certain points of
character which are desirable for transmission to their offspring,
but that they should also be in that vigorous state of health which
will enable them to produce healthy descendants. It is no un-
common circumstance for well-bred stock to be drafted from the

14 Adulteration of Seeds.

herd as incapable of breeding, which, when put to males of in-
ferior breed, are found to be prolific. Much of this, doubtless,
arises from a want of vigour of body induced by a debilitating
course of treatment which would have been prevented by active
exercise and a system of management calculated to promote
health.

The accumulation of those hereditary tendencies which are
most suitable for the circumstances of each individual case is in
a great measure under our control, but it must still be looked
upon as only one portion of a general system rather than as em-
bedying all that is necessary. It is an important adjunct to
other points of good management which are of great value to the
breeder if judiciously employed, but at the same time all his
efforts in this direction will be of no avail unless assisted by his
general course of management. Valuable as a good pedigree
may be when combined with a healthy and vigorous body, when
the latter is sacrificed to attain the former, the value of pedigree
is questionable. By avoiding excessive fatness in our breeding
animals, by encouraging exercise and moderate exposure so as to
favour the health and energy of the body, and by giving a liberal
but regularly progressive supply of food, we shall best prepare
our stock for being recipients of those hereditary powers to which
I have here made reference.

I!.— Adulteration of Seeds. By Messrs. W1xL1am and Hueu
RayNeIRD, of Basingstoke.

Prize Essay.

Tue growth and sale of pure, sound, clean seed of agricultural
plants at a moderate price is of the Seas importance, and the
object of the prize offered by the Royal Agricultural Society is
doubtless to promote these ends by enabling the buyer to detect
and therefore to check defects in cultivation or abuses from
adulteration. None are so competent to furnish information on
this subject as seed-dealers, who have constantly samples of all
kinds of seeds offered to their inspection; but they may possibly
be deterred by the fear of two very illiberal objections—first,
that a knowledge of the secrets of adulteration could only be
obtained by some participation in the practice, and secondly,
that it is wrong to divulge to the public anything that may be
considered a trade secret. The author, being himself a seed-dealer,
may be allowed to reply to the first that his knowledge extends no
further than that of every respectable dealer; and to the second,
that as the dealer in seeds is, properly speaking, only a medium

Adulteration of Seeds. 15

between the grower and the farmer who requires seeds, his
agency, fairly conducted, has no secrets to conceal from the
public.

It is, however, of great importance to the fair dealer that at-
tempts at imposition should be detected and exposed, because
whilst such devices prosper it is impossible for him to compete
in prices with the trickster.

tis of still more importance to the agricultural public that
they should recognise the two following truths :—

Ist. That goods offered below the current market-price must,
as a rule, be either of inferior stock, damaged, or adulterated,
because one seed-dealer has no peculiar advantages over another
in purchasing in the open market.

2nd. That it is literally ‘“ penny wise and pound foolish” for
a grower to purchase such seeds, as the penny gained in price
must be followed by the loss of a pound in the crop.

Although adulteration has much to answer for, it must not be
made responsible for all the defect of vegetative power exhibited
in the samples of agricultural seeds sold in our markets. Much
is due to other causes, which in this essay we are not called upon
to describe, but may briefly enumerate. Seeds may be badly
ripened, or spoilt by bad weather in harvesting ; they are some-
times cut before they are fully developed, and often harvested in
a damp condition, of which heating in the stack is a natural con-
sequence. Again, weeds are allowed to produce and ripen their
seeds with those of the crops; and from carelessness in the field,
stack, and barn different varieties of the same kind of seed become
mixed together. In short, as much or even more care is required
to distinguish good from bad seed, when coming direct from the
grower, as from the shop of the seed-doctor. The articles sup-
plied by the latter always have a suspicious unnatural appearance
which the practised eye detects at once ; for this reason adultera-
tion seldom escapes notice amongst experienced seed-growers
and honest dealers, through whose hands genuine seed is con-
stantly passing. In districts where seeds are not grown to any
considerable extent (in Ireland especially), amongst small farmers
and small retailers of seeds who make that trade an adjunct to
the grocery or provision store, the seed-doctor has done a most
thriving trade, underselling the honest dealer, and driving him
out of the market.

CLOVER SEEDs.

Old seeds are brushed and rubbed up by machinery, their
appearance further improved by some colouring matter to give
the purple hue, and then mixed off with fine new seed. These

16 Adulteration of Seeds.

samples may, however, be easily detected by comparison with
samples known to be genuine, and by a comparative trial of
growth.

In some districts, where the farmers usually sow mixed clover
and grasses, red clover is adulterated to some extent with the
cheaper article trefoil, the farmer thus paying 100 per cent. more
for the latter than he ought to be charged. White clover under-
goes the admixture with old seed which has been put through a
rubbing and bleaching process by exposure to the fumes of burn-
ing sulphur. When very dear it is dashed with a proportion of
red suckling, if the latter happens to be the cheaper article of the
two.

But the most palpable fraud of the last few years has been the
attempt to colour white clover so as to make it resemble alszke.
Samples thus treated may be detected by the green stain which
they leave behind them when wetted and rubbed in the hand.

Old trefoil undergoes the sulphurous bleaching and brushing
process to a great extent.

Old trifolium is treated in the same manner.

But in all these cases the purchaser need only compare the
suspicious article with a really fine genuine sample of new seed,
and he will have no difficulty in coming to a satisfactory decision
as to its merits.

The actual modus operandi in “ doctoring” is, 1 must confess,
unknown to me, and were it otherwise I should not enter into
details which could afford no useful information, and might pos-
sibly lead to mischief. The power of detecting a fraud is quite
independent of the knowledge of the means and manipulations by
which it is effected.

Foreign clover is especially subject to the attack of parasitic
weeds, such as Orobanche elatior (tall broom-rape), Orobanche
minor (smaller broom-rape), and Cuscuta trifolii (dodder). The
broom-rape attaches itself as a parasite to the roots of clover
when growing, and as the seeds are very small and numerous it
is difficult to exclude them from the sample, and it is thus the
mischief becomes perpetuated. But as the upright leafless stem
of this plant is tolerably conspicuous, it may be destroyed by
pulling so as to separate the bulbous base of the parasite from
the root of the clover. Hoeing is in this case useless, since the
plant is attached to the very roots of the clover.

Where dodder abounds it is fatal to the growth of clover and
flax; therefore a knowledge of its characteristics is of the utmost
importance to the agriculturist. Dr. Lindley (see Morton’s
‘Cyclopedia of Agriculture’) describes the dodder as a genus of
leafless vegetable parasites, maintaining its existence by twining

Adulteration of Sceds. 17

round other plants, into whose stems it inserts its sucker-like
roots, destroying them by appropriating to itself the sap which
was intended for their own use. In appearance dodder is like a
number of fleshy threads twisted round a branch, or it may be
compared to long worms, or even to small animal intestines,
whence has come one of its vulgar names, Devil’s guts. Here
and there on such threads will be found minute scales, and
eventually clusters of small delicate globular white or pink
flowers, which appear in balls on the stems, speedily form fruit,
and end in producing each four seeds, within which is coiled up
an embryo plant, looking like a miniature snake. As the number
of flowers in each ball is about fifteen, it follows that every ball
will furnish about sixty plants, whence the rapid spread of such
pests may be easily understood. As: soon as the seed of the
dodder is ripe it falls to the ground, and usually seems to lie
dormant till the succeeding year ; sometimes, however, it germ1-
nates immediately. When spring returns the embryo sends one
end down into the earth to form a root, and with the other it rises
upwards, like a small white thread or worm. It is not then a
parasite, but seems to derive its food from the soil, like ordinary
plants; it cannot, however, do so long, but withers and perishes
unless it touches some living branch or stem, which it imme-
diately seizes by means of a sucker protruded from the point of
contact, and twining from left to right, and forming more suckers
as it twines, establishes itself upon its victim, and ceases to
have any further connection with the soil, being from that time
forward a true parasite feeding on the juices of the plant it has
seized upon. After making a few turns round the branch, and
securing itself firmly in its new position, it again lengthens and
catches hold of some other branch, when more suckers are pro-
truded ; and thus it goes on branching and twining and sucking
and branching again, until it forms that appearance which Pro-
fessor Henslow so well described as resembling ‘fine, closely-
tangled, wet catgut.”

Now, the dodder has a new and independent seat of life
wherever it has twined itself round a branch, and as it is inces-
santly twining and separating and twining again, a single plant
is speedily in the condition of a polypus, so that if it be cut into
a thousand pieces each piece will continue to grow as if nothing
had happened to it. Tearing the dodder to pieces, then, so far
from extirpating it, only multiplies the mischief. As it is only
an annual it would be killed if we could prevent its flowering ;
but that is difficult because of its hiding itself among the lower
branches of plants, where it cannot well be seen, and a very few
heads of flowers will renew it in a single year. The best plan is
to dig up the crop where dodder appears, so as to form a circle

VOL, XXII, C considerably

18 Adulteration of Seeds.

FLAX DODDER.

CUSCUTA EPILINUM,

ce cunt a a lal
1 2 3 4 5
Seed. Ditto Ditto On the look Dying
germinating. out fora for want of
foster parent. a parent.

Progress when it finds a parent.

a a Plant elevated from the soil, now a parasite.

Adulteration of Seeds. 19

Section ofa coil of Dodder round a Flax-stem.

@ Flax, b Dodder. ¢ Radicular cells of Dodder pushing into the Flax.

Tendrils of Dodder on Flax.

c2

20 Adulteration of Seeds.

IZ,

di

DIRS
Dy J
ANN

Cuscuta Trifolii—Clover Dodder,

considerably beyond the patch apparently formed by it, and then
to burn the crop along with the pared soil.

On the Continent the destruction of dodder has been much
considered, and many experiments tried. One of these is said
to be entirely successful, and being a most simple remedy is
deserving of trial. It is merely the application of sulphate of
iron (green vitrol) dissolved in water, one pound to the gallon,
and distributed from a watering-pot. It speedily destroys the
dodder, leaving the clover comparatively uninjured by the appli-
cation. Two dressings on succeeding days are sufficient, and
the plants soon resuine a healthy appearance, if not already too
much injured by the parasite.*

But it is much more desirable, if possible, to prevent than to
cure, and this aim may be considerably aided by greater atten-
tion to cleanliness of seed, and especially its freedom from
dodder. If lucerne or clover seed is well sifted before being
sown the dodder seed will be completely separated. Lucerne
seeds are about two lines long and one and a fourth broad ; clover
seed is much the same, while dodder seed is little more than half
the size, and is spheroidal or in shape like the quarter of an

* ©Our Farm Crops.’ By Professor John Wilson. Part viii. p. 125,

Adulteration of Seeds. 21

orange, looking more like fragments of pale gray clay than an
organised body. A “ No.17” sieve will allow it to pass through,
and will detain both lucerne and clover seed. The species of
dodder are numerous, but the most important to farmers are—

1. Cuscuta epilinum (the flax dodder), with slender pale-green
stems, whitish flowers in small distant clusters, and fleshy calyx
lobes nearly as long as the corolla. Parasitical on flax.

2. Cuscuta trifolii (the clover dodder), with reddish-yellow
slender branching stems, small white flowers tinged with pink,
and a narrow calyx as long as the tube of the corolla, A most
formidable enemy to clover-fields.

These were both, perhaps, introduced into this country with
foreign seed. Clover dodder excited great alarm in England
when it first appeared, some years since, and it still continues its
ravages where great attention is not paid to its destruction and
prevention. It is supposed first to have come from Affghanistan
with lucerne seed or trefoil, and it rapidly spread over this
country, for when such a plant once has hold of the land it is,
as has been shown, extremely difficult to extirpate or keep in
check.

The accompanying illustrations, kindly supplied by my friend
Professor Buckman, of Cirencester, will enable the plant to be
identified wherever it occurs.

Mr. Buckman, in his Prize Essay on Agricultural Weeds in the
16th volume of the Journal, very properly deprecates a practice
which no honest man would follow—of seeding clover too much
affected by dodder to be useful for feed. It is true the dodder
by weakening the plants renders them inore apt to form seed, so
that a considerable yield is produced, but it can never be right
for an individual to perpetuate a vile weed for the sake of a
trifling profit to himself.

RYE-GRASS.

Bright dry and well-kept samples of rye-grass will retain their
vegetative power for a number of years. What the buyer has
chiefly to guard against is heated and badly-conditioned seed.
This defect is evident to the sense of sight and smell, but not so
the admixture of spurious seeds, such as one or two varieties
of the brome-grass (commonly called lop-grass) and the black
grass, ‘“‘ Alopecurus agrestis,” or slender fox-tail grass, some of
the worst weeds the farmer has to contend with. These ripen
with and are harvested in crops of seed rye-grass by careless
growers. ‘The seeds being very similar in size to the rye-grass,
are very difficult to separate from it ; and unless samples are very
carefully examined, the existence of the admixture will very pro-
bably escape the notice of the purchaser until he takes a view of

22. Adulteration of Seeds.

his growing crop in the following season. From Italian rye-grass
the brome-grasses and black grass are still more difficult to
separate, as both the genuine and spurious seeds are awned, and
unless the buyer is well versed in his business he will be easily
deceived. Indeed, I have known small bulks consisting of nine-
tenths of brome-grass, a vile weed, publicly exhibited and sold
as Italian rye-grass in one of our largest country markets, and
that, too, by a respectable dealer of long standing, whe was
fully impressed with the idea that he was selling true Italian
rye-grass.

Very many samples of English and foreign Italian rye-grass
are largely admixed with seeds of the comparatively valueless
“holcus lanatus,” soft meadow-grass, or Yorkshire fog. This is
readily distinguished, and (being very light) more easily separated
than the black grass, which is a weed of no value as food, but
very troublesome to get rid of when once it takes possession of
the land. A few years since large quantities of light Scotch rye-
grass were sold for exportation, ae came back wae with foreign
Tesla but the speculation deal not appear to answer well; at
least it has not been repeated to any great extent. Engliel
dealers, however, still buy foreign Italian by the hundredweight,
mix it off with light Scotch rye-grass, often bought at 1s. to 1s. 6d.
per bushel, and resell by the quarter or bushel at a handsome
profit, whilst if the proportion of light rye-grass does not exceed
25 to 30 per cent., and the admixture is carefully made, the im-
posture is not readily discovered.

Although with the farmer and country dealer some of the
London trade get the credit of these tricks, they sometimes
extend to the country, as shown by the following transaction, in
which I was personally concerned. Some five or six years since,
towards the end of the seed season, I bought of a well-to-do
country dealer, who has a high reputation for respectability, and
who has (it is said) amassed a large fortune by his dealings,
some 50 or 60 quarters of what appeared to be a fine parcel of
Italian rye-grass, the want of the usually characteristic awn on a
part of the seed being attributed to over-vipening, or some such
cause. This sample was immediately resold to Mr. William
Skirving, the well-known seedsman of Liverpool, one of the most
straightforward and honourable men in the trade, who made a
request for immediate despatch. Accordingly, dependence being
placed upon the honesty and reputation of the country merchant,
the 50. or 60 quarters were forwarded on from London withant
the usual examination there. When the seed was inspected in
Liverpool it was found to contain a large percentage of light
Scotch rye-grass, so carelessly mixed that when shot out of the
bags the seed showed a streaky appearance, giving plain evi-

Adulteration of Seeds. 23

dence of the impostor’s practices. Accordingly the seed was
returned ; but, as it was sold for delivery in London, its removal
thence maiklacia examination prevented me, by the custom of the
trade, from enforcing the claim to compensation ; although it is
very doubtful, I believe, whether the law would not have given
me ‘redress, ane a sound legal decision on this point would be of
great service to the trade.

SAINFOIN.

Sainfoin-seed rarely vegetates well if kept over till the fol-
lowing year, and the best judges cannot always tell old seed
from new. If the seed breaks down hard and dry, if it has a
dull appearance, a suspicion may be very fairly entertained that
it is old,—a suspicion which should only be dispelled by trial
of growth, under ordinary circumstances of temperature ; for I
bass oun sainfoin-seed to vegetate strongly when planted in
a hot-bed, which did not produce a single plant when sown
in the Bela

For a series of years I have made trials of the growth of
parcels of sainfoin-seeds passing through my hands, and I have
rarely found the growing seeds exceed 90 per cent. in good
samples received direct from the grower; the more common
range of growth of genuine parcels is from 75 to 85 per cent. ;
lots of doubtful character fall much lower than this.

The spurious seeds most commonly found in sainfoin-seed are
the common brome-grass and burnet, which are extremely diffi-
cult to remove. The burnet is of similar colour, and nearly or
quite equal in weight and size with the soittfoimnecd: so as not
to be readily distinguished _by a casual emnninadldi of the
sample, although the “plants in the field are quickly discerned.
With the exception of samples of giant sainfoin grown from the
second crop—i. e. after a crop of hay—which are usually free
from burnet, I believe nearly every other parcel offered upon the
market contains burnet to a greater or less extent. It is true
once or twice in a season a parcel may be bought very nearly
free from admixture; but, as a rule, it is impossible to sell
sainfoin without burnet ae the seed is hand-picked,—a
process too tedious and expensive to be resorted to. The sain-
fom imported from France to a very considerable extent rarely
contains less than 2 per cent. of burnet, and as much as 5 per
cent. Is a common admixture.

If the young sainfoin layers are fed hard with sheep they lose
plant and the burnet rapidly increases, and hence the seedsman
sometimes gets more blame than he is fairly entitled to ; other-
wise a small quantity of burnet is not injurious to the crop. If
the farmer considers it essential that his sainfoin should be per-

24 Adulteration of Seeds.

fectly free from burnet, it is but just the seed-growers should be
made responsible ; De I believe, if proper care be taken, it is
quite possible to weed out the fanned in the growing crop, and
thus a perfectly clean sample may be chitinadl: Bae if sainfoin
and burnet are allowed to ripen together, it is impossible to
entirely separate one seed from the other by any machinery the
seedsman has at his command. The Bromus sterilis, when found
to a large extent, renders the sample almost valueless. Milled
sainfoin, or sainfoin-seed, separated from the husk, may be made
perfectly free from every spurious seed, with perhaps the excep-
tion of burnet. It vegetates more readily upon the removal of
the outer husk, but the purchaser has here also to guard against
mixtures of old seed and the risk of the vegetative power af the
seed having been injured in the milling process by careless or
inexperienced hands,

Turnip, RAPE-sEED, KC.

It is a well-known fact that these seeds, as well as all others
belonging to the class from which oil may te extracted, preserve
their vitality for a number of years, if well harvested and after-
terwards stored in a dry warehouse. ‘The chief means of adul-
teration here employed is the admixture of from 20 to 30 per
cent. of dead seed, either dead from age or killed by baking, or
some other process into the mystery of which I have never been
initiated.

Dead turnip-seed readily finds a market for purposes of
adulteration, and small rape-seed being generally at about one-
third the price of swede-seed is in demand for mixing with that
article, the rape first undergoing a process to destroy its vitality.

Seed is also dressed up with a preparation of vegetable oil to
improve its appearance, but this I think commendable rather
than otherwise (if not done to make old seed pass for new), as it
preserves and improves the vegetative power of the seed by
returning to it the oil which it naturally loses in keeping.

MANGOLD-SEED

will also, if well kept, preserve its vegetative powers for a series
of years, and old seeds are used for mixing off and thus
reducing the price of genuine lots. Mangold-seed is often much
injured by mice, which eat out the seed, leavi ing the outer covering
or husk.

As in the case of the turnip, the only means of detecting
adulteration by an admixture of dead seed is a trial of growth,—
a test which applies to all other descriptions of seeds. Seeds that
grow quickly, such as clover, turnip, mustard, &c., may be made

Adulteration of Seeds. 25

to germinate upon damp flannel or blotting-paper, placed in a
sufficiently high temperature ; but this process will not answer
for slow-growing seeds, or those having a thick husk. The best
plan is to grow samples in a pot under circumstances of soil,
moisture, and temperature resembling as nearly as may be those
to which the crop is subjected in the field. Even then a single
trial is far from being an ‘infallible test of the germinating power
of seeds, and, if the first trial is unsatisfactory, | should always
advise that it be repeated. Mr. Charles Appelius, an extensive
seedsman at Erfurt, supplies the following information as to the
germination of seeds.

“If rye-grass be sown in soil which retains moisture with
average tenacity, and buried 1 inch below the surface, 7-8ths of
the seed grows in 12 days; if buried 2 inches 7-8ths also grow,
but only in 18 days; if 3 inches, 6-8ths in 20 days; if 4 inches,
4-8ths germinate in 21 days; at 5 inches, 3-8ths in 22 days;
and at 6 inches the proportion of seeds which germinates is
reduced to 1-8th in 23 days.

*©On the other hand, when rye-grass is sown:and simply har-
rowed in, it germinates in 5 days.

* Our common agricultural plants may be thus classified,
according to the length of time required for the germination of
good seeds, at a temperature of 54° to 64°, in a finely-pulverised
soil, with a moderate supply of moisture.

Mustard, turnip, rape, buckwheat, peas, flax,
rye-grass, lupine, lentil.

Wheat, barley, oats, maize, beans, chicory,

From 7 io 10 days.. .. | some kinds of peas, clover, tares, timothy-
orass.

[is parsnips, burnet, sainfoin, parsley,

From 4to7 days .. .. {

From 10 to 11 days oat-grass, meadow-grass, brome-grass,

mangold.

If circumstances are at all unfavourable, the time required for
the vegetation of the seeds named in the last section is increased

from 14 to 20 days.”

CARELESS OR ACCIDENTAL ADULTERATION BY THE GROWER.

Although this can hardly be called adulteration, yet as the
results are equally injurious to the buyer, and as it may be
an equally dishonest and dishonourable action, I shall briefly
refer to it; and I shall quote some of the remarks made by
Mr. Buckman in his interesting Prize Essay on Agricultural
Seeds, Royal Agricultural Society’s Journal, vol. xvi. p. 359, and
his articles on Agricultural Seeds, as printed in the ‘ Gardener’s
Chronicle’ of 1859, referring the reader to these papers for more
minute particulars.

26 Adulteration of Seeds.

Of casual adulteration, or rather admixture, the saving seed
from dodder-infected clover, referred to a few pages back, is an
example, as is also that of taking seed from exceedingly foul rye-
grass. Of this last practice Mr. Buckman very properly observes
(vol. xvii. p. 5386 of this Journal), “ A dishonest farmer has a
crop of seeds which may be very foul, especially with a preva-
lence of lop (brome) grass. In this case he knows it will not
only be a short but a poor crop of hay and grass. He therefore
seeds it, and the lop and the rye grass thus become inseparable,
and the superior weight of the former makes up a tolerable
weight of seed, he even if sold at a reduced price because it
it is not of the best quality, pays better than any other mode of
dealing with the crop; and thus as long as men are rognes
enough to seed foul patches and others are so foolish as to buy the
cheapened pr oduce, so long will this be a source of weeds. Yet,
so far as clean feeoatl ines is concerned, we cannot consider this
title to be deserved, unless as well as destroying weeds it also
prov ides against sowing them.”

A very just remark; but it must be observed, that a farmer
who studies to keep ae land clean is generally equally desirous
to obtain pure and good seeds. It is the careless farmer who
throws foul inferior seeds into foul land, and then wonders at the
quantity of weeds; his neglect in not keeping the land clean
hindering him from noticing that the rubbish he sows adds to
the foulness of his land.

Another fraud—for it deserves no better name—is sometimes
practised by the growers of turnip, mangold, and carrot seed.
Generally these are, and ought always to be, grown from roots of
one variety, selected for their shape, carefully transplanted and
cultivated ; so that the seed is free from any foreign admixture,
whilst the stock or variety is gradually improving. But this is,
when properly conducted, an expensive process, and the con-
scientious grower cannot compete in price with the man who
sows a coarse, hardy kind broadcast on his stubbles, leaves them
to flower in ae next summer, and then harvests, in a slovenly
manner, a mixture of charlock, rape, and turnip seed. Moreover,
as varieties are improved, the quantity of seed which they yield
decreases, such improvement consisting in an enlargement of the
bulb and a diminution of the leaf and stalk: a farther reason why
the grower of improved varieties can never compete in price, but
may be a loser even when charging double the price at which the
careless grower makes his large profit.

ForEIGN SEED

is probably more adulterated by admixture than our own,
because the growers are more careless in allowing weeds in their

Adulieration of Seeds. 27

land, possess inferior machines for cleaning, and sometimes have
the credit of purposely mixing all kinds of rubbish with the seed.
The dodder in our flax and clover is an instance of foreign intro-
duction.

Mr. Buckman, in his Essay on Agricultural Weeds (‘ Journal,’
vol. xvi. p. 376), speaks of a field sown with foreign flax-seed
which came up full of black mustard, which, besides the imme-
diate injury to the crop, so infested the soil that after an interval
of six years it still existed as a troublesome weed in that and the
neighbouring fields. But as mustard is easily recognised from
flax and may readily be separated from it in the cleaning, this evil
was in part due to the carelessness of the farmer.

The disgraceful state in which much foreign seed is sent out
is shown by Mr. Buckman in the ‘ Agricultural Gazette’ of
August 28th, 1858.

Eight samples of foreign seed, sent for examination (of which
5 were clover, by no means over-clean ; 2 of Italian rye-grass,
not only very light but containing a large quantity of mischievous
weeds; and 1 turnip, the genuineness of which it is difficult to
ascertain, as seeds of charlock, rape, Kc., are difficult to detect),
gave the following results :—

| Weight | Estimated
Copy of Label. | oie 1 pea | Remarks.
| measure. pint.
1 Red clover (foreign) ness 672 8,800 | Plantain, &e.,a good seed-
2 Red clover (foreign) ae Se hh 6R6 3,860 | All plantain, a good seed.
3 White Dutch clover (foreign) 688 | 16,000 | Polygonacee, plantain, &e.
Polygonacee, plantain,&c.,
4 White Dutch clover (Silesian) | 704 | 28,800 | weight made up by grains
of silex.
Polygonacee, plantain, &e.,
5 White Dutch (French) .. .. 696 | 24,000 | weight made up by grains
of silex.
6 Imported Italian rye-grass_.. 212 1,440 | Ranunculus, plantain, lop.
7 Imported Italian rye-grass_.. 216 960 | Ranunculus, plantain, lop.
8 Skirving’s improved purple-top |). 6 Only a small proportion
ere Le el aa a { floated on water.

The ill effect of sowing foul seed is also shown by Mw. Buck-
man in an article in the ‘ Agricultural Gazette’ of October 15th,
1859. He here compares the weeds growing in neighbouring
fields on the College farm, all sown with clover and rye-grass,
and all farmed in the same manner. Of 64 species of weeds he
only found 34 common to the three fields, and but few plants the
seeds of which are not to be found in clover and rye-grass. He
deduces from this that the seed was grown in different localities,

eing bought of different seedsmen, and that the farmer sows

28 Adulteration of Seeds.

most of his weed-pests with his seed. “In the case of the clover-
crop,” he remarks, “ each weed-seed sown subtracts from the sum
of the clover-seed. Nor is this all the evil, as very many of the
weeds grow so fast as to smother and kill (or, at least, so much
weakens that winter kills) much of the clover in their vicinity ;
and lastly, many weeds seed the first year, and are succeeded in
the next by an immense increase, ‘These are circumstances which
will in a great measure account for much of the so-called clover-
sickness of the soil.”

With a few remarks on the modes of avoiding and detecting
the adulteration of seeds, I shall conclude.

I have mentioned the seed-dealer as a medium between the
buyer and seller or grower. He is rather more than this: he is
a guarantee to the buyer that the seeds he supplies are good, free
{rom seeds of weeds, and answering to the description. He
secures the buyer, when the latter is not very conversant in the
article, from the frauds in quality and price to which he might
be subject in purchasing promiscuously, and gives his advice as
to seeds suitable to various soils and seasons. Therefore it is
obvious that the buyer’s chief and best precautions are,—I1st. To
select a responsible and respectable seedsman, and not to seek
goods at the lowest price and of the lowest value ; if he does this,

“a seedsman can no doubt supply a cheap article, but can he
recommend it? 2nd. To purchase seed with a warranty that
a certain percentage of the seed will vegetate; the warranty to
cover the value of the seed, or more if necessary. 3rd. To try a
certain number of seeds, both in a hot-bed and in the open
ground, and see what proportion vegetates: the first plan speedily
shewing the actual number of living seeds, the second what
nemibed would probably grow under open-air culture. 4th. To
examine seeds himself with a microscope, that he may detect the
percentage of weed-adulterations ; the microscope, carefully used,
would probably detect not only this but the new or old, dowtae
or mixed nature of seeds—a single glass is sometimes used now,
but a microscope of tolerably High power would be far more
efficacious. 5th. To note that “he adulteration of rye-grass by
admixture, however carefully done, may be detected easily when
one seed*is lighter than the other; the winnowing-machine will
separate each “according to their respective gravities, 6th. To
get good genuine samples of similar seed, with a view to a com-
parison with that purchased both by the eye and by floating the
two in water as a test of comparative gravity. 7th. Since, how-
ever simple these modes are, many persons will be too much
engaged to try them, and will buy seed just before sowing and
put it in the ground with merely a cursory examination, why
should we not adopt the practice of taking a sample for examina-

Composition of Cheese. 29

tion by a scientific botanical examiner, that he may determine
the percentage of weeds and of live seeds, just as we have chemical
analysts to examine artificial manures? A few shillings thus
laid out might save pounds.

To gopolusies the adulteration of seeds is a practice of trade, or
rather a system of fraud similar to that of falsely labelling goods
for sale: as when 100 yards of cotton thread are labelled as 200 ;
or a tin of coffee stated to weigh 2 oz. or 3 oz. more than its true
weight. But there is this difference in these latter instances,
that the buyer of the cotton or the coffee suffers an immediate and
direct loss, the amount of which can be at once estimated ; but
the loss to the buyer of doctored seeds is far greater, affecting all
the expected 1 increase of the fruits of the ray if not permanently
tainting the soil on which they grow. In honourable trade
things should be called by their proper names, and if it is
necessary to have mixed and doctored seeds they should be sold
as such.

Adulteration plainly owes its origin to the desire to amass
wealth, and, so long as the demand for cheap goods continues, I
fear it will be pandered to by the unscrupulous trader. Dr.
Buckman’s words in the ‘ Journal,’ vol. xvii. p, 376, may prove
a fitting conclusion: ‘“ Pure or clean seed is ever worth paying
a greater price for, as the reverse may entail trouble and expense
for years. Any mechanical processes, therefore, which can be
made available for cleaning seed are well worthy of patronage.
A seedsman who will be sie in the preparation and collection
of seed deserves the best support. In order also to assist in this
matter, farmers should be particular not to allow a dirty patch
to stand for seed, although it may be ‘the most profitable thing
they can do nel ibe

HL.—On the Composition of Cheese, and on Practical Mistakes
in Cheese-making. By Dr. Aucustus VoELCKER.

In the opinion of many persons English cheese is not what it
used to be in the good old time, when it was far more common
than now-a-days for farmers’ wives personally to preside over the
dairy and conduct the making of cheese through its various
stages. Some people assert positively that the English cheese
of the present day is inferior in quality to that which was made
centuries ago. It is of course impossible to give satisfactory
proofs of this supposed inferiority ; but at the same time it must
be admitted that the prevailing custom of leaving the chief dairy
operations almost entirely in the hands of servants furnishes

30 Composition of Cheese.

strong presumptive evidence in favour of those who maintain
these views. Asa rule, we have found the best cheese on farms
where the mistress of the house was herself dairymaid-in-chief,
especially if industrious habits and scrupulous cleanliness were
associated with superior intelligence. Indeed I have had. re-
cently frequent occasion to notice the intimate connection which
appears to exist on the one hand between good cheese and clean-
liness, order, general intelligence, and desire to excel, and on
the other hand between bad cheese, slovenliness, ignorance,
and practical conceit. In the best- managed dairies, however,
cheese-making is practised entirely as an empiric art, which is
admitted by our best practical authorities to be capable of great
improvement, the importance of which is obvious when we con-
sider the large amount of capital directly or indirectly embarked
in dairy-farming. Mr. Humberstone, member for Chester, has
the merit of having first directed the attention of our Society to
the importance of scientific investigation into the principles of
cheese-making; and the Council, on the recommendation of the
Chemical Committee, made a special grant to enable me to visit
the principal dairy districts of England, to carry out certain
practical experiments, and obtain what practical assistance I
required. The more direct laboratory experiments, which, like
the whole investigation, are still in active progress, have been
selected by the Chemical Committee as one of the regular
subjects for investigation for the current year. During the
last ten months I and two of my assistants have been almost
exclusively occupied with the analytical work demanded by a
thorough investigation into the pr inciples of cheese-making. At
the same time T.haye spent between four and five weeks 4 at dif-
ferent times in visiting the dairies of Gloucestershire, Wilts,
Somersetshire, Nene ole Stafford, and part of Cheshire; and I
purpose paying another visit to Cheshire and Derbyshire i in the
ensuing summer vacation. ‘This Paper will embody some of the
practical conclusions to which I have arrived, partly from my
Visits, and partly from my investigations,

ne first point to be observ ed i is, that cheese is often spoiled
(to use an Irishism) before it is ‘madee aay is, before it is
separated from the milk: in other words, the milk is spoiled.
Then the cheese is spoiled during the making, and also in the
keeping. Again I have learned that richer cheese may be made
on some land, even when a portion of cream has been taken from
the milk, than on other land where the whole milk is used.
3rd. I concur with our best and most intelligent cheese-makers
in the opinion, that good saleable, though perhaps not very fine-
flavoured, cheese can be made on any description of land, pro-
vided proper care and attention are paid to the management of

Composition of Cheese. 31

the milk at the beginning, to the treatment of the cheese in the
tub, and to its after ripening. 4th. From all I could learn practi-
cally, and from what I have seen with my own eyes, I have come to
the conclusion that bones i improve the quality of the pasture ¢ and the
richness of the milk, but also that more care is required to make
cheese from boned-pasture than on poor land. 5th. The flavour
of the different kinds of cheese, such as Cheddar, Stilton, Cheshire,
and others, is much more dependent on the method in ordinary
use in these different counties than on the quality of the pasture,
although the latter exercises a considerable influence. The in-
feriority of the Boothy cheese, made from dry food, to that pro-
duced when the cows are at grass, is well known. Nevertheless,
admitting that food does much affect the flavour of cheese,
{ still am of opinion that the various practical manipulations
exercise a yet higher influence in this respect. 6th. Each
system of cheese-making, whether that of Gloucestershire or
Somersetshire, appears fe me its peculiar excellences, but also
its peculiar defects. 7th. Matters altogether imaeeuent are fre-
quently insisted upon as essential to success, whilst others of the
greatest importance are either neglected altogether or much
under-valued : unless therefore a person thoroughly understands
the grounds of his selection and preference, it is better to adopt
one empiric method than to attempt to combine the different
plans. 8th. I found good makers of cheese who had never
heard a word about chemistry. 9th. Although much mystery
is thrown around this art, all that is mysterious about it is purely
accidental: the process in itself is very simple, and accords well
with scientific principles so far as these have been ascertained ;

but skilful management is perhaps rather the exception than the
rule. 10th. ieiier good practice may be considerably improved,

or, more correctly ‘spesldine, simplified, by the application of
scientific principles to cheese-making. 11th. With respect
to the recent mechanical improvements which have been in-
troduced in the dairy districts, Keevil’s and Coquet’s appa-
ratus, and others which have been described at some length in
a former volume of our Journal, save indeed a great deal of
labour and time, but otherwise effect nothing which may not be
done by skilful hands. 12th. Milk, as I have ascertained by
numerous analyses, varies much in its composition, for which
reason great differences must also be expected in cheese. 13th.
Bigaciderable loss both in quality and quantity of cheese was
found to arise from careless management. 14th. In studying
the action of rennet on milk I find “that misapprehension, if not
altogether wrong statement’, prevail in what has hitherto been
said and ierithon: respecting its action. I shall have presently
to advance proofs in confirmation of this assertion. 15th. I

32 Composition of Cheese.

would observe, that generally the scientific principles involved
in the manufacture of cheese are either misstated by scientific
writers on the subject, or but imperfectly recognised by practical
men,

These are some of the principal conclusions at which I have
arrived in the course of my investigation. As it is not my
intention to write a complete essay on cheese-making, I shall
at present only endeavour to point out—Ist, some of the chief
errors made in the process, stating my reasons for speaking
of them as such; and 2ndly, to suggest some remedies and safe-
guards. But, in order to make my subsequent remarks a little
more intelligible, I must briefly allude to the composition of milk,
which, as is well known, is not a uniform white liquid, but a
fluid owing its opaque character to a number of little cream
globules. Seen under a miscroscope of no very great power,
milk appears as a colourless fluid in which there are float-
ing innumerable little white globules or small bags contain-
ing fatty matter. The butter is encased in these microscopic
bags or cells, which themselves are composed of very much
the same material as the curd of milk. These, being lighter
than water, rise on standing, and are removed as cream. If it
were possible to separate the cream completely by standing, the
milk would be almost colourless; but inasmuch as a a sate
number of milk-globules always remain suspended in milk,
even after long standing, skimmed-milk is always more or
less opaque. We must find, therefore, in the cheese made
from skimmed-milk a certain amount of butter, though much
less than in whole-milk cheeses. On the removal of the cream
the milk becomes bluer and more transparent; and hence the
transparent and peculiarly blue appearance of some of the London
milk is indicative of its poorness. On allowing milk to become
acid, which it does readily in warm weather, one of its con-
stituents, which, from its sweet taste, is called sugar-of-milk, is
converted, at least in part, into lactic acid. This change is
effected by simple transposition of the elementary particles of
milk-sugar, without anything being added or detracted from
them. This lactic acid again separates the next constituent,
the casein or curd of milk, which may also be separated by
rennet. On the remoyal ba the casein, either artificially by
rennet or naturally by the lactic acid, we obtain whey; and,
provided this whey i is perfectly clear ata free from all uiee
and curd (which is not generally the case) in our dairies, we
may, by ev aporeeing the clear liquid, obtain milk-sugar and a
certain quantity of matter which is incombustible, aud consti-
tutes the ash of milk. These then are the principal constituents
of milk—curd or casein, butter, milk-sugar, and mineral matters

Composition of Cheese. 33

or ash. Now, in the preparation of cheese we separate the curd
or casein, and, if we want’to make good cheese, also the butter
and a small quantity of mineral matter contained in the milk.
In the whey remains the milk-sugar and most of the mineral
matter. A glance at the subjoined diagram, which gives the
composition of different kinds of milk lately analysed by me, will
show the enormous difference that exists in the relative amounts
of the various constituents of milk, .

Composition of New Milk.

No. 5, No. 6,
No.1, No. 2, No.3, | No. 4, Milk Milk
Milk Milk Milk MIUk analysed | analysed
analysed | analysed | analysed | analysed Sept. 6, Sept. 6,
Ochi 21, Nov. 29, | Sept. 18, Aug. 7, 1860. 1860.
1860. 1860. 1860, 1860. |(Morning’s| (Evening’s
mill.) milix.)
ee ose) eraeed al — al
Winter.) ee 4. See} 88290) “Sh<20 |) 86765 || 87-40") 8995)| 9070
MUU e e:cr _ ciope uae 7°62 4°96 3°99 3°43 1399 Lang)
och et ethene 3°31 3°66 3°47 3°12 2°94 2°81
Nalk-sugar.. .. .. 4°46.) 5°05 bie 5°12 4°48 4°04
Mineval matter (ash) Orit 1°13 78 "93 64 66
; ereses Bes: a nal — as ee 2)
100°00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100*00 | 100°00 | 100°00
eae OF #7} 16°10 | 14°80 | 13°35 | 12°60| 10°05] 9-30
matters .. «s

Ihave selected these analyses from a considerable number of
milk-analyses lately made in my laboratory. They illustrate
strikingly the great differences that exist in the quality of new-
milk. It might readily be imagined that milk such as that
which I examined on the 6th of September, containing 903 per
cent. of water, had either been diluted with water, or at least
produced by cows fed on mangold-tops, distillery-wash, or similar
food. Such, however, was not the case. The‘cows which yielded
this poor milk were out in pasture, and every precaution was
taken to get a fair average of the milkings from some 8 or 10
cows. The milk was received by me almost directly after it had
left the udder, and I can thus vouch for its being genuine, and
its watery condition natural. The pasture, however, was poor
and overstocked, so that the daily growth of grass furnished .
hardly enough food to meet the daily waste to which the animal
frame is subject, and was thus not calculated to meet an extra
demand of materials for the formation of butter and curd. The
milk consequently became not merely deficient in quantity, but
also poor in quality. It is well then to bear in mind that an in-
sufficient quantity of food in the case before us caused the supply of
milk to be small and unusually poor. This analysis illustrates and
confirms a principle generally recognised by good dairy-farmers,

VOL. XXII. D

9

34 ; Composition of Cheese.

that it is bad policy to keep more cows than can be liberally
supplied with food. ‘The evening’s milk on the 6th of September,
it will be noticed, contained about $ per cent. more water and
somewhat less casein and butter than the morning’s milk of the
same cows on the same day. From this and other instances
some may be disposed to infer that the morning’s milk is gene-
rally richer than the evening milk—a view which I myself was
disposed to adopt until a larger range of experiments proved to
me its inaccuracy. In: truth, the comparatively greater richness
of the morning or the evening milk depends on a variety of cir-
cumstances so complicated as to require a lengthened discussion,
which I must postpone to a future paper.

The remarkably small quantity of butter in the milk of the
6th of September appears very striking when contrasted with the
proportion of butter found in good milk, and still more so when
compared with the unusually large quantity contained in the
rich milk analysed on the 21st of October. ‘This milk, like that
of the 6th of September, was produced by cows out in grass,
without any additional feod rich in fat, such as linseed or rape-
cake, and yet it contained nearly four times as much butter as
that of the cows kept on an insufficient quantity of poor grass.
The beneficial influence of abundance of good pasture on the
butter-yielding qualities of milk, and the contrary effect of a
stinted supply of grass, are seen in bold relief in the first and
the sixth analyses.

Whilst the proportion of butter in different samples of milk
varies exceedingly the relative amounts of curd or casein, of
milk-sugar and of ash, though liable to certain fluctuations, do
not greatly differ in good, indifferent, or even very poor milk.
It would thus appear that the quantity and quality of food, and
other varying circumstances which affect the composition of
milk, exert their influence principally on the proportion of butter.
And as this is certainly the most valuable constituent of cheese,
and 1 Ib. of butter suffices for about 2 lbs. of saleable cheese, we
can readily understand that in one dairy a considerable quantity
of cream may be taken off the milk, and yet a better quality and
a greater quantity of cheese can be made than in another dairy,
from the same quantity of milk, from which no cream has been
removed,

The second analysis exhibits nearly 5 per cent. of butter, a
proportion which is decidedly above the average. ‘This analysis
has been selected as an example illustrating the increasing rich-
ness of milk in the fall of the year. Practical cheese-makers are
well acquainted with the fact, that in autumn, when green food .
becomes scarcer, the quantity of milk diminishes considerably,
but that the weight of cheese which can then be made from a

Composition of Cheese. 35

given quantity of milk is much greater than in spring or
sufhmer. An inspection of the second and fourth analyses affords
a ready explanation of this fact.

Both these milks came from the same dairy. In August the
milk scarcely contained 3} per cent. of butter, and, in round
numbers, 3 per cent, of casein; in November it yielded 5 per
cent. of butter and 4 per cent. more casein than in August.
Rightly to appreciate this increase, it should be regarded, not so
much as an addition of 24 parts in 100 parts of fluid, as of 24
parts to 124 solid matter, the total percentage found in August,
or an increase of 20 per cent. on the solid matter. And if we
consider that most of the milk-sugar and of the mineral matters
pass into the whey in the cheese-manufacturing process, the
difference in the cheese-producing qualities of the August and
November milk appears still greater.

In one of the milks we have 33 per cent. of butter and 3
of casein, or 54 per cent. of solid cheese-producing materials in
every 100 parts of milk; in the other there are 5 per cent. of
butter and 3} of casein, or 84 of solid cheese-producing matters.
Thus the real proportion in the two milks is as 53 to 84—that is
to say, the latter yields 55 per cent. more dry cheese-forming
materials than the former; and as we find in good cheese about
one-third of its weight of water, the 55 per cent. of dry matter
with this complement of water will amount to 838 per cent.
In other words, 1 gallon of the November milk will nearly
produce double the quantity of saleable cheese which can be
- made from the August milk.

The third analysis represents the composition of good, rich
milk, and the fourth the average composition of milk neither
‘rich nor poor.

In rich milk the proportion which the butter bears to the
casein is always much greater than in milk of average quality.
In the latter there is about as much butter as casein, and in
decidedly poor milk the proportion of casein is larger than that
of butter.

The preceding analyses have brought to light unexpectedly |
large differences in the amount of butter which is contained in
different samples of milk. With proper care and skill in cheese-
making nearly the whole of the butter becomes incorporated with
the curd; and as the market price of cheese depends in a great
measure, though not entirely, upon the proportion of butter which
it contains, it is evident that the original quality of the milk
must have a decided and direct influence on the quality as well as

on the quantity of cheese which can be made from it. Although
precisely the same process may be adopted, and equal care and
attention may be bestowed on the manufacture, it nevertheless
D2

36 Composition of Cheese.

happens that not only more but also a better quality is made in one
dairy than in another from the same number of gallons of milk.

The food upon which dairy-stock is kept unquestionably exer-
cises a great influence on the milk. It is, therefore, reasonable
to expect certain pastures to be naturally better adapted for the
production of rich cheese than others. ‘Thus good old pasture
not only produces richer milk than grass from irrigated meadows,
but likewise a better quality of hoes all oes circumstances
being equal in both cases. There is thus some reason in the
almost universally received opinion that on some land good
cheese can invariably be made, whilst on other land no amount
of skill or care can bring about a like result. But at the same
time I believe it is quite a mistake to think that good cheese can
only be made in certain localities, and that the character of the
pasture accounts entirely for the great differences found in the
quality of this article. *Good saleable, and even high-priced,
cheese, I believe with Mr. Harding, can ee made in any locality,
whatever the character of the pasture may be, where an indus-
trious and skilful hand, and an observant nia intelligent head,
presides over the operation’; and, on the other hand, the best aul
richest milk, the produce of peculiarly favourable pastures, may
be spoiled by a slovenly and ignorant dairymaid. But inasmuch
as the nature of the herbage, as is well known, affects the richness,
and especially the flavour, of the milk, and the herbage is sweeter
in one locality than in another, and at one time of the year than at
another, it is not likely that the very finest-flavoured cheese should
be made indiscriminately on all land and all the year round.
Still, after every allowance has been made for these natural
peculiarities, it is nevertheless true that the various processes
which are adopted in different counties determine in a great
measure the prevailing character of the produce, whilst the want
or bestowal of care Baal attention in making cheese, whether it
be on the Cheshire, Cheddar, or any other plan, materially influ-
ences the quality ae the produce.

Before | proceed to point out some of the practical errors
which are often made in the manufacture of cheese, let us exa-
mine the composition and chief peculiarities of some of the
principal kinds made in England.

English cheese is pr padded either from milk to which an extra
quantity of cream has been added, or secondly from the whole-
milk, or thirdly from milk from which more or less cream has
been taken before the addition of the rennet. Accordingly we
obtain—

1. Cream-cheeses.
2. Whole-milk cheeses.

3. Skim-milk cheeses.

Composition of Cheese. 37

The first class is made in limited quantities only, and constitutes
a luxury which is found chiefly in the houses of the wealthy.

The second class is produced in larger quantities ; and the
third furnishes our chief supply of this important article of food
for the working-classes of this country.

To the first class belong Stilton, Cream-Cheddar, and the
choicest quality of Cotherstowe cheese: or Yorkshire Stilton.
These, according to their quality, fetch more or less a fancy
price in the market, as they are made in perfection only by few
persons, and in limited quantity.

To the second class belong the best Cheshire, some Cheddar,
good Double Gloucester, ost of the cheese meden in the Vale OF
Berkeley, as well as wholesmilk cheese produced in Wiltshire
and other counties of England.

In the third class we meet with ordinary Cheshire, Gloucester,
Wiltshire, Warwickshire, Shropshire, Leicestershire, and other
cheeses made in districts where its manufacture is combined
with that of butter.

This division into three classes is to a great extent an arbitrary
one, adopted more for the sake of convenience than on account
of any definite line of demarcation. In reality the richer ad-
mixture often only compensates for the inferiority of the natural
product. Thus the best Cheshire and Cheddar cheese is fre-
quently as good and rich in butter as Stilton. Again, it is well
known that in some dairies a richer cheese can be made from
the mixed new morning’s-milk and skimmed evening’s-milk than
in others from the whole-milk. The classification, therefore,
does not so much refer to the quality and value of the cheese as
to the description of milk which is used.

STILTON AND CoTHERSTONE CHEESE.

The following Table embodies the results obtained in the
analyses of two samples of Stilton and Cotherstone cheese :—

Cotherstone, or

Stilton. Yorkshire Stilton.

Nome No. 2, No. 1, No. 2
Water ..- .. Sa <a 32°18 20°27 |- 38°28 38°23
Butter wus fatty matters) “+ ‘25 o- | O0°36 | 43°98 1) 30°89" 29-19
*Casein’.. . - s+ | 24°31 |) goign [f 23°93 | 24°38
Milk-sugar and extractive matters... 9399 rhe 3°70 2°76
Mineral 1 matters(ash) .. .. .. .. | 3°93 2°20 3°20 5°51

100°00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00

|

* Containing nitrogen are ciaue alse is's 3°89 a 3°83 3°90
t Containing common salt Hee ote Mee “89 *29 ‘79 2°55

! |

38 Composition of Cheese.

The two Stilton cheeses are very rich in butter, especially the
second, which contains 44 per cent. of pure fatty matters; and
as we have in common butter from 15 to 18 per cent. of water,
besides casein and other impurities, the pure fat in the second
Stilton represents more than 50 per cent. of butter, The first
analysis expresses the composition of a rather new Stilton. It
was sold at 1s. per Ib. last October. ‘The second analysis is that
of an old Stilton, selling at 14d. per lb. There is about 12 per
cent. less water in it than in new Stilton; more butter and less
salt. Notwithstanding the smaller amount of salt, it had a more
saline taste and much better flavour than the newer cheese.
This saline taste is generally ascribed to the salt, and complaints
are sometimes made by persons fond of mild-tasting cheese, that
old cheese, in other respects rich and good, has been injured by
too much salt. ‘This is a mistake, of which the proof is found
in the analyses of these two Stilton’ cheeses. The first was quite
mild in flavour in comparison with the other, and yet it contained
three times as much salt as the more saline-tasting older cheese.
The fact is, the saline taste is developed during the ripening of
cheese ; newly-made cheese, though strongly ren is always
mild in taste. During the ripening of the cheese a portion of
the casein or curd pit decomposition, and is partially changed
into ammonia; the latter, however, does not escape, but com-
bines with several fatty acids formed in the course of time
from the butter. Peculiar ammoniacal salts are thus produced,
and these, like most other salts of ammonia, have a pungent
saline taste. ‘The longer cheese is kept, within reasonable limits,
the riper it gets ; and as it ripens the proportion of ammoniacal
salts, with fhe pungent saline taste, increases. It can be
readily shown that old cheese contains a good deal of ammonia
in the shape of ammoniacal salts. All that is necessary is to
pound a piece with some quick-lime, when, on the addition
of a little water, a strong smell of spirits of hartshorn will be
developed. In well-kept, sound old cheese the ammonia is not
free, but exists in the form of salts, in which the base is ammonia
in combination with butyric, caprinic, caprylic, and other acids,
generated under favourable circumstances by the fats of which
butter consists. Ripe cheese, even if very old, but sound, in-
stead of containing free ammonia, always exhibits a decidedly
acid reaction when tested with blue litmus-paper. Rotten cheese,
on the other hand, is generally alkaline in its reaction, and
contains free ammonia.

I have made a quantitative determination of the aitiourit of
ammonia in old Stilton cheese, and found it to amount to 1°81

er cent.

The first Cotherstone or Yorkshire Stilton was made near

Composition of Cheese. 39

Barnard Castle, in the Vale of the Tees, and sold at 1s. per Ib.
It is highly esteemed in Durham. and Yorkshire ; but, to my
taste, the cheese which I analysed is not to be compared with
spond genuine Stilton, nor is it equal in flavour,to Cheshire or
Ghasdon

Cotherstone cheese, it will be noticed, contains a very much
larger proportion of water than even new Stilton, This imparts
to it a smooth and apparently rich texture, but the proportion of
butter is not really as great as it appears to be, nor, in point of
fact, equal to that found in an average Cheddar. It has usually
& very strong taste, which would be decidedly objected to by
Cheshire or Gloucestershire factors. In its preparation a good
deal of whey appears to be left in the eurd in mechanical com-
bination, and to be the principal cause of the strong taste and
smell which are its characteristics, and in, which, more than any
other English cheese, it resembles the foreign Rochefout

Cursuire AND CuEeppAr CHEE3£.;

In making best Cheshire and good Cheddar PO) the whole-
milk is used, and cheese generally made but once a day.

The following Table shows the composition of two kinds of
Cheshire and a number of Cheddar cheeses :—

Cursnire

CHEESE Cueppar CHEESE.

No.1, | No. 2, | No.1,.| No.2, | No.8, | ‘No. 4, | No. 5, | No. 6,
Old. New. Old. | 5 Months! 6 Months

old. old,
Water ..° .. «. | 82°59] 36°96] 30°32) 36°17| 31°17] 38°92) 37-85]-58°43
Butter .. .. .. | 52°51] 29°34) 35°53) 31°83) 33°68 33°15) 28°91) 23°28
"™aseM |<. cs ws, | 26006 24°08) 28°18) 24°93) 26°31) 28°12) 25°00) 32°37

acid, and extrac-
tive matters || |
t+ Mineral matters(ash) | 4°31} 4°45) 4°31) 3°86) 3°93) 3°85] 3°33) 3-82

Milk - sugar, lactic
4°53) 5°17) 1°66) 3°21) 4°91 “96, 4°91) 2°10

|100+00 100° 00/100-00 100-00 100°00 100-00 100-00

* Containing nitrogen | 4°17| 3°84! 4°51) 3°99) 4°21) 4°50! 4:00 5°18

area 1-59] ¥-91} 1-55; 1-18! 2-15) 1-23! -5al +65

;
|

The first analysis illustrates the composition of good ripe, and
the second that of good new, Cheshire cheese.

Since a good Heal of water evaporates in keeping, the pro-
portion of dry casein, of mineral matters, and especially of
butter (pure fat), must become larger with age.

The rich appearance of old: cheese, however, is by no means
attributable entirely to a very large proportion of butter; nor is

40 Composition of Cheese.

the poor condition of new or badly-made cheese referable solely
to a deficiency of butter. One of the chief tests of the skill of
the dairymaid is the production of a rich tasting and looking,
fine-flavoured, mellow cheese from milk not particularly rich in
cream. ‘That this can be done is abundantly proved by the
practice of good makers. One of the finest Cheddars which
I have ever examined is that mentioned as No. 4 in the above
table. This was made by Mr. Harding, Marksbury, Somerset-
shire, and analysed by me when about six months old, Like all
good cheeses, it of course contains a large amount of butter;
though, as I found by experiment, not nearly so large an amount
as its appearance, rich taste, and fine mature condition seemed
to imply. Though only six months old, it had a much more
mature. appearance than the Cheddar cheese No. 1, which was
at least eleven months old when analysed ; and, thanks to Mr.
Harding’s skill and experience, had a much fatter and more
mellow appearance and richer taste than a specimen which
actually contained 24 per cent. more butter.

Thus we ‘see that the proportion of butter does not entirel
determine the value of cheese, since a high-priced Cheddar or
Cheshire cheese does not necessarily contain more butter than
another which fetches 8s. to 10s, less pér cwt. in the market.

In the opinion of good judges the Cheddar cheese No. 1, not-
withstanding the larger amount of butter, and the smaller amount
of water, which it contained, was worth less than No. 4 by 1d.
per lb.—no inconsiderable difference in the returns of a dairy
to remunerate careful and skilful management. The peculiar
mellow appearance of good cheese, though due to some extent
to the butter which it contains, depends in a higher degree upon
a gradual transformation which the casein or the curd undergoes
in ripening. The curd is hard and insoluble in water, but by
degrees it becomes softer and more soluble, or, speaking more
correctly, gives rise to products of decomposition which are
soluble in water.

Now if this ripening process is badly conducted, or the ori-
ginal character of the curd is such that it adapts itsele but slowly
to this transformation, the cheese when sold will be, compara-
tively speaking, tough, and appear less rich in butter than it
really is; whilst in a well-made and’ properly-kept cheese, this
series of changes will be rapidly and thoroughly effected.
Proper ripening thus imparts to cheese a rich appearance, and
unites with the butter in giving it that most desirable property
of melting in the mouth. On examining some cheeses defi-
cient in his melting property, and accordingly pronounced
by practical judges detcetve ta butter, I nevertheless found in
them a very high percentage of that substatice—clear proof that

Composition of Cheese. 41

the mellow and rich taste of cheese is not entirely, nor indeed
chiefly, due to the fatty matters which it contains.

Good Cheshire and Cheddar, on an average, contain about
the same quantity of butter; but of course inferior cheeses de-
fective in this respect are to be found in both localities. The
analysis No. 6 shows the composition of such an inferior Cheddar.

DovusLEe anp SiInGLeE GLoucesTER CHEESE.

Gloucester, especially double Gloucester, is generally sold as
a whole-milk cheese. -It is, however, seldom made of the whole-
milk. In most dairies more or less of the cream of the milk is
made into butter; but unless the whole evening’s milk is
skimmed and added to the whole new morning’s milk—in
which case the cheese made is ‘half-coward”—the produce,
whether single or double, is said to be whole-milk cheese. ‘The
distinction of single and double Gloucester is one merely of size
and thickness, and has nothing to do with the quality.

The following Table embodies the results of some analyses of
double and single Gloucester cheese :—

Double Gloucester.

| No.1 | No. 2, No. 2, No. 4, No. 5, No. 6,

Water .. .. .. | 32°44/ 32°80| 38-83 38-14| 40°88 | 33°41

Meters. =... | 30°17 | 27°22 | 96-77 | 94°16 | 99°81") 32°69

*Casein Soe wot gee | SSLETS. hh | 26°25 26°56 | 27°75
Milk - sugar, lactic PME re |

acid, and extrac- Tope oe 10. 3°18; 6°40 pe 2°23

tive matters .. .. |
Mineral matters (ash) | 4°42 Beige 4°97 4°74 4:43 8:92

| 100°00 | 100° 0% 100:00 | 100°00 | 100*00 | 100°00
* Containing nitrogen 512 |. 4°20, 4°25 ae 4°44

t ee ees 141 | v-o7"| ¢a-04 | 19g) | 14s | * a-or

Single Gloucester.

No.1, | No.2, | No.3, | No.4, | No.5, | No.g. | No.¥,

ee eee

Water .. .. .. | 28-10 | 31°96 | 37-20 | 31°81 | 32-42 | 37-91 | 86-50
Butter .. .. ... | 33:68 | 31°37 | 27°30 | 29-26 | 27-42 | 22-70 | 98°75
*Casein ... 30°31 | 29°37 | 24°50 | 26°12 ¢ 1(31°25 | 25°75

Milk - sugar, lactic}
acid, and extrac-}} 3:72 | 2°85 | 7:44) 8-6
tive matters bis f

{Mineral matters(ash)| 4°19 | 4°45 | 3°56 | 4°18 | 5°70] 4:84] 4-39

3 |(5*°46 |) 3-30 | . 4:68

100°00 100-00 |100°00 100-00 100-00 |100°00 |100-00

* Containing nitrogen 4°85 |. 4-70 | 3:92 4:18 56 5°00 | 4:12
wee “eigll 1°12] 1:35] 85! 94-50} 1°46{/ 1-23] 1°38

42 Composition of Cheese.

The differences in. the proportion of water and butter here
are very large, though probably not greater than will be
found in other descriptions of cheese on examining a con-
siderable number of specimens. It is worthy of notice that
the poorer the cheese in butter the more water it usually
contains. Thus the first sample of double Gloucester, which
contained 324 per cent. of water, yielded 30 per cent. of butter
(pure fat), w hilst the third sample, containing nearly 39 per cent.
of water, yielded 27 per cent., and the fifth ‘sample, with nearly
41 per cent. of water, seancely: 23 per cent. of butter.

These analyses how that the distinction made between
double and single Gloucester has no reference to quality.
Indeed the first analysis in the table of the single Gloucester
shows that thin cheeses are made which are as rich in
butter as any of the best Cheddar and Cheshire cheeses. No.
land No. 6 in the list of double Gloucester, and Nos. 1, 2,
and 4 in the table of single Gloucester, alike establish this
equality. Nevertheless, the price which is paid for thin, 7c.
single Gloucester of ras quality, was only 70s. per cwt.,
praise Cheddar, not richer in butter and containing nearly a
much water, sold at 90s. per cwt. The latter, of course, was
well-made stad nicely flavoured cheese, and nearly four months
old, whilst the single Gloucester was only two months old.
Still, making every allowance for loss in weight on keeping for
two months longer, the difference in the price at which both
were sold, amounting to exactly 1/., leaves a handsome balance
in favour of a system which I have no doubt will come more and
more into favour.

We have here again presented to us striking examples showing
that the difference in the quality and price of the cheese is not
dependent merely on the richness or poverty of the milk, but that
the process of manufacture exerts a decided and direct jnlieeente
on its value. Different plans now followed have unquestionably
various degrees of merit, but in our present state of knowledge
it would be premature to lay down any absolute rule.

LEICESTERSHIRE, WARWICKSHIRE, AND WILTSHIRE CHEESE.

Some excellent cheese is made in Leicestershire and War-
wickshire, but the generality of the produce of these two coun-
ties does not rank equally high with Cheshire, Cheddar, or even
Gloucester cheese.

Some parts of Wilts are celebrated for their rich pastures, and
for an excellent delicate-flavoured kind of cheese. In other parts
of the county a good deal of butter is made, and here, as in all
districts where much butter is made and dairy-farms are small,
the cheese produced is of an inferior character.

Composition of Cheese. 43

Whole-milk cheese, I believe, is not generally made in Wilt-
shire, although in North Wilts a good deal is sold as such in the
market, :

Wiltshire and Gloucester cheese is commonly coloured with
annatto, whilst that made in Leicestershire and Warwickshire is
mostly uncoloured.

The following ‘Table shows the composition of some specimens
from the three counties to which I have just referred :—

Composition of Leicestershire, Warwickshire, and Wiltshire Cheese.

LY ICESTER. WARWICKSHIRE. WILTSIIRE.

No.1, | No. 2. | No.1, | No. 2, | No. 8, |] No.1, | No.2, | No. 8.

Water .. .. .. | 35°21) 32°89) 31°97) 33°61] 33°53] 34°44] 39°22) 40°07

Butter .. ... «. | 27°28) 29°28] 29°08) 30°04) 30°89) 28°71) 19°26) 25°55
*Casein . 27°93) 29°06) 27°43) 29°70) 28°19] 29°00) 34°22) 26°81

Milk - sugar, lactic}|
acid, and extrac-}} 5°54) 4°42) 7°16] 1°95) 2°84) 3°60) 2°28) 2°24
tive matters fs i

+Mineral matters (ash) 4°04) 4°35] 4°36] 5°60) 4°55) 4°25) 5°02) 5°33

100*00/300*00}100 +00) 100+ 00|100*00)100*00)100:00|100°00

‘74, 4°51) 4°64) 5:38] (4°29
S78 els 0S °60| 1°41

* Containing nitrogen | 4:47) 4°65) 4°39) 4
+ Containing es) 1-03/ 1°21 SAN Us
3) 7 seco |

The first analysis was made of an uncoloured Leicestershire
cheese, sold retail at 9d. per lb. The second was a much better
specimen from the same county. The latter, it will be seen, is
drier and richer than the former.

The difference in the composition of the three Warwickshire
cheeses is not great. In all three the proportions of water,
butter, and casein, do not vary more than 24 per cent. The
greatest difference is observable in the amount of salt used.
In the second specimen we have nearly 3 per cent. of salt, a pro-
portion far above the average, and the cheese was to a certain
extent spoiled by this excess. I would direct special attention
to this, which I know from experience is not a solitary instance.
For no description of cheese should more than 2 Jb, of salt per
ewt. of cheese be used, and 14 1b. per ewt. will, I believe, in
most cases be sufficient. ‘This was by no means a good cheese ;
it had a strong taste, and was sold as common Warwickshire
cheese. This and the third were uncoloured, and the flavour of
the latter, as well as its texture and shape, was very good indeed.

The first analysis was made of a coloured cheese which was
sold as best Warwickshire; apparently it was an old and very
much richer cheese than No. 2, but on analysis it was found

44 Composition of Cheese.

actually to contain 1 per cent. less butter than the common cheese
of the same name, thus giving another instance of the fact that
good materials are often spoiled by unskilful management.

Of the three Wiltshire cheeses No. 1 was decidedly the best
flavoured, and, as will be seen, also the richest. No. 2 and No. 3
Gentained too! men water, showing that the whey had not been
carefully pressed out, and whea this has been the case the cheese
is very é apt to heave and to acquire a strong taste. No. 2 is very
poor in butter, and, although not sold as siiamedeeatite cheese,
for all I eon may have been made of skimmed milk.

Sxkim-Mitx CHErseE.

Milk varies so much in quality that in one dairy a better and
richer cheese can be made from milk which has been skimmed
than in another where only the evening milk is skimmed and
added to the whole new morning’s milk.

The following analyses clearly bring out this important prac-
tical fact, but they also show that, as a rule, skimmed milk does
not produce a good cheese :—

Composition of Shim-milk. Cheese.

No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, No. 5,

Water Bot sicce ns Pde Fo a6 27°68 39°43 38°39 43°87 45°39

Butter Sh oye sat. So) Ce 30°80 27°08 23°21 15°89 9°97
*Casein De ee Mccee paket taco 35°12 | 80°37 | .28°37 | 28°93) 33-12
Milk-sugar, lactic acid, and 1:46 99 6°80 6°47 6°39
extractive matters ae fi
{Mineral matters (ash) .. .. 4°94 2°90 3°23 4°84 5°18

a

100°00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100°00 | 100°00

* Containing nitrogen .. .. 5°62 | 4°86 4°54 4°63 5°34
+ Containing common salt ie oo) 23 33 1°66 1°51

With the exception of No. 4, which was bought in a shop at
Cirencester as skim-milk wes at 7d. per |b., tHe other cheeses,
the composition of which is here given, were cities made ender
my direction or according to a plan with which I was made
acquainted.

No. 1 it will be noticed, though made from skim-milk, is as
rich in butter as good Cheshire cheese. It was rather more than
six months old before it was analysed, when its quality was pro-
nounced by several good judges to be excellent ; superior, indeed,
to most of the Gloucester cheese which I have ever tasted.

No. 2 and No. 3, though not equal to No. 1, after keeping
for six months turned out very good cheeses indeed.

No. 4 it will be seen contained only 16 per cent. of butter, in

Composition of Cheese. 45

round numbers, and nearly 44 per cent. of water. If such cheese
can be sold at 7d. per lb. and butter at 1s. to 1s. 4d. per |b., 1
can well understand that it must pay a farmer to make nothing
but skim-milk cheese and to convert all the cream into butter.

No. 5 was made of milk skimmed at least three times, and sold
on the farm where it was made to the labourers at 3d. per lb.
Such cheese cannot be kept for any great length of time, for it
soon gets so hard and horn-like that a pickaxe must be need to
Peek it into pieces.

+ AMERICAN CHEESE.

Of late years a good deal of cheese has been imported into
England from America, some of which is by no means bad:
indeed one or two specimens which came under my notice were
excellent in quality. The majority, however, are inferior, and
are sold at a low price, being generally badly made and deficient
in flavour.

The: following Table gives the composition of American
cheeses :—

Composition of American Cheese.

No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No, 4,

aN a) ec) cath Sag, cam par) 0205290 |) SS504e|i 810%.) 28224
ECM cabs (sels isle) we, sie. | Its 35°41 33°38 30°90 26°05
*Casein.. . 25°87 | 27°37 | 26°25 | 26°81
Milk- -sugar, Jaetic acid, ‘and extractive f A :
aa \ 6-21 | 2°82] 7-43] 3-64.

Mineral matters (ash) sp) ee) fed. Yoo 5°22 3°39 4°4] 5°26

100-00 | 100°00 | 100°00 | 100°00

*Gontammenitropen., <6. «sos ae 4°14 4°38 4°20 4°29
+Containing common salt.. .. .. .. 1:97 47 1°59 1-94

No, 1 was as nice a cheese as could be desired ; in flavour it
much resembled good Cheddar, and was found to contain even a
higher proportion of butter and rather less water than good
Cheddar.

The second cheese, though rich in butter, was retailed at 7d.
per lb., and the third at only 6d. per lb. Both were deficient in
flavour and badly made.

The fourth cheese was the worst of the four, and had to be sold
at 5d. per lb. It was full of holes, badly made, and had a very
strong smell. It was evident that the whey was not carefully
pressed out in the making.

The examination of these and other American cheeses leads
me to the conclusion, judging from our imports, that good ma-

46 Composition of Cheese.

terials are even more thoroughly spoiled on the other side of the
Atlantic than in England.

Let me next divest attention to some of the principal mistakes
which are not unfrequently committed in the manufacture of-
cheese. I have said in the beginning of this paper—l1st, that
cheese is sometimes spoiled even before it is separated from the
milk; 2ndly, that it is yet more frequently spoiled in the act of
making; and, lastly, that it is sometimes deteriorated by bad
keeping after it has been made.

I.—Pracricat MistakES MADE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF
CHEESE BEFORE THE CURD IS SEPARATED.

The inferior character, and especially the bad flavour, of
cheese owes its origin in many cases to a want of proper care in
handling the milk from which it has been made. Milk some-
times gets spoiled by dirty fingers before it passes into the pail.
If the vessels in which the milk is kept in the dairy have. been
carelessly washed, and the milk-pails and cheese-tub have not
been well enenSaul but merely been washed out, and if especially
the dairy-utensils have not been scalded with boiling-hot water,
it is vain to expect that cheese of the finest quality can be made,
let the milk be ever so rich in cream. The neglect of jhees
simple but important precautions soon maaan itself in a
dairy by a peculiar ferment which taints the whole milk, and
afterwards affects the flavour and consequently the quality of the
cheese. Cleanliness, indeed, may be said to be the first quali-
fication of a good dairywoman.

The nature of every ferment is to produce in other matters
with which it comes into contact certain chemical changes de-

ending on its own character. Thus a little yeast produces
in fcmmentable liquids large quantities of alcohol and carbonic
acid; acid ferments containing acetic or lactic acid have a ten-
dency to generate vinegar or nea acid in other liquids. A
small piece of putrefying meat in contact with a large mass of
sound flesh soon spreads putrefaction over the whole mass; and
other ferments act in a similar‘manner. Such ferments generally
produce in other matters with which they are brought into contact
changes similar to those which they themselves undergo, The dis-
peveaniic smell of dirty or badly cleaned milk-pails and cheese-tubs
is due to a peculiar ferment, which is rapidly formed, especially in
warm weather, when milk is left in contact with air and with the
porous wood a the cheese-tub and milk-pails. In the rapid pro-
cess of vinegar manufacture a weak alcoholic liquid is allowed to
trickle through a barrel perforated all over with holes to admit
the air, and “filled with wood-shavings. If the temperature of
the room in which the vinegar-casks are put up is sufficiently:

Composition of Cheese. 47

high, the alcohol, in trickling over these shavings when in con-
tact with abundance of air, undergoes a complete transforma-
tion, and collects rapidly at the bottom of the cask as vinegar.
But such a change does not take place if the alcoholic liquid is:
left for ever so ‘long ina clean cask filled avith such a liquid.
Contact with air, subdivision of the liquid into drops, and the
presence of the porous wood-shavings, are necessary for the
transformation. These casks do not at first produce vinegar
as rapidly as after they haye been in use for some time and
become thoroughly soaked with vinegar-ferment. And this is
another peculiarity of all ferments, that, under favourable. cir-
cumstances, they reproduce themselves from other materials in
immense quantities. Thus fresh and active yeast is generated
in great abundance in fermenting malt-liquor, whilst the original
yeast employed in brewing is more or less decomposed and be-
comes what is called inactive yeast. These chemical facts, wéll-
known to the manufacturers of vinegar and to the intelligent
brewer, have a direct bearing on cheese-making.

At the very beginning of her operations a good dairywoman
unconsciously carries on a steady and constant battle with these
remarkable ferments, and it is very interesting to the chemist to
see her proceed in the most rational and philosophical manner.

No milk is admitted into the cheese-tub before it has been
carefully strained through a cloth, lest a little bit of a dead leaf or
any similar matter, accidentally blown into the milk in its pas-
sage from the milking-place to the dairy, should spoil the flavour
of the cheese. No sooner has the cheese left the tub than she
begins to pour scalding water into it, to scrub it, and to make it as
clean and sweetas possible. In good dairies no utensil is allowed
to remain for a moment dirty, but hot water and clean brushes
are always close at hand to scrub the pails and make them
almost as white as snow. The dairywoman probably knows
nothing about the nature of the ferment, which is rapidly formed
when a little milk is left at the bottom and adhering to the sides
of the wooden milk-pails; she is unconscious that here, as in
the vinegar process, the conditions most favourable to chemical
change are present, and that the sugar ef the milk, in contact”
with plenty of air and porous wood, is rapidly changed into
lactic acid, whilst at the same time a peculiar milk-ferment is
produced ; “all this may be a perfect mystery to her, but, never-
theless, guided by experience, she thoroughly avoids ev erything
that Garonne the production of ferment, or taint, as she calls it, by
leaving no vessel uncleaned, by scalding all that have been in use
with boiling water, and if ever so little “milk be accidentally spilt
on the floor of the dairy, taking care that it is at once removed,
and the spot where it fell washed with clean water.

48 Composition of Cheese.

It is, indeed, surprising how small a quantity of ferment taints
a large quantity of milk. The most scrupulous cleanliness
fherefore is brought into constant play by a good dairywoman,
who never minds any amount of trouble in scalding and one
bing her vessels, and takes pride, as soon as possible after her
cheeses are safely lodged in the presses, in having the dairy look
as clean and tidy as the most fastidious can wish. It isa plea-
sure to see one of these hardworking women at work, especially
as such a sight is not often witnessed, slovenly dairymaids being
unfortunately i in a majority. This being the case, we should
encourage the use of tin pails and tin or brass cheese-tubs.
Wooden: pails, &c., are very good i in the hands of a tidy dairy-
maid, but not otherwise. ‘There is much less labour in thoroughly
cleaning a tin or brass vessel than a wooden one, and boiling-hot
water is not then required. Wood being a porous material
inevitably absorbs more or less of the milk}; tin or brass does not.
The milk thus absorbed cannot be remoy oA by simple washing.
Inasmuch as all ferments are destroyed by water at the tempera-
ture of 212°, it is important to ascertain that the water is per-
fectly boiling; and yet it is strange that few women compara-
tively speaking, though they may Leva spent many years in the
kitchen, know aga certainty when the kettle is really boiling.
This remark applies to some educated as well as iheduewed
females, ‘They often mistake the singing noise of the tea-kettle
accompanied by a certain amount of vapour for a sign that water
is in a state of ebullition; so that if you would drink good tea
you must be careful to whom you trust to make it.

In some dairies of Cheshire it is customary to paint the wooden
cheese-tubs in the interior. I confess I do not like this at all ; lead-
paint is not a very desirable thing to be used in connection with
cheese ; and I am glad te find "that the best dairy-farmers are
‘decidedly adverse to this proceeding.

Milk sometimes gets tainted by the close proximity of pigstyes
or waterclosets, or fe underground drains. Not very long ago I
visited a dairy in Wiltshire, where every possible care was taken by
the dairymaid to produce g Poo cheese ; but I noticed a peculiarly
’ disagreeable smell in the A y, and on making inquiries I found
that there was a cesspool close at hand, hick certainly tainted
the milk, and rendered the making of ‘good cheese an impossi-
bility. In the third place, I would notice that if dairies are not
well situated,—if they have, for instance, a south aspect, so that a
proper low temperature in summer cannot be maintained,—the
milk is apt to turn sour and to make sour cheese. It is im-
portant, therefore, that dairies should be built with a northern
aspect.

These are some of the circumstances that spoil the cheese even

Composition of Cheese. AY

before it is separated from the milk. The remedies are obvious.
It is only with respect to the latter point,—that of milk getting
sour, that I would offer a few observations. If the situation of
a dairy is bad, and a new dairy cannot be erected, we should
employ all possible means to prevent the milk frou getting
warm. We should keep it in shallow tins or leads, or, better
still, as I have seen in some parts of Somersetshire, in shaltow
tin vessels with a double bottom, through which cold water may
be run during the warm part of the season, By this means we
can keep lie: milk at a considerably lower temperature than we
should otherwise be able to do. Having seen nitre and salt used
with great advantage to prevent cream turning sour, I would
further suggest that ‘they might probably be found serviceable in
the same manner for the keeping of milk if used in moderate
quantities. Some people, however, maintain that milk requires
to become sour to a certain extent before it can be properly made
into cheese. A great deal has been said and written with
respect to the great utility to the dairyman of an instrument
by means of which the amount of acid in sour milk might be
accurately and readily determined. A careful study of the
action of rennet on milk, however, has led me to the conclu-
sion that the more carefully milk is prevented from getting sour,
and, consequently, the less opportunity there is for the use of an
acidometer, the more likely the cheese is to turn out good. In-
deed, the acidometer appears to me a useless instrument,—a
scientific toy which can never be turned to any practical account.
If by accident the milk has become sour, the fact soon manifests
itself ,sufficiently to the taste. An experienced dairymaid will
even form a tolerably good opinion of the relative proportions of
acid in the milk on different days and arrange her proceedings
accordingly. Moreover, the knowledge of the precise amount of
acid in the milk does aot help us Fanci When milk has turned
sour, the best thing to do is to hasten on the process of cheese-
making as much as possible.

IJ.—Practicat FAuLTs COMMITTED DURING THE MAKING
OF CHEESE.

1. Under the second head I would observe, first, that suffi-
cient care is not bestowed upon noticing the temperature at which
the milk is “set,” or “run,” as it is called in Gloucestershire.
Thermometers, indeed, are seldom in use. Even where they are
hung up in fae dairy, they are more frequently regarded as
curious but useless ornaments than trustworthy euides, and
therefore are seldom put into requisition. In fact, most dairy-
maids are guided entirely by their own feelings ; aad as these are

VOL. XXII. E

50 Composition of Cheese.

as variable as those of other mortals, the temperature of the milk
when it is “set” (that is, when the rennet is added) is often
either too high or too low. They mostly profess to know the
temperature of the milk to a nicety, and feel almost insulted if
you tell them that much less reliance can be placed on the indi-
cations of ever so experienced a hand than upon an instrument
which contracts and expands according to a fixed law, unin-
fluenced by the many disturbing causes to which a living body i is
necessarily subject.

It is really amusing to see the animosity with which some
people look upon the thermiomteter. It is true there are not many
dairies in which it may not be found; but if we took pains to
ascertain in how many of these it is in constant use, I believe
that the proportion would not exceed 5 per cent. This is a great
pity, for a tolerably good one can be now bought or replaced at
a trifling cost.

I have spoken frankly but unfavourably of the acidometer.
With equal frankness I express my regret that the use of the
thermometer is not more general, as I believe it is indispensable
for obtaining a uniformly good product.

If the temperature of the milk, when the rennet is added,
is too low, the curd remains too soft, and much difficulty is
experienced in separating the whey. If, on the other hand,
the temperature is too high, the separation is easily effected,
but the curd becomes hard and dry. The amount of water,
which is left in the curd when it is ready to go into the cheese-
presses, to some extent indicates whether a proper temperature
has been employed. When this has been too low, the curd will
contain more than 50 per cent. of moisture; when too high,
sometimes less than 36 per cent. How variable is this propor-
tion of water (chiefly due to the whey left im the curd) will
appear from the following determinations made in the same dairy
on four following days :—

Amount of water in Curd when ready to go into the vat.

Percentage of water in Ist Cheese .. .. .. « 41°53
3 5 2nd Cheese ...,' (2. oe: ey SED
ea an 3rd Cheese) <5 | Ex) a peemooZO
i 55 4th Cheese .. .. « ~~. 30°80

In this dairy the thermometer was not in daily use, and the
heat employed in making the fourth cheese was evidently too
high, for in good Cheddar when ready for sale the amount
of moisture is ‘hardly less than in this curd when put into the
vat. The cheese from these four specimens of curd was made
according to the Cheddar system. Five other specimens gave
the following proportions of water :—

Composition of Cheese. 51

Percentage of water in Curd when ready to go into the vat.

Ist specimen, percentage of water .. .. .. .. 59°67

mae 5, és fs ate ee at Ne OOLOS
3rd by as 3 S's... PS SAAD
4th ,, ts 9 sa ead wae Soh DED
5th} = 2, 4 9 ce ee « 60°01

These were produced according to the custom of Gloucester-
shire and Wiltshire, at a temperature varying from 72° to 75° ;
but, not having taken the observations myself, 1 am unable to
speak more precisely. This much, however, is quite certain,
that the lower temperature at which the cheese is usually made
in Gloucestershire and Wiltshire, when compared with the
Cheddar system, fully accounts for the large proportion of water
that is found in curd made after the Gloucester or Wiltshire
fashion. ‘The cheese made from these five curds was best at the
dairy in which I found the lowest proportion of water in the
eurd. The differences here noticed, however, are due not only to
the higher or lower temperature employed, but also to the
trouble and the time bestowed in breaking up the curd. Other
circumstances being equal, the more thoroughly curd is broken
up, and the longer time is occupied in this process, the more
whey will pass out, and the better the cheese is likely to become.
I consider 50 per cent. of moisture rather under the average, and.
53 to 54 per cent. a proper quantity of water to be contained
in the curd when it is vatted to form a thin or moderately thick
cheese. In making thick cheese, it should not have more than
45 per cent. of moisture. 57 or 594 per cent., the proportions of
water in the first and second specimens of curd, are too high
even for a thin cheese.

Curd being a very peculiar and delicate substance, which is
greatly affected by the temperature to which it is exposed, I
directed some special experiments to the investigation of its pro-
perties. First, I coagulated new milk at 60° Fahrenheit, and
found that at such a low temperature it took three hours to com-
plete the process, though the rennet was added in a very large
excess. ‘The curd remained tender, and the whey could not be
properly separated. Milk at 65° F., on addition of rennet;
eurdled in two hours; but the curd, as before, remained tender,
even after long standing. At 70° to 72° F. it only took from
one-half to three-quarters of an hour, and the curd now separated
in a more compact condition, The process was more expe-
ditious, and the curd in better condition, when the temperature
ranged from $0° to 84°. At 90° the rennet curdled the milk in
twenty minutes, and at 100° F. an excess of rennet coagulated
the milk in about a quarter of an hour, separating the curd in a

E2

52 Composition of Cheese.

somewhat close condition. By heating the curd in the whey to
130° F., I find it gets so soft that it rans like toasted cheese, and
becomes quite hard on cooling. ‘The limits of temperature be-
tween which curd can be improved or deteriorated in texture
are therefore not very wide. The exact temperature to be adopted
depends upon the description of cheese that is wanted—a lower
range, e.g. 72° to 75°, being desirable when a thin cheese is
made; whilst for thick cheese, such as Cheddar, it should vary
from 80° to 84°, 80° being best adapted to warm weather, and
a little increase in the heat desirable in the cold season. After a
portion of the whey has been separated, it is advisable to scald
the curd and to raise the temperature of the whole contents of
the cheese-tub to 95° or 100°, but certainly not higher. I have
seen much injury done to cheese by using too high a temperature
in the making.

Secondly, apart from this influence of temperature, cheeses are
often deteriorated by the frequently imperfect separation of the
whey from the curd; by hurrying on too much the operation of
breaking ; and by 460 great an anxiety to get the curd vatted.
The whey requires time to drain off properly, and hence the
Somersetshire plan is a good one—to expose the curd for some
time to the air, after it has been sufficiently broken and been
gathered again and cut in slices of moderate size. A great deal
of whey runs off, and the curd, moreover, is cooled, and runs less
risk of heating too much after it leaves the presses.

When the whey has been ill-separated from the curd, no
amount of pressure will squeeze out the excess of whey, which
then causes the cheese to heave and blister, and imparts to it a
somewhat sweet and at the same time strong taste. ‘This taste is
always found in an ill-shaped cheese, whieh bulges out at the
sides, the interior of which will be fand to be full of cavities,
and far from uniform in texture. Many cheeses imported pou
America are evidently spoiled in this way, for they are often
full of holes, have a strong smell, and contain too much moisture
—sure indications that the whey was not properly separated.
The sweet taste is given to the cheese by part of the sugar of
milk, of which a good deal is found in whey ; another portion of
this, on entering into fermentation, forms, amongst other pro-
ducts, carbonic-acid gas, which, in its endeavour to escape,
heaves up the semi-solid curd, and causes it to blister, producing
the numerous apertures of considerable size which are found in
badly-made cheese. If the cheese is coloured with annatto, the
excess of whey at the same time causes a partial separation of the
colouring matter, so that more colour collects in some parts than
in others, and the cheese assumes that uncqual condition in

Composition of Cheese. 53

which it is called tallowy. A uniform colour and perfect shape
are therefore to a certain extent indications of a superior quality ;
whilst mottled, mis-shaped cheese, almost invariably proves
tallowy, and in flavour sweet when young, and very strong when
older, The danger of leaving too much whey in the curd is
especially great in warm weather, for it is then that the ferment-
ation of the sugar of milk proceeds most rapidly.

There are three precautions to be taken against an undue pro-
portion of whey in the curd :—

1. Plenty of time should be allowed for the whey to drain off
properly.

2. Before the rennet is added, the anilk should be heated to a
temperature of 72° to 75° for thin, or of 80° to 84° for thick
cheese.

3. The best preventive is the practice of slip-scalding, as
it is called. The operation, which is highly recommended by
Mr. Harding, one of our best Cheddar cheese-makers, and exten-
sively practised in Somersetshire, consists of heating a ‘portion of
the whey, and adding it or hot water to the curd, whilst it is
still covered with some of the whey, until the temperature
of the whole be raised to from 95° to 100°. This has the effect
of making the curd run together into a much smaller compass,
and enables the dairymaid to draw off the whey more perfectly
and with very much less trouble than by the common method. If
well done, no injury, but every advantage, results from this prac-
tice. The curd, when slip-scalded, settles down very readily,
and its closer condition implies that it does not contain so much
whey as it did before scalding. Hence no skewers are required
to drain off the whey from cheese that has been slip-scalded, and
a great deal of subsequent labour and anxiety is avoided by this
simple process. Slip-scalding, however, ought to be carefully
performed, and the hot whey or water be poured slowly upon the
curd by one person, whilst another stirs up the contents of the
cheese-tub, so as to ensure a uniform temperature throughout.
The necessity for these precautions will be best understood from
the following explanation :—When curd, broken up and cut into
slices, is suddenly and incautiously scalded with boiling water,
the outer layer of the slices first melts and then becomes hard,
enveloping the interior, which remains quite soft and full of
whey. This hard covering acts like a waterproof wrapper, and
prevents the escape of the whey, however strongly the curd may
be pressed afterwards; hence the importance of a gradual and
careful admixture of the hot whey. Better still is it to employ
one of Coquet’s jacketed tin or brass cheese-tubs, into the hollow

rn

d+ Composition of Cheese.

bottom of which steam may be let in, and the curd and whey
be raised by degrees to the desired temperature. This utensil is
to be strongly recommended to all who adopt the Cheddar mode
of ghersemakine i in their dairies.

Cheese is also spoiled by breaking up the curd too rapidly
and carelessly. ‘This delicate subs tance requires to be handled
by nimble and experienced fingers, and to have a great amount
of patient labour bestowed upon it. Dairymaids, as a class,
break up the curd in far too great a hurry. In consequence of
their careless treatment some portions of the curd are broken into
fragments so small that they pass into the whey when this is
drawn off, whilst others are not suflic iently broken up and re-
main soft. The result is, that the curd is not uniform in texture,
and that less cheese and of inferior quality is produced than when
the curd is first cut very gently into large slices and then broken
up by degrees either by hand or machinery into small fragments.

The whey which separates from curd that has hacen gently
broken up is as bright as Rhenish wine, provided the milk has
been curdled at the proper temperature by a sufficient quantity
of good rennet. On the other hand, if the curd has been broken
up carelessly in too great a hurry, the whey is more or less
milky, and separates on standing a large quantity of fine curd of
the choicest character, for this Gee curd is very rich in butter.
Thus the best part of the curd, ead of becoming incor-
porated with the cheese, finds ale aS into the whey leads.
Be the curd, however, lonolceia up ever so gently, and the whey
drawn off ever so carefully, the latter always throws up, on
standing, some cream, which it is worth while to make into
butter. But the quantity of whey-butter made in good dairies is
very insignificant in comparison with that produced where less
attention is paid to the breaking of the curd. 1 know it to be a
fact, that in some dairies four times as much whey-butter is
made as in others. Where much whey-butter is made, the
cheese is seldom of first-rate quality. Believing that this is 0
matter of some importance, I have visited pres dairies, and
repeatedly watched dairymaids breaking the curd, and noticed
the gentle and patient manner in which a clever woman goes to
work, and the hurried and dashing proceedings of a slovenly girl.
On these occasions I have taken ‘samples of the whey, and sub-
mitted them afterwards to analysis. The results, as recorded in
the following tables, show how much the whey of different
dairies varies in chemical composition as well as in physical
character :-—

Composition of Cheese. 5d

Composition of Whey.

No, 2, | No. 3, No. 4, No. §,

No. 1, |
‘Water. .. | 92°95 | 92°65 | 92°60 | 92°75 | 92-950
Butter (pure fatty matters) Ae “65 68 | *56 39 | “490
*
Nitrogenous substances aan 1°20 8] 96 “87 | 1°425
and albumen) si |
}Milk-sugar and lactic acid... 4°55 5°28 5°08 5°13 4°491
Mineral matters (ash) .. .«. *65 58 | “81 "86 | 644
100°00 | 100°00 | 100*00 | 100*00 |; 100°000
*Containing nitrogen .. .. “19 13 "15 14 228
+ Containing free lactic acid .. *48 “41 “36 “41 +120
re |
| No. 6, No.¥,. | No. 8, No.9, | No.10.
Water Sr ots 92°95 | 98°150 | 92°95 93°30 95°25
Butter (pure fatty matters) 5c 29 546 +24 31 26

*Nitrogenous substances (casein

1°01 17056 | 81 1°01 =91

and albumen) ae
}Milk-sugar and lactic acid . 5°08 | 4°662 527 4°68 4°70
Mineral : matters (ash) .. .. 67 "586 °73 “70 “88

100*00 |100*000 | 100°00 | 1¢0°00 | 100°00

*Containing nitrogen... | 16 169 131 16 148
+ Containing free lactic acid .. *54 | None. 39 “41 4]

ae .. | 92°85 | 93: 93°15 | 93°10

35 | 92°70 |
Butter (pure fatty matters) si “29 $25 31 “14 “14
*Nitrogenous substances es a F 4 2 : nee
and albumen) : 2 91 96 91 76
+Milk-sugar and lactic acid) 5°03 5°00 5°3l 5°06 5°31
Mineral matters (Col) as "$0 *49 “72. "74 “69

100°00 | 100°00 | 100°00 | 100°00 | 100-00

*Containing nitrogen «ww. | “151 148 elb *148 123
+ Containing free lactic acid .. 60 43 “40 “48 “46
|

When it is remembered that milk of good quality contains
from 34 to 4 per cent. of butter, it will be readdly seen
that wiece samples of whey contain more than 4 per cent.
of butter, the cheese is deprived of a very considerable por-
tion of its most valuable constituent, and that its quality must
therefore depend in a great measure on the care with which the
curd is broken up and the manner in which the whey is drawn
off. In some samples the amount of butter is so trifling, that it
is not considered worth the trouble to gather the cream and to
make whey-butter. In the dairies in which this happy state of

56 Composition of Cheese.

things exists excellent cheese is made. When the whey first
separates from the curd it is always more or less turbid, but by
degrees it becomes clearer ; and if sufficient time is allowed, and
it is then tapped off without disturbing the curd, it runs off
almost as clear as water. By this means nearly the whole of
the butter may be retained in the cheese. In order to place this
beyond a doubt, I examined the whey which Mr, Keevil, the
inventor of the Sly, cheesemaking apparatus which bears
his name, allowed me to take on the occasion of a visit which I
recently paid to his dairy-farm at Laycock, near Chippenham.
One sample of whey was taken at the stage in which it was
usually tapped off in Mr. Keevil’s dairy; the second when the
whey had become a little brighter, about ten minutes after the
first; and the third about twenty minutes after the first. It then
was as clear as water. These three samples when analysed gave
the following results :—

Composition of Whey taken at 3 different periods.

No. 16. No.17, | No.18,

2nd Sample, 3rd Sample,

| 1st Sample. taken 10 minutes|taken 20 minutes

lafter 1st Sample.|after Ist Sample.
Water 56 St Wave eee wees 92°90 93°25 93°55
Butter (pure fat) at ods Bod be™| “18 18 03
*Albuminous compounds .. .: .. | a) Sa acy | “94
Milk-sugar and lactic acid .. .. 5230) | 5°03 | 4°82
Mineral matters (ash) .. .. .,. 68 “60a 66
100'00 | 100:00 | 10:00
* Containing nitrogen 39. 02d Sil) *15 15

The two first samples are almost identical in composition ; they
both contain very little butter, but, small as that quantity is, it
can be further reduced to a mere trace by letting the whey stand
a little longer. In practice it may for other reasons not be
desirable to flee the whey stand at rest quite so long as the third
sample stood ; and a dairymaid may congratulate Herself when
she succeeds in breaking up the curd so carefully that the whey
contains as little butter as that made under Mr. Keeyil’s personal
direction and excellent management.

It may perhaps be supposed that the successful manner in
which the butter is retained in the cheese in Mr, Keevil’s dairy
is entirely due to the use of his patent apparatus, and that by its
introduction any dairymaid may be enabled to make good cheese.
But this supposition is not correct. Keevil’s apparatus, useful
and good as it is in many respects, is no safeguard against
carelessness. Cheese is spoiled with, as well as without it.

Composition of Cheese. 57

It does not supersede patience and skill, but its merit con-
sists in saving a great deal of hard labour and time. Be-
yond this, I may say, without disparagement to his ingenious
contrivances for breaking the curd, straining off the whey, and
other appliances, that it effects nothing which may not be done
by hand. But this saving of time and hard labour is a great
merit in an apparatus which can be bought at no great cost,
Where from 30 to 40 milking-cows are kept, it may be safely
recommended ; in smaller dainies there may not be sufficient use
for it. Having made frequent trial of Keevil’s apparatus, | am
anxious that its true merits should be known, but no unreasonable
expectations be entertained. It has been said that it makes more
and better cheese than can be made by hand. My own opinion
is, that it makes neither more or less, neither better or worse
cheese than a skilful dairymaid will make by hand, and that a
careless one is as likely to spoil her cheese when using this
apparatus as when making it according to her own fashion.

Some of the very best and some of the very worst of cheeses
which I have examined were made in dairies where Keevil’s
apparatus is in daily use. The superior character of the one
cheese is as little a proof of the merits of Keevil’s apparatus as
is the bad quality of the other an evidence against it.

Again, I may point to the composition of the whey analyses
marked No. 2, No. 3, No. 8, and No, 14, in the preceding large
table, and to the three whey analyses to which I have just
referred :—

No. 2, containing °68 per cent. of butter, was made from curd taken by
Keevil’s apparatus.

No, 16, containing *18 per cent. of butter, was made from curd taken by
* Keevil’s apparatus.

No. 18, containing ‘03 per cent. of butter, was made from curd taken by
Keevil’s apparatus.

Here, then, we have two samples of whey very poor in butter,
and: one sample containing more butter than any of the seventeen

which I analysed, On the other hand :—

No. 38, containing *55 per cent. of butter, was made from curd broken by
hand.

No, 8, containing °24 per cent. of butter, was made from curd broken by
hand.

No. 14, containing ‘14 per cent. of butter, was made from curd broken
by hand.

Here, again, we have two well-separated samples of whey, and
one ich) in butter, all three being made from curd broken by

hand.
Passing on from the loss of butter to that in the curd itself, I
find that, although no doubt some fine curd is lost when the

58 Composition of Cheese.

whey is very milky in appearance, yet as a rule this loss is small
in most dairies.. Indeed, my analyses prove positively that whey
seldom contains much casein or curd which might be retained
by ever so careful filtration. I have filtered whey from good
milk through the finest blotting-paper, and obtained it as bright
as crystal. On heating the perfectly clear whey to the boiling-
point, however, a considerable quantity of a white, flaky sub-
stance, resembling in every respect albumen, or the whit of egg,
made its appearance. Collected on a filter, washed with distilled
water, dried at 212° F., and weighed, this allnantoni or curdlike
substance amounted Bi the average to about ‘9 or nearly 1 per
cent. in good milk; in very ae milk there may be a little
more, in poor a little less. ‘This albuminous matter is contained
in the whey in a state of perfect solution, and differs from casein
or curd in not being coagulated by rennet. I have called it an
albuminous matter, because, like albumen, it separates in flakes
from the whey at the temperature of boiling water. Any one
may prove the existence of this substance, which, however bright
the whey may be, it invariably deposits in abundance at the
boiling-point,

Assuming, then, “9 to be the average proportion of this albu-
minous matter in whey, and deducting this proportion from the
total amount of nitrogenized EY: in the eighteen samples
of whey, we obtain the amount of curd held in mechanical sus
pension. ‘Thus we get for

No.l whey .. .. .- .. . °80 percent. of curd, held in a state of
mechanical suspension.

No, 2, 4, 8, and 15 whey.. .. mone.

No, 3and13 whey .. .. .. °06 per cent. of curd, held in a state of
mechanical suspension.

No.5 whey .. « «. +» °525 percent. of curd, held in a state of
mechanical suspension.

No.Gand9 whey .. .. .. ‘11 percent. of curd, held in a state of
mechanical suspension.

No.7 whey .. . «+. « *156 percent. of curd, held in a state of

mechanical suspension.

No. 10, 12, and 14 whey.. .. ‘01 per cent. of curd, held in a state of
mechanical suspension.

No. ll whey .. .. .. «. ‘038 per cent. of curd, held in a state of
mechanical suspension.

No. 16,17, and 18 whey.. .. 04 per cent. of curd, held in a state of
mechanical suspension.

Thus only in one sample out of eighteen there was about 4 per
cent. of curd held in mechanical suspension, and one sample
containing ;%;ths per cent., all the other samples, practically
speaking, coniaeaiae no suspended curd. Thus it is not so much
the curd as the Iithieke which is lost when whey is badly separated
from the curd.

Composition of Cheese. 59

4. When the curd has become sufficiently consolidated and is
ready to be vatted, it is crumbled down into small fragments.
For this operation every dairy should be furnished with a curd-
mill, a simple and inexpensive contrivance, which saves much
labour, and produces, generally speaking, a more uniform material
than the hand.

5. Cheese is also spoiled occasionally by badly made rennet,
that is, rennet which is either too weak or has a disagreeable
smell. In the one case the curd does not separate completely,
and that which separates remains tender; in the other the milk
is tainted, and the flavour of the cheese is affected.

The rennet used in different parts of England varies exceed-
ingly in strength and in flavour. Even in the same locality the
usage differs on adjacent farms. Although I have in my posses-
sion some dozens of rennet recipes, which were given to me by
experienced dairymaids, each as the very best, I shall not give a
single receipt for making rennet, as my object is rather to eluci-
date chemical principles than to prescribe details; and also
because, as long as the smell of the rennet is fresh, and a sufficient
quantity is used, it matters little, in my opinion, how it is made.

The ordinary practice in Cheshire is to make rennet fresh
every morning by taking a small bit of dried skin, infusing it in
water, and using this infusion for one day’s making. In
Gloucestershire and Wiltshire a supply is made from the pickled
vells, which lasts for two or three months. Generally the rennet
is made in these counties twice in the season. I have had a good
deal of discussion with practical men respecting the comparative
merits of these two methods. The Cheshire farmers almost
unanimously object that the rennet does not keep well when made
in any quantity of pickled vells. This, however, is quite a mistake.
I have in my possession some rennet which is as nicely flavoured
now as it was some nine months ago, when it was made. It has,
of course, a peculiar animal odour, but nothing approaching a
putrid smell. The spices which are used in some localities, such
as cloves and lemons, tend very much to keep the rennet in a
good condition and give it an agreeable flavour. The objection,
then, of the Cheshire farmers, that rennet, when a supply is
made, does not keep, and spoils the flavour of cheese, is certainly
untenable. I am much inclined to consider the practice of
Gloucestershire and Wiltshire, of making a considerable supply
of rennet, a good one ; for, when once the strength of the rennet
has been ascertained, it is merely necessary to take the proper
quantity, one or two cupfuls, to produce the desired effect with
certainty ; whereas, when the rennet is made day by day, there is
not the same certainty of obtaining an infusion of uniform

strength.

60 Composition of Cheese.

Scientific and practical writers on milk have stated that the
casein is held in solution by a small quantity of alkali; that
when in warm weather milk curdles, lactic acid, which is
always found in sour milk, is formed fom a portion a the sugar
of milk; and this lactic acid, by neutralizing the alkali which
holds the casein in solution, causes its separation from the milk,
Rennet is supposed to act as a ferment, which rapidly converts
some of the sugar of milk into lactic acid. Whether, therefore,
milk coagulates spontaneously after some length of time, or more
rapidly on the addition of rennet, in either case the separation of
the curd is supposed to be due to the removal of the free alkali
by lactic acid.

This theory, however, is not quite consistent with facts. The
casein in milk cannot be said to be held in solution by free
alkali; for, although it is true that milk often has a slightly alka-
line reaction, it is likewise a fact that sometimes perfectly fresh
milk is slightly acid. We might as well say, therefore, that the
casein is held in solution by a little free acid, as by free alkali.
Newly drawn milk, again, is often perfectly neutral ; but,
whether milk be neutral, or alkaline, or acid, the casera) exists
in it in a state of eelueion which cannot, therefore, depend
on an alkaline reaction. We all know that milk, when it
turns sour, curdles very readily. It is not the fact that a good
deal of acid curdles milk which I dispute, but the assumption
that the casein in milk is held in solution by free alkali, The
action of rennet upon milk, then, is not such as has been
hitherto represented by all chemists who have treated of this
subject. Like many other animal matters which act as ferments,
rennet, it is true, rapidly induces the milk to turn sour; but free
lactic-acid, | find, makes its appearance in milk after the curd
has separated, and not simultaneously with the precipitation of
the curd. Perfectly fresh and neutral milk, on the addition of
rennet, coagulates, but the whey is perfectly neutral, I have even
purposely made milk alkaline, and yet succeeded in separating
the curd by rennet; and, what is more, obtained a whey which
had an alkaline reaction.

What may be the precise mode in which rennet acts upon
milk, I do not presume to explain. I believe it to be an action
sui generis, which as yet is only known by its effects.. We at
present are even unacquainted with the precise chemical cha-
racter and the composition of the active principle in rennet, and
have not even a name for it. Finding the effect of rennet upon
milk to be different from that which I expected, I made a number
of experiments, which may here find a place.

1st Experiment.—To a pint of new milk, slightly alkaline to

‘omposition of Cheese. 61

test-paper, and of 60° Fahr., + ounce of rennet was
added.

Result: No coagulation after 3 hours.

Another } ounce of the same rennet was then added.

Result: The milk coagulated 1 hour after this addition, but
the casein was by no means well separated, and remained
tender and too spongy, even after 24 hours, The whey
was slightly alkaline.

2nd Exp.—To another pint of milk, neutral to test-paper, I added
4 ounce of the same rennet. The temperature of the
milk was 60°, as before.
Result ; The curd separated (though imperfectly) after 3 hours,
The whey was neutral.

N.B.—It will be seen that the curd separated more readily
from milk which was neutral, than from that which was alkaline.

3rd Exp.—To 2 pints of skimmed milk (24 hours old), and very
slightly acid, I added 4 ounce of rennet. Temperature of
milk 59° Fahr.
Result: Curd separated in 2 hours ; reaction of whey the same
as that of the milk.

Thus, if milk is slightly sour, rennet separates the curd more
readily than when it is neutral, though the temperature may be
low.

4th Exp.—To 1 pint of milk, slightly alkaline, and heated to
82° Fahr., + ounce of rennet was added.
Result: The milk coagulated in 20 minutes; the whey was

slightly alkaline.

dth Exp.—To 1 pint of milk heated to 100°, and neutral on re-
action, 4 ounce of rennet was added.
Result: Milk coagulated in + hour; whey perfectly neutral.

6th Lxp—Added to 1 pint of milk } ounce of rennet. The
temperature of milk was 110°; its reaction alkaline.
Result: Milk coagulated in 10 minutes; the whey was
alkaline.

tth Exp.—Milk was raised to 120° Fahr., and } ounce of rennet
added to 1 pint of milk, which was slightly alkaline to
test-paper.
Result: Milk coagulated in 10 minutes; the whey had the
same reaction as the milk.

Sth Exp—l1 pint of milk was heated to 130°, and $ ounce of
rennet added.

62 Composition of Cheese.

Result: Curd separated in 20 minutes; whey had the same
reaction as milk.

The experiment was repeated, and found correct.

It will thus appear that too high a temperature is not so fayour-
able to the coagulation of the milk as a less elevated one.
The separation, which at 120° took place in 10 minutes, at 130°
occupied 20 minutes.

9th Exp—Heated 1 pint of milk to 150°, added 4 ounce of
rennet.
Result: Milk did*not coagulate after 24 hours.

10th Exp.—Heated milk to 140°, added rennet.
Result: No coagulation,

11th Exp.—Heated milk to 135°, added rennet.

Result: No coagulation took place, even after 3 hours. I then
added another + ounce; the milk by this time had cooled
down, and the fresh quantity of rennet caused the separa-
tion of curd in less than 20 minutes.

Thus, at 120°, milk coagulates most readily ; at 130°, it takes
a somewhat longer time ; and at 135°, and upwards, it ceases to
coagulate.

12th Exp.—Heated 1 pint of milk to boiling-point, added 4 ounce
of rennet.

Result: No curd had separated when examined, after 24 hours’
standing.

13th Exp.—Heated another pint of milk to boiling-point, and
added + ounce of rennet.

Result: Milk did not coagulate after 24 hours. I then
added a little more fresh rennet to the cooled milk, and
again gently heated it, when the curd separated in less
than + hour.

Thus the temperature of boiling water, and even a much lower
heat, destroys the action of rennet, but does not so permanently
change the casein of milk that it cannot be separated.

The whey in the last experiment, again, was neutral, like the
milk,
14th Exp.—To 1 pint of fresh milk I added 10 grains of car-

bonate of potash, raised the temperature to 88° Fahr., and
added 4 ounce of rennet.

Result: Curd separated in $ hour. The milk and the whey

were strongly alkaline. After 24 hours the whey was
neutral, and then it became acid by degrees.

15th Exp—To 1 pint of milk I added 20 grains of carbonate of
potash, heated to 90° Fahr., and added + ounce of rennet,

Composition of Cheese. 63

Result: The curd separated in 4 hour, but not so perfectly
as in the preceding experiment, and in a softer condition.
The whey was more milky in appearance, and strongly
alkaline. Examined after 24 hours’ standing, it was
found to be neutral; after a lapse of 2 days, it was acid.

Even a considerable quantity of an alkali, therefore, does not
prevent the coagulation of milk by rennet.

16th Exp—To another pint of milk I added an unweighed
quantity of potash heated to 84°, and then + ounce of
rennet.
Result: No coagulation took place.

Much more alkali was used in this experiment than in the two
preceding ; an excess of alkali, therefore, prevents the separation
of curd by rennet.

17th Exp.—To some milk, swflicient tartaric acid was added to
make it distinctly acid.
Result: No coagulation took place inthe cold. On the appli-
cation of heat, the milk coagulated but imperfectly.

18th Exp.—To another portion of milk I added a good deal of
tartaric acid.
Result: The milk coagulated after some time, but imper-
fectly ; on raising the temperature, more curd fell down.

In order to precipitate the casein from milk by tartaric acid,
it is thus necessary to add a very large excess of acid, and at the
same time to raise the temperature of the milk.

These experiments prove thus—

a.—That the action of rennet on milk is not the same as that of
an acid, inasmuch as rennet coagulates new milk without
turning it sour in the least degree.

b.—That rennet can precipitate curd from milk, even when pur-
posely made alkaline.

c.—That the whey of milk, when produced from perfectly sweet or
neutral milk, is at first perfectly sweet or neutral, but rapidly
turns sour. If made from milk having an alkaline reaction,
the whey at first is alkaline; when from milk slightly acid,
the whey likewise is slightly acid.

d.—That rennet ceases to coagulate milk at about 135°, and
upwards.

e.—That the action of rennet upon milk is more energetic when
the milk is slightly acid. This, perhaps, is the reason why
some persons recommend putting some sour whey into the
milk before or after adding the rennet.

f—That an excess of alkali prevents the coagulation of milk by
rennet,

64 Composition of Cheese.

.—That an excess of acid coagulates milk, but not perfectly in
the cold.
h.—That a moderate amount of acid does uot coagulate milk in
the cold, and imperfectly at an elevated temperature.

6. Cheese, again, is sometimes spoiled when bad annatto is
employed as a colouring matter. Annatto at the best is a nasty,
disagreeable smelling enbstanece it would be well if it were
banished altogether fom the dairy. But, so long as a good many
people will prefer coloured to Aucoloured cheese, annatto will be
employed for the purpose of imparting a more or less deep
yellow colour.

The annatto of commerce is derived from the Orlean-tree
(Biza oreilana). The seeds and pulp of this tree appear to
contain two colouring matters ; one, in a pure state, is orange-
red, and is called bixinl: ; the other is yellow, and called orellin.
These colouring matters are insoluble in water, but dissolve
readily in alkalies, and also in fixed oils and fats. Solid
annatto, the annatto cake of commerce, is a preparation, which
contains, besides the pure colouring matter, a great deal of potash
or soda, carbonate-of-lime, pipeclay, earthy matters, and rubbish
of various kinds. Soap, train-oil, and other disagreeable smelling
and tasting matters are often used in preparing annatto cake.
Hence the annatto of commerce is often a most nauseous mate-
rial, which, when put into the cheese-tub, is apt to give to the
cheese a bad taste and an unsightly colour.’ Far superior to this
annatto, and more handy in its application, is the liquid annatto,
which is mainly an alkaline solution of the pure colouring
matter of the Bixa orellana. An excellent solution of that
description is manufactured by Mr. Nichols, of Chippenham,
which is perfectly clear, has a bright yellow cole and is free
from any of the obnoxious and Ciceereeable Sulnstaneee which are
frequently mixed up with annatto cake.

7. In the next place, I would observe that cheese is occasionally
spoilt if too much salt is used in curing it. Salt is a powerful
antiseptic, that is, it prevents fermentation; hence we use it for
pickling beef and hams, A certain amount of salt is necessary,
not so much for giving a saline taste, as for keeping in check the
fermentation to which cheese, like other animal matters, is
liable. If no salt were used the cheese would putrefy, and
acquire a very strong taste and smell, at least when made in the
ordinary way. When an extra quantity of cream is put to the
milk, it is not necessary, or even desirable, to salt the curd
much; we might even do without salt altogether, for the large
amount of fat ‘(butter) i in extra rich cheeses, such as Stilton or
cream-Cheddar, sufficiently preserves the casein.

If salt is employed in excess, the cheese does not ripen pro-

Composition of Cheese. 65

perly, or acquire that fine flavour, which depends upon the fer-
mentation proceeding in a sufficiently active degree. ‘Too much
salt, by checking this chemical activity, is thus injurious to the
proper ripening of cheese. ‘The saline taste of old cheese, as
already explained, is not due so much to the common salt used in
its preparation, as to certain ammoniacal salts which are formed
during the ripening process. It sounds strange, but it is never-
theless the case, that over-salted cheeses do not taste nearly so
saline when kept for six or eight months, as under-salted cheeses
kept equally long. If the milk is very rich, somewhat less salt
should be used than when it is poor, On no account, however,
should more than 2 lbs. of salt be used per ewt. of cheese ; 14 lb.
in most cases is quite enough, and even 1 1b. will be found a
sufficient quantity when rich cheeses are made,

8. Lastly, an inferior quality of cheese sometimes is produced
when it is imperfectly salted ; that is, when the salt is not properly
applied to the cheese. I have often seen the salt put upon the curd
in rough bits ; more often proper care is not taken to mix the curd
with the salt, and the cheese becomes unequally salted. The
consequence is that some particles of the cheese ferment too
much, others too little, and that the portions which are too much
salted do not stick well together, and acquire a dry and crumbly
texture. The salt used in dairies should be of the finest descrip-
tion, and should be sifted evenly through a fine sieve on the
curd, after the latter has been passed through the curd-mill, and
thinly spread in shallow leads to cool. This plan of spreading
the salt saves a great deal of labour, and is greatly to be pre-
ferred to the system of pickling the cheese in brine after it
is made, or of rubbing in salt. When salt is applied, either in
solution or by rubbing it into the cheese after it has been in the
presses, the outside is apt to get hard, and close up too much.
It is, of course, desirable to get a good and firm coat, but, at the
same time, the pores should not be too much closed, so that the
emanations which proceed from the cheese cannot escape. Thin
cheeses may be salted after they have been in the press; but, in
making thick cheeses, it is far better to salt the curd before it is
put into the vat.

A rather novel way of salting cheese has lately been made the
subject of experiments in America. As the following communi-
cation to the pages of the ‘Country Gentleman and Cultivator,’
an American agricultural paper, may have some interest, I take
the liberty of inserting it here :—

“Important Experiment in Cheese-making.—The diary season is about
commencing again, and I desire the privilege of a corner in your paper, to
VOL, XXII,

66 Composition of Cheese.

give the result of extended experiments in cheese-making. In the first place
J shall take it for granted that the whole process up to salting is well under-
stood, for it is of salting that I wish to speak in this article.

“In June, 1859, 1 finished a few cheeses after the following manner :
When my curd was scalded (I practise thorough scalding), 1 threw into the
vat about 4 quarts of salt—sometimes only 3—for a cheese of 50 to 60 lbs.,
stirring thoroughly. ‘Those which went into the hoop before being well
cooled off, acted badly ; but when I took time and means to cool sufficiently,
the cheeses were very fine. On the whole, I did not like the process, and
abandoned it.

“Tn 1860 I commenced again, changing the programme as follows: After
scalding I drew off the whey, leaving just enough to float the curd, and began
to cool off, hurrying the process by pumping in cold water and changing often.
Then, to a curd of say 60 l1bs., a little more or less, I threw in sometimes
3 and sometimes 4 quarts of salt, and stirred till well cooled—then drew off
the salted whey, and threw it on the compost heap—put the curd to press,
and pressed rapidly and thoroughly. And now for the result. [lost from
my whey tub about three pails of whey and some salt. I gained in this, that
my dripping tub under the press never had a particle of cream rise upon it,
and in having a cheese that gave me no trouble in curing, and that when sent
to market sold for the very highest price, and called forth the unqualified
approbation of dealers as being perfect in all respects—fine flavoured, very
solid (not porous), and very fat.

** And now let me talk to the experience of dairymen. In the old-fashioned
way of breaking up and salting a curd, more or less bruising of the curd to
break the lumps, in order to get the salt evenly distributed, is necessary ; and
when put to press the white whey runs off freely, or in other words the cream
runs off, and of course with it the richness of the cheese, and more or less of
its weight; and if the curd is very dry you are liable to get your cheese too
high salted, and if not, the reverse.

““My experiments clearly prove that a curd salted in whey will retain no
more salt than it needs, and that as every particle comes in contact with the
brine through the operation of stirring, no bruising is necessary. Whether
this is the philosophy of it or not, Iam not chemist enough to determine, but
I do know that if there is no discharge of white whey, or cream, it is retained
in the cheese, adding to it both richness and weight as a remuneration for the
extra salt and the wasted whey.”

- [1.—Pracrican Errors MADE IN KEEPING CHEESE.

The following are some of the practical mistakes that are
occasionally made after the cheese has left the presses and is

laced in the store-rooms.

1. Cheese is deteriorated in quality when i ts placed in damp or
in badly-ventilated rooms.

When beef or mutton is kept for a day or two in a damp and
badly-ventilated place, the meat soon acquires a disagreeable
cellar-like taste. The same is the case with cheese. Kept in a
damp place, it also becomes mouldy, and generates abundance
of mites.

In some parts of Cheshire it is a common practice to keep
cheese in dark rooms, carefully shutting out the free access of

Composition of Cheese. 67

air. This is an objectionable practice, which no doubt has its
origin in the desire to maintain in the store-rooms a somewhat
elevated temperature, and to avoid draughts of cold air,

It is quite true that draughts are injurious to newly-made
cheese, and a somewhat elevated temperature decidedly favours
its ripening and the development of a fine flavour; but the one
may be avoided, and the other can be maintained quite well, at
the same time that due provision is made for the admission and
circulation of fresh air.

During the first stage of ripening, a good deal of water and
other emanations escape from the cheeses, which, if not allowed
freely to pass away, make the air damp and injure the flavour of
the cheeses. Why cheese should be kept in dark rooms is tome
a mystery.

2. Cheese newly made is spoiled by not turning it frequently
enough.

Thick cheeses especially require to be frequently turned, in
order that the water which is given off from the interior warmer
parts of the cheese may freely escape, and all sides be exposed
at short intervals to the air. If this is neglected, that part which
is ‘in close contact with the board on which it rests becomes
smeary and rots, and by degrees the whole cheese is spoiled.
The boards, we need hardly say, should be wiped with a dry cloth
from time to time as well as the cheese,

3. Cheese does not ripen properly, and therefore remains deficient
in flavour, if the temperature of the cheese-room is too low.

The ripening of cheese is essentially a process of fermentation,
which may be accelerated or depressed by a proper or by too
low a temperature. Any temperature under 60° is unfavourable,
and should therefore be avoided.

4. Cheese is also spoiled if the temperature of the checse-room is
too high.

If the temperature of the room rises above 75° F. the fermen-
tation becomes so active that a cheese is apt to bulge out at the
sides, and to lose the uniform and close texture which charac-
terises it when good.

5. Lastly, cheese is sometimes spoiled if the temperature of the
cheese-room varies too much at different times.

A steady fermentation, which is essential to the proper
ripening of the cheese, can only be maintained in a room which
is not subject to great fluctuations in temperature. The more
uniformly, therefore, the cheese-room is heated, the more readily
cheese can be brought into the market, and the finer the quality
willbe. For this reason hot-water pipes, which give a very steady,
gentle, and lasting heat, are greatly to be preferred to stoves in

r2

68 Composition of Cheese.

cheese-rooms ; with the latter it is almost impossible to maintain
an equable temperature. The cheeses nearest to the stove again
are apt to get too much, and those farthest off not enough, heat.
Constant attention is moreover required ; and firing in the room
is always productive of more or less dust and dirt. These in-
conveniences are entirely avoided by the system of heating by
hot-water pipes.

In every dairy hot water is in constant request; the same
boiler which heats the water for cleaning the dairy-utensils may
be conveniently connected with iron-pipes that pass in and
round the cheese-room., Beyond the first cost of the iron-pipes
hardly any extra expense in fuel is thus incurred. An extra pipe
likewise may be introduced which connects the boiler with
Coquet’s apparatus, and by this means the curd in the tub may
be scalded much more conveniently and regularly than by pour-
ing hot whey or water over it. I have not made a sufficient
number of observations to say definitely which is the best tem-
perature to be maintained in a cheese-room ; but in my judgment
a uniform temperature of 70° to 75° is highly favourable to the
ripening process.

The proper regulation of the temperature of the cheese-room,
and the general plan of heating by hot water, I believe, is one of
greatest of our recent improvements.

These are some of the practical mistakes which I have noticed
in our dairies. I have endeavoured to assign reasons why they
must be so regarded, and have ventured to point out the appro-
priate remedies, many of which, however, suggest themselves
naturally to any intelligent observer. My object has been, not
so much to write a treatise on cheese-making, as to enable those
interested in dairy operations to read the various treatises and
pamphlets on cheese-making with profit, so as to be able to sift
the recommendations which are worth imitating from the heap
of empirical rubbish under which they are too often buried. No
directions, however carefully given, can ever be of much service
in an art which, like cheese-making, does not so much presup-
pose a great amount of knowledge as practical experience, dex-
terity, and cleanly habits. Neither skill in manipulation, nor
habits of cleanliness, nor experience can be acquired by reading.
A good or a sensible pamphlet, no doubt, may be read with
benefit even by an experienced hand; but the very best of
treatises, in the nature of things, cannot teach a person who
wants a rule or a recipe for everything how to make good cheese.
A good cookery-book, no doubt, is a useful literary production,
but the best cookery-book: is incapable of teaching an inexperi-
enced person the art of making light and wholesome pie-crust.

Composition of Cheese. 69

It is the.same with cheese-making as with cookery, as we shall
do well to bear in mind.

Lest these observations on publications on cheese-making
should seem to disparage too much the merits of the different
authors, | may state distinctly that a few papers contain valuable
and plain directions for making good cheese; but I am bound
at the same time to confess that the greater number, and more
especially most of the prize essays on cheese-making which I
have read, in my humble opinion, are next to useless to the
dairy-farmer, inasmuch as they generally contain nothing good
but what every dairy-farmer has long known ever since he began
making cheese,—and a great deal besides, which, though it may
appear novel, ingenious, or feasible, will at once be condemned
by any man of sound judgment as visionary and utterly im-
practicable.

There are many topics intimately connected with the manu-
facture of cheese on which I have not touched at all, such as the
influence of the food on the quantity and quality of milk, an
important subject as yet hardly investigated at all. Again the
influence of the race on the production of milk deserves to be
carefully studied, besides various other points on which practical
men may wish to obtain trustworthy information. My passing
them over in silence in the present paper will not I trust be
taken as an indication of want of acquaintance with the real
practical wants of the dairy-farmer. ,

Hitherto scarcely anything directly bearing on dairy-practice
has been done by scientific men: the whole investigation has,
therefore, engaged my liveliest attention, and brought to light
some unexpected chemical facts which have been recorded in
the preceding pages. Others | hope to lay before the readers
of the Journal when the researches still in hand shall be in a
sufficiently advanced state to warrant their publication.

Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, June, 1861.

{V.—Experiments upon Swedes. By Dr. Auaustus VoELcKER.

AGRICULTURAL experiments are of little or no practical utility
unless they are continued from year to year for a long period,
and tried on a variety of soils in good and in bad seasons in a
manner which allows us, if not to eliminate, yet clearly to recog-
nise the disturbing influences of climate, season, condition of
soils, and other circumstances which often affect the produce in
a higher degree than the manures on which we experiment. A

70 Experiments upon Swedes.

single field-experiment is as likely to lead us in a wrong as in a
right direction. ew persons have the inclination or are in a
position to persevere in such a laborious, expensive, and in many
respects unthankful course of investigation. But little trust-
worthy experience and no knowledge is gained from the great
majority of published experiments with artificial manures which
meet our eye from time to time in the agricultural newspapers,
from the want of this continuity of action. For this reason I
have continued field-experiments upon swedes, similar to those
published in this Journal in 1855 and 1858, and have now
the pleasure of presenting to the Royal Agricultural Society a
third report on field-experiments upon swedes. I regret to say
that in 1858, and again in 1860, my experiments were failures ;
and only in 1859 Tid 0 eueceed getting an even plant and
results on which reliance can be placed, and from which I trust °
some useful information may be gathered.

Although I completely failed in securing an even crop in
1858, it still appears to me advisable that | should describe
briefly the kind of experiments which I then made, and give the
weight of the produce; for sometimes useful lessons may be
learned from failure as well as from success,

In previous trials, extending over five seasons, I found that,
on the soils on our farm :—

1. Ammoniacal ‘salts, such as sulphate of ammonia, used
alone, had a decidedly injurious effect upon the turnip-crops,
even when used in small quantities.

2. Ammoniacal manures applied to swedes at first checked
the growth of the plant, and had ultimately no beneficial effect
on the crop, either alone or in conjunction with phosphates.

3. Guano proved a less economical manure than superphos-
phate of lime.

4, The addition of salt to superphosphate seemed to benefit
the crop.

5. In dry seasons the best artificial manures are often of little
or no more service to the produce than inferior and all but
worthless manures.

With a view of verifying these general conclusions, and ob-
taining at the same time information on some other points on
which I shall have to speak presently, I made the following
experiments.

Part of a 40-acre field, marked Nos. 6 and 10 in the map of
the farm attached to the Royal Agricultural College, was divided
into 20 plots, of 8 poles each :-—

Experiments upon Swedes. 71

No.

1 was manured with farmyard-manure, at the rate of 20 tons per acre. —

2 rf 20 tons of farmyard manure and 2 ewts. of superphos-
phate per acre.

3 as 3 ewts. of superphosphate.

4 = 1 ewt. of superphosphate.

5 * 6 ewts. of superphosphate per acre.

6 5 3 ewts. of gypsum.

7 “: 2 cwts. of superphosphate and 1 ewt. of guano per acre.

8 5 3 cwts. of Peruvian guano per acre.

9 1 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia per acre.

2?
10 was left unmanured,.
11 was manured with 3 ewts. of bone-dust per acre.

12 +e 2 ewts. of sulphate of ammonia per acre.

13 # 3 ewts. of dissolved bones per acre.

14 re 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda.

15 is 2 ewts. of superphosphate, 1 cwt. of salt, 40 Ibs. of
nitrate of soda, and 40 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia
per acre.

16 na 3 cwts. of common salt per acre.

eg a 3 ewts. of superphosphate per acre.

18 A 3 cwts. of superphosphate and 1 cwt. of sulphate of
ammonia per acre.

19 + 3 ewts. of sulphate of potash per acre.

20 iS 3 cwts. of superphosphate and 1 ewt. of nitrate of soda

per acre.

The artificial manures were all finely powdered, and before
sowing mixed with red ashes (couch-ashes and burnt soil) at the
rate of 10 ewts. per acre. The manures mixed with the ashes
were sown on the 19th of May, and the seed (Liverpool or
Skirving’s swede) on the 21st of May. The plants came well up,
but were eaten by the fly, and the field had to be resown on the
7th of June. Each experimental plot measured one-twentieth of
an acre, and comprehended 4 rows of drills of equal length.
The distance from drill to drill was 26 inches. The plants
were singled out 12 inches apart. Unfortunately the experi-
mental swedes, as well as the roots adjoining, after having
passed the ordeal of the fly, were afterwards attacked by a black
caterpillar, the ‘ black-jack,’ as it is called here. Every exertion
was made to prevent the ravages of this pest, but without effect,
I then tried to make good the bare places by transplanting
young swedes, and succeeded tolerably well; but as I had to
repeat the transplanting of the roots several times when the
season was far adyaneéd, many of the transplanted roots came to
nothing, and after all I obtained an unequal crop.

Passing over the composition of the different manures, and the
analysis of the soil, I will now record at once the result of the
weighings of each plot :—

72 Experiments upon Swedes.

Taste showing Produce in Swedes, topped and tailed and cleaned, of each
Experimental Plot and per Acre.

Plot. Manure. Per 34 Acre. Per Acre,
| cwts. qrs, lbs. | tons. cwts. qrs. Ibs.
20 tons of farmyard-manure peracre .. | 10 1 21/10 8 38 @
2 | 20 tons of farmyard-manure and 2 ewts.
of auperphospligte bo}. do st NO ed ee ao ome 3
3 | 3 ewts. of superphosphate oi Piss 8 cme, HPD PL 2) | SSL 7 Oe Ge
4 | lewt.ofsuperphosphate.. .. .. .. 9 dio JON Ss oer Oho
5 | 6 ewts, of superphosphate afe j) ao, ice’ | UM On A108 5 RL
6 | 3ewts.of gypsum .. 10) (35) 164) LO Some
7 | 2ewts. of superphosphate and 1 ewt. of
guano pes i < : eh 12" 0% 8) tae
8 | 3cwts. of Peruvian guano. “> ise ces || BQ) 9/4] 3 eae
9 1 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia commer icieoeusisimiisy il By 2
LOS AM oebie oe oot soso co tos bod bho Wi 7 is
11 | 3 ewts. of bone- dust . Soom CO mDoN |e) Py Wenloy ihe ha)
12 | 2 ewts. of sulphate ofammonia .. .. | 10 1 1325) JON 5S acme
13 | 3 ewts. of dissolved bones se se) See] DOR 10) 10 Om O RmmnG:
14 | lewt. ofnitrate ofsoda .... 12-43" 20 | 12 18) 2s
15 | 2 ewts, of superphosphate and 1 cwt. of salt 120 Ss 2 ees
16S eSiewtsofscommoni salt) yy. = cet) mos || Lc | Le
17 | 3 ewts. of superphosphate cies 10 2 18) 10° Ws) 1028
18 | 5 cwts. of superphosphate and 1 owt. of
sulphate of ammonia Ban. ache eco } 1008 27 | 102 ee
19 | 3ecwts. of sulphate ofpotash .. . 9) (39/263) 29 9 BaZa.
20 | 3cwts. of superbuesvaat and 1 ewt. 10- 0 44011" 10. ORO
nitrate of soda ASAE es

|

I give’ this table in order to show how strangely sometimes
experiments turn out, and how necessary it is to observe care-
fully all circumstances which may affect the final produce. If no
notice had been taken of the cause which operated so injuriously
on the experimental roots, the strangest deductions might have
been arrived at. Thus, it might appear that 1 ewt. of sul-
phate of ammonia per acre was the best turnip-manure; that
1 cwt. of superphosphate per acre, on the other hand, was inju-
rious to swedes, inasmuch as in the preceding experiments it
diminished the produce ; that 3 cwts. of gypsum per acre were as
good as 3 cwts. of bone-dust for turnips, and that both are equal
in fertilizing power to 20 tons of farmyard-manure. These and
other absurd conclusions might all be derived from experiments
in which the produce has been accurately weighed. Similar
contradictions and anomalies strike the attention of the experi-
enced and critical reader of the many reports of like experiments

rinted in our newspapers. In many instances we cannot but
admit that these have been conducted in a conscientious and
careful manner; yet the results are such, that if due allowance
be not made for circumstances which may easily be overlooked,
conclusions may readily be drawn from them which may mislead
the inexperienced or confirm the particular fancy of the preju-

Experiments upon Swedes. 73

diced, ‘Thus, let a manure be ever so worthless, yet, if it be
tried under varied conditions, it will for some reason or other
prove in some few cases superior to fertilizers of recognized
merits. If we suppose that these accidental successes are
recorded, and all the preponderating number of failures or ques-
tionable successes ignored, we see at once how it comes to pass
that artificial manures, like the British Economical manure and
many others that possess little or no fertilizing value, are never-
theless strongly recommended, and that men of undoubted character
are found to testify in good faith that such rubbish is superior to
guano, bone-dust, and other well-known fertilizers. Testimonials
of manures, even when given by the best and most experienced
men, have little value; and, as they are much more apt to lead
astray than to do good, it would be well if leading agriculturists
would abstain altogether from giving them.

Nothing is more difficult than to establish by experiment a
general truth in agriculture. We not only require to modify
agricultural experiments in a great variety of ways, but, after we
have continued them for a number of years and carefully re-
corded the results, it is necessary to exercise the greatest caution
in interpreting the results, and to look almost with suspicion on
everything which at first sight appears plausible or even conclusive.

The preceding experiments, beyond the lesson which they
afford of diffidence in accepting points which are said to have
been proved by practical experiment, teach us absolutely nothing.

Fretp EXPERIMENTS ON SWEDES MADE IN 1859,

The field selected for the experimental trials in 1859 was in
tolerably good condition. It bore clover in 1857, and wheat in
1858. The soil is moderately deep, and well-drained. A por-
tion of the soil, taken from a large sample from different parts of
the field, was submitted to analysis, and the following results
obtained :—

Composition of Soil from Experimental Field No. 7 of the Royal
Agricultural College Farm, Cirencester.

Moisture (when analysed) .. .. .. . . 3°960
Organic matter and water of combination .. .. 9°616
Oxides of iron andalumina .. .. .. .. .. 19°660
Warnonatesof lime’ s. S\ 2s en Se Ves ce 8805
alpnatcromlime © 5 <2 28) 27h ee Aaa 845
PanOspuoniciacidh) :.0 “SS ih- 5. eaten ae 075
Magnesia co PRE Cte eee 2s oe a 783
RS cs ea es ce Pog nett met | Eheaeee
Soda 36, 00), PODER SRT ORO aetOe AbioM (en ‘090
Insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly clay) .. .. 60°525

100-098

74 Experiments upon Swedes.

The soil contains hardly any sand that can be separated by the
mechanical process of washing and decantation. It contains,
like most of the soils on our farm, an appreciable quantity of
sulphate of lime, and also of phosphoric acid, It is not so rich
in carbonate of lime as many other of our fields, and is rich
enough in clay to be called a good agricultural clay.

This field was quite level, and in a good state of mechanical
subdivision.

An acre of this land was divided into 20 parts. The dif-
ferent artificial manures, after having been mixed with couch-
ashes and burnt soil, were sown on the 6th of June; the land
was ridged up and the seed (Skirving’s swedes) drilled on
the 7th of June. Each experimental plot contained 4 rows of
equal length. The distance between the drills was 22 inches ;
the plants were singled out 12 inches apart. One part of the
field was manured in autumn; the greater part in spring; the
portion selected for experiments being then left unmanured.

, The following list exhibits the arrangement of the experi-
mental field, the kinds of manure employed, and their quantities,
calculated per acre :—

Experiments upon Skirving’s Swedes in Field No. 7, Royal Agricultural
College Farm, Cirencester, 1859.

Plot Per Acre.
1 was manured with 15 tons of rotten dung,
2 4 15 tons of rotten dung and 2 ewts. of superphosphate.
3 5 3 ewts. of superphosphate.
4 ne 1 ewt. of superphosphate.
5 A 6 ewts. of superphosphate.
6 = 3 cwts. of gypsum.
7 on 2 cwts. of superphosphate and 1 ewt. of guano.
8 . 3 cwts. of guano.
9 1 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia,

y}
10 was left unmanured.
11 was manured with 3 ewts. of fine bone-dust.

12 ay 2 cwts. of sulphate of ammonia.

13 es 3 cwts. of turnip-manure.

14 os 1 ewt. of nitrate of soda.

15 aA 6 cwts. of turnip-manure.

16 ss 3 cwts. of salt.

17 a 3 ewts. of bone-ash treated with sulphuric acid.

18 on 3 cwts. of dissolved bone-ash and 1 ewt. of sulphate of
ammonia,

19 a 3 ewts. of sulphate of potash.

20 x 3 cwts. of dissolved bone-ash and 1 ewt. of nitrate of soda.

The rest of the field received about 15 tons of farmyard-
manure and 3 ewts. of superphosphate mixed with ashes at the
time when the seed was drilled. ‘The seed was of the same kind
as that used in the experiments, Four rows of turnips, occu-
pying exactly one-twenticth of an acre, were reserved on two

Experiments upon Swedes. 75

sides of the experimental plots, and the produce from these two
additional plots was weighed when the produce of the 20 experi-
mental plots was ascertained.

On each plot of the experimental field a remarkably even and
good plant was obtained. The season being mild, the roots con-
tinued to grow throughout November ; they were, therefore, left
in the field until the Sth of December, when the crop was taken
up. The roots were topped and failed and cleaned, and the
whole produce of each plot then carefully weighed, aie the fol-
lowing results :—

TABLE showing Produce per Acre of Swedes, topped and tailed and cleaned,
and Increase per Acre over the Unmanured portion, in Field 7, Royal
Agricultural College Farm, Cirencester, 1859.

Plot. Manure. Produce per Acre. Increase per Acre.
ci i bad | tons. ewts. qrs. ee |tons. ewts. qrs. Ibs.
1 | 15 tons of farmyard-manure_.. 18 10 2 16 1 20
2 | 15 tons of farmyard-manure and 2 ewts. ‘}
of superphosphate acide sail i a i ait eM sling le,
Ser sicwts, of superphosphate .. .. .. | 1 LL 2 10'S" Vn eG
4 | lewt. ofsuperphosphate .. .. ..|17 6 8 4/2 12 2 O
5 | 6 ewts. of superphosphate... -. . | 21 2 3 12/6 8 2 8
6 | 3 ewts. of gypsum os | 26 14 TO Ay 2 6 OF OF
7 | 2 ewts. of superphosphate and 1 ewt.)
of Peruvian\guano’.. ‘2 .. >. ME BE, hy BO Bh BA | Pig Be
8 | Scwts. of Peruvian guano... .. | 18 17 2 20|/4° 8 1 16
9 | lewt. of sulphate ofammonia.. -./|15 17 3 12/1 8 2 8
10 | Nomanure.. .. vee eoht ware) NY ay ee Ly re AAP ecic
11 | 3 ewts. of fine bone- diene 40) | Sib YS 9 2 eL6i NS, Sy 1 ag
12 | 2cwts. of sulphateofammonia.. ..|16 17 8 12/2 3 2 8
iseeieocwis. Of turnip-manure .. .. -- | 20 21 1 20/5 7 Oy 16
12> jplewt of nittateofseda,- .. 5 - 418 9.1 4/3 35 0 0
ipeoewis.Gnturmip-manure =. -. -) | 20 % 0. 16 |.5 312'3 12
Ge percwts, of commenisal Gai .. + | 15 16°21 °-O)| LL 3 24
17. | 3 cwts, of dissolved bone-ash_ .. 20; To 2 2k) 6 Poh 20
18 | 3ewts, of dissolved bone-ash and 1 owt,
of sulphate of ammonia .. .. is EE ay er) nee one
19 | 3ewts. of sulphate of potash .. LF WO) 92 ED SO
20 | 3ewts. of dissolved boue-ash and 1 ewt.
of nitrate of soda : "i chp a ali ey
The two plots adjoining the experimental field yielded :—
} | Manured with farmyard and ean ; |
i ethite z @ 6 12/2 BO 16
2 Manured with farmy ard and super-
| phosphate .. Bo, Mae cs i, ee es | et

{In looking over the list of @he different manures employed in
these experiments, it will be noticed in the first place that cer-
tain simple salts which commonly enter into the composition of
artificial manures have been used separately, It is not likely

76 Experiments upon Swedes.

that we shall ever understand the action of complicated manures
if we do not carefully study the separate effect of their component
parts on vegetation. For this reason one plot was manured
with sulphate of ammonia, another with sulphate of lime
(gypsum), a third with sulphate of potash, a fourth with chloride
of sodium, and, finally, one with nitrate of soda.

In the next place we have in Plot 17 phosphates chiefly in
a soluble condition, and free from organic matter or anything
else but sulphate of lime, which is necessarily produced when
bone-ash is treated with sulphuric acid. In another plot (No. 18)
we have the same materials in conjunction with sulphate of am-
monia ; and in No. 20 we have them united with nitrate of soda.

Then with respect to the form in which the nitrogen is applied in
these experiments, I would observe that we find it in farmyard-
manure, partly as ready-formed ammonia, partly in the shape of
semi-decomposed nitrogenized organic matter. In sulphate of
ammonia it exists, of course, as a salt of ammonia. In nitrate of
soda we apply nitrogen in the shape of nitric acid. In guano
nitrogen exists, partly only in the form of ammoniacal salts, the
greater portion of nitrogen being present as uric acid and other
organic compounds which readily yield ammonia on decomposi-
tion, And, lastly, we have in the turnip-manure all these dif-
ferent forms in which nitrogen can be applied to the land
combined together with phosphates.

The results of these experiments, though unsatisfactory in
some respects, are nevertheless interesting and suggestive in
others, and worthy of some comments :—

Plot 1. Manured with 15 tons of Farmyard-manure per Acre.

tons. cwts. qrs. lbs.

leryooniersy ea 4g, Uso, ites © AO
linereaseny ice lueen mess 3) 62) SleZ0

Plot 2. Manured with 15 tons of Farmyard-manure and 2 cwts. of
Superphosphate per Acre.

tons. cwts. qrs. Ibs.
IPrOUUCCMMM ae yee! eee RAL (1) 4.
MMereasey Wrest cis Lite Loe eel 0)

In comparing the weight of roots from these two plots, it
would appear that the additional quantity of superphosphate has
had rather an injurious than a beneficial effect. This, however,
would be against common experience. It is probable that fete
were more plants on No. 1 than on No, 2. Let us suppose that
there were 100 plants more on PIBE No. 1, and that each root on
an average weighed 2 lbs, ; on calculating the increase per acre
we should obtain nearly 1 ton more on the first plot than on
the second. I regret not having counted the number of roots.

Experiments upon Swedes. 77

If the land is in a poor, unmanured condition, the difference in
the weight of roots taken from 2 acres of land—one acre con-
taining 2000 or 3000 plants less than the other—may be hardly
appreciable, provided the roots have not been drilled too far
apart and not singled out too wide apart; for on the acre
on which a less number of roots is grown, each root has
more room, and, as the land is in a poor condition, the plants
are less stinted in food than on the second acre. We obtain
thus larger but fewer roots on one acre, and smaller but more
roots on the other; and the difference in the produce of both
acres may be imperceptible, and even in favour of the acre on
which the smaller number of roots were grown. But supposing
the land is in a high state of fertility, and each plant can find
abundance of ready-prepared food, the result must be quite dif-
ferent. If singled out too wide apart, the roots will be found not
much larger than on similar land planted moderately close ; and
in the latter case the weight per acre will be larger than on the
former.

Here, as in so many other instances, it is impossible to lay
down exact rules how far apart the drills should be, and how
wide the plants should be singled out. On some land 26 inches
by 15 inches is not too wide; on other land 22 inches is a good
width between the drills, and 12 inches a fair distance between
the plants. If the soil is shallow and poor, the drills should be
at least 26 inches apart, and the plant singled out rather wide ;
for the roots in that case will extend their feeding-fibres on the
surface, and require a larger space than they do in a deep, well-
pulverised, loamy soil.* On the whole, I am inclined to think
that in many cases we do not get so heavy a crop of roots when
we plant too far apart, as when we plant closer. Farmers do
not like to see their neighbours grow bigger roots than they
themselves can grow; but I question much whether the objec-
tionable custom of giving silver prize-cups to large-sized roots
has not done a great deal towards diminishing the quality as
well as the quantity of the produce in bulbs per acre. I am
inclined to think an acre of roots of moderate size, and grown
tolerably near together, is worth more money than an acre of

* The proposed time and mode of consuming the crop will have nearly as much
to do with determining these distances as the soil. Late white turnips, intended
to serve as spring food for ewes and lambs, may well be sown with 5 drills, occu-
pying the same space as 3 rows of Swedes intended to be partly drawn and stored.
Plants not fully developed, and young, resist atmospheric influences far better
than those that are ripe and large. It is by no means clear to me that on the
poorer soil the smaller root is not more eligible, apart from the question of total
weight per acre.

The difference between the power of full grown white mustard, and that which
is but a few inches high, in resisting frost is remarkable. For many of man’s
uses the ideal and fully developed plant is not the most serviceable.—P. H. F.

78 Experiments upon Swedes.

large-sized roots planted far apart. Some time ago I had a cal-
culation made of the number of roots which can be grown per
acre when drilled at different distances and singled at different
breadths, and as these calculations may be useful to others, and
convince them, as they have done myself, that we should manure
the root-crop well in the first instance, and then plant tolerably
closely, | have incorporated them in the following table :—

Ta,e, showing the Number of Roots per Acre, drilled at different intervals
and singled at different distances, also the Area occupied ty each Plant, in
square inches,

Singled apart, Width of | Number of Plants Area occupied
in Inches. Drills. per Acre. by each Plant.
Sq. inches. Sq. feet.

OP ibyal aezb 26,806 234 — 1}

Ge he Via 31,680 198 = 13

ie EU 20,104 312 = 2!

id iyabe nut Be 23,760 264 — 13

lS wernt ade 16,083 390 = 25
nara B22) 19,008 330 = 27

eer te 9G 13,403 468 = 3!

Heys Bis Soa 15,840 396 = 23

But to return to the plots. I have reason for believing that
there must have been more roots on Plot No. 1 than on Plot
No. 2; for I find the land on one side of the experimental plots
yielded 17 tons 6 cwts. 1 qr. 20 lbs. per acre, and on the other
side it gave 17 tons 18 ewts. 24 lbs. per acre. The whole field,
as mentioned already, was manured with about 15 tons of yard-
manure and 3 ewts. of superphosphate. This produce agrees
well with the weight of the roots on the second plot, manured
with dung and superphosphate. Still we have a difference of
nearly 12 ewts. of roots in the two plots adjoining the experi-
mental lots, and ought, therefore, to remember that the natural
variations of the land and other purely accidental circumstances
may readily give a difference in the produce of different portions
of land which have been treated in every respect alike. Indeed,
if the difference in the produce does not amount to more than
1 ton, or even 1} ton, I fear we cannot do much with the results.
It certainly would be rash to lay stress on such differences, and
to use them as arguments in proving or denying the efficacy of
certain manuring matters :—

Plot 3. Manured with 3 cwts. of Superphosphate.
tons. cwts. qrs. lbs.
Produce: 8, ess, cee ll
Ttrease’ yt) ves he Pye I A 7 ae

Plot 4. Manured with 1 ewt. of Superphosphate.
tous. cwts. qrs. Ibs.
Prodtred 77 eee ahs XO tage mee
Increase .. : PE SZ eg

Experiments upon Swedes. 79

Plot 5. Manured with 6 ewts. of Superphosphate.

tons. cwts. qrs. Ibs.

MrOUUCe 4, WG os .o oh 2 ver ag
Take (Oe vn, Gy 8 Gr we

The superphosphate used in these experiments had the fol-
lowing composition :—

NU@isGtn ae ob Bow GOB) Jnoe aie node “ead. oo allOHs\0,
*Organic matter . Bers haste a aw. wade Ning lh | deo
Bi-phosphate of lime dy Ae foe, OO
Hqual to bone-earth rendered soluble... « (81°63)
Insoluble phosphates z ee wh owe), eA
Hydrated sulphate of lime (¢ ypsum) tse Se, AGS
Alkaline salts (common salt) . Roe we 10:78
Insoluble siliceous matter Hal Mo ao. yoke co lity)
100-00
* Containing nitrogen .. «1 6. ee eee "34
Equal to ammonia OR Sethe oe, Poo CG “Al

It will be observed that in this experiment 1 cwt. of this
superphosphate gave nearly as much increase as 3 cwts, of the
same manure. It would, however, be rash to generalise from this
one instance; nothing less than a dozen experiments in different
parts of the field would have warranted the conclusion that on
this soil 1 cwt. of superphosphate will give as good a crop of
roots as 3 cwts.; for the fact that the soil is not particularly rich
in phosphoric acid renders such a supposition unlikely. More-
over, we have a direct evidence in the Experiment No. 5 that
the roots were grateful for an abundant supply of phosphates,
6 ewts. of the same superphosphate here yielded the heaviest in-
crease of all the 20 experimental plots. The superphosphate
ued in this experiment was chiefly made from bone-ash, and
contained but very little nitrogen. We have thus here another
proof that a good crop ef roots can be obtained on clay land
with superphosphate alone, containing but little nitrogenized or
other organic matters. .

Plot 6. Manured with 3 cwts. of Gypsum.

tons. cwts. qrs. Ibs.
Produce sh) epee ee eee tem A pmeelis =i
Tncrease ott eG ae ee ee, et OF 0. 70)

The gypsum employed in this experiment was ordinarily good,
finely-powdered gypsum, which did not effervesce with an acid,
thus proving that it did not contain any carbonate of lime.

It seems that in this instance gypsum has had unusual effect on
the produce. Probably the ashes with which the gypsum was
mixed had a share in the increase,

80 Experiments upon Swedes.

Plot 7. Manured with 2 cwts. of Superphosphate and 1 cwt. of
Peruvian Guano.
tons. cwts. qrs. lbs.
PROduce:4, he. wen cle, Were als pelo aman 20)
Increase... TA Oo CelemmOe, ell
The increase produced its a mixture of 2 cwts. of superphos-
phate and 1 cwt. of Peruvian guano, it will be seen, is greater
than the increase produced by 3 cwts. of the same super-
phosphate.
In many instances I find that a mixture of two parts of good
superphosphate and one part of Peruvian guano gives a better
crop than either superphosphate or guano applied alone.

Plot 8. Manured with 3 cwts. of Peruvian Guano.

tons. cwts. qrs. _ lbs.
Produce eee ay lucie lye, Ay 0)
Imereases yacht coe iets 4 Sy ah 1s)

In this case Peruvian guano produced rather a better result
than the mixture of superphosphate and. guano used in ‘the pre-
ceding experiment. However, the difference does not amount to
more than 6 ewts., which is too insignificant to decide the ques-
tion whether in the case before us Peruvian guano alone had
really a better effect upon the crop than the mixture of super-
phosphate and guano. In former years I have found, however,
that Peruvian guano produced not nearly so great an increase as
superphosphate alone, or a mixture of superphosphate and
guano, There are, no doubt, soils for which guano is the most
profitable manure even for root-crops; but this is rather the
exception than the rule.

If there is a deficiency of available nitrogenized matters in a
soil, a moderate amount of ammoniacal matters appears decidedly
to benefit the turnip-crop.

On the soil of the experimental field nitrogenized matters
appear to have had a beneficial effect even when applied by
themselves, which was not the case in the experiments which I
tried on other soils in past years.

The composition of the Peruvian guano used in this and the
preceding experiment shows that it was a genuine sample of
superior quality, as 100 parts on analysis yielded—

Moisture .. oe at OLE

*Organic matter sad peaiontacal salts Sor oe pOZtell!
Phosphates of lime and magnesia .. .. .. 22°55

Alkaline salts .. .. Saw cd) oe 7°94

Insoluble siliceous matter | EL icy RO) ere cm gs C0, c;

x 10000
: * Containing Nitrogen .. .. .. « « 14°64

Equal!toammoniaygune-i ise) eed fa) Mite aia

io «i
_

Experiments upon Swedes.

Plot 9. Manured with 1 ewt. of Sulphate of Ammonia.

tons. cwts. qrs. lbs.
Peree, ee «aes wa LO M7 8° “UZ
GYEDSO) 9 oe ws ts, ct a! o 2 8

Plot 12. Manured with 2 cwts. of Sulphate of Ammonia.

tons. cwts. qrs. Ibs.
MATOCUUCO ls P ctra esas Gisckhseny LO LG fovly ka
GTEASE)s 2, 20k Ueki) sors ss 2 SW 8

The sulphate of ammonia used in these experiments was
found to consist, in 100 parts, of—

Pure sulphate of ammonia Se Oreo eo,
Fixed salts a hal cacti ie ie gua oat ails ‘78
WOISCUREMN GeotL od faci ct Mtoe) | Nasty ect 94

100-00

The increase on Plot 9, obtained with 1 ewt. of sulphate of
ammonia, is inconsiderable, and might be ascribed to natural
variations in the soil, or to the ashes with which the sulphate
was mixed. But the larger increase, produced by double the
quantity used on Plot 12, together with the fact that Peruvian
guano produced a much better result than in former experiments,
shows that sulphate of ammonia has had a beneficial effect on
the swedes in this instance. The effect, however, was not great
when compared with that produced by phosphatic manures.

Plot 11. Manured with 3 cwts. of fine Bone-dust.

tons. cwts. qrs. lbs.
imrodupe 9S. Bs. a. 22 SS Oe SAL elo
HECREGSOM fo fsa) sah, es oe lb le eA

Bone-dust, as might have been anticipated, gave a considerable
increase. The bone-dust used in this experiment was very
fine, it having been specially reduced to a coarse meal, On
analysis it was found to consist of—

MGISHUTCH SUM thd Sek? HRTRUS... les 7) own) LOSS
pOQreanichmatteren. <slesetace. wa, os OO'OL
Phosphates ccm eters) (ec se OL Oe
Carbonate of lime and magnesia .. .. 6°03
‘Alkaline salts! | sae eset | ee Pee (0°58
ANG cd. ehh feiss cel weed dail se LOS
100-00

= Cortaininy nitrogen <5" 25% soos, Oral
Equal toammonia’ .. .. *.. 4°50

Plot 13. Manured with 3 cuts. of Turnip-manure.
: tons. cwts, drs. Ibs.
Produce Piss «os 20ng i ei 20
Increase Res ec) os On are ON lo
VOL, XXII, G

82 Experiments upon Swedes.

Plot 15. Manured with 6 cwts. of Turnip-manure.
tons. cwts. qrs. Ibs.
Produce aims pice oon AU Wifes iil gn galls:
Increase SoM ance og aie UNS tect}
The turnip-manure used in these experiments on analysis
gave the following results :—

Moisture .. . sey (ein eis) eel <a RENO
*Sulphate of ammonia 59 bs 8°64
jeanne nitrogenized organic mé atters Be 25)
Insoluble nitrogenized organic matters .. 11°13
Bi-phosphate of lime ee --| A599
Equal to bone-earth rendered soluble. 779)
Insoluble phosphates (bone-earth) .. .. 16°48
Hydrated sulphate of lime .. .. .. 19°26
Alkaline salts .. .. det ay, eater alone)
Insoluble siliceous matter whe, vate Uyak 2°54
100:00
* Containing nitrogen ... 60 <s)! oe 1°83
{ Containing nitrogen. -. .. .. «» 391

This is a very superior manure, which it will be seen pro-
duced a very large increase on Plot 13, though only 3 ewts, were
applied to the acre. It is somewhat remarkable that double the
quantity of this manure did not produce a much more consider-
able increase.

Plot 14. Manured with 1 cwt. of Nitrate of Soda.

tons. cwts. qrs. Ibs.
Reoducey wis Gee oss. ee LC
Increase .. Sea eel i mtcee eee 3. 15. FONG

Iam not aware of any accurate experiments in which nitrate
of soda has been used by itself for turnips. The effect which so
small a quantity as 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda produced on the crop
was decidedly beneficial, for it will be noticed that as large a
produce was obtained with 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda as with
3 cwts. of fine bone-dust. This result is certainly encouraging,
and suggests a series of trials with nitrate of soda upon root-
crops. The nitrate should be used in such trials by itself, as
well as in conjunction with superphosphate or bones. ‘The
nitrate of soda used in this experiment was a good sample. It
contained in 100 parts—

Moisture .. . es Ae 1:87
Pure nitrate of cota wei aie Wt eee uieiaee Mme a OOS
Chioniderot sodium ey eee eee ee “79
. Sulphate of soda Lori) Sk die (Matec sis Wiubllelliag
DAG: ccs “sett ase a eT CCL Se “49

100°00

Experiments upon Swedes. 83

Plot 16. Manured with 3 cwts. of Common Salt.

tons. cwts. qrs. Ibs.
Produce A BR tte estoy! 5 awl No abe (uta
Increase Ae oe) rot ell HS) BE

Common salt, it seems, has had little or no effect in this ex~
periment; but it does not follow that it may not be beneficially
applied to swedes in conjunction with other fertilizing sub-
stances. On analysis the salt yielded the following results :—

MED SHENTON pat) | esesdly daira | mati wh agai) laoet [i bow 7°66
PTHAICH MAGEE as wl ten ee ee ee 09
Sulphate Of TMe = wc we wm, ay om «|
Chloride of magnesium .:' .. .. .. la
Chilorideofsodium «0 0... 4k) Uo BBO

100-00

Plot 17. Manured with 3 cuts. of Dissolved Bone-ash.

tons. cwts. qrs. Ibs.

Beduee, 8. ke S220) ib? “seat
Qmaroase / "tee | BSP © oe 6 Tr Se, 20

In preparing the manure used in this experiment, 100 lbs. of
good commercial bone-ash were mixed with 70 lbs. of sulphuric
acid ; and after some time this mixture was dried up with 50 lbs.
of sulphate of lime. By these means an excellent superphosphate
was obtained, as will be seen by the following analysis. The
manure, being made of bone-ash, did not contain any ammoniacal
salts nor appreciable quantities of nitrogen :—

Composition of Dissolved Bone-ash.

WRMGHSGURGM Ar Yet Ounce) iow, set ese) OGD
Orpanicimiatiion.§ .. 6... me lee. * BtDill
Bi-phosphate of lime ee es ee ee

Equal to bone-earth rendered soluble .. (80°65)

Insoluble phosphates Bice aca iaih vals “86
Hydrated sulphate oflime .. .. .. 64:96
mine Sat SAE BR be we a ee BB
NSTC cist o> ESSER ON Mey Alice iceke scr. SOSb

100-00

The result of this plot affords another proof that a good
crop of swedes may be obtained with a superphosphate in which
all the phosphates are rendered soluble, and which contains no
nitrogenized matters. Some persons think that a good super-
phosphate should invariably contain insoluble as well as soluble
phosphates, for they imagine that the latter are washed away too
rapidly, and that therefore the superphosphate should contain
insoluble phosphates, to sustain, as they say, the after-growth of
the plant. It is a mistake to think that soluble phosphate is
very readily washed away into the subsoil, and that it there-

G 2

84 Experiments upon Swedes.

fore merely pushes on the young plant, and is no longer avail-
able when the roots begin to swell. The fact is, no soluble
phosphate—z. e. bi-phosphate—of lime, as such, can enter into
the delicate structure of the root-fibres; it must first become
insoluble before it can benefit the young turnip-plant, and this
it does readily when it is washed by a shower of rain into the
soil, or applied at once in a state of solution with the liquid-
manure drill. At any rate we have here presented to us an
instance in which a superphosphate containing no nitrogen, and,
practically speaking, no insoluble phosphates, produced an
increase of 6 tons of cleaned swedes, topped and tailed, or almost
as large an increase as any of the fertilizers tried in these expe-
riments,

Plot 18. Manured with 3 cwts. of Dissolved Bone-ash and 1 cwt. of
Sulphate of Ammonia.
tons. cwts. qrs. Ibs.
Produce : es. Bee

Increase ee SEN Ee Pe 5 12) 220
In this experiment the addition of sulphate of ammonia to
dissolved bone-ash appears to have done no good whatever. t
do not think, however, that the small difference in weight
between Plots 17 and 18 warrants the conclusion that its influ-

ence was prejudicial,

Plot 19. Manured with 3 cwts. of Sulphate of Potash.

tons. cwts. qrs. Ibs.
Produce , Sip ce ite co taste tLe Opie
Increase Seip Rise gaits. ese) ie RO sal

The sulphate of potash used in this experiment was a good
commercial sulphate. It produced about the same increase as
2 ewts. of sulphate of ammonia; and, in comparison to the effect
which phosphatic manures produced, must be considered as a
manuring constituent which did not seem to be required on the
soils on which the experiments were tried.

Plot 20. Manured with 3 ewts. of Dissolved Bone-ash and 1 cut. of
Nitrate of Soda.
tons. cwts. qrs. lbs.
Produce Ae cele cont ck. O) 2 4

Increase ame oh) (8) Omar

In comparison with the produce from No. 17, we have here in
yound numbers 14 ecwts. more roots. This larger increase
falls quite within the limits of variation which we must natu-
rally expect in two different parts of the same field. It cannot
be, therefore, regarded as a proof that nitrate of soda increased
the efficacy of the dissolved bone-ash.

Rejecting some anomalous results, as those obtained from

j

Experiments upon Swedes. 85

Plots 1 and 2, I think we may safely draw the following conclu-
sions from the preceding experiments :—

1. They indicate in the most decided manner the great supe-
riority of phosphatic matters as manuring constituents for root-
crops.

2. It would indeed appear that a sufficient quantity of soluble
phosphates renders other fertilizing matters superfluous on soils
that have a constitution similar to that of the experimental
field.

3. Although ammoniacal salts have had some slight effect
when applied alone, they did not appear to exercise any specific
action on the turnip-crop.

4, The experiments leave it undecided whether it is desirable
to add ammoniacal salts or nitrates to superphosphate. At the
same time they appear to favour the view that on clay soils
nitrogenized matters do not increase the efficacy of soluble phos-
phate in a turnip-manure, and to confirm my previous observa-
tions extending over a number of years.

5. In this series of experiments nitrate of soda had a decidedly
beneficial effect on the turnips.

In 1860 precisely the same fertilizing matters were used on
another field of our farm, and the experiments made in every
respect in the same manner as in 1859, An unfavourable season,
the turnip-fly, and other casualties, unfortunately spoiled my
experiments. Iam glad, therefore, that in place of experiments
made by myself, 1 am in a position to communicate a series of
experiments which I induced the late Mr. Campbell, of Craigie
House, Ayr, to institute in 1860. Mr. J. Russell, steward to the
late Mr. Campbell, kindly favoured me with the following
tabular statement, showing the quantity and kind of manure
employed per acre, its cost, and the produce in clean roots,
topped and tailed. (See p. 86.)

The experimental piece of ground, I am informed, appears to
be of equal quality. The soil is considered a rich, light, sandy
loam. Each plot was composed of 3 drills, and occupied 2 poles
imperial measure. Distance from drill to drill 28 inches. The
seed, Skirving’s Improved Purple-top Swede, was sown on the
18th of May, and the roots taken up on the 22nd of November.
The roots grown on the central drill of each plot were carefully
freed from dirt, topped and tailed, and weighed. The roots on
Plots 1, 2, 3,11, I am informed, were soon left behind. On
Plots 1 and 11, as will be seen, no manure was applied; and on
Plots 2 and 3 sulphate of ammonia only. The produce on one
of the two unmanured portions of the land amounted to 1 ton
more than on the other.

86 Experiments upon Swedes.

Experiments upon Swedes made at Craigie House, Ayr.

| Cost Produce

Plot. : © Manures applied per Imperial Acre. of Manure per Imperial
per Acre. Acre,
es | & s. d,| tons. ewt. qrs. lbs,
1 | Nomanure .. .. Coe ce 29 if (Oe
2 | 13 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia ERA LE LY 2 O04 WS+ wh (Orme
3 | 3 ewts. of sulphate of ammonia -- 2. Se .Os),.20) 17). Qe
4 | 2 ewts. of sulphate of ammonia and 3 ewts.

of superphosphate, made from bone-ash

3) 2) (0226 3 yy
and sulphuric acid (dissolved bone-ash)

5 | 5 ewts. of dissolved bone-ash, the same as
that used in No. 4 aalee 7 115 0) 26 15 1%
6 5 ewts. of dissolved bone-dust . La | 24 17 0 1
7 7 ewts. of dissolved bone-ash, the same as
te mc a 2 9 0) 22) Tan
8 | 8 ewts. of dissolv ved ‘bone- ash, “the. same |!
sample used in No. 4 : 5 : 2404 Sia
9 10 ewts. of dissolved bone- ash . 56 3 10 24. 10) 2 2e
10 | 6 ewts. of phospho-Peruvian n guano me spi lin Ou l2y Oh OO), 6p nen
ll Nomanure .. . MCA tae ae 16 0 OG
12 | 6 ewts. of Peruvian guano. a 3°18 OF/'SE 10 OF 20
13 11 ewts. of dissolved bone-dust .. : A BB SOI GED By 8
14 | 30 tons of Dublin street-manure, including
cartage.. : s} = Oe
15 | 5 ewts. of Ritchie's dissolved bones... ST? Gr" DG ener sake 20
16 10 ewts. of Ritchie’s dissolved bones. 3:05 OQ | OF Sais

A careful reader will not fail to notice some strange discre-
pancies in the preceding experimental results. Thus it will
strike him as peculiar that 5 ewts. of dissolved bone-ash yielded
24 tons of roots, whilst 7 cwts. of the same manure gave only
about 1 ton more, and 10 ewts. only 103 cwts. more per acre.
5 ewts. of dissolved bone-ash, on the other hand, gaye 26 tons
15 ewts. 1 qr. 12 lbs. 5 ewts. thus appear to have produced a
heavier crop than 10 ewts. of the same manure.

I do not pretend to explain these discrepancies, but have no
doubt the experiments were carefully made, and can only say
that, for some reason or the other which often escapes our notice,
some strangely anomalous results are sometimes obtained in
field-experiments. The chief practical lessons which may be
derived from these experiments appear to me to be—

1. That sulphate of ammonia had little effect upon turnips,
even when applied to a light, sandy loam.

2. That the addition of sulphate of ammonia to superphos-
phate seemed to have had no decidedly beneficial effect on the
crop.

3 That 5 ewts. of good superphosphate appear to be a sufhi-
cient dressing for roots on rich, light land, and consequently that
it is a waste of money to apply such dressings as 8 or 10 ewts.

Farming of Yorkshire. 87

4, That cheap manures, costing, it may be, only 1s. per ton,
in reality are generally more expensive turnip-manures than ferti-
lizers which, like Peruvian guano, cost 13/. a ton, or superphos-
phate, costing from 6J. to 82. a ton.

Royal Agricultwral College, Cirencester,
June 16th, 1861.

V.—On the Improvements in the Farming of Yorkshire since the
date of the last Reports in the Journal. By WiLtLiAM WrieHt.

TWELVE years have elapsed since the Royal Agricultural Society
held its annual county meeting at York, and that occasion
was deemed a fitting opportunity for examining into the state
of agriculture in the "Three Ridings. The time havi ing arrived
when the Society again remembers us, the same inquiry again
naturally suggests “itself, and the Earl of Powis has nobly
come forward to elicit investigation on the subject by the offer
of a special prize. The question presented to us is, whether
Yorkshire has improved since the last meeting. Has it kept
pace with the other counties of England in the race of agricul-
tural advancement? Is its land better and more extensively
drained? Are the farm-houses and tenements better built? Are
the crops heavier and superior in quality? On these and many
other topics an answer is called for. It is not without a just
appreciation of the range and importance of the subject that we
enter upon the task of replying to these inquiries, and, whilst
endeavouring to show what has been done, claim the privilege
of pointing out what yet remains to be accomplished.

The Yorkshireman is, for the most part, proud of his county:
its great extent, its pre-eminence for manufactures of wool, cot-
ton, and silk (the two latter being shared with Lancashire) ; its
extensive coal, iron, and lead mines, which are worked with
great vigour and success ; and, lastly, the high state of farming
Meiined 3 in many of its rier all combine to give it a prominent
place among the counties of England. Its growing commerce,
whilst attesting the enterprising spirit of its inhabitants, greatly
assists the interests of the farmer, and the perfection attained by
the machine-makers of Leeds aad other towns has likewise lent
its influence to agriculture. Moreover, the zeal with which
Leeds, Hull, York, Wakefield, Doncaster, and Harrogate con-
tested the honour of receiving ‘the Royal Society, i is a sufficient
evidence of the estimation in when the science and practice of
agriculture is held in our great commercial towns.

We must first recall attention to the reports in the ninth volume

8

OO

Farming of Yorkshire.

of the Society’ s Journal, which were written at the time of the ~
York meeting, viz., an Essay on the East Riding, by Mr, Legard ;
one on the West Riding, by Mr. Geen nad one on ie
North Riding, by Mr. Milburn, These articles enter minutely
into their subject ; they g give a full and clear geological descrip-
tion of the county, review the works of previous authors, remark
on the physical peculiarities of the land, and conclude with an
able description of the improv ed farming of that time. ‘These
Essays will be found an important aid in estimating the advance
made at the present day. They were published in 1848, and we
must glance at some important events and alterations which exer-
cised great influence upon the husbandry of that day—an in-
fence: which has continued to the present time. The tariff had
been changed, and foreign cattle admitted to free competition
with our own stock, The corn-trade was undergoing an ordeal
which was to try the firmness of friends and foes—one which, it
must be confessed, was productive of great temporary depression
and loss, and a all so severe that, if we can now look back with
complacency to those events, we have no hesitation in saying much
is due to the spirit of enterprise and perseverance with which the
tenant-farmer met them. A call was made for improved drainage ;
such menas Smith of Deanstone, Parkes of Westminster, ably sup-
ported by the pen of Gisborne, gave new life to the drooping spirit ;
a cheap but effective system of deep drainage was adopted, which
is now almost universally introduced on soils requiring it. The
modifications in the duties on wood, bricks, and other articles used
in building, induced the improving lanallond to erect suitable
dwellings for the tenants, combining convenience with comfort,
and better and more healthy Naeisnaat lee for their le
Those who have visited countries where the most important
adjuncts of agriculture (such as good roads, facilities for making
manure, and ‘keeping stock) are still in dna infancy, are espe-
cially struck by the advantages we possess in these respects
throughout the greater part se England, and especially in the
county of York. When accompanying intelligent foreigners over
different farms in this country, we fonad that they invariably
expressed their surprise at the well-made roads, neatly-cut
hedges, and careful culture which give our country the appear-
ance of a large, well-kept garden; and the idea prominent on
their minds has been——how wealthy English farmers must be,
with such conveniences and such facilagen! We heard their
remark with just pride, but also with the feeling that there is
another side to the picture. The farmer has dufiedines to sur-
mount; and if we realise in our day the gradual but lasting im-
provements of past years, we shall still find ample call for the
further development of our resources, and happy it is that

Farming of Yorkshire. 89

the means of doing this are to be found within ourselves, at
our very doors.

With a view of simplifying our subject, we purpose to arrange
our observations into two divisions—viz., first, Landlords’ Im-
provements ; and, secondly, Tenants’ Improvements. For though
the result is identical, namely, improvement, the means are and
must be essentially different, and therefore can be more clearly
defined by such a division.

I. Lanpiorps’ IMPROVEMENTS.

That the improvements made by the landlords of Yorkshire
have kept pace with the requirements of the present day would
be a bold assertion. But those who have performed their duty
in the widest sense of the word are far too numerous to particu-
larise, and, were a just tribute paid to their worth, we should ex-
ceed the limits prescribed. Suffice it to say, Yorkshire is proud
of her landlords, and their tenants respond to their efforts.

We know many farms where an outlay of 4/. to 5/. per acre
has been made on new buildings erected on plans combining
comfort, convenience, and healthiness;.a similar amount on
drainage, and a considerable sum in making roads, enlarging the
fields, filling up ditches, and planting new hedgerows—amounting
to a total of 12/. anacre thus added to the wealth of the country,
and enabling the tenant to produce a yearly increased supply
for the wants of the community. In carrying out these improve-
ments, it is usually required of the tenant that he should pay an
annual interest or increase of rent equivalent to five per cent. on
the sum expended—an understanding mutually beneficial. ,

The landlords’ attention has also been directed to the manufac-
ture of tile and pipe machines ; to their efforts do we chiefly owe
the valuable and superior machines now in use. In order to
obtain a good supply, many landlords have been compelled, by
their distance from the tile-yards or the inferior quality of the
goods there sold, to establish works for themselves, and thus a
better article is substituted for the partially-burnt and ill-made
tile of former days.

Within the limits of the period to which this notice extends,
we date the perfecting of implements for digging the arterial and
parallel drains, and the reduction of the expense of draining to
the minimum consistent with good workmanship.

In some parts of the county considerable care has been be-
stowed in erecting buildings with regard to effect; we hail this
commencement with pleasure, and doubt not but that shortly
architecture, in the proper sense, will fully assert her claims,
and picturesque beauty be combined with utility.

The good feeling which exists between the improving landlord

90 Farming of Yorkshire.

and his intelligent tenant, springing mainly from a just estimate
of their mutual interests, has prompted the former to co-operate
with his tenant in the purchase of guano and in the introduction
of improved stock, implements, seeds, fencing, &c. ; thus enabling
him to have a supply of the best materials to aid his efforts. On
some farms held by the landlords in their own hands much
service is thus rendered to the surrounding tenantry, of which we
might cite instances that strongly tempt us to depart from our
determination to speak of improving landlords only as a class,
rather than do but partial justice by selecting individual cases.

Much attention has been bestowed of late on the improvement
of cottages, an object which the prizes for the best plans lately
awarded by the Yorkshire Society will do much to promote.

In the demand for timber and wood, which the landlord re-
serves to himself, there have been important variations. The
great increase in the consumption of iron for shipbuilding, by
diminishing the use of wood, has caused a considerable fall in
the price of English oak within the last fifteen or twenty years.
The reduction in the duties on foreign timber and deals has
diminished the demand for some kinds of English wood. On
the other hand, our expanding energies have opened out new
sources of demand from our mines, our factories, our buildings,
our agricultural implements, &c., and prevented that general
decline in prices which was anticipated on the removal of the
timber duties. Many landlords make more money per acre by
growing wood than by letting land in farms. Fewer ash and
more elm are now planted, but z a rise to the value of fifty per cent.
has taken place in osiers for basket-makers, and a great demand
exists in the West Riding for coal-pit wood, for props, baskets,
&e.

Mr. Pusey, in his admirable paper on the progress of agricul-
tural knowledge during the eight years from 1842 to 1850, sums
up the improvements demarided at the hands of the landlords
under the twelve following heads, all of them applicable to
Yorkshire (Journal, vol. xi. p. 381) :—

1.—Draining: (1) Trunk draining ; (2) Under draining.

2,.—The coiaal of useless fences: (1) Fences ; (2) Trees.

3.—Diminution of four-footed game.

4, — clay: (1). Border burning ; (2) Clod burning.

sini) amie 3; (2) Peat.

fe ee epee erass-land

7.—Boning pastures.

8.—Chalking.

2 —Irrigatival or catch-meadows: (1) Hill side; (2) Flat;
(3) Flood,

ee’.

Farming of Yorkshire. 91

10.—Breaking up grass-land.
11.—Improvement of farm buildings.

12.—Warping.

The list is at first sight sufficient to appal any man whose

cket is not inexhaustible ; but examination proves them all to
be valuable if not indispensable to the development of agriculture.
Have the Yorkshire landlords responded to these requisitions ?
We fear to press the inquiry. If we except numbers 4, 9, and
perhaps 10 of these twelve heads, an estate is not perfect unless
the other requisitions are complied with. On the hills, liming,
chalking, and marling ; on the lowlands, draining, removing fences
and trees, diminishing game, claying sand and peat, warping where
practicable, liming and boning grass-land, are required. Mr.
Pusey justly and considerately says, ‘‘ these are the improve-
ments which it is in the landlords’ power to effect:” in other
words, we place the standard before you; we invite you to
examine it and follow it on your own estates for the full develop-
ment of the resources of the land.

Yorkshire, having a moister climate than many of the
southern counties, derived the greatest benefit from covered
yards for cattle, which are equally applicable to high and low
districts, combine shelter with warmth, preserve those elements
in the manure which are apt to be lost when exposed, and are
invaluable for the economical feeding of cattle and horses. We
did not venture to urge this on the attention of landlords and
tenants before we had fully tried the effect, and, having satisfied
ourselves of the advantage of the shed system, we recommend it
with confidence: it is as superior to box-feeding as that was to
the old-fashioned cattle-house. ‘The manure is always excellent
in quality, ready for use at any time; nothing is lost, no jiquid-
manure tanks are wanted. Our shed has repaid its cost, once if
not twice, and on no consideration would we return to the old
system of open yards. When new buildings are wanted, the
covered yard is not more costly than the old-fashioned open range
of buildings, and excellent materials in iron or timber can be
procured at a moderate outlay.

No more acceptable or convincing proof of the improvement
in agriculture can be given than the fact of the increased value of
land—an increase not fluctuating with the price of grain, but
permanent and steady. When an estate is in the market, which
oceurs but seldom, the land makes, at a moderate computation,
fully ten per cent. more than it would have brought twelve years
ago. The improvements effected by the landlords naturally
command a higher rental. This state of things must be satis-
factory, and has fulfilled the anticipation expressed by an able

92 Farming of Yorkshire.

writer, in a time of the greatest depression: ‘“ That the hereditary
owners of land would, by the continued exertion of that energy
and prudence which eamaell those from whom they inherit their
possessions through all changes, continue to maintain their social
position.” —Gisborne’s Essay on Agriculture, p. 255.

The list of non-improving landlords is happily but small in
this county; but as long as any remain these observations would
be incomplete were they not briefly brought under notice. On the
estates of such owners are found the ancient hedgerows existing in
wild luxuriance ; ponds, often occupying large spaces, sometimes in
small enclosures of not more than six or seven acres ; headlands
unploughed ; roads and drainage neglected, or, if attempted, done
very inefficiently; farm- buildings ‘small and ill-contrived, and
the farmhouse, if one stor y high, witha sledge or pitch-roof, eral
and “nage a Pe) ; the tenantry low-rented, but poor and spirit-
less, exhausting still more the already impoverished soil, neither
benefiting themselves nor the community at large. Such a
picture is neither imaginary nor overdrawn: we could mention
several large estates to which it accurately applies.

We cannot read the early reports on agriculture without finding
everywhere complaints of the difficulties thrown in the way of
improvement. Strickland says justly of fiscal fetters that they
are the bane of agricultural improvement ; high prices were not
sufficient to encourage farmers, for the taxes were proportionately
increased, and with little prospect of relief: we may therefore
date the greatest progress from the recent period when these
burdens were in part removed, Charnock justly observes, in his
Essay on the West Riding (Journal, vol. ix. p. 304) :—“ It was not
until all this had passed (the late war) that men looked to find
what improvements were needed at their own doors; and true as
this was of all classes in general, it was, 1 believe, more especially
so with respect to the cultivation of the soil. The high price of
produce at that time was practically no incentive to agricultural
improvement, nor was it until year after year prices gradually
readjusted themselves to peace rates, that the agricultural interest
as a body became sensible that continued profits from the land
were to be obtained by the additional produce of an improved
and more economical cultivation, at a lower scale of prices.”

The aim of the landlord should be to maintain his estate in an

“improving condition ;” that is to say, the deposit of fertilising
elements in the soil should always be in excess of the aggregate of
those abstracted in the marketable produce. The warning voice
of Liebig urgently called our attention to the maintenance of this
progressive fertility. No county offers so many advantages as
Yorkshire for a sufficient and permanent supply of solid manure,
and nowhere can the efficacy and economy of sewage manure be

Farming of Yorkshire. 98

more favourably tested than near such towns as Leeds, Sheffield,
Bradford, Halifax, Huddersfield, York, and Hull. We trust that
the present generation will find means to stay the vast waste of our
sewage, as effectual as those already applied to the supply of gas
and water.

This is not a proper place for a lengthened discussion on this
subject. Its great importance, however, must be our apology for
pursuing it a little further before we proceed to a consideration
of our second division ; for this is not a tenant’s but a landlord’s
question. A tenant cannot be expected to take up a scheme of
such magnitude, though he might and would essentially aid its
working. With regard to the expense, let us instance the cost of
supplying with fertilisers a well-cultivated farm of 200 acres of
ordinary land, To keep up a regular supply of manure, such a
farm requires ten tons of linseed cake, or in lieu thereof an equiva-
lent in corn; also in artificial manures, either ammoniacal or
phosphoric, a further annual outlay of 802, which will make a
yearly cost of 2002, or 12. per acre. Such an estimate is not
a high one for manure only, lime, &c., not being included. We
purpose to replace this outlay by offering 20s. per acre for a jet
of ‘*sewage supply,” and we think the experiment would be a
boon to the farmer, and present to the contractor an ample profit
on the outlay for interest and working expenses. Charnock gives
some pertinent remarks on this subject. He mentions (Journad,
vol. ix., p. 309) a case of land growing wheat in succession many
years, and producing thirty-nine and forty-two imperial bushels
per acre. He says, ‘‘ Now this land adjoins the river Calder,
the floods from which have proved a sufficient manuring to main-
tain its full fertility and yet grow successive crops of wheat year
after year, and this field is by no means a solitary instance of the
richness of this and many others of the West Riding valleys that
are watered by its rivers.”

We have during the last ten years collected reliable data of
the money value of sewage, and we will give our experience in
the hope of stimulating the interested parties, landlords in par-
ticular, to commence operations in this county, which offers such
peculiar facilities. We commenced experiments at Sigglesthorne
by building underground two cisterns, each capable of holding
from 3000 to 4000 gallons: they were made watertight. Into
one of these the contents of two water-closets are collected ; into
another a third water-closet and all the “slops” of the house.
The family averages fourteen persons, and for the last ten years
the whole sewage of the house has been carefully preserved and
applied—first to a flower-garden of three acres, a moderate-sized
vinery, shrubbery, and kitchen-garden, and the remainder put

94 Farming of Yorkshire.

on a grass-field of about seven acres, which from an almost
barren waste has become so fertile that we have ceased to irrigate
it and are now dressing another field. No solid dung, such as
stable or foldyard manure, has been applied to the vinery for the
last ten years, yet the vines have produced an abundance of fruit
and in the greatest perfection ; and with regard. to fruit the straw-
berries are more than usually prolific. "Two common lift-pumps
are fixed to the cisterns; the liquid is pumped by hand and
wheeled away in a Renee suspended in a convenient barrow.
When applied to the grass-land, one of Crosskill’s liquid manure-
distributors is used. We estimate its yearly value on our farm
and garden to thirty tons of good dung, worth 12/. The facility
with which liquids are now dealt with is shown in the ‘ Report on
the Drainage of Whittlesea Mere,’ by Wells (Jowrnal, vol. xxi.,
pp. 1384). Such a scheme, which involves the lifting of 6000
gallons of water six feet a minute, could only have been carried
oat by the use of steam-power ; ail many a town presents facilities
for draining off its sewage and conveying it to the surrounding
Jand which would render the task as easy as that of reclaiming
the Mere. But where shall we find such spirited men as accom-
plished that task? England has been foremost in other improve-
ments of late years: let her lead the van in this great modern
experiment.

Mr. Joseph Mitchell, F.R.S.E., Member of the Institute of
Civil Engineers, speaking of the results of experiments in distri-
buting sewage at Rugby, says, ‘‘ That any town (unless London,
_ from its immense size, be an exception), not particularly unfortu-
nate in its situation, may profitably utilize its sewage, even though
steam-power and iron pipes have to be made use of to a certain
extent; for I think that, on a rough estimate, the sewage of the
town applied at the rate of one acre to every forty inhabitants
would on an average add about 4/. per annum to the value of that
acre, which comes to 1/, for every ten inhabitants—gross, not net
value—subject to numerous exceptions and conditions.”

A series of events are taking place which press the subject
more than ever upon our notice. In consequence of the limited
supplies, Peruvian guano has been raised to a price which greatly
restricts its consumption. America and the Continent, the West
Indies and the Mauritius, are as good, if not better, customers
than we are. The shipments of bone-ash from South America
are falling off, and will every year diminish, for the use of bones
is increasing considerably abroad. Linseed cakes are very dear,
being at the time we write 12/. per ton. There has been no
response to the offer made by the Society of 1000/. to the dis-
coverer of another Ichaboe. Our population is increasing ; beef

Farming of Yorkshire. 95

and mutton maintain their high price ; greater produce is invited ;
and yet we supinely look on, whilst our lar gest supply of manure
is passing off unemploy ed ahd lost.

Amongst the measures for improv ements still to be accom-
plished, few, if any, are of more importance than the revision of
our regulations for the maintenance of the roads and highways.
As the law now stands, an overseer of roads may expend the parish
money, subject only to the accounts being audited by the Justices
at the petty sessions ; but who inquires whether the overseer is a
competent person? or if the roads are judiciously repaired, or
the parish money properly applied ? We think a remedy for
this might be found by appointing competent surveyors ; but, as
this subject may occupy the attention of the Taepislotune! we fare
bear to do more than indicate its importance. The appointment
of such surveyors with powers to enforce the draining of the
highways, which are now throughout the greater part of “thie low-
lands altogether undrained, would soon effect a great saving of
expense to the parishes, giving them more Galbistanigal roads, ial
at less cost for meron In like manner the wear and tear of
sleepers on the railroads running through the lowlands would be
much lessened by cutting on each side, not mere shallow channels
for surface-water, but deep and effective drains, not less than 6
feet below the rails.

In some parts of the country the preservation of game, and
especially of four-footed game, is continued to a prejudicial
extent, but considerate landlords have in a great many instances
had the numbers reduced, and we trust to see their good example
still further followed.

While deep drainage is, without doubt, the foundation of every
improv ement in decraultare, yet, with all our experience, it is
often most imperfectly done ; so many opinions prevail, each one
putting forth his peculiar nostrum for universal application,
whereas each district requires its own peculiar drainage: on one
point, however, all are agreed,—the importance of procuring a
good outfall. Take the aiden of Howdenshire, for example,
iach includes a circuit of fifty miles. This large ‘istis ict should
be made to fall into the Ouse and Humber, the finest outfalls in
England: but no great public effort is made to carry the water
thence by efficient trunk-drainage ; whilst at present there is no
proper drainage for this extensive district, excepting by two imper-
fect channels made for navigation purposes, one of which is care-
fully preserved. The Derwent, which runs through the northern
parts, is so tortuous, and its outlet so bad, that the immense
body of water which it gathers in its course floods a vast area for
miles in extent and for weeks together. This district is now
waterlogged ; and it is improbable, let the weather be never so

96 Farming of Yorkshire.

dry, that the damage done in 1860 can be recovered in 1861;

and yet this county might be made perfectly dry. The mee
taking is a great ni itional work and a pressing necessity, which
no private enterprise can grapple with. This difficulty, how-
ever, is not confined to Howdenshire, but, for many miles beyond,
the country requires relief by efficient trunk-drainage with im-
proved cloughs or flood-gates.

Some —apiice There tea commenced in the Rye and Derwent,
but with inadequate means, and they remain consequently un-
finished. The past season has caused the most sceptical to
believe in the necessity for vigorous measures to carry off the
surplus water more directly to the sea, and afford a better outfall
to some of the richest land now laid under water. Trunk-
drainage has been carried out in Holderness in a most spirited
manner. ‘The example, however, has not been followed in dis-
tricts equally requiring it.

Following upon drainage is the enlargement of fields and stub-
bing up of old and useless hedgerows. In a farm of 450 acres in
this district of Howdenshire a direct saving of about 17 acres,
and an equal benefit from the saving a like extent of headlands
when under root cultivation, was the result of reducing 51 fields
into 17; by these means the rays of the sun and the current of
air were enabled to act with greater effect,—so as to increase the
evaporation, raise the temperature of the soil, check blight and
mildew, forward the ripening of the grain before harvest, and
diminish the risk of sprouted sheaves, and accelerate the work
of carting after it has been cut. The gain derived from
ploughing without short turnings is worthy of special notice. A
short examination into the number of hours spent in ploughing
say 1 acre, the distance traversed with a 9-inch furrow, and the
rate at which horses when in motion can step without difficulty,
will show how very large a portion of the day is spent in these.
conyenient occasions for loitering.

The saving which will be effected by no longer keeping in
repair those useless encumbrances the hedgerows, which are from
3 to 4 feet high for arable, and from 6 to 7 feet for cattle-grazing
lands, will probably suffice for the supply of those hurdles which
may be required under the new arrangement.

The effect of good drainage is hy encourage clean farming,
which, though well understood. was seldom Pearried out prior
to the period under our notice. It has paved the way for the
excellent practice of working cultivators on the stubbles in the
autumn—the greatest improvement in the husbandry of modern
times.

The tenure of land throughout the county is almost universally
upon lease from year to year; the long lease is quite the excep-

Farming of Yorkshire. 97

tion, and there is no desire for change. Mutual confidence
appears to prevail to an extent which is creditable to both
parties, and the question of tenant-right is seldom a cause of
dispute in this county. When a farm is out of condition, much
exhausted, and of doubtful tenure, a tenant-right is reasonable ;
and for such a farm the following ‘“ Tenant-right Agreement ”’
has been made :—For linseed-cake, lime, bones, or any artificial
manures used on the farm, the tenant is entitled to receive from
the landlord or in-coming tenant the following proportions of
the cost of these manures: Ist, for linseed-cake one-third the
amount of the sum expended during the last year of tenancy ; *
2nd, for lime four-fifths of the sum expended during the last
year of tenancy, three-fifths of the sum for the second year, two-
fifths for the third year, and one-fifth for the fourth year previous
to quitting; 3rd, for bones and artificial manures two-thirds of
the amount expended during the last year, and one-third for the
second year previous to quitting. We, however, know of a case
within our own experience where a tenant was offered this
* right,” and he replied he was content to remain as he was. In
the report by Mr. Pusey before alluded to he judiciously suggests
the modification of the stringent covenants which are sometimes
required of tenants. The principle of adapting our management
to the requirements of the times, and of allowing a margin to an
improving tenant, is a beneficial one. Changes constantly occur-
ring from the influence of climate and seasons, fluctuating
markets, and the varying wants of the consumer, render it inex-
pedient to enforce with rigour the fulfilment even of revised
covenants. Hence the licence enjoyed on many of the best-
farmed and most improved estates; and we have pleasure in
recording that this liberality is the rule of Yorkshire landlords.
In the part of the county between Doncaster, Wakefield, and
Pontefract, the tenant-right is slowly undergoing some modifica-
tions, and landlords are said to be buying up, as farms fall in,
those claims, established by time and custom, which constitute
an excessive demand on the capital of the incoming tenant.
Considerable additions have been made to the Crown lands at
Sunk Island, at the mouth of the Humber,. by embanking,
enclosing, and converting the land into farms. The improve-
ments have been made by the Commissioners for the Woods and
Forests, and haye been carried on by them in a most spirited
manner both as regards farm-buildings and drainage. About the
year 1850 nearly 700 acres of excellent land were added to the

* This appears to me to be a very high rate of allowance; one-fourth is, in my
judgment, quite as much as our present knowledge warrants us to covenant under
all circumstances of consumption. Ata higher rate than this I should be reluctant to
take to a farm; at a lower, I should feed scantily before quitting.—P, H. F.

VOL, XXII. H

98 Farming of Yorkshire.

estate by means of embanking. The new land is most valuable,
and requires little manure for many years; showing, by the
natural and luxuriant growth of white clover, the richness of the
soil, and its capacity for producing the largest crops. In addi-
tion to Sunk Island, about 400 acres of new accretions have been
added to Patrington, and a considerable portion to Ottringham,
Welwick, and other places in the immediate neighbourhood.
Upwards of 10,000 acres have been so reclaimed and converted
into valuable farms between the years 1668 and 1850, when the
last embankment was completed.

Next to embanking, the warping of the large district extend-
ing from the Trent and Ouse to Goole, Crowle, Thorne, and

selby requires notice, to show that improvements often described

as combining some of the happiest efforts of human skill still
go on. Schemes which for want of experience entailed great
losses upon the original promoters, have ultimately, under better
management, proved a profitable speculation as well as a public
benefit. Some of these extensive warping works are now being
brought to a conclusion ; but another clough of larger dimensions
has been put down about eight miles above Goole, in the Dutch
River, by which a large area is likely to be improved between
Thorne and Rawcliffe Common, besides several other cloughs in
the Dutch River and in the rivers Aire and Ouse, annually re-
warping and enriching the neighbourhood. ,

A great improvement in these private works has been made
since 1848, prior to which the system of warping was more or less
crude. The difficulty lay in equalising the deposit; the irregu-
larity of which, both in depth and quality, restricted the value of
the land when the surface had been sufficiently raised. In the
land lying nearest the drain, sand predominated, in consequence of
the greater size and weight of its particles; further on, sand and
mud were so mixed as to make a very firm soil; and the furthest
portion formed a low-lying, tenacious clay. Under the present
system, by changing the lines and forcing the water at the outset
to the lowest and furthest portion of the flat intended to be
warped, the soil is equalised in quality ; for wherever a low and
strong deposit has been formed, the mischief is in a great
measure rectified ‘by directing the water over it with a rapid
current. ;

The land takes from two to three years to rewarp according to
the weather ; if wet, the strong freshes in the river are adverse
to the deposit; if dry, the deposit is great, but after a long
drought it sometimes becomes of too solid a nature, and in that
case acts prejudicially upon the crops when the land is under
cultivation. A singular instance may be given as an illustration
of this fact. The lands, the warping of which was concluded in

Farming of Yorkshire. 99

the dry season of 1826, never cropped beneficially for 15 years
afterwards; the best security against this is to finish warping
after the winter season is over.

These works are carried out on different terms; by hire at
from 12/. to 24/. per acre according to the height of the land, the
distance of embankment required, and the probable time it may
require to keep the land under the process. When the cloughs
are the property of the landlord, in some instances the improve-
ment is solely carried on by him, the land being relet at an
improyed rent when finished; in others, the rent nominally
remains the same, the proprietor undertaking to raise the em-
bankments, for the cost of which the tenant pays 5 per cent.
During the ;process of warping, however, the landlord. remits
one-half of the rent of the land; the tenant sacrificing the
other half, and levelling the embankment when it is completed :
but this is a very expensive mode for the tenant, and is only
carried out when the most, perfect confidence exists between the
landlord and tenant ; and no part of the county furnishes stronger
proofs of the necessity of this confidence than the district
where extensive works and improvements like these are carried
out. After the warping is finished, drainage follows, which is
accomplished on the principle previously explained. The vast-
ness of the system of warping will ever remain as a striking
characteristic of the energy of the country.

This county may be ‘said to be about two-thirds. drained with
2-inch pipes and parallel drains of adepth of 4 feet; but in some
places, such as the vale of the Derwent and the lands on the banks
of the river Hull between Beverley and Driffield, the maindrains
or outfalls not beimg sufficiently lowered, the drainage is neces-
sarily less complete. Indeed, from the insufficiency of the outlet,
the back-water often causes great destruction to the standing
crops, particularly in a wet summer like that of 1860. The want
of an efficient outfall renders 4 feet draining impossible in these
districts, and an injurious effect is.produced.on the climate,
Were all the impediments withdrawn, and the natural drainage
of the county allowed to flow, the agricultural, produce would
be augmented, the stock of sheep.and cattle improved and
increased, and the healthiness.of the .lowlands_ considerably
promoted.

As further. proof of the inefficiency of the present drainage of
this part of the county, we extract a paragraph from a_ local
paper published last November :—“ The recent heavy rains have
caused the Derwent and its tributaries to overflow their banks,
and on Friday and Saturday the vast tract of country watered by
that river and the smaller streams was laid under water. In
many places the water rose toa height of four feet and even more,

15 4

100 Farming of Yorkshire.

the hedges having for miles quite disappeared. The consequence
of the inundation will prove most destructive to the lowland
farmer; the unusually rainy season had done much injury in
retarding the sowing of the wheat crop, which will now be
rendered quite impossible ; many thousands of-acres will thus be
thrown under spring crops. The aftermath in the grass-lands will
be spoilt by the deposit of sand and mud, and the cattle will be
totally dependent upon the scanty root-crops. Several stooks are
floating down the stream; one farmer alone being said to have
lost upwards of 20 acres of oats. Inthe marshes several beasts are
reported as having been found drowned.” Means are being taken
to remedy the evil under which this district labours: on the Ist
of December in last year, at an influential meeting of landowners
held at Howden, the following resolution was unanimously
passed :—“ That the renewal of the Commission of Sewers for
the limits of Howdenshire and the west parts of the East Riding
(the last Commission having expired on the 12th of July, 1843)
would be of considerable benefit and advantage to the owners of
land situate within such limits and their tenants.”

We must not close our remarks on the landlords’ improvements
without noticing the liberality shown and the encouragement
given to the Agricultural Societies during the last 12 years.
These societies have deservedly enjoyed the patronage of the public.
Their meetings are the proper places for the enterprising farmer
to gather, as it were, into one focus the choicest specimens of his
farm ; there he can with just pride refer to the improvements he
has made by his skill and ingenuity, and point out to his fellow
countrymen and countrywomen what honest and laudable in-
dustry can accomplish. There he meets his landlord under cir-
cumstances flattering to both ; and the landowner does wisely in
supporting such institutions. But here we must pause. When
leaving the show-yard they meet in the dining-hall to exchange
their congratulations, are we reminded of the palmy days when
these societies were young? Are they true to the cause for
which they have met? It is true there is no protection to sup-
port, nor free trade to denounce, but is there not found a dearth
of information on those scientific or practical questions on which
the tenant expects to get some suggestions, if not instruction,
from his landlord? The days of these exhibitions are numbered
if they are allowed to pass off in stale allusions to electioneering
topics. We wish to see them made the channels for communi-
cating the experience of improving landlords and tenants—the
fitting occasion for recording what has been done by others for
the encouragement of younger, but not less aspiring, followers in
the path of agricultural improvement.

Of late years the practice of giving a prize for the best-managed

Farming of Yorkshire. 101°

farm within a given district has been less common. When they
were offered the great number of competitors testified to the esti-
mation in which such prizes were held. The result was certainly
beneficial in exciting a spirit of emulation and inquiry. We
hope to see it revived; a few pounds expended in this way is
money well laid out, but the credit and renown gained by the
successful candidate is more valued by him than money or plate.

Il. Tenants’ ImpRoVEMENTS.

We now arrive at the second part of our subject, viz. “Tenants
Improvements ”—a field so varied and extensive that, for the sake
of clearness, we purpose to treat separately of the high-land
and low-land farming. Before, however, entering into details,
we must pay the same tribute to the merits of the generality of
our tenant farmers as we have previously paid to improving
landlords. Amongst this class are found men of enlarged views,
of sound and practical information, who carry on their im-
provements with a spirit and energy not surpassed in any pro-
fession. That there will be exceptions is evident. Bad farm-
ing is still to be met with, and often in close neighbourhood with
the best. On such farms the carelessness or ignorance of the
manager is visible to every eye. Hedgerows are left unrepaired,
ditches stopped up, ploughing is carried on in the old way three
inches deep, the land yielding half crops, few or no roots are
grown, and the stock consequently are few in number and
poor in kind. If such men are supplanted and their farms
given to others, have they any one to blame but themselves?
To such men no mercy can or ought to be shown. Landlords
do a public service in removing such tenants.* The worst
managed farms are generally the lowest rented: the tenant's
reasoning being that, if he improves, the rent will be raised,—
a reasoning at once fallacious and unjust, such as, even if true,
could not possibly be a justification for negligence and idle-
ness. Such farmers work their land with the smallest possible

* Besides the general duty of promoting the public wealth, there is another,
which, being more personal, is more likely to come home to the feelings of a
kind-hearted landlord when hesitating to take the inevitably harsh step of dis-
missing a tenant—I mean the duty of consideration forethe labourer. When the
tenant only makes ends meet by extreme parsimony, the workman is sure to be
pinched; when he is driven to makeshifts, these fall most severely on that
dependent who can, in some sort, shift for himself. Uncertain employment, days’
work cut short by rain, small chance of superior earnings by piece-work, undue
advantage taken of the position of unmarried lads—some of the positive evils
attendant on beggarly farming—are hardly more demoralising than the negative
side of the picture; for the absence of good training in the work of the farm, of a
good plain education, and consequently of openings for other forms of service,
together lead to a state of stagnation, which almost obliterates the distinction
between the condition of the labourer and the serf.—P. H. F.

102 Farming of Yorkshire.

outlay, and if, by the strictest economy, they save capital, it is
invested in other securities, as if the farm they occupied owed
nothing to the landlord but the rent; nor does it even enter into
their consideration that from their slovenliness and neglect, want
of skill and good management, they inflict a loss upon the com-
munity at lary ge. It is pleasant to turn to a brighter picture, and
record what "has been accomplished by a different class of
men in—

Ist. High-land Farming.—This includes a large district, called
the Wolds, extending in a north-easterly direction from Hessle to
Flamborough Head, and embracing some of the best farming to be
found in this county—or perhaps inany other. Caird says of this
district : “It presents a very uniform and gradually inclined plane,
joining the low-land on the south-east, and rising to its greatest
elevation on the north about 800 feet andes coal whence it
gradually falls southward to an altitude of about 500 fee The
country is well enclosed generally by thorn hedges, and planta-
tions everywhere grouped over its surface adda beauty to the
outline, while they shelter the fields from the cutting blasts of
winter antl spring. Green pasture fields are occasionally inter-
mixed with corn, or more frequently surround the spacious and
comfortable harap toedie large and numerous corn-ricks give an
air of warmth and plenty,: ; ance the turnip-fields, cxomlell with
sheep, make a cheerful and animated picture. . . . The neatly
trimmed hedges and well-built ricks show that the labourer is
expert, and that the farmer likes to have his work well done.”

There is no decline to record in the superior style of farming so
long pursued by the spirited farmers in this district ; and if we are
unable to mention many improvements, it is because, compara-
tively, there was but little room left for them. A few, cape have
come under our notice, of which perhaps the greatest has been
effected by the free expenditure of the tenant’s capital in the
purchase of artificial manures. The able work of Liebig, now used
as a text-book, has greatly increased the use of these manures, by
imparting the knowledge required for their proper application ;
indeed the recent researches of scientific men have clearly proved
the inaccuracy of many principles which had previously been
received as correct, and discovered many defective points in the
management of manure, besides bringing to light those valuable
artificial manures, wit their use, to ‘whieh the Wold district is
especially indebted for its present high cultivation. Under their
guidance the use of bones, formerly bestowed with lavish extra-
vagance, has been regulated, and hand tillages supplied in such
quantities as to combine efficiency with due economy; many of
them containing those elements which, when applied on the soil,
retain the moisture or the gases of the atmosphere, thereby

Farming of Yorkshire. 103

assisting the growth of the plant, as well as enriching the soil.
Many tenants in this district expend annually in artificial manure
and oilcake,a sum equal to their rent.

The improvements required of the landlord in this. district
have been limited to improved house accommodation, and to the
erection of those new farm-buildings which the requirements. of
the times made almost compulsory; there is. yet much to. be
done in these respects, which it is hoped will, ere long, be fully
carried out.

A marked improvement) has taken place with regard to the
waste of straw which prevailed so late as the year 1848. As the
farmer increased the number of his cattle he became more alive
to the value of his.straw to supply his fold-yard with better
manure, and algo to be, used as food when mixed with more
costly nutriment,. The quantity of linseed-cake used throughout
this district is at least doubled within the last few years,

The scythe is giving way to the reaping-machine, as in 1847
the former had almost superseded the ancient sickle. The loco-
motive steam threshing-machine supplants the old horse thresh-
ing-machine; and lastly, the steam-plough and. cultivator will,
ere long, cause the modern horse-plough to be discarded, which,
in its day, was a great improvement over the heavy implements
used by our ancestors.

Extensive marling and liming of the Wold district has also
been accomplished within the period assigned to this. Report.
The lime is obtained from calcareous rocks, the substrata of this
district, at a cost of 4s. 6d. a chaldron; half the price it would
reach if it had to be brought from a distance... The Wold farmers
have of late been more than ever alive to the importance of this
outlay, the effeets of which commonly last for twenty years ; though
if by deep ploughing the subsoil is stirred and brought into
action, the land. will not. require a repetition of this dressing
when that time has expired.

Admirably adapted as the four-course system is to the Wold
district, on some, farms it is found too. exhausting, and here a
variation is found beneficial. To sustain the powers of the soil
a five, six, or even seven course is then resorted to, by the intro-
duction of beans, peas, or an. extra year of grass-seeds ; still the
disease, called “ fingers and toes” in turnips, and the failure in the
cloyer crop, too frequently put the ingenuity and skill of the in-
telligent farmer to a severe test. Experience teaches that marling
and liming the land is the best and most certain remedy for the
turnip disease, but many farmers in consequence have been
induced to try mangold-wurtzel, and with the best results; the
change is found so beneficial that, in all probability, they will be

104 : Farming of Yorkshire.

grown alternately with turnips, and by thus giving the land @
longer rest better crops of each will be secured.

To ensure a full crop of clover care should be taken to procure
good and genuine seed from the low districts of Holland, but we
shall have occasion to refer more fully to this subject in treating
separately of clover-seed.

There are difficulties in writing a Report on the Farming of
Yorkshire which do not apply to. any other county. Its large
extent, occasioning differences of soil, climate, and productions
between ‘the East, “West, and North Ridings, the variety of local
customs and habits, the influence of manufactures felt by the West
Riding farmer in a higher rate of wages, and in heavier poor-
rates in times of commercial depression :—these and other pecu-
liarities make it almost impossible to give a clear and succinct
view without constantly falling back on the past, or diverging
beyond the limits proper to this Report. To return to the Wold
district: notwithstanding the improvements in machinery for
economising horse and mianwal labour, the position of the agri-
cultural labourer is raised; since 1848 the wages of a days
labourer, without board, have risen from 12s. to 14s. and 15s,
per week; harvest work, per acre, from 7s, to 10s., and clover-
mowing from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. with beer.

The greatest imperfection is to be found in the farm-buildings
and homesteads ; on few estates only have the old incommodious
buildings been replaced by new and more convenient houses.
The Yorkshire Society, however, has this year offered con-
siderable premiums for the best plan of farmsteads for farms of
from 200 to 500 acres, by which, we trust, an impulse will be
given to the erection of first-class buildings; whether covered or
open yards have the preference, we shall hail the result with
satisfaction, though from our own experience, based on some
years’ trial, we assign the preference to the covered home-stall.

The highs lands of the West Riding next claim a passing
notice. mbes! when improved, are chiefly devoted to pasture ;
they are limed ane manured from the populous districts of the
valleys, and have reached a surprising fertility, which, con-
sidering the climate, would put to the blush many fartnend who
have iar better ladd in situations more favourable to the growth
of grasses and cereals. Some excellent farming is found about
Sheffield, and we have noticed great improvements around
Harrogate, but the high-land in the West Riding available for
apriculture’ is limited in extent, and improvement is by no means
dhe rile: | We muée however remark, that year by year more
land is reclaimed from the moor and placed under the plough,
thus diminishing considerably the number of unprofitable acres

Farming of Yorkshire. 105

in the Riding. Operations are commenced by draining, for,
without that, ploughing would be in vain; roads are then made
over these hitherto wild tracts, fields enclosed, farmhouses built,
and, where a few years ago the sportsman wandered in quest of
wild game, crops of corn are now found, with the usual accom-
paniments of cultivation.

On the limestone hills, in the neighbourhood of Settle, there
has been no change in the leases, which differ in no material
respeet from those of sixty years ago, and contain the same
restrictions with regard to ploughing. Draining, except in a
few instances, is not improved; the old mode of carrying the
drains across the hills being still adhered to. We must not,
however, omit to mention the great attention which is here given
to the improvement of the grass-land; it has been carefully
attended to, and appreciated, even from time immemorial.

The consumption of animal food, bread, and other necessaries
of life, is very large, and still increasing in this Riding ; Wake-
field, Leeds, Rotherham, Doncaster, and Pontefract furnish the
chief weekly markets, where the corn, cattle, and sheep from the
other Ridings find ready purchasers, the railways affording
great facilities for the conveyance of these articles from the most
distant farms.

Of the high-lands in the North Riding it may be said that
more improvement has taken place here, since the report given
by Milburn, than in any other part. Nearly all the draining
there required has now been done effectually, either by the landlord
and tenant jointly—the one finding the materials, and the other
the labour; or by Government loans, the tenant carting all the
materials and paying 7 per cent. on the money expended. These
improvements have been made at a cost which cannot be
estimated with accuracy, but three-fourths of the outlay has been
expended by the tenant. We must, however, mention that
tenants have not always had the benefit of a landlord’s assistance
in carrying out their improvements. When draining has been
done with Government money, they have carted all the materials,
stubbed up old fences, planted new ones, filled up ditches, and
made new roads at a considerable cost. In some districts more
improvement has taken place during the last few years than
during the previous half-century, by manuring more heavily, by
cropping more. frequently, by economising horse and manual
labour, and by means of improved implements ; yet the ungenial
belt of millstone grit and limestone shale is still a barrier to
profitable or extensive cultivation, although the beds of ironstone
lately discovered give a value to these hills which was little
anticipated.

Much improvement is made in the system of feeding cattle

106 Farming of Yorkshire.

in all the high-land districts. Box-feeding is extensively prac-
tised, and there is a growing wish to have covered sheds where
the cattle can'zun and feed together, thus making richer manure,
and doing better than when in solitary pens. The breeding of

cattle or horses is not much attended to on the Wolds ; the
former are generally bought in and sold out, either fat or in store
condition, and such horses only are bred as are absolutely required
on the fenien: ; it is in the North and West Ridings that we find
most attention given to the breeding of cattle, sheep being the
favourites of the: Wold farmer.

The adulteration of tillages, linseed-cake, and clover-seed is
perhaps the worst evil against which the farmer has to contend,
inasmuch as it is subtle and unseen. We have on a former
occasion (Journal, vol. xix. p 515) endeavoured to guard the
consumer of linseed-cake against the use of an adulterated article
on the plea of cheapness. ‘We believe those and the like endea-
vours have been of some service, but a renewed warning may
help to prevent this evil from ‘‘ growing by what it feeds upon.”
It is our belief, confirmed by long experience, that a great deal
of the eiolonen sickness,” of whichy besamuchhisshesedl Camel
descriptions of soil, is cubist atest in a considerable degree, to
the adulteration of the seed.

Some years ago we constantly found patches of land where the
clover failed, and, having no reason to suppose this arose from
any inability of the land to grow clover, we began to look out for
the cause. The seed was bought amiually fom an old-established
seed-house, and we never suspected the true cause of failure until
one year, when a field of 14 acres sown, as we supposed, with
clover-seed, was so filled with weeds, and especially docks, that
there was little or no clover atall. We now resolved to change our
seed-merchant, and applied to another house, explaining the dis-
appointment we had experienced, and desiring them to purchase
from their friends in Holland clover-seed, regardless. of ‘price,
but with the distinct understanding that we were to be supplied
with true and genuine seed. We have never been disappointed
in our crops since, and “ clover-sickness”” is now unknown on
our farm.

Mr. Pusey said, in the year 1850, “I wish I could report any
progress in our knowledge of the clover-sickness, by which the
growth of clover is alitiost stopped on some light-land districts of
the north, especially Y orkshire, and for aviebh every remedy pro-
posed ess hitherto failed; it is only mentioned here in order to
stimulate, if possible, further endeavour to fill up the blank in
our scientific and practical knowledge.”—Journal, vol. x1. p.
435.

Although a digression from the immediate design of this

Farming of Yorkshire. 107

paper, we are tempted to offer the following remarks, collected
from trustworthy sources, which, though simple in form, and
prescribing an equally simple remedy, may pave the way for
further research, and be a guide to farmers in selecting their
clover-seeds.

And first with regard to red-clover. ‘The clover-seed sown by
the farmers of Yorkshire is chiefly of foreign growth, one-fourth
English to three-fourths foreign. The crop of English clover is
very precarious, but when the seed is of good quality and well
harvested it is preferred to foreign seed. It is grown in the
South of England, and bought by the dealers for consumption
in the North, and, in consequence of the supply being limited,
commands a high price when good. French and Dutch rank
next in estimation, and the latter 1s eagerly sought after by our
farmers, being especially suited to the soil of Yorkshire, some
preferring the lowland Dutch, others: the Brabant or high-
land seed. The lowland is a healthy, robust, and productive
seed, and rarely fails to produce a crop. In appearance it is
a bold and large seed, very yellow in colour, but if unknown
would not attract the attention of the farmer; nevertheless,
it is a favourite when known, and commands.a much higher
price than the American or German in the Hull market, which
is the principal one for the sale of these seeds. Brabant,
or highland, is, when of good quality, not unlike English, of a
deep purple colour, and a bold seed not unlike the French ; but it
flourishes best on a dry and warm soil. The Scotch farmers, who
never sow anything but the finest seed, buy largely of this, and,
when the supply is but scanty, will pay very high prices for it,
rather than use any other; hence it happens that very little has
been seen in the Hull market of late years, and then always at an
extreme price. German and American are often fine in quality,
but always small in size; they have a considerable sale, but
adulteration is much practised. In seasons of: scarcity trefoil is
added ; this may be detected by the smell and the shape of the
seeds. The Belgian seed is frequently so mixed, and ‘even occa-
sionally the lowland Dutch, which, as was stated before, has a
yellow or trefoily appearance; but a judge will detect the adulte-
ration by the shape and smell, trefoil being round, the genuine
clover being oval and much bolder. American seed is said to
be hardy, but we can give no proof of its being so.

_ White clover seed—The great bulk of this seed comes from
Germany, Belgium sends a fair quantity of good quality, and
Holland a little occasionally. There is no seed equal to the
Friesland White, but it is only in very fine seasons that any is
exported ; last year, however, a quantity arrived and commanded
a high price; it'is to be hoped the cultivation of this variety

108 . Farming of Yorkshire.

will be extended, for it is particularly suited to these districts,
being hardy and productive; in appearance it is brown, large,
and of a fine quality. Of the large supply from G xermany, Con-
taining almost every description of quality, we give the pre-
ference to the Silesian, which is generally well ripened, more free
from weed-seeds than ‘that from other districts, and seldom adul-
terated. Much disappointment and failure in our clover crop
may be prevented by the exercise of a certain degree of caution
in purchasing seed only from trustworthy dealers ; if cheapness
be the only desideratum, the result is almost invariably a failing
crop ; let farmers sow a less quantity of seed of the best quality ; :
the cost will then be little more than that of a larger quantity of
inferior seed, the result a good crop of clover.

The example of the Secich, who only buy the finest quality at
a fair price, is worthy of attention. These cautious farmers, if
not sufficient judges themselves, give their orders into the hands
of a respectable dealer, who guarantees the genuineness of the
seed, and finds his own interest in serving we customers well.
Foreign seed is also well machined or cleansed from deleterious
seeds by those dealers who guarantee to sell the best quality.
Farmers are generally particular i in the selection of seed for their
grain crops ; “the same caution is doubly necessary with regard to
Baits cdlak and if this caution were exercised in our home
markets, the attention of farmers abroad would be given to the
importance of well cleaning and preparing the land destined for
seed crops, so as to meet the requirements of our trade.

The same caution is required in selecting Italian rye-grass,
kohl-rabi, turnip, and mangold seeds; quality and excellence
must be considered before price, or to save 3d. per pound a
great loss may be incurred.

Not to enlarge further on this topic, especially as it is the
subject of a separate paper in this Journal, we will conclude by
quoting some remarks on adulteration made by the writer on
Norfolk farming (Journal, vol. xix., p. 278). He justly says, “‘ We
try all sorts of manures for all sorts of purposes; some is pur-
chased because it is cheap, some to serve a needy friend, some
because the agent is a respectable man, some because it is horrid-
looking stuff, some because it has a very revolting odour; and
there are many other reasons, too numerous and too absurd to
mention. Nowall these waysare wrong ways. The right one is
to buy only by analysis. Science may have made its false step ;
Lawes and Liebig may have differed; abstract theories may not
always have borne practical fruits ; hy still chemical knowledge
is the only way by which we can arrive at the real value of the
artificial manures.” The farmer who neglects this warning may
experience a double loss: the cost of “the outlay in the first

. Earming of Yorkshire. 109

instance, and next the failure of the crop intended to be benefited ;
whilst the alternative suggested is not a costly one, when for a -
fee of 10s. our members may procure an analysis by the chemist
retained expressly for this purpose by the Society. Let a vigorous
stand be made against adulterations and adulterators, and let it
be maintained till the tribe of them cease to be found in the
land.

Guano is not so extensively used in the county as it was a few
years ago, principally on account of its present high price,
though a few still employ it when planting potatoes, or as a top-
dressing for wheat, and sometimes for spring corn. Nitrate of
soda is also used when its price has not, as of late, been too high
to yield a profit. Both the guano and nitrate of soda are mixed
with an equal weight of common salt. Guano is very exten-
sively used for potatoes in the marsh-lands. Phosphate of lime
is much approved of for most crops; its influence is less impaired
by a dry season, its action is more enduring in the land, and its
effects never disappointing, but to ensure these it ought always to
contain from 50 to 60 per cent. of phosphate of lime. The best
is made from bone-ash, which in the state it is imported gives on
analysis 80 per cent., or seldom less than 70 per cent., whilst
ground bones seldom yield more than 50 per cent. of phosphate.
Rape-cake, besides being extensively used for feeding cattle—a
use which is every year increasing the consumption—is applied
with great advantage for grass-land as a top-dressing. Wherever
guano is used with benefit, there also may rape-cake at a
cost of 5/. to 5/. 10s. per ton be economically applied ; a large
quantity is now annually manufactured in the county both
from German and East India seed, the latter being most in
request for manure, as being equally efficacious and rather
cheaper than green cakes.

We must now consider the recent improvements made on the
low lands, and first on pastures. The want of drainage and
manure, combined with constant cropping or eating off, had
reduced the quality of a large proportion of grass-land to the
lowest point, and improvement became imperative. An un-
founded prejudice long prevailed against deep draining on grass-
land, and on most farms the arable land was first taken in hand
as being the most important; whereas no part of a farm yielded
a greater return or sooner repaid the cost of draining than the
grass. A four feet drainage, followed the succeeding year by a
dressing of lime and compost, with either 5 cwt. of phosphate of
lime or an equivalent in bones, has been proved to double the
value of the land, and it is with much satisfaction we record that
a great number of acres have been so treated since deep drainage
became general. An improving tenant farmer showed us a

110 Farming of Yorkshire. .

grass-field of naturally good quality, which his landlord had
drained the previous year. He had taken some superphosphate
of lime, made from bones dissolved with sulphuric acid, and spread
it on the grass in the form of the initial letters of his name,
When the cattle were turned in to graze, the grass so treated was
both longer and greener than the rest; and was soon found out
and preferred by the stock. The result was so satisfactory, that
the farmer intended to dress the whole field in a similar manner,

On arable land draining became an absolute necessity, and
1848 marked the commencement of a new era in the history of
farming ; the work was begun in earnest by the landlord and the
tenant, the country at large reaping the benefit. No district
offered greater advantages from deep drainage than the Vale of
Cleveland, where the work has been carried on with much spirit
during the last:‘ten years. Previously, nearly the whole district

was farmed under the old ridge-and-furrow system, with water
grips and open ditches ; no crop was ever expected to grow in
the furrow, and the consequent deficiency in the yield per acre
was considerable. Draining the furrows and filling up the
ditches: increase: ithe | breadth’ of available soil, besides, greatly
improving the quality of the grain. Another result of this im-
provement is the increased growth of roots, whilst a gradual
amelioration of these strong lands is being effected which will
enable the farmer to adopt other improvements practised in
those districts which have been longer under the influence of
effective drainage. Six per cent. is charged by many landlords
on the cost of drainage in this part of Yorkshire.

The North Riding is better adapted for breeding than for
the growth of corn, in consequence of the variety of soil and
subsoil in the same field, the limited extent of the farms, and
the peculiarities of climate; and to such purposes it no doubt
was formerly appropriated. The high price of grain, how-
ever, between 1790 and 1812 imduced the occupier, when not
restricted from so doing, to take every opportunity for con-
verting into tillage every kind of land, to his own immediate
profit, and the ultimate loss of the owner. Efforts are now being
made to introduce improved cultivation -by throwing together
small farms and erecting suitable farm buildings. These spirited
endeavours do not, however, find much favour in those districts ;
it seems almost hopeless to attempt to change the habits of a
considerable class, and landlords, meeting with little response at
home, are eohistrained to look ahroad for suitable tenants.

* A great part of this county had been laid down probably cen-
turies ago in what are termed “ lands;” on these Parkes’s prin-
ciple of deep draining was at first carried out regardless of the
ancient furrows; nearly all the lands so drained have required

Tn

Farming of Yorkshire. 111

redraining, for in course of time the drains on the strong lands
ceased altogether to run: the remedy for this was draining up
the ancient furrow. Where there is a good outfall the imme-
diate effect of this system is a complete abandoning of the summer
fallow and the increase of the root-crops to four or five times the
former growth, these being followed bya crop of corn and clover
with the best results. ‘ Use no manure till you have drained ”
has become the farmer’s proverb. The use of lime for fallows
has been revived of late, its consumption having at first much
decreased upon the introduction of hand-tillages. ‘The farmers
are also become aware of the importance of deep ploughing and
the mechanical working of the land by drags and harrows, so as
to improve the seed-bed for the following crop. Owing to the
lateness of the last harvest many tenants took advantage of the
permission given to stack their corn in the fields: under such a
season this was perhaps desirable, although, as a rule, we like to
see the crop under the eye of the farmer, and near the home-
stead; it looks and is better, leads to less waste in using the
straw, and less injury to the land than when carted in the
winter.

On well-managed farms stubbles are scarified immediately
after harvest, and if intended for a root-crop, deep ploughed
before the frost sets in; the rest of the ploughing follows as
quickly as possible, in order to finish before winter and to allow
of early operations in the spring. Winter beans have of late
been much grown, and sometimes yield a heavy crop; but it is
important for them to be sown immediately after harvest, as, if
deferred until the frost sets in, they not unfrequently fail. . Winter
fares or vetches are treated in like manner, and are great favourites
with all lowland farmers: some sow them in the spring. These
crops are generally highly manured, and are followed by a crop
of wheat. :

The use of the presser on strong loamy soils is general when
wheat is sown. The favourite course on strong land is the five-
field shift, often expanded «into a sixth-course, thus :—Ist, roots
eaten off or removed ; 2nd, wheat, barley, or oats (frequently the
former sown with clover-seeds either. to. mow or graze), manured
in the.autumn, and sometimes salted or limed; 3rd, wheat ; 4th,
beans; Sth, wheat: or else—Ist, roots; 2nd, wheat; 3rd, oats ;
Ath, seeds; 5th,, wheat; 6th, beans. We have also seen the
following adopted as less exhausting than this course, viz,: 1st,
roots; 2nd, wheat; 3rd, beans; 4th, oats; 5th,» seeds; 6th,
wheat. ‘These crops are all manured (the true receipt for en-
suring a profitable return) ; the roots with 10 to 12 tons of well-
made dung, 8.to 10 bushels of half-inch bones or 5 ewts. of
superphosphate, 3 cwts. of Peruvian guano or 5 ewts. of rape-

112 Farming of Yorkshire.

dust, to the acre. Seeds require a good dressing when not eaten
off, and even when grazed, unless linseed-cake has been freely
given to the sheep during the summer. Beans well repay the
expense of manuring, and the same may be repeated of every
crop.

On well-drained and properly managed farms the produce of
wheat varies from 36 to 40 bushels per acre: in some instances
a higher estimate may be taken, while 20 to 24 bushels is the
yield on those less cultivated or ill managed. The yield of oats
is frequently 80 bushels, against 35 to 40 on the old-fashioned
system, and of barley 60 bushels. Few changes have been made
in seed-wheat since the last Report, though a greater quantity
of the white sorts is grown than formerly. In oats and barley
there is no change. We have no statistical reports or reliable
data. for estimating the increased produce of the county in general.
Whilst such returns are withheld any attempt to give an estimate
would be mere guess-work, ‘To show how valueless these esti-
mates frequently are, we noticed that, in a report made some
years ago, the quantity of grain sent by water-conveyance from
the chief market-town of the district, through a series of
years, was made use of to ascertain the production of that dis-
trict, no allowance being made for the seed introduced nor the
quantity delivered through other channels. This is not the time
nor place to discuss the advantages or drawbacks of statistical
information, even when legally enforced ; but we may be allowed
to say that the returns are worthless if inaccurate and incomplete ;
whereas no plan that we have seen appeared likely to realise these
conditions. In estimating the increased yield of crops we have
been guided by information received from the growers: when they
tell us of their increase, we think no better evidence can be re-
quired. On these strong, heavy soils wheat is more frequently
grown than either oats or barley.

Turnips.—With turnips the results are equally satisfactory,
and consequently the number of sheep and cattle now reared and
fed on a farm has been often doubled, and we believe there is
room for still further increase. Of late years a considerable
breadth of land has been sown with mangold in preference to
turnips, the oval-shaped variety producing the most abundant
crop; but their more extensive cultivation is checked by the
belief that they impoverish the soil for a following crop. We
ourselves give the preference to swedes, which the experience of
others confirms, and consider that a good crop of swede turnips
(Skirving’s Improved) is more profitable if the following crop be
kept in view. A new kind, called the Devonshire Greytop-stone,
has always produced good crops on the Wolds, and the demand
for it is annually increasing.

arming of Yorkshire. 113

During the late wet season the good resulting from drainage
was proyed by our comparatively small loss in sheep when com-
pared with that of former rainy seasons.

Hay.—The high price and great demand for hay has done
much to turn attention to the manuring and management of
meadows so as considerably to increase the crop. Around the
large towns in particular the demand for dairy produce has so
largely increased, that the dairymen, who a few years ago fre-
quently sold the chief part of their manure, now retain all for
their own land.

Freld-Peas.—Field-peas are extensively grown for the con-
sumption of the population in towns: they are generally sold by
the acre, the buyer employing labourers to gather them, and the
farmer carting them to the town. When a fair crop they pay
extremely well. [

Potatoes—The growth of potatoes in marsh-land and along
the principal lines of railway for the markets of the West Riding
and Lancashire is very large. The disease, however, which of
late has affected the potato proved last year most extensive and
destructive, spreading over the whole county, on all kinds of
soil, under every description of cultivation. The exemption
of Scotland from the malady which extended all over England
will perhaps cause some light to be thrown on this perplexing
subject. During our stay in Scotland last October we had an
opportunity of inspecting many farms, and better crops of po-
tatoes and turnips we never saw in that or any other country.
In the county of Wigton, the East Lothians, and part of
Perthshire, the crops for size and quality were wonderful.
Is this owing to the influence of the climate? The potato is
without doubt the most valuable of root-crops: the evil that
would arise from its total failure incalculable.

The first potato which became noted in the London market
as the produce of the district round Goole and on the skirts
of the river Ouse, from Trent Fall to Selby, was the red-
nosed kidney—a most prolific and mealy potato, originally
introduced from Berwickshire; at first the custom was to
obtain every year such. quantity of fresh seed that the produce
arising therefrom would insure ,sufficient sets for the next
year’s crop. After a few years’ cultivation, however, this kind
degenerated to such an extent that the farmer was compelled to
procure the whole of his seed fresh every year. The deteriora-
tion of the plant was in the first instance only observable by a
curled small leaf, and a considerable deficiency in produce: in»
a little time the seed altogether failed, and fresh plants were pro-
cured from the north-west of Scotland ; these were shipped from
Fraserburgh, Peterhead, and Aberdeen. The seed, however,

VOL, XXII, . . 2

114 Farming of Yorkshire.

held highest in estimation was that obtained from the mossy or
peaty land beyond the Grampian Hills running down to the sea-
coast: these likewise in about ten years shared the fate of their
predecessors ; but the disease assumed an entirely distinct form,
viz., that of a dry decay of the tuber, which usually commenced
shortly after cutting and planting if the weather were warm.
In 1882 the kidney-potato was generally abandoned for a
round, deep-eyed, rough-skinned potato imported from Perthshire.
This, like the kidney, improved in value from the change of
climate and soil, always fetching, when sent to the London
market, 20 to 30 per cent. more than the produce of the county
of its origin: these were known by the name of the Scotch reds ;
their average produce was generally not less than 10 tons per
statute acre, whilst in some instances 14 tons have been grown.
The seed had to be changed every year, and, in 1840, symptoms
of dry-rot appeared both in the sets and curled tops of the grow-
ing plants; to obviate this the seed was then procured from the
Highland districts extending from Blair Athol to Aberdeenshire.
The disease, in the form in ay Biok it now prevails, was observed
in Perthshire in the spring of 1844, where, on opening some of
the pits, discolouration below the alate appeared, which at that
time was attributed to the weather, particularly to the frost. In
the following year, however, dhousenas of tons of the red potatoes
in that county, which had ieee taken up apparently sound, be-
came in a few weeks one mass of corruption. Many attempts
were made to re-establish this valuable potato by autumn
planting, selecting particular roots, raising from the apple, &c.,
but all without effect. The regent, an oblong, rough-skinned,
small-eyed potato, of unknown origin, was next cultivated: in
appearance it somewhat resembles the shaws and the Cheshire
white; it was extensively grown from 1846 to 1856 with occa-
sional failures; it is not a prolific potato, an average crop being
about 6 tons per statute acre; it is now more or less subject,
according to the atmospheric influences, to the blight in the haulm
and decay of the tuber, and the last year may be said to have
sealed its doom as a staple commodity. In 1852 the fluke, a dry,
sweet, rather yellow-looking potato, was introduced out of Lan-
cashire, and is a great favourite in the London market. At the
spring of the year a large breadth of land is now cultivated with
this description of potato, notwithstanding the expense attendant
on the seed, which will not produce from more than one eye.
Even this potato is showing symptoms of decline; and a new
kind called seedlings, ameuudl small, slippery-skinned, unservice-
able potato, was some time ago introduced, which has been for
the last two years comparatively sound, but is not, and never will
be, a favourite in the London market. Many other kinds, such

Farming of Yorkshire. 115

as the ox-nobles, Cheshire whites, green-bulbs, shaws (once exten-
sively cultivated for cattle food), lapstones or kidneys, protestants,
and the rocks, have at various periods appeared in the district
near Goole, but never so as to supersede those we have described.
It is curious likewise to remark the different cultivation of the
potato within the last thirty years. Up to 1832 the land was
ploughed four or five times in the spring, and afterwards rolled
and made very fine: the usual time of planting was from the
middle of April to June, but experience eventually showed that
potatoes planted when the land was damp and cool best with-
stood the dry-rot; hence a change was made, from the time
above stated, to the period between the middle of March and
the end of April. Last year operations were commenced in
February, and finished the first week in April. The first-ripened
potatoes invariably stand the epidemic the best; but so great
are the vicissitudes of this plant, that on the same farm, under the
same culture, one portion of the crop has realised 40/, whilst
the other has not produced 6/. per acre. We are informed by
an extensive farmer and land-steward that he has tried on a
small seale all nostrums, planted at all seasons, used a great
variety of manures, and has experienced diametrically opposite
results from the same experiments: on one point he was very
forcibly convinced, that whenever the plant suffers most the
atmosphere is highly charged with electricity ; it likewise suffers
from all extremes—from that of wet by decomposition, and
that of drought by stoppage in growth.

Flax.—The cultivation of flax in the county has been steadily
increasing during the last twelve years, the variety of fibrile tex-
tures into which it is introduced and its high price giving an
impulse to growers. Yorkshire has long been known for the
fine quality of this plant, which under the new system of
management is considerably improved. The quantity sown is
much influenced by circumstances, such as the price it realizes,
and the value of other kinds of agricultural produce, and fluctu-
ates with each particular season. On the banks of the Ouse and
Trent, where the cultivation is considerable, the importance of
this crop has increased with the failure of the potato. Improved
machinery for seutching flax by steam instead of hand power has
contributed to make this a more profitable crop than formerly.
Considerable prejudice still exists among some landowners to
this, as an exhausting crop; but the discoveries of science have
done much to dispel the feeling, although some persons devoid
of experience still cling to the notion that it is baneful to the
land. The repeated growth of flax on the same land is unprofit-
able, because quality is then sacrificed ; but, taken in due course,
this does not interfere with the production of other crops

m2

116 Farming of Yorkshire.

satisfactory both in quantity and quality. It seldom, if ever,
occupies the ground more than four months, and therefore allows
sufficient time in average seasons for a good fallow previous to
the wheat crop, which experience proves to be its best successor.

Should the root-diseas econtinue, the southern counties will
probably adopt flax culture into their course, but we should re-
commend them to grow the plant not for its seed only, but to
keep in view the importance of the fibre, which the advantage of
railway conveyance will in many cases place within reach of
steam-power,

It is but fair, however, to state that this has been the
subject of much controversy. The matter was fully discussed
in the year 1845, in a paper brought forward by Mr. Wells, of
Booth Ferry, which is to be found in vol. xvi. of the ‘ Farmer’s
Magazine,’ together with many letters on the same subject by
the advocates of flax culture: the reply of Mr. Wells is also
published in vol. xvii. of the same magazine. Unfortunately the
unfavourable results there anticipated have been fully borne out
in that district. The extensive flax-works at Rawcliffe, Fairfield,
Selby, River Bridge, and Pocklington, in which reeling and
scutching by steam-power were to compensate for the lowness
of price, have all proved failures, and, with one exception, are
all closed; Messrs. Marshall, of Patrington, however, still have
large quantities of line, but the district in which their works are
carried on seems to be fatal to their securing the growth of line
off the warp-land districts: local buyers on the old system, since
the price rose ten years ago, beating them out of the market.
Around Crowle the growth is increasing.

The repeated failure of the turnip crop has stimulated the
farmer to try again those roots which will best supply his wants.
The kohl-rabi has this year proved invaluable in some soils
where turnips have failed.

» Holcus saccharatus—The Holcus saccharatus, which was in-
troduced from China a few years ago, seemed likely to be a
useful forage plant. The cattle and horses like it, and it is good
especially for milch cows; still it is too tender to be grown suc- —
cessfully in this county. Frost is fatal to it; and, though in a
suitable climate it attains the height of 12 feet, the cold and
wet of this summer prevented its reaching as many inches. The
quantity of seed sown per acre is 10 Ibs.

Chicory.—Chicory was grown very extensively some years
ago, but, as the cultivation has now considerably diminished, we
notice the fact without entering into a lengthened detail of its
introduction and subsequent abandonment, observing briefly that
the alteration made in the duty, and the regulations of the excise,
render it no longer as profitable as formerly.

Farming of Yorkshire. 117

Horses.—“ Yorkshire doth breed the best race of English
horses,” wrote the judicious Fuller; and the same may be said
in the present day. Some of the ablest pens have loved to write
of the wondrous feats of a favourite steed. Southey describes
his favourite ‘‘ Nobs” in the ‘ Doctor’ with a touch of feeling,
minuteness of description, and skilful handling, that make you
almost fancy the horse before you, with his owner expatiating on
the good qualities he had, and the bad ones which he had not,
till you become almost as much imbued with love for the horse
as the writer evidently was :—

“‘He was fit and powerful for the road,
Blending michty strength with fleetness, high in courage and in blood,
Free from all the well-known vices, broad of nostril, large of jaw,
With the ten good marks distinguished.”
We believe ‘‘ Nobs” was a genuine Yorkshire horse, and no
other county could produce his like.

Race-Horses.—Of the race-horses which are bred and trained
in the neighbourhoods of Malton, Beverley, Doncaster, and in
many parts of the North Riding, we need say but little. It falls,
however, within our province to remark that the thoroughbred
horse to be used as a hunting sire ought to be selected with much
more care than the breeders seem to think necessary. ‘They too
often look for a fashionable pedigree, a large size, and good

’ colour, and disregard soundness and good action, to the dissa-

tisfaction of their customers and their own loss. ‘ Country”
stallions of good form and action, though with less fashionable
pedigrees, would give more satisfactory results. We need not
notice this subject further. The turf has its own literature, and
to it we must refer those readers who are specially interestéd
in the subject. ;
Hunters—The hunter is generally bred by the farmer ; the
demand for strong animals capable of carrying heavy weights
having been on the increase, large sums are paid for them. Let
these be well made with good bone and sinew, well up to 12 or
13 stones, and able to keep up in a good run, and the fortunate
owner may demand from 200 to 300 guineas. The high price

offers every inducement to the study of cross-breeding with a

view to such animals. They surpass the hunter of former days,
being more enduring throughout a hard day, carry heavier
weights, come home fresher than formerly, recover themselves
sooner, and are superior in every respect to their predecessors
in the hunting-field of twenty years ago. In the lighter breed we
do not observe any difference.

Riding-Horses.—The old-fashioned strong and heavy riding-
horse is not so much required as formerly, but, when perfect, is
still very valuable. Breeders are too commonly wanting in that

118 Farming of Yorkshire.

careful selection of the sire and dam which is essential to success
and profit. Both breeders and riders agree that the difficulty of
securing horses that can hunt or hack yeatly i increases. It is a
common remark, which in part explains the high prices given,
that “ we have not improved in this county in the breed of this
class of horses.”

Hachs.—A. few words will embrace all that can be said of the
common hack. Being the offspring of all kinds of stock, they
are as multifarious as their riders, each one gratifying his own
taste in selecting his horse. The genuine “cob,” which can trot
fast and safely, was never in better demand than now, nor
realised higher prices.

Carriage-Horses. —Carriage-horses are of a lighter make than
formerly ; ; and although the old Cleveland bay is not yet quite
extinct, yet for the Tigntlon market and for carriage use he has
been otedtoo heavy. The old family-coach having given way
to the lighter brougham, a different description of ‘horse 8, re
quired ; and the race, once the pride of Yorkshire, is no more
“‘ the fashion.” The hunter class is now required for harness,
and demands the same attention in the choice of the sire as the
true hunter.

Blood-Horses.—¥ or all the above-mentioned classes of hunting,
riding, and harness horses, the blood-stallion is required ; but the
farmer who in his Scluauien mistakes cheapness for economy,
neglects to exercise his own judgment, and relies on reported
performances on the turf to direct his choice, will too often be
the dupe of designing persons, and only rear animals which
deteriorate the breed.

The cross between the Cleveland bay and the small, compact,
thoroughbred, keeps up its character: for such, high prices are
paid, ranging from 100 to 200 guineas. They are most prized
when about or under 16 hands, with light step, and quick, high
action. The North Riding, Howdenshire, and Holderness, are
the chief breeding-grounds for hunting and carriage horses.

Cart-Horses.—Drainage and the use of improved and lighter
implements of husbandry have caused a corresponding change
in farm-horses, which are now bred to combine strength with
speed. The old, heavy cart-horse is gradually giving way, to
the regret of some, who think this a falling off. But custom is
seldom at fault; circumstances must influence the breed; and
if a farmer finds that with a pair of horses of a lighter kind,
requiring less keep, he can plough a quarter of an acre more
a day, he will breed them in preference. So far the breed is
undoubtedly improved ; but we must admit there is a danger of
going too far. The Clydesdale breed, remarkable for their hardi-
hood, stoutness, and good action, has been introduced with the

Farming of Yorkshire. 119

best results; but farm-horses are bred all over the county with-
out any distinguishing characteristics, the Flemish and Suffolk
mares haying lost their individuality in a variety of crosses.

The principal horse-fairs, Howden, Boroughbridge, North-
allerton, York, and Beverley, continue to maintain their reputa-
tion for excellent horses, and have of late years been much
resorted to by foreign dealers, who give large sums for a first-
rate animal,

Cattle—The breed of cattle throughout the county is almost
exclusively the short-horn: a few cross-breds find their way here
from Ireland and Scotland; and of the former it may be said
that, while the number has lately diminished, the quality has im-
proved. Looking through the prize-lists of the annual exhibi-
tions of the Society for the last twelve years—1848 to 1859
inclusive—the following results appear. Yorkshire breeders, or
cattle bred in the county, have obtained—

Two Ist-class prizes for aged bulls.

Four 2nd-class Pa ss

Five Ist-class prizes for yearling bulls.

Five 2nd-class Md sf

Two Ist-class prizes for bull-calves.

One 2nd-class a 3

Three 1st-class prizes for cows in milk or calf.
Seven 2nd-class __,, ” .

Four 1st-class prizes for heifers under 3 years old.
Four 2nd-class ‘5 i"

Four 1st-class prizes for yearling heifers.

Four 2nd class 53 5

A result highly creditable to the county. In the twelve exhibi-

tions Yorkshire took twenty first-class and twenty-five second-

class prizes in six classes.

Short-horns.—The fashion for short-horns—for that is the
term applicable to the highest specimens of this far-famed breed
—is deeply rooted here, and the most eminent breeders reside in
the county. To pay for “fashion” it is no uncommon thing
for the leading breeder to receive 200 guineas a year for the use,
of a single animal, and there is such competition for bulls, that
many of the highest personages in the land are glad to enter

their names on the list for a supply when their turn comes.

Every year brings an increased demand and higher prices are
paid. Twelve years ago 100 guineas was the largest sum that
was given; the amount is now doubled, and even at this rate the
supply of first-rate bulls is not equal to the demand. If the
adage “ The worth of a thing is what it will bring” applies to

120 Farming of Yorkshire.

short-horns, then they are valuable indeed. We believe that
in this instance purchases not only satisfy this test, but that a
large profit is secured to those who invest their money in the
best animals.

As a general rule farmers are not careful in selecting the
males. A few pounds more will often deter them from buying,
although, when they are spirited enough to do so, they find they
devel the most profit. The breeders of these ‘“ fashionable”
animals justly merit the renown they have acquired; it was not
without much care and expense that such perfection has been
obtained. When one is calved of the right colour, free from
blemish, and of good pedigree, on such an animal no expense is
spared in the rearing, It is fed on new milk twice or thrice a
day, and in ample quantity ; cream is even said to be sometimes
added; a lump of chalk is left in the crib to prevent acidity ;
plenty of the best hay, ground oats, beans or malt and linseed-

cake are given as soon as possible, 50 as to ensure rapid growth,
and the development of those “ points ” of excellence which alone
bring success to the careful breeder. An income of from 20007.
to 30001. a year is said to be the sum obtained for “lettings”
which a leading breeder obtains; nor is this undeserved: it is
the result of nearly a century of judicious crossing and careful
selection—evidence at once of the room there was on improve-
ment, and of the willingness and discernment with which the
public recognizes and rewards perseverance and energy.

The greatest advance of the last few years is to be found not
so much 3 in the fashionable blood itself as in the general diffusion
of the breed, extending even to the animal that grazes the lanes
as well as the richer pasture of the farmer. In the mode of
feeding for the butcher, or the breeding and rearing of cattle, we
have little new to Bad to a former record (Journal, vol, xix.,
p- 500). Early in last year we paid a visit to Mr. Horsfall’s
farm at Burley, near Otley, and carefully investigated the practice
carried on there in the feeding and fattening of cattle, which has
already been fully descr ibed) in this Journal; we have since
adopted, with such modifications as were cuir to our farm, his
valuable suggestions. ‘The failure of the swede turnip, to the
extent of half an average crop, and the high price of cattle food,
have obliged us this winter to provide a substitute ; we therefore
commenced steaming, making use of malt-combs, inferior hay,
green rape-cakes, pulped turnips, a little salt, and lastly straw cut
with Corne’s chaff-cutter. The quantity Coneumedie in one week
has been carefully weighed ; and as it fully met the requirements
of our animals, a statement may enable our readers to form their
opinion of its value, according to their own peculiar circumstances,

Farming of Yorkshire. 121

‘Tons, cwts. qrs. Ibs.
2 6 O O of cut straw.
0 6 1 20 green rape-cake broken into small pieces,
0 4 2 O malt-combs.
One) 0") 10% cut hay:
Ope illy, Zr (0) ‘salt.
8 15 0 O pulped swede turnips.
fees 1) 20

The weekly consumption per head is about 3 ewts. of the
entire mess, divided amongst bulls, cows, steers, and heifers, in
number 37, 6 yearlings, and 4 calves,—in all 47 head. They
thrive and do well on this food, the milkers give an increased
quantity of milk, and the holding stock are looking better than
we ever remember their doing on the old plan.

All the food, with the exception of the turnips and malt-
combs, added afterwards, is steamed from three to four hours
every other day, and the mixture, which is given before it is
quite cold, is eaten with an eagerness which proves how the
cattle relish it.* The present high price of linseed-cake makes
the above a comparatively cheap food for holding stock, but
in a season when we have plenty of roots, good hay, cheap
linseed cakes, and sufficient straw, we shall regulate our system
accordingly. The malt-combs are now selling at 6/. to 7/. per
ton, the demand being unusually great. The price of coals being
high in our district, fuel becomes an important item in the
calculation, and will always influence and perhaps regulate our
wish to continue steaming; but that in the present conjuncture it
is both economical and serviceable to us we confidently affirm.
The working of the steaming apparatus exceeds our most sanguine
expectations. After visiting Burley we were prepared for good
results, but the economy and efficiency are greater than we anti-
cipated. The steaming economises the straw, makes the food
palatable, easy of digestion, and nourishing; the cattle so fed are
not exclusively for dairy purposes, but for growth and feeding ;
by Mr. Horsfall’s plan we are able to attain these results with
greater speed and economy than by the previous plan of cut
turnips, chopped hay, and linseed-cakes, Our expense of erecting
a steamer was not great; as we had a boiler, it was simply
needful to fix a two-inch gas-pipe from it to the steamer, which
is made of bricks laid in cement, having a heavy and close-fitting
cover or lid, and a small opening at the side through which the
steamed mess is drawn out as required, whilst the bulk of food
prepared at one steaming is kept warm during the two days,
This is a variation from Mr. Horsfall’s plan, consequent on a

oo has proved that turnips and malt-combs are better not steamed.—

M22 Farming of Yorkshire.

difference in shed arrangement. The introduction of steamed
food is dependent on the same principles which regulate the
entire economy of the whole farm. The skill of the intelligent
farmer is never shown with more effect than when thus exerted in
adjusting his operations in husbandry to the ever-varying changes
of climate, and applying the lessons of science to the selection! of
implements, manures, ant crops best adapted to maintain the
fertility of the soil, and develop its resources. ‘The fluctuations
in prices and manure must be met by corresponding changes in
consumption. A dogged pursuit of one system of cultivation,
though not bad in itself, must ever be attended with serious
drawbacks from changes of season and of circumstance. In
no respect is the growing intelligence of the age more clearly
indicated in contrast with the habits of our ancestors than in the
exercise of this discretion in modifying our practice. By this
standard our use of steamed food must be: estimated, its value
being contingent on a like good result being attained by the
Bubstinition of less costly materials.

Sheep.—Our principal breeds of sheep are the Mountain,
Cheviot, Barnshire, and Leicester, with a variety of crosses from
these and the Southdown, which vary in different parts of the
county, as will be hereafter specified. The higher ranges of
hills in the West and North Ridings are grazed by mountain
sheep ; a cross between the Chevidt: and Leicester is found on
the high-lands, which are draughted off to the lower districts,
and find their chief market at York. The reputation of the
county for its breed of sheep is well sustained at the Royal
Agricultural and other shows.

“A greater weight of mutton and wool being the desideratum,
éforts are constantly made to obtain them by crossing and using
heavier rams ; in this respect, however, our gain is probably not
so much in weight as in numbers. There ‘is 4 larger number of
breeders, and lisse again keep larger flocks of ewes; thus the
markets are more freely supplied, not only with sheep, but also
with lambs, the demand for which in the West Riding markets
is very extensive, both from the increased population and the
greater demand for meat consequent on a flourishing state of
trade.

We have before us some statistics of the leading markets,
showing the increase in the consumption of beef, mutton, and
corn since the year 1848, but they are so conflicting and doubt-
ful that we set them aside as useless for determining the native
produce, no sufficiently distinct account being kept of foreign,
Scotch, and Irish importations, whilst retent changes in the
Leeds and Wakefield markets tend further to confuse the ae=

count. The farmers (especially on the Wolds) prefer the

Farming of Yorkshire. 123

Leicester sheep, and breed as many as the farm will keep;
the lambs are usually weaned in July; put first on clover-fog,
then on rape, followed by cut turnips, with an allowance of
linseed-cake, which is increased in quantity till they each consume
half a pound daily ; this continues till clipping-time, which takes
place in April or May, after which they are sent to market.
This system is practised from Bawtry, in the south of the county,
to Wetherby in the north, and on the west it extends as far as
Wakefield. The increased growth of roots supplies them with
winter food, and in case of a wet season in the low grounds they
are removed to grass-fields which have been drained. One of
our largest low laxid farmers mentioned to us that on his farm of
1000 acres, now well drained, he has kept his sheep healthy and
thriving during the ‘last wet year, although his father on the
same foarte, once lost his entire flock from the wetness of the
season. We adopt this plan with great success ; the sheep have
their usual allowance of cut turnips and linseed-cake given them
on the grass-land, care being taken to have a few heaps of turnips
ready for the time of need by taking them up and carting them
during the first frost to avoid injuring the land. The plentiful
keep which deep drainage allows the lowland farmer to provide
for his sheep, induces him to have a stronger animal, and many
farmers now obtain their rams from Linicolueh ines ; they can bear
better food than the fine and smaller Leicesters, and are not so
liable to rot. Others again buy Lincolnshire ewes and put them
to a Leicester ram to oe Piet a longer staple of wool, but the
custom is not general.

In the parts west of Wakefield it is usual to buy Barnshire
ewes, sell the lambs to the butcher as soon as they are fat, feed
off the ewes for the same purpose, and then buy a fresh stock for
another year. Some farmers prefer what are called north or
cross-bred ewes, a cross between a Northumberland ewe and a
Cheviot or Barnshire ram. A few breeders cross a Leicester
ewe with a Cotswold ram; the produce is stronger, but not so
good a feeder as the Leieciter Perfect sy inmetry of form, with
a heavy weight of wool and lean flesh, may be said to be the aim
of the sheep-breeders i in this county, and iaidecided improvement
within the last twelve years may justly be recorded. On an
estate near Leeds, in consequence of the enlarged size of the farms,
thousands of sheep, chiefly Leicesters, are now fed, where a few
years ago they only numbered hundreds,

Pigs. The county is pre-eminent for breeds of pigs; the large
Yorkshire and York-Cumberland are well known. On refer-
ence to the prize lists of the Royal Agricultural Society, we
find that in the “ large-breed classes ” fine large white Yorkshire
took the first and second prizes for boars and the first for a sow

124 Farming of Yorkshire.

in 1855, the second boar and first sow in 1856, the first and
second boars and first sow in 1858, the first and third boars and
the second sow in 1859. Of the small Yorkshire breed, the
second prize was awarded for a boar and a sow in 1854; for the
first boar in 1855; second prize to a boar in 1856; the first and
second for boars, first sow, and best pen of three sows in 1857,
and the same in 1858; and lastly, first prize boar, York-Cumber-
land (Windsor), in 1859; from which it will be seen that our
large breed is as fortunate as any of its competitors, and that the
success of the small breed is complete. There is also a breed
called the Yorkshire middle breed ; they are about the same size
as the Berkshire, but have smaller heads and are much lighter
in bone. ,

The principal breeders reside in the West Riding, but very
excellent stock is found in the other ridings. ‘ Yorkshire stands
in the first rank,” says a competent authority,* “as a pig-breeding
county, possessing the largest white breed in England, as well
as an excellent medium and small breed all white, the last of
which, transplanted into the south, has figured and won prizes,
under the names of divers noblemen and gentlemen, more than in
our county ; the Yorkshire are closely allied with the Cumber-
land breeds, and have been so much intermixed that, with the
exception of the very largest breeds, it is difficult to tell where
the Cumberland begins aad where the Yorkshire ends. These
improved large Vorkshires are principally bred in the valley of
the Aire and in the neighbourhood of Leeds, Keighley, and
Skipton.”

To the mechanic and working man the pig has an importance
beyond its value in good bacon, for he is ‘the family savings-
bank, the family investment, and the family speculation.” To
their eoonaian for pig-fancying the county is indebted for the
reputation she has won.

Poultry.—The poultry fever, which a few years ago sreached
its climax, having subsided, the management of the poultry-yard
is now more soberly carried on; the movement, however, was
productive of good, an improved breed being almost universal.
We were much struck with this in many parts of the West
Riding, where the cottagers rear some of the very best sorts, and
bestow much spin on them. The clever report on the
rearing and management of poultry, which appeared in this
Journal (vol. xii., p. 161), threw much new light on the subject,
and the emulation excited by exhibiting at the county shows has
effected further improvement. ‘The recommendations contained

* ¢Youatt on the Pig, enlarged and rewritten by Sydney; published by Rout-
ledge. London, 1860.

Farming of Yorkshire. 125

in that report are carried out to the present day, and the county
is celebrated for the size and quality of the fowls, and equally so
for its breeds of turkeys, ducks, and geese, any number of which
find a ready sale at the different markets; for the poultry and
eggs imported bear a very small proportion to the consumption,
But whilst the farmer’s wife and daughters endeavour to supply
a larger class of fowls for the table and good-sized eggs, their
patience and ingenuity have been much tried during the last
year; diseases among the denizens of the poultry-yard have been
universal, and the cold damp weather fatal to numbers. We are
glad to record that the system of penning fowls is exploded ; they
are again allowed to range at large during the day, to the benefit
of their healthiness and productiveness.

Cheese.—Though some of the cheeses in the’ North Riding
are excellent, and the well-known “ Gruelthorpe ” maintains its
fame, still Yorkshire is not a cheese-making county, but with
regard to the butter we believe no district can compete with the
West Riding both for quality and quantity. The increasing
population of our large towns, with a corresponding increase in
the demand for milk and butter, has stimulated the dairy farmers
in the neighbourhood of these towns to increase their productions
by a better mode of feeding their dairy cows, and also to provide
them with better accommodation.

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.

Although the introduction of steam to supersede horse and
manual labour in agricultural operations has not been so rapid
and complete in this county as in the neighbouring one of
Lincoln, and although there are yet remote isolated corners
where the steam plough has scarcely been heard or seen, and the
inhabitants cherish the belief that the flail is the most econo-
mical and efficient means of threshing corn, yet it is satisfactory
to report that the important aids afforded us by mechanical
ingenuity have not been overlooked or neglected by the generality
of the farmers of Yorkshire.

Steam Threshing-machine.—Under this head the most im-
portant invention is perhaps that of the portable steam threshing-
machine. Its introduction dates from the years 1851 and 1852.
At the meeting of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society at Thirsk
in 1850, the notice of farmers was drawn to portable engines, by
the award of a prize to one; and in the following year, at the
Bridlington Show, a prize was given to a threshing-machire
driven by steam ; the Yorkshire Society being a year in advance,
in consequence of the Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society
having merged in the Great Exhibition of 1851. The effect of
these awards, seconded by the results of experience, was imme-

126 Farming of Yorkshire.

diately felt; and the books of Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth
record that three agricultural machines were sent by them into
Yorkshire in 1850, twelve in 1851, and seventy in 1852. Since
then their use has become general; and where farms are not .
large enough to keep an engine, there is an ample supply of
locomotive engines with the threshing-machines to be let on
hire. Many landlords have erected on their farms a complete
set of buildings, with an engine to drive the threshing-machine,
a mill to grind the corn, and other implements, ensuring conve-
nience, comfort, and profit.

Steam Plough—The use of the steam plough has hitherto
been confined to the strong lands of the level districts, the
Wold farmers, who seldom plough their light soils more than
four inches deep, still adhering to the two-horse plough, although
the large size of their fields, varying from forty to sixty or
even a hundred acres, seems to afford a favourable opportunity
for the working of its new rival. In the flat tract of country
between the Wolds and the sea both Fowler’s and Smith’s
systems have been successfully introduced within the last two
years; and the establishment of the manufacture of Fowler’s
plough at Leeds must conduce to its use in the neighbourhood.

Ploughs and Scarifiers—The modern improved iron ploughs,
Coleman and Bentall’s scarifiers, and the best drills that can be
procured, are generally used by the improving farmers. In the
large fields of the Wold district broadcast sowing is entirely
abandoned, and during the last few years the liquid-manure drill
has been extensively used, in most cases with good results.

Turnip-cutter.—The practice of bruising oats and beans, and
cutting hay and chaff by machinery, for feeding horses and stock,
may be reported as general throughout the county. Amongst
other implements of the homestead, an extended use of the new
machine for pulping roots must be mentioned. Of the small
implements and machines, it may be observed that a company
has recently been established, with dépdts at all the principal
towns of the county, for the exhibition and sale, at the maker’s
price, of the implements in usual demand, so that the farmer has
them brought almost to his own door.

Haymaking-machine-—On the numerous grass-land farms in
the neighbourhood of the towns, especially near the large manu-
facturing districts of the county, the use of the haymaking-
machine is very general, and extensive growers of hay report
that it has repaid its cost in one season. It is almost impossible
to overrate the value of a machine which enables the farmer to
take the greatest advantage of every moment of fine weather in a
very uncertain climate; for the never-ceasing clouds of smoke
from the chimneys of the adjacent manufacturing towns cause

Farming of Yorkshire. 127

the absence of rain for more than two or three consecutive days
to be a very rare occurrence.

Reaping-machines.—Since the introduction of reaping-machines
from America, mainly through the instrumentality of the Great
Exhibition in 1851, both the implement-makers and the farmers
of this county have taken a prominent part in adapting them to
the requirements of British agriculture, In the North Riding,
where many of the fields are of moderate size, and where the
old ridge-and-furrow system remains, a small, light reaping-
machine is used, which cuts the corn only, and requires a man
to aid in the delivery. On the extensive fields of the Wolds
throughout the East Riding, as well as on the arable farms
in the south of the county, those machines are preferred
which have a self-acting delivery, being less laborious to the
workpeople, and also allowing the corn to be cut and left in
swathe for a few hours, if required, before it is gathered up,
During the last three years a considerable number of these
machines have been worked on large farms, their price and bulk
rendering them comparatively inapplicable to smaller farms.
This objection is, however, obviated, as in the case of the steam
threshing-machine, by persons letting them out on hire, the
farmer supplying the horses to work the machine, and the owner
sending a man to attend to it whilst working. On some estates
the landlords have purchased them, to afford their tenantry an
opportunity of hiring. Having cut a great part of our corn with

. one of McCormick’s reaping-machines, we can testify to the

great benefit we derived from its use during the late wet harvest.
The work was well and quickly done, and the harvest operations
were considerably accelerated—a matter of no small importance
in a precarious season. Some improvements may, however, be
made in its present form, which is unwieldy, and requires much
time and labour in taking to pieces for removal from field to
field or from farm to farm ; besides, the draught is too heavy.

Waggons.—Waggons are generally employed for harvesting
both corn and hay, as well as for delivering produce when sold ;
but for taking manure to the land, and,the general work of the
farm, one-horse carts are commonly preferred,

The Yorkshire farmers are fully alive to the importance of a
liberal education, and many of them send their sons, not merely
to superior elementary schools, but afterwards to the best agri-
cultural colleges; others place them as pupils with well-known
practical farmers, where they go through a complete training,
and learn the improved methods practised in various localities ;
so that a succession of young farmers are arising initiated in
all the modern appliances of advanced agriculture, and not un-

128 Farming of Yorkshire.

frequently in the scientific researches of chemistry, geology,
botany, &c. In this way we trust to see improvements still
further carried on, each age profiting by the expences of its
predecessor,

In the present day there is no indisposition to adopt any new
discovery ; SiG as eagerly sought after, but in too many instances as
soon laid aside without adequate trial; one partial failure, owing
to peculiarity of soil or season, telling unfairly against the new
manure or implement. In this way we have seen the horse-hoe,
the turnip-pulper, and other useful implements thrown aside,
and the most valuable manures regarded as worthless; the
growing of the white Silesian sugar beetroot for distilling, and
the erection of costly apparatus, now abandoned, may serve as
example.

One new feature of our time is the number of farms held by
men who have had a mercantile education, who bring their com-
mercial ideas to bear on agriculture; these are generally intelli-
gent men, full of energy and enterprise, not afraid of investing
their capital in a grateful soil, who therefore occupy the foremost
rank in carrying out hopeful experiments and improvements ;
the same remark applies to the manufacturer where his tastes
lead him to turn farmer.

Another class of farmers must not be overlooked, though now
diminished in numbers and importance ; we refer to the yeomanry
of England, properly so named,—men who farmed their own land,
varying from 100 to 200 acres in extent. Whether from the
want of sufficient capital, from an attachment to old ways, or
mere supineness, this class has generally been behind the times,
and thus it often happens that on the decease of the owner his
small estate is put up to auction (his children leaving the old
home to seek more profitable employment elsewhere), and the
land which had been the pride of their forefathers is enrolled
among the broad acres of some larger owner.

A decided improvement may be noticed in our village
schools. Schoolrooms have been enlarged or rebuilt by the
aid of the National Board, and the old incompetent master
replaced by a trained and Gertifeatedl one, the clergy rendering
their best assistance to the work. The length of this anfitle
prevents our enlarging on this subject, and showing by statis-
tical reports the unmistakable social and moral advance among
the working classes, evidenced in part by a diminution of crime, »
vagrancy, and pauperism.

On Tuesday the 4th of last December, 15137. was paid into
the Hull bank for savings in sums varying from ls, to 3013; a.
large proportion of this sum was received from persons employed ;

‘Farming of Yorkshire. 129

in agricultural pursuits; and on the Saturday preceding no less
than 2209/. was paid into the savings-bank by town and country
depositors,

One exception only to this satisfactory picture is to be found
in the case of the young unmarried farm-servants, who are often
much neglected, and not unfrequently lose the good they obtained
at school, from want of encouragement from their masters. An
endeavour is made to palliate this evil in some districts by the
establishment of evening schools and book societies, but the
migratory disposition inherent in this class often does away with
the benefit; what is gained in one place being lost in another.

A small but not unimportant improv ement has been made in
the farmers’ garden. Whilst collecting materials for this report
we were much pleased at finding welleciiitty ated gardens beside
well-cultivated farms, and, while the ‘useful prevailed over the
ornamental, the latter was not neglected. A few flowers well
cared for by the farmer’s wife or daughters added considerably
to the beauty of the scene, and fron repeated observation we
think it will be found that a good farm and good Syne go
hand in hand,

For the county of York, Leeds and Hull are the chief marts
i and
linseed cake ; the increased demand for these articles through-
out the country, and especially within this county, strongly indi-
cates the progress of agriculture. The import of linseed into
Hull from foreign parts in 1848 was 537,361 qrs., and, in 1860,
529,900 qrs., showing an increase of 192,539 qrs. in twelve years,
exclusive of what is imported coastwise or overland from
Liverpool, which last year amounted to upwards of 33,935 qrs.,
making a total of 563, 835 qrs. Surely this increase shows that
the farther cannot be fairly taxed with want of spirit. The
annual imports of rapeseed into Hulland Liverpool have advanced
in the same proportion. The linseed-cakes are consumed at
home, and, though a considerable quantity of foreign cake is
imported, we find no variation in the supply. Though rape-cake
is employed for feeding cattle, by far the greater quantity is used
as manure, being broken up to about the size of a nut and strewn
on the land preparing for wheat. It is chiefly used in the neigh-
bourhoods of York, Tadcaster, Wetherby, Pontefract, and
Doncaster.

lf it be asked why has the price of beef and mutton risen,
if the farmer has done his part to supply the market, we
answer that the grazier has had to contend against events be-
yond human edntrol. The unusual severity of the winter of
1859 and 1860, and the heavy rains throughout the past year,
have been much against them, causing great losses from disease :

VOL. XXII.

Pad
aN

130 Farming of Yorkshire.

whilst sheep have considerably fallen off in weight since 1848
from various causes, amongst others the prevalence of the turnip
disease, but still more from the scarcity and dearness of food,

There is one useful lesson we may learn of the manufacturer,
—he never stints labour when it pays. Many farmers on
small occupations err in this respect, and are parsimonious to
their own loss—thinking how to save a man or horse instead
of how to employ them profitably. This accounts in part for
the decrease of that class of small holders whose aim was cheap
farming, and for the gradual enlargement of farms. A good
deal of sentimentality has been expended over the decay of the
old class of farmers, but if they cease to improve the land—the
talent given them—it is only just and right to take it from them,
and give it to those who will do justice to the claims not only of
the landowner but of the community at large. We feel most
sensibly that an old tenantry, when they follow the times, are an
ornament to any estate; but it is of the idle, ignorant, and pre-
judiced tenant, who resolutely defies every advance, that we
speak ; on such an one we cannot waste one word of pity. One
mote allusion to the manufacturer, and we have done. He is
never wasteful; everything is turned to account and used in due.
proportion. But among farmers how many are careless of their
produce, not keeping sufficient stock to consume their straw, and
above all taking no pains with their farmyards and buildings to
preserve the quality of their manure, besides wasting the land
by ill-judged cropping! These instances are exceptional, but we
must not forget the shadows which relieve the brighter parts of
our picture.

One important item connected with his calling has been much
overlooked by the farmer, whether from prejudice, want of edu-
cation, or of leisure: we refer to the keeping of accounts. A
current cash-book, the profit and loss as shown by the balance-
sheet at stock-taking, the remainder summed up in “ rents,”—one,
two, or three rents per acre, as the account appears,—is all that is
considered necessary. We do not doubt that a better education,
with the adoption of scientific farming, will remedy this defect.
For what man of intelligence can be content to guess only at the
profit or loss accruing to himself from each of the several very
variable items in his system of management? Good accounts,
besides being a safeguard for the present, form an interesting
and valuable record for the future.

The great improvements noted as having taken place in the
short space of twelve years are naturally suggestive of still
greater. Onward! onward! must still be the farmer’s motto
among the great changes which we have in prospect; so that
when another cycle has passed, and Yorkshire is again called

Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, §c. 131

upon to report its progress, its agriculture may be found to have
kept pace with the improvements going on around us in every
branch of manufacture and commerce,

In bringing our report to a close, we venture to remind the
reader that it has been our task to describe, not Yorkshire farm-
ing generally, but that more limited field, our modern improve-
ments; and if in its execution we have failed to give minute
particulars, this has been an almost necessary consequence of the
rule laid down at the commencement of the paper for avoiding

rtial reference either to landlord or tenant. We have the satic-
faction of feeling that the pleasure which the subject has afforded
has been greater than the labour expended on it, for we can
dwell with delight upon improvement in any form, but espe-
cially in one so congenial to our own taste as the advancement
of agriculture.

Sigglesthorne Hall.

Vi.—Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption
in the Metropolis. By Roserr Herserr.

Durine the first six months of the present year the Metropolitan
Cattle Market has been well supplied with beasts, which, with
very few exceptions, were in excellent condition ; ; cat as
regards quality, the arrivals from Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, aoe
Scotland have never been excelled in any former corresponding
period. Considering the inferior condition in which the hay
crop was secured last year, and the moderate growth of other
cattle-food, this is a highly important result. It shows that our
graziers have shown great energy and skill in the production of
food, even under the most disadvantageous circumstances ; and
that, whatever predictions may gain currency to the contrary,
prices cannot range above a certain level for any lengthened
period whilst capital can be found to meet the demands of the
consumers of any kind of food. And here we may remark that
much misapprehension has from time to time prevailed in refer-
ence to the number of fat and store animals in this country. In
1860, owing to the falling off in the condition of the beasts dis-
posed of, and the unusually high rates demanded by the breeders,
it was apprehended that our deficiency was such that it would
be found necessary to import large numbers of stock from the
Continent, whatever might be their condition, to meet our future
consumption. The apprehended deficiency, however, has not
had the effect of increasing our importations to any arent: ; and
K 2

132 Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat

we believe that very few graziers are to be met with who, from
past experience, would run the risk of endeavouring to fatten
foreign stock upon any description of land. A few ventures have
been | made by large agriculturists, but they have nearly all
resulted in a heavy loss. It may appear somewhat surprising
that foreign stock generally will not fatten in this country ; but
so itis. Some of our best foreign beasts—those imported from
Holland—are peculiarly liable to disease ; and, moreover, during
the three months prior to their shipment, are principally fed
upon grains and distillers’ wash. The stock derived from abroad
since the commencement of the year has not improved either in
weight or condition, but has mostly carried a large quantity of
aetna fat, and consequently met with a ready sale apparently
remunerative prices to the owners. Some remarkably fine-looking
beasts have come to hand from Spain, and been disposed of at
an average of 21/. each. One extraordinary animal, 135 stone
in alone realised 30/. This, we believe, is the highest sum
ever Gieiaed for a Spanish bullecla This description of stock,
however, is still described by the butchers as weighing “as light
as cork ” hence none but good judges are inclined to purchase
it. ‘There has been an importation of beasts from the northern
departments of France. Most of the animals were eleven years
old, and had evidently been worked for several years, as they
were without a particle of good or consumable food on their
backs. Astonishment was expressed here that their owners
should have endeavoured to find a market for them in this
country. This stock had the largest barrel we ever saw; and
two of the oldest beasts were 5 feet 114 inches in height. If the
French graziers desire to find a profitable market in London,
they must send us something superior to this stock, whit
appeared to have been most injudiciously fed.

The wonderful success which has this year attended the fat-
tening of beasts in Norfolk and Scotland has had the effect of
keeping down prices to a comparatively fair level. Those
recently realised, even allowing for the high currencies paid for
store animals during the greater portion of 1860, must have
proved a source of profit, Sonne of the best Seai and crosses
have sold ai 5s. 4d. per 8 lbs., and some prime Herefords and
Devons at 5s. per 8 Ibs. The cross-breds received from Norfolk
and Scotland have come to hand in admirable condition—a
proof, we conceive, that where the system has not been carried
too far, it is an improved mode of production. The future price
of beef will much depend upon the power of the Lincolnshire
egraziers to furnish London with a supply. The ‘ season” has
opened extremely well, with about 1500 bullocks in very prime

for Consumption in the Metropolis. 133

condition. Not a few of them show signs of crossing with the
Hereford and Devon breeds, and in all such instances compara-
tively high rates have been obtained. Our impression is that the
Lincolnshire supply, Kc., is seasonably large ; and that, as the
weight of stock is likely to increase rapidly with an abundant
pasturage, the quotations have seen their highest range for some
time.

The arrivals of sheep in the period under notice have been
tolerably good ; but really prime stock has continued to be scarce ;
hence there has been a wide difference between the highest and
lowest prices, and a dull trade, except for prime and well-made-up
Downs, half-breds, and Leicesters. It is somewhat remarkable
that sheep should not have done as well as beasts during the
past season. In consequence, however, of the immense quantity
of rain which fell last year, the foot-rot has made somewhat
severe ravages in some of our leading districts. During the first
four months of this year large numbers of rotten sheep made
their appearance in the metropolis; but since then rot appears to
have almost wholly disappeared ; still, the sheep have not fat~
tened so rapidly as could be desired, especially by the public,
who complain loudly of the high prices charged by the butchers.
Foot-rot has, no doubt, greatly interfered with the production of
mutton, and some time must elapse ere the quotations will show
much reduction from those now current. The Dutch sheep have
not reached us in such good condition as in several previous
years; and have consequently met a slow sale. The arrivals
from Germany vié Hamburg have continued large, some of
them showing signs of a cross with our Down breeds. The prices
paid, however, have been very low, viz. from 12s. to 27s. each.
Several thousands have been bought for grazing near London,
but they have invariably been sent into the market again after a
month’s run, without gain to the purchasers, The fall in the
price of rough fat to 2s. 8d. per 8 lbs. (the quotation last year
having been 3s, 2}d.) has tended to keep down the value of live
stock, more especially as the gigantic monopoly in the tallow
trade has nearly broken down; but even this decline, combined
with the present high value of money, can scarcely reduce
general quotations. The export trade of the country is im-
proving ; consequently, additional employment will be found for
our artizans and others, the great mass of consumers in the
country ; and the demand for meat is likely to continue as exten-
sive as ever, even with an average crop of wheat and a large
growth of potatoes,

The lambing season has turned out a most productive one.
At the commencement of the consuming period prices ruled

134 Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat

somewhat high, but have since then continued to give way, until
really prime lambs have sold as low as 6s. per 8 Ibs. For the
most part the lambs are strong and healthy, and they come to
the scale extremely well. The “following return shows the total
supplies of stock disposed of in the great Metropolitan market
in the first six months of the present and five previous years :-—

Supplies of each kind of Stock Exhibited and Sold during the first Six
Months of the following Years :—

1856. 1857. | 1186 "1858. | 1859. 1860. 1861.
Beasts ec pen) allo lla |e) ws OOM |pelliliers Som mul 3,373 | 114,702 | 109,812
Cows .. 2,977 2,682 | 2,917 | 2,977 2,904 3,005
Sheep and Lambs| 636,030 | 536,790 | 588,758 | 668,702 | 662,030 | 604,650
Walwésy 545. s-7 l eGeles 8,420 | 8,878 Teeiie 9,515 6,560
Ricshemerele--leelopods 13,240 | 13,096 | 14,869 | 14,201 | 15,952

The foregoing comparison shows that the aggregate supplies
of beasts ewe fall short of the five previous seasons ; but the
deficiency in the number has been more than compensated by
the prime and heavy condition in which the stock has made its
appearance. In the first six months of the present year the dis-
trict and Irish and Scotch arrivals have been as under, compared
with five corresponding periods :—

“ District”? Bullock Supplies.

1856. | 1857, 1858. 1859. | 1860. 1861,
Worthen Disiricws aL. 900) 9 4,000 | 4,000 |. 4,000 | 4,700 -
Eastern Districts -- | 51,700 | 60,500 | 66,890 | 7,460 | 68,520 | 64,060
Other parts of Boe and | 13,850 | 14,490 | 14,5¢0 | 19,090 | 21,420 | 17,700
’ Scotland .. 10,008 | 8,860 | 8,456 | 10,030} 5,033 | 8,712
Ireland we tide | se |) 685400" <2, 7001 | 4,820) “ROM iPr Eary, 256
Foreign... +» +» | 7,880 | 9,238 | 5,649 | 7,580 | 9,058 | 12,422
|

The above statement exhibits a decrease of about 4000 beasts
from the eastern districts, and about the same falling off in the
arrivals from other parts of England. The receipts from Scot-
land are about 3500 head in excess of those of 1860. The show
of foreign stock has considerably exceeded the five previous
years. Ireland figures for a very poor number, viz. only 256
head, against 1477 in 1860, 2217 in 1859, 4820 in 1858, 2700
in 1857, and 3400 in 1856. The total importations of all kinds
of stock from Ireland this year have been on a very moderate
scale both as regards number and quality, and the bulk of them
have been disposed of in the Liverpool, Manchester, and Bir-

for Consumption in the Metropolis. 135

mingham markets, The average prices of beef and mutton have
been as under :—

Average Prices of Beef and Mutton.

1856, 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860, 1861.
BEeEr :— S s. a. 5. ae Sh ie cae oe SG.
Iyferiop «. «ess 8 0 3 2 $ © 3 2 3.6 a fA
Middling.. a 38.10 4 0 3 10 4 0 4 6 4 4
BUG, 0 0, 6 4 8 5 0 4 6 EF 0} 5 66 tte (0)
Mourron :—
OPETIOL 2. te oe 8 0 3 10 oF +2 3.44 3 10 os 5
Middling .. many “Chere 4 0 > 0 4 2 4 8 re, Sa)
Prime a2 6 0 & 12 5 10 oy Le 5 10

Although there has been an important decline in prices in this
as compared with last season, the quotations have, we imagine,
been remunerative. In some quarters, however, losses may have
been sustained, owing to the unusually high rates which pre-
vailed for fat and lean stock in the early part of last year.

Great fluctuations have taken place in the value of meat both
in Newgate and Leadenhall markets, which, on the whole, have
been well though not heavily supplied. At one period the
primest beef sold at 4s. 8d., and the primest mutton at 5s. per
8 lbs. by the carcase. The quotations now, however, are com-
paratively moderate. -

As the grazing community in this country are deeply interested
in the progress of agriculture abroad, we may call attention to
some official statistics recently issued in reference to the numbers
of beasts and sheep in Holland. From them we learn that in
1860 the total number of the former was 1,213,381, and of the
latter only 768,373 head. The supply of beasts here given may
be accurate enough, but there is evidently a great inaccuracy in .
the number of sheep returned. Further, we learn that in 1860
over 200,000 sheep were exported, chiefly to England. If
we take the lowest possible estimate of the supplies required for
home consumption, it seems impossible that Holland could spare
more than a fourth of its whole stock for export: for if exports
are to be continued at that rate, on a stock of considerably less
than a million of sheep, the whole race must die out. We call
attention to these figures with a view to their verification and
correction by the proper authorities.

5, Argyle Square, St. Pancras, London,

————

( 136 )

VII.— On the Rearing of Calves. By Tuomas Bowrcx.
Prize Essay.

Ow1nc to the increasing consumption of meat, and the compara-~
tively early age at which ripe beasts are brought to the shambles,
“the rearing of calyes” becomes more and more a subject of
importance, and worthy of the attention of the leading agricul-
tural society of the kingdom. Not that there is any need to
enlarge on the getting up of stock for the July meeting, or for
the stalls in Bingley Hall or Baker Street; that is a different
branch of the subject, which, however interesting or valuable in
itself, hardly concerns nine out of every ten rent-paying farmers.
“Master Butterfly” may have his pailful of milk morning and
night until the days of calfhood are long gone by; or
** Duchess 317th” may pull at the teats of her nurse till a pair
of incisors push out the like number of milk-teeth; and still
there will be no proof that such can ever be called a desirable
general practice. The question before us is how to rear the best lot
of calves, and the largest number of them, at the least expense.
And, as it is of no use to have the bird without a cage to put it
in, so the first point to be attended to is to have the calf-house in
decent order and of good construction. We do not say of the
best construction, for the question has yet to be settled what that
really is; and, even when that is done, the majority may be
unable to avail themselves of the decision. Still, about most
farm premises a spare hovel can be allotted, and, if need be,
modified or amended, for this purpose, Believing, as we do,
that calves are best tied up for the first couple of months, that
they are more manageable in getting their milk from the pail,
and that the least outlay is thus involved in house-room, we may
simply describe the arrangement of such a building as is referred to,
Take any convenient shed or house that comes to your hand ; say,
18 feet x 15 feet, well lighted and aired, but without draughts,
and the walls 7 feet high, Leaving one side unoccupied, as the
fall of the brick floor (1 inch to the yard) should be from the
other three sides, converging in that direction, where a grated
cesspool should be ready for taking off the urine, you may
divide the remaining walls into ten standings. These divisions
need not be expensive. Wicker hurdles,* costing 1s. each, and
measuring 5 feet xX 3 feet, will answer every purpose, One end
requires to be firmly secured to the wall, and the bottom fixed to
the floor with a couple of holdfasts. Of course, in an arrange-
ment such as the one spoken of, there is ample room for the

* Flake-hurdles, or lamb-hurdles, as they are variously styled.

Rearing of Calves. 137

display of any amount of taste or expense in fitting up, but we
have named the cheapest plan which we have found fairly to
answer the purpose. ‘The hurdles have this advantage, that they
are easily removeable, for getting the floors flushed and the wale
cleaned and Wiitewashed. A small beam, 4 inches x 3 inches,
runs along the wall at a height of 24 feet from the floor, and into
this the staples are driven, through which the halter-ropes are
allowed to play. The small hods, or troughs, holding about
14 gallon each, are likewise fixed immediately under it. At the
height of 34 feet is the hayrack ; one of the common iron semi-
¢ircular fashion is probably the cleanest and best, one answering
for each pair of calves,

So much for the calf-house. But there is yet another point
worthy of attention before coming to deal with the young animal
itself. The health and condition of the cow before calving
greatly influence subsequent results. A late-milked, lean,
raking, ill-cared-for beast has oftentimes an easier parturition
than those that are better furnished in these respects. But her
after seul beanies has a tale to tell of neglect somewhere ; and the
scraggy, “set” condition of the calf throughout its after course,
often arises more from this cause than from any other. Hence,
we would say, dry the cow a fair time before calving, and see that
she has something better than barley-straw to live on, else the calf
and its owner will assuredly lose by it. But what is regarded as
a fair amount of time for being dry? If a cow brinss her first
calf when from two to three years old—which the majority pro-
bably do, though all will admit that it is too early—we should
not care to milk her more than five or six months after calving.
By this means she will grow and increase in size and value
before her second calf. But a cow from the fourth to the eighth
year, if in good condition, need not be dry more than six weeks
or two months before calving; i.e. if fed with a thoroughly
liberal hand throughout the year. If more sparingly fed, or if
the cow exceeds the latter age, then we should prefer her being
dry three months before calving. But, of course, there are
exceptions to be met with, which cannot come under any general
rule, such as the case of fiose animals whose flow of milk is so
strong as to continue almost up to the time when the new lacteal
secretion commences, It saves’ occasional trouble and annoy-
ance, and is more satisfactory in every way, to have a clearly
made out list of the dates of calving and other particulars hung
up in the cowhouse, and accessible to the cowman as well as
to the owner. The following form will meet the majority of
cases :—

Rearing of Calves.

No. in
No. | Name. Age. Breed. Private | Served by. Will Calve.
| Herdbook. |
i Strawberry .. 7 | Short-horn 84 Sir Colin .. | January 21.
2 Myrtle.. 5 | Ditto 106 Ditto March 4.
3 | Duchess 12 | Ditto 29 Ditto .. | February 17.
4 | Verbena 4 | Cross .. sé Vanguard November 4.
5 | Snowdrop 6 | Alderney .. Ditto December 11.

A great deal has been said, by writers on the subject, about the
season of the year when young calves should begin to arrive.
No doubt it is better, as a general rule, to have the calves well
forward and ready for early grass, by which means they are so
strong as to require considerably less attention the following
winter. But near a town, where a winter dairy is an object, or
on the establishment of a nobleman or gentleman, where a supply
of milk is as indispensable in winter as at any other. time, the
period of calving will, of course, be greatly modified ; or, more
correctly speaking, there will be a sort of duplicate calvying-time,
extending from October till June. And we know of no reason
why good calves should not come under the same law which the
Cheshire farmer laid down for the application of dung to the
grass-land. “Put it on all the year round,” said he; and we
would say, “ Rear calves whenever you have them;” ze. if they
are worth rearing. If you do not consider them worth rearing,
better to sell them at once at a nominal price ; even such an one
as we met with in Renfrewshire last year, where a contract was
made by a dairyman to deliver 100 bull-calves, at 6s. 9d. per
head, the buyer removing them on the day of their birth. Not
that we think taking the calf so early from the cow is by any
means a humane practice; nor yet that we should prefer cutlets
from such veal, although retailed by local butchers and grocers
at the low rate of 2d. per lb, From the circumstance named, an
Ayrshire steer is unknown.

We do not intend collating the pros and cons as to whether
suckling from the cow, or feeding from the pail, is most desirable
in the generality of cases. After a pretty full trial both ways
(although our predilections were in favour of the former as most
natural and most manageable), we have been forced to the belief
that the latter is the preferable course for the farmer, and for the
country at large. In the first place, you can, by an ample allow-
ance, make quite as precocious a development, if that is the
object, as by allowing the calf to suck the best cow that can be
met with. Then you have the satisfaction of knowing exactly
what quantity of milk is consumed, when you give a stated

Rearing of Calves. 139

allowance from the pail. You can also the sooner reduce the
quality of the rations, by addition or substitution of other food, so
as to increase the number of the stock; and, in a general way,
the calf learns the sooner to shift for itself. It is certainly a
matter of occasional convenience to let a pair of calves run with
a cow which is intended for a barrener, and, after weaning, then
to fatten the nurse. But, if done as a general practice, it so far
retards the bullings of the cows as to defeat the annual arrange-
ment for a certain number of calves at a particular season.
Where suckling from the cow is the rule, five calves may be
moderately well brought up by an average cow; two and two in -
succession, and a single calf to finish off with.

But, under any circumstances, we consider it desirable to allow
the calf to remain with its dam for the first three or four days after
calving.* It is undoubtedly the most natural way, and there are
several advantages connected with it. Youatt expresses himself
very truthfully when he says, “It is a cruel thing to separate the
mother from the young so soon; the cow will pine, and will be
deprived of that medicine which nature designed for her, in that
moisture which hangs about the calf, and even in the placenta
itself ; and the calf will lose that gentle friction and motion which
helps to give it the immediate use of all its limbs, and which, in
the language of Mr. Berry, ‘increases the languid circulation of
the blood, and produces a genial warmth in the half-exhausted
and chilled little animal.’” He further says, and we are glad to
quote from so high an authority, “In whatever manner the calf
is afterwards to be reared, it should remain with the mother for
a few days after it is dropped, and until the milk can be used in
the dairy. The little animal will thus derive the benefit of the
first milk, that to which nature has given an aperient property, in
order that the black and glutinous faces which had been accumu-
lating in the intestines during the later months of the feetal state
might be carried off.” Moreover, the cow’s udder becomes more
soft and pliant than it would otherwise be, by the calf being
allowed to suck for a time. In the case of young cows espe-
cially—the udders of which are generally hard—it is often ad-
visable to allow the calf to suck for a couple of weeks. The
whole of the milk need not be consumed by the calf, but a
portion drawn into the pail before it is allowed the teat. Thus
a double purpose is served ; the calf gets the richest (the last) of
the milk, and the udder is softened the more by its efforts to
obtain what it requires.

Not much trouble is generally experienced in getting the calf
to take to the pail. We find it better to miss the evening’s meal,
and next morning a very little attention induces the majority of

* This is questionable. See p. 147.—P. H. F.

140 Rearing of Calves.

them to partake of what is set before them. At most, the guidance
of the fingers may be wanted for the first meal or two.

As regards the quantity of milk which is needful to keep a
moder rately bred short-horn calf in a thriving ‘condition, we have
found the following allowance to come pretty near fhe mark,
although the appetite of calves varies, both in individuals and at
dierent times with the same animal :—

Ist week with the dam ; or 4 quarts per day, at two meals,
2nd to 4th week, 5 to 6 quarts per day, at two meals,
4th to 6th week, 6 to 7 quarts ditto ditto.

And the quantity need not, during the ensuing six weeks (after
which it is weaned), eel a couple of gallons per day. This
implies that the calf is fed upon new milk only, and that no
other feeding Liquids are employed, But, in addition to the aboye,
the calf mall towards the fourth week, heen to eat a little green
hay ; and, in a week or two later, some feed roots, or meal, or
finely emrehed cake, mixed with “hay-chaff; and, if really good,
creditable beasts are wanted—such as will realize 251. a-head from
the butcher when turned two and a half years old—a little cake or
meal in their early days will be found a desirable investment.
In fact, we doubt not but one pound of cake per day to the calf
will make as much flesh as triple the quantity of cake at any
period of after life. As regards meal, if that is given with the
chaff, we prefer oatmeal, or barley-meal, or wheaten flour, but not
the meal of beans or peas, Others may see it differently, but we
believe beans to be too heating for any class of young stock, For
roots, the best we know of is the carrot, grated and mixed with
the chaff or sliced thin with a knife and given alone. It is also,
of all roots, the one which we find them anne fond of, and which
they will most readily take to, As soon as they can eat hen freely,
an immediate reduction in the supply of milk may be made,

In most articles it holds good in the end that “ the best is the
cheapest.” So with the rearing of calves; the best class of food,
or that above referred to, is found to give the greatest ultimate
satisfaction, But practically the question often is, how to rear
good calves with comparatively little new milk, a condition
which circumstances often render almost imperative ; for where
dairy produce, in any other form, is the chief object, the calves
stand in a secondary position, and are treated accordingly.
But let us ask whether you cannot rear good stock under such
circumstances also? We believe that this may be, and often
is done. We manage to turn out from twenty-five to thirty
calves annually—such as will pass muster anywhere—and never
use at any one time more than six gallons of new milk daily.
For this purpose, as well as to obtain a regular supply of milk

Rearing of Calves. 141

for other purposes, the calves are allowed to come at different
periods, extending from October to May. Hence the calf-
house previously described has generally a succession of occu-
pants throughout the season; and as one lot are ready to be
removed, and placed loose in a small hovel, with yard attached,
others fill their places. We begin with new milk from the pail,
which is continued for a fortnight after leaving the cow. Then
skim-milk—boiled, and allowed to cool to the natural warmth—
is substituted to the extent of one-third of the allowance. In
another week the new milk is reduced to half, and at the same
time, not before, boiled linseed is added to the mess.* As soon as
they take freely to this food, the new milk may be replaced with
that from the dairy, and the calf is encouraged to indulge in a few
sliced carrots and the other dry foods named, Among the multi-
tude of substitutes for milk that have at different times been re-
commended, we have found nothing better than those previously
referred to.t It is true we have omitted any allusion to the
“Trish moss,” which calves seem to relish well, though it does
not prove of a fattening nature. For the lot of calves named, a
couple of hundredweight of this article is found a desirable addi-
tion, and lasts throughout the season.

In rearing calves after this fashion, success greatly depends on
attention to a few minute details. Not that a list of rations
should be given for different sizes, ages, &c., but the attention,
care, skill, and labour needed thus to make good calves, are far
greater than when either suckling from the cow, or feeding
with a liberal supply of new milk from the pail, is the system
adopted. For instance, even in the matter of giving their food,
a wide difference will be seen in the appearance of two calves,
the one fed by a careful, painstaking hand, the other allowed to
gulp down its milk without time for.admixture with the saliva.
This is a very important matter, and one on which success or
failure very frequently depends. The nearer the process of feeding
is approximated to the slow, but beneficial, act of sucking, the
better. Those calves which are in the habit of drinking much
too fast are generally detected by a glance at their ‘‘ paunchy”

* Five pounds of linseed will make about seven gallons of gruel, and suffice for
five good-sized calves; considerable allowance must, however, be made for differ-
ences of quality in the linseed, that from India not being gelatinous enough, and
therefore boiling hard, instead of “ coming down kindly.”

+ A gentleman on the borders of Leicestershire, who has been in the habit of
rearing largely, economically, and well, writes us that “he has tried many
substitutes for milk, such as hay-tea, oileake gruel, Irish moss, oatmeal, &c., but
has come to the conclusion, after considerable experience, that nothing is so
Suitable as milk.” Another gentleman, who is one of the most successful mana-
gers we know of, gives it as his experience, that ‘‘the best substitute is linseed
and wheat ground to meal (2 bush. of linseed to 1 bush. of wheat), boiled fo gruel
of a moderate thickness, and then mixed with an equal quantity of skimmed milk,

142 Rearing of Calves.

condition. We have treated such customers successfully by
putting on a small leather nose-bag at sites wriai: the bottom
being perforated with a couple of holes, each .;*.ths of an inch in
diameter.

Again, care must be taken to have the calf well bedded at least
twice daily, wheat-straw, shortened, being the best litter for the
purpose ; attention to this point will tend, as much as anything,
to keep the animal in good health. No vermin must be allowed
to obtain a lodgment ; how often is it the case that the entire
welldoing of a calc Me from the presence of lice on the
head or neck, the top of the shoulder, or towards the rump! If
in a continual state of irritation, its thriving can scarcely be
looked for. We are not aware that the appearance of these
parasites is attributable to any peculiarity in management;
Calves in good condition, calves in the highest condition, as
well as those of a contrary character, are alike subject to clacoee
A dressing of sour buttermilk, well brushed into the skin, is
called for without delay, or the usual application of stavesacre,
soda, and soft soap, if the former is ineffectual.

1A the case of any other ailment that calfhood is liable to, we
have found ‘* Day’s Gaseous }'luid” an amply sufficient resource.
Since using it we have not lost a single calf, neither can we refer
to a calf having had any attack of “scouring which continued a
couple of hours, nor to one instance of the succeeding meal being
refused, however much may have been the loss of appetite
previously.* Probatum est.

* This complaint (diarrhcea) is one of the most troublesome with which the
calf-breeder has to deal. Again and again inquiries are inserted in the agri-
cultural papers asking information on the subject, and the replies are as varied
as the queries are uniform. Take a recent case, from the columns of ‘ Bell’s
Weekly Messenger,’ where “An Old Subscriber” says,—‘‘ I have adopted all the
means veterinary skill can suggest, but with no good result. Some of my calves
begin to scour when not more than 24 hours old, and some from a week to 10 days.
They live wholly on new milk, always sucking from the cows. My cows have
been living on hay cut into chaff, mixed with pulped mangold, at the rate of half
a bushel per cow per day, and 2 Ibs. of oileake and 2 lbs. of meal. The cows have
had no grass till this day. I lose about half my calves from this scouring. Any
information will be thankfully received.” One reply recommends the inquirer
to ‘* see that the cow be well milked before he allows the calf to suck, giving it
a tablespoonful of castor oil, in new milk taken from a cow that has been calved
some time. The first milk is too rich for the calf. I formerly lost several calves
from the same complaint, but never one since I adopted this plan.” Another says,
“Try a teacupful of rennet for the scour in calves, given just before they begin
to suck, or a strong infusion of bramble-leaves. Dry the leaves in a cool oven,
rub them down, and infuse for 15 minutes.” And again:—“If ‘An Old Sub-
scriber’ will give his calves that scour (according to age and strength of the
animal) from one-third to one-half of one of Cupiss’s Constitution Horse and
Cattle Balls, broken sufficiently fine to be given in cold gruel or water, he will
find the medicine a remedy, and otherwise beneficial. It may be repeated, if
necessary. In hot weather it will be necessary to put the ball into cold water a
few minutes, or it will not break for mixing.” A fourth says:—“I should recom-

Rearing of Calves. 143

- Castration is generally performed when the calf is from three
to six weeks old. The former of these ages we consider pre-

mend him not to let his calves have more than three pints of milk per day for the
first four days, and not more than four pints until they are a month old. I wean
from 30 to 40 every year, and never lose one from scouring. If they show the
least symptom of scouring I always give Day’s Gaseous Fluid, which is a
certain cure if taken in time.” While the next says, “If ‘An Old Subscriber’
will discontinue feeding his cows on the mangolds, and give his calves one table-
spoonful of bruised grains of Paradise and one tablespoonful of starch simmered
in a quart of new milk, and repeat it two or three times if necessary, I have no
doubt the effect will be satisfactory.” Another gentleman recommends food
rather than medicine to be looked to:—*I would advise to double the quantity
of cake and meal given to the cows, and withhold the mangold ; on no occasion
should this root be given to cows suckling young calves.” ‘ An Old Dairymaid,’
also, ‘who superintends the rearing of about 50 valuable calves yearly, seldom
losing one of them, wishes to give ‘An Old Subscriber’ advice how to prevent
scour in calves. As soon, then, as the calf is born she recommends about a pint
or a pint and half of beastings from the dam to be given to it, by means of a small
horn, out of which the calf will usually suck it. All the remaining beastings
which can be milked from the cow should be drawn from her, as she will naturally
retain quite enough, and often more than sufficient, for the support of her offspring.
As soon as the calf is strong enough to stand, it should be induced to suck, taking
care that as small a quantity as possible be left in the bag. ‘An Old Subseriber’
should treat the animals the reverse of what he does, viz., the calves should not
be allowed their fill of milk till they are at least a week old; but should scouring
take place about the time named, which is not at all unusual even with this
treatment, it will make them disinclined to move about and to seek for the teat,
and they are, no doubt, often lost for the want of a little milk being given to
them. If, however, the scouring continues, about three large tablespoonfuls of
linseed-oil should be administered, and, if this does not have the desired effect,
give milk from another cow, but by no means use drugs of any kind, as ‘ An Old
Dairymaid’ considers the best remedy is good nursing, and that want of proper
attention to them while so very young is often the cause of scour in calves.”

We may be excused adding to the length of this note by giving the reply which
we penned in answer to the same inquiry :—

“ Remedies for the above ailment are often local and empirical; it is far better
to treat it constitutionally, In short, ‘remove the cause, and the effect will
cease. But unfortunately several details are wanting from which to form a
judgment, or make a profitable suggestion. Diarrhcea in calves may, and often
does, arise from very diverse and frequently what may be called trivial causes ;
these causes, as operating on the little animal, are either external or internal.
If the former, we should be disposed closely to examine the feeding of the cows,
and to put a few queries respecting the same. For instance—Are the mangolds
carefully cleaned? Adhering soil tends to scour the cows in a moderate degree,
and of course the action is much more serious on the calf. It so happens that the
complaint from which ‘An Old Subscriber’ suffers has this season been parti-
eularly prevalent, from the very fact indicated. The small mangold-roots of
1860 have been much more difficult to clean, and have consequently carried more
soil with them to the feeding-troughs than in the average of seasons. Their use
should cease entirely with those cows that are suckling, unless this has been
already done.

“Again: Is the cake a genuine article? How has it affected the fatting beasts ?
Is there no irritant contained in it? And what kind of meal is referred to—that
of barley or beans? We should very heartily urge the use of the latter in pre-
ference to the former for nursing cows.

“Again: Do the calves suck their own mothers? A mistake is often com-
mitted in putting a young calf to a cow which has been some months in milk.
This should not be done before the calf is a fortnight old, and even then with
much caution,

* As to external causes of diarrhcea, a close, ill-ventilated, dirty, or damp calf-

144 Rearing of Calves.

ferable ; it is at all times a safe practice to fast them at the time
for the preceding meal.

As spring advances, the supply of roots to the calves will
necessarily be greater, according to their increasing age and
ability to masticate. But it is noways desirable or economia
to send them out to grass very early in the season, Last year we
saw, on many farms along the line of the Central and North-
eastern Railways in Scotland, lots of puny, half-starved calves
crouching on the lee-side of the fence, while the Grampians yet
retained a full share of their wintry mantle, and the streams
running seawards were flooded with the melting snow. This
was in the early part of May, and we cannot profess to have
fallen in love with the practice, though probably the unex-
ampled scarcity of food in the north Leet something to do with
it. Better far to spend a few pounds in artificial foot! than to
push the young stock out into the fields prematurely, ‘And you
will do well to begin by giving them only a few hours afield
during the day, bringing eat in again at night to their pound
of cake, with a bit of ( hay) Chat tacehe alee ones, and the mess
of ee milk and linseed gruel for the younger stock.

If arrangements can be peace for summer grazing the calves in
a park, such as is usually found about a atifeltazastes place, they
will do far better there than anywhere else. What with shelter,
food, and water—the former alike from the biting blast, the
scorching sun, and the tormenting flies; the latter not only to
drink of, but to splash about in the running stream—we say there

house may be reckoned the chief. The owner would do well to have the house
carefully examined—wash it out, and then try the floor with a pocket-level. If
the fall is less than an inch to the yard, the bricklayer must be had to remedy
the defect. Calves void a large quantity of urine in proportion to their size, and
ample provision must be made for carrying it off freely. Let them also be well
littered down twice a-day with wheat-straw, the boltens cut through the middle,
and the straw shaken up together. Encourage them to eat a little sweet green
hay from a rack before them, and also a few sliced roots, as soon as they will
take to them,

“But for immediate action, if the scourge still, continues, Watch the pre-
monitory symptoms, viz. feverishness and refusal of food. Remove the affected
animal to a warm place, and tie a cloth over the body, which will tend to keep
up the vital powers, Give a dose of 2 ozs. of castor oil, with half a teaspoonful of
ground ginger, and a whisked egg. This will remove the offending or irritating
matter ; and then follow up with the free use of ‘Day’s Gaseous Fluid,’ according
to directions on the bottle. Or if castor oil is not at hand, give about 3 ozs. of
common salt, in a little wheaten flour gruel, And if the bowels still continue
relaxed, and the evacuations too watery, the calf must be drenched twice a-day
with well-boiled and thickened wheaten gruel. But do not continue its use
longer than is needful. It is well that nature be allowed to help herself a little.
Before returning the animal to the calf-house, let the house be well flushed out,
and washed down with water containing an ounce to the gallon of chloride of
lime. This will remove any offensive taint or smell—a precaution very essential
for the well-being of calves. In conclusion, be not persuaded to employ strong
astringent medicines ; and do not rest satisfied with rearing less than every calf
which is in a sound healthy condition at birth.”

———

Rearing of Calves. 145

is more in these old-fashioned matters than you may care to
recognise. As Mr. Bowie, of Forfarshire, a noted breeder of
polled cattle, remarked when we happened to see his young stock
last summer, ‘* That,” said he, “is the life of them,” pointing at
the same time to the burn or brook which ran along the bottom
of the field, and in which the calves were standing, and swishing
their tails, under a broiling sunshine. Among calves reared in
the manner we have named, blood-striking, or quarter-ill, is
hardly known. Werhave only had one case out of 150 calves so
treated, and that was attended by special circumstances, which
readily accounted for the illness as exceptional. Not that we
should advocate putting them into a park which is so filled with
taken-in stock as to cause a risk of semi-starvation, Better in
such a case to keep them at home, and graze them on a piece of
old turf, or second year’s “seeds,” or something of the kind.
But there are certainly many parks (or enclosures adjacent to
them) where an arrangement of the kind could be readily made ;
and, even if not pretty close at hand, the facility of railway com-
munication partially nullifies a distance of 20 or 30 miles.*
Many of the west of Scotland farmers send their young stock, for
summer keep, across the Clyde, to the green-topped hills beyond,
wisely reckoning that their own grazings pay better in the shape
of milk, butter, or cheese, for fhe teeming population near at
hand, "But, fom a “penny wise and pound foolish” sort of
policy, which forbids their bestowing more than the smallest
modicum of care, attention, or expense upon their stock until
they are of an age to enter the dairy, the summer seems to do but
little for them.

Kept thus, calves ought not to cost their owner much
trouble or expense during the first summer of their existence ;
2.e., when they have fairly said good-bye to the pail or the feeding
trough. In October, however, they must not be forgotten, but
according to the mildness or severity of the season either have
their range prolonged, or be brought to the homestead. Re-
ceiving yard shelter at night, and a dry feed into the bargain, they
May roam in any convenient pasture during the day. ia uote
month the horns may be branded with an inch brand, and the
numbers entered in the private herd-book. Every farmer who
rears stock, of even the most moderate quality, ought to keep

* This resource would be valuable and obvious but for the danger of chill and
contagion at present incurred; whilst long delays before starting, perhaps in
tainted pens, and rapid passage ‘through the raw night-air, have to be encountered,
owners of well-bred stock will probably prefer driving 20 or even 50 miles to
railroad risks.—P. H. F.

+ The summer grazing (6 months) of a 2 years-old heifer is charged 32s. 6d. ;
1 year-old, 21s. 4d.; and calves in proportion.

VOL, XXII. L

146 Rearing of Calves.

such a list. You have then, among other advantages, the oppor-
tunity of seeing which cow’s calves are, or are not, worth keeping
in the ensuing season. You know the exact age, the sire and
dam, and other particulars, which are as important to the owner,
as the entries of Mr, Strafford are to the higher breeders of pure
stock,

Stoneleigh Abbey Farm, Kenilworth,

VIUL— On the Rearing of Calves. By Major 8. McCurnrocx..

TueEse observations are offered to advocate the abandonment of
the old system of rearing calves, for one which shall insure a
uicker return, and therefore greater profit to the farmer—a
change which the condition of our stock and meat markets, the
state of our root-crops, the rising prices of dairy produce, and
the sounder views of economy now prevailing, unite in en-
forcing.

Let us first cast a glance at what may be called the “old
system,” or that according to which calves are kept on as little
as will maintain them alive, turned out by day in all weathers,
indifferently housed, at night, receiving a scanty supply of milk,
and that perhaps skimmed, so that to the pasture the calf must
then look for food all the day—the half of which is spent by the
unfortunate and neglected animal standing gazing and shivering
at a gate, in anxious expectation of the herdsman to drive him
to his hovel. What is the appearance of this animal? Do
not his lean, ridgy back, his bare points, staring coat, and dis-
tended belly, show his pitiable condition? And whence this
last feature? When the calf, with a keen appetite, leaves the
hovel, supposing he has the benefit: of much cover, and proceeds
to'“blow himself out” ‘with grass, like a half-starved: Caffre
revelling on the carcase of an eland, the result will in either case
be a distended abdomen, showing clearly the imprudence of
““the large and seldom” mode of feeding as compared with that
of little and often.

The calf, of all the animals on which the farmer is dependent,
certainly fares the worst, and to him “fair play” is too often
unknown. Yet, however great the value of milk may be to man
for other objects, it must surely be unwise to rob the calf as
much as is frequently done; let him not be denied pure good

milk for a time, and only as he gains strength let other food be

substituted.

As soon as the calf is dropped ‘nature prompts the cow to —

Rearing of Calves. 147

lick her offspring, and I am disposed to allow her to do so, feel-
ing satisfied it is a vivifying process, very beneficial to the calf,
and under which it seems to be really at times endued with life
itself, besides cleansing the skin from the viscous matter by
which it is overspread; the mother also is benefited by this
operation, obtaining thus a medicine suited to her present situa-
tion—one which nature designed for her.

lam aware it is sometimes the practice to take the calf at
once from the cow, in order to prevent her from knowing and
becoming attached to it, and thereby guarding her against
fretting, which would not only interfere with her proper yield
of milk, but aggravate the fever which already pervades the
system; in this case it becomes necessary to rub the calf with
cloths and wisps until it is dry and clean. It may indeed in
certain cases be desirable to remove the calf at once, as some
cows, and especially those with their first calf, plainly show an
inclination to injure it. But, as a rule, it is better to allow the
cow to lick the calf, and so much importance do some ‘breeders
attach to this operation, that, when the mother shows a disin-
clination to perform the office, salt and meal are sprinkled on the
body to tempt her to so.

Supposing the operation of licking or rubbing to have been
duly performed, the calf should be left quiet for some time in a
place by itself, and beyond the mother’s hearing, when she will
very soon forget it, as it is doubtless desirable that she should do.

The following reasons may briefly be assigned for giving the
preference to rearing by hand rather than allowing the calf to
“run” with the mother, in spite of the advantages which the
natural process has in promoting the secretion of saliva, and thus
‘aiding the organs of digestion. When a cow is allowed to suckle
her calf, she will not give her milk to the hand during the time
the calf is ‘on her,” and seldom so kindly ever after ; neither,
when he is removed after a few weeks, will she readily suffer a
nursling to be foisted on her. If the cow falls ill it will then be
too late to endeavour to-substitute the pail for the mother, and
in all probability the calf, if reared at all, will prove an unthrifty,
unpaying animal; again, if a cow bring up two calves at once,
the fastest sucker will have an undue share of the milk; lastly,
rearing by hand is the most economical method as guardin
against all irregularity or failure in the supply of food, which
may be regulated to suit the object in view—diluted, mixed,
Increased, or decreased, according to the age of the animal, so
as both to promote growth and make the process of weaning
almost unfelt.

‘ The cow herself should never be hurried or overdriven, as any
Increase in the ordinary respiration produces a heat in the milk

pis 2

148 Rearing of Calves.

which takes from its excellence. Respiration is a species of
combustion ; at every breath we inhale oxygen from the atmos-
phere, which unites with and consumes the fatty matter in the
food. Cows when overdriven or worried breathe more fre-
quently, inhale more oxygen, and consequently more of the
buttery portion of their food is consumed, leaving less to impart
richness to the milk. On this account, in very hot weather, it
is well to house cows by day, thus relieving them from the irritat-
ing attacks of flies, and to turn them out at night; on the other
hand, it is well known to experienced dairymen that their cows
yield more milk in warm, pleasant weather when they have the
run of a sheltered pasture, than on a bleak field in cold, rainy
days—a difference which the same theory of respiration equally
accounts for.

The old, and | trust almost exploded, system of giving medicine
to the calf, in order to cause it to expel the first glutinous faces
(or meconium ), is so contrary to nature that it must be censured,
The delicate intestines of a newly-born calf are not prepared for
castor-oil or spirits. Let its own mother’s first milk, colostrum,
or beistyn, be given two or three hours after birth; it is nature’s
medicine, unfit for human use, but prepared with a wisdom be-
yond ours to meet the.requirements of the newly-born calf. This

“colostrum” appears at every delivery, and from its peculiar
nature produces a purgative action, and causes the ‘‘ meconium ’”
to be voided, which, for some time before birth, has been form-
ing in the intestines of the calf.

We have heard of an egg-shell filled with spirits being put
down, the unfortunate animal’s throat—the spirits to invigorates
and the egg-shell to clear the way and lubricate the passage to
the stomach. Some give the egg, yolk, white, shell and all;
and in Ireland, that panacea of all Hibernian woes—whisky—
is thought to be the “elixir of life” for calves, though it must
be said that the sister kingdom of England has its breeders, and
some of celebrity, who do not fail to administer the glass of
spirits in every case where a calf is born.

By thus early overtaxing the stomach and thwarting nature
in its well-ordered course, the seeds of delicacy are surely sown,
Medicine should not be tolerated until there is actual cause for
its use, and then let it be administered by some one who can not
only judge of the disease, but suggest a remedy to meet it. I
hold it to be a great mistake to overload the stomach of a newly-
dropped calf; so I consider the “ beistyn” should be given in
small quantities at a time, and, in the case of a healthy “calf not
until it has strength to stand, as it is clear it could not suck its
mother until it had so far progressed.

Should any apprehension be felt respecting the inactivity of a

Rearing of Calves. 149

calf’s bowels, or tardiness in expulsion of the meconium, the
simple mode of inserting a piece of common soap, from te to
three inches in length by half an inch in diameter, in the anus,
and then rubbing the part briskly with the hand, in nine cases out
of ten will cause a proper evacuation. I have so very often seen
this plain and harmless treatment successfully applied, that I in-
variably adopt it, and with the greatest confidence recommend it
from its simplicity and efficacy.

The colostrum, or beistyn, more commonly called ‘ beastings,”’
sometimes continues so long as to be of serious injury to the calf,
but this is chiefly caused by feeding the cow too highly after
calving.

The milk given to the calf should not be suffered to become
cold, and by the assistance of the herdsman’s fingers (which the
calf will eagerly suck) as much may be taken up as required.
Some calves will learn to suck by the aid of the fingers in a day.
The palm of the hand is placed over the nose, with the fore-arm
against the face; the middle finger is inserted in the mouth of
the calf, while the other fingers retain the head in the proper
position. With the other hand the vessel is held, which at first
should be somewhat raised, and not allowed to rest on the ground
—that being an unnatural position, and different from the one
the calf would be in if allowed to suck its mother. In this we
shall be only adopting in the calf-house the same amendment
which has already made its way into the stable, where the hay-
rack is no longer fixed in a manner rather suited to the giraffe
than the grass-cropping horse.

The milk should at first be given in small quantities, say three
pints every four or five hours, till the calf gain strength, when it
may be increased gradually to as many quarts. Of this increase
the herdsman alone can be the judge—a practised eye at a glance
sees anything wrong. ‘There is no animal in which disease is more
easily detected than the calf. In health he sleeps quietly or is
full-of play; in sickness he is dull, and from the action of the
flanks, distaste for food, sharp champing of the teeth, cough, or
other symptoms, it is clear he is amiss.

There is considerable danger to calves from taking up straws
and swallowing them before their powers of digestion are able to
master such food. I have seen valuable animals lost by this,
and, on being examined after death, a mass of undigested straw
has been found incarcerated in the stomach. In order to guard
against such occurrences, a muzzle should be kept on the calf
until after it has been perceived to ‘‘ chew the cud.” The muzzle
may be made of wire or leather, simply cup-shaped, with a band
sewn at each side to buckle behind the ears. It is usual for the

150 Rearing of Calves.

calf to begin to chew the cud in ten days, when the muzzle may
be removed,

Much injury has been caused to calves housed together, from
sucking each other, as they frequently take hold of the navel-
string, a part of great delicacy in a newly-dropped calf.

The passage of the urine is also very important. | have seen
calves appearing heavy and dull, lying down and panting, and
to an observing eye evidently ‘“ wrong.” The herdsman satisfies
himself that the bowels are regular, but he cannot be so sure of
the urine. I have observed him get the calf up, stand immedi-
ately behind it, and rub its sides vigorously with both hands at
the same time, then gently manipulate the sheath, when pre-
sently the water flows copiously, and the animal is at once
relieved. Now here are cases which perhaps, were they neg-
lected, might become formidable and require the drenches of
the cow-leech, and they are combated most successfully by the
simplest means.

It is important that the calf should be fed from the milk of
the same cow daily ; a very little attention will ensure this, if the
cows are milked and the calves fed in the same order. Any
sudden change of food is injurious, as the least sourness in the
stomach causes ‘ scour ”—one of the worst evils calves are liable
to. On first observing it, a diminution in the quantity of milk
may check the disease, which not unfrequently arises from the
stomach being overtaxed.

In rearing calves our object must be to combine efficiency
with economy, and to realise profit from the dairy without rob-
bing or stinting the calf. We follow nature for a while, but are
forced into another course ere long. We begin with pure
“ mother’s milk,” but in a fortnight a change must come. Milk
is too valuable to be continued in its pure and neat condition,
and a slight, very slight, change is introduced, consisting in the
substitution of oil-cake gruel for a portion of the milk. This
gruel is prepared in the following proportion,—one quart of
cake (ground fine) to four of water. ‘This pulverised cake is put
into a bucket, and the water, boiling, poured on it. It is allowed
to stand about eight hours, being occasionally stirred. My prac-
tice is to begin, when the calf is about a fortnight old, to add a
very little of the gruel to the milk, and to increase the quantity
by slow degrees, with a decreasing allowance of milk, until at
weaning time the former has gradually taken the place of the
latter. But when a large quantity of gruel is given, its potency
must be lessened to guard against purging; and it will be
desirable to add to every two quarts of the gruel as above men-
tioned one quart of .water.

Rearing of Calves. 151

In employing an artificial substitute for milk, the following
principles should guide our choice :—

1st. The nearer we are to nature the better, and the food which
most resembles milk must be the best for Gals es.

2ndly. Care must be taken that the food be not too rich for
the young animal.

3rdly. Growth and development of the frame must be pro-
vided for, to which end the food should contain an ample supply
of phosphates.

Oilcake gruel seems to fulfil these conditions, being less rich,
and containing a larger percentage in phosphates, than the pure
linseed. We eee it is true, from Mr. Cuthbert Johnston’s excel-
lent book, ‘ The Modem Dairy and Cow Keeper,’ that “ the
only kind of food in which casein exists is that derived from
leguminous plants, such as beans, peas, and lentils. When bean-
flour is softened and ground up with water, and the infusion
passed through a sieve, the water is found to contain casein, fat
(butter), and starch, The latter deposits by standing, and the
infusion has now all the character of skimmed milk, as in fact,
with the exception of sugar of milk and butter, it A precisely
identical with it. The addition of some fatty and gummy matter
(as an infusion of linseed-cake) would more nearly approximate
it to the composition of ordinary milk; and it is well worthy of
remark that in several districts in England, and in many of Scot-
land, pea or bean soup is very frequently ¢ given to young calves.”

a spite of this resemblance between aaa and bean or pea
soup, I confess to giving a preference to oilcake, partly because
I have no trouble in procuring it, whereas in some seasons I have
failed altogether in securing a supply of beans or peas, from the
uncertainty of those crops in my neighbourhood,

Though doubtless much may be Tecanad from the practice of
owmers. of shorthorns who exhibit at our agricultural shows, I
fear we should bid adieu to profit if we adopted their mode of
calf-feeding. Iam satisfied no yearling calf is put into a show-
yard for competition at a less cost than 20/. The fat must be
put on ‘‘ regardless of expense ;’ a lean calf has not a chance of
gaining a premium ; and though I cannot defend the system of
“fat at any price,” still, judges must not be condemned who
Pass over a lean animal with a good shape. Early maturity and
great thrift are characteristics of true shorthorns; and I must
confess I should suspect delicacy when I did not at a show see
ripe condition.

A good feeder is invaluable to an exhibitor: the ignorant
herdsman thinks quantity is the object; the judicious feeder
is ever on the watch, adopting the ‘little and often system,”
changing the food by degrees, and correcting any loosening

152 Rearing of Calves.

effect which one kind of substance may have by the sub-
stitution of another. He never puts an animal up that is
lying, as he knows it is “‘ doing” as much when at perfect rest
as if it had its head in a bucket of milk; quietness and gentle-
ness follow all his movements, and the animals remain in that
peaceful, placid state, so conducive to their well-being. They
know ‘‘the times and seasons” as well as he does, and with
astonishing punctuality rise and expect their facil and the
herdsman is careful not to be behind time, knowing well that
* fretting causes wasting,” and, if the calves are suffered to bellow
and moan for their eae, the meat will not be “ put up”
rapidly as it ought. This part of the system might well be
more generally adopted, for kindness, quiet, and regularity cost
nothing.

No doubt some owners of shorthorns make this mode of
feeding pay, particularly those who have tribes of cattle of un-
doubted purity of blood and fashion, and have won themselves
names as breeders; but to the ordinary amateur it is an un-
profitable amusement, expensive and disappointing.

It is very difficult to lay down an exact rule for feeding calves,
as far as quantity is concerned; nor can a time be fixed for
weaning ; the appearance of forwardness in the animals being
the best rule to go by. However, as a general mode, supposing
S calf to be dropped in March, I would suggest that pure

‘‘mother’s milk” should be given for a fortnight, then by
degrees an admixture of the oilcake-gruel introduced and a
sufficient drink allowed at each meal, so as to remove alll hollow-
ness from the flank. In a few weeks six gallons will be taken by
the calf, and when the weather is fav cueble it should be allowed
to run in some well-sheltered place where the pasture is sweet.
In three months calves have an appetite for grass, and it is then
that the process of weaning should be begun. I never use
skimmed milk; and I gather from the experience I have had in
rearing calves, that pure milk and the oilcake-gruel is the most
felvelecone as well as the most profitable acces for calves.
Water-gruel, hay-tea, and linseed-jelly, may be all used, and
calves read on them; but the condition of those fed on the
cake-gruel and pure milk will well bear comparison with the
others. i

I would have the calves fed with milk and gruel at 6 o’clock
in the morning, or as soon after the cows are milked’as possible.
Then supposing them to have arrived at an age to be allowed to
run at pasture, I would defer their being driven out until an
hour or so after their first feed, so as to allow the process of
digestion to be somewhat advanced, as when healthy calves are
turned out they usually run and play about at first, which is by

Rearing of Calves. 1538

no means desirable immediately after being fed. Again, between
5 and 6 o’clock in the evening, I Would allow each the same
uantity as they had in the morning.

The calf-houses should be well supplied with rock-salt ; there

can be no second opinion as to its being a natural Savin to the
digestive organs, increasing the appetite ¢ ‘andl promoting the general
health We are informed by hunters of the attraction possessed by
salt-springs for wild animals ; nature doubtless prompting them
tg resort where salt is to be procured to correct the influences of
unwholesome matter. Chalk is frequently used as a preventive
to purging, and may, with advantage, be placed where the calves
have access to it. It is, besides an excellent ingredient in
all drinks given in dint Heed or scouring. The tendency to
purging is caused by acid, which the alkali mixing with it neu-
tralizes, and so checks disease. The animal suffering from
inconvenience is led to seek some corrective or palliative, and,
though seeming at times to pick up’ food unsuited to it, it is in
fact having recourse to simples placed within its venely: We
observe dogs eating grass, pigs rejoicing in cinders, and cattle
regaling themselves on grass with clay adhering to the roots;
nay, more, the cow has Gren been seen to pick up earth and eat
it, particularly when any indigestion is present ; and in the
account of the Wonderful Kintore Ox, given in Mr. Youatt’s
excellent work on the breeds, management, and diseases of cattle,
we find “ He had a lump i rock-salt in his manger, of which
he was particularly fond. <A basket of earth also stood by him,
of which he occasionally ate a considerable quantity, and which
operated as a gentle purgative. - The uneasiness caused by com-
mencing decomposition caused him to have recourse to the
mould, and the acid being met by the alkali was rendered
harmless.” I may here observe, that, for the sake of allowing the
cattle the corrective of the earth I object to washing turnips ;
the small quantity of mould adhering to them being more
advantageous than the contrary.

The practice of placing setons in the dewlap I consider an
excellent one, and the more the animal is forced or pampered the
more necessary it is. I have never had a case of quarter-ill or
blackleg, and am disposed to think the exemption from that
disease may be chiefly owing to the use of setons. In January
or February I usually have them inserted, passing them through
the loose skin of the chest, taking care not to place them lo
low down, which would cause ihe animal much inconvenience
when lying, as great soreness is felt for some days. The hair of
a cow’s tail twisted to the thickness of the finger, with a wooden
button at one end and a knot at the other, answers the purpose.
The seton should be smeared with Venice tur pentine, to cause it

154 Rearing of Calves.

to act quickly, and drawn from knot to button, or the reverse,
daily. Black hellebore is sometimes used as a seton, and it may
not be out of place to quote Mr. Youatt’s valuable opinions,
when writing on this subject :—“* The use of setons in practice
on the dacs of cattle is in a manner limited to the passing of
a piece of hair, rope, or of black hellebore-root through the dew-
Jap; and as exciting inflammation in the neighbourhood of the
diseased part, and thus lessening the original one, and causing ‘a
determination of blood to a greater or ex extent to this new seat
of irritation, they are useful eee in acute and chronic inflamma-
tion of the respiratory organs. In young cattle rapidly thriving
and placed in pasture perhaps a little too luxuriant, permanent
setons are highly beneficial; they act asa salutary drain, and
prevent that accumulation oe the circulating fluid whink is
the usual cause of inflammatory fever and other fatal com-
plaints.”

In conclusion, a few hints may be given for the treatment
of navel-ill,’ diarrheea, hoose or catarrh, and blackquarter, in
their incipient stages, although all serious cases involving the
necessity of operations or really scientific treatment call for the
presence of the veterinar y surgeon.

The examination of the navel-string of the newly-dropped
calf demands the first attention of the herdsman, who should not
be satisfied: if it present too raw an appearance, or blood be
dropping from it. Mr. Youatt advises “a ligature should be
passed close round it, but, if it can be avoided, not close to the
belly. Possibly the spot at which the division of the cord took
place may be more than usually sore. A pledget of tow, well
wetted with Friar’s balsam, should be placed over it, confined
with a bandage, and changed morning and night; but the caustic
applications that are so frequently resorted to should be avoided.
Fomentation in the part, in order to disperse the tumour, the
opening of it with a lancet if it evidently points, and the admi-
nistration of two or three ounce doses of castor oil, made into an
emulsion by means of an egg, will constitute the first treatment ;
but if, when the inflammation abates, extreme weakness should
come on, as is too often the case, gentian and laudanum, with
perhaps a small quantity of port wine, should be sdnuuicien ed.”

Next, Scouring.—So long as we observe the calf to be lively
and playful, taking its milk freely, we need not be alarmed by
thin evacuations, Most practitioners recommend a mild pur-
gative in the first instance to remove the acidity and irritation of
the bowels, after which the simple doses of from 4 0z. to ¢ oz. of
tincture of rhubarb with an equal quantity of water,

Calves well housed until at least two months old, and not
put to grass at too early an age, are seldom liable to scour which

Rearing of Calves. 155

can cause any uneasiness. My custom, on an appearance of
laxness, is to reduce the allowance of milk and keep the calf
warm and quiet. An astringent drink of starch 2 ozs., 1 drachm
of laudanum, 14 drachm of ginger, isalsorecommended. Should
it assume a threatening appearance, or the evacuations be white
and tinged with blood, 5 grains of sulphate of copper and two
of opium, given four times a day, will be found an excellent
remedy.

Mr. Francis Clater treats this disease very simply, and his
valuable book, ‘Every Man his own Cattle Doctor, is much
prized, and should be in the hands of all stock-masters, as it is
written in a style quite free from pedantry and professional
technicalities,

I have found the acrid nature of the feces to cause great irri-
tation and uneasiness about the anus; this is greatly relieved by
sponging with warm water and keeping the parts clean; too
much care cannot be taken, after a cure has been made, so to
regulate the diet as to guard against a new attack.

Hoose or Catarrh.—This disease, to which calves are very
liable, is most dangerous when neglected, and runs its course
with them even quicker than with grown cattle; it also suggests
a special reason for vigilance, because it occasionally becomes an
epidemic. It is very prevalent in early spring and in the “ fall,”
owing, doubtless, to the extremes of temperature experienced at
those seasons of the year. Even temperature in the houses,
proper ventilation, nourishing food, and a fair share of it, are
the best preventives; whereas, where there is cold, wet, and
insufficiency of provender, the disease is almost sure to be pre-
sent. The first time the herdsman hears a beast cough he should
stop and examine it closely ; the neglect may prove fatal to the
animal affected. Mr. Youatt’s advice cannot be too often re-
peated :—“ There is no disease of a chronic nature by which
cattle are so seriously injured, or which is ‘eventually so fatal to
them, as hoose ; yet not one herdsman in twenty, and very few of
those whose interest is more at stake, pay the slightest attention
to it. The cow may cough on from week to week, and no one
takes notice of it, until the quantity of milk is seriously decreas-
ing, or she is rapidly losing flesh, and then medical treatment is
generally unavailing. ‘The disease has now reached the chest,
the lungs are seriously affected, and the foundation is laid for
confirmed consumption.” And, again, how plainly and simply
does he point out the means of ascertaining the exact condition
of the animal, so that proper measures may be adopted for its
relief! ‘‘ Let her be taken up and examined. Does she feed as
well as ever? Does the dew stand upon her muzzle? Are her
flanks perfectly quiet? Then one or two nights’ housing, and a

156 Rearing of Calves.

mash or two, or a dose of physic, may set all right. But if, on
examination, the muzzle is a little dry, and the root of the horn
hot, and she heaves (although not much) at the flanks, and the
coat is not so sleek as usual, and she is a little off her feed, let
her be bled. Experience will teach the farmer that these chest
affections in cattle often and speedily assume a highly in-
flammable character, and that they must be conquered at first or
not at all.”

I have often found in the first stage of common catarrh or
cold a little nitre given at night 1 in asbran mash have an excellent
effect. This nitre, or nitrate of potash, is very useful and
effective in allaying inflammatory symptoms ; it also acts mildly
on the kidneys. Two drachms in a little bran would be sufficient
for an ordinary calf. It will be found to act on the skin, opening
the pores, and inducing perspiration. So, while an animal is
under its influence, great care must be taken to guard against
sudden chills, and, by careful housing, to assist the medicine in
its operation. If ite cough should not! - yield to a few doses of
this simple kind, we must ‘add tartar emetic and digitalis, both
most valuable neveines in cases where fever is present. A
most severe case of inflammation in a heifer of mine was a short
time since most successfully combated by the administration of
frequent but small doses of these medicines, without having
recourse to bleeding.

There are few things so annoying to cattle as lice. By their
attacks the skin is kept in such a constant state of irritation that
the animal can neither feed nor rest in peace, and it is hopeless
to expect improvement and thrift while these pests remain in the
hair. A thoroughly healthy beast will seldom be infested with
lice unless near cattle that are so affected. A good state of health
seems to repel, as much as a poverty-stricken beast would attract
them. Unless checked they increase very rapidly, and whoever
it was who said “they are grandfathers in twenty-four hours after
their birth,” seemed to have formed a tolerably correct opinion of
their powers of increase. Powders may be recommended for
their destruction, but an oleaginous application will be found the
surest. Mercurial ointment would destroy them at once, but I
hesitate to advise its use, fearing salivation. Strong tobacco-
water, or sheep-dressing, will doubtless cause much relief, but I
question whether they will be as effectual as train or linseed oil.
After its application, and when the lice are found dead in the
hair, a washing of soap and water will serve much to cleanse the
skin from scurf and irritation, and prove very agreeable to the
animal.

Quarter-ill, Black-quarter, Joint-murrain, §c.— No disease
has so many names. This may be accounted for from the variety

Rearing of Calves. 15%

of the symptoms which present themselves. Inflammatory fever
would better describe the malady.

It is not the calf alone that is liable to its dread attacks, cattle
of all ages may be smitten with it, and it is more frequently
present where there is high condition and much thrift. So sudden
are its visitations, that we may to-day see a beast drooping and
quite amiss, that we thought in perfect health yesterday, The
heated breath, heaving flank, dry muzzle, quick pulse, and
anxious looks, indicate the fever that rages within. The animal]
objects to move about, and when the posture is changed the gait
is unsteady, principally in the hind quarters ; there is also
peculiar moaning, and laborious breathing. The uneasiness
increases, he is constantly up and down, at last seems uncon-
scious of surrounding objects. His efforts to rise prove abortive,
the symptoms get worse, and the beast dies. The worst signs
are a tenderness in the back and loins, with swelling in these
parts, and yielding to the least touch; then we must fear that
decomposition has begun; one of the limbs becomes swollen, and
feels inflamed and tender, and shows no elasticity on being
pressed by the finger: it is, in fact, in a state of mortification.
Ulcers may appear in different parts of the body, particularly in
the mouth, and the urine is discoloured, being darker, and
perhaps bloody. To treat this disease, in the first instance the
animal must be housed, and (much as I object to it in the
general treatment of cattle) bleeding must be resorted to ; purging
with Epsom salts should follow: if one dose does not operate it
must be repeated. The beast should be most closely watched
during this treatment, the least change being carefully noted by
the attendant. If there is improvement, doses of digitalis, tartar
emetic, and nitre should be administered two or three times a
day. Any swellings of the joints should be well fomented with
hot water, and rubbed with equal parts of camphorated spirits of
Wine, spirit of hartshorn, and turpentine. Chloride of lime is a
most valuable disinfectant, and it would be wise to wash all
ulcers that may appear with a solution of it several times in the
day ; it will serve, in a great measure, to prevent the bad smell
which always arises from the ulcers. A solution of chloride of
lime of a quarter of an ounce in weight may be mixed with a
pint of water, and will form a most valuable disinfectant lotion.

** Prevention is better than cure,” and I am disposed to attri-
bute my immunity from loss by quarter-ill to proper attention to
feeding and housing, and also to the use of the seton, which it is
my practice to insert in the calf’s dewlap towards the end of
January. The oilcake, which I strongly commend, causes the
bowels to be kept in a regular state.

158 Rearing of Caives.

Before I conclude I must impress on young farmers the great
advantage of having their stock-houses properly constructed, so
that there should be no lack of light or fresh air; both are
essential to the well-being of calves. I am rather an advocate
for the light being admitted from the roof, or at all events
sufficiently high to prevent the animals standing “at gaze,” and,
by much watching, becoming unsettled and unthrifty. The
houses should be kept scrupulously clean, no accumulation of
dung or wet litter allowed to remain, and the floors thoroughly
swept before fresh straw is supplied. I find wood answers
admirably as a floor ; it is more easily kept clean than ordinary
pavement. If good paving stones are scarce, the thinnings from
young plantations, cut into blocks about ten inches long, and
placed vertically on a bed of sand, will be found an excellent
substitute. I prefer the wood to the stone, and both to flagging,
which is at times dangerous, owing to the smoothness its surface
presents from wear and wet.

While animals are feeding, their houses should be cleaned
rather than at any other time, and then also their coats should be
brushed, as they will like to lie down and rest when their food
is disposed of. ‘The gases arising from decomposed vegetable
matter are injurious to cattle; and if so to adults, must they not
be much more so to animals of tender age? In severe weather
warmth, and at the same time proper ventilation, should be pro-
vided : the importance of these requisites cannot be overrated.

In conclusion, I may remark that I have treated of the rearing
of calves with the aim of turning them into money with all con-
venient speed, whether in the shape of well-bred cows for breed-
ing and the dairy, or of fine steers ready for the slaughter-house.
Of veal calves I have said nothing, not considering that they
come within the limits of an ‘ Essay on Rearing Calves.’ They
are not, in fact, reared, as it takes but a very short period of time
to prepare them for their purpose. It behoves the rearer of
calves to “iook sharp ;” for mortality amongst them tells fearfully
against his pocket. The death of one or two in the year, and
even delicacy and the absence of thrift, would swallow up a con-
siderable amount of any profit a breeder (on an average scale)
might reasonably expect from his young stock, because he must
always allow a margin for casualties in the byre previous to
birth (“ there is many a slip between the cup and the lip”), and
the would-be rearer is often disappointed by cows aborting, or
unfortunately producing dead calves, events over which he cannot
have much control; to which, however, | am disposed to think
high feeding largely conduces. When he has his calves safe and
sound, I do not feel that I presume too much when I say that, by

Fr

Agriculture of Nottinghamshire 159

strictly following the advice which experience has enabled me to
give with confidence in the foregoing pages, he may look for a
fair share of success in his certainly somewhat arduous under-
taking. ‘It is not in mortals to command success.” Let us, how-
ever, endeavour to deserve it.

Randal’s Town.

}

IX.— On Improvements in Agriculture in the County of
Nottingham since the Year 1800. By Joun Parkinson,

Tue period of the last sixty years has been one of great and
increasing outlay by owners and occupiers of land in the county
of Nottingham. Most of the proprietors have expended large
sums on buildings required either by the increase of feeding-
stock consequent on improved cultivation, or in rebuilding farm-
houses and cottages, of which the latter are generally in a better
state than those of most parts of the United Kingdom. Much
land has been effectually underdrained, the owners in'some cases
having paid the whole expense (excepting for team-work) and
charged the occupiers a percentage on the outlay. In other
instances tiles have been paid for by owners, and all other ex-
penses by the tenant. But little effective and permanent under-
draining was done in this county previous to the present century.

The first great improvement was the adoption of Elking-
ton’s system of cutting deep drains to intercept the springs,
and tapping the lower springs by boring with an auger, which
in numerous instances has been very efficient. ‘The former mode
of using thorns and turf in making shallow drains has been
gradually superseded, first by the use of elliptical tiles. and flat
tiles for soles on loose subsoil, and since by pipe-tiles and collars
where the bottom of the drains is not quite firm ; but in numerous
instances the drains were made too shallow, and many tiles have
been taken up and relaid at greater depth. The making of all
under-drains of a uniform depth of 4 feet, and of the distance from
each other of from 6 to 20 or more feet, according to the nature
of the subsoil, and using pipe-tiles and collars, has been strongly
recommended for the improvement of all lands which are injured
by superfluity of moisture, and in numerous instances this system
is found effective.

It may, however, be proved that such uniform system is
not in many cases fully efficient; as if, by using an auger
between the lines of drains so made, water can be raised to
within 2 feet of the surface of the ground, and remain at the
same height for a considerable time, the drainage of the land

-160 Agriculture of Nottinghamshire.

cannot be deemed perfect, in which case the system of Elkington
should be adopted to complete the improvement; but the most
advisable and effective mode, where by using an auger deep water
can be raised nearly to the surface, is in ihe first instance to have
holes dug in sev eral parts of the land so deep as to contain water,
and en have deep drains made in the proper direction for inter-
cepting upper springs, and likewise by boring to raise the water
from lower springs. By such means, if the water be freely drawn
from the various holes which have been dug, the drainage is
complete; otherwise it is requisite that parallel drains of the
depth of 3 or 4 feet should be made at such distances as will
effectually draw the water from the holes: and where, by the
foregoing test, drains of the depth of 3 feet are proved to be
effectual, it would be a useless expense to have them made
deeper, The theory of Elkington is imperfect; but he led the
way to great improvements by the raising of water from deep
springs and intercepting water from higher springs, and was well
entitled to the reward he received.

Great improvement has been effected in the mode of making
and keeping in repair the roads in this county, and most of the
public and many of the occupation roads are now in a good state.
Before the present century very rough materials were gencrally
used, and they were frequently laid in a trough, It is now the
practice to have mater ials, small or well broken, laid on a surface
inclining about an inch in each yard from Pee centre, and the
an eee kept together by loose earth on each side ; but wherever
the surface of a road is tender, complete under-draining should
be effected before the materials are laid thereon, Soft stone may
be used with advantage if covered immediately with small broken
hard stone or gravel; and in repairing roads small materials
should always be spread over the surface after it is levelled, and
not laid along ruts. It is important that the sides of the ane
should always be lower than the surface of the materials,

The open drains and gates are greatly improved, and upon
numerous farms the fences of whitethorn quickset are kept in
admirable order from being cut after harvest yearly, so as to be
very narrow along the top.

The greatest improvements in the county within the present
century were made by the late Duke of Portland, who brought
into regular cultivation and farmed extensive tracts of land, some
of wien had been previously let at 2s. an acre, and enecilen bie
part as rabbit-warren and sheep-walk at a nominal rent, which
lands have been highly cultivated according to the most approved
system of drill-husbandry. Much unproductive land has also been
converted into excellent watered meadow by diverting the river
Maun into carrier drains,

Agriculture of Nottinghamshire. 161

A great portion of the remaining part of the forest of Sherwood
has been enclosed and now grows abundant crops, and many sheep
of an improved breed are now reared and fed thereon.

A considerable quantity of oak timber has been grubbed up
on clay-land in EpperStone, Ossington, Norwell, and Winkburn,
which now produces abundant crops ; and many plantations of
larch in Blidworth and elsewhere have been converted into fertile
arable land. ‘The owners of the very poorest sandy and gravelly
land, who planted larch thereon more than sixty years ago, derived
great benefit from the produce ; and where the ground has been
cleared the land has become so fertilized by the vegetable matter
derived from the larch as to be worth more than double its former
value and to produce good cornand green crops, although formerly
it would not repay the expenses of cultivation. The best and
most profitable mode of treatment of such soils is to fallow, use
artificial manure, and take a crop of turnips to be eaten off by
sheep, and then trench, dig, or double-plough the land and plant
it with larch, which, after such preparation, grow rapidly, and
the thinnings soon repay part of the expense; the trees attain a
good size in much less time than when they have been planted
in holes without stirring the rest of the surface. Although such
method is expensive at the commencement, it is more economical
and profitable than the common mode of proceeding, by which
considerably more plants and much more time are required before
a plantation is in a thriving state.

A short time previous to the present century an act of parlia-
ment was obtained for the embankment and drainage of an
extensive tract of land at the northern extremity of the county,
which had been covered with water yearly in winter, and two
subsequent acts have been found necessary to authorise the com-
pletion of the works. Two powerful steam-engines are erected,
and the land has become valuable and productive.

‘The banks of the Trent and Devon have been made effective
for the prevention of summer floods in many parishes. A con-
siderable district adjoining the river Idle, between Retford and
the Trent, might be very materially improved by drainage and
embankment.

With reference to the cultivation of lands whereon turnips may
be advantageously eaten by sheep: about the year 1800 there
were several recent improvers of light sandy land, in the district
between Retford, Worksop, and Bawtry, who had adopted a
regular course of cultivation; but autumnal cultivation for fallow
was not then practised, and corn and turnips were chiefly sown
broadcast. Swede turnips were not then grown, and all spring
corn was harvested in a loose state. In most other parts of the
county, and especially on the best sandy and light loamy land,

VOL. XXII. M

162 Agriculture of Nottinghamshire.

cultivation was at the above period extremely defective ; the land
being not well cleaned, turnips were sown broadcast and too late,,
and the crops generally abounded with couch and annual weeds.
There has, however, been gradual improvement, and occupiers of
light lands in every part of the county now adopt autumn-cultivation
and all other modern improvements to grow turnips, whilst the
increased number of their sheep and cattle, fed to much earlier
maturity than formerly, bespeak them a foremost place among
the farmers of the United Kingdom.

In respegt to the arable lands of strong loam and heavy soils,
drainage has produced wonderful changes, and some of the fields
which were deemed quite unfit to grow swede turnips now pro-
duce the heaviest crops, the land being previously well cleaned |
by autumnal and early spring cultivation. If care be taken that
the land is in a dry state when ploughed for the succeeding crop,
that and the subsequent crops of clover, grass seeds, and corn are
usually more abundant and profitable than after the naked fallow,
which is gradually diminishing, except in exceptional wet seasons
like the last: even if the land cannot be prepared for mangold or
‘turnips, tares or mustard may be substituted with advantage.

A practice exists in this county which is productive of much
good to the labourers. Upon many of the larger farms a large-
sized cottage is provided for the head servant, who is a superior
married farming-man, and receives the house and garden rent-free,
undertaking to lodge and board the unmarried workmen. The
wages of such a foreman are from 25/. to 30/. a year, and he is
allowed 1s. a day for the board of each man, with’ stated quantities.
of milk and fuel and ten stones of well-fed large pork and two
bushels of malt for himself and each servant yearly, and candles
for the stables and cow and feeding houses. The yearly wages
for men and strong youths boarded either in the farm-house or by
the head man are from 13/. to 182. for the former, and from 82.
to 127. for the latter, and the men are generally as well satisfied
in respect to their food and attention when boarded with the
upper servant as those are in the farmer’s house. The system of
boarding men with a servant is most applicable where a farm is
distant from a village, and they are neither so orderly nor so much
under control in the evening in a large village as on a detached
farm.

The writer occupied for many years four farms, two of strong
land, one of good loam, and the other of light sand, in parishes
widely distant in the county of Nottingham, and he boarded
servants with the foreman on each farm, who were steady and
regular in their conduct and work. He was the first in each
parish who underdrained land extensively and effectually, and
drilled and horsehoed turnips, which were carted off strong land

Agriculture of Nottinghamshire. 1635

and stored for cattle in feeding-houses and fold-yards, or for sheep
on grass-land in wet weather ; and he dispensed with naked fallows,
which previously had been prevalent. In each case at the com-
mencement of his tenancy the produce of the several parishes was
very inferior to that at present realized: many more cattle and
sheep are now well kept and fed in consequence of the draining
of wet and retentive lands, autumnal cultivation, using linseed-
cake and artificial manure, the drilling of corn and root crops,
and carting the latter off heavy land, whilst naked fallows and
crops sown broadcast have almost disappeared.

Upon one of the farms of strong land above adverted to, con-
taining 400 acres, 270 acres thereof being arable, 40 acres meadow,
and the remainder pasture, the number of beasts kept previously
to the year 1825 did not on an average exceed 15, and they were
usually very poor in spring, having been wintered partly upon
hay grown on wet land, but chiefly upon straw ; neither were any
beasts fattened at that time. The number of beasts now reared
yearly on the farm is about 25; many are bought for feeding in
summer and winter, and the general stock of cattle on the farm at
all times of the year is about 90. The number of sheep kept on
the same farm prior to the year 1825 was less than 200; those
sold off were chiefly in a lean state; not more than 150 were
clipped, and their wool was inferior. At that time the loss of
sheep by rot and other diseases was great. The number of sheep
now kept on the farm is nearly 400: the whole are clipped, their
fleeces, of superior wool, averaging not less than 84 lbs. each,
whilst those sold are all in a fat state. The loss of cattle or sheep
by disease and casualty is now quite trivial. The grass land of
the farm has become of greatly increased value in consequence of
improvement by drainage and top-dressing; the pasture land
formerly was only fit for a very limited number of store cattle,
and the artificial grasses kept few sheep. More than 57 acres
have been converted from arable land to permanent pasture, and
the whole of the pasture land, including artificial grasses, will
now fatten cattle and sheep, and the meadows produce more than
one ton and a half of good hay and superior aftermath yearly.
The great quantity of excellent manure made on the farm causes
increased fertility. Although more than four times the number
of labourers are now employed on the farm than was the case in
and previous to 1825, it yields much greater profit to the occupier
than it did at that time, although the rent is increased cent. per
cent. with the occupier’s approval; but subsequently all these
practices have been generally adopted in these parishes, and,
together with autumnal cultivation, with a liberal use of linseed-
cake and of artificial manures, have led to a great increase in the
number of cattle and sheep kept and fed.

M 2

164 Agriculture of Nottinghamshire.

The following is a statement of the wages paid to labourers on
the said farm of 400 acres, in the year ending the 25th March,
1861, which do not exceed the average of wages paid to each
man for agricultural labour in the North Midland counties,
Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. The men were employed partly
by the day and partly by piece-work. There is full and constant
employment, and an industrious labourer having a small working
family is enabled to save money.

Labourers employed.

Days oe ” ae ESS
f ages verage eceipt, er Wee s
Ne: He | received. per Day. including ‘ during Remarks.
Ploy for Family. the Year.
: £
4. 8 d s d | £ s dj & s d Cowman, occupies a cottage
and garden rent free, and
1 313 28 12 0 110 43 1 03) 0 16 11 has milk and fuel, &c., and
is paid for the board of a
servant.
2 293 38 13 0 QE "52 19 VT | 1 0 ae
3 303 37/402 D5 W SQ013 24 WV USNOMS
®, | 2912/3911 3] 2 84| 4113 10}+016 of
5 3044 | 37 6 5 2 52 oF 014 42
6 |2981 137 5 7/ 2 62 014 4 Regular labourers.
Way 8042) S511 Sie 24 013 8
8 3013 | 3216 8 2he 2, ON oii
9 246 2 Die Be |b Bog 2s 013 64

A quart of table-beer is allowed to each man daily, and ale in hay time and
harvest, and when employed in extra work. Two old men are also employed
on the farm at the average wages of about 10s. each per week.

The wages of women are 10d. a day, and 1s. 6d. a day for harvest-work.

The yearly rent paid’ by a labourer for a cottage and good
garden varies from 2/. 12s. to 4/., the lowest rents being paid to
the owners of great estates. The cottages generally are kept in
a cleanly state ; and although some of them are too small for large
families, they are not so over-crowded as in some parts of Eng-
land. ;

Full and regular employment is now given to the labouring popu-
lation in and near those parishes at good wages, and the actual relief
paid to the poor has much decreased. In one of the said parishes,
containing more than 1500 acres of strong land, more than half
arable, the produce of which has been much increased by drainage,
the amount paid for the relief of the poor in the year ending 1836
exceeded 2s. peracre ; whilst on an average for the three years to
Lady-day, 1860, the yearly amount paid for the relief and main-
tenance of the poor has not exceeded 5td. an acre, in consequence
of regular employment being given to the labourers. ‘The present
Poor Law has not benefited the occupiers in agricultural parishes
where there was previously good and proper management in

' Agriculture of Nottinghamshire. 165

respect to the labourers and paupers, as the expenses and charges,
exclusive of relief, are in such cases additional payments; but in
all populous parishes, and in agricultural parishes where employ-
ment was not given to the labouring population and where
management in respect to the poor was defective, the new Poor
Law has been very beneficial.

In one year (about 1821) the parochial rates for the county of
Surrey increased to one-third more than they had been in the
previous year; and at the same time the parochial rates for the
county of Nottingham decreased one-third from the amount paid
in the preceding year: which great difference was caused chiefly
by the extremely low wages then paid in Surrey and consequent
increase of pauperism, and the liberal wages paid in the county
of Nottingham, and the general determination to find employment
for labourers rather than leave them to become paupers, which is
strict economy. A gentleman purchased an estate of about 700
acres in the county of Surrey in 1846, which was in a very inferior
state of cultivation. The farms were held on leases, and the
tenants employed labourers at wages not exceeding 9s. a week,
when the wages of labourers in the North-Midland counties and
Lincolnshire were from 12s, to 14s. : in the former case the men
employed did not perform half a fair day’s work in consequence
of weakness and inefficiency, whilst in the latter case the men
earned their wages and were profitable to their employers. The
owner of the property alluded to began to improve a farm, of
which the lease had expired, by draining the wet land, grubbing
up hedgerows which were very wide, building, and planting
fences, and by bringing the land into a good state of cultivation,
which has caused it to produce abundant crops ; and he so treated
the remainder of the land, as the leases expired, with the like
success. T’o enable him to accomplish the work in a proper manner
he materially advanced the wages of the labourers employed, and
insisted upon having work done in proportion to the money paid.
His example has been followed by others in the neighbourhood,
and the general cultivation in that district is improved, the
labourers are in a far better condition, and poor-rates have conse-
quently decreased. ;

The most important among recent improvements in our farm
‘Imanagement is the erection of suitable buildings and machinery
for cutting fodder and straw, pulping roots and grinding corn
for consumption by live-stock. ‘That system is at present only
partially adopted; but the advantages derived from it are so
obvious in the economy of fodder and roots, and the superiority
of ground over unground corn, as shown by the improved condi-
tion of stock so fed, that no exterisive arable-land farmer should

166 | Agriculture of Nottinghamshire. ‘

be without such means for using his produce of fodder, straw,
root-crops, horse-corn, and inferior corn to the greatest ad-
vantage.

Another improvement is the building of tanks for liquid
manure, one of which should be considered indispensable for every
farmyard. ‘The drainage from feeding-houses, stables, and fold-
yards is so invaluable that it ought not to be wasted, The most
economical mode for preparing the liquid manure for beneficial
effect is, to mix it repeatedly with ashes, which may be readily
obtained by burning soil with the cuttings of hedges; and
whether ashes so fertilized are used for root-crops, on corn or
pasture-land, or on meadow immediately after the hay is cleared
off, the advantage to be derived from them will be found very
considerable.

Forty years ago the drilling, horse-hoeing, and the growing of
turnips according to the most approved system, were chiefly prac-
tised in the best-cultivated districts of Scotland and the border
counties, particularly Northumberland, at which time the rents
in those districts were fully one-third higher and the payments for
labour fully one-third lower than in the North-Midland counties
and Lincolnshire, where labourers were better paid and maintained
than they were in Scotland and Northumberland; but the rents
and expenses for labour respectively are now more nearly alike
in all those districts—a result which has been brought about by
farmers from the north removing southward, by the greatly im-
proved general cultivation of the North-Midland counties and
Lincolnshire, and by the scarcity of labourers in the north, which
has led to increased wages being given there.

Indeed one remarkable feature in the present aspect of agri-
culture is the approximation both in prices and management
which the diffusion of knowledge and increased power of transit
is effecting between the most and least favoured spots, not only in
England, but in Europe. We have not so much reason to pride
ourselves on the achievements of any one farmer of our day, when
compared with the leading men of a former generation, as on
the general spread of intelligence, and the general interest felt by
those connected with the soil in the full development of its
resources,

Ley Fields, Newark.

( 167 )

X.—The Amount of Capital required for the Profitable Occupa-
tion of a Mixed Arable and Pasture Farm ina Midland County.
By the late CoarLtes WRraTISLAW.

Prize Essay.

I sau strictly adhere to the first rule laid down by the Society,
that all information contained in the Prize Essay shall be founded
on experience or observation, and not on simple reference to
books or other sources. In specifying the cost of many of the
various items of cultivation, I shall set down the sums which I
paid myself for the same items by valuation when I entered upon
my present farm, and I shall take the cost of the remainder from
my day-book.

I do not think that in reality there is much difference in the
amount of capital required between an entry at Lady Day and an
entry at Michaelmas. In the first case the farmer will no doubt
be sooner able to convert his live-stock and part of his corn into
money ; but then he will have to pay the outgoing tenant for all
the cultivations up to that time, which, in the latter case, he will
effect himself in all probability in a better manner, as having a
more direct interest in the result. In the latter case, although
he will have to pay down one half-year’s rent, yet, as a counter-
poise, he will have the advantage of purchasing his live-stock on,
better terms than if he had to go into the market when cattle of
all descriptions are at their highest price; and, if a prudent man,
he will remember that, under any circumstances, he will have
one whole year’s expenses and but one harvest.

The farm now in my occupation, in the county of Warwick,
was undoubtedly at one time a cold, wet clay; but, under the
influence of drainage and cultivation, it may now be described
as a very retentive loam, having a subsoil of blue lias clay, with
veins of sticky yellow clay coming within ten inches of the sur-
face in many places. This may iecubieas be considered a type
of the moderately-rich clay-lands of the county. It is rather pecu-
liarly situated, being bounded on the eastern side by a gravelly
soil, from which it is divided only by the high-road ; while the

‘farm to the west can be worked with one horse less in a team, and
gradually slopes away towards the far-famed Dunsmore Heath.

For the sake of convenience, and using round numbers, I shall
suppose that this farm is only 200 acres in extent, divided into
twenty fields of 10 acres each, of which 100 acres are arable,
and the remaining 100 acres pasture and upland meadow. Sup-
pose then a farmer to have the offer of this farm at Lady Day,
and to be called upon to consider what money he will require to
pay the outgoing tenant for cultivations, for the purchase of live-

168 Farm Capital.

stock and implements, and ready money to pay for the other
necessary outgoings before he can begin to reap any return from
his exertions. And in order that the expense of each mode of
farming may be considered, suppose that the 100 acres of pasture
and upland meadow comprise two fields of 10 acres each, suitable
for fattening cattle of a medium size ; two fields of 10 acres each,
suitable for dairy purposes; three fields of 10 acres each, more
adapted to rearing store-stock ; and the remaining three fields of
10 acres, suited for mowing.

In selecting the stock to be fattened I should be guided, not
only by the richness of the fields themselves, but also by the
means the arable land placed at my disposal for wintering the
cattle. In the present instance the arable land does not permit
me to grow with advantage roots to be drawn off for the cattle and
consumed with the straw (which itself is principally reedy wheat-
straw), neither is it light enough for sheep to consume turnips
on the ground. The horses will also require most of the clover-
hay, and the dairy cows and young stock the meadow-hay.
And as pasture-land of this description will not bear treading
by cattle in the winter, they must all be in enclosed yards with-
out the benefit of a walk. 1 should therefore give the preference
to Welsh cattle (the black breed of South Wales), as they are
more hardy, will do better on worse food, fatten rather more
«quickly, and of late years have been of more ready sale in conse-
quence of the thickness of their hides ; and I should prefer cows
and heifers to oxen because they are more readily sold in the
country, come to perfection sooner, and if a few of them chance
to be in calf, they are easily turned over to the dairy, when any
cow that is not doing her part in that department may be dried
and turned out to fatten. After trying both short-horn and Welsh
cows for butter-making purposes, | have come to the conclusion
that, on moderately-rich, cold land, the Welsh cows are the most
profitable. They do not cost so much in the first instance; and
although they do not yield so much milk as the short-horn, and
are therefore not so suitable for cheese-making, still, if carefully
selected, they will average nearly as much butter, fatten their

calves gene as soon, particularly if they have been put to a short-
horn bull,* and are ready when dry to go to the straw-yard, and
take thee turn afterwards on the fattening-land. The store-land
may either be grazed with young short-horn beasts, to be sold at

* Mr. Wratislaw reckoned that these cows, if they received 2 Ibs. of cake per
day, would on an average give 8 lbs. of butter per week. He considered that an
increase of 1 lb. of butter per week was gained by each pound of cake which,
within moderate bounds, was added to their daily diet. ‘The calves were always
fattened, and generally sold at the age of 6 or 7 weeks, when they weighed about
20 Ibs. per quarter.—P. H. F.

"Farm Capital. 169

the end of the year for others to fatten, or, with Welsh beasts, to
be transferred to the fattening or dairy parts of the farm as others
are drafted off; but I consider that it is most profitable to have
some of each description so as to meet all markets.

On this kind of land it is much safer not to keep a breeding
flock of sheep, but to have one-shear wethers for wintering on
the grass-land, about one to the acre, which, with the assistance
of a little corn or cake, will be fat by shear-day ; ; besides these,
tegs should be bought in the spring to consume the vetches on
the arable land, md then be drafted on to the grass-land as the
then two-shear sheep are sold to the butcher. The farmer is
thus able not only to give the sheep a change of food, which is
a great advantage in itself, but, by keeping a large number on his
arable land, to manure an additional field at a very trifling
expense, whilst he sells two lots of animals off the land in the
course of the year. ?

A farmer then entering at Lady-day on 70 acres of pasture-
land of the quality alee described, exclusive of that reserved
for mowing, will require the following quantity of live-stock :—

For the first field of 10 acres of fattening Jand :— Si ted:

8 Welsh cows or heifers, at 9l.each .. .. £72 0 O

10 shearhog sheep, at 27. 10s. ae 2 0 0

—— 97 0 0

For the second field of 10 acres of fattening land :—

The same description of stock as OT, OP tO
For the two fields of 10 acres each for dairying, which will be

either grazed together or alternately :—

15 Welsh cows, costing in-calf or with their calves, 10/.each 150 0 O

For the first field of 10 acres of store land :—

7 Welsh cows or heifers, at 87. .. .. « £56 0 0
15 shearhog sheep, at 2/. 10s. seh ee mee 37 10. Or
————— 93.1010
Tor the second field of 10 acres of store land :—
The same description of stock ii Bel Fe Meee mS Jers CON (0
For the third field of 10 acres of store land :- —
6 shorthorn steers, at 91. seins! slut. Se 54 0 0

15 shearhog sheep, Sub ge 37 10 0

He ought also to have iwo breeding sows, say at 57. each, and

two rearing pigs for the winter's feeding, say 25s. each, to con-

sume the skim-milk, Sort... 1210 0
He will also require sheep for folding on n the vetches ¢ grown n upon

the arable land. Supposing him “to have a good average crop

on 10 acres, and to draft the sheep on to his pasture-land as

the two-shear sheep are sold off; he may start with 14 to the

acre for 6 acres, or 84 at 21. : = 168> 100
(Thus leaving 4 acres for soiling his plough- ‘horses in the yards, )

Carried forward .. te Rye -kelO Siem (0)

* These were designed for home consumption.

170 Farm Capital.

Ss.
Brought forward 803 0 0
He will also require 6 plough-horses to work the arable part of
his farm, 4 of which I shall consider will be older horses, con-
stantly in the stable, and fed on vetches, hay, and corn; the
two others, younger ones, lying with the dairy-cows,, and
worked alternately to ease the older horses, and also to make
the 4-horse team into two teams of three horses each for cleaning
the land after harvest. I shall presume that the farmer will
take pride in his team, and have his horses not only up to their
work, but such as he can sell when six years old for the London
market. I shall therefore estimate that he will havye—
Two 5-year-old horses, worth 40/. each PPP ESO OO
Two 4-year-old horses, worth 352. each... 70 0 O
Two horses rising two years, ready for break-
nos wont SO/ieach ol ie Lis. el Abi ehee 60 0 0
——. 210 0 0

He will therefore have 51 beast and 65 sheep on his pasture-land,

84 sheep on his arable land, 4 pigs, and a teain of 6 horses, at

a total cost of AA es sa eT TONSA Or 10
He will then have to pay the outgoing tenant for his growing crops
and cultivations, In making out this account I have specified the
amount which I paid myself by valuation for each act of hus-
bandry. For convenience of calculation I shall suppose that the
spring-crops have been sown by the outgoing tenant, instead of
saying merely that the incoming tenant ought to have so much
money in his pocket to complete the spring sowing of his farm.

There are also always some things to be taken as tenant’s
fixtures, &c., hay and horse-corn to be bought, and rates and
taxes to be paid ; but as these would depend upon accidental
circumstances, and must therefore be entirely conjectural, I have
preferred to omit them as such, but to include in my estimate
not only the money a farmer would require for immediate pay-
ments, but also the probable expense he would be put to in hoe-
ing, Weeding. and also cutting and harvesting his corn and hay.
{ have assumed also that he makes nothing from his farm for the
first six months. This would, I believe, fully cover all he would
have to pay for the fixtures, hay, &c., which I have not included
in the estimate for the reasons above given.*

The arable part of the farm, being divided into ten fields of

+

* A revision of this passage was contemplated. Apart from the undesirable-
ness of setting such considerable items one against the other without investigation ,
the probability is that they would not balance, as a rough approximation may
easily indicate. The 65 shearlings would probably bring in with their wool 1701.,
with some allowance for losses; the wool of the 85 tegs 30/.; or there would be
2001. in all of receipts. Per contra, if the corn of the 4 horses and colts used
occasionally for the five summer months may be set at about 25/., the stock of
hay at 50/., the farm fixtures at 25/.—in all 100/.—these receipts will exceed the
payments by 1007. —P. H. F.

Farm Capital. . Ee

10 acres each, would at Lady Day, if tolerably clean, according
to the usual rotation of fallow, wheat, seeds, and beans, wiieat,
beans, and wheat, be cropped in the following manner at the
expense set opposite the several items :—

The first field of 10 acres will be wheat after a bare fallow; tite

cost of which will be :— £3. d.
First ploughing, at 15s. per acre so ONG . £710 0
Second ditto, back, at 10s. peracre .. .. . 5 0 O
Third ditto, across, at 10s. per acre .. .. .. pe 0) 20
Scufflings, at 15s. per acre .. 710 0
Ploughing for seed, at 10s. per acre Fesonn®
Drilling, at 5s, per acre Ap Pe HELO AP QV Oe @
Harrowing, at ls. 6d. peracre .. . 2 ORT <O
Two bushels of seed-wheat be Kage! at 75. . per
bushel ae - Bt Ak TOE FO
One year” *s rent, say 21. per: acre “wertotel ee BONDING
One year’s rates, say 3s. 6d. per acre Lela O
: 62 0 0
The second field of 10 acres, wheat after vetches :—
First ploughing, at 15s. per acre Low O
Second ditto, across, at 10s. per acre 2050
Seufflings, at 15s. per acre .. LOD
Ploughing for seed, at 10s. per acre 6) 0)
Drilling, at 5s. per acre 210 0
Harrowing, at 1s. 6d. per acre : 015 0
Two bushels seed-wheat ig acre, at is. per
bushel aL Gs Lepis trade bags te Or ©
One year’ "sg rent, say 20. ‘per: acre 20 0 O
One year’s rates, say 3s. 6d. per acre iy We -@
57 0 0
The third field of 10 acres, wheat after clover :—
One ploughing, at 15s. peracre.. .. .. .« 710 0
Sowing, 5s. ; harrowing, 2s. 6d.: =T7s.6d.peracre 315 0
Two bushels seed-wheat per acre, at 7s. per
bushel... 2 ie Oh @
One-third of rent and rates (2. 3s. 6d. per acre)
for herbage ploughed in, at 14s. 6d. per acre. 7 0
—_— 2510 0
The fourth field of 10 acres, wheat after spring beans :—
One'ploughing, at 15s. per acresss 0 a a TH 10r 0
Sowing, 5s.; harrowing, 2s. 6d.: = 7s. 6d. per acre 315 0
Two bushels seed-wheat per acre, at 7s. per
[EMSHCMMMe ot tcl Remon nal ier sch i at OO
——— 18 5 0
The fifth field of 10 acres, wheat after spring beans :—
At the same cost as the last... Tie ce Leanloh ion
The sixth field of 10 acres, vetches after wheat :—
One ploughing, at 15s. peracrer.. eer Te YG
Sowing, 5s.; harrowing, 2s. 6d. : = 7s ‘6a. peracre 315 0
*Two bushels of seed per acre, at 10s. per bushel 10 0 O
——- 21 5 0

Carried forward .. se Oeaon 0

* The price charged ought in most seasons to compensate for the small quantity
of seed allowed.

172 Farm Capital.

£ ss. de
Brought forward .. ones (0
The paventh field of 10 acres, spring beans after wheat :—
Manuring, 15 two-horse loads, filling, carting,
and spreading, at 15s, per acre i MORO
One ploughing, at 15s. per acre ., 710 O
Dibbing, at 7s. 6d. per acre 3 15.0
Harrowing, at 2s. 6d. per acre .. iy, 0)
Three bushels of seed per acre, at 5s, per bushel 710 0
——_ 27 10 0

The eighth field of 10 acres, spring beans after wheat :—
At the same cost as the last ee oot Motu oumreiG LO ouO
The ninth field of 10 acres, clover after fallow wheat : —
The seed bill, whatever it may be, is generally charged, iis

60 Ibs. red clover, at 9d. per Ib. eS Lena
40 lbs. cow-grass, at 10d. perlb. .. .. .. 118 4
20 Ibs. Timothy, ‘at Sd. per lb. 22) Sameymectatl cel Ones
20 lbs. trefoil, at 4d. per lb. fey ies eth bee aOR OME
Sowing, 2s. 6d., harrowing, 1s. = 3s. Gd. peracre 115 0
F —~-—- 613 4
The tenth field of 10) acres, bare fallow after wheat .. .. :
£263 18 4

The above 50 acres of wheat and 20 acres of beans will require to

be hoed and weeded, which, if well done, will on an average

cost 8s. per acre * 28 0 0
The 50 acres of wheat will ‘also cost ‘about 14s, an acre for reaping if

no beer is given; 3s. 6d. an acre carting and stacking, including

team labour ; 1s. per acre paring and finishing the gi and

1s. 6d. per acre thatching; or 1d. per acre... 50 0 O
The 20 acres of beans will de cost about 10s. an acre hacking ;

ds. 6d. carting and stacking; 1s. paring; and 1s. 6d. thatching ;

or 16s. per acre .. L600
The 30 acres of upland meadow-hay and the 10 acres of clover-

hay will, by the time the hay is stacked and thatched, have

cost about 18s. per acre 386 0 0
There will also be required, in ‘addition to the pieceework included

in this account, 3 months’ wages for 4 men—viz., a waggoner,

a shepherd, and two labourers without beer at 13s. each per

week—and one boy, at 3s. 6d. per week .. .. . oo « oo 6 O

£LGSG) 0

“ The farmer’s next care will be the selection of his implements.
The amount of money which he will require for this purpose
will depend m some measure on the situation of his farm and
buildings, and whether the latter are placed within a convenient
distance of his arable and meadow land or not. If this is not the
case, an extra horse and cart, with driver and horse-tackle, will
be required. But supposing that the fields are so conveniently

* This sum had been actually paid on the farm to get the wheat thoroughly
hoed. It was admitted that 5s. per acre was for wheat a high price, and a
sufficient allowance for the district.—P. H. F

Farm Capital. 173

arranged that he can do all his carting and manuring with three
carts, one of which will be loading whilst another is being un-
loaded, and a third on its way to and fro, then by having gearing
to the carts he will be able to avoid the extra expense of
purchasing waggons for carting his corn, &c., and will only
require—

Say (Sas 105
1 waggon to carry corn to mar Et Gatch aaa OO OL. O
3 carts with gearing to take off, alone ee ee ae ety
Tackle for 6 horses, at 41. 17s. 6d. .. = 20 0 70
2 iron ploughs with skim coulter, &c., at 41. 17s. 6d. 9 15 +0
2 wooden ploughs, at 37. 10s. spilt) ewe oe TE 0
2 plough bends and traces, at 10s. Te OLO
1 sheet-harrow .. 210 0
1 pair 3-horse harrows 314 0
1 pair 2-horse ditto .. 211 0
1 pair 1-horse ditto .. .. 2 2 0
Scuffle eres se att cs') sce ese.) compensa)
TT Sua! ee) LL Se a AE AEP PET tim Tree: Se eee ay 7o (0M 0)
SLE Gaal (ee. sep sah nea) cet cess gces fg (OO
Weighing-machine .. .. .2 «2 o 5 '0"-0
Sack-barrow.. ae nae yee Uia See Nee MLOr 50
80 sack-bags, at 1s, Td. ediibcey wiresti pts, Uncwi sats pimern) Oe uGin8
Bushel-measure . a bea) hee pl ta baoh Hoda e ania 012 0
Winnowing-machine a0: poe" scope ebdegatwe od Oe
BEcOsnOppeN MRos) Weel! ceil ete. ele OM omr6
Barn-shovel a 0 3 6
3 ladders of 45, 30, and 15 rounds ‘espeotively, at 10d.
per round oc Beenie 315 0
3 cart-ropes, at 7s. 6d. é 11d a Peseta)
3 hand-drags, at 12s.6d. .. .. .. LS “6
10 hay- forks, AOS OCA NE steal tee RLS O
Chaff-cutter Sct OOLLEARY [pee 410 0
Oat and bean mill GHiGTO
4 pig-troughs, at 10s. Hanae on mcr mance fee 2) <0 eins 0)
Dung-drag .. Seto BEY eet lik COM noone tte Wl La oS,
Churn and butter-river; &e. ne sn Aan
Wheelbarrow, buckets, spades, and sundry tools .. oO. 0
Wa dozen hurdles; aSse) 2 AN ak 416 0
£206 17 2
Forming a total of— meni ds
hive stocks ite GeAates fa 018 xO" 0
Cultivations, <1 (%-e-at aay, woes 14
NGA OUTY pate Ww =b rf a-sigalys<ibepss ahaa Gch 9 Oy O
implements! se 0 Gener ee OG ie 2
£1647 1 6f

Or in round numbers 82. 5s. per acre.

* Tt was the author’s purpose to describe this scuffle-drill, and to call attention
to its merits as adapted to strong soils. The rate of charge, however, which it
seems was allowed by custom for the work done by it—viz., 5s. per acre—leads to the
impression that a more high-priced implement would be more economical.—P. H. F.

+ The amount of capital required would probably be decreased by about 1001.,
in consequence of the preceeds from sales of sheep and wool before harvest,

174 arm Capital.

The farmer might doubtless purchase many of his implements
at a less price secondhand ; it must, however, be borne in mind
that this list is confined to such implements as are absolutely
essential, others being here omitted which would be most useful,
and would no doubt be obtamed at the first opportunity. I
believe the above estimate will be found in practice to approxi-
mate to the amount of capital required on average clay-farms in
the midland counties, and that it may be relied on by any one
about to enter upona farm of this description.

I will now proceed to give an estimate of the capital required
for the profitable occupation of 100 acres of turnip and barley-
soil, which | am able to do from having had the management of
a farm of this description on a gravelly subsoil. 1 do not know
personally the expense of taking a farm on the Downs, and shall
therefore not. attempt to give an estimate of the expense of
working such-land.

Supposing, therefore, that 100 acres of land, capable of grow-
ing turnips and barley to advantage; were conveniently divided
into ten fields of 10 acres each, and that the Norfolk rotation of
one-fourth turnips and vetches, one-fourth barley, one-fourth
seeds or pulse, and one-fourth wheat was followed. 'Then—

The first field of 10 .acres would be turnips after wheat, at a

cost of :— pees. di.
*First ploughing, at 12s. per acre Pe eer sy Ds
*Second ditto, across, at 10s. per acre 5 0 0
*Scuffling once, at 5s. per acre 210 0
Rolling and harrowing, at 3s. 6d. per acre. dl 5.50
*Raking and burning “twitch and weeds, at 10s,
per acre Scie Bev am oe guns: natsee ee ae
*Manuring, at 1ds. ‘per a NGI on 710 0
*Ploughing for seed, at 10s. per acre 5B 40. 40
22 Ibs. turnip- -seed per ae at 1s. per lb. 1, 5 40
*Drilling and rolling, 5s.; harrowing, 1s.: = 6s.
peracre...... Kihh) pdolalags tba OG WO MEO
Hoeing twice, at 8s. per acre : 40 0
W eeding, at 2s. Periacre yet | ee Ome
1 year’s rent, say at 2/7. per acre 2. 20 0 0
1 year’s rates, at 3s. 6d. per acre 115 10
63 15 O
The second field of 10 acres will be turnips after wheat :—
At the above expense of .. 63 15 0
The third field of 10 acres will be divided into two parts of 5 acres
each :—
The first 5 acres will be vetches after wheat, ee
5 acres pee at 10s. per acre eee a LOMO
Sowing, 5s.; harrowing, ls.: = 6s. peracre .. 110 O
2 bushels of seed per-acre, at 10s. per bushel SOTO
9 O00

Carried forward a «- [o6 10a

exceeding by that amount jee items of outlay omitted in this account, as shown in
a previous note.—P.

Farm Capital. 175

Brought forward .. .. 136:10 0
The | second 5 acres will be beans or peas after barley :—

5 aeres ploughed, at 10s. per acre . 10 0
Filling, carting, and spreading manure, at 15s.
per acre 4 “s acti ind) LdAAO
Sowing, 5s. ; harrowing, Ni shieite=ss ‘6s. per acre aa. Uh 10580
3 bushels of seed per acre, at 5s. per bushel 315 0
—— 1110 0
The fourth field of 10 acres will be barley after gree —
First ploughing, at 10s. per acre ast dep » SHY One Olt KO)
Ploughing across, at 10s. per acre ue Hee and: U0)
One scufiling, SUAS EPEMAACTON ae 2-.; aera, 12 1010
Drilling, rolling, and harrowing, at 6s. per acre 3.0 0
2 bushels of seed per-acre, at 5s. per bushel 5 0 0
2010 0
The fifth field of 10 acres will be barley after turnips :—
At the same cost as above ... 2010 0
The sixth field of 10 acres will be divided into two equal ‘parts of
5 acres :—
The first 5 acres of which will be barley after vetches, costing—
One ploughing, at 12s. per.acre.. 2. ... 100 0 0
Ditto across, at 10s. per ak ae C6. to an Zp ©
Scuffling, at.5s. per acre .... See LO
Rolling ‘and harrowing, at 3s. 6d. ‘per ¢ ‘aere « Ont, 16
Raking and burning twitch and weeds, at 10s,
peracre .. a i aise Pees ree LO he
Ploughing for seed, at 10s, per OCI eiced eee, ALU RO.
Drilling and harrowing, GIGS MEM PClC een cy ly O70
2 bushels of seed per acre, at 5s. per bushel .. 210 0
a 1612 6
The second 5 acres will be wheat after peas or beans :— :
lone Dna ab TOs. Der ACHE noi. ise Bas owesyecsee 1 alO, O
Drilling, rolling, and harrowing, at 6s. per acre bp O29)
2 bushels of seed per acre, at 7s. peracre .. .. 310 0
—— 710 0
The seventh field of 10 acres will be seeds after barley, and sup-
posing the following quantity of seed is sown :—
60 Ibs. red clover, at 9d. per Ib. Sailer Com Baan Zama
40 lbs. cow-grass, at 10d. perIb. .. .. .. L183 4
20 Ibs. timothy, at'8d. perlb. «2 .. 0. a. 018 4
20 lbs. trefoil, at 4d. per lb. ie fhe WMO. gS
23 bushels rye-grass, at 6s. per bushel OWS 0.
Sowing, 2s. 6d. ; harrowing, 1s. : = 3s. 6d. per acre 115 0
— TO.

The eighth field of 10 acres will be seeds after ‘eae —
At the same cost as above aye fe 7 48
The ninth field of 10 acres will be wheat after seeds :-—
Ploughing, at 10s. per acre
Drilling, rolling, and harrowing, at Gs. per acre |
One-third rent and rates for herbage, ploughed
in at say 21. 3s. 6d. per acre, at 14s. 6d.
2 bushels of seed-wheat per acre, at 7s. .. ..

ns

AQ wo
oe ee)

The tenth field of 10 acres will be wheat after seeds :—
Costing asabove.. .. .. vented taep hie OF 22 5 0

Patel: sccmewtl Klinawy wee F2(02)) 9).

176 Farm Capital.

The above 25. acres of barley and 25 acres of wheat will require
weeding, and the 5 acres of beans or peas will oe hoeing,
ala probable expense of 4s, peracre .. .. we) $0) pero LOO
The 25 acres of barley will cost about 4s. 6d. an acre mowing ;
5s. Gd. turning, cocking, carting, raking, and stacking, including
team labour; ls. paring and. finishing ricks ; and 1s, 6d.
thatching; in all, 12s. 6d. per acre... 15 12 6
The 25 acres of wheat will cost about 12s. an acre Yeaping ; 3s. 6d,
carting and stacking; 1s. paring and finishing ricks; and 1s, 6d.
thatehing; in all, lis. 6d. peracre .. ZL LT AG
he acres of beans or peas will cost about 9s, an acre hacking ;
. 6d. carting and stacking; 1s. paring and finishing; and
io 6d. thatchine ; in all, 15s. ‘per acre 20 315 0
The 20 acres of clover-hay, if no part is grazed with sheep, will
cost, by the time it is stacked and thatched, about 15s.:per acre, or 15 0 0
For the purpose of comparison with the foregoing estimate for a
clay farm, I must here insert the same expense for cutting and
harvesting the 30 acres of meadow-hay, 18s. per acre... rate 10) (0)
There will also be required 3 months’ wages without beer for ‘4
men—a waggoner, a shepherd, and two labourer s—say 13s. each ;
per week, and a boy at.Js. 6d, per week %2) 9 22> 7 GRO oe Ome

—_.

Total ... see wis!» eet anna

This will, I believe, be sufficient, as the turnip-hoeing and also
the harvesting the corn, &c., are included above under their
several heads.

A farmer occupying this kind of soil would most probably
winter breeding-ewes on his grass-land instead of shear-hogs, as
estimated for on the clay-land, but at much the same cost. After
drawing part of his turnips off for the beasts to eat with the straw
in the yards, he would consume the remainder on the land by
means of the lambs. If he had a good average crop of turnips,
he might calculate upon their carrying 15 lambs per acre for the
16 winter weeks. As these would correspond in value, though
not in numbers, to the sheep required to consume the vetches on
the clay-land, I do not propose to make any difference under the
head of live-stock for a light-land farm of moderate richness.

A lighter class of horse could also be used ; but if the farmer
looked forward to selling them at 6 years old for first-class farm-
horses, he would not be able to make any material deduction in
their first cost. It may, however, be generally assumed that one
team, whether it require to be of 4 horses, 3 horses, or 2 horses,
will cultivate 80 acres of land in due course of husbandry.

There would also be some little difference in particular imple-
ments from those above specified in details; but it would be
extending this Paper to too great a length to recapitulate them.
The principal alterations would be, the substitution of a third
iron plough for the two wooden ones, and the addition of a turnip-
drill, a turnip-cutter, and three sets of G O tackle. But I do
not think there would be any very material difference in the total

Farm Capital. 177

cost of the implements. Should, however, the pasture-land,
whether on a clay or a light subsoil, be rich enough to carry
cattle of a larger size, more money must be allowed for their
purchase than I have before specified. ‘There will, however, be
no difference in the value of the sheep. But, to make this Essay
more generally applicable and available, I will give the following
estimate for 70 acres of such pasture-land, divided as before into
seven fields of 10 acres each, which, with 30 acres for mowing,
will make altogether 100 acres. The first fattening-field of

10 acres will therefore require-——
fo Se ae
8 beast, at 18/7. each eee oo oe et ere MON e210)
10 sheep, at 2/. 10s. each Metre to oe 25 0 0
— 129 0 0

The second fattening field of 10 acres :— .

The same as the above, at a cost of a 129) 2080
The two fields of 10 acres each for dairying, allowing Lh a acres to

each cow, will require :—

MOSCOW S a Eltr LOLS CACI. . vrsepn ries. Oped Udell edly ano eta 6220 o:07, (0
The first store-field of 10 acres :—

7 beast, at 11/7. each BPS ea! ven heae Gn. O.

15 sheep, at 27. 10s. each se ees! 37 10 O

The second store-field of 10 acres :—
he same as the above, atba.costof .. «+ «« .«- ee 11410 0
The third store-field of 10 acres :—
The same asthe above .. .. 114 10 0
For the purpose of comparison, I shall ‘add the same amount I
have previously stated for Pigs 12/7. 10s. ; sheep on vetches,
1687.; and horses, 2107... ? Boa fete, seule yw

Total ae etait SSIALT WO) (0)
The total capital therefore degree es fie profitable occupa-

tion of a clay-farm of 200 acres of medium richness, as first
mentioned, will be—

rats: a,

inoystockame cw gay Velpe S229 1013-0 20
Gultivationsige., 4.00, aot 92s 263 18 4
luge AS aan ee ee 163 6 O
Iimplementss .tueeaweeemce. one 100, IC +e
Total yo at sea LLGLT i De -6

Or, in round numbers, 87. 10s. per acre.

For a clay- fave of 200 acres, with a richer description of
pasture-land—

ea Sed

TOU OtOCK pai eis sen odmege ollie iO% 80
OUUVATIONS, =. «4 less «oem oe 263 18 4
ILE IS ORERE, tale Andee III a Lata ih | Be S33 (5.5 (0)
inmplements: 7... 23 9S c) tae 206° 117 Fe
Total "A re eellispal I

Or 9/. 10s. per acre.
VOL. XXII. N

178 Farm Capital.

For a light-land farm of 200 acres of medium richness—

EB. Puigh gs
Live Stoeké jcsiiis.e ies) acs SLOSS AONKO
@uiltivationst i. asset eee 272. 9 2
Labour .<., Ass ca) ee eee 127 Al #0
Implements 50 ic) | yee ee LOOM to

—

Motalts tee) sa. ee SU GIOHaT 1A:
Or 87. per acre.

For a light-land farm of 200 acres with a richer description of
pasture- aed

Sulake

Tive StOCk «+ sais con vee, oo, fh eet TE OD
@ultivationss9) cs) wace Beene 272 9 2
Labour sac. sc! ce See ee LAK Tie
Implements) 7%. "2." <2v) Bec ince pra OGmlacg mee
Total seo ess), wo CI BOR

Or 91, per acre.

As so much of the capital required in farming depends upon
the cost and economical application of manual labour, and more
attention has been paid of late years to the comfort and condition of
the agricultural labourer, I think that a short account of the mode
in which I deal with my men will not only be interesting to those
who are desirous of promoting their social improvement—a matter
in which I am myself much interested, but will not be out of
place in this Essay considered in a commercial light only.

When I entered on my present farm, seven years ago, I found
everything had been allowed to go out of repair—even the rick-
pillars were broken down and the ricks built upon their ruins or
upon the ground; and hardly in any place did I find two un-
broken rails standing together in the rickyard-fence. The
labourers were dissatisfied, only partially employed, and even
sent home at 8 or 12 o’clock in the day if the weather turned out
unfavourable after they had come to work in the morning, thus
being allowed to make only part wages however willing they
might be to work. The landlord of course had the rick-pillars
rebuilt and the fences repaired, and I set to work to put the
labourer upon a different footing. I took for some days the
opportunity of quietly watching the labourers who had previously
been employed on the farm, at chen work, and selected those who
appeared most likely to answer my purpose. The wages paid
at that time to the best men, when a whole week’s work was done,
were lls. per week from Michaelmas to Lady-day, and 11s. to
12s. per week, with a daily allowance of 1 quart of beer per man
per day, from Lady-day till Michaelmas. There was an extra
allowance in harvest-time of 1 quart of beer and 1 gallon of ale

Farm Capital. 179

per man per day, although in practice the allowance was un-
limited when carting was going on.

I caleulated that the one quart of beer per day from Lady-day
to Michaelmas, at 6d. per gallon, was 9d. per week, or for
GMARRECIOMUOION ad (ce ise pute, limes, | em tee wget new oO! 19! 6
The extra quart of beer per day at 6d. per gallon, and the
gallon of ale at 1s. per gallon, for the six weeks during which
the hay and corn harvests and covering in the ricks usually
RCH MoU Noted Like frautere) cenis i ver) hen bweit cuore ObI6

Making a total cost for beer per manof .. .. .. £3 0 0

In consequence of the constant disputes about the beer, and
the discontent which I had seen ensue at different places when
a petition for more beer had been refused, I determined not to
give any beer, but a money allowance instead. This I thought
would not only put an end to a constant source of annoyance, but
would enable me to ascertain the exact cost of every act of
husbandry. I therefore informed the men one Saturday night
that I intended to give no beer. At this they were disposed to
murmur, but I set that to rights by informing them that during
a great part of the time they really did not want the beer, and
that they would find coffee better for them, although they could
not do without beer in harvest time or when they worked extra
hours ; and by asking them whether the beer they received was
worth 2/. 12s., or 1s. a week for the year, to each of them. They
admitted that it was not, and I then offered to hire them from
that time, Lady-day, till the following Michaelmas at 13s. per
week without beer, they being bound to serve me, and I to find
them work, wet or dry, and to give them so much of the harvest
work by the piece as they could do well. They accepted this
offer, having only the alternative of leaving. Of course it was
not necessary for me to show them that I was a clear gainer by
the transaction, the extra 1s. a week, or 26s. for the time, being
much less than the cost of the usual allowance of beer. But I
considered that I was doing them no injury, inasmuch as I was
to find them regular work for the whole time, whether imme-
diately profitable to myself or not.

This being an entirely new mode of proceeding in this part of
the country, | anticipated some little difficulty in carrying it out.
The men, however, seemed very pleased with their full pay, and
everything went on very smoothly until haymaking began, when a
few of the men began complaining that they could not work with-
out beer. Bottles were very ostentatiously filled with water at the
ponds, and their contents drunk, as a hint tome. I took no notice
of this except by a good-humoured joke, advising them to get their
wives or sweethearts to make them a good lot of tea or coffee to

N 2

180 Farm Capital.

bring with them the next day, as they would find that better than
the water. These hints not being sufficient to soften my hard
heart, more open murmuring was tried, and the men began to
work carelessly, coming off the rick to go to the ponds or pumps
to drink after unloading one load, and before they would com-
mence another, ‘They also exhibited other signs of mutiny.
This of course could not be allowed, and after calling the men
together, I told them I was not going to stand any such nonsense
I had kept my part of the bargain and they must keep theirs.
They had had their money, and if they chose to spend it in
other ways than in buying beer, it was no concern of mine. But
I would have the work done, and I expected them out of their
wages to buy such a quantity of beer as would enable them to
work properly. Finally, I ended by offering to release any of
them who wished it from their bargain upon their returning me
the extra ls. that I had paid them. But I said they might
depend upon one thing, that I would let all the hay rot on the
ground before I allowed my men to master me. One man began
grumbling: I said, ‘Here is your money till to-day; take
your clothes and go off the premises instantly.” There was no
more trouble; the others all returned to their work, and from
that day till this I have never heard one word about beer.

We soon got to understand each other better, but I never
offered to pay them for overtime, putting them on their honour,
as it were, and giving a moderate quantity of beer as an acknow-
ledgment, when the work was kept on after eight o’clock at night,
and telling them that we should not disagree at Michaelmas. At
Michaelmas I gave to each man who had behaved well, whether
he continued with me or whether I replaced him by another,
half a ton of the best coal, which is worth here from 9s. to 10s.
delivered. At Michaelmas also no man to whom I made the
offer hesitated to accept my offer of 13s. a week for the next
twelve months, and with the exception of what occurred during
the first summer I have never had a dispute with my men, and
once only have I had to punish a man for refusing to work.

I still continue giving at Michaelmas to every man who has
been with me the preceding six months at least, and behaved
well, coals, a waterproof cape, flannel, or some other thing which
he selects as most useful to him; I also give the boys a propor-
tionate allowance. My labourers and I now work together upon
the most cordial terms; I never have a man offer to leave me. |
have the pick of the village, although I let them clearly under-
stand that I can make no more of my produce than my neighbours,
-and will pay no mote for labour. But at the same time they
perfectly understand that I am willing to pay in such a manner,
as to enable them to make the most of their strength and skill.

Farm Capital. 181

I consider for my own part that, taking the average wages usually
paid here to the best man for the elie months at te 6d. per
week without beer, adding 1s. per week or 2/, 12s. per annum for
beer (although the Gileulution above made shows that the beer
actually costs more), and also 6d. per week or 26s, per annum
for extra beer, making in the whole 13s, a week, and setting it
all against the overtime, for which I do not pay, my labour does
not actually cost me more than other people pay for theirs, And
if a man is able out of his 11s. 6d. a week to clothe and maintain
himself and his family, and pay his rent also, then I consider
that the extra 1s. 6d. a week, which is spent entirely on food as I
arrange it, ought to give me a man physically more fit to do his
work. Che in practice I find this to be the case. I have not
only the gratification of being told by the vicar, that my men,
both igamicd and single, are sioneét the most respectable al
well-conducted in the’ village, but I ‘have been repeatedly told by
the neighbouring farmers : e I can’t think what you do with your
men. As soon as my back is turned [ have little work done, but
come by your farm when I will, your men are always at work.”
A labourer who feels himself well used will soon repay his
master 2d. a day, or 1s. a week, by working with a will and not
idling.

I should not be doing justice to the men themselves if I
closed this part of my Essay without stating that, independently
of a good day’s work being given for a good day’s pay, there
is such a good feeling amongst them, that several times in the
course of a year, when it has been a very wet day, I have found
them not come to work, preferring to forfeit their wages rather
than ask me for work when they knew that there was none of a
nature immediately profitable to me to be done, And this they
have done notwithstanding that they are well aware that I am
bound to pay them, wet or fine, if they come, and that I always
contrive to have some jobs which can be done under cover at
such times. [also pointed out to them the best way of buying
their beer. Each man now buys for his own consumption one
18-gallon cask of ale at 1s. a gallon, and another 18-gallon cask
of beer at 6d. per gallon, direct from the brewer, ime of pur-
chasing it at douhle fhas price in small quantities at the public
house. ‘This again gives them to spend in extra beer or anything
else they like, 25s. per annum, being the difference between the
actual cost of the beer they buy, and the 2/. 12s. I allow for it.
The first year I guaranteed payment to the brewer, but ever
since that time they have easily obtained credit. But I fancy
they have seldom availed themselves of that facility since 1
showed them that by paying cash they could get-5 per cent.
discount upon it. During the late ver M0 untoward season I secured
all my hay (more than 30 acres) in first-rate condition during

182 Farm Capital.

the few fine days we had, without using a tedding machine,
and carried and stacked my corn (nearly 100 acres) in quite as
good order as my neighbours. To effect this, notwithstanding
that I often kept on carrying until 10 or 11 o'clock at night,
one 18-gallon cask of 1s. ale, and two or three lots of soup, were
all the extra supplies and expenses required. I consider that by
not idling about my men save me in the course of the year much
aone thanthe value sie coals, &c., which I give at Michaelmas,
although that is a gratuity entirely Ww ein my own discretion, saith
no part of the bargain which I make with them.

Rugby.

SoME circumstances attending the publication of the preceding
Essay seem to call for explanation to account for its not having
received that amount of correction and revision which had ves
intended. ‘The author met the editor at Leeds by agreement ;
discussed with him the pages relating to the heavy-land farm ;
made an appointment for the next day to report upon the sug-
gested alterations, and continue the revision ; but in the interval
he was seized by an illness which terminated fatally in three or
four days. An acquaintance thus brief had, however, sufficed to
inspire a lively interest and proportionate regret for the sudden
death of one whose business-like habits, acuteness, and zeal gave
promise of valuable service to the cause of agriculture.

The question then arose, How was the Essay to be dealt with ?
It is essential that those substantial corrections which may often
be serviceably introduced into treatises should be made with
the concurrence of the author; short of this it would be rash
in the extreme to make any change before opportunity has
been afforded to him of explaining and justifying his posi-
tion.* In the present case the value of the contribution muck
depends on the fact, that, in the main, the items in the account
have either been actually allowed by a valuer, or paid by the
author, and entered in his day-book ; and if some few rest on a
theoretical basis from facts ascertained on one kind of farm
having been imported somewhat conjecturally into the other, or
from the difficulty of making a neat join between two tenancies,
the extent of these icone eal items cannot in the first case he

* There are considerations which point strongly to the inexpediency of pressing
forward publication until not ouly the work of adjudication, a task which cannot be
hurried, but also that of revision by editor and author conjointly, has been deli-
berately performed. Under any circumstances, the essays of unsuccessful com-
petitors returned upon the award being announced, will often get a priority in
publication. It will rest with author and editor, by subsequent painstaking, to
convert perhaps a slight advantage in merit into a substantial superiority, But
concert, time, and a stock in hand are essential to reconcile these aims and ends
with the demands for puxctual publication.

Farm Capital. 183

now ascertained, or readily diminished in the second by readjust-
ment of the calculations. The Essay must stand therefore as, on
the whole, a careful record of facts applicable to a certain district.

If we attempt to pass from the consideration of that which
has been done on one spot to what.should be the general practice,
the divergence will perhaps be so considerable under the head
of cultivation, that no amount of revision could have reconciled
our aspirations with the record before us.

In ane point of view only ¢ can | regard the item “ cultinicn ”
with any satisfaction, viz., ‘that after all, it bears but a small pro-
portion to the entire Susi required for taking and stocking a
farm, yet it must not be overlooked that this is almost the only
head which it is in our power materially to modify. Our
grounds of dissatisfaction are twofold :—

Ist. That in spite of the aspirations and lively anticipations
of many of the most able and practical writers on agriculture
over a series of years, these numerous ploughings still com-
monly hold their ground in making a turnip-fallow ; and

2ndly. That, in the event of a change of tenancy, the works
of tillage to be performed are too often left to the choice of the
outgoing tenant, or the now arbitrary decision of tradition and
custom, and that the rate of payment allowed for them by that
same custom is generally excessive.

To show what these aspiratiéns have been, two references will
suffice; one of early, another of recent date :—

In vol. xi. p. 423 of this ‘ Journal,’ Mr. Pusey, when describing
the work of making a fallow after the old fashion, with its
winter-ploughing, followed by spring-ploughing, dragging; scarl-
fying, heavy-rolling, harrowing, light-rolling, and picking,—a
series of operations ‘to be repeated a gerantl: and very likely a
third time,” adds, “all this I have done, al done for the last
time.” He then quotes from Bayldon a schedule of operations,
costing 2/. 9s. 6d.* in all, and is sanguine enough to anticipate

Per Acre.
7 Ete ei
First ploughing at Christmas, at the rate of } of an acre a day 010 O
Second ploughing in the spring, at 1 acre a "day 0 8 0
Four times of harrowing 0 4 0
Rolling once ; : 0! L0
Gathering and burning auelil cs dawl a uie. wee kcal JuaOe Al 6
Third ploughing PE Oran <a hed Moe) OP
Three harrowings .. 0 3 0
Rolling Om 20!
Two harrowings 0) 20
Corcme... ..° ... OF 1.0
Fourth ploughing euliss One O
Harrowing and rolling .. Bee tae oe 0 3 0
Couching, &e., last ere gti, A as eR xt or a0

184 Farm Capital.

that 2/. of this outlay may be struck off when the practice of
for king out the couch-grass before ploughing the wheat-stubble
is generally adopted, by which means, according to Mr, Bond,
the greater portion of the fallow will reed only to be ploughed
once, as a preparation for the wheat crop, Mr, Pusey concludes
by expressing a hope that such a bill as that cited from Bayldon
may be read as a curiosity in after years,

Mr. Morton also writes in the ‘ Journal of the Bath and West
of England Society,’ 1861, vol. ix. part 2, p. 218:—“ The use
of the cultivator with the occasional employment of the plough,
instead of the use of the plough with the occasional employment
of the cultivator, is now, and as a lesson of recent agricultural
experience, § generally vied to be the most economical way to
the attainment of tilth. On clay land especially, as already said,
a single ploughing before winter is almost all that such lane
shonitl ens throughout the year. Spring work should, if
possible, be ahi to the use of implements which stir the
furrow-slice, and the seed-bed should be prepared upon the winter-
weathered surface. No other surface, turned up by a spring-
ploughing, can be generally reduced so easily or perfectly by the
roller and the harrow.”

When it is considered how nearly determinate most of the
outgoings on a farm now are, we cannot doubt but that the atten-
tion of thoughtful men is specially directed to those few items
which odtanvi of considerable variation, amongst which the cost
of the fallow surely holds a foremost place, involving, as it does,
an outlay which may seriously affect the question of profit
or loss.

In theory it can hardly be disputed that a single inversion of
the soil, the retaining that same surface at seed-time which felt
the winter’s frost, is the best management; practically we have
to reconcile this aim with the requirements of different soils
and climates for the destruction of weeds of different habits of
growth,

Under most circumstances, when the right moment can be
freely chosen, skill and energy, if combined with some me-
chanical ingenuity, will probably solve the problem ; but it is not
easy thus to seize the exact moment for every spot on the farm,
whilst some weeds there are which, while dormant, are tortured
in vain, and when enlivened by the progress of spring do not
much regard the mere combing of the cultivator or the scratching
of the harrow. For such foes extermination is no doubt the
proper remedy, but, like certain tribes of men whose extinction
has been decreed by high authorities, the race is stubborn, and,
if scotched, reappears whenever it gets an opening. Never-
theless, as the two poles of profitable farming are now, increased

Farm Capital. 185

receipts from stock on the one hand, and decreased outlay from
economical cultivation on the other, it is of the highest import-
ance that every man should do his Gost to approach as nearly
as possible to the theory of perfection, viz., single inversion of
the soil.

To this end it is important that those interested in the question
should confer .and compare notes, and no better means to this
end can be suggested, than that the local societies which are in
the habit of offering prizes for the best fields of roots, should, for
a while, restrict their award to the best and cleanest field grown
with a single 1 inversion of the soil; competitors generally, and the
prizeman in particular, being called upon to state the processes
of cultivation employed, their cost, their date, and also the im-
plements employed and the chief me eradicated,

If a prize were likewise given for the best communication con-
taining a record of failure, with explanations of the causes to
whichi¢ that failure was assignable, it would perhaps contribute as
much to the advancement of agriculture as those awarded to
successful merit.

Under the second head it may be affirmed that a custom
which empowers the outgoing tenant to perform acts of tillage
otherwise than as dipected by fine landlord or his delegate, and Oe
charge at a rate which leaves a profit, is a part of tenant-right
which has hardly a redeeming feature, and acts prejudicially
on the recognition of other allowances which may more justly
claim to be made for mutual benefit ; although its abolition must
be attended with this limitation—that the tenant must be em-
powered to proceed according to the custom of the country, if
not otherwise instructed in due time.

Where allowances are made for manures purchased, or rich
feeding stuffs consumed in preceding years, the allowance, even
if somewhat in excess of the benefit realized, or liable to abuse,
tends to keep the soil at that artificial pitch of fertility, which is
found to give the best economical results, and from which it is
never depressed without far greater subsequent loss to the man
on whom the restorative process devolves, than immediate gain
to him who perhaps feels that he is only extracting wand he
himself had deposited. ;

The object of maintaining land constantly in a clean state by
tillage is probably of equal importance with the preceding, but
the machinery at present in use to secure this end is at best very
imperfect, and, under the form here considered, has no influence
in checking that supineness to which the withdrawal of the
stimulus of self-interest naturally leads, but is merely a clumsy
stopgap to prevent an utter standstill. In this, as in other
respects, the prospect of change will tell unfavourably on the

186 Farm Capital.

management during several years preceding the termination of
a tenancy, but the shift of Jand which will be in fallow au the
last year will probably be that which will have been least subject
to this influence, especially under the four-course rotation.

The fallow break therefore is not that part of the farm to the
clean state of which our attention should be especially directed,
if we would obviate or mitigate the evils arising from change,
but rather those fields which were fallowed in the immediately
preceding years. But even supposing that it were the most
important object of attention, what would be the dictates of
a sound policy with regard to it? Assuredly not that which
would lead to an extra amount of tillage, even if requisite and
judicious, becoming a source of extra profit to the man through
whose negligence it has become necessary ; but rather that the
allowances made for the maintenance of a fair state of cleanliness
should be replaced by penalties on foulness, or, if that view of
the subject be visionary, at least that the allowances made should
be so barely remunerative as to constitute a somewhat onerous
obligation rather than a source of gain.

At the very least the rate of charge for tillages allowed to the
outgoing tenant ought to be calculated on the basis of mutual
accommodation, not that which leaves a margin for trade profit.
That this charge has been so generally calculated, few I think
will venture to affirm; to what extent it should be taxed is
a question that can only be solved by a large mass of evidence
from the well-kept account-books of skilful managers. On
this and many other points we have had too much theorizing,
and that of the worst kind, as coming from men who were
theorizing unconsciously. Some, too, of our standard books
laboured under this difficulty—that the author had to justify a fore-
gone conclusion; he was a valuer of long-established business
and reputation ; his new calculations could not much diverge
from his former awards without seriously damaging his position ;
and yet causes such as improvements in implements, drainage,
free circulation of air, and in management, were in slow but con-
stant operation, tending to an improv ed economy in labour, such
as to call fora revision of the tariff in our day, if not witht a
shorter period.

If we may be called upon to account for the origin of unsatisfac-
tory arrangements for the performance of acts of cultivation under
a change of tenancy, the answer will not be difficult. Estate
management was more in its infancy a few years back than farm-
ing, and few functions were more inadequately performed, or
salaries more easily earned, than those of the old-fashioned estate-
agent. He probably had not that practical knowledge of agricul-
ture which would enable him to give even general directions for

Farm Capital. 187

the course of tillage to be adopted. His visits were too short
and far between to enable him to exercise any supervision ; and
he was often too remiss to have even found a new tenant who
would watch over his own interest, until the eleventh hour.
Besides, if the old tenant went out very much in arrear, with
much diminished crops, these allowances found their way prac-
tically into the landlord’s pocket to cover the deficit, and it was
convenient that their amount should be considerable.

These remarks have been naturally suggested by the question
of the capital required for taking a farm. It is against the
public interest, as well as against agricultural progress, that these
requirements should be excessive. When all superfluities have
been removed, if improved farming is to be carried out, a sum
will still be required considerably larger than was anywhere
employed in bygone times, or than our inferior districts can now
readily command.

The farmer has replaced the yeoman, simply because when a
man puts his brains and his time as well as his money into an
occupation, it is profitable to make the area of that business as
large as is compatible with good management ; and these advan-
tages are so great as to outweigh those arising from the superior
control, which is a necessary attribute of ownership. Sound
economy suggests that this subdivision between the owner or
capitalist, and tenant or trader, should be carried out as far as is
convenient ; that the latter should not employ his means, which
in connection with his attention are worth to him 10 per cent.,
where those procurable by the capitalist at 4 per cent are avail-
able ; and, on the other hand, that the former should not make
any outlay that implies partnership in trade. Admitting these
general principles, questions will practically arise whether, pri-
marily at least, the work of some abiding improvements should
not be effected by the tenant, when farm-labour enters largely into
their cost, in consequence of his superior command and control
over such agencies. The work of marling and liming, and, if
there be skill on the one side and confidence on the other, the
cutting of drains, are cases in point; on the principles above
stated the cost of draining should fall upon the owner, where,
as in most cases, it is an indisputable benefit ; that of liming or
marling might likewise do so, unless its advantage be so far
questionable as to imply partnership in a doubtful enterprise.

The Essay before us is certainly defective in one respect; viz.
in assuming that an adequate supply of manure will be found on
the farm by the incoming tenant without cost to himself, This is
surely Utopian! In fact the new tenant may either find manure
composed of ground straw and water with a little horse-dung,
free of charge,—and then he will have a supplementary bill for

188 Farm Capital.

artificial manures; or a somewhat better manure (but of what
precise quality and worth it will be hard to determine), to be .
taken at a valuation; or else some good bullock-dung, coupled
with a bill, which he cannot very rel tax, for percentages on
feeding-stuffs consumed by his predecessor.

The. alternatives are none of them very satisfactory : the second
being probably the least so, as most matter of guess-work ; the
first perhaps least riskful to the individual, if the land has
a good staple, so as to bear for a while the forcing of artificials ;
the latter decidedly for the public weal as maintaining the fer-
tility of the soil, and therefore to be adopted, if it can be done
with proper security for the interests of both parties concerned.
One practical difficulty will be, that oilcake, Kc. supplied in
scanty allowances to growing stock will not leave as rich a
residuum as if given largely to old fat beasts. Any covenanted
allowance feweton re should be moderate, if not low, whereas in
practice it seems either not to be recognized at all, or else very
highly estimated.

There is another item not included in this estimate, which is
often of much importance in a farm valuation—that of the allow-
ance for straw.

Whenever the sale of this article is not specifically authorized
under definite conditions, it is important that any allowance
made under this head, whether on account of its value as food
for off-stock, or in default of the fulfilment of some obligation
to thresh and carry out corn, should not creep up into exag-
gerated proportions.

Where custom only is the rule, the area to which such custom
applies is necessarily ill defined; at different centres clearly
opposite customs prevail; between them may lie much border
or debatable ground, or ground which the ingenuity of lawyers
may make appear such. When there is any really intricate conflict ©
of custom, so much of technicality is involved that a town
attorney has a difficulty in preparing the brief, a purely legal
advocate in eliciting the facts, the judge in seeing the bearings,
and the jury, especially a town jury, in deciding on the merits
of the case. The bias will probably be in favour of the claim
for enlarged compensation; the lawyer probably thinking that
he who has a right has a full right; the middle-class juryman
readily adopting a view which is apparently favourable to one,
and not so obviously at the cost of another member of his own
class ; and thus the capital required for stocking a farm may be
increased to the injury of the community at large, but especially
that of estates in the neighbourhood, for in he a in any case,
“tua res agitur paries cum proximus ardet,”

These remarks are intended rather to call attention to sound

Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep. 189

principles than to suggest special courses of action. In some
neighbourhoods very great practical difficulties may exist in the
way of their being carried out, but at least, if the principles be
recognized as Eoiad, adverse customs will not be allowed to
spread if they exist, or to be introduced if they have not yet got
hold. England always deals very tenderly with vested interests,
and is wise and far-sighted i in so doing. In the matter before
us the only vested rights at all in conflict with the public good
are those of tenants in possession ; this interest is by no means
identical with that of the most enterprising and_ successful
class of farmers, who, for themselves or their belongings, are
quite as much takers, as holders of farms. It is against the
takers of farms that these rights most militate, the landlord occu-
pying almost a neutral position between the two parties.

On the other side, if there are rights not established, which
might on the whole conduce to agricultural wealth, ‘canal so
Benent the public, this is partly on account of the risks they
involve; the difficulty of adjusting the terms arising from our
imperfect knowledge ; the exaggerated form which these rights
sometimes assume, and some apprehension of that strong English
leaning, of each we have just observed the favourable ade
to sanction the growth even to excess of any usage based on a
concession— P, H. Frere.

XI.— Fifth Report of Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep.
By J. B. Lawns, F.RS., F.C.S., and Dr. J. H. GILBERT,
ERS, F.CS.

Iy several Reports in this Journal on the Comparative Fattening
Qualities of different Breeds of Sheep*—Hampshire and Sussex
Downs, Cotswolds, Leicesters, Cross-bred Wethers, and Cross-bred
Ewes—we have given the particulars of the feeding, with good
fattening food, and under cover, of forty or more of each of the
descriptions rontieaed. from the age of nine or ten to that of fifteen
or sixteen months, When fattened’ up to this point, about two-fifths
of each lot were sold alive ; about two-fifths were slaughtered and
sold dead, and the particulars obtained relating to ie quantity
of the meat produced under the system Ber early and rapid
fattening were recorded. ‘The remaining animals were removed
from the shed to the open field, and fed till Christmas, that is,
for some seven or eight months longer. It is the results of the
feeding of these few sheep from the moderately fat to the very

* ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,’ vol. xii., Part 2;
vol. xiii, Part 1; and vol. xvi., Part 1.

190 Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep.

fat condition which form the subject of the present short com-
munication.
There were thus further fattened—

8 Hampshire Downs,

8 Sussex Downs,

6 Cotswolds,

8 Leicesters,

8 Cross-bred Wethers (Leicester ram and Southdown ewe),
8 Cross-bred Ewes (Leicester ram and Southdown ewe).

During what may be called the first period of feeding, that is,
from November or December, when the sheep were nine or ten
months old, to the following April or May, when they were fifteen
or sixteen months old, and moderately fat, they received, under
cover, a liberal daily allowance (according to their weight) of
oilcake and clover-chaff, and also as many roots as they chose to
eat, the amount of which was weighed. During the second period of
feeding (to which the present Report specially refers) the reserved
lots above enumerated received from April or May up to the
following Christmas, in the field, the same amount of oilcake *
in proportion to their weight as formerly, and, in addition, hay-
chaff and roots at the commencement of the period; then green
clover or grass during the three summer months, from the early
part or middle of June to the early part or middle of September ;
and then again, hay-chaff and roots, up to the termination of the
experiment.

After a few general observations on the progress made in this
second period, we propose to call attention to the comparative
amounts of food consumed, and to its comparative productiveness,
during the “first” and ‘second ” periods respectively—that is,
from the store to the moderately fat condition in the one case, and
from the moderately fat to the very fat in the other.

The sheep were weighed monthly; and it was found that
every one of the lots, in fact almost every animal of these
previously house-fed and moderately fat sheep, lost weight, more
or less, under the exposure to the heat and drought of summer,
when feeding in the field upon clover or grass, notwithstanding
that they had at the same time a fair allowance of oilcake also.

The Hampshire and Sussex Downs were fed through the
summer and autumn of 1851. From May 8 to June 19 they
had, besides oilcake, hay-chaff and roots. From June 19 they
were turned for three months upon green clover. During the
first month of the three the weather was very hot, and there was

* The Cotswolds had lentils instead of oileake during a considerable portion of
the ‘‘second” period of feeding.

Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep. 191

less than the average fall of rain. Both lots lost weight, the
Hampshires losing the most. In the second month, with com-
paratively moderate height and range of temperature, but still
little rain, the Hampshires gained pretty well, but the Sussex
sheep still lost a little. In the third month, which was not hot,
but continued dry, both lots lost again. The result was that,
oyer the whole three months during which the sheep were fed
upon green clover, as much as they chose to eat, with oilcake in
addition, the eight Hampshires only gained 6 lbs., whilst the
eight Sussex sheep taken together lost 22 lbs.

The Cotswolds were fed through the summer and autumn of 1852.
From April 17 to June 14 they received, besides oilcake (or lentils),
hay-chaff and roots. On June 14 they were put upon grass and
were kept upon it for three months, having the usual allowance,
according to their weight, of oilcake (or lentils) in addition.
During the first of these three months the temperature was more
moderate, both in height and range, and the fall of rain was
rather higher, than in the corresponding month of 1851. Still
the sheep lost considerably. During the next two months the
temperature was generally higher than in the other years of
experiment, but the fall of rain was considerable; and during
these two months the 6 Cotswolds so far regained as to reduce
the loss of weight over the three months to 7 lbs, on the lot of
sheep. In the next succeeding two months every one of the
6 sheep gained very considerably.

It was during the summer and autumn of 1853 that the
Leicesters, and the two lots of cross-breds, were turned out.
They had oilcake, hay-chaff, and roots, from April 21 to June 7.
For two months from June 7 they were fed upon grass, and
then for about six weeks upon green clover, with oilcake, as
usual. During the first month upon grass, commencing June 7,
both the height and range of temperature were lower, and the
fall of rain was larger, than during the corresponding period
of the two preceding years, Still the Leicesters lost a little,
and the cross-breds gained but little. In the next month the
temperature was comparatively low, but the fall of rain was
very large, and all three lots lost weight more or less—the cross-
bred wethers losing the most. During the next or third month,
with only moderate height and range of temperature, but with
very little rain succeeding the previous heavy fall, all three lots
regained considerably. ‘The result was that, taking the whole of
the three summer months of 1853, during which the temperature
was generally much lower, and the fall of rain more liberal, than
in the two other seasons, the Leicesters and cross-breds gave a
very much better rate of increase than did either the Hampshire
or Sussex sheep during the corresponding summer months of
1851, or the Cotswolds during those of 1852.

192 Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep.

It is obvious from the facts just stated, that high temperature
and drought on the one hand, and an excessive fall of rain on the
other, were injurious to the progress of the animals. The result
points to the desirableness of shelter, not only from the more
inclement weather of winter, but from the heat or excessive
rains of summer also, It will presently be seen, how very
large was the amount of food required to produce a given
amount of increase under the circumstances described. Com-
paring, however, the progress of these six lots of sheep, when
turned out during the summer, after having been liberally fed,
under cover, up to a given point of fatness, with that of a few of
several of the lots whieh were ed in the field the whole year
through, the result was, that the latter did very much better than
the former through the summer months, and onwards unto the
time of killing ; so that, over the entire year, they gave nearly the
same amounts of increase, in proportion to their weight, as those
which had been the first half of the time under cover ; although,
during the exposure of the previous winter they had increased
much less rapidly, whilst their consumption of food was doubtless
greater.

It is not proposed to enter into the same numerical details in
regard to these few excessively fattened sheep, as it was thought
desirable to do in the reports of their feeding up to a moderate
and more practically useful degree of fatness. The results are
already calculated and tabulated for our own reference; but
it is thought that the few general observations made above, as the
result of a study of the details, will probably serve every useful
purpose, whilst they will occupy much less space,

The amounts of food consumed, and of increase yielded, &c.,
during the “ first” and “second” periods of feeding respectively,
are recorded in Tables I., II., and III.

Table I. gives, for each description of sheep, and for each
period, the amount of fresh feod consumed per head, per week ;
and both the fresh food, and the dry substance of fhe food (that
is, excluding the. moisture it contained) consumed per 100 lbs.
ie weight, per week.

Table Il. gives, in like manner, the amounts of fresh food, and
dry substance of the food, consumed to produce 100 Ibs. increase
in live weight.

Table III., again, shows the average weight per head, at the
commencement, and at the conclusion of the experiment; the
average increase per head per week; the average increase per
100 Ibs. live-weight, per week; the average weight of carcass
per head; and the proportion of carcass, and of some of the
internal parts, in 100 of live weight.

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VOL. XXII.

of Sheep.

Experiments on the Feeding

194

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Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep. 195

With regard to the estimates given in the Tables of the amounts
of food consumed during “Period 2,” some explanations are
necessary. As already stated, the sheep had, during about three
months out of the seven or eight of the whole period, green clover
or grass in the field, the amount of which was not weighed ; and
it was only when they had not such green food that they were
supplied with hay-chaff and roots. Whenever they had hay-chaff,
which was during nearly five months out of the seven or eight,
the quantity consumed was weighed. They had roots for the same
time as hay-chaff; and in the cases of the Leicesters and cross-
breds, these were weighed during the whole four or five months ;
but in the cases of the Hampshires, Sussex, and Cotswolds, the
roots were only weighed during two months out of the four or
five that they were employed. The oil-cake (or lentils) was,
however, weighed in every case throughout the whole period of
feeding. There is no difficulty, therefore, in calculating the
amount of oil-cake consumed by the animal in relation to a given
live-weight, or to produce a given amount of increase, during the
whole seven or eight months of the feeding experiment. With
regard to the hay-chaff and roots, the average rate of consumption
is taken only over the period in which each was actually consumed.
And in the estimates given in Table II. of the amounts of fresh
food, or dry substance of food, consumed to produce 100 Ibs.
increase in live-weight, it is assumed, for the purpose of com-
parison with the first period of feeding, that the green clover or
grass eaten in the summer months, was equivalent to the hay-chaff
and roots consumed when these were the foods employed. That
is to say, in the Table, the green clover or grass is reckoned as
hay-chaff and roots, in amount bearing the same proportion to
the oil-cake as did the hay-chaff and roots, when these were
actually consumed. The figures given in Tables I. and II. for
the hay-chaff and roots of ‘‘ Period 2” must, therefore, be taken
as only approximate estimates. They will probably be slightly
too high, but they are undoubtedly quite near enough for the
purpose of comparing, on the points in question, the results of
the second period of feeding with those of the first.

In Table I., the first division shows that the amount of oil-
cake consumed per head per week was in all cases considerably
greater during the second period than the first. The estimated
consumption per head per week of hay-chaff was also in most of
the cases rather more, though in some less, in the second period ;
and that of the roots was always greater in the second period
than in the first.

The second division, which gives the amounts of the several
foods consumed per 100 Ibs. live-weight per week, shows that, as

o 2

196 Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep.

was intended, the amount of oil-cake consumed by a given
weight of animal within a given time was almost identical for the
two periods; the estimated amount of hay-chaff was, however,
always less, and that of the roots in some cases less, and in others
more, in the second period than in the first.

But it is in the third division of this Table, which shows the
dry substance of the foods consumed per 100 lbs. live-weight per week,
that we have the best comparison afforded between the rate of
consumption during the earlier and the later periods of fattening.
The figures in the last two columns show that, with every one of
the descriptions of sheep, the average proportion consumed was
rather less during the second period ; that is to say, as the
animals became fatter. The difference is, however, but small;
nor can the whole of it be taken as representing so much less
of real assimilable or respirable matter. The lessened con-
sumption of dry substance in the second period is chiefly in the
hay, which contains a much larger proportion of indigestible
woody-fibre than either of the other descriptions of food ; whilst
the consumption of the dry matter of oil-cake, which would have
a higher respiratory and nutritive capacity than that of either
of the other foods, was always equal, and sometimes greater, in
the second period than the first.

So far then as we may judge of the rate of consumption during
the whole of the extra-fattening period from the results obtained
when the foods were actually weighed, there is but little evidence
of a lessened rate of consumption in relation to the weights of
the animals as they matured. It is very probable, however, that
during the hot season, when the sheep were feeding upon green
clover or grass, their rate of consumption was in reality rather
below, instead of, as we have assumed it, equal to, that of the
other portions of the time. If so, this would somewhat reduce
the average consumption over the whole period, and the average
would then undoubtedly be somewhat lower for the second
period than for the first. The evidence must be taken as, upon
the whole, in favour of the conclusion that it was so,

In the case of pigs, it is found that the consumption in pro-
portion to the weight of the animal decreases very considerably
as it fattens. But the dry substance of the food of the pig contains
a much larger proportion of assimilable and respirable matter, and
a much iyese proportion of indigestible woody-fibre, than ess that
of the sheep. ‘The pig, too, consumes a much larger amount of
dry substance of food, in palate to its weight within a giv en
time, and gives also a fae larger amount of increase for a given
amount of dry substance consmed We should not expect,
therefore, to find so marked a diminution in the rate of consump-
tion of the fattening sheep, as in that of the fattening pig. Still,

Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep. ae

the diminution indicated by the approximate estimates given in
the Table is less than we should have anticipated.

It will presently be seen too, that, at least in these particular
experiments, the amount of increase ébtained for a given amount
of food consumed was much less during the Recond than during
the first period of fattening. Even with pigs, it was found that
there was a slight tendency to give aless amount of gross increase
for a given amount of food consumed as the animal matured.
This diminution was, however, in their case probably com-
pensated for by the increased proportion of real dry or solid
substance in the increase as they matured. Sheep also doubtless
give a somewhat Jess aqueous increase as they fatten. But at
any rate in these particular experiments, in which the animals
lost weight during a part of the later period of feeding, there
was dhe compar ed with the earlier one, far too great a diminu-
tion in the proportion of gross ees to food dénsamed, to be
compensated for by the slightly greater proportion of dry
substance which that increase would contain.*

That the amount of food consumed to a given live-weight
should decrease as the animal matures, might be expected from
the lessened proportion which the respiratory system will bear
to the entire body the more the carcass increases and fattens.
But, independently of this, it would be anticipated that the
demands of the respiratory system would be less during the
warmer months of Period 2; though, during the whole of
Period 1 the animals were muder cover, aad therefore, protected
from inclement weather.

We come now to a more direct consideration of the com-
parative productiveness of the food in the fist and second periods
of fattening, as illustrated by the approximate estimates given
in Table Ii.

It appears that, in the case of every one of the six descriptions
of sheep, there was nearly twice as much oil-cake; in four out
of the six considerably more hay-chaff, or its equivalent ; and in
all cases much more, and in several more than twice as much,
roots ; or, as shown in the two last columns, generally about
1} times as much dry substance of the mixed food, required to
produce 100 Ibs. of increase during the later than during the
earlier period of feeding.

It is not supposed that, under favourable circumstances, the
productiveness of a given amount of food will diminish so rapidly
with the progress of the animal from thesfat to the very fat con-

* For estimates of the 7 and composition of the increase during different

periods of fattening, the reader is referred to our Report in the last number of this
Journal, vol. xxi., part 2.

1985 * Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep.

dition as in the instances here under consideration. Still, the
results of these experiments afford a striking illustration of the
heavy loss that may arise when animals are, from any cause,
allowed to lose weight, especially after they have been once
brought into a condition fit for the butcher. It is obvious, too,
that they may lose under the most liberal system of feeding, if
their comfort in other respects be not duly provided for, It is
true that the sheep kept out of doors all the year round, did not
suffer during the summer months so much as those which had
been under cover during the previous winter, and were already
riper when turned out. In fact, though the more hardily treated
sheep increased very much less during the winter months,
over the whole year they increased nearly as much as those
which had been housed during nearly the first half of the time,
and had then increased so rapidly. But doubtless the nearly
equal total increase of the entirely field-fed sheep was, as already
observed, obtained at the expense of a much larger proportional
consumption of food during the exposure of the early part of
their feeding.

This comparison of the results of experiments on the excessive
fattening of sheep—whether for the most part housed, or fed in
the field throughout—with those obtained when they are only
moderately fattened, clearly points to the great economy of food
attained by adopting a system of early and rapid fattening.

In the second main division of Table II1., which shows the
average increase per week, both per head, and per 100 lbs.
live-weight, irrespectively of the amounts of food consumed, we
have again strikingly brought to view the great difference in
the rate of progress of thes animals during the two periods of
feeding. Notwithstanding the much greater weights of the
sheep during the second period, not one of the lots gave so much
increase per head per week then, as during the earlier period ;
and calculated in relation to 100 lbs. live-weight, instead of
per head, it was, in every case, only about half as much in the
later stage of feeding.

Table III. shows, however, that these extra-fattened shee
gave the greater proportion of carcass to live weight; and, that
the condition of their carcasses was such as is more valued at
the Christmas markets than that of the more moderately-fed
animals, is freely granted. But the practical question arises—
Is the extra price obtained equivalent to what will frequently
be the extra cost of production? We think certainly not.

The following table shows the average weights of the carcasses
of the different lots, both in the moderately fat, and in the very
fat condition, reckoned both in stones of 8lbs., and in lbs. per
quarter :—

Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep. 199

Taste IV.

Carcass, in Stones of 8 lbs. | Carcass, in lbs. per Quarter,

pang Very Fat. ae Very Fat.
: stones. lbs. | stones. lbs. Ibs. Ibs.
Hampshire Downs .. « «. 12 6 17.6 254 55}
ERMREROGWINS) pic. ores on 0s Crs HS) 1/2 192 264
SUR ws ws oe TD 1S. “3 254 37}
Leicesters .. oat thee we Sit = 14 4 19 29
Cross-bred wethers .. «2 gee 14 0 184 28
Cross-bred ewes .. --. ++ oe 8 6 13. 5 173 27%

The above weights of the meat yielded by the “ moderately-fat”
sheep, at an age of fifteen or sixteen months, are equal to those
formerly obtained at twice the age, or more; and they are
satisfactory examples of what may be attained under the
modern system of feeding, adapted to the production of mutton
on a large scale. It may be doubted, indeed, whether equal
weights and fatness can be attained at an earlier age, or greater
weights and fatness at so early an age, without a sacrifice
of quality. In fact, although it is only by a system of early
and rapid fattening that sufficient meat can be produced for
the masses of the population, it must be admitted that mutton
thus early matured does not so well satisfy the limited demand
of the connoisseur as that which is less artificially produced. °

The weights of the “ very fat” carcasses, in spite of the loss of
weight of many of the animals during part of the second period,
were, after all, really heavy for sheep that were two or three
months short of two years old. ‘The demand for mutton so fat
as it will become at an age of more than eighteen months, under a
system of early and sustained high feeding, is, however, but
limited, and it is only exceptionally, and when sold at a fancy
price, that it can be as profitable to the producer as that which
is more moderately fattened.

The feeder should not lose sight of the fact that, so long
as an animal lives, the expenditure of the constituents of food
by. the respiratory process is never stopped. If it has reached the
point at which the increase it yields declines in amount, or in
value, in proportion to the food consumed, further imerdade will
obviously be obtained at a larger proportional expenditure of food
in the respiratory process. Or, if the animal at any time-do not
gain, or should lose weight, the whole of the food then consumed
is (leaving out the question of the manure) expended to no other
purpose than to keep the machine of the body in working order ;
and the whole of the food so consumed and expended, as f well as
that which actually yielded increase, has to be reckoned against
the total increase obtained.

200 On the Fattening of Oxen.

The last two columns of Table III. do, indeed, show that the
proportion which the lungs bear to the weight of the whole body
decreases considerably as it matures; that is to say, as it fattens,
and the proportion of the carcass increases, But the facts relating
to the amounts of food consumed, and of increase yielded, as the
animal matures, are quite adverse to the supposition that there is
any such progressive diminution in the expenditure by the respi-
ratory process for a given live-weight, as can at all compensate
for the lessened proportion of increase which it yields with
advancing maturity.

Upon the whole, it is concluded that there is a considerable
economy of food in the system of early and rapid fattening of
sheep; and that, after the animals have attained a moderate
degree of fatness, it will seldom be profitable, and may fre-
quently be a loss, to the producer, to feed them further.

The same remarks will probably apply, mutatis mutandis, to
oxen also.

The same rule does not apply with equal force to pigs.
The dry substance of the food of pigs is, weight for weight,
much more costly than that of the other animals ; but, in their
case, from the much larger proportion of increase they yield, both
for a given amount of dry substance of food consumed, and for
a given weight of the body within a given time, it results that
the amount of constituents expended by the respiratory process
bears a considerably less proportion to the gain in weight, than
in that of either sheep or oxen. Again, their increase consists in a
larger proportion of fat ; and by the fatness of the meat its quality
and value are to a great extent determined. On the other hand,
not only do the quality and rateable value of mutton and beef
reach their maximum, or nearly so, at a comparatively limited
degree of fatness, but it appears that the amount of constituents
expended by respiration increases more rapidly in proportion
to a given weight of saleable increase as the animals progress in
fatness,

XII.— Report of Experiments on the Fattening of Oxen, at Woburn
Park. Farm. By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.CS., and Dr,
J. H. Grusert, F.R.S., F.CS.

In 1849, after we had commenced numerous experiments with
sheep,.and some few with oxen and pigs, with a view to de-
termine the relations of both the meat and manure produced to
the food consumed to produce them, His Grace the late Duke of
Bedford kindly placed at our disposal, for the purposes of our
inquiry, his numerous feeding boxes and fattening oxen. The
advantages at Woburn were, the selection from, and dealing with
large numbers of animals, and the; facility afforded by the box

On the Fattening of Oxen. 201

system for the collection and preservation of the manure—to de-
termine the quantity and composition of which constituted one
important object of the experiments.

The results were from time to time communicated to His
Grace as the experiments proceeded ; but it is to be regretted
that the publication of them did not take place before his lamented
death. It was found, as the inquiries connected with the feeding
of animals extended and ramified, and the results accumulated,
that it would be necessary to arrange them for publication under
three separate heads, which should be treated of somewhat in
order as follows: First, those relating to the amounts of food, or
its several constituents, consumed by a given weight of animal
within a given time, or required to produce a given amount of
increase in: live-weight. Of these we have already given
numerous records in this Journal so far as sheep and pigs
are concerned; and in the present number we add a short
report relating to sheep. It is the object of the present commu-
nication to give the results of the experiments with oxen at
Woburn, so far as they relate to this first division of the subject,
and thus to complete for the present, our reports on that branch
of the inquiry. The second main branch of the subject is that
of the composition of the animals, and of their increase whilst
fattening ; and on this we gave a report in the last number of the
Journal, relating to all of the three descriptions of animal—oxen,
sheep, and pigs. ‘The third branch includes the question ef the
composition of the manure in relation to that of the food con-
sumed ; and upon this we now hope to report in an early suc-
ceeding number of the Journal.

In the conduct of the experiments at Woburn our plans were
cordially seconded by Mr, Bennett ; and every facility and assist-
ance were afforded throughout their progress by Mr. G. W. Baker.

Had the object been only to determine the average amounts of
food, of known composition, consumed in relation to a given
weight of animal within a given time, or required to produce a
given amount of increase in live-weight, it would doubtless have
been desirable to continue each experiment for several months ;
so as to get average results unaffected by the incidental circum-
stances of change of food, condition of individual animals, &c.
But owing to the great difficulty of dealing with the very large
quantities of manure that would then be involved, eight to nine
weeks was the longest period over which it was attempted to
weigh, and sample carefully for analysis, the food, litter, and dung,
of the animals. Hence the results relating to the amount of
increase obtained for food consumed must be taken as applying
only to the few final weeks of high feeding.

Six experiments were made; one with 11; one with 12; three

202 On the Fattening of Oxen.

with 5; and one with 6 animals. The numerical results are
arranged in Tables as follows :—

In Tables I., U., TL, 1V., V., and VI., the actual weights, and
gain in weight, of each animal.

In Table VII. the total quantities (both fresh and dry), of food
consumed, litter used, and increase and dung obtained, in each
experiment.

In Table VIII. the average amounts (both fresh and dry) of
food, litter, increase, and dung, per head per week.

In Table IX. the average amounts (both fresh and dry) of
food consumed, per 100 lbs. live-weight per week.

In Table X. the average amounts (both fresh and dry) of food
consumed, to produce 100 lbs. increase in live weight.

In Table XI. is given a summary of the results of the feeding
of oxen at Woburn, side by side with those obtained by other
experimenters.

In Table XII. the average results of experiments on the feed-
ing of oxen, are compared with similar particulars relating to
sheep and pigs.

In Tables XIII. and XIV. the proportion of the dung obtained
to the food consumed, and litter used.

In the brief remarks which follow attention will be chiefly
confined to the amounts of food consumed in relation to a given
weight of animal, and to produce a given amount of increase ; but
a few observations will also be made on the amounts of fresh and
dry dung obtained for given amounts of fresh and dry food and
litter used. The question of the composition of the dung, in rela-
tion to that of the food, will be considered on a future occasion.

Experiment 1 included 6 Herefords and 5 Devons; and Ex-
periment 2, 7 Herefords and 5 Devons. ‘The animals were
taken from grass, weighed, and put into the boxes, on September
18, 1849. Those of Experiment 1 were fed upon crushed oil-
cake, clover-hay chaff, and Swedish turnips ; and those of Expe-
riment 2 on a cooked mixture of 2 parts linseed-meal, 2 parts
barley-meal, and 1 part bean-meal, with chaff and roots as in
Experiment 1. During the first period of the experiment, from
September 18 to October 17, the food, litter, and dung were not
accurately weighed. On October 17, the oxen were re-weighed,
and the boxes emptied; and from this date to the end of the ex-
periments, about the middle of December, the whole of the food
and litter were accurately weighed ; and at the conclusion, the
whole of the dung of each lot was weighed, turned over, well
mixed, and re-weighed. Several samples of 100 lbs. each were
then taken from the heap ; to some of which acid was added to
prevent the loss of ammonia, Fair average samples of all the
foods, and litter, were also taken.

203

ing of Oxen.

On the Fatten

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On the Fatten

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On the Fattening of Oxen.

205

Experiments on the Farrentne of Oxen, at Wosurn Park Farm,

Taste Il].—Weights, and Gain, of each Animal of Experiment 3.

Food.—Oileake-compound meal, cooked ; Clover-hay chaff ; and Swedish Turnips
(with absorbent).

Nos. Breed.
1 Hereford ..
2 - ae
3 %>
4 b 8
5 $9
Totals ..
Means ..

Actual Weights, and Gain, per Head. :
Gain
ie 7 a oe 7 A iv. ae per Head,
Weights, Weights, Gain per Week.
January 2. | February 28.) in 57 days.

Ibs. lbs. Ibs. Ibs.
1372 1512 140 V7s2,
1344 1540 196 24°]
1288 1512 224 215

| 192382 1400 168 20°6
1260 1372 112 13°8
6496 7336 840 c
1299 1467 168 20°6

Gain
per 100 lbs.
Live-weighi,

per Week,

Taste I[V.—Weights, and Gain, of each Animal of Experiment 4.

Food.—Linseed-compound meal, cooked ; Clover-hay chaff ; and Swedish Turnips
(with absorbent).

Nos Breed.
i Hereford
2 sty ae
3 5 me
4 9 er
5 ots -
rRotals’”..«
Means ..

Actual Weights, and Gain, per Head.

Weights,
January 2.

Ibs.
1372
1260
1288
1316
1316

6552

1310

Weights,
February 28.

Ibs.
1540
1400
1400
1428

Gain
per 100 lbs.
Live-weight,

per Week,

Ibs.
1°42
1°29
1°02

Gain
per Head,
Gain per Week.
in 57 days.
Ibs. Ibs.
168 20°6
140 L722
112 13°8
112 13°8
140 Mi7(OP?
672 oe
134 16°5

206

On the Fattening of Oxen.

Experiments on the Farrenine of Oxen, at Wopurn Park Farm,

Taste V.—Weights, and Gain, of each Animal of Experiment 5.

Food.—Linseed-compound meal, cooked ; Clover-hay chaff ; and Swedish Turnips-.

Nos.

Hereford ..

2 a8 2

3 es :

4 7? =

, & »»

6 y 2
Totals ..

Means ..

Breed,

Actual Weights, and Gain, per Head. Gain
=) rata : per Head,
Weights, Weights, Gain per Week.
January 23. | February 28.| in 36 days.
lbs. Ibs. Ibs. lbs.
1400 1428 28 54
1316 1400 84 ‘16°38
1400 1456 56 10°9
1316 1372 56 10-9
1344 1428 84 16°3
1288 1344 56 10°9
8064 8428 364 ee
1344 1405 61 11°8

Gain
per 100 lbs.
Live-weight,

per Week.

lbs.
0°39
1°20
0°76

0°86

Taste VI.—Weights, and Gain, of each Animal of Experiment 6.

_Food.—Oilcake-compound meal, cooked ; Clover-hay chaff; and Swedish Turnips

(with absorbent).

Nos. Breed.
1 | Hereford ..
2 AA -
S A Z
4 As f
5 99
Totals ..
Means

Actual Weights, and Gain, per Head. m
Gain
7 per Head,
Weights, Weights, Gain per Week,
March 11. April 15. in 35 days,

Ibs. lbs. Tbs. Ibs,
1495 1612 117 23°4
1499 1615 116 23°2
1478 1584 106 21°2

| 1384 1471 87 17°4
1367 1425 58 11°6
7223 7707 484 °
1445 1541 97 19°4

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per 100 Ibs.
Live-weight,
per Week.

Ibs.
ye51
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207

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On the Fatt

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210 On the Fattening of Oxen.

The right hand columns in Tables I. and IL, giving the gain
per Head per week, and per 100 lbs. live- weight per week, of
each bullock, show, that almost every animal of both the ibts
gained much more ‘rapidly during the first than during the suc-
ceeding two months after being put on fattening food. This
shows ros important it is not to place too ist confidence,
as the basis of average estimates, on results obtained over short
periods of time immediately after considerable changes in the
mode of feeding. ‘The sate of increase over the whole three
months of final fattening, doubtless gives the fairest average.
But as the foods, litter, and dung, were only weighed during the
concluding two months, it will be necessary, in comparing the
results of these experiments with those of the others, to reckon
the amounts of increase and manure obtained, for given amounts
of food and litter used, only over that concluding period.

The relation of the increase obtained to the food consumed,
will be considered more in detail further on. But before passing
to a description of the food, and of the progress of the oxen, in the
other experiments, attention should be called to the fact that,
over both periods, the oxen of Experiment 2, fed upon the cooked
linseed- <compound, increased considerably more in relation to
their weight within a given time, than those of Experiment 1,
having uncooked crushed oilcake. In two out of the four suis.
sequent experiments oilcake was again used; but it was now
mixed with barley and bean-meal, and the compound cooked ;
and thus the oilcake was more fairly tried against the cooked
linseed-com pound used in the other two of the experiments.

Experiments 3, 4, 5, and 6, were made early in 1851; all
with Herefords, that had been already some little time feeding in
stalls, on cooked linseed-compound, clover-hay chaff, and roots.
The exact arrangement was as follows :—

Experiment 3, with 5 Herefords; from January 2, 1851, to
February 28=57 days. Food—cooked oilcake-compound meal
(equal weights oilcake, barley, and beans) ; with clover-hay chaff,
and swedes.

Experiment 4, with 5 Herefords; from January 2, 1851, to
February 28=07 days. F’ood—cooked linseed-compound meal
(equal weights of linseed, barley, and bean meal); with clover-
hay chaff and swedes.

Experiment 5, with 6 Herefords; from January 23, 1851, to
February 28=86 days. Food—cooked “ linseed-compound
meal ;” with clover-hay chaff, and swedes,

Experiment 6, with 5 Herefords, from March 11, 1851, to
April 15 =35 days. Food—cooked “ oilcake-compound meal ;”
with clover-hay chaff, and swedes.

In Experiment 5, with cooked linseec-compound, straw only

On the Fattening of Oxen. 211

was used as litter, as in Experiments 1 and 2; and the manure
was allowed to accumulate under the animal in the usual way,
without any foreign admixture. But in Experiments 3 and 6,
with cooked oileake-compound, and 4 with cooked linseed-
compound, it was sought to prevent any loss of ammonia that
might otherwise take place during the accumulation of the
manure in the boxes. To this end a small quantity of a mixture
of 1 part sulphuric acid dried up with 2 parts sawdust, was daily
sprinkled over the manure in the boxes, just before spreading the
fresh litter. This mixture will, for convenience, be called
absorbent.

Comparing the gain per head, and per 100 Ibs. live-weight,
per week, of the oxen fed from January 2 to February 28,
with cooked oileake-compound (Table III.), with those fed during
the same period with cooked linseed-compound (‘Table IV.), it is
seen that the oilcake-compound, gives considerably the best
result. The oilcake-compound also gives a better result in
Experiment 6 (Table VI.), than the linseed-compound in Expe-
riment 5 (Table V.). In fact, oilcake, weight for weight,
should be little inferior as a food to the much more costly lin-
seed, whilst the manure from cake will certainly be more valuable
than that from an equal amount of linseed.

Comparative Productiveness of the Foods in the Differen
Experiments.‘ :

The comparative productiveness of the foods in the different
experiments is more clearly illustrated in Tables VIJ.—X.
inclusive. Table VII. shows the total amounts of food, litter,
increase, and dung (both fresh and dry), for each experiment ;
and Table VIII. the amounts calculated per head per week. But
Table IX., showing the amounts of food (fresh and dry) consumed
per 100 lbs, live-weight, per week, and Table X. the amounts
required to give 100 lbs. increase in live-weight, afford the best
means of comparison.

Taken over the final 8 weeks of fattening, there was more
dry substance of food consumed per 100 Ibs. live-weight per week,
and 13 time more required to yield a given amount of increase
in live-weight, in Experiment 1, with crushed oilcake, than in
Experiment 2, with cooked linseed-compound.

In Experiments 3, 4, 5, and 6, the consumption by a given
weight of animal, within a given time, was, of oilcake or linseed-
compound about one fifth less, of clover-chaff 14 time or more
greater, and of roots a little greater, than in Experiments | and 2.
The dry substance of the mixed food of the former would
therefore contain a less proportion of that from the more nutritive
cake or corn, and considerably more from the chaff and roots, but

PZ

217, On the Fattening of Oven

particularly from the chaff. The result was that there was much
more total dry substance of food consumed to a given weight of
animal in Experiments 3, 4, 5, and 6; a part of the extra
amount being doubtless due to the larger amount of indigestible
woody-fibre in the chaff.

Experiment 3 with cooked oilcake-compound, and 4 with
cooked linseed-compound were exactly parallel as to the number
of animals and the time of feeding. ‘Taking the average over
the whole period of fifty-seven days, the two lots consumed almost
identical amounts of the dry substance of food per 100 Ibs. live-
weight per week ; but it required about one-fourth more with the
linseed than with the oilcake-compound, to yield 100 lbs. increase
in live-weight.

Experiment 5 with 6 oxen, and 6 with 5 oxen, were nearly
equal as to the length of time; though the latter was not com-
menced until a fortnight after the foanen was concluded. The
oxen of Experiment 6, with the oilcake- -compound, consumed
rather less dry substance of food per 100 Ibs. live-weight per
week, and yielded much more increase for-a given amount con-
sumed,

Reviewing all six experiments the result was, that the cooked
linseed- compound gave more increase than the merely crushed
oileake ; but in both the cases in which cooked oilcake-compound
was used, it gave a better result than the cooked linseed-compound.
And, as alr eady observed, the manure from the oilcake-com-
pound would be better de that from the more expensive linseed-
compound,

Again, in all five experiments with cooked food, there was
more increase in live-weight fora given amount of the mixed dry
substance consumed, than in the one with uncooked food ; but the
gross or live increase from the uncooked food would probably con-
tain a rather larger proportion of dry or solid substance, though
certainly not sufficiently so to make up in quality, for the de-
ficient quantity of increase in the single experiment now under
consideration. Supposing the result to be, in practice, generally
in favour of cooking in anything like the degree shown in these
few experiments, the process would doubtless be advantageous
at any rate to the producer, if conducted sufficiently economically ;
and where, as at Woburn, the cooking arrangements are adapted
for a large quantity of stock, the cost per head need be but very
trifling.

Comparison of the Results obtained at Woburn, with those of other
Experimenters.

In Table XI., which follows, the average results of all the
experiments at Woburn, including 44 oxen, fattening over

.

On the Fattening of Oxen. 213

periods varying from 5 to nearly 9 weeks, are compared with
those of the published experiments of Colonel McDouall,* and
Mr. Templeton,} on the same points, so far as wé have been able
to estimate them without direct analyses of the foods em-
ployed :—

Tanty XI.

Dry Substance of Food consumed,

Average Increase
N i es Sorepen Per 100 lbs./To produce pe:
Experimenters. Animals. | Experi- | Per Head thes i ee weight"
ment. | per Week. be a ieee per Week.
| | Week. weight.
| days. lbs. .| Ibs. Ibs. Ibs.
Duke of Bedford Weide) ly 58 1694 | 11°6 13°1 0°89
Colonel McDouall 1, a6 | 105 1825 | 12:8 13:8 0°92
Mr. Templeton .. .. i? MtES2 16) 8) Sed 9°35. 1°19
Average .. .. | (112) | 87 146% | 12-1, | 1890 0:94

The average result at Woburn was, that 11°6 Ibs. of the dry
substance of the mixed foods were consumed per 100 lbs. live-
weight per week, and 13:1 lbs. were required to produce 1 Ib.
increase in live-weight. ‘Thus, oxen fed under cover, and with
a liberal proportion of cake or corn in their food, consumed per
week, dry substance equal to nearly one-eighth of their weight,
and yielded increase equal to less than 1 per cent. of their weight.
If, however, we reckon the rate of consumption over the whole
3 months of Experiments 1 and 2, to have been the same as
during the 2 months when the foods were actually weighed, and
take the increase at the rate of the 3 months, the average result
at Woburn would then be, that only 11:5 instead of 13-1 lbs. of
dry substance of food were required to produce 1 |b. increase in
live-weight. Or, if we altogether exclude from the calculation
Experiment 1, in which the increase for food consumed was
certainly very low, the average amount required would be
11°6 lbs. In either case the increase would then be almost
exactly 1 per cent. per week, on the weight of the animals.

In the experiments of Colonel McDouall, some of the oxen
were fed in boxes, some in stalls, and some in open sheds. The
food generally consisted of cake or corn in somewhere about the
same proportion to the weights of the animals as in the Woburn
experiments ; straw-chaff in considerably less proportion than
clover-hay chaff was given at Woburn ; and roots in larger pro-
portion. Upon the whole, the dry substance of the mixed food
would be of rather higher quality in the Woburn experiments,

* «Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,’ vol. xiii. pp. 113-123.
+ Ibid., vol. xvi. pp. 163-9.

214 On the Fattening of Oxen.

Consistently with this, Colonel McDouall’s oxen required rather
more, both in relation to a given weight of animal within a given
time, and to produce a given amount 4 increase ; but they yielded
slightly more increase in relation to their welstt: The compa-
rison would of course be still more in favour of the results at
Woburn than the Table shows, if the corrections above supposed
be adopted.

In Mr. Templeton’s experiments the animals were also fed
under cover. The food consisted of hay, straw, and roots, with-
out any cake or corn. ‘Taking the data ‘as they are given,
our calculations show that, with this comparatively inferior food-
mixture, there was _ less dry substance required, both in relation
to a given weight of animal within a given time, and to produce
a given amount of increase, than in either of the other cases of
much higher feeding. In fact, we are inclined to think that
there must be an error somewhere, in the records of Mr. Temple-
ton’s experiments.

Upon the whole, we think the general averages given in the
bottom line of the Mahle, may be taken as very fairly representing
what should be the mesult of fattening oxen, liberally, and under
cover. We assume that, in round numbers, they will consume
12 to 13 lbs. dry substance of their mixed food per week, for
every 100 lbs. of live-weight; and that, for this 12 to 13 lbs.
they will yield 1 lb. of increase in live-weight—that is, increase
equal to 1 per cent. per week, or nearly, on their weight.

Comparison between Oxen, Sheep, and Pigs.

In the next Table (XII.) the above general average results
obtained with fattening oxen, are compared with those of our
numerous experiments with fattening sheep and pigs :—

TABLE XII.

Dry Substance of Food consumed.

Average ‘Tncrease

Neh Number | duration ITo produce Per 100 lbs.
Dxperie of | of Per 100 Ibs. 9 aS D. ic Live-
mec Animals, | Experi- | Per Head Live- Pal weight

| ment. |per Week.| weight | *crease | por Week.

r Week, | in Live-
per Week, weight.

Before considering the results recorded in this comprehensive
Summary Table, the reader should call to mind the distinctions
between the different animals, in point of structure, and the cha-
racter of their food.

On the Fattening of Oven. 215

We have shown in the last number of this Journal that, in
proportion to the weight of the body, oxen have considerably
more of stomach and contents than sheep, and sheep considerably
more than pigs. On the other hand, pigs have a considerably
larger proportion of intestines and contents than sheep, and sheep
more thanoxen. But, of stomachs and intestines and their respec-
tive contents, taken together, oxen have a larger proportion than
sheep, and sheep a larger proportion than pigs.

Again, the dry substance of the mixed food of oxen contains
a larger proportion of woody-fibre than that of sheep, and that of
sheep considerably more than that of pigs.

The results recorded in the Table are quite in conformity with
the facts here stated, regarding the comparative structure of the
different animals, and the comparative character of their respec-
tive foods.

Thus, oxen, with the most bulky and, weight for weight, least
nutritious food, have the largest proportion of stomach, and the
least of intestinal surface for the absorption of nutritious matter ;
they give also the least proportion of increase for a given amount
of dry substance of food. Sheep come next in order to oxen in
these respects. The dry substance of the food of the pig is,
in much the largest proportion digestible, and available for assi-
milation and respiration; he has much the largest proportion
of intestinal surface for the absorption of nutritious matter ;
and he yields much the most increase for a given amount of
dry substance of food. Calculation further shows that, oxen
expend in respiration the most, sheep considerably less, and pigs
much the least, of the dry substance of food in proportion to a
given amount of fattening increase yielded.

The general result, stated in figures, is that, 100 Ibs. live-weight
of the fattening ox should yield about 1 lb. of increase per week,
consuming 12 to 13 lbs. dry substance of food to produce it.
100 Ibs. live-weight of fattening sheep should yield about 1% lb.
of increase per week, consuming 15 to 16 Ibs. dry substance of
food. Lastly, 100 lbs. live-weight of the fattening pig should
yield 5 to 6 lbs. of increase per week, consuming 26 to 28 lbs.
dry substance of food to produce it.

To sum up the comparison between fattening oxen, sheep,
and pigs, when liberally fed under cover, the facts may be briefly
enumerated as follows :—

1. In proportion to a given live-weight within a given time,
sheep will consume about 14, and pigs about 24, times as much
dry substance of their food as oxen.

2. Oxen should yield per week about 1, sheep about 1%, and
pigs 5 to 6 per cent. of their weight, of increase.

3. To produce 1 Ib. of increase, oxen will require 12 to 13 Ibs.,

216 On the Fattening of Oxen.

sheep about 9 lbs., and pigs from 4 to 5 Ibs. of the dry substance
of their respective foods.

Produce of Manure in the Woburn Experiments.

On the present occasion we shall only call attention to the
amounts of fresh and dry dung obtained for given amounts of
food and litter employed; leaving the question of the chemical
composition of the manure in relation to that of the food and
litter, for separate consideration at a future opportunity.

In Table VIL. (p. 207) the total amounts, and in Table VIII.

. 208) the average amount, per head per week, of food, litter, and
dung (both fresh and dry), are given separately for each of the six
experiments, In Table XIH. which follows, the amounts per
head per week, and per 100 Ibs. live-weight per week, and also
the amounts of food and litter yielding 1 ton of fresh dung, taking
the average of the six experiments, are given :—

Taste XIII.

———————————— — _————————E—e

Food, Litter, and Dung.
2 sees ey 2 Food and Litter;
Dae sp rea to produce
Per Head per Week. webinar "Week. 1 Ton tresh Dung,
Fresh. Dry. Fresh. | Dry. Fresh. | ae
lbs. lbs. lbs, lbs. Page ae
@akeloncomn 4s. 432 372 2-992 PAS) 168 147
Clover-hay chaff .. 1102 914 7°59 6°28 431 356
Swedish turnips.. .. 377 40 25-81 2°74 1469 156
_ Total food .. | 531 1692 | 36-32 | 11°57 2068 | 659
Litter . aoe 133 1062 9°10 7°30 518 A416
Total food and litter.. | 664 276 45°42 | 18°87 2586 1075
IDE S555) 530s 575 156 39°33 10°67 (2240) | (608)

Thus, taking the average of six experiments, extending over
an average period of nearly eight weeks, and including 44 animals
of a mean weight of about 1470 Ibs., there were consumed per
head per week, about 43} Ibs. of cake or corn, 1103 Ibs. clover-
hay chaff, and 377 lbs. roots; in all 531 Ibs. of food. There
were used besides, 133 lbs. of litter. The total food and litter
was therefore 664 Ibs. ; and the amount of fresh dung produced
was 575 lbs. The dry substance of the dung was 156 Ibs., that
of the litter being only 1062 Ibs. ; there was a gain therefore of
about 50 Ibs., or nearly one half, upon that of the litter used.
The dry substance of the food and litter together was, however,
276 lbs., yielding in dung 156 lbs., or only 564 per cent. of the
total. 481 per cent. of the dry substance of the food and litter
were, therefore, either stored up as increase, expended by the

On the Fattening of Oxen. 217

animal in respiration, &c., or lost by the decomposition of the
manure,

To produce one ton of fresh box dung, there were consumed
168 lbs. cake or corn, 431 Ibs. clover-hay chaff, and 1469 Ibs.
swedes; in all 2068 lbs. of food, besides 518 Ibs. litter, making a
total of 2586 lbs, food and litter, This contained 1075 lbs. of
dry substance, and the ton of dung 608 Ibs.

‘The litter contributes considerably the largest proportion of the
dry or solid substance of the manure heap. In fact, it is the
amount of litter, wetted to a certain condition of moisture with
the liquid and solid excrements of animals alone if the manure
be made under cover, or with these excrements and water if
made in open yards, that chiefly regulates the bulk and weight of
the heap. Hence, practical men have generally taken the
amount of litter at command as the basis of their estimates of the
amount of manure produced on a farm. The following Table
(XI1V.) shows the amounts of dung (fresh and dry) obtained for
100 parts fresh litter used, in each of the six experiments at

W oburn.
TABLE XIY.

100 lbs. fresh =
Number)Number ‘ Litter produced.
Experiments. of of Ani- Description of Food. a
Days. | mals. Fresh Dry
| Dung. | Dung.”
Ibs. lbs
1 60 11 |{Crushed oileake; clover-hay ee 419 | 117
and swedes 4a DOOR ee
9 60 12 eee linseed-compound ; clover-hay |} 59g | 491
chaff, andswedes -. .. .. --
Cooked oileake-compound ; cloyer-
» 5 ) *A/
3 ea { hay chaff, and swedes .. .. .. } APE
5 Cooked linseed-compound; clover-hay
5 FAB 9
‘; 2 : { chaff, and swedes meee a aon ee
5 36 6 es linseed-compound; clover-hay\| 553 | 143
chaff, and swedesi 26.092. NS
Cooked oileake-compound ; clover-)} x,5 5
. ae y { hay chaff, and swedes } “ay a
Average | 53 | (44) er 6 434 | 118

In the article on manure in Morton’s ‘ Cyclopedia of Agricul-
ture’ it is stated that Mr. J. C. Morton found oxen feeding in
boxes, to require 20 lbs. of straw per head per day, as litter.
Mr. Evershed, in his prize essay on ‘ The proper office of Straw
ona Farm’ (R. A. S. Journal, vol. xxi. part 1), states that he
finds an ox will make 8 tons of fresh dung in six months, using

* In Experiments 3, 4, and 6, the weight of “absorbent” used is reckoned as so
much litter.

218 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Leeds.

32 ewts. of litter. This is equal to about 19% lbs. of straw per
head per day ; and according to this estimate each ton of litter
gives 5 tons of fresh dung.

The average result of the 6 experiments at Woburn gives 133
Ibs. litter per head per week, or 19 Ibs. per day; and the amount
of fresh dung corresponding to this was 575 lbs. per week, or
823 lbs. per day. Or, as the Table shows, 100 Ibs. of litter gave
on the average 434 lbs. fresh dung; that is, 1 part litter gave
4. parts dung.

But it is genera'ly estimated that more than twice as much
litter must be employed per head, when animals are fed in open
yards. Assuming this to be the case, and supposing, for the sake
of illustration, the weight of fresh dung to bear the same pro-
portion to that of the litter in both cases, it is obvious that a given
amount of litter used in open yards, will be saturated with only
about half as much of the excrements of animals as it would be
in boxes, the remainder of the moisture being made up by rain.

At any rate, it is clear, that the amount of the constituents
derived from animal excrements that will be carted to the field in
each ton of dung, will be extremely variable according to the
mode of its manufacture. In fact, a given amount of litter may be
made the vehicle of conveying to the field, at an equal cost of
cartage, about twice as much of the valuable constituents of
animal excrements in the one case as in the other.

From the facts given above it may be concluded, as a general
average estimate, that when full-grown oxen are fed in boxes they
will require about 20 Ibs. of straw per head per day, as litter ; and
that they will produce fresh dung equal to about 4% times the
weight of the litter used.

XIW.—Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Leeds. By
W. Fisuer Hopps, Senior Steward.

As I consider that the sooner such Reports as these are pub-
lished, the more valuable they are likely to be, I hasten at once
to embody such information as I have been favoured with by
some of the gentlemen who acted as Judges at the Leeds
Meeting.

My own part in this might be very briefly summed up, when I
echo the general opinion that the Royal Agricultural Society of
England has “ never had so successful a show.” Of course there
were one or two kinds of stock, such as the Herefords and
Devons, which might have been better represented; but any
falling off in these classes must not be taken as evincing any
decline in the character or popularity of such breeds; the

Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Leeds. 219

entries were simply small, from the distance the breeders were
from their own districts. Excepting the two sorts I have just
mentioned, there was scarcely an established breed of cattle,
horses, sheep, or pigs, that did not show to increased advantage,
either when taken by the test of mere numbers, or by the yet
more satisfactory sign of improved appearance and quality.

CATTLE.

Shorthorns.—As might have been expected in the midst of
their native pastures, this breed of cattle was one of the great
attractions of the show; and I have the authority of the Judges
for stating that they consider them to have been a larger and a
better lot than any previously brought together.

Class L— Although the old-bull class was a very large one, it
was not more remarkable for the number of animals than for the
number of good animals.

Classes I]. and Ill.—The younger bulls, although including
many excellent specimens, still contained (according to the
opinion of the Judges) some animals that did not possess the
quality of flesh so requisite for maintaining the character of the
highly-bred short-horns.

Class 1V.—The cow class included eight or ten extraordinary
animals, but it is to be regretted that the fashion of the day for
high feeding prevents many of our best breeders from exhibiting
some of their most valuable females. Still it was a good sign
to see one or two exhibitors setting their faces against this mal-
practice, and sending their stock in only a fair breeding con-
dition.

Classes V. and VI.—These heifer classes were numerous and
deservedly admired ; they are a proof of judicious breeding, and
the future success of short-horns.

Class VII.—Both the bull and heifer calf classes were
numerous and good, and are evidently becoming very popular.

If there was any falling off in the quality of some of the
animals in the bull classes, this was not so observable amongst
the cows and heifers. All the best tribes were there represented,
and the justly celebrated Bates’s blood was once more triumphant.

Herefords.—Mr. Duckham, one of the Judges of Herefords,
_ and editor of the ‘ Hereford Herd-Book,’ thus writes to me on
the state of a breed of cattle he is doing so much to maintain :—

“In these, as in all classes, when the Society’s meeting is
held at a great distance from their home, the number of the
entries was reduced in proportion to that distance. At our
recent show this valuable breed was not as well represented in
numerical strength as on many former occasions: we find that

220 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Leeds.

this may have partly arisen from the sales of several herds which
heretofore formed valuable acquisitions to our shows. Yet it was
very gratifying to remark that we had some fresh exhibitors, and
that the area from whence they come to our show is graduall
enlarging. A few years since we were mainly supplied by
the county from whence they take their name. This year
the entries were 88, out of which 37 entered the arena of
competition ; only 17 of these were from Herefordshire, the
remaining 20 were respectively from the counties of Glamorgan,
Brecon, Montgomery, Salop, Gloucester, and Surrey.

Tn Glass I., Mr. Rea’s ‘ Sir Richard’ was a massive, compact,
heavy-fleshed pire displaying a beautiful placid countenance,
denoting that docility for which this breed is highly distin-
guished ; his general character led us to imagine that he was
Fieeaaecledl ao no mean race, and upon ee to ‘The Herd
Book,’ we find he claims the distinguished bull ‘Sir Benjamin’
as his sire, and the still more Celebrated ‘Sir David’ as his
grandsire : he is also closely allied to ‘ Royal,’ and other prize-
winning animals at this Society’ s shows. ‘Sylvius,’ winner of
the second prize, claims the same sire as ‘Sir Pichon but
‘Honour,’ winner of the third prize, presented an appearance
which bespoke a different parentage, and we find he is descended
from quite a distinct strain of blood, as is denoted by his long,
level, fleshy back, bearing a broad white stripe along the whole
length, namely, from that once-fashionable blood known as the
‘Tomkins’ breed. He was the only animal exhibited which did
not in all its marks of colour perfectly correspond with the
characteristic description of the Hereford given in a recent
number of this Journal.*

“In Class II. Mr. Hill’s ‘ Milton,’ winner of the first prize,
displayed great constitution, plenty of good flesh, which was
evenly laid on, and in his general character great perfection of
breeding. He was rather dene: in colour, and here we think it
worthy of notice that nearly all the first-prize animals and many
of the second were of the same dark colour; and upon again
referring to ‘The Herd Book’ we discover a remarkable fact,
that they are all closely allied to the well-known strain of Hibed
called the ‘ Knight Greys,’ a breed kept together by the late T.
A. Knight, Esq., Downton Castle, and originally descended from
the ‘ Tull y Greys,’ which were nearly all of a light grey colour,
sometimes perfectly white. That the produce Wor such light-
coloured animals when crossed with what is now acknowledged
to be the aboriginal breed should be so much darker in colour,
is certainly very peculiar; yet so it is, for not only is the

* See Mr. Robert Smith’s Live Stock Report of Warwick Meeting.

Report on the Exhibition of Live Stoch at Leeds. 221

same line of blood traceable in ‘ Halston’ as in ‘ Milton,’
but also in ‘ Pitchford,’ ‘ Lincoln,’ ‘ Laura,’ ‘ Countess,’ ‘ Ruby,’
‘Rose,’ ‘Beauty,’ ‘Plum,’ ‘Theora,’ ‘ Adela,’ and ‘ Duchess ;?
out of these only ‘ Pitchford’ and ‘ Adela’ were of the light
red colour. We must here remark that, with regard to Class VL.,
consisting of yearling heifers, in the description of ‘ Beauty’
contained in the Leeds Catalogue, the numbers entered in
parenthesis do not refer to the ‘Herd Book,’ and it is hard to
see what other significance could be fairly assigned to them.
If these figures refer to any private number, they ought hardly
to have been inserted in the Society’s Catalogue in a manner
identical with that adopted for reference to the ‘Herd Book,’
such insertion being calculated to mislead the public.”

Devons.—Mr. Robert Smith, one of the Judges of the Devons,
has supplied me with the report of them, as well as of the Sussex
and other established breeds, and the dairy cows :—

“These classes, although by no means well filled, brought
together 40 specimens of the élite of our English cattle,
which, considering that the meeting was held upwards of 300
miles from their homes, may be spoken of as a good sample of
‘the long red line.’ Still we missed with regret the beautiful
forms which some of the breeders exhibited at their stands in
former years. Perhaps they are waiting in ambush, and will
come with a rush in’62. ‘This muster-roll of 40: entries con-
sisted of 9 aged bulls, above 2 years old; 6 under 2 years; 5 bull
calves; 4 dairy cows; 3 in-calf heifers; 10 yearling heifers ;
and 3 heifer calves.

“The aged bulls were varied in their character, both as regards
size and quality. The nearest approach to the ‘ cylindrical
form’ was found in Mr. Bodley’s 8 year and 1 month-old bull
‘ Perfection,’ who had also 8 months in his favour, as against
his two nearest opponents, viz., Mr. Turner’s ‘ Prince Frederic’
(second), and the Prince Consort’s ‘ Colonel’ (third), who were
each 3 years and 9 months. The contest between the latter was
close and intricate, but at length the more extended frame of
‘Prince Frederic’ overruled the stylish ‘Colonel.’ Beyond
these no special mention was made of the remaining com-
petitors,

“In Class II. Mr. Farthing’s 1 year and 74 months-old bull,
‘Viscount,’ walked over for the first prize in his class, against
five other competitors. He is said to be the best yearling that
has been shown for years. He was much noticed by the Here-
ford and Shorthorn men. Mr. Merson’s second prize-bull had
more of the North Devon element about him ; small in size but
right in form and quality. Mr. Turner’s yearling, only just

222 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Leeds.

come within the cords, saved his distanae, and was placed third,
The public had an eye to a ‘commended’ specimen lower
down, No. 251, in whose case want of condition and generalship
told against the due appreciation of his high breeding.

“In Class IIL. the bull calves again gave Mr. Farthing a first
place with a fleshy young animal, 6 months-old ; for the second, a
severe contest ensued, the decision was deferred, and a second

‘walk out’ resorted to, when the Prince Consort’s 74 months-old
calf received second honours, and Mr. Hole’s 84 months calf was
highly commended. Mr, Fiple had also a second calf of great
merit, but not quite up in condition; we judge he will be seen
another day, perhaps in ’62.

‘* Class 1V.—Although 4 cows were entered only 2 came to the
post. A most delicate decision ensued—the race being between
two rival breeds—the pure North Devon of the Turner herd, and
a robust, highly-fattened specimen from the Prince Consort’s herd.
However, substance in this case could not be parted with for
certain symmetrical proportions along the top line, when coupled
with faulty proportions of the under line; and thus the Windsor
‘Tlex’ beat the Barton ‘ Piccolomini.’

“Class V., the In-calf Heifer Class, contained three really good
animals, but rather varied in their character; so much so, that
it became a question as to how they should follow suit: whether
symmetry or substance should prey ail. Up to this point it was
evident that the Judges had been in search of size, and they had
so far succeeded in their mission. Now came ee tug of war;
again and again were they paraded, touched, eyed, and examined,
when a reflection upon the standard of animal hitherto selected,
placed the winning card upon Mr. Pope’s light-coloured heifer,
with immense substancesand good form, to the exclusion of his
more symmetrical heifer of lower standing, which had, under
present circumstances, again to succumb to Mr, James Hole’s
heifer, which proved a wedge between the pets of ‘ Toller.’

“Class VI.—In the Yearling Heifer Class we had again a
similar case, but with a much greater disparity in the animals,
Here again the Judges were called upon to decide between a 1
year 63) ‘months-old heifer, of immense substance, early maturity,
and fain quality, and pliers of more symmetrical proportions, but
of less size and growth, and from 34 to 44 months’ advantage in
age. The 10 animals were marshalled in line and quickly
drafted to 5, then the race began ; there were 4 left to represent
the North Devon character, and 1 from Somerset; the question
at issue being whether the latter be placed first owing to her early
maturity, &c., or be out of it altogether. Again and again were
they classified side by side, reversed, reviewed, and handled,
and at length returned to their stands to ‘ wait a little longer.’

Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Leeds. 223

“The Sussex and. other Breeds Classes finished, the review
was resumed, the die was cast, size again prevailed, and the first
card up was placed upon Mr. Farthing’s heifer, the second and
third upon Mr. Merson’s, and the remaining two, viz., Mr. James
Hole’s and Mr. G. Turner’s, were highly commended.

“Mr. James Davey’s 64 months-old prize heifer calf was a
perfect gem. Its touch, coat, offal, and beautiful contour, sur-
passed anything we remember to have seen in former years.
Mr. Turner’s second calf was a useful specimen, as was also the
commended one, exhibited by Mr. Hole, of Hannaford.

“ Sussex Cattle —These classes brought out but two entries, an
in-calf heifer and a yearling bull, and they each received a prize,
although the latter scarcely deserved to be noticed.

* Other Breeds.—It would seem by the scanty competition for
these prizes, that the door opened as a convenience to them had
been but little appreciated; a pair of Suffolk heifers, a few
Bretons, and an Aberdeenshire bull formed the competition for
the premiums.

“The Aberdeen bull was a splendid type of his breed, and
would have been hard to shake off, even by a numerous entry.
The Suffolks were said to be good of their order, as were also
the black and white Bretons of Mr. Baker. Indeed the bull
was very beautiful ; his head and eye were a complete study.

«The real dairy cow for once was at her post, and truly repre-
sented by a finely grown animal of immense: proportions, yet
with an even outline, a 3-gallon-a-meal bag, and a somewhat
bony frame.

“Two high-bred cows, full of beef and no milk, were entered
for ‘dairy purposes,’ but the Judges of course treated this as
a ruse, and passed on to the milking specimens.”

Horses.

o

There were few greater treats at Leeds than the exhibition of
horses; while the plan, first adopted here, of showing the dif-
ferent classes day after day in the ring in which they had been
judged was so much enjoyed by the spectators, that I very
strongly recommend its continuance, so that the public may
again be enabled to see the horses exhibited to the best advan-
tage—that is, when in action. The following extracts from the
report of Mr. Spooner, the Veterinary inspector, are highly satis-
factory, demonstrating that the Horse Show of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England is not only improving in its general
character, but that in the great essential of ‘soundness ” our
horses are becoming more and more valuable. How far this
may be attributable to the regulations recently enforced may
be with some a matter for consideration : for my own part I fully

224 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Leeds.

believe that a certain and necessary stringency in this way must
eventually result in national good, however much some breeders
may object to having their horses subjected to so trying an ordeal,
The mere fact of giving premiums to animals with hereditary
diseases would defeat the very object of the Society, whilst the
decision of first-class practical judges will always be strengthened
by the co-operation of an able veterinarian. Mr. Spooner writes
thus :—

‘‘T have the honour to lay before you the following brief
report of the duties performed by me as Veterinary Inspector of
the horses entered for the various prizes given by the Society.

‘‘ Every horse admitted into the Show-Yard was duly subjected
to a careful examination both as to its general soundness, and
especially with reference to its freedom from disease of an
hereditary nature; and the result of these examinations was
made known to the Judges prior to their awards being deter-
mined upon,

“1 am gratified to be enabled to state that, although the number
of horses exhibited was far greater than on any former occasion,
my note-book furnishes fewer cases of unsoundness of a nature
calculated to interfere with the usefulness of the animals for
breeding purposes. I particularly noted the comparative absence
of Coretitione! ophthalmia and respiratory diseases ; also of those
morbid ossific deposits termed ‘spavins,’ ‘ splints,’ ‘ ringbones,’
* sidebones.’

“This marked improvement is doubtless due to the import-
ance attached to these diseases in the previous awards of the
Society, and to the very excellent regulation of the Council,
which requires that every horse, prior to its admission to the
Show, shall have been examined, and a certificate given as to
its soundness by a member of the Royal College of Veterinary
Surgeons.

‘““T may, however, add that I met with several very marked and
objectionable diseases, which, although only to be viewed as
exceptional cases, serve to convince me that the veterinary sur-
geons who examined the horses affected with those diseases either
failed to perform their duty with ability and truthfulness, or that
the certificates given by them have not been duly read and
weighed.

“In the class of Thoroughbreds and Cart-Horses there were
some very bad cases of ‘roaring’ and ‘ whistling,’ and of chronic
diseases of the feet.

‘“‘ Of this latter class of disease, I feel it to be my duty to
particularise one instance, viz.: ‘480, Class I.—Stallions for
Agricultural Purposes.’ This horse had generally defective fore

Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Leeds. 225

feet, with very large fissures or sandcracks in the hoofs, which
had been stopped up with gutta percha and pitch to such an
extent that I succeeded in picking out large portions of this
composition, and thereby exposing the defect.”

My brother-steward, Mr. Pain, who so zealously superintended
that department, reports to me as follows on an improving sec-
tion of our show :—

“© Thorough-bred Horses.—The prize of 1007. brought together
an entry of 18, and was awarded to ‘ Nutbourne,’ a horse that
sustained the character for improving and perpetuating the breed
of the sound and stout thorough-bred horse for general stud pur-
poses. The owners of the very high class of race-horses are not
likely to send them, and run the risk of travelling and exposure,
for the sake of the 1002. without better accommodation be given.
I would strongly recommend that the prize should be continued.

*‘Oleveland Horses.—This class was but badly represented, and
from what was seen at Leeds, where the Clevelands were ex-
pected to be in great force, it appears that this breed of horses
has receded and degenerated, if not quite disappeared.

“ Hunting Stallions.—12 horses were exhibited in this class,
the first prize going to ‘ Canute,’ an animal of high quality. The
second-prize horse was not thorough-bred, and the question, arises
in my mind whether the Society should not insist that all horses
competing in this class should be thorough-bred? There were
some very excellent horses exhibited in this class, and on no
occasion have there been fewer horses with any unsoundness.
This very important class commands great attention, and most
deservedly so. A prize of greater value should be given to it.

“In the class of hunting brood-mares, scarcely a good animal
Was present.

“ Blood Hunters.—For the prize given by the Local Committee,
a large and splendid collection of horses was brought together.
No class in the yard was more highly appreciated or com-
manded so much attention, The facility afforded to the public
of seeing them in action greatly contributed to the success of the
show. It is to be hoped that the hunter will receive more
attention from the Society, and that a prize will be given for
these horses at the annual show by the Council, and not by the
Local Committee. Better accommodation should be afforded
these horses, many of them being of great value: and unless
something is done to meet the complaints of exhibitors in this
class, owners of horses will not continue to exhibit them.

« “ Coaching stallions and mares require no notice, except to
say that they were of a very different class to what might have

VOL, XXII, Q

226 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Leeds,

been expected in a district which has always been considered to
produce this class of animal to perfection,

“ Roadster Stallions.—A very fine class of animals. The prize
horse, a red roan, was a very excellent animal, with free action
and great activity, showing very strongly the breed of the old
Norfolk trotter. He only required a little more appearance of
breed about the head to make him a perfect stallion, for getting
that most desirable animal, the ‘ cob.’

“ The roadster mares or geldings were not a very high quality,
and there is no doubt that if this prize should be continued by
the Society, great improvements will take place in a very useful
animal.

“The pony class was a very pretty one, but it is much to be
regretted that these animals, if worthy of notice by the Society,
were not thought worthy of having a prize set apart for a good
sire.

“ Lord Londesborough’s Class.—This class, which specially at-
tracted and interested the public, contained many splendid
animals of high quality and great value, and was deservedly
‘highly commended’ by the judges.

* Agricultural Stallions.—There were 27 horses of very good
quality in this class, in which a great improvement upon the
Warwick and Canterbury Shows was manifested; but that for
two-year-old stallions was not so good. The Mares and Foals
class had some very good animals, but not of a very high
standard.

“ Two-year-old Fillies, Agricultural.—Some very nice animals
were exhibited here ; two very excellent fillies belonging to the
Prince Consort were greatly and justly admired.

“* Dray-Horses.—n Class 1., some very fine horses were en-
tered which showed to great advantage in the ring.

“In Class I. the judges awarded no prize, and in the rest of
the classes the entries were few, and of no great merit.

“In conclusion | would observe that if the prizes for hunting
and thorough-bred horses are adopted by the Council, better
ar fanzements will be required both for the comfort and security
of filers valuable animals; by taking such measures the Society
will receive better support, and the public derive the great
gratification of witnessing a splendid exhibition of much rete
importance. The fecmabiontolis ring for exhibiting the horses
was considered a great boon by the public.”

SHEEP.

Leicesters.—The Judges did not consider these classes quite so
good as usual, notwithstanding that Mr. Sanday continued to

Report on the Exhibition of Live Stockh at Leeds. 227

send a number of his best sheep, which, as heretofore, were
generally victorious, although certainly beaten in one instance by
Colonel Inge, who for several years has bred regularly from the
Holme Pierrepoint flock.

Southdowns.—There was a decided falling off in the number of
pens exhibited. The Judges inform me that they did not con-
sider the classes quite up to the average of what they have been,
and there is no question but that the absence of the famous
Babraham rams was materially felt. The old sheep were con-
sidered to be better than the shearlings. Although Mr. Jonas
Webb did not exhibit, his strain of blood was represented by
‘Mr. Rigden, who, it will be seen, at once succeeded to the post
of honour. ‘The Goodwood flock was also represented by a
beautiful pen of shearling ewes, and Lord Walsingham, as usual,
gained prizes and commendations,

Shropshires—There was a splendid exhibition of this valuable
breed of sheep, and the Society have done quite right in granting
separate classes for them. Mr. Randall, one of the Judges, gives
the following excellent Report :—

“ Perhaps no description of sheep excited more interest in
the show-yard than these. It is only within the last eight or
ten years that they have come prominently into notice; and
it was not until the Canterbury Show last year that their claims
to be considered a distinct breed were recognised by the Royal
Agricultural Society. Yet here we find them in greater num-
bers than any other breed of sheep shown; and the Shrop-
shire flockmasters certainly deserve credit for the way in which
they have responded to the encouragement which has thus been
given to them. It is impossible not to be struck with the appear-
ance of these sheep, as a most useful, rent-paying kind of animal ;
and if they have not yet attained that uniformity of character
which we are accustomed to see in some other breeds, it must be
admitted that they possess all the elements which are required to
constitute a near approach to perfection ; and all that the Shrop-
shire breeders have to do is to concentrate these qualities by
careful and judicious selection. In the class for yearling rams
upwards of fifty were shown, most of them heavy-fleshed
animals of considerable merit; a few indicating the effect of
crossing with the Southdown more or less remotely, and pos-
Sessing less size and robustness of character, though with more
compactness of form, and finer but lighter wool. It would, we
think, be well for the breeders of these sheep to bear in mind
that the qualities which have brought them into notice are—
their aptitude to produce great weight and quality both of mutton

Q 2

228 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Leeds.

and wool, combined with early maturity, while they will bear to
be stocked more thickly than other breeds of equal weight ; that
these are the qualities which render them valuable upon the
fertile soils of the Midland counties ; and that as they can never
supplant the Southdowns in the districts to which they are so
peculiarly adapted, they had better maintain the distinctive cha-
racter they have hitherto possessed, even although by crossing
with the Southdown they might occasionally produce an animal
more fitted for the show-yard. The one, however, which obtains
the first prize in this class—Mr. Horton, No. 691—is not of this
character ; he is quite one of the old school,—a heavy, hardy, yet
fat-backed animal, only wanting his shoulders better covered to
be all that could be wished. No. 681, Mr. Crane’s, is full of
quality ; a little closer in his coat than we like to see, but a very
good one. If he had been a little better behind the shoulders,
and stronger upon his legs, it would have been an open question
whether he might not have changed places with No. 691.
Another of Messrs. Crane’s, No. 683, was deservedly commended.
No. 713, which obtained the third prize, and No. 714, highly
commended, both belonging to Mrs, Baker, are very neat, useful
animals, of soot size.

“In Class IL., for aged rams, the size to which the Shropshires
attain was strongly exemplified ; and if there was not among
them any one possessing the extraordinary merit of Mr. Byrd’s
sheep, which last year obtained the first prize in this class, there
were many admirable specimens of the breed—and foremost
among them his half-brother, No. 742, belonging to Mr. Holland.
This sheep attracted. considerable notice at Canterbury, and now
obtained the first prize most deservedly. He possesses immense
size, with beautiful form and character. ‘The second prize was
awarded to Mr. Horton’s, No. 728, a real old-fashioned Shrop-
shire; lighter in the colour of his face and legs than is now
sought for; but this defect, if it be one, is more than counter-
balanced by the substantial and at the same time level character
of the animal throughout. No. 738, Mr. Horley’s, another
capital sheep, obtained the third prize ; and 755, Mr. Foster’s,
which was highly commended, has an immense depth of nee
with excellent quality. Altogether this was a very good class.

“ But the most striking class of the three was that for yearling
ewes; and a glance at the lot from the end of their pens was
sufficient to show that the Shropshires deserve the notice they
have obtained, The pen to which the first prize was awarded—
No. 757, Mr. Foster’s—were admirable; too closely bordering
upon the Southdown in their character, but so uniform, so good
in form and quality, that they fairly merited the distinction ‘they
obtained. But had Messrs. Crane’s lot, No. 747, been all like

Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Leeds. 229

three of their number, they must have been first instead of
second. These three were extraordinary ewes, certainly better
than any others that were shown. Nos. 748 and 749, also be-
longing to Messrs. Crane, were commended, and most deservedly.
If these gentlemen had sent two pens instead of three, it is pro-
bable they might have even improved their position. The third-
prize pen—No. 752, Mr. Evans’s—were a very uniformly good
lot of ewes; and the class altogether did great credit to their
owners.”

Long-Wools.—This class now commonly signifies ‘‘ Cotswolds ?
and ‘‘ Lincolns.” Of the former there was a splendid show, but
the Lincolns were not even represented.

Short-Wools.—This class was well supported by ‘‘ Oxfordshire
Downs” and “West Country Downs.” I give Mr. Rawlence’s
Report, as one of the Judges, and I consider his suggestion is
worthy of the consideration of the Council :—

‘There was a large entry of shearling rams, but the greater
portion of them were Oxfordshire Downs, which the Judges
now, as in former years, excluded from competition, considering
that they do not come within the category of short-woolled
sheep. At the same time, the Judges are of opinion that the
Oxfordshire Downs should not be excluded from competition at’
these annual Shows, as they believe them to be animals pos-
sessing great merit and worthy of having a class to themselves.

‘** Those exhibited of this breed were a good lot, and some very
superior sheep, and we much regretted that they did not come
under the denomination of short-woolled sheep.

“The West Country Downs were not so numerous as in former
years, and, in my opinion, not so good as those exhibited at
Salisbury and Chester. The old rams were short in number,
but in this class the West Country Downs were much better
represented,

“The sheep which took the third Prize (belonging to Mr. W. B.
Canning, not Mr. Humphrey, as stated in the papers) was a
wonderful animal, barring his neck.

“The Shearling Ewes were a very good class, and the Judges
much regretted that in one of the best lots there were only four
sheep, one having died at Birmingham en route to Leeds.

“| regret that this account of the classes which came under my
adjudication is brief and hurried; had I known earlier that I
was expected to draw up a report, I could have entered more
fully into their respective merits.”

The other kinds exhibited for Local Prizes were for the most
part regarded rather as curiosities than breeds, which it would

230 Report on the Exhibition of Live Stock at Leeds.

be profitable to experiment upon beyond those districts where
they have become naturalized,

Pies.

On these classes Mr. Turner gives the following Report :—

“Class I. contained some most extraordinary animals for size,
but many of them looked much better when lying quietly in the
pen than when put upon their legs into their natural position,
when their defects were visible.

“In Class II. there was a strong competition. No. 934, the
first prize, was a good specimen of his kind, although not so fat
as the second prize, which was of good quality. The class gene-
rally was well represented.

“ Class III. was not so good of their kind as the last, nor were
they so numerous as Class II.

“In Class 1V. the younger pigs stood first, showing that the
breeders of this description are improving. One of this class
was unable to stand, and was disqualified on that account ; as no
judge can decide upon the merits of a pig that cannot stand.

“Class V. was a good one. Many of them, like that of the
boars of the same breed, were of extraordinary size, with quality :

_the second prize, a Berkshire sow, was a capital specimen of her

kind. or
“Class VI.—This was a most extraordinary class—one of the
best I ever saw; so that the Judges had great difficulty in
deciding. No. 974, a sow with five pigs, was one of the best in
the yard; although not so fat as some, in symmetry she was a
perfect model of a sow.

“Class VII.—Not so numerous as the former one, but con-
taining a few good specimens.

“Class VILI.—This was a better class. No. 1013, a very good
sow; No. 1006, although an old one, had worn well, and kept

her shape well.

“Class [X.—Very short of numbers, and not so well repre-
sented as the parent-classes of the same stock.

“Class X. was a capital one. No. 1020 and No. 1021, be-
longing to Lord Wenlock, were first-rate, particularly No. 1020.

“ Class XI.—Only one lot shown.

“Class XII.—Again only one lot of sufficient merit.

‘“With the exception of Class X. I do not consider the young
pigs exhibited denote improvement.”

In concluding this Report—necessarily drawn up hastily, but
not, I trust, the less acceptable on that account—I have, in the
first place, to thank those Judges who have so readily answered
to my response, as well as all those who so ably and so inde-

Report on. the Exhibition of Live Stock at Leeds. 231

pendently obliged the Society with their services. In my own
particular department—the Cattle—I can say honestly that I
believe no set of gentlemen ever acted more ably in discrimi-
nating between the mere catching points, and those more innate
essentials of good breeding which should tend to reproduce a
perfect animal.

In the Shorthorn Classes, which came more immediately under
my own observation during the adjudication upon them, I had
pleasure in noticing that the form and character of the animal,
combined with constitution and quality, were preferred by the
Judges to mere grossness of flesh or the artificial temptations of
high feeding.

It still remains for me to describe the Nursery Department—
a secret corner, wherein the ‘ nurses” dwell—and officials can
testify to the growing taste of the rising generation of cattle for
“new milk, fresh from the cow.” Both early and late were to
be seen sixteen “suckers ” of all ages, from. the calf to the 1 year
and 5 months-old heifer, led, not to the slaughter, but to their
attendant nurses, who have comfortable apartments, board and
lodgings, provided for them free of charge!

The question may be asked, What means all this new milk
system? What is a calf? How long should he suck? How
many buckets of milk, or how many new nurses, should he have ?
or, in other words, Is there no limit as to the age of a calf and
the supply of milk to be provided? At any rate, the 1 year and
5-months heifer is not a calf, unless her going down upon her
knees for her “ meal of milk” makes her one.

There were formerly some three or four cows sent to the outer
yard, of which no notice was taken, as they were chiefly intended
to supply extra milk to calves exhibited with their dams; but
since the “‘Calf Classes” have been added this new feature has
become enlarged and changed its character, and it will still
further increase unless some restriction be enforced. As now
allowed, it not only creates a gathering of cows of every deno-
mination and colour (many of them having very question-
able dark noses)—Scotch, Irish, Welsh, Channel Islands, and
Provincials, without either pedigree or breed—but it also fosters
and sanctions the costly system of forcing, which is frequently
found to be injurious both to the constitution of the animal and
to the propagation of the species.

The Thoroughbred Horse Classes, hitherto more or less a
failure at our Shows, were undoubtedly one of the great successes
and attractions of the Meeting. There was a true proof of this
in the way in which well-bred good-looking horses were bought
up during the week; and I certainly think that the precedent of
offering liberal prizes for the best-bred horses has been attended

232 Report on the Cheese, Butter, Wool,

with such success at Leeds as to warrant the Council in con-
tinuing these prizes, if not in extending them. For all the
great properties of endurance, courage, action, and speed, there
is no animal so safe to be relied upon as the thorough-bred
horse ; and I do hope to see from this time his position pro-
perly recognized at the Meetings of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England.

Amongst other points in the arrangement of our last Meeting
was the new feature of admitting members during the week into
the Show-Yard free of charge, upon presentation of their tickets,
—a plan that has undoubtedly the advantage of more than mere
economy to recommend it. A member of the Society thus
obtains a certain recognised standing at the Shows, of which I
trust we shall see him hereafter more and more inclined to avail
himself. With such advantages, and under the presidency of
His Royal Highness the Prince Consort, the Royal Agricultural
Society of England should surely, during the ensuing year,
‘‘increase and multiply ” far beyond all it hitherto has done.

XIV.—Report on the Cheese, Butter, Wool, and Flax, exhibited at
Leeds. By Henry Lupour, Steward.

I regret to have to report that this department of the Show was
defective in the number of the exhibitors and the quantity of
specimens produced, although their quality was such as might
satisfy the severest critic. It is to be hoped that in future agri-
culturists will show greater alacrity in exhibiting these articles
of their produce. In one instance only was the cheese exhibited
by the maker, the remainder being sent by dealers.

The butter was of superior quality and colour, particularly
that of Mrs. Mary Abbey, of Nimble, near Knaresborough, to
which the prize was awarded ; that of Mr. James Dumbrell, jun.,
of Ditchling, Hurstpierpoint, Sussex, would have deserved a
second prize, if one had been provided.

The Report on Wool has been delivered in by the Judges.

The green-flax deserved the highest praise; though I have
followed the trade for nearly thirty years, I never saw finer line
so early in the season, The stem was long, and as well de-
veloped for the fibre as the boll was for the seed. The Scotch
sample, exhibited by Lord Kinnaird, was only half the length
of the others; though healthy and well grown it was very back-
ward. The reason for this is, no doubt, that all the other line
was sown early in April, and the Scotch early in May: early
sowing is always much to be recommended where the soil and

climate permit.

and Flax, exhibited at Leeds. 233

The specimens of prepared flax were highly to the credit of
the exhibitors; that of Messrs. Marshall, of Patrington, was
pre-eminent in the handling and getting up in soundness of fibre
and cleanliness, but the Judges long hesitated in making their
award, because that sent by Robert Chase, Esq.,.of Eye, Sussex,
was much finer and softer in quality: their ultimate decision in
favour of the former was corroborated when the samples were
brought into the market, when Messrs, Marshall’s flax fetched
851., Mr. Chase’s 80/. per ton. .
_ The hand-scutched flax was also very good ; it was however
considered that warm-water retting should not be allowed to
compete with cold-water retting, as the former system brings
out the quality and colour much better than the latter. The
flax of James Beashell, Esq., of Rawcliffe, retted in cold water,
was of fine and excellent quality, and the fibre was sound and
good,

Leeds, July 30th.

Remarks of Wool Judges.

The Judges regret to find that there are some lots entered as
Short Wool which do not strictly come under that denomination,
but would have been in their proper place in Sections 5 and 6;
but as there are no entries made in those sections which con-
stitute Class III. (probably in consequence of their apparently
standing under the head of Long Wool in the Local Prize List),
the Judges recommend that the Local Committee be requested to
award the prizes that are offered in Sections 5 and 6; and that
in future there be three distinct divisions :-—

Class I.—Long Wool.
Class 11.—Shropshire, Oxford, and Half-Breed Wools.
Class H1.—Short Wool.

Tuomas CiLAyTon.
JAMES THOMPSON.
Leeds, 15th July, 1861.

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CONTENTS OF THE MAINLAND OF HAMPSHIRE.

PAGE
Anza, PopuLATION, CLASSIFICATION oF F'ARMs, FARMERS AND LABOURERS,
Rewrer or tue Poor, MetrroroLoay By ee eee OA ign LON,

I, Prixcrpan GEOLOGICAL AND PHysicAL FEATURES .. .. .. « 241

1. Geological features: northern eocene, central chalk, southern
eocene apr Taree EAT RLdTs ah Os Soa tee ook Lem eee

2. Physical features: watersheds, river-basins, London, Arun,
Southampton waters, west coast ., .. «1 of « «. 243

II. Navure or Tue Sors IN THE DIFFERENT DistRIcTs oR NATURAL
Divisions oF THE CounTY TO es eee Le as ee ee
HeeNonihernveocene! SO S0ilsh 25 se se ee sn) cw ee wn ET
2. Southern eocene, ditto AEP, cada aaifieseua 55, Pew aecc we ee eaee
GUM OH AKECISHICUGULLO! Neer esp ise] es es, sel), eet) wn wey OLE
NOMsmimihernon-counti ys scm 0) bce) Tes | cay) des. Vo esi yy lean coe

TII. Cuaracter or Farmine, Live Srocx, Impiements, Recent
CHANGES or Farm MANAGEMENT, IMPROVEMENTS LATELY IN-
TRODUCED OR STILL REQUIRED, REMARKABLE OR CHARACTERISTIC
FARMS IN EACH OF TUE DIFFERENT NatTurAL Divisions .. .. 256

1, Northern District: general description, Stratfieldsaye pro-

perty, Mr. Boxall’s farm, Mr. Chute’s farm at the Vyne .. 257
2. Southern district, four subdivisions :

1, Eastern district: general description .. .. .. .. 267

2. Bracklesham country: general description, Botley
Club, Mr. Blundell’s farm, Mr. Richard Withers .. 269

3. New Forest: plantations and general description, Mr.
Dickinson’s farm, Minestead .. .. . -- « 278

4, Valleys of the Avon and Stour: general description,
above and below Fordingbridge, Mr. Bone’s farm .. 283

3. Middle District: general description, Mr. Melville Portal’s
farms at Laverstoke and Whitehill, Sir Wm. Heathcote’s
farms at Hursley and Ampfield, the Hampshire hop- ne
Hampshire farmers and landlords .. .. .. .. . 290

TV. Woops anp Woopnanps IN THE NorTHERN, SOUTHERN, AND
PAGREMBITS ATCT Sy Jai) sc, nes | wey) nel! Seen’ welll) opte ee meeRO OT

Y. EDUCATION ofr THE AGRICULTURAL POPULATION .. .. ae GUS?

a2

238 Farming of Hampshire.

PacE
VI. IMPROVEMENTS STILL REQUIRED, PARTICULARLY IN THE NortH;
SreamM-Cuuitivation, Rorations, WaTrr-Cresses, FARMYARD-
Dune to WueEat-Crop, CHALKING, IMPLEMENTS, BUILDINGS,
Corracrs, TeNANcIES, ARTERIAL Dratnacr, EncLosures, New
Forest IMPROVEMENT 6... se. sa) ae (ae se | oo) Ueeolie

VII. Brrrr History or tus New Forest, AND DESCRIPTION OF ANY
PECULIAR CUSTOMS CONNECTED WITH IT; DeEMESNE AND PRERO-
GATIVE Forests, ACREAGE AND BOUNDARIES OF THE ForEsT,
GOVERNMENT, RicutTs or InveREsTS, STATISTICS, FINANCE «« COL

APPENDIX.

1. Meteorology, observations at Aldershot, Eling, and Gosport .. .. 340
2. Broadlands Drainage, Mr. Bailey Denton’s description i) a.) eee
3. LORD PAUMERSTON’s LETTER. .6 53\\ «5 oe es (ah een eee

CONTENTS OF THE ISLAND.

-Arra, PopuLATION, Poor-LAW RELIEF .. .. « « «6 « eo O40

I. PrincipaAL Grotogrcan AND Prysicau Features: Sours, Norru,
- River-Basts, Norto-WrsterNn AND NortH-Eastern Vatirys 348

II, Nature or Sors, CHARACTER OF Ee IMPROVEMENTS RE-
QUIRED ey hath Perel > lee de) dey eo apne

(1.) Southern chalk district, fr om Shanklin to Shorwell .. 353
(II.): <The Bowl ofthe Island 7.) (<5) en) n0 ened,
(IIL.) South-western district, about Brook oes, jes Seer esOOD
(IV) South generally 3) (essere st ele oe) lens

(V.) Northern eocene districts, east and west of Medina,
north generally ; characteristic farms, Prince Consort’s,
Mr. Young’s, the late Sir Richard Simeon’s, Mr.
Hughes) as. [eco 4-c8 qicss | seek ves een OO

(VI.) Observations on the whole Island .. .. .. «. «. 367

(VII.) Improvements required: Agricultural Society, steam-
ploughing, relief of poor, m management of highways .. 369

( 239° )

XV.—The Farming of Hampshire. ' By Joun WIik1nson,
M.A., Rector of Broughton Gifford, Wilts.

Tus Report has been drawn up under instructions to ‘“ include
the Isle of Wight in the Report on the Agriculture of Hamp-
shire.” But since the mainland and the island, however con-
nected by political boundaries, are geographically distinct, to
consider them separately will be more suitable to a treatise which
respects natural, rather than artificial, divisions.

THE MAINLAND.

Wiru the exception of an outlying block of land to the south-
west (which is estimated at 325 square miles), the mainland of
the county of Hampshire approaches in form to a parallelogram,
the sides of which face the four cardinal points. Its extreme
length along a line due north and south, and terminating at South-
sea Castle, is 40 miles. Diagonally, from north-west to south-
east, or from Combe to South Hayling, the distance is 46 miles ;
and from north-east to south-west, or from Yately to Bourne-
mouth, 65 miles. The area is 970,470 acres, or 230 acres more
than 1516 square miles. The population in 1851 was 355,046,.*
The density of the population was 2°7 acres to each person, which
is 0°8 acre more to each person than the average of England.
According to the census of 1851, the classification of the
agricultural portion of the population (‘‘ persons of 20 years old
and upwards, possessing, or working the land, and engaged in
growing grain, fruits, grasses, animals, and other products”), was
as follows :—Farmers, 3,109; landed proprietors, 385 ; agricul-
tural labourers, 24,707 ; farm bailiffs, 844; indoor farm-servants,
1,066 ; woodmen, 644 ; gardeners, 2,185 ; nurserymen, 61; game-
keepers, 311. The ratio of the agricultural population, thus
described, is 17-4 per cent. of the total adult population. The

* These figures do not correspond with those usually given in abstracts of the
census, and in other manuals. ‘The machinery of the Registrar-General was that
of the Poor-law. His registration districts were coterminous with Poor-law
unions ; but these, when on the borders of counties, contain parishes belonging to
different counties; so that registration counties and counties proper are not iden-
tical. My figures are for the county of Hants proper, in its two divisions of
mainland and island, and have been supplied to me by the Secretary of the Poor-
law Board. ‘The following unions, though not in Hants, contain Hampshire
parishes: Farnborough, Farnham, Bradfield, Hungerford, and Newbury. ‘The
following unions, situated in Hants, contain parishes belonging to other counties:
Andover, Basingstoke, Fordingbridge, New Forest, Romsey, and Stockbridge.

+ These statistics have been given me by the Registrar-General, and refer to
the whole county of Southampton, mainland and island. I regret that materials
are not accessible for the exact separation of the two. But, considering that the
acreage of the island is in relation to the mainland 10°3 per cent., and the popula-
tion 14-2 per cent., and taking 12°25 as the average, it may be said, that such a
proportion of the figures in this paragraph relates to the island. :

240 Farming of Hampshire.

agricultural ratio in England and Wales is 16:1 per cent.; so
that Hants is 1:3 per cent. in excess.

The classification of farms according to their size was this :—
farms of less than 50 acres, 920; of 50 and under 100 acres,
472; of 100 and under 300 acres, 9833; of 300 and under 600
acres, 489; of 600 and under 1,000 acres, 134; of 1,000 and
under 1,500 acres, 387; of 1,500 and under 2,000 acres, 2; im all
3,048 farms. So that there were 61 more farmers than farms.

The numerical relation of the labourers to their employers was
this :—one farmer, cultivating 2,700 acres, employed 90 la-
bourers ; 10 farmers, (each) 60 and upwards; 9 farmers, (each)
60—50 ; 68 farmers, (each) 50—30; 669 farmers, (each) 25—
10. Supposing 70 labourers were employed by each of the 10
farmers, 65 by each of the 9, 40 by each of the 68, 174 by each
of the 669, then these 757 farmers employed 15,802 labourers.
The remaining 2,351 farmers employed the remaining 8,815
labourers, or 3°‘7 each,

The total amount expended for the relief of the poor* for the
year ending Lady-day, 1860, was 151,673/. 9s., which was thus
distributed :—in-maintenance, 28,170/. 11s. ; out-relief, 79,6427.
1s.; maintenance of lunatics, 10,1492. 13s.; workhouse loan
repaid, 2,772/. 8s.; salaries and rations of officers, 20,4611. ;
other expenses connected with relief, 10,4771. 16s. The total
was 566/. 6s. (or ‘O04 per cent.) less than that of the preceding
year, which itself had exhibited a decrease of 6:6 per cent. when
compared with the year ending Lady-day, 1858. The decrease
for England and Wales generally for the year ending Lady-day,
1860, was 1:9 per cent.; for 1859, 5-4 per cent. A long and
severe frost between the 17th of December, 1859, and the 19th
of January, 1860, together with the increased price of wheat, told
against the general decrease in 1860, and an unusual pressure
experienced in the Lymington and New Forest Unions caused
the expenditure in Hants to exceed the average of England and
Wales by 1°86.

I give, in the appendix, some meteorological tables, with which
Ihave been favoured by Sir John Pennefather, from Aldershot,
and by Mr. Spooner, from Eling, near Southampton. I fear they
do not prove much more than the exceptional character of the
weather during the two last years. And yet 1860, so disastrous
to many farmers, is not so remarkable for the total excess of
moisture during the year, as for the unusual quantity of rain
which fell during the critical agricultural months of May, June,
July, August, and September. The unseasonableness of the rain
in summer, not its annual amount, did the mischief, The crops
could not be cleaned, and generally failed of coming to maturity.

* These figures refer to the union county of Hants on the mainland only.

Geological Features. QA

More general results might be deduced, for the climate of a
particular locality, from a valuable record which Dr. Burney has
given me, and which also is printed in the appendix, of the fall
of rain at Gosport for 41 years. Its situation by the seaside,
and the vicinity of Portsdown Hill, probably make Gosport
more damp than places a few miles inland. At least, the annual
average of the fall of rain there for eleven years, 1848-58 inclu-
sive, is 29°41, whereas the average at Eling, for the same period,

is 26°28.

J. “ Principat GEOLOGICAL AND PuHysicaAL FEATURES.”

1. Geological Features.

I would emphasise the word “features.” The geology of any

district should be studied and described for agricultural purposes,
not so much with reference to the order in a series, the internal
structure, and the fossiliferous remains of certain formations, as
with reference to their external appearance, and the manner in
which they enter into the visible composition of the earth ; how
they form the foundation and the surface of hills and valleys,
elevated platforms and plains. The farmer’s geological descrip-
tion must be two-fold; the first giving the distribution and
composition of “rocks ;” the second showing the distribution
and composition of that soil and subsoil which is the material
with which he has to deal, and which may, or may not be, of the
same character as the “rocks” proper. The connection between
the two parts of this double description is intimate. The first is
given under this section; the second will come more appro-
priately under that assigned to the nature of the soils.
- There are few counties, if any, of equal extent, in which the
geology is so simple asin Hampshire. It is a peculiarity which
will hardly be matched elsewhere in England, that all the for-
mations are recent, belonging to the post-tertiary, the tertiary,
and the cretaceous systems. There is nothing more ancient. The
range is confined, but within it there is no break in the order of
succession. We have here examples of every known species of
rock, from the Wealden clay upwards.* Hence the peculiar
interest of the geology of this county.

The lower and middle Eocene extends over the whole of the
county lying north and east of the North Downs. A straight
line (allowing for a slight indentation at Highclere) drawn from

* The Thanet sands are hardly an exception. A band of sand, only a foot or
two thick, with oyster-shells in it, occurs in the county, separating the London
and plastic clay from the chalk. In the Tertiary district east of London this band

has been found by Mr. Prestwick to expand into a series which he names the
Thanet sands. j

242 Farming of Hampshire.

East Woodhay, passing one mile and a half north of Basingstoke,
bisecting Odiham, and leaving the county at Aldershot, will
separate this district from that of the chalk.

On the higher portions of this region, and indeed throughout
it, lie extensive areas of the Upper Bagshot and Bracklesham
beds. Such are Penwood, Newton, and Burghclere Commons,
Frith Common, the large block consisting of Tadley and Sil-
chester Commons, Pamber and West Heath, and the yet more
extensive heaths and commons about Hartford Bridge Flats. The
mass of the land out of which these patches rise, underlying and
surrounding them, is the London and plastic clay, which also
borders throughout its course the chalk. I estimate this northern
Eocene district at 180 square miles.

To this succeeds, southwards, the great mass of chalk, here
uniting the North and South Downs, and the Alton Hills.

Much gravel caps the hills to the north and west of Alton, To
the east of Alton, and for the most part in the valley of the
Rother, appear the Upper Greensand, rather yellow and ochra-
ceous than green, and the Gault, a chalky clay. The Upper
Greensand also appears in a patch about Burghclere, Sidmonton,
and Apshanger.

. The clay is found in the chalk district covering the hill tops.
The chalk also invades the clay to the south, rising out of it in
the outlier of Portsdown, north of Langston and Portsmouth
Harbours.

I estimate the central chalk plateau, including Portsdown (14
square miles), at 760 square miles. P

Another lower and middle Eocene district extends in a broad
band, south of the chalk to the sea, its upper line here being
very nearly, indeed curiously, parallel to its lower line in the
north,

The London and plastic clay again borders the chalk along
the whole line, cropping out round the outlier of Portsdown,
The chief mass of it, however, lies east of the Titchfield Brook
to the boundary of the county, and between the chalk of the
South Downs on the north, and that of Portsdown on the south,
This valley will again be mentioned,

There succeed, first, the Lower Bagshots, a narrow strip, and
then the Bracklesham beds. These last are extended over a con-
siderable surface, from the west at Romsey, along the South-
ampton Water, to the east at Portsmouth. ‘Their chief develop-
ment is north of the Southampton Water and west of the Hamble,
where they form a continuous block (only intersected by the
alluvium of the river Itchen) of 75 square miles.

The outlying New Forest block consists of more recent and
unprofitable deposits. This tract appears to the ordinary observer,

Physical Features. 243

at first sight, to be a mixed mass of clays, marls, sands, and
gravels. ‘The apparent confusion arises from the variety of the
strata, from the confined space in which they are deposited, and
from the manner in which, on the numerous hills and knolls,
they overlie one another, or are concealed by drift gravel. On
closer examination, it is found that in the southern part the
Headon and Osborne beds prevail, and extend westward from
Beaulieu Heath to Hordle Cliff, where the sea flows over them,
to appear again, as we shall see, on the opposite coast of the Isle
of Wight. A little farther north, a belt of Upper Bagshot sands
occurs, then a belt of Barton clay, then the Bracklesham, and the
Upper Bagshot beds. The same phenomena may be put in
another shape. Suppose a triangle, the base of which is longer
than either of its sides, and runs along the seashore from South-
ampton Water to Hordle Cliff, while the irregular sides meet a
little north of Lyndhurst. This triangle is composed of the
Headon and Osborne beds, and the two sides of it are surrounded
east, north, and west by successive, but irregular borderings of,
first, Bagshot sands, then Barton clay, then Bracklesham beds.

I estimate this southern Eocene district, including the New
Forest block, at 576 square miles.

The measurements of the three geological areas are therefore,
northern Eocene, 180 square miles; southern, 576; central

chalk, 760; in all 1516 square miles.
2. Physical Features.

A pedestrian, who would trace the main watershed line of this
county, would begin his walk at Inkpen Beacon, in the North
Downs, and end it at Butser Hill, in the South Downs, connect-
ing the two by the Alton Hills, which run between Odiham and
Petersfield.

Inkpen Beacon, the monarch of English chalk mountains,
972°8 feet high, though not actually in the county, yet standing
on its very confines at its north-western extremity, where Hants,
Wilts, and Berks meet, may well be taken as the starting post.
Thence the route is eastward and south-eastward, along the high
downs to Highclere Beacon, 870:4 feet, Ladle Hill, White Hill,
Cottington’s Hill, Rook’s Down; thence southward, with an in-
clination sometimes of a few points to the east, over Basingstoke
Down, Tunworth Down, Binstead Hill, Windmill Hill, Nore
Hill, Butser Hill, 882-6 feet,* and so out of the county, at its
south-eastern extremity, about ten miles from the coast.

To trace the short line of watershed between the valleys of the

* These heights are lower than those usually given, but my figures are derived
from trigonometrical observations by the Ordnance Survey Department, and have
kindly been supplied to me by Lieut.-Col. Cameron, R.E.

244 Farming of Hampshire.

Wey and the Rother, our pedestrian would branch off due east-
ward over Nore * and White Hills for about six miles,

Lastly, there is a low and insignificant range of heights,
sufficient, however, for their purpose, which divide the waters
falling into the Southampton Water from those which descend to
the south-western sea-coast. ‘These last belong to the Bagshot
beds.

Over all the other watersheds, our traveller’s feet would be on
the chalk for the whole distance; first whilst walking south-
eastward for 22 miles over the North Downs, then southward
for 16 over the Alton Hills, till he joined the South Downs at
Butser Hill. But he would still have left untraversed the outlier
called Portsdown Hill, as well as the South Down range in its
extension to the north-west from Butser Hill, by St. Catherine’s
Hill, Sombourn, Stockbridge, and Tidworth. It is worthy of
remark, that in this county the North Downs form a watershed,
which is not the case with the chalk generally, nor with the North
Downs in other counties, where they are broken through by the
rivers Wey (rising in the lower range of the Alton Hills), Mole,
Darent, Medway, and Stour; while the South Downs are
pierced in Hants by the Test and the Itchen, and elsewhere by
the Arun, the Adur, the Ouse, and the Cuckmere.t

There are four systems of drainage—river basins—in the main-
land of the county: the London, the Arun, the Southampton
Water, and that of the south-western sea-coast.

The two first our traveller had, as he came southward, succes-
sively on his left; the third continuously on his right.

The London or Northern basin is watered by the Emborne
River (an affluent of the Kennet, which receives several brooks
from Highclere, Kingsclere, and Banghurst, beginning in the
north-western extremity of the county, and also bounding it for
12 miles); by the Loddon (rising 14 miles to the west of Basing-
stoke, and flowing through that town) ; by the Whitewater ; and by
the Blackwater (rising near Aldershot in the extreme east of the

* Var Down is substituted in the Ordnance map for Nore Hill, which, however,
is a classical name, and cannot be sacrificed. ‘‘ Nore Hill, a noble chalk promon-
tory, remarkable for sending forth two streams into two different seas. The one
to the south becomes a branch of the Arun, running to Arundel, and so falling into
the British Channel; the other to the north, the Selborne stream, makes one
branch of the Wey, and meeting the Black-down stream at Hedleigh, and the
Alton and Farnham stream at Tilfordbridge, swells into a considerable river,
navigable at Godalming; from whence it passes to Guildford, and so into the
Thames at Weybridge; and thus at the Nore into the German Ocean.” Gilbert
White's Selborne, Part I. Letter 1.

7 From the fact that the gorges of the North and South Downs are often in the
same line, these transverse fissures have been ascribed to the upheaving force
exerted on the intervening wea!d. In Hants there is no weald, and consequently
the North Down is not fractured. See Mr. Martin’s ‘Geology of Western Sussex,’
quoted by Lyell.

River Basins. 245

county, which it bounds till its junction with the Whitewater,
for 20 miles). All these rise on the northern slope of the North
Downs, and ultimately find their way into the Thames. There
would also be seen on the eastern slope of the Alton Hills,
about 2 miles south-east of Alton, the two sources of the Wey,
watering the valleys of Selborne and Alton, The main river of
the Wey reaches the same basin, by a most irregular course, in
search of a convenient spot at which to pierce the North Down
range, and which it at last finds round the Hog’s Back at Guild-
ford. I estimate the country thus drained into the London or
northern basin, at 275 square miles.

_ The country drained to the south-eastward, into the basin of
the Arun, by the Rother rising on the eastern slope of Nore Hill,
I estimate at 45 square miles.

The whole of the remainder of the county drains to the south-
ward (and so is on the sunny side of the hill), the great bulk of
it into the Southampton Water, chiefly by means of the Test or
Anton * and its affluents, and the Itchen.

The Test itself rises 54 miles north of Andover, near Upton,
on the southern slope of the North Downs, and, running to the
east and south, is joined below Hurstbourne Priors by a stream |
from Ash, and further down by another small stream (also running
from the eastward, from Micheldever) at Newton Stacey. The
Anton rises at Enham Knights, is joined by a rivulet from
Charlton, 2 miles north of Andover, and by another brook,
before it joins the Test at Kitecombe Bridge, at the foot of Long-
stock Hill.

The two rivers, the Test and the Anton, sometimes divided
into two or more channels, sometimes united,

‘‘ Like friends once parted,
Grown single-hearted,
Ply their watery tasks”
in a tolerably straight course southward, through one valley,
draining the country on both sides into the head of the South-
ampton Water at Redbridge, after a course of 35 miles. They
receive slender contributions on either side from different brooks,
from Broughton and the Wallops, from King’s Sombourne, the
Tytherleys, and Knap Hill. Below Romsey there are other
waters, from East and West Wellow, joining near Nutshalling ;
from Rufus’ Stone and from Minstead, joining near Eling, on
the western ; and from Milbrook on the eastern bank. The Test

* Which name ought to be given to the united stream is hard to say, Camden
contends for Anton; and the names of the county, and of the town at the mouth,
seem to favour his opinion. On the other hand, Leland speaks of the Test only,
which has, moreover, an Anglo-Saxon derivation. Present usage is utterly unde-
cided between the two.

246 Farming of Hampshire.

and Anton cut their way, through an alluvium of their own making,
between the chalk hills as far as Kembridge Mill, above Romsey,
where they enter the Eocene deposits.

The Itchen, said to have its source in the pond at Alresford
(constructed by De Lucy, bishop of Winchester, in the latter end
of the twelfth century), increased by rivulets from Bishop’s
Sutton and Bighton, receiving contributions on the right and
left banks from the valley of the Candovers, from that of Cheriton
and ‘Titchbourne, flowing sometimes by no less than five channels,
as at Winchester (the work of ecclesiastical improving agricul-
turists probably), sometimes by one, as at St. Cross just below,
having various affluents from Ofterbourne, Marwell, Durley,
Hursley, and North Stoneham, reaches the Southampton Water,
after a course of about 25 miles. ‘The Itchen leaves the chalk,
and enters the Eocene, between Otterbourne and Bambridge.

The villages on the banks of these chalk streams are the homes
of the great bulk of the agricultural population in the district.

Next, to the east, succeeds the Hamble, mostly an estuary,
through the Eocene. Its two branches rise at Durley and Bishop’s
Waltham, and it flows by Botley and Bursledon with a course of
12 miles.

A nameless stream, east of the Hamble, which I venture to
call the Titchfield Brook, rises in the chalk about 2 miles west
of Butser Hill, enters the Eocene at Soberton Heath, and runs
into the Solent, after a course of 20 miles.

I estimate the Southampton Water basin at 906 square miles.

Passing now to the outlying block in the south-west, where
low watersheds separate, from each other, streams nearly parallel
in their channels. Here the Dark Water, the Exe or Beaulieu,
13 miles long, the Lymington Water, 15 miles, the Avon Water,
all drain the New Forest into the sea at the south; and lastly the
Wiltshire Avon runs directly south, from Breamore to Christ
Church, for 20 miles.

This basin I estimate at 300 square miles.

The collected measurements of these drainage areas are: Lon-
don basin 275, Arun 45, Southampton Water 906, West Coast
300 square miles ; in all 1516 square miles.

Il. “Tur Nature oF THE SOILS IN THE DIFFERENT DisrrRictTs
OR NATURAL Divisions OF THE CounTyY.”

The statements already made as to the geological character of
the rocks in the county, and the physical configuration of its
surface, will be our guides in dividing it into certain natural
districts for agricultural purposes, and in ascertaining the quality
of their respective soils,

The Nature of the Soils. 247

Under this guidance, however, many anomalies will present
themselves to our notice, because the distribution of the soil has
ever been determined by the’ flow of the water, which has itself
been regulated by the height and direction of the mountain
ranges. But the changes of the watersheds have been so com-
plete, the physical geography has been so repeatedly disturbed,
the drainage has been so often arranged and rearranged, that
we find in this county, both on the mainland and in the island,
the erratic tertiaries capping the chalk hills, where, according to
any existing surface-configuration, they certainly never could have
wandered. The county, therefore, can be but roughly mapped out.

Minute distinctions, or much accuracy, are not to be expected.
The boundaries assigned to each district are, from the necessity
of the case, loosely delineated, and must be accepted with large
allowances and some modification. Where two different geological
series are near neighbours, as when the chalk and Eocene meet,
or where the soil has been deposited on a flat or slight incline,
the one formation runs up or down into the other, and the con-
fusion of materials is infinite, even within the compass of a single
field.

Taking a geological basis as, on the whole, the most unex-
ceptionable, we may say there are three natural districts: 1. The
Northern Eocene, or “the Hampshire Woodlands,” according to
the local name. 2. The Middle Cretaceous, 3. The Southern
Eocene. Of the soils in these districts a triple division must
suffice, though in some cases it may be hard to determine to
which of these three kinds a particular field should be assigned ;
because a larger subdivision would often create distinctions, where
no real broad difference exists.

The general classification in the Eocene districts, north and
south, will be: 1. Retentive clay and clay-loams. 2. Sands,
gravels, and loams mixed with them, on a retentive base. 3.
The same on an absorbent base. The two first require for their
improvement, close draining, and then subsoiling (but not bringing
the clay to the surface). All three require, as a mineral manure,
chalk, chalk, chalk. ‘‘The salvation of these soils is chalk,” has
often been said tome. The base of the whole is a plastic clay,
like birdlime, The nearer this is to the surface, of course the
wetter the soil.

Inthe Northern Eocene, one may say of No.1 that it is a strong
soil, but requires to be well “tackled,” and is utterly intractable
without improvement by drainage and chalking ; ; and even then
its cultivation is a work of difficulty, requiring much patience
and perseverance. Where it is most fertile, its materials are
better mixed, and its colour is darker. The clay, the loam, and
the sand, instead of lying in separate beds, as they too often do,

248 Farming of Hampshire.

are so intimately blended, that each corrects the bad qualities and
supplies the deficiencies of the other. The better sort may consist
above of sandy clays, or loams, gradually passing downwards into
stronger and stiffer clay, till you come to the London and plastic
clay at the bottom. ‘Some of the strongest and best of this land
occupies what is locally called the ‘‘ Hampshire basin,” an alluvial
formation, once a small inland sea, situated chiefly in the parishes
of Basing and Sherfield, and intersected by the Berks and Hants
Railway, in the cuttings of which many marine-shells were found.
Oaks grow well everywhere in this soil; elms may be seen in
the more generous parts: all of it once was, and much of it still
is, in wood, either in hedgerows or coppices, so that it well
deserves the name of “the Hampshire Woodlands.” Whether
under cultivation or timbered, this No, 1 soil extends throughout
the whole of the northern district as a sea, out of which rise
islands of furze and heath on commons, and fir plantations. One
group of these is to the north of Highclere; another and larger
block runs north of Monks’ Sherborne, till you come to the conti-
nent of Hartford Flats and Aldershot. These are the Nos, 2
and 3 soils in the north, belonging geologically to the Bagshot
and Bracklesham beds. Here you have the erratic gravel hetween
the surface-soil and the clay ; there the sand ; there the two mixed ;
there no vegetable surface-mould whatever. About Bramley
is some of the best-tempered of these soils—a free working loam,
good for all corn. About Pamber and Silchester there is much
sharp and unprofitable gravel onthe surface; but the better parts
are good barley land. The same may be said of West Heath,
Banghurst, and Tadley. At Silchester, the Blackwater valley,
about Yately, Bramshill, Eversley, and indeed throughout the
Bagshot sands, there occur in spots blocks of concrete, cemented
gravel, clay, and iron, Hamptonicé “ verrells” or “ ferrells,” on
the derivation of which word I have in vain consulted one of the
first Anglo-Saxon philologists of the day. Its perfectly intelligible
synonyme is “ plum-puddings.” They were found, on its resto-
ration a few years since, built into the foundations of old Sand-
hurst church.

In the Southern Eocene, if we start from the point where the
Salisbury branch of the South-Western Railway enters the western
boundary of the county, and proceed eastward, we have, north of
Romsey, No.1 soil skirting the chalk all the way, by Otterbourn
and Bishop’s Waltham, to the eastern boundary of the county,
where the Portsmouth and Brighton Railway leaves it, at Havant
and Emsworth; this border being narrow towards the west, but
gradually increasing in breadth ” towards. the east, and nearly
encircling the Portsdown chalk. Fareham is sitnated within it,
Portsea and Hayling belong to it. Here are Spirewell Wood,

Soils. 249

Butler’s Wood, Anfield Wood, Cranbury Park, Bambridge
and part of Twyford Park, Stroud’s Wood, Waltham Chace, the
Forest of Bere, and, west of Portsdown Hill, Ridge and other
coppices. It is almost a continuous line of wood and coppice.
This country ought to be called “the South Hants Woodlands.”
This No. 1 soil is heavy indeed and dark coloured, but in its
better parts, where mixed with a sandy loam and a reddish brick-
earth, it forms rich loam. The good soil increases in breadth of
surface, and the loam in depth, as you go eastward, and approach
the coast and the valleys opening out on it. To this tract of
country belongs that heavy ground, which has already been
mentioned, between the chalk of the South Downs and that of
Portsdown.

The southern slope of Portsdown, and the alluvial soil stretching
thence towards the sea, is of much better quality. From Bed-
hampton, at the eastern end of the hill, to Fareham, at the western,
there is a fine tract of corn land, nearly eight miles long, and
with an average breadth of nearly one, which for good farming,
large open pleasant fields, and the earliness of its produce (the
harvest is said to be ten days in adyance of other parts), is not
surpassed in the county, except it be at Bishopstoke.

Much serviceable land is situated to the east of the Southampton
Water, stretching in a broad band from Romsey, south and east-
ward, in what may be called the Bracklesham country, as far as
Gosport and Portsmouth ; but the extension southward is soon
checked by the poor soils of the New Forest block. The con-
stituents of the soil do not seem very different from those of lands
of this class in the north, but are better mixed. ‘There are some
fields with a good staple between Botley and Bishopstoke ; some
much thinner about Netley, Horton, and Chilworth; but the
large proportion of this block is, as soils go in Hampshire, very
useful land. ‘Titchfield, for instance, is a noted agricultural
parish. About Romsey, in the valley of the Test, there is a rich
black alluvial soil, peaty perhaps in parts, of which some field-
allotment gardeners appear to make good use. But some of the
best working land in this whole district, and it may be almost
said in the county, lies in the adjoining valley of the Itchen,
about Bishopstoke Railway station. The farmer has there a
loam, as deep as the plough can go, resting on a gravelly subsoil,
excellent for all grain, strong enough for beans, and light enough
for turnips. This loam thins out to the southward in the direc-
tion of Millbrook, Southampton, and Netley Abbey, till the
gravel comes to the surface. It was about midway in this tract,
between Bishopstoke and Southampton, at Swathling, that the
trial of the light-land implements took place, on the occasion of

the Society’s show in 1844,

250 © Farming of Hampshire.

The New Forest portion of the south-western block is more o1
less overspread with beds of erratic flint gravel, generally yellow,
sometimes of a darker colour. Where this is deep, it obliterates
the underlying sands and clays of the Eocene period. This
remark applies, though to a less extent, to the north-eastern
portion of the county about Aldershot. In the Forest, too, re-
appear the “ verrells,” though they are known by another name
—“ Burley rock ”’—derived from the spot where they crop out.
They are again to be found built into the walls of ancient build-
ings, such as the Norman churches of Boldre and Brockenhurst,
and the Early English church of Minstead. Of the New Forest,
the Rhinefield, Burley, and Wilverley walks, in the western
district, are the poorest ; though, of the Rhinefield, the part where
the Nursery is situated is better. Of the Burley walk, the part
to the west of Burley Beacon, and round it, is nothing but sand
on clay, growing rushes, with here and there some bed furze.
In the eastern district the poorest walks are the Beaulieu, the
Nodes, and the Denny. These are all to the south, and generally
the north hasa deeper soil, more capable of growing oak. There
are two kinds of furze in the Forest—the tall, and the short or
“bed” furze. Farmers will tell you that the land is worth re-
claiming, and corn can be grown where the tall furze flourishes.
The Forest soil used to be famous for its marls, two descriptions
of which are recognised—‘“ the Shell Marl” and the ‘* Cherry
Marl.” In the former the clay is rendered calcareous by shells,
whole, or slightly broken. In the latter, which derives its name
from the red stains caused by oxide of iron, the shells are wholly
broken, and the calcareous and argillaceous materials more inti-
mately united. The large and numerous mar!-pits still existing,
of which no less than twenty-four are named in the ‘ Schedule
to the Register of decisions on New Forest claims, 1857,’ as
‘‘ open and accustomed marl-pits,” prove the extensive use of this
manure in former, and even comparatively recent times. They
are now, however, almost deserted. ‘‘The old hole,” near
Levett’s Gate, is sometimes resorted to; but it appears from the
New Forest financial accounts that, during the year ending the
31st of March last, no more than 138 cubic yards were excavated
from all the twenty-four pits.* Marl is a most bulky, and there-
fore a most expensive manure to apply; chalk, conveyed by
railway, and artificial manures, easily carried anywhere, have
superseded it. The chief application of marl is on the peaty soil
between Sopley and Christchurch. In the New Forest, from the
recent formation of the deposits, geology can give a good account

* The sum received for marl, at 6d. per cubie yard, was 3/. 9s. Some calcula-
tions have been printed in the Society’s Journal as to the cost of these marls * hen
conveyed by railway.

Soils. DAS shh

of the soils. Thus—to connect the statement with the geological
description before given—the Headon and Osborne beds, at the
basis of the triangle, consist of heavy brick-earth and clay, of
which the Beaulieu white bricks are made, the tops of the hills
being capped with gravel. The upper Bagshots, about Burley

eacon, round by Rhinefield and Denny Lodges, and so on
towards Fawley, are hungry sands devoid of staple. At Fawley
itself there is a considerable improvement. ‘The Barton clay
next succeeding to the north, and coming out on the Southampton
Water at Dibden, is the oak and timber soil. This clay is blue
in its original state, yellow when weathered.

In the extreme south-west of the county the soil is alluvial in
the valleys of the two rivers there (the Avon and Stour), peaty
below Ringwood in the basin of the Avon; but on the higher
ground towards the Forest, between Ringwood and Christchurch,
there is some of the best natural soil for turnips in the county.
The eminences by the Stour, and thence towards Poole, are
capped with extensive beds of gravel.

In the middle or cretaceous district soils are also threefold :
1. A strong clay on the tops of the hills. 2. A thin chalky surface
on their abraded sides. 3. An alluvial deposit in the long
watered valleys.* The basis of all is what is locally termed
“‘the chalk rock,” in the upper layers of which there are cavities
—* pot-holes,”—filled with drift clay, loam, and flints, as may be
seen in any railway cutting. ‘That a strong, stiff, loamy clay,
in many places 20 feet deep, an evident aqueous deposit (but
whether of the same geological character as the plastic and
London clays in the Eocene districts north and south, geologists
differ), should crown the hills, is the distinguishing feature of
soils in the chalk country. As to the fact itself, Golonel George
Greenwood writes :—‘‘ On the hill-tops the clay may be said to
be continuous, north and south, from the tertiary strata of the
London basin at Old Basing, to the Hampshire basin at Horn-
dean, by Herriard, Bradley, the Wealds, Medstead, Rotherfield,
Basing Park, Froxfield, Henwood, Old Winchester Hill, Butser
Hill, Charlton Down, and Catherington.” f

So also from west to east, from Winchester to Nore Hill,
along the upper valley of the Itchen, the hill-tops at Hampage,
at Fulley Wood, beyond Titchbourne, between Titchbourne

* Lam aware of the more multifarious division of chalk soils, but I must express
my conviction, founded on personal observation and inquiry, that such a descrip-
tion is not generic, and is only partially applicable. The triple division above is
that which any chalk farmer in Hants, from Combe to Charlton, will give as the
result of his experience. ‘‘ Light hazel mould”’ is a designation frequently men-
tioned in print, but is applicable rather to Sussex than to Hants,

} Letter to ‘Hampshire Chronicle,’ 21st January, 1859.

VOL. XXII. r

252 Farming of Hampshire.

Down and Sutton Scrubs, at Chalwood, West Tisted, Privet,
and Colemore, are all covered with clay, which, indeed, is almost
continuous for the whole distance.

Again, in the north-west, and coming southwards towards
Andover, there is strong good wheat-land at Netherton, Hurst-
bourne, Tarrant, Apsley Farm, Falconer’s Down Farm, and then
going east towards Basingstoke, till the former line from Old
Basing southwards is touched at Steventon, North Waltham,
Dummer, and Farleigh. In a north-westerly direction from
Winchester to Chilbolton, the agricultural soil is thin, the chalk
being near the surface: so also still further to the north-west in
the Weyhill country. A little beyond, north-west of Tidworth,
just over the county boundary, is the isolated conical chalk hill
of Sidbury, the table-top of which is a marked instance of the
drift covering (here remaining in situ) of clay, loam, sand, and
gravel, which once overlay all the chalk formation.

A red brick colour often belongs to this clay loam, and to the
chalk immediately beneath it, This discoloration, caused by
oxide of iron, depends on the superposition (in some remote
period) of gravel (traces of which in the presence of flints now
remain), and on elevation rather than on locality. It is, how-
ever, particularly observable about Andover, and has indeed
given their names to such places as Redenham and Red Rice.
The sheep always do well on these red lands, though the wool
suffers in colour and in price.

Though this is a cold, it is not a wet soil. If the deposit
of clay were not invariably on the top, springs would burst out
of every hill-side, and brooks would flow through each hollow.
But the capabilities of the porous chalk rock for absorbing
moisture are seldom oyvertasked, and a “‘ winter-bourne” is the
utmost result of long-continued rain, and of converging undula-
tions of ground, Well-diggers are obliged to go two or three
hundred feet deep: and, whether the shepherd requires water for
his own use, or for that of his flock, it comes from the clouds
and not from. the springs. Between the lands on the arable
ground there are, except on the clay capping, no water-furrows,
and between the fields no water-ditches; and, except when the
rain is actually falling the surface is not wet and the roads not
dirty.

Then, again, though it is a hard, it is not a dry soil. How-
ever thin, it does not burn like sand. There is no apparent
wetness, and yet there must be a remarkable power of retaining
moisture even in the driest time. The streams must be sup-
plied from fountains deep down in the bowels of the earth, for
their volume is but slightly affected by summer’s drought or
winter’s rains, and, if fouled for a time by washings from the

Sotls — The Chath. 253

upper grounds, they very soon return to their normal transparent
clearness.

Though neither wet nor dry, this table-land is, as might be
supposed from its composition, a very tenacious soil. The
remedy is happily close at hand, just beneath. “ Wells” are
sunk through the clay, and chalk brought up and spread abroad
for the frosts to pulverise. The cost is 40s, per acre; the effects
are larger crops, and more healthy land.

The No. 2 soil, on the sides of the hills, is little more than
chalky rubble, or chalk finely comminuted and decomposed by
atmospheric action. Residents of much experience, without
offering any explanation, have remarked that the soil is stronger
on the northern than on the southern slopes.* The chalk, where
weaker, is of a grey or whitey-brown colour, thin, and wanting
in cohesion. For instance, when reduced to a fine tilth for
turnips, the rain, in a dry season, seems to go through it, and to
make no show, although chalk never burns.

Flints appear in both these soils, either lying dispersedly,
mixed with gravel and pebbles, or intersecting without interrup-
tion, in regular horizontal strata, the upper chalk formation.
So thick is the flint-drift, spread like a coverlet on a bed of
chalk, in some of the dry hollows, that cultivation would seem
as little profitable there as on the shingle of a sea-beach. But
you are reassured when told of the costly experience of a new-
comer, who, having picked off the flints and carted them away,
and thereby lost his crops, acknowledged his error by restoring
them, as shelter against March winds, protection against summer
suns, and warmth against winter frosts.

The alluvial deposits (No. 3 soil) are considerable tracts of
meadow and pasture (involving distinct agricultural manage-
ment) in the valleys through which the streams flow. Such are
the soils on the banks of the Stour and the Avon, in the south-
western portion of the southern district; and of the Test and
Anton and the Itchen, partly in the middle, partly in the southern
district. The alluvial soil, though part of it is transported from
a distance, derives its chief characteristics from the hills above
and beside it, and so varies with the formations through which
the rivers flow. The detrital accumulations, combined with
vegetable matter arising from the flow and the stagnation of the
water, compose the dark-coloured surface. Where the current is
slow and the valleys large, peat and peaty soils have been

_* One explanation that has been given me is, that the movement which occa-
sioned the existing surface configuration was from south-east to north-west ; and
that consequently the rolled combinations of chalk and clay settled down on the
northern or leeward side. This theory fits the facts, almost as well as if it were
made for them.

T 2

254 Farming of Hampshire.

formed. The distinction is important. It bears directly om
‘“*the character of the farming” in those valleys, as will be seen
when this topic occurs. ‘The commencement of the peat is the
termination of the more profitable water-meadows.

The appropriation of these three soils to different purposes of
rural economy is distinct. Where the clay is deep, there are
often large woods on the tops of the hills, and often numerous
corn-fields ; where the upper soil is so thin as to let the plough
down to the chalk, there used to be nothing but down, though
much of it is now broken up. Where the long watered valleys
run, there are the ancient churches, the villages, the farm-houses,
sheltered by the tall elms and ashes, which in their turn shelter
the rooks, and that which has attracted them all hither—the
water and the water-meadows.

A district which lies to the eastward still remains to be
described. Geologically it is assigned to the cretaceous group,
as having a zoological connection with the chalk above it; its
mineral constitution, however, is distinct, for it has no more
than 2 per cent. of lime in its composition, whereas chalk has
50 per cent. In an agricultural point of view, it more nearly
resembles the Wealden clay beneath. The gault and greensand
extend from Petersfield in the south, by Selborne, Worldham,
Alton, Binstead, Bentley, to eanbend in Surrey. This is the
hop country : eecollens also, when drained, for wheat, beans,
oats, and root-crops, growing, in its matical nade state,
large oaks.

These soils present many varieties. There are—belonging
respectively to the lower and middle gault —clays, compact and
stiff, sometimes shale-like, of a blackish or grey colour, requiring
draining, extensively used as an alterative manure to light sandy
and gravelly soils if near, which they benefit, partly by com-
municating mineral ingredients deficient in those soils, partly
by mechanically poneolidanine them, and so rendering thom more
retentive of atmospheric Paden: and of manure. Distin-
guished from these, there are marls, from 20 to 100 feet thick,
green, yellowish, grey, dirty white, valuable in themselves, valu-
able as manures, and excavated for this purpose from very early
times.

This is the country of the “malm,” suitable for hops, or
indeed for any crop requiring a strong soil; not so stiff and
tenacious as the preceding gault clays, falling to a fine powder
on exposure to the air, running frequently into the fissures of
the firestone rock, filling them with a rich unctuous mould, into
which the roots of the hop penetrate 20 feet deep. The malm
farmers say that the application of lime once in ten years, 160
bushels to an acre, is of great service, not only in increasing the

The Hop Soil — Selborne. 255

crop of wheat, which is highly esteemed and largely exported
for seed, but also in stiffening the straw—a most valuable quality
on strang rich land, But this is the effect of lime anywhere.

There is yet another variety lying in beds mixed with the clay,
which has received the name of the “silica rock,” from the
quantity of soluble silica which was found in it by Messrs. Way
and Paine. From Farnham to Petersfield (where there isa section
AQ feet thick) this rock extends over some hundreds of acres,
reaching to a depth of from 50 to 100 feet, nearly the whole
being under hop cultivation, but capable of growing wheat,
beans, or anything. It occurs again about Selborne, and may be
traced at the Undercliff, Isle of Wight, in its proper geological
position between the chalk above and the gault below. In
appearance it is whitey-brown, not unlike a rich limestone, and
in touch is soft. Itis quarried for manure, and is itself benefited
by a dressing of gault.

A part of this eastern district has been described by the
hand of a master, In the village of Selborne, was born, lived,
and died, Gilbert White, of whose topographical sketch a
portion is directly to our present purpose. ‘The cartway of the
village,” he says, “divides in a remarkable manner two very
incongruous soils. To the south-west is a rank clay that requires
the labour of years to render it mellow [upper gault]; while the
gardens to the north-east and small enclosures behind consist of
a warm, forward, crumbling mould, called ‘black malm,’ which
seems highly saturated with vegetable and animal manure [lower
gault, which here happens to be naturally drained]. To the
north-west, north, and east of the village is a range of fair
enclosures, consisting of what is called ‘white malm,’ a sort of
rotten or rubble stone, which, when turned up to the frost and
rain, moulders to pieces and becomes manure to itself.” “Still
on to the north-east, and a step lower, is a kind of white land,
neither chalk nor clay, neither fit for pasture nor for the plough,
yet kindly for hops, which root deep into the freestone. This
white soil produces the brightest hops.” These last are what
we should term different kinds of marl, and are above the free-
stone or firestone (as it is indifferently called, from its easiness to

- work, and from the uses to which it is applied). Speaking of
the two forests in the parish, ‘‘ Wolmer, with her sister forest
Ayles Holt, alias Alice Holt,” * he says, “though they are only

* The orthography of this forest is various. Gilbert White writes Ayles, alias
Alice Holt; an inquisition 36 Edward III. (1362) has Aisholt; the Ordnance
Survey prints Alder Holt, Holt is the hill-wood; Alice may be a corruption of
Ayles, but Aish cannot be; aspirates and liquids would not be interchanged, Ayles
and Aish are two names, etymologically distinct. Ayles Holt is the eagle’s hill-
wood (as Aylesbury is the eagle’s-bury); Aish-holt is the ash hill-wood; Alder

256 Farming of Hampshire.

parted by a narrow range of enclosures, yet no two soils can be

more different: for the Holt consists of a strong loam, of a miry

nature, carrying a good turf, and abounding with oaks that grow
to be large timber; while Wolmer is nothing but a hungry,
sandy, barren waste.”

It should be observed that, in all the districts, extensive beds
of flint, gravel, and sand are to be met with at all levels, from
that of the sea, to 500 or 600 feet above it. They are found,
where one would least expect to meet with such driftable sub-
stances, on the tops of the chalk hills, as to the west and north
of Alton in the north-east, and about Romsey in the south-west ;
and again, as we shall see hereafter, in the Isle of Wight. They
occasion that difference, which Gilbert White remarked, between
the two neighbouring forests of Wolmer and Alice Holt, making
the former ‘‘a hungry, sandy, barren waste.” They occur also
on each eminence of the Eocene region, both in the north and
south. They form terraces in the valleys of the existing rivers,
some 25 feet above the alluvial meadows, through which the
streams now flow, the gravel varying in depth from 2 feet to 60.
*

I1I.—* Cuaracter oF Farmina, Live Stock, IMPLEMENTS,
RECENT CHANGES OF Farm MANAGEMENT, IMPROVEMENTS
LATELY INTRODUCED OR STILL REQUIRED, REMARKABLE OR
CHARACTERISTIC FARMS IN EACH OF THE DIFFERENT NATURAL
DIVISIONS.” *

The farming on every side of Hants has been described in the
Society's Journal. Dorset, Wilts, Berks, Surrey, Sussex—all
the surrounding counties from sea to sea, and similar in many

articulars of their agricultural character—have each of them
been fully delineated. The report on Hants has thus been, in a.

great measure, anticipated. Farming on lands, light, heavy, and

Holt, the hill-wood where the alders grow, is probably the same word as.
Aldershot.

* The six prescribed topics at the head of this section would appear capable
of convenient treatment, under each of the natural divisions. I venture, accordingly,
to group them together, passing, as will be easily noticed, in order, but without
noting the transition, from one to the other. I comprehend under “ the character
of the farming,” the size of farms, the proportion of arable, pasture, and meadow ;
the rotation of crops; the mode of cultivation; the application of manures (whe-
ther farmyard, artificial, or chalk); the produce per acre ; the live stock, with the
number per acre; the implements; the buildings; the chief markets and fairs ;
the societies for the improvement of agriculture, and the encouragement of the
labourer ; the wages and condition of the labourer; the manual labour per acre ;
the tithe, the parochial burdens, and rent of land, with its tenancy. The topies
“vecent changes in farm management,” and “improvements lately introduced,”
will be mentioned in connexion with “ remarkable or characteristic farms,” which
are indeed the scenes and‘ examples of these “changes” and “ improvements.”
The “improvements still required,” will be reserved for separate enumeration and
consideration under a distinct head.

Northern District. Asi

mixed ; downs, water-meadows, reclamation of wastes, improve-
ment of poor soils, have all been so fully and so ably discussed,
that the reporter on Hants must submit to the imputation of
saying again, what has been better said before. But my repe-
titions, whatever they are, at least are those of an eye-witness.
Every detail is the result of personal inquiry, or has been under
the personal observation of the writer, who has traversed, with a
special view to this Report, the length and breadth of the county,
noting and narrating what he saw and heard.

A more unfavourable time for making agricultural observa-
tions there could not be. We have just gone through one of the
wettest, coldest, and most ungenial seasons on record. The
spring was remarkable for its backwardness ; during the summer
there was a succession of heavy rains and storms of wind, with
but little sun and no heat. The seasons were out of course,
Summer heat and winter cold were identical in temperature.
At 5 p.m. on 6th of August the thermometer, at Newark, stood
at 54°; on 6th of December, at 6 P.M., it was only two degrees
lower. During the whole of the summer and autumn, there were
just ten days for haymaking, and the same number for wheat
harvest. ‘Turnips and all roots were only half a crop, and only half
cleaned in spite of repeated hoeings and much expense. The
consequences pervade the whole agricultural system. The land
is foul, the flocks are poor. No one class of farmers has escaped.
The lowland occupier, who has had his meadows unseasonably
summer-flooded, and his grass filled with grist, so that nothing
will touch it either standing or cut, envies his brothers on the
downs—laudat diversa sequentes ; but they, having bad hay, poor
sainfoin, and no turnips, have sold their sheep at a great sacrifice,
or else have double stocks on their hands with half their usual
quantity of feed. Heavy-land farmers have not been able to get
on their fields. A dry day now and then simply showed them
that the ground would not work. Where the seed has been got
in, the soil was not pulverised, and the grain not well covered.
It has since had to endure a succession of severe frosts. Those
who waited, are likely to have as good a plant, or better, than
those who hurried the seed in earlier, after a fashion.

Nortruern District.

This is too heavily timbered for agricultural purposes. The
double rows of timber-trees, with brushwood between, grow-
ing in the enormous hedgerows which enclose arable fields in
some of the strongest land, right and left of the Loddon, are
hardly to be equalled elsewhere. These, pernicious enough
to cultivation anywhere, are here doubly injurious from the
nature of the soil, which requires the fullest possible amount

258 Farming of Hampshire.

of light and air. Tew strangers make trial of the unimproved
farms of this country. The occupier is born in it, and is well
called “the woodland farmer.” You may hear the phrase, ‘‘ He
will do for this country, but he’s worth nothing on the hills.”
His doing is but indifferent even here. He is. not a man of much
capital ; his farm is small, from 50 to 100 acres, chiefly arable,
with the exception of some wet fat meadows adjoining the
Loddon ; his practice may be described in a few words: fallow
once in seven years, then crop as fast as possible. His rotation
is short and simple: wheat and beans alternately for six years ;
then a fallow, generally an open fallow ; now sometimes, how-
ever, with vetches, which are found to loosen the land. There
may be variations according to the season: for instance, the
wheat could not be got in last fall, so that oats will have to be
substituted. In fact, seasons and circumstances must overrule
systems in this country ; and this is understood by the landlords,
who do not interfere with a mode of cultivation which is not
altogether in accordance with approved principles.

In the fallow year the land is deeply ploughed in the autumn,
allowed to lie during the winter, in the spring (as soon as it will
bear treading) crossed or turned back according to circum-
stances, and then ploughed three or four times during the
summer and got to a fine tilth, Crossing is now much more
in use than formerly; on undrained land it was hardly ever
done. Grubbers are not generally used; but drags to get
out the couch, and Crosskill’s crusher (where available) to
break the clods, which, if the land. be ploughed when wet,
are dried into brickbats, with edges so sharp, that the hair
is shaved from the horses’ legs, and the ploughman compelled
to hitch off his team, and await some softening showers. But
there is not so much open fallow by one-third now, as before
draining was introduced. This improvement has also rendered
it possible to put in vetches, and even, on the more favoured
spots, swedes and mangold, and, once in eight years, a little
clover. If the clover-ley be clean, it comes into wheat; but it
is more generally fallowed, or a crop of oats or beans taken,
and then a fallow. ‘The farmer here does not depend on
stock, or want much food for them; indeed, before draining,
sheep-folding is an impossibility. The processes of cultivation
must be completed within the day.‘ Plough a bit, harrow a bit,
and then sow before nightfall, or the rain may come and ‘set it’
all.” Manure (ploughed in green) is applied to the wheat or to
the beans, just as the season permits carting on the land. I could
not learn that there was even a preference for its application to
the bean-crop; but only, that if it were applied to the one, it
was not applied to the other, The beans are spring beans, the

The Woodlands. 259

winter variety failing from the frost; they are dibbled by
women, across the lands, often on the stale furrow, sometimes
after a second ploughing; and are twice hand-hoed, ‘The
bean-stubble is ploughed, the weeds dragged up and burnt. ‘The
wheat is sown broadcast, two bushels to an acre, on a single earth
generally, and before November, if possible. Trump and Essex
rough chaff, both white wheats, are the favourites. The produce
under this system is 24 bushels of wheat, and 28 of beans, per
acre. The great difficulty in growing wheat on these heavy
lands, is to get the crop to stand. If the manuring be generous,
or if the spring and summer be wet, the straw becomes long, and
the wheat is laid: if, on the other hand, the farmer be sparing
of his dung, his harvest is not remunerative. The straw of the
red wheats is stiffer than that of the white, but the grain is
coarser, and the millers will not buy it so readily.

For live stock, the ‘‘ woodland farmer” buys in a few tegs, half
starves them, and sells them out again the following year, to be
fatted elsewhere. He has a cow or two of no particular breed.
There are also a few pigs, a cross between the Berkshire and the
Sussex, These animals, with his horses, make all the manure he
wants. The horses are not well bred, but short and punchy ;
useful, though small, This is not a grazing country. Fatting
beasts must have cake and other food purchased for them at the cost
of a labourer’s wages per head per week. Any that are made out
well on the higher-class farms, such as the Duke of Wellington’s,
generally go to Aldershot, the butchers buying them at home.
The ploughing is deep, and the lands a half-rod wide.. The
team is heavy—seldom less than four horses; but then it must
be remembered that the farmer makes a profit of his team. He
breeds his horses, takes them up at two years old, uses them for
a couple of years, and then sends them to the London market, if
at all promising: so that he has always a young and unseasoned
team, with here and there an old horse that was not thought
good enough to sell. If you see, therefore, four horses at plough,
you will probably find, on inquiry, that the third in the line is a
colt just put to school, and that there is only one aged horse among
them. ‘The farmer aims at taking one colt into his team each
year. Asa rule, the horses draw in a line, while in the southern
or middle districts they work in couples. There are ‘07 horses
per acre. The plough used is the old Berkshire, with a high
carriage and two wheels, when the land is hard and close; a
swing-plough, when the land works more freely.

The buildings are of the type generally found in Hants, though,
from the greater dampness, rather worse here than elsewhere.
There is a yard, dished in the middle, where the stock tread the
straw into dung, enclosed by a boarded barn, raised on a few

260 Farming of Hampshire.

courses of brick, with a thatched roof; by the stables, perhaps a
little more substantial ; and by sheds, boarded at the back: all,
after the first few years, wearing an air of desolation and decay,
continually calling for repair, and never seemingly repaired ;
the wooden walls incongruously patched, the roof with a thick
coating of vegetation on it.

Reading on the one side, and Basingstoke on the other, are
the chief markets, the railway communication between them
running through the most productive part of this district.

The labourer is not so well paid as farther south. The higher
the poor-rates, the lower the wages, is, under a law of parochial
settlement, the rule everywhere. The ordinary man has 9s.
a-week ; the carter 10s. or 11s., without beer except on extraor-
dinary occasions, ‘The latter and the ploughboys are hired by
the year. In harvest some farmers give victuals and beer, some
double wages. Reckoning a boy and a woman equal to one
man, the manual labour per acre is about -06. Except on the
Duke’s and some other considerable properties, the labourer is
very indifferently lodged. The boys generally live in the farm-
house. The tithe is 6s., 7s., or 8s. per acre. The poor and
other rates 3s. 6d. in the pound, The rent of the heavy clays is
from 15s. to 18s. per acre; of the better-working lands, 20s. to
25s. Leases are not general, nor is there a demand for them.

This whole description applies to “the woodland farmer”
only. On some of the more easily-worked soils there are other
rotations, if the word can be applied to an irregular mode—it
cannot be called a system—of cropping, which varies with the
climate, the soil, and the private opinion of the individual cul-
tivator: such are—l, fallow; 2, wheat; 3, beans; 4, wheat;
5, oats or barley; 6, clover. Or again, on lands still lighter—1,
roots; 2, barley or oats; 3, clover or peas; 4, wheat; 5, rye,
oats, or barley. As the chalk is approached, the farms are
larger, the occupier a man of more capital, the fields more
open, the buildings, the stock, and everything on a more liberal
scale. I+ might particularise the Duke’s mixed chalk-and-clay
farm at Wolverton, and others on the road between Sherfield
and Basingstoke. But “the woodland farmer” is the man who
gives its character to this natural division of the county.

The Duke of Wellington’s property at Stratfieldsaye, and in
its neighbourhood, is the eminent instance of agricultural im-
provement in “the Hampshire woodlands.” ‘The late Duke laid
out the greater portion of the rental in permanent improvements
on this extensive estate. He began draining in the year 1820;
and I have, this year, seen some of the park-drains, which
were then put in, taken up. They are laid with mole-trap
pipes, about a foot deep, just a-top of the clay. “They didn’t

Stratficldsaye. 261

think they’d draw if they put them into that,” said the labourer,
pointing to the clay, into which he was employed in sinking them
3 feet deeper, On these clays the present draining standard,
gained by an experience of forty years, is a depth of 3 feet,
and an interval of 20 or 80, Some drains were, a few years since,
put in 5 or 6 feet deep, and 60 feet apart. The depth was un-
necessary, for all the water is surface water; no springs are
tapped till the chalk is reached, 320 feet down; and the dis-
tance was so great, that drains (3 feet deep) were required in the
intervals. So completely did the Duke carry out this founda-
tion of all agricultural improvement on such soils, that, through-
out his property here, but few acres, requiring draining, are
now undrained. His agreement with the tenants generally was,
that they should haul the pipes, and pay five per cent. on their
cost price at the kiln, and on the expense of putting them in.
The chief difficulty experienced has been from roots of trees,
and even of thistles. Main carriers, 10 or 13 inches’ diameter,
have been found choked with them.

The Duke’s next improvement was chalking: 15 tons on the
sand and gravel soil, and 25 on the clays, are considered a good
chalking, the effect of which is the same here as elsewhere, both
in the north and south, A particular instance of its mineral action
is the destruction of the wild-chamomile on the sand and gravel
soils, by correcting the acidity which nourishes that weed.
Before the construction of the Basingstoke and Reading Railway,
chalk was carted from Basingstoke at a cost of from 9d. to 1s.
per ton per mile in this heavy country ; now it is delivered at
Bramley Cross at 1s. 6d. per ton. ;

Farm-buildings were the next consideration. These were once,
as too many others in Hampshire still are, wretched hovels of
boards and thatch, They are now brick, boards, and slate. The
convenience of the farmer and the labourer has been equally
cared for. New farm-houses and labourers’ cottages, with suitable
accommodation, and with a quarter of an acre of garden attached,
have been built. School-houses in the different villages have
been erected.

The results of these changes are seen in the improved system
of agriculture on his Grace’s own farms, and on the fields of
those tenants who have been inspired by his example. Roots
are grown; seeds are sown with spring corn; the four-field
rotation, not possible formerly, is being adopted; the drill,
sowing 6 or even 4 pecks of seed, instead of 8 broadcasted,
' and the horse-hoe, are at work on land which previously would
not bear the treading of horses; some of the roots are hauled to
the yard for the grazing-beasts ; more manure is made at home;
guano and superphosphate purchased; indeed some landlords

262 Farming of Hampshire.

are allowing their tenants to sell hay, on condition of bringing
back the value in artificial manures. The produce is increased
to 32 bushels of wheat and 85 of beans, or 25 per cent. The
Duke’s cattle, on his home-farm, are of Stratton’s blood. There
are three flocks: one of Hampshire downs; another of a breed
from the Forest of Ardennes, small and active; a third of Ex-
moor sheep, which rough it here as on their native hills, and do
well. But this is not a sheep country, and these flocks could
not be kept without the help of the park. About 25 head of
cattle are reared yearly, and other beasts purchased in the spring
to turn out in the park. About twenty of the oxen bred on
the farm are grazed, and sold in February yearly at three years
old. The roots are pulped, mixed with chaff, cake, and meal.
The store cattle are kept in the park in the summer, and in yards
during winter,

The home-farm buildings, erected some years since, are suffici-
ently commodious, and, like everything else here, practical rather
than experimental. There are three yards for stock of different
ages, and stalls for tying up grazing-beasts and dairy-cows,
with a feeding-passage at their heads. There is not a useless
article or animal on the premises. But the most noticeable
feature is the artesian well, the formation of which revealed some
geological secrets. For the first 100 feet no water was found ;
then there was an oozing through a layer of sand, but this water
was impregnated with magnesia. The sole other formation pene-
trated was dark-coloured clay, till, at a depth of 320 feet, the
chalk was reached, and the springs tapped, when the water at
once rose to within 25 feet of the surface. The supply never
fails under whatever consumption, and, of course, it never freezes.
On a frosty day it will feel, and will show itself to be, warm,
throwing off steam on exposure.

Among the Duke’s many excellent tenants it will not be con-
sidered invidious to select Mr. Boxall of Stratfieldsaye, as one
of the most intelligent and improving. His occupation consists
of 308 acres, of which 264 are arable, 37 pasture, 7 coppice.

Mr. Boxall has attentively studied the subject of rotations most
suitable to strong lands, and as the result of his reading, personal
observations, and experience here and elsewhere, particularly in
Sussex, he, on entering on his present farm seven years since,
adopted an eight-years’ course, as best calculated, in this soil and
climate, to attain the great object of all rotations—permanent
fertility, increase of the soil’s produce and ability to carry stock,

Mr. Boxall’s course is: 1, (roots swedes, mangold, turnips, a
few white carrots, and cabbages) ; 2, oats or barley; 3, clover ;
4, wheat; 5, green crops (half tares, half trefoil and white
clover, according to his wants); 6, wheat; 7, beans: 8, wheat.

Mr. Boxall’s Farm. 263

Thus, every year, he has three-eighths of his land in wheat, one-
eighth in oats or barley, one-eighth in beans, one-eighth in clover,
one-sixteenth in tares, one-sixteenth in trefoil and white clover,
one-eighth in roots. In other words, five-eighths of the farm are
under crops cultivated for their seeds, while the remaining three-
eighths are allotted to plants cultivated for their roots and
leaves.

In this rotation, besides its general accordance with approved
rules of farming (such as “clover once only in eight years,” and
“no two white-straw crops in succession”), and its obvious
advantages over the system usual in this country, it may be
remarked that the crops for the sheepfold come at an equal
distance of four years apart—in the first and fifth years. Further
experience of his wants in this respect, may induce Mr. Boxall
to grow less or no trefoil and white clover in the fifth year, but
all tares; in which case the sheep would be folded on all the
green crop, as well as on all the root land. With the view of
guarding against accidents in his wheat crop Mr. Boxall has
taken the precaution of ‘‘ dividing his eggs among different
baskets,” one-third of the wheat being after clover, one-third
after tares and trefoil, one-third after beans. Roots are succeeded
by oats rather than by wheat, because the root ground may be
poached by the carting of a portion of the produce to the yards,
and by the sheep consuming in wet weather the portion left ; in
which cases a good seed-bed cannot be got for the next crop,
except by ploughing up and exposing the land to the winter’s
frosts, or by ploughing, rolling and harrowing in the spring,—
neither of which operations would be possible if wheat were
taken after the roots. Again, if wet weather should interfere
with the proper cleaning of all the land preparatory to the root-
crop in the first year, there is a chance of this being effected in
the fifth year, by breaking up the tare and trefoil ground as soon
as the crops are off, and making what is called a “ bastard fallow”
for wheat.

The enumeration in the rotation includes the main crops only.
There are also certain intercalary or stolen crops, such as Italian
ryegrass and trifolium—four or five acres of each to carry on the
stock of the farm, after the roots are finished; the Italian rye-
grass being sown at the last hoeing of the wheat in the spring,
the trifolium immediately after harvest, both being consumed in
time for the turnips to succeed. Another stolen crop is turnips
or rape, after the winter tares are fed off by the sheep, or after
the trefoil in the fifth year. As an instance of what may some-
times be done in this way, it may be mentioned that, in 1857,
Mr. Boxall, after feeding off a crop of spring tares (sown in
February), immediately broke up the land and drilled turnips.

264 Farming of Hampshire.

He exhibited at the Reading Farmers’ Club some of the roots,
measuring 18 and 19 inches in girth, stating, as a notable fact,
that the seed and the produce from it were both grown in the
same year, .

Mr. Boxall rightly thinks that subsoiling should follow draining,
in order to break up the old pan, pounded by the horses’ feet time
out of mind, and so let the surface-water down to the pipes. He
has accordingly, during the seven years of his occupation, sub-
soiled to the depth of 14 or 15 inches seven-eighths of his land,
preparatory to the root-crop. He is so satisfied with the result,
that he intends going a little deeper as the land cOmes round
for roots again.

His manuring for mangold or cabbages (which can hardly be
overdone) is 12 two-horse cartloads of farmyard dung, ploughed
in; 14 ewt. of Peruvian guano, mixed with 4 cwt. of salt, broad-
casted just before sowing; 2 cwt. of superphosphate, with 20
bushels of burnt ashes (wood ashes, if possible ; above all, beech-
wood ashes, which have been proved to be the strongest of all)
drilled in: for swedes or turnips the same dressing, omitting
the guano and the salt. Mangold are getting into favour with
Mr, Boxall for these reasons: 1, they are a more certain crop to
get than swedes ; 2, with equal manuring, they produce 10 tons
more per acre; 3, after Lady-day, they are more fattening both
to sheep and cattle. If eaten alone, mangold, grown on this
strong ground, cause a looseness in the bowels of all stock :
fatting sheep, though supplied with good hay-chaff and beans,
have been thus affected ; and mangold are not therefore given by
themselves, but together with swedes in the early spring, or with
Italian ryegrass and trifolium in May.

I saw Mr. Boxall’s mangold crop on the ground at its maturity,
and although he said that, from bad seed, the plant was too thin,
and the crop not an average, yet it was not much, if anything,
under 30 tons per acre. He once grew 43 here. Half the man-
gold are hauled to the yard, half pitted on the spot in a trench
made by the plough, which also helps to cover them with the
mould obtained by furrows on each side.* A very little pro-
tection is sufficient against frosts, and the less the covering the
quicker the vegetation in the spring.

* Eight rows are buried together, the leaves having been first cut off with
fageing-hooks as they stand; the two middle rows are then dug up with a dung-
fork and tossed aside; where these rows stood, a double furrow is thrown out by
the plough; the mangold are then dng up with a dung-fork and tossed into this
trench; four deep furrows are then ploughed back on each side towards the man-
gold in the trench; of these, the two outermost are thrown with a shovel over
the mangold, which, however, will have been nearly covered by the first furrow,
unless the crop is over 40 tons per acre. For the manual labour in doing this,
10s. per acre is paid.

It is better to twist off the leaves than to cut them with steel.—P. H. F.

Mr. Boxall’s Farm. 265

Mr. Boxall consumes his roots in this order—white globes,
Aberdeen yellows, swedes, and mangold. The two former have
been brought to their present perfection by careful attention in
the selection of roots for seed, bestowed during 30 years by his
father and himself. Mr. Boxall narrates a curious circumstance
which occurred in the improvement of one of these kinds of
turnips, in illustration of the old adage, that “the proof of the
pudding is in the eating.” Some seed from roots selected for
their round shoulders and general symmetry above ground, and
for tapering down to a good depth under, (the two properties go
together), were sown side by side with the ordinary seed. The
sheep, on being folded over the whole, ate to the ground the pro-
duce of the improved seed, and only slightly touched that of the
unimproved, thus showing that the principle of selection is as
applicable to the growth of vegetables, as to the breeding of
animals, and that the choice of seed from handsome roots was not
a mere fancy on the part of the producer, but that there was a real
difference in the quality of the produce appreciable by those who
ought to know best.

In the second year, the oats or barley (very little of the latter
is grown) are put in with one plough—34 bushels of seed per
acre. Red clover (16 lbs. per acre), mixed with trefoil (6 lbs.),
are sown at the same time. ‘The sheep are run over the clover
in autumn, as treading is supposed to be beneficial; and no
instance has occurred of losing the plant by frost. In the third
year, the layer is cut for hay twice; or a part of the second
growth may be folded if wanted. Twelve cartloads of farmyard
dung per acre, a shallow ploughing in September, if possible
followed by the presser, are the preparation for wheat in the
fourth year: the seed is 2 bushels; rough-chaff is preferred for
its short stiff straw. In the fifth year, the tares (half-winter, half-
spring) are fed off with sheep; the mixed trefoil and white
clover is mown for hay. In the sixth year, the wheat land has
the same dressing as before, except the portion where the sheep
have been folded. In the seventh, the beans (spring) have
12 loads of dung. In the eighth year, the wheat requires no
help, if the beans have been generously treated.

Mr. Boxall’s predecessor used to require 16 horses; but
draining, and the frequent use of the cultivator instead of the
- plough, enables Mr. Boxall to do his work with 12 good seasoned
animals, or about 44 horses per 100 acres of his arable land—a
remarkable contrast with the 7 generally used in this country.
Of bullocks he fats none, but winters, beside his stock of 8 cows
and a few young heifers, about 20 steers, which, being bought in
the autumn, are served with straw and roots up to January, after
which they get for two months a little cake and hay in addition,

266 Farming of Hampshire.

and are then sold out “ proofey.” The same plan is pursued with
sheep. ‘The present stock is, 100 ewes in lamb, 100 two-tooth
wethers, 65 barren ewes, 125 lambs, all of which will go off to
the butcher within the year. ‘Ten or twelve farrowing sows are
kept, and all their litters fatted, either for pork or bacon,

Situated on the edge of the ‘‘Hampshire Basin” stands the
Vyne, a spot of great historical interest. Mr. Chute’s Vyne farm
consists of 500 acres of some of the heaviest and most expensive
land to work in this neighbourhood ; 300 are arable, 200 pasture.
The whole used to be dotted over with fine timber, chiefly oaks,
of which some noble specimens yet remain near the house, while
broad bands of coppice ran between the fields, and oak and hazel
formed the hedgerows. *:

Mr. Chute began his improvements by thinning and singling
out the trees, which was good neither for them nor for the land :
not for them, because the old trees would not stand an exposure
to which they were unaccustomed ; not for the land, because the
timber still left, shaded and exhausted the soil to the impoverish-
ment of the crops. He “ reformed that indifferently” [7. e. pretty
well], as he thought, by his thinning. He went on to “ reform
it altogether,” by making a clearance of all the timber and
coppice, grubbing 40 or 50 acres of hedgerows, squaring and
dividing the fields by some miles of whitethorn hedges. This
is avowedly his preparation for the steam-plough, to the use
of which he looks forward with hope. “ If it will pay any-
where,” he says, “it will pay here. Autumn tillage is not
possible withoyt it. You want a power which will cultivate,
without treading.” Mr. Chute was, from theory, an advocate
of deep draining, but is, from practical experience in this
country, a shallow drainer; 24 feet deep, 54 yards apart, and
across the declivity, are his matured rules, He has effected a
perfect cure. The water never stands on his ground, and the
hunting men say it is a pleasure to ride over it. Mr. Chute has
a tilery of his own, and does all the draining on his estate for his
tenants, charging them five per cent. on the outlay. y

But even Mr. Chute cannot dispense with an open summer
fallow every seven or eight years, any more than his neighbours.
He has in vain tried to do so, and is the creature of circum-
stances, only in a less degree than they. His superiority rather
consists in having wheat more continuously, in better crops, and
in less costly cultivation. ‘He has wheat and beans alternately for
three or four years each, while they are obliged, more frequently
than he is, to substitute oats for wheat. Still, after all his
improvements, he does not pretend to a definite rotation. Every
crop is manured with rotten dung. The horses being very
superior, two are generally sufficient toa plough ; three are enough

Southern District. 267

at any time ; four to a drag; six to Crosskill’s roller. Drilling is
general ; 12 rows on a half-rod land, with ‘“ Aldershot manure,”
which is also used as a top-dressing where required,

About 20 acres are in roots, and the same quantity in clover
and winter tares. Mangold have been grown with farmyard dung
and superphosphate, several years in succession on the same
ground, without any diminution of the produce, which has been
from 35 to 40 tons per acre. The swedes are fed off in April
and May, and the land is then sown with white turnips or rape,
which are again fed off in September and October, when the
land comes to wheat without any more manuring. White turnips
being a very precarious crop, Mr. Chute has lately tried mangold
instead, and found them succeed, folding on them (contrary to
his previous practice) as on turnips. He is thus able to grow
wheat after mangold, whereas if mangold are hauled away, oats
and not wheat must follow.

Four horses are sufficient for each 100 acres. Beasts are not
erazed, but 20 cow-calves are brought in as suckers, and go to
Reading fair in-calf at three years old. In winter they have
wheat, oat, or barley straw, perhaps pea haulm, with a little hay.
In summer they are turned out to grass. About 200 couples are
bought in March or sometimes later, and the ewes and lambs
fatted off with corn and cake; the lambs as soon as may be, the
ewes following from time to time up to Christmas. Besides 17
or 18 breeding sows, there are in the yards 175 pigs in all stages,
which are sold as stores when worth about 30s. a-piece. The
Berkshires are preferred, the Essex being too tender.

Mr. Chute has built new farmhouses and cottages over the
whole of his property. He keeps the cottages in his own hands,
though he may consult the tenant of the farm as to the occupiers
of the cottages on it. On principle he does not provide more
than two bedrooms. If there be three, the girl Sarah does not go
out into service, though she is always on the point of going ; or
the young man John marries and stays on, with the young wife
and baby in the old people’s house, instead of getting one for
himself.

SouTHERN District.

In describing the “character of the farming” here I would
make four subdivisions: 1. The low heavy land in the east,
between the main chalk formation and the outlier of Portsdown ;
2. The broad band of the Bracklesham country, stretching from
Portsmouth westward to Romsey; 3. The New Forest block ;
4. The valleys of the Avon and Stour.

1. The No. 1 soil is chiefly developed in the first-mentioned

VOL, XXII. U

268 Farming of Hampshire.

subdivision. ‘The size of farms here is small, from 50 to 100
and 150 acres; the fields are irregular, and the hedgerows high,
with trees standing in them. There is, besides, much coppice :
in fact, one- efounthit of the whole is underwood ; of the remainder
foe fiths are arable and one-fifth pasture. The farmers complain
of the game, ‘This portion of the southern district is, in many
respects, a repetition of the northern woodlands, though the land
is naturally less stubborn, The four-course is professed, but
practice does not follow profession. No system of rotation is
really adhered to; the cultivator does the best he can, according
to the season. This is not so generally a bean country as the
north is, and turnips and swedes are more attainable here than
there. If circumstances be favourable, and if the land be chalked,
the usual four-field system will be followed: oats being substimted
for barley, and beans for turnips on the stronger soil. The
manuring will be for the wheat or for the beans, with some
ar aaaiale perhaps for the turnips. Chalking is done at the rate
of 25 or 30 tons an acre, and is not again required in a genera-
tion. ‘The produce per acre is: wheat 20 bushels, barley 24,
oats 32.

The live stock are a few cows to each farm, half-breeds between
the Alderney and the “ Forester,” to make a little butter, though
there is nothing like a regular dairy. The turnips feed a few
Hampshire downs, all aes in. Some buy ewes, lamb them
down, and sell off the couples ; ; or, under very fay ourable circum-
stances, fat the lambs and the mothers, Some buy tegs, winter
them, and get rid of them in summer, according to the state of
their keep and their pocket. The pigs are either the usual cross
between the Sussex and Berkshire, or the Sussex, mostly stores,
though very many are fatted and killed for bacon about Fare-
ham, to supply the large demand at Portsmouth.

Where the land is stiff, stony, and rough, the usual two-wheel
plough, with a high carriage, is used; on lighter and kinder
soils, the one-wheel. Four horses are required for 8 inches’ depth
in winter ; two or three for 5 inches’ in summer. ‘The lands are
half-rod, with deep water-furrows. ‘There is not much broad-
sharing or drilling, though a drill may be occasionally hired to
put in the turnips. 'Threshing-machines are used for wheat, but
the flail for Lent corm. Waggons, not carts, are customary. ‘The
buildings are like those in the north, though (the climate being
milder) there seems rather less shed-room: not much can be
said in their praise. Fareham is the chief market; every
alternate Monday there is a very good corn and stock market
there. “Buyers, sellers, and lookers-on,” says old Fuller, “are
the three principles of a fair.” The latter chiefly frequent Ports-

Southern District. 269

down, which accordingly has degenerated into a mere pleasure
fair, A few horses are brought there, but not much business is
done.

Of the agricultural societies in the county, one—the South-
East Hants—holds its meetings at Fareham in September, and is
designed for the encouragement of agricultural labourers residing
in thirty-five of the adjoining parishes ; but ploughmen can come
from any district. There is a rivalry between Hants and Sussex
ploughmen, and the former, though they do “live in the shires,”
show they are not afraid, by inviting the competition of their
eastern neighbours. ‘The prizes are for ploughmen, shepherds,
rickmakers, and thatchers ; for cottage gardens and for vegetables
grown by agricultural labourers.

The wages of the labourer are 11s. or 12s. a week, of the
carter a shilling more. He is lodged much as elsewhere in the
county. The manual labour per acre is ‘05.

The tithe varies extremely, from 2s. to 10s.; the parochial
rates are 3s. in the pound; 15s. per acre is the average rent.
There are few leases, and generally it is found that tenants hold
on longer under an annual tenancy. A short lease unsettles a
man, :

There is one distinction between this country and the north,
There has been no Duke of Wellington here, however much
wanted. Much draining remains yet to be done, and much
chalking. Portsdown chalk, some of the very best, soft and
friable, is close by, but the neighbours resort to it less than
strangers, who carry it across the water, loading and unload-
ing it three times. Improvers everywhere are new men, and
here the prospect is not attractive. It is the land of coppice, of
game, of small farms, of high enclosures, and of the London
clay,—not a locality to be deliberately selected by a stranger. In
its present condition it will be left to those who are ‘native here,
and to the manner born.”

I must again give the caution that I speak not of the farming
south of Portsdown, where, in the narrow tract previously de-
scribed, a more liberal course is followed, as it ought to be,
with a kindly soil and a genial climate.
| 2. The broad band of the Bracklesham country, stretching
from Portsmouth westward to Romsey, is bounded by the South-
ampton Water on the south-west, and by the chalk and its clay-
bordering on the north-east. This is, with a few unprofitable
exceptions, not bad working land. Woods and wastes cover
probably a tithe of it, but they are not such woods as have been
previously described. - The timber-trees do not stand in the
‘hedgerows, spreading their roots and throwing their shade far
across the field, appropriating the powers of the cultivated soil,

u 2

270 Farming of Hampshire.

and robbing the cultivator of the fruits of his labour. They are
mostly plantations of fir and larch, and, as such, are crops, just
as much as corn or roots. The wastes are those higher portions -
of the country which are covered. with erratic sand and gravel,
and if they do no good, at least they do no harm.

The average size of farms is from 200 to 250 acres, increasing
in size as you go westward and approach Romsey and the chalk.
Three-fourths: of the land is arable, and one-fourth pasture.

About Redbridge are some extensive salt marshes, flooded at
every spring-tide. ‘They are mown in the summer, the farmer
seizing the interval between two spring-tides. Cows and horses
(chiefly colts) are turned out at other times. They would be
very valuable if the salt water could be kept back, and projects
of embankment have been at different times entertained by the
proprietors, but the great expense required has hitherto been an
insuperable obstacle.

On the arable the rotation is again four-field. Spring beans
and peas are sometimes sown together, and called ‘ pulse ;” but
this crop fouls the ground. ‘The wheat is sown on one earth, the
presser following the plough on the clover-leys. The ploughing
is very seldom done with four horses: three are generally used,
either in line or unicorn fashion, with one on the land side ; and
sometimes only two. There is not the same nervous apprehen-
sion of treading the surface as in the north, where the feeling
seems to be, “ never mind how hard you pound the pan with six-
teen iron feet in the furrow, but, whatever you do, turn up a
light seed-bed.” The drill is generally used for the spring-corn,
but the wheat is often sown broadcast. Where the land is clean
and free from annual weeds, hoeing is omitted for corn-crops,
but roots are horse and hand hoed twice or thrice. Swedes,
both here, and generally, throughout the county, are not pulled
and pitted even on the best farms. ‘The farmyard manure is
applied to the clover-leys, and artificials to roots. The dress-
ing of chalk is from 20 to 30 tons per acre, and requires renewal
once in twenty years. Its total cost in the field is about 5s.
per ton. About Romsey they apply 36 tons. It is submitted
that on those peaty lands this is in excess, though there may be
something defective in the nature of the chalk at Brook, which
supplies this neighbourhood. It may be questioned, too, whether
the better method of applying chalk on an absorbent soil is
not in small doses at correspondingly shorter intervals. The
other principal chalkpits are Oslebury, Henstead, and Compton,
the Henstead chalk being preferred, as soft, soapy, and coming
soon to hand.

Permission is very generally given by the landlords to sell
hay and straw at the great towns, as at Southampton and Ports-

Southern District. 271

mouth, on the condition of bringing back artificial manures or
stable-dung of equal value. One waggon-load of dung (weighing
8 tons and costing 12s., besides carriage, with 4 horses, a man
and a boy), is held to be equivalent to a ton of straw, which
sells for 1/. This permission does not extend to the two last
years of a lease,

The produce per acre is: wheat 25 bushels; barley 30; oats
44; beans and peas (not much grown) 20; turnips and swedes
16 tons; mangold 20 tons; clover and rye-grass 1} tons. The
live stock are a few cows for butter and the wants of the house,
either “ Foresters” or ‘‘Channel Islands,” or a cross between
the two. The fine river-side meadows south of Bishopstoke
facilitate the keeping of good short-horn dairy cows, for whose
produce there is a ready demand at Southampton; the milkman,
if the farm be within reasonable distance, coming out twice a
day, and carrying off the milk without any trouble to the farmer.
Where beasts are grazed, they are short-horns. Of cattle, ‘07
are kept per acre; of horses (the usual nondescript breed), ‘04 ;
of pigs (Sussex and Berks mixed), -15; of sheep, 1. The sheep
are, a few horned ewes for early lambs; Hampshire ewes, put to
a Sussex ram ; Hampshire downs, or, among the fancy men, the
pure Sussex. Some buy in and sell out; some breed their own
stock. The implements are either the usual county 2-wheel
plough, 'Tasker’s of Andover, or Howard’s, which two Jast are
gradually superseding the native machine. Broadshares are not
much used,

The buildings are better than in the north.

Though Hants is not a cheese-making county, it has a cheese
market at Bishopstoke Station, held on the third Thursday in
each month. The original intention was to have a Cattle market
alsq, it being thought that the west country would supply beef,
and the neighbourhood mutton. As, however, the western coun-
ties (Dorset and Somerset) did not send their beef, a portion of
the first design failed, yet they do, especially Somerset, send their
cheese. On the great markets, in September and October, as
much as 300 tons are pitched; during the summer months not
above half the quantity; but, taking one month with another,
from 200 to 225 tons are sold at each market. Romsey, South-
ampton, and Botley are the chief general markets. At Romsey
there is an association for the encouragement of labourers, well
known from its connection with Lord Palmerston, who presides
at its annual meetings, and distributes the prizes. There is also
at Romsey a Christmas fat show, with eight prizes for fat cattle,
four for fat sheep, four for fat pigs, and the usual prizes for store
animals ; 37 prizes in all.

272 Farming of Hampshire-— Botley Farmers’ Club.

The agriculture of this whole district is under great obliga-
tions to the Botley and South Hants Farmers’ Club, to their show,
and to their eminently practical discussions. If there be a greater
spirit of enterprise and more intelligence among the farmers
here than among their brethren in the north, this is in a great
measure to be ascribed to the skill and intelligence manifested
in the conduct of this society by its secretary (Mr. Spooner, of
‘Eling), and its principal members. If an example be wanted
of the beneficial results produced by such institutions, let an
account be taken of the different improvements made in the agri-
culture of this district during the last 15 years, and then let the
society’s publications be perused. It will be seen how every step
of that progress has been preceded, and the public mind informed,
by full and candid discussions between those actually engaged in
agricultural operations. Farmers have thus been led just as fast
as they could follow. A library is attached to the club; anda
root show is held in December, with small prizes for fine individual
specimens of the different kinds, and larger to those who exhibit
whole fields. At Botley, too, a fat cattle and sheep show (though
this attaches rather to the market than to the club) is held. Its
peculiarity is, that being held as early as about Lady-day, it
gives prizes for young fat stock; for fat lambs (of different
breeds), 5 prizes; for fat ewes that have yeaned and fatted
lambs the same season, since 1st December, 4 prizes; for fat
wether tegs, 4 prizes; for the best fat steers and heifers, severally
21 or under 4 years old, 5 prizes. ‘Early maturity” is the
motto of the show for stock, and in a question of agricultural
profits early maturity means ‘‘ quick returns.”

The ordinary labourer has from 10s. to 12s. per week ; carter
and shepherd, from 12s. to 14s. The manual labour per acre is
‘07; the tithe is 5s. per acre; parochial rates, 3s. in the pound ;
rent, 1/. 4s. per acre. Leases are pretty general, for terms of 8,
16, or 24 years.

In no part of the county has agriculture of late years made
more sound advances than in this district. You do not, indeed,
see establishments on the same enlarged scale as on the chalk,
for which the same opportunities do not here exist; but you
find arrangements adapted to circumstances of soil, climate, and
demand, with much originality, and not mere copying from
other, and probably dissimilar localities. The credit is due to
the intelligence and spirit of the tenant-farmers themselves, of
whom the occupiers in the large and influential parish of Titch-_
field are examples, and of them Messrs. Hewitt and Mr. Horace
B. Leggat, of Brownwitch, are good representatives. About
Bishopstoke railway station also may be seen some excellent

Mr. Blundell’s Farm. a8

specimens of South Hants farming, on the lands of Messrs.
Atkins, Mr. Scott of Great Eastley, Mr. David May of Stone-
ham, and Mr. Thomas Gearing of Swathling.

On some of the best-managed arable land, such as Mr. Scott’s,
a sort of double three-field system is pursued—two rounds of
three years each, or a six years’ rotation, thus: 1, wheat; 2, man-
gold, swedes, or turnips ; 3, barley or oats; 4, seeds ; 5, wheat ;
6, pulse (beans and peas). Deviations occur, according to the
season, the condition of the land, and the wants of the live stock.
If the wheat stubbles be foul in the second round, turnips will be
substituted for pulse ; and in this case the turnips are folded off,
and no dung is required for the first round, The wheat or pulse
must be well dunged in the second round. Bridgewater ewes are
bought in at Appleshaw fair, the lambs are ready by Christmas,
and their mothers are also gone to the butcher by the latter end
of May, having been previously shorn. Or, if food be plentiful,
a few down lambs are bought at Stockbridge fair, and sold out
as fat tegs. Nothing is bred, nor anything, as a rule, fatted, but
sheep.

A little further to the east, near Botley, there is, on a soil less
favourable, equally spirited farming. The lands of the Messrs.
Warner, and particularly Mr. William Warner’s, exhibit in the
well-filled stack-yard the results produced by a large head of stock
fatted annually on cake and corn, Mr. Gale (the County Court
Judge) has greatly improved his recently-purchased property at
Kitnocks by extensive draining and high farming. Mr. Gater
(the President of the Botley Club) has done the same at Town
Hill, by the same means.

Among the many examples of improving agriculturists in this
district I shall select, for more detailed description, an eminently
practical man, whose example may be safely followed, Mr. Joseph
Blundell, of Bursledon. He derives no peculiar advantages from
soil or climate, although the undulations of his ground, and its
slope to the south, may be somewhat in his favour. But, on the
whole, if the landlord has done his part, and there are liberal
covenants in the lease, and intelligence and capital in the occu-
pier, what Mr. Blundell has done is within the reach of three-
fourths of the farmers in the neighbourhood. And yet a short
description of his farm will show he has done much,

The extent of Mr. Blundell’s occupation at the mouth of the
Hamble, on the right bank, is 100 acres arable and 25 pasture.
The whole is on the Bracklesham beds which rise above the
alluvium of the estuary of the Hamble, the soil being a sandy
loam, with a stiff putty-like subsoil: tiles are made close by. The
surface is very undulating, the ground falling every way, but the
whole open to the south and south-east, and well sheltered to the

274 Farming of Hampshire.

north, This variety of slope carries the surface water off rapidly,
but the subsoil would render the land hopelessly wet in a bad
season, but for a network of drains underneath. The climate,
the aspect, and the nearness to the sea, are nature’s favours, of
which Mr, Blundell makes the most. He commenced operations
by carrying away 23 gates, and throwing down all his hedges,
which originally divided, into 10 fields, lands, now separated by
the road only. The saving in trimming hedges, scouring ditches,
turning in and out of gateways, to say nothing of other advyan-
tages, must be very great.

He has no regular system of rotations, but his crops of wheat
follow in very close succession, and are taken anyhow and any-
where, if he thinks the land capable of producing them. The
result for twenty-nine years is, that he has never failed in securing
a good crop in anything like a favourable season; which shows
that more depends on season than on cultivation or rotation. He
has, however, this general'scheme : two-fifths of the whole farm
wheat, one-fifth potatoes, one-fifth oats, one-fifth grass and roots.
The wheat and potatoes, 60 acres out of 100, are dressed with
30 loads per acre of unfermented box dung (of which more
presently) ploughed in green. The lands are very wide (3 rods),
furrows very deep, and ploughing to the depth of 8 inches, with
two horses abreast ; the ‘plastic clay would be turned up, if the
plough went deeper. The wheat is sown broadcast, ‘There has been
some reason to fear that the use of the drill would destroy the race
of “seedsmen.” The last good man, at all events, survives on Mr.
Blundell’s farm, for nothing can be more even than his young
plant. Thin seeding is not here adopted, because it necessitates
early sowing, which interferes with autumn cultivation, a point of
more importance than saving a few bushels of seed. His plan of
autumn cultivation is to fork out any chance lumps of couch and
then use the scarifier (Coleman’s) if necessary ; this keeps the land
so clean that no hoeing whatever is necessary for the wheat crop.
For the root crop one hoeing, with after picking out and heaping
the weeds, is sufficient. ‘The expense of this is not equal to two
hoeings, and is a more eradicating process than any number of
flat hoeings. A portion of the mangold ground was four times
hoed last year, and still was very foul in comparison with the
remainder, which had been hoed once and picked. ‘The latter
was a most successful piece of cleaning in a wet season; the
former was like other people’s ground elsewhere. The whole
farm is very clean, and yet it is just the sort of soil in which
couch would spread if not well kept down. ‘The potato-ground
is ploughed deep soon after harvest, and allowed to lie during
winter ; in the spring it is scarified, then dunged, ploughed, and
planted. No other land is ploughed twice, At the time of

My. Blundell's Farm. 275

earthing the potatoes by the double mould-plough, turnip seed
is sown, and thus “heled ;” the turnips arrive at maturity before
the potatoes, and are pulled without damage to them. This
season the potatoes were worth from 18/. to 23/. an acre; and
the turnips gave 20 tons of roots and 8 tons of tops, which
last were consumed, with some rough hay and a little cake,
by the fatting bullocks. For years Mr. Blundell has annually
sold 3002 worth of potatoes off the farm; and one year he
grew, besides, 460 sacks of wheat. Here potatoes are the
best possible preparation for wheat; a good trap, too, for the
wire worm, which gets into the skins, is measured off with the
potatoes, and troubles the farmer no more. Since 1845, Mr.
Blundell has, on one piece of land of 12 acres, taken wheat and
potatoes in alternate years, with one exception, when he took
clover between two wheat crops. He generally also took a crop
of stubble turnips after the wheat and before the potatoes, feeding
them off with sheep, which thus in part manured his potatoes.
On the whole the potatoes have been more profitable than the
wheat, and yet the wheat has run up to 52 bushels per acre and
63 lbs. per bushel. The stubble turnips are generally put in
after wheat or oats thus :—before the corn is carried, the plough
is at work between the sheaves, and thus two-thirds of the ground
are first sown; afterwards, the rest. The value of time is suffi-
ciently shown by the fact that the roots of the portion first sown
often weigh twice as much as those sown, perhaps not more
than a fortnight later. Swedes Mr. Blundell cannot now grow ;
his cultivation is too high, and his ground sick of them. He
also prefers, for all purposes, mangold. Some good carrots, for
which his soil is well adapted, are grown. All roots are pulled
and pitted on the ground. The white Canada oat is much in
favour here, the land in its present state not being suitable for
barley. Of these oats more quarters can be grown than sacks of
wheat; they are also ready to cut a fortnight before the wheat—a
most important two weeks for the stubble turnips. The straw
also is essential (as we shall see) to the mode of feeding. Mr,
Blundell has often taken two crops of oats, with stubble turnips
between; and one crop has been 17 sacks, and the other
19 sacks an acre, and 45 lbs. a bushel. The clover seeds are
sown on the wheat ground with a single tine of the light harrows,
and then rolled. In nine years out of ten, the clover is sufficiently
strong to be mown for cattle, in the same season as that in which
it is sown—in the months of October and November. This year,
from want of warmth and slowness of vegetation, this feat was
not possible. The clover leys are cut twice or thrice. Very
little is made into hay, only just enough for the ewes and lambs ;
the rest is carried green to the fatting and store beasts, Tri-

276 Farming of Hampshire.

folium is also a favourite; it comes early, and is followed by
carrots in the same season. During August the carrots are
thinned by hand-pulling, instead of hoeing, and thus furnish 12
tons of food per acre. ‘The main crop, when lifted, weighs from
18 to 20 tons.

Mr. Blundell’s farm-buildings are well worthy of attention,
though he has constructed nothing new. Finding here the usual
old barn, with wooden walls and thatched roof, and sheds of the
same construction, such as would be called in their original state
anything but good, he did better than throw them down and
rebuild: he adapted, at a very trifling expense, old premises to
new circumstances. ‘There is now no farmyard in the ordinary
acceptation of the term, no cattle wandering about, no rough
cows, no poor pigs. He considers a farmyard a bad place
either for a manure store or for the random intercourse of
cattle. The rain washes the ammonia away, sun dries it up,
wind blows it off; under any atmospheric circumstances it is
lost. The cattle in summer are teased by flies, in winter
they stand and shiver. To put 20 or 380 tons of straw into a
yard, to turn a few cows and pigs over it, and then as soon as
it is wet to cart it out, is held to be a wasteful system, how-
ever common. How, then, are the cattle housed and the dung
made? All the corn is threshed and dressed by the rick-side
with steam power, so the barn is not wanted: this, therefore, is
converted into a feeding-house ; the rats are turned out and the
cattle in; the mows are excavated 2 feet, divided by moveable
rails, the food is prepared on the floor, on which also the carts are
backed, when the dung is hauled out straight from the pits to
the field. Mr. Blundell considers no feeding-houses that could
be constructed for cattle equal to a barn, where there is good
height and ventilation. The bullocks are not tied up; they are
littered deep with straw, and from their birth to their death there
they stay. Whether growing or grazing, nothing can look better.
I saw two fat heifers there, one 17, the other 24 months old,
weighing respectively 30 and 40 score, and paying for their
keep 3s. 3d. per week throughout their lives. In the pre-
paration of cattle-food there is as little trouble and expense as
possible—no steaming, no cooking for any animals: the roots
are simply sliced for the bullocks and pulped for the pigs. The
horse-stables deserve also to be mentioned: they are free from
all smell whatever. Under the horses are pits, filled up to the
level of the floor with earth, which is trodden as hard asa stone,
and upon this the usual litter. All urine is absorbed, for liquid
will penetrate porous earth, however hard. ‘The horses thrive
excellently : their lives are said to be prolonged for three years ;
and unquestionably foul air is a fruitful source of disease and of

Mr. Blundell's Farm. a7

debility. This plan has been pursued here for twelve years.
Wherever animals are, there manure is accumulating ; wherever
manure is, there is earth under it for soakage. In the houses
eighty cartloads of this impregnated earth are made yearly, irre-
spective of the straw-dung made on the earth, and each cartload
of earth is considered worth two of dung. The earth is taken
out about twice a-year.

The management of sheep is entirely different: they are never
housed. Bridgewater horned ewes are bought in the fall and
lambed down in the open. Fat lambs are often sold by Easter,
15 or 20 Ibs. a-quarter, and their mothers then, or as soon after
as possible, weighing 15 stone of 8lbs. At the end of January
I saw lambs of 40 lbs. weight. The ewes lamb early in this
favourable climate, and the weather is not feared. The shepherd
says, “ Where the mud sticks the fat sticks ;” and certainly the
mud sometimes does stick to the fleece, which flaps like dip-
candles when wet, and rattles like wax-candles when dry. The
best sucked ewes have sometimes realised 75s, a-piece, and the
lambs 44s. The mode of feeding is: for ewes during the first
six weeks cut carrots, for the remainder of the season cut mangold,
with oilcake-meal strewed over it in the troughs; in the two last
months they receive an additional 4 lb. of cracked beans per
head per day, and throughout, as much prime hay (clover and
Italian rye-grass) as they like. The lambs get, during the whole
season, carrots (put through the cutter twice, which makes the pieces
dice-shaped), American cake-meal strewed over the carrots, grey
peas, cracked, as much as they can eat, with best Dutch clover
hay. They never see an empty trough from their birth to their
death. In summer no sheep are on the farm; all are cleared
out by the beginning of May. “Feed stock in winter, raise
crops in summer,” is Mr. Blundell’s motto. Horned cattle he
must feed all the year round, ‘and he does it thus, according
to the season:—in winter, young stock; mangold three times
a-day, in small quantities each time; 12 lbs. per head morning
and afternoon, 16 lbs. in the evening; oat-straw always in
their racks: this keeps them in an improving condition till the
time for grass-cutting in spring and summer. Then follow tri-
folium, clover, and carrot thinnings; when these supplies are
exhausted, the roots are ready again. At the age of about
16 months they receive cake and meal besides, and go to the
butcher at 24 months, realising on an average one pound per
month on their lives, (the calculation of 3s. 3d. a-week was
profit, inclusive of all expenses): no hay is allowed, no fodder
but oat-straw. Mr. Blundell believes it impossible to fat bul-
locks to a profit with hay. He lambs 60 ewes; has 12 bul-
locks up to fat, besides dairy cows and young stock, 20 head in

278 Farming of Hampshire.
all; 20 pigs, 4 cart horses, and a horse for odd jobs, His ordinary
oan for manual labour is 7 men, 4 women, 2 boys, or “1 per acre. *

I have remarked elsewhere tint the improving farmers in
Hants are for the most part new men, coming from other parts.
The tenant of the Lower Toothill farm on ie Broadlands estate
is a pleasing exception, ‘This farm has been in the hands of the
same family for some generations, and the present tenant, Mr.
Richard Withers, jun., pursues the same system of good manage-

ment as his father and grandfather before him. At his own
expense, without any lease, he has now nearly completed the
chalking of the whole farm. His management is a good example
of the old style. He begins well by a deep ploughing ; keeps his
land clean, though his wheat be broadcasted; gets cou! crops 3
has no clubbing in his turnips; buys in hale: bred Hants ewes ;
fats out the lambs and mothers, and generally follows the custom
of the country, but with an eye open to any new lights which
may be offered to his notice. Such a tenant is properly appre-
ciated by his landlord, who has drained the farm and is now
erecting on it a new ecmihores and buildings, which will render
it one of the most complete little farms in this part of the county.

Most of Lord Palmerston’s farms are well supplied with cot-
tages handy to the labourers’ work. His arrangements for letting
Shea differ somewhat from those ae oectl elsewhere. The
farmer nominates his own servants as the tenants; but their con-
nection, when once in the cottage, is direct with the landlord
himself, who receives the rents, and, if necessary, gives the notice
of removal. Practically this division of authority works well.
The farmer is careful in the selection of Lis men, and the landlord
and the farmer do not differ as to causes of change in the occu-
pation of the cottages,

Still further to the south in this district, and almost bordering
on the Forest, is a very pretty farm, with a loamy surface-soil on
a gravelly subsoil, at Testwood, kept in hand and well managed
by its owner. It was extensively drained, and the well-planned
farm-buildings were designed by Mr. J. Chalmers Morton, of
Whitfield.

3. In the New forest the oldest plantations, the first-fruits of
culture, are those of William III. Authority was then given to
plant 6000 acres. ‘The next are Phillipson’s, 1756, then Pitt’s,
1776. In 1808 a new system arose, A commission of three
was appointed, and the Surveyor-General of Woods and Forests
became the chief commissioner. Planting then first began on

* Certain particulars of Mr. Blundeli’s farming have appeared in the Society’s
Journal, but | have purposely avoided referring to them in writing this account,
which is derived solely from what I saw at Bursledon, and from conversations
and communications with Mr. Blundell.

The New Forest. 279

an extensive and regular scale, so as to include from 1808 to
1851, 7200 acres. In the last-named year the Deer-removal
Act was passed, by which the Crown acquired the right of
planting 10,000 additional acres, in consideration of giving up
the right to keep deer; so that now there is authority, under
King William III.’s legislation and that of 1851, to enclose
and plant on behalf of the Crown 16,000 acres. But, out of this
available total, only about 6000 are actually enclosed at the
present moment, being in various conditions, from the large and
flourishing nursery at Rhinefield, where the oaks are as big as
your little finger, to the old abodes of the patriarchal monarchs of
the wood elsewhere. About 700 acres are planted annually. No
particular acreage is cleared annually. The value of the oak sup-
plied to the navy, for eleven years past, is 70,0007. Scotch fir is
found to afford the best protection to the young oak in the new
plantations. Larch is here not so good a nurse, probably because
it does not thrive in the Forest. Deodaras are being tried by
way of experiment. The cost of planting is very materially
reduced by the use of a new tool, called the planting-spade,
which heaves up the soil, so that the tree can be let in, when a
tread of the foot completes the operation. No pits are made.
The planting is, very properly, not job work: other work, very
properly, is, as far as possible.

Experiments have been made as to the pruning of timber-trees,
and the results are against any interference with the oak. There
are two descriptions of oak in the Forest—the Quercus peduncu-
lata, and Q. sessiflora. In the first the acorn is supported on a
long peduncle or stalk, which is its chief distinguishing feature :
this is the staple tree of the country. The other, the fruit of
which is sessile or stalkless, and clustered, arrives at maturity
earlier, and, as might be expected from its more rapid growth,
is less esteemed for ship-building. Beeches are found in many
parts, especially about Burley Rails. There are two descriptions
of furze—the long and the bed; many ferns; two heaths (the
purple and the pink); and one ling (the pink). Rhododendrons
grow wild in Minstead, favoured partly by the peaty soil, chiefly
by the mild climate.

The Forest used to be notable for breeds of New Forest
ponies and pigs: indeed any one would have referred to these
two animals as characteristic of the county, and a credit to the
Forest. The ponies are no longer ponies, they are ugly gal-
loways, with big heads. They have lost that action and form
for which they used to be celebrated, and are still degenerating,
in spite of efforts made by the Crown and by private persons,
Arabian stallions have been kept by the Crown and by Mr.
Alexander Elphinstone, of Chuten Glen; but the foresters did

280 Farming of Hampshire.

not make use of them. In fact,'they cannot improve the breed,
under a system of common pasturage, with entire horses running
wild. Nor do they care about breed; their plan is to sell the
mare, at two or three years old, in-foal ; and nobody would give
more when the mare was put to a Bood horse, because no one
would believe any assertion on that point, while the present pro-
miscuous system continues. The same causes operate against
any improvement in the breed of cattle. Bulls of all descriptions,
and of very inferior descriptions generally, are turned out, and a
nondescript animal is the necessary result. ‘ Foresters,” as the
cows are called, have the reputation of hardiness, and of being
good milkers: ‘the best of them have been etoseed with éhe
G@hannel Islands breed. A better and more defined animal is
not possible under the Forest system. The pigs are red, or black
and white, high-backed, long-legged, stiff-necked, and big-
headed, wat awful ears, which, however long, are deat to good
eomaeel: There is something to be said for the bad breed of
horses and cattle, with the set-off of long-continued common
keep; but what excuse is there for the perpetuation of the exist-
ence of this unthrifty porcine animal, seeing the pannage season
is for one month only? There is Hot now anything peculiar in
the preparation of Hampshire bacon. ‘The practice, throughout
the mainland and island, is to scald for pork, and burn for
bacon, which is also smoked generally.

There are now no deer in the Forest. Nothing strikes a
stranger in the Forest more than the absence of animal life:
there is hardly a blackbird even on the wing. The cause,
doubtless, is want of food. A few black game are found in
the Wildes and more unfrequented parts. T he Norman high-
preserving forest laws are indeed a nullity. There is nothing
now left to preserve.

The traditional estimate of the New Forest labouring popu-
lation is not favourable. “ The inhabitants,” says a recent popular
author, ‘‘ have little visible means of existence: though they
profess themselves to be woodmen, charcoal-burners, &c., it is
pretty generally understood that poaching and smuggling are
their more probable vocations.” Nothing can be more unjust.
The labourer in the forest has three harvests, irrespective of ordi-
nary agricultural work, There are tree cutting and rinding,
fetii-chtting, and turf-cutting ; to which has to be added uch
employ ment in carriage of timber to the dockyard, in draining,
fencing, and planting. The people are well off: their manhegs
and morals have improved with their circumstances. ‘They
combine a respectful address with an honest independence of
manner. No doubt much of this improvement is owing to the
destruction of the deer, and freedom from poaching temptations.

My. Dichinson’s Farm. 281

Farming proper on the Crown lands of the New Forest is
confined to those held by Wm. Dickinson, Esq., at New Park
and Burley Rails. The former consists of 270 acres (150 arable
and 120 pasture) ; the latter of 160 acres. The following observa-
tions will refer exclusively to the former, for it is there that Mr.
Dickinson resides and directs operations which have attracted,
and deserve attention. The surface-soil in the northern part
of his land rests on a mixture of gravel and clay; that in the
southern on gravel, with a substratum of close sand: altogether
it is the best land in the Forest. His rotation is the four-course,
as closely as it can be followed.

The cattle are principally Scotch bullocks (which are well
adapted to the Forest keep), occasionally some Devons and
Short-horns, all bought in young, turned out in the Forest
during summer, fed in yards during winter till old enough to be
grazed, when they are tied up, and sold on the premises by
auction. Channel Islands cows are kept for the use of the
house: 100 ewes, partly Hampshire and partly Southdowns, are
bought in annually, lambed down, and ewes and lambs fatted
off. The pigs are of the Yorkshire kind, bought originally of
Dr. Hobson, of Leeds. The cart-horses are bred on the farm
from mares (a cross between Clydesdale and Yorkshire), by
a Normandy horse. ‘The fillies are retained, the horse colts
sold.

Mr. Dickinson is rich in implements. Tuxford’s 8-horse port-
able steam-engine pumps water from the Forest into the reservoir,
where the water is mixed with urine of the live stock, pumps
the liquid manure out of the reservoir over 45 acres, laid down
with iron pipes, and usually cropped with Italian rye-grass (on
the cultivation of which Mr. Dickinson has published a valuable
pamphlet), and roots. For the former his proportion of water to
urine is two to one, for common grasses four to one, for clover
six to one. Mr. Dickinson’s experience is in favour of liquid
manure for present results, solid for future. He would no more
huddle up the two together than mix sovereigns and shillings in
a purse. The engine does the other usual work, pumps water to
a reservoir for the supply of the yards and sheds, cuts chaff,
- grinds, threshes, &c. Clayton’s combined mower and reaper,
Ashby’s horse-rakes, Hornsby’s corn-drills, Howard’s ploughs,
Garrett’s horse-hoe, Chambers’ manure-distributor, and every
other scientific implement that can be desired, may be seen on
the premises. The store-cattle shed is divided into three com-
partments, as is also the fatting-cattle shed. Each animal is fed
separately through sliding doors from the covered way, which
connects the two sheds, and is found extremely useful. One
hundred and sixty sheep are fatted on boarded grating. A tram-

282 Farming of Hampshire.

way connects them with the food factory, where everything
relating to feeding is kept and prepared.

I have no means, from what | saw, of forming an opinion on
Mr. Dickinson’s success. He should be regarded as making
an interesting agricultural experiment in an unpromising soil
(though it be the best in the Forest), and should be allowed time
to work it out.

Although the New Forest itself consists, for the most part,
either of dreary wastes, producing little but heath or turf, on
which the efforts of nature to form a soil have, from time imme-
morial, been frustrated by the perversity of man in cutting the
turf for fuel every third year,—or else of timber and gorse, inter-
spersed with pasturage, which occupies the better land and
would be worth cultivation,—there are yet on its borders, or inter-
secting it in various directions, private properties of various sizes,
from 5 acres up to 500, all farmed by the help of the Forest. The
smaller holdings are very generally occupied by the owners,
though not always so, for there are no less than 105 tenants,
each having less than 50 acres, on the Minstead Manor alone.
These petty Forest farmers are, as is usual with the class, men
of no capital and much industry ; they work and live harder than
common labourers; their subsistence is eked out by rearing a
few cows and some Forcst colts (‘‘heath croppers ”), by personal
labour, and by the hire of their small horses to haul timber,
faggots, or chalk; their house-fuel comes from the Forest ;
their contrivances fon lodging themselves, their families, ee
carts, cattle, and horses, may be seen, pitched like gipsies’ tents,
on the skirts of the Forest,—things of shreds and patches, monu-
ments of economy, marvels of human ingenuity in shift-making.

The larger farms, though in many instances not sufficiently
cleared of hedgerow timber and inadequately drained, are also
very generally in the hands of the owners, and present examples
of oe farming. The best and also one of the earliest examples
of agricultural improvement in draining and farm-buildings, on
private lands in the Forest, is at Minstead Manor. The usual
four-field system is followed, with trifolium sometimes as a
catch-crop between wheat and turnips; the clover-leys are
heavily dunged for wheat, ploughed in September, and the seed
got in before the end of October; the wheat-stubbles receive
a great deal of cultivation for turnips; they are first cleaned
with Bentall or Coleman, ploughed twice (if possible) before
winter, and two or three times in the spring, besides draggings
and harrowings. The estimated cost for cultivation and super-
phosphate is nearly 8/. per acre. Some of the roots are fed off
with sheep, some hauled home for the Scotch beasts. There are two
ploughings for barley, and one for oats, both of which are drilled,

The Southampton Water. 283

The seeds are broadcasted a fortnight later, a roller or light
harrows following. Scotch beasts are favourites, both as being
superior in quality and suitable to the Forest, where they run for
two years.

The Southampton Water, on its south-western side, is bordered
by farms lying between it and the Forest: some have a stiff sub-
soil and require drainage, as at Eling and Dibden; while others
are on a gravelly bottom, as at Marshwood, Fawley, and Beau-
lieu. The land about Fawley, though liable to burn in a dry
time, grows barley of an excellent quality. Some of the best
farm-buildings in the county are in this neighbourhood, at
Cadland, which was also the scene, half a century since, of
agricultural improvement by extensive draining on Elkington’s
principles.

The soil of the whole of this district is deficient in calcareous
ingredients, and will not grow healthy turnips except it be limed
or chalked. The latter is the usual remedy. ‘The quantity,
applied to the wheat-stubble or to’the clover-leys, is usually 20
tons per acre. The cost varies with the locality. Chalk can be
brought to the waterside from Portsdown at 2s. 6d. or 3s. per
ton ; or the railway will convey it from Whiteparish (near Salis-
bury) to Ringwood for 3s., or to Brockenhurst for 3s. 6d. But
whether it come by water or by rail, it has to be reloaded and
carted home; and generally, so cheap is horse-labour in the
Forest, hauling the whole way is found to be the best policy.
The little farmers undertake, at their leisure seasons, to deliver
it at a distance of 18 miles from the pit for 5s. per ton, or 5/.
per acre.

After some high ground, covered with erratic gravels and
sands (Sandy Brake Common), the soil becomes deeper south of
the Forest, as the coast is approached. The system is the four-
course, without the variations which a better working soil
elsewhere admits. It is nowhere better followed than by Mr.
Nichols of Buckland, near Lymington. Chalk is not generally
applied south of the Forest, on account of the expense of
carriage.

The produce of this district is, wheat 24 bushels; barley 30;
oats 35; swedes 20 tons; clover 14.

A show of fat cattle and sheep was inaugurated at Lymington
last winter.

The labour is ‘06 per acre, and wages rather lower than those
last mentioned. ‘Tithe is 3s. the acre. Poor-rates 3s. 6d. in the
pound. Rent 20s.

4. In the Valley of the Avon, at North Chardford (where the
river enters the county), and at Breamore, 7. e. as far as the chalk
reaches, there is a mixed system of vale and down farming,

VOL. XXII. x

284 Farming of Hampshire — Valley of the Avon.

which is indicated by the larger breeding flocks. The farms
run from 400 to 500 acres. The vale rotation above Ford-
ingbridge is four-field, with modifications. A stolen green
crop (rye, tares, trifolium) is taken between the wheat and the
turnips, and beans with turnips are sometimes substituted for
grass. Of the swedes only half are consumed in the fold, or the
land would be too strong for barley, and this is a fine barley
country. Rape is often drilled, every fifth row, between the
swedes. The seed wheat preferred is White Rough-chaff, Morton’s
Prolific, Spalding’s, and Browick (all good wheats to stand),
and, for late sowing, Nursery. When beans and turnips are
taken together, the turnip-seed is put in when the beans are
hoed. The turnips are fed off with sheep, and thus the field is
dunged for wheat. It may be doubted whether this is good
farming. ‘There cannot be time to clean the land between the
turnips and the wheat; and, if the beans are a good crop, but
little can be expected of the turnips, to which, however, you run
a chance of sacrificing your wheat-crop. It is an attempt to do
too much in the time. This plan used to be followed on Sir
Wm. Heathcote’s home-farm at Hursley, but has been discon-
tinued under the present steward. Farmyard dung is applied
liberally, 20 loads per acre, to beans together with turnips, and
to the clover-leys for wheat; but the swedes have nothing but
bones or superphosphate, drilled with ashes at the time of sowing,
again for fear of overdoing the barley.

Below Fordingbridge the usual system is again the four-
course. But here also, of late years, there have been modifications
on the best-managed farms. Of the wheat-stubble, half is put
to green crop, followed by Swedes or turnips; half to mangold,
after a winter’s fallow. Of the barley-ground, too, half is put
to clover, and half to beans or peas. After the barley, the half
lately in clover will be assigned to swedes or turnips; the other
half lately in beans to mangold. The lands are reversed in their
cropping, when the crops come round again in the rotation.
The advantage of this variation is, that clover, swedes, man-
gold, and beans each occur on the same ground but once in
eight years,

This is unquestionably a very good rotation, but it requires
liberal manuring and clean farming, and is pursued on the
best farms only, such as that of Mr. H. Bone, of Avon. His
bean-ground, when put to wheat, has no farmyard dung, but
1 ewt. of guano, which is repeated as a top-dressing in the
spring, and worked in with Garrett’s horsehoe; the clover-ley
is manured with dung alone; the beans are heavily dunged ;
the swedes have superphosphate and bones in a crude state, at
a cost of 1/. per acre; the mangold a sack of bones, 1 ewt. of

Mr. Bone’s Farm. 285

superphosphate (mixed with ashes and drilled with the seed),
together with 2 ewt. of guano and 4 ewt. of salt, broadcasted
and dressed in at the same time. The whole of the turnips and
swedes and one-half of the mangold are consumed on the ground
by the sheep; the remaining half of the mangold is drawn home
for the cattle. ‘The green crops are also folded off. The clover
is first cut, and then fed, if wanted ; if not, it is cut twice. This
is a very liberal system. It may, perhaps, be said that if the
whole of the wheat-stubbles were put to an early green crop,
such as rye, and fed off with sheep, something might be saved
in artificials to the mangold-crop ; and there would still be time
for the fold on the rye, for mangolds here are not put in till at
least the middle of May, or they run to seed. But would there
be time to clean the land, and would the work be evenly dis-
tributed ?

The average produce of the district is, wheat 32 bushels ;
barley 40; beans and peas 32; swedes 18 tons; mangold 30;
clover-hay 14. Mr. Bone exceeds, and deserves to exceed, these
quantities ; for instance, his mangold has reached 45 tons. The
live-stock of the neighbourhood receives but little attention as
to its breed. The farmers have rights in the Forest, and turn
in their heifers there ; it has already been seen with what results.
The best farmers, therefore, as Mr. Bone, never turn out.
They consider that the advantage of scanty keep on a common
for a certain time, is more than neutralized by the inferiority of
breed thereby necessarily induced. Mr. Bone has all Devons,
both for milking and grazing, and breeds his own stock. The
same remarks apply to horses, both as to their general in-
feriority, and to Mr. Bone’s superior judgment. He has a
handsome cart-stallion, which was second in his class at the
Bath and West of England Show at Dorchester ; and for his nag
mares he has an Arab, purchased of Mr. Alexander Elphinstone,
of Chuten Glen, and imported by him. He is now an old horse,
and rather long in the leg, as we should think ; but his form,
his head, his muzzle, the cleanness of his legs, and the docility
of his temper, are beautiful. Mr. Bone has some young stock
from him, and, if this cross be persevered in, a very superior
elass of riding-horses will be the result. The sheep are Hamp-
shire and Southdowns, chiefly the former. A few Dorset ewes
are kept for early lambs. With a few exceptions, such as Lord
Normanton’s and Mr. Mills’s, there are no breeding and stock
flocks, but all is shifting. Ewes are bought in at the fall,
lambed down ; the lambs fatted off about Easter, the mothers as
soon after as possible. I saw on Mr. Bone’s farm some fat tegs,
28 lbs. a quarter at 14 months old; and 45 Ibs. a quarter at 21

x 2

286 Farminglof Hampshire.

months old. For three years past Mr. Bone has purchased these
at Britford Fair, of Mr. James Rawlence, of Wilton. There
used to be a practice for the great flockmasters in the down
districts to send their chilver tegs for six winter months’ keep
(from the beginning of October to the beginning of April) to the
vale country, paying from 7s. to 10s. per head. The practice
was nearly universal thus to take in sheep for keep, but of late
years the vale farmers have preferred purchasing their own stock
and fatting it out. The greater increase also, on the downs, of
winter food, by means of increased turnip cultivation, may have
induced the flockmasters there simultaneously to acquiesce in
keeping their sheep at home.

There is no difference observable between the farming on the
Avon below Fordingbridge, and that on the Stour.

Much of the high ground about the Stour valley, and thence
to the western boundaries of the county, and along the sea-coast,
is covered with gravel, and extensively planted with fir. The
trees do not grow large, but are stout enough for props in coal-
mines, and such like purposes. They are sold on the ground,
and shipped at Christchurch for their destination. The excel-
lent judgment of the late Lord Malmesbury originated these
plantations.

On the Avon, the water-meadows above Fordingbridge, and
the flood-meadows below, and on the Stour the flood-meadows
(though, in their present unimproved state, the flood-meadows
on both rivers are less serviceable than they. might be), alike
encourage dairying, which was once almost universal. The cow
is the usual nondescript animal, naturalized to the soil, hardy in
constitution, and good for milk, but bad for the butcher. ‘The
shorthorns, it is said, would be too heavy, and would “ poach ”
the meadows; the pure Channel Islands are not hardy enough.
Butter and cheese are made; the night’s milk is skimmed for
butter the following morning, and then mixed with the morning’s
milk for the cheese-tub, This is called half-skim cheese, and
sells for 6d., or this year 8d., per lb.; but whole-skim cheese is
more usually made. Dairies are sometimes let at from 8/. to 97.
per annum per cow; but deductions have often to be made at
quarter-day, which upset all calculations. Whether let or in
hand, dairying is not profitable, except to the small occupier who
is his own labourer. The breed is improved, the condition of
the land raised, and more profit derived, from a combined system
of rearing, dairying, and fatting, than from either system taken
separately. Inferior meadow-land, deficient in the properties
necessary for dairy “goods,” is yet useful for rearing, and will
even lay on fat as well as flesh.

Valley of the Avon. Q87

There are at Ringwood some meadows measuring nearly 300
acres, —Upmead, Southmead, Charlmead, and Edemead,—which
are held in common, with certain defined property-limitations.
Hay is made in the summer, when the stock are in the Forest.
On the 10th of September, the horses and cattle are turned in
(not sheep, the land is too wet), and are taken out again by 21st
of December. Fifty years since they were open common, but
at that time rights were ascertained, and allotments made.

As usual, buildings are bad where properties are small, and
capital wanting. The little freeholders (and there are many on
this, as on the other sides of the Forest) have neither the heart,
nor the purse to improve. But lands are being consolidated in
fewer hands, and buildings are improving. Mr. Bone has some
good accommodation, and Mr, A. Elphinstone erected some
excellent premises, designed by Mr. Blundell, at Chuten Glen,
though this is a little out of the vale.

There is a ‘* Vales of Avon and Stour Farmers’ Club,” esta~
blished in 1850, which meets at Christchurch once a month, in
nine months in the year, for the purpose of holding discussions
on ‘the practice and science of agriculture.” A South Avon
Agricultural Society also holds its anniversary in the autumn at
Christchurch, the seat of an ancient agricultural society, which,
half a century since, proposed the establishment of a wool-fair
here, on the same plan as the Lewes wool-fair. A fortnightly fat
stock market, established at Ringwood within the last five years,
is in itself a sufficient proof of the agricultural changes and im-
provements made in the district. For the year ending Lady-Day
1858, the numbers sold were—sheep, 391; beasts, 62; pigs,
210. For 1859—sheep, 509; beasts, 81; pigs, 205; calves,
16. For 1860—sheep, 528; beasts, 69; pigs, 218; calves, 19.
This stock is all fatted in the neighbourhood, and is, therefore,
indicative of its progress,

The ordinary farm-labourer has 9s. or 10s. per week. The
carter and shepherd have the same, with the addition of a house
and fuel (peat and turbary) found them. The average annual
expense of manual labour is from 26s. to 30s. per acre. Tithe
and poor-rates vary extremely. Rent is about 30s. an acre, and
leases are usual on the better farms.

It will be observed that a distinction is made in the Avon
country, above and below Fordingbridge; above are water-
meadows, below flood-meadows, though these are exceptional.
There are water-meadows at Bicton and Ellingham, and one
(the last on the river) measuring 80 acres, held in common,
just below Ringwood. This distinction arises from the sluggish-
ness of the current and consequent peaty nature of the soil; a

288 Farming of Hampshire.

fall of eight or nine feet in the mile is required for water-meadows,
and that below Fordingbridge is not more than four.

“‘ No country in England,” says Fuller, “hath more plenty of
clear and fresh rivulets of troutful water.’ And where trout
flourish, water-cresses grow, and stones are covered with lichen,
there are the best water-meadows, which are accordingly a
feature in Hampshire farming. They are here, on the confines
of the county, and in the eokb ofl ak om every chalk stream, but
none are comparable to those on the Avon. The depth and
dryness of the alluvial soil, with a gravel subsoil, is the reason of
their superiority over those on the Test and Anton, and Itching,
which rest on clay or peat. Indeed the meadows below Romsey,
from lying on peat, which is the worst foundation of all, and
from their faulty construction, are of little worth.

I will therefore describe the water-meadow system here, men-
tioning differences between these and others in the county, and.
noting their influence on the arable farming near them. They
are expensive, both to make and to maintain, their construction
costing from 15/. to 40/. an acre, according to the form of the
surface. If the soil be not naturally dry it must be under-
drained, and that deeply, so as not to interfere with the irriga-
tion. The ground has to be formed by manual labour into
ridges and furrows, or, as it is called, “ bed-work;” the beds
being here 11 yards wide, with an elevation of 2 feet in the
centre, but their width generally, and the gradients of their sides,
depend much on the soil; the drier this is the broader the beds,
and the less the declivity of the sides. The great object is to
give the water a quick run, for if it stagnates the grass will suffer
in quantity and quality. The water is admitted by a main
“carriage ;” subordinate carriers or feeders, at different angles to
the main, convey the water along the summit of each ridge ; the
water soaks down and through the sides of the ridges into the
drains which run along the furrows; these drains communicate
with a main drain (“the drawn”). The used water is not
returned to the river for, perhaps, two miles from the spot whence
it was originally abstracted ; it does duty meanwhile. A “head ”
meadow is one flooded with the water on its first coming from
the river; a “tail” meadow with that previously used in a
“head” meadow. Of course the head-water is the best, but to
use nothing else would be to divert the channel of the stream,
The meadow receiving the tail-water is not (as might be sup-
posed) the one immediately contiguous to that receiving the
head-water, but the next but one; if it were attempted to make
a tail-meadow next to a head-meadow it would be necessary to
raise the water by hatches (which are used to pen back and to

Water Meadows. 289

direct the water throughout its course) so high that it would flood
the head-meadow. The intermediate meadow is generally watered
by an “ over-carrier” (water conveyed from the river over the
* drawn ”) the drainage from which empties below into the
“ drawn.” Two or three occupiers may share in the water from
one “carriage,” taking it, the one from the other, at allotted times.
The meadows require a considerable amount’ of manual labour to
keep them in good order, and if this be neglected, coarse, flaggy
‘¢ water-grass ” and rushes will soon show themselves, in which
melancholy condition I saw some with cows on them in January,
three months after the proper time of “ hayning.” The meadows
having been fed off rather bare about Michaelmas, 6s. an acre
is paid for “working” the meadow, 7. ¢. scouring out the
feeders and drains; the hatchwork is repaired, all rat-holes
are stopped, and in the beginning of November the meadows
receive their first watering, which is a good soaking of a week’s
duration. There ought to be young grass, about two inches
high, on the ground at the time, through which the water per-
colates, but which it does not cover and so drown. In all
‘watering the grass must have its head above water, and much im-
portance is attached to this point. This ‘first watering is given
as the river, rich with alluvial matter, first rises from the
autumnal rains; and thick water is always best, thin water
doing positive harm on a clay bottom. As to the time of appli-
cation, night is better than day, dull weather than bright. The
watering is continued throughout November and December, six
days in the week if possible ; in January five, in February four ; if
the frost be hard the water is turned off till a thaw, and if many
occupiers participate they take it two days at a time. The
meadows are dried the first week in March, are trodden by men’s
feet (a roller and horses would do injury to the carriers and
drains), and about Lady-day the ewes and lambs are turned in,
being taken out at night and folded on the arable: they stay in
about six weeks, if longer the meadows are liable to injury, and
the sheep to the rot. As soon as they are out, the hatches are
drawn and the water admitted, but very thinly and scantily at
first, in order that the grass may have time to grow above it;
two days a week will be sufficient watering, till the grass is cut
and hay made in the middle of June. Water may again be
applied once a week, and in eight weeks’ time there will be a
second crop of hay. The autumn feed is for cows.

As to the produce, the spring feed of one acre will easily keep
twenty couples, who will fold three-quarters of an acre of arable
in the time; each hay-crop will be from a ton and a half to two
tons, This i is a moderate estimate for the Avon meadows.

The value of the Avon meadows (4/. to 5/. an acre) is nearly

290 Farming of Hampshire.

double that of those in the body of the county; indeed there are
instances when the turnip crop has failed, of the spring-feed
alone being let for 8/., 9/., and even 12/. an acre. The meadows
elsewhere are “worked” in the same way, but watered rather
differently. Where they have an unlimited supply of water
farmers put it on and off two days at a time, with intervals of the
same duration ; they also like to keep the meadows pretty well
covered in a frosty time, considering the water a “ blanket ;” if
the supply be limited, one takes it for a fortnight, and stops a
month or more before another watering. But this altogether
depends on the supply; watering would be de die in diem, if
possible. The meadows are “ worked up” again, when the
sheep go out, and have two plentiful waterings for the hay-crop ;
three weeks the first time, hardly so long the second. The cut
of hay is not so good, 14 ton the first time, 1 ton the second.
On some meadows cattle cannot be put in the autumn for fear
of treading, nor sheep for fear of the rot.

The connection between water-meadows and arable farming is
through the sheep stock, Ona chalk farm the sheep are kept partly
for their own sakes, partly as manure-distributors on the plough
lands. For this purpose they are folded, and when in the fold
they receive at all times help from the water-meadows ; if it be
spring they are on the water-meadows by day, and on the arable
(consuming swedes or late turnips) by night; if it be winter they
are served with water-meadow hay night and morning. Thus
both the spring and summer growth of the water-meadows prac-
tically supply the fold on the arable to the extent of 1800 sheep
per acre per day. If, again, the turnips should fail, or the season
be backward, the sheep stock would be in a critical position but
for the spring-feed of the water-meadows. Besides, there is the
saving in the growth of seeds. The proportion of sainfoin raised
on water-meadow farms is said to be 5 per cent. less than the
quantity grown by those farmers who want this invaluable
adjunct to every down farm,

Mipp.ie Disrricr.

Uniformity of soils in this cretaceous district induces a certain
similarity in the character of the farming. This is the country
for gentlemen farmers. The farms are larger, the residences
superior, the buildings more adequate, the teams finer ; every-
thing on a more liberal scale than elsewhere in the county.

There is now very little down left ; and what does remain, such
as Magdalen Hill, Compton, Tegdown, Chileomb, and Twyford
downs, is as good land for tillage as that which is already broken
up, and remains in a natural state for other than agricultural
reasons. Some good farmers are of opinion that the practice of

Middle District. 291

converting down into arable has on many farms exceeded its just
limits; and that for the flock’s health, and as an exercise-
ground—particularly in wet weather—nothing can equal the
natural pasture of the down. In breaking up, the practice is to
pare and burn; then follow roots, wheat, barley or oats, and
seeds. After this course the downs require help, and, if once
overcropped and impoverished, cannot easily be restored to their
former condition.

Almost the whole of a chalk farm is, with the exception of
water-meadow which may be attached, arable, only a little pasture
being kept about the house. The old rotation on the poorer soils
was: 1. Summer fallow or turnips; 2. Wheat; 3. Barley or
oats, according to the nature of the soil; 4. Grass; 5. Clover-
ley or “fold field.” On the better soils, the old rotation was:
1. Old field, or summer fallow, or turnips; 2. Wheat; 3. Barley
or oats; 4. Grass. The farm was not kept in good heart, nor
were remunerative crops raised under such a system. After
lying two years in grass, the ground required much cleaning
before wheat. Ina dry spring this might be done in time to get
in early turnips, and of these there might be a plant, and the
crop might be fed off (swedes were out of the question) in time
for wheat. Here were many contingencies, which did not
always turn out happily even on the lighter soils: on the heavier
they seldom did, so that a fallow and the loss of a year were too
often the farmer's necessity. Then, again, scientific agricul-
turists objected to two white straw crops in succession, though
practical ones did not; all, however, acknowledged that the
produce of the ‘old field ” was scanty, and fit for nothing but
to run the sheep over, so that here was another year well-nigh
lost.*

The change to the now general four-field course (1. Swedes ;
2. Barley or oats; 3. Grass; 4. Wheat) was intended to be,
and indeed was, a great improvement. But this too, if exclu-
sively applied, was not found to be generally suitable to the
country, though it is still invariably followed on some of the
lighter and better soils. Without water-meadows there was not
enough sheep-food, and the swedes could not be fed off in time
for the succeeding barley ; much farmyard-dung too was required
for the wheat. To meet the first objection, a catch-crop of rye,
vetches, or winter oats was inserted between the wheat and the
swedes. But the second and chief objection has brought about a

* Mr. Comely of Winchester had occasion to survey twice, in 1838 and 1846,
the parish of St, Laurence Wootton, near Basingstoke, containing 2000 arable acres,
In the former year 500 acres were “ old field,” in the latter not one. Nothing can
show more forcibly the intervening change, which was nothing less than the
abolition of the summer fallow, and the gain of a year for a remunerative crop.

292 Farming of Hampshire.

new four-course, introduced from the Wiltshire downs, and now
extensively prevalent among the best farmers in Hants for a
portion (say one-third) of their arable: 1, Swedes; 2. Turnips ;
3. Wheat; 4. Barley. Where, however, there are no water-
meadows to provide hay, this system is not applicable; and
generally, in this case, a combination of the three four-courses
mentioned above—the old rotation on better soils, the new, and
the Wiltshire—is found very advantageous; or the Wiltshire
four may be made a five-course, by the addition of grass. On
the pooref soils, rented at 15s. or 16s. an acre, free of tithes,
another five-course is followed by liberal farmers: 1. Turnips ;
2. Wheat; 3. Swedes; 4. Barley; 5. Grass. Where there is
good strong land, and no restrictions by landlords, there is a
three-year course: 1. Wheat ; 2. Swedes; 3. Turnips, or turnips
and rape, and then wheat again. ‘This liberal system, which, of
course, is available for a portion only of the farm, gives much
wheat without the dung-cart, and also provides food for many
sheep.

But the changes which have been rung on rotations in the
chalk district of Hampshire are infinite, and are only to be
compared to the algebraic method of ‘variations and permuta-
tions.” All, Ts, have in view the same result—many
sheep and iueh corn—and proceed on the same general principle
of not having more than half the arable in corn, at any one time.

The Wiltshire system requires, at starting, a considerable
capital. A needy man cannot afford to begin with two green
crops; he wants, before the third year,'a corn-crop wherewith
to pay his way. Still, at the end of eight or twelve years this
system is not more expensive than any other four-course system.

The succession of barley after wheat is, of course, the pecu-
liarity (common, however, to the old Hampshire methods and
once probably prevalent on the downs in both counties), and
with many would be the fatal objection, attaching to the Wilt-
shire system. ‘The answer, given by the most successful farmers
in this county, attributes many advantages to this rotation; no
other, they say, provides better-distributed sheep-food, kinder
barley, stronger wheat, more economical manuring, or more
convenient puliivarions

If barley follow swedes, the latter are in the way of the
former ; the consumption of the roots must be quickened, or the
barley-sowing season will be past. But time waits for no man ;
so the fold is hurried, and the more haste the less speed. ‘The
farmer may be too late, after all his exertions. Besides, if the
roots be gone early, ond: the spring be a little backward, what i is
to carry the flock on? On the other hand, if another green crop
follow the swedes, these may be fed off at leisure up to the

waa

ee

The Chalk District. 293

middle of May, when, indeed, it is too late for barley but in
good time for turnips, and when also the grass will be surely
ready for the sheep. Thus there will be an abundance of green
food, a regular succession of it, and facility for its leisurely con-
sumption. I have heard the opinion too often expressed to doubt
its accuracy, that barley taken after wheat is a more even crop,
and of a kinder quality for malting, than after turnips, the
folding on which makes the ground too rank for barley; but,
what is the barley’s bane is the wheat’s blessing. This wants
manure, and that of the fold is the most pe The
treading of the sheep, too, on the soft turnip-ground (if it rain,
so mach the better) is highly beneficial, and consolidates the
land more than folding on clover-ley would. * There is no
presser like their thin, “sharp, cloven feet. Wheat thrives here
as well, or better on turnip-break than on clover-ley (though this
is not ile case elsewhere on lighter chalk soils), and, besides,
there is no danger of wireworm. ‘The labour also is better dis-
tributed for men and horses, who, as well as the shepherd, are
hurried at a busy time to get in barley after swedes. There is
still an opportunity of slipping in a crop of stubble-turnips, of
rye, or of yetches, between the wheat and the barley, if wanted,
and circumstances are favourable.

When two turnip-crops are taken in succession, as in the
Wiltshire and three-course systems, a larger supply of sheep-

food is provided, and consequently a larger stock of sheep

kept (the great desideratum). The second crop of turnips, after
folding on the swedes, is more certain, and increased depth of
agricultural soil can be gained. Deep-ploughing is the uni-
versal remedy for a thin staple ; subsoil must be turned up from
time to time, exposed to the air, and added to the surface soil ;

but for pales deep-ploughing ill not do: the ground is si
sufficiently consolidated, and the plant will heave in the winter
frosts ; moreover, there will be brought up charlock and the red
poppy (‘“‘ the a weed,” it is called aati country), which can-
not be kept down by any amount of hoeing which wheat can

- receive, and which will accordingly grow up with and stifle the

good seed. Now, for both of the turnip crops you can plough
as often and as deeply, and hoe as much, as you like; while in
the second turnip crop there is a certainty of effectually subduing

_ the weeds which escaped in the first year, and of leaving the
land perfectly clean for wheat.

* Just by way of contrast, and to show how much good farming is a matter of
adaptation to circumstances, it may be mentioned, that Mr. Hughes of Thorness is
inventing a boarded stage, on wheels, drawn by a wire rope and anchor at the
headland, for the purpose of folding sheep. He believes, that if by this means the
dung can be had, without consolidation by treading, one of the greatest possible
benefits will have been conferr ed on the heavy land farmer,

294. Farming of Hampshire.

Seeds are generally, in this district, sown with barley, and
not with oats, the oat-stubbles being put to winter vetches, which
are followed by turnips, and so the land brought round to wheat.

The cultivation of sainfoin is a leading feature in chalk-
farming ; in fact, out of the reach of water-meadows, no flock-
master can dispense with it. The hay is the best keep for the
winter, the feed for the summer. The early heavy lambs could
not be raised without it, and sainfoin aftermath never scours,
like many seeds; nor is the plant so liable to failure as clover
(though this may arise from too frequent repetition on the same
spot) ; the land rests under it, and (sic ferunt) is actually improved
by it. The succeeding wheat crop is large in quantity and
excellent in quality, and no other preparation gives wheat a
brighter colour or a heavier weight. A seventh or eighth part
of the arable is usually laid down to sainfoin, sown, like any
other seeds, with barley, when the ground is in good heart, 5
bushels to the acre, with a little trefoil ; the common Hampshire
sainfoin is generally preferred to the giant. The sheep may be
run over it the same season. ‘The first year it is generally fed,
sometimes cut for seed ; the second year it is cut once, just as it is
coming well into flower, and afterwards fed ; the third year it is
sometimes mown, sometimes continually fed. If, as is often the
case, it lies down for four, five, and even six or more years,
the land gets foul with running grass, called “ black grass,” which
forms almost a continuous turf. When it stands for the shorter
period, the land can be put to wheat, like a clover-ley, and can
be brought round again to sainfoin in eight years; otherwise
fourteen or fifteen years must elapse before it can be repeated,
and the ground should be pared and burnt, and put to turnips.
A general and a convenient practice is, to make the sainfoin
adapt itself to the length of the rotation, whatever that may be.
The hay is of first-rate quality and bulk, a quarter or even a half ton
more than clover. There is a great complaint of the adulteration
of sainfoin seed with burnet, which is not to be distinguished
except the seed be milled, and with difficulty then. This is a
mischievous plant, spreading much more rapidly than sainfoin,
and choking the good crop.

The sorts of wheat preferred are Spalding, Hopetown, Taunton,
Chidham, and Nursery, which last is becoming a very favourite
wheat, especially for late sowing. Of oats, Black and White
Tartar. Of barley, Chevalier, Nottingham, and Golden Drop.
The produce of wheat is generally from 24 to 28 bushels per
acre; oats 40; barley rather less; turnips, swedes, and man-
golds, 12 to 20 tons ; sainfoin 1}, clover and rye-grass 1.

In the Report on the Agriculture of Hampshire, drawn up

by Messrs. Abraham and William Driver, for the Board of

Sheep. 295

Agriculture, in the year 1794, we read:—“The Hampshire
sheep is horned, for the most part with a white face, though
some few have speckled faces; formerly they were long-legged
and narrow, but now much improved, being short-legged and
well carcassed.” ‘This description of the “improved Hampshire
downs” would not now be recognised. Arthur Young, in a
postscript to the Report, intimates the origin of the transformation.
“Wm. Poulett Poulett, Esq.,” he says, “exchanged, in 1792, a
fine flock of Wiltshire ewes (the same as Hants) for south-downs
(Sussex downs), and now keeps more than double his former
number. He has 1200 sheep on 800 acres.” The existing
Hampshire downs are “the glory of the county,” as respects
live-stock. They are the most successful known instance of the
permanent effects of a cross in establishing a distinctly new
breed. This is a great difficulty. There is a tendency in a
cross to revert, after many generations, to one or other of the
original stocks—generally to the worst. The peculiar points of
excellence in the present race will best appear from a sketch of
the two (the Hants and the Sussex) from which it is derived.
The old Wilts and Hants breed are worthy of being remembered.
They were imposing looking animals, long in leg, high in
withers, sharp in the spine, large, bony, narrow, with big heads,
curling horns, and fine Roman noses. They died out in Wilts
about forty years since, Mr. James Rawlance, of Bulbridge, near
Wilton, being their last master. They lived rather longer in
Hants, their powers of enduring long travelling and severe fold-
ing, hard keeping and hard working, recommending them as the
best manure carriers for light lands, which were by this means
alone kept in a state of fertility. Such were the Hampshire
ewes. In the beginning of this century, rams were procured
from the best Sussex downs—less picturesque, but more sym-
metrical: faces and legs dark brown, fore-quarters wide and
deep, back and loins broad, ribs curved, back level, hind-quarters
square, tail well set on, limbs short, bone fine, wool close and
firm, features intelligent, forehead prominent, and carrying a
good crest. A judicious system of crossiny preserved the good
qualities of both breeds. The hard working qualities, the hardy
constitution, and the superior size of the one, have been com-
bined with the smaller limbs, shorter legs, broader back, rounder
barrel, more compact frame, increased flesh, and kinder qualities
of the other. The horns have disappeared, the colour of the face
has turned from white to brown, and there is generally more of
the Sussex than of the Hampshire down left. The rams effected
the change; the breeder’s axiom, that like will produce like,
being shown to be particularly true of the male; and the truth
of the doctrine confirmed, that the worse bred the female, the

296 Farming of Hampshire.

more will the offspring take after a well bred sire. Still, even in
appearance the new Hampshires assert their descent from old
Hampshire mothers. They are larger than the Sussex downs,
especially about the head and face—carcase longer and more
roomy; generally coarser, and of a heavier frame. Their wool
is of a large staple and coarser, not so close; not curling with
spiral ends. As to the comparative fattening qualities of the
Hants and Sussex downs, an elaborate experiment, recorded by
Mr. J. B. Lawes, and reported in the 28th number of the
Society’s Journal, confirms the truth of the current opinion,
that the Hants come earlier to maturity (crosses generally do) ;
but that the Sussex, when ripe, give more valuable offal to the
butcher. Mr. Lawes’s balance-sheet of the two lots cannot be
said to show any pecuniary advantage on either side. The
Hampshire were larger, and sold individually for a higher price ;
but the Sussex realised more money per pound. The Hampshire
fleeces also were heavier (perhaps by 1 Ib. on a teg); but the
Sussex wool at those times made a higher price; now the prices
are much the same. Again, you can keep (such is the general
computation) 5 per cent. more Southdowns than Hampshires.

But the existing breed has been further mixed. It is not

‘everywhere a simple cross between the old Hampshires and the

Sussex, Some thirty years or more since, Mr. John Twynam
(now residing at Winchester) put Cotswold rams to his Hamp-
shire down ewes. It was a doubtful experiment to combine long-
wool blood with short, and not calculated to found a new race.
The relative merits of this cross, and of the pure Hants blood
have been fairly tried in the county. A certain number of each
were fed together: at the end of the first year the cross was .
ahead; at the end of the second, the pure blood—a result in
accordance with the general rule that a cross is best for early
maturity, but not for stock. But, however extensively crossed
before, the Hampshire blood is now generally kept pure, though
there are not wanting, here and there, signs of degeneracy—sheep
with tendencies to hairy wool, big bones, and sour heads ; sure
indications of the coarse and unthrifty ewe from which they
came.

The Sussex downs are in favour with gentlemen farming their
own estates, for the finer quality of the mutton; but the Hamp-
shire downs are the tenant’s sheep, and the sheet-anchor of his
farm. If he can keep one sheep to a pound’s rent (and this is a
better mode of reckoning than by acreage), it is a good average ;
and if there be 380 lambs from 400 ewes, or 5 per cent. less than
the mothers, it is considered good luck; 360 would be nearer
the mark. All are raised for stock. Some of the best wethers
(say 100), the farmer picks out for the lamb-fairs at Stock«

Sheep. 297

bridge or Overton in July; the remainder he sells from time to
time, according to his supply of food or requirements for money,
at different fairs, up to Weyhill on the 10th of October, or
Andover on the 17th of November, reserving always 140 chilver
lambs to replace the one-third of his ewes, which, being full-
mouthed, he drafts out of his breeding flock, year by year. No
farmer works his own rams, but buys the best blood he can get,
and puts them to the ewe lambs at eighteen months old. There
are so many noted ram breeders, and so many celebrated flocks,
without the absolute pre-eminence of any one or two, in the
county, that it would be impossible to particularise all, and in
yidious to name only a few; but, out of the county, it may be
said, there is no Hampshire down blood superior to Mr.
Humphrey’s, of Chaddleworth.
~ Of the quality of the wool, Mr. Cunnington, of Devizes, an
extensive woolstapler, writes me: ‘The wool of these sheep is
used mainly for the same purposes as that of southdowns. ‘The
quality, however, is inferior, to at least 1d. per lb, in value, and.
it does not yield so much of the finer sorts. ‘The colour, too, of
-much of the Hampshire wool (in the neighbourhood of Andover,
for instance) is very inferior, being coloured by the red soil on
which the sheep lie. In the south of the county, in the neigh-
bourhood of Lymington, some of the wools are as fine and good
as any in ¢his county, and the colour of these is also very good.”

The cropping on a chalk-farm is, as has been already stated,
largely influenced by the requirements of the sheep stock. Of
green crops, the best sheep food, in early autumn, is rape; then
succeed, in order, cabbages (if grown), white turnips, carrots (if
grown), late turnips, and swedes, up to the spring, when, but
not before, mangold is admirable.

The absence of natural springs on the downs necessitates arti-
ficial ponds, to catch and retain the rain water. The bottom is
first puddled with clay 6 inches thick, then 2 inches of quick-
lime are spread, then 3 or 4 of chalk, then another thin layer of
clay, with a coating of chalk over it. The whole surface is then
pitched with flint-stones well rammed. This will hold water ;
but it costs 1s. per square foot, besides the hauling, which may
cost half as much again.

Sheep fairs are the proper accompaniment of sheep farming.
Those of Hants are unequalled—Stockbridge, Overton, Apple-
shaw, Weyhill, Whitchurch, Winchester, Andover. 65,000
sheep are penned at the famous Overton lamb fair, where the
best breeders enter into keen competition for cups given by the
Duke of Wellington, the Earl of Carnarvon, the Earl of Ports-
mouth, Viscount Eversley, Sir F. T. Baring, Mr. Beach, and
Mr. Melville Portal, for four classes of wether lambs, one of

298 Farming of Hampshire.

ewes, and one of rams, At Appleshaw many Dorset and Bridge-
water horned ewes, heavy in lamb, are sold, besides Wilts and
southdowns. 100,000 are here penned, of which, at a rough
estimate, about half are Dorsets, one-fourth Somersets, and the
remaining Wiltshire. The first day at Weyhill is appropriated
to sheep, the two next to horses and stock, the fourth to hops
and cheese, 125,000 may be given as the average of sheep and
lambs penned, which are divided between two fairs, the Wilts
keeping on their side of the turnpike, the Hants on the other.
The hops are similarly separated into a Farnham row and a
country row, the number of pockets being about 2500, of which
the Farnham people bring more than half.

There is an Andover and Weyhill Agricultural Society, with
prizes for stock of all kinds.

The ordinary labourer in this district has 10s. per week, the
carter and shepherd Is, extra. The carter has perhaps 30s. addi-
tional at Christmas or Michaelmas. The shepherd has extra pay
in different ways. I have heard of this practice—ld. for every
lamb, and 6d. for every one above the number of ewes, to be paid
in July. Ploughboys have 6s. or 7s.; boys to lead, 4s. or 5s.
a-week. The carter, shepherd, and boys are hired by the year ;
and generally a man’s pay is 2d. or 3d. an hour for extra work ;
the carter probably also receiving 1s. on going with a load of
corn, or otherwise to a distance. Throughout the county no
beer or food is provided, except at harvest-time, when beer is
given, often without stint where work presses. Giving food,
and no extra money, used to be the practice, but it has died
out. The manual labour in the middle district is ‘06. The
tithe and parochial burdens are not heavy. The rent of land
is 13s., 15s., or 20s. an acre. Leases are general on these large
farms.

On Mr. Melville Portal’s home farm, at Laverstoke, a sort of
double four-course system is pursued, extending over eight years,
thus: wheat, barley or oats, swedes, forward turnips (red-rounds
or stone) and rape (first four-course) ; wheat, barley, grass, roots
(second four-course), This is, in fact, the Wiltshire rotation
twice repeated, with the substitution of grass for swedes in the
second round.

The Laverstoke farm buildings are kept well together, easily
accessible in every part, and supplied with all requisites for the
conduct of the farm, and for the despatch of the general business
of the estate. One excellent feature is the position of the steam-
engine, which is fixed, where the heart of the system should be,
in the centre, dispensing food, and litter, through the arteries
and veins of feeding-alleys, boxes, and yards. The ingenious
arrangement for getting at the eggs, without entering the poultry-

Mr. Portal’s Farm. 299

house, shows that attention has been given to the minutest details.
The accommodation for grazing-beasts is perhaps larger than is
required in a country, where it is better policy to make dung by
sheep folding in the field, than by hauling roots home for cattle
in the yard. It must not, however, be forgotten that they were
built some twelve years since, when fat prize oxen were thought
the right thing everywhere: on the whole, there are few better
planned premises for a /andlord farmer in the country.

As buildings for a ¢enant farmer, those on Mr. Melville Portal’s
farm at Whitehill may be recommended as a model of compact-
ness, economy, and suitability to the farming of this country.
The whole is a rectangular parallelogram, 83 feet by 65, under
one roof, with a span of 65 feet—this width being obtained by
a lean-to attached on either side of the walls of the main build-
ing. The farm consists of 650 acres, and the actual, not the
estimated, cost of the buildings was 700/.—a little over 1/. an
acre, double that proportion not being an uncommon calculation.
This is an example of adaptation to the present, and the probable
requirements of the most approved style of farming in a chalk
district, which will surely be followed. Ancient and obsolete
fashions are rejected with an intelligent perception of what a
modern farmer wants. Large barns are not required at the pre-
sent day, when the locomotive steamer can thresh out the corn
at the rick side. A permanent engine is not so useful as one
which can be taken anywhere, and to which the plough or the
cultivator, as well as the threshing-machine, can be attached ;
neither is much accommodation needed for grazing heavy bul-
locks in a county where the saying is—“The sheep pay the
rent.”

The cottages at Laverstoke attract the attention of every passer-
by. The walls are of flint stones resting on brick, carried as
high from the ground as the water sputters, with brick facings,
and ornamented wood-work gables and porches. Their good
looks have caught the eye of the photographer. But your prac-
tical man, disbelieving in the union of the beautiful with the
useful and economical, asks, “‘ What are they inside ; and what
did they cost? They must be very expensive.” This is a mis-
take. The accommodation is sufficient, and the cost, again not
the estimate, of a pair is only 210/., with no cheap materials
near at hand, and with lime brought from Teffont, near Salis-
bury. No ugliness could be cheaper or more commodious than
these examples of elegance, convenience, and economy. Mr.
Melville Portal’s arrangements for letting his cottages are similar
to Sir William Heathcote’s: those for the carter, the shepherd,

and the yardman go with the farm; all others are in the land-
lord’s own hands.

VOL. XXII, yi

300 Farming of Hampshire.

That portion of the Hursley estate which is in, or near, Hursley
deserves some notice, not only because it is a considerable and
well administered property, but also as a good example of that
mixed and varied system of management for grass, arable, and
woodlands, which naturally results from the situation at the very
junction of the chalk and eocene formations in the south, and
the consequently mixed and varied character of the soil. The
arable and grass lands are on the London clay, very near the
chalk subsoil; while the higher and wooded grounds are com-
posed of the Lower Bagshot and Bracklesham formations, here
as elsewhere, in the ‘county, thrown up into gently rounded
and undulating eminences.

The home farm comprises 740 acres, of which 200 are arable,
90 dry meadow, and 450 park. The land having been drained
and ‘chalked, the foundation of Sir William Heathcote’s arable
management, now steadily pursued for more than twenty years,
is subsoiling. ‘The rotation used to be that commonly followed
on these ‘strong chalky clays: 1, fallow; 2, wheat; 3, oats; 4,
‘grass; 5, “old field.” If the fallow got the weeds down, the
four years’ corn and ‘grass gave them plenty of time to get head
again. To Mr. William Fowlie, who has now retired after forty-
six years service in the family, belongs the credit of introducing
a change which brought up the farm from its old condition, and
which, with slight modifications, prevails at present. The
course is now one of ‘six years: 1, roots; 2, barley ; 3 winter
beans ; 4, wheat; 5, clover and Italian rye-grass; 6, oats. A
good dressing, about 20 cart-loads of farmyard dung, is applied,
at some leisure time in the autumn, to the oat-stubbles, which
are ploughed, in November, 8 or 9 inches deep ; Howard’s P. P.
plough, with the turn-furrow off, and the fin of the share clipt
(so as not to take too wide a piece), following as a subsoiler, and
requiring only three horses, while the Deanston used to have
six horses or ‘eight oxen. The land lies rough all the winter,
and requires no more ploughing; but is ‘crossed early the fol-
lowing spring, in dry weather, with a two-horse cultivator. An
occasional tine with the drags, to break the clods, follows. To
prepare the seed bed, the cultivators are again set to work, now
in the direction of the ploughing ; the rollers and harrows get
a sufficient tilth. The seed is drilled on the flat, 27 inches
apart, with 6 bushels of bones, or 30 bushels of other drill
manure (such as sheep droppings and burnt ashes) per acre.
This year 1 ewt. of Prangley’s mangold manure (value 8s.
and 4 bushels of bones (value 10s.) were applied with the drill.
Bones have been ‘proved to be the surest and ‘cheapest aid to the
productive powers of the soil: in raising the farm to its present
condition, as much as 20 bushels per acre have been applied;

Sir W. Heathcote’s Farm. 301

but now, owing to deep ploughing, subsoiling, winter exposure,
and a six years’ rotation, 6 bushels have the effect which 20 pre-
viously had ; and all other purchased manures are, as a general
rule, dispensed with. The horse and hand hoes are kept inces-
santly at work. Of the crop, it is sufficient to say, that Mr.
Charles (Sir William Heathcote’s land steward) has for two years
successively on this farm carried off the first prize (Sir John
Ratcliff’s cup), at the Birmingham and Midland Counties Show,
for 24 selected roots (6 long red mangold, 6 globe mangold,
6 swedes, and 6 carrots*). ‘The earlier sown and larger roots
are hauled to the feeding-sheds for consumption ; the later sown
and smaller are pitted on the ground for folding. The land being
ploughed before Christmas, and broken down by cultivators and
drags in the spring, 24 bushels of barley are drilled to the acre,
12 inches apart. After harvest 20 loads of farmyard manure are
ploughed in, and winter beans drilled, 27 inches apart, by the
end of October in this manner: three ploughs are set to work,
taking 9 inches of land apiece; in the third furrow a hand drill
follows, dropping the beans; the fourth furrow covers them
in pretty deep, and out of the reach of rooks. ‘Of wheat, 2 bushels
are drilled at the same distance as the barley. The seeds are
put in at the last hoeing of the wheat, rather late in the spring,
so as not to get too high, and interfere with the drying of the
wheat at harvest time. Sometimes one, sometimes two, cuttings
of grass are taken, before ‘the sheep are turned on. Of cats,
3 bushels produce a better sample than a smaller quantity of seed.

The produce of this farm = been carefully ascertained as
follows: wheat, 4 qrs. per acre; barley, 54; oats, 8; swedes,
25 tons; mangold, 35; carrots, 40.

The live stock consists of 12 horses, 80 horned beasts (16
Ayrshire and ‘Channel Islands cows for the dairy, short-horns
for grazing, and young cattle), 300 pure southdown ewes, 100
chilver tegs to keep up the breeding flock, 100 fatting sheep,
about 80 pigs; and in the park nearly 200 deer, each of which
is equal to 2 sheep.

Another farm in Hursley is interesting, as illustrating the
progress of improvement, and as an example for imitation. Land
has ‘been here (as it may be with thousands of similar acres in
the county) lately recovered from a state of nature. The newly
created farm at Ampfield is in a transition state, in part re-
claimed, in part wilderness, the one indicating what all will one
day be, the other what all the other day was, not “an acre” but
furlongs” of ‘barren ground, ling, heath, broom, furze, any-
thing.” The first operation was to drain the peaty, sedgy parts with
le ar Leia al ireideeapane Genel atin beret 0 inline

* Since this was written, the Hursley roots have, for a third time, won this
blue ribbon of the green crops. 7
¥

302 Farming of Hampshire.

6-inch pipes 4 feet deep in the mains, and 3-inch pipes 34 feet
deep in the laterals. Chopping and burning at 4/. an acre, and
chalking at 20 loads an acre followed. Rape, drilled with
12 bushels of bones to the acre, was the first crop, which was
fed off with sheep, who had, moreover, hay and cake brought to
them. Then come oats or rye, both of which are, according to
circumstances, either fed off with sheep, or brought into the rick-
yard. This is the introduction to a more settled order of things,
turnips and the ordinary four-course system. At first , the
150 acres will be all arable. After cultivation has been pursued
through a sufficient number of years thoroughly to eradicate the
gorse and destroy its chance of reappearing, about 30 acres will
be laid down to permanent pasture. A good house, with barn,
and all other proper farm buildings, is in course of erection, on
a charming site, which overlooks not only the whole future farm,
but some most pleasing scenery beyond it. Of course, the
expense of such a creation is considerable (I estimate it at 10/.
an acre over the whole farm, exclusive of the buildings) ; but
then the increased value, from next to nothing per acre to 20s.,
is also considerable.

Cottages are built on this property wherever required. They
always have three bedrooms each, though the labouring poor are
hardly as yet educated up to this additional accommodation,
which is often abused, and a lodger taken in, without leave,
against rules. A few cottages are handed over to the farmer for
the use of his yearly servants; but all the rest are under Sir
William Heathcote’s own control, although the convenience of
the farmer is often considered by the landlord.

One pleasing feature in the management of the estate is, the
encouragement of small men in the hope that they may become
big men. The allotments, of which there are seven different
districts about Hursley, in addition to gardens attached to the
cottages, are conducive to this end. The rent is that of the
farming land near, with the rates and taxes. The size of each
allotment varies from one-eighth to one-fourth of an acre; but,
in exceptional cases, where an allottee shows punctuality in his
payments, with ability in his cultivation, a few allotments are
thrown into one man’s hands, who is thus built up into a farmer.
One tenant, of more than 180/. a-year, who had risen from such
small beginnings, having been himself a carter on the estate,
died some years ago, leaving two sons tenants of farms here, and
one of them a very considerable renter.

Next we come to the subdivision of the cretaceous district in
the north-east, the Hampshire hop country. The extent to which
hops are cultivated in this county has been much underrated.
In the Society’s Journal it is stated to be 500 acres. I show,

Flops. 303

from the Parliamentary Return No. 208, 1860, that in the
previous year the hop datesge in Hampshire was 17534, and the
weight grown 2,306,649 Ibs.*

* Parliamentary Return on Acreage and Produce of Hops, No. 208, 1860 :—

Number Lbs. weight

Collections, ., Parishes. . of charged with
Acres. Duty.

Aldershotty' Wi ccaeuee aes 22 21,636

Binstéady jay oi. TS. mieesie oe 64 94,037

bentley-el ss) ko Gicc sree. moe 14 1,700

Bramshotte, noi eee) to eee 14 6,745

Burton: 6) 8) #4) ee 14 25,259

Grondallly ages el ee eae 1534 171,493

WMockenheld em a2 ca ee 13 16,438

IF ARtSEReh ie? tc. _0 Eastmeon : ee ae ic 252 26,231

Broxfieldt. 01001 2 Seles 104 11,262

Headley sab stabs. a4 17 14,714

Hawkleyuis! cso: Maye cor hae 353 38,715

ISSieweee) ate ee eet ees 6 5,686

Briots; Dean’ &: ear {aon ss 8 7,222

Steep wot ES eS ecole ce 831i 29,797

NASA? Gon eecon) Boe CcuN be 264 28,505

Total for Hants Collection 4544 499 ,440

Alton Wak Ohne oe eee Me ae UBeee 2604 362,892

Bentleys ssw de wc cteeat st 1494 224, 740

IBingtedds sey Wace a: tegen cle 2402 410,081

@oldncyig. ate <> ey bate 113 6,948

@xrondallye ree we se sen ee 92 6,903

Dogmersfield .. .. .. .. 24 227

Biastubisted: sfo.k st, sice| | <0 42 5,241

P Hastevyeorldnama: <0 wes, ws 50 85,606

NPL Cie Tea Sok Gh) Yoo 262 23,829

Harnin edOnee yas -| ost a = 17 24,551

INOW Odo \ odeheas cad” Gp 108? 134,473

: Greatham Ao! ing Wn 4 oe 173 34,658

Isle of Wight . - Hartley Mauditt .. .. .. 24 42,566

Headleyen. re-th--% psc 4 13,941

ELOhyDOUTNGiy- cian f= t> 29 31,798

Leip nti Sor" pc Pigeon, | Me 10 4,590

Manpsleytsce seni hseiiecens 57 78,651

LongiSuttony 2s y.-) 6-2 6s 441 60,187

INGA to § G6+- seo, .004 lee 6 6,936

INeathamtscs ccsue wcew unre. ness 424 44,371

Odihame 35> 7-05... ae 48 50,701

Selbourne se as ee 1122 134,385

South Warnborough Sop cic 2 628

West Worldham .. .. .. 21 18,306

Total for Isle of West

Collection ie, 1, 2983 1,807,209

TOTAL) Ig! “et ee eos 2,306,649

304 Farming of Hampshire.

Ten acres of hops are cultivated at Hursley, 20 miles distant
from the usual hop-country. This is an accident. The culti-
vator, Mr. Porter, is a Kentish man, and tried’ the experiment in
a new locality; he does not recommend others to follow his
example, the soil not being deep enough. He grows Golding’s,
and has, indeed, taken a prize, the quality being good; but
though he did grow 14 cwt. one year, the quantity is generally
deficient. They come out well in burr, and then fail. The
usual hop district is about Alton, Binstead, Bentley, Froyle,
Selborne, and Crondal, where the cultivation differs, in some
respects, from the account already published in the Society’s
Journal. Part of this district is in Alice Holt Forest, and has
been enclosed and broken up of late years. Land, before not
worth 2s. 6d. an acre as wood, has been producing good crops,
and paying better than the old hop-land. Indeed, the hop cul-
tivation has generally altered of late years. The practice used
to be, to pick out nice little bits of suitable ground here and
there, protect them with high hedges, and keep them continually
under hops. Now, where there is room for change, after growing
hops for ten or twelve years, the land returns to the usual arable
rotation, the corn-crops, for years afterwards, showing their appre-
ciation of the previous hop culture. The year’s operations com-
mence with stripping and stacking the poles in October; the
farmyard dung is then applied, 25 tons to an acre, also soot and
rags, at a cost of 7/.: if possible, this should be hauled in frosty
weather, or at least not in the wet, else the roots of the hops will
be torn. If the soil be stiff, 160 bushels of Time are applied per
acre, once in seven or cient years. ‘In February the dressing is
dug in with a three-pronged fork, the stones interfermg with
more prongs. <A difference of opinion exists about weeds; some
will not allow a weed to be seen at any time ; but, on the other
hand, I have been told by a very successful grower that he pre-
ferred digging-in pretty high weeds, considering that they
opened and improved the soil, and had this further advantage,
that they prevented the diggers from scamping their work, be-
cause, if the fork was not worked straight down and deep, the
weeds would tell tales. After the digging, each hill (the posi-
tion of the plant) is opened, and the sets or runners are cut off
down to the old “stool.” Each root has eight or ten bines, and
each bine has one set. Nurseries are made of the sets cut off;
the “stool” grows bigger and bigger with age, and, if you cut”
down to that, there will be plenty of buds left for new bines.
The cutting should be completed by the end of March. Poling
follows. Green bine hops require three poles 10 or 12 feet
long; white bine two or three, 14 or 18 feet long. The better
the soil, the higher the pole. For material, larch is preferred,

Flops. 305

but ash, or any wood, is used. It is ealeulated that 1000 new
poles per acre will be required annually, costing, if 14-feet poles,
Zl. ; but a process has lately been adopted by which it is hoped
that the durability of the poles may be much increased. The
ends are dipped, 2 feet up, in creosote, and boiled for 15 hours,
to drive the fluid up the pores of the wood. Tyeing succeeds :
three bines are tied to a pole as high as a woman can reach (a
ladder is not used, unless wind blows the top away, late in the
season); the remainder are “pulled out”—this is the proper
practice. Cutting off, technically called “clearing,” is more
usual, but is not so good. Rushes, the canvas of old guano bags,
or any such materials, are used for tyeing. The land is then
“ becked :” a beck is a hand implement, which combines a fork
with three grains or prongs, and a hoe at the back ; the fork is for
stirring the ground, the hoe for cutting out the weeds. Becking
is done twice, if there be time. Surface cultivation by hoeimg
lasts up to the time of picking. “ Nidging,” om horse-cultiva~
tion with hoes or tines, is not thought good hop-farming.
* Never let a horse look into the ground, except to cart the dung
in frost,” is the maxim. HHilling, or earthing-up the plant usually
begins when the bines are half-way up the poles. These are
“half-hills ;” “whole hilling” subsequently completes the opera-
tion. The hills are 54, 6, and 7 feet apart, according to the
soil, They hill higher here than in Kent, but with doubtful
advantage, because the plant is apt to be too much drawn up.
The cleaning of the ground is an unquestioned good. During
the summer, just before coming into burr, a top-dressing of
guano, 4 cwt. to the acre, is applied. Picking generally com-
mences in the first week of September. Leaves should be care-
fully discarded, but inferior and browned hops (the wind has this
effect) are not. Drying with brimstone brings back the colour,
and covers all faults. The effect of brimstone was discovered
about twenty years since,* and long concealed under the impres-
sion that its use was illegal. This proved to be a misappre-
hension, and now brewers prefer hops so dried, the quality
and the colour being alike improved. The hops are taken
from the ground to the “ oast-houses,” or kilns, heated with
culm and charcoal, where they remain 12 hours, care being
taken not to give too strong a heat at first. They are bagged by
machinery (not by treading, as formerly) as soon as cool. To

* Or rather re-discovered. The Royal Brewer of Eltham was enjoined (temp.
Hen. VII.) to put neither brimstone, nor hops into the ale. Our ancestors had
long been used to a sweet and glutinous liquor, and had no relish for the bitter
herb. Hops were grown in Kent as early as 1464, but did not come into popular
use for more than acentury. Indeed, the acceptability of our bitter beer is a modern
and acquired taste.

306 Farming of Hampshire.

show the change in fashion, they used, ten years since, to be
purposely broken in a rudder; now not a leaf is bruised. Of
these operations, digging costs 14s. an acre; becking, 6s. ;
laying out poles and putting up, 10s. ; tyeing and clearing, 10s. ;
flat-hoeing, 4s. ; picking, 2d.a bushel, when a good crop. Taking
the average of seven years, all expenses, including rent and duty,
amount to 30/. per annum per acre. The produce on the same
acreage is 12 cwt. The sorts here cultivated are Grape, Green
Bine, and Farnham White Bine. Rent is 6/. or 7/. an acre.

Though the cultivation of the hop lends the chief interest
to this portion of the county, yet it is remarkable also for
its other agricultural productions, being by nature the most
fruitful part of Hampshire. From the hill above Alton, on the
road to Odiham, you can see the whole of it, from Holybourne,
Froyle, and Binstead, to Nore and Selborne Hills, Newton Com-
mon, and Petersfield. At Holybourne wheat and beans are
taken alternately on the strong land; but this country is very
subject to charlock, which cannot be kept down under this
rotation, so that the four-field is the more usual. It is both a
breeding and a grazing district. ‘There are some rich and dry
meadows on the greensand about Kingsley, East and West
Worldham, and Hartley ; the grass, however, is hardly sufficient
to make out the beasts, which are generally stalled afterwards.
Mr. John Wood, of Theddon Grange, Alton, grazes many ; so
does Mr. Chalcraft, of Amery Farm. The produce of this
district is: wheat, 36 bushels; beans, 30; oats, 8 or 10 quarters ;
barley is not much grown. Farnham, Alton, and Basingstoke
are the chief markets. Wages are the same as elsewhere in the
neighbourhood.*

here is an Agricultural Association in this part of the
county, “ The North-East Hants.” It provides prizes for the
labourer and for stock, two-thirds of the subscriptions being
appropriated to the fae object. There is a Christmas fat show
and a July lamb show.

If, before passing on from “ the character of the farming”
dhe next topic, I may be allowed to say one word on the ae:
of the farmer himself, it would be to express my warm acknow-
ledgments to the occupiers of land in this county, for a kindness
which a stranger had no right to expect, for a hospitality which
never tired, and for a frank confidence which knew no suspicion
on the first mention of my purpose.

Let me also mention my deep sense of the great social, and

* As the wages of the labourer will not be again alluded to, I may here quote
from a Return to the House of Commons (8 Feb., 1861), entitled “‘’The Average

Woods. 307

agricultural benefits, accruing to this county, from the constant
residence of so many of its proprietors, and from the intelligent
interest they take in the cultivation of the soil. They seem to
realize the saying of the historian Gibbon, himself a Hampshire
proprietor and a captain in the county militia, “I thank God I
was born a gentleman, and, above all, an English gentleman!”

IV. Woops.

Any report on the productions of the soil in this county would
be incomplete, without some account of its woods and woodlands.
These are, in the northern and southern, as well as in the midland
districts, sources of income to the proprietor, scenes of industry
to the labourer, and pictures of beauty to every spectator.

Some most striking native Hampshire trees will not, however,
enter into this notice: not the beech, “the most lovely of all

Weekly Earnings of Agricultural Labourers in the Unions of England and
Wales” at each quarter-day.

The return, however, is for two quarters only, those ending Michaelmas and
Christmas last, and, as far as regards this county, is as follows :—

Weekly
County of Southampton. | Agricultural Labourers. pee eae See San
work,
MicHAELMAs.* Kore: Pe
Draxford Union .. | Men .. .. .. | 11 O | 25 O }] Ale during hay-
Women)... 8: 6 0 12 0 time and har-
Children under 16 | None vest.
Andover “CeompVicHe was. ace Lo G6 8 20. 8 | 4 eqtss of (beer
i while carting.
Wionten:f.08 J5..4 <2: 6 0 ie Gy || 2). qts:
Children under 16 8 6 Same as women.
CHRISTMAS.
Draxford Union . Men BA or acieal (ae) ban) 14 0%)| Aleallowed dur-
WWiomlenice vee uss a0 AC ing harvest and
Children under 16 4 0 haymaking.
Andover Boe | Mien rh wil tas tae ne, ll 6¢

6
Women 3s)... «. 4 6°
Children under 16 4 0

® As this quarter includes the harvest the average earnings are considerably above those of the
whole year.

5 Women and children not employed at task-work except at harvest. ;

© Extra allowances to carters for journeys, and shepherds for extra labour, not included. Little
work for women at this season.

I give this return as coming under considerable authority, but I must confess I
attach little value to it. The Andover Michaelmas wages seem to refer to hay
and corn harvests, when men are paid for overtime, as already mentioned, under
“ Labour in the Chalk District.”

308 Farming of Hampshire.

forest trees, whether we consider its smooth rind or bark, its
glossy foliage, or graceful pendulous boughs,”* which is emi-
nently the tree of the chalk formation, and of which the finest
examples may be seen at Hackwood; nor the old oak woods,
which occupy some of the strongest chalk clays,and of which
Micheldever wood. is a worthy representative; nor the lines of
elms and ashes in the water-meadow valleys; but attention will
be called rather to those coppices which are more peculiarly
characteristic of the rural economy of the county.

In the north-eastern part of Hampshire there isa saying, “The
underwood will buy the horse, the wood the saddle,” such is the
relative value of the two; whereas, in the south and west, the
conditions are reversed—the timber being there the horse, the
coppice the saddle. These interchanges of value do not result
from differences of soil, nor consist in intrinsic differences of value
in the produce: they are purely relative to the market. Coppice
in the north-east is greatly enhanced in price by proximity to the
hop district, and the special demand for poles there ; while in the
south, it furnishes materials for barrel-hoops, crates, and hurdles—
articles which are supplied from many other quarters, and for
which there is no concentrated demand localised anywhere.
Hence it comes, that the underwoods of the north-east will realise
six or seven times as much as those of the south. In a fall of
timber the tables are turned. Management follows the market :
in the north-east the wood is sacrificed to the underwood ; in the
south the tall timber is allowed to assert its natural supremacy
and reign over the subordinate coppice.

In the northern part of the county, the woods no doubt originally
covered the whole surface, the heavy soil of the vale, as well
as the higher and lighter land. Our ancestors extensively cleared
the London clay of the vale, leaving trees only in hedgerows,
and in belts for shelter. We are now, in the progress of agri-
cultural improvement, felling even these; but the more elevated
ground of the Bagshot formation still grows some trees and much
coppice.

That these poor siliceous soils should support such fine timber,
whether fir, oak, or beech, whether planted or indigenous,
may excite some surprise. This vigorous growth may be partly,
though not wholly explained, by the presence of spots of clay,
here and there affording a firm holding to the roots; or may be
rather ascribed to thin veins of vegetable mould, running between
the strata of gravel and sand, of which any sand or gravel pit will
afford a section to an deve there is an instructive one in

Heckfield Park.

* Gilbert White’s ‘Selborne,’ part i., letter 1.

Lord Eversley’s Woods. 309

No one has more attentively studied the management of under-
woods in this part of the county than Lord Eversley. A sketch,
therefore, of his procedure will give the most approved. practice.

The Heckfield underwoods (and to these attention will be
confined) consist of hazel, and chesnut (which has been intro-
duced within the last sixty or seventy years), on the higher and
drier grounds ; of ash, withy, and alder, on the lower and damper.
There is also some oak scrub, which seems to be the natural
growth of all the stronger woodland in Hampshire, springing up
spontaneously where it has the chance. This, being only fit for
bavins to burn, is of little value, and would have been of yet less,
but for the new buildings which have kept the brick kilns in |
active work. As fuel for household purposes, the railway has
so facilitated the carriage of coal, that the value of oak coppice
has fallen from 9/. an acre, for nine years’ growth, to 47. This
will not pay; and the oak scrub is being grubbed, and the land
planted to more profitable uses. In providing stock for the
vacant ground, Lord Eversley looked at some of his over-crowded
woods, and took counsel of the great English master of all prac-
tical wisdom. ‘In coppice woods,” says Lord Bacon, “if you
leave staddles [stools in West country dialect] too thick, they
run to bushes and briars, and have little clean underwood.” Some
of the Heckfield coppices were “too thick ;” but the old stools
(chiefly chesnuts), instead of being grubbed up and thrown
away, were transplanted bodily into new places. Thus the thin-
nings of the old wood, furnished the materials for the new. This
bold experiment, of which every practical person roundly foretold
the failure, has completely succeeded. The single stem of a young
plant, newly taken from a nursery bed, is a tender morsel to
the rabbits ; but the veterans of the old coppice soon set the.teeth
of all “small deer” at defiance, with their many shoots, and their
quick growth.

This transplanting must, however, be done with judgment.
To dig a hole and put the root in, is not sufficient: the fern rises
and smothers the shrub. The whole ground must be deeply
trenched, all the fern and rubbish dug in, and then the new planta-
tion will have a fair chance of rising above the trumpery, and
keeping it under.

The underwood is cut, according to its growth and character,
every seven, eight, or nine years. The hazel, chesnut, and ash,
go for hop poles, and are worth, the best of them, 36/., or
even 40/. an acre, at nine years’ growth. The alder and withy
will do for mop handles. The best alder is serviceable for less
peaceful purposes. The wood, when barked, will sell for 30s.
a stack of 12 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet high, to make

310 Farming of Hampshire.

gunpowder; but good-sized sticks are required for this, such as
may more usually be found in hedgerows, or by the water side,
than in plantations. ‘The Crimean war gave a great impulse to
the traffic in alders. Many were searched out and cut down then,
which would not have been thought of, but for the increased
demand for gunpowder. A working woodman of this’ country is
said to have cleared 300/. in one year by embarking in this trade.
He gave 30s. a stack for the wood delivered at the nearest railway
station, and made his profit by retailing it to those who undertook
Government contracts.

Another particular in Lord Eversley’s management deserves
mention. He had a swampy, bad water meadow. Instead of
attempting to improve it, he planted it with osiers, which did so
well, that they were cut the year after setting, and were sold by
auction at 60/. for 53 acres. Here is an anticipation of the period
of expectation allotted by Lord Bacon. “In planting of woods
you must make account to leese [lose] almost twenty years’ profit,
and expect your recompense in the end.” And yet there has
been at Heckfield no “base and hasty drawing of profit in the
first years,” for the cut of osiers will not be less in each succeed-
ing year, if the plants be well attended to. Lord Eversley has
reaped the early harvest, and not despised the caution, ‘speedy
profit is not to be neglected, as far as it may stand with the good
of the plantation, but no further.”* But the 12/. an acre are not
all profit. Osier beds are not remunerative, except they be kept
clean: in early spring, in a dry time, the hoe must enter them,
and not cease working, till the young branches cover the ground,
and smother the weeds.

As we proceed from the north-east, across the chalk, to the
south-west, we have evidence of the remark that the value of
underwood decreases, just in proportion to distance from the hop
country, and the demand for poles there. At Heckfield and
Dogmersfield, it is at its highest ; at the Vyne, lower ; at Tangier
and Laverstoke, lower still, but as yet more valuable than the
timber trees; at Hursley, it has some value, but now less than
the timber; while at Minstead, there is a question whether the
underwood is worth preserving, and whether cattle should not be
turned in to graze among the trees.

The more valuable underwood on the chalk is ash and hazel.
A new plantation of this will come, in ten years, to a sufficient
growth, and may be cut, every successive ten years, for the first
fifty years, After that period it becomes ‘‘ old wood,” and its
intervals of rest must be twelve or fourteen years. The price

* Bacon’s Essay ‘ Of Plantations’ (colonies).

Woods. dll

varies from 6/. to 142. per acre. ‘The uses are barrel hoops, and
close hurdles or wattles— hoop wood being the dearest. The
hurdles are so good, that wood proprietors in the north will send
to the chalk woods for them, rather than make them out of their
own materials at home.

The former proprietors in this part of the Hants chalk district
seem to have taken advantage of the only decent soil on the tops
of the hills to plant wood, chiefly oak. On the timber being
cut a spontaneous oak coppice springs up, good for nothing but
the fire, and choking the more valuable hazel and ash. The
result is the same here as at Heckfield and Dogmersfield ; the cut
of the underwoods has been reduced in price from 16/. to 4d. an
acre. But the remedy is different in the north-east, and here.
There, as we have already seen, it is thought worth while to grub
the oak scrub, and stock the ground with more valuable wood.
This is also thought the more profitable course, midway, at the
Vyne, by Mr. Chute, who has planted 100 acres of new woods,
and improved his old woods with withy, alder, ash, and, in the
drier spots, with Spanish chesnut, believing that no outlay will
ultimately be more profitable. Here, however, the hop pole
market is yet further distant, and the remedy is extirpation, and
conversion of the land to agricultural uses. Mr. Melville Portal,
who has at Laverstoke 1000 acres of wood, and the Rev. Bigg
Wither at Tangier, seem to have taken the initiative in this
change, and their example is being followed in the neighbour-
hood. Other circumstances have helped on the movement.
When the cost of grubbing was 16/. an acre, and the rent of the
cleared land 10s. per annum, the proprietors hesitated to incur
such an outlay for such a return; now that the workmen
have become more expert with their tools, fair wages can be
earned at 8/. per acre for grubbing, while the rent has gone up to
20s. ; the outlay is reduced one-half, the return doubled. Nor
does the outlay reach 8/.; the old stools are worth something,
though not as much as the cost of getting them out. Different
bargains are made for clearing; one farmer got a wood grubbed
by giving the labourers the stools, the use of horses and carts for
haulage, and a crop of potatoes off the ground. In some cases,
the landlord does the work at his own cost, making what he can
of the old wood, and hands over the cleared land to the farmer
at 20s. per acre. In others, the farmer clears and pays ten years’
rent for twelve years’ occupation (the usual run of leases about
here): in other words, has the land for two years rent free. But
could not the farmer afford to do the clearing, and give the full
rent, if the landlord did the chalking? The first three crops
would be very remunerative ; rape, wheat, and oats, after which
the management would be the same as that of the old farm.

é

312 Farming of Hampshire.

The newly grubbed land not wanting help for the first three
years, the rape would be fed, in the daytime, by sheep, who
would be folded at night elsewhere; or the rape might be cut,
and carried away for folding. So that the farmer would get as
many acres manured as he grubbed, and two straw crops without
any manure.

The very name of Hursley (hurst-lea, the “wood-field,”) is
indicative not only of its original Anglo-Saxon condition, but,
which is the more remarkable, considering the many intervening
changes, of its present mixed woodland and agricultural character.

Sir William Heathcote’s woods are of large extent, and may
be divided into those growing on the Bagshot eminences, those
on the lower ground of the London clay, and those on the chalk
hill sides. On all, the timber, and not the underwood, is the
chief object.

If oak be planted on the gravel hills (and it will not grow
there spontaneously), nurses are required. Larch are preferred
for this purpose to Scotch firs, as coming quicker to maturity,
and intrinsically more valuable. They must be thinned out
from time to time, and in fifteen or twenty years’ time the thin-
nings are valuable. The larch will do well up to forty or ‘fifty
years of age, and are then very profitable. Indeed, the light sand
and gravel hills throughout the county cannot be turned to better
account, if the proprietor can afford to wait. Mr. Melville Portal
has planted upwards of 100 acres, which are doing admirably.
On the London clay, oak is the natural production of the soil ;
and, whatever trees be cut down there, oak springs up. Beech
is chiefly planted, with fir or larch for nurses, on the “ linchets ”
(the natural escarpments) of the chalk hills, partly for ornament,
partly for shelter.

Underwood in this thickly wooded part of Hampshire is so
plentiful, that it is managed chiefly with a view to the welfare of
the timber, being cut at intervals of five, seven, or ten years, as
the trees want room and air. When these are brought to their
maturity, and there is a general fall of the timber, the first next
succeeding cutting of underwood will be weak, but should not
be delayed on that account beyond ‘five, or, at the most, seven
years. At any time, as soon as the grass begins to decay beneath
the stems, and the under shoots show signs of weakness, the bill-
hook should enter. The rapid aftergrowth will assure the most
timid woodman, that it is safer to cut early, for the sake of the
underwood itself, to say nothing of the risk, consequent on delay,
to the young trees, and the future stock of timber.

For police purposes, the Hursley home estate (so to speak)
is divided into seven districts or beats, in each of which resides
a woodman, a responsible and trusty man, whose duty it is, to be

Education. 313

always on the look out, especially on the skirts of his beat, to see
that the woods are not injured by trespassers, ivy, or rabbits (it
is hard to say which do most harm), to help the keeper in his
work, and to be generally accountable for the safety and well-
doing of the portion of the estate entrusted to his care.

V. Epucation or THE AGRICULTURAL POPULATION.

One of the avowed objects of the Society is “to take measures
for the improvement of the education of those who depend on
the cultivation of the soil for their support.” I am, therefore,
directly following one indicated line of the Society’s operations,
in discussing the state of education among the labouring agri-
cultural population of this county.

The importance of this topic at this time is very great, even
if regarded from a farming point of view alone. ‘That the pre-
sent, and yet more the future, success of agriculture largely
depends on labour-saving machinery in the field and in the barn ;
that this machinery requires knowledge and intelligence for
quietly working it, instead of carelessly injuring it, or riotously
destroying it, are propositions which need no proof.

That there exists a certain amount of apathy and prejudice
in the minds of the farmers with respect to the education of their
labourers’ children, cannot be denied. As a body, they have
hardly yet realised their duties, or understood their true interests,
as persons largely interested in the intellectual and moral im-
provement of their labourers. They value, indeed, these things,
but think it is not their business, but the parson’s, to care for the
poor in these respects, not considering that the master’s influence
is paramount with the servant. They dislike, too, the extension
of education beyond (in their opinion) its proper limits. They
doubt whether the higher instruction given in the more advanced
—or, as a school inspector would call them, the more promising
—national schools, tends to make the rising generation more
faithful servants to themselves, or more loyal subjects of the
Crown. Besides, they find themselves sometimes at odds with
the schoolmaster, who wants to keep the children at their learn-
ing, while the farmer requires their labour. On hiring a man, a
stipulation is not unfrequently made for the services of the boys
of ten years old, to assist the carter and shepherd, and their
exertions are stimulated by an increase of 6d. a week, according
to what they can do. “I saw that little chap,” said a farmer to
me, “ take my team down the hill, as proud as a lion, on my
raising him.” These are permanent engagements. At certain
seasons, for bird-keeping, couch or stone picking, girls as well
as boys are wanted,

Nor can we wonder that parents should prefer the field to the

314 Farming of Hampshire.

day school, when two or three children can, without any payment
for apprenticeship, at once double the weekly income of the
house ; when these immediate pecuniary advantages are to be
had without any reading, writing, or arithmetic; and when, as
far as falls within the observation of a villager, there are but
few instances of social advancement consequent on education.

The necessities of the employer and employed alike require,
that the years spent by the children of the agricultural labourer
at the day school should be few, and attendance during those few
years intermittent.

But it would be a mistake to suppose the farmer to be opposed
to education generally, or when confined to instruction in reli-
gious knowledge, and in elementary reading, writing, and arith-
metic. He would indignantly repudiate the notion that the
uneducated labourer is preferable to the educated. He values
intelligence, good order, and a willingness to listen to reason.
He finds a great improvemeut in these respects: his machinery
is now peaceably worked, there are no Jack Straw riots. He
believes schooling to have something to do with this change for
the better. He foresees that scientific methods will be more
and more pursued in agriculture, and that the mental faculties of
the labourer will be more and more called into exercise.

I have found among farmers a strong feeling for Sunday
schools and winter night schools, the hours for these not inter-
fering with agricultural labour. The Sunday school—an old
institution—may be supposed to have lived down any original
adverse feeling ; but the favour shown to night schools, so recently
after their establishment, is a striking evidence of the belief,
entertained bya very practical set of men, that they are the right
thing for an agricultural district. ‘These schools are also most
popular among the poor. The eagerness shown to attend them,
and the diligence awakened during attendance, are a refutation
of the assertion that the poor do not value education. This
complaint of indifference comes from those who expect the poor
to keep their children at a day school at a loss of one-third or
one-half of their income. Who among their superiors would
submit to such a sacrifice? These have an income in relation
to which their children’s earnings would be inconsiderable, and
the prospects of their children’s advancement in life are con-
tingent upon a high education. Neither condition attaches to
the lot of the peasant.

Night schools, indeed, seem to have arisen naturally out of the
necessities of the case, as the best means of supplementing the
inevitable deficiency consequent either on the early age at which
the day school is left for labour, or on an irregular attendance, or
on no attendance there. They may be taken to be one mode, of

——

Education. 315

proved efficacy, for solving that difficult problem in the ele-
mentary education of the labouring poor, viz. how to combine
instruction with the demand for juvenile labour. No other
plan—such as half-day or alternate day school
devised which is not open to grave objections, A half-day system
will not answer, because the boy has a whole day’s work set him,
and that very possibly at a distance from home; alternate days
will not answer, because every workman’s usefulness depends on
his acquaintance with his work, and if he be away half his time
he is just twice as long learning his business; neither will
master, bailiff, or head man be bothered with teaching two sets
of boys ; they say one is trouble enough. Besides, where are the
relays to come from? At pressing times every boy and girl is
wanted ; and even for constant places, in parishes of ordinary
density of population, the supply of boys is not beyond the
demand. There is no juvenile reserve. The application of
these schemes to an agricultural district is an impracticable
theory. They proceed on a mistaken analogy between manufac-
turing and agricultural operations. In the one, there is concen-
tration of uniform work, under cover, in one spot, independent
of season and weather; in the other, the work is spread over
some square miles, is exposed to wet above and mud below,
varies with every season, and is dependent on every atmospheric
change. From circumstances so different, the same practical
conclusion cannot be deduced.

The great majority of schools in the agricultural districts are
what are called mized schools, where boys and girls are taught
together. There are certain advantages in this social mixture of
the sexes in youth, as in all other ages; but, in a sparsely popu-
lated district, it is a necessity. ‘There are neither the numbers
to supply, nor the funds to support, separate schools for boys and
girls.

I have failed, after some endeavour, in obtaining any reliable
county statistics as to the number of children at school belonging
to that class which “ depends on the cultivation of the soil for its
support.” The figures published by the recent ‘‘ Royal Commis-
sion of Inquiry into the State of Education” give no help.
They refer to public schools only (omitting private adventure
schools); they include the Channel Islands in Hampshire ; and
there are no satisfactory means of separating rustic from urban
children. The figures for night schools in the Report of the
Commissioners are manifestly incorrect. Only 47 night schools,
with 1659 scholars, are returned for all religious denominations
in Hants, the Isle of Wight, and the Channel Islands ; whereas
it appears from returns, procured by Archdeacon Jacob, from
only 240 parishes, out of 408 in Hants, and the Isle of Wight, at

VOL. XXII. Z

316 Farming of Hampshire.

a time of year before the regular season had commenced for
opening night schools, that no less than 2131 scholars were
attending Church of England night schools alone. The Hon.
and Rev. Samuel Best’s testimony goes even farther. He writes
that “there are very few parishes in the county without them
[Church of England night schools], that is, where education
is at all attended to,” This extension of a system, peculiarly
adapted to the wants and opportunities of an agricultural popu-
lation, is mainly owing to Mr. Best himself, as the secretary
of the “*Southern Counties Adult Education Society,” which,
originating in Hants, has spread into the adjoining counties of
Wilts and Dorset.

VI. IMPROVEMENTS STILL REQUIRED.

This is an invitation to criticism. Great respect is, however,
due to existing practice. Provincial customs, based on the obser~
vation and experience of generations, were undoubtedly sound at
the time of their formation. They are apt, however, sometimes
to endure, by mere force of habit, when no longer suited to
altered circumstances. Still, he who would farm for profit,
rather than for amusement or experiment, must be careful to make
them the basis of improvements, or he will buy his experience
very dear. Modern farming, not in this county particularly, is
fancy work, very interesting, but very expensive, and by its
failures liable to engender mistrust in the minds of practical
men—prejudiced, perhaps, but not therefore unreasonable. Let
us keep to the old highway, only perhaps in some parts of this
county we may-improve our pace on it.

In describing “characteristic farms,” much has already been
said on this topic. All, therefore, that is here added, is in the
form of inquiries concerning, and suggestions in development
of, existing customs.

The northern clays, whilst they are the chief scene of “im-
provements still required,” offer also the most promising field
of operation. If the north be now full of want, its future is
full of hope. History shows that this was once the most valuable
land in the county, and so, with adequate means of cultiva-
tion, it will be again, for it naturally abounds in all the con-
stituents of fertility. Here are found most of the residences of
the ancient families. We prefer to build our houses where we
find a clear climate, a dry soil, good roads, and an agreeable
prospect ; our ancestors, on the other hand, lived not only on,
but by the soil, and kept house on the produce of their own
homesteads (the word is significant). Now, where in further-
ance of this object did they settle? Is there, in all Hampshire,
any seat of agricultural industry more ancient, any more striking

Suggested Improvements. 317

old country-house, any (in former times) more highly cultivated,
and more valuable land, than the Vyne? And if the Vyne be the
first, Beaurepaire and Old Basing are not far behind. All three
are on the London and plastic clay; and the two first in the
thickest of the thick, the heaviest of the heavy—the “bowl of
Hampshire.”

The Romans farmed,at the Vyne. Lord Sandys’ “ very great
and sumptuous manor-place, with a fair base court, at thys
time one of the principale houses in goodly building of all
Hamptonshire,” is commemorated by Leland in 1540. Its high
state of cultivation, and value, are sufficiently commemorated in
the land-tax, once the chief source of English revenue. After
many variations in assessment, a rate was made under 4 William
and Mary (1692), c. 1., by commissioners named in the Bill (the
chief gentlemen in each county), at “ four shillings in the pound,
on what the, lands are now worth, to be leased at a rack-rent,
without respect to repairs, taxes, parish duties, or other charges,”
This valuation has remained ever since, and affords a convenient
means of comparing rentals then and now. ‘There are three
farms on the Vyne estate, measuring respectively 158, 183, 248
acres, the land-tax being 22/. 14s. 8d., 20/. 13s. 6d., 251. The
rental, therefore, in 1692 may be assumed to have been 113/.
13s. 4d., 1037. 7s. 6d, 1257. ; that is, 3427. Os. 10d. for 589 acres,
or 11s. 7d. per acre. The rent in 1844 (it has since been raised,
but merely to pay a moderate percentage on improvements) was
807., 902, 2007. (a tithe-free farm on a drier soil); that is, 3702.,
or 12s, 7d. (nearly) per acre. In other words, while the lighter,
more easily worked lands throughout Hampshire, according to
the same method of computation, have, during a century and
a half of national prosperity, increased in value 100, 200, and
even 300 per'cent., the heavy clays of the north have advanced
less than 9 per cent.—nihil amplius.

1. And this brings me to my first inquiry, Has steam cultivation
received sufficient attention from the agriculturists of this county,
particularly in the north?

It may be conceded, that all means of applying steam to the
cultivation of the soil previous to 1856 were tentative and costly
experiments, such as the tenant farmer could hardly be expected
to do more than admire ; but since that date, it may be said to have
passed from the region of experiment to that of practical applica-
tion, in the ordinary way of farming business. Accordingly, we
find that to the north-west, the north, and on the east of Hants,
steam cultivation is in full progress. Mr. T. H. Redman, of Over-
town, near Swindon, in Wiltshire, has given me the names and
addresses of sixteen persons, who in his neighbourhood are using
Fowler’s steam-ploughing apparatus on the chalk, gault, and

Zi -2

318 Farming of Hampshire.

Kimmeridge clays, and even on the lighter soil of the great oolite.
From inquiries I have made in South Berks and (he western
portions of Surrey and Sussex, I am led to believe that as many
as fourteen more are at work there, or thirty in all, on the
borders of Hants; and yet I cannot find that one, up to this
time, has been bought and used on the mainland of Hants! *
This is not said by way of reproach. ; The farmers of Hants
will not be slow to adopt this, or any other improvement,
when once assured of its practical utility. How, then, is this
backwardness to be accounted for? It cannot arise from dif-
ference of soil, for three-fourths of the lands here, consisting
of clays and clay-loams, are as well adapted as any around to
steam cultivation ; and there is no land to which steam would
bring greater gains than to that in the northern division of Hants,
none which shack more in need of this aid. There, the farmer
has a heavy soil and much couch. Hence his scanty crops, his
open fallow, worked with four horses to a plough. Could he
follow a Boa system of autumn cultivation, could he but eradi-
cate the comet and cultivate deeply in a dry time before winter,
a bright future of dry, healthy seed-beds, and consequently of
improved rotations and increased crops, ayeil lie open before
him. But no draught-power he now possesses, no amount of
horse-flesh that he can keep, will enable him to do the necessary
work. ‘The opportunities are so few, that he has not the time ;
and, if he had, the pounding of the Aoneae feet would only further
Pantoladate fie subsoil, and plant yet deeper the noxious weeds,
surely to reappear eee day. Hence he is compelled to put
up with a shallow furrow, with a filthy surface, and with half a
crop; while at the same time he supports a team nearly double
that which is required elsewhere. Now, what could he do by
steam ? Immediately his harvest is over, he could seize any
favourable opportunity, and do as much in one day as with four
horses in seven, do it thirty per cent. cheaper, and in every way
better. The land would be untrodden, the tillage would be
deeper and more regular, the preparation for the seed-bed incom-
parably superior. He would have control over the work, both in
respect of time, of quantity, and of quality. He would be supe-
rior to circumstances, instead of being, as now he too often is,
their victim.

The cost of the apparatus would not be alarming, it would be
repaid in a season or two (according to the size of his farm) by

* Since this was written, three sets are at work in Hampshire. Mr. Lancashire
of aiehelderee claims the ‘distinction of being the first agriculturist in the county
who has purchased a steam cultivator for work on ‘his own 1farm. He uses Howard’s
tackle ; Mr. Cooper, also of Micheldever, has Tasker’s ; Mr. Curtis of Hambleton,
Fowler's.

Steam Cultivation. 319

the sale of one-third, or nearly one-half of his stock of horses,* now
become unnecessary, by the saving of their keep, and the increase
of his crops. But before the tenant can do all this, the landlord has
on his part much to do. Mr. Chute’s example must be followed.
Unhappily steam is not generally applicable to this northern
district in its present state. A great deal of preparation is first
required. Those favourite double hedgerows must be grubbed,
the trees must come down, the ditches must be filled up, the
fields must be thrown together, the boundaries straightened, and
the whole must be drained (it is useless cutting up wet mould,
either by steam or any other process), before steam can show its
power. To take and lay out a whole lot of steam tackle in an
irregular field of half-a-dozen acres, requiring short turns, is an
absurdity. The giant would no sooner get to work than he would
have to slacken speed, or he would run into the anchor. Again,
farms must be consolidated, and holdings made larger. It might
almost be said that no quantity of arable land under 250 acres
can authorize the outlay required for implements, and what may
be generally called dead stock under the modern system of
improved farming; but certainly no occupation under that size
will pay interest on the cost of 600/. or 800/. for steam-engine
and tackle. This, then, is the sufficient excuse of the woodland
farmer. His landlord must do a great deal before he can do any-
thing. He must cease to be a woodland farmer, before he can
be a steam-cultivator.

The neglect of steam in the chalk district, where there is
scope and verge enough, is otherwise to be accounted for. Some
of the ploughing can be done with two horses (and as yet this is
cheaper than steam), but a dry time for working the clays is as
indispensable here as elsewhere. To cut these when wet is worse
than labour lost. The slices do not split, but contract and harden,
and lie about all the summer afterwards in baked lumps as big as
the horses’ heads. The rain does not soften them, the sun does
not warm them, the air does not sweeten them, the frost does not
pulverise them: they are closed to all good atmospheric influ-
ences. This is true of all clays, but specially of chalk clays.

Probably the chalk farmer would say that his flock pays his
rent, and that his present means of cultivation enable him to
raise much sheep-food. Besides, there is some uncertainty in
the minds of all agriculturists, not as to the benefit of steam, but
as to the best of the many conflicting methods of applying it,
and whether what is best now, may not be shortly superseded ;
an obsolete set of steam tackle is not like an obsolete plough or

* The following are actual reductions of horses, consequent on the use of
steam: 4, 3, 2, 3, % 33 the average is 33, or nearly 3.

320 Farming of Hampshire.

erubber. It is all the difference between 800/. and 8/. To utilise
the speculations of science there is no workman like steady old
Time, and some may not unreasonably think that, in so important
a matter, he has hardly yet had sufficient latitude given him.
The present requirements of the tenant-farmer would best be
met by hiring steam cultivators, as now steam threshers. The
implement-makers should look to it in this county.. The farmers
are waiting. ‘“* Let ’em come along my way,” said one to me,
“and [ll give ’em 20s. an acre to plough my land ten inches.”
‘* A pound an acre?” ‘* Yes, and thank ’em besides.”

2. The object of prescribed rotations, and of compulsory con-
sumption of the whole of the produce, except the grain, on the
farm, is by a system of alternate grain and green crops, and by
the maintenance of more live stock, to enable, and even compel,
the farmer to maintain the fertility of the soil. Thus the four-
field system allows one-half of the land to be sown with corn,
one-fourth with grass, and one-fourth with roots—all the produce
except the corn to be consumed on the premises; that is, one-
half of the land is applied to profitable, the other half to
fertilising crops. Now, where the land has been improved in
quality, and is not capable of much further improvement (for it
is a vulgar error to suppose the resources of the soil to be illi-
mitable), is not the time come for giving a greater latitude to a
tenant of approved skill and success? Might not rotations be
considered less matters of inflexible legal determination, and
more of climate, soil, and even of seasons? Might not the land-
lord be protected against the deterioration of his land, and even
be assured of its yet further development, if possible, by requir-
ing the tenant to keep a certain head of stock, but allowing him
to feed them how he likes? We see this practically the method
pursued by owners farming their own property (as, for instance,
wheat every third year on the chalk soils, and wheat and potatoes
alternately on the Bracklesham beds), and we may assume it
is found profitable to them, and not injurious to the soil. Of
course it may be objected, that a lease is not only to an unques-
tionable tenant, but also to his executors; and that stock may be
here to-day and gone to-morrow. But in Hants twelve years is
the usual duration of a lease, which is not so very long a period ;
and the landlord might reserve to himself a veto on any suc-
cessor, or regulate the cropping for the last two years. The
suggestion as to a head of stock is merely an extension of an
existing stipulation in Hants leases, which almost invariably
require a certain number of sheep to be kept, adding the some-
what unnecessary proviso of cropping for their keeping.

3. Among “recent changes and improvements lately intro-
duced,” and in some places “still required,” the cultivation of

Suggested Improvements. 321

watercresses must not be forgotten. The watercress-gatherer of
Goldsmith’s ‘ Deserted Village’ was a decrepit old woman :—
* Yon widowed, solitary thing,
That feebly bends beside the plashy spring,
She, wretched matron, forced in age, tor bread,
To strip the brook with mantling cresses spread.”

Cresses used to belong to nobody ; stealing them was no rob-
bery. Now they are valuable property, and regularly cultivated
for the London market, where they are sold in penny and half-
penny bunches. Land, previously little esteemed, fetches 10/.,
and even more, an acre. I have heard of a swampy five-acre
piece of ground, full of springs, never valued with the farm,
which now lets for 45/. a year, and will be worth 507. An offer
of 300/. a year has been made for a bad water-meadow of 20
acres. There are cress-grounds at Andwell, Itchingwell, Laver-
stoke, Old Basing, and elsewhere. They require some prepara-
tion. The surface is first levelled; channels are then made, in
which the water (chalk-water is preferred) is kept slowly running
two or three inches deep. The soil from the channels is thrown
up into beds: in the channels the cresses grow, on the beds
osiers. Thus every part is turned to account.

4, There is an improvement which has been “lately intro-
duced ” in most parts of the county, but which is “ still required ”
in others—the application of farmyard-dung to the wheat-crop. A
few years since, the farmyard-dung was exclusively applied to
the turnips, thus making them the foundation of the rotation.
But turnips require manure in an immediately available shape,
z.@., rotten dung, which, however, implies frequent turning in
mixens, and consequent loss of ammonia, whereas wheat, which
is much longer in the ground, does not require an immediate
stimulus (which would force vegetation, and make it winter-
proud), so that if green, unturned, unfermented dung be applied
to it, labour and expense are saved, ammonia is retained, and
the virtues of the manure come into action just when the plant
wants them, as it is approaching maturity. As to the turnips,
soluble superphosphate will give the rapid start, and bones
maintain the growth, which these ravenous feeders once derived,
at much waste and cost, from black rotten dung.

5. There are not two opinions on the paramount importance
of chalking in this county. “It will make clay ground work
like a bed of ashes,” said one man tome. ‘ Blindfold a plough-
man, and he will tell you when the plough in his hands enters
the chalked ground,” said another. “Ina field which | chalked,
there were some rails (to protect a quickset hedge) which pre-
vented me from chalking that part; after five years, my hedge
was grown, the rails removed, and the whole field, similarly

322 Farming of Hampshire.

treated, put to turnips: the crop where the rails originally
stood was not one-fifth of that in the rest of the field,” said
another informant. Now, as to the description and quantity of
chalk which should be applied, and as to the frequency of
application : the best for manuring purposes is the free, white,
friable, soft-natured chalk, easily pulverising, such as is pro-
curable at Arreton am the Island, at Porisdown in the south,
and at Odiham in the north of the mainland.* ‘The Odiham pit
is well worth a visit; it is the property of Sir H. St. John Mild-
may of Dogmersfield, and is the largest pit in the county, and
possibly in the kinedoni, The area at the bottom is 6 acres, and
on the top the circumference is 1 mile. It is a feat of strength
for a man standing at the bottom to throw a cricket-ball out of
it. The price used to be 1s., but is now 1s. 6d. per four-horse
waggon-load. The chalk is carted to a distance of 15 miles—to
Heckfield, Swallowfield, Yately, Blackwater, Eversleigh, Finch-
hampsted, near Wokingham, and all round the London-clay
country. The quantity taken from it varies according to the
occurrence of frosts; when the roads are hard, 20 or 80 waggons
a day are loaded ; the annual average may be put at 2000 loads,
carts and “NSEORE together. Last year, however, less than 1600
loads left the pit, and altogether the use is not now so great as it
was ten or fifteen years since, either because the land within reach
of the pit is already chalked, or from the increased charge. The
proper quantity for application, and the necessity of renewal,
depend on the nature of the soil; where chalk is wanted as a cor-
rective of acidity in the soil, as after an oak or ash coppice has
been grubbed, one good dose of 20 or 25 tons an acre may effect
a complete cure, and no renewal be required. On heavy clay
lands the use is mechanical as well as mineral, and here as much
as 30 tons may be applied at a time. From personal inquiries
made throughout the county, I arrived at this rule—that 1 ton per
acre per annum is the usual allowance; that is, if 20 tons are
applied, the renewal must be in twenty years, and so on; but
this rate does not apply to peaty soils, as near Romsey, and
about Pagham in the island, Chalk is wanted near the surface,

* An analysis of the Odiham chalk te Messrs. Way and Paine has appeared in
the Society’s Journal, vol. xii. p. 554. The two following analyses of, 1. Ports-
down, 2. Carisbrook, “chalks, both dry, are by Dr. Voelcker, and have been kindly
given by Mr. Hughes of Thornes :

Oxides of iron and albumina.. .. .. .. *24 p:3
Carbonate ‘ofilime V0) (020) 28) Oe) eee 97°83
Suiphateiof Mime Wim bse) isc ei bee °35 °46
Phosphorie acid : Rs y Ac "10 *10
eeu matter (chiefly silica) oy Peer 1°25 1°38

Suggested Improvements. 323

within reach of the plough and of cultivation; but in such
soils it will sink by its own specific gravity, and should there-
fore be applied at twice, with an interval of perhaps five years
between. At the second application the land will be firmer, and
not let the chalk in so much.

Trial has been made of the relative cost and effect of chalk
and lime. The ordinary calculation throughout the county is,
that chalk delivered in the field costs 5s. a cart-load, or 5/. an
acre, if 20 loads are applied. The calculation, made in a par-
ticular, but not exceptional instance, for lime was, that in the
field it cost 3s. per quarter, or 3/. an acre, if 20 quarters were
applied. But, though this gives a balance of 2/. an acre in favour
of lime, yet such was the superior efficacy of chalk, that the
experiment resulted in the preference of chalk, notwithstanding
its greater cost.

6. Implements.—AII over the county, whether on the mainland,
or on the Island, is to be seen the old-fashioned plough, with
high moveable carriage or gear. Prejudice is strong inits favour,
rather among the men than among the masters. Indeed, I know
an instance of a farmer, fully aware of the inferiority of the native
implement, yet compelled to adapt a Howard to a high moveable
carriage, before he could get his ploughman to use it. Men who
have handled the plough—indeed with it in their hands at the
time—have given me these two reasons for the preference of
moveable over fixed gear: 1, if the plough meet with stones—
and there are many everywhere in the county—it will ‘‘ give
somewhat,” and not be jerked or thrown out of the ground ;
2, the turning at the head-land is more easy; in fact, the
ploughman has only to lift the plough out of the furrow, and the
horses will take it round without any trouble on his part.

To meet these unquestionable advantages of the detached gear,
the two leading implement-makers in the county, Messrs. Tasker
of Andover, and Messrs. Wallis and Haslam of Basingstoke,
have both patented ploughs. The improvements of the former
are designed, by a peculiar construction of the head and beam,
which would not be understood by a verbal description without
a drawing, to effect these advantages: 1, greater facility in turning,
and simplicity of parts; 2, freedom from liability to get out of
order ; 3, adaptation to diversities of soil and locality, the plough-
man being enabled to use the implement as a fixed headed
plough on level land, and in hilly and stony ground as a move-
able headed one.

But is the machinery sufficiently simple for an implement
which will be out in all weathers, and subject to rough treat-
ment, and which ought therefore to be as free from all complica-
tion as possible? The action of the contrivance is very nice—

perhaps too nice to stand rust and dirt. The screwed stumps for

324 Farming of Hampshire.

regulating the depth of the work, enabling the ploughman to
alter his plough without stopping his horses, is just what was
wanted in a ‘‘sideling country” like this. The other improve-
ment of the native implement is patented by Messrs. Wallis and
Haslam. The beam is loose in a socket at the head of the gear,
and so sufficient play is admitted to prevent the plough being
thrown out of its work when used in stony ground. The socket
also turns every way ona pin, which is in the same straight line
with the screw for elevation or depression above. The simplicity
of construction is here unquestionable. There is nothing to get
out of order.

7. The buildings throughout Hants are not substantial, being
constructed of bad temporary materials, wood and thatch. It is
easy to say they ought to be better, but where are better materials
to come from? The newest, and best, retain the wooden walls,
though the roof now has slate instead of straw. The use of timber
for the sides admits of defence. Stone or brick never keeps
the barley dry, the outside grain always threshing badly. Courses
of brick. as high as the rainwater from the roof splashes, and
above them boards,—this is the most approved mode of con-
struction in Hampshire.

8. The labourers’ cottages are also too often bad, and the pro-
blem yet remains to be solved, how to provide decent and com-
fortable habitations for the labouring poor, and yet at the same
time to make the rents a fair return on the capital expended.
Whoever discovers a mode of erecting cottages which shall give
sufficient accommodation to a labourer and his family, and yet
yield a fair percentage in rent, will confer a great boon on
all connected with agriculture, from the highest to the lowest.
There is no better field for working out this problem than in
Hampshire, for nowhere are building materials, with the excep-
tion of lime, so deficient. But it is idle to adduce, as admitting
of general application, charitable projects which are founded
on philanthropy to the disregard of self-interest. The real
remedy will mect the requirements both of the tenant and of the
builder.

9. Tenancies.—There is an arrangement between the outgoing
and incoming tenants, which used to be universal in the county ;
it is going out in the south, but it extensively prevails in the
centre, and is general in the north. The change of tenancy as
regards the landlord is at Michaelmas, but between the outgoing
and incoming tenants there is a joint interest in some of the
lands and of the buildings, and in half the house, before and
after that date, for more than a year. “They work in and
out,” as the phrase goes; the incomer works in by entering on
such of the land as wants cultivation, and by sharing the stable,
on the lst of February; at Michaelmas he has all the land; he

Covenants. 325

has, however, only half the residence till the following 1st of May.
The outgoer has the other half, a portion of the stable, the barns
and sheds: he threshes, and sells his corn, and does not work
out till seven months after the expiration of his tenancy.
Arrangements between persons so situated are delicate at the
best of times. That a system so surely fertile in causes of dis-

agreement as this old Hampshire custom works amicably (and I

am told it does), speaks volumes for the good temper of Hamp-
shire farmers, and the amiability of their wives. Still, the
coming guest is not welcomed, the parting guest is not sped ;
and, as refinement spreads, men of capital, and women of culture,
cannot be expected to acquiesce in this joint occupation of house
and land. The south is gradually discarding the system. There,
as one man steps out, the other steps in. All arrangements
between them are made by a valuer on each side, who call in a
third man, if unable to agree, which, however, very seldom
happens. The valuation of tillages, seeds, purchased manures
(all at cost prices), hay and straw at consuming prices, and some
arrangement for threshing out the corn in rick, are soon made by
two practical men, to the satisfaction of both parties. The
tenant gains in comfort, and does not suffer in pocket, if the
valuers, as reasonable men, give their award on the fair principle
of mutual accommodation between incomer and outgoer. ‘The
landlord gains much from a plan which secures to him a tenant
of some capital.

The Norfolk system under which payment is for the crop of
turnips and for the hay, that is, for results, not for means, is yet
more perfect. But whenever I have suggested it to a Hants
farmer, the answer has been, “ Turnips are a casualty crop; no
one can be sure of them.”

But changes of agricultural customs require, for their working
out, much time, because interests for a series of years are
involved, and a man expects to go out on the same conditions as
he came in.*

As examples of existing practice in the county, I give abstracts
(omitting all those ordinary covenants which require no men-
tion) of two forms of lease, both of which have been carefully
considered with reference to existing customs and engagements
on the one hand, and approved chalk-farming on the other.

In the first lease the term of years, as usual, is twelve, com-
mencing at Michaelmas. The ¢enant to break up no meadow or

* These remarks show a more keen appreciation of the defects attendant on an
existing system than of the difficulties connected with the proposed substitute.
For several reasons, in Valuations the Outgoer has the advantage over the Incomer :
and the capital of the latter is sunk, though not lost. If the new system be
indeed introduced on the “fair principle of mutual accommodation,” it will be a
boon, but not otherwise.—P. H. F.

326 Farming of Hampshire.

pasture fand ; to keep water-meadows in repair, also all buildings,

premises, roads, and ponds, on the allowance, by the landlord, of

materials ; to paint the house internally and externally every six

and three years respectively, on the allowance of paint and oil ; to

keep hedges in good condition; to cut thistles annually before

the 5th of July ; not to sell any hay, straw, roots, or manure, but

the landlord to have at a consuming price such of the last year’s hay

as he may think proper ; not to take more than two white straw--
crops in succession; nor have more than one-half of the arable

land in corn at any one time ; nor grow broad clover oftener than

once in seven years; nor above a certain acreage of it any one

year ; nor sainfoin oftener than once in twenty years; nor more

than a certain acreage of it at any one time; nor less than a

certain acreage of two years’ growth sainfoin during the lease ;

not to allow any grass to stand for seed; to cultivate and crop

during the last four years of the lease thus (so many acres of
sainfoin, of not more than two years’ growth; one-fourth of the

remainder of the arable fallow for roots, vetches, or rye, to be

fed off; two-fourths grain, one-fourth seeds to be fed off, though

one-half may be mown) ; to keep during the whole term so many

breeding ewes and fatting sheep; to fold the same after the 1st of
May, in the last year, as the incoming tenant shall direct; to fat

yearly in the yards so many beasts, not less than two years

old.

The incoming tenant may enter on the Ist of January, in the
last year, to carry out the dung, and to prepare for turnips, or, if
required by the landlord, the outgoing tenant shall prepare and
sow the turnips, and be paid for the crop by valuation on or
before the 26th of September [here is the first beginning of the
Norfolk system | ; the outgoing tenant shall sow the Lent corn,
and the incoming tenant may enter and sow the grass-seeds, which
the outgoing tenant shall roll and harrow gratis; the incomer

may enter on one-third of the leys and turnip grounds on the Ist
of August, on another third on the 10th of September ; shall
have after the 1st of January half the farmhouse, half the stables,
and the joint use of the yards and outbuildings; the outgoing
tenant finding straw gratis.

The Jandlord shall allow the outgoing tenant the cost price of
all such bones as shall be laid on the farm during the last year,
and one-half of the cost price of those laid on during the last year
but one, and one-third of the cost price of linseed or oil cake
consumed in the last year; the quality and quantity of the bones
and cake having been first approved by the landlord.

The variations in the second lease are: the landlord may
require the surrender of the occupation of any part of the land on
condition of allowing the tenant a deduction of 124 per cent. on
the rent, and also paying for all immediate damages or injuries

Covenants. 327

caused by the surrender ; shall pay, at the expiration of the term,
the value of all sainfoin (not exceeding three years’ growth, nor
on more than one-fifth of the arable land), and the marketable
value of all the last year’s hay; shall allow the tenant to sell
(after written notice of intention) any hay, straw, turnips, other
roots, or green crops (except during the last two years), on con-
dition of purchasing town dung, guano, bones, or other permanent
manures of equivalent value, the landlord to be the judge of such
equivalence.

The outgoing tenant shall have accommodation in the house,
barn, stables, yards, and outbuildings, till the Ist of May, after
the expiration of his lease, to thresh out and dispose of his corn,
and to consume his hay, straw, and roots; or even till the 18th
of July, to enable him to thresh and dispose of his corn, if not
done before.

The incoming tenant may enter on the 1st of November before
the termination of the lease, on one-fourth of the arable land not
in sainfoin, and require sufficient accommodation for himself, his
servants, implements, and horses, in the house, stables, and out-
buildings; may enter on the Ist of August following, on an
eighth part of the arable land not in sainfoin; the outgoing
tenant leaving another eighth part in one or two years’ clover
leys; shall purchase hay of the last year’s crop at the marketable
value. [Here is the other particular of the Norfolk system. |

10. Much has been said as to the necessity of arterial drainage.
“The rivers do not run into the sea,” as they ought. Winter
floods indeed leave a cheap manure behind them, but summer
floods are an unmitigated evil: they fill the growing grass with
grist, so that nothing will touch it, The stagnation of water at
all times is bad. The attainment of an adequate control over a
capricious stream implies a unity of management and a co-opera-
tion of various interests very difficult to bring about. Yet this
combination has been secured in water-meadows, where the
water is used by farmers in turns and the law recognises and
enforces water-rights. This gives some hope for flood-meadows,
such as those below Fordingbridge on the Avon and on the Stour.
To see those grounds under water month after month, during the
past season was melancholy. Can nothing be done? Something
has been done already. Years since the proprietors agreed to
remove all the mills and never to permit their re-erection ;
so there is no artificial impediment here, as often elsewhere.

Another help towards the solution of the question has been given
by Mr. Bailey Denton on the river Test. I leave that gentleman
to tell his own story in the Appendix. As to the results, from
personal inspection of the areas drained | can testify that, at the
close of a very wet season, when the water-level would naturally
have been on or within a very few inches of the surface, the test-

328 Farming of Hampshire.

holes showed that the water stood at a depth of 4 feet, * being
below the level of the river and tributary streams close by, for
this simple reason—that the drainage-water passes under them.
There can be no manner of doubt as to the success of this remark-
able system of drainage. However, the work cannot stop here.
A body of water has been carried from these areas to a lower
level, and must be carried on somehow till it reach the sea. For
this the co-operation of the proprietors, under some more stringent
Act of Parliament than the existing one, is necessary.}

* Since this was written I have been favoured with the following tabular state-
ment of experiments at Broadlands, showing the depth to which the water has
been lowered in the ground by underdraining and the fluctuations in the water
level according to the rainfall :—

Depth of Water in Test-holes below Surface of Ground. Rainfall.
Number
Minimum} Circumstances | Maximum) Circumstances para Monthly of ae
Depth under which Depth under which ay Rainfalt | 2!
during Minimum during Maximum Souths at fell at
Month. occurred, Month. occurred. ampton. Eling. onthe
ampton,
1861. Ft. In. Ft. In. Inches, | Inches.
February 3 0 | After3 days’ rain 4 1 | After 4 days’ ces- | 1°52 2°92 10
amounting to sation of rain, |
0°55 inches. |
March .| 3 5 | After 0°55 inches 4 83 | After 3 days’ ces- | -1°83 | 2°25 ll
of rain in 1 day. sation of rain. |
April .| 3 9 | At beginning of 4 4 | After continued | 0°27 0°39 3
the month. cessation of rain. |
May. .j| 4 O | After 0°95 inches | 4 65 | After continued | 1°39 | 1°56 4
of rain in 1 day. | | cessation of rain.
June. .| 3 7 | After 1:00 inches 4 5 | At the beginning | 3°29 | 3-94 13
of rain in 1 day. of the month,
July . 3 7 | After 0°87 inches 4 1 | After 5 days’ ces- | 3°19 4°59 14
of rain in 2 days. | sation of rain.
August . 3 16 | Little rain . 4 6 | After continued | 0°60 0°60 4
| cessation of rain.
September} 4 1 | After 0°45 inches 4 8 | Afterseveraldays’ | 3°02 3°15 13
in 1 day preced- cessation of rain.
ing continuous
rain. |
October . ph 3 At the beginning poe ty! At end of month, 0°78 0°77 9
of the month. never less than
4 feet 5 inches
| for 26 days.
November} 3 5 | After 160inches| 4 | At the beginning | 4°61 3°50 ll
of rain in 3 days. of the month,
December | 3 11 | AfterO44rainin| 4 5 | At the end of the | 1°16 2°02 8

2 days, | . | month.

The minimum quantity of water discharged by the underdrains during the above
period of 11 months was about fifty gallons per minute, and the maximum quan-
tity exceeded 90 gallons per minute, showing the very large amount of evapora-
tion there must have been before underdraining.

+ Further legislation has already applied a remedy. “The Land Drainage
Act, 1861,”" passed since this Report was drawn up, refers (in Parts 1 and 2) to
district drainages requiring combined works, and powers are given enabling pro-
prietors of the lower lands to remove mills, dams, weirs, and other impediments to
the progress of the upland waters towards their natural outfall on payment of com-
pensation, while two-thirds in extent of the injured district may oblige the remain-
ing one-third to join in the cost. Part 3 refers to outfall works to be carried
out by individuals, such as easements for the passage of drainage water through

Broadlands Drainage. 329

As to the agricultural results of the Broadlands drainage, the
land chiefly affected by it is a fine grass farm, containing about
450 acres, between Romsey and Nursling, called Moorcourt, and
the effect has been to reduce the water-meadows there from 100
acres to 25, thus changing the land to dry meadows and intro-
ducing the practice of cheese-making. Whether this be an altera-
tion for the better or for the worse remains to be seen. The water-
meadows on this peaty soil are far from being equal to those
which have a chalk or gravelly bottom; so that their decrease
may be compensated by the improvement of all the low-lying,
rough, sedgy pasture on the farm, consequent on the improved
outfall,

11, There is no county in which more enclosures, in proportion
to its size, have taken place within the last fifteen years than in
this. The return in the note * shows that 13,514 acres have
been enclosed since 1845, Probably there is but little land left

the lands of lower owners, the applicant paying all reasonable expenses. The
right of landowners to discharge injurious waters through the interposing lands
of their neighbours to the natural outfalls is now legalised. —Mr. J. Bailey Denton’s
paper on Underdrainage, 1861.

* NuMBER OF ACRES INCLOSED in the County of Hants since 1845 to the present
time :—

Parish in which Land is situate. ae of
Grodan ae tcp Uke ce isch decesip reat use 84
Newton Valence LS ye come tee Pee ae 170
SURG LOV A irs ew ate Bi Mle Foes s wel hes le tak Pad 700
Rarenunnwy seem cei ise i sn 4) Sel) 1 aay ie yee 87
ACCS MOPED VER Wa A pio beni) cet) satmasah ts og 487
Illsfield* .. etmek Merete faces 181
Chale (Isle of Wight) A SA airs ae OME 127
Dockingfield ... oe Sc Ue. soe 6 185
Wroxford 2.0 3 i a) Aka a ecu k, LSODS
Clatford, Upper and. Lower So gop sratitna tos 80
Twyford th. se) eS oh arash) Eiviclanes's 647
AGersHOti eel Reet Pitsurtice. tian ose eet esto
BISNOPS WValinaMar set hoe | Gn seth acleal ps 322
Bishopstoke Sr Or Wade GSM bee | 192
Yam DLECOM Ges et We whe Ln aie k | Nicki Paanyll esc 487
Dinistedh A Mabe) Cabs sh tae lies! |x, eepsoem sane Ds Ou
Biteledoniseniy. say ce hy fob Roe ler 226
Dorleya jac ecco, ee eta en es 125
IMLGREStEAG en) echt) sat) “hag rts) fick Meer ia 95
Led dlevis tiv) Vesa ines! Mishel Sei) certs oe! 14668
Bentley > s Sih SOA hc ged = 120
Niton (Isle of Wight) Beat Bye tote cea 457
Rotherwick on Bere) AE) eS 2 bree 189
Freshwater ae of Wight) Se) Pano” 100
Yately.. .. Eri va cst.) Asem 156,
SEG Set Sa ce MI FR RENEy VIE CURSE: 280
Uda NGONGcme och axtce aco mete Omen Serb mee 144

rs 13,514

Inclosure Office, 11 Jan., 1861.

330 Farming of Hampshire.

worth enclosing for agricultural purposes, though there is much
worth planting with Scotch fir and larch. But the very mention
of an enclosure in Hampshire suggests to the mind the greatest
work of this kind yet remaining ‘0 the done in England.

12. Improvements in the New Forest are a very difficult ques-
tion. There are those who recommend that it should be enclosed
for agricultural purposes, just like any ordinary common. Their
reasons are that as a nursery of timber for naval purposes, it is not
worth preserving in its present state, the whole annual value of the
timber supplied to the navy, on an average of the last eleven
years, being no more than 6363/.; that as a common, the best
farmers never use it, preferring good blood to bad keep; that
those who do use it would be largely benefited by the increased
employment consequent on its enclosure ; and that the rights of
the present commoners would be defined by commutation.

But he would be a man bold to rashness who would accept as
a ‘gift a thousand acres round Burley Beacon, on condition of
enclosing and cultivating it. Half of the 63,000 acres are not
worth 1s. 6d. per acre. However, every argument is in favour
of in some way utilising the New Boresin this densely-popu-
lated old country we cannot afford to throw away 63,000 acres
in picturesque woods and wastes—and as an plemnne it may
be suggested that this land, so ill-suited to agricultural purposes,
should be sold, as it is, for residential sites.

We have so little prondland scenery in this populous and highly-
cultivated land, and yet we have such a natural and inherited love
of the country, with its manly sports, its invigorating pursuits, its
local administrative business, and its general political influence,
that capitalists from our cities would give large sums, in this
climate, for blocks of this forest, on which to build mansions, pro-
vided the trees are left standing, and there is some security for the
continuance of sylvan scenery. ‘The timber is invaluable as orna-
ment, which is worth next to nothing when felled. ‘Some fine
beeches are at this moment being Wore at Burley Rails, which,
standing, are beautiful, priceless pictures, but felled barely worth
50s. apiece. Probably they will go as firewood to those who have
fuel rights. If anything be done, it must be done quickly, for the
destruction of fine timber daily going on will soon render this
kind of improvement impossible. ‘The preservation of the wood-
land scenery is essential to the success of any such scheme. The
value of the Forest is now in process of rapid annihilation, under
the laudable intention of turning it to account.* ‘The desunia

* T have mentioned the names of different gentlemen as having supplied me
with information about the Forest. To guard against possible misapprehen-
sion, I must state that these views are mine, and not theirs.

Fistory of New Forest. 331

tion now going on is an irretrievable mistake, however well
meant.

VII. “Brier History or THE NEw FOREST, AND DESCRIPTION
OF ANY PECULIAR CUSTOMS CONNECTED WITH IT.” *

This, as well as the other royal forests, was in its origin partly
demesne and partly prerogative.

Demesne, as being the king’s private property, in which not
only the vert (small wood and brushwood, shelter for deer) and
venison, but also the soil and the timber belonged to him. These
may oes been the original lands of the eat heptarchs, and so,
on the consolidation of the heptarchy, they may have been vested
in the English monarch. But, however acquired, we find that
at the nie of the compilation of Domesday-book (twenty years
after the Conquest) the Norman monarch was actually possessed
of large tracts of woods and wastes of ‘‘ancient demesne ;”
which are generally interpreted to mean lands which belonged
to Edward the Confessor, and probably to his predecessors.

Prerogative, as being the property of private persons, to whom
the soil and timber belonged, while the rights of vert and
venison belonged to the king, who claimed by his prerogative
the privilege of afforesting other men’s lands, with a sole right
to the deer there and to the small wood and covert for their
sustenance and shelter. The exercise of this prerogative, however
oppressive we may deem it, was probably a commutation of that
authority over, and ownership in, the best fish of the sea and
beasts of the forest, to whomsoever belonging, and wheresoever
found, and by whosesoever labour taken, which the ancient
policy of the common law attributed to the king exclusively,
and a remnant of which we still have in the presentation to the
sovereign of the first sturgeon caught in the Thames. The right
of vert Gani venison were originally, as is supposed, prohibited
to all people in all places and reserved to the Crown; so that
the restriction of the Crown’s right to certain lands selected for
the purpose of afforestation, and the admission of the subjects’
right on their own grounds in non-prohibited places (which is
aid to have been done by Edward the Confessor), were, in fact,
relaxations of the royal prerogative and concessions to ile sub-
ject. The universal extent of the king’s ownership in all wild

* My authorities for the history of the New Forest are the Parliamentary
Papers, particularly the Land Revenue Commissioners’ Report, 1789, the Report
of the Royal New Forest and Waltham Forest Commission, with the Sub- -Report
of the Secretary, 1850, and the Register of Decisions on Claims to Forest Rights,
1858. I am also indebted to the Deputy Surveyor, L. H. Cumberbatch, Esq., and
to the Rev. John Compton of Minstead for valuable information on the present
state of the Forest. I have for the most part omitted particulars which may be
found in popular manuals,

VOL. XXII. 2A

302 Farming of Hampshire.

beasts and game, and of his claim to all woods and woody places
for their abode, and of keeping open wastes for the indulgence
of his own pastime in hunting therein, appears in the deren ation
of the word forest, which is, in fact, the Saxon word Forst or
Furst, t. e. Prince. Every forest was the prince’s: to whomso-
ever the soil and timber might belong, the vert and venison were
his; a claim to which, even now, the legal dictwm bears testi-
mony, that only the sovereign can hold a forest—qua forest—
at law, and that a forest in the hands of a subject becomes a
chace uke

The bearing of this distinction between demesne and prerogative
forest is direct on the history of the New Forest, for it was com-
posed of both. Edward the Confessor had a demesne there,
which is mentioned by several writers under the name of Ytene.
This the Conqueror enlarged by his prerogative,* gave it the
existing name of the New Forest, and described it in that remark-
able cadastre, Domesday-Book, “for sits age the most wonderful
report (but not the first, for it continually refers to a survey in
the time of Edward the Confessor) on the agriculture of a whole
kingdom which England or even Europe ever saw.

The extent of his addition, by means of afforestation, to the
ancient demesne of the Crown cannot now be ascertained, owing
to the difficulty of assigning any certain numbers in acres to the
jand measurements of the Conqueror’s commissioners; ¢. g. a
hide has been held to be any number of acres between 60 and
120. We are, however, able to state the extent of the New Forest
A.D. 1279. The barons at Runnymede had obtained some
articles in mitigation of the royal afforestations. ‘These, with
some others, were comprehended in the ‘‘Charta de Foresta” of
the ninth year of Henry III. But little was actually done for
the relief of the subject till Edward I. (as tenacious as any of
his predecessors, but with enlarged views of foreign conquest,
which required for their realisation the money, and so the good-
will, of his subjects) took the matter in hand as a popular mea-
sure. He first appointed in the above year, the seventh of his
reign, commissioners to perambulate and record the then existing
boundaries of the New Forest.

The return of the commissioners (the earliest known attempt
separately to ascertain the limits of any forest by record) is pre-

served, and assigns to the New Forest as its boundaries the —

iniais ict Water, the ‘ais the river Avon, and on the north a

* The Norman stipe also epee one Whether they destroyed churches
and villages may well be questioned, ‘The report of their devastations comes from
a source naturally prejudiced. All remains of habitations in the Forest are singu-
larly preserved, and none have ever been found to bear evidence in favour of the
Couqueror’s depopulations.

New Forest. 333

line drawn from North Chardford to Owerbridge or Awbridge.
This tract may be estimated at 230 square miles, or 147,200
acres, the greater part of which, if not the whole, is mentioned in
Domesday-Book as forest (either demesne or prerogative) be-
longing to the Crown. This survey appears to have been fol-
lowed by practical results in the relief of the subject ; for in the
twenty-ninth of Edward’s reign (20th November, 1300-1301)
another perambulation was made, very materially reducing the
limits of the Forest. The boundaries then assigned were after-
wards fixed by statute (2 & 3 Edw. III. c. 1), were followed in
the perambulation of the 22nd Charles II., in the perambulation
of 1801, and exist at the present time.

These limits are now said to be from Gadshill on the north-
west to the sea on the south-east, and from Hardley on the east
to Ringwood on the west. The entire acreage of the Forest,
within the perambulation, is computed at 92,365 acres. Edward
grumbled at the reduction but submitted to it, his poverty, but
not his will, consenting. His ambition preferred the acquisition
of the principality of Wales, and the probability of the crown
of Scotland, to the retention of a few prerogative afforestations
adjoining his New Forest demesne. The disafforested land had
and has the name of purlieu.

Though the boundaries of the Forest were so long undefined,
yet unenclosed as it was and is, unmarked by any natural or arti-
ficial lines of distinction, and probably by reason of this very
absence of boundaries, every spot, however secluded and ‘insig-
nificant, has its proper name ;* so that if you drop your glove
anywhere in the Forest, a native will go straight to the place on
its being named to him, and recover it.

But the entire quantity of 92,365 acres is not now forest, nor
is all of it the property of the Crown. Besides ancient inde-
pendent manors, such as Minstead and Brockenhurst, there are
lands within the external boundaries of the Forest belonging to
private individuals and surrounded by the royal demesne. No
regular perambulation of these, no attempt at legally ascertaining
and recording their extent, appear to have been made before
1800, and then by statute (39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 86). They may
be supposed to have come into existence since the Crown’s
relaxation ot its forest laws. Under them there could be no
enclosures, and consequently the boundaries of these private
lands must have been little else than imaginary lines. It appears

* So also in other forests. “ Wild as this immense tract (Blair Athol) is, every
rock, corrie, cairn, and mountain is distinguished by some particular name, nullum
sme nomine sacrum; and there are numerous subdivisions which indicate every
precise spot, so that the men appointed to bring home the dead deer, being thus
told where they lie, never fail to find them.”—Scrope’s ‘ Deer Stalking,

Deke 2

d04 Farming of Hampshire.

that previously to James I.’s reign there were but three assart
properties in the Forest,* and these do not seem to have been
perfectly enclosed. But that king, with his usual facility,
made twenty more such grants of assart lands; but still up to
the middle of the last century there were but few enclosures.
Then, however, the landowners within the Forest began not
only to enclose their own lands, unenclosed for centuries, but
also to encroach on and enclose the demesne lands of the Crown.
Hence the legislation in 1800. The verderers, master-keepers,
and other officers of the Forest, who ought to have taken notice
of and abated these unlawful enclosures, were themselves gene-
rally local proprietors, and so busily employed on their own
behalf as to be hardly able to interfere with those who were only
following the example of their betters. The effect was doubly
injurious to the forestal rights of the Crown: first, in the reduc-
tion of the area of feed for the royal deer, which may be put at
from 4 to 3; next, in the claims of the landowners, who, after
enclosing the lands, demanded for themselves and their tenants
(thus multiplied by the enclosures) a right to turn out their stock
(increased. five-fold), horses, cattle, and swine, to share with the
royal deer in the reduced extent of pasture. No wonder the deer
were starved out by a surcharge of cattle on a diminished area,
The practice of government and the administration of law in
the forests appear, in Saxon and early Norman times, to have been
based on the theory, that they were places out of the kingdom, as
it were, subject to no other law than the arbitrary will of the
monarch. Gradually the judicial system for the administration
of forest law appears to have resolved itself into three tribunals,
somewhat corresponding in their action to the several functions
of our ordinary magistrate or justice of the peace, jury, and
judge. The duty of the first—called originally the Court of
Woodmote, but of late, from the nature of the business there
transacted, the Court of Attachments, and again, from the times
at which it ought to be held, the Forty-day Court—was to receive
the attachments of the foresters, and enrol them in the rolls of
the verderers who attended this court. This preliminary step
was in its nature a committal. The duty of the second, called
the Court of Swainmote (7. c. the meeting of the swains or free-
holders), was to receive the presentments enrolled in the court
below, and to proceed to trial and conviction thereon, as a jury
does, but without any power of giving judgment and of fining
or otherwise punishing. This power belonged solely to the
third and supreme tribunal, which was that of the Chief Justice

* “ Assart lands,” agri ecarati, either with or without leave. To assart lands
without special licence was an offence against Forest Law.

New Forest. Soo

in Eyre, thence called the Court of Justice-seat. The specific
function of this court was to deliver judgment and to pass sen-
tence, on convictions made by the court of swainmote, on attach-
ments made by the court of woodmote.

Such was the original triple system of the forest courts. All
three were essential to the administration of justice. The disuse
of any one would cause a failure of justice. Now when it is
mentioned that the Court of Justice-seat, which only could punish
any offences, and which ought (according to the New Forest
charter) to be held every third year, became irregular in its
meetings in the sixteenth century, and that since then only two
courts have been held (viz., in 1634 and 1670), the small degree
of observance which has been paid to the forest law in the New
Forest for 300 years may be imagined. Nor was neglect con-
fined to the judge’s office. By the New Forest charter the
swainmote court ought to meet three times a year, fifteen days
before midsummer to clear the forest during the fence-month
(20th June to 20th July), to fawn the deer, and to provide for
the agistment of cattle when the fence-month was over ; secondly,
fifteen days before Michaelmas, to receive the agistment-money
for cattle, and to provide for the pannage of swine ; thirdly, about
Martinmas (11th Nov.), to receive the pannage-money : whereas
it appears, from 1745 downwards, to have met but once a year,
generally on the 26th August. Since the disuse, however, of
the justice-seat, the Legislature, in 1698 and in 1800 (9 and 10
Will. III. c. 36, 39, and 40; Geo, III. c. 86), made some attempts
to keep order by enlarging the jurisdiction of the verderers.

The jurisdiction of the forest courts now ordinarily held is
compounded of the imperfect remnants of the old forest system
and fragmentary additions from modern enactments. The im-
provement of late years, in this and every other respect, is
manifest. The administration of justice rests with the four ver-
derers, who are elected by the freeholders. There is now no
lord-warden: the office has not been filled since 1850. The
present verderers are, Sir Edward Hulse, Bart., H. C. Compton,
John Mills, and A. R. Drummond, Esqrs. They meet every
forty days, and act as justices of the peace do. Their penalties
are fines and imprisonments. The offences of which they take
cognisance are, damage of any sort to the soil or the property
in the Forest. Cases which might not seem to come under
their jurisdiction are taken before the county justices.

The rights or interests claimed in the New Forest are—
common of pasture for cattle, of pannage for hogs, and of tur-
bary, fern, furze, heath, Kc., besides rights of fuel-wood, of
gravel, marl, &c. These rights over the demesne-lands of the
Crown had their origin for the most part in an equitable claim

336 Farming of Hampshire.

for compensation attaching to private owners, whose lands had
been afforested by royal prerogative. If the king might turn
his deer into other men’s lands, require them to provide pasture
and shelter, prevent them from enclosing, cultivating, or im-
proving their own property, clearly they were entitled to certain
rights and privileges in return over the Royal demesne which
adjoined their lands. Qui sentit onus, sentire debet et commodum-
But then, on the other hand, when their lands were disafforested,
and the exercise of the royal prerogative over their private pro-
perty ceased, the exercise also of their claims on the royal pro-
perty should have ceased also, Discharge from forest burthens
in all reason implied discharge from forest rights. The latter
alternative the claimants did not recognise. ‘They received im-
munity, but did not give it. The Crown endeavoured, in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, to impress on them the
anomaly of which they were guilty, but without success. The
state of the New Forest, in regard to the exercise of these rights
(particularly that of pasture—the most valuable), is said, on the
authority of the Commission of 1850, “to be little less than
absolute anarchy.” The neglect of the forest law raised doubts
as to whether it could be revived; while it was confidently
asserted that no other law, whether common or statute, was
current in the Forest; and consequently, that there was no power
lodged in the officers to interfere for the purpose of checking
usurpations. Squatters accordingly came and settled in the
Forest, who could not legally acquire, but nevertheless exercised,
common rights, to the prejudice of the Crown and of those who
were entitled to them. It is in evidence (Commission 1848-9)
that not only did many persons turn in cattle without right of
pasture, but “nearly all the neighbours from Christchurch and
Ringwood and all around the country” did so ; while those who
had rights turned in without any regard to the extent and limits
of those rights. People from Dorsetshire and Wiltshire, who
had no forest rights at all, purchased large quantities of cattle
and swine, made some underhand arrangement with an indivi-
dual who had rights, by the possession of an acre or two within
the Forest, who accordingly took the cattle on his own premises,
perhaps tortie day, and then tured them into the Forest. One
family is mentioned which alone used to do this to the amount of
4000 or 5000 head of cattle a year. The vasa of fuel was
equally perverted. It applied originally to “such wood as is.
decayed, dry, and dead,” and was for the recipient’ s personal and
family use only ; whereas it was the practice to assign and take
sound beech timber, and latterly beech and fir in equal quan-
tities. The allowance of such decayed wood for the purpose of
actual home consumption, especially to the poor, seems reason-

New Forest. 337

able and charitable; but it was habitually and regularly sold
in the way of trade. It was no longer a Crown bounty to the
poor forester, but a matter of speculation and profit in the hands
of the rich, To crown all, fuel was claimed and assigned, in
spite not only of forest law, but also of statutory enactments
(9 and 10 Will. III.), for houses which did not exist.

The history of all the other rights is the same. The Crown
began, 800 years ago, by encroaching on the subject, who, in
his turn, has eucroachind on the Cron The tables have een
completely turned, so that the value of the rights claimed by
private persons over the Forest would (as is asserted) absorb its
whole value, leaving nothing to its original, but now nominal,
proprietor.

Some order has been recently introduced. Commissioners
were appointed under the 17th and 18th Victoria, cap. 49—an
Act for the settlement of these claims, which have been ascer-
tained, decided, and registered. 1311 claims are allowed—some
very extensive, some very minute. Right of common pasture
may be exercised throughout the year, except during the fence-
month (20th June to 20th July), and the time of winter-hayning
(22nd Noy. to 4th May). Sheep are allowed only where ex-
pressly mentioned. ‘The right of mast can be exercised in the .
pannage-time only (25th Sept. to 22nd Nov.) on payment of 4d.
for every pig above one year old, and 2d. if under that age.

very exercise of turbary-right must be under the view of the
foresters, and the fuel must be burnt in the messuages mentioned
in the register.. The right of wood must be similarly exercised.
The payments to the Ga own for the use of these rights vary from
one penny to a few shillings.

There are no statistics as to the number of animals turned out,
as only a portion of them go through the hands of the agistors.
It is proposed to remedy this defect by legislation.

The statistics of the Forest in its present state are these : * free-
hold estates, within the external perambulation of the Forest,
belonging to private persons, 27, 140 acres; copyhold, or cus-
tomary lands, belonging to Her Majesty’s manor of Lyndhurst,
125; leasehold under the Crown, granted for certain terms of
years, 600; enclosures held with the lodges, 500; freeholds of
the Crown planted, 1000: total of permanent enclosures 29,365 ;
remainder, being woods and wastes of the Forest, 63,000.

The Crown forest property is divided into two districts, the

* These figures have heen supplied to me by the Deputy Surveyor. The
statistics usually published show the state of the Forest in 1789, and are taken
from the Parliamentary Report of that date.

338 Farming of Hampshire.

western and eastern, between which run up the manors of Brock-
enhurst (Mr. Morant’s), Lyndhurst (the Crown’s), and Minstead

(Mr. Compton’s).

The following financial statement of the receipts and expen-
diture, for the year ending 31st March, 1860, is taken from the
last (8 38th) Report of the Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Woods

and Forests :—

RECEIPTS.

25 Sates
Sales of navy timber 10,142 6 7
Boat crooks 7216 9
Rejected timber 556 O O
Other timber .. 1,641 6 11
Saka eae oe 4,683 14 3
Poles SFG 966 1
Stackwoodey i aadd wad aevuerssrel eh eeu 6111 0
Fagots .. a eee teen fe 753 18 2
Fathomwood (firewood) AES omnes 396 0 6
Miscellaneous wood Acpniess 434 15 3
Oak, fir, and saath plants Ass Saco 262 15 9
Grass}. pa: oo. UN eee FB ly Soe
Weal ee wa, Aranda CI pe ome bene ye) 10)
Gravel and sand Beco etcch sae 965 el

Value of trees and plants removed from nurseries to planta-
tions, of timber wood for lodges and fences, of fuel, &c. (ac-
counted for, other side)...

Rent of cottages, of tilery, forest dues, fees on sporting licences,
fines on pounded cattle, pannage of hogs, sale of venison, &c.

Rent of Burley Rails Farm and interest on drainage there .

Dittomnew. carkaanm Bel Mise cee tee bean mrore Waemennee

EXPENDITURE.

eo TMS! Se
J. Planting, new works, and improvements... 2,827 15 0

Value of trees and plants, and other out-

gomes) (Otherside) ies) a0 panna ream 15 LOO meee,
II. Maintenance and general management :

Salaries .. SA ea eee): Mo 4

Labour and artificers’ bills 4411 2 7

Outgoings (other side) 162 19 0
Carriage of timber to Portsmouth, criminal

prosecutions, compassionate allowances,

‘Crees os 1,871 14 8

——

Total expenditure

th
oa
Q

20,072 4 10

1,392 15 4
1,089 9 10
170 14 8
400 1 10

23,125 6 6

£ sal
3,927 17 0
8,985 4 7

12,9138 1%

To this may be added the following figures, from the same

Other Royal Forests. 339

Report, for the same year, relating to the other royal forests in
this county :—

REcEIPTs. EXPENDITURE.

£ Sk as £ Se ae

Alice Holt Sate fe * geen ALLO GPS See coe 146) SH 0
WWOGINEDE TS uatd sm a sue doe) 10S 308 0 2
BONO ees. me, cee 0,016.17 3 1,061 18 6
POMSUTSbi. sa 6 we 819 12 9 843 18 10

Alice Holt and Woolmer are, in fact, one forest, divided by
intervening property, much as the western and eastern districts
of the New Forest. The former has been much enclosed, but
still has 780 acres of woods of the Crown. Woolmer is only
partially in this county. It never had (as Gilbert White’s de-
scription of its soil shows) much wood: it is now enclosed and
planted wherever worth enclosure. The rights of the commoners
were commuted for land, under an Act of Parliament for the
purpose, about two years aie: Bere is all enclosed, and about
half of it under cultivation. Parkhurst is little else than a planta-
tion of Scotch and larch nurses for oak. All these figures show,
to those who have read Parliamentary Reports, a ae improve-
ment in the administration of these forests within the last ten
years,

APPENDIX.

340 Farming of Hampshire.

APPENDEX:

—

1. Merrroronoay.

Resvuts of OsservaTions at the Sourm Camp, AtpmrsHot, Lat. 51° 15' 25" N.,
by Negretti and Zambra, and have been compared with Standard Instruments, and

y 4 ? Mean
Pressure of Atmosphere in Month. Temperature of Air. Temperature.
YEAR Mean.
AnD Monta. 3
fan? ae z
ve : an ; oS
d S 2 o % ra o 3 3 2 eh
i < =) a 2 0) =e | SE ee E :
Sf) Bg poe lh ee eile Sip nae came
= E 2 es eS
a x 4 4 x 4 & |° 3S A <4 A
1860 in. in. in. in, ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °

January . . | 29°730 | 30°306 | 28°757 | 1°549 | 56°0 | 27°0 | 29-0 | 45-4 | 34-9] 10°5 | 40°0 | 36-2
February . . | 29°964 | 30°600 | 29°335 | 1-265 | 52°0 | 23°5 | 28-5 | 42-7 | 29°0 | 13°7 | 36-1 | 31°3
March . . . | 29°919 | 20°520 | 29°202 | 1°318 | 58-0 | 26°0 | 32-0 | 47*7 | 35+1 | 12°6 | 41-0} 37°1
April . . . | 29°988 | 30°405 | 28°S16 | 1:589 | 67-0 | 27°0 | 40-0 | 54-9 } 34°5 | 20°4 | 45-4 | 40°3
May . . . | 29°948 | 30°386 | 29°430 | 1+906 | 79:0 | 31°5 | 47°5 | 64-7 | 43°G | 21-1 | 54-4 | 47-4
June . . . | 29°804 | 30°176 | 29°438 | 0-633 | 70-0 | 44°0 | 26°0 | 63-7 | 47°5 | 16°2 | 54°9 | 49-8
July . . .« | 30°012 | 30°389 | 29°743 | 0-643 | 80°5 | 44-0 } 35-5 | 70-1 | 56-4

August. . . | 29°771 | 30°059 | 29°424 | 0-651 | 74°0 | 45°0 | 29-0 | 66°8 | 51°3 | 15°5 | 57°
September. . | 29°933 | 30°385 | 29°485 | 0-900 | 70°5 | 36-0 | 33°5 | 62:4 | 45°6

October . . | 30°02G6 | 30°355 | 29°517 | 0-833 | 68°5

November. . | 29°863 | 30°508 | 29°357 | .1°149 | 56-0 | 29°0 | 27-0 | 47-1 } 35-2 | 11:9 | 40°
December . . | 29°670 | 30°309 | 28°791 1°518 | 54-0

Mean, 1850. | 29°887 | 30°367 | 29°27! 1°088 | 65-4 | 30-1 | 35°3 | 55°3 | 40°7 | 14°6 | 47-2 | 42°8

Mean, 1859. | 29-932 | 30°369 | 29-311 | 1°058 | 72-1 | 31°4 | 40°7 | 59°5 | 43-2 | 16°3 | 51°5 | 45°2

Mean, 1858 =~ | 29°943 | 30°250 | 29-319 | 0°931 | 71°0 | 31-8 | 39°2 | 57°7 | 41°1 166 | soo | a2

1858. The maximum temperature of air in 1858 occurred on the 15th June, and was 90°59. The :
lowest reading occurred on the 24th November, and was 19°. ‘he extreme range was
therefore 71°5°, Maximum reading in sun occurred on the 15th June, and was 110:0°.

The highest reading of barometer occurred on the 25th September, and was 30°200 in. 5
the lowest on the 7th April, and was 28-720 in. The most remarkable fall of rain
occurred on the 14th August, and was 0°900 in.

1859, The maximum temperature of air occurred on the 12th July, and was 93:0°; the lowest
reading occurred on the 25th October and 19th November, and was 23:09, The range
was therefore 70°09. The maximum in sun occurred on the 12th July, and was
107-0°; minimum on grass, on the 24th October, and was 18:0. Barometer, highest
reading on the 10th January, and was 30°682 in.; the lowest on the 10th December,

Meteorology. 341

APPENDIX.

—

METEOROLOGY.

Long. 45' 36" W.; height above sea-level 325 feet. The Instruments employed are
the observations have been reduced by means of Glaisher’s Hygrometrical ‘lables.

aa Mean
Vapour. 5 2 Reading of Wind, Mean Amount of Rain. §
= 2 Thermometer. 5 <
| 5 He
5/0 s
Ina Cubic |F Ps Bg Relative = 2
_ | Foot of Air./S_.| © Ss proportion of a i Ss
2 2s|/e3|4 | 8 3 2
5 8 7 34 ‘=| Lo] ° °
Fi we Se(S3|8,1/8.1)82 ee oe 4
Sees |eiles as ise (Se | se, 31E) 5) ¢ | 3 lal & 3
2] 8 | 53 |88| $5 | 84 | fe | S58 Sil ise) of 8
= Peal omehes ala Sate | eae Ss | So lax) = 4
in. gr. gr. | 0 gr. ° ° 0-6 0-10. | 06-10 in in
“214 ] 2°5| 0°3] 88] 545] 51°53 | 27-2 | OF} | 5] 3} 9] 14) leh] Gel | 17) 3-15] 0°015
174} 2-0] 0°5] Sl] 554] 51:2 | 20:5] o-7 |} 12] 3] 4/10] 1:0] 6:8} 8} O°750 | 0°795
221] 2:5] 0°5 | 86] 549) 5895 | 30-4] O°} | 7} 2) 9] IB] 1:5] 7:3) 19) 2150} 0°187
250} 2°9} 0-6 | 83] 542} 65°9] 30-:3| 0-6 | 5] 14] 3] 8] 1:6} 5°3} 10} 1°642 | 2°695
"328 | 3:7] 1-1 | 75 | 532) 77°4] 40°4] O74] 5] 5] 8/13] 1:3] 5°61] 16) 27348] 4-850
“308 | 4-1} 0°6 | 85} 530 | 73°7 | 46-2 | 0-4] 2) 3) 9/16} 2°3] T-4] 25 | 5°490] 3-010
“411 | 4:5] 0-7 | 87] 531 | 84:0] 54-3] 0-4] 9]10] 4] 8] 31] 7-5]13] 1-773] 2-180
409 | 4:6] 0:7 | 85] 530] 78:5] 48°3| 0-5 | 4] 0} 5 | 22] 1-8] 7-9} 23] 4°754] 3°195
*361 | 4:0] 0°4| 89) 534] 75-2] 42-4] 0:2) 9] 7] 6] 8] 0-8) 5:2] 13) 3°405) 2-560
325 | 3°6 | 0°6| 86} 543] 67-0 | 40°7] 0°5] 9| 2)]14] 6} 1:2] 5:9] 12] 1°810 | -1°795
224] 2:7] 0°5 | 85] 554] 55-4] 31-2] 0-4] 3] 13]10] 4] 1:5] 5:8] 12] 37100] 0-785 |
173} 2:0} 0°6| 80} 555] 44°5 |] 27-8] 0-6] 14] 3/10] 4] 1°95] 7-4] 14} 3°080} 0°325
eae i) ay cre Silly aleuaian ear aa Totals. ae
——_
"286 | 3:1] 0°6 | 84] 543 | 65:2 | 36-2] 0-4] 7] 5h) 7d] 102} 1°5] G65 | 15 | 33-417 | 22-372

“391 | 3°6| 0°8 | 84] 537] 69°6 | 41-4] O76 | 7| 5} 7] 11] 1:4] 5:4] 13 | 30°857 | 30-229

—

"280 | 3°71 | 0°8 |; 80] 544] .. oe O°7 | 93) Gy Il | 42) 292) ) 527%) 10) 1Gss50n eee.

and was 28°586 in. The most remarkable fall of rain occurred on the 20th September,
and was 2°800 in.

1860. Maximum temperature of air on the 14th July, and was 80°5°; the lowest on the 29th
December, and was 80°. The range was therefore 72°5°. Maximum reading in sun on
the 13th July was 96°09; minimum on grass on 29th December was 3:0°. Barometer,
highest reading, 14th February, and was 30-600 in.; the lowest, on the 14th January,
and was 28°757 in. The most remarkable fall of rain occurred on the 2nd of June, and
was 0°900 in,

I regret I cannot infer much from the above, as the weather during the period has been evidently
anomalous,

Joun ARNOLD, A.H.C., M.B.M.S.

wre.

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Meteorology.

343

A Taste showing in inches the fall of rain per month during 41 years, from
1816 to 1858, omitting 1843, 1844, at Gosport.

[Communicated by Dr. Burney, of the Royal Academy, Gosport. |

Year. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April.| May.

1816 | 2°89 | 2°56 | 2°86 | 2-40
1g18 | 2-59 | 2-76 | 3-30 | 46

1821 | 2°64 | 0°18 | 4:18 } 3-39
1822 | 0°89 | 2-06 | 1°82 | 2+57
1923 | 3°36 | 4°58 | 2°09 | 2-
1824 | 0:99 | 2°68 | 3°77 | 2-
1825 | 1°48 | 1-21 | 2°50
1826 | 0°89 | 3°86 | 2°61
1827 | 1-00 | 0-82 | 3°14 | 1-
1898 | 6-71 | 1°51 | 1°75 | 2-
1829 | 1-39 | 0-90 | 0°94 | 6-
1830 | 2-81 | 1-24 | 0°62 | 3°
1831 | 2°30 | 2°40 | 1:77 | 2:
1932 | 0°71 | 0-51 | 1°97 | 1-
1833 | 0°88 | 5°48 | 0-95 | 2-
1834 | 5:14 | 0°80 | 0°85 | 0-
1835 | 1-02 | 3-52 | 2°50 | 0+
1836 | 2-44 | 1-25 | 3°80 | 2
1837 | 2°95 | 3:27 | 0°79 | 2-39
1838 | 0-71 | 2°74 | 1°58
1839 | 1°81 | 1-85 | 2°23
1840 | 4-22 | 3-22 | 0-18
1841 | 4-00 | 2°27 | 1-89
1842 | 2°04 | 2-18 | 2-24
1845 | 3°45 | 2-01 | 1°09
1846 | 4°84} 1°70 | 2°43
1847 | 2°20 | 1-42 | 1°35
1848 | 2°87 | 4-75 | 3°40
1849 | 2°92 | 2-43 | 0-68 | 3°
1850 | 1°28 | 1*78 | 0-40 | 3-
1851 | 3°84 | 0°94 | 3-90 | 1-
1852 | 4:92 | 0-94 | 0°50 | 0-
1853 | 4:04 | 0-76 | 1°79 | 2
1854 | 2°50 | 0°84 | 0°27 | o-
1855 | 0°50 | 1°75 | 2-11 | O-
1856 | 2°75 | 1°12 | 1-10 | 3
1807 | 2°38 | 0-20 | 2°12 | 2-
1858 | 1-00 | 1:44 | 1°56 | 2+

1°00

3°33

wow sss-wkS

POS OVW SIO
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Bawa

SGCWwWUCcartPpoow

2°30 | 3°21 | 5°31
3°18 | 2°36 | 3°67
0°82 | 0°40 | 0°75
3°80 | 1°86 } 2-00
2°94 | 1°57 | 1°26
3°18 | 0°98 | 3°65
1-51 0°38! | 4527
T° 1% | 2225") 2275
4°59 | 2°91 | 2°91
2°99 | 1°57 | 0°18
2-27 | 0°89 | 1°60
2°12 | 1°66 | 1°11
2°29 | 1:98 | 3°40
0°29 | 2°27 | 5°38
1°94 | 2°63 | 1°95
2°07 | 1°55 | 3°46
2°62 | 1°58 | 0°98
0°37 | 2°40 | 1°12
0°73 | 1°67 | 3°98
0°89 | 1°40 | 0-41
0°31 | 0°97 | 2°7

1°00 | 0°83 | 1°78
0°85 | 2 11 | 1°89
0°51 | 2°33 | 4751
1°66 | 1°37 | 2°57
2-85 | 1°90 | 1°95
1°21 | 0°97 | 0°74
2-42 |} 1°80 | 1°74
1-26 } 1°52 | 3°10
2°02 | 1°32 | 0°62
0°71 | 4°50 | 3°19
2°85 | 1°55 | 2°08
2°47 | 1°88 | 3°22
0°84 | 1°70 | 2°17
2°70 | 4°7 3°30
2°58 | 2°64 | 4°42
3°20 | 1°48 | 1°29
2°23 | 0°97 | 4°11
4°16 | 1°34 | 0°85
0°92 | 2°00 | 1°33
1°93 | 0°95 | 2°69

June. | July.

Aug. | Sept.
2°46 | 2°49
4°67 | 2°09
0°20 | 4°39
0°56 | 2°86
3°21 2°Ko2
3°71 | 3°34
1°81 | 1°68
3122 |'1°72
3°45 | 3°83
Sl) | 2°43
1°52 | 4°55
2°06 | 3°43
2°58 | 2°28
3°33 | 4°59
3°40 | 2°80
1°81 | 3°71
2°94 | 0°83
0°96 | 2°40
1°76 | 1°16
7 | 4-9)
0°95 | 3-60
2°45 | 1-08
1°44 | 3°69
2°03 | 5°63
1-74 | 4-43
2°90 | 5°40
2°81 | 3°67
1°83 | 3°08
4°95 | 2°20
1°10 | 1°34
4°76 | 3:03
1-18 | 4°23
2°52 | 2°15
1°28 | 0°10
4°50 | 5°37
3°04 | 1°69
1°75 | 0°86
1°35 | 2°83
2°84 | 4°32
1-97 | 3°53
2°33 | 2°34

COste Dew ho

RP AMWAWaRurs
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Mean Deprus of Rain during the above 41 years.

January .
February
March

April

May. «
June.

July. .
August .
September
October .
November
December

Monthly
Mean.

Quarterly
Mean.

Annual
Mean.

30°11

344 Farming of Hampshire.

2. Description of the Drainage of a portion of the Valley of the
River Test at Broadlands.

In the autumn of the year 1852 I made a survey, as engineer
of the General Land Drainage and Improvement Company, of
the valleys of the rivers Test and Anton, and addressed a
Report thereon to the owners of land in those valleys, in which
it was recommended that the whole district should be divided into
several smaller areas, wherever an outfall could be obtained for
effective deep drainage, without the destruction of mill property.

The nature of the valleys favoured this subdivision, as will be
seen by the following description :—

“The rivers Test and Anton take their rise in the southern chalk ridge,
popularly known as the Hog’s Back, which extends across the kingdom from
east to west. Each river pursues its course in a southern direction between
the hills which branch from the main ridge and have a lateral inclination
towards the south. The two rivers then unite at Fullerton, and though
frequently divided again into several channels, flow down one valley between
a continuation of the chalk hills to Romsey; near which place the chalk
undulations become altogether covered with the gravel and clays which are '
the varied constituents of the Tertiary formation. Several of the chalk hills
on each side of the valleys, and indeed at the sources of each river, are
capped with the clays of this formation, which give an essential character to
the alluvial deposit throughout the valleys, and, in combination with the
accumulated vegetable matter incident to excess of water, form the prevailing
soils of the valleys. From Romsey the river flows through the same alluvial
deposit, but with a smaller proportion of peat, into the sea at Redbridge.

“The formation of each valley above Romsey is marked by great irregu-
larity. In one place the chalk sides approach within 32 chains of each
other; in another within only 23 chains, and in a third within 16 chains;
while above the several necks, or passes, plains exist of 89 chains, of
48 chains, and 40 chains wide.

“The fall, or inclination, of the valley surface from

Feet. Feet.
MndoyertoHillertomis!) 0.) a) hese) an em een
Whitchurch to the same spot 44 pee Sea ele:
Fullerton to Romsey .. .. . nies) Metre oO:

Romsey to Redbridge at low water neap tide. 50 .UeD
Total fall from Andover to Redbridge .. 190
Ditto from Whitchurch to Redbridge ae -2'9 xe

“These extreme falls give a mean inclination or average of 9,257 feet
per mile. The mean rate of inclination, however, not being preserved, in
consequence of thie irregularities in breadth and other impediments, or bars
peculiar to the undulatory base of a chalk valley, an irregular velocity has
been given to the water flowing down the valley. The alluvium has thereby
been deposited partially, and vegetable growth has accumulated in the
broader spaces, or basins, where the water has been less rapid in its passage.
It is necessary to give a vent or outlet to these basins. It is also to be
observed that the general inclination of the water level in the surrounding
chalk approximates the surface line of the valley, when that water level is at
its greatest depression. As the chalk becomes replenished by winter rains,

Plan shaving so much of the Droanage works iw the Valley of the
Test as have been, executed ter the kught Hon Lord Viscount
Lalmerstor ly the General Land Dreanage & Improvement C2.

ae (@ __———1_- - \ |

NS

TEST WOOD MILL

J. Bailey Denton.
M.Inst C.E.
Engineer to the Company.

Standdge&C, Iatho, 36, Od Jewry, E.C

Broadlands Drainage. 345

the water level within its region rises; and the water which finds its way on
all sides into the valleys imperceptibly from the chalk, by overflowing the
margins of the impervious alluvium forming the bed of the valley, or by
oozing through the porous peat, is very considerable. It is therefore necessary
to provide for this extraordinary influx of water.”

It will be observed that the effect of the system of works here
recommended would be to increase the supply of water, and to
originate rather than destroy water power.

** As the saturated surface of the valley is constantly presented to the action
of the sun and wind, and the peat soil is peculiarly susceptible of capillary
action, the amount evaporated will be found to exceed on an average of years
the proportion quoted from the porous chalk by at least one-half. The differ-
ence, therefore, whatever it be, between the evaporation from a constantly wet
surface and that from a drained surface, will represent the loss by evaporation
to the miller for power, and the irrigator for water; a loss which, although
perhaps neither the one or the other would imagine it, in the valley of the
‘Test amounted to 750 tons per annum from every contributing acre of land.

“But this is not the whole of the miller’s loss by the present undrained
condition of the valley. It is manifest that that portion of the rainfall which
usually filters through a porous soil, and gradually finds its way out again at
a lower level, in the present saturated state of the land flows directly over the
surface to the sea. This loss might be in a great measure saved by rendering the
surface constantly open and absorbent by drainage, and qualifying it to yield up
for the use of the mills water which would otherwise never find its way into
the stream. It may be fairly assumed, that from these two sources of evaporation
and overflow, 12 inches of water over the whole surface of the valley are lost in
every year; and as 12 inches of water covering an acre of land are equal to

_ 43,560 cubic feet, or 1200 tons, if this quantity be multiplied by 12,163,
the number of acres in the valleys, and regard he had to the extraordinary
amount of fall or inclination of surface peculiar to it, 94 feet per mile—some
estimate may be formed of the magnitude of the present total loss of motive
power. ‘To reduce evaporation, and to adapt the soil for the purposes of
cultivation to the necessary depth, the ruling depth of the main outfall drains
has been fixed at 5 feet, so that the subordinate drainage may lower the water
table to a minimum depth of 4 feet.”

Lord Palmerston has employed the General Land Drainage
and Improvement Company to carry out the works of two areas,
together with a small lateral area, comprising the pleasure-
grounds and portions of the park at Broadlands. An accom-
panying plan shows the position of the outfall drains.

The principal outfall cut A, discharges into the Blackwater
below the hatches at a, passing under the tributary stream or
drain at 6, and drains the area A.

The lateral outfall drain B, discharges into the cut A, at c,
passing under the river Test at d, and drains the area B,

The outfall cut C, discharges into the tail of Nursling Mill at
€, passing under the lower end of the principal cut A at f, so
as to drain deeply and effectively the lands approaching the
discharge of that cut, forming the area C, which would not
otherwise: be done.

{t will probably be found that subordinate under-draining will

346 Farming of Hampshire.

be necessary to perfect the works in the areas A and C as has
been already done in area B, By daily records of the height of
water in test-holes, it has been there shown that the standing
water level does not approach within 4 feet of the surface, though
the fluctuations of height follow the rainfall with exactness ; and
by measurement of the discharge it is found that the saving of
water from evaporation in favour of the river supply is from 50
to 90 gallons per minute during the summer season.
J. Battey Denton,

3. LETTER FROM LORD PALMERSTON.

The following letter, written by Lord Palmerston, in reply to
a request made to him by Mr, Bailey Denton, that his Lordship
would state his opinion as to the influence of the recent drainage
works, on the climate and water-supply of the Test Valley, will
be ready with interest :-—

My DEAR Sir, 94, Piccadilly, 6th January, 1862.

I HAVE received your letter of to-day. The question to
which it relates seems to me to be as clear and as simple as any-
thing can be.

It is demonstrable that under-draining must render more dry
the atmosphere of the lands drained, and it is equally plain that
it cannot materially, if at all, diminish the supply of water to
any river that flows through such lands. Undrained land is like
a sponge ; it is saturated with the moisture which, by capillary
attraction, it draws up from below, and with the moisture which,
in certain conditions, such as sea-fog, it imbibes from the atmos-
phere, and with the water which falls in the shape of rain or
snow. The moisture thus held by this spongy upper stratum of
the land is got rid of mainly by evaporation into the atmosphere
in contact with such land; and the quantity of water with which
that atmosphere is thus charged is in some cases very consider-
able, and being much greater than the air can hold in solution,
it is precipitated in the shape of mist and fog, to the detriment
of the health of the inhabitants of the district. The effect of
sufficient under-draining is to convert four or five or six feet of
the upper crust of the land from the condition of a sponge to
that of dry earth. That thickness of crust no longer draws
moisture from below by capillary attraction, and the water which
falls upon it as rain or snow, or which is deposited upon it by
sea-fogs, instead of rising into the atmosphere by slow evapora-
tion, finds its way rapidly into the drains, and is carried off by
them. The soil would, however, always by its retentive nature,

Letter from Lord Palmerston. BAT

keep to itself moisture enough to supply the wants of vegetable
roots. ‘The good effects then of draining upon the atmosphere
of the district drained are demonstrable in theory, and anybody
who, like me, has had drained a large extent of land, which
before had been very wet, will have amply experienced those
good effects in practice. The improvement in the atmosphere
of that part of the valley of the Test, which extends from a mile
above Romsey to two miles or more below it, is most striking
and satisfactory, and is entirely owing to ie drainage ea
which have been executed within those Ties,

But then as to the effect of under-draining upon the supply of
water to rivers: rivers are supplied with water by rivulets
which flow into them, and by water which rises from springs in
their beds as they flow along. The rivulets will probably be
increased in volume by drainage works, because they will be
made the outfall for the drainage of land on higher elevations,
Then as to the water which was before contained in the four or
five upper feet of the land through which the river flows: that
water, instead of being evaporated into the atmosphere, is carried
along the under-drain and is delivered into the river at the
earliest point at which the descending level of the river will give
a sufficient outfall ; and supposing the depth of the drain to be five
or six feet, in a river of average rapidity of current, the drained
water may be discharged into the river at no very great distance
from the beginning of the system of drains. Then as to the
feeding spring's which rise up in the bed of rivers, the only
water that i is withdrawn from them is that which would levee been
contained in the four or five feet of the upper surface of adjoining
lands ; and I have already shown that, as regards such water, the
river is a gainer, and not a loser, by the drainage. All the
water in the soil below four or five feet from the upper surface of

the land will, as before, find its way in springs to the bed of the
river, without being in any way diverted from its course by the
drainage of the upper surface.

That this has been the case with the Test I can assert by
experience, for the volume of its waters has not been in the
slightest degree affected by the drainage works in adjoining lands.
It has so happened that the river has been much fuller of water
during the last two years than it had been for several years
before, but that was owing to causes quite unconnected with the
drainage works,

My dear sir, yours faithfully,

PALMERSTON.
J. B. Denton, Esq.

VOL. XXII. 2B

348 Isle of Wight.

ISLE Of WeGit a.

Tue greatest length of the island from E. to W. is nearly double
its greatest width, 224 miles to 131. Its area is 99,746 acres,
or 94 acres short of 156 square miles. The population in
1851 was 50,324, or one person to 1:9 acres, a density of
population corresponding with that of the average of England
generally.

The total amount expended for the relief of the poor in the
year ending Midsummer, 1860, was 11,5987. 18s.; which was
thus distributed : in maintenance, 3784/. ; out relief, 4593. 17s.;
maintenance of lunatics, 1162/. 10s.; salaries and rations of
officers, 17837. 15s.; other expenses connected with relief,

3241. 16s.

I.—“ Principat GEOLOGICAL AND PuysicaL FEATURES.”

‘The fair island” is in shape somewhat rhomboidal, and
may be compared to a lozenge, irregularly elongated to the west ;
or rather to a turbot with its head up-channel.

A range of chalk downs traverses it from E. to W., from Culver
Cliff to the Needles. The line of extension is tolerably straight,
except where the downs, spreading themselves to the 8.W. over
Ganson’s, Gatcombe, Chillerton, Lemerston, and Brixton Downs,
form in this part of their course a double ridge. On its approach
to either extremity of the island, the chalk-range is less broad
and less high. This is the principal geological and physical .
feature in the island. As usual with such formations, the chalk
is pierced by rivers, in its centre by the Medina, and by the East
Yar running through the Brading valley at that extremity. ‘There
are also other transverse valleys cutting through this central
range, as at Freshwater Gate, Shalcombe, Calbourn, and Caris-
brook. Another higher, but shorter range of chalk-hills, about
seven miles long, extends nearly continuously from Shanklin to
Chale, rising from the sea to the height, at St. Catherine’s
Beacon, of 775 feet. The whole of this mass of chalk has a
slight southerly slope (an important agricultural feature), with a
direction from E, 6° N. to W. 6° 8. The two ridges converge
on the east end of the island, the central ridge at Brading and
Bembridge Downs trending to the 8.W., the southern yet more
abruptly to the N.E. The two ranges of chalk downs are, each
of them, fringed by narrow beds of gault and upper greensand,
the intervening slopes and valleys being composed of the lower
greensand,

The weald clay appears to the S.W. in a strip about six miles

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Geological Features. 351

long, and one broad at the widest point, also in two or three
irregular patches round Sandown in the 8.E.

The northern half of the island is occupied by plains of the
Eocene formation. Belonging to the Lower Eocene is a narrow
fringe (seldom appearing at the surface) of plastic and London
clay, skirting the central chalk axis of the island. This is sue-
ceeded by another edging or fringe, + mile broad, of the upper,
middle, and lower Bagshots; thence extend to the coast the
Headon, Osborne, and Bembridge series. The last is the
greatest in superficial extent. All these belong to the middle
Eocene. The upper Eocene is seen in the Hempstead beds near
Yarmouth and at Parkhurst.

Gravel caps some of the downs of the central range, as at
Freshwater, Headon-hill (where it is 60 feet thick), and St.
George’s Down above Arreton (where it is called “the red
gravel”), and all the hills of the northern portion of the island.
It is spread in an apparently continuous bed over the surface at
the eastern extremity, at Foreland and St. Helen’s. Between
Ryde and East Cowes it is 20 or 80 feet thick, crowning the
hills. It occurs also in the N.W., between West Cowes and
Yarmouth, on the summit of Hempstead Hill, and in Parkhurst
Forest. There are also beds of sand and gravel, with peat under-
neath them, in the south-western basin.

I estimate the areas of these different formations thus :—

: M Sq. miles.

Centralichalikeranges | 45. <5) 2 and “gos 2
Southern ditto 56, 760 tag ON, Gon fetes fae!
Intervening greensand .. .. .. «. . 465
NVColGe Clava SeNVetncs ter se tease hey vee, SO
Dictogee eSshieee a ay 2 eek) Se. ton iB
IDagshotiess we eaie Gepuliss. eh (le acay “hl deme 3
Osborne and Heado Bos pec. + Boyer es coor ll)
Bemibndses NAW sn Wisse ema ilMesss | gq 20
tte NSE et Wee tg et Ser Pees Mat LO
lempstead* 2s?" 55 ste a. ae as 6
156

From this, it will be seen that the Bembridge series comprises
no less than 44 square miles of the northern half of the island.
These are composed of an upper and lower bed of marl, which
last rests on an oyster-bed, which again rests on limestone. The
three upper beds are argillaceous, the lower is calcareous, and
from its distribution takes local names from Binsted, Cowes,
Gumet Bay, Calbourn, Dodpits, and Sconce, being occasionally
separated by shales and beds of marl.

Thus we have, in this little island, a repetition of the mainland
in miniature, or rather a model, within a circumference of 56 miles,

352 Isle of Wight.

of all the formations of the Tertiary system, from the Upper Eocene
to the Wealden inclusive. Scarcely one series is omitted in the
representation, and, with only three exceptions, the names assigned
to all the Eocene Beds, are derived from places in this island.

There are five river-basins in the island, which may be worthy
of simple enumeration, hardly of description, for they are neces-
sarily insignificant in area, in the height of the watersheds which
divide them, and in the volume of water which passes through
them. In point of size they are not unequal, and in shape they
are similar triangles, except the narrow valley of the Medina, in
the upper portion of its course. They are :—

1. That to the south-east, drained oe the Eastern Yar, the most
fertile of all.

2. That to the north-east, forming a succession of clayey and
sandy valleys, watered by the Wootton stream and many other
small streams opening separately into the sea.

3. That to the north-west, of a similar character, having as an
estuary the Western Yar, witch here takes the place of the Wootton
stream, though shorter in its course. .

4, That to the south-west is traversed by many rivulets bursting
forth from the higher ground at the junction between the chalk
and the greensand. These tear their way through, and eat deep
troughs in the retentive wealden clay, and thus form gulleys or
‘chines,’ more charming to the tourist in search of the pictu-
resque, than to the agriculturist in search of profit.

That of the centre is drained by the Medina, a very narrow
stream while in the chalk district, but no sooner does it reach
the Eocene, than it expands from a brook you can jump over, to
an estuary navigable at high tides for vessels of some burden.

In the central chalk range the chief elevations are: Bembridge
Down 355 feet, Ashey 424, Carisbrook 239, Motteston 661,
Node’s Beacon (Freshwater Down) 483, Needles’ Down 450.

In the southern chalk range: Shanklin Down 736 feet, Dun-
nose 771, Boniface 783, Appuldurcombe 735, Week 690, St.
Catherine’s 775, Chale 323.

Both ranges throw out spurs—the one to the southward, the
other to the northward, at right angles to the main ranges—
dividing the whole surface in every direction into woody dingles,
smooth or rough coombes, winding valleys, basin-like glens, or
** bottoms,” Such are the depressions at right angles to the back-
bone of the island, between Ashey and Messley Downs, and
West of Arreton Low Calbourn bottom, and Shalcomb,

There is a distinction between the western and eastern
portions of the north. In the western, one long and open valley
runs westerly from Newport to Newtown. In the eastern, the
valleys are short and run northerly at right angles, either to the

Natural Divisions. 353

sea or to the central chalk range. Thus the road from East
Cowes to Ryde is an alternation of steep hills and deep valleys.

Il. ‘“‘ Tue NATURE OF THE SOILS AND THE CHARACTER OF THE
FARMING IN THE DIFFERENT Distrricrs or Naturau Divi-
stons.—ALso IMPROVEMENTS STILL REQUIRED.”

The natural divisions of the island for farming purposes are
strongly marked by the geological differences which exist between
north and south. ‘The northern edge of the central chalk range
is the line of demarcation, between the southern Chalk, and the
northern Eocene.

I will subdivide the southern division into three parts, make a
few remarks on the characteristics of each, and then some on the
whele of the south. I will then pass on to the north. I will
conclude with some matters which refer to the whole island rather
than to any particular division of it, and some ‘improvements
still required” here.

(1.) The chalk range in the south is of a different character to the
free chalk in the centre: it is hard, very little influenced by frost,
which merely causes it to split into flakes, and does not pulverise
it ; consequently it is useless as manure.

The soil here across the island, from Shanklin to Shorwell, is
of four kinds:—1l. The bare chalk down, with some furze on
it. 2. A border of stiffish soil along the margin of the chalk.
The surface of this after a severe frost so pulverises, that you
would hardly think it would come together again. A little wet,
however, sets it like pudding, so that a plough will hardly touch
it. 3. The freestone border, a lighter soil. 4. The lower
land, wetter and closer than the freestone, but not so stiff as
No. 2. It is more of a clayey nature, and weather has not the
same effect on it.

From Shanklin to Shorwell and southwards, the size of the farms
varies from 100 acres to 500. There is very little pasture, except
a meadow near the homestead for the dairy cows, and more or
less down attached, according to the situation. ‘The four-course
system prevails. The lands are eight turn. Of seed-wheats old
white-straw red (an island sort), Buonaparte’s imperial, or Dantzic
white, are the favourites. The barley is the Chevalier, old
American, or Nottingham. On the best farms a portion of the
wheat-stubbles (according to wants) may be put to vetches or
green food of some early kind, as a catch-crop before the turnips.
The turnips are fed off with the fold, and generally followed by
barley, rather than by oats. When seeded to clover, 10 lbs. red,
4 lbs. hop, and a little rye-grass ; or 4 lbs. white clover, 4 Ibs.
trefoil, and more rye-grass, are two favourite mixtures. The red

354 Isle of Wight.

clover is first cut for hay, and then fed ; the white fed only. Sain-
foin is grown on the down land. Farm-yard dung is applied to
the clover leys, and artificials to turnips. It is said, that it remains
yet to be discovered what artificial manure suits No. 2 soil.
Superphosphate hardly affects it.* The soil ought to be analysed,
The average produce is of wheat 20 bushels, barley 30, oats 35,
swedes 15 | tons, clover and sainfoin 1 ton.

The late Lord Yarborough was an agricultural benefactor to
the whole of this district, much of which belonged to him, and
in which his mansion oF Appuldurcombe was situated. The
steward of the present Lord Yarborough, too, is most highly
spoken of, as ready to suggest and to promote any improvement.
There is said to have beena very perceptible change for the better
within the last few'years. Ploughing with two horses, which is
still very. partially adopted, was arlene ten years’ since, and
turnip-cultivation has largely increased of late.

(II.) We will now advance a little further north, and take a
district having within its boundary line Godshill, Pagham, Black-
water, Arreton, Hazeley, Newchurch, and Alverston, and includ-
ing Rodway, Bangbourne, and Hale. This is locally called “ the.
Bow! of the Island,” and contains the best barley and turnip soil in
it, ‘The soils above and in “the Bowl ?are: 1. Chalk on gravel,
on the downs. 2. ‘ Freestone” on the sides. 38. Red sand and
brick earth loam, mixed, in the valley. Within the last twenty-
five years peat eal to he dug for fuel in a line from Pagham,
through Merston to Blackwater, being the lowest part of the
country ; but it has since been Gmaineal and the peat has for the
most part disappeared. ‘The pipes meee were necessarily of at
least a 4-inch bore, or they got choked with “red water.” Gravel
so continuously caps St. George’s Down, and all the downs about
here, that they are called gravel, as distinguished from chalk
downs. When you get over St. George’s Dann the soil is poorer,
as, for instance, at a place called Silos

Farms here are of all sizes, from 50 to 500 acres, chiefly arable,
with pasture as before. The 4-field system prevails: the lands
are 16 turn. A few tares on perhaps one-fifth of the wheat-
stubbles may be taken as a catch-crop. The white straw and
golden drop are the favourite wheats ; among turnips the green
Shree” is preferred, and for barley the Nottingham, There is no
difference in the mode of consuming the two sorts of clover.
The turnips are said to have degenerated within the last three
years, and mangold are coming in. Autumn cultivation is little
practised, except by such good farmers as Mr. Jacob and his son

* I met with instances of the same kind in the neighbourhood of Petersfield,
Selbourne, and Alton. Superphosphate is said to do little or no good. I would
observe that this soil, both on the mainland and in the island, is on the greensand.

Natural Divisions. 355

of Hazely. Some prefer to grow couch on their wheat-stubbles for
the ewes to runover. But altogether the farming here is the best
in the island. The produce is at least ten per cent. above that in
the south.

(LIL.) In the south-west about Brook, and thence towards Shor-
well, there is a good wheat soil above the weald clay; but the
disenict't is much exposed to the south- westerly g gales. The lands
here are 8 turn, ‘The clay is red, and there is a sufficient surface
soil. About Kingston the soil ‘is shallower; but it has been
nearly doubled in value of late years by the use of artificial
manures, and the consequent growth of turnips and increase in
the Sumber of sheep. Mr. Morris is the chief improver here.
He has brought into cultivation land not originally worth 5s. an
acre, and laid it out in fields of forty and fifty acres each. He
has drained extensively, chalked and sheeped his land largely.
He was the first farmer who used a steam threshing-machine in
the island, and now he has all the approved implements. A man
of foresight, enterprise, and courage, he is spoken of as the father
of agricultural improvement in the island.

(IV.) Throughout the south, the sheep are for the most part of
the old island breed, horned, and lambing early like the Dorsets.
About 50 ewes are lambed on 100 acres. Their constitutions are
supposed to be hardier than those of the Hampshire Downs.
When the ewes are put to Down rams, the lambs come to maturity
earlier. For sending fat lambs to the London market, Good
Friday is thought a lucky starting day. The ewes when done
with are sold out to the lower-land farmers in the middle of the
island for grazing purposes. The smaller occupiers and those
off the chalk do not keep a breeding flock, but buy in, either
from breeders on the island or at Weyhill and other fairs on the
mainland, Bridgewater or Dorset ewes. The horned lamb is
worth 2s. a head less than the black-faced, when they appear
together in competition ; but the chance of the former lies in his
priority. In the spring and summer there may be one sheep to
an acre 3 but as the lambs are fatted off, or old ewes sold, the
number is reduced by one-half towards ie end of September.

’ For dairy purposes Alderneys are kept on the best farms, but
generally half-breds of some kind, such as the island cow (a sort
of “ Forester’), crossed slightly with Shorthorns. Captain Pel-
ham had at Yard Farm a fine herd of Shorthorn cows; but they
were not continued. For grazing purposes Devons and Short-
horns are preferred; but only the best farmers graze, and they
say it pays now better than formerly. Nearly all grazing cattle
are imported. Devon oxen are often worked and grazed after-
wards. Cheese is made in the south—whole skim, (Vectice) “Isle

of Wight rock.” There is a fable, that a ship "being freighted

356 Isle of Wight.

with it and with mill-stones, the rats found the former the harder
of the two.

Many of the present farm-houses in the south were originally
manor-houses, and are in themselves very interesting. Such are
the residences at Yaverland, Arreton, Merston, and Westcourt.

The farmyard is sunk in the centre, with a causeway round to
get at the sheds. The buildings are substantial, though often
old and ill-arranged, or without any arrangement. ‘The freestone
is near at hand for the walls; indeed it is sometimes too handy.
I have seen a rick-staddle, with sides built up like a wall.
“They are much firmer than them iron cap things,” was the
remark made tome. ‘* Yes; but how about the rats and mice ?”

In the whole of this southern district there is excellent natural
“shelter,” a good aspect, and a mild climate, as is clearly indi-
cated by the fuchsias, myrtles, and gay flowers, which make the
cottage gardens blossom as a rose. ‘These advantages compen-
sate largely for any deficiencies in the soil, and I must add in the
farming: they are a marvellous set off both for stock and produce.

The manual labour is .05: the tithe is very variable. The
poor-rates will be alluded to by and by. The rent of land varies
from 20s. an acre in the south to 35s. in the vale of Arreton.
Leases are general on the larger properties.

(V.) In the Northern Eocene division the farmer has to contend
with those cold, wet, yellow clays, or clayey sands and gravels
which belong to these tertiary strata.* The varieties of soil are

* The following analysis of soil on Mr. A. Hughes’s farm at Thorness, by Dr.
Voelcker, is generally applicable to the better portion of these northern soils :—

I, Mechanical Analysis.

Moisture cohasgess | VEbRie ols sise atelsha) Jie El MEAs alee oe
Organic matter and water of combination ~m) pOre
Lime PSR CUP Tat eRAC WESC cowmous cos oo, ‘c 2°45
(Qe Tae eer oe cere hae inob naked ck 5F5 !
Shits re oie swore cooped tess at CRE!

100°00

Il. Chemical Analysis.

Moisture | ic. (eu: « is Vek vsiehesiithp. closest ante um DS
Organic matter and water of combination .. .. «. 6°96
Oxides of iron and alumina .. .. .. «. «2 « 1459
Carbonate of lhme del jieluy , Sidhe iste teehee ok ke ee
Sulphate of lime) 7s. se. miess ioky sei, cates | Moin cle Cm?
Phosphoricvactay . 2) cc, \ ee) | sel ey er use esl) oC
Magnesia.andvallialiesi;.. 22 26 6 00 o» «5 ee) LRM
Siliceonsymatter’ lay) eos vices, ciey iin, | eek oo ERC Ope

100°00

Dr. Voeleker adds, that these unmellowed, streaky clays have naturally little or
no lime. ‘That which was found here bad been applied at some time. Except
lime, there is abundance of fertilizing materials, but in a locked-up state, and in a
shockingly bad mechanical condition. Draining, deep autumn ploughing, winter
exposure, and liming, are the remedies.

Valley of the Medina. 307

the same as on the opposite mainland. In fact, the greater part
of the New Forest is but a continuation of the fluvio-marine
strata of the north of the island. The same estuary formations,
the same natural divisions, the same soils, border either side of
the Solent.

The portion east of the Medina is on the whole the worst, in-
cluding a large share of gravel and much ground naturally fit for
wood and coppice only. Some alluvial soil is found in the
valleys, but these are short and narrow, and the hills, capped
with gravel, soon rise above them. A description of one of these
tracts of alluvial valley is applicable to all of them. One of the
most considerable lies on the western side of the Wootton river.
Immediately on the slopes of the bank is found a deposit of
rich brick-earth of a reddish-brown colour, mixed clay and sand,
varying in depth from 6 feet to 25, It is partially distributed in
the bottom, and soon intercepted in its progress up the side of
the valley by the eocene clays which underlie the gravel which
caps the hill above.

The portion west of the Medina is more open. The main
valley (that from Newport to Newtown) is broader and longer.
Some is under grass, but the most part arable. The soils are
stiff, wet, cold, and often poor in the hollows, but become more
tractable as the hill-tops are approached, and wherever there is
a sufficient admixture of sand and gravel to adapt the soil to
roots and barley. This land, though apt to run together, breaks
again with comparative ease if skilfully exposed to atmospheric
influences. Sometimes, however, the sand and gravel predomi-
nate, as about Parkhurst. There is some wet land, troublesome
to manage, between West Cowes and Yarmouth. But proceeding
yet further westward, about Thorley and Wellow, we meet with
some good pasture and arable; on ascending the rising-ground
towards Shalcomb (not so very long since a rabbit-warren), we
have before us a view which this island seldom exhibits—some
large and pleasant turnip-fields on the flat, with sheep folded on
them. An eminent geologist, who has made this island his
study, gives the explanatiorf. We are here on the Bembridge
limestone, much of which, in this spot, is a true travertine or
calcareous tuff, with a peculiar brecciated appearance. Its
porosity depends on the presence of irregular, confervoid,
tubular cavities, so characteristic of the Bembridge limestone
elsewhere, as at Sconce, and strikingly comparable with a like
appearance exhibited by the travertine of the Paris basin.*

Except on lands such as these, the farms are small. The

me ae Forbes on ‘ The Tertiary Fluvio-Marine Formations of the Isle of
ight.’

308 | Isle of Wight.

usual rotation on the wet land is: 1, wheat; 2, oats (this land is
not fit for barley); 3, seeds; 4, an open summer fallow. ‘The
grass is broken up in November, and in the following spring and
summer the land is dragged down, cross-ploughed, dragged
again, ploughed up into Tides! dragged, and sown to wheat
broade: ‘ast. ‘There is only one ploughing for oats in February.
The lands are curiously small, only four turns. Autumn culti-
vation is not practised, the wheat-stubbles being left untouched
till seed-time. The oats are broadcasted, and the seeds harrowed
in at the same time. Instances are not wanting in which the
land is not seeded, but left to itself for years after two crops
of grain. It is rather deserted by the plough than converted into
pasturage. The plough is always drawn by four horses. ‘The
dung is applied to the wheat-crop, with sometimes a little guano
asa “top- -dressing in the spring, when the wet seems to tell on the
young plant, anda stimulant ic wanted. A few lambs are bought
in, and sold out as tegs. ‘The expense of this system is fearful
to contemplate. The cost of the three ploughings and three
draggings, with four or six horses, will amount to 12s. or 14s. per
acre each time. Much dung is required: but where is it to come
from? There can be no grazing without roots. When, on the
other side of the account, the produce i is given—wheat 14 bushels
and oats 20—it is inconceivable how arable farming can exist as
a calling on the wet lands of the north. The old sty ‘le of farming
is indeed disappearing, and would be even now a thing of the
past, but for the good sale for milk afforded by the watering-
places, and the very little labour which the grass-fields and a few
cows require. The system, even with these aids, must soon come
to an end ; for the soil is not naturally rich enough to allow all
its produce to be carried off, and nothing but the cow-droppings
restored to it. On the drier soils, barley (for which three or four
ploughings are given to get a fine tilth) is substituted for oats;
or, on favourable spots, turnips follow wheat, to be themselves
followed by a fallow on the less generous, by barley on the
better ground.

The cautious native agriculturist*is not disposed to trust any
of the soils, whether more or less dry, farther than he can see
them. He is fearful of their ingratitude if he treat them too
well. “The land is weak,” he says; ‘‘if you force it too much,
it will give out altogether.”

The better farmers throughout the north buy in Dorset ewes
at Appleshaw or Weyhill in October, at prices varying from
36s. to 48s.; keep them at first on stubbles and clover-leys; put
them on turnips in November or December, when they lamb;
force on the lambs with white peas and cake; begin to draft
lambs from New Year’s Day, the trade continuing steady through

Northern District. 359

February and March, at 36s. or 44s. When the lambs are gone,
the mothers are fatted on vetches or layers, with 4 lb. of oilcake
each, and sold in September for about 45s., the wool being worth
6s. 8d. more. These are not bad agricultural returns.

The buildings throughout the North are very inferior to those in
the South. They are of stone (if convenient), or brick (if more
convenient), or mud (which is most convenient), with frames of
wood and roofs of thatch. There are, however, some good pre-
mises at Swainston and Thorley. The late Sir Richard Simeon
was the first to apply the stalling system to sheep, and it is
continued at Swainston to this day, almost a solitary instance of
such perseverance. I saw both sheep and beasts tied up on
boarded grating.

The manual labour is ‘05, the tithe is 3s. or 4s. an acre,
the rent 1/. on the best-managed and improved farms, and 10s.
on those of inferior quality in the hands of tenants of the old
schoo]. Leases are not usual except on the larger and better
farms.

Is it too much to say that the north of the island is, as a whole,
a century behindhand in practical agriculture? One would
suppose things could not go on as they are, if they had not gone
on so long already. With an open fallow, with 14 bushels of
wheat per acre, with no roots and little stock, the present system
would seem, in these days of competition, doomed, in spite of the
milk-pail. I heard the mass of the tenants spoken of, as deficient
in intelligence, capital, and enterprise. I have no doubt of the
fact. But are the landlords as a body prepared to do their part ?
I am not going to enter into any vexed questions of the relations
between landlords and tenants; but any occupier who sinks his
capital in these undrained cold clays, by attempting improved
modern systems of farming, without the proper preliminary
improvements both in the field and yard, must be a very bold
man. ‘The change has already begun both among landlords
and tenants. Much of the land has been, and is, in the market.
The purchasers have in some cases become residents, and have
entered on the improvement of their newly acquired property,
with the zeal proverbially attending on the prosecution of a new
pursuit. In other cases, tenants from over the sea, with a scientific
education, practical experience, and new ideas, have been intro-
duced. The ownership of the land, and its management, are
both in a transition state.

Any report of the farming of the northern portion of the island
would be incomplete without a description of the Prince Con-
sort’s farm at Barton—not because it is the Prince’s, but because
it is the farm which any unprejudiced person would select as
**the characteristic farm” of that district, and as exhibiting

360 Isle of Wight.

features to which all good husbandry here will, sooner or later,
conform. His Royal Highness is now in advance, of his neigh-
bours; but he is not now so much in advance as he once was ;
and the time will come—and this will be the best proof of the
practical character of his system—when he will be no longer in
advance, but when all will move forward in the same front
rank.

This farm—which is to be considered, not so much a model,
as a scene for experiments, which others may see, and, if they
like, imitate—comprises a little over 800 acres, of which one
half is arable, the other half pasture (chiefly park). It has been
in his Royal Highness’s occupation sixteen years, The soil is
no better than that of the neighbourhood, and has already been
described. Yellow clay and clay gravel are the subsoil; the
same materials, improved by cultivation and exposure to the
atmosphere, compose the surface soil. On the high grounds the
soil is generally lighter ; on the low grounds it is yet more clayey
and stiff. ‘The first operations were thorough underground drain-
ing (4 feet deep, and from 18 to 40 feet apart, according to the
subsoil), throwing the fields together (they are now from 15 to
20 acres each), and the construction of the buildings. These
last were built in the year 1852, and are not now so novel in
their excellence as they once were. They consist of two blocks,
with the roadway between them. One block measures 140 feet
by 100 feet; the other isa square of 100 feet, with a straw house
appended 15 feet long and proportionately broad. On your right,
as you enter, is the largest, and, as it may be called, the breeding
block. It consists of a yard for the young and dairy stock, sur-
rounded on two sides by a lambing shed, piggeries, sheep, and
pig yards (adjoming the shed and pigstyes), artificial manure
shed, breeding sows’, and bull houses. On the third side are the
cow and calves’ houses. The dairy cows are tied two and two in
a stall, stand on brick, and are cleaned out daily. There are
also two large boxes for cows about to calve, and adjoining is a
provision store for the dairy stock. Opposite the dairy cows are
sunk boxes for feeding cattle, and boarded grating for sheep feed-
ing. No sheep were there at the time of my visit, in the winter.
In this climate you do not want to house sheep, and on this soil
you do want the manure in the fold. Along the whole of this third
side, between the cows and the fatting stalls, runs the tramway,
across the road, into the opposite and the smaller block, which may
be called the grazing block. Here are to be seen twenty-four
fatting boxes for bullocks, occupying one side of the quadrangle,
and communicating with root, chaff, and oilcake stores. The
food is all cut and prepared by the steam-engine (fixed on the
side adjoining, at right angles) which of course drives the thresh-

Osborne. 361

ing-machine ; the barn completes this side of the quadrangle.
The third side is occupied with boiler and well, carpenter’s shop,
and cattle shed. The yard in this block is used for the store
beasts, in preparation for the boxes. Here also, against the road,
is the liquid manure tank, into which everything drains. In
the rear of these two blocks, are the stables, a provision store
100 feet long, and a cart shed, with a granary over of the same
length. Two implement sheds, each 90 feet long, complete the
farm buildings, of which it may be said that they are sufficient,
commodious, and thoroughly practical. The walls are brick
covered with slate. The granary is on brick arches with iron
girders, and having the floor covered with patent cement as a
protection against vermin. ‘The engine is 8 horse power, by
Easton and Amos, and does a variety of slavish work—threshing
and cleaning corn, cutting chaff and roots, crushing oilcake,
splitting beans and peas, bruising oats, grinding corn and tools,
turning the saw-mill for the carpenter, and pumping water for
the fountains at Osborne. The whole of the stock on the farm
is supplied by water from a spring on a higher level than the
buildings.

Since the land has been drained (and, but for the draining,
no root-crops could be grown on a good deal of the farm) the
customary open fallow has been abandoned for the four-course
system. The farmyard manure is chiefly used on the clover
leys preparatory to the wheat crop; but the crops of beans,
peas, and mangold have their share. The quantity varies, ac-
cording to the nature and state of the land, from 10 to 20 tons
an acre. The frequent ploughings, and the continual cleaning
of the root crops, keep the ‘land, as I can testify, very free from
weeds. I saw no couch, only a little water-grass in spots. The
wheat stubbles are ploughed with four horses 8 inchesdeep. The
other ploughings are with two horses, 5 inches deep; and the
work seemed to me to be executed with ease and celerity. No
scarifier is used. The harrowing is done by appending four
harrows to a pole, covering a 143 feet land, drawn by four
horses, two at each end, in line, walking in the furrows on either
side of the land. Thus is treading avoided—the great deside-
ratum of every farmer in this heavy country. The wheat is
broadcasted, two bushels per acre, and not hoed, hoeing being
the protection against annual weeds, of which there are few
here. In the Island generally wheat is mown; here Burgess
and Key’s reaper, with a side delivery, is used. Of the
turnips three fourths are consumed in the fold; one fourth
(together with all the mangold) is hauled home, They are
drilled in with 3 or 4 cwt. of superphosphate and compost.
The mangold have in addition a farmyard dressing, that root

362 ; Isle of Wight.

availing itself of any amount of manure, whilst the land re-
quires more since the crop is all drawn off. Guano is applied
as a top dressing, if the wheat or the oats want it in spots,
or when wheat follows beans. Chalking is in favour, 30 tons
per acre. The chalk is procured from Portsdown Hill, delivered
at Barton Hard, close by, for 2s. 9d. per ton, This chalk is con-
sidered quite equal to that of Arreton, and one-third cheaper.
Much stable and other dung, at 6s. 6d. per 14 tons, comes across
the water, and is considered the cheapest manure procurable.
The return of live stock 1st July, 1860, is as follows :—

Horses’? Ss 8250 Acc we Pee eee
Colts and foals a A og, LIL
Cowsan milla) eal oe ce eee
Other cattle «iy | cst cae a GEE:
Rams Corp Sis Subcetecalul cies iad Peeler 4
Ewes Ae ee AEN eh We hoc | AUD,
Toamibsrs wey ee iad Ta ee 2G
Qtherisheeptre.yome.) semen eee mmlllal
SWING.” gee 24) Sal west Be eee OL

929

The horses are chiefly Clydesdales. For mere cultivation ten
only would be sufficient, now that there is a steam-cultivator
(Smith’s).. The rest of the horses are used for other than farm
purposes on the estate. The milking cows are Alderneys; the
grazing beasts are polled Galloways. The cow calves are kept
for stock; the bull calves got rid of immediately. The sheep
are chiefly South Downs, with a few Dorset ewes for early lambs.
The Down lambs are kept for stock, or fatted off as tegs.
The horned lambs are fatted off at once with cake. The pigs,
of the Sussex breed, improved by Fisher Hobbs’ boar, are
killed as porkers. No food is cooked for them, nor for anything
else. As to implements, there are some of all sorts, His Royal
Highness thinking most things worth a trial. On one point he
has come to a very decided opinion. There is not a waggon on
the premises, but a double set of cart beds, harvest beds and
dung beds, which are placed, as occasion demands, on the same
axles and wheels. When not in use, the harvest-beds are stowed
away like plates in a plate-rack.

The following table will give the land under cultivation, dis-

* Among these are no longer to be reckoned the Puriah sheep of Thibet. These
were first described by the late Mr. Moorcroft. One ram and three ewes arrived
at Osborne, March, 1849. They increased in a year and two months to 15, the
ewes lambing twice in the year, but out of 11 lambs there was not one male. On
inquiring for them, I learnt that, after a time, the climate had disagreed with
them, that none now survived, and that the last were sent to the Zoological
Gardens,

Mr. Young’s Farm. 363

tinguishing crops, on Ist July, 1860, and the quantities produced
(which are extraordinary for last season) as ascertained after-
wards :

ae) St) Poe Produce per Acre.

MUDGRIRIS Boge. uselielem, = gaOMnOe O 36 bushels.
one deeEh | salsa os, SOMO. LO 44 ,,
(OES: | resbul seaiGian we we a ma: oth”) 0) ASI.
iBednsiand peas. 8 22. 6. |. 202° 0 PASI al)
Vetches Wi peelk hte ese. ae SG SOMTO
Turnips ide omen CMe sO)
ESOC OMCs cc. ce eu CI One
Clover and trifolium .. .. .. 61 0 O
Potatoesiand carrots) ... .. =.» 6 0: ©
Permanent pasture .. .. .. 412 0 0
Wrasterandi toads.) .. ce <1) 1d, ‘ORO

820 2 0

It only remains to add that these farming operations are meant to
pay, anddo pay. Weekly, monthly, quarterly, and yearly accounts
are kept in the most business like manner, and regularly for-
warded for His Royal Highness’s inspection. ‘There is an inde-
pendent audit; and, if there be any reliance on figures, both ends
are made to meet, and more than meet.

There is another and a more recent agricultural improver in
this same north eastern division of the island, whose spirited
efforts must not be passed over in silence. George Young, Esq.,
purchased, four years since, 730 acres of land at Ashey, of which,
in its present state, 500 are arable, 90 down, 30 coppice, 78 pas-
ture, and 32 recently reclaimed. It was, at the time of the
purchase, a wilderness of trees, bushes, and crooked fences, under
water, and without roads, almost in a state of nature. All but
the coppice is drained, under the superintendence of Mr. Parkes,
4A feet deep, 30 and 27 feet apart, or closer where the clay was
particularly retentive. Mr. Young has grubbed 150 acres of
oak coppice, and has put, or is putting, it under cultivation.
He has made roads, straightened the fences, and thrown his fields
together for the steam-plough, having had Smith’s'at work for
nearly the last two years when the state of the land permitted. He
has chalked and limed some portion with 40 tons of chalk per
acre and 24 of lime. When the heavy work of his other im-
provements is over, he will go on with this, having chalk, and
lime kilns on the farm. He made his own bricks and pipes of
the clay on the property, erected sawing machinery, and himself
superintended the erection of the whole. ‘The homestead is well
arranged to save labour. There are stalls and boxes for eighty
cattle, a shed 84 feet long and 14 wide for feeding sheep on
boards, besides every other possible accommodation. The feed-
ing troughs are of brick and cement, and water can be turned on

VOL, XXII. 2¢

364 Isle of Wight.

from a supply on higher ground. T here is a boiler for steaming
food both for oe and pigs, in which rapecake is boiled, and
strewed over cut straw, hay, and roots. A peculiar kind of fenck
on three wheels is used, which, when filled with 12 bushels of
cut turnips, a boy of twelve or fourteen can wheel with ease,
turning the corners without difficulty. There is a 10-horse
portable engine by Clayton and Shuttleworth, who also put up
the barn machinery.

Besides this homestead, Mr. Young is erecting another on the
same farm, but nearer Ryde, for a dairy of fifty-six cows, to be
extended to ninety-two, if found to answer. Italian rye-grass
will be grown, and sere with the liquid. There will be a
fixed 4-horse engine for cutting roots, churning, &c., and the
waste steam will hs employed to coal: the food.

No regular system of cropping can be as yet adopted, but the
four course is contemplated, A crop of oats is taken the first
year after the land is reclaimed, then mangold or swedes, to be
followed by wheat and clover. A portion, on being cleared, was
pared and burnt, and swedes taken as a first crop, followed by
oats. Liberal applications of farmyard and artificial manures
are made, Last year 14 tons of guano, and 20 tons of Lawes’s
superphosphate, were used, besides all the dung made at home,
and what the town of Ryde could supply. Within the last three
years 1900 tons of dung have been bought, in Ryde, and its
neighbourhood.

The sheep stock is about 700, 3860 of which are breeding
ewes, which Mr. Young hopes to increase next year to 500,
They are Hampshire danrass There are 25 shorthorn cows, 32
grazing beasts (Devons and shorthorns), besides 4 store calves,
and 8 working oxen, which are found very useful for rough,
heavy work. Next year it is contemplated to grow 120 acres of
roots, and to tie up 70 or 80 grazing beasts. Ten horses (Clydes-
dale and Suffolk) are kept fos me purposes, besides 7 colts.
Pigs (Berkshire and Sussex), 78.

The following is the return of land under cultivation last year,
together with the produce :

Acres, Produce per Acre,
Wheat i 0.. s0, o om» «a G0 tom 16 toteccpmenenas
ATIGY sy cas oe) ea tact | kates OUR ty ames ‘
Oats ee an en Ech ir le 0) or
Beast i268 seb Gy iheeti ace aw SEE ae eee 4
Mangold cel | ay) ahs aan Sau oi Sean meen ae
Swedes, and, tumnipsy * 2:0) 4. | aad SO | einem
Clover’ ss geet bo ietinn) ee ep Oe 12 ,,

This, be it remembered, is the produce both of corn and roots in
the last bad season, and greatly under that of the two previous
years. The mangold were only half a crop.

"Sir BR. Simeon—Mr. Hughes. 365

It is too early days yet to speak of successful results. But
endeavours after success, such as these, deserve all honourable
mention, and the hearty good wishes of the entire community,
whether consumers or producers. -

The late Sir Richard Simeon, in the north-western division,
was a most enlightened benefactor to his neighbours and to the
whole of the north of the island. Animated by a generous
public spirit, he made experiments, probably most costly to
himself, certainly most instructive to those who had the wisdom
to profit by them. To no proprietor do the agriculturists of this
island owe a deeper debt of gratitude. He drained at various
depths-—24, 34, and 4 feet—and found the deepest drains draw
best even in the stiffest clays. He next introduced an im-
proved rotation on the Swainston estate: 1, turnips; 2, green
crop; 3, wheat; 4, seeds; 5, oats or beans, with a winter fallow.
The turnips are, part of them, hauled home, the rest just un-
rooted with the picker, to prevent their drawing the land, and
consumed by sheep. Spring tares, or some green crop, follow, and
being folded off, the land is left in good heart for wheat. The
seeds are rolled in at spring. The superiority of this system is
evident. ‘There is a break between the two white straw crops ;
there is no expensive open fallow ; and, the land being in good
heart through the sheep, less farmyard-dung is required. ‘The
expense is one quarter less, and the produce half as much again,
And yet the example does not spread among the old residents ;
there is hardly a farm now so managed off the Swainston
property. .

The “‘ characteristic ” farmers hitherto mentioned are their own
landlords ; but there some good tenant farmers in the north-west :
such are Mr. Barrington, of Thorley, who has brought with him
from Devonshire, two herds of Devons, dairy cows and steers 5
Messrs. Shepherd, of New Barn; and Mr. Cheverton, of Shal-
fleet ; but for an improving farmer, where improvement is most
wanted ‘on indifferent land, general reputation points to Mr.
Alfred Hughes, of Thorness. His used to be one of the most
neglected and despised farms in the Island ; it was actually let,
four years since, at 7s. per acre, and, in its unimproved state,
with its poor buildings, was not cheap at that rate. The then
occupier of 460 acres fared and lived like a labourer. It has since
been drained, partly by the tenant, and buildings have been
erected, of which a candid critic would say, that their imposing
appearance is at least equal to their practical utility.

The characteristic of Mr. Hughes’s management may be said
to be, the skill with which he rapidly slips into the ordinary
four course rotation, by means of stolen crops. Climate helps
him much, but not more than his neighbours, whereas his soil is

262

366 Isle of Wigit.

rather worse than theirs. He brings the poor higher lying land
into good cultivation by following his corn crops with green crops,
Sane as Italian rye grass and trifolium. The former is hoed into
the wheat atthe last hoeing in the spring, the trifolium scratched
into the wheat-stubbles. Both are forced with artificial manures,
and yield heavy summer night and day foldings, with cake or
corn, ‘They are hard food, never scouring the lambs, and form a
substitute in this district for the sainfoin of the chalk country.
The fold is immediately followed by the cultivator, and turnips
put in at once. Here is a significant entry in Mr. Hughes’s
farm-book: “July 5. Broke up Northfield with Coleman ;
harrowed, rolled, and burnt the rubbish ; drilled purple-puddings
the same afternoon.” And so on, from day to day, as fast as the
land was cleared; the work was begun and finished within the
day, up to August 15th. Some of the earliest sown of these
purple puddings I saw on the ground in November. The crop,
not less than 30 tons, was too great to be consumed on the spot
—on one half the.sheep were folded, the other half was being
hauled to the barley stubble, where the breeding ewes would be
folded at night, and manure the ground for peas. So that 1 acre
of the turnip crop manures 2 acres of land—one where the crop
is, another elsewhere. The young turnip-plant will want cutting
out at a very busy time, in the middle of harvest, some one will
say. Mr. Hughes has met that difficulty, as Mr. Pusey suggested
in the Society’s Journal some years since. One fine summer
morning he and his carpenter (no one else could be spared) got
up early, and put Garrett’s horse hoe through the ranks. Mr.
Pusey had given no very specific directions, and the Thorness
imitators made a natural mistake at starting. They put the heels
of the knives towards the plants to be left. This was found to
cover them with mould, and was soon corrected by boldly turning
towards them the points. In addition to the fine tillage thus pro-
duced, the work was so accurately regular, that, as the labourers
expressed it, the field was like panes of glass. Mr. Hughes covers
his roots that are to be first consumed in the furrow with the
plough, as Mr. Boxall does, though he does not turn so much
earth over them, in consequence of the greater mildness of the
climate.

The naturally strong, but misused, and so worn and washed
out, clays in the valleys, Mr. Hughes improves by laying them
down to broad clover and a mixture of grasses, for two or three
years, assisting these with artificial manures, cutting one crop
and feeding another.

The root land comes into barley ; or, if too strong for barley,
then into beans or oats, which are grown on the lower grounds.
Barley is preferred for the higher, and is there found of good

General Observations. 367

malting quality. One shallow ploughing of the clover ley is
sufficient for wheat, which should be all in before November.
The half rod-lands are just covered, and can be well worked, by
drills, cultivators, harrows, and horse-hoes, the horses walking in
the deep furrows.

For most of the ploughing two horses (Suffolks) are sufficient,
though three may be used when turning in a stubble for roots,
About ten Irish shorthorns are fatted during the winter. Mr.
Hughes follows the usual Isle of Wight plan of breeding early
lambs from about 200 Dorset ewes. ‘The lambs are all gone by
the end of May, and the ewes (also fat) in October, to make
room for their successors. The beasts will probably be dimi-
nished, and the flock increased.

Mr. Hughes always keeps the chalk cart at work. He has
greatly improved some salt-marshes, at a small expense, by a low
bank of earth, and some hatches for the management of the
sea water, and by fresh water irrigation from the higher ground.
Some extensive tracts, between Newtown and the sea, seem very
capable of receiving similar benefit from similar treatment.

(VI1.) Observations on the whole Island—The best chalk in the
island comes from Arreton Down: the cost at the pit is 1s. 3d.
per waggon load, and it is hauled to a distance of six miles.
It is applied, as elsewhere, to the wheat stubbles, at the rate of 15
or 20 tons to the acre, and allowed to lie before being ploughed
in. The effects are described with enthusiasm. The straw is
stiffer, the yield of corn greater, and its quality higher: in the
turnips, clubbing disappears, and ten good roots are grown in the
place of one.

The horses on the Island are a good sort of animals, short and
punchy, with a hardy constitution, but of no particular breed.

Four horses are said to be indispensable for winter and spring
ploughing : “two have been tried, and ruined.” But then it should
be mentioned how horses are kept on the Island. During the
winter they have no hay, nothing but barley straw: their allow-
ance when at hard work is one bushel of oats per week ; vigour
and endurance are hardly to be looked for on such keep. The
heavy island plough also must be taken into account.

The old Isle of Wight plough is the high carriage implement,
in its pristine freedom from modern innovation. I have heard
that it had, at no remote period, wooden wheels. I did not indeed
see a specimen, there seemed to be some shyness in exhibiting
them to a stranger: and yet this implement has improved. The
share is now not of wrought, but of cast iron—a change which I
heard a ploughman regret. ‘* You can’t ply the point down, if he
turn upa bit.” Howard’s ploughs are coming into use, being one-
fourth lighter. Scotch carts have been tried; but, in this up and

368 Isle of Wight.

down country, they have been found to bear heavily on the horses’
backs, and have, after a trial of three or four years’ together, been
given up for waggons. The drill is not universally used: “]
lost a crop of turnips by waiting for it once,” said a farmer to me,

Newport is the market for the whole esiaiale every Saturday
for corn and store animals, every alternate Wednesday for fat
stock. The Whitsuntide fais there has become a mere toy fair.

The labourer throughout the island is well paid, and not over-
worked, The ordinary labourer has 11s. a-week; carter and
shepherd 1s. more, with fuel found: 6]. is given for the harvest
month, or the wages are continued at that rate, if the harvest last
bauer. Generally 3d. an hour is paid forall overtime. Through-
out the year the labourer earns 15s. per week, 1s. 6d. more than
he has on the mainland, The ploughman in the Island takes out
his team at seven o'clock in the morning, and hitches off at one
in the afternoon: on the mainland he is two hours more in the
field. And yet, though the Island pay is higher, and the work
less, it would be a mistake, as far as my observation goes, to say
the labourer there is the better servant.

There used to be a practice, almost universal, of boarding and
lodging the unmarried workmen in the farmer’s residence. |
saw, with pleasure, this winter, in a fine old manor house, the
master, his family, and his young men, dining, with certain
distinctions indeed as to the position of their tables, but in the
same hall and at the same time. It seemed like a revival of the
good old times; but it was really here a continuance of them,
the practice had never been intermitted. No doubt to it was
owing much of that personal attachment between master and man,
of that deference and respect to superiors, of good morals and
manners, the loss of which is justly regretted by those whose
membring linger in the past. Modern habits of society are, how-
ever, unhappily incompatible with this beneficial intercourse, and
the practice is dying out.*

* The introduction of the “ privy parlor,” or speaking room, in the end of the
fourteenth century, effected the same change in the manners of the higher ranks
of society. To this retreat the baron would retire, indulge in some of the comforts
of a home, and avoid the noisy publicity of the common hall; where his ancestors
had, for generations, presided at the dais with their retainers lining the walls on
both sides. This innovation on ancient usage did not pass unrebuked by the
moralists, and rulers of the day. Piers Ploughman denounces the growing
practice, as effeminate and luxurious. The wise and benevolent Bishop Grosteste
advised all masters that they “ete in the halle afore youre meyn,” for their
honour and worship’s sake. Royal ordinances required that “settynge in the
halle be kept after the old custome,’ and denounced “sondrie nobilmen, gentle-
men, and others who doe much delighte and use to dine in corners and secret
places, not repairing to the high chamber.” —(‘ Our English Home,’ Messrs. Parker.)
This good advice availed nothing. The domestie privacy of the parlour has
proved too seductive, in the halls, both of the baron and the farmer.

Use of Steam-power. 369

(VII.) Among “the improvements still required,” should be
named the formation of an agricultural society for the Island.
There was one, in which the late Lord Yar borough, the late Sir
Richard Simeon, and the late Rey. Walton White, took a great
interest. The late John Fleming, Esq., gave annually 50/. for
distribution among servants. It flourished for a few years, and
then ceased, for no reasons connected with the interests of agri-
culture. It is a pity.that it should not be revived: the good
feelings of the farmers would not be wanting. No race of men
are more hospitable, more good-hearted, than the farmers of this
island. I speak in the recollection Be their kindness. All of
them know each other from meeting at their single market : many
are blood relations. A farmers’ dinner is a family party.*

Whatever may be the result of a general comparison between
the agriculture of the mainland and thé Island, the latter can at
least claim priority in the application of steam power to the culti-
yation of the soil. The Prince Consort and Mr. Young have
adopted Mr. Smith of Woolston’s system, which in both cases is
well spoken of. Mr. Toward (Her Majesty’s bailiff) considers
the cultivator invaluable for autumn work on the corn stubbles,
and for spring work in preparation for root crops. He twice stirs
the land deeply for the last, at a cost of 12s. 6d. per acre for the
two operations, which no horses could have effected at double or
treble the expence. The wire rope wears well, the only breakage
being near the end, where the rope comes in contact with the
implement, and the remedy (shortening a few feet) being easy.
Mr. Toward intends getting Messrs. Howards’ new steam plough
for use, when he wishes to bring more new soil to the surface.
Mr. Young’s testimony is equally favourable. He has used Mr,
Smith’s cultivator largely in breaking up land, recently converted
from coppice to arable, as well as in autumn and spring cultiva-
tion. He reckons the cost of the two operations at 13s. 6d., and
also intends, when all hedges are removed and the fields squared,
to attach a plough to his engine.

The compactness of this little island has enabled it to anticipate
its greater neighbour in two very important branches of parochial
administration, the relief of the poor and the management of the
highways.

In the year 1770 the parishes were formed into what we should
call a union: the rates were consolidated into a common fund,
the management was lodged in the hands of 24 directors and

* Since this was written, a Society has been formed under most favourable
auspices. The objects are, better breeding and fat stock, and the encouragement
of the agricultural labourer, by rewarding skill and industry i in ploughing and
manual labonr. The breeding stock show is held in the summer, the ploughing
match in the autumn, and the fat stock show in the winter.

370 Isle of Wight.

36 acting guardians, making a board of 60 persons, and a union
workhouse (“house of industry”) built. The system has two
serious defects, incidental to a first attempt, but admitting of
easy remedies. ‘The board is practically self-elected, and the
assessment has never been altered since the year 1771. This
last grievance gives rise to loud and just complaint. Parishes
pay in the same proportion now as they did ninety years since ;
but meanwhile the changes in the value of property in different
parishes have been enormous. The parish of Newchurch, for
instance, running from sea to sea, has the new town of Ryde at
one end of it and the new town of Ventnor at the other. The
proportion of its payments to the common fund is the same as
before this vast accession of rateable property. No wonder if
agricultural: parishes, whose rateable property has very slightly, if
at all increased, call for a new assessment, with a view to a more
equal distribution of the burden. As yet they call in vain.

Though we, in England and Wales, have followed the Isle of
Wight example in the relief of their poor, we have not yet (though
the legislature has made many attempts) succeeded in bringing,
as they have done, our highways under some system of united
management. ‘The local Act (53 Geo. III, c. 92,) states, in its
preamble, that “the public roads in the Isle of Wight are in many
parts in a very bad condition, narrow and incommodious, and in
some places dangerous to travellers; and that they cannot be
widened and repaired by the laws then in being,” ¢. e. by the old
Highway Act of 13 of Geo, III., c. 78, and by parochial surveyors
acting under it. The new Act consolidated the parishes and
lodged the management in the hands of Commissioners, who are
self elected. The island is divided into two districts—the East
Medine and the West Medine—a general surveyor being appointed
to each, with parochial surveyors to collect the rates, and pay the
labourers.

Under the chairmanship of the Hon, Dudley Pelham, the Com-
missioners themselves repaired the roads at an annual cost of
35001. This system continued up to 1851, and the roads were
in excellent order: then, however, the repairs were let by tender,
and the contract prices for both districts were 25301, or nearly
1000/7. less than the Commissioners had expended. In 1858 the
contract system broke down in the West Medine district, and the
Commissioners have been obliged again to take those roads in
hand, and to incur heavy expenses, amounting to no less than
2000/7. in one year. Meanwhile, in the eastern district the con-
tract system still prevails, though there are doubts whether the
roads can be thoroughly repaired at the contract prices, after
the materials of 1851 are exhausted. A uniform rate of 6d. in the
pound realizes rather more than 3000/.: the tolls, which are

On “ Pedigree” in Wheat. 371

moderate, produce 2400/. The costs of the roads, bridges, toll
houses, Boe all expenses, except the salaries of the clerk eri sur-
veyors, amount to 40002 About 5007. per annum is spent by the
Commissioners in improvements. The extent of the roads and
bye-roads is 490 miles, so that the average cost of repairs is 10/.
a mile; but that of the main roads, if taken separately, will be
found to amount to 202, a mile.

February, 1861.

XVI.—On “ Pedigree” in Wheat as a Means of Increasing the
Crop. By Freperic F, Hauer.

Tue object of this Essay is to show that the wheat-plant from its
nature requires a mdde of culture which permits its perfect growth,
and that when it is so cultivated by the repeated selection of the
seed, of which, as in breeding animals, the record is a pedigree,
we can gradually increase the contents of the ears without in
the slightest degree diminishing their number.

In considering the possibility of effecting a material increase
in our wheat-crop, very little reflection will convince us that this
can only be obtained by a further development of the contents, not
of the nwmber of the ears,

The general experience that large ears are the result of a thin
crop, seems to have produced the impression that the existence
of such ears is confined to such crops.* This tacit assumption,
that improvements in the size of the ears can be obtained only at
a sacrifice of their number, has been a great stumbling-block in
the way of advancement, as it closes the only path in which we
can proceed with any prospect of success; that it has, never-
theless, no foundation in reality, 1 hope to be able to prove in
the course of these pages.

In pursuance of this object we will consider the nature of the
plant, in order to arrive at the natural mode of cultivating it, the
effect produced upon it by repeated selection of the seed, and the
practical results obtainable by this combination.

First then, as to the nature of the plant, or the mode in which
it will grow when perfectly unrestrained, and the manner in which
we should proceed to cultivate it, were it altogether a new species.

A perfect plant of wheat consists of three principal parts,
viz., the roots, the stems, and the ears. When a grain is
planted under the most favourable circumstances these are
Produced as follows : #Shortly, after the plant, appears anare

* The thin crop arises from the thinning of the plant having taken ee ata
time which admitted of only a partial subsequent development of the tillering
powers of the survivors.

372 On “ Pedigree” in Wheat

ground, it commences to throw out new and distinct stems,
upon the first appearance of each of which a corresponding
root-bud is developed for its support, and while the new stems
tiller” out flat over the surface, their respective roots assume
a corresponding development beneath it, This process will
continue until the season arrives for the stems to assume an
upright growth, when tillering ceases, and the whole vital power
of the plant is concentrated upon the production of the ears.
These will be the finest it is capable of producing, unless the
growth of its roots have been in any way interfered with, as by
having been cramped or crowded by those of other plants, when
the size of the ears will be proportionately diminished. I wish
to avoid scientific terms as much as possible, but as a convenient
mode of expression I shall henceforth speak of the “tillering”
process accompanied by the corresponding growth of the roots as
the “horizontal,” and of the comparative length and contents of
the ears produced as the “ vertical” development or growth of
the plant. I shall also, for like reason, designate as the « natural”
mode of cultivating wheat that which gives free play to its
nature.

The extent to which horizontal development may take place is
seen in the fact that the stems produced from a single grain
having perfect freedom of growth will, in the spring, while lying
flat upon the surface, extend over a circle 3 feet in diameter, pro-
ducing at harvest from 50 to 60 ears.

That vertical development is dependent upon the horizontal
growth being unimpeded, has been abundantly shown to me in
the observations | have made upon the growth of wheat under
different conditions. It is generally illustrated in the experience
before alluded to, that a thinned crop produces fine ears; and a
more particular illustration of this principle will be presently
seen in the case of the original ears with which I commenced.
These had been grown in the usual way in a field seeded with
two bushels per acre, but by simply planting their grains sepa-

rately, so as to admit of the fall horizontal growth of the plants,
the vertical development was in the following harvest nearly
doubled.

This fact is pregnant with practical inferences bearing upon
the present mode of culture, which, by the use of superfluous seed,
crowds the plants and produces ears of only one-half the natural
size.

Having thus illustrated the nature of the wheat-plant under
a system of cultivation which permits its perfect growth, let us
proceed to inquire how we may improve it by the repeated selec-
tion of the seed.

It has for the past twelve years been my conviction that a

as a means of Increasing the Crop. 373

good pedigree is as valuable in plants as in animals, and that in
the careful rearing of seed which has this qualification lies our
only means of materially increasing the produce of the cereals.
Amongst animals, whether horses, cattle, sheep, or pigs, the
importance of “ pedigree” is fully recognized, as also even in
reference to some of our agricultural plants ; for if a farmer wants
a good cabbage, mangold, turnip, or carrot, he selects the seed
from a good parent, but the moment he deals with the cereals
he almost ignores the great principle of like producing like,
which he admits, in the foregoing cases, to be not only a right one,
but so important as to deserve much attention, and repay much
outlay. Yet the minutest characteristics of a plant of wheat will
be reproduced in its descendants; so much so, that we can not
only perpetuate the advantages presented to us in an individual
ear, but, by the accumulation of selection, make further advances
in any desired direction; the union of good qualities imparting
a cumulative force, and their successive renewals and establish-
ment conferring, as in animals, a “ fixity of type.” To me it
has always appeared that, while offering an earnest of what a
better system would effect, the mode in which the best varieties
of our cereals have been raised (that of starting with accidentally
fine ears, and simply keeping the produce unmixed without any
further selection), is a very imperfect one, and that its attainments
are perhaps of less value than the earnest which it offers of future
success under a more complete system: for such beginning (and
ending, so far as selection is concerned) with an accidentally fine
ear, is a very different thing from starting annually with one of a
known lineage. Look at the almost parallel case of two heifers,
identical in every respect but that of “ pedigree;’’ the one
what she is by accident, the other by design ; the one worth 25/.,
the other 300/.; from the one you may obtain any imaginable
kind of progeny, from the other only a good hind.

» The formation of a race of high-bred cereals, in many respects,
admits of more rapid, complete, and satisfactory development
than that of animals; first, because they are far more prolific,
which gives much greater choice in each renewed selection
(besides favouring a rapid extension of the improved breed) ; and
next, because instead of that “ delicacy of constitution” often found
in high-bred animals, the very opposite character will prevail in
the pedigree plant, which is descended from a line of ancestors,
each of which was the most vigorous of its year, and possesses in
combination those various good properties by which they, more
successfully than others, withstood the vicissitudes of season
experienced during the years of selection. In illustration of these
principles of selection, | now give the following results, due to
their influence alone,—as the kind of seed, the land, and the

374 On “ Pedigree” in Wheat

system of culture employed were precisely the same for every
plant for four consecutive years; neither was any manure used,
nor any artificial means of fostering the plants resorted to.

TABLE showing the importance of each additional Generation of Selection.

| | Number
Year. | Length. | Containing of Ears on

| finest Stool.

Inches. Grains. |

1857 | Original ear cae pitti, ci Se ea 43 47 as
Nfs || LURE OO Ge Go, “od on, 66) ce 64 79 10
1859 Finest ear... 2h seri 72 91 22
1860 | Lars imperfect from wet SCOSOTOY [elu uaele . a 39
SGN NMBINeSh Gar! vec vise ce se) Fuse elise) 82 123 52
a eee

Thus, by means of repeated selection alone, the length of the
ears des been doubled, their contents nearly trebled, and the
‘* tillering ” power of the seed increased five-fold,

Before explaining the method of procedure adopted in the
above selection, I will briefly state why I commenced with so
small an original ear, I had for several years previously experi-
mented on accidentally large ears, irrespective of the quality of
the grain they contained; the invariable result was a sample so
coarse as to be almost maealeaule, Convinced that this did not
naturally result from the attainment of a perfect growth in the plant,
but rather arose from the fact that the large parent ears from some
peculiarity of their growth themselves contained coarse grain,
I determined to commence with a fine quality of grain irrespective
of the size of the ear, trusting to pedigree for the gradual attain-
ment of fine ears. I therefore started with the ‘“‘ Nursery” wheat
as the finest quality of red wheat known, as I have since done
with several kinds of white wheat, such as Colonel le Couteur’s
“‘ Bellevue Talavera” (kindly sent to me by the Colonel for that
purpose),* “ Hunter’s White,” and several kinds of Australian
white wheat, which were all fixed upon on account of their
quality mene!

The plan of selection pursued above is as follows :—A grain
produces a “stool,” consisting of many ears. I plant the grains
from these ears in such a manner that each ear occupies a row
by itself, each of its grains occupying a hole in this row; the
holes being 12 inches apart every way. At harvest, after the
most careful study and comparison of the stools from all these

* This was originally raised by Colonel le Couteur from a single grain, The
ears and grains sent me by the Coloncl in 1860 are absolutely identical in charac-
ter with specimens grown in 1841, and now in the collection of the Society,
showing how the influence of the original selection has been maintained for
nearly twenty years.

ORIGINAL TWO EARS

FINEST QUALITY OF RED

DATE oF
PLANTING,

1857: Dec. 17..

1858: Oct, 22 ..

1859; Sept. 19

“unsB yuasnd

fo ssamod ., Bur
1974 ,, [0 yunoo

9D U0 pazoazas

1860; Oct. 4

A FIELD OF RED

ONE OF THE

SELECTED IN 1857 FROM
NURSERY WHEAT, THE
WHEAT GROWN IN ENGLAND.

ORIGINAL TWO EARS.

Containing together 87 grains, .
|
One prime grain The finest 10 ears that could be
produced 10 ears, selected from the whole produce
containing of the other 86 grains contained.
| |
79 76 74. 73 69 68 68 66 60 55 = 688 70pg87—) 63; 68’ 63: 60: S57 52) “52 SL = 698
| ——————————q—e oq —_——
ee eS, Continued for one year more.
secs year more,
3 g FE Ee but abandoned, as the pro-
= ae 09 duce was evidently inferior,
Ca 2
Bat
Bi ele
Bess 6
REATE AFTER TWO YEARS’ REPEATED SELECTION.
—~
91 87 86 76 75 74 72 67 67 66 65 64 63 63 61 58 55 = 1190
|
|
~ at (a) Average 55 grains.
eoeecem ee ee So PEe
acs (b) ” 12 eSkRG
5 03 O88?
gemed es
Bop E Ze 8 8
t beere 2.8 oh 6
AR 3's P oR se Eg
© G3: Cae a=!
ean
——————EE—— = es
. if 71* 2000 = 2145 87 86 $1 80 80 78 74 70 67 67 66 65 62 62 61 = 1086
22 * | =
Fa 5 Owing to the extraordinary season (1860), a as
J the crop was so beaten about and Injured by the ae S § 5 Bo
=| ic) wet, that the two ears given separately, “ 74,” = b> ee & oy
ae, “71,” were the only perfect ones in this “stool,” 8 = BE: no 8 £.
ge Which was selected on account of the number of =a g & ERE
a its ears; the other “stool” was selected on % da Pa Ss a
gs account of the contents of its ears, SS LSB
=
B=
as Planted Sept. 19, 1861 128 106 105 97 95 92 88 85 S4 81 80 79 78 75 71 68 67 66 66 66 G4 G4 62 50 = 1909
| :
THE EAR CONTAINING 1238 GRAINS.
BEST EAR 1861.
NEW STARTING-POINT 1861,
| @ =
|
; |!
PoE C ie) aad
aaa!
Sealy 4
ESSE

LONGEST BAR 1861.

9

as a means of Increasing the Crop. 375

grains, I select the finest one, which I accept as a proof that its
parent grain was the best of all, under the peculiar circum-
stances of that season. This process is repeated annually, start-
ing every year with the proved best grain, although the verifica-
tion of this superiority is not obtained until the following harvest.

During these investigations no single circumstance has struck
me as more forcibly illustrating the necessity for repeated selec-
tion than the fact, that of the grains in the same ear one is found
greatly to excel all the others in vital power.

Thus, on reference to the foregoing diagram, it will be seen
that the original two ears together contained 87 grains; these
were all planted singly. One of them produced 10 ears contain-
ing 688 grains, and not only could the produce of no other single
grain compare with them, but the finest 10 ears which could be
collected from the produce of the whole of the other 86 grains
contained only 598 grains; yet, supposing that this superior
grain grew in the smaller of the two original ears, and that this
contained but 40 grains, there must still have been 39 of these
86 grains which grew in the same ear. So far as regards
contents of ears.

Again, this year (1861) the grains from the largest ear of the
finest stool of last year were planted singly, 12 inches apart, in a
continuous row; one of them produced a stool consisting of 52
ears ; those next to and on either side of it of 29 and 17 ears
respectively ; and the finest of all the other stools consisted of
only 40 ears. By planting grains so as to form a plan of the
position occupied by each when in the ear, I have endeavoured
to ascertain whether this superior grain grows in any fixed place,
but hitherto these endeavours have proved unsuccessful.

We have thus far seen that “ pedigree” in wheat, combined
with a natural mode of cultivating it, has increased the contents
of the ears,—let us now consider whether this combination can
produce a number of ears equal to that usually grown per acre
under the present system.

In order to ascertain this we ought to know the number of ears
ordinarily grown from 7 or 8 pecks of seed, but there are really
no data upon this point. It has, however, been considered as
about equal to the number of grains in a bushel,* or under
800,000, which is about one ear for every two grains sown.

I will, then, compare the numbers grown in 1861 upon two
pieces of land only separated by a hedge, where the two systems
were fairly tried, the same pedigree wheat being employed as
seed in both cases, In the one instance 6 pecks per acre were

* Stephens’s ‘ Book of the Farm,’ 2nd edition, vol. ii., par. 4574.

376 On “ Pedigree” in Wheat

drilled, November 20, 1860, and the crop, resulting in 54 bushels
per acre, consisted at its thickest part of 934,120 ears per acre.
In the other instance 44 pints per acre were planted in September
in single grains, 1 foot apart every way, and the number of ears
produged per acre was 1,001,880, or 67,760 ears in excess of
those produced on the other side of the hedge, from more than
twenty-one times the seed here employed. Now, as an area of a
square foot is more than amply sufficient for the full develop-
ment of each grain, it is clear that thin seeding is not necessarily
attended by a thin crop. (See note, p. 377.)

Having thus seen that fine ears depend upon the full develop-
ment of the plant, and that this does not occasion such a diminu-
tion of their number as makes it fall below that commonly
obtained, let us proceed to examine in detail how we may so act
as to produce both the finest and most numerous ears ; in other
words, the greatest possible crop per acre.

So radical a change as this in our mode of planting wheat
will necessitate a great change also in the time of planting, it
being evident that a grain which has to oceupy a large space, and
to produce from twenty to fifty ears, will require more time for
its growth than one which has no such area to cover, and is
expected to produce only two or three ears ; hence the necessity of
apportioning the quantity of seed employed to the time at which
it was committed to the ground, or, in other words, of giving each
grain only just so much work to do as the season of planting
cinta of being accomplished. The expression “ season of
planting” must here be understood as implying not a mere date,
but “ probable opportunity of growth ;” and this would be affected
in some measure by'the differing circumstances of climate, aspect,
natural or artificial richness of soil, and the character of the ensu-
ing autumn. In determining the best distance apart at which to
plant the separate grains, we can only profess to deal with seed
which is the result of continued selection, for the vital powers of
the different grains of ordinary wheat are so very unequal that it
would be manifestly impossible to fix on any uniform distance,
because that which would afford room for the perfect growth of
the most vigorous grains would leave far more than would be
required by the least vigorous. But by repeated selection, com-
mencing annually with a single grain, the vital power becomes,
equalized i in a very remarkable degree, and that in proportion to
the length of time during which the process of selection has been
continued. Nor is this equalization confined to their tillering
powers alone, but, which is equally important, is exhibited alse
in the ears in their nearer approach to uniformity of size.

It is evident that the proper space and time to allow to grains

as a means of Increasing the Crop. v7

planted upon this system are those which, while sufficient for
their full development, leave no unnecessary room.* When the
pedigree wheat is used these conditions are, upon my land, best
fulfilled by planting the grains singly, 9 inches apart every way,
very early in September. This is equal to one bushel on about six
acres, and if planted later the distance apart should be propor-
tionally diminished ; so soon, however, as this reduction of the
space afforded each grain interferes with its horizontal growth, the
contents of the ears will also be affected ; but even when planted
at the smallest distance of which I shall presently speak, this
takes place in a slight degree compared with their reduced size
under ordinary cultivation.

It should, nevertheless, be borne in mind, that it is only when
we fulfil all the conditions best adapted for success that we can
expect the fullest possible advantages of the system. What these
may amount to will be shown by the following fact :—The
Pedigree Nursery wheat planted singly, September 9, 1859, in
holes 9 inches apart every way, produced in 1860, notwithstand-
ing the very disastrous character of the season, 1} bushels on
698 square feet of unmanured land, or 108 bushels per acre !

Thus, then, there does exist a possibility of greatly increasing
the wheat crop; but even the above results will not surprise
those who realize the fact, that while a crop of 40 bushels per
acre is equal to only 500 grains upon a square foot, a single grain
of pedigree wheat will frequently produce upon the same area
four or five times that number, and in some instances even far
more than that. .

We now come to the question—Can this system be adapted to
field culture, and may similar results be expected from it when
carried out upon a large scale ?

To this a reply in the affirmative may unhesitatingly be
given. It so happened that until the harvest of 1860 I had not
sufficient of the pedigree wheat to test the system under field
culture, and that the summer and autumn of that year proved so
wet that 1 was altogether unable to fulfil the conditions best
adapted for ensuring its success. The results obtained, notwith-
standing these unfavourable circumstances, were, considering that
the harvest of 1861 was not a yielding one, such as fully to
demonstrate upon a large scale the value of pedigree in wheat,
both when accompanied with but little of the advantage to be

* T have now before me a plant from a single grain from a field planted Sept. 10,
1861. This plant has upon it upwards of 40 stems, and measures 20 inches from the
extremities of the leaves of opposite stems. The roots also extended 2 feet hori-
zontally, but the parent grain occupied only a square foot, as the extremities of
the roots of adjoining plants feed upon the same ground, and those of the stems
interlace upon the surface.

378 On “ Pedigree” in Wheat

obtained from a “natural” mode of cultivation, and when grown
altogether in the ordinary way.

The first case is that of a field of 10 acres, which has always
been considered the worst wheat-field on my farm, the soil of
which is light—in this field disadvantageously so—and rests im-
mediately upon chalk. My usual crop of wheat is from 32 to
36 bushels per acre, 40 bushels being considered a very good
crop; indeed, upon no single acre of all my other wheat, “ not
pedigree,” had I as much as 86 bushels in this same harvest of
1861. The wet season prevented my planting this field until
the end of October, which was fully six weeks too late for the
quantity of seed employed, there not being sufficient time afforded
to the plants to occupy the ground by tillering. Being anxious,
however, without the loss of another year, to try the system upon
a large scale, I planted the whole field with 10 pecks, or 1 peck
per acre, by dropping the grains singly in the seams made by a
land-presser. Notwithstanding the late planting, the crop
produced 57 bushels of wheat and 140 trusses (of 36 lbs.), or
45 cwts. of straw per acre. This field was sown with wheat
in 1857 and 1859; grew roots in 1856 and 1858; and in the
autumn of 1859 reeeived 307 loads of manure previous to being
sown with rye and tares; on the removal of these crops 7 acres
were drilled with carrots, and had 3 ewt. per acre of Lawes’
superphosphate ; when the carrots were taken off, both roots and
leaves, a coat of manure was given, 20 loads per acre, and the
wheat was sown; of the rest of the field, 14 acres received 30
loads per acre for cabbages, and no further dressing when the
cabbages were carted away.

The next case was that of a field of 8 acres, which has always
been considered the best wheat-field | have. This was drilled,
November 20, 1860, with six pecks per acre of the same wheat as
that used in the first case. The crop consisted of 54 bushels of
wheat and 112 trusses of straw (36 cwt.) per acre. This field was
last in wheat in 1856, followed by two years of Italian ryegrass
and roots in 1859. In 1860 it received 287 loads of manure,
and grew an average crop of mangold, of which both roots and
leaves were removed.

No artificial manure was applied in either instance, and both
crops were “swapped,” or cut close to the ground.

The peculiar properties and vital powers of the pedigree wheat
remain unchanged when it is exposed to the vicissitudes of farm
culture in various soils and situations, ‘The reports received
from those who have planted it this autumn are only fairly repre-
sented by the following statement: ‘ the wheat drilled with
12 pints per acre looks quite thick enough.”

In adopting my system upon a small experimental scale, say

as a means of Increasing the Crop. 379

of a few acres, the best apportionment of seed to time will
generally be as follows, the grain being dibbled singly in holes
not exceeding 14 inches deep at the distance—

]
Betwe In z 2
the Rowe | the Rows— | Quantity of Seed.

In August, or ewly in poe | of 9 inches | of 9 inches | =1 bush. on 6 acres
In September “6 eV ah OMe Giatetsn Wa Uue sie BON Gamo.
In October F del) og Of Beane Glee jt= le ee Ontoat et:

Towards end ‘of month. ar! (htt ROR sya Ae hs =i. ODEA Na
After October Ze) Je) | A OREN HD esa leila 9 OP OR ary,

But in carrying out this system upon a large scale we require
some way of getting in the seed more expeditiously than can be
done by dibbling.

My principal “object i in dibbling is to insure perfect singleness
and regularity of plant, with uniformity ef depth: af. Hobe
latter may be attained by the drill, as may the former also by
adopting the following plan. The seed-cups ordinarily used in
drilling wheat are so large that they deliver bunches of grains
consisting of six or seven, which fall together within a very
small area, from which’a less produce will ‘be-obiained dian if it
had been occupied by a single grain. The additional grains are
thus not only wasted, but they are positively injurious. By using
seed-cups, however, nick are only sufficiently large to contain
one grain at a time, a stream of single grains is delivered, and
the desired object, viz., plants from single grains, at once aitaitied:
The intervals iz the rows will not a aioe m, but they may be
afterwards equalized by the use of the hoe, if it be thought neces-
sary. These intervals will of course depend upon fae velocity
with which the seed-barrel revolves, which can be regulated at
teri by a proper arrangement of the cog-wheels which drive

; but it will be necessary to fix upon the nave of the travelling-
wheel of the drill itself a larger cog-wheel than is in common
use. I have had these A esnucels made to shift with facility,
so that the drill may be easily rendered again available for
general purposes. By drilling thus we obtain the advantage of
the « broadcast” system also—equal distribution—as we can have
the rows as close together, and the grains as thin, zn the row as
we please. The crop should be iced! as soon as practicable,
with Garrett's horse-hoe. If the seed has been sown early, this
should be done zn the autumn, as it causes the plants to tiller and
occupy the whole ground before the winter sets in.

I do not know that I can better conclude this Essay than by
giving a summary of the advantages which attend very early
planting, apart from any increase to be anticipated in the crop.

Ist. The Extension of the Seed-time-——By commencing in the

VOL. XXII. 2 D

380 On “ Pedigree” in Wheat

first week in September the seed-time extends through that and
the two following months, giving much greater choles of oppor-
tunity for sowing under favourable’ circumstances than is pre-
sented when nearly the whole work has to be performed in
November—a month which too often proves so wet as upon heavy
land altogether to prevent its accomplishment, and hardly ever
admits of the entire seeding being performed either under the
conditions or at the time, known 4e be those most conducive to
success, September-planted wheat may follow clover (of all
kinds), beans, peas, or early-fed rape, &c., but never immediately
after rye-grass.

Qnd. The small quantity of Seed required. —Although the
saving of seed, instead of being a main object in my plan, is
only a means to obtaining perfect g growth, and, as it were, a neces-
sity arising from it, we must not overlook the national import-
ance of even this single one of its features. Were the wheat-lands
of the United ieenaiaes drilled with an average of even 2 pecks per
acre (1 peck for fhe earliest sown, and 3 pecks for the latest), the
result would be a saving of eee ere of the seed—in itself
equal to nearly a million quarters of wheat.

Again, the small quantity of seed required renders the results
of the most refined selection in the small plot practically and
immediately available by their distribution over a very large
area; thus | have now a field of 7 acres planted with the produce
of a single grain planted two years ago,—one acre of it with the
produce of a single ear planted 1860.

We can thus annually import from the selecting-plot to the
farm, seed one generation still further selected, effectually counteract-
ing the tendency to degenerate which remains even in a pedigree
wheat, and which can ‘begin to take effect only upon the selection
being jeconaaued: The longer, however, this course of repeated
selection has been continued, “the greater will be the accumulated
vigour of the plants, and the less readily will degeneracy re-
appear.*

drd. The rapid growth of the plant in its earlier and more hazard-
ous stages. —The temperature early in September is generally such
as to promote not only immediate germination so that the plants
frequently appear aboveground in ten days, but also their rapid sub-

* The importance of continuing the selection cannot be too much insisted upon.
To discontinue it would be as unwise and irrational as the conduct of the breeder
who, having brought his herd to a certain pitch of excellence, suddenly exhibited
an utter disregard of those principles by which this had been accomplished ; in
fact, the man who once admits the value of repeated selection must also admit
the necessity of its continuance, even for the mere maintenance of perfection, were
that desirable point already attained. In nothing is it more true than in this, that
“not to advance is to retrograde.’ The value of “pedigree” in wheat depends,
as in other cases, upon its length.

as a means of Increasing the Crop. 38]

sequent growth until they begin to tiller, when they soon become so
strong as to be quite beyond the attacks of their enemies ; indeed
as inaccessible to them in the early autumn as wheat grown in the
usual way is in the early summer. Nor is there any danger of
even the earliest planted wheat becoming ‘‘ winter-proud,” if we
employ the proper quantity of a pedigree seed which has been
trained for the purpose of tillering out flat over the surface: this
being altogether a different thing from the early sowing of two
bushels of seed per acre, when, the plants being crowded,
growth can only take place upwards.

4th. The time afforded for Replanting in case of entire failure.—
When wheat is drilled, as proposed, early in September, the crop
is usually either destroyed or perfectly safe within six weeks, as
by this time the plants will either have succumbed to the attacks
of their enemies, or will have got beyond their reach. Ample
opportunity is, therefore, afforded for re-sowing if it should chance
to be required. The utmost risk, therefore, encountered in
adopting this ‘system is simply that of losing the seed—one-
sixth part of a bushel per acre. How slight this risk is may be
gathered from the fact, that out of nearly five hundred different
persons who have planted this wheat during the past autumn
(1861), only ¢wo have reported the destruction of the crop—in
one case by excessive drought, in the other by slug.

We have seen then that “pedigree” in wheat gave, when
drilled in the usual way (at the rate of 6 pecks per acre), Noy.
20, 1860, a produce of 54 bushels per acre in the harvest of
1861, which was not a yielding one; and when we consider that
this was under circumstances where the plant was so thick that
the valuable properties accumulated in the seed could be only par-
tially developed, we shall be inclined to place a high value upon
pedigree alone, as applied to the wheat-crop as usually cultivated,
and to confess that, while in almost every other department of
agriculture, our countrymen have by patient study and experi-
ment effected improvements which “have excited the admiration
of the whole world, our cereals have been comparatively uncared
for,

I have written this Essay in the hope of attracting attention to
this too much neglected subject, twelve years’ continued investi-
gation of which has matured in my mind the conviction that it
is of the greatest national importance, and that Great Britain
may yet grow enough wheat to feed her people.

The Manor House, Brighton, December, 1861.

Dy IY

( 382°)

XVII.—On the Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw.
By Dr. Aveustus VoELCKER.

Bors Mr. Mechi and Mr. Horsfall have done good service to
agriculture by the publication of their experience in feeding and
fattening cattle with food, a considerable portion of which con-
sisted of straw-chaff. In whatever light Mr. Mechi’s experience
in fattening cattle or Mr. Horsfall’s dairy management may be
regarded, the merit cannot be denied to these gentlemen of
having succeeded in directing the attention of the British farmer
to the use of straw as an economical feeding-material,

Many farmers form much too low an estimate of the feed-
ing value of ev ery kind of straw, except pea-haulm. On the
Bier hand, the views of others respecting the nutriment con-
tained in gees are so unmistakeably exaggerated that, with some
degree of justice, they are made a laup bine -aouk at che market-
table. The main anxiety of the firepenaneds class seems to be how
to tread into manure all the straw grown on the farm ; that of the
second, how to stuff stock with ail the straw at eis disposal ;
the freed of the former being that neither little nor much will
do their cattle any good, whilst the latter hold that any appro-
priation of it for litter is an intolerable waste.

The sober-minded, observant, and intelligent agriculturist,
however, knows full well that whilst wheat, oat, and barley
straw when cut into chaff possess a certain fecdage value, par-
ticularly when this bulky material is combined with some con-
centrated or more readily digestible food, they are not the less
essential on the generality of farms to the production of good
farmyard manure. On most farms, indeed, the want of straw
is felt much more on account of the difficulty of preserving the
most valuable constituents of the liquid and solid excrements
which arises from an insufficient supply of litter, than because
an economical substitute for this kind of bulky food cannot be
found.

Were it the object of this paper to discuss specially the use of
straw as a manure, or rather a manure-producing and preserving
agent, I might show that on most farms it is not only the
cheapest but also the most efficient and valuable of the bulky
materials at command for converting the excrementitious matters
of our domestic animals into good yard-manure. But as |
intend to direct the attention of the reader more particularly to
the feeding properties of straw, I shall offer only a few observa-
tions on its manurial properties.

The intrinsic fertilising value of the straw of our cereal crops °
—that is, its fertilising value as far as this is dependent upon

Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw. 383

the presence of certain organic and mineral constituents—is,
I conceive, very insignificant, Its chief merits are as an
absorbent of the most valuable portions of the excrements of
animals, and as the best fixer of the ammonia which is always
generated when excrementitious matters in contact with porous
materials and a sufficient quantity of moisture enter into active
fermentation. The action of straw in fixing ammonia may be
thus explained. During the fermentation of dung the woody
fibre of straw is conv extad by degrees into mien humic, and
similar organic acids, which impart to liquid manure or to the
drainings “of dungheaps a more or less dark brown colour. The
eradual - resolution of the nitrogenised part of the excrements into
Pemouiacal compounds proceeds simultaneously with the forma-
tion of organic acids belonging to the humic acid series. All
the acids of that series possess great affinity for ammonia, in
virtue of which they unite with the ammonia of the volatile car-
bonate of ammonia, which, without the addition of a proper
quantity of litter, would evaporate from a heap of fermenting
excrements. Straw thus furnishes the raw material for the pro-
duction of a number of organic acids, which, by laying hold of
ammonia, preserve that most valuable constituent in our manure.

The indirect fertilising value which attaches to this important
property of straw, in virtue of which rotten straw prevents the
loss of ammonia in dungheaps, in my opinion, is far greater than
its intrinsic manuring value, which is dependent upon the various
small proportions of nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid, silica,
and other constituents which it contains. These poeecenet
can, I believe, be supplied in various artificial manures and
refuse materials, more economically than in straw. But I do not
see clearly how the most valuable portion of the dung is to be
preserved without straw, and how the comfort of cattle is to be
secured without a sufficient quantity of litter, or what economical
and available substitute can be found for straw applied as litter.
I am therefore inclined to attach much more value to straw than
most theoretical men, and yet can go a long way with those
farmers who broadly and somewhat vaguely state that it is not
manure but only litter.

As straw contains only from 14 to 17 per cent. of moisture,
there is in it about as much solid matter as in meal and other
kinds of dry food, although it is considered to be worth only
from 20s. to 30s. per ton.

The bulk of straw, however, includes a large proportion of
woody fibre, which, if digestible at all, is only partially assimi-
lated in the system. Still, assuming that not more than one-third
of the weight of straw is digested by cattle and probably less by
horses and, sheep, and granting that the assimilable part is not

384 Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw.

food of the most nutritious character, straw will still have to be
regarded as a more economical feeding material than any other
Ww Bich can be supplied. It is undoubtedly a fact that some prac-
tical feeders are in the possession of the secret of converting con-
siderable quantities of straw into beef. What this secret is,
perhaps, is not known even to themselves. It may be that the
combination in which straw is given, or the preparation to
which it is submitted before it is placed in the feeding-troughs,
has something to do with the success that attends its use ; but it
is yet more probable that on farms where straw is largely and
economically cut into chaff and given to cattle, its condition,
from early harvesting and other iuiaetcadl is better than in other
localities where the practice prevails of allowing corn to become
over-ripe before it is cut. In consequence of this mischievous
practice, straw gets more woody and less digestible than it
would have been had the corn-crop been cut earlier. Further on
several analyses will be given to show how much the composition
and nutritive value of straw depend on the condition in which it is
harvested. Indeed, the differences in the composition of somewhat
under-ripe and over-ripe wheat or oat straw, are greater than the
variations which may be noticed on comparing with each other
the composition of wheat, oat, and barley straw. No very broad
or permanent distinction, in fact, exists between wheat, oat, and
barley straw. It would appear that in certain districts each
variety in its turn becomes superior as food—each kind is pre-
ferred and exclusively retained for that purpose; whilst, in
other districts, each is consumed for litter. Moreover, the
natural preference shown by stock for one kind or the other
affords a practical evidence that the farmer in each case may
have a good reason for the choice which suits his locality. We
must therefore always expect to meet with great diversity of
opinion amongst practical men respecting the ‘nagative value of
wheat, oat, and barley straw. ‘That pea-haulm is too good to be
ididen into manure is admitted by all. When properly got in,
pea-straw is, indeed, a valuable feeding substance. With respect
to the nutritive properties of bean-stalks, again, great diversity
of opinion prevails—some considering them almost as nutritious
as clover-hay, and others only fit for litter.

The ash or the inorganic part of many varieties of wheat, oat,
and barley straw, as well as of bean and pea straw, has been
carefully exannined by different chemists. Whilst we have on
record a large number of reliable ash-analyses, comparatively
speaking few organic examinations of straw have been made.
With but few exceptions the published organic analyses are not
sufficiently explicit for practical purposes, and hence it is not -
surprising that men who base their opinion on such imperfect

~
Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw. 385

or partial analyses should make exaggerated statements respect-
ing the high feeding value of straw. In most of these analyses
we find the components grouped together in the following
manner :—

1. Water.

2. Nitrogenised substances.

3. Non-nitrogenised substances.

4, Mineral substances (ash).

1. The amount of water in well-harvested straw when the
corn is stacked varies from 25 to 86 per cent. After stacking a
good deal of water evaporates, and the amount soon sinks to
16 or 18 per cent. Straw being a very hygroscopic substance is
much damper in autumn and “spring than in summer, or in a
wet than ina dry month. I have found as little as 8 per cent.
and as much as 19 per cent. of water in straw of the same kind
taken at different times from the outside of the same stack.
Making every allowance for variations depending upon the state
of the atmosphere and on the age of the straw, 16 per cent. may
be taken as fairly representing its average proportion of water.

2. The group of nitrogenised substances includes albumen
and vegetable casein—two compounds soluble in water—and
vegetable fibrin and other albuminous compounds, which are in-
soluble in water, but readily rendered soluble by weak alkaline
solutions. All the nitrogenised compounds contain about 16 per
cent. of nitrogen, and, besides carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen,
small quantities of sulphur and phosphorus. ‘They resemble
each other so closely in composition and properties as to be
scarcely distinguishable. As the type of this interesting class of
compounds we may regard vegetable albumen—a substance
analogous if not identical in properties and composition with the
white: of eggs. On account of the close resemblance of vegetable
casein, fibrin, &c., to albumen, the compounds of this. group
are often called albuminous matter. By a simple chemical pro-
cess all furnish a substance which its discoverer, Professor Mulder,
named protein. According to this illustrious chemist, albu-
minous substances are combinations of protein with small quan-
tities of sulphur and phosphorus, and hence they are termed
frequently protein compounds. Not only are these vegetable
substances nearly identical in composition and properties, but
they likewise resemble so intimately animal casein, albumen,
and fibrin, or those materials of which the flesh and blood ae
animals principally consist, that they have been called with
much propriety flesh or sidkale forming principles. As the
animal organism has not the power of constructing these com-
binations, s so essential to the support of life, from other materials,
although the latter may contain nitrogen, it is evident that all

386 Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw.

good vegetable food must contain a fair proportion of albuminous
substances. [xcept in the case of pea-haulm, the proportion of
albuminous matter in straw is not large. It varies considerably
in straw of the same kind, according to the state of maturity in
which corn is harvested, it being larger in straw not fully ripe.
The average percentage cannot be precisely determined, but on
the whole we may say that well-harvested straw of good feeding
quality contains from 2 to 3 per cent., and inferior samples from
14 to 1} per cent. of albuminous substances. In some cases the
amount exceeds 3 and even 4 per cent.
The non-nitrogenized substances are as follows :—
a. Oil, fatty, and waxy matters, with more or less
chlorophyle.

b. Sugar.

c. Gum and mucilage.

d. Extractive matters, and occasionally bitter principles.

e. Cellulose ; and, lastly,

» Woody fibre.

In some published analyses starch is mentioned as a consti-
tuent of straw, but this is a mistake. Neither the straw of our
cereals nor that of peas or beans contains any starch—a fact
which any one may readily ascertain if he will either apply
tincture of iodine directly to a fragment of straw ; or, better still,
if he boil down a quantity ee water and oat a be drops a
tincture of iodine to the perfectly cold and clean filtered decoc-
tion, when the non-appearance of the characteristic blue colour
of iodide of starch will indicate the absence of every trace of
starch.

It is much to be regretted that writers on agricultural matters,
and even persons who by the public at large are considered
scientific men, often employ distinct chemical terms in a very
loose manner, and that they frequently leave the sure ground of
ascertained facts, on which alone in chemistry opinions can be
based, to launch into the realms of fancy and unauthorised
assumption, When it is stated in many published analyses that
straw contains some 15 to 20 per cent. of starch, the practical
men experienced in the fattening properties of barley-meal and
similar starch-containing food, on comparing that experience
with the results obtained by straw- feeding, cannot but have their
confidence in chemistry greatly shaken.

Again, misconceptions appear to exist in the minds of some
of the advocates of straw as to the.amount of fat and oil which
it contains. ‘These, together with a small quantity of wax and
chlorophyle, plitern gee | 2 per cent., and are often less than
1 per cent. But it has been stated that straw contains as much
as 20 per cent. of fat, from a confusion between fat and fat-

Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw. 387

forming matters—a term sometimes applied to the whole group
of the non-nitrogenized substances. Such mistakes are often
disseminated by non-scientific men, who meddle with subjects
on which they are but imper fectly informed ; in which case their
theoretical deductions, resting on no sound basis, naturally do
not tally with the observations of practical men, Due account
being taken of the mischief which palpable errors in science
produce in the popular mind, it becomes as much the duty of
the scientific chemist to expose errors as to enrich our treasury
of chemical knowledge by fresh discoveries.

Little need be Said respecting the gum and mucilage in straw.
Their proportion, though not large, is appreciable, especially i in
somewhat under-ripe samples, in which much more sugar is
likewise found than in over-ripe samples. Indeed, in the "latter
the amount of sugar is scarcely appreciable.

Cellular or woody fibre constitutes the bulk of straw, being, of
course, less valuable than any of the preceding constituents.
The various non-nitrogenized substances which enter into the
composition of straw contain, without exception, a large propor-
tion of carbon, for which reason they are sometimes called car-
bonaceous matter. Their use in the animal economy is of a
twofold character—either to supply the materials for the forma-
tion of animal fat, or to support respiration and consequently
animal heat. These different carbonaceous substances are not,
however, equally well adapted to either of these uses, and may
be divided, according to the fitness and readiness with which
they fulfil the one or the other function, into—

1. Fat-producing substances.
2. Heat-producing or respiratory substances.
3. Indigestible substances.

To the first belong the oil, fat, and waxy matter, which in
straw, as already mentioned, seldom amount to much more than
1 per cent. Oily and fatty vegetable substances are eminently
well adapted to the laying on of fat in animals, inasmuch as the
composition of vegetable fat is analogous if not identical with
the several kinds of fat found in the Thodies of animals. The
fatty matters of food, without undergoing much change, are
therefore readily assimilated by the animal organism, and applied
when given in excess to the storing up of animal fat. On the
other hand, substances rich in starch are specially fitted to sup-
port respiration, Oily and fatty matters, however, when given
with a scanty supply of starchy food, Hicome av alae for the
support of respiration; and again, gum, starch, and_ sugar,
when given to fattening beasts in excess, are transformed into
animal fat. There is thus no essential difference between the
fatty or starchy constituents of food in so far as their uses are

388 Composition and Nutritive Value of Strav.

concerned, but each according to circumstances can lend itself to
the work which is the more peculiar province of the other. ‘The
proportion of carbon in fatty matter amounts to rather more than
80 per cent., and is much larger than in gum, sugar, or starch.
Oiland fat, for this reason, are at only better producers of fat than
starchy nnd sugary compounds, but are likewise more powerful
agents for the support of respiration and the maintenance of animal
heat—the heat generated in the body being proportionate to the
amount of carbon consumed in a given time during respiration.
Gum, sugar, mucilage, starch, and a few similar compounds
may be represented as consisting of carbon and water only, and
on account of the simplicity of their composition they are well
adapted to support respiration. The quantity of carbon con-
sumed by the respiration of animals varies at different times and
in different species, according to the rapidity of their breathing
and their mode of living. Under all circumstances, however, it
is considerable, especially in the case of ruminating animals.
Thus cows consume four-ninths of the carbon contained in their
ordinary daily food by respiration, and throw it off in their exha-
lations in the form of carbonic-acid gas. Hence the absolute
necessity of supplying large-sized animals with abundance of
carbonaceous food.

As straw contains no starch and but a small proportion of
gum, mucilage, and sugar, and thus is deficient in the better
kinds of respiratory constituents, it cannot rank high as a heat-
producing material, unless it can be shown that cellular and
woody fibre can be assimilated and used for the same purpose
for which starchy compounds are usually employed in the animal
economy.

The question then arises—and it is an important one—is
cellular or woody fibre digestible or not? and upon a correct
and trustworthy answer to this question mainly depends the
decision whether or not straw is really as nutritious as some
maintain, ‘To arrive at as trustworthy a reply to this question as
can be given in our present state of knowledge, we have to
inquire, in the first place, what is understood by woody fibre ?

If any vegetable substance—straw, for instance—is treated suc-
cessively with cold and boiling water, next with alcohol and
ether, then with a dilute solution of caustic potash, and finally
with dilute sulphuric acid, an insoluble residue is obtained,
differing in quality and texture according to the original material
used in the experiment. This insoluble residue is called by
chemists indiscriminately cellular or woody fibre. It is in
reality generally a mixture of cellulose, the substance of which
the walls of the cells of plants consist, and of woody substances
which are deposited around the original cell-walls. These

Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw. 389

woody substances—“ incrusting matter,” as they are called by
vegetable phy siologists—constitute the tr ue wood or woody fibre of
plants. In their composition they closely resemble cellulose,
which is more abundant in young plants than in those of more
advanced growth. The older and harder the plant, the more woody
or incrusting matter it contains. In green herbage, the insoluble
residue which is obtained by the “aleveementioned treatment
chiefly consists of cellulose or cellular fibre; whilst in fully ma-
tured and over-ripe herbs, this insoluble residue principally con-
sists of incrusting matter or true wood. In intermediate stages
between a green, succulent condition and a dry, hard, fully
matured stage of growth, we obtain variable mixtures of cellulose
and woody fibre. The same process, it will be noticed, which
is employed for preparing woody fibre, likewise furnishes cellu-
lose. Unfortunately we possess no means of separating the two
from each other, and hence the chemical processes by which the
woody and cellular fibre in plants is determined in our labora-
tories are not calculated to give us more than at the best a very
crude idea of the true character of the insoluble matter which
constitutes the bulk of straw. No difficulty is experienced in
determining with precision the amount of starch or sugar in a
plant, but when we attempt to ascertain in two or three separate
portions the amount of woody fibre in each, it is next to impos-
sible to obtain corresponding results. But although we speak
of cellulose and of woody fibre as of two separate and distin-
guishable substances which exist in plants under conditions as
variable in texture and other physical peculiarities as in their
physiological effect upon the animal, the chemist is not in a
position to distinguish the one from the other by means of
analysis; and it should be remembered that the physical and
chemical properties and general character of many organic
bodies are often extremely different, whilst their chemical com-
position is precisely the same. ‘The mere composition of cellu-
lose or woody fibre, therefore, does not afford a sufficient insight
into their true character, and leaves altogether untouched the
question whether these substances are digestible or not.

As long as we are unacquainted with more perfect analytical
methods, we cannot expect to ascertain by analysis whether
cellular and woody fibre is digestible, wholly or in part, and to
what extent. Here, as in so many other matters which have
scarcely been touched upon by scientific men, the agriculturist
must be guided by his own experience, and not by the rash
counsels and exaggerated statements of theorists, who are incom-
petent to form a sober and unbiassed opinion on a moot
question. We know, indeed, that the condition of the woody

390 Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw.

fibre affects the nutritive value of all food in no mean degree.
Whilst in root-crops left too long growing on the land, or the
fibre of grass and clover left standing until dead-ripe, these
tissues are not readily digested, there can be no doubt that
the soft fibre of young grass, clover, and roots is readily
assimilated in the animal organism, and transformed into starch,
sugar, and finally into fat. For ine reason grain-crops, more
especially oats, when harvested early, produce straw which
is greatly more nutritious than that of an over-ripe crop. In
some parts of Scotland it is customary to cut the oat when the top
of the haulm is still quite green; and it is upon straw of that
description that store cattle are kept during the winter almost
entirely, The variable condition in which grain-crops, as well
as peas and beans, are harvested in England, fully explains the
various shades of opinion which are airs by practical men
respecting the feeding properties of the straw of these crops, and
the contradictory statements of writers on this subject.

For the same reason the practical solution of the question
whether woody fibre is digestible or not, is surrounded by pecu-
liar difficulties. Taking experience for our guide, it may be
answered with equal truth in the affirmative or in the negative ; ;
for in a young, tender condition we know from experience that
cellular and wendy fibre is digestible, whilst in a hard, dry,
over-ripe state it is for the most part indigestible. Direct feeding
experiments, highly desirable though they may be, will leave
much uncertainty, however carefully they have been made,
unless special regard is paid to the condition in which the straw
is given to the animals; and after all, as it is not possible to
describe with absolute precision its state of maturity and condi-
tion, no practical feeding experiment, be it ever so carefully
conducted, can afford absolute numerical results, indicative of the
extent to ayes the woody fibre is digestible in all, or even the
majority, of instances.

Feeding experiments instituted for the purpose of ascertaining
to what extent the woody fibre of food is assimilated in the
animal organism are highly desirable, but at the same time they
are most laborious and costly. ‘They require to be undertaken
on a tolerably large scale, and cannot well be executed by a prac-
tical farmer, for want of scientific appliances, nor even by an
agricultural chemist, who cannot specially provide all the expen-
sive arrangements and command all the assistance necessary to
render chemico-physiological experiments applied to agriculture
thoroughly satisfactory. A further difficulty arises from the fact
that the same description of food which is assimilated in a great
measure by one kind of animal often remains to a much greater

Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw. 391

extent undigested when given to another. Thus it has been
proved by direkt experiments that cows can extract a great deal
more nourishment from straw-chaff than horses, and that sheep do
not appear to digest chaff so readily as cattle.

Although chemical analysis cannot decide with anything like
precision the most interesting and practically important point on
which the whole controversy “of the feeding value of straw hinges,
we must not suppose that it is altogether useless to submit to
analysis the various kinds of straw aed on the farm. I hope to
be able to show that the investigation undertaken by me at the
request of the Chemical Gana of the Royal Agricultural
Society has brought to light several matters of consider hie
practical importance, and is suggestive of others of interest.
The following points, at all events, can be readily ascertained.
In the first place, we can determine with precision the amount
of oil, certainly the most valuable constituent of straw ; secondly,
the proportion of albuminous or flesh-forming matters ; and thirdly,
the amount of organic substances soluble in'water, such as sugar,
mucilage, gum, extractive matters, &c. The mineral portion or
ash, of course, is easily ascertained by burning a known quantity
of straw in a platinum capsule, and weighing the ash which
remains behind.

The proportion of oil is easily obtained by exhausting a
weighed quantity of straw in an appropriate apparatus with
ether, and evaporating the ethereal solution of oil to dryness.
Albuminous compounds are now usually determined in the
indirect manner by combustion with soda-lime, and multiplica-
tion of the percentage of nitrogen by 64. A weighed quantity,
exhausted with cold and after Saale with boiling water, produces
the proportion of soluble matter, consisting of sugar, omieileset
extractive matter, and soluble eiline matters: If fhe portion of
straw previously exhausted with ether and water is subse-
quently boiled with a solution containing 1 per cent. of caustic
potash, the insoluble albuminous compounds are dissolved ;
and by treating the residue left after boiling with potash- collation:
with dilute sulphuric acid, and finally washing again with water,
we obtain the amount of éetluiliee and woody fibre in the straw.

It has been stated already that this process does not furnish
corresponding results in two or three separate determinations.
Nevertheless it is desirable in detailed analyses to have recourse
to this process, which at least allows us to form some idea of the
readiness with which the part of straw which is insoluble in
water, and which may be termed crude woody fibre, is attacked
by dilute alkalies and acids. There can be no doubt that the
different alkaline and acid secretions in the animal organism

392 Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw.

exercise similar, probably even more energetic effects, than
this upon the crude woody fibre. The frentinent with dilute
alkalies and acids, therefore, affords a better insight into the
digestibility of the bulk of straw than the mere exhaustion with
water,

At the same time, however, it may be noticed that the method
of Sinclair, who endeavoured to determine the nutritive value of
different grasses by ascertaining the proportion of matters soluble
in water, furnishes comparative results which enable us to form
a tolerable good opinion of the feeding value of straw. Indeed I
find that fre more nutritious samples invariably produce the
largest amount of watery extract.

In many of the published analyses nothing more than moisture,
ash, and albuminous compounds are determined ; all the rest is
arrived at by difference. It is evident that such imperfect ana-
lyses must lead to practical errors ; for in these analyses oil, sugar,
and other soluble matters are thrown together with crude woody
fibre, and the whole group is said to consist of fat and respiratory
constituents, although only a portion of the whole exists in reality
in a condition in which it can be assimilated by animals,

WHEAT-STRAW.

The following results were obtained on analysing a sample of
well-harvested wheat-straw, which was neither under nor over
ripe :—

General Composition.

Water Ratiie fs Ligh teat’ ‘atte fish Rone 150 eon
Soluble organic matters gcse a eeibo” le poem ol Sine ee 1aila eaters a a 5:54
Soluble organic matters Be att ee oe Se 1:13
Insoluble organic matters ce bes sm gee here aie gimme ORR ED
Insoluble mineral matters og EO, 0 ee Ce 3°08

100-00

Detailed Composition.
Water ee eee. asl wel ee eR eels Datel ate aera aE

(Oil ae APs rae ll (48
*Albumen and other soluble protein. compounds Se cae | he
Sugar, mucilage, extractive matters, &c. (soluble in water) 4:26
Dizestible fire, G50; vais. sare peeve lees 'cwley) “Re Mea) | wane CUa
polubleimorganic matey sc | sa 0 casi) ifecs vo raucnun/sainntse anna mame LiEe Lie?
tInsoluble protein compounds : PRESEN cies dl OI8:
Indigestiblewoody fibre .- 0 2.) 9s. fa) eer ee) Meee tlt
Insoluble inorgania matter) ..) 0. | 2.) un paneer
100:00
*Containing nitrogen 13 vey otal CAlgbh age hae aan tag 206
+ Containing nitrogen ETM sy osc <8), on beh 264 |
Total percentage of nitrogen -. -- +. ee ee we ee *470
Equal to protein compounds ia | | bik ng RMR TCRETOUS based OTSdE 2°93

‘otaliash’,..cnuueea ee wey. Tei Westen eis (NCCI eae iat So ea 4°21

Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw. 393

A glance at these analytical results will show that hard and
dry as wheat-straw appears to be, this sample, nevertheless,
yielded no less than 54 per cent. of organic matters to cold and
boiling water. The portion insoluble in 2 water, or the crude woody
fibre, amounted to exactly 80 per cent, ; a very large quantity—of
which, however, when treated with dilute caustic potash, and
afterwards with dilute sulphuric acid, nearly 20 per cent. was
rendered soluble, The portion thus rendered soluble is described
in the preceding and following analyses as digestible fibre. After
the separation of the insoluble albuminous ‘compounds, mineral
matters, oil, and digestible fibre, the proportion of woody
matters, as given in the detailed composition, amounted to
54 per cent. in round numbers. ‘This is described as indi-
gestible woody fibre, but it is quite possible that a considerable
portion of it may be assimilated in the animal organism. At any
rate it is an interesting fact that a substance so dry and unpro-
mising-looking as straw, yielded to water and dilute alkaline and
acid liquid nearly one-half of its weight.

Another point of interest is the appreciable quantity of oil ; it
is a nice yellow, sweet-tasting oil, which no doubt renders straw
more palatable, to a certain extent more digestible, and certainly
more nutritious than it would be without this constituent. In
the instance before us we have 1} per cent. of oil; a ton of straw
accordingly contains 39 lbs, of oil.

Again, attention may be directed to the albuminous com-
pounds, which amount to 3 per cent. in round numbers, It will
be seen that rather more than one-half of these compounds is
insoluble, and the rest soluble in water.’

On the whole, wheat-straw having a composition similar to the
sample analysed by me is nutritious, and when cut into chaff may
be used with advantage as a feeding material. Several partial
analyses of other specimens have shown me that this and other
kinds of straw vary exceedingly in composition, and consequently
also in quality.

That the com position of the straw is, indeed, influenced by the
degree of maturity in which the corn is harvested, will appear
clearly on comparison of the following analytical results, obtained
on the examination of two samples of wheat-straw, the one fairly
tipe, the other over-ripe :—

General Composition of Wheat-straw.

Ripe. Over-ripe.
Whetterses, .. vatys OGL: SSS 814 9°17
Substances soluble i in Water” Soya one trop ais 8-77 4°81
Substances insoluble in water .. .. .. .. 83°09 86°02

100:00 100-00

394 Composition and Nutritive Vaiue of Straw.

Detailed Composition.

Wraiter’ ‘20° skp Wes: ca! | VScom Seles 9°17
Oil ot Bet co a eee moD nl) 65
*Soluble protein compounds. at: Mad esas 50 06
+Insoluble protein compounds sey Ren RE ae 1°62 2°06
Gum, sugar, and extractive matters .. .. .. 6:28 3°46
Crude woody mibre? i; sn eae eee OP Sill 82°26
Solubletminerallmatters) | (5.9 us) eee ee nenELOO 1:29
Tnsolubleimineral matters) 2- |) 2.) nies ace LOG 1:05
100-00 100-00

*Containing nitrogen... .. 2... 22 +. we +08 01
{Containing mitrogeny-- inact. jest 26 °33
Total percentage of nitrogen... “354 °34
Equal to protein compounds (flesh- for ming \g matters) 212 2°12
ISNA OCA “Ga coe Aa (6p do dn os | SSF 2°34

In explanation of these results, it is necessary to state that both
samples were kept in a warm room for some days before they
were analysed, which accounts for the small percentage of
moisture found in them, The principal points of interest to be
remarked are—Ist, the greater amount of sugar, gum, and
extractive matters (nearly twofold) ; ; next, the greater amount of
oil; and lastly, the smaller proportion AG woody fibre found in
the fairly-ripe sample as compared with that which was over-
ripe, by which the superiority of the former as feeding material
is sufficiently proved, Indeed, whereas the former is nutritious
and well fitted for cutting into chaff and mixing with sliced or
pulped roots, the over-ripe sample is hardly suited for feeding
purposes, and should be trodden into manure.

A striking difference will be noticed in the relative proportions
of soluble al insoluble albuminous compounds in the fairly-ripe
and in the over-ripe specimens; in the latter there is scarcely
any soluble albuminous matter, nearly the whole having become
insoluble. In both samples the total amount of albuminous or
flesh-forming compounds is smaller than that given in the pre-
ceding full analysis of another sample. The percentage of ash
in both these last specimens is unusually low.

The ashes of several varieties of wheat-straw have been ana-
lysed by Messrs. Way and Ogston, who give as the mean result
of ten analyses the following numbers :—

Potash et wee Ms Le Ie
Soda icon Je) Mow Shh ni) Ses Ce eS 60
iWEYeaE ool, og | oe coop Go co cc 2°74
Lime cou Dees RTE cic 6°23
Phosphoric acid ce st) Bee oO
Sulphurievacid .; .. =: Gn | se ee EOLCO
Silica .. SPS ee 67°88
Peroxide of iron PMG chek op Saunt "74
Chloridefofisodinm: 2 --areene eee = > 22

Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw. , ~29d

The ash of wheat~straw, it will be seen, is very rich in silica
—a constituent found in the straw of*all cereals in preponderating
proportions. The amount of phosphoric acid and of potash is
not large. The percentage of ash in wheat-straw varies exceed~-
ingly ; on an average it amounts to about 4% per cent., but I have
found it as low as 24 per cent. When I first met with this
small percentage I took the precaution of repeating the deter-
mination, and obtained from each trial closely agreeing results,
It is worthy of remark that the straw in question was by no
means weak, but as stiff as could be desired. It may therefore
be doubted whether the weakness of straw arises, as is generally
assumed, from a deficiency of mineral matter, more especially of
silica.

This is a subject well deserving further investigation, which I
hope to take up at a future period. But rani reserving for
_ future discussion the causes of weakness of straw, I cannot robin
from stating in passing that I have never met with a single
instance in which the application of silicate of soda to wheat has
had the slightest effect upon the crop; and that therefore, as far
as my practical experience extends, | am bound to say that sili-
cate of soda does not answer the purpose for which its use has
been suggested, viz., that of strengthening the straw of wheat,
oats, and ar ley.

WHEAT-STUBBLE.

Although wheat-stubble is not used for feeding purposes, its
analysis may here find a place, for it may be useful to compare
the composition of stubble with that of wheat-straw.

The sample from which the following analysis was made was
gathered on a dry day in the middle ae December, from a field
of the College Farm, Cirencester. Examined directly afterwards
it was found to contain 17} per cent. of moisture, and was thus
drier than wheat-straw before stacking. This stubble contained
in 100 parts :—

General Composition.

Moisture .. SO oe com co elrAeXn)
Substances soluble in water Se Mee. Hate» Oro
Substances insoluble in water... .. 1... 76°51
100:00

Detailed Composition. «
Water Sep pala cromh Lacon tcc, pte Meroiets sce WC OO
Oil: ore cect) Ucame Toe Bs 42
*Albuminous ‘compounds be see Nea yy ToS
Extractive matters (soluble in “water) eo isee MoO
@radeswoody fibre: ie) cs fren bet ohd > oon ALO
Mimeral matters (ash)... 9.3 2, . 00) o 298
100-00
eGontanmne nitrogen 3. “s. ei a Ge AA “47

VOL, XXII. In

396 Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw.

Stubble, then, contains as much nitrogenized matters as straw,
which it closely resembles in other particulars, the chief differ-
ence being its somewhat smaller proportion of oil.

It has been stated by practical men that stubble has no direct
value as a manure, and not much as litter. If this be so, it
follows inevitably that wheat-straw has no direct value as a
manure, for both straw and stubble contain as nearly as possible
the same proportions of nitrogenized and carbonaceous and.
mineral matters.

BARLEY-STRAW.

Barley, especially if good malting barley, is generally allowed
to turn more yellow in the field than any other grain-crop. The
barley-straw on our farms, therefore, is seldom so nutritious as it
might be, if the crop were cut down in a less advanced stage of

maturity. The following analysis was made of barley-straw,
which I am inclined to term dead- -ripe, although it is the usual
condition in which it is seen in our neighbourhood : i

General Composition.

Water so TMM Che. oy | L240)

Soluble organic matter y-,:s\. ss ves) lene (dsc 6 ee
Solubleimorganic matters; 25) se ise) wie reroll) este ete CLE
Imsoluble organic mater se se) ine) ieee) werner nm Tine!
Insoluble mineral matter... °:. <2) Gc. 9
100:00

Detailed Composition.

Water slaty Pitts, isi, Toba teiel ys bese | ted gots lRatere geste mL ee

Ol Raps § So

*Albumen and other soluble protein ‘compounds ne “68

Sugar, mucilage, extractive matters, &c. (soluble in w ater) .. 2°24

Dizestible fibre, "&e. de.) sey) lawlon leit gary Seb gees) eRe

Soluble inorganic MAGEED ese ee Se) ee uel

{Insoluble protem compounds -- 5. =... -.)) =a) een
Indigestible woody. fibre’ =: <p se tee een ee ee ee ne

Insolubleinorganic matter! ep iy te) ae eet eens

100-00

*Containing nitrogen Paes Wed cae dG. coo “11
{Containing nitrogen BY MOON onto top) 2c 60
Total percentage of nitrogen .. -. -- «- sc. se oe uce “71
Equal to protein compounds -. -. -- -- <- «- =» «« 4°43
Total percentage iofash, <2 7.) s- | <9 cl) eee a eG

These results suggest one or two remarks,

In the first place : That the appreciable quantity of oil contained
in barley, as in wheat-straw, must contribute to its nutritive
value.

Secondly: That the amount of sugar, gum, and other soluble

Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw, 397

matters in this sample is very small indeed. This I find always
to be the case, not only with this, but with other kinds of over-
ripe straw.

Thirdly : That this specimen contained a good deal more indi-
gestible woody fibre than wheat-straw, to which it is altogether
inferior in feeding qualities. Barley-straw is usually considered
superior to wheat-straw as a feeding substance, but the preceding
analyses show plainly that this opinion does not hold good in
every instance.

Fourthly : It is worthy of special notice that the part of barley-
straw which is insoluble in water, or the crude fibre, on treatment
with dilute caustic-potash solution and dilute sulphuric acid, is
diminished in quantity to a much smaller extent than the wheat-
straw which I submitted to the same process. Whereas these
re-agents extracted in round numbers 20 per cent. of digestible
fibre from wheat-straw, they furnished not more than 6 per cent.
in the case of barley-straw. I do not think, however, that in the
latter straw there is anything of a peculiarly hard nature which
protects it from the action of these solvents ; but that the difference
in this respect is due entirely to the over-ripe condition of the
barley-straw and the better condition in which the wheat-straw
was examined. Reverse the condition of the two kinds of straw,
and it will be more than probable that opposite results will be
obtained.

Lastly : It may be remarked that the proportion of flesh-forming
matters in the specimen analysed is considerable, and larger than
in wheat-straw.

Barley-straw yields, when burnt, on an average from 4 to 5 per
cent. of mineral matters thus combined,

Average Composition of the Ashes of Barley-straw reduced from
Three Samples.

Potash bce ecb spo loots "bb Mee aga 6 Ge Oe)
OUR M arte ash) Wh captoeh eck TRE p73.) Ue 68
Macnesian ls.) yey i btyeectly «voce, cant 4ale
ETHOS es cc Sea Au tise | Fh act miata toc
Phosphoric acid Sei Ke) ee ha oe mia, wick
SHUllifa) DONA TCRET OTS Oe cal Sees oo neal AY. Red Mile)
SU Cues OEY OE IES ean) Goer | Pe Ba BG
Peroxide of iron pet E. UL ee ee -etl) Ca aeent LOL

Cihloride/orsoditmis vcs | ps shales ak oaceuresine Se 6°95

In contrast with the preceding analysis of over-ripe barley-
straw, I will now mention the results obtained on analysing a
fairly-ripe specimen grown on our farm last season.

2H 2

398 Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw.

Barley-Straw (not too ripe) taken from Farm Buildings,
October 31.

General Composition.

Water 36 wor Dede hc tate: DESL. bt Bile anor eee
Substances soluble j in w ater weg ee ete Peete? ser] Oh. 20 Penal ee
Substances insoluble in water ORCC AT a Saati, OLD)

100:00

Detailed Composition.

Water orl eee «> eae ook GR ee See Y7iE 0)
Oil : led oe wiet io cecal Dye as ae ae Mee ality
* Al buminous compounds ais ee Me i ec emer "4,5 5:07
Mucilage, sugar, extractive matters, and cellular fibre... .. 7144
Mineral matters 4°52

100-00
*Containing nitrogen... .. Rope beats toc,’ oc sc 86

In this analysis it , will be seen no less than 12 per cent. of
matters soluble in water, and containing a good deal of sugar,
were obtained, thus ose plainly to what extent the solubility,
and with it no doubt the digestibility, of different samples may
vary.

Let it be remembered that the analyses were not made with
picked samples, but with samples such as I found them in the rick-
yard on our farm. ‘The inferior and over-ripe sample was grown
in 1860, the other in 1861. Now any farmer who, with a view
to testing pr actically the nutritive quality of barley-straw,
tried feeding experiments in 1860, would have found that it
was very poor stuff, hardly fit for food; whilst in 1861 the
same kind of straw would have given coe satisfactory results.
Thus it happens that the same land of straw is denounced by
one man as only fit for the dungheap, and by another elevated
to almost equal rank with hay.

In my opinion barley-straw, not too ripe, is nearly equal to
oat-straw poaeea in the same state of maturity, and superior to
wheat. It is usually richer in albuminous compounds than wheat-
straw, although the larger proportion of albuminous matters
found in barley-straw i is in part due to some clover and grass
which gets mixed up with the barley-crop. Barley-straw then
should not be wasted as litter, but given to cattle, especially
young stock, both on account of its softer texture and its lar ger
proportion: of nitrogenised matter, with which young growing
stock require to be more liberally supplied than fatting beasts:

OAT-STRAW.

A specimen of oat-straw, grown in 1860, was submitted to
a complete analysis, and furnished the following results :—

Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw. 399

Genera! Composition.

Water a S201) 5!) ED es sees HOO
Soluble organic matter ee ja.) EAM 53. SEUSS, 12 G04
Bolubleumorsanicunatter .. .... 5. lig kee: celal) ws) MgO
Insoiupleroreanic matter... -. ... seid jies | oes om farOe
imeolublermuneral matter .. .. A: lewtf es bey jier e 2'06
Detailed Composition. eee

Water eB) tet Take) (8s) sea Ree RO ROSIR Wicd ae eto O
ONE (ORE aes wee tyr sck b= -wenlaOn
*Albumen and other soluble prote in compounds 5A Bio ce “44
Mucilage, extractive matters (soluble in water) .. .. .. 760
Mieestiplendbne: Cs, x1. sos. ek Gm, Teh aes: eek beet “eee areill
MUL SIMONCAMICHMALtEL men pee ni ee) lot Umeha nat
{Insoluble protein compounds .. .. .. « . « « dl
Indieestible woody fibre <. 9 9.. s. Us =n ben | ey am OUOn,
isolubletinorganic matter -.6 sy) at) tse, | ere fae fiery AIO
100:00

BO oniawmNeMILOPENs. Fe. se en) eee ee ss “O74
Containing nitrogen... .. .. 22 +) ee ee ew °37
Total percentage of nitrogen -- -- -) es ee wet “44
Equal to protein compounds .. -. -. ee ee ee wes 275
Tain GUT Aele i gpa ae erg coon mole maciegcon poo. Pyare “Ac 5*42

On burning, oat-straw leaves on an average 5 to 53 per cent.
of ash, which has the following composition :—

Ash of Oat-straw.

Potash SBS text Bos? “GRP ARBRO OS) premade! BRIE
OC AER EE PSM RE Mine oat CaN ss Misc) gcd 9°69
MISSES SOR Doe to) Aceh MOC Milne MmPeaicar 3°78
Lime i eee eee MEP Ca.) bday oe 8:07
Phosphoric ‘acid LB Wedel nce Sak mace mtor pe ane)
SUI THO ETACEEE. "RB ne) | Been Bos, eon eo) 0274)
Silica ES a es hoe ase | aie fo ae
Peroxide of i iron, = RA Meu vs siete 1:83
Ghloridexotsodiume sa ).. ~ AGM ie 20 2% 3°25

100:00

Like all the ashes of the straw of cereal crops, oat-straw contains
a large proportien of silica, and but little phosphoric acid.

It will be seen that oat-straw contains about as much oil, and
the same proportion of albuminous compounds, as wheat-straw.
There are, however, some remarkable differences between them ;
for in oat-straw—at least in the specimen analysed—there is
much more sugar and other soluble matter than in wheat-straw.
It likewise appears that the crude woody fibre of the former is
more easily attacked by dilute alkalies and acids ; so that by this
treatment 29 per cent. of digestible fibre was obtained, and the
indigestible fibre was reduced to 304 per cent ; whilst in wheat-
straw no less than 54 per cent. of woody fibre was found to be

400 Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw.

indigestible. It may be safely inferred from this that oat-straw
is assimilated by animals to a larger extent than wheat-straw ;
and as it contains moreover more sugar and mucilage than the
latter, and as much oil and ieetinGus matter, he specimen
analysed by me is decidedly more nutritious than the sample of
wheat-straw which I analy sed. In all probability the difference
is due to the fact that oats, on account of the readiness with
which they shed the grain, are generally reaped in a less matured
condition than bent

Another sample of oat-straw, grown in 1861, submitted to a
less complete analysis, furnished the following results :—

Oat-straw from Farm-buildings.

General Composition.

Water.. .. PR Es Bl ee Roll)
Substances soluble a in Ww satis: RS Mbt Pal ab, ic lOpcts
Substances insoluble in water .. .. .. .. 69°65
100:00

Detailed Composition.
Waters. c— is ue 1 se. ace PUR eee Oe
Oil* oe a5! wel aecdee Ree 1°54
*Protein ci ompounds sie ompieocews gers)
Mucilage, sugar, cellular fibre, &e. il) Ee eB.
Mineral matters (asbhi ys.) 025, 7 ae se
100-00
=Containing miitogeny anaes ll. ee aeneeanee 44

These results agree perfectly with the preceding in regard to
the proportion of oil and albuminous matter, and tolerably well
in the amount of substances soluble in water.

Having found that the nutritive properties of straw are greatly
affected by the state of maturity at which the crop is harvested,
and come to the conclusion that it is very desirable to reap oats
in a somewhat green condition, | took an opportunity carefully
to investigate the nature of the differences which are exhibited
by oat-straw in a green, in a fairly ripe, and in an over-ripe
condition. In 1860 it will be remembered that our grain crops
ripened rather unequally. This circumstance enabled me to
examine oat-straw in both a green and a fairly ripe condition.
In that year Mr. Coleman, Professor of Agriculture in the Royal
Agricultural College, Cirencester, thought it desirable to begin
the oat-harvest, whilst the straw was yet somewhat green, inas-
much as the oarneld was large, and this crop, when too ripe,
is very apt to shed its seed. This field was reaped on the
20th of August, and en that day I selected some of the oats in
a still somewhat green condition, and likewise some in a fairly
ripe state. In the green oat-straw, examined directly after the

Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw. 401

crop was cut down, I found as much as 77 per cent. of moisture ;
and in the fairly ripe sample, gathered on the same day, 464 per
cent. in round numbers. In perfectly ripe straw, taken directly
from the field, the proportion of moisture amounts to 30 to 40 per
cent.

Both samples were submitted to complete analysis. The first
—that is, the straw which was somewhat green throughout its
length, and decidedly so in the upper portion, yielded the fol-
lowing results :—

Oat-straw (Green).

General Composition.

Water mit RIK teh we ioe. Nyt Dulac P sened Ray) RAUL Se
Solubleorgani¢matter <<. i ss +2. w- Oido
Soluble.mineralimatier, “celia. <<) os sland
Insoluble organic matter’.. .. .. « «. 4°72
Insoluble mineral matter .. ... .. «6 “26
100:00
Detailed Composition.

Water or eae ee eh ued) noe. Ceo Cline
*Soluble prote compounds .. .. .. «.. 1°50
Buvarecumemuciage! ses ae Wee AtOO
Wizestibleribrens.meuee | sa S-cll tel | ce wena ene
fInsoluble protein compounds .. .. .. «. “BL
Indigestible woody fibre .. .. «. « = 6°76
Soluble mineral matter .. .. . . -. <Ld7
Insoluble mineral matter SH Pee a edpiiee °26
100°00

Bonmtainine nitrogeny Aceon is. 8c.) G5 yee | ‘xe "24
fContaining nitrogen ee Es ke *13
Total percentage of nitrogen... .. .. «- «- °37
Motalpercentage/ofiash) >: 2.0 9s epee. - °85

Notwithstanding the large quantity of moisture in this sample,
a very considerable amount of sugar and other substances soluble
in water was obtained, and nearly as much albuminous matter as
in ripe oat-straw, with only 14 per cent. of moisture. The fairly
ripe sample gave the following results :—

Oai-straw (fairly ripe).

Water Liber tind . 46°64
BoOlUpleoranicimattey oso, vs ee) ee ce) CLO
Soluble mineral matter ... .. Qe .. .. 2°3

Insoluble organic matter .. .. ~.° .. .. 40°28
Insoluble mineral matter Rl Ptah. Saree

402 Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw.

Water SEES or | Oe ado Pep ers

Oily ihe ae Sores ee 67
*Soluble protein compounds St SoG, pape LAS
Sugar, gum, mucilage Re eee SLATES 6°72
Digestible fibre 2 “AM ae eee aaoaty
+ Insoluble protein compounds hy hc War oe 2 BOG 93
Indigestible woody fibre :. .. .. .. .. 20:18
Soluble; mineral ama tiers. escent OU)
Insoluble mineral matter... .. .. .. .. 1°72
100-00

*Containing uitrogen ASO ips adc. ob) Ho 26
{Containing nitrogen ae tere Saeco ONG)
Total percentage of nitrogen... .. .. .. .. 41

Hotalljpercentace on asiis tenn e ci l- putt ane m eOe

The great difference in the proportions of water in these two
samples makes it difficult to compare these analytical results
with each other. Deferring for the present such a comparison,
I will now give the analysis! of a third specimen taken from a
portion of the crop of the same field, which was left standing
until the 20th of September, or just one month longer, when,

as might have been expected, the straw was over-ripe.
Oat-straw (over-ripe).

General Composition.

Water caer sath cae Wee ee 5) ODA
Soluble organic matter 4:42
olka rambo woe G5 oy) ao 175
isomaile organic matter Boat ad 55°48
Insoluble mineral matter... -.. >. <2 9... odio
Detailed Conyposition. ee

Water ee oR ys Pacino ictyy wee
ON sa aa) ea ae wets con
“Soluble protein compounds meats. hoor) Oe)
Sugar, gum, mucilage, &e. ET OCS LEE ota 2°45
Digestible fibre... EO” PRE eoetanec alice
+Insoluble protein compounds Pour haen any 2s Lito
Indigestible woody fibre .. .. .. .. «. 82°26
Solubleamineralematteny sels) Gena eenEcnn en ade
Insoluble mineralimatter)..) 25 i) eee) one
100-00

*Containing mitrogeny yy.) ypu nieces "16
7 Contziningymitropen yy ye ke leer ele “29
Total percentage of nitrogen.. .. -. +. + *45
Total percentage ofash.. .. .- -- -. «. 4°90

When taken from the field, even in an over-ripe state, straw, it
will be seen, contains rather more than one-third of its weight of
water. The preceding analyses are interesting in several respects.
They have a direct practical bearing, which, however, will be-

t
Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw. 403
come more manifest when the proportion of moisture is become
the same in each sample—or, in other words, when we examine
the three samples after having been stacked for some time. In
this state straw contains on an average 16 per cent. of moisture.
In the following table I have, therefore, calculated the composi-
tion of these three samples with 16 per cent. moisture, and have
likewise given the composition of each in a perfectly dry state
(dried at 212°) :—
Tuble showing the Estimated Composition when Dried.
Oat-straw cut inGreen| Oat-straw cut when Oat-straw cut when
| Condition, Harvested | Fairly Ripe, Harvested | Over-Ripe, Harvested
on the 20th of Aug., | on the 20th of Aug., | on the 20th of Sept.,
| 1360. 1860. 1860.
, , Calculated Calculated Calculated
Calculated | to contain | Calculated | to contain | Calculated | to contain
Dry. 16 per cent. Dry. |16 per cent. Dry. 16 per cent.
ot Moisture, jof Moisture. of Moisture.
7 a = 7 oa se | Pecsar oF hee ih
GENERAL Composition.
Water .. oh tae ee 16°00 : 16:00 AP 16°00
Soluble organic matter 27° d2 | 28912 | 16-97% | 14"25 6°82 5°72
Soluble mineral matter 6°95 5°84 4°32 3°65 Doi 2227
Insoluble organic matter .. 64°39 | 54°09 | 75°48 | 63°41 | 85°61 71°92
Insoluble mineral matter 1°14 *95 CORRAL 4°86 4°09
160°00 | 100:00 | 100°00 | 100°00 | 100°00 | 100°00
a | a ee | ee |
DetatLep Composition. |
Water.. .. .. «. 58 16°00 cd 16°00 Sc 16°00
Oil cb, COCO OSS 1°88 Moby, E25 1°05 1°49 1°25
*Soluble protein compounds 6°56 5°51 3°15 2°62 1°54 1°29
Sugar, gum, mucilage, and ex- : Ean fe
fraciivenniattors: } 19°08 16°04 L259 1OS57 O19) 3°19
Digestible fibre .. .. .. .. | 31°36 | 26°34] 35-94 | 30°17] 33°04 | 27-75
Insoluble protein compounds .. 3°54 2°98 Ls 7A eel 46 2°.79 2°36
| Indigestible woody fibre .. 29°57 | 24°86 | 37°81 | 31°78 | 49°78 | 41-82
Soluble mineral matters 6°88 5°76 4°32 | 3°64 2°71 2°26
| Insoluble mineral matters 1°13 “94 S229 2971 4°86 | 4-08
100°00 | 100°00 | 100°00 | 100°00 | 100*00 | 100°00
sagan ae Pabeadl PS | —_
*Containing nitrogen .. .. .. 1:05 “88 “48 | “40 24 20
{Containing nitrogen .. .. .. 57 “47 PAs} ||) PORE “44 | +36
Total percentage of nitrogen .. 1°62 1°35 76 | 63 68 “56
Equal to protein compounds 10°10 8:49 4°87 4°08 4°33 3°65
Percentageofash .. .. ..| 7:09 6°79 eo 6°34 7°57 6°36

The attentive perusal of these analytical results suggests the
following observations :— ,

1. In the first place, the large proportion of albuminous com-
pounds in green oat-straw deserves to be specially noticed: it is as
large in amount as occurs on an average in ordinary meadow-

AOA Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw.

hay. Oat-straw, so harvested, ought therefore to be as useful in
repairmg the waste of muscle of working oxen and horses as
common hay. It is indeed much relished by animals, especially
by working horses, who have good reasons for their predilec-
tion, one no doubt being the aes proportion of flesh-forming
matters that it contains, and another probably its more succulent
one palatable condition:

The greater proportion of the albuminous or protein com-
as exists in the green straw in a condition in which they
are soluble in water, and therefore in all probability more easily
digested than they are in an insoluble state.

3. Towards maturity the amount of albuminous and _nitro-
genised compounds dwindles down to about one-half. Thus,
wenalee green straw contains 84 per cent. of nitrogenised matters,
that Baal is fairly ripe contains only 4 per cent. The soluble
and insoluble protein compounds likewise appear to diminish at
precisely the same rate.

In green straw we have, in round numbers, 53 per cent. of
soluble nitrogenized matters against 2°6 per cent. in the fairly
ripe sample, and 3 per cent. of insoluble protein compounds
against 14 per cent.

The question arises, what becomes of all the nitrogenised
matter, which cisappests with extreme rapidity when our cereal
crops arrive at matur ity? Although I have not made any special
experiments with a view of ascertaining this point, it does not
appear to me likely that this matter is all stored up in the grain ;
and [ have not much doubt that, as observed by Messrs. Lawes
and Gilbert, a considerable loss of nitrogen takes place in the
growth of corn-crops, which loss is particularly noticeable when
the crop arrives at maturity.

4, In over-ripe oat-straw a still further, though inconsiderable,
diminution of nitrogenised matters took place. But whereas, in
the two other samples, the soluble nitrogenised matter greatly
preponderates over the insoluble, the reverse is the case in the
over-ripe specimen, In this sample it will be seen that the
insoluble protein compounds amount to Dae per cent, and the
soluble to only 1,°; per cent.

Over-ripe straw then is not only absolutely poorer in albu-
minous or flesh-forming matters than fairly ripe samples, but it
likewise contains these important constituents in a less soluble,
and therefore less digestible, form.

5. The proportions of oil in the three samples differ but little.

6. Of sugar, gum, and other matters soluble in water, not less
than 16 per cent. occurs in the green straw, as against 3 per cent.
in the over-ripe straw. In the: fairly ripe sample 104 per cent.
of sugar, gum, &c., were found, or a proportion which exceeds

Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw. 405

that given in the first analysis by 3 per cent. According to the
state of maturity, I thus found in four samples of oat-straw the
following proportions of sugar and other soluble matters: Ist
sample, 16 per cent.; 2nd sample, 10} per cent.; drd sample,
74 per cent. ; 4th sample, 3 per cent.

Of all the constituents except oil, I consider sugar and other
soluble matters by far the most valuable. Quite apart from the
larger proportion of albuminous matter, green oat-straw will be
found much more nutritious and palatable than fully ripe samples,
because it is more succulent, and contains a great deal more
sugar and other readily digestible matters.

The longer the oat-crop is left in the field, the more the pro-
portion of sugar and other soluble organic matters diminishes,
and with it its nutritive value. Hence it is bad policy to let
this crop become too ripe before cutting it down. The loss in
nutritive substances in that case is much more considerable than
most farmers believe. Practical men, therefore, cannot be too
strongly urged to cut their oat-crop before it turns quite yellow,
both for the sake of the grain, which is so easily shed, and of
the straw, which is so rapidly deteriorated. As soon as the
haulm of oats begins to turn yellow, in about two-thirds its
length, though the tops be still decidedly green, the harvest
should be begun. I have had opportunities of observing over
and over again that}a larger yield of corn and a better sample
will thus be obtained, as well as a far more nutritious straw.
The deterioration in the quality of the straw and corn in warm
seasons takes place so rapidly that it makes a great practical
difference whether the harvest is begun a week sooner or later.

7. In the less succulent samples a larger proportion of indi-
gestible woody fibre may naturally be expected. That it exists,
this series of analyses places beyond a doubt; for whilst the
green sample contained only 25 per cent. of indigestible woody
fibre, the fairly ripe contained 32, and the over-ripe 42 per cent.
in round numbers.

_ Every feeder of stock knows that hard woody matter is not

easily, if at all, digested, and that sweet-tasting, succulent food
containing much sugar is very fattening. It must, therefore, be
his interest to prevent as much as is possible the conversion of
sugar into woody fibre. Where oats are grown for home con-
sumption, | am not at all sure that it is not more advantageous
to cut down the crop when the seed is fully formed, but still
milky, and the straw is still green, and to make the whole into
hay, than to let the crop get ripe, and afterwards to thresh out
the corn, Iam inclined to think an acre of oats made into hay
will furnish more nutriment to horses, which are very fond of

406 Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw.

oat-hay, than when harvested in the usual way. A good deal of
expense incurred in threshing the crop and cutting it into chaff
would be saved were this plan adopted.

8. We see that the crude woody fibre of oat-straw is rendered
soluble to a considerable extent by dilute alkaline and acid
liquids. Indeed it appears to be more easily acted upon by
these solvents than that of wheat-straw ; and the preference given
to oat-straw as a feeding material may be partly due to this cir-
cumstance.

9. The proportions of mineral matters here exhibited do not
greatly vary; but there is a material difference in the qualita-
tive composition of the ash, In the green sample nearly 6 per
cent. of soluble ash-constituents, and only 1 per cent. of insoluble
mineral matters, exist; whilst the fairly ripe contains 35% of
soluble, and 2,7, of insoluble, mineral matters, and the over-
ripe only 2,°> per cent. of soluble, and 4 per cent. of insoluble.

PEA-STRAW.

An excellent sample of pea-straw, grown in 1860, on analysis,
gave the following results :—

General Composition.

Water ae Slay slele, | a(S! sich y eeu Vac (iia al mmo
Soluble organic matter sai pitied ile: eres) Ucie: Me holst Cay rm oD ea
Soluble i INOTSAMICG MALTEL! 5 TL ce, | oie WN hstoy steel ei amet
IbaktollwlelKey OWRaeVONOEAONENTI Io5) 50 a0. 45 4p oe Bh 77
Imsolublejminerall matter! ,)0) 3.) (0) (leat Weed accuse me eimmnereedl
100-00
Detailed Composition.

Water Ee Coe Ho Tee od cotta) oo OHO:
OU ee os) gc, MRO
* Albumen and other soluble protein compounds me 2°96
Sugar, mucilage, extractive matters, &c. (soluble in water). 8°32
Digestible fibre, GG; ise jy bs 4 08. ce) yee an ee ue eee ane
Soluble inorganic mMiatter sis: sei" «ise ses\esi atti eee em
fsolubleyprotem\compormds eo) au iecl ech nals: talented
Wioady fibre oil wis ure) Cetee Oh och Mieeyea ane tami imme Lae
Insoluble inorcanicimatter!) » 2). eee eer eee
100-00

*Containing nitrogen wan, capeuty tie | Cho D URNS SS) en eer +474

{,Containing nitrogen" m. --) -e) ee) i) en +945

Total percentage of nitrogen .. .. .. -- +» «+. «2 « 419
Kqual to protein compounds .. .. .. -- +: s+ «+ 8°86
Total percentage of ash .. -- -. «+ 2. 2. ss ss a 4:93

Pea-straw on an average contains about 5 per cent. of ash.
The composition of the ash has been ascertained by Hertwig,
who gives it as follows :—

Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw. ° AQT

Potash Ket Re co ok ea ir fe:
St: a ee ie || hn 6°55
GUE ce ce ye uct ER, Does) oe PH4OIB4
NIEEMESIOM circ ke» isc N Eee jacn mee OO
Orrrce onimony eh Le” ot ee 1:03
bospoome acid... .: 1. <aeiee ( 0 | O20
SSMUOKINURICESCIG. 5.) sos Sd ea 0000
Silica . § by) AS, SRS 0:66
Chlor ide of sodium ik p sch ee eee Oran

100-00

The ash of pea-straw differs mainly from the ashes of oats,
wheat, or barley straw by containing much less silica, and more
lime and phosphoric acid.

Pea-straw, it will be seen, is richer in oil and albuminous or
flesh-forming matters than the straw of the cereal crops; and as it
moreover contains less indigestible woody fibre, and when pro-
perly harvested is tender ae much liked by sheep and cattle,
it is much preferable as a feeding material. Good pea-straw
indeed is a capital article of food for ewes at the lambing season,
for it contains almost as much flesh-forming matter as meadow-
hay, and, under favourable circumstances, a large proportion of
sugar and mucilage. The preceding analysis agrees tolerably
well with the following results, obtained in analysing a specimen
of pea-straw :—

Pea-straw taken from the Farm-buildings, October 31st, 1861.

General Composition.

Water He Bey Ot RE bia aM Test teeta Shy 5 7 (0)

Substances soluble i in w ater Se een ne a Mie Ser ee ed an MILI r

Substances insoluble in water... .. .. .. «. « « -%0°83

100-00

Detailed Composition.

Water Soe sce Teese Pech eae Gees sata Eh Be kShe cour Plae4O

@ik cs. Les Be ety eee! URE Gh Pa Ge SLED

* Albuminous compounds a Jetuiet | itanh ee G44
Gum, sugar, and crude cellular ‘and + Ww oody fibre ie rat ll cea OGGS

Mineral matters STR eae TRS ee ci sis nee he 5°96

100-00

E@ontaminp nitrogen) ey eee es ee ce Meee i tae EOS

This specimen, it w vill be seen, contains less oil and nitrogenised
matter than that grown in 1860, to which it is decidedly superior
in feeding qualities.

‘On the whole pea-haulm is the most nutritious of all kinds of
eae Its superiority over bean-straw is admitted by all prac-
tical farmers; although, according to an analysis by Professor
Way, bean-straw would appear greatly to surpass pea-s traw, and
to approximate to the value of hay, if not to surpass it.

408 Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw.

Bran-StTRAW.

I have examined two samples of bean-straw, one grown in
1860, the other in 1861. The composition of the first was as
follows :—

Composition of Bean-straw and Bean-pods.

General Composition.
Bean-pods.

Water 5 se) L940” ss ane opens nO
Soluble organic matter -. 569 *Organic matter ..)) 73766
Soluble inorganic matter .. 2°38 Inorganic matter .. 7°32

Insoluble organic matter .. 71:20
Insoluble mineral matter .. 1:40

es, ——

100-00 100-00
*Containing nitrogen 1°05

Equal to albuminous
compounds .. .. 6°56

Detailed Composition.
Water Te Meer oo. | LE PEKG

QU Swe, as, st! esa piety terete | (olen A cere Ab GNP EE age eye ne LO
,sAlbumen .. cs ees ae ae “47
{OU her soluble protein compounds sie en ny 40H!
Mucilage, extractive matters, &c., soluble i in water PMA 201)
Digestible fibre, QC. 2. ms ae as ee ee ee re
Soluble inorganic matter. x. se ae), oe fee arse ne me
tInsoluble protein a Ba Td Pee, en spe
iWioodyatibre: is.) 2. ana as Toe 6. ORAS
Insoluble inorganic matter. ue us we ee ee
100:00
*Containing nitrogen SU Ee odel , coe nc? hed. 866. © 109 * 243
;Containing nitrogen SP DOOM RETO fon G60 08 od on °297
Motalipercentagelof mitrogenii.. cle ance mnnter et inns) mers *540
iquallito proteinicompounds) =. 2. 2 fee. ene OU)
ANIM KI TOMETOVERIN 54) 59900 oo Up Go oul co oo Sy/ilit)

The ash of bean-straw, according to Messrs. Way and Ogston’s
analyses, published in the ninth volume of this Journal, contains,
in 100 parts—

SHES 55 | op se ceil eiegt) b<c (OLE
Phosphoric acid. s/c cas deen (40
J fueye@erotsh 65 co ae dd) ca poo oo oy ail
Waxboniciacidy” oye teensy erate enemies
Tame! 34). Whe) aise MEV ontek ser meet aaee
Magnesia’ 3... goes os) sc

Peroxide of iron ais, nad dor aide UNE le 90
Potash hy BENS) 55. wcalletts
Soda .. Se). cebeg! wet dele ae 4:56
Chloride of godinm: PP Meer Psd, ad 9:05

Chloride of potassium’> /in iene) Geol 90

99°99

Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw. 409
In its general character the ash of bean-straw resembles inti-
mately that of pea-straw. Like the latter, it is rich in carbonate
of lime, and it also contains a good deal of phosphoric acid and
potash, and but little silica. My results differ widely from Pro-
fessor Way’s analysis of bean-straw, as given by Mr. Horsfall,
in his Essay on Dairy-farming, where the composition of bean-
straw is given as follows :-—

Moisture s. . hit, “awl eee Meee ot OLA
Albuminous matter So) Sac eee a ALO OG
Oiland fatty matters 9. Geese a 12°28
Starch and gum bioehutivy Gash OD se heeee JOl6o
Woodys fibre | Gs..0 Ae tie sel geen oe ce pod
Minéralymatters: s,s tess eS AD

100:00

- It will be observed among other particulars—
1. That I do not find more oil in bean than in wheat straw.

2. That the proportion of albuminous matters which I found
in avery fair specimen is not quite so large as in good oat or
barley’ straw, and that it amounts to scarcely one-fourth the
quantity which Professor Way is reported to have found in bean-
straw.

3. That I do not mention starch as a constituent of bean-
stalks.

4, That instead of only 26 per cent. of woody fibre, as stated in
Professor Way’s analysis, the bean-straw analysed in my labora-
tory contained no less than 653 per cent. of indigestible woody
fibre.

5. The proportion of matters soluble in water is by no means
large.

6. Lastly, that the crude woody fibre of the bean-straw exa-
mined by me was very little acted upon by dilute alkaline and
acid liquid, and, therefore, produced but very little digestible

fibre.

The second sample, on analysis, gave the following results :—

Bean-straw, taken from the Farm-buildings, October 31st, 1861.

General Composition.

Water PAR i828 sk ak Se Lae head) TS
Substances soluble in water .. . AO. . aos een eee 6°86
Substances insoluble in water 5k Gs dal ce aa aL soe eonae

100-00

410 Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw.

Detailed Composition.

Water or cer aoe ls! (ee eee VeMMGs noo, Lah)

Oi cee PEO yay! hOc Pye Game aoe! te “41

*Albuminous compou nds a <0. ey, LO

Mucilage, extractive matters, a and woody iipre ene Je) OO

Mineral matters vis Mey Mos PRR ian FESS 2 0 cl eens eles

100:00

*Containing nitrogen PET Oe ence eda, So) aces 81

This sample is somewhat richer in albuminous compounds
and poorer in oil than that grown in 1860; but the differ-
ences are not great. On the other hand, both specimens agree
in furnishing but a small proportion of matters soluble in
water.

I would direct particular attention to the fact, clearly brought
out in my investigations on straw, that the crude woody fibre (the
part insoluble in water) of bean-stalks is very little acted upon
by dilute caustic potash and dilute sulphuric acid; that the
woody fibre of wheat-straw is more easily affected by these re-
agents than the bean-stalks; and that barley, or oat straw, is
acted on by the same agents in a still higher degree. We
cannot therefore doubt, that whilst a large proportion of the
crude woody fibre of pea, barley, and especially oat straw, is
assimilated by ruminating animals, bean-stalks are digested to
much less extent.

As far as my own analytical results allow me to form an
opinion, bean-stalks cut up by themselves into chaff, though
useful as food when harvested in a good season, are decidedly
inferior to any other description of straw. If I am not mistaken,
these analytical results fully confirm the practical experience of
the farmers in our neighbourhood, who, like most of their class,
put a low estimate on the feeding value of bean-stalks. Bean-
pods, it will be seen, contain a considerable proportion of albu-
minous compounds; they are, moreover, more tender and, no
doubt, more easily digested than the hard stalks. When, there-
fore Cattle or sheep are allowed to pick out the pods andl softer
portions of bean-stalks, they do very well, for these parts are
much more nutritious “ihe the lower and harder parts. The
preceding analysis, it should be remembered, has been made of
the whole peaneseallks without the pods,

FLAX-STRAW.

In the neighbourhood of flax-mills a refuse material, which is
called “skimp,” is produced in considerable quantities, which is
nothing more or less than flax-straw chaff. A specimen, on ana-
lysis, furnished the following results :—

Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw. 411

General Fai a ao ee

Wintel wes “ss . 1460
Soluble organic matter al RSS Ess >) ss: DORtA
Soluble mineral matter. 2.4. (eae eed ee 4:07
Tnsolubleiorganic' matter .. “ts... .. 69°25
Insoluble mineral matter Sees © 5? 3°36
100°00
Detailed Composition of Flax-chaff.

Water Se sc eS US ecg heeeaee mel we La 0)
Oslieu bss Siig Soe Reed WAS 2°82
*Protein compounds Saye day, Ade ees Res BARLO.
Sugar, gum, mucilage, &c. Ssblrtavean a4 0 Sa 8°72
Digestible fibre es tilkucteuictance oe dlehale
Indigestible woody fibres ke ME gang
Soluble moineraleinathery arc) sae | mace SOM tes Hy Ahi
Insoluble mineral matter .. .. .. «- « 3°36
100:00

*Containing nitrogen Sine ceeds eine Se up ole *76
Total percentage of ash EEG one cay ee AS

It will be seen that this flax-straw cance nearly 3 per cent,
of oil and fatty matters, nearly 9 per cent. of substances soluble
in water, and about as much albuminous matter as good barley-
straw. In addition to these valuable nutritive constituents, it
furnished 184 per cent. of digestible fibre. I have, therefore,
little doubt that, mixed with sliced or pulped roots, it may be
advantageously given to cattle. As far as it is allowable to
judge by its composition, flax-straw is more valuable as a feeding
material than wheat and barley straw and bean-stalks; it ought,
therefore, not be employed as litter.

CLover anpD MEapow-Hay.

As it may be useful for some purposes to compare the com-
position of straw with that of hay, | have made, in connexion
with these investigations on the feeding qualities of different
kinds of straw, two complete analyses of hay—one of well made
clover-hay, and another of good meadow-hay, and obtained the
following results :—

Composition of Clover and Meadow-hay.

General Composition.
Clover-hay. Meadow-hay.

Water .. .. 1) BURA ieee tat we fot p00) 16°66
Soluble organic matter ie See td ed es et FLO LOG 17°79
poluble imorcanic matter .. .. .. ---iie: 4°43 4°37
Insoluble organic matter .. .. .. .. .. 54°88 57°78
Tnsoluble mineral Matters 2 MeL ARR OG? 3°40

100:00 100°00
VOL, XXII, 2.8

412 Composition and Nutritive Value of Straw.

Detailed Composition.

Water .. .. vied) de CORD oot [ea OS OO) 16°66
Oil, wax, and chlorophy les rene oa) BF59 501
*Albumen and other soluble protein compounds 5°00 1°81
Sugar, mucilage, extractive matters, &e., sm 13°07 15-98
in Ww ater .. BO) dG) oo 00
Digestible fibre, Bos ce iol Dh Ge 28°88
Soluble inorganic matter .. .. .. .. « 4°48 4:37
tInsoluble protein compounds .. .. .. .. 8°75 6°25
Indigestible woody fibre .. .. =. =. ~. 20°04 17°64
Insoluble inorgahic matter... .. .. .. .. 2°62 3°40

100°00 100°00

*Containing nitrogen Se) sete coset teith veal ae nets “S80 *29
Containing nitrogen .. Sete p tah cy ae 1°40 1°00
Total percentage of nitrogen OANA oi nc 9) 24s) 1°29
Equal to protein compounds ai Gia) oaiM: Miget | 5 8°06
Total ash 3 fc) ae ee 7°05 (Gti

It appears from these analyses—

1. That hay, especially clover-hay, is much richer in albu-
minous or flesh-forming compounds than straw.

2. That it contains also more oil and fatty matters.

3. That both clover and meadow-hay, when well made, are
much richer in sugar and other soluble matters than straw. (Good
meadow-hay especially contains a good deal of sugar, and is
sweet to the taste.

4, That the proportion of indigestible woody fibre, particu-
larly in meadow-hay, is much smaller than in straw ; and

5. That good, meadow-hay contains more digestible fibre than
clover-hay.

For these reasons, both clover and meadow-hay are, as feeding
substances, superior to straw.

The kinds of straw that approach in composition the nearest
to hay are green oat-straw and pea-haulm.

It has been stated already that the state of maturity m which
straw is harvested materially affects its composition and feeding
value ; likewise, that probably the climate and character of the
land have great influence in producing the most nutritious
kind of straw. It is, therefore, impossible to pronounce in
a general way whether wheat, oat, or barley straw is the most

valuable for feeding purposes. Assuming, however, the land
and climate to be equally well adapted for producing the best
kind of straw in each case, and the crops to have been harvested
in the same stage of maturity, | am inclined to place the dif-
ferent kinds of straw in the following order, beginning with the

Statistics of Live Stockh and Dead Meat. 413

most nutritious, and ending with the least valuable for feeding
urposes :—
ae 1. Pea-haulm.
2. Oat-straw.
3. Bean-straw with the pods.
4, Barley-straw.
5. Wheat-straw.
6. Bean-stalks without the pods.

Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, Dec. 1861.

XVILI.— Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption
in the Metropolis. By Ropert Herserr.

Tue metropolitan market has been well supplied with beasts
during the last six months, and the quality of most breeds has
exhibited a decided improvement; the beef trade has continued
in a healthy state, and prices have ruled remarkably steady.
That the past has been a favourable season for the production of
stock is evident from the condition in which the beasts have
come to hand. ‘The most important feature in the supplies has
been the unusually large number of crosses which week by week
have made their appearance. Not that there has been any falling
off in the pure breeds, but that the increase in our enormous
consumption has, ina great measure, been met by cross-breeds
- well suited to first-class consumption, or indeed quite equal in
quality to the best Scots. Doubtless the comparatively high
prices at which beasts have been disposed of during the last two
or three years have stimulated production generally in the
United Kingdom ; still it is gratifying to find that, although the
policy of cross-breeding has been much contested, it has proved
highly remunerative to the grazier, and placed the country in a
much improved position as regards a full average supply of really
consumable meat, without justifying the apprehensions of those
who were jealous for the maintenance of the pure breeds. We
find the system at present chiefly carried on in Scotland, Norfolk,
Suffolk, and in some parts of Lincolnshire.

The market has of late exhibited another important feature,
from the fact that nearly a moiety of the stock exhibited was
composed of beasts under two years old. Though young they
have “died” well; they have produced high currencies ; and,
from their large proportion of prime meat, assisted butchers in
carrying on their business at a profit: otherwise the best joints
of meat would, no doubt, have realized great prices; inferior
cuttings must have sold at a loss from want of an adequate

2s 2

414 Statistics of Live Stockh and Dead Meat

number of customers for them. The science of breeding, then,
has now fully developed itself to the benefit of the country; the
farmer seeing that three bullocks are now produced, where under
the old principles only one was sent to market. Although losses
from pleuro-pneumonia have still been sustained, it is satisfactory
to learn that this disease has been less fatal of late than on the
ordinary run of years.

The supplies of mutton have not been equally satisfactory.
Although there has been a large arrival of sheep from the Con-
tinent, prices of all breeds fore ruled high, and their general
quality has proved inferior ; indeed we believe that at eae two-
thirds of the sheep disposed of since June last have been below
the average condition, ‘To what cause are we to attribute this
scarcity ¢ ? To an extension of the in-and-in system of breeding,
or to the disastrous effects of the wet, cold season of 1860 telling
upon the following year? From whatever cause the deficiency
may have arisen, it is clear that nothing short of large arrivals
from Holland and elsewhere will keep the currencies at their pre-
sent range. It is true that young sheep have come pretty freely
to hand, ieee from the small quantity of internal fat carried by them
they have mostly sold at considerably less money than stock from
two-and-a-half to three years old ; hence it may be doubted whether
sheep-feeding has paid well except in favoured districts, and
where the best breeds are chiefly produced. ‘The rapid progress
of sheep-breeding abroad has created no little surprise in this
country. In 1861 the imports into London alone amounted to
44,236 beasts and 235,910 sheep. ‘The quality of the beasts has
exhibited very little improvement when compared with most
previous years; but the sheep have for the most part come to
hand in excellent condition ; in fact it must be admitted that
they now carry more fat than our long-woolled breeds, and that
they have become great favourites with the buyers. These
observations, however, do not apply to the original long-legged
Dutch breeds, which have almost wholly disappeared from our
markets. The stock now received from Holland shows unmis-
takeable signs of crossing with our pure Downs. The legs have
been considerably shortened, the fleece hangs well, and the
prices realised are very high. I!n no country in the world has so
wonderful an improvement taken place in so short a period
in the quality of sheep as in Holland. The Dutch calves have,
too, turned out remarkably well, but the lambs and pigs, from
what may be called their poor condition, have changed hands at
low currencies. From Germany, vid Hamburg, the import of
sheep has been large as to number, but of a quality only suited
to low consumption. It is surprising that the graziers in Ger-
many should continue to forward stock worth only from 18/. to

for Consumption in the Metropolis. A15

251. each, which returns little or no profit to them; in point
of fact, ahhen allowing for freight, charges, and commission, it
may ie doubted mhether merino breeding i is not productive of a
loss.

The annexed statement shows the number of each kind of
stock, including foreign arrivals, disposed of in the Great
Metropolitan Cattle Market during the last six months of each
year :—

Supplies of each kind of Stock Exhibited and Sold during the last Six
Months of the following Years :—

| 1856. | 1857. | £1858. | 1859. | 1860. | 1861,
7 2 ies | taastoelen Es fs Basie
Beasts .. .. | 129,509 | 137,915 | 147,118 | 143,198 | 145,420 | 149,750
Rowe res |) 2,864) (9,918 | 3,187 |" 3,030} 3,015.|" 8,187
Sheepand Lambs 689,444 | 701,414 | 747,829 | 803,334 | 762,740 | 774,260
Calves .. .. | 14,480] 15,006 | 15,186 | 12,277 | 15,766 | 12,441

LYE Gigo® (66. tee 18,733 | 14,992; 19,441 16,130 | 15,470 | 20,116

The above comparison exhibits a steady increase in the sup-
‘plies of both beasts and sheep in 1861, compared with 1860;
compared with 1856 the excess is oe important. Pigs owe
steadily increased in number, but the supply of calves ee fallen
off owing to the unusually small numbers of English on offer.
Whilst the foreign competition keeps down the price of veal,
English breeders will find it more profitable to keep their calves
to be turned into prime beef.

In glancing at those quarters from whence London draws its
supplies, we find a steady increase in the arrivals from Lincoln-
shire, Leicestershire, and Northamptonshire; but a falling off
in those from Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and Cambridgeshire.
Other parts of England have forwarded very moderate supplies,
but from Ireland and Scotland they have steadily increased.
About 6000 fewer foreign beasts have been on offer than in 1860,
but the supply, taken as a whole, has come up to some former
years. ‘The district arrival statement is as under :—

“ District” Bullock Supplies.

| | |
1856. 1857. 1858. | 1859. | 1860. | 1861.

|

| |
Northern Districts .. | 60,760 | 81,600 | 66,260 | 64,470 66,140 | 71,450
Eastern Districts bom Be 7,000 | 6,970 | 3,600; 9,500 | 2,500
Other parts of eee 20,700 | 15,870 | 13,820 | 23,220 | 20,500 | 9,700
Scotland | 2,784 | 1,886 | 2,674) 4,640) 1,151] 4,586.
Ireland. ss «+ -» | 11,000 | 12,000 | 13,760 | 10,544 | 7,852 | 10,340
Foreign | 38,381 | 25,984 | 80,797 | 30,394 | 37,578 | 31,814

|

The Irish stock has mostly appeared in fair condition, and

416 Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, §c.

some really well made up sheep have arrived, and fetched good
prices. The great improvement in the quality of the bullock
supplies has had the effect of reducing the value of the best
breeds when compared with 1860. In the value of mutton yery
little change has taken place, as the annexed statement will
show :—

Average Prices of Beef and Mutton.

1856, 1857, 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861,
BEEF :— MeO. eh OB CE Hi eh s. d. 8 gh Vege ee
Inferior .. on ip. yO) 2 100 in 20 2 10 2 8 | 3° «0
Whalers | 25) be 4 0 3 10; i) 49.0 4 0 4 0 4 0
Prime sok Maree s/o) | Me ROL ae AU0 | 6-2 5 2 5 4 | 2 0
Morton :— |
IRredioto om) Bo Go | 3.44 5 10 210 3.0 3 2 3 2
Middling., 42 j#\ a1 4 0) 40200 (ei
Prime | oid, A 54 5) 2 52 5 10 5. 8

Increased quantities of Scotch and country-killed meat have
been on sale in Newgate and Leadenhall, and some rather large
parcels of mutton have come to hand from Holland. Prices
have continued to fluctuate, but generally a large business has
been transacted.

In conclusion, we may observe that the Norfolk season for
both beasts and sheep has opened remarkably well. The arriyals
from that quarter have been in excellent condition, and we under-
stand that the number of stock ready for sale is much larger than
in the general run of years,

5, Argyle Square, St. Pancras, London.

XIX.—Laying down Land to Permanent Pasture. By
M. H. Surron.

Preparation of the Land.—If the land is not clean, it is well
to take a crop of turnip or other roots previous to laying down
grass, which will afford opportunity for more effectual cleaning
than can be done in the winter months preceding the seed-
sowing.

The importance of getting the land into a good tilth, fine,
firm, and level, cannot be overstated, as, if the land is rough
or hollow, some seeds will be too deeply buried, and others not
covered at all. If the field is full of weed-seeds, they will germi-
nate more quickly than the grasses, and take possession of the
land.

Manue—tlf a root-crop has been fed off in the previous

Laying down Land to Permanent Pasture. 417

autumn, it will generally be unnecessary to apply other manure ;
but if the land requires assistance, a top-dressing of 2 ewt. per
acre of Peruvian guano, or the same quantity of nitrate of soda,
should be applied when the grass is well established, say 2 inches
high.

‘Sowing. —Choose a still day, as a rough wind would prevent
the regular spreading of the seeds. Some men who are used to
it will sow grass-seeds well by the hand; but it will generally
be done better with the common seed-barrow. ‘This will distri-
bute the seed very evenly, either in one mixture of clovers and
grass-seeds together, or (which is most usual) by going twice
over the land, sowing the light grass-seeds first, passing up or
down the furrows, and subsequently crossing the lands with the
mixture of elovers and other heay ¥ seeds,

A. bush-harrow, or the lightest iron harrow, should be applied
immediately before and after sowing, thereby covering the seeds
before birds or a change of weather can interfere with ‘them, care
being taken that as few seeds as possible are buried too deeply,
or remain uncovered, After harrowing, the whole should be
carefully rolled. As to the best season for sowing, though much
has been written in favour of autumn-sowing, we hewe: no hesi-~
tation in saying that the spring is preferable if the land can be
made ready. With very heavy land, however, in a wet spring,
it is often late in the summer before it is sufficiently pulverised,
and if later than the middle of June, it is well to defer the sow-
ing till August or September; but in autumn-sowing there is
great probability of losing the clovers, as, while in a young state,
they are apt to be carried off by slug or frost. Therefore, if
autumn-sowing is adopted, it is well to examine the young
pasture early in the spring, and, if the clovers are found to be
deficient, to sow more of the same kinds immediately, which
will take very well if the grasses are not too strong.

By spring-sowing we mean sowing during the months of
March, April, and May ; and, generally, April will be the safest
and most favourable month of the three. If, however, the land
is quite ready by the middle of March, and the weather favour-
able, it would be good policy to sow without delay, rather than
incur the risk of the seed-bed being spoiled by a change of
weather. If it is desired to grow a crop of corn, the time of
sowing the grass-seeds will be either immediately after the corn,
or else when the cornis two inches high—the former being most
favourable for the grass. . As to the question whether it is best
to sow with or without a crop of spring corn, it is no doubt
safest and best to sow the grass-seed alone, especially where the
object is to obtain a fine park-like sward as soon as possible.
One great advantage of this practice is, that if the land has not

418 Laying down Land to Permanent Pasture.

been thoroughly cleaned, and the annual weeds get ahead of the
rough grass, they may be destroyed by mowing as soon as the
grass is six inches high; and another is, that if from irregular
sowing, or from the roller not having passed over every part of
the field, some bare spots occur, they may be discovered and re-
sown in good time.

In sowing corn with the grass-seeds some of the finer kinds of
grasses are almost sure to fail, especially if the corn crop is
heavy and becomes lodged. Still much might be said, and is
said, in favour of this latter practice ; ; and, seeing that ihe obtain-
ing a crop of oats or barley is an important cesar with most
nara we would by no means condemn the practice, especially
as the ies nee can, if duly informed of the intention of his cus-
tomer, provide such sorts and proportions of grass and clover-
seeds as will, under ordinary circumstances, insure a full plant.
The quantity of corn sown should not be more than 2 bushels
per acre, and oats are generally less injurious to grass than
barley.

Sowing Grass-seeds with Wheat.—\t not unfrequently happens
that a field already sown with wheat is desired for adding to the
grass-lands; and if it is pretty clean, there is no objection
or difficulty in effecting this, provided the seeds are sown suf-
ficiently early before the wheat is too high, Upon autumn-sown
wheat the grass-seeds might be sown as early as the middle of
February, Piha eee Thee be open, as the wheat will defend the
young grass from any injury by frost ;~but if the wheat is very
ieee ad: or stands thin on the eround, the sowing may with
aflvantape be deferred.

On spring-sown wheats the grass-seeds should be sown as soon
as the corn is 2 or 3 inches high; and as all the tillage required
will be bush-harrowing before sowing, and rolling afterwards, no
injury to the wheat-plant need be feared.

The most suitable Weather for Sowing Grass-seeds.—Choose a
fine day when the land is tolerably dry, but when there are indi-
cations of approaching rain. These are much more favourable
conditions for the seeds to fall on the land than rainy or showery
weather, as they are more likely to be evenly covered, and will
be very gradually absorbing moisture from the soil previous to
the fall of rain, which they “will be in a condition to receive with
benefit ; aeane if sown after a shower, as is too frequently
done, these advantages are not obtained, he after the seeds have
become saturated with moisture, the dry weather returns, and
they become “ malted.”

The sorts of Grasses and Clovers most suitable for Permanent
Pasture-—This is perhaps the most important point of all in
laying down land. ‘The natural grasses vary exceedingly as to

Laying down Land to Permanent Pasture. 419

their suitability for the many different kinds of soils and situa-
tions for which they may be required ; and when we are informed
of these particulars concerning the land, and the number of acres
to be laid down, we apportion the sorts accordingly. We are,
however, often applied to for advice as to what sorts we recom-
mend ; and as we wish to make no secret or mystery of what our
mixtures of permanent grass-seeds consist of, we here present a
list of what we consider the best possible mixture for a good
medium soil, neither too heavy nor too light, 7. e. good turnip
and barley land. These are all of excellent properties; and,
coming to maturity at different seasons of the year, are found to
produce a permanent and evergreen sward :-—

lbs. Ibs.

Alopecurus pratensis .. .. .. 1 | Lolium perenne tenue Pere ces a
Anthoxanthum odoratum .. .. 4 | Phleumpratense.. .. .. .« I
Cynosurus cristatus .. .. .. Ll Poa pratense Se). ey hie Meee
Dactylis glomerata ae Sy WINAAIS er igen) ceeh Cott cae ee
Festuca.duriuscula .. .. «. 4 sey nemoralish Wrsjowe es: fsa Rae:
PIMP PIALENSISics | foe fae 4. Medicago lupulina if
PROMI AD Mee) thse 2 Trifolium repens (White clov over) | 4

“4 SUL eee 2 35 wap Pe DGKEDG wiete Pet ne 14:

» tenuifolia numa lake) FR pratense perenne Bch del
foliacea: 3. %: venta 3 hybridum (Alsike) .. 2

fon]

Lolium perenne sempervirens S60

The sorts and proportions of the seeds used will be different from
those above stated on particular soils, and also on those pastures
which are devoted to special purposes.

Nothing can be more injudicious than sowing ‘‘ hay seeds,” as
they are called, which are collected in the hay-loft, as they con-
sist principally of Holcus and Bromus, the only grasses which are
ripe at the time grass is cut for hay, and some other weeds which
are not grasses at all.

“After-Mana gement.—Soon after the young plants are esta-
blished—say 8 to 4 inches high—a roller should be drawn over
the field, and if any spots are found in which the seeds have
missed, more should be sown.

As weeds indigenous to the soil are almost sure to come up
in land laid down to grass, care should be taken to remove them
by the hand, or check them by early mowing.

These operations of course cannot well Be performed if a crop
of corn has been sown with the grasses; but in such case the
grasses and clovers should be looked to immediately after the
corn is carried, some additional seeds sown in any parts in which
the grasses have suffered from the corn-crop, when a top-dressing
of well-rotted farmyard manure may with advantage be applied.
Rolling once or twice before Christmas will be penehenil 3 and,
should the grass become very strong before winter, cattle may be

420 Laying down Land to Permanent Pasture.

turned in during fine weather; but on no account sheep, as they
are apt to pull up the young plants of grass,

It will generally be better to leave the pasture till spring,
giving it an additional rolling or bush-harrowing in the month
of March, with a top-dressing of manure, if considered necessary.
The young grass should not be grazed till the following autumn ;
but two crops of hay should be taken in the first season—the
first as early as possible. This frequent cutting checks the
stronger grasses, and affords the more slender-growing kinds a
better chance, and al! are encouraged to tiller out and form a
good close sward; whereas, if allowed to stand too long before
mowing, the early kinds would become strong and ripe to the
injury of others,

Again, if cattle are allowed to graze after the first mowing (or
instead of mowing), they will pick out certain grasses and clovers,
leaving others which in time become more coarse than is
desirable, and have a very unsightly, patchy appearance.

If grazing is practised, as being more in accordance with the
requirements of the owner, then a scythe should be applied once
or twice during the first summer to those plots of grass which
the cattle leave.

Breaking up of Grass-land.—Some old pastures are so unpro-
ductive, and so foul with weeds, that it is desirable to break
them up, grow a crop of turnips, and then sow seeds for perma-
nent pasture. The subsequent crops of grass will be incom-
parably better than were obtained previous to breaking up.
Paring, burning, and spreading the ashes for manure is an excel-
lent plan, and very superior to ploughing the turf in, The
expense of this operation will soon be repaid ten-fold by the
increased crops of hay and pasturage. About the beginning of
March is the best time to begin the paring; and as to the burn-
ing, no time should be lost when dry, so as to get the land ready
for turnip-sowing,

Improvement of Grass-lands.—Thousands of meadows and up-
land pastures are producing less than half the quantity of hay
and feed which the land is capable of, from a deficiency of plants
of those kinds which are most productive and most suitable for
the soil. In some cases, where the pasture is yery foul with
weeds and moss, it is advisable to pare and burn the old sward,
and resow the land entirely, as above directed. In some other
instances it may be desirable to drain and manure the land ; but
in most cases great improvement can be effected by merely sow-
ing renoyating-seeds (which should consist of the finest and
most nutritive kinds of perennial grasses and cloyers) in the
following manner. Heavy harrows should be drawn over the

Laying down Land to Permanent Pasture. 421

old turf early in the spring to loosen the soil for the admission
of seeds, which, if sown freely, will occupy the numerous small
spaces between the grasses already growing, and supersede the
coarse grasses and noxious weeds,

It is a good practice to sow these seeds at the same time as
the top-dressing, if any is applied; but this is by no means
necessary. The months of February, March, and April are
proper for sowing the seeds; the earlier the better, as the old
grass will protect the young from frost. It is also useful to sow
in July and August, immediately after carrying the hay. Should
the old ‘turf be very full of moss, this is generally an indication
that draining would be beneficial. The following is, however,
an almost infallible remedy for the moss, not only destroying it,
but preventing the growth in future. Mix two cartloads of
quick-lime with eight cartloads of good light loam, turning the
compost several times that it may be thoroughly mixed and the
lime slaked, and spread this quantity per acre over the pasture,
dragging the turf well with iron harrows. Cattle should not
be allowed to graze at the same season as this dressing is given,
or at least not till after one crop of hay has been taken.

We offer the foregoing hints, on laying down permanent pas-
tures, &c., founded on our own experience and observation
during full thirty years, under the various circumstances and
upon the different soils which prevail in this country ; and we
flatter ourselyes that, if they are acted upon pretty generally,
considerable improvement will be observed in this important
department of agriculture,

Reading, Berks, January, 1862.

XX.—The Water Economy of France inits relation to Agriculture,
By F. R. pe ra TREHONNAIS.

Av a time when the attention of the legislature of the country
has been directed towards measures calculated to substitute a
general and comprehensive system of drainage for the isolated
and hampered attempts to which, by the imadequacy of the
English law, agriculture was previously restricted, a glance at
the water economy of France, especially as regards its legal regu-
lations, may not be inopportune,

Howeyer enticing the development of this subject may be,
it will be my study in the following pages to treat it as suc-
cinctly as possible, and exclusively in an English point of view.
No ambitious attempt will be made to grapple with the general
question of the water economy of so vast a country as France,

422 The Water Economy of France

but rather from the scenes most familiar to me, and the in-
formation at my command, to select such points of view as by
comparison and illustration may best throw a light on the English
aspect of this important subject. Until last year the statutes
of England almost ignored the subject of water-supply—the
regulation of the ingress and egress of water—and it will hardly
ie anticipated that a single enactment will have exhausted this
large question. France, on the other hand, enjoys on this head
The most complete, well-defined, and equitable code of any
country in Europe; but, unhappily, few nations have made
fewer efforts to turn these advantages to good account,

Whilst in England the water-meadows of the south-western
counties, and the great enterprises for reclaiming the Fens in the
east (effected by special enactments), and the general rapid deve-
lopment of field-drainage, attest the practical energy of the
country, in France the voice of lamentation is constantly heard,—
either from the southern and central provinces, complaining of
drought which not unfrequently assumes the proportions of a
scourge,—or, on the other hand, from the valleys of many streams,
and the whole of the mountain dicnaeees where inundations spread
disaster and devastation along the wide and shifting channels of
the rivers.

To an agriculturist travelling in France it is, then, painfully
evident that no adequate efforts are made in arid districts to
husband the moisture; or again, where the rain is at times
excessive, to provide sufficient outlet for the floods, or form
reservoirs where the water may be kept for irrigation against the
day of scorching heat. And yet, as will presently appear, the
laws of France singularly facilitate the management of water,
whilst the Government offers the gratuitous services of an able
staff of engineers, scattered over the whole country, to assist the
owners of the soil in controlling this most powerful agent for
good or eyil.

I. The Running Waters of France.

Of the rain that falls, that portion which is neither retained
by the soil, directly evaporated, or absorbed by the functions of
vegetable life, either. flows over the surface, or bursts out in
sptings, taking a direction which varies according to the contour
or lie of the country, and then, through a succession of rills,
rivulets, streams, and rivers, moaiees its passage to the sea. There
is no more gorse es or imapalonie method of subdividing a
country than into water-basins, or areas within which these
channels converge; many most interesting topographical and
geological features will thus be brought to view, the varieties of
Climate and natural productions defined, and even the difference

in tts relation to Agriculture. 423

in the chemical properties of water will be shown to exert an
influence on agriculture capable of further extension.

France lends herself easily to such a distribution. She is
bounded on the north-east by the Northern Ocean, on the north-
west by the English Channel, on the west by the Atlantic, and
on the south by the Mediterranean: ; and hence four great hydro-
graphical divisions may be formed.

As the same chain of hills for many leagues often forms the
common barrier between two adjacent haa. to avoid repetition
and ensure perspicuity, it is desirable to give a combined view
of the general outline of all these divisions.

Of the north-eastern basin but a small portion falls within
French territory ; the barrier which separates it from the north-
western division begins at Cape Grisnez, opposite Dover, and runs
along eastward, near the frontier of Belgium, till it ite reached
the eer ede of Champagne, where it turns towards the south
and forms the eastern boundary of that province ; but before it has
reached its southern limit the chain divides and forms a fork,
from which the head-waters of the Mediterranean basin issue forth.
The eastern prong, forming the watershed between the latter basin
and the north-eastern, bends to the east, until it has joined the
mountains of Alsace, and then running to the south, forms the
long and magnificent range of the Jura: which culminates over
the town of Gee not far ee Geneva.

The north-western basin is bounded on the north by the
mountain-range which stretches from Cape Grisnez to the fork
already described, from whence, passing the lofty plateau of
Langres, this western prong is continued southwards beyond
Dijon, when the barrier turns suddenly to the west by Chateau
Chinon, and thence returns in a continuous north-westerly direc-
tion through several provinces of Central France, north of Orleans,
to Alengon, and so through the west of Normandy, rejoining the
Channel near Cherbourg.

The western or oceanic division comprelends two noble rivers :
the Loire and the Garonne, and will best be subdivided into
the northern, or basin of the Loire, and the southern, or that of
the Garonne.

The basin of the Loire, which, in the extreme west, has for
its northern barrier the granitic mountains of Brittany, is conter-
minous with the north-western division from Alengon to Chateau
Chinon and the hills of Burgundy, whence a high range, running
down to the south beyond Lyons and Valence, divides it from
the valley of the Rhone ; and here the watershed makes a circuit
to the west amongst the interesting volcanic mountains of
Auvergne, from ilenbe a lower range of hills, traversing the
provinces of Limousin and Poitou, returns in a north- westerly

424 The Water Economy of France

direction, till it reaches the sea just below the mouth of the Loire,
in the extreme south of Brittany.

The southern oceanic basin, or that of the Garonne, has for its
northern barrier this last-named chain from the sea to the moun-
tains of Auvergne. From thence its eastern boundary is formed
by the chain of the Cevennes, which run towards the south-west
until they reach the Pyrenees, and these great frontier mountains
continue the circuit westward to the Bay of Biscay.

Of the Mediterranean basin the western watershed has been
already traced. Commencing from the north, near Langres, it
consisted first, of the Burgundian hills (the boundary of the
north-western basin), next of the chain running to the south of
Lyons, the eastern boundary of the Loire basin ; and lastly, of the
Cevennes, till they join the eastern Pyrenees on the skirts of the
Mediterranean. Its eastern barrier is identical with that of the
north-eastern division, from its apex southwards to Gex, above
Geneva; and from thence following the contour of the Lake of
Geneva by Neufchatel and Lausanne, it penetrates deeply into
the very heart of the southern slopes of the Bernese Alps and the
Great St. Bernard, as far as the very source of its main artery,
the swift and mighty Rhone. It then follows the snow-capped
summit of the whole range of the Alps from Great St. Bernard,
Mont Blanc, and the Cottian chain, down to their very base,
bathed by the blue waves of the Mediterranean at Nice.

This outline, which purposely avoids the mention of places
unknown to foreign readers, will, it is hoped, be found fairly
accurate and intelligible. It will at least bring out one point of
hydrographical interest, viz., the great degree of fusion and
approximation which water-channels produce between the north
and the south, the east and west. From what a northerly source
are those head- waters derived which run into the Mediterranean !
What a tale the streams of the Loire might tell to Central France
and the bleak shores of the Atlantic, of the sunny regions where
first they saw the light!

Of the rivers which traverse the north-eastern basin the most
important is the Rhine, which noble stream, however, is hardly
French, flowing as it does along, or external to, the French
fronties. On the upper part of its course a few insignificant -
streams from the eastern declivities of the Vosges supply its
only tribute of French waters, except those which the Moselle
gathers, in the upper part of its course, from the Meurthe and
the Sarre,

The Meuse, from its source down to the schistose formation of
the Ardennes, runs through a valley scooped out of the middle
oolite, and receives at Namur the tribute of the Sambre, a river
having nothing French but its source.

in its relation to Agriculture. 425

The Scheldt, like its two aflluents, the Scarpe and the Lys,
arises from the great chalk range which terminates at Cape
Grisnez, and runs in a south-eastern direction into the basin of
the Meuse, to which it might be easily joined. The highly
prosperous and advanced state of agriculture in the provinces,
such as Lorraine, Alsace, Flanders, which these rivers traverse,
gives to this French division, small though it be, a characteristic
importance which more than compensates for its comparative
geographical insignificance.

Of the north-western basin the chief river is the Seme. Most
travellers by the Paris and Lyons Railway may remember the
steep incline which begins at Montbard and culminates at the
station of Blaisy Bas. The bleak crags and mountain-tops which
crown this wild valley form part of the boundary-line between
the north-western basin and that of the Mediterranean. In that
neighbourhood the beautiful Seine gushes forth from a cleft in
the hills, whilst many other of its tributary streams spring from
various points of the immense amphitheatre of Jurassic moun-
tains, which forms as it were the eastern apse of this elongated
enclosure. From its source, near Dijon, to its mouth at Havre,
the Seine runs a course of no less than 600 miles through this im-
mense ‘parallelogram ; its principal tributaries are the Oise, the
Aube, the Yonne, the Marne, and the Eure. The area drained by
the Seinefmay be computed at nearly twenty million acres. The
mean annual rainfall upon that area has been calculated at 22,933
millions of cubic metres, or 3,045,260 million gallons. Some efforts
have been made to gauge the quantity of water flowing through the
channel of the Seine at various parts, in order to calculate what
proportion it bore to the amount of the annual average rainfall.
The following figures have been accurately ascertained by the in-
teresting experiments of M. Dausse :—When the stream is at its
lowest point the quantity of water passing beneath the bridge
of La Concorde, at Paris, is 75 cubic metres, or 16,500 gallons, per
second ; when the stream is not unusually low it is 111 cubic metres;
or 24,420 gallons; at its mean height it is 246 cubic metres, or
54,120 gallons; and in times of great influx, when the river is
on the verge of overflowing its banks, the amount rises to 1141
cubic metres, or 251,020 gallons. In the year 1615, 1400 cubic
metres, or 308,000 gallons were registered. From the most trust-
worthy calculations it may be inferred that only one-fourth of the
rain falling upon the area of the Seine basin finds its way to the
sea through that channel, the other three-fourths being otherwise
absorbed. ‘These records apply to an area essentially undrained.
It would be interesting to be ina position to compare them with
similar experiments made upon streams which receive the waters
of a well-drained district.

426 Lhe Water Economy of France

The western or oceanic division comprises by far the most
extensive area. It extends over two-thirds of the whole surface
of France, and consequently drains no less than 88 million
acres.

The central group of mountains in Auvergne, so strikingly
overtopped by the three great volcanic summits of Mont d’Orx,
Cantal, and Mesenc, id forth from their granitic bases the
Pjeseike orthe northern basin of the eae and the southern
basin of the Garonne. From the northern declivity, each in its
own deep and well-defined valley, flow the Loire and the Allier
on the northern route ; and from the southern slope the Dordogne
hastens to pay its tribute to the Garonne. We have also on the
north side the Cher, the Indre, the Creuse, the Vienne, tributaries
of the Loire; from the southern declivity flow the Dréme, the
Isle, and the Vezere, which fall into the Garonne; and from the
point where the granitic and crystalline mass disappears beneath
the stratified layers from whence it burst forth, the Tarn and
the Lot spring up to swell the waters of the Garonne.

Thus Auvergne is the cradle of all the great rivers which dis-
charge their waters into the Atlantic Coss. with the exception
of the Garonne, which, together with its southern tributary, the
Arriége, is of Pyrenean origin. ‘The Arriege may even be con-
Sidered“ac'a branchiof the Garonne, rather faa a distinct river,
as it forms with the upper part or torrential stream of that great
river a huge triangle, the base of which is formed by the highest
range of the Pyrenees, from Puycerda to Bagneres de aaa
act of that extreme lofty range flow the waters of the river Tet
towards Perpignan, thus foetine with the other mountain-stream
the Tech the small western section of the Mediterranean basin, in
the same manner as the Adour and the drainage-water from the
western slopes of the Pyrenean range form the extreme southern
secondary basin of the oceanic division.

All those tributary streams that belong to the Loire basin, as
well as those belonging to that of the Garonne, flow through
secondary strata of the oolite or chalk formation before their con-
fluence with the main streams into which they merge, which
flow in ter tiary or alluvial strata.

Below the city of Angers the Loire is joined from the north
by the Maine, which is itself formed by the confluence of three
rivers, the Loir, the Sarthe, and the Mayenne. Lower down it
receives the tee the Aure, and the Blavet, which bring the
waters from the Beton peninsula.

Between the mouth of the Loire and that of the Gironde—a
name given to the stream formed by the junction of the Dor-
dogne and the Garonne, just below Bordeaux —the space
intervening is drained by two rivers which empty their waters

in its relation to Agriculture. 427

directly into the ocean: the Sevre, which flows almost exclusively
through Jurassic strata; and the Charente which waters districts
chiefly belonging to the lower chalk formation. These two rivers
converge at their outlet into the sea, opposite the Isle of Rhé.
Finally, in the extreme south the river Adour, flowing from the
western extremity of the Pyrenean chain, empties its waters into
the Bay of Biscay at Bayonne, close to the Spanish seaboard.

The whole length of the river Loire exceeds 800 miles. It
drains at least one-fourth of the whole surface of French terri-
tory. Its sudden-freaks and terrific overflowings are too well
known to need more than a passing notice. I shall refer in a
subsequent paragraph to the nature of its waters and that of its
principal affluents.

The Gironde, together with its two great affluents, the Dor-
dogne and the Garonne, drain an area of at least twelve million
acres.

The river Rhone is, so to speak, the only channel through
which all the waters of the immense Mediterranean basin are
conveyed into the sea. I have already described the boundaries
of that extraordinary water division, so boldly and so strikingly
delineated by the lofty range of mountains which surround it on
all sides, from the eastern extremity of the Pyrenees to the
southern buttresses of the Alps on the western limit of the
Gulf of Genoa.

The river Rhone takes its source in one of the glaciers of the
Saas Mountains west of St. Gothard, at an altitude of nearly
6000 feet above the level of its mouths. The length of its
course, including its passage through the Lake of Geneva, from
which it gushes forth purified and refreshed like a mighty giant,
is no less than 600 miles. Its principal affluents are the Arve,
just below Geneva, which brings all the water from the western
slopes of the Savoisian Alps, from the heights of Mont Blanc, and
the river Ain, which drains the whole of the ancient province of
’ Bresse. At Lyons the Rhone enters the valley of the placid but
treacherous Sadne. Lower down the Isere brings down: the
waters collected from the deep valleys of Maurienne up to the
Mont Cenis, and then gathers those of the Cottian Alps as it
traverses the luxuriant valley of Graisivaudan, by Grenoble, and
the Grande Chartreuse. Last in order come the Drome and the
unruly Durance.

The noble Rhone is then the main, if not the only, outlet of
the waters of the Mediterranean basin; and, together with the
Sadne, which can hardly be termed its affluent, is the charac-
teristic feature of the whole division. Nothing can be more
striking than the contrast presented by these rivers: the one
owing its origin to, and being fed by, torrential affluents, preserves

VOL. XXII. 2G

428 The Water Economy of France

throughout the whole of its course a rapid current, an unsettled
flow, and a bluish turgidity, which at once reveal its mountain
birth and connexion; the other, the tranquil Sadne, having its
source amongst low hills, and pursuing its sluggish course
through a wide expanse of level plains, slowly moves, as if loth
to leave its grassy banks, until it encounters the swift Rhone, and
is hurried along together with the fretful current of its mighty
invader, It is worthy of special remark that the overflow of
these two rivers, arising in each case from a different, if not an
antagonistic cause, never occurs at the same time—a provi-
dential circumstance for the great city, below which they meet.
The waters of the Sadne and of its principal affluents are
directly affected by the rainfall; those of the Rhone and all
its mountain tributaries, on the contrary, are furnished by the
sudden melting of the snow that caps the mountain-tops, the
result of poate and genial temperature; so that in winter the
Rhone is at its lowest ebb and the Sadne at its fullest tide, whilst
in summer the contrary takes place.

Il. Lhe Geology and the Chemistry of the Running Waters
of France.

We now come to a branch of hydrography most important to
agriculture, although it has been hitherto much overlooked. At
atime when the happy results of irrigation are so generally recog-
nised, and so many efforts are being - made to utilize the available
streams that flow within the reach of waste lands and barren hill-
sides, it is obviously important to investigate by chemical
research the characteristic constituents of our rivers. It is with
this view that I will now introduce in a condensed form the inter-
esting results of the investigations made in that direction by
French savants in regard to the principal rivers of France,

The physical condition of water, whether it be rain, spring, or
river water, is by no means homogeneous, but varies a great deal,
according to the very many local and diversified circumstances
presented by the surface of the globe. Even with respect to the
laws which regulate the supply of rain, though some influences,
such as proximity to the sea or to mountain chains, have been
recognised and explained, still other peculiarities, though re-
marked, remain among nature’s mysteries. It has been demon-
strated to satisfaction on the other hand, that of two rain-gauges
placed in the same district, but at different elevations, the lower
gauge registers more rain than the upper one. That the mean
temperature of a district, the intensity of solar action, the phy-
sical constitution of the soil, as well as its state of cultivation,
exercise a most powerful influence on the distribution and

in its relation to Agriculture. 429

ultimate appropriation of rain-water is evident; but the modes
and limits of their action are still to be determined, and when
this is-done a great service will have been rendered to agri-
culture. However, it is but just to say that French savants,
’ stimulated by the initiative of the Government, who have at
their command an admirably organised body of engineers, under
the name of the Administration des Ponts et Chaussées, have gone
far towards the final elucidation of many important hydrological
phenomena presented by the various streams of the French terri-
tory. The records of these interesting researches have lately been
collected into a volume, called the ‘ Annuaire des Eaux de la
France,’ published by the French Government, a copy of which
has been kindly lent me by the Department of Agriculture, to
which I am further indebted for many other valuable works not
easily obtained from any other sources.

Rain-water, when collected just before its contact with the
surface of the soil, and therefore before its nature can be modi-
fied by the solution of any earthy substances, has been found to
contain, in various proportions, some gaseous acids, such as azotic
acid, free or combined with ammonia, nitric acid, and even traces
of iodine, which account for its powerful action on growing crops,
especially after a thunder-shower. But it is principally after its
contact with the soil in its passage through soluble geological
strata, that its physical nature undergoes the most conspicuous
changes.

The physical nature of the waters of a river will greatly depend
on that of the geological strata with which its source and that of
its affluent tributaries are in contact; I say its own source,
because it is found that all large rivers, for a considerable dis-
tance before they reach the sea, run in channels scooped out of
tertiary alluvial deposits, the nature of which is identical with
that of the alluvial earthy matters brought by the affluent streams,
and deposited in the main channel by precipitation. But in the
case of long rivers, the nature of the strata washed by the tribu-
tary streams often varies exceedingly ; hence the complex consti-
tution of the silt of many rivers in the lower reaches of their
course: but as the chemical condition of the tributary streams is
generally homogeneous, and consequently forms a characteristic
feature of its water, it is interesting to note the change that the
waters of the main stream undergo after they have received the
tribute of their principal affluents. Thus it is found in the
basin of the Seine that the waters from the crystalline soil of the
Department of Yonne, conveyed to the Seine through the river
Yonne, contain a notable quantity of alkaline silicates; whilst
those of Arceuil are essentially calcareous, and those flowing
through the gypsum strata of Belleville and Menilmontant, in the

262

430 The Water Economy of France

neighbourhood of Paris, are strongly impregnated with sulphate
of lime. But many of these mineral substances are not soluble in
pure water, and therefore it is evident that the water must
contain some dissolving agent which acts upon the various strata,
and allows it to carry away in its course a portion of the sub-
stances over which they flow. This agent is found to be chiefly
carbonic acid; and it is to the presence of a large quantity of
that acid in water flowing through calcareous strata, that such
water possesses the property of incrustation, choking the pipes
through which it may flow, dripping into fantastical stalactites
in limestone caves, and coating every object with which it is
brought in contact with a covering of solid stony matter. Other
waters are known to deposit a kind of ferrugineous coating when
in contact with iron, and completely choke the pipes through
which they are made to flow. ‘There are other substances which
impart peculiar medicinal virtues to mineral waters, which are
well known, but foreign to the objects of this paper.

No circumstance in the course of a river influences more the
physical nature of its waters, than its passage through a large
city. The amount of sewerage it receives must not only add to
its constituents a vast amount of new organic elements, but these
new ingredients must produce, and themselves undergo various
chemical changes on being brought into contact with other
substances already contained in the stream. Some very interest-
ing researches have been made in France on this important
subject, particularly by MM. Boutron and Henry, in respect to
the river Seine above and below Paris; and by MM. Girardin
and Preisser, on the precipitation of the mineral salts held by the
water of rivers at various points of their courses, and upon the
causes by which such precipitations are determined. But before
I come to these interesting details I will briefly describe the
geological characteristics of the four great water divisions of
France, taking the divisions in the order in which I have
noticed them.

In the north-eastern basin the small French tributary streams
of the Scheldt, the Scarpe, which passes through Arras and
Douai, and the Lys, which flows at a short distance from Lille,
may be dismissed with the remark that they both come from the
chalk protuberance, which begins at Cape Grisnez, and, after
having reached the base of that formation, flow over the nearly
level tertiary deposits and alluvial plains of remarkable fertility,
which form the French Flanders.

The river Meuse calls for more distinct notice. ‘This river takes
its source from the south-western angle of the Vosges, near the
Langres plateau, and flows as far as Mezieres in a valley scooped
out of the oolitic formation. It runs first in a north-western

in tts relation to Agriculture. 431

direction, then suddenly bends to the north, and reaches the
schistose and coal-measure formations of Hainault and Ardennes,
From Maéstricht to the sea, it flows over tertiary deposits.

Of the north-west or Seine basin, the central portion is well
defined, and has received the name of the tertiary Parisian basin.
It is surrounded by a remarkably regular barrier of Jurassic
hills, whose strata, uniformly outcropping each other in an
eccentric direction, encircle concentrically the various strata of
the cretacean formation. In the west, its limits are formed by
the elevated and uniform plateau of Beauce, which divides it
from the basin of the Loire.

Among the principal affluents of the Seine on its right bank,
the ‘Aube, like the Marne and the Meuse, springs from the
Jurassic plateau of Langres; the Marne, in a course of about
330 miles, runs from its source to St. Dizier through the Jurassic
formation, from St. Dizier to Epernay through the greensand and
chalk; and finally through tertiary strata down to its conflu-
ence with the Seine at Charenton. The Oise chiefly derives
its supplies from the Jurassic plateaux. On the left bank, the
Yonne has its source in the porphyritic and granite heights of
Morvan, and brings the waters from those primitive formations ;
and lastly, the Eure flows from the calcareous plateaux of Beauce.
Thus it will be seen that, with the exception of the Yonne, the
Seine itself and all its tributary streams flow over calcareous strata.

The importance of the river Seine to so large a population as
that of Paris, has naturally drawn the greatest attention of
chemists to the nature of its waters and that of its affluents. I
will only select out of the numerous analyses which have been
made, such as present an interest to English agriculture. The
peeults of the researches made by MM. Boutron and Henry,
show the various matter contained in the Seine water before its
entrance into Paris, at two points of its passage through the city,
and at its exit.

This analysis (page 432) is suggestive of many important con-
clusions as regards the physical modification which the waters
of a river undergo in their passage through a town. Thus it is
found that the quantity of bicarbonate of lime, sulphate of lime,
alkaline azotate (or nitrate), and organic matter, singularly
increases as the stream flows through the city of Paris. But if
so sensible a progression in the quantities of mineral and organic
matters is noticeable in the river Seine, which after all receives
but a comparatively small proportion of the sewerage of Paris,
where houses have few or no cesspools connected with sewers,
how vastly greater must be that increase in the river Thames, for
instance, from its approach at Putney to its exit at Greenwich,
receiving as it does the offal of so vast and populous an area!

432 The Water Economy of France

Analysis of a Litre of Seine Water, = to 1°760778 Pint.

Alkaline azotate ..

slight traces | slight traces { slight but } { alightibus }

clear traces {|} clear traces

Silicie acid, alumina, oe ae

Matter Contained in the Water. Ivry. Notre Dame. | Gros Caillou.| Chaillot.
raseous Matter. Pints. Pints. | Pints. Pints.
AtMiOspheric’air ya). 0 Pie 0°005 0°005 0:007 0°005
Free carbonic acid gas ww—tiw 0°023 | 07024 0°024 0°028
Solid Matter. Grains. Grains. Grains. Grains.
Bicarbonate oflime .. .. .. 2°087 2°685 8°534 3°549
Bicarbonate of magnesia .. 0°925 0°938 Nas Ye 1°173
Sulphate of lime .. . 0°308 0°612 0°617 0°687
Sulphate of magnesia p ‘ i 4
SAE ua : 0-154 | 0-262 | 0-417 0°355
Chlorate of calcium ..
Chlorate of magnesium 0°155 0*386 0°494 0°494
Chlorate of sodium
Salts of potash traces traces traces traces

0°124 0°224
of iron af |
Organic matter .. .. traces | traces * | 0°855 0°378
Total « +. «- «| 39708 | 5:07 | "67s Queene

Further researches made by MM. Girardin and Preisser have
brought to light another phenomenon, no doubt common to all
rivers similarly situated with the Seine, namely, that a large pro-
portion of the mineral salts absorbed by the river on its passage
through Paris are precipitated on its way down to Rouen; for
the Seine water at Rouen was found to contain a less proportion
of mineral matter than on its exit from Paris. This difference
relates principally to silicic acid and carbonate of lime,. On the
other hand, MM. Bobierre and Mérode have found that the
waters of the Loire contain a less proportion of mineral com-
pounds of silicic acid with aluminium and other bases, below,
than above the city of Nantes; whilst organic matter and cal-
careous salts have sensibly increased. The explanation of the
latter phenomenon is found in the hypothesis, that such sub-
stances as silicate of alumina held suspended by the waters of
the Loire are precipitated during the passage of that river through
the town, owing to the many obstacles which break the velocity
of the stream within the harbour, and thus allow such salts to
settle down. The increase in calcareous salts is easily accounted _
for by the affluence of the river Erdre, which is strongly impreg-
nated with them. Nevertheless this phenomenon exhibits a
remarkable contrast to what has been observed in the Seine,

in its relation to Agriculture. 435

both at Paris and Rouen. Although the precipitation of the
carbonate of lime is easily explained, the question still remains,
how is the silicic acid so acted upon that it undergoes a dimi-
nution from 1:466 to 1:157 grains per litre (= 1:77 pint)? It
has been suggested that the carbonic acid disengaging itself from
carbonate of lime, or being rapidly generated in a water rich in
oxygen and receiving a copious supply of decomposed organic
matter, may act upon the various silicates so as to dissolve them.

I merely allude to these questions to show of what importance
they are in regard to the application of the waters of our streams
for the purpose of irrigation.

There are, however, in France many disturbing causes, such
as violent rain-storms, which suddenly and in a great degree
alter the chemical character of the waters of the large rivers.
The Loire, for instance, after a great fall of rain, becomes strongly
impregnated with silicic acid and silicates, because its own
source and that of most of its affluents take their origin and flow
for a considerable distance through feldspathic strata. On the
other hand, it is important to observe that rivers, when flowing
through marshy valleys, frequently get their waters poisoned
by noxious solutions, adverse to plants of a higher order. Their
sluggish waters, loitering in the midst of a mass of rank aquatic
vegetation, are robbed of nearly the whole of their oxygen by
the requirements of these greedy plants; and they moreover
dissolve decomposed organic débris, which tinge them with a
dark opaque hue, and impart to them an offensive and unhealthy
odour. Such are several of the affluents of the lower Loire.

Having thus incidentally noticed the principal chemical
features of the Loire, I will rapidly examine the other important
geological and chemical features of the Gironde and the Rhone,
deeply regretting that the limits of this paper do not permit me
to follow the interesting researches made on many of the tribu-
taries of the Loire by French chemists, especially MM. Bobierre
and Mérode, and. record the very remarkable phenomena they
have noticed and examined, and the valuable mass of informa-
tion they have collected. The following are the chief geological
features of the Loire basin:—From its source to its junction
with the Allier, the Loire flows over a series of crystalline
formations, such as granite, gneiss, porphyry, and volcanic rocks.
From its confluence with the Allier, that is from Nevers to
Angers, it traverses the skirt of secondary strata, which surround
the great northern tertiary basin. At Orleans its basin is only
divided from that of the Seine (with which it is made to com-
municate by the canal of Briare) by a very slight undulation in
the ground, of so easy a declivity that the locomotives of the rail-
way ascend it with the greatest ease. This explains why the

434 The Water Economy of France

Loire in that part of its career receives no tributary on its right
bank. Not soon the left, whence she receives the Cher, the Indre,
and the Vienne. These rivers likewise spring from the erys-
talline formation, but some fall into beds hewn out of the lower
chalk, between hills having at their summits some remants of
tertiary deposits. From Angers to the ocean the bed of the
river beeomes narrowed between higher banks, and the geolo-
gical strata over which it flows belong to the older formations,
such as the Devonian and the Silurian. The mean flow of the
Loire, as ascertained by M. Daue is as follows :—

At St. Just and Andressieux, not far from its source, it gauges
1320 gallons per second ; at Roanne, lower down, where it begins
to be navigable, 1540 gallons per second; at Briare and Orleans,
6600. At the time of its great freshets, the quantity of water
that flows at Roanne reaches sometimes the enormous amount of
880,000 gallons per second; at Ancenis, between Angers and
Nantes, 2,000,000.

The two great rivers that form the Gironde, at their junction
at Bee d’Ambre, near Bordeaux, viz., the Dordogne and the
Garonne, greatly differ as to their origin and the geological strata
which they traverse in their course. The Dordogne takes its rise
in the great central mountains of Cevennes, out of the igneous
rocks of which they consist; then passes through Jurassic strata ;
and, lastly, over tertiary deposits down to the ocean. On the
other hand, the Garonne, in a course of 550 miles, waters no
less than nine important departments of the south .of France ;
and from the richness of these districts and the fame of their
produce, derives an importance second to that of none of the
other great French rivers. As already stated, it springs from
the granitic peaks of the eastern Pyrenees; but most of its left-
bank tributaries issue forth from the chalk buttresses of the more
western Pyrenees, and flow over secondary and tertiary strata.
The Garonne gives at Toulouse an average of 26,400 gallons of
water per second. In times of freshets it rises up to 24 feet
above the mean height, and gives 1,320,000 gallons of water per
second. Its waters contain a strong proportion of silicic acid,
and a noticeable quantity of other mineral salts.

That part of the Rhone basin which belongs to France, to-
gether with that of the Sadne, comprises an area of nearly
28,000,000 acres. The source of the Rhone is among the crys-
talline rocks of the St. Gothard. On its way through the canton
of Valais it flows over the calcareous and schistose rocks which
characterise the Jurassic formation of the Alps; it then falls
into the Lake of Geneva, where it rests awhile; from Geneva
to Lyons its bed partakes more or less of the character of the
hills that confine it; from Lyons to Valence it flows under

in its relation to Agriculture. 435

the lofty ridge which separates its bed from that of the Loire,
the two rivers thus flowing side by side in opposite directions ;
and thence to the Mediterranean, through a vast alluvial plain
having no special geological feature. Its principal affluents, with
the exception of the Sadne, come from its left bank. Of these
the Arve descends from Mont Blanc, the Isere and its affluent
the Arc, from the wild peaks of the Savoisian Alps, traversing
metamorphic and crystalline strata. The Durance, springs from
the glaciers of Mount Genevre, amidst serpentine rocks, then
meets the Jurassic formation, and lastly the tertiary strata, until
it reaches the Rhone at Avignon.

The Sadne gives at Lyons, on an average, 55,000 gallons per
second: at the lowest ebb this quantity is sometimes reduced to
13,200. In times of freshets, such as that which took place in
1840, it gave about 880,000. The Rhone, when at its lowest
ebb, gauges at Lyons 55,000 gallons per second. Its mean gauge,
above its junction with the Sadne, is 143,000, It pours into the
sea through its two mouths no less than 4,444,000 gallons per
second, when at the lowest ebb. In 1840 it gauged at Lyons no
less than 1,320,000 gallons per second.

The Stagnant Waters of France.

Although running waters may, at intervals more or less fre-
quent, occasion disastrous havoc, yet on the whole they are
productive of immense benefit to mankind in a variety of ways,
promoting every interest of civilised life, but especially agricul-
ture. Not so, however, with stagnant water, which may be
pronounced an evil unattended by a single redeeming advantage.
Stagnant water is incompatible with the higher forms of organic
life, whether in the vegetable or animal kingdom, and the first
efforts of civilization have always been directed to the removal of
that evil. Where these have proved ineffectual, the tide of men
has invariably abandoned the spot to the lower forms of being
which haunt these monotonous and, in our estimation, solitary
wastes.

In England—thanks to the indomitable energy of the nation
—this evil scarcely demands attention; its stagnant waters are
getting more and more a thing of the past; the great eastern
Fens are teeming with life, health, and fertility. Everywhere
water finds an escape, although much remains to be done to
expedite and regulate its exit.

But when it is stated that there are no less than 1,125,000
acres of swamps and undrained marshy land in France, it will
at once appear that an examination of the water economy of that
country could not be complete without a consideration of that
evil. The aforesaid total does not include the area of lakes,

436 The Water Economy of France

ponds, undrained wet land, and swampy valleys, but merely the
actual surface occupied by regular water-logged, pestilential
marshes,

Between Bourg and Lyons lies the old principality of Dombes,
which, with those of Sologne and Forez, shares the unenviable
reputation of being the most insalubrious province of France.
This vast plain measures about fifty thousand acres, but late
improvements have reduced the unhealthy surface by nearly
one-half. The soil consists of a strong impervious clay, which,
being undrained and scarcely cultivated, retains all the water
that falls upon or flows over its surface. In many parts, strong
and abundant springs have forced their way through the clay,
and converted vast tracts into pestilential swamps. The want of
drainage, and the still greater want of manure, have suggested to
the scanty inhabitants who still brave that endemic fever which
here reigns unchecked, the strange expedient of what is called
the system of pond cultivation. The whole of the principality
is intersected by causeways to retain the surface-water, and thus
to form large ponds into which fish are introduced. After the
space of three years the pond is drained, the fish sold, and the
bottom ploughed and sown; this water-fallow, of three years’
duration, being equivalent to one application of manure. It
is easy to imagine what a mass of noxious effluvia must arise
from this immense surface of stagnant water, in a climate at
once hot and moist, where no water can be absorbed by the soil,
and none is allowed to flow away, or find any other means of
escape than the atmosphere.

The noxious influence of the emanations from marshy land
on vegetable life are too well known to require here more than a
passing notice, but their injurious action on animal life is no less
evident. In the ancient province of Bresse, for instance—which
extends from the foot of the southernmost prolongation of the
Jura chain down to the immediate neighbourhood of Lyons—
there are many excellent pastures, like so many islands of sound
soil in the midst of an ocean of boggy and water-soaked land,
cut up with large fish-ponds, the abode as well as the gene-
rating source of those endemic fevers that desolate the whole
province. Even upon those excellent pastures the horses, oxen,
and sheep that graze there soon become degenerate, and, if not
removed, fall a certain prey to the deadly effects of malaria.
The noxious gases which arise from these swamps seem to work
a radical modification in the animal economy. The human
race itself bears in its outward appearance unmistakeable tokens
of the effects of the poison. The inhabitants are of low stature,
their complexion is of a waxy, sallow whiteness; their flesh is
loose and swollen, their abdomen largely developed. The vital

tn tts relation to Agriculture. 437

power is sluggish, almost inert ; so that the young are slow in
arriving at the ‘adult stage of life, whilst old age, on the contrary,
is premature. The mean duration of life in that province,
according to Condorcet, does not exceed eighteen years. Mont-
falcon says that in the space of twenty-two years the population
of ten parishes in the marshy part of the department of Ain,
which amounted in 1786 to 3606 inhabitants, had diminished
by one-eighth. In Sologne the number of deaths greatly exceeds
that of births. In the parish of Chatillon the annual register of
births gives an average of 184,%, against 204°, deaths. The
difference i in other parts of Bresse is thought to be still greater.*

The attention of the French Government has been lately drawn
to this unfortunate district, with the view of applying a remedy.
The principal proprietors, anxious to drive away fliis fatal fever
from its haunts by cultivation, have applied to the Govern-
ment for a sum of 120,000/., sufficient, as they allege, to drain
effectually the 25,000 acres which still remain to be re-
claimed. This sum of 120,0002. should be distributed in the
shape of premiums to the proprietors in proportion to the extent of
their watery domains, and as a sort of indemnity to compensate
the temporary loss of revenue which would ensue before the con-
templated measures had produced their beneficial results, the
property itself remaining in the hands of the Government as a
pledge for prompt action on the part of the proprietors, and sub-
sequent good cultivation; this kind of eventual mortgage being
held to be a sufficient guarantee that the premiums would be well
and effectually applied. An offer has been made to begin with
about one-half of this extent ; but the inhabitants justly object, that
it would be both unjust and impolitic to do otherwise than srapple
with the whole enterprise at once. Nothing has yet been done,
but this vital question cannot remain long in abeyance; the
evil is too glaring, the remedy too obvious.

The Table on the next page, compiled by M. Becquerel in 1850,
will be found interesting from its showing the relation which the
existence of stagnant waters bears to the duration of life.

In the department of the Ain a highly suggestive Table has been
made, as regards the fluctuations of the population, comparing
some of the towns that are situated at some elevations in the
Jura mountains with others lying in the midst of the marshy plain.

Increase. Decrease.

Belleys 9%... cde eae ohoct Bess MRO,
INanttiant $29 \Ssedcca aca) | ou
Gex.. ; yee AY 6: 2
Bourg 72:8
Trévoux . 62:7

* ¢ Annuaire des Eaux de la France,’ p. 22.

438 The Water Economy of France

Surface of .
Stagnant — pi aaa
Designation of Places. Waters Square | Longevity.
1 anit ate Kilometre.
Department of Cher. Acres. Years.
Cantons of Argent, Angilon, Aubigny, and Vierzon 6 13:40 | 30°04
Department of Loiret.
Cantons of La Ferté and eal, not including the 2
town of Sully Pe x aS fomtalbe Soe
Cantons of Cleéry, Jargeau, ‘and Gien. at ss EEO 7 22°50 | 30°64
Department of Loir and Cher (Sologne).
Cantons of La Motte, Beuvron, Neung, Romorantin,
and Salbris, not including the town of Romoran- 45 15°40 | 29°40
Wy Wie 30
Cantons of Bracieux, St. Aignan, and Contres.. 14 87°20 | 34°34

Nantua and Belley, which are built high in the mountains, show
a steady increase of population; whilst Bourg, Trévoux, and
Gex show an equally steady decrease. In fact, anything more
desolate than this town of Bourg, and the flat swampy plain
in the midst of which it is built, can scarcely. be imagined.
Having recently made an pericaltacal tour through this ‘whole
diene I am able to testify to the accuracy of mee returns.

This state of things is not confined to the province of Bresse,
but it exists in all 6 portentous reality wherever stagnant waters
prevail. Another instance may be found in the department of
Charente Inférieure. Of the six chief towns of that district,
three—viz. Saintes, Jonzac, St. Jean d’Angely—are sheltered
from the noxious marshy gases, whereas La Rochelle is only
partially so, and Rochefort Sad Maronaes are entirely surrounded
with swamps. A trustworthy official report gives the following
returms :-—

Increase Decrease
of Population. of Population.
Saintes 50 sh5 5 rus AeA Oo 30
St Jean dAngely day sal p Noh LO amines
Jonzac Stoke sit bangs Oe Olay.
La Rochelle aoe dist pee cu ee “(2 ie
Rochetorti v-1) ss. aise See .» 800'0
Marennes:-.2- se en! ee enetee oe 28°6

If we turn to the South of France in the department of Gard,
two towns, Le Vigau and Alais, built in an elevated position
over primary or secondary strata, may be contrasted with the
others, Uzes and Nismes, situated, the former on a tertiary
valley; the latter, at the extremity of that large rocky and

in its relation to Agriculture. 439

swampy plain, which extends as far as the mouths of the Rhone.
Their respective populations fluctuate in the following ratio :—

Increase. Decrease.
[Levi iS ee ac) Ash
STATOR St ce ww on ROE
zenmrce cs 11°3
Nismes gg MM ne 50:9*

In Montpellier the decrease is 45°, whereas in the same depart-
ment of Hérault, in more favoured localities as regards elevation
and dryness of soil, such as St. Pons and Lodeéve, the increase
is 48°. The authenticity of these returns cannot be challenged ;
but the question may fairly be asked how it is that the popula-
tion does not become altogether extinct. The answer to this is,
that the cheapness of living, the almost nominal rent asked by
the owners of the soil of tenants willing to cultivate the farms,
are sufficient inducements to attract people from the neighbour-
ing districts, and it is thus that the population is kept up; for
without this influx, the fearful preponderance of deaths over
births would in a very short time leave these districts a desolate
waste, where solitude and death would hold undisputed sway.
The fatal effects of the marsh miasmata on animal life in
various climates and positions are thus forcibly set forth. I
have myself witnessed, in the desolate plain of Forez, the effect
of periodical attacks of marsh fever on the languid and wasted
forms of the once energetic labourers. During the summer
months every human being who can do so flies from this accursed
district, which only wants a little drainage and deep cultivation
to become one of the most fertile and healthy plains in Europe.
On a first visit to this spot I suggested the use of Howard’s
steam cultivator to a wealthy and enterprising proprietor, This
implement may now be seen at work stirring the soil to a depth
never before attained, facilitating a percolation of the stagnant
surface-water. I am happy to say the results already obtained
hold out the prospect of a speedy and complete regeneration of
the whole district.

IV. The Law of the Waters of France.

The numerous and varied uses to which water is applied, its
universal requirements for the support of animal and vegetable
life, and the great evils it may produce if left to the direction
of natural agencies, all show the primary importance of defining
rights connected with it by legislation, Without going further
back into the records of the history of mankind, it will suffice
for my purpose to trace the connexion between the Civil Code at

* «Annuaire des Eaux de la France,’ page 24.

440 The Water Economy of France

present in force in France and the old Roman law, in which
it mainly originated. In no respect is this connexion more inti-
mate than in the enactments bearing upon the supply of water,
both in their letter and in their spirit; although some dif-
ference has naturally resulted from the Eunnices which society
has undergone in its organization. The Boonen law, resting on
a republican basis, paid especial regard to the rights and
privileges of the individual—the civis Romanus ; and to the
commonwealth so far, and so far only, as it was compounded of,
and bound up with, the rights of individuals. It was thus at once
antagonistic to the spirit of centralisation which pervades modern
continental policy, sacrificing the wellbeing of the individual
to the supposed efficiency of the State; and also at variance with
the feudal institutions, which subordinated all law to the privi-
leges of the chief or his delegate, and left to the retainer little of
rights, immunities, or protection, except in and through his
immediate superior. ‘

But if the Roman law of water is found somewhat deficient in
providing safeguards for the general interest of the community,
regarded from a central point of view, it must be said to its
infinite credit that there is no record in history of so minute and
careful legislation for the protection and the furtherance of the
interests of agriculture.*

The principle that regulated the property of water by the old
Roman law, evidently sprang from that ancient republican spirit
which so char acterised the first era of the existence of the Roman
people. Flumina omnia publica sunt.t The ownership of all
the rivers, together with their beds and their shores, was vested
in the people. No restriction, no toll whatever, existed to limit
or hinder the right every citizen had to the free use of the rivers,
and each one had a right of action to vindicate that privilege,
ut in flumine publico navigare liceat. ‘The exercise of this right ~
had no other limits but those arising out of the necessity and
justice of respecting the rights of others. No one, for instance,
could be permitted to hinder the navigation of a river, or to
alter its course, or raise obstacles to its daw, or to commit any
nuisance that might prejudice the rights of others, public or
private.t As regards those streams which were not constantly
flowing, such as the beds of torrents, or again ponds and lakes,
they were absolutely considered as private property, and pro-

* “Codices de Servitutibus et Aqua,’ lib. iii, tit. 34. ‘Dig. de Serv. Praed.
Rustic.’ lib. viii., tit. 3. ‘De Aqua et Aque Pluy. Arcende,’ lib, xxxix.,, tit. 3,
‘De Aqua Quotidiana et Cst.’ lib. xliii. tit. 20. ‘De Rivis,’ tit. 21, &., &e.

+ ‘Inst.,’ lib. ii., tit. 1, § 2, 4.

f ‘Dig.,’ lib. xliii., tit. 12, ‘Ne quid in flumine publico ripive ejus fiat quo
pejus navigetur; ne quid in flumine publico fiat quo aliter aqua fluat atque uti
priore cestate fluxit,” &e,

in its relation to Agriculture. 441

tected by the same laws and immunities. Nihil differt locis
privatis flumen privatum.* From the foregoing it may then be
inferred that the Roman law recognised two kinds of ownership
of water—the public and the private—and this is precisely the
basis of the French law of water, as will presently appear.

Wherever the power of Imperial Rome was extended, the
Roman laws were implanted. This explains how much of that
old legislation is now to be found in the codes of modern
nations. When, however, the irresistible onslaught of barbarism
had caused the total disruption of that mighty fabric of civilisa-
tion, the new political institutions which sprang out of the chaos
of military despotism, although retaining more or less of the
Roman code, bore from their feudal character the impress of
oligarchy. Notwithstanding the efforts of the early Franks
to maintain the public rights to the free use of navigable
rivers, the lords were as yet too powerful and too lawless not
to take advantage of their comparative independence, by laying
on the rivers that traversed their estates various tolls and
imposts, which rendered the public navigation of these streams
all but an impossibility. It is only within comparatively modern
times that the feudal rights obtained by the lords were finally
wrenched from their grasp, and restored to the ownership of the
nation. This excellent result was due to the celebrated ordi-
nance of 1669, which is one of the most glorious achievements
of Louis XI1V.’s reign.

One of the most crying abuses of the feudal power of the
nobles, and one most detrimental to agriculture, had been the
reckless readiness with which the lords had granted rights of
erecting mills and other hydraulic works upon the rivers within
their jurisdiction. These structures, in obstructing the channel
of rivers, not only impeded the navigation, but in rainy seasons
led to calamitous inundations that swamped all the country
round, and periodically ruined the agricultural peasantry. One
of the first measures decreed by Louis XIV. was the annihila-
tion of all such concessions granted by the lords since the year
1566, and the assumption by the king, through his regularly
appointed agents, of the police, administration, and general
management of all French rivers.

It must not be inferred, however, from this that all abuses
were reformed, all obstructions removed. The truth is, nothing,
or next to nothing, was done. The king had merely confiscated
the alleged rights of the many to his exclusive personal advan-
tage ; but, nevertheless, the principle of public ownership of

* «De Fluminibus,’ lib. i,, § 4,

442 The Water Economy of France

rivers by the nation generally, as represented by the king, was
triumphantly established, and the control of waters removed
from the grasp of lawless petty tyrants and vested in the central
administration of the kingdom.

At last, during the memorable night of the 4th August, 1789,
all the remaining feudal privileges were voluntarily surrendered
by the nobility. All prescriptive rights, whether vested in the
state or in private persons, were on ever abolished as regards
the rivers of France; and, moreover, all the secondary. and
minor streams, too shallow or unimportant to be navigable, but
possessing a character of general utility, were declared the pro-
perty of the nation, and made available for general use.* All
existing tolls were Eboliened without indemnity. + These sweep-
ing measures accomplished a great deal, no doubt, by removing
tyrannical and arbitrary fosnnedlan 3 ae it was only in the
course of time, just as the progress of agriculture and industry
gradually revealed fresh fields of operation, that new enact-
ments were added to the French ‘ Code Civil,” in order to
remove obsolete prerogatives, establish new rights, and pro-
tect new interests. Thus until within the last ftleen years the
word DRAINAGE is not even mentioned by the jurisconsults who
have written on this subject; the thing was unknown, had no
name in the language, and consequently no place in the legisla-
tion. The Romans were acquainted with it, as we shall pre-
sently see, and legislated upon it; but it is only in very recent
enaetments that the life-giving operation of drainage receives
any special notice in the eenea code. It is, however, ae just to
state that the Civil Code, such as it emanated from ie creative
genius of the first Napoleon, contained general guarantees suffi-
cient! y protective to enable French proprietors to drain their estates
without fearing that any opposition from their neighbours could
hinder them from disposing of their drainage-water through
other estates lying at a lower level. Yet that the present legis-
lation is still incomplete, and far from being applicable to all
the new requirements of modern agriculture, is a fact acknow-
ledged by ev erybody ; ; and this conviction has lately given rise
to several projects of a special Code Rural, which although much
discussed, have not yet been embodied in a law.

Having thus sketched the history of the French law of water, I
will briefly describe its principal features, but exclusively in
reference to agriculture. My task will thus be greatly simplified ;
for whereas the law of water is extremely explicit and exhaust-

* Law of the Ist December, 1790.
+ Law of the 28th March, 1790.

in its relation to Agriculture. 443

ingly minute as regards the navigation of rivers, the rights of
fishing, and property of forestiones and alluvial eemigrions, it
presents, on the other hand, much less peculiarity in questions of
agricultural interests and improvement,

The laws which regulate the flowing waters of France may be
divided into two classes s, according as they relate to benefits to
be derived or evils to be averted. Under the first head I will
examine the rights of disposing of public streams for paapeses of
irrigation, the erection of water power, machinery, &c.; the
Second will comprise the regulations for the outfall of dae
water, the flowing of sewerage, the erection of dams, and other
inter ferences with the general foutail

The only distinction which the law can make in the nature of
water is that it is either public or private property. The water
of running streams, considered apart from the bed in which it
flows, belongs to nobody, or rather belongs to thé owner of the
land in the Budst of w hick it flows only during its transit through
his property. If he allows it to pass beyond. ‘the limits of fis
boundaries, he loses all his rights to its possession and use. But
as a contingent advantage belonging to the soil, it is essentially
regarded as a property, so much so that it can be mortgaged like
ether real property. It is to all intents and purposes portio a 97,
and, adds an ancient author, certum est in jure, aqguam continert in
appellatione rev immobilis.*

Private water is that which is exclusively available for the
wants of private individuals (que privatorum commodis inservit)
whether it springs within the boundaries of a proprietor or
is brought from a public channel through a private one, arti-
ficially made, into the property, with the view to irrigation,
ornament, or household use. Thus all channels constructed for
purposes of irrigation are considered private property, although
the water itself may be taken from a public stream. There are
few districts in France, for instance, where so many irrigative
canals exist as in the neighbourhood of Arles, or indeed through-
out the whole of ancient Provence. All these canals tap the
river Durance at divers points of its course, and bring its waters
over the arid plain of Crau, which they clothe with luxuriant
vegetation. They are recognized by the French law as private
property, with which the power of the central government has
no right to interfere so as to stop the supply of water which they
receive from the Durance, notwithstanding it is a public river,
and as such under the deer control of the public adininisteapan
of “ Waters and Forests.”

Water is considered as public property when it runs con-

* Pecchius, lib. ii., cap. 10 ; quoted by Dubreuil in his work ‘ Legislation sur
les Eaux,’ vol. i., page 3.

VOL. XXil. 2H

444 The Water Economy of France

tinuously (perenniter), and when the nature of the land through
which it flows is such as to constitute a highway. It matters not
whether a public stream takes its source in a private property, it

ecomes public property so soon as it reaches a public highway,
such as an old invariable channel, or the natural bed of a valley.
Non inspicimus principium aque und? decurrit, sed alveos et meatus
unde transit in vetustissimum aquarium cursum. It is in that part
of the legislation which refers to running water that we must
seek those enactments which deal with irrigation and drainage
waters,

The old Roman law completely overlooked the waste water
from irrigation ; it deals only with running streams, derived from
their very source (que a capite ducuntur) : but in the north of
Italy, where for many centuries a regular and general system of
irrigation has prevailed, the attention{of legislators has been from
very remote times drawn to this subject, “and the French law is
now substantially in accordance with the Italian. This waste
water from irrigation is termed in Italy by the name of collaticia.
It is true the Roman law treats of a kind of percolating water,
which it terms sudores,* but this evidently applies to spring
water naturally oozing out through the land and then flowing
away in a continuous stream, The legislation on this waste
water from irrigation clearly enacts that the proprietor from
whose land it flows must provide at his own cost a proper out-
fall, for which every facility is given him, so as to cause as little
damage as possible to the properties lying at a lower level. The
absolute ownership of irrigative canals was also recognised by
the Roman law ; and there are still extant in the south of France,
especially in Provence and in the eastern watershed of the
Pyrenees, about Mont Louis and Perpignan, many ancient canals
used for irrigation, the grants of which date from a very remote
period. Indeed, when that part of the country was under the
dominion of the Visigoths, and, after them, of the Moors and
Saracens of Spain, the old Roman customs seem to have been
carefully preserved, and the rights acquired by the owners of the
soil religiously respected.

The drainage of marshes and fen lands has at all times been
the object of special legislation. In the old Roman law the defi-
nition of fen land was thus worded :—Aqua minus profunda,
palam latius diffusa, que etiam quandoque siccatur.| During
the feudal régime in France the fens belonged to the lords,
but the Revolution of 1789 vested the ownership of all waste
parts in the parishes (“communes”). In the years 1860 and
1861 the French Government have passed new laws to faci-

* Inst. de Aqua Gistiva et Quotidiana,’
+ ‘Jus Georgicum,’ lib, ili., cap. 14.

in its relation to Agriculture. 445

litate the drainage and the ultimate cultivation of these lands;
but the only new “legal features in these modern enactments are the
provisions for raising the capital required. Nothing is changed
in the old legislation on the disposing of wastewater, &c.

The owner of an estate traversed or even merely bordered by
a running stream can make use of the water of such streams for
purposes of irrigation, but he may not divert it altogether, and
he is bound to return the stream after he has used it into the old
chamnel at the point where his property ends. The old Roman
law especially protected the rights of all the owners of property
along the couse of a running stream. Aquam de flumine publico,
it says, pro modo possessionum ad irrigandos agros dividi oportet.*
But in this respect the French Code Civil recognizes the rights
arising out of ancient custom.} Ifa careful examination be nite
of those established local usages, especially in districts where,
as in Provence and Languedoc, from the dryness of the
climate, irrigation has from time immemorial been indispensable
to produc tion, it will be found that the spirit of the Roman
legislation ae survived, and that all available historical records
agree in establishing the fact that neither barbaric invasion, nor
the lawless and arbitary rule of feudalism, nor the centralizing
policy of the French kings, have been able to root out from the
land, and from the habits and ideas of the cultivators thereof,
those sacred principles of right and justice which Roman civiliza-
tion has established, to protect and foster the interests of property.

On the important question of the right of constructing mills
and other hydraulic engines on the course of public rivers, and
that of constructing dams to raise the level of the water with the
view of increasing its motive power, I have already referred to
feudal practices ad to the legislation of Lewis XIV. The famous
ordinance in the year 1669, which quashed all concessions posterior
to the year 1566, peremptorily ordered the demolition of such
obstructions the owners of which could not produce titles anterior
. to that date. The law of the Directory, 19th Ventose, year VI.,
went further, and enacted that within one month all mills, &c.,
erected in virtue of feudal rights then abolished should be
removed. Although the direct ostensible aim of that law was
to facilitate the navigation of rivers, no practical agriculturist
can fail to appreciate its value and importance for clearing the
channels of rivers and. protecting the freedom of their outfall.

It would no doubt be most useful to follow the French law, or
rather the Roman legislation, through their elaborate and minute
enactments for the protection of the a interests of agriculture, in

* «De Servit. Pred, Rust.’
+ Art. 645. Dans tous les cas les reglements particuliers et locaux sur la
cours et lusage des eaux, doivent étre observés,
2u 2

446 The Water Economy of France

which every possible contingency is foreseen and properly met
with a remedy; but this might extend my paper beyond reason-
able limits. I will, then, bring this part of my subject to a close
with a brief notice of the obligation imposed by the legislature
to clear the bed of rivers, both ‘public and private property, from
any natural or accidental obstruction, so as to ensure a normal
outfall, and keep the water down to a proper level. ‘The Roman
law distinctly enforces the cleansing of the beds of rivers, with
the object either of removing obstructions from their channels,
and so preventing their overflow, or secondly, of insuring the
supply of wholesome and pure water to those who have a right to
make use of them; or thirdly, guarding against the infection
caused by stagnant water. Misi enim puryare et reficere fontem
licuertt nullus ejus usus erit, and, as another text has it, ad salu-
britatem and ad tutelam civitatum pertinent.

As regards the obligations incumbent upon the owners of
running streams, the law is as simple as it is clear. The state,
as owner of all navigable rivers, is bound to clear them of all
obstructions, as are Hesnes the proprietors of private streams,
over the whole extent of their possessions.

Such are the principal features of the French law of water in
its immediate bearing upon the interests of agriculture. The
laws affecting sewage and noxious waters present important con-
siderations, which may be treated of in a future communication.
1 close this paper, then, with the expression of a hope that it
may lead the way to a full and careful investigation of the
English law on the subject of the economy of the English waters,
so that the attention of the legislature and of the agricultural
community may be directed to the examination and revision of
these enactments.

In France, as we have seen, first an absolute monarchy and
next revolutionary frenzy, although evils in themselves, did good
service to agriculture by removing the trammels cls arbitrary,
irresponsible self-interest had imposed upon the rivers of France.
[t remains for constitutional England, by enlightened foresight
and public spirit, to reap similar fruits of progress without under-
going similar revulsions.

By the light of the old Roman law, not less venerable than
feudal traditions, we may see how provision may best be made
for the general interests of the community, and the welfare of
each individual proprietor, with respect to the supply of water.

Those southern provinces in which the Roman code was most |
thoroughly established, and has to the largest extent survived,
bear practical testimony to the soundness of its enactments by the
superiority which, under many reverses of fortune, they still retain
in all that relates to irrigation.

The British Isles, having a climate in which, under the

in its relation to Agriculture. 447

influence of the Western Ocean, clouds and moisture prepon-
derate, both require and will repay attention to this subject fully
as much as the dry, sunny regions of the South.

If in no other part of the world greater vested interests have
to be dealt with, because nowhere has water-power been turned
to greater account in developing industrial enterprise, nowhere
is an alternative so readily to be found in the use of the most
finished steam-engines furnished with a boundless supply of coal.
As Science, illustrated by enlightened Practice, makes us more
and more familiar with the uses and abuses of water in con-
nexion with agriculture, our incentives to improvement will be
strengthened ; prejudices and jealousies will abate; so that
whenever the decision between the adoption of steam or water
power already trembles in the balance, the consideration that
the latter would in any way be detrimental either to health or
fertility will instantly turn the scale.

Norwood, February, 1862.

~ XXI.— On the Management of Clover Layers ; the Proper Distance
for Drilling Wheat ; and the Ravages of Insects on Pines. By
Cares LAWRENCE.

To the Eviror of the Journat of the RovAL AGRICULTURAL SocrEry.

Iv has been matter of common observation amongst the members of
our Society that our Journal has of late years been wanting in variety
of information, coveted more than ever by a very large proportion of
the subscribers; and that it has been too much occupied by long
scientific papers, to the exclusion of practical communications of ex-
periments, and observations of the results of special modes of treat-
ment in the culture of crops, and the management and feeding of
animals, &e.

T have been led by such remarks to compare the contents of some
of the last volumes with those of the early volumes, and I find those
remarks confirmed to an extent I had not looked for. The first six
volumes of the Journal contain 326 articles, comprising an infinite
variety of useful information, chiefly from members of the Society ;
the last six volumes, 16 to 21 inclusive, contain 157 articles only,
less than half the number contained in the first six volumes.

If agriculturists have not increased numerically, the number of the
intelligent, the inquiring, and of the observing, has greatly increased
during the age of our Journal. It therefore may be desirable to con-
sider how it has chanced that there should have been a contempo-
raneous diminution of communications, and whether there may not be
some means of correcting this anomalous state of things. Ts it noi.

448 Management of Clover Layers.

desirable to invite and encourage brief reports from members of the
Society and others to the Journal, of facts observed in their own
practice, and the results of any experiments or observations arising on
any novel practice in their respective neighbourhoods ?

So long as our Journal is considered to be mainly designed for the
promulgation of strictly scientific papers—valuable as undoubtedly
they are—and for prize essays, many intelligent and observing farmers
hesitate as to communicating results of their observations, under an
impression they would not be valued or considered worthy of notice,
or that they might be as an old story to their more advanced agri-
cultural brethren. No doubt similar observations suggest like modi-
fications of practice to many persons engaged in the same occupation ;
but when it is borne in mind that our Journal gets into the hands,
directly, of several thousand members, and, indirectly, of many
non-subscribers, the probability is that any special practice out of the
ordinary routine of his county, which an individual has been led to
adopt from his own observation and reasoning, will afford useful
hints to many readers of the Journal.

After a longer exordium than TI contemplated when I took my
pen in hand, I will illustrate my views at the risk of communicating .
nothing new to many of our readers. Much has been said and written

-of late years of the difficulty of maintaining for any length of time the
four-field system of cultivation, from the too-frequent recurrence of the
same crop on the same land. Clover-sickness, as it is commonly
called, is one case in point. I was sorely troubled with this complaint,
whatever it might be; and my clovers failed to such an extent that I
found it necessary to look about me. I observed that clovers generally
stood well on deep, firm soils in the vales. I also observed that while
the clover failed over a considerable portion of my own fields, there
was always a good plant on the headlands, where the soil was most
consolidated. I had been taught that the young clovers should be
very sparingly fed, if at all, and then only by lambs for a short time
after the spring-corn harvest ; and I had adopted moderate and total
abstinence in vain. In consequence of the observations to which I
have adverted, I resolved on trying the opposite treatment of consoli-
dation, by feeding sheep throughout the autumn ; and I put first the
lambs, and then the flock of ewes, upon the young clovers, by which
means they were trodden firm, and looked anything but promising
during the winter. In the following year I had by far the most re-
gular crop of clover I had ever seen on the farm. I pursued the same
treatment the following season; and considering the wheat-crop de-
pended so materially on the clover-crop, I determined on an alteration
of the common system of reserving all the farm-manure for the root-
crop, and borrowed one-half for the seed-crop, to be laid on after the
sheep. The sheep-treading and feeding having secured me a yery

Ravages of Insects on Pines. 449

perfect plant, and the manure an abundant crop during four successive
years, I have thought that these facts may afford useful hints to some
of the readers of our Journal.

On the Proper Distance between the Rows of Wheat, as a general rule.

T had observed, some years ago, that practically the question of
width lay between 7 and 9 inches, and the quantity of seed varied
between two and three bushels per acre. Desirous of arriving at
some conclusion on these points for my governance on my own farm,
which comprises heavy and light land, I have, during the last five
years, sown several half-acre plots in the same field, varying in width
from 8 to 12 inches between the rows, and with from four to eight
pecks of seed per acre. Any one who has tried such experiments will
have found, on comparing those of one year with those of another, in
different fields, very perplexing discrepancies, arising from the variety
of land sometimes occurring in the same ficld, and other disturbing
causes. It is therefore only by repeated experiment, year by year, in
different fields, that a reliable impression can be arrived at. The result
of the experiments on my farm has been in favour of 12-inch intervals,
and six pecks of sced. The largest produce I had in any year was
from four pecks of seed with 12-inch intervals. I may add, these
experiments have been made indifferently on light stonebrash and
tenacious soils on stiff clay. During seasons in which mildew has
been prevalent, I have observed that it has to a somewhat greater
extent attacked the straw of the 12-inch than that with 8 or 9 inch
intervals—a result I should not have anticipated @ priori.

Ravages of Insects on Pines.

Though the following communication respecting a plantation on my
farm belongs rather to arboriculture than agriculture, the warning may
be useful to many readers of the Journal. In a belt of trees, planted
some sixty years ago as a screen against the north wind, there was an
outside row of Scotch firs. These having become bare and almost
useless for the intended purpose, six years ago I planted between them
small plants of the Pinus Austriaca, amore close-growing and effective
species for the purpose, with the view of removing the Scotch firs
when the Austriacas got well established. This plantation was divided
in the middle by an entrance-road to the farm. The Scotch firs on
one side the road were cut down and carried away at once in the
autumn of 1860. In the winter of the same year those in the other
division were cut down, but from one cause or another were left on
the ground till they could be removed without damage to the crops
adjoining, and remained in the plantation during the following sum-
mer. The Austriacas were at that time growing most luxuriantly, the
peculiar tint of their foliage evidencing perfect health and vigour.
Late in the summer, to my vexation, I saw the tips of every branch

450 Ravages of Insects on Pines.

turn brown in one division of this plantation, while none of the young
trees in the division on the other side the road were similarly affected.
I chanced to meet a friend who is skilled in natural history, and pointed
out to him this grievance. He told me that on examining the tips of
the branches where they became dead I should find a perforation, and
on tracing the pith upwards I should find asmall black beetle. I found.
the enemy he had described. I was still at a loss to account for the
young trees on the other side the road being entirely free from this
infliction ; but on mentioning to my friend the particulars I have
before stated, he informed me at once that the Scotch firs which had
been left on the ground so many months were the source of the mis-
chief. On reference to the ‘ Treatise on Insects,’ by Vincent Kollar,
I find this beetle is the “ Hylesinus (Hylurgus) piniperda,”’ which
attacks the Scotch pine and its allied species in preference to any
other pines. His account exactly agrees with my case: he states :—
“The abode and place of propagation of the perfect beetle are in the
pith of the young shoots of the pine, particularly in the side twigs.
The beetle burrows for one or several inches below the terminal bud
on the youngest shoots, eating out the pith straight upwards, and
gnawing out again near the bud or through it. The eggs are laid
under the bark of sickly and felled pines, in the bark of which the
maggot also lives. The maggot lives on the stagnated fermented
juice under the bark. The larvee feed on the trunks of dead or dying
trees, and the beetle only places her brood on healthy trees when
necessity compels her to do so. In young woods, cutting off the
attacked shoots and burning them is the only successful method of
destruction.”

T shall be glad if this lesson of the importance of removing from
plantations any Scotch firs as soon as they are felled or show symp-
toms of ill condition, may save others the infliction I have experienced.

Cirencester, Nov. 18, 1861. Cuaries LAWRENCE.

XXI1.— Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements aé the
Leeds Meeting. By H. B. Catpwe x, Acting Senior Steward.

As the Senior Steward of Implements I have great pleasure in
being able to speak of the perfect success of the Royal Agricultural
Society’s Meeting at Leeds, which exceeded that of all preceding
Meetings, so that the most sceptical must now be convinced that
the working arrangements of the Society have fully carried out
the objects of its first promoters, whether for the improvement of
the existing Implements of all classes, or the introduction of
new ones. In both respects the efforts of the Society to aid the
vigorous enterprise of the makers have been eminently suc-
cessful, until, as a crowning success, the anvlication of steam-

Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds. 451

power to field culture has been brought to a most satisfactory
issue,

That perfection has been attained I certainly will not venture
to assert, especially after witnessing the great improvement made
during the last year; but that great progress has been made is
fully proved by the surprise and satisfaction expressed at the
great advance made in the working of the several Implements
by the practical men who came from all parts of Great Britain
as well as from abroad to witness our trials.

From the trials at Garforth the farmer must draw his own
conclusions on the adaptability of steam to the cultivation of the
soil, but it is my firm conviction that the “ scarifier” of Mr,
Fowler, as well as the ‘“‘smasher-up” of Mr. Howard, when
worked at their full depth, are of inestimable benefit to stiff clay-
lands which have been properly drained. This was proved on the
stiff and well under-drained clay which they severally pulled up
during their trials at Leeds, to much greater depth than the
machines were set for,

The Judges’ Report will, I hope, prove a good guide to pur-
chasers as to the capabilities of the different systems; and as
rope-traction requires so little power, it must, until some great
change occurs, be the prevailing system for dragging the imple-
ments through the soil.

All the arrangements made for these trials were carried out with
perfect success, ad great thanks are due to the Railway Company,
which kept trains ‘constantly running for the convenience of
every one who wished to see the proceedings at Garforth.

In my Report last year I intended to allude to the scanty
show of implements at Canterbury, but I refrained from doing
so out of deference to the wishes of others, being told that
a good understanding had been come to between the Society and
the several exhibitors, and that all was to be right this year at
Leeds. Still we had secessionists, but, | am happy to add, so
good a show, that they must regret their own absence, which pro-
bably caused a greater loss to themselves than to purchasers, who
could doubtless find, among the goodly rows of implements
exhibited, tried implements to suit the requirements of any farm.
Our trials of Implements, however carefully and impartially
conducted, cannot quite escape the imperfection common to all
things, nevertheless they are the best guide within the reach of
the ordinary farmer, who must necessarily turn to some adviser
for assistance.

The benefits which we have received from the Society’s Exhi-
bitions of Implements have resulted from the prize system, and
the often abused | judges have suggested many improvements, for
which they receive little thanks from the makers who have pro-
fited by them. The attempt now seems to be to make a bazaar

452 Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds.

of our Show-Yard ; for even this year some of the exhibitors had
no implement in their stands that was named for this year’s trial.

Thus much I may say for the Meeting at Leeds, that since I
have been a servant of the Society, I never saw exhibitors so
cheerful,—a result which I attributed to the amount of business
being done—which I understand was on a larger scale than at
any previous meeting.

In a financial point of view, this Meeting was eminently suc-
cessful, the receipts for admission to the Shgw-yard amounting to
99002, whereas the average sum derived from this source for the
22 previous years has been about 3000/* I trust that these
receipts may enable us to give hereafter even larger prizes for

* This increase was entirely due to the great influx of visitors on the Thursday
and Friday, the 1s. days. It was satisfactory to remark among this great mass of
working-people such a spirit of order and good-humour—in this respect our great
annual gatherings certainly exercise a civilizing influence on the population. The
machinery in particular often received thoughtful and minute attention from a
dense ring of artizans standing quietly around, and it is not impossible that our
agricultural mechanism may hereafter derive valuable suggestions from the inte-
rest thus awakened.

If we compare the Leeds and Chester Meetings, the account of admissions will
stand as follows :—

Leeds. Chester.
Monday, (ati vos) ie) ema 2,027) Monday, at 2s. 6d. .. 1,251
Tuesday, DS 6 ds ee ean Os 201 Tuesday, Qs. 6d, .. 4,827-
Wednesday, 28.67. .. 18,823 Ditto 5s. -- 180
Thursday, lissebee gflas a Oeoe Wednesday, 2s. 6d. .. 24,790
Friday, VS aaa cane 405008 Thursday, iiss 24 29,026
145,329 61,774

Between these two cases the parallel is not perfect, in consequence of a change
of regulations as to the first exhibition of the Live Stock; but it appears that the
admissions—

At Leeds, At Chester.
At 5s. were 2,027 Ape co 3,180
25.64. ,, 29,110 = .. 30,868
Is. wa) 214198... a ace Ore

The results of this Meeting in respect of receipts and admissions will also
be regarded with interest, in consequence of the privilege of free admission lately
granted to the Members of the Society having there first come into operation ; it
must, therefore, be borne in mind that these large receipts were realized in spite of
a new regulation which tends to their decrease.

It appears that the number of Members admitted without payment was on—

Monday, at 5s. Rory, ey
Tuesday, 283160 Son ot ODD
Wednesday, 2s.6d... .. .. 864
Thursday, ls, Ae vOOe nt 65
Friday, 1s. 59 6a. ac 65

= 1471. 15s, Be mgon soa OF

The receipts thus sacrificed by the Society are, however, by no means a measure
of the accommodation afforded to Members ; for when various trials of Implements
are in progress outside the Show-Yard, subject to being delayed, postponed, and
renewed, the value of this free power of egress and return can scarcely be oyer-
estimated.— P. H, F. :

Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds, 453

New Implements or those capable of Improvement; but every
well-wisher to the Society, who in July last watched with anxiety
the heavy clouds which so frequently hang over our most popu-
lous districts in the north-west, will liave felt on what small
fluctuations of climate the successful issue of the Meeting de-
pended, where the outlay was large and inevitable, but the
return highly precarious in respect both of profit and enjoyment.
We have much reason to be thankful for the happy result, and
we may hope for, but not reckon on, similar success argettel,

The town itself, though not dressed up as gaily as some other
places which the Society has visited, was distinguished by its
successful endeavours to assist all the officials ; the Local Com-

“mittee were assiduous in paying us every attention, both in the
Field and the Yard ; the excellent arrangements for the dinner in
the magnificent Town Hall also call for special notice.

In fact, so much might be said on this Meeting—the crowning
point of the “good working” of this great Society—that I sin-
cerely wish that the task had fallen into hands more able than
mine to do it full justice. But the Meeting has spoken for itself;
and I can assure all the members, with many of whom I have
worked for several years, that | am most happy to have been an
Acting Steward on such an occasion. To the Hon. A. Vernon,
who worked hard for nearly three weeks in superintending the
Steam Trials, the thanks of our Society are especially due; as
also to the Judges of Steam-Cultivators, Messrs. Owen, Owen
Wallis, and C. Sewell Read.

That the Society may continue to flourish, through both bad
report and good report, and that it may find gentlemen as willing
to work for it as heretofore, is the ardent and sincere wish of its
retiring Steward.

Lackham House, Chippenham, Wilts.

Report of the Judges on Drills, Manure-Distributors, and Horse-Hoes,
Dritis For GENERAL PURPOSES.

The machines exhibited in this class were very numerous, and comprised all
the varieties which have marked the exhibitions of former years. Neither in
the general principles of construction nor application of details is there any
striking novelty to notice ; the few alterations observable are merely slight

variations in form, involving no substantial change. This fixity of type,
which has existed for the last seven years, is not, however, a matter of
reproach, for it is scarcely possible to specify any object attainable by drilling
which is not accurately attained by one or other of the machines which have
been tested and have received the prizes of the Society for the present year.

It is the more gr atifying to the Judges to be able to speak so favourably of
the excellence of this year’s s exhibition, as some inferiority might reasonably
have been apprehended from the fact that two or three eminent makers,
who have gained great distinction and generally carried off the Society’s prizes
in former years, did not exhibit on this occasion.

454 Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds.

Whatever be the cause of this withdrawal, it does not appear that the general
interests of the agricultural community are likely to suffer. The constant
and increasing demand for the best implements naturally brings a full supply.
New men have risen up to supply the vacant places, who show a determina-
tion to profit by the fortunate opportunity which has been so unexpectedly
afforded them,

It is, perhaps, natural that those who have gained distinction in former
competitions should wish to rest upon it, and should think that the competition
and prizes instituted by the Society might be now dispensed with ; but the
principle of congpetition seems to be the essence of the Society’s influence, as it
is the life of all improvement. In this, as in other walks of life, men may
retire, but cannot rest upon past achievements; and it is scarcely to be
expected, and not to be desired, that any change should hastily be made in a
system which, whatever objections may be urged against it, has, during the
last twenty years, produced the most satisfactory results.

The Society’s prize of 30/. for drills was divided between two classes: the
first for drills for general purposes, drilling corn and roots with manures ; the
second for those which drill corn and roots only, without manures.

Ten drills were selected for trial, belonging to Mr. James Coultas, junr.,
Messrs. Coultas and Son, Messrs. Robert and John Reeves, Messrs. Holmes
and Son, Messrs. Priest and Woolnough, Mr. Malthouse, Mr. Teasdale, and
Messrs. Gower and Son. All these had the steerage apparatus, and for the
most part worked in a satisfactory manner.

Careful experiments were made to test the quantity of seed delivered per
acre, by measuring the ground traversed, and by receiving into bags and
subsequently measuring the quantity of seed deposited. The accuracy of
this operation, combined with the construction of the drill and the selling
price, determined the award,

In the ist Class, the 1st Prize of 10/7. was awarded to Mr. James Coultas,
junr., for article No. 81; the 2nd Prize of 381. to Messrs. James Coultas and
Son, for article No. 810; the 8rd Prize of 27. to Messrs. Robert and John
Reeves, for article No. 1278.

In the 2nd Class, the 1st Prize of 10/. was awarded to Mr. James
Coultas, junr., for article No. 89; the 2nd Prize of 57. to Messrs. Holmes and
Son, for article No, 450.

The Judges highly commended article No. 812, exhibited by James Coultas
and Son; and commended No. 1519, exhibited by Messrs. Priest and
Woolnough. ’

DriLus ror GENERAL PURPOSES FOR SMALL OccUPATIONS.

The Prize of 10/. for drills for small occupations was also divided into two
classes: 1st. For drilling corn and roots only; 2nd, For drilling corn and
roots with manure.

Ten drills were selected for trial in this class, belonging to Messrs. Hensman
and Son, James Coultas, jun., Messrs. R. and I. Reeves, Messrs. Holmes and
Son, Mr. G. Malthouse, Messrs. Hunt and Pickering, and Messrs. Gower and
Son, and tested in the same manner as the larger drills.

The Judges are of opinion that these drills, as now constructed with steerage
apparatus, give the small occupier the power of drilling his corn, if not quite
so cheaply, yet as accurately as the large occupier, and place him at much less
disadvantage in point of economy than he has hitherto been.

In the 1st Class, the Prize of 57, was awarded to Messrs. W. Hensman and
Son, for article No. 1553.

The Judges highly commended article No. 41, exhibited by Mr. James
Coultas, junr. ; and commended article No. 1275, exhibited by Messrs. R. and
I. Reeves.

Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds, 455

In the 2nd Class, the Prize of 5/. was awarded to Mr. James Coultas, junn,
for article No. 83.

The Judges highly commended article No. 4538, exhibited by Messrs.
Holmes and Son; and commended article No. 1583, exhibited by Mr, George
Malthouse.

Drinis vor TurNirs AND orHER Roots.

These were classified in three divisions :—
Ist. For drilling on both ridge and flat.
2nd. On the flat only.
3rd. On the ridge only.

Thirteen drills were selected for trial, belonging to Messrs. Holmes and Son,
Messrs. R. and I. Reeves, Mr. James Coultas, junr., Messrs. Priest and Wool-
nouch, Messrs. Gower and Son, Mr. H. Kearsley, Mr. James Clarke, Mr. John
Barker, Mr. M. Dale, Messrs. Hunt and Pickering, and Mr. J. Teasdale.

Most of these machines were capable of making excellent work. The main
difference consisted in the mode in which the manure was deposited and
covered before the dropping of the seed. The machines to which the prizes
were awarded accomplished this operation most efficiently.

In the Ist Class, the 1st Prize of 107. was awarded to Messrs. Holmes and
Son for article No. 456 ; and the 2nd Prize of 5/. to Messrs. R. and I. Reeves,
for article No. 1277.

In the 2nd Class, the Ist Prize of 67. was awarded to Mr. James Coultas,
jun., for article No. 35; and the 2nd Prize of 4/. to Messrs. Priest and Wool-
nough, for article No. 1198.

In the 8rd Class, the Prize of 57. was awarded to Messrs. Gower and Son
for article No. 1547.

Water-DRILLs,

Two drills only were tried in this class, both of which made very good
work. Messrs. Reeves’s drill appeared to be the best constructed, and to
them the 1st Prize of 7/. was awarded for article No. 1282 ; and the 2nd Prize
of 37. to Mr. W. Watkinson, for article No. 921.

Drinis ror SMALL SEEDs.

In this Class four drills were tried, exhibited by Mr. James Coultas, jun.,
Messrs. Holmes and Son, Mr. J. Barker, and Mr. W. S. Underhill.

The best drill was that manufactured by Mr. J. Coultas, jun., which, besides
drilling clover and rye-grass together in the ordinary method (operations that
are difficult to combine), has an arrangement by which they can be separately
distributed. To Mr. James Coultas, jun., the Ist Prize of 7/. was therefore
awarded for article No. 86; and the 2nd Prize of 3/. to Messrs. Holmes and
Son, for article No. 461. :

Dritu-PREssERS.

Four drills were tried in this Class, belonging to Messrs. Hensman and Son,
- Mr. G. W. Robinson, Mr. J. Barker, and Mr. I’. Butcher.

The Ist Prize of 7/7. was awarded to Messrs. Hensman and Son, for article
No. 1559, a compact and well-constructed machine, consisting of a presser of
two wheels, with drill for dropping seed, and two coulters attached, by which
the seed was immediately covered, and the whole operation completed with
neatness and accuracy.

The 2nd Prize of 3/. was awarded to Mr. G. Robinson, for article
No. 1492.

Dry Manure Disrrisutors.

Hight machines in this Class were selected for trial, belonging to Mr.

Thomas Chambers, jun., Messrs. Holmes and ‘son, Messrs. Priest and Wool-

456 Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Lnplements at Leeds.

nough, Messrs. R. and I. Reeves, Mr. James Coultas, jun., Mr. John Green,
Messrs. Denison and Son, and Messrs. Gower and Son.

These distributors were tried with moist ashes and with soot, the object
being to ascertain the smallest quantity which could be evenly and accurately
distributed.

With large quantities, nearly all the machines performed fairly, but in
distributing small quantities of concentrated manure, Mr. Chambers’s drill
showed its superiority. It is now seven years since this drill was first
exhibited; it still remains without alteration, and yet the best machine
extant—a rare instance of perfection attained on the first essay.

The 1st Prize of 77. was awarded to Mr. Thomas Chambers, jun., for article
a 890; and the 2nd Prize of 3/. to Messrs. Holmes and Son, for article
No. 464.

The Judges highly commended article No. 1199, exhibited by Messrs.
Priest and Woolnough; and article No. 1284, exhibited by Messrs. R.
and J. Reeves; and commended article No. 37, exhibited by Mr. James
Coultas, junr.

Liquip Manure DistrreuTors.

Three machines were tried in this Class, belonging to Mr. W. Crosskill’s
Trustees and Mr. I. James.

The 1st Prize of 67. was awarded:to the Trustees of Mr. W. Crosskill, for
article No. 400; and the 2nd Prize of 47. to Mr. Isaac James, for article
No. 1102,

Both were tried first with plain water, and then with an admixture of
superphosphate. It appeared to the Judges that no manure could be advan-
tageously distributed with water by these machines but such as could be easily
mixed and held in solution. When there was much sediment the action was
not satisfactory ; but for ordinary tank-water and thoroughly soluble manure
the application was satisfactory and complete.

Horsk-HOES, SinGLE Row, on RipGE or Fra.

Many admirable implements were exhibited in this Class, and no less than
twenty selected for trial, belonging to Messrs, Carson and Toone, the Busby
Agricultural Implement Company, Messrs. E. Page and Co., Mr. Thomas
Allcock, Mr. Jonathan Stalker, Messrs. I. and F. Howard, Mr. John Robinson,
Mr. C. Clay, Messrs. Bonds and Robinson, Messrs. Wallis and Haslam, Mr.
James Meilard, Messrs. Hunt and Pickering, Mr. W. 8. Underhill, Mr. Thomas
Butcher, Messrs. I. and F. Hancock, Messrs. Mapplebeck and Lowe, and
Messrs. W. Hensman and Son.

The excellent, and, in some cases, almost equal, performance of these imple-
ments left the Judges a most difficult and delicate task in deciding upon their
respective merits. After a careful trial, the lst Prize of 5/, was awarded to
Messrs. Carson and Toone, for article No. 54; the 2nd Prize of 3/. to the
Busby Agricultural Implement Company, for article No. 521; and the érd
Prize of 27. to Messrs. Page and Co., for article No. 1600.

The Judges highly commended article No. 501, exhibited by Mr. Thomas
Allcock ; and article No. 1309, exhibited by Mr. Jonathan Stalker ; and com-
mended article No. 1058, exhibited by Messrs. I. and F. Howard.

HorsE-HOES, FOR GENERAL PURPOSES.

Nine implements were tried in this Class, belonging to Messrs. Priest and
Woolnough, Messrs. Hunt and Pickering, Mr. Isaac Spight, Mr. Wm. Smith,
Messrs. Holmes and Sons, Mr. W. A. Munn, Messrs. I. and F. Howard, and
Messrs. E. Page and Co.

The 1st Prize of 77. was awarded to Messrs. Priest and Woolnough, for
article No. 1201; the 2nd Prize of 57, to Messrs, Hunt and Pickering, for

Report on the Evhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds. 457

article No. 1148; and the 8rd Prize of 31. to Mr. Isaac Spight, for article
No. 174.

The Judges highly commended article No. 166, exhibited by Mr. Wim.
Smith ; and commended article No. 465, exhibited by Messrs. Holmes and
Sons. Apart from the aggrecate of general merit which determined the
award of the prizes, there is one novel feature which is peculiar to Mr. Spight’s
machine, and deserves high commendation: by the motion of a simple rack
and pinion, the whole framework of the hoe can be elevated or depressed, while
in motion, to any desirable depth. :

Horsr-Hors, ror THInnrne TURNIPS.

Two machines, belonging to Mr. John Eaton and Mr. John Barker, were
tried, and the whole Prize of 57. was awarded to Mr. J. Eaton, for article
No. 1035, an implement which showed great superiority.

THomAs Huskinson.
JosePH Druce.
Joun ‘lHOMPson.

Report on GRASS-MOWERS, CoRN-REAPERS, HAYMAKING-MACHINES
} ? > >
and Horsrk HAY-RAKES.

he implements submitted to us for trial comprised both simple grass-
mowing-machines, and those combined with corn-reapers ; haymaking-
machines; and horse-rakes for both hay and corn.

As the trial of corn-reapers has been postponed till the time of Harvest, our
observations on the combined reaper and mower may be reserved for a subse-
quent Report, and our remarks at this time confined to the grass-mowers only.

We have much pleasure in bearing testimony to the mechanical skill and
inventive talent that is displayed in this most interesting department of agri-
cultural economy, and we feel justified in believing that before long a machine
will be brought out that will be all that can be desired.

After a careful investigation of the merits of the different competitors, in
which we were most materially assisted by Mr. Amos (whose valuable tabular
statement of facts obtained by the dynamometer is subjoined), we arrived at the
conclusion that we should best promote the public interest and discharge our
own duty by dividing the prize; and we awarded to Mr. W. M. Cranstoun
87., to Messrs. Burgess and Key 7., and to Mr. B. Samuelson 5/.

The machine exhibited by Mr. Bamlett, of Middleton Tyas, lays its swathe
in a very perfect manner, which for artificial grasses is of so much importance
that it deserves commendation, and we hope to see it improved and reconstructed
in other respects, so as to increase its general efficiency.

In the department of haymaking-machines, the points of exeellence were so
closely contested between Messrs. Howard and Mr. Nicholson, that there also
we divided the prize, and in such proportion as appeared to us to meet the
justice of the case, assigning to Mr. Howard 6/., to Mr. W. N. Nicholson 41,

Messrs. Howard’s horse-rake was superior to any other exhibited, and
received the prize of LOZ.

We cannot conclude this Report without acknowledging the perfect order
which was maintiined in the trial-fields by Mr. Eddison, the courteous and
efficient representative of the local authorities, and to him and the implement-
makers themselves we are particularly indebted for affording us a full oppor-
tunity for conducting the business assigned to us without let or hindrance.

W. Trnpatt.
Joun Hicken.
G. M. Hirwett

458 Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds.

MowIn@-MACHINES.
| ; Quantity | Tractive | Speed of | Horse- | Speed of
Maker’s Name. | Article.| Width | Cut Strainon | Horses Power used) Horses
| Cut. | in Acres Dyna- in Feet | con- in Miles
per Hour. | mometer. |per Minute, tas anus per Hour.
sits, abot | lbs. | |
Samuelson wi 603 52] °1°3888 |. 178°2 | 219°2 1: 1500}) 27a
|
Cranstoun .. ae 222 3) T3835) es2 0 eRe | 918 2523
Burgess and Key | 499 | 4 0} 1°826 | 270°9 | 240°7 | 1°976 | 2°735

Remarks.—Samuelson’s machine had contrivances for increasing the flexibility of
the “ knife-frame,” that it might press more easily over uneven ground; but these
made the machine more complex and liable to derangement.

Crauston’s machine was very light in draught, and the arrangement of its parts
made it very manageable ; the workmanship and materials were good, but there is
reason to fear that the machine would be too light for heavy crops.

Burgess and Key’s machine was strong, well made, and suitable for the cutting
of heavy crops. It was the heaviest in draught, but it would seem that the knife-
frame was not well attended to, aud undue friction existed.

C, E. Amos.

Supplementary Report by the Judges of Reaping Machines.

The Trial of Reapers included in the programme of the Leeds Meeting of
the Royal Agricultural Society, but necessarily deferred until the time of
Harvest, was carried out on Wednesday, August 21st, and the two following
days under most favourable auspices, at Garforth, on the farm of Mr. Iurniss,
in close proximity to the heavy lands on which steam cultivation had recently
been so effectually tested. All honour is due to Mr. Furniss, and to Messrs.
Atkinson and Nicholson, the gentlemen who undertook the arduous duties of
field stewards, and represented the local committee on this occasion. To them
may be ascribed the merit of those arrangements which could alone have
secured the opportunity for a fair and comprehensive trial. Those who
beheld the numerous staff of efficient labourers with their cheerful-looking
wives and daughters to assist in gathering the corn, together with the splendid
teams of horses placed at the disposal of the Society, could alone appreciate
the personal sacrifices which these gentlemen must have made at such a
season. The great mercantile community at Leeds may well be proud of
their agr icultural neighbours who have contributed so much to the universally
acknowledged success of the late Meeting ; a success which cannot fail to be
more than gratifying to the liberal representatives of the Gasgoine family,
whose excellent agent, Mr. Fox, suggested the Parlington Estate as the arena
for these trials. Mr. Caldwell and Mr. Torr were in attendance, in virtue of
their office, as Stewards of the Society, accompanied by Mr. Amos, the con-
sulting engineer, and were ever ready to further the business of the day.

The prizes to be awarded were as follows :—

In Class I.—For Reapers with self-delivery x £20
In Class I1.—For Reapers without self-delivery .. Boe l(t)
In Class I1].—For Combined Reapers and Grass-mowers .. 20

The Wheat to be cut grew on a moderately even table of land, with a
gradual ascent and cor responding fall ; the corn was drilled or sown from north
to south, and the machines were driven from west to east, and from east to

Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds. 459

west. ‘There was nothing unusual in the crop; it was generally standing,
and might be fairly estimated at 36 to 38 bushels, with a full average of
straw, in a good state as to ripeness for cutting, which is material in reaping
either by manual or horse power. ‘The Barley crop was in all respects similar,
except that it had not arrived at an equal state of ripeness. The seeds among
it were a full plant, and of great height in many places, though the crop was a
moderately fair average one.

The trial of the Grass-mowing machines being fresh in the recollection of
the Judges, it was decided to commence proceedings with Class ITI., consisting
of Combined Reapers and Grass-mowers. In reporting on this department,
it may suffice to express a doubt whether the object sought by this combina-
tion will ever be economically attained,—a doubt which the machines tested

on this occasion only confirmed ; the work done by them as Reapers being so
unsatisfactory, that we felt bound to withhold the Prize.

Attention was then directed to the Reapers in Class I., with manual deli-
very. The competitors were Messrs. Kearsley; Picksley, Sims, and Co. ;
Spencer, Wray, and Son; Cuthbert,(two-horse), Cuthbert (one-horse), Burgess
and Key; Beckwith; Sawney; and Coates.

After a preliminary trial, five machines were selected to be further tested ;
and these were again reduced, on closer investigation, to two—those of
Messrs. Picksley and Sims, and the Messrs. Cuthbert. The final struggle
lay between these two, and the result was an award of 6/. to the machine of
Picksley and Sims ; and of 4/. to that of Messrs. Cuthbert.

Messrs. Picksley and Sims’ Reaper is remarkably ingenious, very simple in
its working parts, and has the great recommendation of requiring compara-
tively little horse power in proportion to the work done. The horses attached
to it walked at a regular working speed, and would have kept on continuously
throughout the day without distress. There is this to be said, however, of all
machines made for manual delivery, that if they meet with a full crop of corn,
they can only take a proportionately reduced width, and under any circum-
stances the work for the attendant who throws off the sheaf is most laborious.
Practice may do something to mitigate this, but after all it will be very hard
work. These machines will perhaps be found most serviceable on ridge-and-
furrow land, and on occupations where the iaclosures are small, and the
advantages derived from self-delivery are less; for such use they deserve our
attention.

The machine of Messrs. Cuthbert is well constructed, of great strength and
durability, and does its work exceedingly well, with a perfect level cut. It is
also simple in its working parts and easy of adjustment; the strain upon the
horses, however, is such as could not be supported continuously, assuming the
crop to be good, and the professed width to be taken; nor could the attendant
bear up under the excessive fatigue required to clear the machine, even were
he to resort to making the sheaves much larger than they ought to be.

It should always be borne in mind that the question is not which implement
can do the most in one hour, but which will have accomplished the most at the
end of a working day of ten hours with the least expenditure of power. Every
practical farmer who is alive to the cost of maintaining a team of draught
horses in efficient working order, will undoubtedly be guided by this principle
in making his selection.

The business of the Meeting was brought to a conclusion by the trial of the
machines in Class I., viz.: For Reapers with self-acting delivery. In this
Class there were eight competitors; he Trustees of W. Crosskill with a
three-horse implement ; Messrs. Burgess and Key’s two-horse; Cranston’s
two-horse ; Lord Kinnaird, Messrs. Creaser, Kearsley, Prentice, and Hellard,
with one-horse machines.

VOL. XXII. 21

Trials of Implements at Leeds.

’
’

vhibition and

yy

i

460 Report on the

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Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds. 461

These Reapers possessed various degrees of merit; the result, however, left
no doubt that the most efficient machines were those of Messrs. Burgess and
Key, and of Crosskill’s Trustees ; these two were therefore again brought out
in competition with each other, and every means was taken to ascertain their
comparative value. They were also subjected to a dynamometrical test, and
alter a careful review of all the circumstances of the trial, and a full discussion
of every point relating to crop, situation of land, draught required, ease of
working and adjustment, simplicity, durability, first cost of machine, delivery,
cut, waste made, and work performed, the prize was divided in the proportion
of 142. assigned to W. Crosskill’s Trustees, and 67. to Burgess and Key.

The tabular statement of the results obtained by the dynamometer is appended
to this report, and it is needless to say that this statement materially influenced
the decisions arrived at; it will not be requisite to enter minutely into the
other scientific considerations which were rightly included in this inquiry ;
this could only lead to a disquisition which, though tending in some degree
to rescue the judges from the charges of ignorance and incapacity sometimes
brought against them, would be of little importance to the farmer in search
of the best implement.

Great progress has undoubtedly been made towards perfecting the Reaper ;
more may possibly be done to secure lightness of draught, simplicity and dura-
bility of working parts, with continuous action. As it is, it is difficult to
conceive how any operation can be more exactly or beautifully performed. It
may, perhaps, be urged that the requirements of every crop, or the vicis-
situdes to which it may be liable, are not yet thoroughly met; but crops, in
such a state and of such a bulk as the Reaper is best able to deal with, are
precisely those which all farmers desire to grow, for when quantity and quality
are united in the crop, then alone does good husbandry meet its reward.

Tn using the Reaper it should be remembered that should bad weather come
on, the risk of damage to the crop is quite as great as if it had been reaped
_ with the sickle, and every precaution that can be devised, consistent with con-
dition, should be taken to reduce this risk. Means also should be at hand to
repair any trifling accident or breakage in the gearing of the horses, or in any
of the working parts of the machine itself.

Mechanical invention, as applied to agriculture, has attained no greater
triumph than in the production of the Reaper; and when we contemplate the
probability that year by year a greater portion of the harvest will be brought
down by its use, the labourer may rejoice at the prospect of a respite from
some portion at least of those continuous and excessive efforts which are required
of him in mowing a heavy crop of corn. Without instituting a comparison
between the cost of hand-labour and machines for cutting corn, we wouid
remark that every practical invention in mechanics has a direct tendency to
increase the leisure of man, and enable him to provide for his wants more
completely, and with less laborious exertion. Those who recognize this truth
will not be slow to admit another of not less importance, viz., that in spite of
temporary and accidental derangements, duty and profit generally go hand in
hand, whilst a selfish policy is generally a shortsighted one—considerations of
importance, both to farmer and labourer in respect of the changes introduced
by new machinery.

Nothing now remains for us but to express our obligations to the exhibitors
for the kind assistance afforded us by explanations of the working parts and
minutiz of their respective machines; to Mr. Caldwell and Mr. Torr we are
most particularly indebted for several valuable hints in the right conduct of the
trial. Mr. Amos also was indefatigable in his endeavour to obtain accurate
results with the dynamometer.

The weather interrupted our proceedings after 1 p.m., on Thursday, but
we found a most hospitable asylum from the rain under the roof of Mr, Fox,
the President of the Parlington Farmers’ Club; and the few hours spent
OS a)

a ad

462 Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds.

with him and the other members of that distinguished body will long be held
by us in remembrance in connexion with the meeting of the Royal Agricultural
Society of 1861.

Joun HicKen, Bourton-on-Dunsmore, near Rugby.

G. M. Hipwetn.

W. TrNpDALt.

Report of the Judges of Steam Cultivators.

Of the sum appropriated to prizes for steam cultivation, 100/. was assigned
to Class I. for the general application of steam power to the cultivation of
the soil; and 1007. to Class II., in which the limitation was prescribed that
the plough or cultivator was to be worked by an ordinary portable engine not
exceeding 10-horse power.

Our trial of the implements entered in Class I. commenced on the 2nd July,
upon a farm in the occupation of Mr. Brady Nicholson, of Stourton Grange,
and on land which is here considered light, but is only relatively so. On some
of this land it would have been good work for three horses to plough a furrow
six inches deep and of proportionate width ; whilst the lightest parts would, at
all times, give quite draught enough for a pair. Moreover, in many places
the limestone rock lies very near the surface, and offers great obstructions to
deep cultivation.

The first field selected contained about 32 acres. It had, in the previous
year, been cropped with turnips, which had been eaten off by sheep, and,
excepting a slight scarifying and harrowing to keep down the weeds, the land
remained in the same consolidated state as when left by the sheep. ‘This field
was thought to be well suited for the preparation of a seed-bed for a supposed
crop of spring wheat or barley ; and the competitors were directed to do the
work in the way they thought best adapted to their respective implements.
Plots of 4 acres were allotted to each ; and in order to test their capabilities of
finishing fields without trespassing on adjoining roads or land, the exhibitors
were requested not to allow their engines or any part of their apparatus to be
placed beyond the prescribed boundaries.

Plot No. 1 was drawn by Messrs. Howard. The implement used was their
double-action five-tined steam cultivator, which is worked backwards and for-
wards across the land by a windlass with reversing gear, so that turning at the
end of the lands is unnecessary. At the first operation, a depth of about 5
inches was attained, but on removing the displaced soil it was evident that the
land was only partly stirred, the cleared surface presenting a series of narrow
unmoved ridges, the cultivator being furnished with only narrow spud-
points. Messrs. Howard, however, do not profess that one operation perfects
their work, which requires to be crossed again at right angles. ‘The cross
cultivation in this instance was necessarily slow; the plot of land being
narrow, about one-fourth of the time was consumed in stopping and re-
starting the implement. When the cross-cultivation was completed, the
surface of the land was well stirred ; a depth of 6 or 7 inches was generally
attained, but the bottom still presented the same ridged appearance as before.
The chief objection to this implement is, that the wheels pass over the land
after it is cultivated, and by their pressure make a deep seam; this not only
renders sowivg or drilling the seed at a uniform depth without a previous
harrowing, impracticable, but also replants any couch-grass or other weeds pre-
viously brought to the surface. With this exception, the land was left in a
good state for fallow, and could have been soon reduced by a harrow and roll
to a fine and deep seed-bed. The headlands were cultivated twice over, but
necessarily each time in the same direction.

Plot No. 2 was drawn for Mr. Wilson, of Wansford, Northamptonshire, who

Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds. 463

exhibited a six-horse power double-cylinder engine, manufactured by Messrs.
T. and J. Law, of Leicester, with windlass, anchors, snatchblocks, and culti-
vator, made upon the plan of Mr. Smith of Woolston. The engine boiler was,
however, so badly stayed that it was deemed unsafe by the engineers, Messrs,
Amos and Owen, and was, on that account, not allowed to work. The Judges
would gladly have worked the Woolston apparatus by another engine, but
when this set of tackle was again enquired for, it could not be found. ‘They
very much regret that they were thus prevented from comparing the merits
of this and other modes of cultivation.

Plot No. 8 was assigned to Messrs. Roby and Co., of Lincoln, who exhibited a
very good 12-horse power, double-cylinder, self-propelling engine, having
Chandler and Oliver’s patent drum-ploughing windlass attached, so as to revolve
on its hind travelling axle; together with snatchblocks, anchors, rope-porters,
and 1200 yards of steel wire rope, intended to work a three-furrowed plough. In
consequence of the anchors giving way repeatedly, and of the plough breaking,
it was impossible to record any facts in favour of this entry. The plough was
heavy and unmanageable, requiring an enormously wide headland on which to
get in and out of work. The work done in this case was fair. To the engine
and windlass, which was simple and eflicient, a medal was awarded.

Next in order, upon plot 4, came Messrs. Richardson and Darley, of Kirton-
in-Lindsey, Lincolnshire, with a steam traction engine, and a windlass invented
by Mr. Beard, of Stowe Park, and manufactured by the exhibitors. They
commenced working by driving the engine up and down the land, with a two-
furrow plough attached to it by a chain. The engine was difficult to steer,
and its passage over the land was thought likely to do as much harm, gene-
rally, as the plough would do good. ‘The exhibitors argued that the consoli-
dation was beneficial, This may be true on some soils when intended for a
crop of wheat, but at all events the pressure should not be so unequally dis-
tributed as it was in this case, and should take place after, instead of before
the ploughing. The engine was subsequently made stationary, and the plough
was worked by a wire rope and Beard’s windlass. Part of the land was now
ploughed exceedingly well, in breadths about ten yards wide, leaving deep
open furrows between them. One of the main advantages of steam cultivation
—that of doing away with the loss occasioned by open furrows—is thus
frustrated. No small exertions were also required to turn the plough at the
land’s end. This method of working is, besides, attended with great loss of
power and wear of rope, as it can only employ rope-porters on one line of rope,
the other dragging continuously on the land. The labour employed, in pro-
portion to the work done, is also excessive ; and the whole system the reverse
of economical.

- The loss of power above referred to is best illustrated by the results of the
following experiment: 450 yards of wire rope, weighing 2 lbs. per yard, were
attached to a dynamometer, and drawn upon the unploughed turnip land
without the intervention of rope-porters, when the draught recorded was 527 lbs.
The same rope, drawn upon a sufficient number of rope-porters to keep it clear
of the ground, showed a draught of 57 Ibs. only.

Plot 5 was drawn by Mr. Fowler, who very quickly brought his large engine
and tackle into operation. He commenced working with his so-called “ digger.”
This implement is Fowler’s plough, but fitted with the Cotgreave mouldboards
instead of the ordinary ones. This threw over and, to a considerable extent,
pulverised the soil as completely as if dug with a spade. It left, however,
rather a rough surface for a seed-bed, and when about half the plot had been .
so tilled, Mr. Fowler was requested to scarify the remainder. This cultivation
was preferable in many respects to the other. The surface was finer in conse-
quence of the soil (already pulverised by the previous superficial tillage) not
being buried, whilst any grass or weeds were kept on the surface, where they
would easily be destroyed by subsequent operations. The first two acres were

464 Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds.

stirred uniformly to the depth of 7 inches; of the latter or scarified por-
tion, fully one-half had been only stirred 5 inches deep, but, at the request
of the Judges, a depth of more than 7 inches was again attained. Over the
whole of the four acres a large harrow was attached to the side of the
implement, which produced the usual good effect of one harrowing by horses,
without the disadvantage arising from the treading of their feet. On light
soils the drill might immediately follow the scarifier ; even on more tenacious
soils, if cultivated in fine weather, a very slight amount of drying would suffice
to make the land ready for sowing. ‘The ploughing of the headlands oceupied
much more time, in proportion to their extent, than the main piece. This
was partly owing to an attempt to plough that which the engine had travelled
over, and consequently consolidated, by means of an ordinary claw-anchor
and snatchblock. As these were unable to bear the strain upon them, the
plough was only worked one way. It may be questioned whether it is not
more economical to plough the headlands by means of horse-power, much
time being lost in shifting tackle for such small areas.* This remark applies
particularly to the further headland, to plough which the engine must be re-
moved across the field. That which is traversed by the engine, and consoli-
dated by it, is more easily dealt with, and it is of more importance that steam
should be brought to bear in breaking it up.

Upon the whole the land was quite as effectually tilled at one operation by
Mr. Fowler, as by the Messrs. Howard at two; the bottom being uniformly
level, and all the soil perfectly moved.

Messrs Brown and May, of Devizes, worked Romain’s rotary cultivator, or
“digoing machine,” on plot 6. The work done, though but little, was cer-
tainly the best in the field, the soil being finely pulverized to the depth of
7 inches; but the expenditure of coal, oil, and water was something fearful.
This cost, coupled with the wages of the men, the wear and tear ofthe im-
plement, and the interest of capital invested in its purchase, would very far
exceed the value of the work. This was so small in amount, and done at such
various times, that it was impossible to chronicle the details of the trial. The
digger worked first round the outside of the plot of ground, narrowing its orbit
as it approached the centre. Considerable spaces at each corner were left un-
touched ; nor do we see how the centre, had the digger ever reached that
point, could by any possibility have been finished by so ponderous a machine,
requiring so large a space in which to turn. However highly we may appre-
ciate the work, we consider we should have committed a great error had we
given either a medal or a commendation to an implement in every way so
costly. ,

After the foregoing trials, it was evidently unnecessary to require any of the
competitors, except Mr. Fowler and Messrs. Howard, to proceed further. To
each of them eight acres of clover-ley were further allotted, which they were
requested to plough as a seed-bed for wheat.

Mr. Fowler’s plough worked well, and, considering the rapidity at which it
travelled, the furrows were well and evenly turned. Of course the slower
ploughing is done (within certain limits) the less the furrow-slices are broken,
and the more neatly they are placed. Had skim-coulters been attached to the
plough, so as to bury all the clover, the ploughing would have been of a very
superior order; but such an addition to steam ploughs would probably add
more to their complexity than to their utility. As it was, the ground was
left in a very good state for harrowing,—indeed all the better in that respect
from the furrow-slices having been more or less broken.

The work done by Messrs. Howard’s plough was also pretty good. The
furrow-slices were perhaps better cut, and rather better shaped, but they were

* In this case twenty-six minutes were occupied in shifting tackle for the
nearer headland, and forty minutes for the farther one,
not,

. 465

Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds

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466 Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds.

not so equal in size, and consequently not so evenly laid, and would have re-
quired a greater amount of harrowing to produce the same tilth. The ploughs
being placed in a frame upon four wheels, and the whole being necessarily a
great weight, it seemed no easy matter, even to experienced men, to set it into
its work at the land’s end, and strong levers had often to be resorted to.

Fowler’s plough, on the contrary, being balanced on two wheels, was very
easily guided into the unploughed land.

Tn order to test the capabilities of Mr. Fowler’s apparatus on fields having
irregular boundaries and uneven surfaces, it was set to cultivate a piece of land
in the field previously cropped with turnips, which was nearly triangular in
shape, and had upon it an old stone quarry of considerable depth. This land
was, however, broken up with the “digger” 10 inches deep in a first-rate
manner.

This completed the trials in Class I. on the light land. The next experi-
ments were on a field of very stiff soil, in the occupation of Mr. Furness, the
lower part of which was of a tough and tenacious character, such as is very
rarely met with. Higher up the field the soil was more friable, but very hard
and stubborn. It was a rye-grass and clover layer, which had been eaten off
by sheep, and had been laid up in narrow lands, with deep furrows intervening.
It presented, on the whole, a more severe test than these implements had
ever been subjected to, when competing for prizes offered by the Royal Agri-
cultural Society. To each of the two competitors six acres were allotted, with
directions to plough one half, and break up the other with a scarifier.

Mr. Fowler ploughed the first half of his plot in a first-rate manner, and,
considering the depth attained and the character of the soil, with considerable

rapidity. “But on lands so narrow, with furrows so deep, it was impossible
that the whole should be ploughed at a uniform depth, or laid at.one uniform
angle, by a set of four ploughs attached to a rigid frame. Owing, however,
to the facilities possessed by Mr. Fowler for raising or lowering the wheel on
either side of his ploughs, even when in motion, a creater uniformity of depth
was attained than could reasonably have been expected.

In order to test the resistance the ploughs had to contend with, one of
Messrs. Hornby’s single-wheel ploughs was attached to a dynamometer, and
drawn by four strong horses ; the results given are recorded in the previous
table (p. 465).

Mr. Fowler broke up the remainder of his piece with the same implement,
but substituted scarifying breasts for the common mould-boards. The plough-
shares cut all the land to adepth of from 7 to 8 inches, and left an even
bottom. The surface was all the more broken from the coulters being so set
that each furrow-slice was cut in two. Thus, with the aid of the prongs on
the top of the short mouldboards, the land was well torn to pieces, and left in
an admirable state for subsequent fallowing. It may be remarked as a slight
defect in the work that a place is not cleared in the furrow for the passage of
the wheel on the return of the implement. The result is that a small part of
the surface is again compressed, on which if any couch-grass be lying, it
would be replanted.

The Messrs. Howard’s plough was altogether a failure on the narrow lands
of this field. This is attributable to the wheels which regulate the depth of
the furrow not being readily altered to suit the inequalities of the surface. The
result was that the land was only partially ploughed, and at very unequal
depths, the bottoms of the old furrows being rarely touched. ‘This plough is
only suited for a level surface, and requires land of this kind to be previously
levelled by steam or other cultivation. After having gone over about half an
_ acre, it broke, and the scarifier was then substituted. With this implement the
land was by no means all moved, nor was the depth attained at all uniform. The
bottom presented the same series of small ridges as elsewhere, and it was evident

that

Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds. 467

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468 Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds.

We have stated above that on this very stiff soil Mr. Howard’s plough was
broken. The same accident occurred twice to Mr. Fowler’s—once against the
stump of an oak tree left in the ground, and again from contact with a large
stone firmly imbedded in the stiff clay. We attribute no blame to the im-
plements ; for breakage of some kind was, under the circumstances, inevitable,
unless the vlouch and tackle could resist a greater strain than the engine could
exert. But this was not the case, and we record the facts chiefly with the view
to calling the attention of engineers to them, in the hope that they will be able
to devise some reme dy for an evil which may at any time occur, adding thereby
greatly to the cost of repairs, and to the average cost of the work done, by reason
of time lost on such occasions.

This was the conclusion of the trials to which the steam cultivators of the
first class were subjected. We have purposely avoided burdening these remarks
with records of the time and coals consumed, cost of labour, &c., feeling assured
that the reader will more easily obtain the required information on these
points by reference to the subjoined tables.

Crass I.—Srram CuLtivators on Heavy LAnp.

£ a
g 2
e ee Es Wear &
naa &2 | Total Fuel | Time Saantiy Manual | “pear, | Cost per
a . a j = —
e FE burnt, occupied. operated on. 3 | per Day. Rie Acre.
oo a
ae fa)
lbs. |cwts. qrs.lbs.| HH. M. AaB, PB: So. “Ge. || 18.7 Gail Shee
FowLer —
Ploughing | 76 if O-@ Bye LO esha 8) 10 6 a6 az
Scarifying | ,, @ Thee AIA) WU Sye2o 7 50 - a 2:
Howarp—
Ploughing | 70 Ul) hail? ih OF ea3 Bol] 16 2 eo) eilreeee
Stemutaaiaye | 25 i) lO) Oa) Sea BG Ge ag 5a 6 @&
|
|

Cuass I,.—Cost of Fowxer’s Apparatus on 4-acre piece of Light Land, fallow.
Cost per Day.

Somes
bemoaning “Bo no 0G 3G G6 co a 0 2 4
Wengimemane ee etn tec ce) =i =o -l- (oO
1 ploughman . s¢ 0 3 4
2 porter-boys, at Is. 3d... 0. 0 2 6
Total cost of manual labour.. .. 011 6
Water‘carting®.. 239 sc. ane ol su
Oil : ik
Interest on ‘purchase- money, 8251, at 5 per cent. per
annum, and wear and tear, at 123 per cent. 014 6
1441, 7s. 6d., divided SInOnE 200 ae era or
per day
Wye @)
Coal consumed per ae 17 cewts. 12 ber 10 Ibs., ee 017 4
20s. per ton .. F
Total cost perday .. .« -- «#2 8 4

Total cost per day when cultivating the turnip-land or fallow =2i. 8s. 4d.
Quantity of land worked per day of 10 hours =7A. 2r. 4p. = 7°55 acres,
Cost per acre, 6s. 5d.

Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds. 469

Oxass I.—Cost of Howarn’s Apparatus on 4-acre piece.
Cost per Day.

se By a
Qranononmengat2s: 4d... .. a Mees oo [O48
GI RIUGU eee ic ese one eM oO) Gi
ESRB DNs oko se fae EMME seg hee Ol 2 Se
eee cctenryn cy aaa eeesh das) Oc a
2 porter-boys, at 1s. Sd. i ee ae eG
Total cost of manual labour .. .. 016 2
Water-carting . 0 4 0
Oil ri OF eG
Interest on purchase- “money, 610Ly ‘at 5 5 per cent, per
annum, and wear and tear, at 15 per cent. = 1221., 122
divided among 200 working days, or per day
ae 13 4
Coal consumed per ‘days 9 ewts. 5 a 26 Ibs., at 208.\ 9 19 9
per ton .. :
£2 bOe

Total cost per day when cultivating the turnip-land or fallow = 21. 5s. 4d.
Quantity of land worked per day of 10 hours= 34, 3r, 4P.=3°78 acres.
Cost per acre 11s. 8d. on the 4-acre piece, for cultivating and cross-cultivating,

Crass I.—Cost of Fow1er’s Apparatus on Clover-ley—8 acres.

cok the CL

Manual labour, wear and tear and interest, &e. See i 20
Coals, 11 cwts. 2 qrs. 19 Ibs. per day, at 20s. .. .. O11 8
£22: 8

Total cost per day, 2I. 2s, 8d.
Work done per day, 8A. 32p.
Cost per acre, 5s. 2d.

Cxass I.— Cost of Howarn’s Apparatus on Clover-ley—8 acres.

Ga seeds

Manual labour, wear and tear and interest, &c.,as before 113 4
Coals, 9 cwts. 2 qrs. 13 Ibs. per day, at20s. .. .. 010 3
£8) 8

“ Total cost per day, 2/. 3s. 7d.
Work done per day, 5a. In. 6P.
Cost per acre, 8s. 2d.

Cuass I.—Cost of FowxEr on the Headland of the 8 acres.

Baty.
Manual labour, interest, wear and tear, &c., as before 111 0
Coals, 11 ewts. 2 qrs. 20 Ibs. SAN COM ca ends s Paeeeay (Oe LES

Total cost perday@e. .. .. £2 2 8

Land worked at per day, 5a. 3r.
Cost per acre, 8s., apart from time oceupied in removals.

470 Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds.

Cuass I.—Cost of Howarp on the Headland of the 8 acres,

£. 8: ad:

Manual labour, interest, &c. &e.,as before.. .. .. 113 4
Coalss3 .. 0) a ee Ce ee) SOMME
Total cost perday ~-:).. .. £1! TBNG

Land worked at per day, 2a. OR. 14P.
Cost per acre, 18s. 5d,

Cuass [,—Cost of Fowier’s Apparatus on Heavy Land.

PLOUGHING.
£isy a:
Manual labour, wear and tear, interest, &c., as before 111 0
Coals consumed per day, 14 ewts., at 20s... .. .. 014 O
Total cost periday 2-0) 6 meee oe

Land ploughed per day, 5A. 3x. = 5°762 acres.
Cost per acre, 7s. 10d.

Crass I.—Fowter’s Apparatus on Heavy Land.

q
Scartryinec. oer
Manual labour, water, oil, wear and tear, interest, &c., Pe 111 0
as before Poe pavetcoahate :
Coals, 13 ewts. 3 qrs. 10 lbs., at 208... s+» sp tO
Motal cost periday: -. 9 -- 9 2.) oo
Land searified per day = 6A. 1R. = 6°25 acres.
Cost 7s. 2d. per acre.
Crass I1.—Howarp’s Apparatus on Heavy Land.
PLOUGHING. yond
Manual labour, water, oil, wear and tear, interest, &c.,)
113 4
as before : al 26, Of ee ei
Coals, 7 ewts. 1 qr., at 20s, as ede mkt Copy Sg cee Ran
Totalvcost per daiysne-me =e ines oem
Land ploughed per day, 2A. 1R. 17Pp.=2°4 acres,
Cost per acre, 17s. 2d.
SCARIFYING.
Wabour,, &e; &e:,'as:above™ ©... 55 kee Wiese ee
Coals, 12\ewts: 23'Ibs:,,at\Q0s. <9 ssc eee Roem
Motal cost penday, =.) |...) + eee Ron

Land scarified per day, 6A. 3R. 14P.=6°84.
Cost per acre, 6s. 8d.

We come now to Olass II., perhaps the most important class of steam
cultivators; for it is highly desirable that the ordinary agricultural engines,
when of sufficient power, besides thrashing the produce of the farm, should be
available also for the cultivation of its soil.

We began by allotting to each implement 3? acres of a layer of trefoil and

Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds. 471

white clover, which had been grazed with sheep. The land was to be scarified
to the depth of 6 inches.

The first to commence was Mr. Hayes, of Watling Works, Stony Stratford,
in connection with Messrs. Crowley and Son, of Newport Pagnell. The former
was the manufacturer and exhibitor of a very good 10-horse power engine, and
of a patent self-acting windlass. Both these were well made, and to the latter,
which showed some ingenuity, a medal was awarded. ‘The scarifier, anchors,
and snatchblocks were the production of Crowley and Son. ‘They were
far too light, and not at all adapted for steam cultivation. The surface was
pared very imperfectly to the depth of about 34 inches, but in that part of the
field where this implement worked the rock was so near the surface that no
very great depth could be attained; but on being tried on the turnip-field,
where there was a sufficient depth of soil, it was not much more successful.

Mr. Kirby, of Banbury, came next, with an 8-horse power double-cylinder
engine, a Beard’s witdlass, and a two-furrow plough, manufactured by the
exhibitor. Mr. Kirby had no scarifier, and the plough was that used by
Messrs. Richardson and Co. in the first field. The ploughing was well done,
but the objections made in Messrs. Richardson’s case apply equally to this :
an 8-horse engine, working at 10-horse power, and six men, were doing the
work of six horses and three lads.

Mr. Fowler next commenced with an ordinary 8-horse power portable engine,
made by Messrs. Clayton, Shuttleworth, and Co., by which a stationary windlass
was driven, to which was attached a clipping-drum of similar construction to
those appended to his large engines, but carri¢d upon a separate pair of wheels.
The anchors and ploughs were the same as those already noticed, the latter
being ftted with the same short mouldboards as were used on plot 5, in the
first trial, Class I. This implement made very good work, and the soil was
all cut to a depth of 7 inches. Great masses of solid limestone rock were
riven off without any apparent injury to the plough. Owing to the coulters
being set in a line with the point of the shares, the surface was not quite so
much broken as in the case described in the strong-land field, and did not
therefore present quite so well-cultivated an appearance.

The last competitors in this part of the trials were the Messrs. Howard, with
the same cultivator as was first used, but working with three tines only instead
of five. The plot of 3% acres was broken up at the depth of 44 inches, in little
over 44 hours, at an expenditure of 635 lbs. of coals. The soil moved was
well divided, and, as broader points were used, a more level bottom was
obtained. This may be considered the best performance of the Messrs. Howard,
and their cultivator is well adapted for light soils with a level surtace ; but if
the weight of the soil moved by their implement could be compared with that
moved by Mr. Fowler’s, they would suffer very greatly by the comparison. If
we could have applied that test, our decisions would doubtless have been
ereatly strengthened by it.

The race for this class being again reduced to Mr. Fowler and the Messrs.
Howard, they were each ordered to plough 6 acres of cloyer-ley in the above
light-land field, but upon a part where a deeper staple prevailed.

Mr. Fowler worked a four-furrow plough, 6 inches deep, and completed his
task in 7 hours 44 minutes, to the surprise of all who witnessed the per-
formance. We may here remark, however, that during all the trials the
governors of the engines were dispensed with, and engines and men went
throughout at a racing pace. The furrows in this case were clean cut and well
turned, and lay well for the action of the harrows.

Messrs. Howard used a 10-horse engine, and the same three-furrow plough.
At the commencement the work was similar in character to that made when
ploughing Class I. ; but towards the conclusion there was great irregularity
in the width of the first furrow in each series, from 15 to 18 inches being
attained in many instances.

472 Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds.

The remaining trials in Class II, took place in the field of strong land.

Messrs. Howard’s plough having been broken during the trials in Class L.,
they were obliged to scarify the plot of clover layer assigned to them in this
Class, This they did pretty well, but the depth was by no means great, nor
was the land all moved, especially in the furrows.

Mr. Fowler ploughed a small part of his plot, and scarified the remainder in
the same manner as that done with the large engine, All the soil was moved
to a depth of 7 inches, and the surface was well divided.

The next performance of the implements in this Class was to cross the work
of the large cultivators in the heavy-land field. This was done very well by
both implements, but in neither case could they do much to the furrows,
unless the land had been well cut at the previous operation. However, the
cultivator of Messrs. Howard moved very rapidly over the ground in this
crossing, and well stirred an acre per hour.

Both Mr. Fowler and Messrs. Howard had a field allotted them to cultivate
in what manner they pleased. Mr. Fowler ploughed with his “ digger”
11a. 2x. 14p., at the depth of fully 7 inches, in just 12 hours, burning 18 ewt.
of coals. This work was executed in capital style, the whole field being
ploughed straight away without any interruption, except a small stoppage
occasioned by the ropes having to be shifted round a tree. Mr. Fowler ploughed
up the headland adjacent to the engine, but did not attempt the further one,
on account of the harm which the engine would have done in moving up the
field.

This field was in some parts a stiff clay, in some inclined to a peaty loam,
whilst in others the coal measures and shale cropped out. Considering the
variation of the soil, the depth of the ploughing may be called uniform, and
the soil well thrown over and left in capital order.

Messrs. Howard cultivated 10 acres in a little over 9 hours. The land
was well stirred, and all the grass and root weeds left on the surface. On the
upper part of the field the clay was stiff and intractable; here three tines were
used. On the lower portion it was almost all peat, and on this soil the culti-
vator had five tines. Messrs. Howard’s ropes were not long enouch for the
field, and so a portion of it had to be cultivated the shorter way, but all the
headlands were scarified.

No particulars have been recorded in our tables of the cost of setting down,
taking up, and shifting tackle, to plough headlands. During the trials, how-
ever, account was taken of the time thus occupied, but the work done was not
charged with it. The engines and implements being all in the fields in which
they were to work, and not removed after finishing the plots assigned to them
—being also in the hands of men of more than common experience, and fully
on the alert—the results obtained are no reliable guide as to the probable cost
per acre of these operations under ordinary circumstances. This must neces-
sarily depend on the distance to which removals have to be made, the size of
the tields to be cultivated, and the wet or dry state of the land to be travelled
over. When ploughing the 8-acre piece of clover-ley in Class I., Fowler spent
26 minutes in setting down, 26 minutes in shifting to plough first headland,
40 minutes for the last, and 25 minutes loading up again=1 hour 57 minutes.
The cost of this, for labour alone, on the 8 acres was about 4d. per acre.
Messrs. Howard on the corresponding piece were 2 hours 42 minutes setting
down, 24 minutes shifting for first headland, 17 minutes for the second, and
20 minutes loading up=8 hours 43 minutes, costing in labour 9d. per acre.
fn neither case is any charge made for time lost and fuel consumed in getting
up steam, the time lost by the engines, nor the assistance given by the use of
horses. In this class Mr. Fowler had an advantage over his opponent, but in
Class 1]., with the small tackle, there was no great difference. ‘The costs of
removal ave much the highest in Class 11., at least six horses being required to
move the engine and all the apparatus simultancously, The large engmes

use

Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds. 478

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‘SHOLVAILIAQ WVILS

474 Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds.

used in Class I. are, on the contrary, self-propelling: those of Mr. Fowler not
only carried more than half the rope on the drums placed under them, but
drew the ploughs and sometimes the rope-porters also behind them. ‘[hese
rope-porters, running on their own wheels, are much more easily conveyed
from field to field than those of Messrs. Howard, which must be taken on a
waggon or some other carriage. ‘lhe same remark applies to their respective
anchors ; those of Mr. Fowler travel on their own wheels, and carry with them,
if required, the remaining portion of the rope, the claw-anchor, and snatch-
block. In dry weather and for short distances these can be drawn by one
horse, the engine, which is steered by the ploughman, taking the other parts
of the apparatus. Messrs. Howard’s tackle in Class I. cannot, however, be
removed without the assistance of at least four horses, viz., one to guide
engine, one to draw plough or scarifier, one for windlass and ropes, and one for
rope-porters, anchors, snatch-blocks, &c.

The loss of power occasioned by the wire rope running upon the ground
instead of over rope-porters has been noticed in reference to the implements of
Messrs. Richardson and Darley. To prevent this, Mr. Fowler has made a very
simple but ingenious addition to his ploughs, by which the rope is either given
out or taken in as may be required. By means of this self-acting slack gear,
the rope is always tight upon the rope-porters, and thus one of the most expen-
sive items in steam cultivation—that of the wear and tear of the rope—is
very greatly reduced. To prevent the slack rope running too rapidly off their
drums, Messrs. Howard and others use friction-breaks, but these cannot be
used without loss of power, and in no case so effectively as to entirely prevent
the slack rope running on the ground.

It will be observed with respect to Mr. Fowler’s apparatus that we have
taken off 21 per cent. from the sum which has been charged under the head of
“‘ wear and tear.” Most of the steam cultivators have been simplified and
improved, but Mr. Fowler’s is especially to be commended in this respect.
In working his apparatus one-third less rope suffices than is requisite for that
of the Messrs. Howard; and, with proper attention to the rope-porters, Mr.
Fowler’s rope is carried almost entirely off the ground. ‘This, we need scarcely
add, is a most important source of economy, which none of his opponents
possess.

Cuass I1.—Cost of Kinay’s Apparatus.—Ploughing on Light Land—Clover-ley.

Manual labour per day, viz. :
2 anchormen, at 2s. 4d. ..
1 engineman
1 ploughmau
2 porter-boys, at Is. 3d. .

| 2eocts
NWO Pm
aoPRFOaR

|

0 13 10
Water-cart 0 4 0
Oil 0 1580
0 18 10
Interest at 5 per cent. per annum, and wear and tear
at 15 per cent. on 378/.=75l. 12s., divided antes 4 GB
200 working days, or per day a0
164

Coals consumed per day of 10 ey 5 ewts. 3 aro 0 510
12 lbs., at 20s. Brie Rte aC

Total cost perday .. -. .. ei 12 2

Land ploughed per day, 34. 3P.=3"06 acres.
Cost per acre, 10s. 5d.

Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds. 475

Crass II.—Cost of Fowxer’s Apparatus.—Grubbing Clover-ley—Light Land.

£
IPAMICUOMUANG we ce) ca’ Yael SE Bs Oe oe 0
TAMPA C AMIS SS ais. Ussin,, cin ce Sa ee cies wot’ O
1 engineman ae 0
1 ploughman ? 0
2 porter-boys, at ls. 3d. . 0

Manual labour.. ect BOLLS) 10
RAREEECATE Be 5.5.) 265 wn ape) ath) lof Perm ee eee: 10! AEN 0)
Oil ws OP E'S
0 18 10
Interest on cost—592/., at 5 per cent. per annum, and
wear and tear, at 124 per cent.=103/. Is., divided} 0 10 4
among 200 working days, or per day
Cost of manual labour, interest,
1 oe
and wear and tear Pian
Coals per day, 12 ewts. 1 qr. 11 Ibs, at2Cs. .. .. 012 4
Matal costiperiday -. eer lice << ead G6

Land worked per day of 10 hours, 64. 1n. 16P, = 6°35 acres.
Cost per acre, 6s. 6d.

Cuass I].—Fow .er.—Ploughing on Clover-ley—Light-land.
Hrs oth
Manual labour, wear and tear, &c. &c.,as before .. 1 9 2
Coals consumed per day of 10 hours, 11 ewts. 1 meet oll 5
18 Ibs., at 20s. = sc ne ;

eek ees Sin COM: at mba;

Land ploughed per day, 7A. 3n. 4p. = 7°78 acres,
Cost per acre, 5s. 2d.

Cuass Il.—Howarv.—Grubbing Clover-ley—Light Land.

Ss. ds
Manual labour as in Class I, sea cca So eee ee ee LORS
Water-cart se. SEAS WM cabBN SN bee ES POSH Se tec ele 64-10
CIEE Soar Mat Bota, OS) eae oe ee i ie
ie 2

Interest on cost—495l., at 5 per cent. per annum, and
wear and tear, at 15 per cent. per annum=99/.,5 0 9 10
divided among 200 working days, or per day

Coals per day, 12 cwts., at 20e. .. .. . . « O12 4

Total cost perday .. .. .. .. £2 3 4

Land worked per day, 8a. 24P,=8'15 acres,
Cost per acre, 5s. 3d.

Howarp.—Ploughing on Light Land.

2 Sree!

Manual labour, &c. &c., as before 50 aes at eed)
Coal consumed per day of 10 ae 12 ewts. 1 qr. rt 0 12
AMINS.5 26 208.5) | Poe . & 7

Total cost per Asch Beetvas ust og SEO cian

Land ploughed per day = 6A. 2r. 9p.
Cost per acre, 6s. 7d.

VOR, X<XIT, OD} TR

476 Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds.

Crass IT.—Cost of FowxEr’s Apparatus on Heavy Land.

PLOUGHING. ra,
Manual labour, wear and tear, interest, coal and et Lone
as before te a Melis se 4
Coals consumed per day of 10 hours, 10 ewts. 19 a 010-2
at 20s, So ePasi.s cies |b oe RMT DEM os he's me
Dotalicost persday wee eee eee ome
Land ploughed per day, 4A, 2n. 2p.
Cost per acre, 8s. 8d.
ScaRIFryING,
Manual labour, interest, &c. &e., asabove .. .. .. 1 9 2
Coals, consumed per day of s hours, 18 ewts. 3 ars 013 9
Totalcokt peniday, <0 ible emeeto omen

Land scarified per day, GA. Ir. 6P. Cost per acre, 6s. 9d.
.

Cuass I1.—Howarpv,— Cosi of Scarifying on Heavy Land.

Bec el
Manual labour, wear and tear, interest, coal and oil,
ane °C)
as before
Coals consumed per day of 10 hours, 14 ewts. 1 ra O14 3
6 lbs., at 20s, ce enon Foch dcr macs iabh ~ 32
Total-costjper day: ss Nac ueneocenOMeS

Land scarified per day, 7A, 1k, 19P, Cost per acre, 6s, 2d,

The following table explains the composition and cost of Fowler’s rope :~
MrMoRANDA RESPECTING WirE-Ropr.

Giioumference Nominal Mumiber Number, G an ge | Weight | Weight ites Price
2 : | Z 0 of ) per per e ae
of Rope. ion Heh OF Strands. | Wires. | Wires. |Fathom.! Yard. | P® Lb.| per Yard.
| lbs. Ibs | s. d, ied,
12 6 6 15 4 2 (0) 2" 10
10 6 6 16 3} 13625) | ORe8 La
8 4 6 16 24 a Ome (ee)

In conclusion we beg to remark that the land selected for the trials was in
every respect well suited for the purpose. It was so far varied in character as
fully to test the power of the engines, the strength of the tackle and imple-
ments, and the suitability of the latter for the various operations by which the
tillage of the soil is effected. That culture by steam power is destined to
supersede that by horse-power to an enormous extent can scarcely be doubted
by those who witnessed the trials. On very light soils cultivation may be
effected at, perhaps as low a price per acre by horse as by steam power; but we
think it an error to measure the advantages of the two systems by their direct
relative cost. It is the time and manner in which it is done that gives

value to the operation ; for instance, a ploughing or scarifying during the dry
autumnal months, may be of the gr catest possible benefit, whereas ‘the same
operation in the winter might be a positive injury. But as farmers can never
command a sufficient amount of horse power for the busy season, they must

Report on the Exhibition and Trials of Implements at Leeds. 477

then be dependent on the auxiliary power of steam, which is not only the sole
auxiliary power to be had, but will also be found the cheapest power, even on
light soils, if deep cultivation be adopted. On all well-drained land open
furrows will be obliterated. These not only cause a waste, but offer a serious
impediment to the well working of reaping and mowing machines. Many
other advantages will result from the use of steam cultivators, and we can only
regret that the great cost of these implements renders their purchase beyond
the means of the great body of the farmers, who, whenever they shall be
enabled to hire upon reasonable terms, will, we are quite sure, gladly avail
themselves of a power from which they may reasonably expect such great
advantages,

Wintram OWEN,

Owen WALLIS.

Cxuare SEWELL Reap,

AWARDS,

Cuass I.—Stand 83; Article 294; J, Fowner, Jun.

For 12-horse steam cultivating apparatus suitable for ploughing land of all
GOSHTTO ARS. FE ne ito ROE ea Sen MGA) eee wrarmny Som gece e510)

For ditto suitable for scarifying, grubbing, or breaking up land of all

t=)
GESCHIPUONS eto) seettent | geeieas-Ul” seein Bor Wencye ce)

Cuass II.—Stand 33; Article 296; J. Fownrr, Jun.
For steam cultivating apparatus, with 8-horse steam-engine worked at
10-horse power, suitable for ploughing land of all descriptions .. .. £50

For ditto ditto suitable for scarifying, grubbing, or breaking up land of all
descriptions LLL SM Ase RCae ey esc Vac! «rasan Mee: cee

Stand 92; Article 1048; J. and F. Howanp.

For windlass, which may be attached to any ordinary portable steam-engine,
and used for working steam ploughs or cultivators; and also for a set of
ploughs and a cultivator which may be used on mixed and light soils
vane evel SUMACG, WME. ser ss) se) eee NP eee. au! vee etm oh, elo

Stand 68; Article 888; Epwarp Hayns,
For patent self-acting windlass, which may be attached to any ordinary
portable steam-engine, and used for steam cultivation .. Silver Medal.
Stand 50; Article 689; Roby and Co.

For 12-horse power portable double cylinder steam-engine, with Chandler and
Oliver’s patent drum ploughing windlass, suitable for steam cultivation
Silver Medal.

END OF VOL, XXII,

LONDON: PRINTED BY WILIIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,
AND CHARING CROSS,

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Ropal Aqricultural Society of England.
1861—1862.

PrestVent.
H.R.H. THE PRINCE CONSORT, K.G.

Trustees.

Actanp, Sir Tuomas Dyxr, Bart., Killerton Park, Exeter, Devonshire.
Berners, Lord, Keythorpe Hall, Leicester.

Bramston, THomas Witit1Am, M.P., Skreens, Chelmsford, Essex.
CHALLONER, Colonel, Portnall Park, Staines, Middlesex.

Frversuam, Lord, Helmsley, York.

Grauam, Rt. Hon. Sir Jas., Bart., M.P., Netherby, Carlisle, Cumberland.
Mar.eorovuen, Duke of, Blenheim Park, Oxford.

Porrman, Lord, Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset.

RurLand, Duke of, Belvoir Castle, Grantham, Lincolnshire.

SHELLEY, Sir Jonn Vittrers, Bart, M.P., Maresfield Park, Sussex.
Speaker, The Rt. Hon. the, Ossington, Newark-on-Trent, Notts.
Tuomeson, Harry SrerHen, M.P., Kirby Hall, York.

PVice-PrestVents.

Asnpurton, Lord, The Grange, Alresford, Hampshire.

Barker, THomas Raymonp, Hambledon, Henley-on-Thames, Oxfordshire.
Cuicuester, Earl of, Stanmer Park, Lewes, Sussex.

Downsuire, Marquis of, Hast Hampstead Park, Bracknell, Berkshire.
Eemont, Earl of, Cowdray* Park, Petworth, Sussex.

Everstey, Viscount, Heckfield Place, Hartford Bridge, Hants.

Exeter, Marquis of, Burleigh House, Stamford, Lincolnshire.

Hux, Viscount, Hawkstone Park, Salop.

JoHNSTONE, Sir Joun V. B., Bart., M.P., Hackness Hall, Scarborough, Yorkshire.
Mires, Sir Witty, Bart., M.P., Leigh Court, Bristol, Somersetshire.
Watsincuam, Lord, Merton Hall, Thetford, Norfolk.

Yarzorovuen, Earl of, Manby Hall, Glanford Bridge, Lincolnshire.

Other Members of Council.

AciaNp, THomas DyxKe, Sprydoncote, Exeter, Devonshire.

Amos, CHARLES Epwarps, Greenfield House, Sutton, Surrey.

Barnett, Cuares, Stratton Park, Biggleswade, Bedfordshire.

Barturorp, NATHANIEL GEORGE, Cretingham Rookery, Wickham Market, Suffolk.
BraNDRETH, Humpurey, Houghton House, Dunstable, Bedfordshire.

Bower, James Wentworth, M.P., Downes, Crediton, Devonshire.

CANTRELL, Cuaruss §., Riding Court Farm, Datchet, Bucks,

Catucart, Earl, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

Cavenvisy, Hon. Wimi1am Grorer, M.P., Latimer, Chesham, Bucks.

Dent, J. D., M.P., Ribston Hall, Wetherby, Yorkshire.

VOL. XXII. b

li List of Officers.

Droce, Josnen, Hynsham, Oxford.

Exatt, Wmu1Am, Reading, Berkshire.

Grips, B. T, Branpretu, Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, London, W.
Hamonp, Antuony, Westacre Hall, Brandon, Norfolk.

Hosrs, Witi1AM Fisner, Boated Lodge, Colchester, Essex.

Hoop, Colonel the Hon. A, Netson, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, Berkshire.
Hoskyns, Cuanpos WREN, Harewood, Ross, Herefordshire.

Hoiianp, Epwarp, M.P., Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, Worcestershire.
Hupson, Joun, Castleacre Lodge, Brandon, Norfolk.

Houmperston, Pumir Stapyiron, M.P., Mollington, Chester, Cheshire.
Hurron, Wituiam, Gate Burton, Gainsboro’, Yorkshire,

Jonas, Samuet, Chrishall Grange, Saffron Walden, Essex.

iXeRRISON, Sir Epwarp CLARENCE, Bart., M.P., Brome Hall, Scole, Norfolk.
Lawes, Joun Bennet, Rothamsted, St. Albans, Herts.

LAWRENCE, Cuarues, Cirencester, Gloucestershire.

Leicu, Lord, Stoneleigh Abbey, Warwickshire.

Minwarp, Ricuarp, Thurgarton Priory, Southwell, Notts,

Pain, Tuomas, Laverstock Hall, Salisbury, Wilts,

Porr, Epwarp, Great Toller, Maiden Newton, Dorset.

Powis, Earl of, Powis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.

RANDELL, Cuares, Chadbury, Evesham, Worcestershire,

Riapen, W., Hove, Brighton, Sussex.

Sanpay, WiLu1amM, Holmepierrepont, Notts.

SHuTTLeWworTH, JosErH, Melville Street, Lincoln.

Staney, Roperr Aguionsy, M.P., Walford Manor, Shrewsbury, Shropshire.
Smiru, Roserr, Lmmett’s Grange, Southmolton, Devon.

Sranuopr, James Banks, M.P., Revesby Abbey, Boston, Lincolnshire.

Torr, WitiiAm, Aylesby, Great Grimsby, Lincolnshire.

TowNeELEY, Lieut.-Colonel Cuarnes, Towneley Park, Blackburn, Lancashire.
TrREDEGAR, Lord, Tredegar, Newport, Monmouthshire,

Turner, GeorGE, Barton, Exeter, Devonshire.

VeERNOoN, Hon, Aveustus H., Oryreave Hall, Lichfield, Staffordshire,
WALLIS, OWEN, Overstone Grange, Northampton,

Wess, Jonas, Babraham, Cambridge.

Wetts, Witi1AM, Redleaf, Penshurst, Kent.

Western, Tuomas Burcu, Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex.

Wuson, Henry, Stowlangtoft Hall, Bury-St.-Edmunds, Suffolk.

Wuson, Professor, Iver, Uxbridge, Bucks.

Wynn, Sir Watkin WitiiAms, Bart, M.P., Rhuabon, Denbighshire.

Secretary.
H. HALL DARE, 12, Hanover Square, London, W.

Consulting-Chemist—Dr. Aucustus VortcKer, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.
Veterinary-Inspector—JAMES BEART Simonps, Royal Veterinary College, N.W.
Consulting Engineer—JamEs Easton, or C, E. Amos, Grove, Southwark, $.E.
Seedsmen—Tuomas Grpps and Co., Corner of Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, W.
Publisher—Joun Murray, 50, Albemarle Street, W.

Bankers—Messrs. DRUMMOND, Charing Cross, S.W.

MEMORANDA.

Appress or Lerrers.—The Society’s office being situated in the postal district
designated by the letter WW, members, in their correspondence with the
Secretary, are requested to subjoin that letter to the usual address,

GENERAL Meetine in London, in December, 1861.
Generat Mrerine in London, May 22, 1862, at Twelve o'clock.
MEETING in Battersea Park, London, in 1862.

Monruty Councrt (for transaction of business), at 12 o’clock on the first Wed-
nesday in every month, excepting January, September, and October: open
only to Members of Council and Governors of the Society.

Weexk.y Counc (for practical communications), at 12 o’clock on all Wednesdays
in February, March, April, May, June,and July, excepting the first Wednesday
in each of those months, and during adjournment: open to all Members of the
Society, who are particularly invited by the Council to avail themselves of
this privilege.

ADJOURNMENTS.—The Council adjourn over Easter, Passion, and Whitsun weeks,
when those weeks do not include the first Wednesday of the month ; from the
first Wednesday in August to the first Wednesday in November; and from the
first Wednesday in December to the first Wednesday in February.

Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs.—Members have the privilege of applying to
the Veterinary Committee of the Society ; and of sending animals to the Royal
Veterinary College, on the same terms as if they were subscribers to the
College.—(A statement of these privileges will be found in the present
Appendix.)

CurmrcaL AnAtysts.—The privileges of Chemical Analysis enjoyed by Members.
of the Society will be found stated in the Appendix of the present volume.

Locat CuEeques.—Members are particularly requested not to forward Country
Cheques for payment in London; but London Cheques, or Post-oflice
Orders on Vere-street (payable to H. Hatt Dare), in lieu of them. All
Cheques are required to bear upon them a penny draft or receipt stamp,
which must be cancelled in each ease by the initials of the drawer. They
may also conveniently transmit their Subscriptions to the Society, by re-
questing their Country Bankers to pay (through their London Agents) the
amount at the Society's Office (No. 12, Hanover Square, London), between
the hours of ten and four, when official receipts, signed by the Secretary,
will be given for such payments.

New Mempers.—ivery candidate for admission into the Society must be pro-
posed by a Member; the proposer to specify in writing the full name, usual
place of residence, and post-town, of the candidate, either at a Council meet-
ing, or by letter addressed to the Secretary.

Packets By Post.—Packets not exceeding two feet in length, width, or depth,
consisting of written or printed matter (but not containing letters sealed or
open), if sent without envelopes, or enclosed in envelopes open at each end,
may be forwarded by the inland post, if stamped, at the following rates :—

Yor a packet not exceeding 4 ounces (or quarter of apound) . . . 1 penny.
= - = 8, (or half a pound) as 5 ve = pence,
a , i 1G ye “(Or one pond yer vers cota 143 55
zs 5 = 24 +, (orone poundandahalf) . . 6 ,,
He s Pe 34 = ,~ (orttwopommdsyy!.. 2. ah a SR,
[And so on in the proportion of 8 ounces for each additional 2d.]

*,* Members may obtain on application tothe Secretary copies of an Abstract of the Charter
and Bye-Laws, of a Statement of the General Objects, &e., of the Society, of Chemical
and Veterinary Privileges, and of other printed papers connected with special depart-
ments of the Society’s business.

b2

(yy

Kopal Agricultural Soctety of Englany.

GENERAL MEETING,
12, Hanover Square, WerpNespay, May 22, 1861.

—_—

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Tue Council have to report to the Members at their ‘present
General Meeting that during the past half-year 87 Members
have been elected into the Society, 6 Governors and 67
Members have died, and the names of 236 Members have been
on various accounts omitted from the list of the Society, which
accordingly now comprises—
84 Life Governors,
90 Governors,
3,328 Members,
1,113 Life Members, and
18 Honorary Members,

making a total of 4,633 names on the list.

The Council have elected Lord Feversham to supply the
vacancy in the class of Trustees, and Lord Walsingham in that
of the Vice-Presidents, caused by the decease of His Grace
the Duke of Sutherland, and the resignation of the Earl of
Hardwicke.

Mr. William Sanday, of Holmepierrepont, has been elected
a Member of the Council in the room of Lord Walsingham, and
the Earl Cathcart in the room of Lord Feversham.

The statement of accounts for the half-year ending 31st
December, 1860, has been examined and approved by the
Society’s auditors, and by Messrs. Quilter, Ball, and Co.

The funded capital has been lately raised to the amount of

Report to the General Meeting. ° v

14,2197. 2s, 9d. Stock in the New Three per Cents. by a further
investment of 20002.

The Finance Committee have been enabled to effect this by
the large collection of arrears of subscription, which they have
received authority from the Council to require all defaulters to
pay. Repeated applications having been made for the arrears
still outstanding, it has been decided to take proceedings in
the County Courts against those who continue indebted to the
Society.

It has been resolved that on the proposal of any person as a
Member, a form shall be sent by the Secretary to the candidate
for his signature, containing an acknowledgment of his future
liability, which letter he must return before his election can be
proceeded with.

A letter will also be sent to each Member in the course of the
year, reminding him of his subscription being due.

The bye-laws and resolutions of Council having been collected
and revised, a reprint of them has been made, and a copy will
be forwarded to any Member on application to the Secretary.

The question of the free admission of Governors and Members
to the Show-Yard during the Society’s Country Meetings’, has
been under the consideration of the Council.

Governors and Members who have paid their subscription
for the current year, will be admitted free by tickets issued by
the Secretary, which tickets will not be transferable; and any
Governor or Member who shall be found to transfer or lend his
ticket will be reported to the Council, and will in future forfeit
the privileges of membership. Application for the Member’s
ticket is to be made in London, either by post or personally, not
later than Friday, the 12th of July, and afterwards at the{Secre-
tary’s office, near the entrance to the Show-Yard.

During the last month Professor Simonds has delivered a
lecture on the nature and cause of the disease known as the Rot
of Sheep; and Professor Voelcker, on the Manufacture of
Cheese.

It has been determined to print Professor Simonds’ lecture as
a separate pamphlet.

The interest attaching to the Country Meeting will be this
year largely increased by the competitive trials of steam-culti-

vi Report to the General Meeting.

vators. The result of these trials will be made known at the
Leeds Meeting.

The Society having offered this year a prize of 100/. for the
best thoroughbred stallion, having served mares during the season
1861, which, in the opinion of the Judges, is best calculated to
improve and perpetuate the breed of the sound and stout thorough-
bred horse for general stud purposes, and an unusually large
amount for horses in other classes, they contemplate that great
interest will be evinced at this Meeting by the breeders of horses
and the public generally throughout the kingdom.

The entries of implements and machinery in motion, to be
exhibited at Leeds, closed on the Ist of May, and the Council
have the satisfaction of stating that the applications for space in
this department of the Show-Yard exceed those of any previous
Meeting of the Society.

The entries for live stock and flax, which will close on the
Ist of June, already give indications that this portion of the
exhibition will be equally satisfactory.

The arrangements for the Leeds Meeting, to be held in the
week commencing Monday 15th of July, are advancing rapidly.
The Show-Yard will be open as under :—

Monday, for implements, and for stock (after the judges have % d.

made their award) o» és 5 0
Tuesday .. a ac 50 ae ot 20 Bart (5)
Wednesday 4c 40 a as on a Se thy AS
Thursday re ar ae “4 bt = 1 0
Friday Pree 8)

The successful competitors for the prizes offered by the Society
have been, in Class [X., for 1859, Professor Tanner, of Queen’s
College, Birmingham, who gained the prize of 10/. for his Essay
on the Breeding of Farm Stock; and in Class VIIL., for 1860,
Messrs. Raynbird, of Hackwood Park, Basingstoke, the prize of
10/. for their Paper on Adulteration of Seeds.

In Classes VIII, for 1859, and VI. and IX., for 1860, the
Essays were not considered worthy of the prizes, and the Council
cannot forbear from expressing their regret that there was not
greater competition.

Her Majesty has been wnacheaals pleased to grant a site of
twenty-six acres in the Regent’s Park for the purpose of holding

Report to the General Meeting. vii

an Exhibition of Stock and Implements in 1862. The Council
have made the necessary arrangements with the Office of Works,
and trust that the number of distinguished agriculturists, British
and foreign, who will visit the International Exhibition will, by
their presence in the Show-Yard, have an opportunity of wit-
nessing the magnitude and success of our department of National
Industry.

It has been resolved by the Council to maintain the original
scheme of districts for the ay Meetings of the renin
viz.

F

. Comprising the Counties of Cumberland, Durham, Northumberland, and

Westmoreland.

. Lancashire and Yorkshire.

. Cheshire, Shropshire, and Staffordshire.

. Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, and Rutlandshire.

. South Wales and Herefordshire, Monmouthshire, and Worcestershire.

Bedfordshire, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Gloucestershire, Northampton-
shire, Oxfordshire, Warwickshire, and Wiltshire.

. Cambridgeshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Huntingdonshire, Norfolk, and

Suffolk.

. Cornwall, Devonshire, Dorsetshire, and Somersetshire.

Hampshire, Kent, Surrey, Sussex.

. The Metropolis and its Postal District.

AS 2 HeyoOw Pp

By Order of the Council,
H. Hart Danrg, Secretary.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL

Dr. HALF-YEARLY CasH ACCOUNT,
To Balance in hand, 1st ie 1860 :— £. Sita fe $8 0.
bankers: fees btse: Pics: fe ob teSateete car slit (647), G6 ao
Necretaryocs fos (se oe Pseu poe Sean) Owl OME
— 3,660 1 10
To Income, viz. :—
DividendionStock 2.) <i.) en) e-em =e 172 10" 0
Subscriptions :—- fs 4
Governors’ Life-Composition .. 50 0 0
Governors Annual .. .. .. 35) 0970
Members’ Life-Compositions .. 139 0 0
Members’ Annual See Pace WBA ek @
2,336 1 0
Journal :—
Sales Bo ign Ga oo) oo, co Sb AN
Advertisements .. ... .. «. 4713 3
189 4 5
Country Meeting : —
Canterburyiic: 6 cs s¢ se) ce. co ee ie oO munlamne
ee SEO peel
£9,724 19 O
(Signed) A. N. HOOD, Chairman of Finance Committee.
T. W. BRAMSTON.
WILLIAM FISHER HOBBS.
QUILTER, BALL, JAY, & Co., Accountants.
BALANCE-SHEET,
LIABILITIES. |
To Capital :— £2.) iscaeas £. s di
Surplus, 30th June, 1860 “ences ~o + oe |) L6,660R1Sieg
Less Surplus of Expenditure over Income during
the Half-year, viz :— £. s. d.
Expenditure .. .. <=. .. 4,314 10 10
Income’ @.; He cet Meek Heer tos OO lomo
Ie a
To Canterbury Meeting :— — 15,043 18 2
Account outstanding) jc." lo.) ies) o-oo 5h. G0 32 11 0

£15,076 9 2

SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

From Ist Juty To 3lst December, 1860. Cr.

By Expenditure :— G, os1tid: So) sums Cel eartd.
Official Salaries and Wages (3 quarters) 491 9 0

Establishment — House Expenses, a 336 15 38
Rent, Taxes, Insurance ws | 898 4 3
OSTEPEIENE@ATMBPS) sal ce i'ee los fase ae 26 12 8
Journal :—
Printing ae wag A TILy Vz ret
Editor’s Salary (3 quarters) <3. ofo 0) 0
Prize Essays Seales ane 0 OO
Other Goreibutors Sar we (CA emt)
Delivery and Advertising .. .. 12315 5
VY, k62 L505
Consulting Chemist’s Salary... .. .. «. «. 150 0 O
Advertisements : SL aetG
Testimonial to B. T. Brandreth | Gibbs, Esq, | 25 4 0
Balance Sth os sail
Sundries’... /:. i paar toe eee Ny Po gt
Subscriptions refed thn Se cro tes 31050

2,209 11 2
By Country Meetings :—
Paid on account—

Canterbury rae pee com Go. ec | ene ay ey!
Leeds .. .. Sauk SOU yee a0 me Com eho Le Opa
aa. —| 4,216 15 4
Prizes at S aa
Stock .. Spo 80, po 6o! 60 oc 1,627 0 0
HEAPIEMENtS Pal Sy Mecy eae se” Uned ekcee be 293) 0) 10
a ae OO wa
By Purchase of Dynamometer .. .. .. .. .. ds ao 100 0 0
By Balance in hand :—
IBETR ORS a S ae 15286719) 2
PCCLCMALYMTOR! foicily roi ewe naisy vice) hissy we oe 4113 4
—_——_——__———; 1,278 12 6

£9,724 19 0

Examined, audited, and found correct, this 17th day of May, 1861.
(Signed) WILLIAM ASTBURY.
HENRY CORBET.
WILLIAM COHEN.

31st DECEMBER, 1860.

=
ASSETS.
Gans) wes £. v4 sand!
By Cash in hand .. Bo cow ree Smears 1278) L206
By New 3 per cent. Stock 12, ;0001., Cagb cual a AG ace Mi, 496) LAs
By Books ha ape Society’ Ss Hoe: Hanover} - 2,000 0 0
By irgade Mecting BEE Pho 2 do! You pedom “er So) | 0c ey al

Mem.—The above Assets are exclusive of the
amount recoverable in respect of Subscriptions
in arrear 31st December, 1860, which at that —_——_—__——_-
date amounted to 1,261/. £15,076 9 2

SHOW AT LEEDS: JULY, 1861.

STEWARDS OF THE YARD.
Stewards of Cattle. | Stewards of Implements.

Mr. FisHer Hopsss.
Mr. Par.
Hon. W. G. CAVENDISH.

Mr. H. B. Catpwett.
Hon. A. Vernon.
Lorp Lricu.

Steward of Flax, Wool, Cheese, and Butter.
Henry Lupotr.

Honorary Director of the Show.
B. T. BranpRETH Gipps.

JUDGES.

Short-horns.
Joun THompson,
A, L. Maynarp,
Wuu1Am Lapps.

Herefords.
T. Duckuam,
ii. L. FRANKLIN,
S. Broxsipae.
Devons, Sussex, other Breeds, and
Dairy Cows.
JOHN COLEMAN,
Rosert SMITH,
Henry TRETHEWY.
Thorough-bred Stud Horses.
Hon. Cotonen Corton,
JAMES WEATHERBY,
CarraIn WHITE,
Lorp TREDEGAR.

Light Horses.
C. Narnsy,
H. THurNatt,
R. 8. Waters.

Agricultural and Dray Horses.

JOHN ATKINSON,

J. H. Woop,

W. C. Spooner.
Leicesters.

N. C. Stone,

Luxe Borman,

T. TwItcHELL,
Southdowns,

Prter PURVES,

H. OVERMAN,

H. Fooxes.
Shropshires.

C. RANDELL,

G. CURETON,

E. Gouau.

Veterinary-Inspectors.
PROFESSOR SIMONDS,
PROFESSOR SPOONER.

|
|
|
|
|
|

JosEPH Drucr,

Long-wools,.
Huan Ayimer,
W. BarrHoLomew,
Henry Barrman,
Short-wools.
J. RAWLENCE, J. 8. Homer,
Epwarp Lirtie.
Pigs.

J.S. Turner, E., P. Squarry,
WILLIAM CATTLE,
Implements,

Steam Cultivators.

WILLIAM OWEN,
OweEN Watts, C.E.,
CLARE SEWwELL Reap.
Drills, Manure Distributors, and
Forse Hoes.

JouN THOMPSON,
Tuomas HuskINson.

Mowing, Reaping, and Haymaking

Machines, and Horse Rakes.
JouN Hicken, G. M. Hipwett,
Wm. TINDALL,
Carts, Waggons, and Miscellaneous
Articles,
JOHN HANNAM,
GEORGE KENRICK.
Cheese and Butter,
Henry ELLs,
Rosert Cookson.
Wool.
THomMAS CLAYTON,
JAmzEsS THOMPSON.
Flax.
RicHarp Townsley,
Proressor JoHN WILSON.

Consulting-Engineer,

CHaRrLes Epwarps Amos,
(Firm of aston and Amos).

Award of Live-Stoch Prizes at Leeds. xi

AWARD OF PRIZES.

CATTLE: Short-Horns.

CLASS I.

Lorp FrversHam, of Duncombe Park, Helmsley, Yorkshire: the Prize of
Tuirry Soverriens, for his 4 years 8 months and 5 days-old Bull; bred
by exhibitor.

James Havuenton Lanesron, M.P., of Sarsden House, Chipping-Norton,
Oxfordshire: the Prize of FirrrEn Soveretans, for his 3 years 2 months
3 weeks and 1 day-old Bull; bred by H. Ambler, of Watkinson Hall,
Halifax.

James Drioxtnson, of Balcony Farm-house, Upholland, Wigan, Lancashire :
the Prize of Five. Sovrretens, for his 2 years 6 months and 3 weeks-old
Bull; bred by exhibitor.

Hieuity CoMMENDED.

James Banks Srannorer, M.P., of Revesby Abbey, Boston, Lincolnshire: for his
2 years 4 months and 3 days-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

Jonas Wess, of Babraham, near Cambridge: for his 5 years and 2 months-old
Bull; bred by exhibitor.

James Haveuton Laneston, M.P.: for his 2 years 7 months 3 weeks and 1
day-old Bull; bred by Mr. Housman, of Lime Bank, Lancaster.

Wirii1am Hatt, of Butterwick, Ganton, Yorkshire: for his 2 years 10 months 3
weeks and 5 days-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.

Sre C. R. Tempsst, Bart, of Broughton Hall, Skipton, Yorkshire: for his 2 years
5 months and 1 day-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

Lorp Kinnatrp, K.T., of Rossie Priory, Inchture, Perthshire: for his 3 years 5
months and 6 days-old Bull ; bred by exhibitor.

JONATHAN PEEL, of Knowlmere Manor, Clitheroe, Yorkshire: for his 2 years 4
months 1 week and 1 day-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

Joun Lynn, of Church Farm, Stroxton, Grantham, Lincolnshire: for his 3 years
11 months and 2 weeks-old Bull; bred by the late Robert Lynn, of Church
Farm, Stroxton, Grantham, Lincolnshire.

Henry AmBier, of Watkinson Hall, Halifax, Yorkshire: for his 2 years 6 months

* and 4 weeks-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

Epwarp Hoiianp, M.P., of Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, Worcestershire: for his
2 years 6 months 2 weeks and 1 day-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS IL.

Joun Taytor, of Moreton Hall, Whalley, Lancashire: the Prize of Twrnty-
FIVE SovEREIGNs, for his 1 year 4 months 2 weeks and 3 days-old Bull;
bred by exhibitor.

Jonas Wess: the Prize of Firrren Sovrrsntens, for his 1 year 9 months
3 weeks and 3 days-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

Sir Water CatverLey TREVELYAN, Bart., of Wallington, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, Northumberland: the Prize of Frvz Sovererens, for his 1 year 5
months 2 weeks and 3 days-old Bull; bred by Henry Ambler, of
Watkinson Hall, near Halifax, Yorkshire.

xii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds.

Higuty CoMMENDED.

Str Cuartes R. Tempest, Bart.: for his 1 year 6 months and 19 days-old Bull;
bred by exhibitor.

Wixx1am Wraicut, of Sigglesthorne Hall, near Hull: for his 1 year 8 months 1
week and 5 days-old Bull; bred by William Carr, of Stackhouse, Settle,
Yorkshire.

JONATHAN PEEL: for his 1 year and 3 days-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

THomas Barnes, of Westland Moynalty, co. Meath, Ireland: for his 1 year 4
months 1 week and 1 day-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

Francis HawxkswortH Fawkes, of Farnley Hall, Otley, Yorkshire: for his
1 year 3 months 2 weeks and 1 day-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

Tue Duke oF Montross, of Buchanan, Glasgow: for his 1 year 11 months and 1
week-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS II.

CuartEs Howarp, of Biddenham, Bedford: the Prize of Ten SovmREtans,
for his 9 months 1 week and 4 days-old Bull-calf; bred by exhibitor.
Henry Ameer: the Prize of Frvr Soverriens, for his 8 months and 2 days-

old Bull-calf; bred by William Carr, of Stackhouse, Settle, Yorkshire.

Higuiy CoMMENDED.

Witri1Am Carr, of Stackhouse, Settle, Yorkshire: for his 10 months 1 week and
6 days-old Bull-calf ; bred by exhibitor.

Epwarp Bow ty, of Siddington House, Cirencester, Gloucester : for his 7 months
2 weeks and 1 day-old Bull-calf; bred by exhibitor. :

CoMMENDED.
JoNATHAN PEEL: for his 9 months 2 weeks and 1 day-old Bull-calf; bred by
exhibitor.
Sir ANTHONY DE RoruscuHILD, Bart., of Aston Clinton, Tring, Bucks: for his 10
months 1 week and 5 days-old Bull-calf; bred by exhibitor.
Lorp FreversHam: for his 10 months 2 weeks and | day-old Bull-calf; bred by
exhibitor.

CLASS IV.

Caprain Gunter, of The Grange, Wetherby, Yorkshire: the Prize of Twenty
Soverrtens, for his 3 years 7 months and 6 days-old Cow, In-calf; bred
by exhibitor.

Ricuarp Booru, of Warlaby, Northallerton, Yorkshire: the Prize of Ten
SovErEIens, for his 5 years 8 months 3 weeks and 3 days-old Cow, In-
milk and In-calf; bred by exhibitor.

Lapy Picor, of Branches Park, Newmarket, Suffolk: the Prize of Five
Soverrrens, for her 4 years 6 months 3 weeks and 5 days-old Cow, In-
calf; bred by Mr. Jonas Webb, of Babraham, Cambridge.

HicHuy CoMMENDED.
Henry AmBier: for his 8 years 1 month 1 week and 5 days-old Cow, In-calf;
bred by exhibitor.
Ricwarp Booru: for his 8 years 9 months 2 weeks and 1 day-old Cow, In-milk
and In-ealf; bred by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.

Henry Amster: for his 3 years 10 months 3 weeks and 5 days-old Cow, In-milk
and In-calf; bred by exhibitor.

Tue Hon. Cotonen Dovetas Pennant, M.P., of Penrhyn Castle, Bangor,
Carnarvon : for his 3 years 3 months and 1 day-old Cow, In-milk and In-calf ;
bred by Mr. Bell, of Bickerstaffe.

Lapy Picor: for his 3 years 9 months 3 weeks and 5 days-old Cow, In-milk and
In-calf; bred by Mr. Jolly, of Warlaby, Northallerton, Yorkshire.

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds. xii

CLASS V.

Carratn Gunter: the Prize of Firremn Sovererans, for his 2 years 11
months 1 week and 4 days-old Heifer, In-milk and In-calf: bred by
exhibitor.

Ricard Boorn: the Prize of Trn Soverriens, for his 2 years 5 months and
3 weeks-old Heifer, In-calf; bred by exhibitor.

Josrrn Rosinson, of Clifton Pastures, Newport Pagnell, Buckingham: the
Prize of Five Sovrrerens, for his 2 years 1 month and 3 weeks-old
Heifer, In-calf ; bred by exhibitor.

Hicguiy COMMENDED.

Carrain Gunter: for his 2 years 11 months 1 week and 5 days-old Heifer, In-
milk and In-calf; bred by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.

Srr Cartes R. Tempest, Bart.: for his 2 years 10 months and 5 days-old Heifer,
In-milk and In-ealf; bred by exhibitor.

Hon, and Rey. Taomas Henry Noe Hrx1, of Berrington, Shrewsbury, Salop :
for his 2 years 7 months and 3 weeks-old Heifer, In-calf; bred by exhibitor,

Jerrrey Buimer, of Darlington and Aislaby Grange Farm, Darlington, Durham:
for his 2 years 3 months and 3 days-old Heifer, In-calf; bred by exhibitor.

Ricwarp Stratron, of Stapleton, Bristol: for his 2 years 1 month and 6 days-old
Heifer, In-calf ; bred by exhibitor.

RicHarp Srrarron: for his 2 years | month 2 weeks and 1 day-old Heifer, In-
calf ; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS VI.

Capratn Gunter: the Prize of Firrern Sovererens, for his 1 year 5 months
6 days-old Yearling Heifer ; bred by exhibitor.

THE Hon. Grorce Epwin Lascuuurs, of Moor Hill, Harewood, Leeds: the
Prize of Ten Sovrererrens, for his 1 year 8 months and 2 weeks-old
Yearling Heifer; bred by exhibitor.

JONATHAN PrEL: the Prize of Five Sovereriens, for his 1 year 1 month 8
weeks and 5 days-old Yearling Heifer ; bred by exhibitor.

HigHity COMMENDED.

JoNATHAN PEEL: for his 1 year 9 months and | day-old Yearling Heifer; bred
by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.

Stewart Margoripanks, of Bushey Grove, Watford, Herts: for his 1 year 9
months 2 weeks and 4 days-old Yearling Heifer ; bred by exhibitor.

Captain Gunter: for his 1 year 7 months 3 weeks and 3 days-old Yearling
Heifer; bred by exhibitor.

Francis Wytues: of Ravensden House, Bedford: for his 1 year 1 month 1 week
and 3 days-old Yearling Heifer; bred by exhibitor.

Epwarp Hotuanp, M.P., of Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, Worcestershire: for his
1 year 3 weeks and 4 days-old Yearling Heifer; bred by exhibitor.

Lavy Picor: for his 1 year 10 months 3 weeks and 7 days-old Yearling Heifer;
bred by Mr. Ellison, of Lough Glynie, French Park, Ireland.

Epmunp Ruck, of Castle Hill, Cricklade, Wilts: for his 1 year 4 months 1 week
1 day-old Yearling Heifer; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS VII.

Stewart Marsoripanks: the Prize of Tren Soverertans, for his 11 months 4
weeks and 1 day-old Heifer Calf; bred by exhibitor.

Tuomas ATHERTON, of Chapel House, Speke, Garston, Liverpool : the Prize of
Five Soveretans, for his 10 months 2 weeks and 1 day-old Heifer Calf ;
bred by exhibitor.

xiv _ Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds.

Hicuiy ComMENnpDeED.

Witxiam Carr: for his 11 months-old Heifer Calf; bred by exhibitor.

Rozert Tennant, of Scarcroft Lodge, Leeds: for his 11 months and 4 days-old
Heifer Calf; bred by exhibitor.

Tue Hon. anp Rey. Tuomas Henry Nort Hin1, of Berrington, Shrewsbury,
Salop: for his 10 months 3 weeks and 3 days-old Heifer Calf; bred by
exhibitor.

JosnpH Roprnson, of Clifton Pastures, Newport Pagnell: for his 8 months and 4
days-old Heifer Calf; bred by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.

SrewarT Margorrpanks: for his 11 months 3 weeks and 5 days-old Heifer
Calf; bred by exhibitor.

JoNATHAN PEEL: for his 10 months and 2 weeks-old Heifer Calf; bred by
exhibitor.

Cuartes Howarp: for his 10 months 2 weeks and 1 day-old Heifer Calf; bred
by exhibitor.

Cattle: Herefords.

CLASS I.

Tuomas REA, of Westonbury, Pembridge, Hereford: the Prize of Tuirry
Sovreretans, for his 2 years 8 months-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.
Tuomas REA: the Prize of Firrnen Sovernians, for his 3 years 8 months
and 2 weeks-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

Grorcr Bray, of Haven Dilwyn, Leominster, Hereford: the Prize of Frvz
Soverrians, for his 5 years and nearly 4 months-old Bull; bred by
exhibitor.

Higunty CoMMENDED.

Witi1am Perry, of St. Oswald, Cholstrey, Leominster, Hereford; for his 2 years
9 months and 1 day-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.
Wit11am Cooxe Morais, of Whitwick, Ledbury, Hereford : for his 4 years 10
months 1 week and 6 days-old Bull; bred by Mr. Williams, of Kingsland,
Leominster, Hereford.

CLASS II.

21cHARD Hinz, of Golding Hall, Shrewsbury, Salop: the Prize of Twenry-
Five Soveretans, for his 1 year 10 months and 1 week-old Bull; bred
by exhibitor.

Epmunp Wricut, of Halston Hall, Oswestry, Shropshire: the Prize of
Firrren Soveretens, for his 1 year 11 months and 4 days-old Bull;
bred by exhibitor.

WiitaM Perry, of St. Oswald, Cholstrey, Leominster, Hereford : the Prize
of Five Soveretans, for his 1 year 11 months and 4 days-old Bull; bred
by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.

Joun Naytor, of Leighton Hall, Welshpool, Montgomery: for his 1 year 11
months and 4 days-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS III.

Ricwarp Hin: the Prize of Tex Soverziens, for his 10 months and 3 weeks-
old Bull Calf; bred by exhibitor.

Joun WittraMs, of St. Mary’s Kingsland, Leominster, Hereford : the Prize of
Five Soverrans, for his 10 months 2 weeks and 5 days-old Bull Calf;
bred by exhibitor.

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds. XV

CoMMENDED.

His Royat Hieuness THE Prince Consort: for his 10 months 2 weeks and 1
day-old Bull Calf; bred by exhibitor,

CLASS IV.

Joun Naytor, of Leighton Hall, Welshpool, Montgomery: the Prize of
Twenty Sovererrens, for his 4 years and 11 months-old Cow, In-milk
and In-calf ; bred by exhibitor.

Pure Turner, of Leen, Pembridge, Leominster, Hereford: the Prize of Tren
Soverriens, for his 3 years and 11 months-old Cow, In-milk; bred by
exhibitor,

Roserv Leysuon, of Island Farm, Bridgend, Glamorgan: the Prize of Five
Soverrians, for his 5 years and 9 months-old Cow, In-milk: bred by
exhibitor.

HicHiuy CoMMENDED.

Executors of the late Lorp Berwick, of Cronkhill, Shrewsbury, Salop: for his 3

years 9 months and 2 weeks-old Cow, In-milk and In-calf; bred by the late
Lord Berwick.

CoMMENDED,

Joun Wititams, of St. Mary’s Kingsland, Leominster, Hereford : for his 4 years
8 months 2 weeks and 2 days-old Cow, In-calf; bred by exhibitor.

ExecurTors of the late Lorp Berwick : for his 5 years 11 monthsand 6 days-old
Cow, In-calf; bred by the late Lord Berwick.

CLASS V.

Pamir TurNeER: the Prize of Firremn SovErerens, for his 2 years 6 months
and 1 week-old Heifer, In-calf; bred by exhibitor.

Joun Naytor: the Prize of Ten Soverertens, for his 2 years and 11 months-
old Heifer, In-calf; bred by exhibitor.

Rosert LeysHon: the Prize of Five Soverriens, for his 2 years and 10
months-old Heifer, In-calf ; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS VI.

Wittiam Perry: the Prize of FirrEEn Sovereians, for his 1 year 11 months
and 20 days-old Yearling Heifer; bred by exhibitor.

Joun Naytor: the Prize of Tren Soverertans, for his 1 year 11 months and
2 weeks-old Yearling Heifer ; bred by exhibitor.

James Marsu Reap, of Elkstone, Cirencester, Gloucester: the Prize of Five
SovEREIGNS, for his 1 year 9 months and 2 weeks-old Yearling Heifer ;
bred by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.
His Royat Hicuness THE Prince Consort: for his 1 year 11 monthsand 3 days-
old Yearling Heifer; bred by exhibitor.
- CLASS VII.

Execurors of the late Lorp Berwick: the Prize of Tren SovereEtens, for his
6 months and 19 days-old Heifer Calf; bred by the late Lord Berwick.

JoHN WiziAMs: the Prize of Five Soveretens, for his 10 months 1 week
and 4 days-old Heifer Calf; bred by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.

Purr Turner: for his 10 months 3 weeks and 4 days-old Heifer Calf; bred by
exhibitor.

Xvi Award of Live-Stoch Prizes at Leeds.

CATTLE: Devons.
CLASS I.

Joun Boney, of Stockley Pomeroy, Crediton, Devon: the Prize of THirty
Soverriens, for his 3 years and 1 month-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

GrorGe TurNER, of Barton, Exeter, Devon: the Prize of Firrrrn Sovz-
REIGNS, for his 3 years and 9 months-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

His Roya Higuness THE Prince Consort: the Prize of Five SovEREIGNS,
for his 3 years 9 months 1 week and 4 days-old Bull; bred by His Royal
Highness.

CoMMENDED,

JoHn Courtenay Hatses, of Pulworthy Farm, Molland, South Molton, Devon-
shire: for his 3 years and 5 months-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS II.

Water Farruine, of Stowey Court, Bridgwater, Somerset: the Prize of
TWENTY-FIVE SOVEREIGNS, for his 1 year 7 months and 2 weeks-old Bull;
bred by exhibitor.

JAmuES Merson, of Brinsworthy, North Molton, Devon: the Prize of Firrnnn
Soverriens, for his 1 year 5 months and 38 days-old Bull; bred by
exhibitor.

GrorGE TuRNER: the Prize of Five Soverrians, for his 1 year and 9 months-
old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.
Joun Courtenay Hatse: forhis 1 year and 6 months-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS III.

Waurter Fartuine: the Prize of Ten Soverzrrens, for his 6 months and 2
days-old Bull Calf; bred by exhibitor.

His Roya HicHNEss THE PRINCE Consort: the Prize of FivE SOVEREIGNS,
for his 7 months 2 weeks and 4 days-old Bull-Calf; bred by exhibitor.

HigHiy CoMMENDED,

Wiiii1am Hots, of Hannaford, Barnstaple, Devon: for his 8 mouths 1 week and
1 day-old Bull Calf; bred by exhibitor.

Class generally Commended.

CLASS IV.

His Roya Hicuness THE Prince Consort: the Prize of Twenty SovzE-
REIGNS, for his 5 years 1 month 2 weeks and 8 days-old Cow, In-milk ;
bred | by exhibitor.

Grorce TurvER: the Prize of Ten Sovererays, for his 6 years 5 months and
2 weeks-old Cow, In-milk and In-calf ; pred by exhibitor.

CLASS V.

Epwarp Porr, of Great Toller, Maiden Newton, Dorset: the Prize of FirrrEN
SoveREIGns, for his 2 years 7 months and 2 weeks-old Heifer, In-calf;
bred by exhibitor.

James Houz, of Knowle House, Dunster, Somerset: the Prize of Ten Sovr-
REIGNS, for his 2 years and 7 months-old Heifer, In-calf; bred by,
exhibitor,

Epwarp Pops, of Great Toller, Maiden Newton, Dorset: the Prize of Fivz
Soverrtens, for his 2 years 7 months and 1 week-old Heifer, In-calf;
bred by exhibitor.

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds. XvVll

CLASS VI.

Waurer Farrnuine: the Prize of Firrren Soverrians, for his 1 year 6
months and 8 weeks-old Yearling Heifer ; bred by exhibitor.

James Merson, of Brinsworthy, North Molton, Devon: the Prize of 'TEN
Sovererans, for his 1 year 11 months 1 week and 4 days-old Yearling
Heifer; bred by exhibitor.

James Merson: the Prize of Five Soveretens, for his 1 year 10 months 1
week and 1 day-old Yearling Heifer; bred by exhibitor.

HiguLty CoMMENDED.

GrorcE TurNER: for his 1 year 8 months and 2 weeks-old Yearling Heifer ; bred
by exhibitor.
James Houe: for his 1 year and 8 months-old Yearling Heifer ; bred by exhibitor

Class generally Commended.

CLASS VU.

James Davey, of Flitton Barton, South Molton, Devon: the Prize of TEN
Soverriens, for his 6 months and 2 weeks-old Heifer Calf; bred by
exhibitor.

Grorce Turver: the Prize of Frve Soveretens, for his 9 months and 3
weeks-old Heifer Calf; bred by exhibitor,

CoMMENDED.

Witi1am Hote: for his 8 months 1 week and 2 days-old Heifer Calf; bred by
exhibitor.

CATTLE: Sussex.

CLASS II.

Joun AnD Atrrep HeAsman, of Angmering, Arundel, Sussex: the Prize of
Tren Soverrteans, for their 1 year 8 months and 1 week old Bull; bred
by exhibitors.

CLASS IV.

JOHN AND ALFRED HEAsMAN: the Prize of TEN Sovererrens, for their 2 years
6 months and 8 weeks-old Heifer, In-calf; bred by exhibitors.

CATTLE: Other established Breeds.

CLASS I.

ALEXANDER Bowrn, of Mains of Kelly, Arbroath, Forfarshire: the Prize of
‘Ten Sovereiens, for his 3 years 11 months 2 weeks and 1 day-old Bu!!;
bred by William M‘Combie, of Tillyfour, Aberdeen.

CoMMENDED.

Samvuet Camrietp Baker, of Beaufort-street, King’s Road, Chelsea, Middlesex :
for his 3 years and 2 months-old Bull; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS IV.

Lorp Sonpes, of Elmham Hall, Thetford, Norfolk: the Prize of Ten Sovr-
REIGNS, for his 2 years and 3 months-old Heifer, In-calf; bred by
exhibitor. ;

VOL. XXII. c

Xvili Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds.

‘COMMENDED.
Samort CamrreLp Baxker: for his under 3 years-old Heifer, In-calf;, breeder
unknown. :
Samvet Camrretp Baxer: for his under 3 years-old Heifer, In-calf ; breeder
unknown.
Samvuet CamrieLD Baker: for his under 3 years-old Heifer, In-calf; breeder
unkuown.

Lorp SonpeEs: for his 2 years and 6 months-old Heifer, In-calf; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS V.

Lorp SonpeEs : the Prize of Fivm Soverrtens, for his 1 year and 4 months-
old Yearling Heifer ; bred by exhibitor.

Horses: Thorough-Bred.

Joun Wyatt, of Nutbourne, Emsworth, Hants: the Prize of Onz HunprEep
SOVEREIGNS, for his 4 years-old Stud Horse; bred by exhibitor.

Tom Hussey, of Stud Farm, Skirmett, Henley-on-Thames, Oxfordshire: the
Prize of Twenty-Five Soverriens, for his 12 years-old Stud Horse;
bred by exhibitor.

Hicuty CoMMENDED.

Tuomas Groves, of Park House, Svofforth, Wetherby, Yorkshire: for his 11 years-
old Stud Horse ; bred by B. Plummer, of Yorkshire.

Joun JOHNSTONE, of Broadholme, Lockerby, Dumfriesshire: for his 8 years-old
Stud Horse; bred by the Earl of Derby, of Kuowsley Hall, Prescot, Lancashire.

CoMMENDED,

Tuomas Humpurey Prpury, of Stubbing Court, Chesterfield, Derbyshire : for
his 7 years-old Stud Horse; bred by Mr. Charles Greville, of London.

Horsss: Clevelands.

CLASS I.
Henry Rickatson, of the Angel Hotel, Wetherby, Yorkshire: the Prize of
TWENTY SOVEREIGNS, for his 11 years-old Stallion,
CLASS II.
Joun Saurra, of Long Newton, Darlington ; the Prize of Tren Soverrrans, for
his 6 years-old Mare; bred by exhibitor.

Higuiy CoMMENDED.

GrorcE Hoimes, of Toll Gavel, Beverley, Yorkshire: for his 9 years-old Mare ;
bred by Mrs. Maughan, of Normanby, Middlesbro’,

OrueER Horszs.

CLASS I.

Josern Wessrer, of Allerston, Pickering, York: the Prize of Twrenry-Five
SovEREIGNS, for his 10 years-old Stallion; bred by Mr, Harves.

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds. xix

JAMES AND Cuartrs Morrat, of Kirklington Park, Kirklington, Cumber-
land: the Prize of Pirrsrn Soverriens, for their 4 years and 1 day-old
Stallion; bred by Sir Wilfrid Lawson, Bart, of Brayton Hall, Aspatria,
Cumberland.

Tomas Groves: the Prize of Five Soverrians, for his 6 years-old Stallion ;
bred by James Davidson.

CLASS II.

Wini1Am Bovusrietp, of Gardener’s Arms, Pilling, Fleetwood-on-Wire, Lan-
cashire: the Prize of Furrrrn Sovrrerens, for his 16 years-old Brood
Mare, In-foal.

Atrrep Hawxwett, of Prospect House, Thirsk, Yorkshire: the Prize of Tmy
Sovererens, for his 6 years-old Brood Mare; breeder unknown.

CLASS III.

Jos Asprnauy, of Mount Tabor, Halifax, Yorkshire: the Prize of Frrrren
Soveretens, for his 20 years-old Brood Mare and Foal; breeder not
known.

Ricuarp Cooxr, of Huggate, Pocklington, Yorkshire: the Prize of Ten SoveE-
REIGNS, for his 7 years-old Brood Mare, In-foal; bred by exhibitor.
WiniiAm Brapiey Warman, of Carhead, Cross Hill, Yorkshire: the Prize

of Five SovEreians, for his 14 years-old Brood Mare ; breeder unknown,

Horses: Agricultural.

CLASS I.

Jonas Wess, of Babraham, Cambridge: the Prize of Twrnry-rive Sove-
REIGNS, for his 6 years 1 monthand 1 day-old Stallion ; bred by exhibitor.

Tuomas Crisp, of Butley Abbey, Wickham Market, Suffolk: the Prize of
Firteen Sovereians, for his 11 years-old Stallion; bred by Charles
Cordy, Trimley, Ipswich, Suffolk.

Bengamin Tayxor, of Peterborough, Northampton: the Prize of Five Sovr-
REWNS, for his 10 years-old Stallion ; bred by John Woolsey, of Newton,
Wisbeach, Cambridge.

Higuiy CoMMENDED.

Marruew Reep, of Beamish Burn, Chester-le-Street, Durham: for his 5 years-
old Stallion; bred by William Pank, of Borough Fen, Northampton. |

CoMMENDED.

Herman Brpve tt, of Playford, Ipswich, Suffolk: for his 4 years and 2 months-
old Stallion; bred by Thomas Read, of Rendlesham, Wickham Market,
Suffolk.

Joun Snowpon, of Stonesby, Waltham, Leicester ; for his 6 years-old Stallion ;
bred by exhibitor.

CLASS II.

Epwin Borier, of Balderton, Newark, Notts: the Prize of Twenty Sovr-
REIGNS, for his 2 years L month and 3 weeks-old Stallion; bred by Andrew
Guy, of Eaton Waltham, Leicestershire.

Txomas Mitts, of Harmston, Lincoin: the Prize of Tan Sovergtens, for his
2 years 1 month 2 weeks and 6 days-old Stallion ; bred by exhibitor,
Epwarp Hotzanp, of Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, Worcestershire: the Prize
of Five Sovererens, for his 2 years and 3 months-olg Stallion ; bred by

exhibitor,
e2

XX Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds.

Hiauty CoMMENDED.

Wiiram Witson, of Baylham Hall, Ipswich, Suffolk; for his 2 years and 2
months-old Stallion; bred by Samuel Wrinch, of Holland, Colchester, Essex.

CoMMENDED.
Ricuarp Betcuer, of Stanford, Farringdon: for his 2 years and 2 months-old
Stallion ; bred by exhibitor.
Joun Hemmant, of Thorney, Cambridgeshire : for his 2 years-old Stallion; bred
by exhibitor.

CLASS III.

Epwarp Sumprer, of Billinghay Dales, Billinghay, Lincoln: the Prize of
Twenty Sovereiens, for his 10 years-old Mare; bred by exhibitor.
WittaM Proupe, of Kirk Hammerton, Green Hammerton, York: the Prize
of TEN Soveretens, for his 5 years-old Mare; bred by Mr. Gofton,
Pocthorp, Driffield, York.

His Royat Hicuness THE Prince Consort: the Prize of Five SovEREIGNS,
for his 7 years-old Mare; bred by exhibitor.

HigHiy CoMMENDED.

Joun Gay Arrwater, of Hallingwood Farm, Cubberley, Cheltenham, Gloucester-
shire : for his 6 years-old Mare; bred by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.

Evan CHArtres SoTHERLAND WALKER, of Crow Nest, near Halifax, Yorkshire :
for his about 9 years-old Mare.

CLASS IV.

His Roya Hicuness THE Prince Consort: the Prize of FirrrEen Sove-
REIGNS, for his 2 years 1 month 2 weeks and 1 day-old Filly ; bred by
exhibitor. ;

JoHN Warp, of East Mersea, Colchester, Essex : the Prize of TEN SOVEREIGNS,
for his 2 years and 3 months-old Filly.

Tuer Hon. Coronet Dovenas Pennant, M.P., of Penrhyn Castle, Bangor,
Carnarvon: the Prize of FivE Sovererians, for his 2 years-old Filly;
bred by exhibitor.

HigHLY CoMMENDED.

SamuEL Wotton, of Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge, Snffolk: for his 2 years-old
Filly ; bred by exhibitor.

‘ CoMMENDED.

JouNn Ciaypen, of Littlebury, Saffron-Walden, Essex : for his 2 years-old Filly ;
bred by Samuel Clayden, of Linton, Cambridgeshire.

Dray-Horsss.
CLASS I.

Rosert Gipson, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne: the Prize of TWENTY-FIVE SovE-
REIGNS, for his 10 years-old Stallion ; bred by William Beatie, of Easton,
Cumberland.

Wittram Kiya, of Witleigh Inn, Tiverton, Devon: the Prize of TEN Sover-
REIGNS, for his 9 years and 1 month-old Stallion; bred by J. Hutson, of
Hast Brent, near Bristol.

James Asncrort, of Cow-lane, Wavertree, near Liverpool : ‘the Prize of Five
Soveruiens, for his 8 years 1 month 2 weeks and 2 days-old Stallion ;
bred by exhibitor,

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds. XXxi

CoMMENDED.

Joun Mannine, of Orlingbury, near Wellingborough, Northampton: for his 8
years-old Stallion; bred by Henry Ogden.

CLASS III.

Tomas Futuarp, of Thorney, near Peterborough: the Prize of Twenty
SovereEtens, for his 8 years-old Mare; bred by exhibitor.

JosErH Roperts, of Marlborough, Egremont, Cumberland: the Prize of Tren
Soveretrans, for his 8 years-old Mare; bred by George Adams, of War-
rowdales, Alstenfield, near Ashbourne, Derbyshire.

CLASS IV.

Joun Kay Farnworrn, of Alderley Edge, Chorley, Cheshire: the Prize of
FirrEEN SoveREIGNS, for his 2 years-old Filly ; breeder not known.
Joun Gay Atrwater, of Hallingwood Farm, Cubberley, Cheltenham: the

Prize of TEN SovereErens, for his 2 years-old Filly ; bred by exhibitor, ©

SHEEP: Leicesters.
CLASS I.

LizutTenant-Cotonet Iver, of Thorpe Constantine, Tamworth, Staffordshire :
the Prize of Twenty Sovereiens, for his 1 year and 4 months-old
Shearling Ram; bred by exhibitor.

Wu11am Sanpay, of Holme Pierrepont, Notts : the Prize of Ten Soverrtens,
for his 1 year 4 or 5 months-old Shearling Ram ; bred by exhibitor,
Witiram Sanpay: the Prize of Five Soveretens, for his 1 year 4 or 5

months-old Shearling Kam; bred by exhibitor.

Higuiy CoMMENDED.

LievuTeNANT-CoLoneEL InGE: for his 1 year and 4 months-old Shearling Ram ;
bred by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED,

Tuomas Epwarp Paw err, of Beeston, Sandy, Bedfordshire : for his 1 year and
4 months-old Shearling Ram; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS II.

Wixtiam Sanpay: the Prize of Twenty Soveretans, for his 3 years 4 or 5
months-old Ram ; bred by exhibitor.

Wiitam SanpaY: the Prize of Ten Soveretans, for his 2 years and 4 or 5
months-old Ram ; bred by exhibitor,

Wiiiam Sanpay: the Prize of FivE Soveretans, for his 3 years and 4 or 5
months-old Ram ; bred by exhibitor.

Hieaty CoMMENDED.

Joun Borton, of Barton House, Malton, Yorkshire : for his 3 years and 3 months-
old Ram ; bred by exhibitor-
CoMMENDED.

JoHN Borton : for his 2 years and 3 months-old Ram; bred by exhibitor.
Joun Borron : for his 4 years and 3 months-old Ram ; bred by exhibitor,

Class generally Commended.

xxii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds.

CLASS III.

Witram Sanpay: the Prize of Twenry Soverrtens, for his 1 year and 4
or 5 months-old Shearling Kwes ; bred by exhibitor,

LIEUTENANT-CoLoNEL INGE : the Prize of Ten Soverertens, for his 1 year and
4 months-old Shearling Ewes ; bred by exhibitor.

Grorce Turner, of Barton, Exeter, Devon: the Prize of FivE SovEREIGNs,
for his 1 year 8 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling Ewes; bred by ex-
hibitor.

Suerpe: Southdowns.

CLASS I.

Witiram Ricpen, of Hove, Brighton, Sussex : the Prize of Twenty Sove-
REIGNS, for his 1 year and 4 months-old Shearling Ram ; bred by exhibitor.

Wiu1am Riepen : the Prize of Tren Sovereteys, for his 1 year and 4 months-
old Shearling Ram; bred by exhibitor.

JOHN AND AL¥RED Heasmay, of Angmering, Arundel, Sussex: the Prize of
Five Soveretens, for their 1 year 4 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling
Ram ; bred by exhibitors.

CLASS II.

WitaM Riepen: the Prize of Twenty Soveretens, for his 2 years and 4
months-old*Ram : bred by exhibitor.

Witi1am RiepEen: the Prize of Ten SovErrtcns, for his 2 years and 4
mohths-old Ram; bred by exhibitor.

Lorp WatstncHAm, of Merton Hall, Thetford, Norfolk; the Prize of Five
SovEREIGNs, for his 2 years and 4 months-old Ram ; bred by exhibitor.

HicHity ComMMENDED.
Lorp WaAtsineHAm : for his 3 years and 4 months-old Ram; bred by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.

Lorp WatstncHam : for his 2 years and 4 months-old Ram; bred by exhibitor.
Lorp WatsrncuAm : for his 3 years and 4 months-old Ram; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS III.

THE DvuKe or Ricumonp, of Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex: the Prize of
Twenty SovereIens, for his 16 months-old Shearling Ewes; bred by
exhibitor.

Lorp Watsinenam, the Prize of Ten Soveretens, for his 1 year and 4
months-old Shearling Ewes ; bred by exhibitor.

Tne Eart or Rapnor, of Coleshill House, Highworth, Wilts : the Prize of F1vr
SovereErIGns, for his 1 year and 4 months-old Shearling Ewes; bred by
exhibitor.

Hicuiy ComMMENDED.
Joun AND ALFRED HraAsmAN: for their 1 year 4 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling
Ewes; bred by exhibitors.
CoMMENDED.

JouHn AND ALFRED Heasman: for their 1 year 4 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling
Ewes; bred by exhibitors.

ward of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds. xxii

Sueee: Shropshire.
CLASS I.

Tnomas Horton, of Harnage Grange, Shrewsbury, Salop: the Prize of
Firrren Soverrtans, for his 1 year 2 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling
Ram; bred by exhibitor.

JAMES AND Epwarp CRANE, of Shrawardine, Shrewsbury, Sulop: the Prize of
TEN Soveregiens, for their 1 year and 3 months-old Shearling Ram ;
bred by exhibitors.

Anne Baker, of Grendon, Atherstone, Warwickshire: the Prize of Five
Sovereiens, for his 1 year 3 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling Ram;
bred by exhibitor.

Hicuiy CoMMENDED,

Anne Baker: for her 1 year 3 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling Ram ; bred by

exhibitor,
CoMMENDED.

James AND Epwarp Crane: for their 1 year and 3 months-old Shearling Ram
bred by exhibitors.

Tuomas Horron: for his 1 year and 4 months-old Shearling Ram; bred by
exhibitor.

Tuomas Mansettr, of Addcott, Shrewsbury, Salop: for his 1 year 3 months and
1 week-old Shearling Ram; bred by exhibitor,

CLASS II.

Epwarp Hortiann, M.P. of Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, Worcester: the Prize
of Firraeyx Soveretens, for his 3 years and 4 months-old Ram; bred
by Mr. Byrd, Cross Lays Farm, Stafford.

Tuomas Horton, the Prize of Tun SovErnians, for his 2 years and 4 months-
old Ram ; bred by exhibitor.

Tuomas Hortny, jun., of The Fosse, Leamington, Warwickshire: the Prize
of Five Soverpiens, for his 2 years 3 months 2 weeks and 1 day-old
Ram ; bred by exhibitor.

Higuiy CoMMENDED.

Wrtrtam Orme Foster, of Kinver Hill Farm, Stourbridge, Worcestershire : for
his 3 years and 3 months-old Ram; bred by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.
THomas Horton: for his 2 years 3 months and 2 weeks-old Ram; bred by
exhibitor.

Wut1iam Orme Foster: for his 2 years 3 months and 2 weeks-old Ram; bred
by exhibitor.’

CLASS III.

Witt1am Orme Foster: the Prize of !irrreN Sovernians, for his 1 year and
3 months-old Shearling Ewes; bred by exhibitor.

James AND EpwarpD CRANE: the Prize of Trn Soveretans, for their 1 year
2 months and 3 weeks-old Shearling Ewes; bred by exhibitors.

Joun Evans, of Uffington, Shrewsbury, Salop: the Prize of Five SovEREIexs,
for his 1 year and 3 months-old Shearling Ewes ; bred by exhibiter.

Hicuiy CoMMENDED.

Jams AND Epwarp Crane: for their 1 year 3 months and 1 week-old Shearling
’ Ewes; bred by exhibitors.

XXiV Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds.

COMMENDED.

JAMEs AND Epwarp Crane: for their 1 year 2 months and 3 weeks-old Shearling
Ewes; bred by exhibitors.

Tue Eart or Dartrmovurs, of Patshull, Albrighton, Wolverhampton, Stafford :
for his 1 year and 3 months-old Shearling Ewes; bred by exhibitor.

Joun Coxon, of Freeford, Lichfield, Stafford: for his 1 year 3 months and 2
weeks-old Shearling Ewes; bred by exhibitor.

SuHeEeEp : Long-woolled.

CLASS I.

Rosert Garne, of Aldsworth, Northleach, Gloucestershire: the Prize of
Twenty Sovereiens, for his 1 year and 4 months-old Shearling Ram ;
bred by exhibitor.

Winu1am Lane, of Broadfield Farm, Northleach, Gloucestershire: the Prize
of Ten Sovrretens, for his 1 year and 4 months-old Shearling Ram ;
bred by exhibitor.

James WALKER, of Northleach, Gloucestershire: the Prize of FivE SovE-
REIGNS, for his 1 year and 4 months-old Shearling Ram; bred by ex-
hibitor.

HicgHiy COMMENDED.

Epwarp Hanpy, of Sierford, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire: for his 1 year 3

months and 2 weeks-old Shearling Ram; bred by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.

Wi1iam Lane: for his 1 year 4 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling Ram; bred
by exhibitor.’
Ropert GarneE: for his 1 year and 4 months-old Shearling Ram; bred by ex-

hibitor.
Rogpert Garne: for his 1 year and 4 months-old Shearling Ram; bred by ex-
hibitor,
CLASS IL.

Wiitiam Lane: the Prize of Twenty Soveretens, for his 3 years and 4
months-old Ram ; bred by exhibitor.

Joun Kine Tomes, of Langford, Lechlade, Gloucestershire: the Prize of TEN
Sovereiens, for his 3 years 3 months and 8 weeks-old Ram; bred by
exhibitor.

Ropert Gare : the Prize of Five Soverxrens, for his 3 years and 4 months-
old Ram; bred by exhibitor.

HicuHiy CoMMENDED.
Wixi1am Lane: for his 2 years and 3 months-old Ram; bred by exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.
Epwarp Hanpy: for his 4 years 8 months and 2 weeks-old Ram; bred by ex-
hibitor.
Rogert Garne : for his 3 years and 4 months-old Ram ; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS III.

GrorcE FLErcuer, of Shipton Sollars, Cheltenham, Gloucester: the Prize of
TWENTY SOVEREIGNS, for his 1 year 8 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling
Ewes; bred by exhibitor,

Witram Lane: the Prize of Ten Soverertens, for his 1 year 3 months and
2 weeks-old Shearling Ewes ; bred by exhibitor.

Wirti1am Lane: the Prize of Five Soveretens, for his 1 year 3 months and
1 week-old Shearling Ewes; bred by exhibitor.

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds. XXV

Hienty CoMMENDED.

GrorGe Fietcuer: for his 1 year 3 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling Ewes ;
bred by exhibitor.

COMMENDED.

Wiriram Lane: for his 1 year and 8 months-old Shearling Ewes; bred by
exhibitor.

Sater: Short-woolled.
CLASS I.

Winu1am Houmrrey, of Oak Ash, Chaddleworth, Wantage, Berks: the Prize
of Twenty SovereEtens, for his 1 year 5 months and 1 week-old Shearling
Ram ; bred by exhibitor,

STEPHEN Kine, of Old Hayward Farm, Hungerford, Berks: the Prize of Tren
SovEREIGNS, for his 1 year 4 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling Ram ;
bred by exhibitor.

Witi1am Houmrrer: the Prize of Frve Soveretans, for his 1 year and 5
months-old Shearling Ram ; bred by exhibitor.

HigHty CoMMENDED.

Joun Bryan, of Southleigh, Witney, Oxfordshire ; for his 1 year 4 months and 2
weeks-old Shearling Ram; bred by exhibitor.
Joun Bryan: for his 1 year 4 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling Ram; bred by

exhibitor.
COMMENDED.
Joun Bryan: for his 1 year 4 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling Ram; bred by
exhibitor.
Joun Bryan: for his 1° year 3 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling Ram; bred by
exhibitor,

Joun Bryan: for his 1 year and 3 months-old Shearling Ram; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS I.

Witittam Humrrey: the Prize of Twenty Sovereiens, for his 4 years 4
months and 1 week-old Ram ; bred by exhibitor.
ae Kine: the Prize of Tmx Soveretens, for his 2 years 4 months and
2 weeks-old Ram; bred by exhibitor.
Wraram Browne CaNnina, of Chisledon, Swindon, Wits the Prize of
Five Soveretens, for his 2 years 4 months and 3 weeks-old Ram ; bred
by exhibitor.

HigHuy CoMMENDED.

Joun Bryan : for his 5 years 4 months and 2 weeks-old Ram; bred by exhibitor.

GrorGE Henry Barnett, of Glympton Park, Woodstock, Oxfordshire : for his 2
years 4 months and 2 weeks-old Ram ; bred by exhibitor.

Witi1am Browne Canninc: for his 2 years 4 months and 2 weeks-old Ram ;
bred by exhibitor.

Winiram Humrrey: for his 3 years 3 months and | week-old Ram; bred by
exhibitor.

CoMMENDED.

Josepu Druce, of Fynsham, Oxfordshire : for his 2 years and 5 months-old Ram ;
bred by exhibitor.
Joun Bryan: tor his 2 years 2 months and 2 weeks-old Ram; bred by exhibitor.

XXV1 Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds.

CLASS III.
Witiiam Humrrey: the Prize of Twenty Sovrerrtans, for his 1 year 5
months-old Shearling Ewes; bred by exhibitor.
STEPHEN Kine: the Prize of Ten Sovereiens for his 1 year 4 months and
2 weeks-old Shearling Hwes; bred by exhibitor.
Joun WasHBourNE Browy, of Uffcott, Swindon, Wilts, the Prize of Fivr

Sovereiens, for his 1 year 5 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling Ewes;
bred by exhibitor.

Hicuiy CoMMENDED.

Wiii1AM Browne Canninc : for his 1 year 4 months and 2 weeks-old Shearling
Ewes ; bred by exhibitor.

Pigs.

CLASS I.

Joun Butuock, of Brick-lane, Bradford, Yorkshire: the Prize of Tren Sovr-
REIGNS, for his 2 years 2 months and 3 weeks-old Boar; bred by George
Haddison, Bolton House, Bradford, Yorkshire.

Samuet Woopuovss, of Norley Hall, Frodsham, Cheshire : the Prize of Fivz

Soveretans, for his 2 years 5 months and 1 week-old Boar; bred by
exhibitor.

HicHity CoMMENDED.

Joun Dyson, of the Adelphi Hotel, Dock-street, Leeds: for his 2 years and 1
week-old Boar; bred by Mr. Edon, Market-place, Barnsley.

CLASS II.

His Royat Hicuness THE Prince Consort: the Prize of Ten Sovmretens,

for his 2 years 4 months 1 week and 1 day-old Boar, small white breed ;
bred by exhibitor.

Lorp WeEwLock, of Escrick, Yorkshire : the Prize of Five Sovrerrtens, for his
10 months-old Boar, small white breed ; bred by exhibitor.

Hicguiy CoMMENDED.

JoHN Harrison, jun., of Heaton Norris, Stockport, Lancashire : for his 9 months
3 weeks and 6 days-old Boar, small white breed; bred by William Hall, of
Manchester, Lancashire.

CLASS III.

Tuomas Crisp, of Butley Abbey, Wickham-Market, Suffolk; the Prize of
Ten Sovereiens, for his 1 year 8 weeks and 6 days-old Boar, improved
black Suffolk; bred by exhibitor.

G. M. Sexton, of Wherstead Hall, Ipswich, Suffolk: the Prize of FivE Sovz-

REIGNS, for his 2 years 2 months and 8 days-old Boar, small black Suffolk ;
bred by exhibitor.

Hicguiy CoMMENDED.

Tuomas Crisp: for his 1 year 8 months and 3 weeks-old Boar, improved black
Suffolk ; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS IV.

Grorcr Brown, of No. 1, Burneston-place, Leeds, Yorkshire: the Prize of
Tren Soveretans, for his 11 months 2 weeks and 6 days-old Boar; bred
by Luke Ellis, of Leeds, Yorkshire.

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds, XXVli

Wui11am B. Warnmay, of Carhead, Cross Hills, Yorkshire: the Prize of Five
SoveREIGNS, for his 1 year and 2 weeks-old Boar, Yorkshire middle breed ;
bred by exhibitor.

Hiauty ComMMENDED.

Jonn Cuarteswortn, of Headfield, Dewsbury, Yorkshire: for his 2 years and 3
months-old Boar, middle breed ; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS V.

Witi1am B. Warnman: the Prize of Tren Sovernrens, for his 3 years 4
months and 2 weeks-old Sow, Carhead large breed ; bred by exhibitor.

W. J. Sapuer, of Bentham and Calcott, Cricklade, Wiltshire: the Prize of
Five Soveretens, for his 2 years 4 months 1 week and 6 days-old
breeding Sow ; bred by exhibitor.

Hicgunty CoMMENDED.

Witiiam B, Wainman: for his 2 years and 3 weeks-old Breeding Sow; bred by
exhibitor.

CLASS VI.

Wittram B. Wartnman: the Prize of Tex Sovpreiens, for his 2 years 2
months and 1 week-old Sow; bred by Mr. W. Davis, of Holme House,
Gargrave, Yorkshire.

Mircnett Watton, of 6, Foundry-street, Halifax, Yorkshire: the Prize of

Five Soveretens, for his 1 year 1 week and 3 days-old Sow, small breed ;
bred by Henry Ambler, of Watkinson Hall, Halifax, Yorkshire.

HiaHity CoMMENDED., +

Sir G. O. Wompwe tt, Bart., of Newburgh Park, Easingwold, Yorkshire: for his
l year 7 months and 4 days-old Sow, small white breed ; bred by exhibitor.

The Class generally Commended.

CLASS VII.

Wititam Harron, of Addingham, Leeds, Yorkshire: the Prize of Ten Sovr-
REIGNS, for his 1 year and 6 months-old Sow, small breed; bred by the
Earl of Harewood, of Harewood, Leeds, Yorkshire.

Tomas Crisp: the Prize of Five Soverzrtens, for his 3 years 1 month and 3
weeks-old Sow, Improved Black Suffolk; bred by exhibitor.

Hicuiy ComMEnpen.
Tuomas Crisp: for his 1 year 7 months 2 weeks and 4 days-old Sow, Improved
Black Suffolk; bred by exhibitor.
CLASS VIII.

Josnru Norton, of Nortonthorpe Hall, Huddersfield, Yorkshire, the Prize of
TEN SoveEREIGNs, for his 1 year and 7 months-old Sow.
Wi11am B. Wartnman: the Prize of Five Soverettens, for his 4 years-old
_ Sow, middle breed ; bred by J. Coates, of Halifax, Yorkshire.

Higuty CoMMENDED.
Micuart Gavins, of Fox Inn, Woodhouse Carr, Leeds, Yorkshire; for his 2
years 9 months-old Sow, middle breed; bred by exhibitor.
CLASS IX.

Tue Rev..Henry G. Batiy, of Swindon, Wiltshire: the Prize of Ten Sovz-
REIGNS, for his 7 months 8 weeks and 6 days-old Breeding Sow-pigs
(three); bred by exhibitor.

XXV1ii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds.

Henry 8S. M‘Cuintocx, of Randalstown, Antrim: the Prize of Fivr Sove-
REIGNS, for his 4 months and 5 days-old Breeding Sow-pigs (three); bred

by exhibitor.
CLASS X.

Lorp Wentock : the Prize of TEN Soveretens, for his 6 months-old Breeding
Sow-pigs (three), small white breed ; bred by exhibitor.

Lorp Wentock: the Prize of Five Soverrtens, for his 7 months and 8 weeks-
old Breeding Sow-pigs (three), small white breed ; bred by exhibitor.

HiguLy CoMMENDED.

His Roya HicHNEss THE PRINCE Consort: for his 6 months 2 weeks and 1 day-
old Breeding Sow-pigs (three), small white ; bred by His Royal Highness.
CLASS XI.

SamvEL Watton, of Kesgrave, Woodbridge, Suffolk: the Prize of Txn
Sovereians, for his 7 mouths 2 weeks and 4 days-old Breeding Sow-
pigs (three) ; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS XII.

JOSEPH GLEDHILL, of Heckmondwike, Leeds, Yorkshire: the Prize of TEx
SoveruIa@ns, for his 6 months 3 weeks and 2 days-old Breeding Sow-pigs
(three), middle breed ; bred by exhibitor.

Spectal Wrises,
GIVEN BY THE LEEDS LOCAL COMMITTEE.

CaTrLE: Dairy Cows.

Joun R. Mippiesroves, of South Milford, near Milford Junction, Yorkshire :
the Prize of Ten SovErerens, for his 10 years and 4 months-old Cow,
Shorthorn, In-calf; bred by the Rey. J. Cator, of Womersley, Nor-
mington, Yorkshire.

Henry Amsuer, of Watkinson Hall, Halifax, Yorkshire: the Prize of Five
SovereiGns, for his 5 years-old Cow, Shorthorn, In-milk and In-calf ;
breeder unknown.

Licgut Horses.
CLASS I.

Water Hotprorts, of Burley, Leeds: the Prize of Twenty SovEREIGNS,
for his 5 years and 2 months-old Blood Hunter; bred by James Hold-
forth, jun., of Kermincham Lodge, Congleton, Cheshire.

Grorce Houtmus, of Toll Gavel, Beverley, Yorkshire: the Prize of Tew SovE-
ReEIGeNS, for his 5 years-old Blood Hunter; bred by Thomas McLain, of
Alnwick, Northumberland.

HiagHity COMMENDED.
Joun Barry, of Bishop Monkton, Ripon: for his 5 years-old Blood Hunter; bred
by Mr. Robson, of Shires, Easingwold, Yorkshire.
CoMMENDED.

Sir GrEorcE SrrickLanp, Bart, of Boynton Bridlington, Yorkshire: for his 5
years and 3 months-old Blood Hunter; bred by exhibitor.

Class generally Commended.

Award of Live-Stoch Prizes at Leeds. xxix

CLASS II.

Josera Waitwewt Pras, of Woodlands, Darlington, Durham: the Prize of
Ftrrren Sovererans, for his 4 years-old Blood Hunter; bred by William
Craddock, of Pinchinthorp Hall, Guisbro’, Yorkshire.

Ricaarp Borrerim, Garton, Driffield, Yorkshire: tue Prize of Frvz Sovr-
REIGNS, for his 4 years-old Blood Hunter ; breed unknown.

Higuiy CoMMENDED.

Stmron Muscrave, of Market Weighton, Yorkshire: for his 4 years-old Blood
Hunter; bred by Mr. Gipson, of Brandesburton, Beverley, Yorkshire.

CLASS ITI.

Txomas ©. anp Joun B. Booth, of Kiilerby, Catterick, Yorkshire: the Prize
of Five Sovrrerens, for their 3 years-old Hunting Mare; bred by Mr.
Thompson, of Aikban, Bedale, Yorkshire.

CLASS IV.

James Harker, of South Cliff, Hotham, Brough, Yorkshire: the Prize of Ten
Soverrtens, for his 3 years-old Coaching Stallion ; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS VI.

CapTain GuNTER, of the Grange, Wetherby, Yorkshire: the Prize of Five
Sovererens, for his 4 years-old Coaching Brood Mare, In-foal; bred by
Mr. Kirk, of New Village Grange, Howden, Yorkshire.

CLASS VII.

Witrram Jackson, of St. Peters, Wiggen Hall, near Lynn, Norfolk ; the
Prize of Ten Soveretans, for his 6 years-old Roadster Stallion; bred by
Benjamin Smith, of Deeping St. James, Market Deeping, Lincolnshire.

Witriam Jounsoy, of Billinghay, Sleaford, Lincolnshire: the Prize of FivE
SoveREIGns, for his 9 years-old Roadster Stallion ; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS VIII.

Joun Winson, of Roundhay, near Leeds: the Prize of Ten SovEretens, for his
17 years-old Roadster Mare; bred by John Stone, of Balmby Dun, near
Doncaster, Yorkshire.

CLASS IX.

Witrtam Carver, of Manchester: the Prize of Ten Soverertens, for his pair
of 7 years-old dray geldings ; breeder unknown.

CLASS X.

Wu1amM Moxon anp Sons, of Pontefract, Yorkshire: the Prize of Ten Sovr-
REIGNS, for their pair of 7 years-old Mares; bred by Samuel Hirst, of
Kellington, Yorkshire.

Joseru Norton, ot Nortonthorpe Hall, Huddersfield, Yorkshire: the Prize of
Five Soverriens, for his pair of 7 years and 6 years-old Mares ; breeder
unknown.

HicgHiy CoMMENDED.

Joun THomas Pearson, of Parkside, Headingley, Leeds: for his Mare and Gelding,

12 years and 5 years old; breeder unknown.

CoMMENDED.

JosepxH Norton, of Nortonthorpe Hall, Huddersfield, Yorkshire: for his pair of 6
years-old Mares ; breeder unknown.

XXX Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Leeds.

Doxe of Newcastir, of Clumber Park, Worksop, Notts: for his Mare and
Gelding ; mare 9 years 3 months and 2 weeks old; bred by exhibitor; gelding
7 years 3 months 1 week and 3 days old; bred by exhibitor.

The Class generally Commended.

CLASS XI.

Witiiam Bramury, Amcoates, Bawtry, Lincolnshire: the Prize of Frvr
Sovererans, for his 3 years-old Gelding; bred by Robert Ragnall, of
Newark.

CLASS XII.

Ropert Garsipe, of 3, Elmwood-place, Leeds: the Prize of Frvr SoveREIans,
for his 3 years-old Mare; bred by exhibitor,

CLASS XIII.
Francis Cook Marturws, of Great Driffield, Yorkshire: the Prize of Frvr
Sovrrriens, for his 7 years-old Gelding Pony; breeder unknown.
Hicuiy CommEyprp,
Wixxi1am Incuam, of Limestead Gannery, Armley, Leeds: for his 4 years-old
Gelding Pony; breeder unknown.
GrorGE Houmes, of Toll Gavel, Beverley, Yorkshire : for his 5 years-old Gelding
Pony ; bred by Mr. Cook, Long Witton, near Lincoln.
CoMMENDED.

Rosert Jonnson, of Bridge-street, Gainsboro’, Lincolnshire: for his 6 years-old
Gelding Pony ; breeder unknown.

CLASS XIV.

James Ansny, of Crimple, Knaresboro’, Yorkshire: the Prize of Fivm Sovn-
REIGNS, for his 7 years-old Mare Pony ; breeder unknown,

CLASS XV.
James WirramM, of Gledhow, Leeds, Yorkshire: the Prize of Five Sovr-
REIGNS, for his 7 years-old Mare Pony ; breeder unknown.
ComMMENDED,

Joun Grorcre Taytor, of Shipley, Yorkshire: for his 3 years-old Mare P
bred by exhibitor.
Joun GEORGE Taytor, for his 4 years-old Mare Pony; bred by exhibitor.

Surep: Long-woolled.

CLASS I.

Jouw Lyny, of Church Farm, Stroxton, Grantham, Lincolnshire: the Prize of
Trn Soveretens, for his 1 year and 4 months-old Shearling Ram; bred
by exhibitor.

CLASS II.
JosrPH Simpson, of Spofforth Park, Wetherby, Yorkshire: the Prize of Trw

Sovererens, for his 2 years and 8 months-old Ram; bred by Mr. Beal,
Malton, Yorkshire.

Award of Live-Stoch Prizes at Leeds. xxxi

Sureer: Mountain.

CLASS II.

Tue Hon. Cotonsn Pennant, M.P., of Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Carnarvon-
shire: the Prize of Five Soverertans, for his Pen of five Cheviot Ewes,
3 years and 3 months old; bred by exhibitor.

CLASS III.

Nicuotas Barker, of Bransdale, Kirby Moorside, N. R, Yorkshire : the Prize
of Five Sovrretans, for his 3 years and 1 month-old blackfaced Ram ;
bred by exhibitor.

CLASS IV.

Samurn Newatt, of Eastby, Skipton, Yorkshire: the Prize of Frve Sove-
REIGNS, for his Pen of five blackfaced Hwes, 3 years and 3 months old.

CLASS V.

JoNATHAN Prex, of Knowlmere Manor, Clitheroe, Yorkshire: the Prize of
Frve Sovererens, for his 6 years and 3 months-old Louk Ram; bred by
William Widdup, of Hould Top, Silsden, Skipton, Yorkshire.

CLASS VI.

JONATHAN Pern: the Prize of Five Sovererrens, for his Pen of five 2 years
and 3 months-old Louk Ewes; bred by Francis Stirk, of Skipton,
Yorkshire,

Hienity ComMMENDED.

Davip Lambert, of Silsden, Keighley, Yorkshire: for his three Ewes 4 years-old,
one Ewe 6 years-old, one Ewe 2 years-old; breeder unknown.

PRIZES OFFERED BY LORD LONDESBOROUGH.

Smrron Muserave, of Market-Weighton, E. R. Yorkshire: the Prize of
Twenty Soverriens, for his 3 years-old Hunting Colt ; bred by Wilson
Whiting, of Leven, Beverley, Yorkshire.

Higaity ComMMENDED.

RicuarD Tuomas, of The Crwys Farm, Cardiff, Glamorganshire : for his 3 years-
old Hunting Colt; bred by B, H. Cuthbertson, of Cefn, Llech, Llangibby,
Newport, Monmouthshire.

Wit11amM Lovet, of Nafferton Grange, Driffield, Yorkshire: the Prize of Trw
Sovurerens, for his Pen of five Leicester Ewes, four and five shears;
bred by exhibitor.

HicHity CoMMENDED.

Grorce Watmstey, of Rudston, Bridlington, Yorkshire: for his Pen of five
Leicester Ewes, two and th ree shears ; bred by exhibitor.

XXxil Award of Implement Prizes at Leeds.

IMPLEMENTS.

STEAM-CULTIVATORS.

Joun FowtEr, Jun., 28, Cornhill, London: the Prize of Firry SovEerriens,
for his 12-Horse Power Steam-cultivating Apparatus and Plough, suitable
for Ploughing Land of all descriptions; manufactured by William
Hewitson, John Fowler, and James Ketson, Leeds.

JouN Fow.er, Joun.: the Prize of Firry SovEREIGNS, for his Steam-culti-
vating Apparatus and Plough, suitable for Scarifying, Grubbing, and
Breaking-up Land of all descriptions ; manufactured by William Hewitson,
John Fowler, and James Ketson, Leeds.

JouN Fow ter, Juy.: the Prize of Firry Sovrereiens, for his Steam-culti-
vating Apparatus and Plough, with 8-Horse Power Portable Steam-
engine (worked at 10-Horse Power), suitable for Ploughing Land of all
descriptions ; manufactured by William Hewitson, J. Fowler, and James
Ketson, Leeds.

JoHN Fowter, Jun.: the Prize of Twenry-rrvE SovEREIGNs, for his Steam-
cultivating Apparatus and Plough, with 8-Horse Power Portable Steam-
engine (worked at 10-Horse power), suitable for Scarifying, Grubbing,
or Breaking-up Land of all descriptions: manufactured by William
Hewitson, John Fowler, and James Ketson, Leeds.

JAMES AND FREDERICK Howarp, Britannia Iron Works, Bedford: the Prize
of T'wEeNTY-FIVE SoverEIGNs, for their Set of Patent Apparatus for
Cultivating Land by Steam-power, which may be attached to any ordi-
nary Portable Steam-Hngine, and used for working Steam Ploughs or
Cultivators, and also for a set of Ploughs and a Cultivator, which may be
used on mixed and light soils, having a level surface; invented and
manufactured by themselves.

MEDALS.

Epwakrp Hayes, of Watling Works, Stony Stratford, Buckinghamshire: a
Silver Medal for his Patent Self-Acting Windlass, which may be attached
to any ordinary Portable Steam- Engine, and used for Steam Cultivation ; 5
invented, improved, and manufactured by himself.

Rosey anv Co., of Lincoln: a Silver Medal for their 12-Horse Power Portable
Double Cylinder Steam Engine, with Chandler and Oliver’s Patent
Drum Ploughing Windlass, suitable for Steam Cultivation; invented by
Chandler and Oliver, of Bow, and improved and manufactured by them-
selves.

DRILLs.

James Couutas, Jun., of Spittlegate, Grantham, Lincolnshire: the Prize of
Ten Soverriens, for his General Purpose Drill; invented, improved, and
manufactured by himself.

James Coutras anv Son, of Little Gonerby Iron Works, Grantham, Lincoln-
shire: the Prize of Taree Soverriens, for his General Purpose Corn,
Seed, and Manure Drill; invented by James Coultas, sen., and improved
and manufactured by themselves.

Rovert AND JoHN Reeves, of Bratton Iron Works, Westbury, Wiltshire :
the Prize of Two SovereEtens, for their General Purpose Corn and Manure
Drill, with improved fore-steerage ; invented, improved, and manufactured
by themselves.

James Coutras, Jun.: the Prize of Ten Sovererens, for his Corn, Seed, and

Root Drill; invented, improved, and manufactured by himself.

Award of Implement Prizes at Leeds. XXXxiil

Hotmes and Sons, of Prospect Place Works, Norwich: the Prize of Frvr
Soveretrens, for his Corn Drill; invented, improved, and manufactured
by themselves.

James Couuras, Jun.: the Prize of Five Soverrians, for his General
Purpose Drill and Steerage for small occupations ; invented, improved,
and manufactured by himself.

Wittram HensMAN AND Son, of Linslade Works, Leighton Buzzard, Bedford-
shire: the Prize of Five Soverertens, for their Steerage Corn, Turnip,
and Mangold Drill ; invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves.

Hotmes anp Sons, of Prospect Place Works, Norwich: the Prize of Tren
Soverrtens, for their Drill for Turnips and other Roots (on ridge and flat) ;
improved and manufactured by themselves.

R, and J. Reeves: the Prize of Five Soverriens, for their Drill for Turnips
and other Roots (on ridge and flat); invented, improved, and manufac-
tured by themselves.

JAMES Couttas, Jun. : the Prize of Srx Soverrtens, for his Drill for Turnips
and other Roots (on flat only) ; invented, improved, and manufactured by
himself.

Prigst anpD Wootnouan, of Kingston-on-Thames, Surrey: the Prize of Four
SoveREreNs, for their Drill for Turnips and other Roots (on flat only) ;
invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves.

A. W. Gower AND Son, of Britannia Iron Works, Market Drayton, Shropshire :
the Prize of Five Sovereians, for their Drill for Turnips and other Roots
(on ridge only); invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves.

R. anp J, Renves: the Prize of Seven Soveretens, for their Liquid Manure
Drill; invented by Thomas Chandler of Aldbourne, and improved and
manufactured by themselves.

Wititiam Warkinson, of Louth, Lincolnshire: the Prize of Turrz Sovz-
REIGNS, for his Liquid Manure Drill (on ridge or flat); invented by
Thomas Chandler, of Aldbourn, Wiltshire; improved and manufactured
by himself.

JAMES Couttas, Jun.: the Prize of SEven Sovrrztens, for his Small Seed
and Rye Grass Drill; invented, improved, and manufactured by himself.

Houmes anp Sons, of Prospect Place Works, Norwich, Norfolk: the Prize of
THREE SOVEREIGNS, for their Small Seed Drill for Grass Seeds and

. Sainfoin ; invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves.

Wiit1aAm HensMAN AND Son: the Prize of SEVEN SovEREtIaNs, for their Land
Presser, with Drill and Hoes attached; improved and manufactured by
themselves.

GrorcrE Wiiu1am Rosryson, of Barton-upon-Humber, Lincolnshire : the Prize
of ‘Taree Soverriens, for his Improved Three-Row Drill Presser; im-
proved and manufactured by himself.

Tuomas Cuamsers, Jun., of Colkirk Hall, near Fakenham, Norfolk: the Prize
of Srven Soverzriens, for his Patent Broadcast Manure Distributor ;
invented and improved by himself, and manufactured by Messrs. Garrett
and Son.

HotmeEs Anp Son: the Prize of THrer Soverertens, for their Dry Manure
Distributor ; invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves.

THE TRustzes or W. CrossK1Lu, of Beverley Iron Works, Beverley, Yorkshire :
the Prize of Stx Sovrerrrens, for their Liquid Manure Distributor; im-
proved and manufactured by themselves.

Isaac James, of Tivoli Works, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire: the Prize of
Four Soveruians, for his Liquid Manure Distributor; invented, im-
proved, and manufactured by himself.

VOL. XXII. d

XXXIV Award of Implement Prizes at Leeds.

Higuty ComMEnpDeED.

James Couttas AND Son: for their Corn Drill; invented by James Coultas, sen.,
and improved and manufactured by the exhibitors.

Hoximes anp Son: for their Drill for general purposes for small occupations ;
invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves.

James Couttas, Jun.: for his Corn Drill for small occupations ; invented, im-
proved, and manufactured by himself.

Priest anpD Wootnovcn; for their Dry Manure Distributor; invented and
manufactured by themselves.

R. anp J. Reeves: for their Dry Manure Distributor; invented, improved, and
manufactured by themselves,

CoMMENDED.

Priest AND WootnoucH: for their Corn Drill; improved and manufactured by
themselves. ?

GrorGE Maxtnovss, of Providence Works, Colisgate Hill, Ripon, Yorkshire: for
his General Purpose Drill for small occupations. .

R. anp J. Reeves: for their General Purpose Drill, for small occupations; in-
vented, improved, and manufactured by themselves,

James Couttas, Jun.: for his Dry Manure Distributor; invented, improved,
and manufactured by himself.

Horsn-Hoers. i:

Priest AND WooLnouGH: the Prize of Seven Sovererens, for their General
Purpose Horse-hoe; invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves,

Horst anp Pickrrine, of Goulding Works, Leicestershire : the Prize of Fivr
SoverEIans, for their General Purpose Horse-hoe ; improved and manu-
factured by themselves.

Isaac Spieut, of Brige, Lincolnshire: the Prize of Turer Soverzrtans, for his
General Purpose Horse-hoe ; invented, improved, and manufactured by
himself.

Carson AND Toone, of Wiltshire Foundry, Warminster, Wilts: the Prize of
Five Soverrtans, for their Single Row Horse-hoe, for ridge and flat ;
invented by the late Hugh Carson, of Warminster, improved and manu-
factured by themselves.

Tur Bussy AericuLtruraL Iwetement Company, of Newton-le-Willows,
Bedale, Yorkshire: the Prize of Ture: Soverriens, for their Single Row
Horse-hoe, for ridge and flat: invented and improved by William Busby,
of Newton-le- Willows, and manufactured by themselves.

Epwarp Paces anp Co., of Bedford: the Prize of Two SovurEtens, for their
Single Row Horse-hoe, for ridge and flat ; invented and manufactured by
themselves.

Joun Earon, of Tywell Works, Thrapston, Northamptonshire: the Prize of
Two SoverEtiens, for his Horse-hoe for thinning Turnips; invented and
manufactured by himself.

COMMENDED.

J. anp F. Howarp, of Britannia Iron Works, Bedford: for their Horse-hoe, for
single drill ridge and flat; invented and manufactured by themselves,

Hoimes AND Son: for their General Purpose Horse-hoe ; invented, improved, and
manufactured by themselves.

Tuomas Autcock, of Radcliffe-on-Trent, Notts: for his Horse-hoe, for single drill
ridge and flat; invented and manufactured by himself.

JONATHAN STarKer, of Penrith, Cumberland: for his Horse-hoe, for single drill
ridge and flat ; invented, improved, and manufactured by himself.

Wurm Smita, of Kettering, Northamptonshire: for his General Purpose Horse-
hoe; invented, improved, and manufactured by himself.

Award of Implement Prizes at Leeds. XXXV

Horst- RAKES.

J. axv F. Howanp: the Prize of Trw Soverrrens, for their Horse Rake ; in-
vented and manufactured by themselves.

Haymakine MaAcuHrnes.

J. ANd F. Howarp: the Prize of Srx Sovererens, for their Hay-making
Machine ; invented and manufactured by themselves. :

W. N. Nicuotson, of Newark-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire: the Prize of Four
Sovererens, for his Hay-making Machine; invented, improved, and
manufactured by himself.

Grass-Mowine Macurines.

W. M. Cranston, of 58, King William Street, London Bridge: the Prize of
Ercur Sovergtens, for his Grass-Mowing Machine (not combined) ; in-
vented and manufactured by Walter A. Wood, of Hoosick Falls, New
York.

BuraeEss AND Kry, of 95, Newgate Street, London : the Prize of Srven;Sovz-
REIGNS, for their GrAss-Mowrye MAcurIne (not combined); invented by
W. Burgess, of 95, Newgate Street, and manufactured by the exhibitors.

Henry Busnet, General Manager for the North of England Implement Com-
pany, York: the Prize of Five Sovererrens, for their Grass-Mowing
Machine (not combined); invented by Mr. Ball, Ohio, United States ;
improved and manufactured by B. Samuelson, Britannia Works, Banbury.

WAGGONS AND CARTS.

Tomas Mitrorp AND Son, of the West of England Wheel Works, Thor-
verton, Collumpton, Devonshire: the Prize of Srven SoveRerens, for
their Pair Horse Waggon; invented, improved, and manufactured by
themselves.

Tue Trustees oF WiLLIAM CrosskiLL: the Prize of TorEr SovEREIGns, for
their Pair Horse Waggons; invented by W. Crosskill, improved and
manufactured by the exhibitors.

Nan TrusTEEs oF WILLIAM CrossKILL: the Prize of Srven Sovereiens ; for
their other Waggons; improved and manufactured by the exhibitors.
Tsomas Mirorp AND Son: the Prize of Turem Sovererriens, for their

Waggons; invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves.

Tue TrusTEES oF WILLIAM CrosskILL: the Prize of Srx Sovrreiens, for
their Single Horse Carts; improved and manufactured by the exhibitors.

Tomas Mumrorp anp Son: the Prize of Two Soverntens, for his Single
Horse Carts ; invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves.

Tur Buspy AcRicuLtuRAL ImpLEMENT Company: the Prize of ONE Sove-
rEIGN for their Single Horse Carts; invented by W. Lister, Dunsa
Bank, Richmond; improved by W. Busby, and manufactured by the
exhibitors.

Tue Trustees or WitLtaAM CrosskiLi: the Prize of Six Soverztens, for
their Two Horse Carts; improved and manufactured by themselves.
Joun Spencer, of Doncaster, Yorkshire ; the Prize of Two SoveEretens, for

his Two Horse Carts ; invented, improved, and manufactured by himself.

JouN Barker, of Dunnington, York; the Prize of Two SovEreiens; for
his Two Horse Carts ; invented and manufactured by himself.

Tar Trusters or WitL1am CrosskiLu: the Prize of Five Sovererens, for
their Harvest Cart; invented by J. Hannam, Esq., of Burcott Park,
Oxon; improved and manufactured by the exhibitors.

-PuckrriIne AND Houteats, of Beverly and Scarborough, Yorkshire : the Prize
‘of Toren Sovereteans, for their Market or Sporting Cart ; improved.and
manufactured by themselves.

d2

XXKV1 Award of Implement Prizes at Leeds.

Trustees oF WinLIAM CrosskILL: the Prize of Two Sovmrerens, for their
Light Spring Cart ;-improved and manufactured by themselves.
CoMMENDED. :
Epmunp Butxep, of Witheridge, Devonshire: for his Pair Horse Waggon; in-
vented, improved, and manufactured by himself.

Hayes AND Son, of Scotgate Works, Stamford, Lincolnshire; for their One-horse
Cart; invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves.

MISCELLANEOUS.

MEDALS.

Witxisson, Wricut, AND Co., of Boston, Lincolnshire: a Silver Medal for
their Straw Elevator ; invented and manufactured by themselves.

R. anp J. Reeves: a Silver Medal for their Patent Weeding Paddle or Thistle
Destroyer ; invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibitors.
SAMSON AND JEWELL, of St. Heliers, Jersey: a Silver Medal for their Com-
bined Paring and Breaking Cultivator; invented by William H. Samson,

of Jersey ; and manufactured by Gallichan, of Jersey.

Muscrave Broruers, Ann-street Iron Works, and 59, High-street, Belfast,
Ireland: a Silver Medal for their Iron Cow House Fittings; invented and
manufactured by themselves.

W. 5. Unperurnt, of Newport, Salop: a Silver Medal for his Patent Sheep
Rack ; invented, improved, and manufactured by himself.

Mirron anv Co., of Lincoln: a Silver Medal for their Rotary Corn Screen,
with adjustable wires; invented, improved, and manufactured by them-
selves.

SamurL DeEnison AND Son, Sidney-street, Vicar-lane, Leeds, Yorkshire: a
Silver Medal for their Waggon Weighing Machine; invented by Samuel
Denison ; and manufactured by the exhibitors.

HigHiy CoMMENDED.

Muscrave Brotuers: for their Patent Iron Cow House Fittings; invented and
manufactured by themselves.

COMMENDED.

H. J. Morton anv Co., of Basinghall-street, Leeds, Yorkshire: for their Cattle,
Cart, or Implement Shed ; manufactured by themselves.

E. H. Benraut, of Heybridge, near Maldon, Essex: for his Patent Turnip Cutter
for Beasts (marked R C A); invented, improved, and manufactured by
himself.

E. H. Benvaru: for his Patent Bean Kibblers (marked BK C); invented, im-
proved, and manufactured by himself.

E. H. Benta: for his Turnip Cutter for Sheep (marked R C A) ; invented, im-
proved, and manufactured by himself.

Sprar AND Jackson, of Etna Works, Sheffield, Yorkshire: for their Cast Steel
Digging Spades: invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves.

James BurnuEyY AND WitiiAm Nicuors, of Old Victoria Foundry, Leeds,
Yorkshire: for their Flax Straw Breaking Machine; invented by Henry
Gardner, Leeds, and improved and manufactured by themselves.

Francis Morton anp Co., of James-street, Liverpool, Lancashire: for their
Removable Shed Roof; inveuted by Francis Morton; and manufactured by
the exhibitors.

Wittram Scorr Unvernrit, Newport, Salop: for his Grain Elevator ; invented
and patented by John and Henry Bruckshaw and W. 8. Underhill, and manu-
factured by the exhibitor. ‘

Awards at Leeds : Cheese—Butter— Wool. XXXV11

PRIZES GIVEN BY THE LEEDS LOCAL COMMITTEE.

CHEESE.

Tuomas Dawkins Appiesy, of 61, Briggate, Leeds: the Prize of Five Sove-
rEIG@NS, for his Cheese, weiching not less than 28 lbs., nor less than 6
months old.

Tomas Dawkins AppLEBY: the Prize of Turee Soverertans, for his Cheese,
weighing not less than 28 lbs. ; nor less than 6 months old.

Brngamin ATKINSON, of Manston Lodge, Whitkirk, near Leeds: the Prize of
THREE Sovererens, for his 6 Cream Cheeses.

Bourter.

Mary Anpry, of Crimple, Knaresborough, York: the Prize of Fiver Sove-
REIGNS, for her Best, one or more, rolls or pats of Butter, weighing not
less than 20 lbs.

Witiiam BrapLtey WarnMAN, of Carhead, Cross Hills, Yorkshire: the Prize
of ''urEE Soveretans, for his Best, one or more, rolls or pats of Butter,
weighing not less than 5 lbs.

Woot.

EnizasetH Barrosy, of Dishforth, Thirsk, Yorkshire: the Prize of Trex
Soverriens, for her Six Fleeces of Long-woolled Leicester, shorn from
sheep 1 year old.

CuristopHEeR Barrosy, of Baldersby, Thirsk, Yorkshire: the Prize of TEN
Soveretcns, for his Six Fleeces of Long-woolled Leicester, shorn from
sheep 1 year old.

Messrs. I’. C. anv J. B. Booru, of Killerby, Catterick, Yorkshire: the Prize
of Ten Soveretans, for their Six Fleeces of Leicester, shorn from two or
three shear sheep.

CHRISTOPHER Barrospy: the Prize of Five Soveretens, for his Six Fleeces of
Longwoolled Leicester, shorn from sheep 2 or 4 years old.

Messrs. T. C. and J. B. Boorn: the Prize of TEN Soverertens, for their Six
Fleeces of Leicester, shorn from two and three shear sheep.

CuRIsToPHER Barrosy: the Prize of Five Soverertens, for his Six Fleeces of
Long-woolled Leicester, shorn from sheep 2 to 4 years old.

’ Tuomas Horron, of Harnage Grange, Shrewsbury, Salop: the Prize of Trn
Soverertans, for his Six Fleeces of Shropshire, shorn from sheep about 13
months old.

Aww Baker, of Grendon, Atherstone, Warwick: the Prize of FrvE Sovs-
REIGNS, for her Shropshire Down, shorn from sheep 1 year and 2 months
old.

Tuomas Horron: the Prize of Ten Soverrieans, for his Shropshire, shorn
from sheep 2 years old and upwards.

Epwarp Houianp, of Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, Gloucestershire : the Prize
of Five Sovereriens, for his Shropshire, shorn from sheep of various ages.

Lorp Watsinecuam, Merton Hall, Thetford, Norfolk : the Prize of TEN Sovz-
REIGNS, for his Southdown, shorn from sheep 14 months old.

Lorp Sonpes, of Elmham Hall, Thetford, Norfolk: the Prize of FrvE SovE-
REIGNS, for his pure Southdown, shorn from sheep 15 months old.

Lorp WausineHam : the Prize of Tren Sovererens, for his Southdown, shorn
from sheep 26 months old.

Lorp Sonpes: the Prize of Five Soverriens, for his pure Southdown, shorn
from sheep 2 to 4 years old.

COMMENDED.
Lorp WatsitncHam: for his Southdown, shorn from sheep 26 months old.

XXXVili Awards at Leeds: Flax.

Fax.

JamEes Mannine, of Trent House, Gainsborough, Lincolnshire: the Prize of
NINE Soverrtens, for his Green Flax, grown on warp soil, from Riga seed
ouce grown in England; 2 bushels per acre.

Lorp Kiynatrp, of Rossie Priory, Inchture, Perth: the Prize of Srx SovE-
REIGNS, for his Green Flax, grown on alluvial clay, Dutch seed; 2
bushels per acre.

JamEs Mannine: the Prize of Twenve Sovrrntens, for his Green Flax,
grown on warp soil, from Riga seed once grown in England; 2 bushels
per acre.

THomas Large Hentey, of South Place, Calne, Wiltshire: the Prize of
FIrreEeN Sovereiens, for his Green Flax, grown from English seed; 2
bushels per acre.

Jamus Mannine: the Prize of Tun Soverziens, for his Green Flax, grown
on warp soil, from Riga seed; 2 bushels per ¢ acre.

JouN Wetts, of Booth-Ferry House, Howden, Yorkshire: the Prize of Five
Sovrereians, for his Green Flax, grown on old warp land, from barrel
seed; 2 bushels per acre.

James GARTH AND ARTHUR MarsHat, of the Patrington Flax Works,
Patrington, Hull, Yorkshire: the Prize of TWENTY SovEREIGNS, for their
Prepared Flax, mill scutched, 5 ewt.

Rosert Cuass, of Eye, Suffolk: "the Prize of Tux Soverrtens, for his Pre-
pared Flax, mill seutched, 5 ewt.

RicHARD BIeLby, of Crambeck Welborn, Yorkshire: the Prize of Frvn Sovz-
REIGNS, for his Prepared Flax, mill scutched, 5 cwt., grown from Riga
seed ; 2 bushels per acre.

RicHAaRD “BIELBY : the Prize of Twenty Sovrrriens, for his Prepared Flax,
hand seutched,5 cwt., grown from Riga seed ; 2 ‘bushels per acre.

JAMES Mannine Mihe Prize of TEx SoVEREIGNS, for his Pr epared Flax, hand
scutched, 5 cw, grown on warp land, from English seed, sown 10th
April, 1860 ; 2 bushels per acre.

JAMES BEACHELL, of Rawcliffe, Selby, Yorkshire: the Prize of Fivu Sovr-
REIGNS, for his Prepared Flax, hand scutched, 5 cwt., grown on old warp
land, from English white flower seed ; 2 bushels per acre.

nae Renee en aan ad A

{ .xmxix- ;)

Essays and Reports.

AWARDS FOR 1859.

Crass IY.

The Essays in this Class were not considered worthy of the Prize
offered.

Cuass VIII.
The Essays in this Class were not considered worthy of the
Prize.
Crass IX.

The Prize of 107. was awarded to Professor Tanner, for his
Essay on the Breeding of Farm Stock.

AWARDS FOR 1860.

Crass VI.

The Essays in this Class were not considered worthy of the Prize.

Cuass VII.
The Prize of 10/. was awarded to Messrs. Raynbird, of Haslewood
Park, Basingstoke, for the best Essay on the Adulteration of Seeds.
Cuass IX.

The Essays in this Class were not considered worthy of the Prize
offered.

xl Awards for Essays and Reports.

AWARDS FOR 1861.

Crass I.

The Karl of Powis’ special Prize of 50]. was awarded to Mr.
Wittiuam Wricut, of Sigglesthorne Hall, for his Report on the
Improvement in the Farming of Yorkshire since the date of the
last Reports in the Journal.

Cuass IL.

The Prize of 507. was awarded to the Rev. J. Witxkmyson, of
Broughton Gifford Rectory, for the best Report on the Agricul-
ture of Hampshire.

Crass IIT.

In this Class (Drainage) there was no competition.

Crass VI.

The Prize of 10/7. was awarded to Mr. Tuomas Bowicx, of Stone-
leigh Abbey Farm, for the best Essay on the Rearing of Calves.

The Essay by Major Srantey McCuintock, of Randal’s Town,
Ireland, was commended.
Cuass VII.
The Prize of 10]. was awarded to Mr. Perrr Love, of Northamp-
ton, for the best Essay on Harvesting Corn.
Cuass VIII.

The Prize of 10/7. was awarded to Mr. CHartes WrATIsLAW, late
of Woolscott, near Rugby, for the best Essay on Farm Capital.

The Essay by Mr. Arcutpatp Smiru, of Edinburgh, on the Home
Manufacture of Portable Manures, was commended.

( xii )

Lssaps and Meports.—PRIZES FOR 1862.—All Prizes of the

| Royal Agricultural Society of England are open to general com-
petition. Competitors will be expected to consider and discuss the
heads enumerated.

I. AGRICULTURE OF STAFFORDSHIRE.

Frrty Soverriens will be given for the best Report on the
Agriculture of Staffordshire.

The principal geological and physical features of the county should be
described ; the nature of the Soil and character of the Farming in its
different districts or natural divisions ; its Live Stock ; Implements ;

“recent changes of Farm Management; Improvements lately intro-
duced and still required; remarkable or characteristic Farms; the
influences exercised by neighbouring mines and factories on the
cropping of the soil, the value of land, the rate of prices and
wages, and on the demand for timber, and consequently on the
profitable management of woods and plantations.

Il. SUBSOILING VERSUS DOUBLE-PLOUGHING.

TWENTY SOVEREIGNS will be given for the best Essay on the com-
parative merits of Subsoiling, Trenching, and Double-
Ploughing.

The comparative cost of these several modes of cultivation ; their influ-
ence on different crops, on the germination of seed-weeds, and the
destruction of root-weeds ; the supplies of manure required in each

case are to be contrasted, and the most seasonable manner of con-
ducting the work described.

Til. STEAM-POWER AND THRESHING-MACHINES.

TWENTY SOVEREIGNS will be given for the best Essay on the com-
parative advantages of Fixed or Moveable Steam-Power,
and of the Single and Double Dressing Threshing-
Machine.

The cost of repairs and allowance required for depreciation in each case
are to be carefully examined; the labour and waste incidental to
threshing in the field and in the barn; and the applicability of the
steam-power to other purposes should be contrasted : in the case of
the threshing-machines, the weight of the machine and the require-
ments of the market in respect of samples should be considered.

xiii Prizes for Essays and Reports.

Iv. HAYMAKING.

Tren SoverEIGNS will be given for the best Essay on Recent
Improvements in Haymaking.

Vv.

Tren Soverricns will be given for the best Hssay on any other
Agricultural Subject.

Some further subjects for prizes will probably be announced in the Agri-
cultural newspapers in November, as well as in the next Number of this
Journal.

Reports or Essays competing for the Prizes must be sent to the Secre-
tary of tke Society, at 12, Hanover Square, London, on or before
March 1, 1862. Contributors of Papers are requested to retain Copies

of their Communications, as the Society cannot be responsible for their
return.

Rugs, &c.

Prizes for Essays and Reports. xliii

RULHS OF COMPETITION FOR PRIZE BESSAYS.

1. All information contained in Prize Essays shall be founded on experience
or observation, and not on simple reference to books or other sources. Com-
petitors are requested to use foolscap or large letter paper, and not’ to write on
both sides of the leaf.

2. Drawings, specimens, or models, drawn or constructed to a stated scale,
shall accompany writings requiring them,

8. All competitors shall enclose their names and addresses in a sealed cover,
on which only their motto, the subject of their Essay, and the number of that
subject in the Prize List of the Society, shall be written.*

4, The President or Chairman of the Council for the time being shall open
the cover on which the motto designating the Essay to which the Prize has
been awarded is written, and shall declare the name of the author.

5. The Chairman of the Journal Committee shall alone be empowered to
open the motto-paper of any Essay not obtaining the Prize, that he may think
likely to be useful for the Society’s objects; with a view of consulting the
writer confidentially as to his i to place such Essay at the disposal
of the Journal Committee.

6. The copyright of all Essays gaining Prizes shall belong to the Society,
who shall accordingly have the power to publish the whole or any part of such
Essays; and the other Essays will be returned on the application of the
writers ; but the Society do not make themselves responsible for their loss.

7. The Society are not bound to award a prize unless they consider one of
the Essays" deserving of it.

8. In all reports of experiments the expenses shall be accurately detailed.

9. The imperial weights and measures only are those by which calculations
are to be made.

10. No prize shall be given for any Essay which has been already in print.

11. Prizes may be taken in money or plate, at the option of the successful
candidate.

12. All Essays must be addressed to the Secretary, at the house of the
Society.

* Competitors are requested to write their motto on the enclosed paper on which
their names are written, as well as on the outside of the envelope.

( xiv)
Members’ Pribileaes of Chemical Analpsis.

Tue Council have fixed the following rates of Charge for Analyses to
be made by the Consulting Chemist for the bond-fide use of Members
of the Society; who (to avoid all unnecessary correspondence) are
particularly requested, when applying to him, to mention the kind of
analysis they require, and to quote its number in the subjoined schedule.
The charge for analysis, together with the carriage of the specimens,
must be paid to him by members at the time of their application.

No, 1.—An opinion of the genuineness of Peruvian guano, bone-

dust, or oil-cake (each sample) .. Pe od) 8 on
» 2—An analysis of guano; showing the propor ‘tion of moisture,

organic matter, sand, phosphate of lime, alkaline salts,

and ammonia So . 0s.

», 3.—An estimate of the value (relatively to the average of
samples in the market) of sulphate and muriate of am-

monia, and of the nitrates of potash and soda .. ~) se:
» 4.—An analysis of superphosphate of lime for soluble phos-

phates only we allOs:
»» 5.—-An analysis of superphosphate of Time, showing the pro-

portions of moisture, organic matter, sand, soluble and

insoluble phosphates, sulphate of lime, and ammonia .. £1.
,, 6.—An analysis (sufficient for the determination of its agricul-

tural value) of any ordinary artificial manure .. Sp eal
,», 7.—Limestone :—the proportion of lime, 7s. 6d.; the propor-

tion of magnesia, 10s. ; the proportion of lime and mag-

nesia : 5 lis.
», 98.—Limestone or marls, including carbonate, " phosphate, and

sulphate of lime, and magnesia with sand and Clay ese eel
» 9 —Partial analysis of a soil, including determinations of clay,

sand, organic matter, and carbonate oflime .. * .. £1.
ap Os —Complete analysis of a ’soil .. s5ah

», 11.—An analysis of oil-cake, or other substance used for feeding
purposes; showing the proportion of moisture, oil,
mineral matter, albuminous matter, and woody fibre :

as well as of starch, gum, and sugar, in the aggregate Ste
,, 12.—Analyses of any vegetable product . O9 rae coal
» 13.—Analyses of animal products, refuse substances used for
manure, &c, og 0 from 10s. to 30s.
,, 14.—Determination of the “hardness” of a sample of water
before and after boiling .. oe ape Os:
aL: —Analysis of water of land drainage, “and of water used for
irrigation .. af nme.
ory alles —Determination of nitric acid in a sample of water . ; pee ell,

N.B.—The above Scale of Charges is not applicable to the case of persons
commercially engaged in the Manufacture or Sale of any Substance sent for
Analysis.

The Address of the Consulting Chemist of the Society is, Dr. Aucustus
Vortcker, Cirencester, Gloucestershire, to which he requests that all letters
and parcels (postage and carriage paid) should be directed: for the convenience,
however, of persons residing in London, parcels sent to the Society’s Office, No.
125 Hanover Square, W., will be forwarded to Cirencester once or twice a week.

2

a ce
sHembers’ Weterinary Privileges.

I.—Sernrious or Extenstve DIsEAses.

No. 1. Any Member of the Society who may desire professional attendance
and special advice in cases of serious or extensive disease among his cattle,
sheep, or pigs, and will address a letter to the Secretary, will, by return of
post, receive a reply stating whether it be considered necessary that Professor
Simonds, the Society’s Veterinary Inspector, should visit the place where the
disease prevails.

No. 2. The remuneration of the Inspector will be 2/. 2s. each day as a
professional fee, and 17. 1s. each day for personal expenses ; and he will also
be allowed to charge the cost of travelling to and from the locality where his
services may have been required. The fees will be paid by the Society, but
the travelling expenses will be a charge against the applicant. This charge
may, however, be reduced or remitted altogether at the discretion of the Council,
on such step being recommended to them by the Veterinary Committee.

No. 3. The Inspector, on his return from visiting the diseased stock, will
report to the Committee, in writing, the results of his observations and pro-
ceedings, which Report will be laid before the Council.

No. 4. When contingencies arise to prevent a personal discharge of the
duties confided to the Inspector, he may, subject to the approval of the Com-
mittee, name some competent professional person to act in his stead, who shall
receive the same rates of remuneration.

I1.—Orpinary or Oruer Cases or DIsEAse.

Members may obtain the attendance of the Veterinary Inspector on any
case of disease by paying the cost of his visit, which will be at the following
rate, viz., 2. 2s. per diem, and travelling expenses.

III.—ConsuLtTatTIons WITHOUT VISIT.

Personal consultation with Veterinary Inspector et ar bs:
Consultation by letter .. a ws i 33 say 58:
Consultation necessitating the writing of three or more letters. 10s.
Post-mortem examination, and report thereon .. sc loss

A return of the number of applications during each half-year being required
from the Veterinary Inspector.

IV.—Apmisston oF DiszaseD ANIMALS TO THE VETERINARY COLLEGE;
Investications, LeorurEs, AND ReEports.

No. 1. All Members of the Society have the privilege of sending cattle,
sheep, and pigs to the Infirmary of the Royal Veterinary College, on the same
terms as if they were Members of the College; viz., by paying for the keep
and treatment of cattle 10s. 6d. per week each animal, and for sheep and
pigs “‘a small proportionate charge to be fixed by the Principal according to
circumstances.”

No. 2. The College has also undertaken to investigate such particular classes
of disease, or special subjects connected with the application of the Veterinary
art to cattle, sheep, and pigs, as may be directed by the Council.

No. 3. In addition to the increased number of lectures now given by
Professor Simonds—the Lecturer on Cattle Pathology—to the pupils in the
Royal Veterinary College, he will also deliver such lectures before the Members
of the Society, at their house in Hanover Square, as the Council shall decide.

No. 4. The Royal Veterinary College will from time to time furnish to the
Council a detailed Report of the cases of cattle, sheep, and pigs treated in the
Infirmary.

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( xlvii_ )

Ropal Aqricultural Society of England.
1862.

PrestVent.
LORD PORTMAN.

Trustees.

AcLAND, Sir Tuomas Dyke, Bart., Killerton Park, Exeter, Devonshire.
Berners, Lord, Keythorpe Hall, Leicester.

Bramston, THomas Wiuitam, M.P., Skreens, Chelmsford, Essex.
CHALLONER, Colonel, Portnall Park, Staines, Middlesex.
Frversuam, Lord, Helmsley, York.

Marizorouau, Duke of, Blenheim Park, Oxford.

Portman, Lord, Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset.

Powis, Harl of, Powis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.
Rut.Land, Duke of, Belvoir Castle, Grantham, Lincolnshire.

Sue xey, Sir Jonn Vittrers, Bart, M.P., Maresfield Park, Sussex.
Spreaker, The Rt. Hon. the, Ossington, Newark-on-Trent, Notts.
Tuomeson, Harry Sreruen, M.P., Kirby Hall, York.

Vice-PrestVents.

Asnpurton, Lord, The Grange, Alresford, Hampshire.

Barker, Tuomas Raymonp, Hambledon, Henley-on-Thames, Oxfordshire.
Cuicuesrer, Earl of, Stanmer Park, Lewes, Sussex.

Downsuire, Marquis of, Hast Hampstead Park, Bracknell, Berkshire.
Hemont, Karl of, Cowdray Park, Petworth, Sussex.

Everstey, Viscount, Hecifield Place, Hartford Bridge, Hants.

Exerer, Marquis of, Burleigh House, Stamford, Lincolnshire.

Hitt, Viscount, Hawhstone Park, Salop.

JOHNSTONE, Sir Joun V. B., Bart., M.P., Hackness Hall, Scarborough, Yorkshire.
Mites, Sir Winu1AM, Bart., M.P., Leigh Court, Bristol, Somersetshire.
WatsincHam, Lord, Merton Hall, Thetford, Norfolk.

@Other FHlembers of Council.

AcLAND, THomas Dyxke, Sprydoncote, Exeter, Devonshire.

» Amos, CHARLES Epwarps, Greenfield House, Sutton, Surrey.

BaRNETT, CHARLES, Stratton Park, Biggleswade, Bedfordshire.

Barturorp, NATHANIEL GEorGE, Cretingham Rookery, Wickham Market, Suffolk.
BRANDRETH, Humpnrey, Houghton House, Dunstable, Bedfordshire.

Buuuer, JAMes WEeNtTWorRtH, M.P., Downes, Crediton, Devonshire.

CANTRELL, CHARLES S., Riding Court Farm, Datchet, Bucks.

Cartucart, Earl, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

Cavenpisy, Hon. Winitam Grorce, M.P., Latimer, Chesham, Bucks.

Corton, Colonel the Hon. W. H. S., Cherry Hill, Malpas, Cheshire.

VOL, XXII. a

xlvili List of Officers.

Dent, J. D., M.P., Ribston Hall, Wetherby, Yorkshire.

Druce, Josrpu, Lynsham, Oxford.

Exar, Witi1am, Reading, Berkshire.

Gisss, B, T. Branpreru, Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, London, W.
Hamonp, Antony, Westacre Hall, Brandon, Norfolk.

Hoses, Wini1Am Fisurr, Boxted Lodge, Colchester, Essex.

Hoop, Colonel the Hon. A. Netson, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, Berlshire.
Hoskyns, CHANDOS WREN, Harewood, Ross, Herefordshire.

Hoiuanp, Epwarp, M.P., Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, Worcestershire.
Hopson, Joun, Castleacre Lodge, Brandon, Norfolk.

Homperston, Pamir Srapyiron, M.P., Mollington, Chester, Cheshire.
Horton, Wiuu1aM, Gate Burton, Gainsboro’, Yorkshire.

JONAS, SAMUEL, Chrishall Grange, Saffron Walden, Essex.

Kerrison, Sir Epwarp Ciarence, Bart., M-P., Brome Hall, Scole, Norfolk.
Lawes, Joun Bennet, Rothamsted, St. Albans, Herts.

LAWRENCE, Cuanues, Cirencester, Gloucestershire.

Leteu, Lord, Stoneleigh Abbey, Warwickshire.

Mitwarp, Ricuarp, Thurgarton Priory, Southwell, Notts.

Pan, Tuomas, Laverstock Hall, Salisbury, Wilts.

Porr, Epwarp, Great Toller, Maiden Newton, Dorset.

RANDELL, Cuarzes, Chadbury, Evesham, Worcestershire.

Riepen, W., Hove, Brighton, Sussex.

Sanpay, Witt1am, Holmepierrepont, Notts.

SaurrLeworrn, Josupn, Melville Street, Lincoln.

Stanegy, Rosert Acuionsy, M.P., Walford Manor, Shrewsbury, Shropshire.
Suirn, Roperr, Lmmett’s Grange, Southmolton, Devon.

Sranuorg, James Banks, M.P., Revesby Abbey, Boston, Lincolnshire.
STRADBROKE, Earl of, Henham Park, Wangford, Suffolk.

Torr, WiuutaM, Aylesby, Great Grimsby, Lincolnshire.

TowNeELeEy, Lieut.-Colonel Cuaries, Towneley Park, Blackburn, Lancashire.
TREDEGAR, Lord, Tredegar, Newport, Monmouthshire.

TurRNER, GuorGe, Beacon Downes, Lueter, Devonshire.

Vernon, Hon. Avueustus H., Orgreave Hall, Lichfield, Staffordshire,
Wattis, OWEN, Overstone Grange, Northampton.

Wess, Jonas, Babraham, Cambridge.

Wetts, Wiuu1AM, Redleaf, Penshurst, Kent.

Wesrern, Tuomas Burcu, Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex.

Witson, Henry, Stowlangtoft Hall, Bury-St.-Edmunds, Suffolk.

Wuson, Professor, Iver, Uxbridge, Bucks.

Wyny, Sir Watkin Witiiams, Bart, M.P., Rhuabon, Denbighshire.

Secretary.
H. HALL DARE, 12, Hanover Square, London, W.

Consulting-Chemist—Dr, AuGustus VOELCKER, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester,
Veterinary-Inspector—JAMES BEART Simonps, Royal Veterinary College, N.W.
Consulting Engineer —JAMES Easton, or C. E. Amos, Grove, Southwark, S.B.
Seedsmen—Tuomas Grpps and Co., Corner of Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, W.
Publisher—Joun Murray, 50, Albemarle Street, W.

Bankers—Messrs. DRUMMOND, Charing Cross, S.W,

STANDING COMMITTEES FOR 1862.

Finance Committee.

Hoop, Hon. Col. NELson.
VERNON, Hon. A. H.
BARNETT, CHARLES.

Bramston, T. W., M.P.
Hopss, WM. FISHER.
Torr, WILLIAM.

Bouse Committee.

THE PRESIDENT.

CHAIRMAN of Finance Committee.
CAVENDISH, Hon. W. G., M.P.
Hoop, Hon. Col. NELSON.
SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P.

BRANDRETH, HUMPHREY.
CHALLONER, Colonel.
Gripes, B. T. BRANDRETH.
Hoses, WM. FISHER.

Sournal Comimtttec.

CATHCART, Earl.

PorTMAN, Lord.

SPEAKER, The Rt. Hon. THE.
SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P.
JOHNSTONE, Sir J. V. B., Bt., M.P.
ACLAND, T. DYKE.

HOuuann, Ep., M.P.

*Hoskyns, C. WREN.

MILWARD, RICHARD.
THomrson, H. S., M.P.
WALLIS, OWEN.

Chemical Committec.

VERNON, Hon. A. H.

JOHNSTONE, Sir J. V. B., Bt., M.P.
Mites, Sir W., Bt., M.P.
ACLAND, T. DYKE.

DavuBENY, Dr.

Hoskyns, C. WREN,

Hup$gon, JOHN,

Humeerston, P. S., M.P.
HUXTABLE, Rey. A.
LaweEs, J. B.

HOLLAND, ED., M.P.
Dent, J. D., M.P.
THompson, H. S., M.P.

Veterinary Committee.

SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P.
JOHNSTONE, Sir J. V. B., Bt., M.P.
Mites, Sir Wo., Bt., M.P.
BARKER, THOS. RAYMOND.
BRANDRETH, HUMPHREY.
CHALLONER, Colonel.

Gress, B. T. BRANDRETH.

Hamonp, ANTHONY.
Hopgs, WM. FISHER,
Paty, THos.

Spionps, Professor.
SPOONER, Professor.
Tuompson, H. S., M.P.
WELLs, W.

Stock-Prises Committee.

WALSINGHAM, Lord.
SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P.
Hoop, Hon. Col. NELSON.
BARNETT, CHARLES.
Barrnropp, NATHANIEL G.
DRUCE, JOSEPH.

Gress, B. T. BRANDRETH.
Hopes, WM. FIsHER.
HOLLAND, Ep., M.P.
Hopson, JOHN.

JONAS, SAMUEL.

MiILwarp, RICHARD.
Paty, THOMAS.
Pops, EDWARD.
RANDELL, CHAS.
RIGDEN, WM.
Smitu, ROBERT.
Smuonps, Professor.
Torr, WILLIAM.
TOWNELEY, Lieut.-Col.
TURNER, GEORGE.
WEBB, JONAS.

e 2

| Standing Committees for 1862.

Emplement Committee.

CAVENDISH, Hon. W. G., M.P. EXALL, WILLIAM.

Hoop, Hon. Col. Neison. Gipss, B. T. BRANDRETH.
VERNON, Hon. A. H. Hamonp, ANTHONY.
SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P. Hopes, WM. FIsHEr.
MILEs, Sir Wn., Bt., M.P. Hoskyns, C. WREN.
Amos, C. E. SHUTTLEWORTH, JOSEPH.
BaRNETT, CHARLES. THoompson, H. 8., M.P.
BRANDRETH, HUMPHREY. Torr, WILLIAM.
CALDWELL, H. B. WALLIS, OWEN.
CANTRELL, CIIAs. WILSON, Professor.

CHALLONER, Colonel.

London Show Committee.

Powis, Earl of (Chairman). BARNETT, CHARLES.
DownsuirE, Marquis of. Bramston, T. W., M.P.
FEVERSHAM, Lord. BRANDRETH, HUMPHREY.
LricH, Lord. Carr, J., M.P.
PorTMAN, Lord. CANTRELL, CHAS. 8S.
TALBOT DE MALAHIDE, Lord. CHALLONER, Colonel.

W ALSINGHAM, Lord. Gipss, B. T. BRANDRETH.
SPEAKER, The Rt. Hon. THE. Hoprs, WM. FIsHEer.
Hamitton, Rt. Hon. R. C. Nisper, M.P. Hoskyns, C. WREN.
CAVENDISH, Hon. WM. G., M.P. JONAS, SAMUEL.

Hoop, Hon. Col. NELSON. Minwarp, RicHaArp.
VERNON, Hon. A. H. Paty, THOs.

JOHNSTONE, Sir J. V. B., Bt., M.P. Tuompson, H. S., M.P.
SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P. Torr, WILLIAM.

Cool Committee.

Powls, Earl of. Hupson, JOnN.
WALSINGHAM, Lord. SmitH, Roperr.
Hoop, Hon. Col. NELSON. Tuompson, H. 8., M.P.
Gibss, B. T. BRANDRETH. Torr, WILLIAM.
Hosss, W. FISHER. WILsoN, Professor.

HOLLAND, Epwarp, M.P.

Foreign Stock Committee.

Powis, Earl of. Gripes, B. T. BRANDRETH.
FrversHAM, Lord. Hopps, WM. FISHER.
CAVENDISH, Hon. W. G., M.P. MiILWArb, KicHAarD.
Hoop, Hon. Col. NELSON, TREHONNAIS, Mons. DE LA.
Dent, J. D., M.P. WELLS, WM.

* * The PRESIDENT, TRUSTEES, and VICE-PRESIDENTS are Members ez officio of all
: Committees.

MEMORANDA.

Avpress or Lerrers.—The Society’s office being situated in the postal district
designated by the letter WW, members, in their correspondence with the
Secretary, are requested to subjoin that letter to the usual address.

GENERAL MEETING in London, May 22, 1862, at Twelve o'clock.
MEETING in Battersea Park, London, commencing June 23, 1862.
GENERAL Meretine in London, in December, 1862.

Monruiy Councin (for transaction of business), at 12 o’clock on the first Wed-
nesday in every month, excepting January, September, and October: open
only to Members of Council and Governors of the Society.

Weekty Counctx (for practical communications), at 12 o’clock on all Wednesdays
in February, March, April, May, June, and July, excepting the first Wednesday
in each of those months, and during adjournment: open to all Members of the
Society, who are particularly invited by the Council to avail themselves of
this privilege.

ADJOURNMENTS.—The Council adjourn over Easter, Passion, and Whitsun weeks,
when those weeks do not include the first Wednesday of the month; from the
first Wednesday in August to the first Wednesday in November; and fiom the
first Wednesday in December to the first Wednesday in February.

Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs.—Members have the privilege of applying to
the Veterinary Committee of the Society ; and of sending animals to the Royal
Veterinary College, on the same terms as if they were subscribers to the
College.—(A statement of these privileges will be found in the present
Appendix.)

Cuemicat Anatysis.—The privileges of Chemical Analysis enjoyed by Membets
of the Society will be found stated in the Appendix of the present volume.

Locat CuEques.—Members are particularly requested not to forward Country
Cheques for payment in London; but London Cheques, or Post-office
Orders on Vere-street (payable to H. Hatt Dare), in lieu of them. All
Cheques are required to bear upon them a penny draft or receipt stamp,
which must be cancelled in each case by the initials of the drawer. They
may also conveniently transmit their Subscriptions to the Society, by re-
questing their Country Bankers to pay (through their London Agents) the
amount at the Society’s Office (No. 12, Hanover Square, London), between
the hours of ten and four, when official receipts, signed by the Secretary,
will be given for such payments.

New Mempers.—Every candidate for admission into the Society must be pro-
posed by a Member; the proposer to specify in writing the full name, usual
place of residence, and post-town, of the candidate, either at a Council meet-
ing, or by letter addressed to the Secretary.

Packets By Post.—Packets not exceeding two feet in length, width, or depth,
consisting of written or printed matter (but not containing letters sealed or
open), if sent without envelopes, or enclosed in envelopes open at each end,
may be forwarded by the inland post, if stamped, at the following rates :—

For a packet not exceeding 4 ounces (or quarter of a pound) . + lpenny
+> Fr. ~ 8 , (or half a pound) « ‘<i s, « & pence,
- E Ff LGPL COMONG PIOUNO vel es a) se: Ge A 53
_ a a 24 +, (oronepoundandahalf) ..6 ,
3 z re Pd pe (Omir PANG. 6 oa Ne CF Fp
{And so on in the proportion of 8 ounces for each additional 2d.}

*,.* Members may obtain on application tothe Secretary copies of an Abstract of the Charter
and Bye-Laws, of a Statement of the General Objects, &c., of the Society, of Chemical
and Veterinary Privileges, and of other printed papers connected with special depart-
ments of the Society’s business.

( lit )

Ropal Agricultural Sorctety of Gnoglany.

GENERAL MEETING,
12, Hanover Square, Wepnespay, December 11, 1861.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Since the last General Meeting in May, 3 Governors and 28
Members have died; the names of 58 Members have been re-
moved from the list on retirement or otherwise, and 163 new
Members have been elected; so that the Society now consists
of—
84 Life Governors,
95 Annual Governors,
1124 Life Members,
3399 Annual Members, and
17 Honorary Members,

making a total of 4719 names on the list of the Society at the
present time; being an increase of 86 since the date of the last
Report.

The Council have appointed the Right Hon, the Earl of
Powis a Trustee of the Society in the place of the late Right
Hon. Sir James Graham, Bart.; and have elected Mr. W. William
Wells, of Redleaf; Mr. Charles Randell, of Evesham ; and the
Hon. Colonel W. Cotton, of Malpas, General Members of the
Council, to supply the vacancies created by the resignation of
the Earls of Romney and Macclesfield, and the Hon. Colonel
Douglas Pennant, M.P.

The half-yearly statement of accounts to the 30th June, 1861,
has been examined and approved by the Auditors and Ac-
countants of the Society. The finances were never in a more
satisfactory condition than at present, the sum of 3000/. having
been lately added to the funded capital of the Society, which
now amounts to 17,4887. 17s. 10d. stock in the New Three per

Report to the General Meeting. lui

Cents.—a sum now fully representing the amount of composi-
tions which have been received from Governors and Members in
lieu of their annual subscriptions.

The collection of the arrears of subscription has been steadily
progressing under the Finance Committee ; the amount now due,
inclusive of those in arrear for the current year, being 5801. ;
and the Council hope that the new privileges accorded to the
Members will have the effect of inducing a more punctual pay-
ment in future.

A Special Committee has been appointed to consider the
question of the admission of short-hand writers or reporters from
the press to the Weekly Meetings of the Council, and it has
been determined that one reporter from each of the three Agri-
cultural Papers, viz., ‘The Mark Lane Express,’ ‘ Bell’s Weekly
Messenger,’ and the ‘ Agricultural Gazette,’ and one from the
London daily papers, shall be allowed to attend. Additional
publicity will thus be given to Papers read before the Council.

The sanguine expectations entertained by the Council as to
the success of the Leeds Meeting were fully realised. On no
former occasion had the Society’s Show Yard presented such a
thronged appearance as on the two days of entrance at 1s., when
73,824 and 40,368 persons respectively paid for admission. ‘The
total number of visitors, exclusive of many members of the
Society who for the first time exercised the privilege of free
admission, was 145,329; amongst whom must be reckoned many
of the mechanics of the town and neighbourhood, who viewed
with intelligent interest the enormous collection of newly invented
implements and magnificent stock submitted for their inspection.
The interest of the Show Yard was greatly increased by the
enclosure of a space for exercising the horses, which were thus
seen to the greatest advantage. The Mayor, assisted by a local
Committee, carried out all the arrangements in a very liberal
spirit, and entertained the Members of the Society at a conver-
sazione in the magnificent Town Hall of Leeds.

The Council regret their inability to lay before the General
Meeting a Report upon the Steam-Ploughing at Leeds, a com-
plete Report from the Judges in that department not having
been received.

The First Commissioner of Works has granted the free use of
a portion of Battersea Park for the purposes of the Metropolitan

liv Report to the General Meeting.

Meeting, and it is confidently anticipated that the large number
of visitors to London during the ensuing year will ensure a
numerous attendance in the Society’s Show Yard. The Council
have fixed that the Meeting shall take place in the week com-
mencing Monday, the 23rd of June next, and have determined
that there shall be an Exhibition of Implements, but that the
trials for fixed and portable Steam-engines, fixed and portable
Finishing-machines, Hand-dressing Machines, and Barley-hum-
mellers, being the last of the Quadrennial Series, shall be post-
poned till the following year.

It has been determined to add to the Prize-sheet classes for
Longhorned, Norfolk and Suffolk Polled, North and South
Wales, Kerry, and Alderney and Channel Islands Cattle; and
in Horses, classes for Suffolk, Carriage and Roadster Horses; in
Sheep, classes for Lincolns, Cotswolds, Hampshire Downs, and
West Country, Dorset, Oxfordshire Downs, Romney Marsh, and
Mountain and Irish Long-woolled ; and in Pigs, a class for the
Berkshire breed ; amounting in the whole to 35702. The High-
land and Agricultural Society of Scotland have offered prizes for
Scottish Stock amounting to 5977. A list of prizes for Foreign
Stock, amounting to 7502, will be transmitted to foreign countries
through Her Majesty’s Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.

A Special Committee has been appointed to confer with the
Governors of the Royal Veterinary College, in order that the
veterinary privileges of Members of this Society may be placed
on a more satisfactory footing.

In accordance with the Charter of the Society, it is necessary
to hold a Country Meeting of the Members in every year. The
Council have, therefore, determined that the same shall be held
for 1862 (pro forma) in the town of Windsor. The district for
the Society’s Country Meeting for 1863 will be that comprising
South Wales and Herefordshire, Monmouthshire, and Worcester-
shire,

An interesting paper on British Wool has been read to the
Society by Mr. Caird, M.P.; and, in order to give to the nume-
rous foreigners who may be expected to visit the Metropolis
during the ensuing year an opportunity of inspecting samples of
the wool of our native breeds and crosses, the Council have re-
solved to exhibit this product in the International Exhibition of
1862; for which purpose space has been granted by the Royal

Report to the General Meeting. lv

Commissioners ; and numerous promises of support have already
been received from members of the Society and others, engaged
in this branch of animal products, towards carrying out its due
representation.

Mr. Chadwick, C.B., has also read a Paper on the Half-time
Principle of Instruction to Children engaged in Agriculture.

The schedule of prizes offered for Essays and Reports, to
be sent in to the Secretary, by the 1st of March next, is as
follows :-—

I. AGRICULTURE OF STAFFORDSHIRE.

Fifty Sovereigns will be given for the best Report on the
Agriculture of Staffordshire.

The principal geological and physical features of the county should be
described ; the nature of the Soil and character of the Farming in its
different districts or natural divisions ; its Live Stock ; Implements ;
recent changes of Farm Management; Improvements lately intro-
duced and still required; remarkable or characteristic Farms; the
influence exercised by neighbouring mines and factories on the
cropping of the soil, the value of land, the rates of prices and
wages, and on the demand for timber, and consequently on the
profitable management of woods and plantations.

II. Sussomine versus DousiEe-PLouUGHING.

Twenty Sovereigns will be given for the best Essay on the
Comparative Merits of Subsoiling, Trenching, and
Double-ploughing.

The comparative cost of these several modes of cultivation; their influ-
ence on different crops, on the germination of seed-weeds, and the
destruction of root-weeds; the supplies of manure required in each

case are to be contrasted, and the most seasonable manner of con-
ducting the work described.

III. Steam Power anp THRESHING-MACHINES.

Twenty Sovereigns will be given’ for the best Essay on the
Comparative Advantages of Fixed or Moveable Steam-
Power, and of the Single and _ Double-dressing
Threshing-machine.

The cost of repairs and allowance required for depreciation in each case
are to be carefully examined; the labour and waste incidental to
threshing in the field and in the barn; and the applicability of the
steam-power to other purposes should be contrasted: in the case of

the threshing-machines, the weight of the machine and the require-
ments of the market in respect of samples should be considered.

lvi Report to the General Meeting.

IV. HAyMAKING.

Ten Sovereigns will be given for the best Essay on Recent
Improvements in Haymaking.

V.

Ten Sovereigns will be given for the best Essay on any other
Agricultural Subject ;

And an additional list has been approved, papers for which
competition are to be sent in by the Ist of May.

1. Thirty Sovereigns will be given for the best Essay on the
Parasites, including Entozoa, which infest cattle and

sheep.

2. Twenty Sovereigns will be given for the best Essay on
Land Valuing.

The estimates which ought to form the basis of calculation in fixing the

rental of land; the seasons most favourable for inspection; the

practicability of reducing lands under different systems of culture
to the same standard of calculation, should be discussed.

. Ten Sovereigns will be given for the best Essay on the
Management of a Home Farm, or Farm attached to the
residence of a Landed Proprietor. The arrangements in
the dairy and stable, the proper rates of charge for farm
produce or services supplied, and the advantages and
drawbacks of such a connection are to be discussed.

ish)

4, Ten Sovereigns will be given for the best Essay on the
Ravages of Grub and Slug on the Wheat-plant.

The predisposing causes from weather, or situation, or cropping, and the
best modes of prevention or cure are to be stated.

Contributors of Papers are requested to retain copies of their
communications, as the Society cannot be responsible for their
return.

The successful competitor for the Prize of 501, offered by the
Right Hon. the Earl of Powis, for the best Essay on the Im-
provement in the Farming of Yorkshire, since the date of last
Reports in the Journal, was Mr. W. Wright, of Sigglesthorne
Hall, Holderness.

Report to the General Meeting. lvii

The Society’s Prizes have been awarded as follows :—

Cuass Il. To the Rev. J. Wilkinson, Broughton Gifford Rectory,
for the best report on the Agriculture of Hampshire 5 Baht

Cxass VI. To Mr. Thomas Bowick, Stoneleigh Abbey Farm,
Warwickshire, for the best Essay on “the Rearing of
Calves . : ; : : . : : . £10

Crass VII. To Mr. Peter Love, of pha for the best
Essay on Harvesting Corn . . Se S10

Cuass VIII. To the late Mr. Charles Wratislaw, of Woolscott,
Rugby, for the best Essay on Farm Capital. wi geld

By order of the Council,

H. Hatz Darg, Secretary.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL

Dr. HALF-YEARLY CasH ACCOUNT,
To Balance in hand, Ist Jan., 1861 :— BE tel. fone Tes ade
Bankers é 50 an 1,286 19 2
Secretary . 4113 4
— 1,278 12 6
To Income, viz. :—
Dividend on Stock .. ° ds 5 172 10 0
Subscriptions :— eh) Ts
Governors’ Life-Composition 50 0 O
Governors’ Annual ae 4385 0 0
Members’ Life-Compositions 2201710) 0
Members’ Annual ; 3,006 8 0
3 71l 8 nO
Journal :—
Advertisements 28 3 0
al) 8,912) 0"
To Country ea i =
Canterbury .. a0 gator 0)
Leeds 2,899 3 0
PR 3 |
|
£8,099 1 6
(Signed) W. FISHER HOBBS, jor Finance Committee.
QUILTER, BALL, JAY, & Co., Accountants.
BALANCE-SHEET,
To Capital :— BESS EUNIDS, Eo. 4g aes: F
Surplus? 31st Dec., 1860 5 15,043 18 2
Surplus of Income over the Expenditure during
the Half-year, viz :— sy Gh
Income 5 Sie 1h (0)
Expenditure 2) 28Ny oie
ee | SINGBO) 7° 8
= 16,674 15 10
To Balance at Credit of Leeds Meeting 1,355 12 1
To Canterbury Meeting Balance outstanding 6 oe

£18,036 12 11

SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

FROM Ist JANUARY TO 30TH JUNE, 1861. Cr.
By Expenditure :— fo-s. d, Sessa de | SSE (hl
Establishment— |
Official Salaries and Wages .. 327 6 O |
House Expenses, Rent, Taxes, &e, 320 18 7 |
648 4 7} 7
Journal :— '
Printing Sh) vs) ae idee) SAD OREG |
Stitching .. Arey ae 60 14 3
Delivery, Advertising, &e, Soap metic? alls tao)
Prize Essay Shit idee ic 10770570
Other Gharitiutions Soe Sass 2615 0
Editor'siSalary ..) ~. =. ss. | 250: 0 0
—— 920 3 9
Chemical : —
Consulting Chemist’s Salary ( 295 0 0
quarters)
Grant for Investigations a year) 200 0 0
Special Grant for Cheese Investiga- “}r00 0 0
tions 3) deen) « ia A aes
| —-———|_ 525 0 0
| Veterinary :—
| Grant to Royal Veterinary College 100 0 0
| Investigations and Experiments 33 4 6
——-—— 133 4 6
Postape'and @arriape :.0 2.0 s-. «<9 ‘we es 30 4 11
eee Adwertixements; ) ssctliscie lec. osc ode ah use 10 6 0
Sundries .. .. Sf ataee 10) 18s 7
| Subscriptions returned (paid in in air): ce BAot 3 lya0
| By Investment— ———_— 2,283 4
Purchase of Stock, New 3 per Cents... .. .. Be) tee S001 16
| By Country Meetings—
| (Chinen nia” ear cod Gao, wate MOCmieroummboe mea Si ili ©
| Leeds SP Scie) bee, ho cer eee. eon. Geta oe eat STO
See ee ha 8 ce
: Total Expenditure .... on 06 5,860 4 8
By Balance in hand :—
SAISON aren Secedcae och ieee sc ses 8 2,229 13 8
MECLOLAUV ER Mrcem ines, acer Lee mis, eal! Sise 12

————————| 2,238 16 10

£8,099 1 6

Examined, audited, and found correct, this 6th day of December, 1861.
(Signed) WILLIAM ASTBURY,
HENRY CORBET,
WILLIAM COHEN,

Auditors on the part
of the Society.

30rH June, 1861.

2,238 16 10
13,797 16 1
2,000 0 0

ASSETS, nee ehh do} aoe
| By Cash in hand .. i
_ By New 3 per cent. Stock 14, 2191. 2s, 9d. cost.
' By Books and Furniture, Society’ s House, Hanover
Square oO ant. mm oF Bo te Be =

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METROPOLITAN SHOW,

TO BE HELD IN

BATTERSEA PARK.
ComMENcING MONDAY, THE 23rd or JUNE, 1862.

Members of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and of the Highland
and Agricultural Society of Scotland, have the privilege of making Entries on
the payment of Five Shillings on each Certificate of Cattle, Horses, Sheep,
and Pigs ; but Non-Members will be allowed to compete on the payment of
Fifteen Shillings on each Certificate.

Forms of Certificates may be obtained on application to the Secretary, at
the Office of the Society, No. 12, Hanover Square, London (W.). All Certi-
ficates for the entry of Live-Stock must be returned, filled up, to the Secretary,
on or before the Ist of May.

All Prizes of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and all the Prizes
offered by the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, are open to
General Competition.

All Ages calculated to July 1, 1862.

PRIZES.
TO THE OWNERS OF THE FOLLOWING :—

ae ae ‘ |
umber yi s 2n 3r
in CATTLE. Prize, | Prize, Pee
Certificates Py
SHort-Hornen.
Class z. & 25
1 1,—Bull, calved on or before the ist of July, AL so y ie
1859, above three and under six years old is 2
2 2.—Bull, calved since the 1st of July, 1859, above 30 15 <
two and under three years old . 4) 2 2
3 3.— Bull, calved since the 1st of July, 1860, ae 95 15
one and under two years old aul) ee
4 4.—Bull-Calf, above six and under twelve 15 10
months old - ey °
5 5.—Cow, above three years old .. 20 10 5
6 6. —Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, amder “as _
15 10 )
years old ee
7 7.—Yearling Heifer < 15 10 5
8 8.—Heifer-Calf, above six ‘and "ander twelve
15 10 5
months old .. 7 vey
To the Owner of the best Male Avimal in
the Short-horned Classes -. . a Goup Mrpat.
To the Owner of the best Female Animal in jut
the Short-horned Classes 3} Goup MEpat.

Ixii

Prizes for Live Stock.

Reference
Number

in
Certificates

CATTLE—continued.
HEREFORD.
Class
1.—Bull, calved on or before the Ist of July,

1859, above three and under six years ait}
2.—Bull, calved since the Ist of July, 1859, above
two and under three years old . “
3.—Bull, calved since the Ist of July, ie ae
one and under two years old
4.—Bull-Calf, above six and under twelve
months old : a
5.—Cow, above three years old .
6.—Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, under three
years old... A op i
7.—Yearling Heifer 4
8.—Heifer-Calf, above six ‘and. under twelve
months Slaee e be,
To the Owner of the best Mate “Animal in
the Hereford Classes .. mh
To the Owner of the best Female ‘Animal i in
the Hereford Classes .. rh

Drvon.

1.—Bull, calved on or before the Ist of July, |
1859, above three and under six years old

2.—Bull, calved since the Ist of July, 1859, above
two and under three years old . ‘|

3.—Bull, ealved since the Ist of July, 1860, “above
one and under two years old

4.—Bull-Calf, above six and under twelve
months old

| 5,—Cow, above three years 0 old .

years old :

7.—Yearling Heifer

8.—Heifer-Calf, above six jand “under twelve
months old

To the Owner of the best Male ‘Animal i in

a oe

the Devon Classes ;
To the Owner of the best eauales Animal i in

6,—Heifer, in-milk or in-ealf. under ey
the Devon Classes in

SUSSEX.

1.—Bull, calved on or before the Ist of July,
1859, under six years old...

2.—Bull, calved since the Ist of July, 1859, and
more than one year old a

3.—Cow, above three years old ..

| 4,—Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, under “aw

years old
5—-Yearling Heifer

aw oT

GOLD MEDAL.

GoLp MEDAL.

a

GOLD MEDAL,

GOLD MEDAL,

15

10
10
10
10

ao

oO

Reference
Number
in
Certificates

30

VoL

Prizes for Live Stock.

CATTLE—continued.

LONG-HORNED.
Class
1.—Bull, calved on or before the Ist of July,
1859, under six years old .
2.—Bull, calved since the 1st of July, 1859, and
more than one year old ia
3.—Cow, above three years old .. .. .
4,—Heifer, in-milk or ii-calf, under three}
years old at acy eee =f
5.—Yearling Heifer

NorFOLK AND SUFFOLK POLLED.

1.—Bull, calved on or before the Ist of July,
1859, under six years old .

2.—Bull, called since the 1st of uly, 1859, aa
more than one year old

3.—Cow, above three years old ...

4.—Heifer, in-miik or in- <calf, under Asie

years old... ae

5.—Yearling Heifer

NortH WALES.

1.—Bull, calved on or before the Ist of July,
1859, under six years old .
—Bull, calved since the 1st of July, 1859, 8, and}
more than one year old
3.—Cow, above three years old .
4.—Heifer, in-milk or in- -calf, under eee
yearsold.. oe
5.—Yearling Heifer

SoutH WALES.

1.—Bull, calved on or before the Ist of July,
1859, nnder six years old ..

2.—Bull, calved since the Ist of July, 1859, pel
more than one year old

3..—Cow, above three years old .

4.—Heifer, in-milk or in- calf, under three}
years old

ee Jb) pel oct od” BE sar
IrisH—Kurry.

1,—Bull, calved on or before the Ist of July,
1859, under six years old .
2.—Bull, calved since the Ist of uly, 1859, 9, atl}
more than one year old
pee above three yearsold ...
4.—Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, under es
VearsOldy | se wane ae
5.—Yearling Heifer .. ..

XXII.

2nd

Prize.

or or Or or

or

or

ox

or

or or oT o

or

or

or Ot or ot

or or Or Or

Ixiii

Ixiv

Reference
Number

in
Certificates

68

64
65
66
67

68
69

70
71

Prizes for Live Stock.

CATT LE—continued.
CHANNEL ISLANDS :—

JERSEY, commonly called ALDERNEY.
Class

1.—Bull,‘calved on or before the 1st of July.

1859, under four years old

2.—Bull, calved since the 1st of July, 1859, and

more than one year old
3.—Cow, above three years old ..

4.—Heifer, in-milk or in-ealf, under heap

years old

GUERNSEY,

1.—Bull, calved on or before the ist of July,

1859, under four years old.

2.—Bull, calved since the 1st of July, 1 185 9, and

more than one year old
3.—Cow, above three years old ..

4.—Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, cake three’

years old

HORSES.

For the Thorough-bred Stud Horse, having)
served Mares during the season 1862,
which, in the opinion of the Judges, is
best calculated to improve and perpetuate
the breed of the sound and stout Thor ough;

bred Horse for General Stud Purposes

HUNTER.

1 stallion, thorough or half bred
2.—Brood Mare, with foal at foot, or in-foal
3.—Gelding, four or five years old
4.—Mare, four or five years old

CARRIAGE.
1.—Stallion ..
2.—Brood Mare, with foal at foot, or. in- -foal

ROADSTER.

1.—Stallion .. .
2.—Brood Mare, with foal at foot, or 4n-foal

1st

Prize.

100

20
20

and
Prize.

3rd
Prize.

oe

Prizes for Live Stock. Ixv
Reference j
ber st 3
a | AGRICULTURAL HORSES. | prize. | rie, | trie
Certificates
— SUFFOLK. —
Class £. £. £.
ae 1.—Stallion, foaled on or before the 1st re 30 15
January, 1860 .. Sc
73 2.—Stallion, foaled in the year 1860 . 20 10
74 3.—Mare and Foal = 20 10
75 4,—Two years old Filly 15 10
AGRICULTURAL.
Not qualified to compete as Suffolk.
76 1.—Stallion, foaled on or before the Ist of J
January, 1360... a a oN me
¥ 2.—Stallion, foaled in the year 1860 20 10
78 3.—Mare and Foal : sie 20) 10
79 4.—Two years old Filly 15 10
Dray.
80 1.—Stallion, foaled on or before the Ist of| 1
January, 1860 .. .. we ra 30 5
81 2.—Stallion, foaled in the iat 1860 . 20 10
82 3.—Mare and Foal Hd 20 10
83 4.—Filly, foaled in the year 1860 15 10
Pontus.
Above 124 and under 14 hands.
84 1.—Stallion 15 5
85 2.—Mare.. 10 5
86 3. —Gelding, four or © five years old 10 a
Not exceeding 12% hands.
87 1.—Stallion ;. 15 5
8s 2.—Mare.. . 10 5
89 3.—Gelding, four or five years old 10 0
SHEEP.
LEICESTER.
90 1.—Shearling Ram RR KG ke eek! ARH BG 10 5
91. 2.—Ram of any other age 20 10 5
92 3.—Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock 20 10 5
To the Owner of the best Ram in the Sot Ahan
Leicester Classes .- .. 2. 0. a. oe :
LINcoun.
93 1.—Shearling Ram 15 10 5
94 2.—Ram of any other age 15 10 5
25 3.—Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the, same flock 15 10 5

Ixvi

Reference
Number
in
Certificates

——

96
97
98

99
100
101

102
103
104

105
106
107

108
109
110

111
112
113

114
115
116

117
118
119

Prizes for Live Stoch.

SHEEP—continued.
CorswoLD.
Class
=1.—Shearling Ram
~2.—Ram of any other age
3.—Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of thes same flock
KENTISH OR Romney Mars.
1.—Shearling Ram ty
2.—Ram of any other age
3.—Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same 1e flock

Lona-W0oLLep.

Not qualified to compete as Leicesters, Lincolns,
Cotswolds, or Kentish.

1.—Shearling Ram
2.—Ram of any other age
5.—Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of ane same 16 flock

IrnisH—Pure Native Lonc-WooL.ep
BREEDS.

1.—Shearling Ram
2.—Ram of any other age
3.—Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock

SOUTHDOWN.

1.—Shearling Ram
2.—Ram of any other age ..
3,.—Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock
To the Owner of the best Ram in the South- }
down Classes .. .« « ao has

SHROPSHIRE,

1.—Shearling Ram...
2.—Ram of any other age ..
3.—Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock

HAmpsHIRE AND West Country Down.

1.—Shearling Ram a6 Be
2.—Kam of any other age ..
3.—Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock

OXFORDSHIRE Down.

1.—Shearling Ram
2.—Ram of any other age ..
3.—Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock

20
20
20

10

10

3rd
Prize.

ool

Or or Or

or or or

Or or ort

oo

5

Cr

Prizes for Live Stoch.

Ixvil

Xeference
Number
in
Certificates

120
121
122

123
124
125

126
127.
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135

136
137
138
139 _

140

SHEEP—continued.
DorseET.
Class
I Shearling Ram
—Ram of any otherage ..
eran of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock
Movwnraln,
1,—Shearling Ram
2.—Ram of any other age
3.—Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock
PIGS.
1.—Boar of a large bréed, of any colour ..
2.—Boar of a small white breed
3.—Boar of a small black breed
4.—Boar of the Berkshire breed
5.—Boar of a breed not eligible for the pre-
ceding classes .. ..
6.—Breeding Sow of a large breed, of any ‘colour
7 _—Breeding Sow of a small white breed
8.—Breeding Sow of a small black breed
9.—Breeding Sow of the Berkshire breed <
10.—Breeding Sow of a breed not eligible for)
the preceding classes : af
11.—Pen of Three Breeding Sow Pigs ofa 1 large
breed, of any colour, of {the same litter |
above four and under eight months old .
2.—Pen of Three Breeding Sow Pigs of a small
white breed, of the same litter, above fu
and under eight months old
13.—Pen of Three Breeding Sow Pigs of a small
black breed, of the same litter, above four
and under eight months old
14.—Pen of Three Breeding Sow Pigs ‘of the
Berkshire breed, of the same litter, above
four and under eight months old

not eligible for the preceding classes, of
the same litter, above four ane ame

15.—-Pen of Three Breeding Sow Pigs of a breed
eight months GI vs, sn artes 4

Ist

Prize.

10

10

10

10

2nd

Prize,

ao Or OVO over on or or or or

uy

3rd
Prize,

orex en th

or or nr

C “lsvill 2)

PRIZES

OFFERED BY THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF SCOTLAND

Reference

Number Ist 2nd 3rd
in CATTLE: Prize, | Prize. | Prize.

Certificates

o A BERDEE AD

iat POLLED (ABERDEEN AND ANGUS). 2. eae
141 1.—Bull, calved before the 1st of January, 1860 20 10 { pret
142 | 2.—Bull, calved after the Ist of January, 1860 20 10 Ditto.
143 | 8.—Bull, calved after the Ist of January, 1861 10 ‘5 | Ditto.
144 | 4.—Cow, ofany age .. 10 5 | Ditto.
145 5.—Heifer, calved after the Ist of January, 1860 10 5 | Ditto.
146 | 6.—Heiter, calved after the Ist of January, 1861 8 4 | Ditto.
PoLLED (GALLOWAY).

147 1.—Bull, calved before the 1st of January, 1860 90 10 Ditto.
148 | 2.—Bull, calved after the 1st of January, 1860 20 10 | Ditto.
14y | 3. —Bull, calved after the 1st of January, 1861 10 5 | Ditto.
150 | 4. —Cow, ofany age .. 10 5 | Ditto,
151 5.—Heifer, calved after the Ist of January, 1860 10 5 | Ditto,
152 | 6.—Heifer, calved after the Ist of January, 1861 8 4 | Ditto.

HiIGHuAND.

153 | 1.—Bull, calved before the Ist of January, 1859 | 20 10 | Ditto.
154 | 2.—Bull, calved after the 1st of January, 1859 20 10 | Ditto.
155 | 3.—Bull, calved after the 1st of January, 1860 10 5 | Ditto.
156 4,—Cow, ofanyage .. 10 5 *| Ditto.
om |) ae —Heifer, calved after the Ist of January, 1859 | 10 5 | Ditto.

4

158 | 6.—Heifer, calved after the 1st of January, 1860 8 Ditto.
AYRSHIRE.
159 | 1—Bull. calved before the 1st of January, 1860 | 20 10 | Ditto.
160 | 2—Bull, calved after the Ist of January, 1860 20 10 | Ditto.
161 | 3.—Bull, calved after the 1st of mes tde 1861 10 5 | Ditto.
162 | 4,—Cow, in-milk, ofany age .. .. , 10 5 -| Ditto.
163 | 5.—Cow, in-calf, ‘of any age .. 10 5 | Ditto,
164 | 6.—Heifer, calved after the Ist of January, 1860 | 10 5 | Ditto.
NEE) |) Fe —Heifer, cealved after the Ist of January, 1861 8 4 | Ditto.
HORSES.
CLYDESDALE
166 BA eae foaled before he Ist of sage | 30 1s. | Digtet
2
167 | 2 2 ene Colt, foaled after the ‘Ist of ea 20 10 | Ditto:
168 | 3,—Mare (with foal at foot), foaled before ert 20 10 | Ditto.
| Ist of January, 1859 ..
169 | 4,—Mare (in-foal), foaled before the ist a 16 8 | Ditto:
January, 1859 ;
170 | 5,—Filly, foaled after the Ist of “January, 1859 10 5 | Ditto.

( Ixix )

Lssaps and Reports—PRIZES FOR 1862.—Supplementary List,
open to general competition. Papers to be sent in on or before the
Ist of May.

VI. PARASITES.

Tutrty Soverriens will be given for the best Essay on the Para-
sites, including Entozoa, which infest cattle and sheep.

VII, LAND-VALUING. ©
Twenty Soverrrans will be given for the best Essay on Land-
Valuing.
The estimates which ought to form the basis of calculation in{fixing the
rental of land; the seasons most favourable for inspection ; the

practicability of reducing lands under different systems of culture
to the same standard of calculation, should be discussed.

VIII. MANAGEMENT OF HOME FARM.
Ten Soverrrens will be given for the best Essay on the Manage-
ment of a Home Farm, or Farm attached to the residence of
a Landed Proprietor. The arrangements in the dairy and
stable, the proper rates of charge for farm produce or services
supplied, and the advantages and drawbacks of such a con-
nexion are to be discussed.

IX. GRUB AND SLUG IN WHEAT.

Ten Soverriens will be given for the best Essay on. the Ravages
of Grub and Slug on the Wheat-plant.

The predisposing causes from weather, or situation, or croppin
the best modes of prevention or cure, are to be stated.

@, and

Reports or Essays competing for the Prizes must be sent to the Secretary
of the Society, at 12, Hanover Square, London, on or before May 1,
1862. Contributors of Papers are requested to retain Copies of their
Communications, as the Society cannot be responsible for their return.

Rutss, &c.

Ixx Prizes for Essays and Reports.

RULES OF COMPETITION FOR PRIZE ESSAYS.

1. All information contained in Prize Essays shall be founded on experience
or observation, and not on simple reference to books or other sources. Com-
petitors are requested to use foolscap or large letter paper, and not to write on
both sides of the leaf.

2. Drawings, specimens, or models, drawn or constructed to a stated scale,
shall accompany writings requiring them.

3. All competitors shall enclose their names and addresses in a sealed cover,
on which only their motto, the subject of their Essay, and the number of that
subject in the Prize List of the Society, shall be written.*

4, The President or Chairman of the Council for the time being shall open
the cover on which the motto designating the Essay to which the Prize has
been awarded is written, and shall declare the name of the author.

5. The Chairman of the Journal Committee shall alone be empowered to
open the motto-paper of any Essay not obtaining the Prize, that he may think
likely to be useful for the Society’s objects; with a view of consulting the
writer confidentially as to his willingness to place such Essay at the disposal
of the Journal Committee.

6. The copyright of all Essays gaining Prizes shall belong to the Society,
who shall accordingly have the power to publish the whole or any part of such
Essays ; and the other Essays will be returned on the application of the
writers ; but the Society do not make themselves responsible for their loss.

7. The Society are not bound to award a prize unless they consider one of
the Essays deserving of it.

8. In all reports of experiments the expenses shall be accurately detailed.

9. The imperial weights and measures only are those by which calculations
are to be made,

10. No prize shall be given for any Essay which has been already in print.

11. Prizes may be taken in money or plate, at the option of the successful
candidate.

12. All Essays must be addressed to the Secretary, at the house of the
Society.

* Competitors are requested to write their motto on the enelosed paper on which
their names are written, as well as on the outside of the envelope.

@ “heer )

Members’ Pribileges of Chemical Analpsis.

Tue Council have fixed the following rates of Charge for Analyses to
be made by the Consulting Chemist “for the bond- “fide use of Members
of the Society; who (to avoid all unnecessary correspondence) are
particularly requested, when applying to him, to mention the kind of
analysis they require, and to quote its number in the subjoined schedule.
The charge for analysis, together with the carriage of the specimens,
must be paid to him by members at the time of their application.

No. 1.—An opinion of the genuineness of Peruvian guano, bone-
dust, or oil-cake (each sample) .. 5s.
» 2—An analysis of guano; showing the pr oportion of moisture,
organic matter, sand, phosphate of lime, alkaline salts,
and ammonia = « 108.
», o-~An estimate of the value (telatively to the average of
samples in the market) of sulphate and muriate of am-

monia, and of the nitrates of potash and soda .. 10s.
» 4.—An analysis of superphosphate of lime for soluble phos:
phates only : - ~LOs,

», 5.--An analysis of superphosphate of Time, showing the pro-
portions of moisture, organic matter, sand, soluble and
insoluble phosphates, sulphate of lime, and ammonia .. £1.

,, 6.—An analysis (suflicient for the determination of its agricul-
tural value) of any ordinary artificial manure .. fA

» 7.—Limestone :—the proportion of lime, 7s. 6d.; the propor-
tion of magnesia, 10s. ; the proportion of lime and mag-
nesla 3c 1s,

,, 8.—Limestone or mazrls, “including carbonate, " phosphate, and
sulphate of lime, and magnesia with sand yah Ena Pe) eile

» Y9 —Partial analysis of a soil, including determinations of clay,
sand, organic matter, and carbonate of lime .. Fe cae

+5 10) —Complete analysis ofasoil . £3.

,, 11.—An analysis of oil-cake, or other substance ‘used for feeding
purposes; showing the proportion of moisture, oil,
mineral matter, albuminous matter, and woody fibre ;
as well as of starch, gum, and sugar, in the aggregate Sai

,, 12.—Analyses of any vegetable product .. poets
,», 18.—Analyses of animal products, refuse substances “used for
manure, &c, xe from 10s. to 80s,
,, 14.—Determination of the “hardness” of a sample of water
before and after boiling .. BL we 10s.
,, 15,—Analysis of water of land pee and of water used for
irrigation .. 3: Me we Sek
py —Determination of nitric acid in a sample of water . a Ele

N.B.—The above Scale of Charges is not applicable to the case of persons
commercially engaged in the Manufacture or Sale of any Substance sent for
Analysis.

The Address of the Consulting Chemist of the Society is, Dr. Avcustus
Voetcker, Cirencester, Gloucestershire, to which he requests that all letters
and parcels (postage and carriage paid) should be directed: for the convenience,
however, of persons residing in London, parcels sent to the Society’s Office, No.
12, Hanover Square, W., will be forwarded to Cirencester once or twice a week.

VOL, XXII. g

( Team”)
Members’ Weterinary Privileges.

I.—Serriovus or Extenstve DisEases.

No. 1. Any Member of the Society who may desire professional attendance
and special advice in cases of serious or extensive disease among his cattle,
sheep, or pigs, and will address a letter to the Secretary, will, by return of
post, receive a reply stating whether it be considered necessary that Professor
Simonds, the Society’s Veterinary Inspector, should visit the place where the
disease prevails.

No. 2. The remuneration of the Inspector will be 2/. 2s. each day as a
professional fee, and 17. 1s, each day for personal expenses ; and he will also
be allowed to charge the cost of travelling to and from the locality where his
services may have been required. he fees will be paid by the Society, but
the travelling expenses will be a charge against the applicant. This charge
may, however, be reduced or remitted altogether at the discretion of the Council,
on such step being recommended to them by the Veterinary Committee.

No. 8. The Inspector, on his return from visiting the diseased stock, will
report to the Committee, in writing, the results of his observations and pro-
ceedings, which Report will be laid before the Council.

No. 4. When contingencies arise to prevent a personal discharge of the
duties confided to the Inspector, he may, subject to the approval of the Com-
mittee, name some competent professional person to act in his stead, who shall
receive the same rates of remuneration.

II.—Orprnary orn Orner Casss oF Disnast.

Members may obtain the attendance of the Veterinary Inspector on any
case of disease by paying the cost of his visit, which will be at the following
rate, viz., 20. 2s. per diem, and travelling expenses.

IJI.—ConsvLtTations WITHOUT VISIT.

Personal consultation with Veterinary Inspector 3 Ao we DEE
Consultation by letter .. Ap 50 xe af cfy toss
Consultation necessitating the writing of three or more letters. 10s.
Post-mortem examination, and report thereon.. <a ps 10s:

A return of the number of applications during each half-year being required
from the Veterinary Inspector,

TV.—Apmisston or DisrAsep ANIMALS TO THE VETERINARY COLLEGE;
Investications, Lecrurrs, AnD Reports.

No. 1. All Members of the Society have the privilege of sending cattle,
sheep, and pigs to the Infirmary of the Royal Veterinary College, on the same
terms as if they were Members of the College ; viz., by paying for the keep
and treatment of cattle 10s. 6d. per week each animal, and for sheep and
pigs ‘‘a small proportionate charge to be fixed by the Principal according to
circumstances.”

No. 2. The College has also undertaken to investigate such particular classes
of disease, or special subjects connected with the application of the Veterinary
art to cattle, sheep, and pigs, as may be directed by the Council.

No. 3. In addition to the increased number of lectures now given by
Professor Simonds—the Lecturer on Cattle Pathology—to the pupils in the
toyal Veterinary College, he will also deliver such lectures before the Members
of the Society, at their house in Hanover Square, as the Council shall decide.

No. 4, The Royal Veterinary College will from time to time furnish to the
a ea a detailed Report of the cases of cattle, sheep, and pigs treated in the

nfirmary.

Ropal Charter,

INCORPORATING THE

ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

AS THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY |
OF ENGLAND.

Marcu 26, 1840.

———S—— = = id

VICTORIA, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith,
to all to whom these presents shall come, greeting.

1. Whereas our right trusty and right entirely beloved cousin
and counsellor, Charles Duke of Richmond, Knight of the
imost noble Order of the Garter, our right trusty and right
entirely beloved cousin, George Henry Duke of Grafton,
Knight of the most noble Order of the Garter, our right
trusty and right entirely beloved cousin, John Henry Duke
of Rutland, Knight of the most noble Order of the Garter,
our right trusty and right entirely beloved cousin, George
Granville Duke of Sutherland, our right trusty and entirely
beloved cousin, Arthur Blundell Sandys Trumbal Marquess
of Downshire, Knight of the most illustrious Order of Saint
Patrick, our right trusty and right well beloved cousin and
counsellor John Charles Earl Spencer, our trusty and well
beloved Robert Henry Clive, Esquire, Sir Francis Lawley,
Baronet, and Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, Baronet, our right
trusty and well beloved counsellor Sir James Robert George
Graham, Baronet, and our trusty and well beloved Henry

VOL. XXII. A

e™,
Objects—
1st.

2nd,

3rd.

4th.

5th.

6th,

7th.

8th.

9th,

10th.

Ir Charter.

Handley and Joseph Neeld, Esquires, and others of our
loving subjects, have formed themselves into a Society for
the general advancement of English Agriculture, and for
the purpose of prosecuting the following national Objects,
namely :

First, to embody such information contained in
agricultural publications, and in other scientific works as has
been proved by practical experience to be useful to the
cultivators of the soil; second, to correspond with Agricul-
tural, Horticultural, and other Scientific Societies, both at
home and abroad, and to select from such correspondence
all information which, according to the opinion of the Society,
may be likely to lead to practical benefit in the cultivation
of the soil; third, to pay to any occupier of land, or other
person who shall undertake, at the request of the Society, to
ascertain by any experiment how far such information leads
to useful results in practice, a remuneration for any loss that
he may incur by so doing; fourth, to encourage men of
science in their attention to the improvement of agricultural
implements, the construction of farm-buildings and cottages,
the application of chemistry to the general purposes of agri-
culture, the destruction of insects injurious to vegetable life,
and the eradication of weeds ; fifth, to promote the discovery
of new varieties of grain and other vegetables useful to man
or for the food of domestic animals; sixth, to collect informa-
tion with regard to the management of woods, plantations,
and fences, and on every other subject connected with rural
improvement ; seventh, to take measures for the improve-
ment of the education of those who depend upon the cultiva-
tion of the soil for their support; eighth, to take measures
for improving the veterinary art, as applied to cattle, sheep,
and pigs; ninth, at the Meetings of the Society m the
country, by the distribution of prizes, and by other means,, to
encourage the best mode of farm cultivation and the breed of
live stock; ‘tenth, to promote the comfort and welfare of
labourers, and to encourage the improved management. of

Charter. IIL

their cottages and gardens: And have subscribed and ex-
pended divers large sums of money in the prosecution of
these their national and patriotic objects, beg regulated in
their purpose by the strictest exclusion from their councils
of every question of discussion having a political tendency,
or which shall refer to any matter to be brought forward, or
at any time pending in either of our Houses of Parliament :
And haying such objects, and being regulated by such
essential principle, they have humbly besought us to grant
unto them, and such other persons as shall be approved and
elected in manner hereinafter mentioned, our Royal Charter
- of Incorporation for the several purposes aforesaid.

2. Now, therefore, know ye, that we, being anxious of pro-
moting and encouraging by our Royal protection and patron-
age a series of objects which, prosecuted under the regulating
principle of the exclusion of all those questions of debate on
which the people of every individual country entertain senti-
ments so much at variance with each other, cannot fail to
lead to results, affecting in the highest degree the prosperity
of our people and the national wealth of our kingdom, have,
of our especial grace and favour, given and granted, and do
by these presents for us, our heirs, and successors, give and
crant that the said Charles Duke of Richmond, George
Henry Duke of Grafton, John Henry Duke of Rutland,
George Granville Duke of Sutherland, Arthur Blundell
Sandys Trumbal Marquess of Downshire, John Charles Karl
Spencer, Robert Henry Clive, Sir Francis Lawley, Sir Thomas
Dyke Acland, Sir James Robert George Graham, Henry
Handley, and Joseph Neeld, and such others of our loving
subjects as have formed themselves into, and are now, sub-
seribers of the said Society, or who shall at. any time here-
after become subscribers thereof, according to such regulations
or bye-laws as shall be hereafter framed or enacted, shall by
virtue of these presents be, and for ever hereafter continue
to be, one body politic and corporate for the purposes afore-

A 2

Name.

Seal.

To sue and be
sued,

Power to hold
Lands, &e.

Iv Charter.

said, by the name of the “Royal Agricultural Society of
England,” by which name they shall haye perpetual suc-
cession and a common seal, with full power and authority to
alter, vary, break, and renew the same at their own dis-
cretion, and by the same name shall sue and be sued, im-
plead and be impleaded, answer and be answered unto in
every Court of us, our heirs, and successors, and be for ever
able and capable in the law to purchase, receive, possess, and
enjoy to them and their successors any goods and chattels
whatsoever, and also be able and capable in the law (not-
withstanding the statutes of Mortmain) to take, purchase,
possess, hold, and enjoy to them and their successors a hall,
and any messuages, lands, tenements, or hereditaments what-
soever, the yearly value of which, including the site of the
said hall, shall not exceed in the whole the sum of Three
Thousand Pounds, computing the same respectively at the
rack-rent which might have been had or gotten for the same
respectively at the time of the purchase or acquisition thereof,
and to act in all the concerns of the said body politic and
corporate, for the purposes aforesaid, as fully and effectually
to all intents, effects, constructions, and purposes whatsoever,
as any other of our liege subjects, or any other body politic

or corporate, in our United Kingdom of Great Britain and

Ireland, not being under any disability, might do in their
respective concerns.

3. And we do hereby grant our especial licence and autho-
rity unto all and every person and persons, bodies politic and
corporate (otherwise competent), to grant, sell, alien, and
convey in mortmain unto, and to the use of, the said Society
and their successors, any messuages, lands, tenements, or
hereditaments, not exceeding such annual value as aforesaid.

4, And know ye further, that in granting this our Royal
Charter to the said Royal Agricultural Society of England,
we do hereby declare it to be our full and entire will and
pleasure that we extend our Royal protection to its national

Charter. Vv

objects, under the condition that a principle of its constitu-
tion shall be the total exclusion of all questions at its
meetings, or in its proceedings, of a political tendency, or
having reference to measures pending, or to be brought for-
ward, in either of our Houses of Parliament, which no reso-
lution, bye-law, or other enactment of the said body politic
and corporate, shall on any account or pretence whatever be
at any time allowed to infringe.

5. We further declare, that the number of Subscribers of
the said body politic and corporate shall be indefinite, but
classed according to their election or rate of payment into
governors and members, with such individual privileges as
shall appertain respectively unto each, there being added to
the Society such honorary, corresponding, and foreign mem-
bers as may be found desirable for the promotion of its
several objects.

6. It is also our will and pleasure, that there be three
general meetings of such governors and members of the said
Society held in each year, namely, two of these general
meetings in London, in the months of May and December,
and the other in such other part of England or Wales as
shall be deemed most advantageous in time and place for the
We further will
and declare, that at. such general meeting in London, to be
held on the twenty-second or (should that date fall on a
Sunday) on the twenty-third day of May, the governors and
members shall have full power to elect a president and

advancement of the objects of the Society.

council, which president and council, although then duly
elected, shall, nevertheless, not come into office until after
the day of the annual country meeting next following, and
shall then continue from that day in their respective offices
and appointments for one year (more or less according to
the date of the next annual country meeting) ; all vacancies
occurring in such offices and appointments by resignation,
death, or otherwise, to be filled up by election, and the

Exclusion of
Polities.

.

Number.

Governors and

Members.

General Meet-

imgs.

Country Meet-

ing.

Date of General
Meeting.

President
Council.

and

Vacancies.

Council to con-

sist of.

President.

Retirement by
rotation.

Election of Offi-
eers and
Council.

Bye-laws.

Notice of Alter-
ation.

Secretary.

Ist President.

Council,

VI Charter.

majority of votes of the remaining members of such president
and council. That the council shall consist of one president,
twelve trustees, and twelve vice-presidents, to be elected
from the class of governors only, and of fifty other members,
to be elected indiscriminately from the governors and mem-
bers of the Society: That the president shall be an annual
officer of the Society, and not re-eligible to the office of pre-
sident for three years. And further, that twenty-five of the
fifty general members of the council shall go out by rotation
each year, but may be re-elected.

7. We further will, declare, and grant, that such general
meeting in May shall have the full power and privilege of
electing the president, trustees, vice-presidents, and other
members of the council, from the governors and members as
aforesaid ; and that such president, trustees, vice-presidents,
and council, shall be regulated in their proceedings by such
bye-laws as may and shall from time to time be enacted by
them conformably with the tenor of these letters patent, no
established bye-law, however, being in any case altered, or
new one proposed, without at least one month’s notice of
such intention bemg given to each member of the council.
Further, that such president and council so elected shall
have the power both to appoint, and, as they may think fit,
to remove, one general secretary to the Society, who will be
responsible to them for the execution and discharge of the
various duties required of him, as defined from time to time
by their bye-laws or special resolutions. And we further
will and declare, that the said body politic and corporate
may by him as their secretary sue or be sued, contract or
discharge, in their name and on their behalf.

8. We further will and declare it as our Royal pleasure
that the said Charles Duke of Richmond shall be the first
president of the said Royal Agricultural Society of England,
and that he, with the said George Henry Duke of Grafton,
John Henry Duke of Rutland, George Granville Duke of

Charter. VII

Sutherland, Arthur Blundell Sandys Trumbal Marquess of
Downshire, John Charles Earl Spencer, Robert Henry Clive,
Sir Francis Lawley, Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, Sir James
Robert George Graham, Henry Handley, and Joseph Neeld,
shall be members of the first council, any three or more of
whom shall hereby be invested with full power, being first
duly summoned to attend, to appoint, on or within ten days
preceding or following the twenty-fifth day of the present
month of March, such persons to be trustees, vice-presidents,
council, governors, members, honorary members, correspond-
ing members, and foreign members, as they shall respectively
think fit.

9. And we further will, grant, and declare, that the pre-
sident and council shall have the sole management of the
income and funds of the said body politic and corporate, and
also the entire management and superintendence of all the
other affairs and concerns thereof, and shall, or may, but not
inconsistently with, or contrary to, the provisions of this our
Charter or any existing bye-law, or the laws or statutes of
this our realm, do all such acts and deeds as shall appear to
them necessary or essential to be done, for the purpose of
carrying into effect the objects and views of the said Royal
Agricultural Society of England.

10. In witness whereof we have caused these our Letters
to be made patent. Witness ourself at our palace at West-
minster this twenty-sixth day of March, in the third year of
our reign.

By Wait or Privy SEat.

(Signed) EDMUNDS.

Management.

Name.

Exclusion of
Politics.

Number.

General Meet-
ings,

Election of
President and
Council.

Vacancies,

Council to con-
sist of.

(.GMEIT) .)

I—LAWS CONTAINED IN THE CHARTER, WHICH
CANNOT AT ANY TIME BE ALTERED OR
DEPARTED FROM.

a

11. The Society is a corporate body, by the name of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, and has a Common Seal.

12. It is a condition of the Royal Charter that a principle of
the constitution of the Society shall be the total exclusion of all
questions, at its meetings or in its proceedings, of a political
tendency, or having reference to measures pending or to he
brought forward in either House of Parliament; which no reso-
lution, bye-law, or other enactment of the said body politic and
corporate shall, on any account or pretence whatever, be at any
time allowed to infringe.

13. The number of subscribers is indefinite ; and classed into
Governors and Members.

14. Power is given to elect Honorary, Corresponding, and
Foreign Members.

15. Three General Meetings are to be held in each year : two of
these in London, in the months of May and December; and the
other in such part of England or Wales as shall be deemed most
advantageous for the advancement of the objects of the Society.
The General Meeting in London is to be held on the 22nd (or,
should that date fall on a Sunday, on the 23rd) of May.

16. The Governors and Members have full power to elect a
President and Council at the general May Meeting; which
President and Council, although then duly elected, shall never-
theless not come into office till the conclusion of the ensuing
Annual Country Meeting to be held that year. All vacancies
occurring in such officers and appointments, by resignation,
death, or otherwise, are to be filled up by election and the
majority of votes of the remaining Members of such President
and Council.

17. The Council is to consist of one President, twelve Trustees,
and twelve Vice-Presidents, to be elected from the class of

Laws and Bye-Laws. 1X

Governors only; and of fifty other Members to be elected indis-
criminately from the Governors and Members of the Society.

18. The President is to be an annual officer of the Society, and
not re-eligible to the office of President for three years.

19. Twenty-five of the fifty general Members of the Council Retirement by
are to go out each year by rotation, but may be re-elected. see

20. The General Meeting in May shall elect the President,

Trustees, Vice-Presidents, and other Members of Council, from
the Governors and Members.

21. The Council is to be regulated in their proceedings by such Bye-laws.
bye-laws as may and shall from time to time be enacted by them
conformably with the tenor of the Charter: no established
bye-law being in any case altered, or new one proposed, without
at least one month’s notice of such intention being given to each
Member of the Council.

22. The Council have power to appoint and remove one genera] Appointment of
Secretary to the Society; such Secretary to sue and be sued in ee
their name and on their behalf.

23. The Council have the sole management of the income and Council Man-
funds of the said body politic and corporate; and also the entire *8¢™"
management and superintendence of all other affairs and concerns
thereof; and can—but not inconsistently with or contrary to
the provisions of the Charter, or any existing bye-law, or the
laws of the land—do all such acts and deeds as shall appear to
them necessary or essential to be done for the purpose of carrying
into effect the objects and views of the said Royal Agricultural
Society of England.

II.—BYE-LAWS.

24. All existing Bye-Laws, Rules, and Regulations shall be
rescinded, and the following be adopted in their places.

ADMISSION OF GOVERNORS AND MEMBERS.

25. Every candidate for admission into the Society must be Admission of
proposed by a Member, the proposer to specify in writing the name, oe a
rank, usual place of residence, and post-town, of the candidate,
either at a Council, or by letter to the Secretary. LHvery such

Election,

Duration of
Membership,
Governors,
and Members.

Subscription.

Foreign Mem-
bers.

ee
Privileges.

Register.

Honorary Mem-
bers.

x Bye-Laws.

proposal shall be read at the Council at which such proposal is
made ; or, in the case of the candidate being proposed by a letter
to the Secretary, at the first meeting of the Council next after
such letter shall have been received. At the next monthly
Meeting of the Council the election shall take place, when the
decision of the Council shall be taken by a show of hands; the
majority of the Members present to elect or reject. The Secre-
tary shall inform Members of their election by a letter, in such
form as the Council may from time to time direct.

26. All Members belong to the Society, and are bound to pay
their annual subscriptions, until they shall withdraw from it by a
notice in writing to the Secretary. Governors shall pay an annual
subscription of 5/., and Members of 11. ; all subscriptions being due
on the Ist of January in each year; but when the election takes
place in December, the subscription paid in that month will be
considered as the subscription of the following year. Governors
may compound for their lives by paying 50/.; Members, by
paying 10/. Governors or Members not resident in the United
Kingdom are required on election to pay the life composition, in
each case, for annual subscriptions, On and after the 1st of June,
the subscriptions due at that date, and remaining unpaid, are in
arrear; and no Member whose subscription is so im arrear
shall enjoy any of the privileges of the Society; nor will
any such Member be allowed to enter into a composition for
his future payments until such arrear be paid: and no Governor
or Member shall be allowed to transfer his name from one class
of Members to the other, respectively, without the express leave
of the Council.

27. Governors have the privilege of attending and speaking at
all Meetings of the Council, but not of voting, unless forming
part of such Council. All Members are entitled, gratuitously,
to the numbers of the Journal belonging to the year for which
their subscription is paid; and have the privilege of inspecting
all models presented to the Society, and of referring to the books
in the library.

28. An alphabetical Register shall be kept of all the Governors
and Members, exhibiting the date of their election, and the sub-
scriptions received or due from them, with the dates respectively
of payment and arrear.

29. The Council, having the power of electing Honorary Mem-
berg, shall elect as Honorary Members such eminent individuals

Bye-Laws. XI

as have distinguished themselves in promoting the objects for
which the Society was established; such Honorary Members
shall not be called upon for the payment of any subscriptions ;
they shall have the privilege of attending and speaking at the
Meetings of the Society and of the Council, but not of voting
at either.

30. Members may be dismissed from the Society in the following
manner :—Any ten Members of the Society may send, in writing,
signed by their names, to the Council, a request that any Member
of the Society shall be dismissed from the Society. Such request
shall be placed in a conspicuous part of the Council-room, and
a copy thereof transmitted by post to the Member proposed
to be so dismissed, signed by the Secretary. At the monthly
Meeting of the Council which shall take place next after one
month shall have elapsed after such request shall have been
placed in the Council-room, the Council shall take the matter
thereof into their consideration; but the Council shall not so
take it into consideration unless twelve Members of the Council
at the least shall be present. If this number be not present, the
consideration of the request shall be adjourned to the next
monthly Meeting of the Council, and so on till a monthly Meeting
shall take place at which twelve Members are present. If the
Council so constituted shall unanimously agree to the dismissal
of such Member, he shall be no longer a Member of the Society ;
but if they shall not unanimously agree to his dismissal, their
decision shall be considered to have been made in his favour:
Provided always, that his dismissal shall not relieve him
from the payment of any debt previously due by him to the
Society ; and that if a Life Governor or Life Member, he shall
not have any claim to any portion of the commutation he has
paid.

GENERAL MEETINGS.

31. The two London General Meetings of the Society shall be
held in the Council-room: public notice of such meetings being
given in such newspapers as the Council may decide; and all elec-
tions (excepting that of the Council) and resolutions shall be deter-
mined by a show of hands. The General Meeting in December
shall be held at such date in that month, and the Annual Meeting
in the country at such time and place, as the Council may
decide. The place of Meeting in the country shall be settled by
the Council at the first Wednesday in May, and declared at the

Dismissal.

General Meet-

ings.

Country Meet-

ing.

Persons to be
present.

Mode of elect-
ing President
and Council.

Members ot
Council.

House list.

Voting, moles
of,

XII Bye-Laws.

ensuing General Meeting in the year preceding such Meeting.
At the General Meetings in London, reports from the Council,
with a financial statement, will be read; Members only, or
individuals bearing the President’s written order, will be allowed
to be present, each person giving his name in writing on being
admitted.

32. At the General Meeting in May, the election of the Presi-
dent, Vice-Presidents, and Trustees, having taken place by a show
of hands, the election of the twenty-five Members of the Council,
who are to replace the twenty-five Members who retire by
rotation, shall take place in the following manner :—

a. A list of the Members of the Council who retire by rotation,
but who may be re-elected, shall be prepared on or before
the Ist of May, for inspection of the Members at the
rooms of the Society.

!, The Council shall prepare a list of the twenty-five Members
whom they propose for election or re-election, which
shall be printed on paper large enough to admit of addi-
tions being made to it; and a copy of this printed list
shall be given to any Member who applies for it of the
Secretary, cither on the day of the General Meeting, or
on any of the three days previously (Sundays excepted),
between the hours of ten and four.

c. The voting shall take place by each Member who wishes
to vote giving in one of these lists signed by himself,
with such names struck out or added, as he thinks fit, to
the President, at the General Meeting, before the com-
mencement of any other business. When the lists have
been given in, three scrutinecrs shall be appointed by
the President, who shall retire into another room, and
inspect the lists which have been given in, and report
forthwith to the Meeting, in writing, the names of the
twenty-five Members who shall have the majority of
votes ; after which, the papers shall be immediately de-
stroyed by the scrutineers. If any list should contain
the names of more than twenty-five members, it will
be rejected. No Member will be allowed to vote who
does not personally deliver his list to the President. in
the event of any equality of votes, the election shall he
decided by the meeting on a show of hands.

Bye-Laws. XIli

Tue PRESIDENT.

33. The President shall not be re-eligible to the office of Presi-
dent for three years from the day of his election. In all the official
relations of the Society, he shall take precedence of all other
Governors, Members, or Honorary Members, and shall have full
power to summon at his pleasure meetings of the Council, and
shall take the chair at every Council when present, he, and every
other Chairman of the Society, having the privilege of a casting
vote, in addition to his own, in all cases of equality in the division
on any question. He shall sign all such letters, votes of thanks,
and other documents, as the Council may direct, in the name and
on the behalf of the Council.

Tur Councin.

34. The Council may adjourn from time to time, at their discre-
tion : when not so adjourned, they shall hold a meeting on the first
Wednesday in every month, at twelve o’clock, for the election of
Members and for the transaction of the business of the Society ;
and shall also meet on every other Wednesday, at the same hour,
for the purpose of receiving the proposals of candidates, and
hearing papers read: such Meetings to be held without sum-
mons.

35. Should the business of the Society require a Special Council
to be held at any other time, the President shall have full power
to direct such a Council to be summoned, at such time and place,
and with such notice, as he may think fit: provided that, in case
of necessity, the President may summon a special Council to be
held forthwith ; but any orders then made shall not remain valid
unless confirmed by the next monthly Council. In the absence
of the President, one ‘Trustee, together with one Vice-President,
and three other Members of the Council, shall have power to
summon the Council in any case of emergency, on delivering to
the Secretary an order signed by them for issuing the summonses,
and allowing not less than seven days to elapse between the date
of summons and the day appointed for the meeting of such Council.

36. The Monthly Meeting of the Council shall have the full
power of originating, discussing, and deciding, by the majority of
votes, on a show of hands, all questions brought before it on the
business of the Society. Should, however, any Member then pre-
sent regard any proposition brought forward as too important for

The President.

Precedence.

Casting Vote.

The Council,
Adjournment.
Monthly.

Weekly.

Special Coun-
cil.

Monthly Coun-
cil,

Adjournment of
important
discussion.

Alteration of
Orders of
Council.

Notification of
vacancy.

Chairman.

Quorum.

Order of busi-
ness.

Seal.

Reports to Gene-
ral Meetings.

XIV Bye-Laws.

immediate decision, he will be at liberty to take the sense of the
Meeting whether such proposition should be postponed, in order .
that it may be duly discussed at the next Monthly Meeting;
and should one-third of the Members present agree with him on
that point, such proposition shall be postponed, and due notice
of such motion and postponement shall be given to all Members
of the Council by the Secretary.

37. No Order of Council shall be altered without one clear
month’s previous notice being given to each Member of the
Council.

38. The Secretary shall notify to the Council on the printed
agenda-paper, any vacancy which shall be declared in the list of
Trustees, Vice-Presidents, or Members of Council, at the Meeting
of the Council next after the happening of such vacancy, and
such vacancy shall not be filled up until the Monthly Meeting
of the Council which shall take place next after such notice.

39. In the absence of the President, the chair shall be taken by
a Trustee or Vice-President; and should neither of such officers
be present, then by such Member as the Council shall choose as
their Chairman by the majority of votes.

40. The Quorum of a Monthly or Special Council shall be five,
and that of a Weekly Council, three.

41. At every Monthly Meeting of the Council the Minutes of
the previous Monthly and other intervening Meetings shall be first
read, and postponed matters shall take precedence in the order
of business of new motions, excepting in the case of a Report
from the Finance Committee, which shall always be taken first
into consideration, immediately after the Minutes have been read
and the election of Members and proposal of candidates have
taken place.

42. All Minutes or Reports read at the Council shall be signed
by the Chairman.

43. The Common Seal of the Society shall be kept in a box
with three different locks, the keys of which shall be respectively
held by the President of the Society, the Chairman of the
Finance Committee, and the Secretary. The Common Seal shall
not be affixed to any instrument except in the Council-room
during a Meeting of the Council.

44. The Reports from the Council to the General Meetings in
London, in May and December, shall be prepared at the Council,
on the first Wednesday in May and the first Wednesday in

Bye-Laws. XV

December, respectively, or at some adjournment of such Coun-
cils.

45. The Charter of the Society, Lease of the House, Secretary’s
Bond of Security, and other important documents belonging to
the Society, shall be kept in a box confided to the custody of the
Society’s Bankers, and this box shall not be delivered up by
them, excepting on a written order signed by the President
or Chairman of Council Meeting, a Trustee, and the Secretary.

CoMMITTEES.

46. TheStanding Committees shall be appointed by the Monthly
Council in December, but shall not enter on their respective
duties until the first day of January, nor remain in force after
the 31st of December of the ensuing year, unless re-appointed.
Any other Committees may be appointed at a Monthly Council.

47. Each Committee, at its first Meeting, shall elect its own
permanent Chairman, who shall always take the chair at the Com-
mittee, when present; the chair being taken in his absence by a
Chairman to be elected by the Committee for the occasion: and
all Committees shall meet by summons issued by direction of
their respective Chairmen, or of the President, or of any three
Members of the Committee, or by adjournment. The President,
Trustees, and Vice-Presidents, shall be Members ex officio of all
Committees.

48. All Committees during their sittings may report the pro-
gress of their proceedings to the Monthly Meetings of the Council,
and shall sit till they have made their respective general reports ;
but in case such reports shall not have been made préviously to
the 31st of December next following their appointment, their
powers shall then cease.

SECRETARY.

49. The Secretary shall devote the whole of his time to the
affairs of the Society, and shall be immediately responsible to
the Council for the discharge of the various duties they require
him to perform. He shall attend the sittings of all Meetings of
the Council. He shall also attend on any Committee requiring
his presence, when not in attendance on the Council. He shall
take the minutes of the Council; and also, when attending upon
any Committee, the minutes of such Committee, if required to do
so by the Chairman.

Custody of
Charter.

Committees.

Enter on Du-
ties.

Chairman,

Summons,

Ex officio Mem-

bers,

Duties.

Correspond-
ence.

Money,

Cash-book.

Superintendence
of Clerks,
&e.

Power to sue
and be sued.

Salary.

Security.

Rooms,

Clerks and Ser-
yants.

XVI Bye-Laws.

50. He shall conduct the correspondence of the Society, pre-
serving the letters he may receive in a classed arrangement, and
shall keep a daily register of all correspondence in a classified
form. He shall keep letter-books, in which copies of all letters
shall be entered which he writes by direction of the President,
Council, or Committees.

51. Under the direction of the Finance Committee he shall
receive or be responsible for all monies received at the rooms
of the Society, paying such sums into the hands of the bankers,
and producing at each Finance Committee their receipts for the
same; and, with the exception of the amount allowed him for
petty cash, he shall not retain in his hands any money belonging
to the Society, but shall pay it over forthwith to the Society's
bankers. He shall have the charge of the expenditure of petty
cash.

52. All receipts for money received on behalf of the Society
shall be out of a book with counterpart.

53, All monies received and paid shall be entered daily in a
general cash-book.

54. He shall have the custody of all books, models, and papers

elonging to the Society. All books, pamphlets, dzc., sent to
the Society shall be stamped with the Society's stamp at once.

55. He shall have the immediate superintendence over the
Clerks and Servants of the Society; and shall be required to
report to the Council any instances of misconduct on their part
which he thinks of such a nature as to require the consideration
of the Council.

56. Agreeably with the Charter, the President and Council
have the power by him, as their Secretary, of suing or being
sued, and of contracting or discharging obligations, according to
the special nature of the authority with which they may from
time to time invest him, as their representative, for these several
objects.

57. He shall be resident in the Society’s house. His salary
shall be 400/. per annum, with coals and lighting.

58. He shall find approved security to the amount of 1000/.

59. The rooms of the Society shall not be underlet.

60. He shall not be a Governor or Member of the Society.

61. The Council shall have the power of appuinting and remoy-
ing such clerks and servants as they may deem necessary, and of
fixing their salaries.

Bye-Laws. XVII

FINANCES.

62. The Finance Committee shall have the immediate care of
the Society’s accounts, and no payment of money shall be made
excepting at a Monthly Council, and unless recommended by the
teport of the Finance Committee, which shall always meet on
the first Wednesday in every month, without summons, pre-
viously to the sitting of the Council, in order to prepare a Report
on the state of the Society’s funds, which they shall present

to each Monthly Meeting, and lay before it the following
account :—

Monthly Cash Account, ending

£. 8. d. || [seston Nae

Payments by order of
| the Council . . |

Balance of petty cash in}|
the hands of the Secre-
tary last month

Balance at the bankers’

during the past month
by the Secretary, aud

Amount of cash sont]
paid into the hands =|

Amount of retaclias |
of petty cash .

Messrs. Drummond, as
per bankers’ receipts .
|| Balance in hand
Ditto, received by Messrs. )| | Bankers.
Drummond on account Secretary
of the Society, as per
bankers’ book. . .

{

and a statement of the payments recommended to be made, toge-
ther with all the books in which entries of cash receipts or pay-
ments are made, and such documents as the business of the
day may require. Should a sufficient number of Members of the
Finance Committee to form a quorum not have assembled on the
first Wednesday of any month, the Secretary shall report the
state of the Society’s funds to the Council.

63. Twice in every year—namely, on the Friday previously to
each of the London General Meetings—there shall be an audit of
the accounts of the Society at eleven o’clock, when a balance-
sheet shall be prepared and reported to the General Meeting,
and such balance-sheet published in the ensuing part of the
Journal. The Auditors shall consist of the President, the
Trustees, the Members of the Finance Committee, and of three
Members not being Members of the Council or of any of the

VOL. XXII. B

Finances.

Time of meet-
ing.
Report.

Audit.

Auditors.

Balance-sheet
of Country
Meeting.

Signature of
drafts.

Journal.

Responsibility
of authors.

Editor,

Duties.

XVIII Bye- Las.

Committees (of whom two shall always be present) to be chosen
at the London General Meeting in December. A complete
balance-sheet of the Country Meeting of each year shall in future
appear in the last Journal of the Society for the same year.

64. All drafts on the bankers shall be signed by the President
(or, in his absence, by the Chairman of the Council) and by one of
the Trustees, being countersigned by the Secretary; and a book
shall be kept in which a consecutive entry. shall be made of all
such payments.

JOURNAL.

65. The Journal Committee shall have the care of the publica-
tion of the Journal; of which two parts shall be published every
year, one in February, and one in August. They shall decide on
the papers which shall be printed in the successive parts of the
Journal, and shall also recommend, at their discretion, the dis-
posal to be made of communications important or interesting in
their nature, but of a character unsuitable for the immediate
objects of the Journal. The Committee, though responsible for
the selection of matter, and the importance of its bearings in an
agricultural point of view, are not responsible for the positive
accuracy of the facts stated in the several papers—a cireum-
stance depending on the judgment, caution, and observation of
the authors themselves.

66. Each Member is entitled gratuitously to those parts of the
Journal which belong to any year for which his subscription has
been paid: but no Journals shall continue to be forwarded to
any Member whose subscription is in arrear.

Ep 1ror.

67. The duties of Editorship shall be performed under the
general superintendence of the Journal Committee, and sub-
ject to the regulations made by them from time to time.

68. An Editor shall be appointed of literary and scientific
ability, competent to discharge the under-mentioned duties in a
creditable and satisfactory manner, whose salary shall be 5001.
per annum. Subject to revision and alteration by the Journal
Committee, the duties which the Editor will be called upon to
discharge shall be as follows :—

To prepare original papers for the Journal, and to assist the

Journal Committee in the selection of fitting subjects for

Bye-Laws. XIX

Prize Essays, and in adjudicating upon the Essays when
received. .

To correspond with those persons who are best qualified to
afford sound and original information on agricultural topics,
more especially on new or controverted questions, with a
view to obtaining literary contributions from them for the
Journal.

To classify and examine all letters or other documents referred
to the Journal Committee by the Council, and report to the
Committee as to their suitability for publication.

To supervise generally the publication of the Journal, both by
preparing the articles for the printer and correcting the proof.

The whole of the Editor’s time shall be at the disposal of the
Society.

PRIZE-SHEETS.
69. The Prize Sheet for the Country Meeting shall be settled at Dateof settling.
a Special Council to be held on the Thursday of the Smithfield
Club-week in December.

Prize-Hssays.

70. All information contained in Prize-Essays shall be founded
on experience or observation, and not on simple reference to books
or other sources.

71. Drawings, specimens, or models, drawn or constructed to
a stated scale, shall accompany writings requiring them.

72. All competitors shall enclose their names and addresses in a Motto.
cover, on which only their motto, and the subject of their Essay,
and the number of that subject in the Prize list of the Society,
shall be written.

73. The President or Chairman of the Council, for the time being, Who to open.
shall open the cover on which the motto designating the Essay to
which the Prize has been awarded is written, and shall declare
the name of the author. —

74. The Chairman of the Journal Committee shall alone be em- Unsuccessful
powered to open the motto-paper of such Essays, not obtaining #*Y*-
the Prize, as he may think likely to be useful for the Society’s
objects, with a view of consulting the writer confidentially as to
his willingness to place such paper at the disposal of the Journal
Committee.

75. The copyright of all Essays gaining prizes shall belong to Copyright.

the Society, who shall accordingly have the power to publish the
B2

Conditions,

Library.

Country Mecet-
ings,

XX Bye-Laws.

whole or any part of such Essays; and the other Essays will be
returned on the application of the writers; but the Society do
not make themselves responsible for their loss.

76. The Society are not bound to award a prize unless they
consider one of the Essays deserving of it.

77. In all reports of experiments the expenses shall be aceu-
rately detailed.

78. The imperial weights and measures only are those by which
calculations are to be made.

79. No prize shall be given for any Essay which has been
already in print.

80. Prizes may be taken in money or plate, at the option of
the successful candidate.

81. All Essays must be addressed to the Secretary, at the
house of the Society.

LIBRARY.

82. There shall be a Library of the Society, of which a catalogue
shall be kept; and all donations of books shall be referred to the
Journal Committee to decide whether the books shall be accepted.
A register shall be kept in which an entry shall be made of all
presents of books which are so accepted, and of all seeds, imple-
ments, and models, together with the names of the donors.

83. No model, implement, or other object can be exhibited to
the Society without leave from the Council.

Country Mrerines.

84. The Council reserves to itself the right to adopt, at all
Country Meetings, such arrangements as may seem most con-
ducive to the general objects of the Society, without binding
itself to adopt or follow the arrangements of previous years.

85. In all matters of compensation the responsibility rests
with the local authorities, and not with the Council of the Royal
Agricultural Society of Hngland.

86. No person who shall have been shown, to the satisfaction
of the Council, to have been excluded from exhibiting for prizes
at the exhibition of any society, in consequence of having been
convicted of an attempt to obtain a prize by giving a false certi-
ficate, shall be allowed to compete for any of the prizes offered
by the Royal Agricultural Society of England, at any of its
meetings.

Bye-Laws—Resolutions. <x

Bye-Laws.

87. No existing bye-law shall be altered, or any new one made,
except at the Meeting of the Council, on the first Wednesday in
May or the first Wednesday in December, one month’s notice
having been previously given in writing to the Council, and a
copy of such notice having been sent by the Secretary to each of
its Members: Provided always, that nothing in this bye-law
shall prevent the bye-law proposed being altered or amended by
the Council at the time it is under consideration.

88. All bye-laws shall be entered in a book to be kept for that
purpose, and signed by the President and Secretary for the time
being, and new bye-laws or alterations entered therein forthwith.

Passed at a Council heid on the 1st of May, 1861.

(Signed ) Powis, President.
H. Haut Dare, Secretary.

IJ.—RESOLUTIONS.

PRESIDENT.

89. On the day the first Council in May, or an adjournment
thereof, meets to prepare its Report to the General Meeting of
the Society, the election of President for the ensuing year shall
be considered.

CounciL.

90. Each Member of the Council shall be requested to nomi-
nate, in writing, to the Secretary, such Members of the Society as
he would propose to supply any of the vacancies in the Council,
on the Wednesday prior to the printing of the list annually laid
before the Council, he having previously ascertained that such
Members would be willing to attend the Council. The Secretary
shall add to the usual form of list, columns containing the name
proposed, and stating by whom proposed; and also a column
stating the number of Councils and Committees attended by
each Member, who goes out by rotation, and is eligible for
re-election.

Consideration
of.

House List for
Council.

Annual Report
of Commit-
tees.

Life _Composi-
tions,

Accountant.

Quarterly
Statement.

Implement Re-
ports.

D. Gti6 Resolutions.

CoMMITTEES.

91. In future the standing Committees of each year shall make
a written Report to the Monthly Council, in December, stating
the number of times they have met, and the number of Reports
they have made to the Council during the year for which they
were appointed.

FINANnce.

92. No compositions for life shall be made applicable to the
current expenses of the Society.

93. There shall be a professional accountant to the Society,
appointed by the Finance Committee. He shall regularly exa-
mine the Society’s accounts, and report thereon to the said
Committee, as required by them.

94. The Finance Committee shall cause to be prepared an
account of the state of the Society's Finances, showing
Ist, a quarterly balance-sheet of receipts and expenditure; 2nd,
a quarterly statement of property; 3rd, a quarterly statement of
subscriptions and arrears.

95. The above accounts shall be made up to the last days of
March, June, September, and December, and laid before the
Council at the ensuing monthly meeting.

JOURNAL.

96. The Reports on the Implements exhibited at the Country
Meetings should appear in the Journal, which will in future
be published, the first Number in February, and the second
as early in August as practicable, or within a month after the
Country Meeting.

REPORTING.

I. Monthly Councils :—For Society's use.

97. At Monthly Councils it is not desirable that speeches of
Members should be reported at length, but the Secretary shall
prepare notes of the business done, the principal grounds of the
decisions arrived at, and the numbers of the majority and mi-
nority in each case.

98. In order to facilitate the preparation of such a Report the
Secretary shall be assisted by one of his clerks, who shall attend
the Council Meetings, and thus enable him to give his undivided
attention to the business which is under consideration.

99. No motion or amendment shall be put to the Council

Resolutions. XXIII

unless it be written out at length, and signed by the Member
proposing it.

II. Monthly Councils :—For the Press.

100. The Secretary shall as soon as practicable, after the rising
of the Council, prepare a Report for the press, embodying all
decisions arrived at, and stating the numbers by which each
motion was affirmed or negatived, but not giving any Report
of the speeches made.

101. The substance of all Reports of Committees presented
to the Council shall be published unless ctherwise specially
ordered by the Council.

III. Weekly Councils.

102. The Secretary shall prepare a Report of the proceedings
of each Weekly Council, which shall be furnished to the papers as
soon as practicable after the conclusion of the Meeting. A précis
of this Report shall be entered in the Minute Book. In cases
where any written paper is read or laid before the Council,
which is of too great length for immediate insertion in the pro-
ceedings, it shall be referred to the Editor to report upon at
the following Weekly Council.

CountTRY MEETING.

103. The place of holding the Annual Country Meeting shall
not be decided upon until a Committee, of which at least three
Members shall have acted as the Director or Stewards of the
Yard (three to be a quorum, one of which shall have acted as
Director or Steward) shall have visited and inspected such towns
and their localities as the Council shall think fit, and have
reported upon their respective suitableness for the purposes of
the Society.

104. No agreement which may be entered into with Local
Authorities relative to the place of the Annual Country Meeting,
shall be held good unless the Corporate Seal, attested by the
signature of the Mayor, shall be affixed to such document.

105. Theré shall be at least four Stewards appointed for regu-
lating the entrances to the Show Yard at the Country Meeting,
whose duties shall be to inspect from time to time the Register
of the Telltales, and to see that the money taken out of the
boxes corresponds with the Register, making a note on a tabular
form of card the time at which such examination took place,

Inspection Com-
mittee.

Agreement.

Stewards of
Finance.

Stewards.

Free Admis-
sion to Show
Yard.

Signature.

Tickets, appli-
cation for.

XXIV Resolutions.

and distinguishing whether in excess or deficiency in the amount
shown on the Register.

106. At the Country Meeting of the Society there shall be
three Stewards for each department, viz.: three for the imple-
ments and three for the stock; one of whom only, in each depart-
ment, shall go out of office at the end of the year, and another
be appointed; so that two experienced Stewards may remain in
office.

107. No Member who has not paid his subscription for the
current year is qualified to make an entry for the Country
Meeting of the Society, or to exhibit as a non-subscriber.

108. Governors and Members of the Society who have paid
their subscriptions for the current year shall be admitted to
the Show Yard, during the time it is open to the public, without
payment, by tickets issued by the Secretary, which tickets shall
not be transferable ; and any Governor or Member who shall be
found to transfer or lend his ticket shall be reported to the
Council, and shall in future forfeit the privileges of Membership.

109. Each Member shall sign his name, and write his address,
with a declaration of his Membership, on the back of the official
ticket, and shall also sign in the Gate-book at the Special
Entrance, if required to do so.

110. Application for the Member’s ticket shall be made in
London, either by post or personally not later than the Friday
preceding the week of the Show, and afterwards at the Secretary's
office in the Show Yard.

DINNER.

111. In future, if any Dinner be held at the Country Meetings,
under the patronage of the Society, the entire management
shall be vested in the Local Committee ; but the Council shall
have the option and power of reserving and taking such a
number of tickets as they shall think fit; and this Society shall
nominate the chairman and supply the list of toasts, but shall
have no other liability connected with it.

JUDGES.

112. Any Member of the Society who nominates a Judge shall
be requested to certify that of his own personal knowledge he
knows him to be qualified and willing to act as a Judge for
whatever classes he may be proposed to be appointed ; and that he

Resolutions. XXV

is as far as he knows unconnected with any exhibitor of Stock or
maker of Implements, and that he has no direct personal interest
in the Stock exhibited, as the breeder of any particular animal
upon which he might be called upon to adjudicate. The list
of names so proposed (stating by whom proposed) shall be, as
heretofore, referred to the Committee of the Council, whereof the
Stewards of the Yard of the year preceding shall be ex officio
Members. In case of a sufficient number of competent persons
not being proposed, the Committee are ordered to add the names
of such other persons as they may know to be competent and
willing to act.

113. A circular shall be sent in the first week of April to each
Member of Council, requesting him to send to the Secretary,
before the Monthly Meeting in May, the names of persons
qualified and willing to act as Judges of Stock, to serve as an
addition to the names sent in by the Members of the Society.

114. The list of names of persons recommended as Judges shall
be placed in the Council-room, and a copy sent to each Member
of Council two weeks before the Committee of selection proceed
to select the Judges; and any Member of the Society shall be at
liberty to apply to the Secretary for a list of names, and to send
in writing to the Secretary his objections to any name on the
list, such objections to be laid before the Committee of Selection.

JupcEs’ Reports.

115. The Editor shall be instructed to correct any inaccuracies
of style or clerical errors.

116. The consulting engineer shall be requested to correct any
inaccuracies in the description of the machinery, or the records
of the working of the implements; but any alteration in the
Report of a Judge of implements which is not included under
either of the foregoing heads shall be submitted to the acting
Senior Steward of the Implements and the Chairman of the
Journal Committee, and shall not be adopted without their
approval.

Prize SHEET.
117. No offer of a Prize at the Country Meeting of any year
shall be taken into consideration by the Council after the first
Wednesday in the month of February of such year of Meeting.

Offer of Prize.

118. It shall be an instruction to the Stewards to endeavour, if Protests.

Reserve Num-

ber.
Exhibition Fee.
Society not re-

sponsible for
Damage.

Correctness of
Certificate,

Examination of

Horses.

Examination of

Pigs.

XXVI Resolutions.

possible, to decide all protests against the awards of the Judges
at the Country Meeting, before the conclusion of the Meeting.
Such protests shall be delivered to the Stewards at the Director’s
Office, in the Show-yard, before six o’clock on the Thursday
evening of the Show-week ; and no protest shall be subsequently
received unless satisfactory reasons be assigned for the delay.

119. A reserve number shall be given by the Judges in each
class of Live Stock.

120. The charge for all Stock exhibited shall be 5s. for each
entry, in addition to the 10s. paid by non-Members.

121. A clause shall be inserted in the conditions, stating that
the Society will not in any case hold itself responsible for any loss,
damage, or mis-delivery of such live stock, or implements, or
other articles exhibited at the Society’s Shows.’

122. In case of Local Prizes being offered, the same animals
shall not be entered to compete for both the Society’s aud the
Local Prizes.

123. It shall be incumbent on Exhibitors to prove the cor-
rectness of their certificates, if called upon by the Stewards or the
Council to do so.

124. No horse shall be exhibited without a certificate from a
Member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons as to the
state of the animal with reference to hereditary diseases, par-
ticularly those of the respiratory organs, which certificate shall
accompany the Certificate of Entry; but the above shall not
supersede the usual examination by the Society's Veterimary
Inspector.

125, All pigs exhibited at the Country Meetings of the Society
shall be subjected to an examination of their mouths by the
Veterinary Inspector of the Society; and should the state of
dentition in any pig indicate that the age of the animal has not
been correctly returned in the Certificate of Entry, the Stewards
shall have power to disqualify such pig, and shall report the
circumstance to the Council at its ensuing Monthly Meeting.

Book For RESOLUTIONS.

126. A book shall be kept in which all Resolutions shall be
entered, with a reference in the index and the dates of bemg
passed.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.
JUNE 1861.

Uist of Grobernors.
+ Life Governor's mark.
jHis Royal Highness Tux Prince Consort, K.G....Windsor Castle

+Acland, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., M.P....Killerton Park, Collumpton
Akroyd, Henry...Doddington Hall, Nantwich

tAleock, Thomas, M.P....Kingswood Warren, Epsom

yAldam, William, jun....Frickley Hall, Doncaster

Antrobus, Sir Edmund, Bart....Amesbury Abbey. Salisbury

tAppold, John George...23, Wilson Street, Finsbury

Arkwright, J. Hungerford. ..Hampton Court, Leominster

yAshburton, Lord...The Grange, Alresford

}Bailward, John...Horsington, Wincanton

+Barelay, David...Grove Hill, Falmouth

+Barker, John Raymond...Fairford Park, Fairford, Gloucestershire
Barker, Thomas Raymond...Hambleden, Henley-on-Thames
Barrow, William Hodgson, M.P....Southwell, Nottinghamshire
7Bath, Marquis of... Longleat, Warminster

+Belper, Lord...St. Helens, Derby

+Berners, Lord... Keythorp Hall, Leicester

Betts, Edward Ludd... Preston Hall, Maidstone

Blount, William...Orchhill, Gerrard’s Cross, Bucks
Bosanquet, George Jacob...Broxbournebury, Hoddesdon, Herts
Bowes, John...Streatham Castle, Staindrop, Durham

Bramston, Thomas William, M.P....Skreens, Chelmsford
Brandreth, Humphrey...Houghton House, Dunstable

Bridges, Sir Brook William, Bart., M.P....Godnestone Park, Wingham, Kent
Bridport, Lord. ..Cricket Lodge, Chard, Somersetshire

Briscoe, John Ivatt, M.P....Fox Hill, Chertsey, Surrey
+Brown, James...Rossington, Bawtry

Buccleuch, Duke of, K.G....37, Belgrave Square

+Buller, Edward...Dilhorne Castle, Cheadle, Staffordshire
Buxton, Sir Robert Jacob, Bart... .Shadwell Court, Thetford

Cabbell, Benjamin Bond. ..1, Brick Court, Temple

Camoys, Lord...Stonor Park, Henley-on-Thames

Campden, Viscount...Campden, Gloucestershire

Carnaryon, Earl of...High Clere Castle, Newbury

Challoner, Colonel B.... Portnall Park, Staines

+Chesham, Lord...Latimer, Chesham, Bucks

Chichester, Earl of...Stanmer Park, Lewes, Sussex

Childers, John Walbanke...Cantley Hall, Doncaster

+Cholmeley, Sir Montague J., Bart., M.P...Easton Hall, Colstersworth, Line

XXVIII List of Governors of the

+Clive, Rev. Archer... Whitfield, Hereford

+Copeland, Alderman, M.P....The Poplars, Leyton, Essex
Cotes, John... Woodcote, Newport, Shropshire

t+Cottenham, Earl of...Tandridge Court, Tandridge, Surrey
Courtauld, Samuel...Gosfield Hall, Halsted, Essex
+Craven, Earl of,..Combe Abbey, Coventry

Curteis, Major Edward Barrett....Lecsam House, Rye

Darnley, Earl of...Cobham Hall, Gravesend

}Dartmouth, Earl of... Patshall Hall, Wolverhampton

De Grey and Ripon, The Earl...Studley Royal, Ripon

De La Warr, Earl... Buckhurst Park, East Grinstead, Sussex
Denison, John Evelyn, M.P....Ossington, Newark, Nottinghamshire
+Derby, Earl of...Knowsley Hall, Prescot, Lancashire

Dering, Sir Edw. Cholmeley, Bart.....Surrenden-Dering, Charing, Kent
Devonshire, Duke of...Holkar Hall, Milnthorpe, Westmoreland
Dickinson, Francis Henry. ..King’s Weston, Somerton, Somersetshire
Downshire, Marquis of...East Hampstead Park, Oakingham, Berks
+Dysart, Earl of...Buckminster Hall, Colstersworth, Lincolnshire

Egmont, Earl of...Cowdray Park, Petworth

Essex, Earl of...Cassiobury Park, Watford, Hertfordshire

+Etwall, Ralph...Andover

Evans, Thomas William, M.P....Allestree Hall, Derby

tEversley, Viscount...Heckfield Place, Hartford Bridge, Hants
+Exeter, Murquis of, K.G....Burghley House, Stamford, Lincolnshire
Eyre, Charles...Welford, Newbury, Berkshire

Farquharson, John James... Langton, Blandford

Feilding, Viscount... Downing, Holywell

+Fellowes, Edward, M.P....Ramsey Abbey, Huntingdon

Feversham, Lord...Duncombe Park, Helmsley, Yorkshire

Foley, J. H. Hodgetts, M.P.... Prestwood, Stourbridge, Worcestershire
+Fortescue, Earl...Castle Hill, South Molton, Devon

+Freeland, H. W., M.P....Chichester
Freshfield, James William...Mynthurst, Leigh, Reigate
}Fuller, Francis...21, Parliament Street

Gibbs, Ben. Thomas Brandreth...47, Half Moon Street, London
+Graham, Rt. Hon. Sir James R. G., Bart., M.P, G.C.B.....Netherby, Carlisle
Grey, EKarl...Howick House, Alnwick

Hale, Robert Blagden... Alderley Park, Wootton

Hamilton-Nisbet, Right Hon. R. A., M.P....Bloxholme Hall, Sleaford, Lineolushire

Hamond, Anthony... Westacre Hall, Brandon

+Harcourt, George Simon... Burgh Castle, Great Yarmouth

Hartley, W. H. H....Lye Grove, Cross Hands, Sodbury, Gloucestershire

Hatherton, Lord...Teddesley Hall, Penkridge

Hayter, Right Hon. Si: Wm. Goodenough, Bart., M.P....Stowberry Park, Wells,
Somersetshire

Heathcoat, John, M.P.,..Bolham, Tiverton

+Heneage, George Fieschi, M.P....Hainton Hall, Wragby

{Henniker, Lord... Thornham Hall, Eye, Suffolk

Royal Agricultural Society of England. XXIX

+Heywood, Thomas Percival. ..Claremont, Manchester

+Hill, Viscount. ..Hawkstone Park, Shrewsbury

Hippisley, Henry...Lambourne Place, Hungerford

tHobbs, William Fisher. ..Boxted Lodge, Colchester

tHoghton, Henry...Bold Hall, Warrington

tHolford, R. Stayner... Weston Birt House, Tetbury, Gloucestershire
Holland, Edward, M.P....Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, Worcestershire
Hope, Henry Thomas...The Deepdene, Dorking, Surrey

Hoskyns, Chandos Wren...Harewood, Ross

+Hulse, Col. Sir Mdward, Bart....Breamore House, Fordingbridge, Hampshire
+Hunt, Zachary D....Aylesbury

Ingilby, Rev. Henry John...Ripley Castle, Ripley, Yorkshire
Johnstone, Sir John V. B., Bart., M.P...Hackness Hall, Scarborough

Kerrison, Sir Edward Clarence, Bart., M.P....140, Piccadilly
{Knight, Frederick Winn, M.P....Wolverley House, Kidderminster

Langston, J. Haughton, M.P....Sarsden House, Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire
Lansdowne, Marquis of, K.G....Bowood Park, Calne, Wiltshire
Leaconfield, Lord. , .Petworth House, Sussex

{Le Couteur, Colovel...Belle Vue, Jersey

Legh, William John...Lyme Park, Stockport

Leicester, Earl of...Holkbam Hall, Norfolk

7Leigh, Lord...Stoneleigh Abbey, Warwickshire

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart,...Carclew, Penrhyn, Cornwall
{Long, Walter, M.P....Rood Ashton, Trowbridge, Wilts
+Lonsdale, Earl of... Lowther Castle, Penrith

Lovelace, Earl of... East Horsley, Ripley, Surrey

Marlborough, Duke of... Blenheim Park, Oxon

+Marshall, William, M.P....Pattendale Hall, Penrith

+Miles, Sir William, Bart., M.P.... Leigh Court, Bristol, Somersetshire
Mills, Thomas...Tolmers, Hertford

Milward, Richard...Thurgartou Priory, Southwell, Notts.

Morrison, Alfred. ..Fonthill House, Hindon, Wilts

Murray, Charles Robert Scott... .Danesfield, Marlow, Buckinghamshire

Naper, James Lennox William...Lough Crew, Old Castle, Ireland
t Northwick, Lord... Athenzum Club, S.W.

Palmer, Robert...Holme Park, Reading, Berkshire

Patten, Col. John Wilson, M.P....Bank Hall, Warrington, Lancashire
Pennant, Hon. Col. Edw. Gordon Douglas, M.P....Penrhyn Castle, Bangor
+Perkins, Algernon...Hanworth Park, Hounslow, Middlesex

Pole, E. S. Chandos...Radbourne Hall, Derby

+Popham, Francis Leyborne... Littlecott, Hungerford, Berks

+Portman, Lord... Bryanston House, Blandford, Dorsetshire

{ Powis, Earl of... Powis Castle, Welshpool

+ Radnor, Earl of. ..Coleshill House, Highworth, Wilts
Ratcliff, Sir John, Knt....Wyddrington, Edgbaston, Birmingham

XXX Governors of the Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Rayleigh, Lord...Terling Place, Witham, Essex

Ridley, Sir Matthew White, Bart....Blagdon, Morpeth, Northumberland
Rigg, Jonathan...4, Chester Place, Hyde Park Square, W.

Robartes, Thos. J. Agar, M.P....Lanhydrock House, Bodmin
Rogerson, John...St. Alban’s Villa, Highgate Rise, N.

Roupell, William, M.P....16, St. James’s Square, S.W.

}Rutland, Duke of... Belvoir Castle, Grantham

Saint Germans, Earl of...Port Eliot, Devonport

tSanford, Edward Ayshford...Nynehead Court, Wellington, Somersetshire
fScholey, William Stephenson...Lauriston, Larkhall Lane, Clapham, S.
tShadwell, Lucas. ..Fairlight, Hastings

Shelley, Sir John Villiers, Bart., M.P....Maresfield Park, Uckfield, Sussex
tSlaney, Robert Aglionby, M.P.... Walford Manor, Shrewsbury, Salop
7Smith, John Abel. ..37, Chester Square

tSondes, Lord,..Elmham Hall, Elmham, Norfoik

Sotheron-Estcourt, the Right Hon. H. 8S. B. E., M.P....Bowden Park, Chippenham
tSouthampton, Lord... Whittlebury Lodge, Towcester

Stafford, Lord. ..Cotessy Hall, Norwich

Stanhope, John Spencer...Cannon Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire

*tStradbroke, Earl of...Henham Park, Waneford, Suffolk

Sutton, John Manners... Kelham, Newark, Notts

+Tanqueray, John Samuel...Hendon, Middlesex

Taunton, Lord.. .Stowey, Somersetshire

+Thompson, H. S., M.P....Kirby Hall, York

+Thorold, Sir John Charles, Bart....Syston Park, Grantham
Torrington, Viscount... Yokes Court, Mereworth, Kent
Towneley, Lieut.-Col. Charles...Towneley, Burnley, Blackburn
Tunno, Edward Rose... Warnford Park, Bishop’s Waltham
Tuxford, George Parker. ..246, Strand

Walsh, Sir John, Bart., M.P....Warfield Park, Bracknell, Berkshire

Walsingham, Lord...Merton Hall, Thetford, Norfolk

Warner, Edward, M.P....Higham Hall, Woodford

+ Warwick, Earl of... Warwick Castle, Warwick

Westminster, Marquis of, K.G....Motcombe House, Shaftesbury

+Whitbread, William Henry...Southhill House, Bedford

+ Williams-Chancellor, the Rey. Sir Erasmus, Bart... .Llanywormwood Park, Carmar-
thenshire

Wilmot, Edward Woollett...Buxton, Derbyshire

+Wilson, Fuller Maitland... Langham Hall, Bury St. Edmund’s

+Wilson, Henry...Stowlangtoft Hall, Bury St. Edmund’s

Wilshere, William...The Frythe, Welwyn

Wood, George, Hanger Hill, Ealing, W.

Wynn, Sir Watkin Williams, Bart., M.P....Wynnstay, Rhuabon, Denbighshire

Yarborough, Earl of...Manby Hill, Glanford Bridge, Lincoln

Zetland, Earl of... Aske Hall, Richmond, Yorkshire

€ xxa )

List of seHembers.*

+ Life Member's mark.

A.

+Abbey, George. ..Silsworth Lodge, Daventry

Abbey, John...The Grange, Wellingborough
Abbot, Chas. H....Bower, Long Ashton, Bristol
Abbott, Evelyn... Lowdham, Nottingham

Abbott, Stephen, jun....Castleacre, Swaffham
Abbott, Wm.. Hill Farm, Gt. Wigborough, Colchester
Abergavenny, Earl of...Birling Manor, Maidstone
Abraham, Rev. T. E....Barton Place; Mildenhall
Abraham, Thomas... Dunster, Taunton

+Abrey, Thos. S. H...,Witham, Lssex

+Ackers, James.. .Prinknash Park, Painswick
Acland, Sir Pere. P. F. Palmer, Bart.. ..Bridgewater
Acland, Thos. Dyke...Sprydoncote, Exeter
+Acworth, N. B.,..The Hook, Northaw, Middlesex
Ackroyd, William...Otley

Adair, A...Heatherton Park, Wellington, Somerset
Adair, Sir R. Shatto, Bart....20a, St. James’ Square
Adam, Alexander... Boulogne-sur-Mer

Adams, G. T.,..Hawkhurst, Kent

Adams, Thos....New House, Marden, Herefordshire
Adcock, William...Farmdish, Wellingborough
+Adderley, Rt. Hon.C. B.,M.P.. Hams Hall,Minworth
Adkins, George C....The Lightwoods, Birmingham
Adney, G....Harley, Much Wenlock

Adney, John... Rowton, Wellington, Salop
+Ahrens, E,. .New Schlagsdorf, Schwerin, Mecklenbg.
yAkroyd, Edward, M.P...Bank Field, Halifax
Alderman, Rey. F. C....Kintbury, Hungerford
Alderman, Robert... Farmdish, Wellingborough
+Alderson, Jolin,..Thomby Villa, Wigton

Aldous, Robert... Burlingham, Norwich

+Aldworth, W., jun....Frilford, Abingdon
Alexander, Caledon.. .Sudbury

+Alington, G. M.,..Swinhope House, Louth
Alison, John...Brizhtlands, Reigate

Allday, John...Griston, Wotton, Norfolk

+Allen, B. Haizh...Longerofts Hall, Lichfield
Allen, Chas. W....The Moor, Kington, Herefords.
Allen, John R.,..Lyngford House, Taunton

Allen, Henry...Oakfield, Hay, Herefordshire
Allen, Ralph S....Bathampton, Bath

Allen, Rev. Dr....Downham Market, Norfolk
Allen, Thomas. ..Thurmaston, Leicester

Allen, Thomas...Upton Cottage, Macclesfield
Allen, W. T.. Little Stambridge Hall, Rochford, Essex
Allenby, George... Wallington, Louth, Lincolnshire
+Allfrey,H.W...Hemingford Ho., Stratford-on-Ayon
7Allfrey, Robert... Wakefield Park, Reading

Allender, G. M.... Manor Farm, Quainton, Winslow
Allerton, George R....Barling, Rochford, Essex
Allington, Rey. J....Little Barford,St.Neot’s, Hun's.
Allix, Charles,..Willoughby Hall, Grantham
Allsop, Henry...Foremark Hall, Burton-on-Trent
yAmbler, Henry...Watkinson Hall, Halifax

Ames, Jolin,..Clevelands, Lyme, Dorset

Ames, George Henry...Cote House, Bristol

Ames, Lionel...The Hyde, St. Alban’s

yAmbhurst, W. A. T....Didlington Park, Brandon.
Amos, Charles E...Greenfield House, Sutton, Surrey
+Anderson, Alexander... Horsmonden, Kent
Anderson, David...Westhaven, Carnaustie, Forfar
Anderson, R....Grey Street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Anderson, Robert A....Cirencester

Anderton, G. jun....Howden Dyke, Howden, Yorks
Andrew, George... Farmers’ Club, St. Austell
Andrewes, C. J....Kate’s Grove Iron- Works, Reading
Andrus, Francis...Scadbury, South fleet, Gravesend
Angers, Wm....Neswick, Driffield

Angeworth, Wm.,..Eardington House, Bridgnorth
Ankers, Robert B....Tarvin, Chester

Annandale, P....Shotley Grove, Newcastle-on-Tyne
+Anson, Sir John, Bart....Avisford, Arundel
Anstey, Samuel...Monabilly Farm, Par Station
Anstice, J... . Madeley Wood House, Broseley, Salop
yAnstruther, J. H. L....Hintlesham Hall, Ipswich
Anstruther, Sir R.A.,Bt..Balcaskie, Leven, Fifeshire
Aplin, Henry...Combe St.Nicholas, Chard,Somerset
Appleby, T. Dawkins. ..Briggate, Leeds
+Applewhaite, Edward.. Pickenham Hall, Swaffham
yArbuthnot, John A.,..Coworth, Chertsey, Surrey
+Arcedeckne, Andrew...Glevering Hall, Suffolk
Arkcoll, Win...Langney, Westham, Eastbourne
Arkcoll, Thomas... Langley, Eastbourne

Arkell, H.... Butlers’ Ct., Boddington, Cheltenham
+Arkell, T....Pier Hill Farm, Swindon, Wilts
Arkell, Thomas, ..Boddington, Cheltenham
Arkwright, Rev. J.,..Mark Hall, Harlow, Essex
Arkwright, Peter...Willersby, Matlock, Derbyshire
Armitage, Arthur... Moraston, Ross, Herefordshire
Armstrong, G. ..Heddon-on-the-Wall, Northumb.
Armstrong, H., M.D...Peckham Ho., Peckham, S.E.
Armstrong, John. ,.Patterton, Chesterfield
Armstrong, Robert...Over Tabley, Knutsford
Armytage, Col. H..Broomhill Bank, Tonbridge Wells
Arnold, Lewin...The Hale, Calne, Wilts

Arnold, Rev. Richard A....Ellough, Beccles
Arnold, Thomas O....Park, Winkleigh, Devon
Arthur, Lieut.-Col. C.,..Misterton Hall, Lutterworth

* The names of 60 Members are omitted on account of their Subscriptions to the Society being in arrear to

Dec. 3lst, 1859.

XXXII

Ashby, T. W....Rutland Terrace, Stamford
Ashcroft, Thomas... Walford, Eccleshall, Staffs.
Ashdown, S. H....Uppington, Wellington, Salop
Ashhurst, John H...,. Waterstock, Oxford

Ashlin, John,.,Firsby, Spilsby

Ashton, G. F....Stormer Hill, Totlington, Bury
+Ashton, Henry... Woolton, Liverpool

Ashton, T. Henry...The College Farm, Cirencester
-++Askew, Sir H....Pallinsburn Ho., Coldstream, N.B.
;Astbury, William...4, Munster Terrace, Fulham
+Astley, F. L’Estrange.. . Melton Constable, Thetford
+Aston, Kt. Hon. Sir A., Bt... Aston Hall, Cheshire
+yAston, Samnel,..Bushwood Lodge, Warwick
yAthorpe, J. C....Dinnington Hall, Rotherham
Athreton, George T....Beech Cottage, Wrexham
Atkins, Alfred..,Farnham, Slough, Bucks
Atkinson, Benj....Manston Lodge, Whitkirk, Leeds
Atkinson, [’....Laurel Bank, Potternewton, Leeds
+Atkinson, James... Winderwath, Penrith
+Atkinson, J. H. H....Angerton, Morpeth
Atkinson, John.,.Charlton, Salisbury

yAtkinson, W.,.,.Gt. Rapers, Bures St. Mary's
Atkinson, W. S....Barrowby Hall, Whitkirk, Leeds
Atkinson, William.,.Ashton Heyes, Chester
+Atkinson, W. James...Marlow, Buckinghamshire
Attenborough, J....Brampton Ash, Market Harbro’
Attwater, J. Gay...Cubberley, Cheltenham
Aveland, Lord., .Normanton Park, Oakham

Avery, Thomas Charles. . .(Solicitor), Gloucester
Awbery, F.D....St. Lawrence Wootton, Basingstoke
yAylmer, H...,Wesc Dereham, Stoke Ferry, Norfolk
yAylmer, J. B.,..Fincham Hall, Downham, Norfolk
Aylmer, John H.... Walworth Castle, Darlington
jyAylmer, R. B....Westacre Abbey, Swaffham
+yAynsley, J. Murray...Underdown, Ledbury
+Aytoun, R.S,...Inchdairnie, Kirkcaldie, N.B.

B.

+Babington, Chas. C., M.A...St. John’s, Cambridge
Back, John Alfred... Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich
Bacon, Rev. H....Baxterley Rectory, Atherstone
Bacon, James, Pluckley, Ashford, Kent

+ Backhouse, Edmund,..Polam Hill, Darlington
Badcock, Benjamin...Broad Street, Oxford
Badceck, Henry...Taunton

Badcock, P....36, Eastbourne Terr., Hyde Park, W.
Badger, W. H....Syerscote Manor, Tamworth
Badham, G. D....Bulmer, Sudbury

+Bagot, Kt. Hon. Lord...Blithefield, Rugeley, Staff.
+Bailey, James... Nynehead, Wellington, Somerset
Bailey, Wm....Hazling, Belford, Northumberland
7Bailey, Hamilton...Ash Hall, Cowbridge

Baillie, Wm. Hunter...4, Upper Harley Street

7 Baillie,Rev.E., .Lawshall Recty.,Bury St.Edmund’s
Baily, Rev. H. G....The Vicarage, Swindon

Baily, J., sen..,.113, Mount Street, Berkeley Squar2
Baily, T. F....Hall Place, Leigh, Tunbridge
Bainbridge, C. H..,. Lumley Park, Durham
Bainbrigge, W. H... Woodseat, Ashbourne, Derbysh.
Baines, Jolin Fuller. ,.Stisted, Braintree, Essex
Baker, Anne,..Grendon, Atherstone

Baker, Benjamin Heath...Acle, Norwich

|

List of Members of the

Baker, George W,,..Parknook, Quorndon, Derby
+Baker, Lake J.... Hargrave, Kimbolton

Baker, James...Drayton Bassett, Tamworth

+Baker, John...

+Baker, Sir E. Baker, Bart... Ranston Ho., Blandford
Baker, T. Barwick L.,..Hardwick Court, Gloucester
Baker, Thomas... Barton, Cambridge

Baker, William.,.Purewe!l House, Christchureh
7Baker, William H...Westington, Campden, Glouc
Baldwin, B. F. ...The Ox Leasowes, Tardebigg
Baldwin, John,..Luddington, Stratfoid-on-Avon
Balfour, D....Balfour Castle, Kirkwall, N.B.
+Balmer, Thomas... Fochabers, N.B.

Balston, Thomas...Chart Sutton, Staplehurst
Bancks, James...Prebendal House, Thame
+Bankes, John Scott...Soughton Hall, Northop
Banks, Ed. R. R. G....Sholden Lodge, Deal
+Banks, John Jackson... Kendal

Banks, Wm. J... West Cliffe, Dover

+Bannerman, Alexander. ..South Cottage, Chorley
+ Bannerman, IHenry...Hunton Court, Maidstone
Bannister, J. S... Weston, Pembridge, Herefordshire
Barber, Miles... Barlborouyh, Chesterfield

Barber, S. W...Hayton Castle, Bawtry

+Barbour, R....Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall
Parchard, F.,..Horsted Place, Horsted, Uckfield
Baring, Hon. and Rey. F...Melchit Park, Salisbury
Baring, John...Oakwood, Chichester

+ Barker, G. I. Raymond,..The Crofts, Fairford
7Barker, H.B. Raymond... University Cl., Suffolk Sé.
Barker, H....Suffolk Fire Office, Bury St. Edmund’s
Barker, J. H....Rowsley, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Barlow, F, ..The Shrubbery, Hasketon, Woodbridge
Barlow, Rev. Peter...Cockfield Rectory, Staindrop
Barnard, Charles, . Norwich

Barnard, Fulke Toovey...Bristct

Barnardiston, Nathaniel C....The Ryes, Sudbury
+Barneby, William.,.Clater Park, Bromyard
Barnes, C....Chorley Wood House, Rickmanswortl:
Karnes, G.... Knowle Farm, Wimborne

Barnes, Ralph. ..Exeter

+Barnes, T., M.P..,.The Quinta, Chirk, N.W.
+Barnett, Charles, .Stratton Pk., Biggleswade, Beds.
Barnett, Henry...Glympton Park, Woodstock
Barnett, J.... Remenham Hill, Henley-on-Thames
Barnett, R.... Meopham Court, Gravesend

Barratt, John R.... Maiden Hill, Penrith

Barrett, G. A..,.Kate’s Grove [ron- Works, Reading
Barrett, John B..., Milton House, Steventon, Berks
Barrington, Visc....Beckett House, Faringdon, Berks
Barrington, Wm..,.Thorley, Isle of Wight
Barroby, Miss Elizabeth...Dishforth, Thirsk
+Barrow, Chas. James...Lopham, Norfolk

+Barrow, John James... Normanton Hall, Southwell
+Barrow, Wm....Bilbrooke House,Wolverhampton
Barrs, T.... Brompton Hall, Churchstoke, Salop
+Barstow, Charles D....Garrow Hill, York

Barter, Rev. C....Sarsden, Chipping Norton
Bartholomew, W....Goltho, Wragl.v, Lincolnshire
+Barthropp, N. G....Cretinzham, Wickham Mark:t
+Barton, Charles, .. Holbrook House, Wincanton
Barton, Gerard... Fundenhall, Norfolk

+Barton, Rey. H. N.,..St. Ervan Rectory, Padstow

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Barton, J. H....Stapleton Park, Pontefvact

Barton, R. Watson, , Springwood, Manchester
+Barwell, Thomas... Leicester

Baskerville, H...Crawshay Park, Reading, Berks
Bass, Michael T., M.P.... Burton-on-Trent

Bass, W....Duckenfield Lodge, Ashton-under-Lyne
Bassett, Richard... Bonvi!stone, Cardiff

Bastard, T. Horlock.,.Chariton Marshall, Blandford
}Batard, T. M. Bearda... Ramsden Crays, Billericay
Bate, Edward... Kelsterton, Flintshire, N.W.

Bate, Samuel,..Springfields, Newcastle-under-Lyme
Bateman, Henry...Asthall, Witney, Oxfordshire
Batemon, Lord...Shobden Court, Leominster
+Bates, George. ..Blaxhall Hall, Wickham Market
Bates, Thomas, jun.... Eaton Green, Luton, Beds.
Bathurst, Earl, ..Cirencester, Gloucestershire
Bathurst, Hon. Wm. L.,..38, Half-Moon Street, W.
}Batson, Thos....Combe House, Bath

Batt, William Henry...West Drayton, Uxbridge
Batten, Abraham... Ayott St. Peter’s, Welwyn, Herts
Batten, John... Yeovil, Somersetshire

Baxendale, J.... Woodside, Whetstone, Middlesex
Baxendale, Richard B.... Whetstone, Herts.

Baxter, H. J...5, Ladbroke Square, Notting Hill, W.
Baxter, Robert... Doncaster

7TBayden, Thomas...Hythe, Kent

Bayley, Thomas... Lenton, Nottingham

Bayley, William.,.Britwell Farm, Maidenhead
Bayne, William...High Street, Oxford

Bayning, Rt.Hon.& Rev. Ld.,.Honingham Hall,Norf.
Beach, Joseph...Flour Mill, Dudley

jBeadel, James... Broomfield Lodge, Chelmsford
Beadon, Rey. F....North Stoneham Rectory, Hants
Beale, T. T....237, High Holborn, W.C.

Beale, William...Larkins Farm, Chiddingstone
FBearcroft, E....Mere Hall, Droitwich, Worcestersh.
Beard, W....Tormarton, Cross Hands, Cirencester
Beards, Thomas,..Stowe Park, Buckingham

Bearn, William, .,Finedon Hill, Higham Ferrers
+Beart, Robert ...Godmanchester, Huntingdonshire
Beaseley, John,..Brampton, Northampton
Beattie, James...Newbie House, Annan, N.B.
+Beauchamp, Earl...Madresfield Court, Worcester
Beaumont, {). B.... Woodhall, Barnsley, Yorkshire
Beaumont, Francis H....Buckland Court, Reigate
Beaumont, Geo., jun.... Bridgeford Hill, Notts.
tBeaumont, J. A....Westhill, Wimbledon, Surrey
Beaumont, W. B...Bywell Hall, Newe.-on-Tyne
Becher, Rev. Jolin Drake. . .Southwell

Beck, Charles W....Upton Priory, Macclesfield
Beck, J... .St. Ann Street, Lynn, Norfolk

Beck, Peter. . .Shrewsbury

Beckett, Richard. ..Watton Abbey, Driffield
Beckett, Wm., M.P...,Kirkstall Grange, Leeds
Beckwith, Rey. H., Eaton Constantine, Wellngtn,,Sal.
Beddard, J.... Holloway Ho.. Prestwood, Stourbridge
Beddoe, George... Lickhill, Stourport

Beddoe, Richard C....4, Whetherell Place, Clifton
Beddoes, W. Minton, .. Wistanstow, Shrewsbury
Beever, Rev. William Holt, ..Cowbridge

Beevor, Henry...Blyth, Worksop

Begbie, Alexander... Lytham, Preston, Lancashire
Belcher, Charles... Little Coxwell, Faringdon

VOL, XXII,

XXXIII

Belcher, R, Shirley... Burton-on-Trent
+Beldam, Valentine...Royston, Hertfordshire
+Bell, Daniel... Hollins, Whitehaven
Bell, Capt. Henry...Chalfont Lodge, Cheltenham
Bell, Henry... West Sherbourne, Durham
Bell, J. Williams, ..Gillingham, Bath
Bell, John...Breaks Hall, Appleby, Westmoreland
Bell, M....Bourne Park, Canterbury
Bell, Thos....Brampton Town Foot, Cumberland
Bell, William Read...Gillingham, Bath
+Bence, Capt....Kentwell Hall, Long Melford
Bence, Henry A....Thorington Hall, Saxmundham
Benington, T.., Wallingfen Ho., North Cave, Yorks.
Benington, William...Stockton-upon-Tees
+Bennell, Joseph... Hitchin, Herts
Bennett, R. Gully... Tresillian House, Probus
+Bennett,B.E...Marston Trussell Hall, Rugby
Bennett, E. ...Bedstone Ho., Aston-on-Clun, Salop
Bennett, James...Ingestone, Ross
Bennett,John.. . Little Rissington,Stow-in-the-Wold
Bennett, Joseph B. H....Tutbury, Burton-on-Trent
Bennett, T.... Park Farm, Woburn, Bedfordshire
Bennett, Thos. Oatley...Bruton, Somersetshire
Bennett, Wm.... Regent Street, Cambridge
Bennion, Ed. David...Summer Hill, Oswestry
Benson, Alan... Papceastle, Cockermouth
Benson, George... Lutwyche Hall, Wenlock, Salop
Benson, John... Tavistock
Bentall, Edward H.... Heybridge, Maldon, Essex
Bentley, Henry... Woodlesford, Leeds
Bentley, Robert J..,.Firmingley Park, Bawtry
Benyon, Rev. E. K....Culford Hall, Bury St. Edm.
7Benyon, R., M.P....Englefield House, Reading
Beridge, Rev. Basil. .. Algarkirk, Spalding
+Berners, John... Holbrook, Ipswich
Berney, Sir H., Bart...Sheepy, Atherstone, Warw.
Berry, Kemp... Woodgate, Beckley, Sussex
Besley, Henry...South Street, Exeter
Best, George. ..Compton, Guildford
+Best, Hon. and Rey. S.... Abbotts Ann, Andover
Best, Rev. Thomas..Red Rice House, Andover
Bethell, William... Rise, Beverley
Bettinson, R....Cawthorpe, Bourne, Lincolnshire
Betts, John, .. King's Langley, Hertfordshire
Bevan, Beckford...( Banker), Bury St. Edmund’s
Beverley, Benjamin... Leeds
Beverley, Matthew B....Leeds
Biddell, G. Arthur...Ipswich
7Biddell, Manfred... Playford, Ipswich
+Biddell, W....Hawstead Hall, Bury St. Edmund’s
Biddulph, Robert... Ledbury, Herefordshire
Biddulph, Col. R.M., M.P.. Chirk Castle, Chirk,N.W-
Biel, W.... St. Leonard’s Farm, Beaulieu, Southpton.
Bigg, E, Smith...The Hyde, Slaugham, Sussex
Bigg, T...Leicester Ho., Gt. Dover Street,Southwark
Bigge, Charles Selby...Linden, Morpeth
Bigge, Matthew Robt....Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Biggs, James, .. Dessborough, Kettering
Bill, John, ..Trent Vale, Stoke-on-Trent
Billington,Leonard, .. Bull Hotel,Preston,Lancashire
Bingham,Col.R.H...BinghamsMelcombe, Dorchester
Birch, William John.,.R. A. College, Cirencester
Birch, Wyrley...Writham Park, Thetford

C

-3 =

XXXIV

+Birchall, T...Kibbleton Hall, Preston, Lancashire
+Bircham, William G....Dunton, Fakenham

TBird, J....Yaxley, Stilton, Huntingdonshire

Bird, Geo... .Chessington Court, Kingston, Surrey
7Bird, Rev. J. Waller... Briston, East Dereham
Birkbeck, Henry.,.Norwich

Birket, C....Plungington Hall, Preston, Lancashire
Birkin, Richard... Apsley House, Nottingham
Birmingham, Wm....Killerton, Broadclist, Devon
Birt, Jacob. ..30, Sussex Gardens, Hyde Park, W.
Biscoe, T.P.B....Kingellie House, Newton,Inverness
Bishop, John...3, The Walk, Market Pl., Norwich
Black, Edward...High Street, Boston

Black, John. ..Marske Farm, Redear, Yorkshire
Blackbourn, D....Temple Brewer, Sleaford, Line.
Blackburne, J. I....Hale, near Warrington
Blackburne, Lt.-Col.L., jun....Hale Hall, Warrington
Blackden, J.C... .Heatherslaw Ho.,Coldstream,N.B.
Blacker, M. M....Claremount, Claremorris, Mayo
Blackett, Sir E., Bart.. ..Matfen, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Blackstone, J....1, Gloucester Rd.,Regent’s Park,W.
Blagrave, Col. John,. .Calcot Park, Reading, Berks
+Blair, John...

Blake, Francis John. ..Norwich

Blake, Jas.... Birchmore, Blackwater, Isle of Wight
Blake, William. ..Bridge, South Petherton

Blake, Wm. John...Danesbury, Welwyn

Bland, William. . .Hartlip, Sittingbourne

Blane, Colonel Robert...

+Blanshard, Richard. ..53, Chancery Lane," W.C.
Blencowe, J. George, M.P.....Danny, Hurstpierpoint
+Blencowe, Robert A... The Hooke, Lewes
Blencowe, Robert Willis...The Hooke, Lewes
7Blisset, Rev. H....Letton, Weobley, Hereford
Blomfield, John, ..Warham, Wells, Norfolk
Bloomer, G. B...Moreton Hall, Chirk

Bloxsidge, Samuel... Warwick

Blundell, J... .Bursleden, Southampton

Blurton, W. Mountfort...Field Hall, Cheadle
Blyth, D'Urban...Great Massingham, Rougham
Blyth, H. E..,.Sussex Farm, Burnham, Lynn
7Blyth, James...24, Hyde Park Gardens, W.
+Board, Jolin. ..Westerham, Sevenoaks
Boards, William. ..Edmonton

+Boby, Charles, .. Hutton, Ipswich

Bodenham, Charles... Hereford

+Body, R. B....Hyde End, Shinfield, Reading
Boger, Deeble. ..Wolsdon, Devonport
+Boghurst, William P,,.,Frating Abbey, Colchester
Boileau,SirJ.P., Bt... Ketteringham Pk.Wymndhm.
Bolden, Samuel E... .Springfield Hall, Lancaster ;
}Bolitho, Kdward...Pendlverne, Penzance
+Bolitho, T. S....Pendlverne, Penzance

TBolitho, William. ..Penzance

Bolton, Daniel... Barley Park, Witney, Oxon
Bolton, Lord. ..Bolton Hall, Bedale

Bond, Barnabus... Alburgh, Harleston, Norfolk
Bond, Benjamin. . .Draycot, Cheadle, Staffordshire
Bond, Rev. N....The Grange, Holme, Wareham
Bond, Robert. ..Tavern Street, Ipswich

Bond, T. J....Perry Elm, Wellington, Somerset
Bone, Henry... Avon, Ringwood, Hants

Bonham, Rey. J,.,,Ballintaggart, Ballitore, Ireland

4

List of Members of the

Bonnell, J. H....Pelling Place, Old Windsor
+Bonner, H.C..,.East Rudham, Rougham, Norfolk
} Booth, James Godfrey... Hamburgh

Booth, John B....Killerby, Catterick, Yorkshire
Booth, John...Cotham, Newark, Nottinghamshire
Booth, Richard, .,Warlaby, Northallerton

Booth, S. Lister... Bramley, Leeds

Booth, W. H....

Booth, Sir Williamson, Bt....Paxton Park, St. Neots
tBorough, C. B...,Chetwynd Pk., Newport, Salop
Borthwick, John, ., Prospect, Carrickfergus

+Bortier, Monsieur...La Panne

Borton, John... Barton-le-Street, Malton
Bosanquet, Rey. R. W....Roch, Alnwick

Bosley, John... Lower Leyde, Hereford

Bostock, Ellis...41, Hunter St., Brunswick Square
Bostock, Thomas. ,.Hill Top, Burslem

+ Lotfield, Beriah.. ,.Norton Hall, Daventry
+Botham, Georges... Wexham Court, Slough, Bucks
Botley, William... Martin, Salisbury

Bott, William. ..Nantwich

Botting, William, .. Hurstpierpoint

+ Bouck, John T.,...13, Oxford Street, Manchester
Boultbee, J....Noyadd Ho., Aberayron, South Wales
7+Bourn, J.,jun....Mawley, Cleobury-Mortimer
Bourne, John...Hildenstone, Stone, Staffordshire
Bourne, William. ..Atherstone

Bouverie, Hon. P. P., M.P....Brymore, Bridgewater
Bowater,Gen.SirE.,K.C.H....Richmond Park, Surrey
Bowen, George...Coton Hall, Prees, Market Drayton
Bowen, P. W....Shrawardine Castle, Shrewsbury
+Bower, Edward. ..Closworth, Yeovil

Bower, Capt. Thomas B...Iwerne House, Blandford
Bowly, David. ..Cirencester

Bowly, Edward...Siddington House, Cirencester
Bowly, William C.,.. Cirencester

Bowser, R...(Solicitor), Bishop Auckland, Durham
Bowstead, Wiiliam...Hackthorpe Hall, Penrith
+Bowyer, Capt. H. A....Steeple-Aston, Woodstock
Box, John... :

Boxall, W. B....Strathfield Saye, Winchfield
Boyer, W....Skeffington Vale, Billesden, Leicester
Boys, John...Goldhanger, Maldon

Boys, Robert... Eastbourne

Braby, James...Maybanks, Rudgwick, Horsham
Bracebrilge, C. H....Atherstone Hall, Atherstone
Bradburne, J. Hanbury...Pipe Place, Lichfield
Bradbury, Thomas,.,.Longroyd, Brighouse
Bradbury, Thomas Swanwick... Winsford, Cheshire
Braddock, Henry... Bury St. Edmund's

Bradford, Thomas...Cathedral Steps, Manchester
Bradley, Thomas... Richmond, Yorkshire
+Bradshaw, John...Knowle, Cranley, Surrey
Bradshaw, W...Slade Ho., Levenshume, Manchester
Bradstock, Thomas S....Cobrey Park, Ross
Bramwell, C.... Hardwicke Hall, Ferry Hill, Durham
Braginton, George... Torrington, Devon
+Braikenridye,J. H...-Chew Magna, Bristol
Bramley, Charles,..Fiskerton Hall, Lincoln

Brand, Hon. Henry, M.P....Glynde, Lewes
+Brander, R. B....Tanbridge House, Horsham
Brasnett, J....Hilboro’ Lodge, Brandon, Norfolk
Brayender, John, ,.Cirencester

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Bray, George...The Haven, Dilwyn, Leominster
+Breach, J. G....12, Pelham Place, Krompton
Breavington, W. G. K...Bath Road, Hounslow, Ww.
Brett, John Lowdham...Corfe Lodge, Wimborne
+Bretts, Chas. .. Exbury House, Fawley, Hampshire
Brewster, S. N....Beacon Hill House, Woodbridge
Brickwell, C. J....Overthorpe Lodge, Banbury
Bridge, Thomas...Wynford Eagle, Dorchester
Bridge, Thomas. ..Buttsbury, Ingatestone

Briggs, John A....Eastgate House, ‘Tenterden
+Briggs, Rawdon... Birstwith Hall, Ripley, Yorksh.
+Bright, John... Teddesley Park Farm, Penkridge
Bright, John, M._D....19, Manchester Square
Brigstocke, W. 0. ..Blaenport, Newcastle Emlyn
Brinckman, Lady. ..Sundorne Castle, Shrewsbury
+Brise, S.B.R...Spains Hall, Finchingfieid, Braintree
Bristol, Marquis of...6, St. James’s Square, S.W.
Broadmead, Philip. ..Milverton, Somerset

Bromet, William R....Cocksford, ‘Tadcaster
Bromley, James...Cockerham, Lancaster
Bromley,John.,.Derby

Bromley, John... Lancaster

Bromley, Robert. .. Derby

Bromwich, Thomas... Woolston, Coventry

Brook, Arthur Sawyer... Bexhill, Battle

Brook, J...Park Farm, St, Helen’s, Isle of Wight
Brooke, Edward... Marsden House, Stockport
Brooke, John W....Sibton Park, Yoxford, Suffolk
Brooke, John, jun....Capel, Ipswich

+Brooke, Sir R., Bart.... Norton Priory, Runcorn
Brooke, Rev. John. ..Haughton, Shiffnall

Brooke, T. J. Langford...Mere Hall, Knutsford
+Brooke, Wm., jun....Northgate Ho., Huddersfield
+Brooke, W. De Capell... The Elms, Market-Harbro’
Brookes, Wm., Captain... Elmstree House, Tetbury
+Brooks, Bernard... Lyford, Abingdon

Brooks, James H....Henley-on-Thames

Brooks, J. M....7, Charlotte Street, Manchester
Brooks, Samuel... Bank, Manchester

Broomfield, Thomas... Lauder, N.B.

Broomhall, T. T... Beech Cliffe, Newcastle, Staffords.
Broughton, Rev. C....Norbury Rectory, Ashbourne
Broughton, E. D....Westaston Hall, Nantwich
Broughton, J...Almington Hall, Market Drayton
Brown, David. ..Cathendine House, Brecon
+Brown, Douglas...15, Hertford Street, Mayfair
Brown, Edward. ..Estate Office, Northallerton
Brown, George...Avebury, Chippenham

Brown, George... Roborough House, Barnstaple
+Brown, Rev. H. H....Burton, Sleaford

Brown, Henry...Ashby-de-la-Zouch

Brown, James...17, Minto Street, Edinburgh
Brown, John...Tring

Brown, John...Coldham Hall, Wisbeach

Brown, J. Washbourne. . Ufeott, Swindon

Brown, Rey. Lancelot R....Kelsall, Saxmundham
Brown, Michael L....Cliffe Ville, Stoke-on-Trent
Brown, Potto...Honghton, Huntingdon

+Brown, Thomas. ..Buckham Hall, Uckfield
+Brown, Thomas. ..Marham, Norfolk

Brown, Thos. James. ..The Moor, Hereford

Brown, William... .Tring

Brown, William, ,, Devizes (North Wilts Foundry)

XXXV

+Brown, William....Richmond Hill, Liverpool
+Browne, Lord John Thomas, .. Wesport, co. Mayo
Browne, Edward, ..Oaklands, St. Albans

Browne, R. P....Gt. Hallingbury, Bishops Stortford
Browne, Rev. T. C....59, High Street, Oxford
Browne, Thomas Beale...Hampen, Andoversford
Browne, Thos. B....Mellington Hall, Montgomery
+Browne, W.. Monkton Farleigh Ho. Bradford, Wilts
Browne, William. ..Titchwell, Lynn i
Browning, A. H....Heath Lodge, Iver, Bucks
Bruce, Maj.C. L. C., M.P....Dunphail, Forres, N.B.
Bruce, John... .'Tiddington, Stratford-on-Avon
Bryan, Frederick Thos... . Humberstone, Leicester
Bryan, John. ..Southleigh, Witney

Brymer, John...1, Belvedere, Weymouth

+Bubb, Anthony....Witcombe Court, Gloucester
Buchanan, James...20, Blomfield Road, Maida Hill
Buchanan, Walter...Lower Babington, Birkenhead
+Buck, Albert...Sansome Terrace, Worcester
+Buckingham, Duke of... Wootten, Aylesbury
Buckland, Thomas, jun....Wraysbury, Staines
Buckland, George...Benenden, Cranbrook, Kent
Buckley, Gen. E. P., M.P....New Hall, Salisbury
Buckley, John N..,Normanton Hill, Loughborough
Buckworth, T. R....Cockley Cley Hall, Swaffham
+Buda, J. Palmer... Ystalafera, Swansea

Budd, William... Aston-le-Walls, Daventry

+Budd, Thos. W....13, Norfolk Crescent, Hyde Pk.
Buddicom, Wm. B....Peubedu Hall, Mold
Buggins, W....Booth’s Farm, New Oscott, Birming.
+Bulford, James...Hordley Farm, Woodstock
+Bulkeley, Sir R.W., M.P...Baron’s Hill, Beaumaris
Ball, Alban...Hanwell, Banbury

Bulled, Edmund,..Witheridge, Devonshire

Bullen, E...Ivish Farmers’ Cl., SackvilleSt., Dublin
+Bullen, John T....Marshwood Manor, Crewkerne
Buller, Sir A., Bart.....Pound, Plymouth

Buller, James Wentworth, M.P....Downes, Crediton
+Buller, Morton Edward... Dilhorne, Cheadle
Bullimore, R....Stowgate Farm, Market Deeping
+Bullock, F.... Woodlands Hall, Eling,Southampton
+Bullock, George... East Coker, Somerset

Bulmer, Charles,..Hereford

+Bult, James S....Dodhill Ho., Kingston, Taunton
Bulwer, Rev. James. ..Hanworth Rectory, Thetford
Bulwer, Wm. Lytton...Heydon Hall, Reepham
Bunbury, Henry M....Marlston House, Newbury
Bunny, Edward John...Slinfold, Horsham
+Bunsen, G ...Bourg-Rheindorf, Bonn, Prussia
Burbery, J. J... .Crofts, Alveston, Stratford-on—Avon
Burch, Walter J....Campsey Ash, Woodbridge
Burden, R...Castle Eden, Stockton-on-Tees
Burdon, George. ..Heddon Ho., Newcastle-on-Tyne
Burgess,Capt.H.W....3, Lancaster Ter.,Reyent’s Pk.
Burgess, Robt..., Winterbourne, Zelston, Blandford
Burgess, William. .95, Newgate Street, City, E.C.
Burgoyne, Sir J. M., Bt.. .Sutton Park, Potton, Beds
Burkill, E. W....Winteringham, Barton-on-Humber
Burleigh, Robert W....Halesworth

Burn, Robert Scott. . .Stockport

Burnell, Edward... Roydon, Diss

Burnell, E. P....Winkburne Hall, Southwell, Notts
Burness, Wm,...2, South Place, Acre Lane, Brixton

C2

XXXVI

Burnett, Alex....6, Hawley Villas, Camden Town
Burnett, D....Ashley, Stockbridge, Hants

Burnett, Gregory...Dee Cottage, Flint

Burnett, Thomas....Hutton, Preston, Lancashire
Burnham, W. B...Spital Cot. Farm, Sutton, Chester
+Burniston, Rich... ,Greenlands, Henley-on-Thames
}Burr, Daniel Higford...

Burrard, Sir George, Bt... Walhampton, Lymington
Burrell, Bryan... Broome Park, Alnwick

Burrell, Charles. ..Thetford

Burrell, J. F., jun....Manor Ho., Frimley, Farnboro’
Burrell, Robert. ..Palace Green, Durham
Burroughes, H. N...Burlingham Hall, Norwich
Burroughes, Rev. J....Lingwood Lodge, Norwich
Burroughes, Rey. T....Gazeley, Newmarket
Burroughes, William...Colteshall Hall, Norwich
Burt, Edwin... Broughton Ho., Stockbridge, Hants
Burt, Henry...6, St. Mark’s Square, Regent’s Park
Burton, Robert... Longnor Hall, Shrewsbary

Burtt, J. B.... Kettering

Bury, Charles, ». Nazing, Essex

Busby, Henry Goodear. . .Moreton-in-the-Marsh
tBush, John W....Fairwood, Westbury

Bushell, T. R. J....117, Crawford St., Portman Sq.
Bushell, William...Poulton, Wingham, Kent

Busk, E. Thos... Ford’s Grove, Edmonton, Middlesex
TBusk, Joseph. ..Codicote Lodge, Welwyn

Butcher, W.... Bowling Green Farm, Ewell
+Butler, The Hon. C. L...Coton House, Rugby
Butler, Capt. G...Stanford Place, Faringdon, Berks
Butler, Capt. J....Kirby Ho., Inkpen, Hungerford
Butler, John F....Childerditch Hall, Brentwood
Butler, Major Robert...

Butler, Lieut.-Col.... Liphook

TButler, Wm....Badminton, Chippenham

Butt, Henry... Kemerton, Tewkesbury

Butt, Henry...Southgate Street, Gloucester

Butt, T....Pirton Farm, Kempsey, Worcestershire
Byrd, Sampson...The Leese Farm, Stafford

Byers, Stephen...Chambers Farm, Epping
Bywater, R. F..,.Coniston, Windermere

C.

Cabrera,Gen.(Ct.de Morella).. . Wentworth,Chertsey
Cadle, Clement... Ballingham Hall, Ross

Cadogan, Mrs..,.Brenkburn Priory, Morpeth
Caines, James...Cheselborne, Dorchester, Dorset
Caird, Jas., M.P....Baldoon, Newton Stewart, N.B.
Calcott, Charles... Belton, Shrewsbury

}Calcraft, J. H., M.P....Kempstone, Corfe Castle
Caldecott, Thos. .Rugby Lodge, Rugby, Warwicks.
Caldecott, C. M....Holbrook Grange, Rugby
Caldwell, H. B...Lackham House, Chippenham
Caldwell, Capt. F. E....Langford Lodge, Brandon
TCaless, Wm....Bodicote House, Banbury

7Call, Sir W. B., Bart.... Whitford Ho., Callington
Calverley, John...Oulton Hall, Leeds’

7Calverley, Chas. C....Teaninich Ho., Alness, N.B.
7Calvert, Frederic...9, St. James's Place, S.W.
Calvertt, J.S...Tothill Manor House, Alford, Linc,
Cambridge, W. C,...Sydney Villa, Bedminster
Camden, Marquis... Wilderness Park, Seven Oaks

List of Members of the

Cammell, Chas....Wadesley House, Shefiield
+Cameron, A. H. F.... Lakefield, Glen Urquhart
Camp, James. ..Ilfracombe

Campo, J. W. del...3, Knightsbridge, S.W.
Campbell, A....Auchindadroche, Lochgilphead
Campbell, R....Buscot Park, Faringdon

Campbell, Sir A. T. C., Bart.... Wyseby, Dumfries
Campion, Wm. J....Darruys, Hurstpierpoint
Camps, Henry...Salterley Grange, Cheltenham
Camps, Dr. Wm... .40, Park St., Grosvenor Square
Cane, Edward...Berwick, Lewes

Cane, Rev. T. C.....Southwell, Nottinghamshire
Cann, W. M....Dawlish, Deyon

Canning, George H...Shottery, Stratford-on-Avon
Canning, Wm. Browne...Chisledon, Swindon
Cannon, Joseph Sims...Beckley, Oxford

Cantrell, C. S....Riding Court, Datchet, Windsor
Cantrell, H....Bayliss Court, Slough, Bucks
+Capel, Arthur. .Bulland Lodge, Wiveliscombe
Capel, Wm....'The Grove, Stroud, Gloucestershire
Capron, George...Stoke, Northamptonshire
+Carew,- Thomas. ..Collipriest House, Tiverton
+Carew, W. H. Pole...Anthony House, Devonport
Cardus, T....Barwell Court, Kingston, Surrey
Cargey, George...Sandon Hall Farm, Stafford
+Carleton, Hon. and Rev. R.... Atheneum Club
+Carline, R.... Lincoln

Carlin, Wm., jun....Marsh Cott., Keyingham, Hull
+Carnegie, David... Eastbury, Watford

Carnegie, Hon. J. J....Fair Oak, Petersfield, Hants
Carr, William...Stackhouse, Settle

Carrington, G., jun....The Abbey, Great Missenden
Carroll, W. Hutchinson... Tulla House, Nenagh
Carter, G....Tyndales, Danbury, Chelmsford
+Carter, John Bonham, M.P....Adhurst St. Mary’s
Carter, J. R.... Lanark Villa, Torquay

Carter, M. F.,..Newnham, Gloucester

Carter, R, M....Leeds

Carter, William...Broughton, Faversham
+Cartwright, Col. H., M.P....Kineton, Warwick
Cartwright, John...Craycombe House, Pershore
Cartwright, John...Shrewsbury

Cartwright, Nathaniel. ..Haugham, Louth
Cartwright, Richard Aubrey... Edgeott, Banbury
Cartwright, T. R. B...Aynhoe, Brackley, Northants
+Cartwright, T, W...Ragnall Hall, Newton, Newark
Cartwright, Col. W....Weedon, Northamptonshire
Cartwright, W. S...Stow Ho., Newport, Monmouths.
Carver, William. ..Ingarsby, Leicester

+Case, J. B... Poulton Hey, Bebbington, Birkenhead
Case, Thomas H....Testerton Hall, Fakenham
Castellain, Alfred... Liverpool

Castree, Josiah. ..College Green, Gloucester
Catchpool, Edward...Feering Bury, Kelvedon
Cater, J. W.... West Lodge, Barnet

+Cathceart, Earl... Thirsk

Catheart, Sir John A....Cooper’s Hill, Staines
Cator, Col....24, Wilton Crescent, Belyrave Square
Cator, Major-General, R.H.A... . Arsenal, Woolwich
+Cator, Rev. T.... Wentbridge House, Pontefract
Cattley, John G....Penshurst

Caulfield, St. George. .. Donamor Cas., Roscommon
Caulton, John T....Lighthorn, Warwick

Causton, Joseph, ,.Champion Hill, Camberwell, S.

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Cave, Henry Haddon. ..Desborough, Kettering
Cavendish, F. W. H...Ayot St. Lawrence, Welwyn
Cavendish, Hon. Capt. G., R.N....Chertsey
Cavendish, Lord G.H., M.P. ...3,Upper Eccleston St.
+Cavendish, Hon. Wm. G.,M.P... Latimer, Chesham
Cawdor, Earl of. ..Stackpole Court, Pembroke
Cawley, Thomas. ..Nantwich

Cawton, Wm....Somersall Hall, Chesterfield
Cayley, Sir Digby, Bart....Brompton, York
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet...Wydale, Pickering
Cazalet, Rev. W. W....Pinner

Chadwick, Edward...Grimston Park, Tadcaster
Chadwick, E.,C.B....5, MontagueVil.Richmond, Sur.
7Chadwick, Elias...Pudleston Court, Leominster
Chadwick, T....Wilmslow Grange, Cheshire
Chadwick, William... Burlish Lodge, Stourport
+Chafy, Westwood W....Bowes House, Ongar
Chalcraft, William...Bramshot House, Liphook
Chaleraft, Thomas...Amory Farm, “Alton

Chalk, Thomas. ., Linton, Cambridgeshire
Challenor, John...Blackwood, Leek

Chamberlain, Henry...Bredicot Court, Worcester
fChamberlayne, Thos....Cranbury Pk., Winchester
Chambers, George. ..Higli Green House, Sheffield
Chambers, John...The Hurst, Tibshall, Alfreton
Chambers, Thomas, jun....Colkirk, Fakenham
Chambers, Wm....Hafod, Rhayader

Champion, Wm. W....Calcot, Reading
Champneys, Rey. T. P....Snarleston, Wakefield
Chandler, Henry...Salford, Manchester

Chandler, Thomas. :.Aldbourne, Hungerford
Chandler, W. B....Bloomville Hall, Woodbridge
Chaplin, Frederick. ..Taithwell, Louth

Chapman, J. W....Mogaddy Farm, Maynooth
Chapman, Thomas. . .24, Westbourne ‘I er., Hyde Pk.
Chapman, Thos....23, New Street, Spring Gardens
Chapman, William...Cornhill, Ipswich
+Charlesworth, J....Headfield, Dewsbury, Yorkshire
+Charlton, St. John...R.A. College, Cirencester
+Charlton, St. J. C...Apley Cas., Wellington, Salop
Charlton, W. H._...Hesleyside, Hexham
Chasemore, Philip. ..Horsham

Chawner,Capt E. . Manor Ho.,Newton Valence,Alton
Chawner, Henry...Hound Hill, Uttoxeter
Chawner, Richard. ..Hare Hill, Doveridge, Derby
+Chawner, Richard Croft...Wall, Lichfield

Cheale, Alexander, jun....Uckfield, Sussex

Cheere, Rev. G.... Papworth Hall, Caxton, Cambr.
Cheere, W.H....Papworth Hall, Caxton, Cambridge
Cheftins, Henry... Little Easton Manor, Dunmow
Cheney Edward....Gadsley Hall, Melton Mowbray
Cheney, R. H....Badger Hall, Shiffnall, Shropshire
Chetwode, Sir J. N. L., Bart.... Market Drayton
Chetwynde, Maior W.F....Brocton Hall, Stafford
Chichester, Bishop of...The Palace, Chichester
Chick, John...Compton Vallence, Dorset

Chick, Thomas. ..Stratton, Dorchester, Dorset
Child, Coles...The Palace, Bromley, Kent

Child, Phomas...Slinfold, Horsham
Chinery, Jolin... Wootton Milton, Lymington
Chitty, Edward,..Guildford, Surrey

Chivas, George. . .Chester

+Cholmondeley, Lord H....Holly Hill, Southampton

XXXVII

Chrisp, Thomas ..Hawkhill, Alnwick

Christy, James, jun....Boynton Hall, Chelmsford
Chune, George. . .Coalbrookdale, Salop

Church, John... Woodside, Hatfield

+Churchill, George... Aldershott, Fordingbridge
+Churchill, Lord...Wychwood Park, Oxon
Churchill, H....Barton Ho., Morshard Bishop, Devon
{Churston, Lord...Lupton, Torquay

+Churton, John. ..Forgate Street, Chester

Chute, W. L. Wiggett...The Vine, Basingstoke
Clare, Charles L....Higher Broughton, Manchester
Clare, W. Harcourt... Twycross, Atherstone
+Clarance, John...114, Leadenhall Street, E.C.
Claridge, William P,...Pitchford Park, Salop
+Clarina, Lord...Elm Park, Limerick, Ireland
+Clark,H... Ellinthorpe Lodge, Boroughbridge, Yorks
Clark, Henry...Berkley Square, Bristol

Clark, Rev. John Crosby. ..Chertsey

Clark, John Wm....Lockerley, Romsey, Hants
Clark, Thomas. ..Derndale, Hereford

Clark, William J....Rose Hill, Caversham, Oxon
Clarke, Edward...Glentworth, Lincoln

Clarke, James. ..Carlisle

Clarke, G. R....Chesterton Lodge, Bicester

Clarke, Henry...Binbrooke, Market Rasen
+Clarke, H. J....Chapel Farm, Burley, Oakham
Clarke, John... Long Sutton

+Clarke, T. E....Tremlett House, Wellington, Som.
Clarke, Thomas T....Swakeleys, Uxbridge
Clarkson, Rev. T. L....South Elmham, Norfolk
7Clavering, Sir Wm....University Club, Suffolk St.
Clay, Charles...Walton Grange, Wakefield

+Clay, Sir W., Bart....Fulwell Lodge, Twickenham
Clayden, Samuel... Linton, Cambridgeshire
Clayden, John...Littlebury, Saffron Walden
Clayton, David S....Norbury, Stockport

Clayton, H....21, Upper Park Place, Dorset Square
Clavton,R.C.B..Carigbyrne,Adamstouse, Enniscorthy
Clayton, John... Newcastle-on-Tyne

Clayton, John...Hook, Kingston, Surrey

+Clayton, Nathaniel. ..Melvell Street, Lincoln
Cleasby, Thomas M....Wilton Grange, Redcar
Cleave, Benjamin. ..Newcombe, Crediton

Clements, C. F....Hesmond’s Lodge, East Hothly
+Clerk, E. H....Burford, Shepton Mallet, Somersets..
Cleveland, Duke of... Newton Ho., Bedale, Yorksh.
Clifford, Henry Clifford. ..Frampton Court, Dursley
Clifford, Col. H. M....Llantilio, Cosseney, Ragland
Clifford, William...52, Parliament Street, S.W.
+Clinch, Charles...Eagle Brewery, Witney
Clinton, Col. Fred....Ashley Clinton, Lymington
Clinton, Lord...Hinton House, Crediton, Devon
+Clonbrock, Lord...Clonbrock, Ahaserah, Ireland
Clough, John. ..Bootham, York

+Clowes, Edmund. ..Carnforth, Lancaster

Clowes, George...89, Westbourne Terrace, W.
Clowes, Wm...51, Gloucester Ter., Hyde Pk. Gard.
Clowes, Col. W. L. ...Broughton Old Hall, Manch.
Clutterbuck, Rev.J.C...Long Wittenham, Abingdon
Clutterbuck, R.... Watford Ho., Watford, Herts
Clutton, John... 9, Whitehall Place, S.W.

Clutton, Robert...Hartswood, Reigate, Surrey
Clutton, Thos. C,...Chorlton Hall, Malpas, Cheshire

XXXVIII

Clutton, Wm, James...The Mount, York
+Cobb, Henry...10, Lincoln’s Inn Fields
Cobb, Robert L.... Higham, Rechester
Cobb, Timothy Rhodes...Banbury, Oxon
Cobb, William Henry...Colehester
Cobbett, John M....Skeynes, Edenbridge

Cobbold, John Chevallier, M.P....Ipswich
Cobden, Richard. ..Midhurst
Cobham, Thomas. ... Budleigh Salterton, Devon

Cobon, James... Well Hall, Lynn, Norfolk
Cochrane, James...Harburn, Edinburgh

Cocking, George. ..Crowle, Lincolnshire

+Cocks, Rev. W....Cleobury Mortimer, Salop
Cohen, Wm....Chestnuts, Fiygs Marsh, Mitcham
Coke, Hon. E. K....Longford Hall, Derby
Coldham, H. W....Anmer, Lynn, Norfolk

Cole, R. J...11, Pembridge Gardens, Bayswater, W.
Cole, Thomas H...The Green Wick, Bath

Coleman, John...R. A. College, Cirencester
Coleman, John...Park Farm, Woburn, Beds
Coleman, Richard.... Langdon Abbey, Dover
Coleman, Richard....Chelmsford

Coleman, Walter, Kingsbury Hall, Tamworth
Coles, Alfred...Clifton Lodge, Clapham Park, S,
Coles, H. B....Middleton Ho., Whitchureh, Hants
Collin, Rev. J., jun....Rickling Vicarage, Herts
Collings, Rev. W. nie T....Guernsey
Collingwood, E.. ‘Dissitigton Hall, Newe.-on-Tyne
7Collins, Henry...38, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.C.
7Collins, John...Wonham, Bampton, Devon
Collyer, Rev. Canon R...Warham Ry.,Wells,Norfolk
Colquhoun, J. C....Chartwell, Westerham

+Colyer, William...North End, Crayford, Kent
Colthurst, J. C....Huntworth Pk. Farm, Bridgwater
Colvile, Rev.A.A...Livermere Rectory, Bury St. Ed.
Colvile, Major-Gen...41, Conduit Street, W.
Colvile, C. R., M.P...Lullington Ha., Burton-on-Tr,
7Colvin, B. B....Waltham Abbey, Essex
Combermere, Vise. ..Combermere Abbey, Nantwich
7Compton, H. C., M.P....Lyndhurst, Hants
+Compton, R....Eddington House, Hungerford
+Condie, James...Perth

Congreve, S. B.... Harbors Magna, Rugby
Congreve, T.... Leamington Hastings, Rugby
Congreve, W....Comb Fields, Brinklow, Coventry
Constable, Rev. J....R. A. College, Cirencester
Conway, Wm. S....Bodryddan, St.Asaph’s, Flintsh.
Cooch, Joshna...Harleston, Northampton

Cook, George...Flitwick, Ampthill

Cook, John...Hothorpe, Welford, Northamptonsh.
Cooke, Grimwood.... Linton, Cambridgeshire
+Cooke, Henry...High Street, Hereford

Cooke, James H....Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire
Cooke, Rev. James Y....Semer, Hadleigh, Suffoik
Cooke, Robert C....Livermere, Bury St. Edmund’s
Cooke, William, C.E....26, Spring Gardens, S.W,
+Cooke, Wm. Fothergill...Eliot Ho., Blackheath
Cookson, John...Meldon Park, Morpeth

Coombs, T....South Street, Dorchester, Dorset
Cooper, Edward...Henley-in-Arden

Cooper, G. Kersey... Euston, Thetford

Cooper, Isaac... Long Brackland, Bury St. Edmund’s
Cooper, John..,Swineshead House, Spalding

List of Members of the

Cooper, Jonathan...Barton, Bury St. Edmund's
+Cooper, N. J.... Westgate, Mansfield

+Coote, E. (11th Hussars). . West Pk., Fordingbridge
Copeman, George...Dunham Loge, Swaffham
Copeman, Robert, jun....Hemsley, Great Yarmouth
Copestake, Thos. G....Kirk Langley, Derby
+Coppard, Thomas... Horsham

Corbet, Dryden R....Sundorne Castle, Shrewsbury
Corbet, H....Farmer’s Club, Bridge St., Blackfriars
+Corbet, H. R.,.. Adderley Hall, Market Drayton
}+Corderoy, Edward...Clapham Park, S.

Corfield, W....Butteley Hayes, Audlem

Corner, Edward. ,.Esk Hall, Whitby

Corner, J. B....Longforth, Wellington, Somerset
Corner, Richard. ..Torweston, Williton, Taunton
Cornes, James. ..Barbridge, Nantwich

Cornewall, Sir V., Bart....Moceas Court, Hereford
Corrance, F....Parham Hall, Wickham Market
Corringham, R.“W....Gringley, Bawtry

Coryton, Augustus. ..Pentillio Castle, Cornwall
Cosens, William... Langdon Dawlish, Devon

Cotes, Rev. C.G,. Stanton St. Quintin, Chippenham
Cother, William...Middle Aston, Woodstock
+Cotta, Baron G....Hipfelhof, Heilbronn, Germany
Cottam, George H....Old St. Pancras Road, N.W.
Cotterell, Jacob Henry...6, Terrace Walks, Bath
Cottingham, John G....Chesterfield, Derbyshire ,
+Cotton, Alexander...

Cotton, H....Amor Hall, Washbrook, Ipswich}
Cotton, H. P....Thornborough, Bucks

+Cotton, Lt.-Col. Hon.,W. H.S....Malpas, Cheshire
+Couchman, C....Temple, Balsall, Birmingham {
Couchman, J. W.... Tottenham Green, Middlesex
Coulson, Col...Blenkinsopp, Haltwhistle, Northum.
+Coulthard, G....Stone House, Haybon, Carlisle ,_
Coulton, William...Dean Court, Ashburton
Counsell, William...

Coupland, John G....Freeston, Boston

Coupland, J... .Southampton

+Court, P. Simpson...140, Snargate Street, Dover
Courthorpe, G. C....Whyly, Lamberhurst, Sussex
Coussmaker, Lannoy... Westwood, Farnham, Surrey
Coverdale, John...4, Bedford Row, W.C.

Cox, Capt. C. J....Fordwich House, Canterbury
+Cox, Henry...Trevereux, Edenbridge, Kent

Cox, Joseph. ..Wisbeach

Cox, Samuel Walker... Breadsall, Derby

Cox, William... Brailsford, Derby

Cox, Wm. Thos....Cottage, Spondon, Derby
+Coxe, James... Newtown Lodge, Hungerford
Coxon, John...Treeford Farm, Lichfield

Coyney, C... Weston Coyney, Newcastle-under-Lyne
Cradock, Thomas..-Quorndon, Loughborough
Crane, Edward...Forton, Montford, Shrewsbury
Crane, James...Tolpuddle, Dorchester

Crane, James...Shrawardine, Salop

Crawford, Rev. W. H....Haughley Rark, Woolpit
Crawford, Wm. H....Lakelands, Cork

Crawley, John...Stock wood Park, Luton’

Creese, William...Teddington, Tewkesbury
Cresswell, Gerard O....Ashwicken, King’s Lynn
Cresswell, R. W....Ravenstone, Ashby-de-la-Zouch
Cresswell, Robert... Idridgehay, Wirksworth

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Cresswell, A. J, Baker...Cresswell, Morpeth
+Crisp, Thomas,..Butley Abbey, Wickham Market
Crisp, Arthur William...Chillesford, Woodbridge
Croft, Arthur H....Hutton, Buscell, York

Croft, Archdeacon J., M.A....Saltwood, Hythe, Kent
Croft, Sir J., Bart., F.R.S....53, Queen Ann St, W.
Crofton, Lord...Mote Park, Athlone, Ireland
+Crofts, Rev. C. D....Caythorpe Rectory, Grantham
Crofts, John...Long Lawford Hill, Rugby

Crofts, T. W.... Lawford Hill, Rugby

Crompton, G....6, Drayton Gr., Old Brompton, 5.W.
Crompton, George...Chesterfield

Croome, James... Breadstone, Berkeley, Gloucesters.
Croote, G. H...Crooke, North Tawton, Devon
Crosbie, Wm. T....Ardfert Abbey, Tralee, Ireland
+Cross, Wm. A....Red Scar, Preston, Lancashire
Crosse, Thomas B....Shaw Hill, Chorley

Crosskey, John... Lewes

Crosskill, William, Trustees of...Beverley
Crosskill, Alfred...The Iron Works, Beverley
Crosthwaite, John...Much Wootton, Liverpool
Crow, G....Ormhams, Boroughbridge, Yorkshire
Crowley, Jolin L....Standford Hall, Newport, Salop
Croxon, John... Llanoorda, Oswestry

7Crump, G. W...Woollas Hill, Eckington, Pershore
Crump, Thomas... Whitefield, Tewkesbury
Crundwell, George... Walton Place, Maidstone
Cruso, John... Leek, Staffordshire

Crutechley, P. H....Sunninghill Park, Staines
Cubitt, Wm., (Lord Mayor)...Andover

Cuff, J. H....New Cattle Market, Islington, N.
Cuff, W. Fitchett...Merriott, Ilminster

Culley, John...Easton, Pewsey, Wilts

Culverwell, Jas....Wedmore, Westen-super-Mare
Cumberbatch, L....Queen’s House, Lyndhurst
+Cumming, L....Ratten, Thurso, N. B.
Cuninghame, John...Hensol, Castle Douglas, N. B.
7Cure, Capel...Blake Hall, Ongar, Essex

Cureton, George... Bean House, Shrewsbury

Currie, Edmund...Adbury House, Newbury

Currie, Henry...West Horsley Park, Leatherhead
Currie, James. ..Hillside, Watford, Herts

Currie, Raikes. ..4, Hyde Park Terrace, W.

Curtis, Capt. C....Pailton House, Lutterworth
Curtis, E....Dunmow Grange, Basingstoke

Curtis, Sir Wm., Bart....Caynham Court, Ludlow
Curtler, T. G....Bevere House, Worcester

Cust, Capt. F. Henry... lllesmere

Cust, Leopold... Tipperary

Custance, Hambleton F....Weston House, Norwich
Cuthbert, Robert... Newton-le-Willows, Bedale
+Cuthbert, William...Beaufront, Hexham

D.

Daere, Lord...The Hoo, Welwyn, Herts

+Dacre, Joseph... Kirklinton Hall, Carlisle
Dalgairns, William. ..Rosaire, Guernsey

Dalton, Thomas. ..Cardiff

Damen, Robert... Dorchester

Daniel, John W....Coton Park, Burton-on-Trent
Daniel, Thomas...Stoodley, Tiverton _

XXXIX

+Daniel, Thos, D....Stuckeridge, Bampton, Devon
+Darbishire, S. D....Pendyffryn, Conway

Darby, George...Marklye, Warbleton, Hurst Green
+Darby, Abraham. ..Stoke Court, Slough

Dare, F. M. Hall...Carlton Club, S.W.

Dare, R. W. Hall... Newtownbarry, Ireland
Darley, Chas. Albert...Burtonfield, York

Darling, Charles...The Hall, Langham, Colchester
+Darling, J....Beau Desert, Rugeley

Darnbrough, Thos. S....27, Coney Street, York
Darvill, Henry. ..Windsor

Dashwood, Francis...Halcot, Bexley, Kent
+Dashwood, F. Loftus... Kirtlington Park, Oxon |
Dashwood, Henry W....Kirtlington, Oxford
Dashwood, M....9, Seymour Place, Mayfair, W. ~
Daubeny, Edmund...Clive House, Bristol
Daubeny, Rey. E. A....Ampney, Cirencester
Daubeny, R....King’s Bench Walk, Temple, E.C.
Davey, George.... Buckland, Faringdon, Berks
Davey, Richard, M.P....Redruth, Co:nwall

David, Edward...St. John’s Place, Hereford

David, Evan... Fairwater, Cardiff

Davie, Sir H. Ferguson, Bart... .Creedy, Crediton
Davies, D. R....Mere Old Hall, Knutsford

Davies, Rev. J....Moor Court, Herefordshire
Davies, Rev. R. T....Crickhowell, Brecknockshire
Davies, Richard. ..Aylestone Hill, Hereford

Davies, Robert C....Clifton Ville. Hove

+Davies, Robt. P....Ridgeway, Narbeth, S. Wales
Davies, Rey. S...The Grange, Oystermouth, Swansea
Davies, Mrs. Susanna...Rochlaveston Manor, Notts
Davies, Thomas...Burlion Court, Burghill, Hereford
Davies, Wm. Kevill...Croft Castle, Leominster
Davis, Cornelius B.... Maple Ho., Highelere, Hants
Davis, Henry...Old Downs, Oakhill, Bath

+Davis, John...Craubrook, Ilford, E.

Davis, Peter...Bickmarsh Hall, Alcester

+Davis, R....9, St. Helen’s Place, Bishopsgate, E.C,
+Davis, R. F....19, Gloucester Gardens, Hyde Park
+Davis, Samuel. ..Swerford Park, Enstone, Oxon
Davis, James...Meleombe Horsey, Blandford
Davis, T....Little Wenlock, Wellington, Shropshire
+Davis, Thomas Henry...Orleton, Worcester
Davison, Thomas...Durham

Davey, Jas....Fiitton-Barton, South Molton

Davey, J. S.... Redruth, Cornwall

Davy, John T....Barton Roseash, South Molton |
Davy, Robert... Ringwood, Hampshire

Dawes, John S....Smethwick House, Birmingham
Dawkins, E. H. F....Moggerbanger Ho., St. Neot’s
Dawson, Edward...Aldcliffe Hall, Lancaster
Dawson, J....Gronant, Rhyl, Flintshire, N. W.
Dawson, J....Blair Hill Mains, Culross, N. B.
+Dawson, Wm, Edward. .Plumstead Common, Kent
Day, Charles. .,Colleyweston, Stamford

Day, Francis... Priory, St. Neot’s, Hunts

Day, John...Newick Lodge, Uckfield, Sussex
Deacon, Joln...Mabledon, Tonbridge

+Dean, A. K....East Brent, Axbridge, Somerset
+ean, F. K,...East Brent, Axbridge, Somerset
Deane, F. H....Eastcot, Ruislip, Watford

Deane, Rey. Henry...Gillingham, Dorset

Deane, William Anthony... Webbery Ho., Bideford

XL

Dearden,’ James... Poole

De Curzay, Visct...Chateau de Curzay, Lusignan
Deedes, Major G....Hillhurst Farm, Hythe

Deedes, William, M.P....Sandling Park, Hythe

De L'Isle Dudley, Lord...Penshurst Park, Kent
Dell, Thos...Broadway Farm, Great Berkhampstead
Delves, William...Frant, Tonbridge Wells

De Mauley, Lord...Down Ampney, Cirencester
+Demidoff, Prince... Florence

+Denbigh, Earl of... Newnham Paddock,Lutterworth
Denchfield, J....Aston Abbotts, Aylesbury
Denison, Edmund... Doneaster

Denison, Sir W., Bart....New South Wales
Denison, W. Beckett...Burley, Leeds

Denman, Arno!d...Stoneham, Lewes

Denman, Lord...Middleton Hall, Bakewell

Denne, Wm....Three Counties Asylum, Baldock
+Dennett, Mullens...Lodsworth, Petworth, Sussex
Dennis, John Chas....Rosebrough, Northumberland
Dennis, Robert...Greetham, Horncastle

Denson, Samuel... Picton Hall, Chester

Dent, Joseph...Ribstone Hall, Wetherby

Dent, Joseph...Neasham Hall Farm, Darlington
Dent, John D., M.P....Ribstone Hall, Wetherby
Dent, Ralph. ..Streatlam Castle, Barnard Castle

De Rothschild, Sir A., Bt....Aston Clinton, Tring
De Salis, Rev. H. J....Fringford Rectory, Bicester
+De Trafford, Sir H., Bt. .. Trafford Pk., Manchester
Devas, Charles F,...Bromley Lodge, Kent

Devas, Horace...Alvaston Field, Derby

Devas, Thomas. ..Dulwich, Surrey, S.

Devas, William... Woodside, Old Windsor

Deverell, John...Purbrook Park, Portsmouth

Des Vouex, Henry ...Drakelow Pk., Burton-on-Trent
+De Vitre, H. D....Purchase Manor, Ditching
Devon, Earl of...Powderham Castle, Exeter

Dew, Tomkyns...Whitney Court, Hereford

Dewar, William...Middleton, Bicester

+De Wezele, Count G....

Dewhurst, George. ..Brown Street, Manchester
+Dewing, R....Carbrooke, Watton, Norfolk

De Winton, J. P....21, Burton St., Eaton Sq., S.W.
De Winton, Capt. T....Walsworth Hall, Gloucester
Dicken, Thomas. ..Colton Hall, Rugeley

+Dickens, Charles Scrace...Horsham

Dickin, John...The Lodge, Chirk

Dickinson, W. I’. D....Ulverston, Lancashire
Dickins, R. A... Woodford Grange, Wolverhampton
Dickinson, H....Severn Ho., Coalbrook Dale, Salop
Dickinson, E. H.... King’s Weston, Somerton
Dickinson, John...Havercroft, Cockermouth
Dickinson, John...Abbott’s Hill, Watford, Herts
Dickinson, William...New Park, Lymington
+Dickons, Thomas...High Oakham, Mansfield
Dickson, James. ..Chester

Dickson, Wm....Hast Wickham, Welling; Kent
Digby, Lord...Minterne House, Dorchester, Dorset
Digby, Rev. K...Tetteshall Rectory, Litcham, Norf.
Digby, Lt.-Col. R...6, Chapel St., Grosvenor Sq.,W.
+Dilke, C. Wentworth. ..76, Sloane Street, S.W.
Dilke, C. W....76, Sloane Street, S.W.

+Dilke, Charles W....76, Sloane Street, S.W.

+Dillon, Viscount...Dytchlley Hall, Enstone, Oxon

List of Members of the

7Dinning, J...Adderstone, Belford, Northumberland
Disraeli, Rt-Hn.B.,M.P...Hughenden Man., Bucks
+Divett, Edward, M.P....Bystock, Exmouth, Deyon
Divett, John...Bovey Tracey, Devon

Dix, George Weatherstone. .. Howden, Yorkshire
Dixon, Henry...Frankham, Tunbridge Wells
Dixon, Hugh...5, India Buildings, Liverpool
Dixon, Isaiah...Grove Terrace, Leeds

Dixon, John...Harmston, Lincoln

Dixon, J. T....Dunterley, Bellingham, Northumb.
+Dixon, John W....Beasby, North Thoresby, Louth
Dixon, Peter...Holme Eden, Carlisle

Dixon, Thos. John... Holton, Caistor, Lincolnshire
+Dixon, Thos. Parkinson...Caistor, Lincolnshire
Dixon, Wm. F....Page Hall, Sheffield

Dobson, Samuel. ..Cardiff

Docker, Ludford...Paul’s Hill, Leigh, Tunbridge
Dod, J? W., M.P....Cloverley, Whitchurch, Shrops.
+Dod, Whitehall... Brynduinarth, Conway
+Dodson, Charles E....Littledale Hall, Lancaster
Dods, T. P....Anick Grange, Hexham
Dodwell, J.... Manor House, Long Crendon, Oxon
Doggett, Thomas William...Sandon, Royston
Dolphin, T....Swafield, North Walsham, Norfolk
Donald, W....St. James's Hall, Regent Street, W.
+Donovan, George (49th Regt.)...

Donovan, J. C....Gatwick, Mill Hill, Billericay
Dorrington, C....Bridehall Farm, St. Albans
Dormer, C. Cottrill...Rousham, Woodstock, Oxon
+Dorrien, C....Ashdean, Funtington, Chichester
Doubleday, E....Long Clawton, Melton Mowbray
Douglas, James...Athelstaneford, rem, N, B.
Dowden, Thomas...Roke Farm, Bere Regis
Dowding, Edwyn...15, Vineyards, Bath

Downs, Henry...Manor House, Basingstoke

Downs, J. H....Grove Lodge, Fulham

Dowson, B,...Quay, Yarmouth

Downward, Rev. George R....Shrewsbury

Drake, Sir T. T. F. E., Bart... Nutwell Court, Exeter
Drake, T. '‘l'yrwhitt...Shardloes, Amersham
Drakeford, David...Dillions, Crawley, Sussex
+Drax, J. S. W. Erle, M.P....Blandford, Dorsetshire
Dray, William... Farningham, Kent

Drew, Henry... Peamore, Exeter

+Drewe, E. Simcoe. .The Grange, Honiton
+Drewitt, George... Manor Farm, Oving, Chichester
Drewitt, Henry...Milvill Farm, Titchfield
Drewitt, John...North Stoke, Arundel

+Drewitt, R. Dawtrey...Burpham, Arundel
Drewitt, Thomas...Piccard’s Farm, Guildford
Drewry, George...Holker House, Cartmell, Lane.
Drinkrow, John Wm.,...Tibthorpe House, Driffield
+Driver, George Neale...5, Whitehall, S.W.
+Druce, Joseph... Eynsham, Oxford

+Druce, Samuel... Eynsham, Oxford

+Drummond, A. R....Cadland, New- Forest, Hants
Drummond, Dr. H...15, Westbourne Ter., Hyde Pk.
Ducane, Chas., M.P....Braxted Lodge, Witham
Duckham, T....Baysham Court, Ross, Herefordshire
+Duckworth, Sir J., Bart....Wear House, Exeter
+Duckworth, Russell. .,.Dirleton, Drem, N. B.
Duffield, James...Great Baddow, Chelmsford
Dugdale, W. Douglas... West Chaldon, Dorchester

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Duke, Henry...Earnley, Chichester

Duke, Henry...Burleston, Dorchester, Dorset
Dumbrell, James, jun....Ditchling, Sussex
Duncan, W. G....Bradwell House, Stony Stratford
+Duncombe, Hon. O....Waresley Pk., Biggleswade
Duncombe, Sir P. P., Bart.... Bletchley, Bucks
7Dun, Finlay... Weston Park, Shipston-on-Stour
Dunn, Gen., R.E....Denford House, Hungerford
+Dunn, Thomas...1, York Gate, Regent’s Park, W,
+Dunne, Thomas, jun....Bircher, Leominster
Duplessis, Jules...Newton Park, Lymington
Duppa, T. D....Longville, Shrewsbury

Du Pré, C. G., M.P.... Wilton Park, Beaconsfield
Dupuis, Rev.G.J...Creeting Rect., Needham Market,
Durant, Richard. ..Sharpham, Devon

Durham, Makin...Thorne, Yorkshire

Dyer, George... Wey House, Alton

Dyke, Sir P. H....Lullington Castle, Dartford, Kent
+Dyke, Rev. T. H... Long Newton, Stockton-on-Tees
Dyne, F. Bradley...4, Suffolk Street, Pall Mall East
Dyott, Col....Freeford Manor, Lichfield

E.

Eardley, Sir C. E., Bart... Belvedere, Erith, Kent
Eardley, R....Norton-in-Hales, Market Drayton
East, Sir Gilbert W.... Hall Place, Maidenhead
+Easthope, Sir John, Bart.. .Fir Grove, Weybridge
Easton, James,..Nest House, Gateshead

Easton, James... Grove, Southwark, S.E. .
Eastwood, R....Townley Brimshaw, Burnley ~
Eaton, Charles A....Tixover Hall, Stamford
+Eaton, George... .Spixworth, Norwich

Eccles, Joseph. ..Mill Hill House, Blackburn
Eckley, Richard...12, Darlington Place, Bath
+Eddison, Edwin...,Headingley Hill, Leeds
+Eddison, Francis,..Adel Mill, Leeds

+Eddison, R. W,...Headingley Hill, Leeds
+Eddison, William. ..Huddersfield

Edelsten, P....The Woodlands, Moseley, Birming.
+Eden, J.... Beamish Pk., Chester-le-Street, Durham
Eden, R....Bevington Green Ho.,Hemel Hempstead
Edge, Davis. ..Outhill, Studley, Warwickshire
Edge, James Thomas. ..Strelly Hall, Nottingham
+Edmonds, F.Ezek....Berryfield Ho., Bradford, Wilts
Edmonds, R....Trunkwell House, Reading
Edmondson, John, ..Grassyard Hall, Lancaster
Edmunds, Edmund. .,Rugby

Edwards, Francis. ..Bulstrode Park, Bucks
Edwards, Frederick... Barnham, Thetford

Edwards, Frederick... Pilbroath, Carmarthen
Edwards, Henry N....Broadwood, Leominster
Edwards, James L.... Rochester, Kent

Edwards, Joseph...Hutton, Weston-super-Mare
Edwards, Joseph Priestley.. Fixby Park, Halifax
Edwards, Peter Norman.,.Brinsop Court, Hereford
Edwards, Robert V...Shottisham Hall, Woodbridge
+Edwards, Thomas....Wintercott, Leominster
Egerton, Sir P.de M.G., Bt. M.P....Tarporley
Egerton, Lord...Tatton Park, Knutsford

Egyar, James...Brinsted, Alton

Egginton, S. H....North Ferriby, Brough, Yorkshire

XLI

+Eland,S. E...ManorHo.,Stanwick, Higham Ferrers
Elcho, Lord, M.P....Armisfield, Haddington, N.B.
Eley, Charles...Beavers Farm, Hounslow, W.

Eley, Wm. H., jun....Cobham, Gravesend
Elkington, George R....Pembrey, Llanelly
Elkington, H....Woodbrook, Northfield, Birming.
+Elkins, J. N...Elkington, Welford, Northamptonsh.
FElliot, John...Chapel Brampton, Northampton
Ellis, Charles,..Franklands, Hurstpierpoint

Ellis, Job. .,Oswestry

yEllis, John... Arlington, Guildford

Ellis, I. P....The Field, Hampton Bishop, Hereford
Ellis, Robert Ridge... Yalding, Kent

Ellison, Charles. ..Oldbury Lodge, Bridgnorth
Ellison, Henry...Stone, Tickhill, Rotherham
Elliston, B. A....Croydon Arrington, Cambridge
Ellman, R. H.,..Landport, Lewes

Ellman, Thomas. ..Beddingham, Lewes

Elmhirst, Rev. E....Shawell Rectory, Rugby
Elmsall, Mansfeldt de C....The Club, York

Elorza, General da Francisco. . ..Tubia, Oviedo
+Elston, Capt.W....St. Ann’s Rd, North Brixton, S-
Elton, Sir E. M., Bt.... Widworthy Court, Honiton
Elton, Major Robert James,.. Whitestanton,faunton
Elvidge, Benjamin. ..Leven, Beverley

Elwes, John H....Closeburn House, Cheltenham
Emson, H. H.... Nether Hall,Cherry Hinton, Camb.

| -+Enfield, Viscount...Wrotham Park, Barnet

England, Richard...Binham, Wells, Norfolk
Enniskillen, Earl of.... Florence Court, Fermanagh
Ensor, John... Dorchester, Dorset

Enys, John Samuel,..Enys, Penryn, Cornwall |
Epton, W. M....Langton Wragby, Lincolnshire
yErkoig, Adolphus. ..Derekegyhaza, Pesth, Hungary
+Erle, Rev. Christ.... Hardwicke, Aylesbury

Erle, Rt.Hon.SirW., Kt... Bramshot Grange, Liphook
Ernest, Henry...4, Whitehall, S.W.

+Errington, Rowland...Sandon, Hexham

Esdaile, W. C. D.... Burley Park, Ringwood, Hants
+Estcourt, KE. D. B....Charlton House, Tetbury
Etches, Wm....Beech House, Newcastle, Staffs.

. Ethelstone, Rev. C. W....Up Lyme, Lyme Regis

+Euston, Earl of,,. Euston, Thetford

Evans, E. M....Llynbarried, Nantmel, Kington
Evans, [’dward.,.Boveney Court, Windsor

Evans, George... Wimborne, Dorset

Evans, Henry J....Bank, Cardiff

Evans, Isaac Pearson,..Griff, Nuneaton

Evans, James Eaton. ..Haverfordwest

Evans, John,,.Uffington, Salop

Evans, R. P....Orpines, Wateringbury, Maidstone
+Evans, R. W....Eyton Hall, Leominster

Evans, Samuel... Darly Abbey, Derby

Evans, Thos. M...19, Queen’s Rd. W., Regent’s Pk..
Evans, Capt. T. B....Deane House, Enstone, Oxon
+Evans, Rev. W.E....Burton Court, Herefordshire
Everington, William, jun.,..Skegness, Boston
+Everington, Wm. D....Plumstead House, Norwich:
Everitt, James. ., North Creake, Fakenham
Evershed, John.,..Albury, Guildford

Ewings, William...29, Russell Square, W. C.
Exall, W....Kates Grove Works, Reading, Berks
Exley, Wm. H...,Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire

XLII

Lyke, John...Stanton, Shiffnall)

Eyre, G. E....Warrens, Stoney Cross, Southampton
Eyre, Henry R....Shaw House, Newbury

Eyre, Martin...17, Bellevue Terraace, Leeds

Eyre, R. T.... Bartley, Totton Wear. Southampton
+Eyres, Capt. Harry...Knockwood Park, Teuterden
Eyton, John Wynne...Lee's Wood, Mold, Flintshire
yEyton, Thos, C.,.. Vineyard, Wellington, Shropsh.
Eyton, William..,Gonsall, Shrewsbury

F.

Faber, C. Wilson... Northaw House, Barnet

Fair, J.... Warton Lodge, Lytham, Preston, Lancas.
Fairbairn, George. ..Holmes Chapel, Cheshire
Faithful, Rev. G. D.... Lower Heyford, Woodstock
Falmouth, Viscount... Mereworth Castle, Maidstone
Fane, Cecil...4, Upper Brook Street, W.

+Fardon, H. F.... he Firs, Bromsgrove

tFarhall, J. N....Tillington, Petworth

Farley, Rev. C. Turner. ..Moorhall, Stovrport

+ Farmer, Archibald H....Harefield, Cheam, 8.
Farmer, Edward. ..Fazeley, Staffordshire
Farnworth, J. K..,.Alderley Edye, Manchester
Farnham, E. B.....Quorndon House, Loughborough
+Farr, Wm.Wyndham...Iford, Christchurch, Hants
+Farrer, Edmund... .Sporle, Swaffham

Farrer, James. ,.Ingleborough, Settle

+Farrer, O. W.,..1, Hamilton Place, Piccadilly, W.
Farthing, Walter...Stowey Court, Bridgwater
Faulkner, C. F. A....Bury Barnes, Burford, Oxon
Faulkner, John... Bretby Farm, Burton-on-Trent
Faviell, J. Brown...Stockwell Park, Wetherhy
+Faviell, Mark, jun....

Faviell, William Fred... .Down Place, Guildford
Fawcett, John... Durham

Fawcett, W....Burton Salmon, Milford Junction
Fawkes, F. H....Farnley Hall, Otley
Featherstone, Wm....Sunley Hall, Kirby-Moorside
Feilden, Captain H. M.,..Bank Hall, Clitheroe
Feilden, J.... Wilton House, Blackburn

Feetham, John.,.Great Burdon, Darlington
+Fellowes, Jas....29, Gloucester Place, Portman Sq.
Fellowes, Robert. ...Bitteswell Hall, Lutterworth
Fellowes, Rev. T. L.....Beighton Rectory, Acle
Fellows, W. Manning. ..Ormsby, Great Yarmouth
+Felton, Clement...Dunton, Fakenham

Fenn, George... Beccles

Fenton, John T.. .. Waterloo Colliery, Leeds
+Ferard, Charles Colton,..Ascot Place, Windsor
Ferrabee, Jas.. .-Phcenix Ironworks, Stroud, Gloucest.
+Ferris, T....Manningford Bohune, Pewsey, Wilts
+Ferris, William. ..Draycot, Pewsey, Wiltshire
Festing, R. G....1, Queen Sq. Place, Westminster
Ffooks, Thomas. ..Sherborne

+Ffoulkes, John J. (Maj.)...Llandyssil, Shrewsbury
Fiddes, Thomas F....Towneley Lodge, Burnley
+Field, Henry. ..Tulse Hill, S.

Field, James Pope. ..Shipton-on-Cherwell, Oxford
Field, William...224, Oxford Street, W.

Field, William David...Swan Hill, Shrewsbury
+Fielden, Joshua, ..Stansfield Hall, Todmorden

List of Members of the

+Fielden, S....Centre Vale, Todmorden

Fieldsend, C,, jun.... Kirmond, Binbrook,Lincolnsh.
Filliter, George... Trigon Hill, Wareham, Dorset
Filmer, Sir E., Bt., M.P...East Sutton Pk..Maidstone
+Finch, Hn. Mj.-Gn.J.,C.B...Castle, Berkhamstead
Finch, J....1, Adelaide Place, London Bridge, B.C.
+Finch, Rev. W....Warboys, Huntingdonshire
+Findlay, John...Garnstone, Hereford

Finlay, Alex. J....Castle Toward, Greenock
+Finnis, Steriker...’Jhe Elms, Hougham, Dover
Firth, Samuel... Burley Wood, Leeds

Firth, William... Burley Wood, Leeds

Fisher, Cuthbert J.,,.Huntleys, Tunbridge Wells
Fison, Cornell. ..Thetford

+Fison, John Potterton...Horningsea, Cambs.
+Fitzgerald, H. T. G....St. Mary’s Vicarage, Reading
Fitzgerald, Wm. Seymour.,..Ho!lbrook, Horsham
Fitzherbert, William, ,..Somersal Herbert, Uttoxeter
+Fitzhngh, Thomas Lloyd. ..Plas Power, Wrexham
Fitzhugh, Rev. Wm.,..Street, Lewes

Fitzpatrick, Rt. Hon. J. W....Granstown, Ireland
Fitzroy, Lt.Col. H....Sennowe Lodge, Guiest, Norfk.
Fitzroy, George., .Grafton-Regis, Stony Stratford
Fitwilliam, Hon. C. H....Alwalton, Peterborough
Fitzwilliams, E. C. I.....Neweastle Emlyn, S. W.
Fletcher, Alexander. ,.Red House, Southampton
+Fletcher, Lt.-Col. E. C... Kenward, Yalding
Fletcher, George...Shipton, Cheltenham

Fletcher, John Charles...Dale Park, Arundel
+Fletcher, J.P.... Ashley Park, Walton-on-Thames
Fletcher, William. ..Radmanthwait, Manstield
Flower, G. F. A.,.Lewell Farm, Dorchester, Dorset
Floyd, Thomas... Frilford, Abingdon

Floyer, John... Hints, Tamworth

+Floyer, John...Stafford, Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Floyer, John Wadham... Martin, Horneastle

Foden, John,..Mere, Knutsford

+Foljambe, Geo. Saville, . .Osberton House, Worksop
Folkestone, Viscount... Longford Castle, S.lisbury
Fookes, H....Whitechurch Farm, Blandford
Forbes, Sir J. S., Bart....Pitsligo, Fettercairn, N. B.
Ford, Charles Ingram... Abbeyfield, Sandbach
Ford, J., jun.... Rushton Farm, Blandford
Fordham, Edward King...Ashwell, Baldock
Fordham, John George. ..Royston

Forester, G. T....Ercall Magna, Wellington, Shrops,
Forester, Rev. R.T....Arthur’s Club, St. James's *
Forrest, Thomas,..Spurston Hall, Tarporley
Forrester, George... Tombland, Norwich
+Forrester, Jos. James. .,.24, Crutched Friars, E.C.
Forster, R. C....White House, Gateshead

Forster, Robert...Tottenham Green, Middlesex
+Forster, Samuel. ..Southend, Sydenham

Forsyth, James...Sorne House, Tobermary, Argylls.
Fort, George...Alderbury House, Salisbury
Fortescue, Hon. G....Boconnock, Lostwithiel, Cornw.
Foster, Edward... Waterton Hall, Goole, Yorkshire
Foster, J....Ledsham, Milford Junction

Foster, J. P....Bolton House, Seven Sisters Road, N.
+Fosier, John James...Mansion Street, Lincoln
+Foster, Richard...Castle, Lostwithiel, Cornwall ,
Foster, Wm.,..Canwick House, Lincoln

+Foster, William. -Stourton Court, Stourbridge

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

+Foster, W. 0., M.P....Stourton Castle, Stourbridge
Fothergill, James... Beeston, Nottingham :
Fothergill, John... Nottingham
Fothergill, Matthew...Cefmachder, Newport, Mon,
Fothergill, R....Hensol Castle, Cowbridge, S.Wales
Fowle, W....Market Lavington, Wiltshire
Fowler, Benj.... Whitefriars Street, Fleet Street, E.C.
Fowler, Charles... Whitelands, Bicester
Fowler, John K., jun....Aylesbury
Fowler, M....Little Bushy Farm, Stanmore, N.W.
+Fowler, R.C,...Gunton Hall, Lowestoft
Fowler, R., jun.,..14, Bennett's Hill, Birmingham
Fowler, Francis...Henlow, Baldock
Fowlic, Wm....Red House, Hursley, Winchester
Fox, Alfred Lloyd...Manure Works, Penrhyn
+Fox, G. Lane...Bramham Park, ‘’adeaster
+Fox, Chas. B...,Malpas, Newport, Monmouthshire
Fox, Frederick F....Melbourne, Derby
Fox, Robert...Falconhurst, Cowden, Kent
Fox, W....£lfordleigh, Plympton St. Mary, Devon
Fox, William..,Dunston, Sleaford
Frampton, Henry...Qkers Wood, Dorchester, Dorset
Francis, Clement (Solicitor), ..Cambridge
Francis, Frederick... Warley Place, Brentwood
Francis,S. R. G....Cranham Place, North Ockendon
Franklin, Edward L....Ascott, Wallingford
Franklin, John...Ewelme, Wallingford
Franklin, Richard. ..Clemenstone, Bridgend
Franklin, Robert...The Park, Thaxted
Franks, George... Thong, Gravesend
Franks, James...Bramley, Guildford
Fraser, Hugh...Culloden, Inverness
Frederick, Sir R...Burwood Pk., Walton-on-Thames
+Freebody, Wm. Yates...9, Duke St., Westminster
Freeman, Jolin Gardner. ..Rockfield, Hereford
Freeman, Thos.,..Henham Wang!ord

reeman, W.P. W....49, Welbeck Street, W.
Freestone, T,...Irthlingborough, Wellingborough
French, Richard Day...St. John’s, Bungay
7Frere,G. E...
Frere, P. H....Regent Street, Cambridge
Frogley, Ralph Allen...Hounslow, W.
+Frost, Chas.. ,. Wherstead, Ipswich
Frost, Edward... West Wratling Hall, Linton
Fry, James Thomas. ..Boston, Bromley, Kent
Fry, Thomas. ..Baglake Farm, Dorchester, Dorset
Fryer, W. Fleming...The Wergs, Wolverhampton
+Fryer, W. K....South Lytchett House, Poole
Fulcher, Thomas,.,lmham Hall, Thetford
Fulford, Baldwin. ,.261, High Street, Exeter
Fulljames, Thos....Hatfield Court, Gloucester
Fulshaw, Richard... Bushby House, Leicester
Fulton, Hamilton Henry...4, Victoria Street, S.W.
Furniss, Lawr....Birchill Farm, Baslow, Chesterfield
Furnival, S....Napeley Heath, Market Drayton
Fussel, Rev. James G. C....Chantry, Frome
+¥ ytche, J. Lewis. ..Thorpe Hall, Elkington, Louth

*

G.

Gadesden, Augustus W....Leigh House, Tooting, S.
Gaisford, Major T.... Baystone, Chipping Sodbury
Gale, Chas. J... .Kilnocks, Botley, Hants

XLII

Galpin, George... Kingston Farm, Dorchester
Galpin, John... Dorchester, Dorset

+Galton, Darwin...Claverdon Leys, Warwick
tGalway, Viscount, M.P....Serlby Hall, Bawtry
+Gamble, D....Gerard’s Bridge, St. Helen's, Lance,
Gamble, Thomas...Canwick Road, Lineoln

| +Gamlen, Wm. H....Hayne House, Tiverton

+Gammie, Geo....Shotover House, Wheatley, Oxon
Gandy, Lt.-Col...-Heaves, Milnthorpe

Garbatt, Thomas... Yarm, Cleveland

+Gard, R. Sommers...Rougemont House, Exeter
Garde, T....Ballinacurra, Midleton, co, Cork
Gardner, Francis...Ryburgh, Fakenham

Gardner, William Nettleton...Wells, Norfolk
Gardnor, Capt. T....Sea View, Ryde, Isle of Wight
+Gardon, T. W....The Yeld, Baslow, Bakewell
Garmston, John... Worcester

+Garne, John,..Filkens, Leechdade

+Garne, Robert. ..Aldsworth, Northleach

+Garne, Wm....Kilkenny Farm, Bibury, Fairford
Garnett, William. ..Clitheroe

Garnett, W. J., M.P....Bleasdale Tower, Garstang
Garrard, C. B. D....Lamar Hall, St. Alban’s
+Garratt, John, jun....Bishop’s Court, Exeter
Garrett, Richard. .,Carlton Hall, Saxmundham
Garrold, R. H....Kilforge, Ross

Garsed, John... The Moorlands, Cowbridge

Garth, Rev. Richard. ..Farnham, Surrey

Garth, T.C....Hains Hill, Reading, Berkshire
Gascoyne, Wm....Bapclild Court, Sittingbourne
Gascoyne, William Whitehead.. .Sittingbourne
+Gaskell, Henry L....Kiddington Hall, Woodstock
+Gatacre, Edward L....Coton, Kidderminster
Gater, John...West End, Southampton

Gates, John...Grindle Hall, Shiffnail

‘Gates, John A....Grange Farm, Sapiston, Ixworth
+Gates, R....7, Sussex Place, Horsham

Gatrell, William Verling...Lymington, Hampshire
Gatty, George...Felbridge, East Grinstead
Gaudern, J....Earl’s Barton, Wellingborough
Gauntlett, Wm. H....Middlesborouyh-on-Tees
+Gauthorp, Henry... Moortield House, Widness
+Gawne, Edw. Moore...Kentraugh, Isle of Man
+Geary, Sir W.R. P., Bt....Oxen Heath, Tunbridge
Gedge, Johnson... Bury St. Edmund’s

Gee, Thomas... Brothertoft, Boston

Geldard, Chris., jun....Cappleside, Settle

Gelderd, George A....Aikrig End, Kendal
George, T. Willington...Beilevue House, Leeds
+German, George...Measham Lodge, Atherstone
Gervis, Sir G. E. M. T., Bt....Christchurch, Hants
Gibb, John...

Gibbon, A...Staunton, Coleford, Gloucestershire
Gibbens, Edward...Minster, Isle of Thanet
Gibbons, Stephen...Brocklesby Park, Uleeby
+Gibbs, George. ..Belmont, Bristol

Gibbs, Robert...Carhampton, Dunster

Gibbs, Thomas. ..26, Down Street, Piceadilly, W.
Gibbs, W....Alverston Hill, Stratford-upon-Avon
Gibbs, Wm....Tyntesfield Bourton, Bristol
Giblett, John... Lower Clapton, N.E.

Gilbert, Henry...Barnby Manor, Newark, Notts
Gilbert, James. ..23, Anne Street, Birmingham

XLIV

+Gilbert, R....Ashby Hall, Berghapton, Norfolk
+Gilbert, Thomas W....The Close, Salisbury
+Gilbert, William A ...Cantley, Acle

Gilbertson, M....Elm Cottage, Egham Hill, Surre y
Gill, George... Weston, Shrewsbury

Gill, Joseph... Leeds

Gillett, John... Fawler, Charlbury

Gillett, John...Minster Lovel, Witney

Gillett, Thomas... Kilkenny, Faringdon
Gilpin-Brown, G...Sodbury Park, Richmond, Yorks.
Ginders, Samuel...Ingestrie, Stafford

Giraud, Edward,..Preston, Wingham

Girdwood, John...49, Pall Mall, S.W.

+Gladstone, Capt.,M.P....Bowden Pk.,Chippenham
Glaisier, William Richard. ..41, Charing Cross, S.W.
Glegg, J. B.... Withington Hall, Chelford, Congleton
Glegg, Cipt. E. Holt...Backford Hall, Chester
Glen, G....Stratton Audley Park, Bicester
+Glendining, Alexander...Ash Grove, Sevenoaks
Glenton, Frederick...Bensham, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Glover, John...Banyley, Tamworth

Glover, Robert... Wexford, Lichfield

Glynne, Rev. Henry... Hawarden Rectory, Chester
Glynne, Sir S., Bt., M.P... Hawarden Castle, Flintsh.
+Gobbett, John...Sudbourne, Woodbridge, Suffolk
Goddard, H. N...Manor Ho., Cliffe, Wootton-Bassett
Goddard, Thomas...St. Fagans, Cardiff

Goddard, Wm. Gibert...Broad Chalk, Salisbury
+Goddard, William R....Somerset House, W.C.
Godwin, William... Lugwardine, Hereford

Goggs, James...Great Baddow Park, Chelmsford
+Goldhawk, R., jun....Hasle Hall, Steer, Guildford
Goldsmith, Thomas...Dairy Farm, Ixworth

Gomm, Gen. Sir W. M....New St., Spring Gardens
+Gonne, Charles...Warley Lodge, Brentwood
Gooch, John Kerr...East Tuttenham, Norwich
+Gooch, John Virel...Reform Club, Pall Mall, 8.W.
Gooch, Stephen...Honingham, Norwich

Goode, H. Phelps. ..Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire
+Goodden, John, ..Over Compton, Sherborne, Dorset
Goodenough, J....Godmanstone, Dorchester, Dorset
+Goodhart, Charles E....Langley, Beckenham
+Goodlake, F. Mills...Wadley Ho., Faringdon
Goodson, Wm....Hill Farm, Mitcham, S,

Goodwin, J....1, Turret Pl., Rectory Grove, Clapham
Goold, R. W....3, Adelphi Terrace, W.C.

Gordon, Charles. ..Heavitree, Exeter

Gordon, R....Kemble House, Cirencester

Gosford, Vincent. ..Tan-y-llan, Holywell, Flintshire
Gosling, Johu...Brewery, Bocking, Essex

Gosling, Robt... Hassobury, Bishop's Stortford, Herts
Gosling, Thomas G....15, Portland Place, W.
+Gosset, Capt. Arthur...Eltham, Kent

Goucher, John... Woodsetts, Worksop

Gough, Edward...Gravell Hill, Shrewsbury

Gould, John...Hyde Hall, Denton, Manchester
Gould, Rev. Joseph...Hurst Green

Gouldbourne, Joseph... Wilkesley, Whitchurch
Goulding, Wm....108, Patrick Street, Cork
Gouthwaite, Richard, ..Lumby, Milford Junction
+Gow, James... Fowler's Park, Hawkhurst, Kent
+Gower, A.L....Castle Malgwyn, Newcastle Emlyn
Gower, Andrew.,.Market Drayton

List of Members of the

+Gower, Erasmus...Clynderwen, Narbeth, S.W.
Gower, J. Leveson...Gonver, Alverstoke, Gosport
+Gower, Robt. F....Clynderwen, Narbeth, S, W.
Graburn, R. S....Mells, Frome, Somerset
Grace,Wm....Newbiggin, Morpeth

Graham, Alexander. ..Kirkhill, Stirling, N. B.
+Graham, James...Curtle House, Southampton
Graham, Walter... West Drayton, Uxbridge
Graham, William, jun....Abingdon

Grain, Peter, jun....Shelford, Cambridge ~

Grant, Henry I,...Wormley Bury, Hoddesdon
Grant, William. ..Litchborough, Weedon
Grantham, George. ..Barcombe Place, Lewes
Grantham, Rev. Thos... .Bramber, Steyning
+Granville, Earl...Aldenham, Bridgnorth

Graves, Septimus Perry... Mayfield, Sussex

Graves, Robert...Charlton, Shaftesbury

+Gratwick, W.G. K....Ham, Arundel

Gray, Rev. John D,...Abbotsley Vicarage, St. Neot’s
Gray, Jonathan... .Sion Hill, Bath

Gray, William...Kingston, Drem, N.B.
Grazebrook, George... The Race Course, Stourbridge
Greaves, Edward, M.P....Barford, Warwick
Greaves, William... Bakewell, Derbyshire

Green, Rev. G.W...Court Henry, Dryslwyn, Carmar.
Green, John... Knipton, Grantham

Green, Joseph B.... Marlow, Leintwardine

Green, Richard...Metheringham, Sleaford

Green, Richard... Knighton, Radnorshire

Green, Robert...Milford House, Derby

Green, Rey. Thomas... Vicar of Badby, Daventry
+Greenall, G., M.P.... Walton Hall, Warrington, Lanc.
Greene, E....West Gate, Bury St. Edmund's
+Greene, Harry A....Crown Street, St. Ives, Hunts.
+Greene, Thomas... Whittington Hall, Lancaster
Greene, Wm...Takeley, Little Canfield, Chelmsf.
Greene, Wm....Ditcham Park, Petersfield
Greenwood, Charles... Wallingford, Berkshire
+Greenwood, Fred....Norton Conyers, Ripon
+Greenwood, J., M.P....Swarcliffe Hall, Ripley
Greenwood, R...« Towse Ho., Ludford, Market Rasen
Greetham, Thomas...Stainfield Hall, Lincolnshire
Greetham, William. . .Stainfield Hall, Wragby
Gregg, James... Ledbury

+Gregg, Thomas...

+Gregor,Gordon W,F...Trewarthewick, Grampound
Gregory, George. ..Crowhurst, Battle

Gregory, J....Shavington Park, Market Drayton
Gregory, J. S...-Bramcote Hills, Nottingham
Gregson, Brian Paget...Caton, Lancaster

+Gregson, Mathew...Toxteth Park, Liverpool
Grenfell, Chas. P., M.P....38, Belgrave Sq., S.W.
Grenfell, Riversdale W....Ray Lodge, Maidenhead
+Grenville, Ralph N....Butleigh Ct., Glastonbury
Gresswell, Dan....Louth

Greville, Col. Fulke S....North Mims Park, Hatfield
+Grey, Rt. Hon. Sir G.,Bt.,M.P...Fallowdon,Alnwick
+Grey,*4 on. Brow. N. Osborn De... Watton, Norfolk
+Grey, Capt. Hon, F. W., R.N....Howick, Alnwick
+Grey, Hon. & Rev. F. De...Copdock Recty.,[pswich
+Grey, Hon. G. De...11, South Andley Street, W.
Grey, Jas....Kimmerston, Wooler, Northumberland
Grey, John... Dilston House, Gateshead

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Griffin, A. W....Pell Wall Hall, Market Drayton
Griffin, Edward. ..Towersey, Thame

Griffin, John... Borough Fenn, Peterborough

Griffin, Fred. C....Methwold, Brandon, Norfolk
Griffith, C. Darby...Padworth House, Reading
Griffith, Edw. H....Plas-Newydd, Trefnant, Rhyl
Griffith, J...Llwynduris, Neweastle-Emlyn

Griffith, Samuel Y....Star Hotel, Oxford

Griffithes, Thomas J....Bishop’s Castle, Salop
Griffiths, Edward...New Court, Hereford

Griffiths, John...The Weir, Hereford

+Grissell, Thos...Norbury Park, Mickleham, Surrey
+Grisewood, H....Daylesford Ho., Chipping Norton
Grosvenor, Earl, M.P....28, Princes Gate, S.W.
Grove, James. ..Great Baddow, Chelmsford

Grove, Philip. ..Eastcoate, Towcester

Groves, Thomas. . . Plompton Hall, Knaresborough
Grundy, E. S....Reddish Hall, Lymm, Warrington
Grundy, J....The Dales, Stand, Manchester
Grylls, Capt. Glynn... Waterhouse, Exbridge
Gubbins, John Panton...Rhual, Mold

Guilding, Richard..,Malvern Wells

Gulston, Alan James... Woodland Castle, Swansea
Gunner, William... Will Hall, Alton

+Gunter, Captain Robert...Wetherby

+Gurdon, J. B....Assington Hall, Boxford
Gurdon, Bramp....Letton Hall, Shipdham, Norfolk
+Gurdon, Rev. P....Cramworth Rectory, Shipdham
+Gurdon-Rebow, J.,M.P... Wivenhoe Pk.,Colchester
+Gurdon, William... Brantham, Manningtree
7Gurney, John Henry, M.P....Easton, Norwich
Gurney, Russell, ..8, Palace Gardens, Hyde Park, W.
Guthrie, John...Guthrie Castle, Forfarshire

Gwyn, H.,M.P....Dyffryn, Neath, Glamorganshire
Gwyn, Rich. H....Astbury Hall, Bridgnorth, Salop
Gwyn, Wm. Edw....Plas Cwrt Hyrs, Carmarthen
Gyles, John. ..Apleyhead, East Retford, Notts

H,

Hack, James Carter... .Springfield, Chelmsford
Hacker, John Heathcote... Leek, Staffordshire
Hadden, A....The Old Parks, Ashby-de-la-Zouch
Hagen, Jacob...Ropley House, Alresford
Haggard, Wm. M. R....Bradenham Hall, Thetford
Hagger, Franklin. ..Hertford

Haig, J. H....Highfields Park, Wythibam, Sussex
Haigh, George. ..Erdington, Birmingham

Haines, Edward...Moorwood House, Cirencester
Hale, Chas. C....Glenlochay, Killrie, Perthshire
Hales, Edward,,.North Frith, Hadlow, Kent
Halford, Thos....Kerry, Newtown, Montgomerysh.
Halford, T....Newbold-on-Stour, Shipton-on-Stour
Halkett, Rev. D....Rector of Little Bookham, Surrey
Halkett, Peter Alexr....142, High Holborn ,W.C.
Hall, Alexander Hall... Watergate, Emsworth
Hall, Benjamin. ..Wood Farm, Malvern Wells
Hall, Collinson...Navestock, Romford

Hall, Francis...Park Hall, Mansfield

Hall, George...Garford, Yarkhill, Ledbury

Hall, Henry...Halliford Green, Middlesex
+Hall, Henry...Barton, Woodstock

Hall, Henry...Alton ,

XLV

Hall, James. ..Scarborough Hall, Beverley

Hall, John... Wiseton, Bawtry

Hall, J.O....1, Brunswick Row, Queen’s Sq., Blooms.
Hall, John...Sibthorpe, Newark-on-Trent

Hall, Major-(Gen....Carlton Club, Pall Mall, S.W.
Hall, Jobn...Arnold Lodge, Nottingham

+Hall, Marshall...Blacklands Park, Calne, Wilts
Hall, Richard. ..Raglan House, Neath, Glamorgansh.
Nall, T....Duke's Oak, Brereton, Congleton

Hall, Thomas K.... Holly Bush, Burton-on-Trent
+Hall, William... Ashton, Leominster

Hallam, John. ..Neweastle, Staffordshire

Hallam, Thos....Bridlesmith Gate, Nottingham
Hallett, Fred. Fran....'The Manor House, Brighton
Hallowes, Thomas. ..Glasswell Hall, Chesterfield
tHalls, Joseph...Denham Hall, Bury St. Edmund's
+Halliday, J....Chapel Cleeve, Taunton

Halliday, Thomas C....Red Hill, Barstow, Horley
Halse, J. C,...Pulworthy, Molland, South Molton
Halse, Philip...Molland, South Molton

Halsey, Rev. J. F. Moore... Hemel Hempstead
Halsey, Thomas...Compton House, Newent
Halsted, Thomas... Woodcote, Chichester

Halton, Rev. Immanuel...Winfield Manor, Alfreton
+Hambro, Charles. ..Milton Abbey, Biandford
+Hambrough, Albert J....Steep Hill Castle, Ventnor
Hamersley, Hugh...Great Haseley, Tetsworth
+Hamilton, Capt. Archibald...Rozelle, near Ayre
Hamilton, Chas. W....Hamwood, Dunboyne, Ireland
tTHamilton, John...Sundrum, Ayr, N.B.
Hamilton, Wm. M....2, Orchard Place, Canterbury
Hammerton, Charles... Princethorpe, Warwickshire
Hammond, Horace John...Chapel Farm, Eltham
+Hamond, W. Parker...Pampisford Hall, Cambridge
Hanbury, E....Eastrop, Highworth

Hanbury, Rey. G....Swaffham

Hanbury, Robert... Poles, Ware, Herts

Hancock, Abraham... Little Grove, Ropley, Alresford
Hancock, J. Donne...Halse, Taunton

Hancock, T....Staplefield Common, Crawley, Sussex.
Hand, James... Ludlow, Shropshire

+Handley, Maj. Benj....Folkingham, Lincolnshire
Handy, Edward...Sireford, Cheltenham

Hanmer, Col. H....Stockgrove, Leighton Buzzard
Hanmer, Sir J.,bt., M.P...Bettisfield Pk.,Whitchurch
Hannam, Charles... Northbourne Court, Deal
Hannam, Henry J....Burcote, Abingdon

Harbin, George... Newton House, Yeovil

+Harcourt, G. Granville, M.P.... Nuneham Pk.,Oxford
Harcourt, Admiral Octavius. ..Swinton Park, Bedale
+Hardacre, Richard... Hellifield, Leeds

Hardcastle, J. A., M.P.... Writtle

+Hardeastle, Jonathan...Blidworth Dale, Mansfield
Harding, Egerton W....Old Springs, Market Drayton
Harding, George. ..Durweston, Blandford, Dorset
+Harding, John...Dursley, Gloucestershire
Harding, James... Waterson, Dorchester, Dorsetshire
Harding,S. T....Stinsford Farm, Dorchester, Dorset
Harding, Wm. C.... Lower Winchendon, Aylesbury
Hardinge, Edm....Bounds Park, Tonbridge Wells
Hardwick, Alfred...Hangleton, Shoreham

Hardy, James. ..Jaques Hall, Manningtree

Hardy, John,,..Dunstall Hal], Burton-on-Trent

XLVI

+Hardy,W. H.C....Letheringsett Hall, Holt, Norfolk
Hare, Humphrey John...Docking Hall, Norfolk
Hare, Joseph... Wilton Farm, Beaconsfield

+Hare, Sir J., Bart....12, Pall Mall East, S.W.
Hare, Sir Thos., Bart....Downham Market, Norfolk
Harewood, Earl of... Harewood House, Leeds
+Harford, J. B....Stoke House, Stoke Bishop, Bristol
+Harford, John Scandrett... Blaize Castle, Bristol
Harford, W....Barley Wood, Wrington, Bristol
Harker, James...Tibshelf, Alfreton

Harker, Rev. Wm.... Vicarage, Pulloxhill, Ampthill
Harkes, William...Lostock, Knutsford

Harland, W.C....Sutton Hall, York

+;Harman, Hon. L. K.... Ballymena, Ireland
Harper, Latimer. ..Chilton Cottage, Hungerford
Harries, Francis, jun....Cruckton Hall, Shrewsbury
Harrington, Earl of... lvaston Castle, Derbyshire
Harris, James...Long Sutton, Odiham

Harris, John...Springtield, Bedford

+Harris, Lord. ..Belmont, Faversham

Harris, Richard...Wootton Grange, Northampton
Harrison, John...Summerlands, Kendal

Harrison, J.,jun...Snelston Hall, Ashbourne, Derbys.
Harrison, J., jun... .Heaton Norris, Stockport
Harrison, J. T...Frocester Court, Stonehouse, Glouc.
+Harrison, Richard... Wolverton, Stony Stratford
Harrison, Rev. R. J....Carr Howell, Montgomery
Harrison, Rey. J. H....Bugbrooke Rectory, Weedon
Harrison, William H....Oxendon, Northamptonsh.
Harrowby, Earl of... Norton Ho., Campden, Glouces.
Hart, Henry P....Beddingham, Lewes

Hart, John George. . .Stowmarket

Hart, Thomas...Ascott, Leighton Buzzard

Harter, Rev. G. G....Cranfield, Newport Pagnell
+Harter, Jas. Collier...Broughton Hall, Manchester
Hartley, Gilferd Wm,...Rose Hill, Whitehaven
Hartshorn, Thomas...Silkmore House, Stafford
Harvey, Chas. W....Royal Bank Buildings,Liverpool
Harvey, Edw. N.,..Mount Ho., Hythe, Southampton
Harvey, Matthew...Balderton, Newark, Notts
+Harvey, Richard...Greenaway, Torquay

Haslam, Charles. ..Basingstoke

Haslar, Richard. ..Aldingbourne, Chichester
Hastings, John...Longham, East Dereham

Hassall, Wm....Babney, Whitchurch, Silop
Hatfield, Chas. Taddy...Hartsdown House, Margate
Hatfield, Thomas...St. Martin’s, Stamford

Haveis, William...Bacon’s Farm, Mountnessing
Harward, John. ..Chaddes!ey Corbet, Kidderminster
Haward, R....Melis Hill, Halesworth

Hawarden, Viscount...Dundrum Castle, Cashel
Hawkesley, Archibald...Englefield Green, Surrey
+Hawkesworth, R.S...Forest, Mountrath, Ireland
Hawkins, H. M....Tredunnock, Usk, Monmouthsh.
7Hawkins,T....Smallbridge, Bures St. Mary, Suffolk
Hawks, George...Gateshead Iron Works, Gateshead
Hawthorn, W....BenwellCuttage, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Hay, C. Anderson...17, York Ter., Regent's Pk., W.
Hay, G. W....Sudbury, Derbyshire.

Hay, J.... Bishopthorpe, Great Grimsby

Haydon, Samuel...Guildford

Hayes, Henry...Stamford

Hayes, John Higson,..Frodsham

List of Members of the

Hayne, John. ..24, Gloucester Sq., Hyde Park, W.
Hayne, Col, Richard...

Hayter, Tom John... West Woodgates, Salisbury
Hayward, H.S,...Folkington, Willingdon, Sussex
Hayward, Chas....Dartmouth Granye, Dartmouth
Hayward, J. Curtis...Quedyeley House, Gloucester
Haywood, Henry...Blakemere House, Hereford
Hazlerigg, SirA.Grey, Bt....Noseley Hall, Leicester
Head, William Alston...East Grinstead

Headlam, Morley... Whorlton, Darlington

+Heale, H. Newton...Highfield, Hemel Hempstead
Healey, Edward Charles...163, Strand, W.C.
Heaps, Christopher... Leeds

Heard, Wm....St. Margaret’s, Ware

Heasman, Alfred...Angmering, Arundel .——-
Heath, Douglas D....Kitlands, Dorking

Heath, R....Hefferstone, Weaversham, Northwich
+Heathcote, Capt. Eustace. ..Blanshard, Lyndhurst
+Heathcote, J. M....Connington Cas., Stilton, Hunts.
Heathcote, Richard...Bayterby, Atherstone

Heaton, Thomas...Alton, Cheadle

Heaword, Joseph... Wood Villa, Reddish, Stockport
Hegan, Joseph... Liverpool :
Hellier, Thos. Shaw...Rodbaston Hall, Penkridge
+Hellyer, G. W. M....India

Helps, Richard...1, Barton Street, Gloucester
Helyar, Wm. Hawker. ..26, Manchester Sq., W.C.
Hemming, Wm... .Coldicott, Moreton-in-the-Marsh
+Hempson, John A....Erwarton Hall, Ipswich
+Hemsley, John...Shelton, Newark, Notts
Henderson, John...Felderland, Sandwich

Hendy, James...Trenouth, Grampound

Heneage, Geo. H. Walker...Compton Basset, Calne
+Henley, Rt. Hon. J. W., M.P.,..Waterperry, Oxon
Henly, T. L....Calne, Wilts

Henn, T. Rice...Paradise House, Kildysart, Clare
+Henning, James...Wolveton, Dorchester, Dorset
Henning, Wm. L,...Frome Ho., Dorchester, Dorset
Henry, Frederick H.... Lodge Park, Straffan, Ireland
Henry, Capt. James... Blackdown House, Petworth
Henton, Samuel...7, Bridge Street, Lambeth, S.
Hepworth, Joshua...Rogerthorp, Pontefract
+Herbert, John Maurice...Roeklands, Ross

Hercy, John...Cruchfield House, Maidenhead
Herrick, Wm. Perry... Beau Manor Park, Loughboro”
+Herries, Lord...Eveningham Park, Pocklington
Hersee, Dennett...Wepham, Chichester
+Hertefeld, The Baron de... Liebenberg, Berlin
+Heseltine, E....Biackheath Park, Kent

+Hester, G. P....Town Clerk’s Office, Oxford
Hetherington, Robt.... Manor Ho., Ropley, Alresford
Hewer, John E., jun....Vern House, Hereford
Hewer, William...Hill Farm, Northleach

Hewer, Wm....Sevenhampton, Highworth, Wilts
Hews, R.S....

Hext, Thomas... Trerarren, St. Austell
+Heytesbury, Lord...Ileytesbury, Wilts
+Heywood, Sir Benj., Bt....Claremont, Manchester
+Heywood, J....26, Palace Gardens, Kensington, W.
Heywood, Wm. H....Dunham Massey, Altrincham
+Hibbert, John... Braywick Lodge, Maidenhead
+Hibbert, Washington... Bilton Grange, Rugby
Hickin, John,,, Bourton, Rugby

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Hicks, Leonard...Paddock Lodge, Kentish Town
Hickman, Capt. W. T.... Woodlands, Welling, Kent
+Hicks, William G....Holstead, Sevenoaks
Hickson, Richard...Hougham, Grantham
Higginbotham, Samuel. ..Castlemilk, Glasgow
Higgins, H....Woolaston Grange, Lydney,Gloucest.
Higgins, ‘Vhos....Lower Binton, Stratford-on-Avon
Higgins, Wm. B. Cole...Pict’s Hill, Bedford
+Higginson, Edmand...Saltmarsh, Bromyard
Hilder, John...Sandhurst, Kent

Hill, Lord Edwin. ..Norwood Park, Southwell, Notts
Hill, Charles... West Hoathley, East Grimstead
Hill, Hon. T. H. Noel... Berrington, Shrewsbury
Hill, Col. C. J....Cotgrave Place, Nottingham
Hill, Rev. Copinger. . .Buxhall, Stowmarket

Hill, Rev. J....The Citadel, Hawkston, Shrewsbury
Hill, Richard. ..Golding Hal], Shrewsbury
Hillman, John, jun....Stoneham, Lewes

Hilton, George...South Hanningfield, Chelmsford
Hilton, Henry...Sole St. Hou., Selling, Faversham
Hilton, Stephen Musgrave...Brambling, Wingham
Hilton, Capt. Thos....Nackington Ho., Canterbury
Hincks, T. C....Brackenboro’, Thirsk

+Hinde, J. H....Acton House, Felton, Northumb,
Hippisley, John... Lamborne Place, Hungerford
+Hipwell, G. M....Cheam, Surrey

Hitch, Saml., M.D... .Sandywell Park, Cheltenham
Hitcheock, H....Chitterne, All Saints, Heytesbury
Hitchings, Frederick. ..Havant, Hants

Hitchman, John, M.D....Mickleover, Derby
Hobbs, Charles...Maisey Hampton, Cricklade
Hobbs, William...Derward’s Hall, Bocking, Essex
Hobson, J....Kilkea, Castle Dermot, Kildare
Hobson, John George...Long Sutton

Hocking, John...Bude, Cornwall

Hodding, Matthias Thos... .Salisbury

Hodge, Henry...St. Levan, Penzance

Hodgkinson, Enoch. ..Morton Grange, Retford
Hodgkinson, Rev. G. C....The Lodge, Louth
Hodgkinson, Richard. ..Osberton Grange, Worksop
Hodgson, Isaac Seott...Sodyll Hall, Ruabon _
+Hodgson, William. ..Gilston Park, Herts
Hodgson, William. ..Grimston, Tadcaster
Hoggins, Thomas. ..Trafford Lodge, Chester

Holbech, Rev. Chas. Wm.... Farnborough, Banbury

Holborow, Daniel... Knockdown, Tetbury
Holcombe, Rev.G. F....Sherwood Lodge, Nottingham
Holding, Henry...Fardington, Alton

Hole, James... Knowle, Dunster, Somersetshire
Hole, Williain...Hannaford, Barnstaple

Holland, Dr. Chas....Lyncroft House, Lichfield
Holland, C....Madeley Pk. Farm, Neweastle, Staffs.
Holland,S., jun....Plas y Penrhyn, Port Madoc,Carn.
Holliday, James. ..Lord Street, Liverpool

Hollier, Amos...Lindley Grange, Hinckley
7Hollist, Hasler... Lodsworth, Petworth

Holloway, Horatio... Marchwood, Southampton
Holloway, Thos....Tittenhurst Lodge, Sunninghill
+Holloweg, M. de B....Runorva, Nakel, Prussia
Holmes, George...Brooke Lodge, Norwich

Holmes, Rev. John...Brooke Hall, Norwich
Holmes, J....Prospect Place, Globe Lane, Norwich

XLVII

Holroyd, Fred.... Knowles Fixby, Huddersfield
Holton, George... Wiston, Sudbury

Home, James R....Church Stretton, Salop

Home, ‘Thomas, jun....Moreton-in-the-Marsh
Homer, John G.,..Martinstown, Dorchester

+Hony, Rev. P. F....25, Old Bond Street, W.
Honywood, William... e
+Hood, Alex. A....St. Audries, Bicknoller, Taunton
Hood, Hon. Col. A. N...Cumberland Lodge, Windsor
Hooper, Geo...Cottington Court, Deal

Hope, Joseph... Whoof House, Carlisle

Hope, Edwardes Thos. IMen,...Moore Park, Ludlow
Hope, Sam. Pierce...Bettley Hall, Newcastle, Staff.
+Hopkins, Henry...Burnside, Van Diemen’s Land
Hopkins, John... Tidmarsh House, Reading
Hopkinson, John...Manton, Worksop

Hopper, W. Cutlbert...Beaumont Castle, Lancaster
Hopton, Rev. John. ..Canon-Frome Court, Ledbury
Hopton, Rev. Wm. P....Bishop's Frome, Bromyard
+Horley, Thomas, jun....The Fosse, Leamington
+Hornby, Rev. Robt... .Lythwood Hall, Shrewsbury
Hornby, Rev. W....St. Michael’s Vicarage, Garstang
Hornby, Capt. W., R.N....Knowsley Cott.,Prescott
Horncastle, J.,jun....Edwinstowe, Ollerton
+Horner, James B....Lincoln

Homer, Rev. John...Mells Park, Frome, Somerset
Horner, Wm., Hamel’s Farm, Puckeridge, Ware
Horniblow, William T....Ripple, Tewkesbury
Hornsby, Richard...Spittle Gate, Grantham
Hornsby, Richard, jun...Spittle Gate, Grantham
Hornyold, J. V....Blackmore Park, Upton-on-Severn
Horsfall, Thos.... Burley Hall, Otley

Horton, Richard...Audley End, Saffron Walden
Horton, Thomas. ..Harnage Grange, Cresage, Salop
+Horton, Wm. Thomas...Emlesay Kirk, Skipton
Horwood, Matthew...2, Hatton Ct., Threadneedle St.
+Hoskins, Thos... .Haselbury, Crewkerne, Somerset.
+Hoskins, William.... North Perrott, Crewkerne
+Houblon, J. A.,..Hallingbury Pl., Bishop’s Stortfd.
+Houblon, Richard Archer. ..Coopersale, Epping
Howard, Hon. C. W. G., M.P....Brampton
+Howard, Charles... Biddenham, Bedford

+Howard, Henry...Greystoke Castle, Penrith
+Howard, Hon. James...Hazelby, Newbury
+Howard, James... Bedford

Howard, Robert S....Broughton Hall, Wrexham
Howard, Wm.... Windsor Terrace, Taunton
Howden, Alexander. ..Murston Court, Pembridge
Howell, John... Ewen, Cirencester

Howes, E., M.P....Morningthorpe, Long Stratton
Howlett, John...Bowthorpe Hall, Norwich
+Hubback, Joseph. . .Liverpool

+Hubbard, Wm. Egerton...St, Leonard’s, Horsham
Hubbersty, Rey.N.. . Eastwell Hall, Melton Mowbray
Hubie, Robert... Barlby Grove, Selby

Hudson, John...Castleacre Lodge, Brandon
+Hudson, T. Moore...Castleacre, Brandon

Hudson, Thos..,.Adderley, Market Drayton
Huggup, James... West Sleekburn, Morpeth
Hughes, Alfred. ..Thorness, W. Cowes, Isle of Wight
+Hughes, H.R... Kinmel Pk., St. Asaph’s, Denbighs.
+Hughes, Hugh... Woodgate, Danehill, Uckfield

XLVIIT

Hughes, Hugh Robt....Ystrade, Denbish.

Hughes, Samuel. ..14, Park St., Westminster, S.W.

Hulme, J. H...Cliff House, Curbar, Baslow, Derbysh.

Hulme, W....Pembroke Bank, Pembroke, S. Wales
» tHulse, Charles. ..Hall Grove, Bagshot

Humberston, P.S., M.P....Mollington, Chester

Humble, William Turner...Sealand, Chester

Humfry, Wm....Oak Ash, Chaddleworth, Wantage

Humphreys, H....leau Manor Pk. Farm, Loughboro’

Humphries, E....Pershore

Humphries, John...Twining, Tewkesbury

+Hunt, G....Frenchwood, Preston, Lancashire

Hunt, John...Shirley, Southampton

Hunt, John...Rainham, Rougham, Norfolk

Hunt, Joseph. ..Addlethorpe House, Boston

Hunt, Thomas...Thornington, Coldstream

Hunt, William... Leicester

Hunter, Hen. Launoy...Beech Hill, Reading

Hunstman, Benjamin... West Retford, Notts

Hurle, Joseph Cooke...Brislington, Bath

Hurlston, Wm... .Heathcote, Wasperton, Warwicksh.

Hurrell, William...Newton, Cambridge,

Hurt, Francis. ..Alderwasley, Belper

+Huskinson, Thos,...Epperstone, Southwell, Notts

Hussey, Edward...Scotney Castle, Lamberhurst

Hussey, Phineas Fowke...Wyrley Grove, Walsall

Hussey, Rich. Hussey...Upwood, Huntingdon

Hussey, T....Steed Farm, Skirmett, High Wycombe

Hussey, Thomas...Alphington, Exeter

Hutchings, Rey. R. S.... Monkton Wyld, Charmouth

+Hutchison, John...Monyruy, Peterhead, N. B.

Hutchinson,Hon. Col. H.K...Weston Ho.,Towcester

Hutley, Jonathan...Rivenhall Hall, Witham

Hutt, John... Water Eaton, Oxford .

Hutton, Thomas...Upton Gray, Odiham

Hutton, Timothy...Clifton Castle, Bedale

Hutton, William...Gate Burton, Gainsborough

Huxtable, Rev. A....Sutton Waldron, Blandford

+Huyshe, Rey. J....Clysthydon Rectory, Collumpton

Hyde, Francis Colville... Lyndale, Feversham‘

Hyett, John Edw....Haydon’s Elm, Cheltenham

Hyett, W.H....Painswick, Gloucestershire ,

Up

Ide, John... West Wittering, Chichester

Ilbert, W. Roope... Hoswell Ho.,Kingsbridge, Devon
Iles, Daniel...Fairford Retreat, Fairford

+lles, Francis... Barnoldby-le-Beck, Grimsby

Iles, John... Binbrook Hill, Market Rasen

Inge, Chas. Henry...Whittington Hurst, Lichfield
Inge, Col. Wm....Thorpe, Tamworth

Ingham, Robert... Westor, South Shields

Ingram, Hugh...Steyning, Hurstpierpoint

Ingram, Hugo F. M....Hoareross, Rugeley, Staffords.
Ingram, John A...Codford St. Peter, Warminster
tIngram, Joseph... Wigan

Ingram, William...Armley, Leeds

Insole, James Harvey...Ely Court, Llandaff
+Ireland, J, Ireland Clayfield...Brislington, Bristol

List of Members of the

Treland, John Smith. ..Forthampton, Tewkesbury
Isaacson, John. ..Clare, Suffolk

Tsaacson, Wm. Parr. ..Newmarket

Isham, Sir C. E., Bart... Lamport Hall, Northampton
Isham, Rev. R.... Lamport Rectory, Northampton
Isherwood, A. Salisbury... Marple Hall, Stock port
Ives, Capt. Ferdinand. .St. Catherine’s Hill, Norwich
Izon, John B,...Walsgrave-on-Sowe, Coventry

J.

Jackson, Matthew... Bilsthorpe, Newark, Notts
Jackson, Daniel. ..Chadwell Place, Grays, Essex
Jackson, P. R...Blackbrook, Gresmont, Hereford
Jackson, Richard...Noctorum, Birkenhead
Jackson, Thomas.,.Eltham Park, Kent

7Jackson, William...Oak Bank, Carlisle

Jackson, Wm. Kay...Barbot Hall, Rotherham
Jacson, Chas. Roger...Barton, Preston, Lancashire
Jaggard, Joseph...Leek Wooton, Warwick

James, Edward...Wylam Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
James, Isaac...Tivoli, Cheltenham

James, Jas.... North Sodston, Narbeth, Pembroksh.
James, James William...Mappowder, Blandford
James, J. A... Bridge Touro Farm, Stratford-on-Avon
James, Richard...High Street, Haverfordwest
James, Richard. .. Llanrwst

James, 'T....Otterburn Tower, Newcastle-on-Tyne
James, Sir Walter C., Bt....Betteshanger, Sandwich
+James, Capt. Wm, E....Barrock Lodge, Carlisle
{Jarrett, John...Camerton House, Bath

Jarvis, Sir R....Cove Cottage, Ventnor, Isle of Wight
Jarvis, T. A....HigherBolberry, Kingsbridge, Devon
+Jay, John...46, West Seventeenth St., New York
Jecks, Charles...Thorpe, Norwich

Jefferson, Henry...Rothersyke, Whitehaven
Jefferson, Rey. J. Dunnington. . Thicket Priory, York
+Jefferson, Robert...Preston Hows, Whitehaven
Jefferys, N. N...Hollybrook Ho., Shirley, Southamp.
Jeggo, Thos, B....Mounts, Great Saling, Braintree
Jekyll, J....Carholme Terrace, Newland, Lincoln
Jekyll, Edw. J., jun....Bramley House, Guildford
Jenkins, Richard David,..The Priory, Cardigan
Jenkinson, Joseph. ..Millwick, Stone, Staffordshire
Jenner, Montague Herhert...Chislehurst, Kent
Jennings, Richard. ..Carmarthen

Jervis, Hon. C. Swinfen,..Aston Park, Staffordsh.
+Jervoise, F. E. J....Herriard Park, Basingstoke
Jessop, Joseph...Grove Farm, Chiswick

Jobez, Charles...17, Boulevard Madeleine, Paris
Jobling, Edward...Hill Top Cottage, Carlisle
Johnson, A. H....Manor House, Acton, Middlesex
Johnson, A. H., jun....Hanger Hill Farm, Ealing
Johnson, Charles W....155, Fenchurch Street, E.C.
Johnson, Cuthbert Wm,...Waldronhurst, Croydon
Johnson, Iidward...The Deanery, Chester-le-Street
Johnson, Francis Dixon...Apleyheads, Durham
+Johnson, George...Blaco Hill, Retford, Notts
+Johnson, Rev. H. L....Binderton Ho., Chichester
Johnson, Rey. P....Wimborthy, Chumleigh, Deyon

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Johnson, T. C....Chevet, Wakefield

Johnson, Thomas...Halton Grange, Runcorn
Johnson, Thomas... The Hermitage, Frodsham
Johnson, Thomas... Whittlesea, Cambridgeshire
Johnson, Walter... Trench Hall, Gateshead
Johnson, Walter F.... Leicester

Johnston, J, Lindsay...Crondall, Farnham, Surrey
+Johnstone, Rev. George...Broughton, Hunts
+Johnstone, J. C. H....Hardwick Hall, Durham
Jollands, William D....Buxshalls, Lindfield, Sussex
Jolliffe, SirW.G. H., Bt., M.P...Heath Ho., Petersfield
Jonas, John Carter...3, St. Mary Street, Cambridge
Jonas, Samuel. ..Chrishall Grange, Saffron Walden
tJones, David, M.P..,..Pantylas, Carmarthen

Jones, Edward...6, York Crescent, Clifton, Bristol
Jones, Fred. R., jun....County Court, Huddersfield
Jones, George. ..Stareton, Kenilworth

Jones, George... Whiston Lodge, Penkridge

Jones, Harvey Bowen...49, Montague Square, W.
Jones, H. P....Portway House, Warminster
Jones, James Cove...Loxley, Warwick

+Jones, John... Blaeno’s, Llandovery, S.W.

Jones, John... West Keal Hall, Spilsby

Jones, John...Bryn Adda, Dolgelly

tJones, J. E....Springfield, Braunton, Hereford
Jones, J.O....Dollycorsllwyn, Cemmes, Shrewsbury
Jones, Richard...Town Ho., Barthomley, Crewe
Jones, R. P....The Hermitage, Whitchurch, Salop
+Jones, Sir W., Bt... .Cranmer Hall, Fakenham
+Jones, Wm....Harrington, Shiffnall

Jones, W. Hope...Hooton Farm, Sutton, Cheshire
Jones, W. B....Kilgariff, Clonakilty, Ireland
Jordan, Francis. ..Eastburn, Driffield

Jordan, Wm....Charlton Kings, Cheltenham
Jowett, Rev. J. F.... Kingston, Bagpuze, Abingdon
Jowitt, Christopher. ..Palterton, Chesterfield
+Justice, Henry...Hinstock, Market Drayton

K.
+Karslake, Rev. W. H.....Mesham, Southmolton
+Kay, J. R....Bass Lane House, Bury, Lancashire
Kay, R....Foreett Valey, Aldborough, Darlington
Kearsey, Charles. ..Glewstone, Ross
Keary, H. W....Longlands, Holkham, Norfolk
Keeling, Charles. ..Congreve, Penkridge
Keeling, Chas. R....Yew Tree Farm, Penkridge
Keen, Thomas...Croydon
Keene, Rev. C. E. R....Swincombe Ho., Nettlebed
Keep, Richard...Aldermaston, Reading
Kekewich, S. Trelawli, M.P....Peamore, Exeter
Kelham, Robert Kelham...Bleasby, Southwell
Kell, William. ..Gateshead
7Kelsall, H., jun....Dryburgh Abbey, Roxburghsh.
+Kemble, Horatio. ..Potter’s Bar, Barnet, Herts
+Kemble, Thomas...Legatts, Hatfield, Herts
Kemp, Jesse...Thurlby Grange, Alford
Kendrich, Edward... Wreford, Lichfield
7Kennaway, Sir John, Bt....Escot, Honiton
Kennedy, Rt. Hon. T. F....Dalquharum Castle, N.B.
Kennedy, Primrose W....Drumellan, Ayr
Kenrich, George... Thurgarton Hill, Southwell
+Kensington, Edward Thomas. ..Dartmouth
+Kerrich, John...Geldeston Hall, Beccles

VOL. XXII,

XLIX

Kerry, the Knt. of (P. Fitzgerald)... Kerry

Kersey, Clement.... Whitton, Ipswich

Kersey, James...Farlton Farm, Cirencester
+Kesterton, Thomas...Sutton, Surrey

Kett, George Samuel. ..Brook House, Norwich
+Kettle,Geo.Mackenzie...Dallicott Ho.,Bridgenorth
Key, Sir Kingsmill Grove, Bt... .95, Newgate St.,City
Keyes, Hen. James...Ashingdon, Rochford, Essex
+Keyworth, Henry Joseph. ..78, Lombard Street
+Keyworth, J. R. Haldenby, .Greestone Ho., Lincol.
Kibble, Thomas...Green Trees, Tunbridge

Kiddle, F. G....Moreton, Dorchester

Killick, Arthur...Deepdene Park Farm, Dorking
Kindersley, E. Leigh. ..Syward Lodge, Dorchester
+King, C....North Lodge Farm, Potter's Bar, Barnet
King, George...Saffron Walden

King, Rev. James...Longfield Court, Dartford
King, J. K., M.P...Staunton Park, Leominster
King, J. L....Thorp Abbots, Scole Inn, Norfolk
King, John G....Beedon, Newbury

King, Rev. J. Meyers. ..Cutcombe Vicarage, Dunster
King, Hon. J. P. L., M.P.... Woburn Pk., Chertsey
King, Richard King Meade...Walford, Taunton
Kiny, R. Meade...Pyrland Hall, Taunton

King, Stephen...Old Hayward, Hungerford

King, William... Barton, Bury St. Edmund’s

King, W. C.... Warfield Hall, Bracknell

Kingdon, Rey. S. N....BridgeruleVicar., Holsworthy
Kingdon, Samuel... Layrick, Thorverton

Kingsby, Thomas. ..Boarscroft, Tring ~
+Kingscote, Capt. F., R.N., M.P...Kinyscote, Glouc.
7Kingscote, Thomas. ..Kingscote, Tetbury
Kingsford, John. ..Esher, Surrey

Kingsmill, Wm....Sydmonton Park, Newbury
Kinnaird, Lord. ..Rossie Priory, Inchture, Perthshire
+Kirk, R....Gale Bank, Leybourne, Wensleydale
Kirkaldy, Rt. Hon. Viscount... Windsor

Kirkby, Thomas. ..Cuxwold, Caistor

Kirkham, John...Handleby, Spilsby

Kirkland, Sir John, Bt....17, Whitehall Place, S.W.
Kirkpatrick, Capt....Monk’s Horton, Hythe
Kitson, James... Leeds

Kitson, William. ..Torquay

Knatchbull, Rev. W...Cholderton Lodge, Amesbury
+Knatchbull, Wm....Babington, Frome, Somersets.
Knight, A. J. R. B.... Downton Castle, Leintwardine
Knight, Edward...Chawton House, Alton

+Knight, E....High Leadon, Newent, Gloucestersh.
Knight, John...,Wideness, Warrington

Knight, John...Forthampton, Tewkesbury

Knight, Thomas...Norlington, Lewes

Knightley, Sir C., Bt., M.P...Fawsley Pk., Daventry
Knighton, Sir W., Bt... Blendworth Ldg., Horndean
Knollys, J. E....Fitzhead Court, Taunton

Knollys, Gen....Blount’s Court, Henley, Oxon
Knowles, James. ..Wetherby

Knox, Octavius Newry. ..South Collingham, Newark
Kynnersley, J. C.S....Handsworth, Birmingham
Kyrke, Rich. V....Stansby Lodge, Wrexham

L.

Lacey, Wm. Charles, .. Bestwell House, Wareham
Lake, James... Newlands, Teynham, Sittingbourne

L List of Members of the

Lake, Robert... Milton, Canterbury

Lakeman, John,..Costislost, Bodmin

Lakin, Henry... Link End, Malvern

+Lamb, William...Hay Carr, Ellel, Lancaster
Lambe, John,..Church Bank, Bowdon, Manchester
+Lambert, Chas....Sunk Island, Otteringham, Hull
Lambert, Rob. de..Common Head, Staveley, Kendal
Lambert, Wm. Chas....Misterton, Crewkerne
+Lamothe, Frederick J. D....Ramsey, Isle of Man
Lander, Thomas Eaton...The Innage, Shiffnall
+Landor, H. Eyres... Warwick

Lane, John.., Barton Mills, Cirencester

Lane, Joln...Broom Court, Alcester

yLane, Wiiliam... Broadfield, Northleach

Langdale, Hon.C., . Houghton Hall, Market Weighton
Langdale, Marmaduke R...Garston House, Godstone
Langdon, William...Ashford House, Barnstaple
Langham, Herbert. .Cottesbrooke, Northampton
Langlands, John Charles...Bewick, Alnwick
+Langton, W. H. P. Gore.,.Newton Park, Bath
+Lascelles, Hon. G, E.,.Moor Hill, Harewood, Leeds
La Touche, Col. David...Marlay, Dublin

Latham, Geo. William... Bradwall Hall, Sandbach
Lauwarne, Nicholas. ..St. John’s Street, Hereford
Lauder, Joseph...Burton, Christchurch

Laverach, Samuel S....Redness Hall, Goole

j+Law, Rev. R. V.,..Christian Malford, Chippenham
Lawes, J. Bennet. . Rothamsted Park, St. Albans
Lawford, Edward... «Linslade, Leighton Buzzard
Lawford, Thomas, jun....London, Canada West
tLawley, Hon. & Rev.S. W...Escrick Rectory, York
Lawrence, Charles. ..Cirencester

Lawrence, J....Great House, Churchdown, Gloucest.
Lawrence, Thomas,..Churchdown, Gloucester
jLawrie, Andrew... Mount Mascal, North Cray
+Lawson, C...George the Fourth Bridge, Edinburgh
Lawson, Chas., jun...34, George Square, Edinburgh
Lawson, E...Redesdale Cottage, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Lawson, Sir Wm., Bart.. -. Brough Hall, Catterick
Lay, Rey. John Ward...Hele, Ashburton

Lay, John W...3, Savage Gardens, Tower Hill, E.C.
Laycock, Joseph... Lints Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Layton, R. Marton,..Thomey Abbey, Peterborongin
Lea, Joseph...Grove Mount, Davenham

Lea, Joseph... Kinderton Hall, Middlewick

Lea, Thomas,.. Brown Edge, Brereton, Congleton
Leach, Henry...Corston, Pembroke

Leach, John..,Ivy Tower, Tenby

Leader, Nicholas,.,Dromagh, Bonteen, Ireland
Leather, George... Knostrop, Leeds

Leaver, Francis... Longnor Hall, Penkridge
Ledger, Reuben..Grove House, W. Derby, Liverpool
Lee, Charles..,Grantley Hall, Ripon

Lee, Edward., .Stocksfield Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Lee, Joseph... Dilston, Hexham

Lee, Joseph... Redbrook, Whitchurch, Shropshire
Lee, Daniel Jas....4, Bedford Row, Gray’s Inn, W.C.
Lee, J. Lee... Dillington House, Ilminster

Lee, Thomas...Great Barr, Birmingham

Leech, John... Wall Hill, Leek

Leedham, William... Andover

Leeds, Henry...Stibbington, Wansford, Northampt,.
+Leeds, Robt.,.. West Lexham, Litecham, Norfolk

Leeke, R.,.. Longford Hall, Newport, Shropshire
Lees, John... Reigate

* Leese, Benjamin... Eastling, Faversham
Legard, George... Easthorpe Hall, Malton
Legard, Capt. J. A....Kirby Misperton, Yorkshire
Legerton, John Stock,..Shalford, Braintree
Legg, Thomas,.,Burton Bradstock, Bridport
Leggatt, H. B....Brownwich, Titchfield
Leggatt, S. B....Crofton, Titchfield
Legge, Benj....Court Ho., Litton Cheney, Dorchester
Legh, G. Cornwall, M.P..,.High Leigh, Warrington
Leigh, C. H.... Pontypool Park, Montgomeryshire
Leigh, John Shaw. .. The Hoo, Luton
Leigh, W., jun.. .. Woodchester Park, Gloucestershire
Leighton, Sir Baldwin, Bart., ..Loton, Shrewsbury
Leir, Rev. W.M.,..Ditcheet Rectory, Castle Cary
+Leith, Sir A...Glenkindie, Iverkindie, Aberdeen
+Lempriere, Capt. G. O....Pelham Place, Alton
+Lennard, Sir T. B....Belhus Ho., Avely, Romford
Leonard, C...Castle Camps, Linton, Cambridgeshire
Leonard, Rev. F. B....Brook Ho., Newport, Monm.
Leslie, Charles Powell, ..Glasslough, Ireland
Lethbridge, Ambrose Goddard. ..Bank, Taunton
Lewes, Col. John... Lianliar, Talsarn, Carmarthen
Lewes, Rev. Thomas... Taynton, Burford, Oxon
Lewis, David, ..Stradey, Llanelly, Carmarthen ,
Lewis, G.... Audley, Newcastle-under-Lyne
Lewis, Edward. ..Pickhill Hall Farm, Wrexham
Lewis, I. H....Gallants Ct., East Farleigh, Maidstone
Lewis, J. L. G. R....Henllan, Narberth, Pembroke
Lewis, S....Audley, Newcastle-under-Lyne
Lewis, Thomas...Norchard, Pembroke
Lewis, W. H....Clynfiew, Newcastle Emlyn, Carm,
Lewis, Wyndham W..,,Llanishew House, Cardiff
Ley, John Henry... Trehill, Exeter

. Leyshon, Robert..,Island Farm, Bridgend

Lichfield, Coventry II....Golder Farm, Tetsworth
Lichfield, Earl of...Shugborough, Staffordshire
Lidbetter, Richard... Bramber, Steyning

Lilley, James... Bassingbourn, Royston

Lilly, Wm. Mence...Besley Hall, Redditch
Linaker, P....Norton Hill, Preston Brook, Cheshire
Lindley, Urban,..Radmanthwaite House, Mansfield
Lindsay, Hugh H.... West Dean House, Chichester
Lindsell, Lieut.-Col... Fairfield House, Biggleswade
+Linton, Rev. J....Hemingford Ho., St. lves, Hunts
Lintott, Wm....Holmbush Slinfold, Horsham
Linzee, Robert G.,..Jermyns, Romsey

Litchfield, John...Epperstone, Nottingham

Little, Wm. H.,..Llanvair Grange, Abergavenny
Littledale, Harold,..Liscard, Liverpool

Littledale, Henry... Cardington, Bedford

Llewellin, R.,.Tregwynt, Fishguard, Pembrokesh.
Llewellyn, W....Courtcolman, Bridgend, S.W,
Llewelyn, J. D...Pullengare, Swansea

Lloyd, Edw. Harvey.. Aston Hall, Oswestry

Lloyd, J. A.,..Leaton Knolls, Shrewsbury

Lloyd, John... Belsize, Hampstead

Lloyd, Llewellyn F....Nannerch Hall, Mold

Lloyd, Rev. Thos.... Rectory, Christleton, Chester
Lloyd, William Butler.. -Monkmoor, Shrewsbury
Loader, J....Firgrove Farm...Whitchurch, Hants
Lobb, Geo.,jun....Lawhitton, Launceston, Cornwall

Royal Agricultural Society of England. LI

Lock, George, ..Instow Barton, Barnstaple
Locker, Wm. J... Lillington House, Stafford
Lockwood, Joshua. ..Hawley House, Farnborough
TLocock, Sir C., Bt..,. Tunbridge Wells
+Locock, Edmund,..South Elkington, Louth
+Locock, Fred... .26, Hertford Street, May Fair, W.
Loder, Robert... The High Beeches, Crawley
Logan, J... Maindee House, Newport, Monmouthsh.
Long, Alexander Wearing,...Mint Cottage, Kendal
Long, Daniel... Waddon, Gloucester
Long, H. Laws... Hampton Lodge, Farnham, Surrey
+Long, Kellett...Dunstan Hall, Norwich
+Long, Rich, P....Dolforgon, Newtown, Montgom.
Long, Walter. .Preshaw Ho., Bishop’s Waltham
Long, W. Jervis...Preshaw Ho., Bishop’s Waltham
+tLongbourne, W. T....4, South Square, Gray’s Inn
tLongeroft, C. J....Havant
Longeroft, C. R....Llanina, Abereyron, Cardigansh.
Longe, John...Spixworth Park, Norwich
+Loomes, Edward... Whittlesea, Cambridgeshire
Lopes, Sir Massey, Bart....Maristow, Plymouth
Loraine, Edward,..Capheaton, Newcastle-on-Tyne
+Lord, John...Elmley Park, Pershore
Lord, John, ..Hill End Farm, Chaceley, Tewkesbury
+Louch F, Wm. B....Stanchester Ho., Langport
jyLovaine, Lord...Albury Park, Guildford
Love, Peter... Northampton
Love, Samuel. .,Castle Farm, Shoreham, Sevenoaks
Loveday, John... Williamscote, Banbury
Lovell, Edwin...Dinder, Wells, Somerset
Lovell, Thomas, jun....West Haddon, Daventry
Lovett, Joseph Venables... Belmont, Chirk
Lowe, Edward...Comberford Mill, Tamworth
Lowe, John,..Ryhall, Stamford
Lowe, John,.. Whitmore House, Birmingham
Lowe, John.,.Wheelock Heath, Sandbach
Lowe, Peter... Marston, Stafford
+Lowndes, Geo. Alan... Barrington Hall, Harlow
Lowndes, W. L..,. Linley Hall, Bridgnorth, Salop

_ Lowrey, Wm....Barmoor, Berwick-on-Tweed
+Loyd, Edw., jun....Prestwick Lodge, Manchester
+Lubbock, Sir J. Wm., Bt....Mansion House Street
Luean, Earl of, ..Laleham, Staines
Lucas, George...Filby House, Great Yarmouth
+Lucas, Lieut. Richard... Edith Weston, Stamford
Lucas, Rev. W. N....Burgh, Acle
Luckham, Levi... Broadway, Weymouth
Lucy, Rey. J....Hampton Lucy, Stratford-on-Avon
Ludolfe, Henry...Headingley Lane, Leeds
Ludlow, H. G. G....Heywood House, Westbury
Lugar, Henry...Hengrave, Bury St. Edmund’s
Lund, Capt. Thos....Lovely Hall, Blackburn
Lungley, Brooke M...Peyton Hall, Boxford, Suffolk
+Lupton, Arthur...Newton Hall, Leeds
+Lushington, C. Manners...
Lutener, Thomas...Keele, Newcastle, Staffordshire
Luttrell, Rev. Alex. H. F....Minehead, Bridgewater
+Lyall, William.,.Balmakervian, Montrose, N.B,
Lyne, Charles, R.N...Newport, Monmouthshire
Lyne, Wm...,Oddington, Stow-on-the-Wold
7Lynes, G. Boulton, ..,Hackleton Ho., Northampton
+tLyon, J. W....Miserdine Park, Cirencester
Lyon, Capt. T. D., .Soundess Ho.,Henley-on-Thames

Lysley, Wm. John...Mimwood, Potter’s Bar, Herts
Lyveden, Lord... Farming Woods, Thrapstone

M.

Mabbett, John...Stinchcombe, Dursley, Gloucester
+Macclesfield, Earl of,..Sherburn Castle, Tetsworth
MacClintock, Maj. I. S...Randalstown, Antrim
MacConnell, F.,..Robgill Tower, Ecclefechan, N.B.
+MacDonald, Sir A. K.... Woolmer Lodge, Liphook
MacDouall, Col. James...Stranraer, N.B.
+MacDougall, A. H....44, Parliament Street, S.W.
+MacDowall, J. C. S.. .Sydney, New South Wales
Mace, J. Ellis... Ashford Road, Tenterden, Kent
+MacEwen, James...Clonshire, Croagh, Limerick
Machin, J. Vessey...Gateford Hall, Worksop

Mack, A.,..Livers Acle, Withington, Hereford
Mackay, Thos. Henry..,.Petham House, Canterbury
Mackie, W. Hay... Yscuborissa, Oswestry
+MacLagan, Peter... Pumpherstone, Midcalder
Maclean, Allan, M.D.,..Colchester

+Macleod, Norman,..

+MacNiven, Charles. ..Perrysfield, Oxted, Surrey
MacIntosh, David.,.Havering, Romford

MacRae, Dr. A...Brinach, Beanley, Invernesssh,
+Maddison, George Wilson... Partney, Spilsby
Maddox, John. ..Harley, Much Wenlock

Maden, Martin...Brant, Newark-on-’rent
+Madgwick, Wm., jun....Alciston, Lewes
+Mahon, H. J. P., .Strokestown House, Roscommon
Maidens, Thomas Cousins.,.Brinkhill, Spilsby
Mainwaring, C. Kiuaston,..Oteley Park, Ellesmere
+Mainwaring, Townshend...Galltfaenan, Denbigh
+Maitland, Lt.-Col. Fred. Thos... Paignton, Torquay
+Maitland, J. G.,..Surrey Villa, Lambeth, Surrey
Majendie, Ashhurst,..Castle Hedingham, Essex
Makgill, George... Winchcombe, Cheltenham
+Malcolm, Lt.-Col. G, A... .67, Sloane Street, S.W.
+ Malcolm, John...7, Great Stanhope Street, W.
Malcolm, M....Manor House, Kineton, Warwicksh,
Male, Henry,,.East Chinnock, Yeovil

Malloch, C. H..,.Court House, Cockington, Torquay
Malmesbury, Earl of,..Heron Court, Christchurch
+Maltby, Edward Harvey...G3, Albany, W.
+Manchester, Duke of... Kimbolton Castle, Hunts
+Mangles, F....Down Farm, Compton, Guildford
Mangles, George...Givendale Grange, Ripon
Mann, Henry...The Asps, Warwick

Mann, John..,Thornage, Thetford

Mannings, George, ,. Downton, Salisbury

Manning, Henry,, .251, High Holborn, W.C.
Manning, John...Orlingbury, Wellingborough
Mansel, J.C... .Longthorns, Blandford, Dorset
Mansel, Lieut.-Col...Smedmore, Corfe Castle, Dorset
Mansel, Raleigh A.,.Heathfield, Swansea
7Mansell, Sir John, Bart... Llanstephan, Carmarthen
Mansell, Thomas... Adcott Hall, Baschurch, Salop
Mapplebeck, W. B..,.6, Bull Ring, Birmingham
+Margary, Maj. A. R....Chartham Pk., E. Grinstead
Margetson, James... Manor House, Shalden, Alton
+Margetts, Charles. ..Huntingdon

Margetts, John,.,High Street, Warwick

D2

LII

Marjoribanks, E.,.Greenlands, Henley-on-Thames
Marjoribanks, D. C.,..Bushey Hall Farm, Watford
+Marjoribanks, Edward, jun....59, Strand, W.C.
Marjoribanks, Stewart, M.P.,. Bushy Grove, Watford
Markby, John Randall...9, Whitehall Place, S.W.
+Markham, Charles, jun.... Northampton

Markham, Lt.-Col. W. T....Milford Junction
Marmont, James. . Bristol

Marriott, Rev. J. P....Cottesbach, Lutterworth
+Marriott, W. M....Market Harborough

Marris, Thomas... Ulceby, Lincolnshire

Marsh, Matthew H.,M.P....Chilbury Ho.; Salisbury
Marsh, Thomas... The Heamies, Stone, Staffordshire
Marsh, Wm. Jas....Loridge, Berkeley, Gloucestersh.
+Marshall, Arthur,..Headingley, Leeds

Marshall, George Hibbert...85, Eaton Square,S.W.
+Marshall, James Garth,.,Headingley, Leeds
Marshall, John,,.Eden Lodge, Beckenham, S.E.
Marshall, John,..Riseholme Lodge, Lincoln
Marshall, H. J....Poulton Priory, Cricklade
Marshall, Wm....Bolney Place, Cuckfield, Sussex
Marsham, R., D.C.L....Merton College, Oxford
Marson, W....Acton Trussell, Penkridge

Martin, Chas. W., M.P....Leeds Castle, Maidstone
Martin, David... Wainfleet, Lincolnshire

Martin, E. Hall, jun....Barr Hill, Madeley, Staffs.
+Martin, E, Waterer...Nonsuch Park Farm, Ewell
7TMartin, Fran. P. B....Oxford and Cambridge Club
+Martin, Gilson... Thorney, Peterborough

Martin, Henry B...,Colston Basset, Bingham, Notts,
Martin, John... Barmer, Fakenham

Martin, John..,.Evershott, Dorset

Martin, Peter...Chilham, Canterbury

Martin, Robert..,Asterby, Horncastle

Martin, S. D,...3, Albion Place, Leeds

Martineau, R....Walsham-le-Willows, Bury St.Ed.’s
Masfen, R. Hanbury...Pendeford, Wolverhampton
+Mason, C. A.,..Tarrington, Ledbury, Herefordsh.
Mason, Capt. Geo.... Manor House, Yateley, Hants
Mason, Matthew...9, Portland Place, Brighton
Mason, Richard...Kiddington, Louth

Mason, T., ..Pallinsburn Cottage, Coldstream, N.B.
Mason, Col. Wm...,.Necton Hall, Swaffham

Massey, Sampson...Harkstone, Derby

Massey, Samuel... Lawton Arms, Lawton, Cheshire
Massey, Capt. H. H. G....Hazlehurst, Lymington
Master, C. L. H....Grove Lodge, Bracknell, Berks
Master, Col. Wm. C....Knole Park, Bristol

Master, Col. Thos. W. C.,..The Abbey, Cirencester
Masterman, Thos. J....Little Danby, Northallerton
Masterson, J....Collingbourn Ducis, Marlborough
Matchett, William, ..Norwich

+Matheson, Sir J., Bt., M.P...The Lewes Island, N.B.
Mathew, Nath... .Wern, Tremadoc, Carnarvonshire
+Mathews, Jeremiah. ..Edgbaston Ho., Birmingham
Mathews, William...The Leasowes, Birmingham
Maton, Leonard Pitt... Maddington, Devizes
Matson, William...St. Osyth, Colchester
Matthews, Francis Cook, jun.... Driffield

Matthews, Frank...Glyn Moore, Isle of Man
Matthews, Francis Cook...Driffield

Matthews, Henry... Montford, Shrewsbury
Matthews, Thomas,..Sporle, Swaffham

|

List of Members of the

Maud, Chas, T..., Manor House, Bathampton, Bath
Maude, Wm. E....3, Harrington Street, Liverpool
Maunsell, ‘Thomas P....‘Thorpe Malsor, Kettering
Maw, H. Lister...Tetley, Crowle, Isle of Ancholm
Maw, Math....Cleatham, Kirton-in-Lindsey, Line.
Maxwell, Sir J. H., Bt....Springkell, Ecclefechan
Maxwell, Hon. M. Constable... Terregles, Dumfries
Maxwell, Wellwood.,.Munches, Dalbeatie, N.B.
May, Charles N....Devizes (North Wilts Foundry)
May, George Anderson,..Elford Park, Lichfield
May, John.,. London Road, Reading

Mayall, John E,..224, Regent Street, W.

Maybery, Walter...Brecon

Maycock. D....Gumley Hall, Market Harborough
Mayer, J. Smith.., Newcastle, Staffordshire
Maynard, A. Lax....Marton-le-Moor, Boroughbridge
Mead, James... Penrhyn, Cornwall

Mead, Wm. Rich....Ballymartle, Kinsale, Cork
Mechi, Alderman J. Jos..,.4, Leadenhall Street, B.C.
+Medlycott, Sir W. C., Bt.. .Milborne Port,Sherborne
Meeson, Wm. Taylor....Great Doggetts, Rochford
Mein, William... Brawood, Staffordshire

Meire, Sam....Castle Hill, Harley, Much Wenlock
Meire, Thos. Lockley...Cound Arbor, Shrewsbury
Mellard, James...Rugeley, Staffordshire

Mello, William,..Chadwell, Ware

Mellor, John...Smallwood Ho., Lawton, Cheshire
Mellows, William...Carburton, Worksop

Melville, Hon. A. Leslie...Branston Hall, Lincoln
Melvin, James...Bonnongton, Ratho, Edinburgh
+Mercer, James, M.D....

+Mercer, William, ..Newtown, Warrington

Mercer, William...Grove Ho., Hunton, Maidstone
+Merriman, Thomas Baverstock... Marlborough
+Merriman, Wm. Clark... Lockeridge, Marlborough
Merson, Jas....Brinsworthy, North Molton, Devon
+Mertens, Baron Edward... Rue Dueale, Brussels
+Metcalfe,C.J., jun.. .5, Stock Orchard Vs., Holloway
+Methley, W....Hoath Court, Blean, Canterbury
Meux, Sir H., Bt... Theobald’s Pk., Waltham Cross
+Meyer, Herman... Little Laver Hall, Ongar
+Meyer, James,..Forty Hall, Enfield, Middlesex
+Meyer, P. Herman...Stondor Place, Brentwood
Meyrick, Owen Fuller. ..Bodergan, Anglesey, N.W.
Michell, John... Forcet Park, Darlington
Michelmore, Thomas, jun....Berry, Totnes
Mickleburgh, Charles... Montgomery
+Micklethwaite, Rev. J....Iridge Pl., Hurst Green
Middleborough, J. R....South Milford, Milford June.
+Middleton, Henry...Cutteslowe, Oxford
+Midgley, W. H....Bryntirion, Corwen, Merioneth-
Midworth, John...Newark-on-Trent

Mildmay, Humphrey, M.P.,..Shoreham, Sevenoaks
7Miles, Sir John Wm., Bt.... King’s Weston, Bristol
+Miles, Grosvenor...Bourton House, Rugby, War.
+Miles, P. W. S., M.P.... Leigh Ct., Bristol

Miles, Roger Dutton... Keyham, Leicester

Miles, Thomas... Keyham, Leicester

+Miles, William... Dix’s Field, Exeter

Miles, Wm. Marsh...Fragham, Wingham, Kent
Milford, Thos....Thorverton, Exeter

+Miller, Bartlett...Moulton, Northampton

Miller, George...Bishop’s Stortford

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Miller, John, jun....Morfa Maur, Aberystwith
Miller, Richard. ..155, Fenchurch Street, E.C.
Miller, G. Seymour... Bradpole, Bridport

Miller, Samuel...Dysert Farm, Welshpool

Mills, John F....Westwell, Burford, Oxon

Mills, Jolin...Bisterne, Ringwood

Mills, John...Pinkneys Green, Maidenhead
7Mills, J. R.... Englefield Green, Surrey

Mills, R. W. F....Dunnington, York

+Mills, Wm....Saxham Hall, Bury St. Edmund’s
Milne, David...Milne Garden, Coldstream, N.B.
+Milne, Alexander...29, St. James’s Place, S.W.
Milne, Oswald, jun.... Woodville, Leamington
Milner, Sir W. M. E., Bart... Manappleton, Tadcaster
Milnes, James...Alton Manor, Wirkswortl, Derbys,
Milward, Dawson A....Tullogher, New Ross
Minch, J. F....

Minet, Charles Wm....41, West Smithfield, E.C.
Minett, Junius E....Arley, Coventry

Minor, John...Fern Hill, Market Drayton

Minton, Alfred... Windsor

Mitchell, John... Wymondham, Norfolk

Mitchell, J. Hoffe...Witchampton, Wimborne
Mitford, Wm. Townley, M.P....Pitshill, Petworth
Molyneux, James More...Losely Park, Guildford
Monck, J. Bligh...Coley Park, Reading
7Monckton, E. H. C...Fineshade Abbey, Northamp.
Monkhouse, John...The Stowe, Hereford

Monins, John...Ringwould, Dover

Monro, Mordaunt Martin...Enfield

Monson, Rey. John...Rectory, Bedale

+Monteagle, Lord... Mount Trenchard, Limerick
Montgomerie, F, M...St. Leonard’s Ho., St.Leonard’s
Montgomery, Rev. Robert...Holcot, Northampton
Moody, Chas, Aaron, M.P....Kingsdon, Yeovil
Moody, Henry...Chartham, Canterbury

Moody, Col. R. C....Junior United Sery. Club, S.W.
+Moore, Rey. Edward...Frittenden, Staplehurst
Moore, Edward Wells. ..Coleshill, Faringdon
Moore, George...Appleby Hall, Ashby-de-la-Zouch
+Moore, Rev. G. Bridges... Tunstall, Sittingbourne
+Moore, H...Syngfield House, Parsonstown, Ireland
Moore, J. ..11, Upper Berkeley St., Portman Sq., W.
Moore, John... Kerry, Montgomery

Moore, John...Church Street, Warwick

Moore, John Kirby...Badley, Stowmarket

Moore, Joseph... Wollaton House, Nottingham
+Moore, Thos. William...Warham, Wells, Norfolk
Moore, Wm....Elm, Wisbeach

Moorsom, C. R....Coatham, Redcar

Morant, George... Farnborough, Hants

Morewood, Col. W. P....Alfreton Park, Derbyshire
Morgan, Francis...51, Bedford Square, W.C.
+Morgan, Maj. G.C., M.P....Rupera Castle, Cardiff
Morgan, John...Green Lanes, Birmingham
Morgan, John...Market Square, Shrewsbury
Morgan, Thomas...Burnt House, Waltham Cross
Morison, John Alex., M.D..,.Portcleu, Pembroke
Morland, George Bowes...Abingdon, Berkshire
Morland, W. Courtenay. .Court Lodge,|Lamberhurst
Morley, Earl of.,.Saltram, Plymouth

+#Morley, John...

Morley, Joln...Broughton Lodge, Manchester

LIT

Morley, John. ..Cotgrave, Nottingham

Morley, John... Effingham Hill, Dorking

+Morrell, Frederick J....St. Giles’s, Oxford
Morrell, James...Headington Hill, Oxford

Morrell, James Conyers. ..Leyland, Lancashire
+Morrice, J. W....The Tower, Calthorpe, Rugby
+Morris, Col. Lewis G....Morrisania, New York
Morris, Richard... Knockin Heath Farm, Oswestry
+Morris, Thos., jun....Walcote Fields, Lutterworth
Morris, Thomas. ..Maisemore, Gloucester

Morris, William. ..Carmarthen

Morriss, N....Blue Ho., Washington Stat., Durham
Morrow, Hugh...Coraboold House, Longford
Morton, H. J....Garforth, Leeds

Morton, John Chalmers. ..Streatley, Reading
+Morton, J. D....8, Gloucester Terrace, S.W.
Moscrop, W. J.,..Buscot Park, Faringdon

Mosley, Sir O., Bt... Rolleston Hall, Burton-on-Trent
Mosley, A. N. E....Burnaston House, Etwall, Derby
Mosley, Touman...East Lodge, Burton-on-Trent
Moss, D. Topham...Seacroft Lodge, Leeds

Moss, Henry...Bentley Hill, Brentwood

Mostyn, Sir P., Bt....Talacre, Holywell, Flintshire
Mott, Thomas...Much Hadham, Ware

Mott, William...Wall, Lichfield, Staffordshire
Moult, Wm....Knowsley, Prescot, Lancashire
Mount Edgecumbe, Earl of..,Mt. Edgecumbe, Devon
Mount, Thomas...Saltwood, Hythe

Mount, William... Wasing Place, Newbury

Moxon, William,..3, St. Martin's Place

+Moysey, H. G....Batheaton Court, Wiveliscombe
+Moggeridge, Sir Henry, Kt....Ashurst, Dorking
Mumford, George S.... Lavenham, Sudbury
+Mumford, Maurice. ..Creeting, Stowmarket
Mumford, William...Credonhill, Hereford
+Mumford, William Henry...Bramford, Ipswich
Mundy, William...Markeaton, Derby

+Munn, Maj. W. A....Throwley House, Feversham
Murdoch, James Gordon,..1, Pall Mall East, S.W.

|
| +Murray, Alex....11, Bedford Square, Brighton

Murton, Curtets...

Morton, Frederick...Smeeth, Ashford

Murton, William...Tunstall, Sittingbourne
Musgrave, Simeon...Market Weighton, Yorkshire

| +Musgrave, Sir Geo., Bart... .Edenhall, Penrith
Moore, John,..Moor House, Badsworth, Pontefract |

Musgrave, Rev. Vernon...Mattersey, Bawtry
Muskett, Chas....Bressingham House, Diss
Muspratt, S., M.D...Royal Coll. Chemistry, Liverpool
Myott, James...Copesthorne, Congleton

Mytton, Thos...Shipton Hall, Much Wenlock, Salop

N.
Nainby, Richard,..Barnolby-le-beck, Grimsby
Naish, W. B....Stoneaston, Bath
Nalder, J. H....Alvescot, Faringdon
+Napier, Edw. B....Pennard House, Shepton Mallet
Napier, Hon. William...2, Old Palace Yard, S,W.
Napper, John...Ifold, Horsham
Nash, Charles. ..Royston, Hertfordshire
Nash, Daniel...4, York Gate, Regent’s Park, W.
Naylor, John...Liverpool
+Naylor, Rich. Christopher...Hooton Hall, Chester

LIV List of Members of the

Neale, Charles... Mansfield Woodhonse, Notts
Neale, Charles James. ..Mansfield, Notts
Neame, Charles...Selling, Feversham
Neame, Frederick... Macknade, Feversham
Neame, Percy B....Swanton Lodge, Lydden, Dover
Neate, John Reeks...Northington Farm, Overton
Neave, Sir Digby, Bart....Dagenham Park, Romford
Neave, Sheffield... .Oakhill House, Hampstead, N.W.
Negus, Thomas A....Braunston, Northampton
Nelson, Wm. M....Cardigan Place, Leeds

Nesham, David. ..Houghton-le-Skerne, Darlington
Nesfield, R. M. N....Castle Hill, Bakewell

Nesbit, Jn. C....38, Kennington Lane, Lambeth, S.
Nethercoat, John...Moulton Grange, Northampton
Neve, George. . .Sissinghurst, Staplehurst

Neve, Thomas...Benenden, Staplehurst

+Nevile, Rev. Christ.... Thorney, Newark, Notts
+Nevile, George...Shebton, Newark-on-Trent
+Nevill, Rt. Hon. Visconnt...Hope Hall, Tadcaster
Neville, Hon. C. C.... Audley End, Saffron Walden
New, Richard. ..Hartpury, Gloucester

++Newbery, Rich. Phelps. ..Challenger, Axminster
Newill, Thos.. .Spring Bank, Welshpool

Newcastle, Duke of...20, Portman Square, W.
Newdegate, C. N....Arbury, Coventry

Newdigate, Francis. ..Blackheath, Kent

Newill, Joseph... Walcot, Lydbury, Shropshire
+Newman, J....Brands Ho.,’High Wycombe, Bucks
Newman, Thomas...Mamhead, Exeter

Newman, Thomas...Cray’s Marsh Farm, Melksham
Newport, Viscount. ..30, Wilton Crescent, S.W.
Newsome, W....30, Milverton Crescent, Leamington
+Newton, G. Onslow....Croxton Park, St. Neot’s
+Newton, R. J....Campsfield, Woodstock
+Newton, Thomas... The Cedars, Mitcham Common
Niblett, D. J....Haresfield Court, Gloucester
Nickisson, John...Stone, Staffordshire

Nicholls, John...Durant’s Arbour, Enfield

Nicholls, Lambert... Rochford, Tenbury

Nichols, Ben..., West End Farm, Aldershott
Nichols, George..-Spa Gardens, Leicester

Nichols, John S....Buekland, Lymington
Nicholson, Brady. ..Stourton Grange, Leeds
Nichulson, Charles, ..Staniwells, Brigg

Nicholson, J....Kirkby Thore, Bridgend, Appleby
Nicholson, John...Barford St. Martin, Salisbury
Nicholson, Capt. S....Waverley Abhey, Farnham
Nicholson, Wm. Nurzam...Newark-upon-Trent
Nicklin, Richard...Glen Ville, Donglas, Isle of Man
Nics, John...Leek Wootton, Warwick

Nicol, James Dyce...5, Hyde-Park Terrace, W.
+Nield, William...Mavfield, Manchester
Nightingale, Vaughan C....Burway, Ludlow
Nightingale, W. E....Embley, Romsey, Hants
Noakes, John Tompsett...Brockley Ho., Lewisham
Nodder, Rev. J....Ashover Rectory, Chesterfield
+Norman, George Warde...Bromley, Kent
Norman, J.Newcomb...Harborough Magna, Rugby
Normanby, Marquis of...Mulgrave Castle, Whitby
Norreys, Robt. H....Davy Hulme Hall, Manchester
Norris, Rev. G. P....Roscraddoe House, Liskeard
Norris, John...Pully, Shrewsbury

+Norris, Wm....Wood Norton, Fakenham

North, Chas,...South Thoresby, Alford, Lincolnsh. |
North, Frederick. ..Rougham, Norfolk

North, Lieut.-Col... Wroxton Abbey, Banbury, Oxom
+Northcote, Sir Stafford, Bt., M.P....Pynes, Exeter
Northeast, Thos. Barnes...Tedworth, Marlborough
Northey, Edward Richard...Epsom, Surrey
Northey, Wm....Lake, Lifton, Devon

Norton, William. ..62, South John Street, Liverpool
Norton, W. F. Norton...Elton Manor, Nottingham
Nott, James...Penn, Amersham, Bucks
}Nottidge, Josias...Richmond, Surrey

Nowell, W. A...Cwmllecoediog Cemmes, Montgomt.
Noyes, Thomas H....Borde Hill, Cuckfield, Sussex
Nussey, Jolin... Birstall, Leeds

O.

Oakes, Hervey Asten...Stowmarket

Oakes, Thos. Haden...Riddings House, Alfretore’
Oakley, John...10, Waterloo Place, S.W.

Oakley, Richard... Lawrence End, Luton

O'Brien, Stafford... Blatherwycke Park, Wansford’
Odams, James...109, Fenchurch Street, E.C.

Oddie, Walter...Colney House, St. Alban’s
+Ogden, John Matde...Sunderland

Ogilvy, Sir J., Bt....Baldovan House, Dundee, N.B.
Oldfield, Chas. Fred....Peldon Lodge, Colchester
Oldacres, Matthew...Clipston, Market Harborongh:
Oldham, John,..Carlton-on-Trent, Notts

Olding, Edmund... Rasfin Farm, Amesbury

Oldrin, Garrould...Ramburgh, Halesworth

Oliver, James...Hanford, Blandford

Oliver, John...Pitsford Hall, Northampton

Oliver, Robert...Sholbrook Lodge, Towcester
Olorenshaw, Joseph. ..Hatton Grange, Warwick
Ord, Rev. J. A. B.... Whitfield Hall, Northumberland
Orde, Charles William...Nunnykirk, Morpeth
7Orde,SirJ.P.W.,Bt... KilmoreyHo.,Loch Gilp Head
Orlebar, R. L....Hinwicke House, Wellingborough
Ormerod, George...Sedbury Park, Chepstow
Ormerod, Henry Mere...5, Clarence St., Manchester
Ormston, Robert... Neweastle-on-Tyne

Ormond, Francis...Owston, Oakham

Orton, Francis...Bottisford, Nottingham

Osbiston, Samuel, jun....Ryburgh, Fakenham
Osborn, Charles... Fareham

+Osborn, G., jun.... Manor Ho., Pattishall, Towcester
Osborne, Geo.,..Court Farm, Elberton, Bristol
Osborne, Henry...Weeford Park, Hints, Tamworth
Ostler, John, jun.... Walrond Park, Taunton
Oswell, Thos. Basnett...Hanley Hall, Shrewsbury
Other, Chris....Elm House, Leyburn, Yorkshire
+Otrante, Count A....Nygard, Séderképing, Sweden
+Overman, Henry R....Weasenham, Fakenham
+Overman, John,..Burnham, Sutton, Norfolk
+Overman, Robert...Egmere, Walsingham, Norfolk
Owen, B. H. Bulkeley...Tedsmore Hall, Salop
Owen, E. W. S....Condover, Shrewsbury

Owen, Richard. ..Haughton, Tarporley

Owen, William. ..Blesington, Ireland

Owen, William... Rotherham

Owsley, Wm. P. Mason...Blaston, Uppingham
Oxford, Bishop of,,.Cuddesden, Wheatley, Oxon '

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Ee

Pack, Thomas Henry...Ditton, Maidstone
7+Packard, Edward. ..Ipswich

+Packe, Rev. A....Walton Rectory, Loughborough
+Packe, Geo, H....Caythorpe Hall, Grantham
+Packe, Dr. James...Melton Lodge, Woodbridge
Paddock, Henry...The Trench, Ellesmere
Padwick, Fred....West Thorney, Emsworth, Hants
Page, Edward...Bedford

Page, Thomas... Tower Cressy, Campden Hill, W.
Paget, C., M.P....Ruddington Grange, Nottingham
Paget, E. Arthur...Thorpe, Leicester

Paget, Henry...Birstal, Leicester

Pain, John...Popham, Micheldever Station

Pain, Philip. ..Boughton House, Kettering

Pain, Thomas... Laverstock Hall, Salisbury

Paine, Mrs.... Farnham, Surrey

Paine, Wm. Dunkley...Cockshutt Hill, Reigate
Painter, John. ..Burley-on-the-Hill, Oakham
Paitson, William...Irish Street, Whitehaven
Palin, William...Stapleford Hall, Chester

Palmer, Sir Geo. J., Bart....Wanlip Hall, Leicester
Palmer, Sir J. H., Bt....Carlton Park, Rockingham
Palmer, Rev. P. H...Wolsthorp Rectory, Grantham
Palmer, Thos....Stoke Chingland, Callington
+Palmerston, Viscount, M.P....Broadlands, Romsey
Papendick, Bridget Ann...Glasbury Ho., Hay, S.W.
Papillon, Thomas. ..Crowhurst Park, Battle
Paramore, J. Rawle... Dinedor Court, Hereford
Parker, Charles Stuart...Annesley, Liverpool
Parker, James...Great Baddow House, Chelmsford
Parker, K.S., Q.C....Examiner’s Office, Rolls Yard
Parker, J. 0.... Woodham Mortimer, Maldon, Essex
Parker, Thomas James. ..10, George St., Sheffield
+Parker, Charles...Binfield, Bracknell, Berks
7Parker, Wm....Carlton Hill, Penrith

Parker, William...The Park, Ware, Hertfordshire
Parker, Maj. W., M-P....Clopten Hall, Suffolk
Parker, Rev. W... Rectory, Little Comberton, Pershore
Parker, Rev. W. H....Saham Rectory, Watton, Norf,
Parkin, John. ..Idridgehay, Wirksworth

Parkinson, John... Leyfields, Newark, Notts
+Parkinson, J., jun...Farmers’ Club, New Bridge St.
7+Parkinson, Thomas. ..Hexgreave Park, Southwell
+Parkyns, Sir Thos. G. A., Bt....Ruddington, Notts.
Parr,Samuel...The Poultry, Nottingham

Parrott, Thos....Green Bank, Sutton, Macclesfield
Parry, Nicholas...Little Hadham, Ware

Parson, Rey. W. H...Lynchmere Rectory, Haslemere
Parsons,C., jun....N.Shoebury Hall, Rochford, Essex
+Parsons, Geo... . West Lambrook, South Petherton
Parsons, Henry. ..Haselbury, Crewkerne

Parsons, John. ..Oxford

Parton, John...Chorlton, Nantwich

Partridge, John...Bishop’s Wood, Ross

Pasmore, James... High Street, Exeter

+Paterson, Geo....Poyle House, Colnbrook, Bucks
Paterson, Richard. ..Leesons, Chiselhurst
+Patesball, Evan...Hereford

Patron, Simon. ..19, Bedford Place, Russell Sq., W.C.
Pattenson, Capt. W. H. T....Ibornden, Biddenden
Patterson, Richard...Crofton Hall, Carlisle

LV

Patterson, John. ..Hall Beck, Ulverston, Lancashire
+Patterson, W. J....Durnford Lodge, Wimbledon
Paver, William, ..Peckfield, Milford Junction
Pawlett, Thos. Edward...Beeston, Sanday, Beds
+Paxton, Sir Joseph, Bt., M.P...Chatsworth, Bakewell
Paxton, Robert. ..Lower Winchenilen, Aylesbury
Paxton, Thomas. ..Potsgrove, Woburn, Beds

Payne, Henry. ..Birdbrook, Halstead, Essex

Payne, William. ..Willcott, Nesscliff, Salop

Peachey, Wm....Ebernoe, Petworth

Peacock, Wilkinson...Greatford Hall, Stamford
+Peacocke, G.M., M.P....33, Hertford St., May Fair
Peacocke, Warren...Efford, Lymington, Hants
Pearce, Col. Wm....Ffrwdyrech, Brecon

+Pearman, L....Mercote Hall, Berkswell, Coventry
Pearse, Henry...3, Great Cumberland Street, W.
Pedder, Edward...Ashton Park, Preston, Lancashire
Peel, Edmund...Bryn-y-Pyss, Wrexham

Peel, George... Brookfield, Cheadle, Manchester
Peel, John...Middleton Hall, Fazeley

7-Peel, Jonathan...Knowlemere Manor, Clitheroe
Peel, Sir R., Bart., M.P....Dravton Manor, Fazeley
Peel, Wm....Taliaris Pk., Llandilo, Carmarthenshire
Peel, William...Trenant Park, Looe, Cornwall
Peers, Joseph... Ruthin

+Peile, Thos. Williamson. ..Tullihinel, Kerry
Peirson, John...25, Micklegate, York

Pell, Albert. ..Hazelbeach, Northampton

+Pell, Sir Watkin O....Royal Hospital, Greenwich
Pellatt, Apsley... Knowle Green, Staines

Pelly, Sir John Henry...Warnham Court, Horsham
Pelly, Capt. R. Wilson...The Willows, Upton, Essex
+Pemberton, Rev. R.N...Church Stretton, Salop
+Penn, Granville J....

Pennant, P. P....Sychton, Flintshire

Pennell, H. B....Dawlish

Pennell, Rich. Lewin... Venbridge, Exeter
Pennethorne, J... Hamstead Ho., Yarmouth, I. of W.
Penrice, Thomas... Kilvrough, Swansea

+Peploe, Capt. Daniel Peploe...Garnston, Hereford
Pepper, John...3, Queen Street, Leeds

Pepper, William...Clarendon Mount, Leeds
Peppercorne, H... Bradburn Pk., East Malling

7 Verceval, Chas... .West Haddon, Northamptonshire
Percival, Ralph H....Tetton Hall, Middlewich
Peren, W. B....Compton, South Petherton, Somerset
Perkins, A.... Westfield Ho., Market Harborough
Perkins, John S....Leek Wootten, Warwick
Perkins, Thomas... Hitchin

+Perry-Watlington, J. W....Moor Hall, Harlow
Perry, Samuel. ..Shipley, Bridgenorth

+Perry; Thos. A... Betham Ho., Avon Dasset,Banbury
Perry, Sir'T. E., M.P....West Court, Berkshire
Perry, William...Cholstrey, Leominster

Perry, Wm....Up Kempston, Totnes, Devon
Pertwee, J. F....Rattendon, Wickford, Essex
Peters, Daniel. ..31, College Green, Bristol

7Peto, Sir S. M., M.P....Somerleyton Hall, Suffolk
Petman, Robt....Ashley House, Folkestone
Phelips, Charles. ..Briggins Park, Ware, Herts
+Philips, Sir G. R., Bart.. .. Shipston-on-Stour
Philips, Mark... .Snitterfield, Stratford-on-Avon
Phillips, G. L., M.P....Lawrenny Castle, Pembroke

LVI

Vhillipps, James...Bryngwyn, Ross, Herefordshire
TPhillipps, Robt. Biddulph. ..Longworth,{ Hereford
Phillipps, J. B. L....Penty Park, Haverfordwest
Phillipps, Wm....‘he Lodge, Reigate

Phillips, John... Lordship Lane, Tottenham
Phillips, J. B,...Brackton Leasows, Newport, Salop
Phillips, Rev. John...Ludlow, Salop

+Phillips, J. H....Bradburne Grange, Nawton, York
Phillips, J. R. S....Rifham’s Lodge, Chelmsford
Phillips, Joseph Taylor. . .Sheriff Hales Manor, Salop
Phillips, Sir Thos., Knt,.., Llanellan, Abergavenny
+Phillpotts, T., jun....Risca, Newport, Monmouthsh
Phipps, C. Paul...Chaleot House, Westbury, Wilts
Phipps, Christopher...River, Dover

+Phipps, John Lewis... Leighton, Westbury, Wilts
Pickering, Leonard... Wilcot, Charlbury, Oxon
+Pickford, William...148}, Fenchurch Street, E.C.
Pickin, W. C....Dunham, Notts

Pickin, Wm. John... Whitemoor, Ollerton, Notts
+Piercy, Alfred...Cold Harbour, Henley, Oxon
+Pierson, Jas. Alex....The Gwynd, Arbroath, N.B.
Piggot, Jas. Algernon... Beckingham Hall, Witham
+Piggott, Geo. G....Gwydyr House, Whitehall
Piggott, Simon Frazer... Fitzhall, Midhurst, Sussex
Pigott, Sir Robert, Kart....Patshill, Wolverhampton
Pike, James... Reading

Pike, William. ..Steventon, Beds

Pilcher, Jesse...Cheriton Court, Hythe, Kent
Pilgrim, Charles H....

Pilgrim, S. C...Manor House, Burbage, Hinckley
Pilkington, Sir L. M,S., Bart....Wakefield

Pillans, Wm....

Pimlett, Josh....Norton-in-Hales, Market Drayton
Pinckard, John Thomas. . Handley, Towcester
Pinder, Thomas... Barroby, Grantham

+Pinnegar, C....Rockbourn, Fordingbridge, Hants
Pinney, Col. W., M.P....Somerton, Somerset
+Pipon, Capt M....Deerswood, Crawley

Pippet, William...Caughton House, Bromsgrove
Pitcairn, Alex.,..Easdale, Castle Oban, Argylesh.
Pitfield, A. J... Eype, Symondsbury, Bridport
Pitman, James S....Dunchideock House, Exeter
Pitt, George. ..Chadnor Court, Dilwyn, Leominster
Plant, John...Model Mill, Sheffield

Plant, Thomas...Elworth Hall, Sandbach, Cheshire
Plowden, W....Plowden Hall, Bishop’s Castle, Salop
Plowman, Joseph...Oxford

Plumbe, John...Ashton Keynes, Cricklade
Plumptre, J. P....Fredville, Wingham, Kent
+Pocock, Chas....

Pocock, George...Redbourn Bury, Redbourn
Pocock, Sir G. E., Bt....Cambridge Ho., Tunbr.Wells
Pointon, George. ..Mere Cottage, Lawton, Cheshire
Pole, Sir Peter Van Notten, Bt....6, Upper Harley St.
Pole, Rey. Reginald Chandos...Radbourne, Derby
+Pollard, Joseph....Highdown, Hitchin, Herts
Pollen, Sir J. W., Bt....Redenham, Andover
+Pollen, R. H....Radbourne, Chippenham
Pollock, J. O. G...Mountain’s Town, Navan, Ireland
Pomfret, Earl of... Easton Hall, Towcester
+Pomfret, Virgil...Tenterden, Kent

Poole, Domville... Marbury, Whitchurch, Shropshire
Pooly, Thomas...North Wold, Norfolk

List of Members of the

Pope, Edward...Great Toller, Dorchester, Dorset
Pope, John...Symondsbury, Bridport, Dorset

Pope, J. Raymond...Shipridge Farm, Mitcheldean
Pope, Thomas. ..Harewood, Bletchingly, Surrey
Porcher, Charles. ..Cliffe, Dorchester, Dorset

Portal, M....Laverstoke House, Micheldever Station
Porter, Maj.-Gen....Mintern Ho,, Dorchester, Dorset
Porter, Thos....Bawnton, Cirencester

Porter, Wm....Hembury Fort, Honiton
7Portsmouth, Earl of...Eggesford Ho., North Devon
Postlethwaite, Thomas....OMey Hotes, Hitchin
Potter, John... Basinghall Street, Leeds

Potter, T. B....Bush Hill, Manchester

+Powell, Alex....Hurdcott House, Salisbury

Powell, Evan....Trewythen, Llandinam, Montgom.
Powell, George...8, Beaufort Buildings, Strand
Powell, John... Watton Mount, Brecon

Powell, John Thomas...Easton, Pewsey, Wilts
Powell, Phillips...South Lands, Denham, Uxbridge
Powell, J. Folliot...7, Albion Place, Hyde Park, W.
Powell, Richard... Benson, Oxon

7Powell, Rev. S. H...Sharon Hall, Ripon

7 Powell, Thos. H...Drinkstone Pk.,Woolpit, Suffolk
+Powell, T., jun....Coldra, Newport, Monmouthsh.
Powell, Wm...Eglwgs Nunydd, Margarn, Glamorg.
Powell, Wm....Tickford Abbey, Newport Pagnell
+Power, K. Manley... Hill Court,Ross, Herefordshire
+Powlett, Lord William...Downham Hall, Brandon
+Praed, W. Backwell...Tyrnigham,Newport Pagnell
Pratt, Edward...Caldwell, Burton-on-Trent

Pratt, Rich. Fred....Gt. Sanders, Sedlescomb, Battle
+Prentice, Manning. ..Stowmarket

Prescott, William,..Clarence, Roehampton, S.W.
Preston, Thomas...Scosthrop Ho., Bell-Busk, Leeds
7Pretyman, Arthur...Llanfair, Anglesey

Price, Edw....Court House, Pembridye, Leominster
Price, J.... Yew Tree House, Prestwood, Stourbridge
Price, Joshua..,Featherstone, Wolverhampton
Price, William. ..Glantwick, Swansea Valley

Price, Wm. Philip, M.P....Tiberton Ct., Gloucester
Prickard, Thos.,..Dderw Ho., Rhayader, Radnorsh.
Priday, Samuel... Linton, Gloucester

Prideaux, Sir idm. S., Bart.... Netherton, Honiton
Priest, Alfred. ., Kingston-on-Thames

Priestley, J....Hirdrefaig, Bangor, Isle of Anglesea
Priestley, S. O....Trefan, Pwllheli, Carnarvonshire
Princep, William...Newton, Tamworth

+Pritchard, George. ..Broseley, Salop

+Pritchard, John... Broseley, Salop

Pritchard, Robt....Llwydiarth Esgob, Bangor
+Probyn, Edmund...Huntley, Gloucestershire
Proctor, Thomas. ..Cothay, Wall’s Court, Bristol
+Prodgers, Herbert...Ayott Rectory, Welwyn
+Prosser, Francis Wegg, M.P.... Belmont, Hereford
Pryke, John... Aldersfield Hall, Wickhambrook
Pryor, John Izard...Clay Hall, Stevenage, Herts
Pryor, Morris... Baldock, Herts

Pryse, John Pugh... Bwlechbychan, Lampeter, S. W.
Pugh, David, M.P...Llanerchydol, Welshpool,Montg.
+Pugh, William...Coal Port, Ironbridge, Salop
Puleston, Rev. T....Worthenbury Rectory, Flintsh.
+Pulleine, James...Crakehall, Bedale

+Puller, Christopher W,..Youngsbury, Ware, Herts.

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

+Punnett, P. Simpson.,.Chart Sutton, Staplehurst
Punchard, Charles...Blunt’s Hall, Haverhill, Suffolk
Purser, Edward...116, Fenchurch Street, E.C.
Purton, Wm,...The Woodhouse, Cleobury-Mortimer
Purves, Peter... The Grove, Brampton, Huntingdon
Pusey, S. E. B....Pusey House, Faringdon

Pyatt, Abraham...Wilford, Nottingham

Pye, Henry Abington... Louth, Lincolnshire

Cr
Quartly, Jas....Molland House, South Molton
Quartly, John...Champson Molland, South Molton
Quicke, Rev, Andrew... Winchester
Quinn, P., J.P....Agencey, Poyntz Pass, Ireland

R.

Raester, William... Withington Court, Hereford
Radcliffe, Rev. Walter... Warleigh, Plymouth
Radford, H. B.,..Stanton Ho., Burton-on-Trent
FRaincock, H. D....Croydon

Raine, William Surtees. ,.Gainford, Darlington
Ralph, R. W...,Honnington Grange, Newport, Salop
Ralston, James...Danesfield, Great Marlow
Ralston, Wm. Henry... Keele, Newcastle, Staffs.
Rammell, Thomas.,.Sturry Court, Canterbury
Ramsay, G, H..,..Derwent Villa, Newcastle, North.
Ramsay, John...9, Endsleigh Street

Ramsden, Robert. ..Carlton Hall, Worksop
Randall, Alexander... Maidstone

Randell, Charles...Chadbury, Evesham

Randolph, Vice-Ad. C. G....Gt. Comp, Sevenoaks
Randolph, Lt.-Col. C. W....5, Victoria Sq., Pimlico
Randolph, James... Milverton, Somerset
Ranger,H.W....CourtLodge,Ashurst, Tonbridge Wells
Ranken, W. B....Abbott’s Langley House, Herts
Rankin, John...Union Foundry, Liverpool
Ransome, James Allen...Ipswich

Ransome, J. E,... Bolton Hill, Ipswich

Ransome, R. C....Bolton Hill, [pswich

Ransome, Robert. ..Ipswich

Ratleff, William...Newmarket

Rawes, John...Springwood Cottage, Chorley
Rawlence, James.,.Bulbridge, Wilton, Salisbury
Rawson, Charles...Glanhenwyr, Glasbury, Hereford
Rawson, Richard... Wheat Hill, Roby, Preston
Ray, Henry...Bristol

+Ray, Samuel...St. Paul’s, Belchamp, Halstead
Rayer, John. ..Eastington, Northleach

Rayer, Wm. Carew...Tidcombe, Tiverton
Rayment, W.,..Ferneux Pelham Hall, Buntingford
+Raynbird, Hugh...Cburch Street, Basingstoke
Raynbird, Robert. ..Hengrave, Bury St. Edmund’s
Rayner, Henry...Ely

Rea, Edward..,115, Wardour Street, Soho, W.

Rea, James... Monaughty, Knighton, Radnorshire
Rea, Thomas... Westonbury, Pembridge, Leominster
+Read, Clare Sewell...Plumstead, Norwich

+Read, Geo., jun.... Baxton Hall, Brandon, Norfolk
Read, James... Whittlesea

Read, James Marsh,..Elkstone, Cheltenham

Read, Richard, ..35, Regent Circus, Piccadilly, W.
Redgate, T. Blatherwick.,.Scarthing Moor, Newark

LVII

Rees, W. Treharne.,..Holly House, Newport, Mon.
Reeve, Major-Gen....Leadenham, Grantham

Reeves, J. R.,..Hantsland, Crawley Down, Sussex
Reid, Sir John Rae, Bart....The Grove, Ewell
Relph, G. R. Greenhow... Beech Hill, Usk

Rendle, William Edgcumbe... Plymouth
Reynardson, Henry Birch. .. Adwel!, Tetsworth
Reynolds, Joseph Benj....Lubbesthorpe, Leicester
Reynolds, Dr. William...Coed-di, Mold

Rhodes, C.... Little Oat Hall, Wivelsfield, Sussex
Rhodes, J. Armitage...Roundhay, Leeds

Rhodes, James, ..Seal Lodge, Farnham, Surrey
Ricards, Mortimer...Bure Homage, Christchurch
Rice, Edward Royd.,. Dane Court, Wingham

Rich, Stiles.,.Didmarton, Chippenham

+Richards, Edward Priest.,.Carditf

7Richards, J....Mathrafel, Meiford, Montgomersh,
Richards, W.,.Nyoddfraith, Newtown, Montgom,
Richardson, G..,.Bridlington Quay, Yorkshire
Richardson, Henry...Cherry Hill, York
Richardson, J..,. Northlands House, Winterton Brigg
Richardson, John... Asgarby, Spilsby

Richardson, J. W....Willoughton, Kirton-in-Lindsay
Richardson, SirJ.S., Bt....¥itfour Castle, Perth,N.B.
+Richardson, Robt...,.Cunningham, Londonderry
Richardson, T. M....Hibaldstow Grange, Kirton
Richardson, Capt. Thos..,.Sutton Hurst, Lewes
+Richmond, Duke of...Goodwood, Chichester
Richmond, Francis,..Salford, Manchester

Rickard, Martyn William.,.,Devonport

Riddell, E....Cheeseburn Grange, Newcastle-on-Ty.
+Riddell, Sir W, B., Bt... Hepple Rothbury,Morpeth
Rider, Joseph... Leeds

Ridge, T. J.... Hambledon, Horndean, Hampshire
Ridgway, Alex., jun.,..Blackanton, ‘lotpves
Ridgway, John.,.Fairlawn, Wrotham, Kent
Ridgway, J....Cauldon Pl., Shelton, Stoke-on-Trent
Ridgeway, Thomas...Lymm, Warrington

Ridley, J....Park End, Hexham, Northumberland
Ridley, J. M....Walwick Hall, Hexham, Northumb.
Ridley, Rey. N. J,... Hollington House, Newbury
Ridley, T. D....Chelmsford

Rigden, Richard Henry ..Salisbury

Rigden, William... Hove Farm, Brighton

Rigg, Joseph. ..Filloughby, Coventry

Riley, Edmund, , ,South Dalton, Beverley

+Riley, Luke... Meriden, Coventry

Riley, W. F.,..Forest Hill, Windsor

Ringer, John... West Harling,East Harling, Norfolk
Rising, Robert.. /Horsey, Great Yarmouth

Rising, Wm,...Somerton Hall, Great Yarmouth
Risley, Rey. W. C....Deddington, Banbury

Rist, Isaac... Tattingstone, Ispwich

| Rivers, Lord...Rushmore Lodge, Ludwell, Salisbury

+River, John...

Rix, Benjamin...St. Matthews, Ipswich

Roads, J..., Ashmore Farm, Addington Winslow
Roberts, Edw....Almshoe Bury, Hitchen

Roberts, Fred. Rowland... Aberystwith

Roberts, Joseph. ..Southleigh, Truro

Roberts, Richard...Stanage, Brompton, Bryan
Roberts, Thomas Lloyd... Crofton Hall, Bromfield
Roberts, Thomas, ..Ivington Bury, Leominster

LVIII

Roberts, Wightwick...Trethill, Sheviock
Robertson, Gen. W. D.,.Chewton Glen, Christchurch
Robey, Robert...Canwick Road, Lincoln

Robinson, D... Clitheroe Castle, Clitheroe
Robinson, George... Whiston, Shiffnall

Robinson, Rev. Sir G.S., Bt....Cranford, Kettering
Robinson, Isaac,..Iron Foundry, Halesworth
Robinson, Jas... .Huggart’s Farm, Brindle, Chorley
Robinson, John...Gloucester

+Robinson, Jos....Clifton Pastures, Newport Pagnel
Robinson, Thomas...Witham, Alford

Robinson, Thomas... Nuthill, Hedon, Yorkshire
Robinson, Thomas, ,.Castle Ashby, Northampton
Robinson, William... Bone Hill, Tamworth
Robinson, William...Heatley Lymm, Cheshire
Robson, James... Brackenborough, Louth

+Robson, John... .East Kielder, Bellingham

Robson, William... Wilton, Salisbury

+Roch, Nicholas. ,.Paskiston, Pembroke

Rocke, James John...Glastonbury

+Rodd, F.H....Frebartha Hall, Five Lanes,Cornwall
Roddam, J. J.,.. Newtown, Stanhope, Darlington
Roddam, Wm....Roddam, Wooler, Northumberland
Rodwell, William... Woodlands, Ipswich
Roebuck, J. A., M.P....19, Ashley Place, Pimlico
yRogers, F....3, Ravenscourt Terrace, Chiswick
Rogers, Henry...Stagenhoe Park, Welwyn
+Rogers, John J... .Penrose, Helston

TRolfe, C. Fawcett Neville...Sedgeford Hall, Lynn
Rolls, John E. W.,..The Hendre, Monmouth

Rolt, John.. -Ozleworth Park, Gloucester

Rome, Thomas,,.Groundslow, Stone, Staffordshire
Romilly, Edward, ..Porthkerry, Cardiff

Romney, Earl of...The Mote, Maidstone

Rooper, George... Nascott House, Watford
+Rooper, J. B.... Abbotts Ripton, Hunts

Root, William..,Chipping Warden, Banbury
+Roper, R. 8. D. R....Sedbury Pk., Richmond, Yks.
Rose, Philip... Rayners, High Wycombe, Bucks
Ross, James...Hoo Park Farm, Luton

Rossmore, Lord... Monaghan, Ireland

+Rothwell, R. R....Sharples Hall, Bolton, Lancashire
Rothwell, W. T....Foxholes, Lancaster

Rotton, Richard...3, Boltons, Brompton, S.W.
Round, Chas. Grey... Birch Hall, Colchester
Roughead, James...Auldhame, North Berwick
Rous, Col. G....23 4, Bruton Street

Rous, Hon. Wm. Rufus... Worstead House, Norwich
Row, Wm. North,..Cove, Tiverton

Rowe, Samuel, ..Duddon Lodge, Tarporley

Rowe, W. Wevill...Milton Abbot, Tavistock
Rowland, Alexander... Rosenthall, Lewisham
Rowland, Edward..,.Claygate House, Esher
Rowland, John... Islip, Oxford

+Rowland, R....Creslow, Aylesbury

Rowley, George W....St. Neot’s

Rowley, Hon. R.T...Rhyderddwyn Faur, Rhuddlan
Rowley, John Geo....Rockstowes House, Dursley
Rowley, John Jephson...Rowthorne, Chesterfield
+Royds, Albert Hudson... Falinge, Rochdaie
7TRoyds, Rev. John...Heysham Rectory, Lancaster
Royston, Viscount... Wimpole, Cambridgeshire
Ruck, Edmund...Castle Hill, Cricklade

List of Members of the

Ruck, Lawrence,..9, Staple Inn, W.C.

Rudyerd, Henry...Swanmore, Bishop’s Waltham
Rue, Robertson... Warfield, Bracknell, Berks
Rumbold, C. J. A....5, Percival Terrace, Brighton
+Russell, Lord C. J. F....Drakeloe Lodge, Woburn
Russell, David. ..Clifton Lodge, York

Russell, G. Lake...62, Lowndes Square, S.W.
Russell, John... Piercefield Park, Chepstow
+Russell, Robert... Pilmuir, Leven, Fife

Russell, Robert... Farningham, Dartford
+Russell,Sir W.,Bt.,M.P...Charlton Pk.,Cheltenham
Rust, James. ,.Alconbury, Huntingdon

Rust, Wm. Holyoake.. .Good Easter, Chelmsford
Ruston, A.S..,Aylesbury Ho., Chatteris, Isle of Ely
Ruston, Joseph...Lincoln

Rutson, Wm...,Newby Wisk, Northallerton
+Ryder, Hon. G. D.... Westbrook, Hemel Hempsted
Ryder, T. B....2, Elliot St., Clayton Sq., Liverpool
Ryland, T....Gt. Lister Street Works, Birmingham
Rylatt, W....Branswell, Sleaford

8.

Sabin, John,..Harbury, Southam, Warwickshire
Sadler, Benjamin Greame...Linen Hall, Belfast
Sadler, Henry. ..Mid-Lavant, Chichester

Sadler, T. W....Norton Mains, Ratho, Edinburgh
Sadler, Thomas... Chiddingfold, Surrey

Sadler, William. ..Chiddingfold, Surrey

Sadler, Wm....Ferry Gate, Dirleton, Haddingtonsh.
Sadler, William James...Caleutt, Cricklade
Sainsbury, W....Hunts Ho., W. Lavington, Devizes
7St. Albans, Duke of..,Redbourne Hall, Brigg

7St. Maw, Lord Archibald... Burton, Loughborough
7St. Leger, A: F. Butler,..Park Hill, Rotherham
Sallit, Matthew...Saxlingham, Norwich

+Salkeld, Thomas, ..Holme Hill, Carlisle
Salomons, David..,Broom Hill, Tonbridge

Salt Herbert... Methley Park, Leeds

Salt, Thomas... Weeping Cross, Stafford

Salt, Titus,..Methley Park, Leeds

Salter, W. P., jun...,The Abbey, Thetford
Saltmarshe, Philip...Saltmarshe, Howden
Salusbury, Rey. Thelwall J. T....OMley, Hitchin
+Salvin, M. C...Sarnsfield Court, Kington, Hereford
Samman, Wm....Middleton Park, Bicester
Samman, Jolin...Broadwell, Moreton-in-the-Marsh
Sampson, Thomas...Moor Hall, Nintield, Battle
Samuelson. B....Britannia Iron Works, Banbury
Samson, T.... Kingston Russell, Dorchester, Dorset
Sanday, W....Holme Pierrepoint, Nottinghamshire
+Sandbach, H. R.. ..Hafodunos, Llanrwst, Denbighs,
Sanders, E. A...,Stoke House, Exeter

Sanders, Henry...Harleston, Northampton
Sanderson, Hastings...5, Brinswood E., Leamington
+Sandford, Marks... Martin, Dover

Sandham, Major... Rowdell, Steyning

Sandle, Wm....Withersfield Place, Braintree
Sandwich, Earl of...Hinchingbrooke Honse, Hunts.
Sankey, Robert...Canterbury

Satchwell, T...Hernfield Ho., Knowle, Birmingham
+Satterfield, Joshua..,Alderley Edge, Manchester
Saunders, Randle Wm.,..Nunwick Hall, Penrith

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

+Saunders, Thos, Bush. ,.31, Thurlow Square, S.W.
Saunders, T. H....Watercombe, Dorchester, Dorset
Saunders, William Wilson. ..Hillfield, Reigate
Savery, A. B.,.. Hardwick Lodge, Chepstow

Savery, Join, .. Exeter

Savory, James... .'Tewkesbury

-+Savignon, Don D. (Mexico). ..23, Royal Exch., E.C.
Sawers, John... Dunbar, Scotland

Sawyer, Charles, .. Heywood Lodge, Maidenhead
Saxby, Thomas... West Firle, Lewes

Saxelby, Thomas. ..Great Sparkbrook, Birmingham
Say, R. Hall...Oakley Court, Windsor

Sayers, John... Field Dalling, Holt, Thetford
Scarborough, John L....Colyford, Axminster
Scarsdale, Lord... Kedleston Hall, Derby

Scarth, Edw.,.. Westside House, Darlington

Scarth, Jonathan... Shrewsbury

Scarth, Thos. Freshfield,,. Keverstone, Darlington
Scarth, William Thomas...Keverstone, Darlington
Schollick, E. Jones..,Aldingham Hall, Ulverston
Schramm, Rudolph. ..Grove Park, Camberwell, S.
Schreiber, Capt. T. W....Melton, Woodbridge
Schwann, F. S...N. Houghton Manor, Stockbridge
Scoones, H. B...,Fowle Hall, Brenchley, Kent, 8. W.
Scott, Col. Hon. C. Grantham,..79, Eaton Sq,, S.W.
Scott, Jas. Winter... Rothertield Park, Alton, Hants
Scott, John B.... Bungay, Suffolk

Scott,J.,..Green Head, Milnthorpe, Westmoreland
Scott, Joseph...Colney Hall, Norwich

Scott, Thomas, .. Broomhouse, Berwick-on-Tweed
Scott, Thomas... 18, Parliament Street

Scott, Thomas Edward, ..Crondall, Farnham, Surrey
Scragy, Thomas. ..Calveley, Tarporley

7Scragg, William... Great Clacton, Colchester
+Scratton, D. R....Prittlewell Priory, Rochford
Scratton, Rev. Thomas Scott...Terrace, Southend
Scriven, George. ..Castle Ashby, Northampton
Scudamore, Lt.-Col.,..Kentechurch Court, Hereford
Seal, Charles Wm....Leighdelamere, Chippenham
Seamark, Richard. ..Mount St. Alban’s, Caerleon
Searson, R....Cranmore Lodge, Market Deeping
+Sebright, Sir T.G.S., Bart... .Market Street, Herts
Sedgwick, Professor...Trinity College, Cambridge
Seels, Henry John... Wainfleet Hall, Lincolnshire
Selmes, James...Tufton Pl., Northiam, Staplehurst
Senhouse, Capt. Wm....Ashby St. Ledgers, Rugby
Seppings, T. Johnson...South Creake, Fakenham
Sergeantson, Geo, John...Camp Hill, Ripon
Severn, J. P....Penybont Hall, Penybont, Radnorsh.
Seward, Samuel...Weston, Petersfield

Sexton, George... Wherstead, Ipswich

Sexton, G. Mumford... Wherstead Hall, Ipswich
+Seymer, K. H....Hanford, Blandford

Seymour, H. D., M.P...Knoyle House, Hindon, Wilts
Seymour, Col.... Windsor

Seymour, Rev. Sir J. H. C....Berkhampstead
Shackel, George...Earley Court, Reading
Shackleton, John,..Searcroft, Leeds

Shafto, Rev. J. D....BuckworthRectory, Huntingdon
Shafto, T. D....CheveneyHouse, Hunton, Maidstone
Shann, Charles... Inholes, Tadcaster

Sharp, Isaac. . .Dairyknoll, Middlesborough-on-Tees
Sharp, William J....Cop Hill, Epsom

LIX

Sharpe, James... Fawley Court, Henley-on-Thames
Sharpe, Robert. .. Hewelsfield Court, Chepstow
Sharpe, William... Mavis Enderby, Spilsby

Shaw, Alex. Nesbitt...Newhall, Fortrose, Rosshire
Shaw, Chas. Henry... Woodbine Cottage, Hackney
7~Shaw, John...Beddington Lodge, Croydon

Shaw, John... Britannia House, Banbury

Shaw, John...Huntsbury Hill, Northampton
Shaw,Rev.M...Rougham Rectory,Bury St.Edmund’s
Shaw, William, ..Cold Norton, Stone, Staffordshire
Shaw, William. ..Far Coton, Northampton

7Shawe, R.F....Brantingham Hall, Hull

Shawe, Samuel Pole...Maple Hayes, Lichfield
Shearer, B. P....Swanmore House, Bishop's Waltham
Sheffield, Earl of. ..Sheffield Park, Uckfield
Sheffield, Sir R., Bt.... Normanby, Brigg, Lincolnsh.
7Sheild, W. H....Landawke,Langharne, Carmarthen
Sheldon, H. J.... Brailes House, Shipston-on-Stour
Sheldon, John...Western Hill, Durham

+Sheldon, Jonathan...Ensham, Oxford

Sheldrake, E....Ixworth, Thorpe, Bury St.Edmund’s
Shepherd, Edw....Bovington Farm, Wool, Wareham
Sheppard, J. G,...Ashe High Ho., Wickham Market
+Sherard, P. C....Glatton, Stilton, Hunts

Sherborn, Francis...Bedfont, Middlesex

Sherborn, Francis, jun....Bedfont, Middlesex
Sherbrooke, H. Porter. ..Oxton, Southwell, Notts
Sheridan, R.B.,M.P.... Frampton Ct.,Dorchester, Dor-
Sherrard, Jas. Corry... Kinnersley Manor, Reigate
Sherriff, William...Treworgan, Llangarren, Ross
Shingler, Hugh...Hopesay, Aston-on-Clune, Salop
Shittler, John...Elston, Devizes

Shittler, Wm. Rowden. ..Bishopstone, Salisbury
Short, Thomas... Martin, Bawtry

Shorten, Chas. Thomas...Ipswich

+Shubrick, Maj.-Gen....The Grove, Leatherhead
+Shuter, James. ..Crookham, Newbury
+Shuttleworth, Joseph...Newland House, Lincoln
Sibley, R....Annable’s Farm, Harpenden, Herts
Sibthorpe, Major, M.P....Canwick House, Lincoln
Sidney, S....St. Alban’s Cottage, Northend, Fulham
Sikes, John...Sudbury, Suffolk

Sill, Rev. J. P.... Witheringsett Rectory, Stoneham
Sills, William, ..Casthorpe, Grantham

7Sillifant, John...Coombe, Copplestone, Devon
Silver, Rev. F...,Norton-in-Hales, Market Drayton
Simcoe, Rev. H. A....Penheale, Launceston .
Simeon, Sir J., Bart... .Swainston, Isle of Wight
Simmons, Thos....East Peckham, Tonbridge, Kent
Simon, James...Greenfield, Holywell, Flintshire
Simonds, W. Barrow...Abbott’s Barton, Winchester
+Simonds, J. Cabourne...Fishtoft, Boston
+Simonds, Thomas... Marske, Redcar

Simpson, Alex....Teawig, Beanly, Invernesshire
Simpson, Alexander. ..Bridgnorth

Simpson, Benjamin Soulby... Boston

Simpson, E. Thornhill...Walton, Wakefield
Simpson, H. Bridgman...Babworth, Retford, Notts
Simpson, John...Pyle Inn, Bridgend

Simpson, John...Pinner Park, Middlesex

Simpson, John...Pottersbury, Stony Stratford
Simpson, Joseph...Spoffoith Park, Weatherby
+Simpson, Pinder. ,.29, Saville Row, W.

LX List of Members of the

Simpson, Rich.,..The Cliffe, Douglas, Isle of Man
Simpson, S, W.... North Laiths, Rufford, Oilerton
Simpson, Thos....High Street, Lincoln

Sims, W. Dyllwyn...Ipswich

Sinclair, John...Glenurquhach, Inverness

Sisson, John... Plascock, St. Asaph

Sisson, Robert James...Talardy, St. Asaph
Sitwell, Rev. H. W....Dunchurch

Sitwell, Robert Sacheverill...Merley, Derby
Skelton, Spencer...Sutton Bridge, Wisbeach
Skelton, W...Sutton Bndge, Long Sutton, Lincolnsh,
Skillicorne, W. Nash...Cheltenham

Skipworth, W....South Kelsey, Brigg

Skirving, William. ..15, Queen Square, Liverpool
7Slade, A. F....k&emmal House, Chislehurst
Sladen, Joseph. ..Hartsbourne Manor, Bushey Heath
Sladen, St. Barbe...14, Parliament Street, S.W.
Slaney, W. H....Hatton Grange, Shiffuall

Slater, Cyrus...Dunkirk, Holmes Chapel

Slater, George... Little Waldon, Saffron Walden
Slater, Martin. ..Weston Colville, Newmarket
Slator, Thomas... Market Place, Boston

Slatter, William...Stratton, Cirencester

Sleigh, Holmes, ..Ellerton Grange, Newport, Salop
Sly, Wm. Walter... West Haddon Lodge, Rugby
Smallbones, G. B....Sternickel & Lintenis, Vienna
Smallpiece, Job...Compton, Guildford

Smart, G.... Woodhouse Grange, Aberford, Milford
Smart, Major George John... Tumby, Boston
Smart, William Lynn.,.Linden, Wobum
Smedley, C. E. B....The Grange, Revesby, Boston
Smijth, Sir William Bowyer,Bt.... Hill Hall, Epping
Smith, Abel... Woodhall Park, Hertford

Smith, Apsley...Baxterley Hall, Atherstone
tSmith, Augustus...Ashlyns Hall, Berkhampstead
Smith, Charles Edward...84, Eccleston Square
tSmith, Sir Chas. Cunliffe W....Suttons, Romford
Smith, Charles H....Foxhole Colliery, Swansea
7Smith, C. R....Southrop Ho., Fairford, Gloucesters.
Smith, D., jun....Martley Hall, Wickham Market
+Smith, Edw....Ratcliffe-on-Trent

+Smith, Edward James...14, Whitehall Place, S.W.
Smith, Felix...Upton Bishop, Ross

Smith, George... The Luham, Penrith

Smith, Graham...Easton Grey Hall, Malmesbury
Smith, G. P.... Lower Eaton House, Hereford
Smith, Geo, Robt....Selsdon Park, Croydon

Smith, Henry Abel... Welford, Nottingham
Smith, Henry...Drax Abbey, Selby, Yorkshire
Smith, Henry Trefusis...Devonport

Smith, Hen...New House, Sutton Maddock, Shiffnal
Smith, Henry...Brierly Hill, Dudley

Smith, Hugh...Pudlicott House, Enstone, Oxon
Smith, James...Stanstead, Chichester

Smith, Jeremiah. ..Springfield, Rye

Smith, J. A....Bradford Peverell, Dorchester
Smith, J. Metcalf...Leeds

Smith, John...Welton Garth, Hull

Smith, John...Fradswell Hall, Stone, Staffordshire
Smith, John...Crownthorpe, Wymondham

Smith, John... Marton Lodge, Bridlington

Smith, Jolin.. -Sevenhampton, Andoversford
+Smith, John James...Down House, Blandford

Smith, John Kennedy... Radbrook Villa, Shrewsbury
Smith, John Philip...Wick, Worcester

Smith, Rev. John Tetley... Repton, Burton-on-Trent
Smith, John T....Thornby Grange, Guilsborough
Smith, Joseph. ..Henley-in-Arden

Smith, Martin T., M.P....13, Upper Belgrave St.S.W.
Smith, M, Parker. ..Cefn Isla, Usk, Monmouthshire
Smith, Richard Booth...Huxley Farm, Edmonton
Smith, Robert...Heath Farm, St. Alban’s

Smith, Robert...Emmett’s Grange, South Molton
Smith, Robert Thursfield... Whitchurch, Salop
Smith, Thomas Robert. ..Shareshill, Wolverhampton
Smith, Thomas. ..Colebrook Park, Tunbridge
Smith, Rev. S.,...Lois Weedon Vicarage, Towcester
+Smith, Sir Wm., Bt....Eardiston House, Worcester
Smith, William...West Rasen, Spital, Lincolnshire
+Smith, William...Winchcomb, Gloucestershire
TSmith, William...Bibury, Fairford

Smith, William... Littlehales, Newport, Shropshire
Smith, William... Kettering

+Smith, W. B....Ranelagh Villas, Leamington
Smithers, William...Sondes Place Farm, Dorking
Smyth, James...PeasenhalJ, Witham

Smyth, John George...Heath Hal), Wakefield
Smyth, William...Little Houghton, Northampton
Smyth, Rev. William...South Elkinstone, Louth
+Smythies, Carleton,..Roman Hill, Colchester
+Smythies, George... Leintwardine, Salop :
7Snell, John F,...Great Bardfield Lodge, Braintree
Snewing, Charles... Watford

7Snoulten, Osborne... Woodville Hall, Dover

Snow, Rey. George D’Oyley...

Snowdon, William. ..Longford, Gloucester

Soames, Daniel W....Pinner, Watford

Somerset, J., M.D...Manor House, Milton, Pewsey
+Somerville, J. C....Dinder Ho., Wells, Somersetsh.
Souley, W....Kirby Moorside, Yorkshire

Sowerby, Francis...Aylesby, Great Grimsby

Spain, George... Hackling, Sandwich

Spanton, Robert... Little Thorns Farm, Swaffham
Spark, William...Shilton House, Coventry

Sparke, Alfred...Thorn Lane Foundry, Norwich
+Sparks, William...Crewkerne

Speakman, Thomas,..Doddington Park, Nantwich
Spearing, John B.,.,Moulsford, Wallingford
Spearing, William...Kennett, Marlborough
Spearman, H. J....Burn Hall, Durham

Spencer, Capt....Distington, Whitehaven

Spencer, Earl... Althorp, Northampton

Spencer, Edward. ,.Bircher, Leominster

Spencer, Francis...Claybrooke, Lutterworth
Spencer, J. W., jun.... Whorlton Hall, Newe.-on-T.
Spencer, Samuel, ..Snarestone, Ashby-de-la-Zouch
Spicer, J. William...Esher Place, Esher

Spill, George...Old Farm House, Stepney Green
Spinks, Abraham... West Bilney, Lynn

Spooner, Prof. C,...Roy. Veter. College, St. Pancras
Spooner, Thomas... Burton-upon-Trent

Spooner, Richard, M.P....Birmingham

Spooner, William Charles...Southampton

Spragge, Francis Hoare...Octon House, Torquay
Squier, Samuel W....Horndon on the Hill, Essex
Squire, Edward Fred....Cross Hall, St. Neots |

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Stable, Robert Scott...The Park, Wanstead
+Stables, W. A... .Cawdor Castle, Nairnshire, N.B.
Stacy, Wm....West St. Helen's, Abingdon

Stainton, Jolin...Dalby, Spilsby

Stallard, Jos....Redmarley, Newent, Gloucestersh.
+Standish, W. Standish... Duxbury Park, Chorley
Stane, John Bramston...Forest Hall, Ongar
Stanford, Walter...Parham, Storrington, Sussex
Stanford, W., jun....Steyning Court Farm, Steyning
Stanhope, J. B., M,P....Reresby Abbey, Horncastle
Stanier, J. E....Uppington, Wellington, Salop
Staniforth, Rev. Thos....Storr's Hall, Windermere
Stanley, Edward...14, Grosvenor Square, W.
Stanley, Lord, M.P....Knowsley, Prescot

Stanley, Henry...Upton, Shiffnall

Stanley, W.H. S., jun... .21,Curzon St., May Fair, W.
Stansfeld, H, Hamer...10, Basinghall Street, E.C.
Stansfield, W. R. C....Eshott Hall, Leeds

Stark, Michael J....Duke’s Palace Bridge, Norwich
Starkey, Major L. C.... Wrenbury Hall, Nantwich
+Starkey, J. Bayntun...Spye Park, Chippenham
Starmer, Chas....Hogsthorpe Rectory, Alford, Linc.
Statham, Rey. R. J....Rectory, Tarporley

Stawell, Col. A....Kilbrittain, Bandon, Cork
Stearn, Samuel G....Brandestone, Wickham Market
Statter, Thomas. ..Knowsley Hall, Bury, Lancashire
Stead, Titus Bennett... Leeds

+Stedman, Ja....Lucton, Leominster

Stedman, Robert...Great Bookham, Leatherhead
Stedman, Wm....Bedstone Hall, Aston, Shrewsbury
Steedman, Joseph...Meriden, Coventry

Stenning, Edward., .Stratton House, Godstone
Stenning, William...Halsford, East Grinstead
Stenton, Henry Cawdron...Southwell

Stephens, Charles...Earley Court, Reading
Stephens, E....Trewornan, Wadebridge, Cornwall
Stephens, Rev. Ferd. T....St. Mawgan, Cornwall
Stephens, H. L,...Tregenna Castle, Hayne, Cornwall
Stephens, J....23, Eastbourne Terr., Hyde Park, W,
+Stephens, Robert...Ive’s Place, Maidenhead
Stephens, S. J....5, Charlotte Street, Portland Place
Stephenson, Marshall... Fourstones, Hexham
Sterriker, John... Driffield

+Stevens, John...Holywell Street, Oxford

Stevens, J. Curzon Moore... Winscott, Torrington
+Stevens, Rev. T....Bradfield Rectory, Reading
Stevens, William Carr... Marsh Lane, Walthamstow
+Stevenson, Capt. C. B....Hennor House,Leominster
Steward, A. Benn...Chapel House, Whitehaven
Steward, Charles...Thurleston Lodge, Ipswich
+Steward, Chas....Blundeston, Lowestoft

Stewart, A ...Barton House, Gloucester

Stickney, William. ..Ridgemont, Hull

Stilgoe, Henry...Chapel Ascot, Southam

Stillwell, J. J. R....Fairfield, Chiddingfold, Surrey
+Stirling, William, M.P....Keir House, Perthshire
Stobart, John H....Wilton-le-Weir, Darlington
Stock, S.... Blackley Hurst, St. Helen's, Lancashire
Stocker, J. P....93, Oxford Terrace

Stokes, Charles...Kingston, Kegworth, Derby
Stone, John S,...Newport, Monmouthshire

Stone, N. Chamberlain...Ayleston Hall, Leicester
+Stoneham, Frederick, ,.Crayford

LXI

Stonehewer, W.S., jun.... Brunswick Terr., Brighton
Stopford, W. Bruce...Drayton House, ‘Thrapstone
Storer, C., M.D....Lowdham Grange, Nottingham
Story, J. B....Lockington Hall, Derby

Stow, Arthur...Bredon, Tewkesbury

+Stowey, Augustus...Kenbury House, Exeter
+Stracey, Henry J....Rackheath Hall, Norwich
Strachan, J. M....Teddington Grove, S.W.
Strafford, Henry...13, Euston Square, N.W.
Strangway, Henry Bull...Shapwick, Bath

Straw, Fred....Stones Place, Skellingthorpe, Linc.
Strathallan, Vise... .Strathallan Castle, Auchterarder
Stratton, George...Spinnymoor House, Durham
+Stratton, J. Locke...Turveston House, Brackley
Stratton, Richard...Broad Hinton, Swindon

Strelly, Richard Clayton... Buckland Hollow, Belper
Streeter, William. ..Sanderstead, Croydon
Strickland, Walter...Cokethorpe Park, Witney
7Strickland, Chas. William...Boynton, Bridlington
Strode, Geo. S.... Newnham Park, Plympton, Devon
Stronge, Thomas. ..Cirencester

+Stuart, Lt.-Col. Wm., M.P....Kempston, Bedford
Stubbes, Walter. ..Beckbury, Shiffnall

Stubbs, Chas....Preston Hill, Penkridge

Stubbs, John... Weston Hall, Stafford

Stuckey, H....Drayton, Curry Revell, Taunton
Sturgeon, Charles...South Ockenden Hall, Romford
Sturgess, Thomas... Penshurst, Tunbridge

+Sturt, Hen. Chas,, M.P....46, New Bond Street, W.
Stutfield. W....Hildersham Rookery, Cambridgesh.
Suffolk, Earl of. ..Charlton, Malmesbury

Summers, G....Winterborne Houghton, Blandford
Sumner, Rev. C. V. H....Ringwould Rectory, Dover
Surman, J. Surman...Swindon Hall, Cheltenham
+Surtees, Henry Edward...Dane End, Ware
Surtees, Robert L....Redworth House, Darlington
+Sutherland} Duke of...Trentham Park, Newe.-u-L,
7Sutton, John...Moston Manor, Sandbach

+Sutton, Martin Hope...Portland Place, Reading
Swaffield, Benj....Pilsbury, Ashborne, Derbyshire
Swaflield, Samuel...Ampthill Park, Bedfordshire
Swale, William...Town Hall, Leeds

Swan, W. R....Walls’ End, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Swann, George... York

+Swete, John B....Oxton House, Exeter

Swinburne, T. W....Winchcomb, Gloucestershire
Swinnerton, Robert...Weddington, Nuneaton
Sworder, H....Hallingbury Hall, Bishop Stortford
Sworder, J....West Mill, Bury, Buntingford, Herts
Sworder, William...Tawney Hall, Romford, Essex
Sydney, Viscount...Frognal, Footscray, Kent
Sykes, Edmund...Mansfield Woodhouse, Notts
Sykes, John...Croes Howell, Wrexham, Denbighsh,
+Sykes, Sir Tatton, Bart....Sledmere, Malton
Symonds, Thomas Powell...Pengethy, Ross
Symons, Thomas George...Mynde Park, Ross
+Synge, Francis Hutchinson... Dysart, co. Clare

4h

Tabley, Lord de...Tabley House, Knutsford
Tabrum, Litchfield...Boishall, Brentwood
+Talbot, Henry...Cocktield Hall, Sudbury

LXII

Talbot, C. R. M., M.P....Margarn, Glamorganshire }
Talbot de Malahide, Lord...Malahide Cas., Dublin
Talbot, Wm....Lane House, Burton, Westmoreland
Talbot, Wm. H....Scarisbrooke Hall, Ormskirk
Tallant, Francis... Bushey Grove Farm, Watford
Tanner, Henry...South Hill Farm, Southmolton
Tanner, Joseph... Mudeford House, Christchurch
+Tanner, William...Patcham, Brighton

Tanton, E....Hill Farm, Torrington, Devon
‘Tasker, William... Waterloo Iron Works, Andover
Tattersall, E....1,Tattersall’s Yd.,Grosvenor PL.,S.W.
Tattersall, John...Great Ealing, W.

Tatton, ‘I’. W....Wythenshawe Hall, Manchester
Taunton, William...Redlynch, Salisbury

Tawney, A.R....Banbury

+Taylor, Chas. H....Bamburgh Friars, Belford
Taylor, Frederick...Worcester Park, Ewell

Taylor, F. M.S....Castle Taylor, Ardrahan, Galway
Taylor, George... Dudley, Staffordshire

+Taylor, George Wdward...Oatlands, Leeds

Taylor, James...Stretford Court, Leominster
7+Taylor, J....Burnfoot House, Wigton, Cumberland
Taylor, Jolin...Moreton Hall, Whalley, Blackburn
Taylor, John...Aston Clinton, Tring

+Taylor, Joseph. ..Bishop’s Stortford

Taylor, Mark...Cleeve, Goring, Reading -

+Taylor, R...6, Queen St. Pl., Upper Thames Street
Taylor, R. P....Adelaide Pl., London Bridge, E.C.,
+Taylor, Sam....Eccleston Hall, Prescot, Lancashire
+Taylor, S. W., M.P....Erchfort Manor Ho., Devizes
Taylor, Thomas...Burleigh Villa, Wellington, Salop
Taylor, T'. Loombe...Starston, Harleston, Norfolk
Taylor, W....Showle Court, Stoke Edith, Hereford
Taylor, William...Pool House, Groby, Leicester
Taylor, William...Thingehill Court, Hereford
Tayton, William. ..Syderstone, Fakenham
+Tempest, C. Henry...Broomlands, Nantwich
Tempest, F. Roger...Ackworth Grange, Pontefract
Tempest, Sir C.... Broughton Hall, Skipton, Yorkshire
Temple, Edward...Saltergill, Yarm, Yorkshire
+Templemore, Lord. .Dunnoby Pk.,Wexford, Ireland
Templeton, Andrew...Lismanny, Ballinasloe
Tench, John...Ludlow, Salop

Tennant, John...Riddings, Long Preston, Leeds
Tennant, Joseph Mason...Headingley, Leeds
Tennant, J. R....Kildwick Hall, Skipton, Yorkshire
Tennant, Thomas...Bleuheim Terrace, Leeds
Terry, Rey. Stephen...Dummer, Basingstoke
Thackeray, Capt....Junior United Serv. Club, S.W.
Thackwell, John Cam... Dymock, Gloucestershire
+Thew, Edward...Lesbury House, Alnwick
Thomas, David...Brecon

Thomas, Edward...The Farm, Bledfa, Radnorshire
Thomas, E. David... Welfield House, Builth, Brecon
Thomas, F. H....Hereford

Thomas, George...18, Redcliff Street, Bristol
+Thomas, G. T..,.Ermatingen, Thurgovie, Switzerl.
Thomas, John... Bletsoe, Bedford

Thomas, L, H....Caerffynnon, Talsarna, Carnarvon
Thomas, R. Goring... Lllysnewydd, Carmarthen
Thomas, Rees...Dolellan, Llandyssell, Carmarthen
Thomas, Thomas...St. Hilary, Cowbridge
{Thomar,Rey. W. J...Llan Thomas,Hay,Herefordsh,

List of Members of the

Thomasson, William,..Barnby Moor, East Retford
Thompson, Alexander...Kirknewton, Wooler
Thompson, Andrew. ..Keele, Newcastle-under-Lyne
Thompson, Anthony...Cross, Whitehaven
Thompson, G. A...,Kirkhouse, Brampton, Cumber.
Thompson, Henry A....Lewes

Thompson, John... Paston, Coldstream

Thompson, John. ..Badminton, Chippenham
Thompson, John B....Anlaby, Hull

Thompson, Matt... .Kirkby Stephen, Westmoreland
Thompson, Leonard... Sheriff Hutton Park, York
Thompson, W....12, Dunsford Place, Bathwick, Bath
Thompson, William...Weymouth

Thompson, W., jun....Thorpe-le-Soken, Colchester ,
Thomson, Guy...Old Bank, Oxford

Thomson, R. J.,..Grange, Kilmarnock

Thorn, James...Brackinburgh, Penrith

Thornes, Joseph...Green House, Ossett, Wakefield
Thornhill, George... Diddington, Huntingdon
Thornhill, Obadiah...Barthomley, Crewe
7Thornhill, T....Riddlesworth Hall, Thetford
Thornhill, Wm. Capel Clarke...Rushton, Kettering
7Thornhill, W. P., M.P....Stanton Hall, Bakewell
Thornton, C. George...Marden Hill, Hertford
Thornton, Harry...Turvey, Newport Pagnell
+Thorold, Richard. ..Weelsby Hall, Grimsby
Thorpe, R. H....Temple, Selby

+Thorp, Thomas...Alnwick, Northumberland
+Thorp, Arch. T....Kemerton Rectory, Tewkesbury
Thorpe, J. Cole...Otley Ho., Walesby, Market Rasen
+Thorpe, John...Market Bosworth, Hinckley
Thoyts, Mortimer G,...Sulhampstead House,Reading
Thresher, F. Rich,...Marsh Ho.,Bentley, Farnham
Thring, Robert...9,’Whitehall Place, S.W.
+Throckmorton, Sir R. G.,Bt.... Buckland, Faringdon
+Thurlow, T. Lyon...Baynard Park, Guildford
7Thurnhall, Henry...Royston, Herts

Thursby, Rev. F....Abingdon Rectory, Northampton
Thynne, F. George...Fleaford Lodge, Guildford
Tiffen, Joseph...North Skirlaugh, Hull

+Tighe, Rt. Hon. Wm. F....Inistioge, Ireland
Tilden, John...Ifield Court, Gravesend

7Tillard, Philip...Great Stukeley Hall, Huntingdon
Timm; Joseph...Champion Hill, Camberwell, S.
Timmis, Richard...Darlington St., Wolverhampton
Tindall, Frederick...Preston, Faversham

Timson, Rev. Edward...Tachbury, Southampton
Tinkler, Robert... Penrith

Tinne, John A....Briarley, Aigburth, Liverpool
Tippler, Wm., jun....Roxwell, Chelmsford

+Todd, John..,Mireside, Wigton, Cumberland
+Tollemache, H. B....Junior United Service Club
Tollemache, J., M.P....Tilston Lodge, Tarporley
Tombs, J. King... Lanford, Lechlade

Tomkinson, William...Neweastle, Staffs.

Tomlin, H. Currer... Easthampstead, Wokingham ~
Tomline, Col. G., M.P....1, Carlton House Terrace
Tomlinson, Capt. Frederick W....Leamington
Tomlinson, J. Edward...Whitbach, Ludlow, Salop
Tomlinson, Wm....Biggins House, Kirby Lonsdale
Tompson, Edw. C. S....Dromenagh, Iver, Bueks
Tompson, H. Kett...Witchingham Hall, Norwich
Tompson, R, James...Cowley Peachey, Uxbridge

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Tomson, Jaroes...Barnt Green, Bromsgrove

Tonge, Charles. ..Branston, Lincoln

Tonge, W.,sen....Moranto Court Farm, Sevenoaks
Tooke, William...12, Russell Square, W.C.
Toomer, G. Edw....Hoaden House, Ash, Sandwich
Toplis, James. ..Boxted Farm, Colchester

Torr, William...Avlesby, Great Grimsby

Toulson, John Parker...Skipwith Hall, Selby
Tovey, Robert... Fairford

Towell, Samuel... Rutland House, Newmarket
Tower, Christopher T....Weald Hall, Brentwood
Towgood, Edward...St. Neot’s, Hunts

Townley, Rey. Gale... Beaupre Hall, Wisbeach’
Townsend, G. Barnard. ..The Close, Salisbury
Townsend, Hen....Rydinghurst, Cranley, Guildford
+Townsend, Thomas. ..Hillmorton, Rugby
+Townsend, Rev, C. G. G....Hatfield Peverel
Townsend,W. H...Strontian House, Cotham, Bristol
‘Townshend, Charles. ..Pulford, Chester
Townshend, G. H....Stoney Stanton, Hinckley
Traherne, G. M....St. Hilary, Glamorganshire
Trebeck, Thomas. ..Southwell

Treby, Henry Hele..,Goodamoor, Plympton, Devon
Treby, Paul Ourry...Goodamoor, Plympton, Devon
Tredwell, John...Leigham Court, Brixton Hill
+Tredegar, Lord...Tredegar Park, Newport
Tredwell, T....St. John’s Lodge, Upper Norwood
+Treherne, Morgan...Gate House, Hurst Green
Trehonnais, R. F. dela...Central Hill, Up. Norwood
Trench, Henry...Cangort Park, Roserea, Ireland
Trench, W. S.. . Essex Castle, Carrickmacross,Ireland
Trethewy, Henry...Grampound

Trethewy, Henry, jun....Silsoe, Beds

Trevelyan, Sir W. C.,Bt.... Wallington, Newe.-on-T.
Trimmer, Charles...Alton, Hants

Trinder, Edward. ..Cirencester

Tripp, Arthur S....Esgair Hall, Shrewsbury
Trollope, Sir J., Bart., M.P....Caswick, Stamford
Trood, Edward... Matford House, Exminster
Trotter, Thomas...Bywell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Trower, Capt. E.S....Stansteadbury, Ware
Trumper, Edward...Nuneham Park, Oxford
+Tryon, T....Bulwick, Wansford, Northamptonshire
Tuck, Rey. G.R....Blofield, Norwich

Tuck, Henry...Shirley, Ringwood

+Tucker, Henry...Bourton Ho , Shrivenham, Berks
Tuckett, P. D., jun....33, Holford Sq., King's Cross
+Tudor, Geo. S....Park House, Lapley, Penkridge
Tull, Henry...Crookham, Newbury

Tull, Richard...Crookham, Newbury

Turnbull, John George...2, Upton Park, Slough
7Turnbull, Rev. T. S.... Blofield, Norfolk

Turner, E. R. T....St. Peter’s Tron Works, Ipswich
Turner, Fred.,..St. Peter's Iron Works, Ipswich
Turner, George...Barton, Exeter

+Turner, Lieut.-Col. F. Henry...Gouray, Jersey
Turner, J. Singer...Chyngton Farm, Seaford, Lewes
Turner, J....Fen Place, Worth, Crawley, Sussex
Turner, J.H....Little Horringer, Bury St. Edmund’s
Turner, Philip...The Leen, Pembridge, Herefordsh.
Turner, P. Henry...Whitlocksworthy, Kingsbridge
7Turner, W. Beckett...Penleigh House, Westbury }
¢Turnor, Christopher, M.P....Stoke, Grantham ,

LXIII

Turnor, Michael...Brereton, Rugeley

Turvill, G....Manor Farm, East Shalford, Guildford
Tuxford, Jos. Shephard... -Skirbeck, Boston
Tuxford, Weston... Boston

Tuxford, William Weld...Boston

Tweddle, John...Askerton Castle, Cumberland
Twining, F....Parbold Hall, Wrigtington, Wigan
Twitchell, Thomas... Willington, Bedford

Tyacke, James...Bonallack, Constantine, Cornwall
Tylden, Lt.-Col. Sir J....Milsted, Sittingbourne
Tyler, John...Layton, Essex

Tyler, Rev. R. T....Llantrithyd, Cowbridge
Tyrell, Sir J. T., Bart....Boreham Ho., Chelmsford
Tyrrell, John...New Court, Topsham, Devon

U.

Umbers, Abraham... Weston Hall, Leamington
yUmbers, Edward...Wappenbury, Leamington
Umbers, Samuel...Wappenbury, Leamington
+Umfreville, S. C.... Ingress Abbey, Greenhithe
Underwood, Joseph...Blackheath Park, S.E.
Unsworth, John. ..The Thorn, Penrith

Unthank, John...Netherules, Penrith
y;Upperton, Robert. ..35, Steyne, Brighton
Upton, Hon.Col. G.F..27,George St. Hanover Sq.W.
Upton, H., jun....Aldwick, Bognor, Sussex
Upward, A....36, Duncan Terrace, Islington
Urwick, Edward...Felton, Ludlow, Salop

7 Usedom, the Baron yon...Berlin

Vi

Vaisey, Thomas. . .Stratton, Cirencester

Vaizey, George De Horne...Halstead, Essex
Vallance, James. ..Hurstpierpont

Valle, Conde Del... Vergana Gurpoisea, Spain
Vallentine, R....Bureott Lo. Fm., Leighton Buzzard
Valpy, Robert Harris...Enborne, Newbury
Vanderstegen, W. H....Cane End House, Henley
+Vane, Rev. John...Dulwich

Varnell, G. W....R.V. College, Camden Town, N.W.
Vaughan, H. Gwyn...Cynghordy, Llandovery, S.W.
Vaughan, John W....Velin Newidd House, Brecon
+Vaughan, Nash V. E....Rhesta, Neath, Glamorg.
Vaughan, William Brettell...Ludlow

+Vaux, Lord, of Harrowden...Highams, Bagshot
+Vavasour, Sir H, M....Ickwell Bury, Biggleswade}
Vetch, Jas., jun.... Exotic Nurseries, Chelsea, S.W.
7Vere, John...Carlton-upon-Trent, Newark, Notts
+Verney, Sir H.,Bt.,M.P....Claydon House, Winslow
7Vernon, Hon. A.H....Sudbury, Derby

Vernon, G. H....Grove Hall, East Retford, Notts
Vernon, Hon.& Rev.J.V....Nuttall Rec., Nottingham
Verrall, Richard Relfe...New Hall, Hurstpierpont}
+Vevers, Charles...Ivington Park, Leominster
Vevers, J. Brace... Yarkhill Court, Ledbury

Viall, King...Stoke, Clare, Suffolk

Vickers, Thomas...Ardwick Green, Manchester
+Vickers, V....Ellerton Grange, Newport, Salop
Villar, James,..Charlton Kings, Cheltenham
Villiers, Hon. F, W.C....Welford,Northamptonshire
Vincent, H. Wm,...Thornwood Lodge, Kensington

LXIV

Vincent, James. ..Clifton Maybank, Yeovil

Vivian, Lord...Glynn, Bodmin

Vivian, George...11, Upper Grosvenor Street, W.
+Voile, Thomas...Frolesworth, Lutterworth

Voss, Wm.... West Bucknowle, Corfe Castle, Dorset

W.

Waddingham, J...Guiting Grange, Winchcomb
Waddington, John Horsey... Langrish, Petersfield
Waddington, H.S., M.P....Cavenham, Mildenhall
Wade, R....58, Upper Seymour St., Portman Sq,,W.
Wade, R. Craven...Clonbranie, Crossakeile, Meath
Wagener, G.H. M....77, Marine,St. Leonard’s-on-Sea
Wagstaff, Thomas... West Ham, E.

Wainman, W. Bradley...Carhead, Crosshills, Leeds
Wainwright, C. Rawlinson...Shepton Mallet
Wakefield, George... Minworth, Birmingham
Wakefield, John...Sedgwick House, Kendal
Waldy, Edward...Barmpton, Darlington

Walker, D. M....Gloucester

Walker, Elisha... Brereton, Sandbach

Walker, Frederick James...Sandhutton, York
Walker, George Henry...Newbold Grange, Rugby
Walker, G. J. Alexander...Norton, Worcester
Walker, James. ..Northleach

Walker, John... Westfield House, Holmer, Hereford
Walker, John...Bradley Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Walker, John Deverell...Nottingham

+Walker, John...Mount St. John, Thirsk

Walker, John...Newton Bank, Chester

Walker, John...15, Lonsdale Square, Islington
Walker, Joseph Need...Calderstone, Liverpool
Walker, Ormerod Oliver... Bury, Lancashire
Walker, Lawrence...12, Bryanston Square, W.
Walker, SirE. S., Knt....Berry Hill, Mansfield
Walker, Thomas... Yanworth, Northleach

Walker, Thomas...Hall Cross House, Doncaster
+Walker,Wm. H...38, Sackville Street, London, W.
Wallace, John...Houghton, Stockbridge, Hants
Waller, H. S.... Farmington, Northleach

Waller, Thomas...Sutton Hall, Woodbridge
Wallington, George... Wellesbourne, Warwickshire
Wallis, Arthur. ..Basingstoke

Wallis, Edward...Garrett Lane, Wandsworth, S.W.
Wallis, George... Henton Waldridge, Faringdon
Wallis, O....Overstone Grange, Northampton
Wallis, Samuel... Barton Seagrave, Kettering
Walmsley, George... Rudston, Burlington, Yorkshire
+Walmesley, Richard...Standerwick Court, Frome
Walrond, J. Walrond... .Bradfield, Collumpton
Walter, John...Borden, Sittingbourne

Walter, Stephen...West Farleigh, Maidstone
Walter, William... Rainham, Sittingbourne
Walters, William. ..Haverfordwest

Walters, Jolin...10, Irongate, Derby

+Walters, Thomas...Albany Ho,, Old Kent Rd., S.
Warburton, Rowland E.E....Arley Hall, Northwich
Ward, David...Iron Works, Melford, Sudbury
Ward, G. B....Great Bentley, Colchester

Ward, John...East Mersea, Colchester

Ward, Wm, Squire... Wellow Hall, Ollerton, Notts
Ware, Jas. Thomas, ..51, Russell Square, W.C.

List of Members of the

Waring, William. ..Chelsfield, Kent

Warman, Robert...Idstone, Shrivenham, Berks
Warner, C. Boreham...8, Crescent, Jewin St., B.C.
+Warner, George...Priory, Hornsey, N.

Warner, Henry, jun....Hawkley, Petersfield
Warner,H.J.L.,jun. ..Walsingham Abbey,Fakenham
Warner, J...Tixall Hall Farm, Gt. Iaywood,Stafford
Warner, Thomas...47, Sussex Square, Brighton
Warre, Henry...23, Chester Terr., Eaton Sq., S.W.
+Warren, Rev. J.C. B....Horkesley Hall, Colchester
+Warren, R. A....Preston Place, Arundel, Sussex
Warry, George...Shapwick, Glastonbury

Warsop, John...Aleonbury Hill, Huntingdon
Warter, H. de Grey...Oruch Meole Ho., Shrewsbury
Wartnaby, John R....Clipston, Northamptonshire
Wason, Rigby...Covwor, Grivan, Ayrshire
Waterhouse, Samuel... Halifax

Waterpark, Lord...Doveridge Hall, Uttoxeter
Waters, Edward. ..Stratford Sub-Castle, Salisbury
Waters, John... Eastbourne

Waters, Robert...Saman, Carmarthen

Waters, William...Wighton, Walsingham, Norfolk
+ Watkins, J. G.... Woodfield, Ombersley, Worcester
Watkins, Col. Lloyd V., M.P....Pennoyre, Brecon
Watkinson, Wm....New Market, Louth

Watney, Daniel...26, Poultry, E.C.

Watson, Henry...Londenthorp, Grantham

Watson, Henry G,...123, George Street, Edinburgh
Watson, John... Kendal

Watson, John...Shirburn Castle, Tetsworth
Watson, R. Huxham...Dorsley Farm, Totnes
Watson, Col. Wm....31, Great Cumberland Pl., W.
Watt, Gibson J. Wm....Doldolowe, Radnorshire
Watts, T. Copson...The Priory, Wolston, Coventry
Watton, G. B....Hall Farm, Longden, Shrewsbury
Way, Lewis...Spencer Grange, Gt. Yeldham, Essex
Way, L. A....Alderbourne, Gerrard's Cross, Bucks
Wayne, T. M.... Manor Ho.,S.Warnborough, Odiham
Webb, Henry, jun....Chishill Hall, Saffron Walden
Webb, John...Horseheath, Cambridgeshire

Webb, Jonas...Church Farm, Babraham, Cambridge
+Webb, Richard James. ..Calcot Place, Reading
Webb, Samuel... Babraham, Cambridge

Webb, Thomas. ..Hildersham, Cambridge

Webb, Theodore Vincent. ..Caxton, Cambridge
Webb, Wm. D....Haselor, Tamworth

Webb, Wm. Frederick. ..Sion Hill, Thirsk
+Webber, Charles Henry...Buckland, Barnstaple
Webber, Thos....Halberton Court, Tiverton
+Webster, Charles...Cowley, Uxbridge

Webster, F....Marley Farm, Battle Abbey, Sussex
Webster, James...Peakirk, Market Deeping
Webster, Capt. P C. G....Hill Parsonage, Coldfield
7+Webster, Wm. Bullock...

Wedd, Octavius. ..Foulmire, Royston

Wedgwood, Geo. Arthur... Warlingham, Croydon
Wedgwood, W. R....Heavitree Park, Exeter

Weeks, Frederick...Bolney Lodge, Cuckfield

Weir, Edward. ..142, High Holborn, W.C.

Weiss, F....Bakeham House, Enylefield Green
Welby, J. Earle...Allington Hall, Grantham
Welch, Henry T....Leck Hall, Kirkby Lonsdale
Welchman, Robert F....Southam, Warwickshire

Royal Agricultural Society of England. LXV

Weld, E. J....71, Gloucester Place, Portman Sq., W.
Wellitt, W. Teale...Manby Hall, Louth

Welford, R. G....Gofl’s Oak House, Cheshunt, N.
Wellington, Duke of...Apsley Honse, Piccadilly, W.
+Wells, John...Armyn, Booth Ferry, Yorkshire
Wells, Thomas...Hampnett, Northleach

+Wells, William... Redleaf, Penshurst

+Welsh, John...Kirkton, Hawick, N. B. ,
Welstead, Fred... .The Cottage, Stonely, Kimbolton
Wemyss, J. Hay Erskine... Wemyss Castle, N. B.
+Wenlock, Lord...Escrick Park, York

Wenman, Wm. Henry... Wiston, Shiffnall
Wentworth, Godfrey... Woolley Park, Wakefield
West, J. Robert...Alscot Park, Stratford-on-Avon
West, J....Melton Ross, Brigg

West, Rev. Washbourne...Lincoln College, Oxford
West, W. H...Gliffaes, Crickhowell, Brecknockshire
+Westear, Henry...Burwood Cottage, Esher, Surrey
+Western, ‘Thomas Burch... Felix Hall, Kelvedon
Western, T. Sutton, M.P....Felix Hall, Kelvedon
Westhead, J. P. Brown...Lea Castle, Kidderminster
Wethered, George... Maidenhead

+Weston, James, jun... .Stoneleigh, Coventry
+Weyland, J....Woodrising Hall, Hingham, Norfolk
+Whalley, Chas. Lawson. ..Richmond Ho.,Lancaster
Wharton, Rev. J. C....Gilling Vic., Richmond, Yks.
+Wharton, J. Thomas. ..Skelton Castle, Guisborough
Wharton, Rey. W. F....Barningham Rect., Winstow
Wheatley, John...Neswick, Driffield

Wheble, James Joseph... Bulmerohe Court, Reading
+Wheeler, E. V....Kyrewood House, Tenbury
Whibley, Jas. William...St. Julian’s, Sevenoaks
Whinyates, Maj.-Gen. C. B....R.H Art., Woolwich
Whitaker, Joseph...Ramsdale House, Nottingham
Whitaker, Joshua... Bratton, Westbury
+Whitbread, Samuel Charles. ..22, Paton Place,S.W.
+White, Algernon Holt...Sewaid’s Hall, Harlow
+White, Henry... Warrington

+White, H. Wm....Lentran House, Inverness, N. B.
White, James... Lindons, Coleford, Monmouthshire
White, J. A....Cloatley, Hawkeston, Malmesbury
White, Rev.J...Chevington Rect, Bury St.Edmund’s
Whitear, R. B....Martyr Worthy, Winchester
Whitehead, Charles... West Farleigh, Maidstone
+Whitehead, Jeffery...2, Royal Exchange Buildings
Whitehead, J....Barnjet, West Barming, Maidstone
Whitehead, John...Preston

Whitehead, Richard... West Farleigh, Maidstone
Whiteway, W. R....Kingsbridge House, Ashburton
Whiting, Charles...Beaufort House, Strand, W.C.
Whitley, Nicholas. ..Truro

Whitlock, F....Lovingtons, Gt. Yeldham, Halstead
+Whitmore, Thos....Apley Park, Bridgnorth, Salop
7Whitmore, Thos. C., M.P....Apley Park, Shiffnall
Whitmore, William...Wickham Market

Whitnell, John. ..Crick, Northamptonshire
7Whitting, Wm.... Thorney, Peterborough

Whittle, E....Toller Fratrum, Dorchester, Dorset
Whitworth, H. B....Northampton

Whitworth, Joseph...Chorlton Street, Manchester
Whybro, Edward.,,Tottenham Green, Middlesex.
Wicks, John... Brackley Lodge, Walton-on-Thames

VOL, XXII.

+Wicksted, C....Thakenhurst, Cleobury Mortimer
Wickstead, Rev. Chas., B.A.... Hafod, St. Asaph
Widdicombe, John...Treehill, Ivybridge, Devon
Wigan, B....Lapley Breewood, Wolverhampton
Wiggins, John...Tyndales, Danbury, Essex
+Wight, J. L....Tedstone Ct., Bromyard, Hereford
Wightman, John...Chard, Somersetshire
Wightwick, Thomas Norman...Canterbury
Wigmore, John... Weston-under- Penyard, Ross
+Wilbraham, Hugh... Westport, co. Mayo, Ireland
Wilbraham,Randall...Rode Heath, Lawton,Cheshire
Wild, Samuel Bagnall... Costock, Loughborough
Wild, T. M....3, Montague Terrace, Tonbridge Wells
Wilde, George...9, New Square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
Wiley, Samuel. ..Bransby, York

Wilkins, Henry... Westbury-on-Severn, Gloucester
Wilkins, James...Corse, Gloucester

Wilkinson, George H....Harperly Park, Durham
Wilkinson, H. John... Walsham-le-Willows, Ixworth
Wilkinson, J. S....Hungerford Ho., Madeley, statis.
Wilkinson, Joseph. ..Roundhay, Leeds

Wilkinson, O. R.... Eaton Socon, Hunts

Wilkinson, Rey. J....Breughton Gifford, Melksham
Wilkinson, Rey. P. S.... Mount Oswald, Durham
Wilkinson, T. Aytoun...Kingstandale, Buxton
Wilkinson, Capt. Thos. H....Walsham, Ixworth
Wilkinson, William...Oxford

Willacy, Robert. ..Penwortham Priory, Preston
Willett, John S....Petticombe, Torrington
Williames, J. B....Glan Hafren, Garthmill, Montg.
Williames, Rev. C....Gedling Rectory, Nottingham
Williames, Chas. Crofts... Roath Court, Cardiff
Williams, David...Kinmel Farm, St. Asaph
Williams, Edward...Celyn, Northop, Flints
Williams, Rev. Edward T...Mount Balan, Chepstow
Williams, Fras. Edward...Malvern Hall, Solihull
+Williams, G....Buckland, Faringdon

Williams, Sir Hugh, Bt ...Bodelwyddan, St. Asaph
+Williams, James...Northcourt, Abingdon
Williams, Rev. James...Tring Park, Tring
Williams, John...Bank, Chester

Williams, John...Alstone, Cheltenham

Williams, John...Tynycellyn, Chirk

Williams, Philip... Wednesbury Oak, Tipton
Williams, R., jun....Bridehead, Dorchester, Dorset
Williams, T. Playfair...20, King Street, St. James's
Williams, William... Tregullow, Scorrier, Cornwall
+Williams, William...Pentraeth, Anglesea, N. W.
Williams, Wm....The Hill House, Walton, Ipswich
Williams, W. E....Pwll-y-pant, Cardiff

Williams, Rev. W. J....Glamorgan Street, Brecon
Williams, W. A....Llangibby Cas., Newpor:, Monm,
Williams, W. R....Dolgelly

7Williamson, H....Greenway Bank, Burslem, Staffs.

Willis, Joseph. ..Snoddington, Shipton, Mar] borough

+Willich, Charles M....24, Suffolk Street, Pall-Mall

Willoughby de Broke, Ld,..Compton Verney, Warw

TWilloughby, W....

Willsher, C. W....Weathersfield, Braintree

Wills, John...South Petherwyn, Launceston

Willson, Anthony, M.P....Ranceby Hall, Sleaford

Wilmot, Sir H. S., Bart....Chaddesdon Hall, Derby
E

LXVI List of Members of the

Wilson, Chas. R ...Hipsbourne, Alnwick

Wilson, Franers...Ludford, Market Rasen

Wilson, G. Edward...Dallam Tower, Milnthorpe
Wilson, Henry J....Sherwood Hall, Mansfield
Wilson, Jacob... Woodhorn Manor House, Morpeth
Wilson, Admiral John...The Howe, Windermere
+Wilson, Professor J....Iver, Bucks

+Wilson, J, ..Edington Mains, Ayton, Berwickshire
+Wilson, John...Seacroft Hall, Leeds

Wilson, J. Hewetson...The Grange, Worth, Sussex
Wilson, Matthew...Eshton Hall, Gargrave, Leeds
+Wilson, Richard... Bourton Grange, Much Wenlock
+WWilson, Richard Basset...Cliffe House, Darlington
+Wilson, ‘I’....Shortley Hall, Neweastle-upon-Tyne
Wilson, Thos, jun....20, Gloucester Sq., Hyde Park
++Wilson, Thomas Francis...Althorne, Maldon
Wilson, William... Baylham Hall, Ipswich

Wilson, William.. Berkhampstead

Wilson, William...Buleote, Nottingham
7Wimbush, Barnes. ..Finchley, N.

+ Winchester, Marquis of...Amport House, Andover
Winchelsea, Earl of... Eastwell Park, Ashford
Winder, E. H, Lyon... Vaenor Park, Shrewsbury
Wing, Thomas Twining...Goldington, Bedford
Wingfield, John. ..Onslow, Salop

Winglield, John M ...'Tickencote Hall, Stamford
Wingfield, R. Baker...2, Lowndes Square, S.W.
Winmill, 5. P....Shopland, Rochford

+Wiun, Roland...Appleby Hall, Brigg

Winnall, John... Eccleswall Court, Ross
Winnington, Sir T., Bt... .Stanford Court, Worcester
Winstanley, J. Beaumont... Braunston Ho., Leicester
+Winterbottom, Jas. E....East Woodhay, Newbury
Winthrop, Rev. Benjamin. ..Clifton, Bristol
Wippell, John... Lower Brenton, Kennford, Exeter
Wise, Henry...Feltons, Brickham, Reigate
+Witney, William... Hanover Street

Witherington, C....Bradtield, Reading
+Wodehouse, Lord... Kimberley, Wymondham
Wodehouse, W. H....Woolmers Park, Hertford
Wollaston, Major F....Shenton Hall, Nuneaton
Wollen, Joseph. ..Wedmore, Somerset

Wolton, Samuel... Kesgrave, Ipswich

+Wombwell, Sir G., Bart.... Newburgh, Easingwold
+Wood, Rt. Hon. Sir C., Bart., M.P....Doncaster
Wood, Maj. Edward A....Osmington, Weymouth
Wood, Edward...Hanger Hill, Middlesex

Wood, Col. Edward Robert...Stout Hall, Swansea
+Wood, George... Hatchlands, Guildford

Wood, George...Rochford, Essex

Wood, George...Graham’s Town, Cape of Good Hope
Wood, Henry... Woodhill Send, Ripley, Surrey
Wood, James...Ockley, Hurstpierpoint

Wood, John...Croham Farm, Croydon

+Wood, John...Sheddon Grange, Alton

Wood, John...Stanwick Park, Darlington

Wood, Richard... Potternewton, Leeds

Wood, Rev. R....Woodhall Park, Leyburn, Bedale
Wood, Maj.-Gen. Thomas... Littleton, Chertsey
+Wood, Western, M.P....North Cray Place, Keut
Wood, William...lfield Court, Crawley, Sussex
Wood, Willoughby...Holly Bank, Burton-on-Trent

Wood, W. Bryan... Branbridge, Chippenham
Woodd,- B. T., M P....Conyngham Hall, Knaresboro’
Woodham, Rev. Thomas F,...Farley, Romsey
+Woodham, W. Nash...Shepreth, Melbourne, Camb.
Woodhams, W. R....The Hammonds, Rye, Sussex
Woodhouse, John...Over Seale, Ashby-de-la-Zouch
Woodman, Richard, jun....Glynde, Lewes

Woods, Edmund Freeman...Stowmarket

Woods, Henry...Merton, Thetford

+ Woods, James...Stowmarket

+ Woods, W. Leyland...Chilgrove, Chichester
Woodward, Henry...Stanway, Colclrester
Woodward, Joseph. ..Birlingham, Pershore
Woodward, Robert...Arley Castle, Bewdley
Woodward, Robert... Rise Hall, Akenham, Ipswich
Woodward, Wm....Northway House, Tewkesbury
Woodward, Rev. W....Bidford Grange, Bromsgrove
+Woodyeare, Rey. J, F. W....Crookhill, Doneaster
Woollcombe, John M....Ashbury, Okehampton
Wooldridge, H....Meon Stoke, Bishop's Waltham
Woolf, Joseph...Haslington Hall, Crewe

Woolf, Thos....Standon Hall, Eccleshall, Staffs.
Woolly, John...Sandbach

Woolley, T.S., jun....South Collingham, Newark
Woolnough, Wm....Kingston-on-Thames
Wooster, James...The Wrestlers, Elstree, Herts
Worby, William... Ipswich

Worsey, John... Lower Clopton, Stratford-on-Avon
Worsley, Chas Cavill...Platt, Manchester
Worsley, Lord, M.P...Brocklesby Park, Uleeby
Wortham, Biscoe Hill. ..Royston, Herts
Worthington, Archibald. ..Whitchurch, Salop
Wortley, Edw....Ridlington, Uppingham
Wratislaw, Chas. Edward... Woolscott, Rughy
+Wrench, Robert...39, King William Street, E.C.
Wrey, Sir Bouchier, Bart....The Chase, Ashburton
Wright, Edmund. ..Halston, Oswestry

Wright, Francis...Osmaston Manor, Derby
Wright, James...Ravenhill, Rugeley

Wright, John...The Terrace, Chesterfield

Wright, John Francis...Kelyedon Hall, Brentwood
Wright, John...Buxton, Norwich

Wright, Joseph...Harehills Lane, Leeds

Wright, Richard...Fieldbank, Macclesfield

Wright, Robert John...Queen Street, Norwich
Wright, S. W....Grendon House, Castle Ashby
+Wright, Thomas...North Runeton, Lynn

Wright, Thos. Barr...The Quarry Ho., Great Barr
Wright, William. ..Sigglesthorne, Holderness
Wright, William...Fring, Rougham, Norfolk
+Wrightson, W. B., M.P....Cusworth Park, Doneaster
Wrinch, Samuel...Great Holland Hall, Colchester
Wroughton, Philip... Woolley Park, Wantage
Wyatt, Harvey...Acton Hill, Stafford

Wyatt, Hugh...Cissbury, Worthing

+Wyatt, William. ..Eyam, Bakewell, Derbyshire
+Wyley, James, jun ...Longdon,Rugeley

+Wyley, Wm....Vineyard, Wellington, Shropshire
Wyndham, Capt. Alex....West Lodye, Blandford
+Wyndham, J. E....Fairburn Ho., Acton Green, W.
Wyntham, J. H. C....Bishop’s Waltham
+Wyndham, Wm....Dinton, Salisbury

Royal Agricultural Society of England. * EXVaE

Wynne, B. Wynne...Garthewin, Aberge'te, Denbigh. { Yeoman, Thos. Lawrence... Weasenham, Rougham
Wynne, J. Ll.,jun....Coed Coch, Abergele, Denbigh. Yonge, Rev. Wm. J....Rockbourne, Salisbury

Wynne, Wm. W. E....Aberamfra, Barmouth Yorke, Hon. Eliot T., M.P.... Wimpole, Cambridge
Wynniatt, R., jun....Dymock Grange, Gloucester Yorke, Joseph... Forthampton Co., Tewkesbury
+Wythes, George...Reigate | +Yorke, T. E....Halton Place, Hellifield, Leeds

| Young, A, A.,..Orlingbury Ho., Wellingborough
| +Young, George...27, Mark Lane, City, E.C,

we
Yates, Capt....Yearand Conyers, Lancaster Z.
Yeates, J. Y....Park-head, J.evens, Milnthorpe
Yeo, Wm. A....Fremington House, Barnstaple | Zoeppritz, G....Ravensburg, Wiirtemberg, Germany

Wonorary (Members.

Daubeny, Professor Charles, F.R.S., University of Oxford

De Lavergne, M. Leonce

Everett, Hon. Edward, Cambridge University, United States

Graham, Professor, Master of the Mint

Hartstein, Dr. Edward, Royal Academy of Popplesdorf

Hofmann, Dr., College of Chemistry, 315, Oxford Street

Liebig, Dr. Justus, the University of Griessen, Hesse Darmstang

Murchison, Sir Roderick Impey, Bart., Director-General of Trigonometrical
Survey

Napoleon III., His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the French

Parkes, Josiah, 11, Great College Street, Westminster

Playfair, Dr. Lyon, C.B., University, Edinburgh

Simonds, James Beart, Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town

Solly, Edward, Professor, Holme Court, Isleworth

Sprengel, Dr. Carl, Prussia

Van de Weyer, M. Sylvian, Belgian Minister, 50, Portland Place

Voelcker, Professor, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester

Way, John Thomas, 15, Welbeck Street

August 21st, 1861.

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